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Leo P. Kenney
Matthew R. Burne

This publication produced by:

Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife

^Natural Heritage &
Endangered Species
Program

Route 135, Westborough, MA 01581
www. state. ma. us/dfwele/dfw/dfwnhes. htm

and

Vernal Pool Association

Reading Memorial Higli School
62 OaklancfRoad, Reading, MA 01867

http://www.vernalpool.org

e-mail: vernal@vernalpool.org

With bond funds made available by

Executive Office of
Environmental Affairs

Commonwealth of
Massachusetts

About the Authors

Leo Kenney is a veteran science teacher
of the Reading Public School system. He
has explored vernal pools and used them
in his teaching for nearly 30 years. He is
the founder of the Vernal Pool Associa-
tion and was awarded the 1995 Environ-
mental Law Institute and EPA National
Wetlands Award for his vernal pool out-
reach efforts. His photography has ap-
peared in several national publications.

Matt Bume is the Vernal Pool Ecologist
with the Natural Heritage & Endangered
Species Program. He has been involved
in research on vernal pools and their or*
ganisms for several years and has helped
direct the NHESP's vernal pool scientific
programs and policies.

A Fielcl Gu i4e to

the animals o^

Vernal Pool

s

Leo P. Kenney
Matthew R. Burne

Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife
Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program

&

Vernal Pool Association

May 2000

Photographic credits

Photograph position is indicated by page number, column (Left or Right), and
position on the page (Top, Middle, Bottom). Where there is only one column of
photographs, only a position, numbered from top to bottom is indicated. Split
photographs sharing a caption are lettered a, b, or c from top to bottom, left to
right.

Matt Burne: 8-1; 44'B. Bill Byrne: 17'RB; 19'LT. Thomas Gumbart: 8-2. Scott
Jackson: 28'LB; 29'both. Ed Nied: 3^3; 27'RB; 30-LB. Blair Nikula: 53^LT, R 1, 2, 3;
54'all; 55'LT, RT, RM. Tom Palmer: 34'B. Steve Roble: H-LM. Pat Swain: 4-3.
William Tompkins: 13'RT. Sarah Turtle: 32'LB inset. Tom Tyning: 13'RM, RB; 15-
RT; 16'LT, LB, R4; 17'LB inset; IT-RM; 18'LT, RT; 22-2, 3; 23'LB; 24'RB, 25'LB,
RB; 26'3a; 28'RB; 31'LT, RB; 38'LB; 41'B; 43'lb, Ic.

All other photographs, including front and back covers, by Leo Kenney.

Drawings on pages 52, 60 and 63 are by Matt Burne.

All photographs are copyrighted by the individual photographer and used with
permission. All rights reserved.

Cover designs and layout assistance by Mike Harney.

Copies of this book are available through the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries
&L Wildlife's Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program, Route 135,
Westborough, MA01581, (508) 792-7270 ext. 200.

FIRST PRINTING, MaY 2000

Table of Contents

Introduction

Why this book? 2

What is a vernal pool? 3

Indicator species 4
Vernal pool protection

in Massachusetts 4

Life in a vernal pool 5

Importance of vernal pools 7

Human impacts on vernal pools 8

Visiting a vernal pool 9

Pictorial guide to the adult amphibians
and reptiles of MA

Adult Frogs of MA 10

Adult Salamanders of MA 12
Egg masses of the wood frog and

NE mole salamanders 14

Adult Snakes of MA 16

Adult Turtles of MA 18

Vernal Pool Animal Accounts

Frogs 20

Salamanders 32

Snakes 44

Turtles 46

Invertebrates 49

Suggested References 70

Index 72

Vernal pools are critical habitats
that support unique and valuable
wildlife communities. As Environ-
mental Affairs Secretary, one of my
top priorities is to help citizens
reconnect with the natural world. I
believe that this field guide will be a
wonderful aid in discovering and
exploring the treasures of our vernal
pools, and will be helpful in efforts
to preserve them.

- Bob Durand, Secretary

Executive Office of Environmental Affairs
Commonwealth of Massachusetts

Over many years, there have been individuals and groups, intentionally
or not, whose unflagging support, periodic inspiration, valued criticism,
invitations to visit, access to properties, companionship on uncountable
field trips, love of nature, support for education, or generous funding have
ultimately made this book possible. We sincerely thank: Carolyn Asbury,
Kyla Bennett, Collette Blais, Jack Buckley, Alan and Janet Burne, Eric
Chaisson and the Wright Center for Innovative Science Education, Betsy
Colburn, Paul Colombo, Lisa Dennehy, Nancy Eaton, Peggy Emslie, the
EnTrust Fund, Mark Erelli, Essex County Greenbelt Association, Suzanne
Fowle, Dave Gorrill, Harry Harutunian, Mike Harney, Mike Hayslett, Anna
Hicks, April Hobart, Pat Huckery, Scott Jackson, David King, Gary Kreamer,
Rob and Karen Loomis, Mary Kenney, Joe Martinez, Jim and Stina
MacDougall, Stafford Madison, Mark Maguire, Mike McCarthy, Joseph
"Mick" McLaughlin, Steve Metz & Governor Dummer Academy, Steve
Meyer, Joan Milam, Frank Orlando, Judy Parker, Susan Pike, Peter Ranney,
RMHS field biology students. Rick Roth & the Cape Ann Vernal Pond
Team, Scott Shumway, Jim Starr, the Sweet Water Trust, Karen Talentino,
Laura Timmerman, Sarah Turtle, Tom Tyning, James White, Alison
Whitlock, Brian Windmiller, and Henry Woolsey.

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AS you walk through the New England woods in winter and peer
between the branches of the leafless trees, you might discover a small
frozen pond formed in a shallow depression. Return to this area in
early spring when the soil has thawed and you might hear the quacking chorus
of wood frogs or observe spotted salamanders as they plod to the water in a
thousands-year-old mating ritual. Visit the pool in late spring after the plants
leaf out and you could be entertained by dragonflies darting above the surface
and swooping to catch a meal, wading birds probing the water for the abundant
tadpoles, or green frogs yelping as they leap away at your approach. Within
the clear water beyond the schooling amphibian larvae may be abundant fairy
shrimp, insect larvae, small crustaceans, fingernail clams, planaria and other
invertebrates. Return again in the sticky heat of summer and this woodland
oasis will likely be an open area of damp mud or dried, crinkled leaves. The
water will be gone and with it the visible animal life which erupted a few
months earlier. You will have observed the cycle of life in a New England
vernal pool. We present this guide to aid your personal explorations and
study of this wonder of the New England landscape. Enjoy your visits.

Leo Kenney and Matt Burne, May 2000

'"'^'%f'i^%'^^':r

Why this book? _j

Vernal pool wildlife communities are
variable. Physical factors such as
sunlight, water temperature, acidity,
and duration of flooding all affect
the type of pool life. Whether the
pool is very small (1) or surprisingly
large (2), surrounded by deciduous
trees (3) or hidden by coniferous
vegetation (4) will partially determine
the organisms in the pool.

The public's interest in vernal pools and
vernal pool ecology has increased
tremendously in recent years. While the
initial surge may be attributable to efforts
to encourage vernal pool certification in
Massachusetts, the sustained interest stems
from a genuine fascination with the
ecology of organisms whose existence
revolves around these temporary puddles
in the forest. Hundreds of teachers now
integrate vernal pool studies into their
curricula. Citizens organize road closings
and information programs on amphibian
migration nights. Nature sanctuaries, state
parks, national parks, elder hostels,
Conservation Commissions, youth
groups, garden clubs, land trusts,
museums, zoos and aquariums are all
scheduling vernal pool programs and
exhibits. With all of this interest in vernal
pool ecology, there was a clamor for a
simple introductory field guide such as this
book.

In an effort to produce a useful and
portable field guide including examples of
organisms found in both temporary and
persistent pools, many compromises have
been made. Organisms easily found in
other guides (plants, birds and mammals)
are not included. Identification of
organisms is only to a level achievable with
a hand lens and the observation of a live
specimen to be returned to the pool
unharmed. Thus, we do not include keys
to amphibian larvae which would require
a dead specimen. Identification of many
invertebrates is only to phylum level, while
others are identified to the species level.
Some organisms are not included because
of difficulty in field identification or space
limitations. Yet, this guide will bring most
people to a comfortable level of familiarity
with vernal pool organisms.

All measurements are given in the
English system. To save space, we use
these abbreviations: NE=New England,
MA = Massachusetts, P = phylum,

C = class, 0 = order, SO = suborder, and
F= family.

What is a vernal pool?

Vernal pools are ephemeral wetlands
which fill annually from precipitation,
runoff, and rising groundwater. Most
years they become completely dry, losing
water through evaporation and
transpiration. The wet-dry cycle prevents
fish from becoming established, yet
presents a rich, albeit temporary, habitat
for many species. Beneath the still waters
of these woodland pools is a staggering
array of life.

In this guide, we consider vernal pools
to be wetlands that are or become
isolated while containing water, are
utilized by indicator species, and have
wet'dry cycles that preclude permanent
populations of fish. This definition may
not coincide with definitions used for
regulatory purposes in Massachusetts and
other states nor with usage by some
scientists in professional papers.

Vernal pools are variable in appearance,
water source, time of filling, surrounding
habitat, plant and animal content, and
many other factors. In all cases, they share
two characteristics: they do not hold water
permanently and they are free of breeding
populations of fish. In New England, the
term "vernal pool" is used to refer to a
wide variety of temporary, fish-free
wetlands. In the narrow sense, a vernal
pool is a temporary wetland which fills
each spring (vernal means spring) and dries
annually. Few of our pools meet this
standard; most fill in the fall or winter and
many of our larger vernal pools persist for
several years before drying. The popular
use of "vernal pool" refers to temporary
wetlands regardless of when they fill or
dry as long as they support certain animal
communities.

Scientists and regulators, on the other
hand, may use "vernal pool" with
overlapping but still differing meanings.
Scientists are concerned with the variable
animal communities which result from the
differing seasons of pool filling and the
duration of the water in the pool. A short-
lived spring pool will have a far different

The upland habitat near the pool is
home for most vernal pool breeding
amphibians and helps determine the
species which use the pool. A
hardwood forest pool (1 ) might have
blue-spotted salamanders; an
interdunal swale (2) Fowler's toads;
an open field pool (3) spadefoot
toads; a red maple swamp (4) four-
toed salamanders.

Pools which are semipermanent are
likely to have wetland vegetation.
A forested wetland might contain red
maple and highbush blueberry (1).
Open areas of pools might have
emergent herbaceous vegetation (2).
Coastal plain ponds form rings of
vegetation as they dry (3).

community than a fall-filling pool or one
which lasts for several years. Scientists
often distinguish between the ephemeral
"vernal pool" and longer duration
"semipermanent ponds." Regulators may
define "vernal pool" based on a number
of criteria including its location, the
regulations involved, and the species
present.

This guide will continue the popular
usage of "vernal pool" in its broadest sense.
Vernal pools are any fish-free, temporary
wetland that supports indicator species.

Indicator species - -

Because of low oxygen levels and
periodic drying, vernal pools are free from
breeding populations of fish. Numerous
amphibian and invertebrate species have
evolved life cycles adapted to the
exploitation of a temporary wetland
without the predation of fish. Some
species are completely dependent upon
ephemeral wetlands for parts of their life
cycle. Such animals are the "obligate" or
"direct indicator" species of vernal pools.
"Facultative" vernal pool species ("indirect
indicators") are those which use both
vernal pools and other wetland habitats
for their various life activities. They have
physical or behavioral adaptations to deal
with the wet'dry cycle of a vernal pool
and require a pool which holds water for
2-3 months, but are also found in other
wetlands.

In Massachusetts, the vernal pool
obligate species are: the wood frog, the
spadefoot toad, four species of mole
salamander (the spotted salamander, the

blue-spotted salamander, the Jefferson
salamander, and the marbled salamander), and two species of fairy shrimp. Facultative
species include most of our remaining frogs, a few reptiles, numerous insect larvae,
fingernail clams, amphibious snails and leeches.

Vernal pool protection in Massachusetts mmmm^m^t^^mmm.

In Massachusetts, vernal pools are afforded some protection through several
regulations, chief among these being the Wetlands Protection Act Regulations and
local bylaws. Other regulations which include vernal pool protection are the Surface
Water Quality Standards, Title V of the Massachusetts Environmental Code, and
the Forest Cutting Practices Act Regulations. Many, but not all, of these regulations
require that the pool be "certified" by the Natural Heritage and Endangered Species

Program (NHESP). Certification is a
documentation process where a citizen
collects evidence of the presence of a
vernal pool and its biological indicators
and submits this evidence and location
maps to the NHESP. The NHESP reviews
the submission and subsequently may
certify the pool. Certification only
establishes that a vernal pool exists. Any
protection arises from the application of
the various regulations during permit
reviews. For complete information on
certification and protection in
Massachusetts, consult the references on
page 70.

Life in a vernal pool

A vernal pool is a productive hatchery
for terrestrial amphibians. Its short period
of intensive growth cycles the nutrients
and energy of fallen leaves on the pool
bottom into the frogs and salamanders of
the adjacent woodlands; these animals
make up a significant portion of the
wildlife of a forest. Due to our own
inattention and the secretive nature of
these animals, we do not realize their
overall significance. For example, a
moderate sized vernal pool might have
several thousand wood frogs entering to
breed and then returning to the forest.
Yet most people, even those who spend
extensive time in the woods, never
encounter even one of these woodland
creatures. Mole salamanders are seldom
observed except on rainy migration nights
when hundreds might be moving to or
from a vernal pool. Yet these animals
live out their 20 years of life within a few
hundred feet of that pool. How many have
you ever seen?

A pool represents the cumulative
evolution of a number of species adapted
to and exploiting a productive, although
temporary, habitat. Activity in the pool
is seemingly choreographed so that each
species maximizes its own chances for
survival. Organisms feed upon one
another, yet sufficient numbers survive to
maintain the population in future years.
Years of drought or other adverse

Certification in Massachusetts

A vernal pool may be documented
for certification by the MA Natural
Heritage & Endangered Species
Program by any of three methods.

Obligate species method

Submit a photograph of the pool
holding water and evidence (photo/
tape) of any of the following from
the pool:

breeding activity of wood frogs,
spadefoot toad, spotted salamander,
blue-spotted salamander, Jefferson
salamander, or marbled salamander;
presence of fairy shrimp.

Facultative species method

Submit photographs of the pool
holding water and the pool dry (or
other proof of no fish) and evidence
(photo/tape) of any two of the
following from the pool:

breeding activity of spring peepers,
gray treefrogs, green frogs, leopard
frogs, pickerel frogs, American
toads. Fowler's toads, four-toed
salamanders; presence of red-spotted
newt adults, spotted turtles, wood
turtles, Blanding's turtles, painted
turtles, snapping turtles, predaceous
diving beetle larvae, water scorpions,
dragonfly nymphs, damselfly
nymphs, dobsonfly larvae, whirligig
beetle larvae, caddisfly larvae,
leeches, fingernail clams, or
amphibious air-breathing snails.

nnll

Dry pool method

Submit photograph of a dry pool
(or other proof of no fish) and
evidence (photographs/specimens) in
the dried pool bed of any one of the
following: •

the shells of fingernail clams or
amphibious air-breathing snails, the
cases of caddisfly larvae, or the exuvia
(shed exoskeleton) of dragonflies and
damselflies. j

Pools filled by river and stream
flooding (1) might contain fish for a
period but eventual drying prevents
these from being permanent
populations. Human activities
produce areas which sometimes
function as vernal pools. This small
quarry (2), abandoned gravel pit (3)
and roadside area (4) are fishless and
have obligate vernal pool species.

conditions resulting in low survival rates
might be followed by exceptional years of
population survival.

The food chain within the vernal pool
begins with forest leaves dropping or
blowing into the pool in fall. Bacteria and
fungi begin the decay process and then
themselves become food for slightly larger
zooplankton such as daphnia, copepods,
and rotifers. A variety of insect larvae feed
on leaves, shredding them as they forage.
The caddisfly larvae both shred leaves and
utilize leaf fragments or small sticks to
build cryptic cases within which they
reside. Other insects, such as the water
boatman, amphibious snails and various
small crustaceans, feed on leaves and
other plant material, reproduce, and
become abundant. When the frog
tadpoles hatch, they become continual
feeders of leaves, other plant material, and
algae of the pool. The prolific herbivorous
animals are hunted by the developing
forms of the predaceous diving beetle,
fishfly, dragonfly, damselfly, water
scorpion, as well as the adults of some of
these and other species. These predators
also hunt each other.

Salamander larvae also are carnivorous.
When small, they feed on daphnia and
similarly sized creatures. As they grow,
their diet consists of whatever they can
cram into their large mouths, including
larger invertebrates and frog tadpoles.
Many salamander larvae consume other
salamander larvae, usually of different
species. Marbled larvae are large enough
in mid-spring, when the Jefferson, blue-
spotted and spotted larvae hatch, that
they can devour considerable numbers of
the these smaller salamanders. In turn, the
Jefferson and blue-spotteds are usually
larger than the spotteds because of earlier
egg deposition or faster development.
They feed on the larvae of the spotted
salamander. Even the spotted larvae can
be cannibalistic and feed on other spotted
larvae in times of overcrowding, such as
when the pool is drying.

