eae “ # ‘ Book. aaa Y Copyright N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; Fi a, eee a eee es ea a eae thre ae heehe ce 74 BS sc ty Aas ie 9 Ge of ae a i. “fe A ce @ kM) ae (a tira at ee a ace ot a a ; oe Comey rae ope 7, fea ie oe ; f : Ol al, ae Eh av fe a el oe op. Ceti, Many, ee A \ A ¢ ‘ne eae Bu + 7 si Ae y, ‘s Me ; we ptt . I a ee Ma ae mas ¥ ¥ ed, pd a , a a {? A» Ps ya. : ae Ph a hg eat 4 Sa ap ‘ind me ite &, ,, en i ban § ar Si ae i #6. ra sae * et ae ae cz. es Sag , is - ‘ - iy i ¢ at : : j * nis au . nt Be pee ti ae Bs i rae at hide cs eee ces " a oe ae ‘ a | ms, ce ee . ae 4 > oe pore hera” We ae ee i ‘e i EL * Rees ra ot on we ba Pe ae A ; Risj alt’ Co nnic=y Fi pe y ’ 7 a gies my Maer heh is Ped cata Gh Ne mee ten hese ONY 1s ones: eaves a ey as ns ee er MY hae on ae ioe etna ad hay ; Pet ohn o%, | Ven reen Sh Rae: ae Pet ; oe ui: 4 ae Ph me sa a ahs -_ Tre a 7 \ Dea ae ate Pe aie he i ue oe Vag ae ie hee Needy Pie ro ae as se ake gti &e te et No ei a. a : fa pre?) nig Ns “2 “ae a 2 aes le alt ines ae ie Ronis Mee eke a , , im mt o- ae sa eee: abrat rag : a ket ae i on TY MIN aay ORD of Wate ae oe Brae ate By ay ete ) Bie ae a dit , - : ae as RS a me Dyk n a ud ‘ he oe ie. ire ey a me . nage ead aA hE yt ee OR ee ae aan oe Derg Nss Fi ptate sed ORR rer gs a Nf f <1 q +2 en ; : ay ©, 4 a he ” nar) ae te a ar - a a a : 7 nae y). — c) . y ty Sine EATS” ys, RE Seat E i ae) AS ar ae CY sl ne a tM ie he SC A aN os ai, ee es ‘te ae F > ae ; - ; oa ms et are Pee i ea ee Sets Pet er Sig an at ae 4 nS +3 eat as MH fa ia 7 7 fei? 7% oe ae Wie ete Soeal be 4 4 Bae Saat in ye vy ba LS - ee ‘ ae . te ai if 1 ae so - ‘ oe AP yee Pa RACES, he ars Pate iets a ay Aiea ae eines oF >in _ 7 i P Ss f 7. or , A aft y ‘ : we Rs iat + eh FIELD MANUAL for SUGAR BEET GROWERS A Practical Handbook for Agriculturists, Field Men and Growers BY Reh. ADAMS PUBLISHED BY BEET SUGAR GAZETTE COMPANY CHICAGO, ILLS., U. S. A. Copright 1918. By Beet Sugar Gazette Company. 4d a ¥ 780 ©61.A347446 MA | PREEACK: The most important improvement in sugar beet grow- ing will come in the bettering of growing methods so that the acreage returns will be increased. The average yields are below what they should be with proper atten- tion given to the demands of the plant. When the beet receives the benefit of proper environment the acreage returns for the beet growing sections will be greatly in- creased—5so to 75 per cent in many cases. In this work the author has aimed to develop the sub- jects which are closely connected with the growing of the sugar beet in the field. It is taken for granted that the farmer understands the general principles of farm- ing and the author’s aim is simply to show the relationship of those principles to the growing of sugar beets. This “Manual” is gotten up to record the results of practical experiments and comparative field observations for the good of those interested in the beet sugar industry. The pages contain information which the author has had to collect from various sources—laboratory, field and library —for use in his work in growing the sugar beet. He be- lieves this information will make interesting and profitable reading to all who have to raise the beet or who have the good of the agricultural side of the beet sugar industry at heart. Many of the factors which enter into the suc- cessful raising of the crop are taken up. These may be of interest to the more or less advanced farmer as the aim has been to elucidate the principles upon which suc- cessful beet culture is based, and which, in the majority of cases, are not thoroughly understood. At this point the author wishes to give credit to the writers of the various books and articles upon which he has drawn in gathering this data. While in the main this book records his own observations and experiments, he has found occasion to consult other sources, the num- 11} ber being so numerous that it is impossible to cite all to whom he 1s indebted. The Orange Judd Farmer, the dif- ferent state experiment stations, the United States De- partment of Agriculture and THE AMERICAN SUGAR INpustry deserve special mention. Liberal extracts of several articles of the author published in the Orange Judd Farmer are utilized in this text. The author is also deeply indebted to Mr. L. Myers for his kindness in writing out at length the article on “The Growing of Sugar Beets in the Salt River Valley—Ari- zona,’ which appears in the text. R. L. ApDAmMs. CONTENTS. Page Fey CTION: © Seen ae ete a ee take Sudha he i 1- 18 Amount of Capital-—Value of a Contract Price... 22.2... 2 TOs: “Oly oe aie BO CEES ss.c Seles hac bots thesaieee ote, Sbetees eee 3 Soils for Sugar Beets=Physical ‘Nature. to... 2722. 8 Chenmeal waren nw sn es oe Oh ee oe ena aaa ea ete 10 Jel) ce) Lear Al ® ae ea rome, dee MAR PAT a rei ep ede A gl Goseren” (CULTURAL VWVORK. (4. oes cue fe ahah actrees 19-112 Plowing ... Fe Ricicten ed eal See, eee Putting the Trad Dato Shape aba sch cid Cea aa dorsi AE os ena | Sup soto —— DCCC & tah ois vis aa hee ek Seas on enn eee) ei Ze LU STna@Voge(G) San ale 09 G1 1 phen eae ER REE WS Se Pa Maa Ooh 24 Distance of Rews—oecdiine” Growth... .n..c.2 oe eee = = 27 Crustine—Selection of Varieties*ot Beet Seed. ...°.-.-; 29 CLO, UECE OC «oc oa ow «dot abies oe aiars asian ate 3a Treated or Decorticated Seed—Hulled or Shelled Seed —omele Germ Seeder cay er oes: Ale eee 2 hea ars 34 ME livencitie viet Se sei at. sda ara wages wares ake te oats oat 555 Cultivation—Growth: of the meet. 2: taetae eo ese hee 36 Plarvestin® “a0. 2.0% EYE Ae ee od Sate rine ane Bee in tie’ Picld: SOAP PEPE hh Sed 42 hopping. Beeter are. Aaah Ser 7 en Schedule of Payment to Dee oaie Hees to ene 45 abo erGmlems....< jas OO a ee tae ce cae eae Irrigation—Preparation for feasGs aA cares aa 48 Niptnoeds vob. Urrima tions sa tac ee ets eee Peden eat Si Preparastiomor Joand) for rreation .. 6: . s\n csi: games 55 110) Ps TS cee eg Ra Ee RI Ni -l a RR aP 59 PEAGHOS) OL DRA LION:\0 sian eet lek. « Bieses 4/2 3 ee, cee as 61 User eit Wma VVALEDS: octane a ws ade wpe sige e wien eh ae rg QR Sa MS Ey, Mata 2) cy os en ee ee Ra OR erg a GO ed PONE ee a Fertilizing the Sugar Beet—What the Beet Uses—Use Grawommenmeain Mertilizerses 5 4.-i ete a neo <2. eas tae oes 74 Vv Greet. Manure sCrops. =) 2 tee ba ota cde eens ee ei Baniyard said: ota ple: oMismiter 2S cite weet ae kee dlaw ome 81 Mii WVitseer Whaber iirc kt city, Sa ce eee rs et MALT SW Vira ser itige s,m, aise fete cs: apt oe RRR ae Pe OE eo Cine 84 Crop Potato y saa cts @A.c case RC ene ae Manan. 85 Howithne beet; Beneits: the Somnenc- cee oer bee oes ae 86 Pigniing Ane: otaptomes is «. . jcechtec sso eee eels Gh i FOO. Sttear ects" tO rchands oes) ion fees oO ened cco ale 92 Mechanical yeabor tsaversa. 2%)... sss eee ree 94 Ae. (Bac tory: A Obie WittmiSten <.. 6.55 1s hhc ee ee 95 Stcar Beet Culturean the Salt River Valleyico..:..-.. 96 Conclusions Jono€ wliwaralawOrkws ons: os-s.c aad eee 98 CHAPTER: DL HREDING- DYE RODUCTS ore ae sn ee eee 100-112 ECU alan oto ee ooh I eet eae, ON sake RO rea 100 Peedmer Beet. de alpss oo et leeeiem elcsaece Se ee ee 102 SHG Malate awe, ante RU reek ahaa che PN ao deus eee SS i SOR 105 PCSd Mies leer er ee Sin) OU ic eee said ele ota an 106 Ereseryiie Pulp-— Molasses 2057). t: i009 o.02 as oes eee DCSE MOPS? wk Sacre tear he tee os Ce a ek ot eS 110 CrArrer Vil BEpr el ROUBLES to: My wee o ee ae eee 113-130 PMSECE MO OMEROL sed ch Me ce 2 CRON iin ak fetus 8 Cees Nese eae 13 Pants Omer Ole. outa eee a aetna the ee ee ee A 114 Combined Insect and Fungus Control—Insects Affect- Pier vines leet CAGE ac Petes eye bat eesk PEAe ee ceees ee ee LS Insects, Attectine thes HROObS. (cots sale ak oe ete 116 he VVioollly Acts ios mints tain: ant ele.w oe ce an ee a7 Beet VBiieit or Curly “Pops. steak sock oss a ee. oe 118 BLS EIEN 3) cen 2 eye Vie Coe ee ON teat ee. er kee 119 Citworns —W inewonns,..-.. Gr ote lke eo nn eee 122 Chewing tnsects—Pungus Troubless..u. + eee aoe aS: EROEL -SCAD i ronan aeu € eras Thc Sones eae ake 4 aie ale ee ee 124 Beet Rust—Downy Mildew—Rhizoctonia Root Rot— SOCOM AR OOS NOEs 0 ee Oo eee ae Dad eee eee 125 Crown Rot — Physiological Troubles — Sprangley Roots-—-Compoiund, Vops: vee at avs see oo oe ae Seed Stalks—Lack of Plant Foods—Animal Troubles.. 127 Gophers, Moles, Ground Squirrels, Rabbits es 5) CHAPTER I[V.—IMPROVEMENT OF Our AGRICULTURE....... 1381-133 LU cist aie Ay ae SO Se PU ee DATE or Ravan <<) UP tMuam eyes Re 132 CHEAPTEG AVG OT AIS TEC Sure. oer Ae at athe Seas 134 vi INTRODUCTION. To develop the beet to the best advantage the neces~ sary conditions are a rich, fertile soil, proper distribution of rainfali or irrigation to start and maintain the crop with a lessening towards harvest, warm, sunny weather to aid maturing, freedom from sudden, severe changes of weather and fair weather for harvesting. When these conditions exist in tracts of considerable area, in con- nection with proper limerock, transportation facilities and plenty of good water and fuel, a sugar mill is as good as established, for it will come in time. Only favorable natural conditions will bring about the investment of such sums of money as the establishment of a sugar mill involves. When a sugar mill is put up, that alone is suff- cient evidence that the section is adapted to the culture of the sugar beet and the grower need take no further roncern regarding the general adaptability of the coun- try. His duty will consist in determining the possibili- ties of his own farm for beets. If conditions are such that he can grow them he is fortunate, for it means in- creased wealth to him and a marked improvement in his soil. The distance from a sugar factory will largely deter- mine the growing of beets, as their profitableness depends very greatly on the distance of the haul. Often by util- izing the railroad, beets can be raised at a good profit, where otherwise the wagon route would prove to be too long a haul. On the other hand, the attractive reduc- tions in freight rates on beets offered by the majority of railroads make beet growing at quite a distance from the mill profitable. Shipments of beets from seventy- five to one hundred miles or more are by no means un- common. Each farmer must decide for himself the 1 possibility of successfully marketing his beets after they are grown. Amount of Capital—bBeet raising on a large scale Te- quires special tools and considerable of an investment to carry the crop through. If a responsible man does not have the means himself or a way of getting it he will find that most sugar mills are ready to back him, either by making him loans direct or by endorsing him at the local banks. In fact the local banks can be counted on for financial backing to a great extent. Beet raising on a small scale can be carried out with but little change from the usual equipment of the ranch or farm. In putting in beets it is well for a man new to the business to go rather slow. Better put in a few acres and, experimenting with these, gradually increase the acreage, than to put in too much at first and make a partial failure of it. This would