The food web continues to become
increasingly raveled. Turtles and snakes

go to the pool to feed on the developing
species. Spotted turtles eat the egg masses
of spotted salamanders, as well as insects
and larvae of amphibians. Ribbon snakes
catch amphibian larvae or emerging adults
in the shallow vegetation at the pool edge.
Nocturnal owls swoop on amphibians
traveling to and from the pool. Wading
birds eat whatever is available. Raccoons
grab tadpoles, large insects, adult frogs and
anything else within their reach.

The developing organisms of a vernal
pool race to end their dependence on the
pool before the water disappears.
Whether they win or not, many still
become food for others and pass the
energy and nutrients from the pool back
into the forest. Those that leave the pool
alive might survive in the forest ecosystem
to return to the pool another year, or they
might be eaten by owls, raccoons, or
shrews. Those that die in the overheated
shallows of a disappearing pool are
scavenged by birds, mammals, reptiles,
and insects, and enter the forest ecosystem
as units of energy. The abundance of
amphibians and invertebrates which leave
the pool, on their own or in the bellies of
others, becomes a substantial amount of
the animal tissue found in the adjacent
forest and a significant food resource for
other upland species, as well as a future
nutrient source for forest vegetation.

Importance of vernal pools

Vernal pools are essential habitat for
portions of the life cycles of many species.
They are also the favored habitat for
considerably more species, particularly
amphibians, that use them for breeding
and feeding in an area of reduced
predation. They are also important as
water sources for other wildlife, both for
drinking on a hot summer day as well as
irreplaceable links in the overland passage
of various amphibians and reptiles as they
travel from one wetland to another.

Vernal pools are indispensable to
biodiversity, both locally and globally. For
a species with a wide distribution,

Leaves (1), algae and phytoplankton
are the food base for life in a vernal
pool. Frog larvae (2) turn a
considerable amount of leaf material
into animal tissue. Many of these
amphibians are eaten by predators
while in the pool or when they leave
as they mature (3). Those that die
when the pool dries (4) are consumed
by scavengers.

individual vernal pools are essential to the local population. Eliminate those pools
and the population of that animal will die out in that area. For a species with a
narrow distribution, a specific vernal pool might be the only place on earth that
animal is found. If the pool is destroyed, that species will be extinct. Examples exist
in the scientific literature of a species identified from one vernal pool, but not found
again since the destruction of that pool. In Massachusetts, the Intricate Fairy Shrimp
is known from only 10 pools. Spadefoot toads are known from only 40 sites in the
entire state. Destruction of only a few pools would jeopardize the existence of these
animals in Massachusetts.

Human impacts on vernal pools

^^HESSCRI

The increasing population density in New England and resultant sprawl of housing,
roads, shopping malls, and recreational ball fields continues to impact vernal pools
and vernal pool species. Pools have been filled to create upland or have been used
as road drainage detention ponds, both of which are allowable under certain
regulations. Critical surrounding habitat is cleared for homes, lawns, fields and
parking. Irrigation wells lower the water table and hasten pool drying. Overuse of
fertilizers and pesticides threatens the water quality of pools which are highly dependent
on runoff as a water source. Mosquito control efforts both drain vernal pools and

chemically or biologically affect species in
the pools, other than just mosquitoes.
Roads constructed near pools contribute
to high mortality. Vehicle traffic is a
significant problem for slow moving
migratory amphibians where almost the
entire local population will move on the
same night. Highways with multiple travel
lanes and concrete center dividers
fragment the habitat, prevent migration
and range expansion, and restrict gene flow
in a population.

Solutions to these problems, if there are
any, are beyond the scope of this guide.
If you are concerned about vernal pool
species and the human impact on them,
become knowledgeable about these
species and vernal pools. Then become
involved in your local government. The
Conservation Commission, Planning
Board, Open Space Committee and
similar regulatory groups all make
decisions which affect land use and vernal
pools. Regional organizations involved in
environmental issues, species protection
and land use issues would include your
local watershed association, the
Massachusetts Audubon Society, the
Nature Conservancy, local land trusts and
nature centers. Become proactive now.
Don't wait for the vernal pool you know
to be threatened.

(1) Vernal pools are basins which
naturally collect water. This makes
them attractive as water detention
structures in subdivision construction.
Such use is legal under some
conditions although it destroys the
biotic function of the pool. (2) Some
towns enforce road closings on
amphibian migration nights in an
effort to minimize damage caused by
automobile traffic.

In Massachusetts, a visit to a vernal
pool could be for the purposes of
documenting biotic communities for
official state certification. You would
need to photograph the pool and
evidence of specific organisms which
use the pool. This evidence and maps
which pinpoint the pool location
would then be sent to NHESP. For
more information, see page 5.

Visiting a vernal pool

The first step to studying a vernal pool
is to find one. Considering the abundance
of vernal pools, the search should not be
difficult. Check with the local
conservation commission for information
about known pools which might be on
public land. Or simply visit conservation
property, state parks and forests, and
other public open space and look for
isolated bodies of water fitting the
description of a vernal pool. You could
use topographic maps, hiking maps, soil
conservation maps and aerial photography
to aid your search. As an aid to the
identification of vernal pools, the NHESP
initiated a program in the fall of 1999 to
identify Potential Vernal Pools (PVP) from
aerial photography. As of this writing,
Bristol and Plymouth Counties have been
completed. The remainder of the state
should be photo-interpreted for PVPs by -^--_

the fall of 2001. For information on PVP maps, contact NHESP or MassGIS.

The Executive Office of Environmental Affairs (EOEA) urges citizens to take an
interest in vernal pool appreciation, study and protection. However, EOEA strongly
recommends that anyone interested in field verification of potential vernal pools or
vernal pool certification obtain landowner permission prior to conducting surveys
and gathering data. No one pursuing official vernal pool certification should trespass
on legally posted property. Teachers should always seek landowner permission
before bringing students onto private property for activities.

The actual study of a vernal pool requires little in the way of specialized equipment.
At most, you might want a small net, hand lens, shallow container and boots or
water socks. Egg masses can be found by looking for them at the water surface or
attached to vegetation below the surface. Polarized glasses or casting a shadow on
the surface help to eliminate reflections. The net is used to capture invertebrate or
amphibian larvae. Run the net through the water randomly and dump the contents
into some water in your container. Netting at the water surface or in the leaf litter
will result in different collections of animals. After observing your specimens, return
them to the pool.

When visiting a vernal pool, consider both your personal safety and the long-term
protection of that pool. Be careful of deep water, drop-offs, submerged objects,
and the grasping mud of a pool bottom. Recognize and avoid both poison ivy and
poison sumac. Children should be properly supervised. In and around the pool,
minimize your impact. Do not collect vertebrate specimens. Do not remove egg
masses from their attachment sites. Do not transfer animals between pools. Consider
and minimize the impact of large groups or multiple visits at a pool.

Visiting a vernal pool and observing the specialized life that utilizes this type of
wetland can be a rewarding experience. Find a pool and get to know it. Visit it
frequently and observe the changes throughout the year. Share your findings with
others in your family, school, and community.

Pictorial guide to the adult |
amphibians and reptiles of ma

The following section is a pictorial guide to all of the frogs, salamanders, snakes
and turtles of Massachusetts. We have included all amphibians and reptiles in this
guide since any of these animals might be encountered as you search the New
England landscape for vernal pools. Many of these animals have no direct association
with vernal pools. Vernal pool indicators have a page reference listed at the end of
their description directing you to their species account. Also included in this section
is a pictorial guide to the egg masses of the wood frog and the New England mole
salamanders. These guides are useful throughout New England as they include the
majority of reptiles and amphibians in this region.

Massachusetts state-listed rare species are followed by E for endangered, T for
threatened and SC for special concern.

Adult Frogs of Massachusetts

Wood frog. 1.5-2.5"; light tan (almost
pink) to dark brown; dark brown to
black "mask" across the eyes; white
upper lip. (p. 20)

Spadefoot toad. 1.8-2.5"; dark to
gray-brown; two pale, irregular lines
on back; vertical pupil; hind foot with
black, hardened projection, (p. 28) T

Bullfrog. 4-8"; pale green to dark olive
color, often with scattered brown spots;
ridge around top and back of ear;
throat yellow in males, (p. 22)

Green frog. 2-4"; green to brown
body color; dorsolateral ridge extends
from eye along side of body; throat
yellow in males, (p. 23)

10

In frogs and toads, the tynnpanum is the external ear, located just behind th
the raised fold running fronn the eye along the side of the body is the dorso
ridge. Body length is measured from snout to base of body.

e eye;
lateral

Leopard frog. 2-5"; dark rounded
spots surrounded by light colored ring
on brown to green background; inner
thighs white, (p. 24)

Pickerel frog. 1.7-3"; dark angular
spots on light cream to pale brown
background; inner thighs bright
yellow, (p. 25)

r^^

'^-•-^"

\. \

Gray treefrog. 1.3-2.3"; ash to dark
brown with irregular light or dark
patches outlined in black; conspicuous
toe pads; orange inner thighs, (p. 26)

Spring peeper. .7-1.3"; light tan to
brown color with irregular darker "X"
on back; toe pads. (p. 27)

American toad. 2-4.3"; warty skin;
color highly variable with dark
spotting; 1 -2 warts in larger spots; belly
white with black mottling, (p. 30)

Fowler's toad. 2-3.7"; warty skin;
color highly variable with dark irregular
spots; 3 or more warts in larger spots,
unmarked white belly (p. 31)

11

Adult Salamanders of Massachusetts

Spotted salamander. 4.5-8"; bluish-
black to brownish-black with bright
yellow spots, (p. 32)

Marbled salamander. 3-5"; black to
purplish-black with white or grayish
markings which may connect to form
bars across the back. (p. 34) T

Blue-spotted salamander. 3-5.5";
grayish-black to dark gray with blue
spots on body, tail and legs; 1 3 costal
grooves, (p. 36) SC

Jefferson salamander. 5-7.5";
chocolate-brown to gray with light
bluish flecks along side; 1 2 or 1 3 costal
grooves, (p. 38) SC

Hybrid of the Jefferson (above) and
blue-spotted (below) salamanders.
Grayish-black with light flecking on
sides, (p. 38) SC

Red-spotted newt. 3-5"; adult has
olive body, juvenile is red-orange; both
have row of black-ringed, bright
orange spots along each side. (p. 40)

12

In salamanders, costal grooves are the indents on the side of the body along the
ribs.

Dusky salamander. 2.5-4.5"; dark
brown to olive with translucent
underside; light flecking on lower sides.
Light line behind eye to jaw. (p. 41)

Four-toed salamander. 2-3.5";
reddish-brown body color; white
underside with black flecks; obvious
constriction at base of tail. (p. 42) SC

Redback salamander. 2.2-4"; bluish-
black body with or without a red dorsal
stripe; light blue flecking on side; 18-
20 costal grooves, (p. 43)

Spring salamander. 4.5-7.5"; dark-
orange to reddish-brown with fine dark
patterning; groove from nostril to upper
lip, slight lateral flattening of tail. SC

Two-lined salamander. 2.5-3.5";
variable greenish-yellow to orange
body with a wide dark stripe on each
side.

Mudpuppy. 8-16"; brownish body
with blackish spots; completely aquatic
with three red external gills on each
side of the head throughout life.

13

Spotted
salamander

Egg masses of the wood frog and NE mole salamanders

Wood frogs and the mole salamanders (pages 20 and 32-39) require vernal pools
for breeding. In MA, they are considered direct indicators of vernal pools and
termed "obligate species."

Blue-spotted/
Jefferson salamander

Embryo

Inner
envelope

Vitelline
membrane

Wood frogs lay fist-sized, spherical egg
masses attached to vegetation at the
water's surface; 500-1 500 eggs; no
outer, surrounding matrix.

Terminology used in distinguishing
salamander eggs.

If held out of water, the mass flattens
out and has a very bumpy surface, each
ova produces a .2 5-. 5" bump with a
black embryo at its center.

Masses are oval, elongate or kidney-
shaped, have 30-250 eggs, and are
either clear or opaque white; masses
are very firm, like set gelatin.

The masses become green with algae;
following hatching, remnant egg
masses may be found for several days
floating at the surface.

The vitelline membrane surrounding
spotted salamander embryos (center) is
much further from the embryo than in
blue-spotted eggs (sides).

14

Though similar, the egg masses of obligate species can be distinguished with practice.
These pages will help you identify the egg masses of the "obligate" vernal pool
amphibians. Shape, firmness, and characteristics of the various envelopes surrounding
the embryos (vitelline membrane especially) are key in identifying egg masses.

Blue-spotted salamanders lay eggs
singly, in sheets on the pool floor or in
very loose masses; surrounding matrix
is like unset gelatin.

Jefferson salamanders lay long egg
masses attached to vegetation; masses
are relatively firm, typically with a
bumpy outer surface.

Blue-spotted SALAMANbER Eggs

Masses contain 1-30 eggs and are
extremely loose; nonliving embryos are
common, appearing as cloudy white
eggs.

Jefferson Salama.

The vitelline membrane (cloudy halo)
is close to the inner envelope of the
ova as in blue-spotted salamander eggs;
here the outer matrix is visible.

The vitelline membrane is very close to
the inner envelope of the ova, unlike
eggs of spotted salamander; the outer
matrix is not seen here.

Larvae of the mole salamanders all hatch
with bushy external gills and balancers
under the chin. They are very difficult
to tell from one another in the field.

15

Adult Snakes of Massachusetts

Sizes of snakes are for lengths typical
in MA, based on the NE hterature.
However, it is not uncommon to find
specimens that are significantly larger
than average. Maximum recorded
lengths of snakes found in the region
are in parentheses. Snakes are
individually variable and color patterns
may not match those pictured.
Caution: although poisonous snakes
are rare in Massachusetts, we do have
populations of Timber Rattlesnake and
Northern Copperhead.

Milk snake. 24-36" (52"); back
blotched with maroon, black and
brown; belly black and white
checkered; light colored "Y" spot on
head.

Smooth green snake. 12-20" (26");
bright green unkeeled scales on back;
white or pale yellow belly.

Redbelly snake. 8-12" (16"); black
or brown back with red belly; three
light spots at neck.

Northern brown snake. 9-15" (20");
light to dark brown keeled scales on
back; two rows of dark spots on back;
pale, unmarked belly.

Northern ringneck snake. 9-1 6" (27");
dark gray to black unkeeled scales on
back; yellow belly and ring at neck.

Eastern worm snake. 7-11" (13");
brown back: belly and lower sides
pink; pointed head. T

16

In snakes, keeled scales have a distinct raised line in the center of the scale; scales
are in lengthwise rows which are counted from the base of the side upward.

Eastern garter snake. 18-30" (48");
brown-green to black body with 3 light
stripes; area between mid and side
stripes often checkered; side stripes on
scale rows 2 and 3. (p. 45)

Northern water snake. 18-42" (55");
dorsal pattern of alternating bands of
blue-gray and brown to almost black
with no pattern; strongly keeled scales,
(p. 44)

Ribbon snake. 18-26" (38"); black to
brown body with three bright yellow
stripes; side stripes located on scale rows
3 and 4. (p. 45)

Black rat snake. 42-72" (101"); black,
weakly keeled dorsal scales; white and
black checkered belly; thin neck. E

Hognose snake. 20-33" (45"); body
black, gray, or variously patterned;
keeled scales; pointed, upturned snout;
neck and head-flattening behavior
when disturbed.

Black racer. 35-60" (73"); black
unkeeled dorsal scales; underside blue-
black; chin white.

17

Adult Snakes & Turtles
OF Massachusetts

Northern copperhead. 24-36" (53");
wide unmarked, coppery head; reddish-
brown hourglass bands on copper
body; vertical pupil. E

Eastern timber rattlesnake. 36-60"
(74"); black or dark brown bands on
yellow or brown body; rattle on tail;
wide head; vertical pupil. E

'J^t'j/E

Blanding's turtle. 7-10"; bright
yellow throat and chin; high-domed
carapace; black to gray with yellow or
tan flecking, (p. 46) T

Eastern box turtle. 4.5-6"; highly
domed carapace; hinged plastron;
brown to black with variable, irregular
orange or yellow markings, (p. 48) SC

.^i&iK^^^r ''^^-7>-^^-^^f^J^^^

Wood turtle. 5.5-8"; orange throat
and front limbs; highly sculpted brown
carapace often with yellow or orange
flecking or vertical stripes, (p. 47) SC

Spotted turtle. 3.5-5.5"; variable
number of yellow dots on head, neck
and carapace; pale plastron with
variable black markings, (p. 46) SC

18

r

In turtles, the upper shell is called the carapace and the bottom shell is called the
plastron. Each division on the carapace and plastron is called a scute.

Plymouth redbelly turtle. 10-12.5";
gray to black carapace with vertical red
striping in largest scutes; red belly and
marginal scutes. E

Painted turtle. 4.5-6"; black, gray or
olive carapace with 2-3 broad pale
bands; large yellow spots behind eyes;
yellow and red stripes on neck, (p 48)

Snapping turtle (juvenile shown). 8-
18"; relatively flattened carapace with
deeply serrated hind margin; very small
plastron; large head and claws, (p 47)

Musk turtle. 3-4.5"; smooth, high-
domed carapace; uniform black to pale
gray color, algae on shell common;
greatly reduced plastron.