result in such disap- pointment that the grower would fail to give the beets another conscientious trial. The ultimate aim, however, should be to run to beets as far as consistent with the handling of the farm. Before changing from ordinary field crops to beets on a large scale the farmer should consult freely with the factory authorities as to the extent of the investment re- quired and the nature of the tools to be purchased, should he be at all unfamiliar with the different aspects of beet culture. Both the mill agriculturist and the superin- tendent will be only too willing to lend all the assistance in their power. They desire a large supply of beets and will, therefore, be only too glad to give the prospective grower all the information they can. The Value of a Contract Price-—To know what one is to receive for his crop when harvested is a great ad- _vantage. This is one of the advantages attendant on beet culture, as the price at which the crop is to be sold 1s stipulated previous even to sowing the seed. This benefit will be especially appreciated at harvest time in dull seasons. Then the sight of potatoes piled under straw in the fields, grain in stacks and huge piles of hay under board covers will testify in a mute but vigorous manner to unforeseen low prices. And until these crops are moved there will be little money for those to come. 2 So, aside from the fact that there is little satisfaction in raising a crop and having it left on hand, there is the dissatisfaction of planting the same crops again with the almost certain possibility of a stagnant market when they come in. Profits on Sugar Beets——The final test of the value of any crop is the maximum financial returns for the mini- mum drain on soil fertility. The aim of every thinking farmer is to prolong the life of his land indefinitely, and at the same time receive the greatest acreage returns. He builds not alone for the present but for the future, and the scheme of growing which brings in the greatest returns for a period of years will be the one he selects. In this connection the value of the sugar beet has been proved time and again. It benefits the soil because of its deep rooting habits. If used in rotation this is espe- cially noticeable. The deep feeders of the beet secure plant foods from the layers of soil deep down in the ground, where the shallow roots of ordinary crops can never go, and deposits them as salts in the crown of the beet just at the base of the leaves. This crown is cut off when the beet 1s topped and left on the ground, where in rotting it liberates phosphoric acid, potash and nitro- gen in a form ready for the next crop. The big bulk of tops, if turned under green, will furnish an abundance of humus—one of the most important ingredients of fertile soils. But aside from the benefit to the land—and in addi- tion to the one just stated are others which will be con- sidered further on—is the income. This furnishes a bright financial picture. It is true the cost of producing the beets is greater than of many other crops, but the returns are proportionately greater. This can be quickly proved by any farmer who goes to the trouble to keep track of all the work done on his various crops. Correct figures are convincing. The data given here has been worked up from the carefully kept records of in- dependent beet growers. They are, therefore, well worthy of consideration. These figures will not hold for every section because of the varying productivity of dif- ferent classes of land, and the different costs of carrying on the work. The returns and prices of the crops com- 3 pared, however, err on the side of high yields and high prices so that of all the crops the beet crop has what- ever disadvantage may exist. Beet yields of fifteen tons are common, many ranches producing an average of twenty tons, and a few as high as twenty-five. With only ordinary success every ranch fairly well adapted to beets should produce fifteen tons. In the beet table the results of two fields are given, the first consisting of 650 acres and the second of 324. Each represents a different type of soil. The first is a splendid loam, the second a sandy loam. The first was near the mill, the second 28 miles away, 25 by railroad and 3 miles by team. If the work be done by the farmer himself, he is paid for his time in this estimate, so in reality the returns are higher than shown in the estimate, as he makes on his crop and on his services. TABLE. SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND MARKETING BEETS PER ACRE. Nord, No. 2. EGU UMNO NA rele os eae oe ae ee aha tx eee ee $ 3.68 $ 1.10 GWAR Sate axel ohtertei amt beoge oo ie whee ete ae 4.20(a) 1.54(b) Harrowing, rolling and drageine:... 3... ; 3.30 1.58 ati atin econ 3 ooh Jeune ac boom Wind Se OEE: 1.52 76 Some SHG SCE tne tet racine te Ae een 2.49 2.10 Thinning, hoeing, weeding, topping and ie GAA Bd is GE Mes PR ES Es aR 18.62 16.83 Poisoning ‘and: trapping-gophers...). 220.4. 04 aS SUTIN Sig firs Gee Leak hes re Megs eee Re NY Bly 09 SE Piewine ‘out and jauling:..:.....0)cc se 7.64 8.26 POAGINS ONO CATS (sek gocee Se eae ee 4 3.00 |B FS 0 UN a Ree od gD DPD te WR i nS Oa G0 KE 5.05 7.82 Was BeEAERE 4S 02) a Zea nee eee eee Adee 43.90 MiieiG er ACTe=—tOnS edie bc ciation av oceler lies 19.0 15.3 NBME MEG: ACT Ete sai aok tate aries $95.00 $76.50 Prolre Wer aCbe soy cad ok ae he ae ee 47.78 32.60 Costmper nO hoe tet ea ces te eee 2.48 2.87 Walle spetsstOtl s:..5 cictissato ns wa ate Oe a ree 5.00 5.00 PeCOMt CE THOMA a act mann, i seen eet 2.52 2.13 (a) Steam plowed sixteen inches deep. (b) Horse plowed ten inches. 4 Barley has always been considered a good crop, but the returns are more apparent than real. It is the lazy man’s crop. The crop is a cheaper one to produce and the prof- its per acre are correspondingly less. Good bottom land will produce on an average twenty sacks per acre, costing as follows: TABLE SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND MARKETING BARLEY PER ACRE. Oley DUGWARG Eg Niaetscsa eres cco ce cee aS oem tae cimmetberooh gs $ 1.00 SOwinie andeharrOwiiter.. ss fos canes ae cake eles 40 Reino weGllitigneer, vat che OAC eens ck we hide et eee 25 SELENE RL Se AEA ENE ne, Se ee ROR ITE 1.00 AUS eeerae tes ss Oana naeie ca avnsas ated AEE eae 1.30 SUMIREG IIE e ueracerat eesti a sree tons, reed Sense Sia nie TOR 1.80 SACKS ios Need Kee TAS Oot Melag. anc eueubed ame 1.40 ae GG Value of 20 sacks (100 pounds each) at $1.00..... $20.00 HOES SCOSE of tice tiene an aie, o bactay tin deteriora es Shee 7.15 $ 12.85 This is about one-third the profit on beets. Beans will produce a crop of 1,200 pounds worth, at 3 cents a pound, $36 to the acre, gross. The same land will raise twenty tons or more of beets to the acre. The cost of growing the crop is: AAV CEO WITS nets. cer ry OM Ae Uae eee cai $ 2.50 anree: NarrowimMess vats ook sales. d oe ote Soka aids ease .60 RrenollinG, 35 ie eva, wie cae cae hens St netcis ais create .20 PIAMiAR hc. ard eos cet hs ec eee as Bs oe Seance 25 SEE Gat Rises KIER SEN Madore ia eres ee .60 PaARVES plTnes Tous. Sore at re rele bo ete oo nighe re cued eto eee 3.00 EELMeeNATICS: . 56 Roe Ales Os Da aha wake re eee eee 50 BMSTSRGS Ie he id oy ache: Sti vhah thas rane aN a aid ie ie ae ee eS 1.00 $ 8.65 Wialite OP RETOPE 6) 2% aking awed aie eee nee elammae $36.00 Str eect S's op A neat catches SU ERM eee Saye aha, tu eta layet eaacat oh 8.65 $27.35 Potatoes are a good crop, yet they do not rank above beets. TABLE SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND MARKETING POTATOES PER ACRE. Pirst plOwang er. ccc cea eet Teena see $ 1.00 Second: plowine 47.65 OL ee ieee Reet ee ee es 1.50 PAROS Lilac iatias, Node os, ie Cada epee hen eee .20 PONENT 7. Sasa ee oak a oe el COLO a oO SECO so Ree a Res les Sa Ue ee OE ee aes 2.75 One coltivabnig, sce hone be ee eee 40 PAST VESEUIE va hte bo adele 2.2 os ORL Ute selon ere ae ane 12.50 Sep I IS St A ae ee eine io tis a gOS Se a Ee IE 2.80 $21.65 Value of crop, 40 sacks (100 pounds each) at $1.40. ee 00 SECONGSE eh la sate ANGE ote at ick Sec be cho eee 2.75 IIAUSs Sees eh eS OR en aie Cia tae ink 2 Gc ee eee 00 Opava et ne, 21 vearete aa) ae es PER Tart Rhee Chee $47.25 COS Gere etter ec ie es onan eee en ie eae ero aes en 21.65 EC Oinieee See Make ed 6: OL Tae ep gE Ri oat ee eae $25.60 Peas do well in a year of good rainfall; yet the profit is small. TABLE SHOWING THE COST OF RAISING AND. MARKETING PEAS PER ACRE. loin teers Ace Ards eh, ete eee a ete bend $ 1.00 PAs GW TS Bynes Bier, Pie ohee Go Nene ian ees Sena 20 upryapine. ote be oe Baek a eke Lee eee ae AO ine OMe) aor oe oY Sian roe Depths eck tat et 25 S112) lahat eid Seat ER ats eS) ee NE, nT ce 50) Erarvesting: 3). 0s acces 22 Ok ae eee 3.00 SAG Siee ee tic te AA ray hac dat ee aN ese eae riod 1.00 $ 6.35 The value is very liable to fluctuate for brokers have a failing for speculating with it. If the price is two cents a pound, the value of a 1,200 lb. crop sg JUS 0) ewe PE A POM DAP AME ee Clue) oe cas 1 RS $24.00 TRESS COSE and Hass cas Jaa hee a Last Re A aate 6.35 ISEAV ES =A PKGIE- OF 22,..4re chee Oe ee oe eee eae $17.65 In all these estimates good land and good quotations for prices are used in order to make as fair an estimate as possible. That these results are higher than usual is evident from a glance at the United States Department 6 of Agriculture census. Here the average acreage crops for the last ten years are: Farm Value Yield Price Per Acre “ELEN FLT, Ah OTL ae ee aa ae 25.2 $ 371 $ 9.35 Wheat, DISH care Oe Saas eee 13:5 694 9.37 Oats, bus eee tg): Wee ae od 29.6 281 8.32 Barley, NS ee eet ye Zork ie 10.34 Wee TIS Soe oi oa: ova se, Moe gs 15.4 Doo 8.08 Bitciewhteat, DUS... 20... 3eesan 18.1 090 9.68 Peorieaeset 66 10 et Sates 84.4 499 43.12 blay ates so ts 2 te eee 1.44 8.070 11.62 Sugar beets are not included in these figures, but it is only fair to state that the average for the whole United States is 9.71 tons. Still at $5 per ton for the beets, they would stand at the head of the “farm value per acre.” But the average for the beets is lower than the usual grower can afford to be satisfied. with. It takes the first six to eight tons produced to pay the cost of raising the crop and marketing it. The profit must come from the tonnage in excess of this. Summing up the examples given above shows: Increased Profit from Crop. Value. Cost. Profit. Beets. CEES ie Se See ices & $85.00 $45.56 La SV Sa ea EA UNS Rat ae Bee IS eae 20.00 7.15 12.85 $26.59 ares. fe bac, oes ate ee 36.00 8.65 27.35 12.09 POUatoes: Liste, athe ations 47.25 21.65 25.60 13.84 CAS Sst c5s < sre ee 24.00 6.35 17.65 21.79 And these figures presuppose the continuation of high prices. If these should fall or if long storage must be resorted to, the benefits of a prearranged price and direct shipment from field to factory will stand out very promi- nently. On the other hand, the price paid for the crops listed, other than beets, must make big advances in prices received to even equal the profits from an average beet crop, to say nothing of the unheard of advance neces- sary to surpass them. Moreover, while the yields from a single acre stand out so markedly, multiply the results by the yield of 100 acres. The gain, then, of beets over other crops is from $1,209 to $2,659, while the ranch is left in better shape than ever for future maximum production. 