Diamondback terrapin. 4-9"; pale
L gray to black with concentric rings,
I groves or ridges; pale head, neck, limbs

with spots; pale plastron. T

Bog turtle. 3-4"; chestnut to black
carapace, sometimes sculpted with
growth rings; bright yellow to orange
patches behind each eye. E

19

Wood frog

Ranasylvatica

Adults

The adult wood frog is a medium
sized (1.5-2.5"), light tan to dark brown,
terrestrial frog found in moist
woodlands. It is easily recognized by
the dark "mask" extending from each
eye back through the tympanum. The
adults are seldom associated with water
other than during the breeding season
of early spring when wood frogs migrate
en masse to vernal pools. Males then
commence a raucous, quacking,
breeding chorus. Mating and egg laying
follow and are completed within a few
weeks, upon which adults leave the
vernal pool to return to nearby uplands. The adults sometimes overwinter partially
frozen under the leaf litter of the forest floor.

Listen for wood frog choruses at vernal pools in March and early April. Frogs will
call at night and on warm days. Adults are secretive during daylight and seek cover
when disturbed. At night, chorusing adults can usually be observed by flashlight.
Other than the breeding season, look for wood frogs in woodlands and adjacent
habitat. Encounters will be by chance since they are very difficult to see among the
leaves of the forest floor, but may may be seen hopping away when disturbed.

Eggs

An egg mass is a gelatinous fist-sized blob consisting of up to 1,500 individual eggs.
Individual eggs are .25-.5" spheres containing a black embryo. There is no outer
matrix unifying the mass. While in amplexus, females attach their eggs to vegetation
in shallow water near or at the water surface. Egg masses are attached to tussock
sedges and woody stems in sunny locations of a vernal pool, particularly in the

Adult female wood frogs in breeding
condition (note abdomens swollen with
eggs) on migration night in spring.

Recently deposited wood frog egg
masses. Eggs are still spherical and show
no development. Matrix has not been
colonized by algae yet.

Communal cluster of wood frog egg
masses. Such clusters may number
hundreds of masses and serve to trap
solar heat and accelerate development.

20

IS

northwest section. If the pool
dominated by emergent vegetation such
as buttonbush, eggs are often found in
clearings or other locations which
receive maximum sunlight. Often, many
females lay eggs in the same area in large
communal clusters. Within a few days
of deposition, growth is obvious and
embryo development can be observed.
Larvae hatch in about 28 days. Egg
masses quickly become colonized by a
symbiotic algae {Oophila amblystomatis) .
Green egg masses floating at the water
surface might easily be mistaken for
clumps of algae.

Recently hatched tadpoles resting on
egg mass. The green color is from
symbiotic algae growing in the egg
mass which produces oxygen.

Larvae

Wood frog larvae are dark brown to blackish tadpoles. Immediately after hatching
the tadpoles are black, about .25" long and found on or near the egg mass. They
remain with the egg mass for a few days grazing on the symbiotic algae before
swimming throughout the pool. As they grow, the dorsal color becomes brown and
the venter develops gold flecking. The tail fin ends near the base of the tail.

They feed on algae and leaf material on the pool bottom and grow rapidly so as to
undergo metamorphosis before the pool dries. By June, these tadpoles will have
developed legs and begun their emergence onto land. Tadpoles are preyed upon by
various aquatic insects (diving beetle adults & larvae, giant water bugs, etc.) as well
as northern water snakes, ribbon snakes, turtles and various wading birds.

Tadpoles hatch from egg masses in April. Spent egg masses appear as green blobs
in the water but have the gelatinous feel and appearance of eggs. Tadpoles often
school in shallow areas of the pool or float near the surface. Both activities provide
solar heat to warm them in the relatively cool waters of a vernal pool. Running a net
through the water is sure to capture some of these tadpoles if they are present, since
they are usually in abundance. Toad eggs are laid a few weeks after wood frog eggs
and toad tadpoles will be smaller than wood frog larvae when both are present.

Wood frog tadpole in close-up side
view and clustered in hands held in the
water (inset). A coppery flecking over
the belly and sides develops.

Developed wood frog larva near
metamorphosis. The froglet is an air-
breather and will be found within
vegetation and at pool edge.

21

Bullfrog

Rana catesbeiana

i^iM^2

Adult bullfrogs have no dorsolateral
ridge. Males have a bright yellow
throat. The ear is larger than eye.

Eggs are laid in a frothy raft on the
water surface, up to 2' in diameter.

Tadpoles get quite large and have
creamy white or tan bellies. They are
typically dark green with black spots.

This bullfrog is approaching meta-
morphosis and has almost lost its tail.

Adults

The adult bullfrog at 4-8 inches body
length is the largest frog east of the
Mississippi River. Smaller adults and
juveniles may be confused with the green
frog in MA. However, the bullfrog has
a smooth back with no dorsolateral
ridges (folds of skin) , unlike the green
frog, and no other adult frog gets as
large. Adults and juveniles vary in color
from bright green to dark olive. Males
have a yellow throat and an eardrum
which is larger than the eye. Bullfrogs
are typical of permanent and
semipermanent water bodies where they
breed. They may use temporary vernal
pools during migrations and for feeding
throughout the spring and summer.
Bullfrogs eat almost anything that moves
and which they can cram into their
mouths, including other frogs and
tadpoles.

Male bullfrogs have a deep "jug-o-
rum" breeding call that can be heard
throughout the summer months.
Captured bullfrogs sometimes give a loud
open-mouthed scream in an attempt to
get a predator to release them.

Eggs m^mmmmmmmmmm^mm^

Eggs are laid in frothy mats that may
be as large as 2 feet in diameter. They
float at the water's surface at first, but
may sink to the bottom before they have
completely hatched. The larvae hatch
within 2 weeks and begin a long
development that may last up to 3 years.

Larvae

Bullfrog larvae typically take 2 years
to reach metamorphosis. They grow
to very large sizes, are light green to
dark olive and have variable black or
brown spots. Their bellies are creamy
white or pale yellow. Larvae can often
be seen sitting motionless in shallow
water basking in warm sunlight.

22

Green frog

Rana clamitans melanota

Adults

The green frog (2-4") is a common
frog of all types of wetlands in NE. It
varies from green to olive to brown in
color. It is similar in appearance to the
bullfrog but is distinguished from that
species by having a pair of dorsolateral
ridges extending from the tympanum
along the back. The bullfrog lacks
dorsolateral ridges and has a smooth
back. Green frogs move about on wet
nights and can show up in almost any
body of fresh water. Adults feed on all
manner of invertebrates (beetles,
caterpillars, earthworms, etc.) and small vertebrates (small frogs, fish, small mice).
In turn, they are preyed upon by larger frogs, wading birds, turtles, etc. The adult
male above has a leech attached just above the front leg.

Listen for the alarm-call yelp of green frogs as they leap into a pool at your
approach. As the weather warms in late spring, you can hear the single note , banjo-
like "g'lunk" of male green frogs at vernal pools and other wetlands.

Adult green frogs are quite variable in
color but always have a pair of
dorsolateral ridges down the back.

Eggs

up to SOOO small black eggs are laid in a filmy jelly on the surface of the water
during June-August. The mass may be attached to vegetation or float freely. The
eggs hatch within a few days.

Larvae .l^^, ^^jm±^i^A^^^^^i^..^m.A.. .1 M-my^mMi^ iii»iii :iLu_._^, ^

Tadpole (2-2.5") are olive above, cream below, with a relatively long, slender tail
having a uniform spot pattern. Tadpoles overwinter and metamorphose the following
summer. Overwintering tadpoles can be seen under the ice throughout winter. In
the summer, tadpoles in various stages of development might be found. Between
June and August, transforming frogs with only tail remnants can be seen.

laid in large mats loosely
to vegetation or simply
floating at the water's surface.

Eggs are
attached

Tadpoles are difficult to distinguish
from other frog tadpoles. They have a
creamy white belly and get quite large.

Northern leopard frog

Ranapipiens

, ♦oj^^^r

Adults

The northern leopard frog (2-5") is a beautiful,
sleek, spotted frog of meadows, floodplain forests
and wetlands. The leopard frog has a pattern of
irregular rounded spots on a background of green or
brown (see p. 11). Each spot is outlined with a light-
colored ring. The dorsolateral ridges often contrast
sharply with the body color. Their large, powerful
hind legs are spotted, though the spots may blend
toward bars on the extremities. Leopard frogs can
be easily confused with pickerel frogs which have
almost rectangular spots on a light brown background.
However, leopard frogs have creamy white or pale
yellow inner thighs, whereas pickerel frogs have bright
yellow inner thighs.

The northern leopard frog may be abundant in some
localized areas but is uncommon throughout much of
its range. It is found in scattered areas of eastern
MA and in the major drainage basins of central and
western MA. Its present status in MA is not well

known, but this species is believed by many scientists to be in decline.

Leopard frogs will make 2-3 quick leaps when disturbed and then disappear into

vegetation. It is a fast animal which provides a challenge for those who pride themselves

as accomplished bare-hand frog- catchers.

Eggs fir Larvae tr- — ..,- : . v . , -^ .: , .

Adult leopard frogs are
greenish or light brown
with round, darl< spots.
The inner thigh is white.

Egg masses are produced in a flattened sphere up to 6" wide and 3" thick. They
look much like the egg masses of other frogs in that there is no thick outer gelatin
matrix. Each mass has between 4000 and 6000 eggs which hatch within 2-3 weeks.
Larvae become fairly large (to 3.4") and have olive or tan to brown bodies, tails
speckled with fine black markings, and creamy white bellies.

Juvenile northern leopard frog. Many
are seen on wet nights as they mature
and leave wetlands.

Tadpoles are difficult to distinguish
from other frog larvae. They have a
creamy white belly and speckled tail.

24

Pickerel frog

Rana palustris

■55

Adults

The pickerel frog (1.7-3") is a
dramatically spotted frog. It is more
common in New England than the
northern leopard frog with which it is
often confused. The pickerel frog has
dark, rectangular spots on a lighter
brown to greenish background. Yellow
or orange coloration on the underside
of the rear thighs positively distinguishes
this frog from the leopard frog, but
requires that you catch it first.

Pickerel frogs can be found at a
variety of wetland habitats but seem to
favor shallow water and a shoreline with
herbaceous vegetation. They are frequently encountered in damp woods, meadows,
and similar moist areas.

Adults feed on a variety of small terrestrial invertebrates including insects, arachnids,
and sowbugs, as well as some aquatic invertebrates such as snails, amphipods and
isopods. Pickerel frogs produce a noxious skin secretion which makes them distasteful
to some predators. Snakes seem to avoid them, yet bullfrogs and green frogs do not
seem to be bothered by their defenses.

Adult pickerel frogs have angular brown
spots organized in 2 rows down the
bacic and bright yellow or orange inner
thighs.

Eggs & Larvae

Eggs are laid in tight round clumps attached to vegetation under the water surface
some time from late April to mid-May. About 2000-3000 light brown to yellow
embryos are in each mass. In most cases, they hatch in about a week. Larvae are
difficult to distinguish from most other frog tadpoles in the field. However, their
light brown to pale greenish bodies are irregularly spotted with brown, and their
sharply pointed tail tends to have little pigmentation. The creamy white belly has a
gold iridescent hue, and the gut coil is not clearly visible.

I

The yellow or gold-colored embryos of
pickerel frogs are quite striking and can
not be confused with other frogs.

Tadpoles have a largely unmarked tail
with a sharp point but identification is
difficult in the field.

25

Gray treefrog

Hyk versicolor

The adult's color changes from ash to
dark brown and even green in response
to environmental stimuli.

Juveniles are approximately 1/2" long
and a brilliant green color. Note the
toe pads. Eggs masses are loose and
filmy and hatch within a few days.

Gray treefrog tadpoles may have a red
tail if under environmental stress.
When legs develop, each toe has a tiny
toepad.

Adults

The gray treefrog (1.3-2.3") is the
larger of the two New England
treefrogs. Its color varies from a light
green to ash to dark brown. The insides
of the hind legs are a bright orange,
visible when the frog climbs or leaps.
There is a distinct light spot outlined in
black below each eye. Recently
metamorphosed juveniles are an emerald
green. Each toe has a disk-like toepad
used for clinging to branches, vegetation
and even windows. Adults are often
found near suburban homes where they
feed on insects attracted to lights at
night. They are sometimes found in
flower boxes and hanging plants where
they spend the day.

When nights warm to 60°F, males
produce a trilling call from trees as they
make their way to pools and other
wetlands to breed. They often call just
before rain and also on warm days.
Eggs ^m^mmmmm^^ammmmmmm

Eggs are laid from late April through
August in small filmy masses of 10-40
eggs (brown above, cream below) which
are attached to aquatic vegetation. Each
female is capable of laying up to 2000
eggs. Eggs hatch within a few days.

Larvae

Larvae (.25-2") develop rapidly,
feeding on algae and aquatic vegetation.
The large tail fin, patterned with black
spots, reaches nearly to the top of the
head. Under stress (predation, pool
drying, etc.) , the tail may become almost
brick red. The red color provides a
distraction for predators which might
grab the expendable tail rather than the
animal's torso. Transformation into a
terrestrial frog occurs after one to two
months. The small (.6"), bright-green
emergents can be found on shoreline
vegetation by mid-July.

26

Spring peeper

Pseudacris crucifer

Adults

The spring peeper (.7-1.3") is
probably best known by its sharp
peeping call heard in choruses from
wetlands in early spring. Though
familiar by its voice, this diminutive
treefrog is not easy to see. Most are
surprised to learn that the familiar sound
of spring which can carry for a quarter
of a mile is produced by a frog of about
an inch in size. Each animal is color-
variable from dark to light brown. An
"X" is generally visible on the back.

Finding a spring peeper at night with
a flashlight is quite a challenge. Peepers
are notoriously difficult to see even

when nearby and peeping loudly! They are usually sitting on the ground or on low
vegetation. Each male is calling for females and defending his tiny territory. The
familiar single peep is the advertisement call. If a male's territory is invaded by a rival
male, he will make a short trilling aggressive call. Try to distinguish the two calls.

The adult spring peeper calls from pools
and other wetlands during breeding
season, lays eggs, and then returns to
the surrounding forests. Adults are
often heard but seldom seen.

Eggs

!!??35?5SSE!g?SSSSSS5g5f?

Eggs (egg and envelope combined) are about .OG^ in diameter and may be laid
singularly or in clusters attached to vegetation or on the pool bottom. A female may
produce up to 800 eggs. Egg laying takes place from early spring into summer.

Larvae

Larvae hatch in 7-10 days at <.25" long and grow over the next 5-8 weeks up to
1.3". The underside is metallic bronze and the dorsal side is dark tan. Larvae are
preyed upon by all pool predators, from insects to salamander larvae to turtles
(see p. 39 and p. 51) Larvae emerge with a tail remnant and can be seen on
vegetation at the pool edge in this condition.

The characteristic "X" is visible on the
back of this recent metamorph,
shown perched on a cattail stalk.

Tiny peeper eggs may be deposited
in small clusters or as single eggs
attached to aquatic vegetation.

27

Spadefoot toad

Scaphiopus holbrookii holbrookii

Massachusetts
Threatened Species

Adults

The spadefoot toad (1.8-2.5") is a most
secretive animal seldom encountered
other than during brief, unpredictable
breeding bouts after rain events. It is a
lightly warted toad with two wavy
yellow lines on a dark brown to gray
body. Unlike any other frog or toad in
MA, the pupil is vertical. It is most
obvious when viewed in bright light.
On each hind foot is the sharp, black
tubercle used for digging, from which
this uncommon species derives its name.
Adults are superior diggers and
inhabit burrows from which they
venture out on rainy nights to feed. It
is on these wet nights that they might be seen crossing roads or in fields and
woodlands. Otherwise, the spadefoot is seldom observed except for the few days
when they are at temporary pools for breeding. The species is adapted to dry
conditions and may remain underground for weeks at a time. During drought
periods, the spadefoot encapsulates itself in an underground mud chamber to prevent
moisture loss and remains there until conditions improve. Typical habitat for the
toad is sandy or loose loamy soil. They have been found in scattered areas of the
coastal plain of eastern MA from Plum Island (Newburyport) through the southeastern
part of the state and on to Cape Cod and the Islands. However, the northeastern
population of spadefoot toad has become entirely isolated from southeastern
populations. None currently is known from any of the towns between Newburyport
and Bristol County. They are also known from areas in the Connecticut River
valley.

Adult spadefoot toads are unique in
having a vertical pupil. Their name is
derived from the hardened tubercle on
the hind foot which they use for
digging.

Spadefoot toad habitat is typically
quite ephemeral. Slight depressions
that are filled after torrential rains and
dry within a couple of weeks are
preferred.

Eggs are laid in loose masses clinging
to the stems of grasses or other
vegetation in the pool. As many as
2060 eggs are laid by each female in
their occasional breeding bouts.

28

Eggs

if ..-

-f^.,m

Breeding seems to be in response to
very heavy rains rather than being
seasonal. The exact conditions required
are not well understood and populations
may go several years between breeding
events. Following heavy rains sometime
from mid-April to July, spadefoots
emerge from their burrows and go to
nearby pools. These breeding pools
might be typical vernal pools or more
temporary pools formed in fields and
low areas as a result of the rain. The
males chorus with repetitive, short, low-
pitched trailing calls of "Errrr." When
a female approaches, the male clasps
her just above the hind legs. In amplexus, together they swim underwater where the
female attaches her eggs to plant stems as they are released and fertilized. Over
2,000 eggs are laid in sticky bands among those of other spadefoots. Emergence,
chorusing, and egg-laying take place on a single night. By the following day, the
adults have returned to their burrows.

Embryo development is obvious by the
day following egg laying. The embryos
hatch in a matter of days.

Larvae

Eggs hatch within only a few days. The tadpoles feed on algae and carrion and
develop rapidly. Metamorphosis into a toadlet may take place in as little as 2-3
weeks if conditions are appropriate. Toadlets move away from the temporary pool,
construct their own burrows, and begin the secretive life of the spadefoot toad.

r-- Conservation Note ^-— -^

Little is known about the actual
distribution of spadefoot toads in MA.
The NHESP database lists fewer than
50 occurrences of the spadefoot in the
entire state, making it our rarest
amphibian. Their secretive nature,
rapid breeding and development, and
overall rarity make them difficult for
researchers to document. Many of the
listed occurrences are for an individual
toad and do not represent a known
breeding population. For example, a
dried, flattened spadefoot roadkill was
found on Plum Island in the early 1970's.
It was only in 1998 that a breeding
population was confirmed on Plum
Island when a breeding chorus was
heard and recorded. If you find a spadefoot toad or breeding site, photograph the
animal, record the mating call, take good notes as to the animal's location and notify
the NHESP immediately. The spadefoot toad is a Threatened Species in MA.

Spadefoot toad larvae go through an
incredibly fast development. From
hatching to metamorphosis can take as
little as 2 weeks.

29

American toad

Bufo americanus

]

Adults

The American toad (2-4.3") is the
familiar "hoptoad" of gardens and
woodlands. It has dry, warty skin in
varying shades of brown, red-brown,
gray, or olive with dark spots of brown
or black. The body color may vary
with temperature, time of day and the
animal's activities. The American toad
has a white belly mottled with black,
one or two warts within the large dorsal
spots, and typically has no middorsal
stripe. The large paratoid gland behind
the eye produces a noxious toxin as an
effective deterrent to predation by most
mammals, including cats and dogs,
although skunks and raccoons cause some predation. Toads are eaten by various
snakes including the hognose, garter, and water snakes. American toads are active
at night and cooler portions of the day, feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates,
such as ants, moth caterpillars and adults, beetles, earthworms and wasps.

The American toad is known to most
everyone as the common toad of
gardens and woods where they eat
insects and other invertebrates.

Eggs

Toads mate from mid-March to mid- April, moving on rainy nights to wet areas
such as vernal pools, marshes, swamps, the shallows of rivers and lakes and even
water-filled ditches and ruts. Males call with a melodious trill lasting up to 30 seconds.
Thousands of eggs are laid in two gelatinous strands that are tangled in the vegetation
as the amplexing pair moves about.

Larvae

Eggs hatch in about a week. The black tadpoles often swim in schools as they
feed on suspended matter, algae, plants and carrion. After 4 weeks of development,
they emerge on land as dark toadlets less than a half inch in size and disperse into
woodlands and across suburban lawns.

American toad eggs are in laid in paired Tadpoles are black with an unpig-
gelatinous strands many feet long. mented tail fin rounded at the tip.

30

Fowler's toad

Bufo woodhousii fowleri

Adults

The Fowler's toad (2-3.7") is similar in appearance
to the American toad, with which it is often confused.
Generally, the Fowler's toad is lighter in color tending
toward green, gray and white with dark spots. Each
of the large dorsal spots contains three or more warts.
A middorsal stripe is distinct and the belly is white
without any black mottling. The American toad and
Fowler's toad may be difficult to distinguish from one
another because individuals may be found with a
combination of characteristics of both species.

The Fowler's toad is found throughout the coastal
plain area of eastern MA, including Cape Cod and
the Islands, and the Connecticut River valley. The
Fowler's toad prefers a drier habitat than the American
toad. If both are found in the same locale, the Fowler's
is likely to be in a dry, rocky area, whereas the
American would be where the soil is more moist.
The Fowler's toad is active on rainy nights as well as
sunny days.

Fowler's toads breed from late April through June, which is somewhat later in the
season than the American toad. The male's call is a harsh "waaah." Eggs are laid in
the shallow waters of various wetlands and are similar to those of the American
toad, but may be in double rows within each gelatinous strand. As the eggs develop,
the double rows become less distinct. Strands may be as long as ten feet and be
tangled in aquatic plants.

Larvae

Tadpoles are black and virtually indistinguishable from those of the American
toad. They develop rapidly and begin emerging as toadlets as early as mid-May.

The Fowler's toad has a
distinctive dorsal stripe,
3 or more warts per large
dorsal spot, and an
unmarked white belly.

in coastal areas. Fowler's toads may
breed in interdunal swales such as this
one in Barnstable, MA.

As many as 8000^55^ are laid in
double strands, each of which might

Z^^SB^£SL*i>:^'

double strands, each of '
have paired files of eggs.

31

Spotted salamander

Ambystoma maculatum

Adults

The adult spotted salamander is a large
(4.5-8") amphibian appropriately named
for its obvious yellow spots on a blackish
body. This animal is unmistakable,
though not often encountered other
than when accidently discovered under
logs or when migrating to vernal pools
on rainy nights in spring for breeding.
Adults spend their lives in forested areas
within a half mile of a vernal pool. They
frequent small mammal burrows,
crevices in rock walls and tunnels
beneath logs in soft soil, seldom
venturing in the open except to feed at night. Though unfamiliar to most because of
their habits, the spotted salamander is probably abundant where suitable habitat still
exists. Populations will often persist in diminished numbers where habitat has been
disturbed. Adults eat various invertebrates including worms, centipedes, crickets,
spiders, etc.

Spotted salamanders can be found on rainy nights in early spring as they cross roads
migrating to vernal pools to breed. In some towns, roads are closed and interested
individuals gather to view mass migrations. Often the animals migrate on several
rainy nights. At vernal pools, the salamanders gather in a "congress" where males
court females in an aquatic swarm of salamanders.

Adult spotted salamanders are secretive
and seldom seen.

Eggs

On breeding nights, males produce many spermatophores in the area of congressing.
A female picks up sperm from several spermatophores and her eggs are internally
fertilized. Within a few days the female produces a single large or several smaller egg
masses which she will attach to vegetation near the water surface. Many salamanders
may use the same attachment site and produce communal egg mass clusters. Egg
masses consist of 30 to 250 individual eggs surrounded by a stiff gelatinous matrix.

Spermatophores on leaves on pool
bottom. Inset: close-up. Sperm are at
the spermatophore's platform top.

Spotted salamander egg mass (~80
eggs) attached to twig. The matrix has
enlarged by absorbing water.

32

The masses range in diameter from 1 to
6 inches. The entire mass may be clear
or white. As the eggs develop over
several weeks, masses become green
from the alga Oophila amblystomatis.

Egg masses may be distinguished from
other salamander species by their firm
texture, similar to set gelatin. Individual
eggs have a relatively large space
between the vitelline membrane and the
outer edge of the egg (see p. 14). Eggs
are preyed upon by spotted turtles,
caddisfly larvae (Phryganeidae) and
other predators.

Egg masses are attached to vegetation
in sunny locations in vernal pools and
can be found anytime from early spring
(mid-March) through May. The
gelatinous matrix will protect the
embryos from temporary stranding if
water levels recede for short periods.
Look for egg hatching from mid-May
onward.

Larvae

The .5" larvae hatch about 6-8 weeks
after egg deposition. Larvae have
feathery external gills just behind the
head and below these, a pair of
"balancers" which keep them upright.
Balancers are lost after a couple of days.
Larvae grow quickly, feeding on
daphnia, small insect larvae (chironomid
midge, etc.), oligochaete worms, and
other small invertebrates. At maturity,
they are 2-3". They are eaten by
predatory insects (predaceous diving
beetles, their larvae, and giant water
bugs), other ambystomatid larvae, as
well as turtles.

Sweeping a fine net along the leaves
on the pool bottom will often capture
larvae. The external gills can be easily
observed if the larvae is placed in water.
As pools dry, larval development
accelerates. The external gills disappear
as the metamorph becomes a land-
dwelling animal. Look for emerging
metamorphs in and under vegetation and
debris at the pool edge.

Communal egg deposition site with
both opaque white and clear masses.

Developing egg masses quickly
become green due to a symbiotic alga.

Spotted salamander larvae have
distinctive bushy external gills, a large
head. Older larvae have all four legs.

Emergent spotted salamanders often
have unorganized spots, sometimes just
light flecking, which can make them
difficult to distinguish.

33

Marbled salamander

Ambystoma opacum

Massachusetts
Threatened Species

Adults

The marbled salamander (3-5") has a
distinctive pattern of white or grayish
spots and bars on a black, purplish-
black, or grayish body. The animal is
not large but has a stout, pudgy
appearance. The patterning on the
male is white, while that of the females
tends to be more grayish. These
salamanders are fossorial, utilizing
animal burrows most of the time. They
are occasionally found under logs and
rocks in their deciduous forest habitat,
but are rarely seen above ground except
on rainy nights in late summer and early fall. Their diet consists of invertebrates,
including earthworms, crickets, ants, snails, slugs, and various types of beetles.

The marbled salamander is a stocky
animal with white or grayish patterns
on a dark body.

Eggs

Marbled salamanders are late summer breeders. Both males and females migrate
to the area surrounding a dry vernal pool in late August -September, perhaps as late
as October. Males court females and produce spermatophores from which the
females obtain sperm. The female constructs a nest under moss, leaves or cover
objects in a dry area of the pool basin and deposits between 50-200 small transparent
eggs. The eggs quickly become darkened with soil and leaf particles. She remains
with the eggs until hatched, warding off predators such as small mammals (e.g.
shrews), newts, and insects. The eggs hatch when covered with water as the pool
fills. If flooding does not take place before winter, the female will abandon the nest
to seek cover for hibernation.

The elevation at which the nest is built in the pool is particularly important to
hatching and larval development. If the eggs are in the deepest area of the pool,
they might be flooded with just a light rain, hatch, and then die if the water evaporates.

Eggs at too high an elevation might not
be flooded during the fall but have to
await spring rains, while enduring the
ravages of predation and winter
temperatures. Most nests are
constructed at a median location, but
the best area varies with each year's
weather patterns.

Larvae shmibh^bhhhmb

Larvae develop within the egg and
hatch when the eggs are flooded.
Because of this fall hatching, the
marbled larvae are likely to be the only
salamander larvae that would be found

Adult female marbled salamander with
clutch of eggs in nest on dry pool
bottom.

34

Marbled salamander larvae will be the
only or largest salamander larvae in a
pool in spring. Distinctive features are
the row of light spots on the side and
the white throat mottled with black.

under pool ice in the winter or in a pool
when it thaws in the early spring.
Rarely, spotted salamander larvae will
overwinter and be seen under the ice
or in early spring. A marbled larva can
be distinguished from the occasional
spotted larva by a row of light spots on
its sides and by the pattern of uniform
black stippling on its white throat.

Marbled larvae are carnivorous and
feed throughout the winter, under the
ice, on zooplankton and available
macroinvertebrates. As they grow, they
feed on larger prey, eventually
consuming most any moving creature
they can get in their mouths, including
dytiscid and haliplid beetles, snails,
mayfly nymphs and damselfly nymphs.
By spring, they are able to feed on the
hatching larvae of wood frogs and other
species of mole salamander. Because
they hatch in the fall, marbled larvae
eat a different size class of food in the
spring than consumed by hatching
spotted, Jefferson or blue-spotted larvae.
There is little real competition for food
among these species in the spring.
However, there is a certain amount of
predation by the marbled on the other
mole salamander larvae. Marbled larvae
transform to the land-dwelling form in
May and June. Upon metamorphosis,
they have a grayish-blue spotted pattern
on a purplish-black body. Within a few
weeks, the spots come together to form
the characteristic adult pattern.

Conservation Note -^— ----^-

The marbled salamander is at the
northern limit of its range in MA and is
therefore quite uncommon. They have
been found in the Connecticut River
valley, central Worcester County north
to Princeton, and in southeastern MA
excluding Cape Cod. Historic
populations in Lynnfield, Wakefield,
and Boxford all seem to be gone.
Recently, populations have been reported in both Dighton and Princeton by elementary
school classes studying vernal pools. There are records for 70 sightings of marbled
salamanders in MA with only 38 known breeding sites.

Larvae can be positively distinguished
from other mole salamanders by their
pigmented chin.

Recently transformed larvae have a
grayish spotted pattern on their body
for few weeks before developing the
adult coloration.

35

BluE'Spotted salamander TB|

A 1 11 Massachusetts 1

Ambystoma laterale

Massachusei
Speqes of Special Concern

Adult blue-spotted salamander with
coloration reminiscent of old-time
"enamel ware."

Adults vary tremendously in coloration
and patterning. Their bodies range
from black to purplish-brown and blue
spots may contrast sharply or be rather
muted.

Adults

Blue-spotted salamanders (3-5.5")
have a pattern of bright blue spots
scattered over a black or grayish-black
body. The blue-spotted salamander has
12-13 costal grooves on each side of the
body. This positively distinguishes them
from lead phase redback salamanders
(p. 43), with which they are sometimes
confused, which have 18-22 costal
groves. Hybrids of the blue-spotted
salamander (see Jefferson salamander
account, p. 38) tend to be more
brownish to gray-black in body color
with less prominent blue spotting, most
obvious on the sides.

Adults are fossorial and secretive.
They are usually seen when crossing
roads on migration nights, although they
might also be encountered under cover
objects in forested areas around vernal
pools and forested wetlands. Be sure
to replace any logs or other cover
objects you might move exactly as you
found them. These items provide
important habitat for numerous
organisms. They are found throughout
eastern MA to the Connecticut River,
but none has been reported from Cape
Cod and the Islands. Adults feed,
usually nocturnally, on earthworms,

Eggs are often laid in sheets on the
pool floor. Pearly-white eggs are dead
and are being consumed by a fungus.

Blue-spotted salamander egg mass.
The vitelline membrane is very close
to the inner envelope of the freshly-
•^'d eggs. ... . ,...^,,

36

slugs, isopods, and various other
arthropods. Like all mole salamanders,
they exude a sticky, white, noxious
substance which is distasteful to some
predators.

Eggs

Mating takes place in early spring at
vernal pools when adults migrate from
woodland burrows to their natal pool.
A male will court a female, produce
spermatophores and the female collects
sperm from these in her cloaca.
Between 100-500 eggs are strewn about
the pool as either individual eggs, small
clusters attached to vegetation, or
sheets on the pool bottom. Individual
eggs measure about .2" in diameter, are
brown, have a vitelline membrane < .05^^
from the inner envelope of the egg, and

Eggs consist of (from the center) the
embryo, the inner envelope, and
vitelline membrane all of which are
embedded in the clear matrix of the
mass. Blue-spotted eggs can be
distinguished from spotted eggs by the
very small distance between the
vitelline membrane and inner envelope
in the blue-spotted egg.

are surrounded by a loose, clear
gelatinous material. Individual masses may contain from 1-30 eggs. Masses in hybrid
populations (see p. 39) are seldom laid in sheets, and tend to have a high percentage
of gray to whitish eggs that have not been successfully fertilized scattered throughout
the mass. Blue spotted egg masses do not have the "set gelatin" firmness of spotted
salamander masses. Because the matrix of the mass is clear and the eggs are scattered
throughout the pool, they can be very difficult to find.

Larvae

JiSSX^:f.^ii:sssmes^!iiii^f

Larvae develop in the egg for about 3-4 weeks. Upon hatching, they have external
gills just behind the head and a pair of balancers just forward of the gills. The
balancers help to keep them upright until they develop legs shortly after hatching.
Like other mole salamanders, blue-spotted salamander larvae develop for 2-4 months
before they metamorphose into terrestrial juveniles. Larvae might be netted in a
vernal pool, but mole salamanders are extremely difficult to distinguish from one
another in the field.

Blue-spotted larvae are very difficult to
distinguish from larvae of other mole
salamanders in the field.

Recent metamorph showing the
indistinct juvenile patterning and "scar"
where the gills were resorbed.

?3-ts LiMnoteKijwsst^ia,;

37

Jefferson salamander

Ambystoma jeffersonianum

f

Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

Adults

The Jefferson salamander (5-7.5") is
a chocolate brown to blue-black animal
with light blue flecking on its lower
sides, legs and tail. They are secretive,
living underground in the forest up to
one-half mile from their breeding pool.
They might be found when looking
under logs and other cover objects but,
generally, finding a Jefferson salamander
is a rare event except for breeding
nights in early spring. Migration to the
breeding pools is the earliest for any of
the mole salamanders, sometimes taking
place on rainy nights with ground only
^ partially thawed and ice still on the

pools. At the pools, males and females locate each other by chemical cues and the
male courts the female with snout rubbing, clasping, mutual swimming and tail waving.
If the female is receptive, the male drops spermatophores and the female picks up
sperm from them in her cloaca.

Eggs

A few days after mating, the female lays up to 250 eggs in small clusters of 12-75
eggs attached to vegetation near the water surface. The masses are clear, have a
loose consistency and are difficult to see. They are tubular when attached to twigs
and irregular when attached to soft vegetation. They may become greenish from
algal growth. Embryos develop quickly and hatch within 4-6 weeks, usually before
the eggs of the spotted salamander which might be using the same pool.

Larvae ^mhmimmhmhiw «mhmbhwmh^&

Young larvae hide within the leaf litter and are fiercely predatory on all manner of
invertebrates and even other salamanders. As they grow, they feed in the open water

The Jefferson salamander is probably
the most secretive of the mole
salamanders. They are seldom seen
except on breeding nights.

Jefferson salamander eggs are deposited
in small tubular clusters when attached
to twigs. The mass is filmy, transparent
and cryptic.