7 Soils for Sugar Beets.—Desirable soils for sugar beets vary in both physical and chemical composition, but all must be fertile, deep, moisture-retaining soils of loanf or clayey loam containing enough sand or silt so that they can be easily worked. Physical Nature.—Tthis applies to the shape and size of the soil grains, and the formation of the land both in depth and area. Land made up of very fine grains will prove to be too “cold” and heavy to work. Adobes are in this class. When the soil grains are too large the land will not hold moisture. Sands are examples. The land which is best adapted to beets is fairly level, deep, free from stones, loose sand and black alkali; not too fine in texture on one hand, nor too coarse on the other. Land, which will produce good corn, wheat, potatoes or beans will grow beets if it has good depth. The best land on the farm should always be selected for the beets. New brush and timber soils will not produce good beets at first, as being very rich they produce beets low in sugar and purity because of the great amount of soluble substances present in the soil, which the beet will absorb in feeding. This effect will wear off in a couple of years. If desired, corn, potatoes or other crops can be put in to advantage for the first season or two. The depth of the soil is important as the beets make a deep growth and need plenty of room in which to de- velop. There should be no impervious layer of soil above a 4-foot depth. Even a greater depth is desirable. The character of the land in this respect can be determined easily with a shovel, a post hole digger or with a soil augur. The soil should be of the same general nature so that movement of soil moisture will be fairly uniform. No ex- tensive layers of sand or gravel should intervene to the depth to which the plant 1s to feed and secure its water. Further down they may be beneficial for drainage pur- poses if of no great extent. They would prove especial- ly valuable in using alkali water, as will be discussed later on. In short, at least 4 feet of fairly uniform soil is neces- sary. Where ample spring and early summer rainfall 8 occurs 2% feet will do, but in arid or semi-arid sections 4 feet is the extreme limit. The water table must in no case stand nearer the sur- face than 4 feet. If it does, rotting of the tap root of the beet will result. Best yields, then, can in no case be ex- pected. Plenty of humus is required. It makes the soil easier to work, more retentive of moisture, less liable to bake, crack and crust, and is richer in plant foods. Stiff adobe or gumbo, and very stiff clays should be avoided. These are very difficult to work and must be caught at just the prope: stage of moisture to insure ger- mination before the soil dries out. Moreover, unexpected rains following planting will work havoc by crusting and packing the soil, and by inducing root rot on the seedlings. Soils approaching adobes are being worked to advantage in many parts of the country and great crops have been taken off of strict adobes but the chances for failure on the very heavy soils are greater than for success, and it is better to leave such soils alone. The best land is none too good for beets and on such soil they will do their best and be a source of profit to the farmer. A clayey loam, rich in humus, is to be preferred. Such soils are a trifle harder to work than the lighter soils, they must be han- dled within shorter limits of time and moisture and the seeders give more trouble in this class of soil. But the final returns are greater, and as results are what count, it is well worth the extra effort put forth. Moreover, these soils hold their moisture better, as a rule are richer in plant food, and will withstand greater demands from the crop. While the above may be the best type of soil to use, it usually happens that soils vary from one extreme to the other. It is usually necessary for the farmer to make the best of what he has and to work out the questions of handling, time of planting, and variety of beet to suit his needs, whether the beet be a main crop or a rotator. For the greatest benefit to both grower and factory the land producing the greatest tonnage of fair-testing beets will prove the most desirable in the long run rather than land of less tonnage-producing power but greater sugar-form- ing ability. 9 Chemical Nature.—It is extremely difficult, in fact im- possible, to obtain a table of chemical analyses which will apply to all beet soils. All agricultural chemists are aware® of the presence of other influences aside from the amount of chemical elements present. The physical condition of the soil, the form in which the essential elements are present, and the amount of available moisture play such an important part and are so correlated with the chem- ical factor that all must be considered in judging the land. While a chemical analysis is not a sure guide in all cases, still, for purposes of reference the following table of analyses of profitable sugar beet soils is interesting: TABLE SHOWING ANALYSES OF SUGAR BEET SOILS. Humid sections.Arid sections. Per cent. Per cent PMSOMble. “Mathet srs... ce-aceyees oo ehde ek 84.03 70.57 SVE) (TE SRACTS (6 er aE rei a A AEN 4.21 C20 Oba 601k Sid oko eats dn ate ame e aces nee 22 iy Sars SCs hee Ga es VS See OO ks .09 26 | ESE 7 (EAE Mees Cae Ree ge Ns oe NY eee Oe cht 1.36 | I ERTEG (PECTIC eMac EDR ge AOR a8 1.41 AIP ANES Cre ee ce ak og a ee a ache nue eee ae 13 .06 PEO See ee ene ieee oceee ce eee bees 3.13 3.75 PEUIDCOOUN UT: ee oe Ce ORE Sa TRL SNe ea a a ea Ae 4.30 7.89 SUM AGIGL a). jt 2 0608 AeRabits Shee ese 05 04 NO SWNORIC? CIC. 57420 bile sore Steck ete ae A! 12 WROTE POs oh. Se tele Se soa Se de A 1.32 Watervand “ereanic matter! 3.7 fs. fa. Se 3.64 4,95 PUEHIISS 6/5 hay Woes Ae eh ens Bak Calves Bk 2.70 15 NAEP EC eR iil, POILISts. 25 ae Won dents eb heat 5.45 15.87 WittGeen Wan SOl nt oo. one eae he 12 10 yeruscopiciowatenr on 5 noc. lets ee eee *4.65 6.28** But even in this table the limits of fertility cannot be taken as complete guides, because it is not the total amount of each element present, but its availability, which counts. In illustration of this point the availability of the phosphoric acid depends on the lime content; if the lime is low the phosphoric acid is only slowly avail- able. This holds especially true with respect to arid regions for where the lime content is very high usually much less phosphoric acid is required. The actual test of growing beets with a series of fer- tilizer tests will prove the surest way of determining the lack of any plant food. “At 18.5 degrees Centigrade. **At 15 degrees Centigrade. 10 Alkali.—Alkali is a problem entirely confined to arid or semi-arid regions, and is simply the accumulation in the soil of those salts which form in the progressive weathering of the rock grains comprising the soil. In all parts of the country the soil particles are constantly breaking down and liberating the salts contained in them. From the standpoint of plant growth these salts are of two kinds, one beneficial and needed for plant develop- ment, the other of negative or even injurious character. The first will be retained in the soil to a great extent, the second is very soluble in water and in region of suf- ficient rainfall will be taken into solution and pass into the springs and brooks, and through these to the ocean. But when the rainfall is light the salts are left in the soil, and year by year, will accumulate until the total amount present will be so great that ordinary plant growth is impossible. The abundant faintall: of, fhe eastern sections accounts for the absence of alkali. There the rainfall is sufficient to leach out the soluble alkali salts as fast as they are formed. But certain plant foods also are soluble and these will be lost along with the al- kali, so that while the injurious salts are retained in arid sections because of insufficient rains to wash them out, at the same time the soluble plant foods are retained. This explains the great richness of the arid section when brought under cultivation by means of irrigation, for along with the accumulation of alkali salts are plant foods which have been liberated and stored for the future. Alkali soils differ from soils containing salts laid down in old sea formations, or from soils treated to an oc- casional overflow from the sea. In cases of this kind there is little present that the plant can use, for com- mon salt, Epsom salts, and the like predominate, and these are of an injurious nature and are far in excess of the plant foods. In order to determine the nature and extent of alkali soils and their agricultural possibilities, a chemical analy- sis is necessary. Such analyses when based on samples secured by a systematic sampling of the field in question to different depths and at different points show the ex- tent and nature of the salts. It will prove a far quicker 11 and more reliable guide then the trial of growing crops. For not only will the tests show conditions as they exist, but the remedy usually will suggest itself from a study of the land when sampling and from the results of the analyses. For instance, if the salts are coming from beds deep down in the soil through the action of water, the analysis will be the surest way of finding it out. In con- nection with the chemical work must come a study of the soil formation, the general topography of the country and the irrigation water. A little study of the conditions which are bringing, or have brought about an excess of alkali, usually will show the methods that must be adopt- ed to offset them. Alkali salts generally are of three kinds, common salt (sodium chloride), Glauber’s salt (sodium sulphate), and salsoda (sodium carbonate). ‘The first two are the so- called “‘white alkalies,’ named from the white incrusta- tions which they produce on the surface of the ground. The salsoda is popularly known as “black alkali’ because of the black spots or puddles which show where an ex- cess of the alkali exists. In addition to these, magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride, and magnesium chloride may be present in sufficient quantities to prove injurious. With the alkali salts are associated the three elements of plant foods, potassium, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. These usually are present in the proportion of: Potassium, 5 to 20 per cent of the total salts. Phosphoric acid, .5 to 4 per cent of the total salts. Nitrogen, .1 to 20 per cent of the total salts. In white alkali the nitrogen is high and the phosphoric acid low; in the black alkali the reverse is true. Alkali salts do not remain stationary in the soil. They move up and down in the soil layers according to the moisture conditions. Hence, at different periods the maximum amount of salts will be at different