Larvae are dark pigmented, have a
broad head and white throat like the
spotted and blue-spotted salamander
larvae.

m^^-^f^mc^

38

of the pool where they may be observed
at night and on sunny days hunting near
the water surface. They are preyed upon
primarily by predatory insects. Larvae
complete development in 2-4 months and
leave the pool for small mammal burrows
in the forest. Sexual maturity is reached
in 3 years. Life span may be another three
years in nature.

Hybrids •— ^— i— — ■«

Throughout Massachusetts are found
hybrid salamanders which have physical
characteristics intermediate between
Jefferson and blue-spotted salamanders.
These hybrid animals are the result of
historic crosses between the two parent
species as long ago as the end of the
last glaciation. Neither the origin of
these hybrids nor the methods of their
reproduction is fully understood. Most
all of the hybrids are female and have
extra sets of chromosomes making them
polyploid animals. However, some of
the hybrids are diploid having one set
each of Jefferson and blue-spotted
chromosomes.

Experienced researchers can
sometimes identify the diploid hybrids
as Jefferson or blue-spotted by the
relatively wide head of the Jefferson or
by the wider blue spots of the blue-
spotted as well as other equally subtle
characteristics. The polyploid
specimens can only be accurately
identified by blood analysis or
karyotyping. The hybrids are assigned
as either Jefferson or blue-spotted based
on the parent species from which they
have more sets of chromosomes or, if
the values are equal, to coincide with
the prevalent local species.

For field study, if the hybrid is found
west of the Connecticut River, it should
be considered a Jefferson salamander.
If it is found east of the Connecticut
River, it should be considered a blue-
spotted salamander.

For a complete discussion on
hybridization, consult Salamanders of the
United States by James Petranka.

Jefferson larvae are carnivorous and will
feed upon most any invertebrate or
small vertebrate it can capture. This
larva has captured a spring peeper
tadpole.

A recently transformed Jefferson
salamander juvenile has a bluish-gray
spotted pattern for a few weeks.

'Me^:^ji£s<^ .^ii, '^

Hybrids of blue-spotted and Jefferson
salamanders have features intermediate
between the two species. This blue-
spotted from Reading, MA (a) and
Jefferson (b) from Pittsfield, MA would
be difficult to distinguish without
chromosome testing.

39

Red-spotted newt

Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens

Adults

Adult red'Spotted newts (3-5") are
completely aquatic and are found in a
variety of wetlands, including some
vernal pools. Upper body color is an
olive green to yellowish brown with a
row of bright red spots encircled in black
along each side. The underside is
yellow. The tail is keeled to aid in
swimming. The keel is prominent in
males, especially during the breeding
season. Males also have black,
hardened growths on their legs and feet
during the breeding season.

Newts have a complex life cycle which
includes four stages: the egg, larva, eft,
and adult. Newts are carnivorous and opportunistic and eat insect larvae, worms,
fingernail clams, amphibian eggs and larvae, leeches, and cladocerans. Adults are
fully aquatic and rely on semipermanent or permanent water bodies. They are able
to become terrestrial and move to alternate habitat in the event that their pond
dries. Larval, eft, and adult stages produce noxious skin secretions that deter predation
by most organisms.

Adult newts are aquatic and may be
found in vernal pools, particularly
semipermanent ones. They are
aggressive predators in vernal pools.

Eggs

-i??agn^3^fS'Ss?aH?%:-^a]i^^s:^38.i-tL t-tsw^^"

Breeding is a spring event in which the male courts the female, grabs her from
above with his hind legs and fans his cloacal scents toward her head with his tail. He
dismounts and drops a spermatophore in front of her. She picks up sperm in her
cloaca and fertilizes the eggs. Between 100-400 eggs {.0&') are laid singularly, attached
to aquatic vegetation over the next few weeks. Females often hide eggs by wrapping
parts of the vegetation around them. Eggs are laid between April and June and
hatching occurs in 20-30 days, depending upon temperature.

Larvae

Larvae are yellowish green with a
mottled pattern on the back and a
distinctive yellow underside. They have
a blunt snout with a black stripe
extending from the tip through the eye.
Larvae feed on ostracods, copepods,
snails, fingernail clams, chironomid
midge larvae, and appropriately sized
insect larvae. Both larvae and adults
feed on mosquito larvae. They forage
mainly at night and hide during the day.
Larval development takes about 2-3
months with emergence in MA during
July and August.

The larvae have a black stripe extending
from the snout through the eye and a
yellow underbelly. These characteristics
help distinguish them from mole
salamander {Ambystoma sp.) larvae.

40

Eft

The eft can be a brilliant vermilion
to a green-brown and has rows of
orange-red spots bordered in black.
Efts are terrestrial and spend 4-5 years
wandering before reaching sexual
maturity and seeking a wetland for
permanent residence. Although they
may return to their natal pond, the eft
is the dispersal stage for the newt,
responsible for colonizing new habitats.
Efts are brightly colored, abundant
in many areas, and active during the
day. They actively disperse during
spring rain events, but are often
encountered throughout much of the
year in dry, upland areas. They feed on a variety of invertebrates, including
Collembola, mites, fly larvae and spiders. Their skin secretions are considerably
more toxic than those of the adult or larvae. The eft's almost neon color is considered
a "warning coloration" to signal their toxicity and prevent predation. The combination
of toxicity and warning seems to work, as efts have only occasional predators. Their
toxins cause severe reactions in many amphibians and reptiles, including death, but
are not harmful to humans through contact. Still, it would be folly to eat a red eft.

The color of the terrestrial red eft stage
ranges from brilliant orange-red to a
green-brown. Efts are active in
daylight, particularly if rainy.

Dusky salamander

Desmognathus Riscus fiiscus

The dusky salamander is found in
streams and wet forested areas. It is
not a vernal pool animal but is
sometimes misidentified as a Jefferson
salamander because of its dark color
and light spotting.

Dusky salamanders (2.5-4.5") are
brown to black in color when viewed in
their poorly lit natural surroundings. In
bright light, they appear to have a
mottled rather than a uniform dark
pattern, but markings are extremely
variable. As with other members of its
family (Plethodontidae), there is a
conspicuous groove that runs from the
nostril to the upper lip called a nasolabial
groove. There is also a light line that
runs diagonally from the eye to the
corner of the mouth.

The dusky is an animal of streams,
seeps and springs. It is not a vernal
pool creature. It is included in this book

in the event that someone looking under
cover objects near streams or rivers uncovers a dusky salamander and thinks it
might be a Jefferson salamander. Dusky salamanders can be quickly distinguished
from mole salamanders like the Jefferson by their habit of jumping to escape capture.
Mole salamanders can move quickly, but are not able to leap as the dusky can.

41

Four-toed salamander

Hemidactylium scutatum

Massachusetts
Species of Special Gjncern. -h

Four-toed salamanders are the smallest
salamanders in Massachusetts.

Adults

The four-toed salamander (2-3.5") is
a small reddish-brown salamander easily
identified by: a) its having four toes on
each of its feet, b) its white belly
speckled with black (p. 13), c) costal
groves that meet along the spine in a
herringbone pattern, and d) the
distinctive constriction at the base of
its tail. This small salamander breeds
in various types of wetlands, but
requires mounds of sphagnum moss for
nest building. Vernal pools and other
wetlands (such as red maple swamps)
with dense hummocks of sphagnum moss are used. The animal is active at night; by
day it seeks cover under logs and other objects. It feeds on spiders, springtails and
various small insects. The tail of the four-toed salamander will break off at the base-
constriction if the animal is handled roughly or seized by a predator. The tail wiggles
about and distracts the predator while the salamander escapes.

»■ Eggs & Larvae ^mmmmm^mmmKmmmmmmmmmmmm^i^amammmmmmmmmi

It is believed that mating takes place in the late summer and early fall with the male
producing spermatophores from which the female picks up sperm in her cloaca.
The following spring, when the animals emerge from hibernation, the female migrates
to a vernal pool about the same time that spotted salamanders migrate. The female
constructs a nest above the water within sphagnum moss. She produces between
20-40 eggs and generally remains with them until hatching. Larvae hatch about 5
weeks after deposition. The larvae wiggle from the nest and drop down into the
pooled water. They develop for about six weeks before absorbing their gills and
emerging as a juvenile on land. The young four-toed salamanders disperse into the
forest surrounding the breeding habitat.

Four-toed salamanders lay eggs in nests
constructed in clumps of sphagnum
moss overhanging the water of
woodland vernal pools.

Female four-toed salamander with nest
of eggs within sphagnum moss clump.
Females remain with the nest until the .
eggs hatch. |

42

Redback salamander

,m^.'C^^,

^^m-

Plethodon cinereus cinereus

~~ Adults

The redback salamander (2.2-4") is a
terrestrial salamander found most
everywhere in MA. The body is blue-
black with an obvious red dorsal stripe
or is blue-black without any red stripe,
called the lead phase redback. The
lower sides have bluish flecks. In some
rare cases, the body may be entirely red.
Redback salamanders forage at night for
food, hunting small invertebrates on the
forest floor and even climbing into
shrubbery in pursuit of prey. They may
be seen hunting on rainy nights when
other amphibians are migrating. As
vernal pools dry and shrink in size, this
animal might venture into the previously
wet area to hunt, but otherwise has no
real association with vernal pools. They
do not breed in vernal pools.

Redback salamanders are included in
this guide for two reasons. They are
our most common and abundant
salamander and often come to mind
when vernal pools and salamanders are
mentioned to someone new to vernal
pool ecology. Of greater importance,
the unstriped form of redback
salamander is sometimes mistaken for
blue-spotted or Jefferson salamander,
particularly by someone who wishes to
find a "rare species." Jefferson and blue-
spotted salamanders, no matter their
overall length, have a wide head and
stout body and should not be confused
with the narrow-bodied redback. To
be really sure, count the costal grooves
on the side of the animal. The redback
has 18-20 costal grooves on each side
while the blue-spotted and Jefferson have 13 costal grooves.

Eggs & Larvae „.::; . . ^ •.•:....-,.,-:„:;>,„,■..

Reproduction is entirely terrestrial. Males produce spermatophores from which
females collect sperm in their cloaca. Up to 14 eggs are laid in a clump attached to
the underside of logs or other cover. The female remains with the eggs through a
two month development. The larval stage is entirely within the egg from which
young, miniature redbacks finally emerge.

The redback salamander commonly has
a red dorsal stripe (a). It may also be
found as the unstriped "lead phase"
form (b) or, rarely, as entirely red (c).

Eggs are laid in clumps under logs and
other cover. The larvae develop
completely within the egg.

43

The habitat provided by a drying vernal
pool is suitable foraging area for many
of our terrestrial snakes. Look for these
animals as you visit vernal pools

Snakes

Few snakes are regularly found at
vernal pools. Three of our species, for
which accounts follow, are more aquatic
in their habits than the others and may
actually be found hunting in the water
of a vernal pool. Other more terrestrial
species might come to feed at or near a
vernal pool, particularly as the pool
begins to dry and metamorphosing
amphibians are abundant under the
debris of the pool bottom and around
the pool margins. We have found
ringneck snakes, red-bellied snakes and
northern brown snakes under logs in a

partially dry pool. Green snakes have been found in shrubs at a pool's edge catching
insects. Hognose snakes are regularly found at the margins of coastal plain ponds.
Black racers inhabit forested areas and might be found near a vernal pool. In
summary, snakes are where you find them. For most people, finding them is a rare
occurrence as the observer has to be attuned to looking for snakes. The snake
species you are most likely to encounter while exploring vernal pools are on these
two pages. Identification photographs of the other species found in Massachusetts
are in the Pictorial Guide on pages 16-18. For further information on snakes, consult
some of the publications listed in the reference section on page 70.

Northern water snake

Nerodia sipedon sipedon

Northern water snakes are often
observed basking coiled among
vegetation at the water's edge. Older
specimens may be completely black.

Northern water snakes are extremely
variable in color and pattern. Older
individuals may be entirely black or
dusky gray, but they typically have
saddles and blotches ranging from
crimson to black on a lighter field of
brown or gray. Patterns on the belly
scales are highly variable, but usually
consist of dark reddish to black half-
moons and variable spotting. They
reach lengths of 18-42". The dorsal
scales have keels.

They are common around most any
water body in much of MA, but seem

to be uncommon or absent in middle and northern Berkshire County. They will
typically be seen basking on open sedge hummocks, rocks, and logs in vernal pools.
These snakes will defend themselves by biting mercilessly if picked up. Though their
powerful jaws impart a painful bite, they are not poisonous. They should be left
alone and not handled. Water snakes are important predators in vernal pools,
actively hunting for frogs and tadpoles, salamanders and their larvae, and invertebrates.

44

Eastern garter snake

Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis

The eastern garter snake (18-30") is
one of the most common snakes in MA.
Semiaquatic in its habits, it is often
encountered in or near vernal pools.
Garter snakes have 3 longitudinal stripes
down the length of the body ranging
from bright yellow to tan to greenish.
The middorsal stripe may be faint. The
body is black, brown, or dark green
and variably marked with an alternating
dark and light brown checker board
pattern between the light stripes. The
belly is variable, though typically light
yellow, and has quite variable markings
in 2 rows down its length. It is easily confused with the similar- appearing ribbon
snake, but its longitudinal stripes are always confined to the 2nd and 3rd scale rows,
counting up from the belly scales. Dorsal scales are keeled, making the snake look
and feel somewhat rough.

Eastern garter snakes eat a wide variety of organisms, including invertebrates,
amphibians and small mammals, and may be important predators of newly
metamorphosing frogs, toads and salamanders at the edge of a vernal pool.

Garter snakes have 3 pale stripes down
their length, often with a checkerboard
pattern between.

Ribbon snake

k Thamnophis sa uritus sa uritus

Ribbon snakes (18-26") are easily
confused with the eastern garter snake
(described above). They have a black
to dark olive body with 3 bright yellow
to greenish longitudinal stripes down
their length. Unlike the garter snake,
the 2 lateral stripes are always on scale
rows 3 and 4, counting up the side from
the belly scales. The belly is yellow to
greenish and unmarked. Ribbon snakes
have a particularly slender head and
body, and though the scales are keeled,
the scales do not impart the very rough
appearance typical of garter snakes.

Ribbon snakes have very long tails, often accounting for more than 1/3 of the entire

body length. The tail is the portion of the body beyond the vent on the underside of

the snake.
Ribbon snakes are especially fond of frogs, which make up a large part of their

diets. They are often found near or in water, and are strong swimmers,

45

Long and slender, the ribbon snake has
3 bright yellow stripes down its length
and an exceptionally long tail.

Spotted turtle

Clemmys guttata

Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

'^WW'^^.

^-Hfm^i

'■ ■■«&., ■i^vjj'"- ^ ■!.■•?

■ -e^

N Spotted turtles rely heavily on vernal

^ pools early in the spring as an important
source of food after coming out of
hibernation. The spotted turtle is a
, - small (3.5-5.5"), primarily aquatic turtle
^■' with a smooth black shell and obvious
bright yellow spots on its carapace, legs,
head, and tail. The number and
arrangement of spots vary considerably
^ among turtles and can actually be used
to identify individuals. Some may lack
spots altogether on the carapace, but
they will have the characteristic spots
on the head and neck. Males can be
distinguished from females by their concave plastron (bottom shell), a brown or
black jaw and brown eyes. Females have a flat or convex plastron, orange chin, red
eyes and a yellow beak.

Early in the spring, spotted turtles spend considerable amounts of time in vernal
pools feeding on amphibian eggs, invertebrates, and other food items. They are
state-listed as a species of "Special Concern" and should be reported to the NHESP.

I The spot patterns the shells of spotted

^ turtles vary considerably, but

distinguish them from other species.

Wood turtle

Clemmys insculpta

Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

A bright orange throat and front legs
help distinguish the wood turtle (5.5-
8") from any other turtle in MA. Each
of the large scutes on the carapace is
highly sculpted, roughly into pyramid
shapes, that have obvious growth rings.
The shell may range from a very light
brown to chestnut to almost black
ground color and may have contrasting
light rays of yellow, gold or orange. The
plastron is yellow with variable black
markings which may cover large portions
of the plastral scutes. Males have a
deeply concave plastron, long front
claws and tail.
Wood turtles are typically associated with streams and slow rivers but range widely
across the terrestrial landscape. They use vernal pools heavily during the early
spring where they feed on a variety of foods including amphibian eggs, larvae and
invertebrates. They are a state-listed species of "Special Concern" and when found
should be photographed and recorded with the NHESP.

46

The bright orange skin of the neck and
fore limbs and deep sculpting of the
shell identify wood turtles.

Blanding's turtle

Emydoidea blandingii

Massachusetts
Threatened Species

Blanding's turtles can be readily
identified by their unique, lemon-
yellow jaws and high-domed shells.

Blanding's turtles can be identified
from quite a distance by their bright
yellow throat that is often exposed as
these large turtles hold their heads high
while basking. Their large (7-10"),
highly domed shells are dull gray to black
and often flecked with small yellow or
buff markings. Their flecking may be
largely absent or run together to form
streaks on some individuals. Their
plastrons are pale yellow with variable
black markings, often covering large
portions of each plastral scute. The
plastron has a hinge at the front which
' allows the turtle to completely close its
shell for protection after pulling in its head and legs.

Blanding's turtles are semiaquatic, found in a variety of wetlands including marshes,
swamps and flood plain wetlands. However, they will travel over land considerable
distances to reach vernal pools where they feast on amphibian egg masses, larval
amphibians, crustaceans, and other organisms and plants throughout the spring.