points. Following heavy winter rains or applications of irrigation water the salts are dissolved in the water and carried down with it into the lower levels of the ground. When the water begins to reascend and evaporate the salts are carried up to the surface, or to the point where evapora- tion is going on and redeposited. If, though, the water passes into gravel layers or into streams the salts will be carried with it away from the land. Where this condi- 12 tion occurs naturally, there is never alkali accumulations. The presence of alkali salts comes about in two ways on land which is being farmed, (a) in the water reach- ing the land either as irrigation, seepage or underground flow, or (b) from deposits of salts in the soil which are brought up from below by the movement of the soil moisture. In the latter case the salts can only move by their own power to a height of about three to six feet (de- pending on the character of the soil). In order to rise from a greater depth, whether they be in the water table or deposited in beds, communication with the surface can only be brought about through several successive periods of depositing and going into solution, the amount of wa- ter being so regulated that it does not carry the salts back to their original depth each time. The deeper the salts are buried the smaller chance do they have to reach the surface. Alkali below ten feet where ample irrigation is given without swamping the land will successfully guard against this. A study of the extent of alkali shows that the quantity of salts varies in different parts of the same field. Low depressions where the rainfall gathers will cause much more alkali to come to the surface than where there is a less amount of water. In sloping valleys it occasionally happens that the salts from the adjacent hills are de- posited to such an extent that broad stretches of alkali running to considerable depth will form, but these are extreme cases and of infrequent occurrence. Often al- kali hard-pans will form in the soil at the depth to which the normal rainfall sinks, and will prove almost impervi- ous when first brought into cultivation. These, however, if of limited extent, will finally give way to the effects of repeated irrigations. The seepage of irrigation wa- ters, charged with alkali salts, from a higher to a lower level has worked havoc in the case of over-irrigation. Only a study of local conditions will point out the solu- tion. The problem may be only to dispose of the salts present in new land which is to be put in shape for crops. Or the accumulation may be the result of cultivation, such as over-irrigation, by which salts deep down in the soil are brought into the upper levels; or it may be caused by too large a percentage of salts in the irriga- 12 tion water, from seepage, or from some other local con- dition. Often the question involves a district rather, than a locality. When such is the case only methods aim- ing to remove the cause will prove of permanent value. Such a case requires deep study, much scientific work, and is entirely outside the scope of the average beet grower. The first duty then in dealing with an alkali problem is to determine its extent, whether local or general. If local, each grower can, in many cases, work out the solu- tion for himself. Since the salts rise in the soil with the evaporation of the soil moisture any method which will lessen evapora- tion will lessen the rise of the alkali. When a given amount of alkali is distributed throughout three or four feet of soil it will not prove detrimental, whereas the same amount brought up by evaporation of the moisture and deposited in the first three or four inches of soil will concentrate to such an extent as to interfere seriously with the plant’s activities, and possibly cause them to cease altoge’ her. The quick growing of the plants to shade the ground and the maintenance of a loose mulch by deep cultiva- tion will do much to retard the concentration of the salts. Deep preparation of the soil and thorough surface culti- vation are the most important factors for securing re- sults on alkali land. When black alkali is present it is possible to change it over into the su'phate form (Glauber’s salt—a white alkali) by the use of gypsum (land plaster, or calcium sulphate) if there is ample moisture in the soil. That the Glauber’s salt is less injurious than the black alkali can be seen in the resistance of barley. This crop can stand five times as much of the white alkali, Glauber’s salts, as it can of black alkali. The amount of gypsum to be used will depend on the amount of black alkali present. Asa general rule, one ton of the ordinary gypsum will be required to neutralize 1,000 pounds of black alkali. All need not be put on at one application. Enough to neu- tralize the surface soil can be put on at first, adding more later on until the desired total amount has been added to the soil. 14 Moisture must be present to change the black alkali into white. Chemically this is a conversion of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphate into sodium sulphate and calcium carbonate, (common lime stone). It takes a few days for the action to be completed in very wet soils. In soils with lesser moisture the change will be propor- tionately slower. Where the black alkali is present in spots the use of gypsum will give marked returns. The hard, puddled condition will crumble into a loose mass thus permitting good drainage, and humus will be once more returned to the soil. To be permanently beneficial the danger of swamping the land with an excess of wa- ter must be constantly guarded against. The black alkali is the only kind open to this method of treatment. The removal of salts can be accomplished by scraping off a few inches of the top soil at a time when the major- ity of the salts are deposited there, that is, at the driest time of the year. In this way often one-half of the total salts present in the soil can be removed in one season. Removal by thorough irrigation is feasible when the under-drainage is good. The water will take up the salts and carry them on down into the under-drainage of the country far out of reach. To make this method entirely successful ample water must be available, so that the soil, previously checked for even irrigation, can be given a thorough soaking. With this must be good drainage, either artificial or natural. Subsequent careful irrigation, constantly bearing in mind the danger of swamping the land, will effectually keep the salts down indefinitely. even if they should not be taken up by underground flows. This means that in lands where the water table is so deep that it is not feasible to reach it with the irrigation, it is possible to so thoroughly soak the land that the salts, with future ordinary precautions, can be kept deep down in the soil, out of reach of the surface. Where danger of excess water exists, on the other hand, under-drains must supplement the work of irrigation. Flushing the land with water with the object of taking off the salts, by means of a big rush of water across the ground is not successful, as the first water is bound to go rather slowly and sink into the ground to a certain extent. This carries the salts down into the soil beyond reach of the swifter water which follows. 15 The plowing under of stable manure and the use of potash salts are generally of little value in ridding land. of alkali. The amount of alkali which can be resisted by the sugar beet varies with the kind of soil. In sandy soil its tolerance is much higher than in clay lands, because in the latter the alkali exerts an injurious effect on the tilling qualities of the soil, and moreover, evaporation is so much greater that the depositing of salts at the surface, with their attendant increased corroding effect, is much enhanced. This applies to all farm crops as well. Beets grown in soil impregnated with common salt, sodium chloride, are wholly unfit for sugar purposes. However, after being grown for several years on salty land they will so reduce the salt content that eventually really good beets can be grown. Beets grown on land heavily charged with Glauber’s salt are, on the other hand, well fitted for sugar purposes, good yields of high grade beets being obtained regularly from land contain- ing as high as 12,000 pounds of this salt per acre. The actual percentages of each of the salts when alone which the sugar beet can withstand and still make a satis- factory growth has been found to be, in the first three feet of soil (in depth) : Pounds Sidphatess (4. ec. “Glauberssalt i... sean cklitiee eee: aes 70,000 Gurbotaiesn Gk. ee “(black walkalt)t, a yc 2, ciate ang pales woe a eee 4,000 Citlesides (i.e). Common Salt) 20. s es oe ace we ee ae 4,500 As to the amount when two or more are present, the proportions can vary in an infinite variety of ways, so that a general rule is all that can be satisfactorily given. It is certain, however, that of the chlorides and suiphates (common and Glauber’s salts) the chlorides are by far the most injurious, .2 of I per cent is a dangerous limit, while .15 of I per cent is apt to yield uncertain crops. In other words while the total amount of common and Glauber’s salts may equal one per cent, not over .2 per cent must be common salt. With black alkali a very much less amount is injurious than with either of the other two. The following table shows the limits of resistance for all plants, if all the salts are concentrated in the first foot of soil: Black alkali, .1 of 1 per cent, or 4,000 pounds. Common salt, .25 of 1 per cent, or 10,000 pounds. Glauber’s salt, .6 of 1 per cent, or 20,000 pounds. 16 It should be clearly understood that the amounts given in the preceding paragraphs are but general guides. A less amount may prove injurious if kept constantly con- centrated, and a greater amount can be withstood if it remains scattered throughout a great depth of soil at all times. During one period of the year a definite amount of salt will be injurious when at other times it is harmless. Beets have done well in soils containing great- er amounts, while on the other hand a smaller amount has been sufficient to work havoc with other soils. This dif- ference often can be traced to the intelligence of the men doing the farming, as the effect of the salts largely can be regulated by the farming methods. In addition to this, local climatic conditions, the soil formation and the source of the alkali salts all have an influence. In the case of the sugar beet the greatest danger from alkali lies in the danger of retarding germination by cor- rosion or erosion, or in the actual destroying of the young seedling after it starts. When once established the sugar beet is immune to alkali. In fact it is one of the crops usually recommended by writers on alkali for growing on soils heavily charged. Coming in early times from the banks of the Mediterranean, the beet still retains its resistant nature to alkali action, in spite of the decades of civilization through which it has passed. In the majority of cases the danger to germination and young seedling is slight if the beets are put into deep, well prepared soil at a time when the bulk of the alkali is well distributed through the layers of soil, either from the preparatory irrigation or from the rainfall. By the time a new accumulation of salts has occurred the beet will have reached a state of immunity. By their quick growth the leaves soon cover the ground and in shading it reduces surface evaporation to a minimum. The roots take the moisture from deep down in the soil and evaporate it through the leaves, so that in this way the salts are held deep down in the soil, Moreover, the beet takes up large quantities of salts in feeding, which are bodily removed from the soil in harvesting the crop. So in many ways the beet prepares the soil for the better reception of such other crops as are to follow. It keeps the salts so deep down in the ground that the following winter rains or irrigation can carry them still deeper, and it removes large quantities bodily from the 17 soil. In this way the land is better fitted for the subse- quent planting of crops more sensitive to alkali. In disturbing plant growth alkali works in two ways: The first is the corrosive action at the surface of the ground, already spoken of, which results in a brownish tinge showing on the stalk or stem of the plant, while the outer epidermis (bark) becomes soft and easy to peel. The alkali in this case actually girdles the plant. While it may not die, future growth usually is slow and un- profitable. Black alkali acts worse by far in this respect, and also burns out the humus to such an extent that such lands are difficult to work and develop tough, impene- trable hard-pans, which seriously interfere with drainage. The second method of poisoning comes from a disturb- ance of the activities of the feeding roots. Plants gain all their food by taking up the soil moisture containing them in solution through the walls of the tiny, threadlike hair- roots. There are no openings. The plant has no power of selection and must take up everything that is in solu- tion. The passing of the salt-charged moisture from the soil into the root depends on the difference in density be- tween the moisture outside and the sap inside the root- lets. It is greater in the root. When the density on the cutside approaches that on the inside, passage of the water into the root is checked, and the plant starves. Where alkali is giving trouble a study of the problem will reveal the cause. With a little knowledge of what constitutes the source of the trouble, methods for preven- tion can be undertaken based on the character, extent and nature of the salts, and on their source. Alkali lands are very rich in all plant foods and possess good moisture- retaining powers so that when the total quantity of solu- ble alkali is reduced to a point where it 1s no longer in- jurious great crops can be raised. For this reason money spent on reclaiming alkali lands or in checking increasing accumulations of salts will be money well spent, pro- vided the initial cost 1s not too great. In Europe several investigators hold that the sugar beet will actually respond to a light dressing of salt. The salt seemingly has the power to interchange bases with the potash salts in the soil, thus making the potash more available. For soils rich in unavailable potash, the use of small quantities of salt (150 pounds per acre) has been suggested. The water drawing and retaining power of the salt has been cited as a possible valuable asset on light, sandy soils. 18 CEEAP PERSE CULTURAL WORK. In taking up the cultural work of the sugar beet it is assumed that the grower will avail himself of the ser- vices and experiences of the factory field superintendent. Local conditions to a large extent determine the best methods to follow in order to reap the maximum results, or in other words, the biggest crops. Guided by per- sonal efforts, and coming constantly in contact with the experience of others, the mill agriculturist can advise to good advantage. The interests of the grower and the superintendent are one—the biggest yield for the acre- age—and both should endeavor to work in perfect ac- cord. Questions as to the best time to plant, the best method of handling the labor problem, the variety of seed to plant and the time of harvesting must be determined largely by local conditions. Plowing.—The depth and time of plowing will de- pend on whether the land is new and going into beets for the first time or whether it is old cultivated ground. Fall plowing is to be recommended in either case. By fall plowing alone, I have increased the yield of sugar beets 44 per cent. The reason for this is to be explained in the better mechanical condition, for in its openness the soil will absorb all the winter rainfall, and through aeration the soil permits the natural agencies (fungi, bacteria, etc.) to work to the best advantage. New land should not be plowed very deep. Seven or eight inches is enough. Neither should land which has never been deeply plowed be turned up to the final depth at once. Better to run the plow furrow only an inch or two deeper than the old depth at first, gradually in- creasing this at each subsequent plowing until the final 19 depth is reached. This does away with the danger of bringing a lot of raw soil to the surface of the ground, thereby decreasing crop yields for the time being. The final depth should be as far down as it is possible to work the land. Many sugar companies who are farming their own land go regularly to a depth of 24 inches by the use of power engines. The man depending on horses should have sufficient stock to plow twelve inches deep, and im- plements heavy enough to stand the strain. Alfalfa land which is to be prepared for beets should be plowed in the fall very shallow, not to exceed 3 or 4 inches deep, the aim being to cut off the old alfalfa plants just below the crown. The plowing is followed with a spring tooth or spike harrow to bring the crowns to the top of the ground, where any sprouting will be killed by the sun and wind. Alfalfa must be given proper atten- tion or it will regain its hold and tend to choke out the beets during the succeeding year. If the land is plowed deep the crowns will be turned under. They will then remain alive and start to grow again in the spring. When the crowns are thoroughly dry, the land can be plowed more deeply. In new land any leveling that is necessary should be done before the plowing. With alfalfa land it should follow the first plowing and precede the second. More- over, when winter or previous irrigations are given they should precede this plowing, in order to give the weeds a chance to grow. The bulk of them will then be dis- posed of by the plowing. Grain land should be disked or ringrolled before plow- ing in order to break down the stubble and even the sur- face of the land. For all land which has been handled for beets, or other crops demanding a deep preparation of the soil, there may be a deviation from the above. The land should then be plowed to the required depth as soon as it is dry enough after the irrigation or wet enough from the nat- ural rainfall to put it into condition. When the soil will fall away from the mouldboard of the plow without sticking, and still retains sufficient moisture so that it can be molded in the hand it is safe to work it. By this time the weeds will have started. Following the plow- 20 ing the land should be lightly harrowed. If the ground is rough from harvesting a beet crop the year before, from stubble, or from any cause a ringrolling or a slab- bing before the plowing will greatly assist. Throughout the winter the land may lay idle with only occasional treatment of the weeder or cultivator, should the weeds get a bad start. For putting the land into shape in the spring, the han- dling of both new and old land is essentially the same. Putting the Land Into Shape——Farly in the spring the land may be given another plowing, shallow this time, 3 or 4 inches deep. This will not be needed unless winter rains have interfered with the use of the weeder so that the weeds have a good start. If the weeds have been held in control the land can be cultivated down and the plow- ing omitted. If the land has not been packed by the winter rains and snows it is necessary to do this with the farm tools. The aim should be to cultivate to the depth of plowing in order thoroughly to firm the land from surface to depth of plowing. When the land is naturally well settled the deep cultivation may be dis- pensed with and only a shallow one given. Following the cultivator, will come the harrow, drag, ringroller or roller, the kind of implement and the order and amount of work each must do depending on the nature and con- dition of the land. During the spring work any plowing or deep cultiva- tion must be worked down immediately, so that by night- fall no rough land is left. In other words stop plowing or cultivating early enough to run the implements for fining the surface soil before the day’s work is consid- ered complete. Under no conditions should the land be handled too wet as the danger of packing the land too solid is great. Should this occur and no rains follow, the decreased crop will be a striking lesson. As the rains may fail and as irrigation is expensive, where available, it is bet- ter to avoid all risk in the first place. As stated before, when the soil will crumble away from the mouldboard of the plow, and not ball up on the cultivator and harrow teeth, still retaining enough moisture to hold together, or when the soil can be molded in the hand and still 21 crumbles on pressing, showing no sign of excess mois- ture, it is in the best possible condition for working and can be handled to the best advantage. . By keeping the land constantly worked down depend- ence need not be placed on late rains. It is much better policy to hold the moisture until time for planting by an occasional harrowing or dragging, than to leave the land rough until the last moment. The final operation should be a harrowing. Leaving the land dragged tends to make it crust if a rain comes, and also causes too excessive evaporation from the soil. But if moisture is needed for the sowing, a dragging just before planting will cause the rapid movement of soil moisture to the surface. For this purpose dragging is good. Once the land is in shape it should lay for a week or ten days to settle and to enable the moisture conditions to equalize throughout before being seeded. Adobe or gumbo soils should be given as little work- ing as possible in the spring, and not opened up at all. Seeding should be done a day or so after the land is ready, and every effort made to get the land into shape and planted at the earliest opportunity. Once such soils dry out, re-establishment of the moisture is almost im- possible unless they receive more water. The whole idea in preparing the land is to secure a well-fined, well-packed, well-stirred seed bed, and any method which will bring about this condition will be well repaid in the better growth of the beet. Subsoiling is not practiced on old soils as much as formerly and, where no plowpan or hard subsoil exists near the surface, is hardly necessary. After a crop of beets has been raised the deep plowing out at harvest time is practically a subsoiling. However, where shallow plowing has been the rule and beets are to be put in for the first time, it is well to follow the plowing with a good, deep subsoiling or cul- tivation to the depth needed for the beet’s development as the plowing must go but little deeper than formerly at first. Seeding.