Snapping turtle

y Chelydra serpentina

The largest freshwater turtle in MA,
snapping turtles may grow to be as large
as 20" in shell length. Their long neck
and tail may add as much to their length,
making these animals attain tremendous
overall size. Their shells are typically
light gray to black but may have a green
cast due to dense growths of algae. The
back margin of the carapace is deeply
serrated, and the center scutes are
weakly keeled. Quite often, especially
in older turtles, the center of the shell
becomes depressed and actually makes
the upper shell concave. They have a
strongly serrated, or "saw-toothed" tail,

and may have huge, curved claws. Given the size of the animal, their plastron is

extremely small, covering little of their body.
Despite their reputation, they are hard to rouse if they are in the water, even when

stepped on. They eat a tremendous variety of foods, including plants, adult frogs and

other animals, and can often be found in vernal pools throughout the year.

I Even hatchling snapping turtles have
large heads, deeply serrated shells, and
saw-toothed tails.

47

Eastern painted turtle

Chrysemys picta picta

Tl

Common to almost any pond, lake
or river, painted turtles are one of the
most familiar turtles in MA. Often seen
basking on logs or rocks just above the
water's surface, their smooth black or
dark olive carapace (4.5-6"), red
markings along the sides where the
carapace and plastron meet, and red
and yellow stripes on the head and neck
make identifying these turtles easy.
Wide, light lines cross the carapace
where the lead edges of the large scutes
line up, further distinguishing the eastern
painted turtle. The plastron has no
markings and is pale yellow or cream colored. Males have long, thick tails and very
long claws on the front feet. In the western part of MA, another subspecies of the
painted turtle, the midland painted turtle, is found. It looks very much like the
eastern painted in coloration, but the large scutes on the carapace do not line up
across the shell, and the broad light stripes do not exist.

Though not dependent upon vernal pools, painted turtles will sometimes be found
during the spring and summer in these habitats. They perch above the water sunning
themselves but flush easily upon approach. They are good at disappearing, and are
often very difficult to catch once they have leapt into the water.

Commonly seen basking, the dark shell
with light lines and markings on the
head identify the painted turtle.

Eastern box turtle

Terrapene Carolina Carolina

Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

':^'s:i

A box turtle will draw in its head and
limbs and tightly close the shell when
disturbed.

The eastern box turtle has a small (4.5-
6"), highly domed carapace and a
plastron that is hinged across the front
and back, allowing the animal to clamp
itself shut in an almost impenetrable
package. Highly variable, the coloration
of the carapace ranges from pale
yellow-brown to almost black, with light
yellow to orange blocky markings that
may be so reduced as to look like polka
dots. Males have a highly concave
plastron and distinctive orange-red eyes,
while females have a convex plastron
and brown eyes.

A state-listed rare species, eastern box turtles are essentially terrestrial. However,
they can be found in the habitat surrounding vernal pools, and have been known to
travel through vernal pools and other wetlands, stopping to soak and feed.

48

Caddisfly

c: INSECTA o: TRICHOPTERA

Larvae of Limnephilidae family. The
style of case construction leads to the
common name, log-cabin caddisfly.

Caddisfly larvae construct protective
cases from vegetation and other
materials found in the water. Cases
protect the soft abdomen of the larvae
and provide both camouflage and
ballast. The larvae are able to retreat
into their case in order to avoid threats
from predators. The larval movements
within the case also create a current
through the case which helps aerate the
gills in oxygen-deficient vernal pools.

The style of construction and
materials used for the case can be a
rough guide to family, although there is
some variability in material choice. The larvae of the log-cabin caddisflies
Limnephilidae) use stems and woody material to make cases up to 1.25" long. They
eat plant material and detritus and are important in the vernal pool because they
shred large leaves into small pieces usable by other organisms. The cigar- tube or
leaf- roller caddisflies (Phryganeidae) construct cases of leaf material up to 3" long.
They often have conspicuous stripes on the head and thorax. Their diet is variable,
depending upon species, and includes plant material, detritus, and some predation.
Leaf-rollers may occasionally be observed with their body extended into a salamander
egg mass as they feed on the developing embryos.

Larvae use their legs and mouth parts to pull and crawl their way over the pool
bottom and along vegetation. Larvae pupate in the water and adults emerge before
the pool dries. Adults are small, mothlike, terrestrial insects which fold their wings
tent-like over the body when at rest. They lay gelatinous egg masses in the water, on
vegetation, and on the moist bottom of dry vernal pools. Eggs may overwinter in dry
pools.

Cases of caddisflies can be found on the bed of dry vernal pools. These can be
used to prove the dry wetland is a vernal pool.

Larva of Phryganeidae family. The cases
of the "cigar-tube caddisfly" are made
of leaves and leaf pieces.

Very young caddisflies do not use the
same materials as adults to make cases;
sand grains are often used.

49

Aquatic Coleoptera

c: INSECTA o: COLEOPTERA

Aquatic beetles, including the predaceous diving beetles (Dytiscidae) and many
other families within the order Coleoptera, are a diverse and varied group of insects.
Aquatic beetles are common in vernal pools and other wetlands and range significantly
in size, color, and patterning. Adult beetles use vernal pools for breeding and
feeding, and the larvae rely on the fish-free waters for relatively safe habitat in which
to develop. The larvae and adults of many different families, genera and species are
often present in a vernal pool at the same time. As many as 20 species of aquatic
beetles have been identified from a single vernal pool.

Identifying these animals to genus and species, and even distinguishing the families,
requires specialized keys and equipment and is not a field activity. We make no
attempt in this key to distinguish individual genera or species. The aquatic Coleoptera
are such a large group that many species have not been closely studied and quite
often are simply refered to as aquatic beetles.

Predaceous diving beetle

o: COLEOPTERA f: DYTISCIDAE

Dozens of species occur in vernal pools.
Some species typical of semipermanent
pools may be as large as 2 inches while
others may be as small as .1 ".

Adults

Both larval and adult predaceous
diving beetles are fiercely predatory and
feed on invertebrate and vertebrate
organisms. Adults range in size from
. 1' 1 .75" in body length and vary in color
from plain brown or black to very highly
patterned with spots or stripes. Their
body shape is oval, with the head
generally streamlined to fit the body
contour. The swimming hairs on the
hind legs form a paddle-like surface
which propels this deft swimmer.
Dytiscids can be distinguished from
some similar- appearing beetles in that
both hind legs are moved in unison when
swimming.

Adults breathe from a bubble of air
held under their elytra (hard outer
wings) . They periodically replenish the
oxygen supply in the bubble by poking
the tip of their abdomen through the
water surface. Some species that use
annually-drying vernal pools remain in
the pool year-round, overwintering in
the dry basin.

50

Growing to over 3", Dytiscid larvae are
sometimes called toe-biters.

Dytiscid larvae are voracious predators,
earning the name "water tigers."

Larvae

The Dytiscidae is a tremendously large and diverse group of beetles. There is a
variety of shapes, sizes, and behaviors including hunting habits that make identifying
species quite challenging. Larvae have an obvious head, distinct from the thorax,
with a pair of large, sickle-shaped, piercing mandibles used to grab prey and inject a
digestive enzyme. They are generally poor swimmers and use their legs to walk on
the substrate, among vegetation, or to dog-paddle in the water while hunting for
prey. Many dytiscid beetle larvae are visual predators that grab any animal in which
they sense motion. This behavior affects the ecology of vernal pools because amphibian
larvae must remain active to complete their growth before the pool disappears.
When they move, tadpoles increase their likelihood of being attacked.

Dytiscids are much more commonly found in vernal pools that hold water for
extended periods. Very ephemeral pools may have adult beetles that have flown in
to feed, but are less likely to have many larval predaceous diving beetles in them.

Crawling water beetle

\ o: COLEOPTERA f: HALIPLIDAE

The crawling water beetle is very small
(. 1-.25") , yellow or orange, and typically
spotted or patterned. They can be seen
swimming in the water or crawling on
submerged vegetation and on the
bottom of vernal pools. They are often
confused with small predaceous diving
beetles. However, the head of the
crawling water beetle protrudes
distinctly beyond the smooth arc
defined by its body and the hind end is
more narrowed. It has enlarged hind
coxal plates (rear-most pair of plates on
ventral surface) which no other beetle

The crawling water beetle swims and
walks through the water and vegetation
of a vernal pool.

has. The elytra (hard outer wings) often have rows of tiny holes. The hind legs have
swimming hairs. Like other aquatic beetles, the crawling water beetle breathes air
carried under the elytra and enlarged coxal plates. Adults and larvae are herbivores.

51

Water scavenger beetle

o: COLEOPTERA f: HYDROPHILIDAE

I

Both adults and larvae of this diverse
group are difficult to distinguish from
other beetles.

Whirligig beetle

Adults

The water scavenger beetles (.1'.5")
are an abundant group second only to
the dytiscids in diversity. Adults are
oval and elongate with a pronounced
convex shape, as opposed to the more
flattened dytiscids. They have
distinctive clubbed antennae, often
hidden under the head. They are nearly
indistinguishable from other aquatic
beetles without specialized keys and a
microscope. However, unlike dytiscids,
water scavenger beetles surface head
first and swim by moving their hind legs
alternately. Adults are omnivores.

Larvae *■

Larvae grow as large as 1.5". They
are poor swimmers and will hang from
the water surface (where they obtain
oxygen) or hide in vegetation to await
prey.

o: COLEOPTERA f: GYRINIDAE

Adults

Adults are easily recognized as bluish-
black, oval, flattened beetles swimming
in schools on the water surface. Their
specialized eyes, divided so they can see
both above and below the water surface,
help them avoid predators. When
disturbed, they swim erratically and
dive. They are scavengers and will feed
on insects trapped in the surface tension
of the water.

Whirligig beetle adults dart about on
the water surface. Larvae, with feathery
gills, remain below.

» Larvae ^-■^■-■i^— ^— i

Larvae grow to 1.5". They have
feathery lateral gills on their abdomen,
and do not surface for air. They can
be easily confused with other
invertebrate larvae, but their abdomen
terminates in 4 hooks, unlike any others.
Whirligig beetle larvae are predaceous.

52

Damselfly

o: ODONATA S.O.: ZYGOPTERA

mber-winged spreadwing, Lestes
eurinus, are typically found in vernal
pools that dry annually.

Adults

Damselflies (1" to 2") are delicate
bodied insects. They have very slender,
elongated abdomens and a broad head
much wider than the body. Four long,
slender wings, very similar to one
another in size and shape, are folded
over the abdomen or held out to the
sides when at rest. The coloration,
patterns on the abdomen and thorax,
and especially the anal appendages, are
important in distinguishing the species.

Many damselflies require semi-
permanent pools to successfully
complete their life cycles. However,
there are a number of species in MA
that are able to use more temporary
pools that dry every year. These tend
to deposit eggs in the stems of emergent
vegetation where the eggs overwinter.

— Larvae ■

Larvae look much like the adult, but
wings are present only as wing pads,
and there are 3 large, feather-shaped
gills at the end of the abdomen. The
head is quite broad relative to the rest
of the body, with large eyes.

Larvae in vernal pools are fairly good
swimmers and can be found swimming
through the water column where they
prey on invertebrates and small
vertebrate animals.

A pair of Northern bluets, Enallagma
cyathigerum, in the mating "cartwheel."
The male is above.

Spotted spreadwing, Lestes congener.

Azure bluet, Enallagnna aspersum. Note
wings folded over the abdomen.

Damselfly nymph with 3 feather-shaped
gills at the end of the abdomen.

53

Dragonfly

o: ODONATA S.O.: ANISOPTERA

Adults

Twelve-spotted Skimmers {Libellula
pulchella) vigorously defend territories.

The Common Green Darner {Anax Junius)
is fast and a challenge to catch.

The Black-tipped Darner [Aeshna
tuberculifera).

Dragonflies are a common site around
many New England wetlands and are a
favorite sign of summer for many. They
are difficult to confuse with any other
flying insects because of their large,
broad wings that are always held
straight out to the sides, extremely large
eyes and their often brightly colored and
patterned abdomens. Dragonflies will
be present in greater numbers and
diversity at vernal pools which do not
dry every year, though some may be
found in annually-drying pools.

The 2 families that are most commonly
encountered in vernal pools are the
darners (Aeshnidae) and the skimmers
(Libellulidae) . Darners are large and
tend to have very highly-patterned
abdomens with dramatic black bars and
spots and bright blue, green or red
coloration. Many skimmers have more
uniformly colored abdomens but may
have interestingly patterned wings.

Dragonflies are quite active. The
darners are particularly strong fliers and
seldom seen at rest. Dragonflies have
a voracious appetite for small flying
insects. They are often called mosquito-
hawks because mosquitos make up an
important part of their diet during the
summer. They are quite territorial and

54

The Yellow-legged Meadowhawk
{Sympetrum vicinum) is common.

Common Baskettails {Epitheca cynosura)
have a hairy thorax and yellow spots.

.M

Frosted Whiteface {Leucorrhinia frigida)
I at rest. Wings are tipped down to help
; regulate body temperature.

can be watched defending small aerial
territories from other adult dragonflies
that compete for mates and food.

Many dragonflies deposit eggs in
water. During egg laying, the male
clasps the female behind the head in
flight with appendages at the end of the
abdomen. The female deposits eggs by
repeatedly dipping the tip of her
abdomen below the water surface in a
hand-stitching motion. Some species,
however, deposit eggs in plant stems.

Larvae ■-wmmwmT^u-mmrm'^vr-

Tiie Four-spotted Skimmer {Libellula
quadrimaculata).

The Slaty Skimmer {Libellula incesta) can
be found flying in June and August.

Dragonflies that use vernal pools have developed various strategies that allow
them to survive in these ephemeral habitats. The eggs of many species go through a
resting stage after being laid in vegetation. Hatching is triggered by the return of
water. Some have life cycles of less than a year and the larvae are therefore able to
develop in temporary pools. The larvae of some dragonflies that breed in vernal
pools are able to complete the aquatic phase of their life cycle before the pool dries
completely because their rate of development increases as the water temperature

warms.

Darner larvae clasp and crawl along
plant stems while stalking prey and are
im|X).rtant predators in vernal pools.

Larvae of the skimmers have broad
abdomens and spindly legs. They hide
in debris, waiting for prey.

55

Backswimmer

o: HEMIPTERA f: NOTONECTIDAE

Backswimmers hang upside down from
the water surface and dart through the
water column.

Backswimmer nymphs have white backs
and indistinct developing wing pads.

Water boatman

The backswimmers have long, slender
bodies (.2" to .6") that are patterned
with black and yellow mottling. Dense
hairs covering their backs hold a thin
layer of air which imparts a silvery sheen
to the insects. True to their name,
backswimmers swim "upside down"
with their ventral side facing the surface,
their hind legs with stiff swimming hairs
working oar-like to move them through
the water. Their forelegs are nearly as
long as the middle legs. At rest, they
often hang from the water surface, the
tip of their abdomen protruding into the
air. They are adept hunters and subdue
other insects, crustaceans, and snails
with their long, piercing beaks.

Nymphs look very similar to the adult
throughout their development but lack
the well-developed wings and color
patterns of the adults.

o: HEMIPTERA f: CORIXIDAE

The water boatman has distinctive
yellow and black tiger stripes and long,
oar-like hind legs.

Water boatmen are small (.2" to .5"),
somewhat flattened aquatic bugs. They
are easy to confuse with backswimmers
because of their long, oar-like hind legs
with stiff swimming hairs and their
general shape. However, their dramatic
yellow and black tiger stripe patterns
and short triangular beaks set these bugs
apart. Their forelegs are also much
shorter than the middle pair. Water
boatmen overwinter in permanent water
and fly to vernal pools in midsummer.

Like most aquatic insects, the water
boatmen are air breathers. Adults carry

a store of air on the ventral surface as a thin film. It is renewed by frequent trips to
the surface where they can often be found resting. While most Hemiptera are
restricted to a liquid diet by their piercing, sucking mouthparts, the water boatmen
have a modified beak that allows them to grind their food items. Different species
are predators, scavengers, herbivore-detritivores, or omnivores.

56

Water scorpion

o: HEMIPTERA f: NEPIDAE

Water scorpions are an important
invertebrate predator found in vernal
pools. There are 2 genera found in
MA. The majority are long and
extremely narrow (pictured), but one
species is broad and oval-shaped. They
range from .6" to nearly 2.5". Their
abdomens end in a pair of long (up to
.75") breathing tubes which help
distinguish them from the closely related
giant water bug. They are poor
swimmers and tend to hide within
aquatic vegetation, hanging from the
water's surface with breathing tubes
poking into the air, lying in wait for invertebrates and small vertebrate animals.
They have raptorial forelimbs that are used to capture prey, and piercing, sucking
mouthparts.

As adults, water scorpions overwinter in deep ponds, lakes or rivers, and migrate
to breeding habitats in the spring time. While not often found in very ephemeral
pools, they will use vernal pools with dense emergent vegetation.

Slender raptorial forelegs are used in
capturing prey. Note red mite nymphs
attached to legs.

I Giant water bug

o: HEMIPTERA f: BELOSTOMATIDAE

Giant water bugs are medium to large
sized (up to 2.5") insects that are oval-
shaped and greatly flattened. They are
important top predators that use their
stout, raptorial forelimbs to capture and
kill anything that they can. They spend
much of their time hanging from the
water's surface with their short, strap-
like breathing tubes poking into the air,
waiting for a potential meal. Giant water
bugs have earned the names "fishkiller"
and "toe-biter." Great care should be
taken in handling these insects.