—As the future of the crop depends to a great extent upon the stand secured, too much care cannot be 22 exercised in the matter of seeding. At least 14 pounds of seed should be used to the acre, and even more if the land is not in the very best condition for sowing. Most farmers use too little seed and the result shows in the final stand. Heavy seeding gives extra plants for insect and fungus depredations and while it entails a slightly increased expense, will, at thinning time, permit the se- lection of robust specimens. That the greatest stress must be laid on the stand for the final returns is shown in the following example: A square acre is approximately 209 feet on a side. If the rows of beets are twenty inches apart there will be 125 rows. If the beets are thinned to ten inches apart, and at harvest weigh 38 ounces the yields according to the stand will be: Percent Number Yield Per Acre of Perfect Stand. of Beets Tons. 31,350 39.19 99 31,036 38.80 98 30,723 38.41 90 28,215 35.27 80 25,080 Bl tek bs 60 18,810 235.51 As the average stand which looks good comprises but 80 per cent of a perfect stand in the majority of cases, it can readily be seen what opportunities there are for im- provement just along this line. It may be well to state that with the poorer stands the individual weight of the beet increases somewhat so that, in the field, the decrease in yield will not be as uniform as that given in the table. However, it is great enough to approach the figures given. From seven to fourteen days after the seed is planted the young plants begin to appear. And then another advantage is to be noted from the heavy seeding. If the ground is of a clayey nature or becomes packed the multitude of seedlings are much better fitted to lift the soil and break through than are fewer seedlings scat- tered at irregular intervals. Their combined effort may be compared to men lifting a steel rail. Four or five la- borers will experience great difficulty in lifting it even if they are strong men. If weak they cannot budge it. But twenty or thirty men, even if not up to the limit of strength will pick it up and carry it off with compara- tive ease. 23 In a field where rains follow the sowing and crust the land just as the seedlings are coming up, the amount of seed sown may make all the difference between a fair stand and no stand. Reseeding will be necessary in the latter case, at greater expense than the originally larger amount of seed. And if the season is getting late the time lost in regaining a stand may seriously curtail the crop. The Time of Planting will be largely determined by local conditions, but in every case, once the land is ready, it should be planted whether it be fall, winter or spring sowing. The soil should be settled, warm, and fairly dry. A frost or two will make no difference. I have seen beets with two true leaves stand 18 degrees F. The same beets when they had twelve leaves were subjected to 110 de- grees F., and stood the cold extreme better than the heat. Early sowing reduces the danger of damage from a num- ber of insect pests. While late planted beets sometimes look greener and have larger and more luxuriant tops, the actual tonnage is, as a rule, greater in the earlier plantings. Cool weath- er when the beets are coming up causes them to develop small compact foliage, but the greater supply of mois- ture present in the soil helps them out in the roots. In planting, allowance must be made for late spring rains. In most sections the Equinoctial storm can be counted on in late March. As heavy winds are apt to follow, which rapidly crust the soil, planting (if plant- ing is at all possible that early) should be delayed until the storm is past, or else put in early enough to permit the seedlings to be well above ground when it arrives. Early planting has its drawbacks. Rains to the extent of an inch or more before the plants have four leaves are not desirable because of their crusting tendencies. The soil, however, plays an important part in this respect. Beets in adobe or clay lands suffer less than those in sandy land as the former will crack in drying and give the beets a chance to come up. Plantings in cold, wet soils will develop root rot, the conditions inducing this trouble being excess moisture and cold soils. Early planting may mean more weeds and consequently entail more crop cultivation. 24 But on the other hand, early planting means more freedom from insect pests, an earlier harvest, a longer growing period and more natural moisture for the crop’s needs. In the humid sections these remarks are not as applic- able because the rains come at intervals frequent enough to prevent the formation of any great amount of un- favorable conditions. The rainfall is gentle as a rule. But many of the beet growing sections are in semi-arid regions and when it rains it comes right down. In hu- mid sections when drouths follow the rains the described results will exist, and give a state of affairs similar to those of the west. But whenever planting is to be done, the land must first be put into shape, and until this is brought about, sowing must be delayed. It is essential that the land be well pulverized, as clods seriously interfere with germin- ation by obstructing the advance of the sprout and by in- terfering with the movement of the soil moisture. Such soils dry out badly. One-quarter to one inch of soil is sufficient to put over the seed. When the seed will ger- minate evenly at this depth it means that the land has been properly prepared and the moisture kept right at the surface. If a greater depth is needed to get an equal germination it indicates that the soil is not in the best possible condition. Fineness of soil is the greatest factor in securing a stand. When the soil is right the seed will come up well whether it is put down one-half inch, one inch, two inches, or even more, or whether shoes or wheels are used on the seeder to cover the seed. Moisture to germinate the seed must rise from below fast enough to start germination and to compensate for evaporation from the surface of the ground. The finer the soil, the better is the proper moisture content maintained. There- fore, as germination depends on moisture, and the amount of moisture is directly dependent on the fineness of the soil, we may sav that germination depends on the fineness of the soil, or soil preparation. The seed must be placed where it will receive a con- stant supply of moisture until it has a chance to start. This depth should be carefully determined. By scraping away the soil with the foot, or by digging down with a 25 penknife the boundary of moisture and dry soil will be quickly discerned by the change in color from light to dark where the moisture begins, unless the soil is yni- formly moist to the surface. The seed must be put into the moist soil. As the seed should not be covered over one inch deep, when the moisture is lower than this depth clod removers must be used on the seeders to scrape away enough of the dry soil so that the seed will be placed in the moist soil. The seed is then covered one inch deep. It is desir- able to keep the land as flat as possible, not in hills or ridges, and everything should be done to make this pos- sible. The rut in which the seed is dropped is comparatively narrow, so that large seed balls will not reach clear to the bottom. Care must be exercised when using a brand con- taining a large number of big seed balls to run the seeder deep enough so that they will be placed at the proper depth. The seed balls should rest on a well-firmed soil. It is better to do this and cover with dry soil, than en- tirely to surround the seed with loose, moist soil. This tends to dry out before the seed has time to germinate. For drawing the soil over the seed, shoes are to be pre- ferred to wheels when the land is dry on top. They pack the soil over the seed, draw soil to it, regulate the depth better, can be weighed to better advantage, and the seeder draws easier. On moist land, especially that of a sandy nature, wheels are best, for the shoes tend to smear the land so that it bakes into a crust as it dries, even without rainfall. The wheel does away with this disadvantage. The author is only considering the wheel with the concave rim—the kind with the flat rim is not so good. In land of this nature it presses the soil firmly on each side of the row of seed, but leaves a fine line of unpacked earth down the center, which will absorb water if rains come and allow the seedlings to reach the surface without difficulty. The size of the seed ball is unimportant—it is the size of the seed which counts. The larger the seed the great- er amount of nutriment is stored in it, and as it is this nutriment which gives the impetus to the seed, the more there is the better will be the resulting growth. Seed con- 26 taining the greatest amount of medium sized seed balls containing plump, well-filled, bright-colored seed is pref- erable. It will sow more evenly, will sprout quickly and evenly, and the resulting stand therefore, will be more uniform. The large seed balls usually contain more seed but the germination is slower as the thick wall requires more time to absorb moisture, hence it is the last seed to sprout. Moreover the large seed balls are usually the exception rather than the rule so that smaller seed is also present. It will, therefore be difficult to regulate the seeder prop- erly to take care of all sizes. Because of the irregular rate of germination, and different distances from the sur- face the stand will appear uneven and the seedlings will not assist one another in breaking the soil away to reach the surface. The presence of green or black seed often causes ques- tion as to its desirability. But if the seed itself is plump and full (the seed ball must be cut open and the seed picked out to ascertain this) the germination will be found to be equal to the rest of the seed. Distance of Rows.