In one genera of giant water bug
(Belostoma) , the female deposits her eggs on the back of the male. The eggs are
brooded by the male, who fans them with his hind legs to help keep them aerated.
He provides protection to the developing eggs, yet will actually eat the eggs if they
are dislodged from his back prior to hatching. In the other genera of giant water
bug {Lethocerus) , eggs are laid in masses above the water surface on vegetation.

57

Females deposit their eggs on the backs
of the adult males who carry them until
they hatch.

Water Strider

o; HEMIPTERA f: GERRIDAE

Adults

Water striders (.25-. 5") are semi-
aquatic insects that walk on the water
surface of vernal pools and other water
bodies. Water striders contact the water
with all of their legs. You might first
notice them by the unique 4'ringed
shadow they cast on the pool bottom
when at rest with the forelegs held
ready to capture prey. Their legs end
in tufts of dense hairs that prevent them
from breaking the surface tension,

Iburiate nunxing lor smaii inverieDraie keeping them afloat. Their slender

P''^Y- bodies, and water walking habits make

them distinctive and unmistakable.
They hunt small surface -dwelling invertebrates and are important predators of
adult mosquitos and other insects that rest on the water surface just after emergence
from their aquatic larval stage. While they spend most of their time striding along
the water surface, they are good fliers and can disperse widely.

Water striders skate along the water
surface hunting for small invertebrate
prey.

FiSHFLY

o: MEGALOPTERA f: CORYDALIDAE

Larvae — -HMHHmHHBn

Fishfly larvae (to 2") have a dark,
shiny head with stout, pinching
mandibles used to capture and subdue
aquatic insects and other invertebrate
prey. Their long, relatively stout bodies
are distinctive in having 8 paired lateral
gills. The gills look much like a single
spine on either side of each segment.
The lateral gills, and a pair of terminal
siphons characteristic of species most
often found in vernal pools, allow these
insect larvae to obtain oxygen in vernal
pools that often have quite low oxygen
content. Some species, particularly those found in streams, also have dense tufts of
gills at the base of the lateral gills for pulling oxygen out of flowing water.

Fishfly larvae tend to be found in vernal pools that hold water for most of the
summer and that have deep mucky soils. Occasionally, the larvae can be found by
looking under logs and stones in the deeper portions of a dry vernal pool, where
they may be waiting for the return of water. By burying into the wet mud under
cover of a rotting log, they may be able to survive a short dry period.

58

Fishflies have long, stout bodies with
a pair of gills (lateral filaments) on each
segment.

Mayfly

N.

c: INSECTA o: EPHEMEROPTERA
Larvae

Mayflies are a diverse group of
insects, all of which have aquatic larvae.
Though most commonly found in rivers,
mayfly larvae can often be found in
vernal pools. They are small (.25-. 75"),
delicate larvae that have a set of 3 (rarely
2) "caudal filaments" that look like
flexible spines at the end of their
abdomen. Thin, fanlike gills are paired
along the abdomen on each segment,
giving the larvae a somewhat ragged
appearance. Mayfly larvae are
detritivores, feeding on a wide variety
of plant and decaying animal matter.

Mayflies go through a synchronous emergence where many nymphs hatch at the
same time, in some cases flooding the night with newly-emerged adults. The adults
emerge with only one task, to mate and produce the eggs that will hatch the following
year. They emerge with no mouth parts, and only live for a couple of days after
metamorphosis. Their ephemeral adult stage gives rise to their scientific name.

M

Mayflies have very slender legs, paired
lateral gills and typically 3 filaments on
the tip of the abdomen.

I

Chironomid midge

o: DIPTERA F: CHIRONOMIDAE

Larvae

The chironomid midges constitute the
largest family of aquatic insects. Their
larvae (.1-.8") are very commonly found
in vernal pools and are an important
food source for numerous vertebrate
and invertebrate predators. The larvae
are basically worm-shaped, slender and
cylindrical, though they have pairs of
fleshy prolegs at both ends of their
bodies. Many chironomid midge larvae
are blood red due to a hemoglobin- like
pigment that helps them retain oxygen.
This pigment allows the larvae to survive
in water that is very low in dissolved oxygen, as is common in vernal pools as drying
proceeds through the seasons.

Chironomid larvae tend to be predatory, but may also graze on fine detritus
particles on the substrate. They can be found in the pool bottom debris or wiggling
wildly in open water as they use body contortions for movement.

Chironomid midge larvae are blood-
red, wormlike larvae that wriggle
through the water column.

59

/^

Phantom midge

o: DIPTERA f: CHAOBORIDAE

Larvae

Phantom midge larvae are transparent
and nearly invisible to the casual
observer. The larvae are long (typically
<!") and narrow with a distinct head
and are often first noticed because of
small air sacs at both ends of their
bodies. They are predatory and have
an enlarged pair of antennae modified
to function in capturing prey which
includes small insects, crustaceans, and
other invertebrates.

They move with a jerking motion,
though usually simply float within the
water column waiting for prey. The air
sacs, or hydrostatic organs, act as ballast and enable them to maintain their position
in the water column without rising or sinking. In late spring and early summer,
extremely dense clouds of phantom midges may fill the water of vernal pools. They
are an important food source for developing salamander larvae and other predators
that are in the annual race against pond drying.

Phantom midges, sometimes in dense
clouds, may only be visible at first
because of their hydrostatic organs.

Mosquito

o: DIPTERA f: CULICIDAE

Larvae

Larval mosquitoes (.3'.5") are often

called "wrigglers" because of the body

gyrations used for movement. They

hang head down at the water surface

with their breathing siphons poking into

the air. Ten genera are found in MA,

with some species being vernal pool

breeders. Most wrigglers feed on

detritus and microorganisms, although

M ,. .. „ . 1 „ I r ^. two of the genera have members which

I Mosquito wrigqlers hang from the i ^ *= i . i

^ water surface. Pupae or "tumblers" may 25^ P'"^^^°^ °^ f"^' ^^'^^^'^ .^^^^'•
, somersault through the water. They are eaten by predatory insects

I and salamander larvae.

Adult mosquitoes feed on plant juices. Females feed on blood (mostly nonhuman)
before breeding. Eggs of some species are laid on moist soil and may remain dormant
until flooded. Others lay eggs on the water surface, often in rafts. Mosquitos of
temporary pools may develop from egg to adult in as little as a week in warm weather;
several broods are possible in a season. Mosquitoes are eaten by a variety of
amphibians, insects, birds and bats.

60

Springtails

a INSECTA o: COLLEMBOLA
Adults

The CoUembola, or springtails, are
tiny (<.2"), wingless insect-like
arthropods. There is quite a bit of
diversity among this group of minute
organisms, but most have a unique
jumping structure called a furcula on
the underside of their bodies near the
end of the abdomen. The furcula is
held against the abdomen at rest, and
is released like a tightened spring,
launching the animal considerable
distances (for their size). Also called
snow fleas, they are often found in
dense congregations very early in the spring on remnant patches of snow.

Some springtails are truly aquatic or semiaquatic and found on the water surface,
but most live in the soil, litter, and moist vegetation. They feed primarily on algae,
microorganisms including bacteria, detritus, and other organic material. Careful
observation of water scooped from a vernal pool will often reveal hundreds of these
creatures.

Springtails are tiny prinnitive insects that
are often found in great numbers on a
pool's surface.

Water mites

c: HYDRACHNIDIA o: ACARIFORMES

Adults

The water

f<<. >

mites comprise a
tremendously diverse group of small,
spider Tike organisms. Seldom reaching
sizes greater than .2", they can often
be found scurrying through a sample of
vernal pool water. They are most
commonly brilliant red or green, but
may be tan, brown, yellow, or even blue.
Their soft bodies are spherical or egg-
shaped. Identifying mites to family,
genus and species requires a microscope
and the use of complicated keys.

Mites go through an incredibly
complex life cycle beginning as eggs laid in gelatinous masses that hatch within a
couple of weeks. Upon hatching, the larva is parasitic on an aquatic insect (see
water scorpion image, p. 57) and goes through 3 nymphal stages, alternately active
and inactive, before finally metamorphosing into a swimming adult. As adults, water
mites may be omnivorous, but most are carnivorous or parasitic.

Bright red, brown, yellow and
sometimes even blue, the aquatic mites
are extremely diverse.

61

Amphipod

One species is a Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

c: MALACOSTRACA o: AMPHIPODA

Adults

Amphipods are small crustaceans (.2"
to .4") also known as "sideswimmers"
or scuds. They are very narrow-bodied,
gray to whitish animals. When seen
darting through the water, they often
appear to be trailing their threadlike
limbs behind them. Amphipods are
omnivore-detritivores, and are often
found among the decaying leaves and
vegetation on the bottom of a vernal
pool, but may spend time slightly buried
into the soft substrate. Amphipods may
survive dry periods in vernal pools by burying themselves in the mud. The Mystic
Valley Amphipod (Crangonyx aberrans), occasionally found in eastern MA, is a state
listed rare species.

ISOPOD

c: MALACOSTRACA o: ISOPODA

Amphipods may be abundant in the
leaf litter of a vernal pool.

Adults

Isopods (<.7") are flattened, broad-
bodied crustaceans that live among the
leaf litter and bottom detritus of vernal
pools. Their bodies have numerous
segments, but both the first and last
segments are much larger than the
others. They are poor swimmers and
their 7 pairs of legs are used for crawling
about the pool bottom. Isopods are
typically brown to light gray, providing
important camouflage from the
predators found in vernal pools.
Mature females have an opaque white
brood pouch (marsupium) on the bottom of the last body segment where the eggs
develop and hatch. They have no specialized adaptations, such as drought-resistant
eggs or a diapause phase, to survive the dry periods characteristic of vernal pools.
Isopods are scavengers and detritivores, feeding on dead and dying aquatic animals,
live and decaying leaves and aquatic vegetation. Along with other detritivores,
isopods play a crucial role in vernal pool ecology. They help break down and
remove dead animal and plant material and process large plant material in the pool
into ever smaller pieces. As particle sizes decrease, the surface area which is colonized
by algae and fungus increases. This enhances the nutritional value of detritus as it is
fed upon by developing frogs, as well as other detritivores and fQter feeders.

62

Isopods, or aquatic sow bugs, are
important scavengers and detritivores
in vernal pools.

I Fairy shrimp

c: BRANCHIOPODA O: ANOSTRACA

One species is a Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

Adult male fairy shrimp, E. vernalis, with
claspers used in mating evident.

Fairy shrimp are small (.5-1.5"),
orange to green, delicate-bodied
crustaceans that live only in vernal
pools. They swim "upside down"
through the water, rhythmically beating
their abdominal appendages which also
serve as respiratory structures. When
viewed from above, their sometimes
white forked tail may make them
noticeable. They may move slowly, dart
quickly, or even remain stationary as
they filter bacteria, phytoplankton,
protozoans and detritus. Mature
females have a brood pouch evident at the base of the
abdomen, while males appear to have an enlarged head
due to claspers used in mating.

Two species of fairy shrimp are confirmed from MA.
Eubranchipus vernalis is common and widespread, while
the intricate fairy shrimp, E. intricatuSj is a state-listed
rare species known from only a few sites. They can
be differentiated by examining the heads of mature
males under a hand lens. E. intricatus has a pair of
long, often curled, antennal appendages which reach
to the end of the claspers. The antennal appendages
of E. vernalis are quite small and inconspicuous (see diagram) .

Female fairy shrimp produce several broods of encysted eggs which must dry and
be re-submerged before they will hatch. Hatched larvae develop quickly into mature
adults which reproduce several times. The drought and cold resistant cysts withstand
ingestion by animals, may be blown by wind from a dry pool, or carried along with
mud or plant matter. The rapid development and reproduction of fairy shrimp
places their activity period in a vernal pool at a time (winter and early spring) when
there are few predators present.

E. intricatus, on the left,
has much longer
antennal appendages.

HHUHIH^^H

Maturing female. Encysted eggs are Fairy shrimp are camouflaged by the
developmg m the brood pouch, and surrounding leaves. The white
1 the head is much smaller than a male's. forked tail gives this female away.

63

Clam shrimp ^

c: BRANCHIOPODA o: LAEVICAUDATA

two species are massachusetts
State Listed Species

Clam shrimp are small (<.3")
crustaceans that have a clam-like bivalve
carapace (shell) covering their head and
body. The carapace is semi-translucent,
allowing a slightly obscured view of the
body. Lynceus brachyurus, the only
species in the order Laevicaudata, does
not have any growth rings on the
carapace. Two species of clam shrimp
in the order Spinicaudata, Limnadia
lenticularis and Eulimnadia agassizii, which
are both quite rare in MA, have visible
growth rings that serve as a record of
their molts.

Adults die shortly before their pools dry, or may be stranded by the receding
water. Eggs collect in the female underneath the carapace and are shed with each
molt. The eggs of clam shrimp are resistant to desiccation, allowing them to persist
in the temporary habitat of vernal pools year after year, and also facilitate their
transport among potential habitats. These animals develop extremely quickly, reaching
sexual maturity in a matter of days after hatching from the egg.

Clam shrimp live near the bottom of the pool, moving along the substrate. They
feed on algae, bacteria, and detritus by straining water passed over their branched
limbs under the carapace.

The carapace of clam shrimp is held
agape, exposing the antennae and ends
of their many legs.

OSTRACOD

p: CRUSTACEA a OSTRACODA

The ostracods, or "seed shrimp," are
tiny crustaceans that can be seen darting
around a sample of pool water. They
rarely exceed .1". Their bivalve
carapace (shell) gives them an
appearance similar to that of a tiny
oblong clam with little swimming legs.
There are no growth rings on the
carapace. Their color is quite variable,
but the larger ostracods often have a
dark banded pattern on the shell which,
in addition to their relatively larger size,
helps draw attention to them. Fine setae
cover the carapace, giving them a slightly
"hairy" appearance when viewed under a microscope or hand lens. Their drought-
resistant eggs are capable of passing through the intestines of birds and remaining
viable which makes it easy to colonize new sites.

Ostracods are easily overlooked in a
vernal pool because of their tiny size
and cryptic coloration.

64

Daphnia'

'^^**«»%,

a BRANCHIOPODA "CLADOCERA"

Cladocerans, often called daphnia
after the largest family (Daphniidae) , are
small crustaceans that are extremely
important food items in vernal pools.
Their small size (<.2"), abundance,
and lack of any defenses make them
important prey for predaceous
invertebrates, amphibian larvae, and
other organisms. They have a thin
carapace that encloses the body, but
not the head and large modified
antennae. Antennae are used in
locomotion and they move about the
water column in a "hopping" motion.

Daphnia eat organic detritus, algae, ^^^^^^^^

and bacteria. The multiple legs are used to generate a water current between the 2
valves of the carapace where food particles are filtered and collected in a tract that
leads to the mouth. Filtered material is ground by mouth parts.

Daphnia go through a complex and unique life cycle in temporary waters. Early
spring reproduction is by parthenogenesis, resulting in all female eggs. As water
temperature and competition increase, males are produced. Sexual reproduction
then produces encapsulated, drought resistant eggs that overwinter.

Daphnia may fill the water column in
the summer time and are important prey
for many animals.

COPEPOD

p: CRUSTACEA a COPEPODA

Copepods are an important
component of the food base for
predatory invertebrates and growing
salamander larvae in vernal pools.
Their bodies are clearly segmented and
cylindrical. Most are silvery-gray in
color and rarely grow larger than .2".
There are 3 orders that comprise this
class of microcrustaceans. All are
similar in appearance but are varied in
life-style. The Harpactacoida graze
bottom detritus, the Calanoida filter
plankton, and the Cyclopoida are
predatory.

T

The Calanoida, an order of the
Copepoda, have very long antennae
which aid in swimming.

Just as the copepods have varied feeding strategies, they have multiple strategies
for surviving the dry periods typical of vernal pool habitats. Adults may form cocoons
or encyst themselves, entering a state of estivation during drought. Many species
form a thick walled resting egg which is resistant to drying and freezing.

65

Amphibious snails

p: mollusca c: gastropoda

m

A spire snail showing the elongated
spiral shell. If the tip of the spiral is
held upward with the opening facing
you, the Lymnaeidae (shown) have the
opening on the right side, the Physidae
have the opening on the left.

Several families of amphibious, air
breathing snails are found in vernal
pools. Snails have hard, calcified shells
that help protect them from many
predators and also help them survive
dry periods in vernal pools. The three
families of amphibious snails found in
MA vernal pools can be separated from
one another by the general shape of the
shell. Two of the families, called "spire-
shaped" snails, have elongated spiral
shells (see caption). The third family,
the Planorbidae, has a spiralling shell
which is flat, or in one plane. The
colors of amphibious snail shells are
generally dull browns and light grays,
but some species have muted stripes or

other markings. The fleshy bodies of planorbid snails tend to have a red or pink
cast due to hemoglobin, a respiratory pigment.

Amphibious (or pulmonate) snails breathe atmospheric air obtained at the surface.
While some have developed gills that allow them to remain under water indefinitely,
most rely on lungs, as did their terrestrial ancestors. Dry periods are dealt with in a
variety of ways. Some species are strictly annual, living just one year. The eggs they
produce in the spring hatch the following year. Many species spend the summer or
winter burrowed into mud and detritus of the dry or frozen pool. One genus is able
to form a hardened "epiphragm" that encases the body and helps protect them from
drying and freezing. The juveniles of this genus leave the pond and estivate for 3-4
months buried in the detritus on the shore. They return with rising water levels.