—The distance between the rows will depend to a large extent on the character of the land. They should never be closer than 18 inches nor further than 30 inches. Twenty inches is perhaps the best aver- age. Lands deficient in fertility or poor in moisture-re- taining power cannot stand close planting. The nearness of the rows to some extent, will deter- mine the space to be left between the beets in thinning— a matter which will be taken up later on. The greater the thinning the nearer the rows can be. For all around purposes 20-inch rows with 10-inch thinning will serve as a general guide. Seedling Growth—From the time the seed ball is planted and gathers the necessary moisture to burst its walls, until it reaches the surface of the ground, the little sprout makes its growth entirely on the nourish- ment stored in the seed. Not until the cotyledons (seed leaves) are unfolded above ground does it draw on the soil for support. The rootlet appears from the seed ball first and grows downward, often to a considerable depth. Dr. Briem reports an experiment in which the growth of ra | the rootlet made a daily average increase of .55 inches. The total growth on the nourishment of the seed was 3.27 inches, and covered a period of six days. . Different rootlets grow to different depths during this period depending on the amount of food stored in the seed cell. This is shown by the size and weight of the seed. The greater the amount of food stored the longer is the possible growing period and the deeper the root will reach. For average conditions the roots go down 3 to 3% inches. The stalk does not start until four days after the root tip shows. But it makes a rapid growth in order to reach the surface quickly and begin to supply the young plantlet with a supply of food independent of that stored in the seed, and it is necessary that this be accomplished quickly for the stored food will last but a very few days at the outside. The deeper the seed is planted the longer will be the period consumed in reach- ing the surface, and the greater the drain on the seed re- serves. After the sixth day from the time the first tip appears growth will cease, and if the seedling has not reached the surface in that time it is in danger of dying from starvation or suffocation. As has already been shown, the character and preparatic:. of the soil plays an important part in this respect and will either help or retard the advance of the plantlet stalk. Crusting or packing over the young seedling will seriously hamper its growth and may retard it to such an extent that it will die before reaching the surface. Even if the strong- est plants do reach the surface under such adverse condi- tions they will not have the capacity for growth which otherwise they would possess. To show that the depth of planting is ve:y important experiments were conducted to show the number of seedlings which reached the surface of a series planted at different depths, for the deeper the seed is planted the poorer are its chances for reaching the surface. It was found that with the beet seed planted at depths of ap- proximately three-fourths, one and one-half, two and a quarter, 3 and 4 inches, the seedlings appeared above ground after five days for the shallow depth; six days for the next; eight days for the 2%, after ten days for the 3-inch and none at all for the 4-inch. Of the differ- 28 ent amounts, 100 per cent came up of the first two: 75 per cent of the 214 depth; 50 per cent for the 3-inch and o per cent for the 4-inch depth. Therefore, the more shallow the seed can be planted the better chance it has for producing a perfect stand. Beets planted too deep are yellow and sickly on reaching the surface if they come up at all, and never make as good a showing at the end of the season. Crusting—The course to be advised when rains fol- low seeding so closely that a crust forms before the little plantlets have a chance to reach the surface, depends on the stage to which germination has progressed. If the seedlings have reached the crust. “spider: ” (wheels with spikes in the rims), must be employed as these will break the crust without disturbing the young plants. If the seedlings have not reached the surface the use of a har- row with the teeth driven back or thrown so that they will drag lightly over the ground, or a brush harrow, will break the crust and let the plants through. This work is only possible after the land has dried sufficiently to hold up the work stock. The spiders travel directly on the rows, the harrows are run across them and work up the entire land. A few plants may be destroyed but the loss will not be great. Seedlings which have reached the crust, curled down, and turned yellow are too far gone to save. For such fields replanting is the only remedy. Selection of Varieties of Beet Seed.—The selection of the proper brand of beet seed to use is important and will, to a large extent, determine the crop receipts. In the development of the sugar beet from the com- mon garden variety two lines of improvement have been followed by commercial seed growers, with the object either of increasing the tonnage yield, or increasing the sugar percentage of the beet. These are two opposed physiological characteristics and the highest state of de- velopment of both cannot be found in the same beet. If the type is of high sugar content it will be reduced in weight; or, on the other hand, if heavy weight is desired a certain amount of sugar must be sacrificed. Commer- cial brands of seed run to neither extreme, as, to serve both grower and mill, there must be a combination of 29 sugar and tonnage. However, within certain limits, types have been placed on the market and dealers list their seed with a short statement of its capability, as: . Type A—For highest sugar content. Type B—For highest tonnage. Type C—For high tonnage on poor land. Type D—For highest sugar per acre, etc. In general, the two extremes may be considered as quick-maturing and slow-maturing. The quick-maturing is usually rich in sugar, rather light in weight, and ripens early. The late-maturing is of slower growth, but be- cause of its longer growing season is heavier than the other, ripens later, and does not carry the sugar content. Early-maturing varieties lose considerable sugar if not harvested at time of maturity, although, when ripe, they are higher in sugar. Late-maturing kinds, on the other hand, are apt to be deficient in sugar if harvested too early, that is before fully ripe. For this reason it is well to plant part of the land to each variety when the harvest must extend over a considerable period. Here again lo- cal conditions may enter which may cause one type to be pre-eminently better adapted to the section, but when both are equally good in their respective ways the use of an early-maturing type for the first of the harvest and late-maturing type for the last half is well worth consid- ering. By this means a steady supply of high-testing, mature beets can be delivered throughout the harvest season, even though the period covers several weeks. This shows the value of being posted on the characteris- tics of the kind of seed planted, for it 1s just as impor- tant to give the beets the right length of time to mature, as it is with potatoes, grains or any crop where differ- ent varieties require different times for maturing. Only in this way can the maximum sugar and weight be ob- tained. The farmer can best leave the selection of the proper kinds to the mill agriculturist whose judgment and ex- perience better fit him to determine the relative merits of each. The amount of seed grown in the United: States is limited, practically all we have coming from Utah and Washington. The high cost of labor seems to be the con- 30 trolling factor in this respect, for the seed produced com- pares very favorably with imported seed—the fact that it is somewhat acclimated no doubt accounting for this to a large extent. As a rule it is somewhat freer from weed seed. Germany, Austria, Holland, Poland, Russia and France are producers of beet seed. Most, if not all, mills import their own beet seed direct from the foreign grower, thereby gaining a number of advantages not open to the individual grower. For instance, the initial cost of the seed is less in large quantities, freight rates are reduced, while the possibility of redress in case of error is much greater. Moreover, it is very essential to know the existing conditions in Europe for the periods the beets are growing which are to produce the seed, and while the seed itself is developing. Poor keeping of the mother beets, extreme hot or cold spells of weather at critical times, drouth during the growing season, in- sects, disease, rain at harvest or frosts may cause en- tering factors well worth considering in the purchase of seed. To make a profitable run the mill must have the beets to work, and the selection of the proper seed is of para- mount importance to them. Their purchase of brands 1s based on careful compilations of field work from their own and government experiments followed up with care- ful germination tests, and examinations for weed seeds when the seed arrives. It requires several years of field testing to determine with accuracy the seed which will give the best results year in and year out. Not only must climatic conditions and variations be taken into account, but different soils require different brands. To determine these factors requires accurate voluminous records, a knowledge of the section where the seed was grown and its pedigree. When the work is supplemented by comparative tests of different brands handled exactly alike in the field—a local test not at all unusual—it is evident that the work of trying out the value of different brands can be han- dled much more properly and profitably by the mill than by the individual grower. The germination tests refer to the starting power of 31 the beet seed and is similar to the methods advocated for seed testing in general. In this connection a discussion of the relation of the mill to the kind of seed may well be considered. As the mill buys beets at a set price per ton, or on sugar percentage, and as the mill has the opportunity to select seed, it has been stated that the mill has a chance to regu- late the crop to suit itself, by choosing brands which will give the required results at the least cost to them- selves. But anyone familiar with the details of sugar beet districts is aware that mills cannot afford to do so— at the present time anyway. All the mills require a large, steady supply of raw material, more than they obtain as a rule, and to secure this supply thev are only too will- ing to institute such systems of payment as will make beet raising an inducement. The system of payment adopted is the one which gives the most satisfaction- to the greatest number of growers. The system also car- ried the bonus idea. If greater acreage is wanted the tonnage basis is offered; if more sugar the percentage basis 1s used, while in many cases a choice of the two systems is given. In each case, however, the system is intended to accomplish the mill’s desires by offering an increased rate of payment. Most factories buy two or more brands of seed for distribution and the grower who complains that he re- ceives a brand which favors the factory has several re- courses open. First, he should compare the returns from land in his section of the country with yields from other beet growing sections using the same brand of seed and determine if the difference is not due to his soil condi- tions or to his faulty methods of growing. He should also inform himself concerning the brands carried by the mill and choose the one which fulfills his needs most per- fectly. And, lastly, any factory is willing to permit a grower to buy his seed elsewhere if he wishes to pay the higher price, provided it is sugar beet seed and the re- sulting crop comes up to the mill requirements. . The farmer gets protection, however, in the fact that if dis- satisfied with his beet returns he can and will turn to some other crop, and as this is possible in all sugar beet localities because of the agricultural possibilities of the a2 section which makes it suitable for beets it behooves the mill to cater to the wants of the farmers for, as stated previously, one of the biggest problems of the average sugar mill of the present day is to secure more beets. The mill must have beets, not only for one season but for years to come. The investment of capital is great and can be repaid only by many consecutive sugar making campaigns. The supply of beets must be steady to bring up the sugar output and for that reason alone if for no other, the mill could not afford to adopt a short sighted policy which would be bound to result in discontent among the farmers. For in times of high prices for other farm products, such as grains, hay, potatoes, beans and the like, the tendency would be for the farmer to decrease his beet acreage at the first opportunity at the least hint of ill treatment. Growing Beet Seed.