Snails can be observed moving slowly along the bottom litter of a pool where they
feed on leaf litter, decaying vegetation and algae. Most feed by scraping with a

tongue-like structure called the radula.
It is a muscular organ vd^th hard teeth
used to scrape particles of food which
are then ingested. Their feeding activity
fills an important role in vernal pool
ecology by breaking down large organic
matter into increasingly smaller pieces.
Snails are preyed upon by waterfowl,
leeches, beetle larvae and other aquatic
invertebrate predators, turtles, and
sometimes by amphibians. They may
be transported passively by ducks and
Planorbid snails are spiralled but are wading birds that leave a pool with mud
flat when looked at from the side, or vegetation containing snails or their
J without an elongated spire. eggs attached to their bodies.

66

Fingernail clam

' p: MOLLUSCA c: bivalvia

Fingernail clams (<.5") are also
known as pea or pill clams because of
their very small size and uniform cream
to light brown color. There is seldom
any distinctive patterning on the shell,
although some species may exhibit some
darker colored bands following the arc
of the shell. There are no annual rings
or large ridges on the shell surface, but
there are microscopic ridges (striae).
Their shells are hardened like
freshwater and marine clams and
mussels, but in some species the shell is
quite thin and sometimes brittle.
Careful handling is required to avoid crushing them. They have a muscular foot
used to dig and to move about the substrate of a pool and a pair of tubular siphons
used in respiration and feeding. One family (Sphaeriidae) containing three genera
and 2 1 species occurs in MA. Separating them is difficult and requires a microscope
and specialized keys.

Fingernail clams are filter feeders that rely on detritus and leaf litter that has been
broken down into very small pieces by other organisms. All fingernail clams are
hermaphroditic, and young are brooded in the inner gill of the parent. Tiny free'
living clams are expelled when development is completed.

Fingernail clams typically live for one or 2 years, though some may live as long as
3 years. Some species survive dry periods by burrowing into sediments or going into
an estivation (resting) state prior to the pool drying. In some species, only the recently
hatched juveniles survive the dry periods, while adults die. The species Sphaerium
occidentale is amphibious and able to breath atmospheric oxygen. When fingernail
clams die, their shell is left on the pool bottom. Finding their shells in a dry depression
is an excellent indicator that a vernal pool exists.

Fingernail clams have a muscular
ambulatory "foot" and a pair of tubular
siphons.

Free living juvenile clams (left) are
expelled from the parent's mantle after
being brooded in the inner gill.

Searching a dry vernal pool will often
turn up hundreds of clam and snail
shells with very little effort.

67

GORDIAN (horsehair) WORM

p: NEMATOMORPHA o: GORDIOIDA

Gordian worms may reach up to 3 feet
in length. They twist and coil into
impossible-looking knots.

Gordian or horsehair worms were
once thought to be the hairs of a horse's
mane that had come to Ufe by some act
of magic. However, the truth about
their Ufe histories is more like the plot
of a horror movie. Long (from 1-2" to
over 3') and never more than about .2"
in diameter, these worms are plain,
unsegmented, and may be yellow,
brown or black. They form impossible -
looking tangles with other worms during
mating, yet effortlessly seem to extract
themselves from one another.
In temporary pools, eggs hatch into
preparasitic larvae which become encysted on the leaves and detritus of the drying
pool. They are thus able to survive dry periods. A terrestrial insect host becomes
infected by the larvae as the cysts are eaten along with the vegetation or detritus they
have come to rest on. The worm grows, ultimately filling the body cavity of its host.
Though the mechanism is not known, when the worm is prepared to emerge, the
host is brought to water where the worm bursts from the host's body cavity and
metamorphoses into an aquatic adult. Horsehair worms die shortly after breeding,
which may not occur for up to a year after becoming an adult.

Plan ARIA

p: PLA TYHELMINTHES c: turbellaria

Planaria are small (.2-1.2"),
unsegmented flat worms. The group is
large and diverse (17 species are found
in MA), and exhibits a wide variety of
life history traits and habitat
preferences. Several planaria are
commonly found in vernal pools.
However, when scooped up in a net or
jar, they often roll into an indiscrete
blob. Though you may not notice them
immediately, looking at a jar of pool
water and leaf litter after a day or so
. -, , . , - , will typically reveal many planaria

\ ™T°? ^.T "^ "" "^wlii^g about the sides of the jar.

They live for a year or less, but some
are able to encyst themselves, extending their life cycles. This also allows some
species to survive dry periods in vernal pools. The green planaria, Dalyellia viridis,
has a symbiotic zoochlorellae that imparts its color.

68

Encysted eggs are visible in the tiny,
uncommon green planaria; the
common grayish planaria can be found
in many pools.

Leech

p: ANNELIDA C: HIRUNDINAE

On species is a Massachusetts
Species of Special Concern

Turtle leeches have a distinct balloon
shaped body considerably wider at the
hind end when at rest.

Leeches are chiefly predatory, feeding
on annphibian eggs and small
invertebrates.

Finding a leech in your net, or worse,
on your leg, can cause a great panic
despite the fact that they rarely feed on
the blood of warmblooded animals.
Leeches are flattened dorsoventrally.
Turtle leeches have distinctive balloon
shaped bodies, while others you might
find have a uniform width and gently
taper to the head. There is a powerful
suction pad on the posterior end used
to anchor the animal, and some have
another suction pad surrounding the
mouth at the anterior end. Leeches are
annelids, or segmented worms. They
have 34 body segments, but each
segment has from 346 "annuli" which
give the appearance of a highly
segmented body. They may be strikingly
patterned, have brightly colored
venters, or be unpatterned and dark.

Leeches are generally scavengers,
feeding on dead or dying animals that
they encounter, but some are predatory. Most predatory leeches feed upon the
larvae of aquatic invertebrates or on amphibian embryos developing in egg masses.

Some produce eggs, and others cocoons, that are drought resistent. This
characteristic helps leeches persist despite the dry periods of vernal pools. Mature
leeches may also tolerate drought by burrowing into the mud to avoid desiccation.
There are more than 30 species in the northeast.

Aquatic oligochaete worms

p: ANNELIDA c: OLIGOCHAETA

Aquatic worms can be found,
sometimes in great numbers, among the
detritus and mud in vernal pools. They
are up to L5" long, very slender, and
their bodies have many segments. Like
earth worms, they feed on detritus and
mud, helping to break down leaf Utter
and mix the soil. Oligochaetes survive
in vernal pools by producing cocoons
in the summer or autumn which may
withstand short dry periods and are
important in overland transport.

Oligochaete worms may be transported
overland by unwitting birds and other
animals.

69

Suggested References

for further study

Bishop, Sherman C. 1943. Handbook of Salamanders, die Salamanders of die United
States, of Canada, and of Lower CaHfomia. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, NY.

Carpenter, V. 1991. Dragonflies and Damselflies of Cape Cod. Natural History Series No.
4. The Cape Cod Museum of Natural History, Brewster, MA.

Colbum, E.A. Ph.D., ed. 1997. Certified: A Citizen's Step-by-step Guide to Protecting
Vernal Pools. MA Audubon Society, Lincoki, MA.

Conant, R. and ].T. Collins. 1998. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern
and Central North America. 3rd Edition. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

DeGraaf, R. M. and D. D. Rudis. 1983. New England Wildlife: Habitat, Natural History
and Distribution. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE'108. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Northeastern Forest Experimental Station.

Duellman, W.E. and L. Trueb. 1986. Biology of Amphibians. McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany. New York, NY.

Erikson, C. and D. Belk. 1999. Fairy Shrimps of California's Puddles, Pools and Playas.
Mad River Press, Eureka, CA.

Hunter, Jr., M.L, A.J.K. Calhoun and M. McCollough, ed. 1999. Maine Amphibians and
Reptiles. University of Maine Press, Orono, ME.

Jackson, S. and P. Mirick. Massachusetts Snakes, A Guide. Univ. of MA Cooperative
Extension, Univerity of MA, Amherst, MA.

Kenney, LP. 2000. Diving Into Wicked Big Puddles. Vernal Pool Association, Reading,
MA.

Kenney, LP. 1995. Wkked Big Puddles. Vernal Pool Association, Reading, MA.

Klemens, M.W. 1993. Amphibians and Reptiles of Connecticut and Adjacent Regions.
State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin No. 112.

Lazell, J.D. Jr. 1976. This Broken Archipelago, Cape Cod and the Islands, Amphibians and
Reptiles. Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co.

McCafferty, W. P. 1981. Aquatic Entomology, The Fishermen's and Ecologists' Ulustrated
Guide to Insects and Their Relatives. Jones and Bardett Publishers, Boston, MA.

70

Menitt, R.W. and K.W. Cummins. 1996. An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North
America. 3rd edition. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, lA.

Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program. 1999. Guidelines for the Certification
of Vernal Pool Habitat. MA Division of Fisheries & Wildlife, Westborough, MA.

Peckarsky, B.L, P.R. Fraissinet, M.A. Penton, and D.J. Conklin, Jr. 1990. Freshwater
Macroinvertebrates of North America. Cornell.

Pennak, R.W. 1989. Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States, Protozoa to Mollusca.
3rd ed. Wiley.

Petranka, J.W. 1998. Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution
Press, Washington.

Pfingsten, R.A. and F.L Downs, editors. 1989. Salamanders of Ohio. Ohio Biological
Survey Bulletin New Series Vol. 7. No. 2.

Smith, D.G. 1995. Keys to the Freshwater Macroinvertebrates of Massachusetts. 2nd
Edition. Dept. of Zoology, University of Mass., Amherst, MA.

Smith, H.M. and E.D. Brodie, Jr. 1982. Reptiles of North America. Golden Press, New
York.

Smith, H.M. 1978. Amphibians of North America. Golden Press, New York.

Thorp, J.H. and A.P. Covich. 1991. Ecol ^gy and Classification of North American
Freshwater Invertebrates. Academic Pre inc., San Diego, CA.

Tyning, T.F. 1990. A Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles, Stokes Nature Guides, Litde,
Brown and Company.

Westfall, M.J. and M.L May. 1996. Damselflies of North America. Scientific Publishers,
GainsviUe, FL.

Wright, A.H. and A.A. Wright. 1970. Handbook of Frogs and Toads of die United States
and Canada. 3rd Edition. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithica, NY.

Websites:

Vernal Pool Association, www.vemalpool.org

Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program, MA DEW,

www.ma.state.us/dfwele/dfw/dfwnhes.htm
Odonate News, www.capecod.net/~bnikula/odenews.htm

71

Index

Both common names and scientific names are indexed for the organisms that occur in
the book. Page numbers in parentheses refer to the Pictorial Guide to the Adult
Amphibians and Reptiles of MA (pages 10-19). All amphibians and reptiles occurring
in Massachusetts are included in the pictorial guide. However, there are no species
accounts for animals that do not use vernal pools.

Agkistrodoncontortrixmokasen, (18)
Ambystoma

jeffersonianum, 38 (12)
egg masses, (15)

laterale, 36 (12)

egg masses, (15)

maculatum, 32 (12)
egg masses, (14)

opacum,3A (12)
Amphipod, 62
Anisoptera, 54
Anostraca, 63
Backswimmer, 56
Beetle (s),

Predaceous diving, 50

Crawling water, 51

Dytiscid, 50

Water scavenger, 52

Whirligig, 52
Belostomatidae, 57
Boatman, water, 56
Bufo

americanus, 30 (1 1)

woodhousii fowled., 31 (11)
Bullfrog, 22 (10)
Caddisfly, 49

Carphophis amoenus amoenus, (16)
Chaoboridae, 60
Chelydra serpentina, 47 (19)
Chironomid midge, 59
Chrysemys picta picta, 48 (19)
Cladocera, 65
Clam, fingernail, 67
Clemmys

guttata, ^6 (18)

inscu/pfa, 46 (18)

' muhlenbergii, (19)
Coleoptera, aquatic, 50
CoUembola, 61

Coluber constrictor constrictor, (17)
Copepod, 65

Corixidae, 56

Crotalus horridus, (18)

Culicidae, 60

Damselflies, 53

Daphnia, 65

Desmognathus fuscus fuscus, 41 (13)

Diadophis punctatus edwardsii, (16)

Diptera, 59-60

Dobsonfly, 58

Dragonflies, 54

Dytiscidae, 50

Eft, Red, 41 (12)

Egg masses of the wood frog and

New England mole salamanders, (14-15)
Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta, (17)
Emydoidea blandingii, 47 (18)
Ephemeroptera, 59
Eubranchipus, 63
Eurycea bislineata, (13)
Fairy shrimp, 63
Fishfly, 58
Frog(s)

Adults of MA, photo index to (10-11)

Green, 23 (10)

Leopard, 24 (11)

Pickerel, 25 (11)

Wood, 20 (10)

egg masses, (14)

See Bullfrog, Peeper, Toad, Treefrog
Gerridae, 58
Gyrinidae, 52

Gyrinophilus porphyriticus porphyriticus, (13)
Haliplidae, 51

Hemidactylium scutatum, 42 (13)
Hemiptera, 56-58
Heterodonplatirhinos, (17)
Hydrachnidia, 61
Hydrophilidae, 52
Hyla versicolor, 26 (11)
Invertebrates, 49-69
Isopod, 62

72

Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum, (16)

Leech, 69

Malaclemys terrapin terrapin, (19)

Mayfly, 59

Megaloptera, 58

Mites, water, 61

Mollusc, 66-67

Mosquito, 60

Mudpuppy, (13)

Necturus maculosus, (13)

Nepidae, 57

Nerodia sipedon sipedon, 44 (17)

Newt, red-spotted, 40 (12)

Notonectidae, 56

Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens, 40 (12)

Odonata, 53-55

Opheodrys vemalis, (16)

Ostracod, 64

Peeper, spring, 27 (11)

Phantom midge, 60

Planaria, 68

Plethodon cinereus cinereus, 43 (13)

Pseudacris crucifer, 27(11)

Pseudemys rubriventris rubriventris, ( 1 9)

Racer, black, (17)

Rana

catesbeiana, 22 (10)

clamitans melanota, 23 (10)

palustris, 25 (11)

pipiens,!^ (11)

sylvatica, 20 (10)

egg masses, (14)
Rattlesnake, eastern timber, (18)
Salamander (s)

Adults of MA, photo index to (12-13)

Blue-spotted, 36 (12)
egg masses, (15)

Dusky, 41 (13)

Four-toed, 42 (13)

Jefferson, 38 (12)

egg masses, (15)

Marbled, 34 (12)

Redback, 43 (13)

Spotted, 32 (12)

egg masses, (14)

Spring, (13)

Two-lined, (13)

See Mudpuppy, Newt
Scaphiopus holbrookii holbrookii, 28 (10)
Scorpion, water, 57
Shrimp,

Clam, 64

Fairy, 63

Seed, 64
Snail, amphibious, 66

Snake,

Adults of MA, photo index to (16-18)

Brown, northern, (16)

Copperhead, (18)

Garter, eastern, 45 (17)

Green, smooth, (16)

Hognose, (17)

Milk, (16)

Racer, black, (17)

Rat, black, (17)

Redbelly, (16)

Ribbon , 45 (17)

Ringneck, northern, (16)

Water, northern, 44 (17)

Worm, eastern, (16)

See Rattlesnake
Springtail, 61
Stemothenis odoratus, (19)
Strider, water, 58
Storeria dekayi dekayi, (16)
Storeria occipitomaculata, (16)
Terrapene Carolina Carolina, 48 (18)
Terrapin, Diamondback, (19)
Thamnophis

sirtalis sirtalis, ^5 (17)

sauritus sauritus, ^5 (17)
Toad(s)

American, 30 (11)

Fowler's, 31 (11)

Spadefoot, 28 (10)
Treefrog, Gray, 26 (11)
Trichoptera, 49
Turtle (s)

Adults of MA, photo index to (18-19)

Blanding's, 47 (18)

Bog, (19)

Box, eastern, 48 (18)

Musk, (19)

Painted, eastern, 48 (19)

Redbelly, Plymouth, (19)

Snapping, 47 (19)

Spotted, 46 (18)

Wood, 46 (19)

See Terrapin
Water boatman, 56
Water bug, giant, 57
Water scorpion, 57
Water strider, 58
Worm,

Flat, 68

Gordian, 68

Horsehair, 68

Oligochaete, 69
Zygoptera, 53

73

'^'■m^^.

i^WlfmmBim'CMmjm^MiSmlmSf I

About this Gmiie

Once thought to be just puddles in
the forest, vernal pools are now
recognized as rich but temporary
ecosystems. This guide provides for
the first time an introductory reference
to the specialized creatures that
depend upon vernal pools. Beautiful
ful -color photographs and descriptive
text are combined to aid in the
identification and study of amphibians,
reptiles and many invertebrates.

In this guide you will find:

• Discussion about vernal pools and
their importance to the ecology of New
England

<-:m^^^SS»^

• Photographic guide to all of the
adult salamanders, frogs, toads, turtles
and snakes found in Massachusetts and
much of New England

• Photographic guide to the egg
masses of tne New England mole
salamanders and the wood frog

• Species accounts with full-color
photographs, key diagnostic features
and natural history notes for the
amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates
which utilize vernal pools for portions
of their life

• Lists of resources to help further
your study of vernal pools and their
organisms.

This guide is an important tool for environmental education
and for individuals documenting vernal pools for certification
in Massachusetts or for inventory programs in other states. For
information about certification, including field documentation
forms, contact the Massachusetts Natural Heritage & Endangered
Species Program.