—The growing of beet seed is be- yond the scope of the farmer unless he devotes all of his time to the work. It is a special problem, requiring time, capital, experience and knowledge of breeding prin- ciples. For this reason combined with the scarcity of cheap labor seedsmen have been slow in taking up the work in this country. While in many instances it may pay the mill to grow its own seed, the amount of capital involved and the number of years to produce a sufficient quantity, means that forethought is necessary before embarking on the enterprise. The following will outline roughly the rou- tine for securing a steady supply of seed. To locally grow a constant supply of seed for a section requiring 60 tons per year, 10 acres are first planted with the best seed obtainable. A yield of about a 120 tons of beets will be secured from this planting, 13 of which will be removed and siloed, while 107 tons are marketed. The second year the same thing is repeated. In addition the last year’s beets, the mother beets, are tested for sugar percentage, and those coming up to a required standard of sugar are planted out. Only about one acre is needed for this, as not more than two tons will come up to the requirements. In the fall the seed from these mother beets is har- vested, cleaned, graded and stored. The beets from the other field are treated as were the beets the year before. 33 The third year the operations of the first two years are repeated in the successive way in which they were done before. The seed of the second year is planted ono acres of fertile ground to produce very small, rich beets. The fourth year, the cycle is repeated and continued as in all previous years, as the aim is to keep a constant supply of seed coming in all the time. The small “steck- lings” grown from mother beet seed in the third year are planted in 100 acres of land and these produce the seed for the factory’s use. To produce this amount of seed will require about 600 acres of land, taking crop rotation into account, but the 60 tons of seed will be worth from 10 to I5 cents a pound, or $12,000 to $18,000, a sum probably far in ad- vance of the cost of producing the seed. Treated or Decorticated Seed.—This is seed treated with some process (involving the use of sulphuric acid) which removes much of the outer coating of the seed ball. This makes the cell walls thinner so that water is absorbed more rapidly by the seed and germination 1s promoted. Germination with this seed is increased, be- ing forty-eight hours ahead of the untreated, but on the other hand the hull of the seed seems to contain a certain amount of nutriment available to the young seedling, and as the number of seed to the ounce between the treated and untreated is about the same, the use of this sort of seed would be confined to special situations, requiring quick germinations. Further disadvantages are the greater liabilty to germinate when stored, and to rot in the soil if germination is delayed after planting. Hulled or Shelled Seed is seed with much of the ball removed by mechanical means. The remarks under “Treated Seed’? are applicable here. Some seed is on the market which has been treated with a combination of the two methods. Single Germ Seed.—tIn order to do away with much of the hand labor incident to thinning, the United States Department of Agriculture is working on the develop- ment of beet seed which will contain but a single sprout. Should such seed be secured in quantity, true to type and vigorous in character, it may prove a most important aid in lessening the cost of thinning, although heavy 34 planting must still be considered the rule in order that the seedlings may aid one another in coming through crusts and the like. Thinniug Beets—When the beets have from four to six leaves they are ready to thin. Thinning must. be done promptly. If the undertaking is large it is better to begin when the beets are too small rather than to let them go so long that in thinning the last beets the work will have been so delayed that these are suffering for want of attention. The larger the beets the more the roots of those to be left will be disturbed and the harder the condemned ones will come out. If they pull hard the tops are apt to be broken off, and the roots will add forth new foliage so that double beets are the result. As to the spacing of beets, no definite law can be formulated which will cover all conditions. The Ger- man recommendation of 144 square inches usually must be doubled, if a 1% to a 2-Ib. beet is desired. When the rows are 20 inches apart the results from close spacing are usually the most satisfactory. The thinning must be suited, however, to the character of the soil, the amount of water available throughout the season, and to local conditions. For lands rather apt to have insufficient moisture from either the available sup- ply, or from the naturally poor moisture-retaining power of the soil greater distance between the beets is necessary than in the heavier class of soils receiving a more bounti- ful supply of water. The beets must be near together if it is desirable to shade the land as quickly a spossible to prevent the sun overheating the soil. Near thinning (4 to 8 inches) will give the greatest total yields, but the beets mostly are too small for easy topping and handling. Contract labor will neglect many of these. The supply of moisture and the retaining power of the soil, its natural strength as regard plant foods, and the distance apart of the rows are the factors to be con- sidered. In sandy, open land distances of from 10 to 18 inches will prove best, while 6 to 12 inches will be enough on rich, well moistened land. As a general rule a space of 10 inches between the a- ao beets, when 20-inch rows are used will prove a general guide. In thinning, care to select and leave the largest plants will always pay. In a trial of this kind at the time of harvest the beets where care was used in thinning aver- aged 3 ounces more and tested 2.5 per cent more in sugar. This is not surprising, as the largest beets having no setbacks are most vigorous. The smaller beets are slower in reaching the surface after germinating, and consequently are not as vigorous when they appear, or they are beets damaged by root rot or insects in their earliest stages. Cultivation. Frequent and thorough cultivation of the beet field is desirable at all times to preserve a surface mulch which will conserve moisture, destroy weeds, bring about air circulation in the soil, destroy shallow hardpans formed by working the soil and permit rapid and easy making of furrows for irrigation. Start the cultivators early, as soon as the beet rows show, and keep them going later, whenever the moisture conditions of the soil is such that the earth will not bale or pack in working. Most successful beet farmers culti- vate from four or five times, while a few cover the field seven or eight times. The kind of cultivator tooth to be used is one which will thoroughly stir the soil to the greatest possible depth —four, five, six or even more inches—without disturbing the beet root. Sometimes narrow deer tongues, one to the row and two rows to a team, will be all that can be used. In other soils the duck feet, or the weed knives doing four rows at a time will give the desired results. Only a study of the actual field work of the different implements will determine the kind to use. Where the rainfall is the source of moisture supply much can be done to alleviate unfavorable conditions of excess or scarcity of water by providing good drainage and giving thorough surface cultivation. | Cultivation will serve a purpose but it must not be counted on to take the place of proper soil preparation. This is far more important than subsequent crop cultiva- tion, Growth of the Beet.—The handling of the land during 36 ¥, sid Ai NN wt ) Wiis 27 TONS TO THE ACRE. preceding years has a marked influence on the growth of the beet. The kind of crop, the depth of plowing, the shape in which the land was left at time of harvest, the number of irrigations and the amount of water applied, _ etc., all have an influence. Beets will not do well on raw new land or on poor lands, whether the trouble be lack of plant food, or too much or too little moisture. Beets will not follow some crops to advantage, a matter which will be discussed under “Crop Rotation.” The beet will stand periods of hot weather if there is ample moisture in the ground, but when the moisture decreases, especially in the first few inches of soil so that it heats up badly the plant is apt to suffer. The outer leaves turn yellow and die and the plant begins to wither. The beet may, and usually does, revive over night and appear vigorous the next morning, yet if the hot weather continues and no supply of moisture is forthcoming, it turns woody, dries out, and if small, burns up in the ground. Beets will wilt and show a yellow leaf here and there in land with plenty of moisture if the top soil becomes heated, but under such conditions will seldom suffer seriously and always make a good crop. Because light soils dry out quickly the beets are apt to suffer more than in the better moisture retaining lands. While beets will survive these sudden hot spells of weather, they are not desirable and the effect will be seen in a drawing out of the leaves and a yellowing in the color of the foliage, a condition which is overcome, however, with the coming of normal weather. If such spells can be counted on at certain periods, early plantings to get the beet as far ahead as possible before they come will prove very advantageous. In general, the conditions governing the plant’s growth with reference to sudden change of weather may be summed up as: (a) Cool weather forces growth; (b) hot weather forces ripening. Harvesting —The time of harvest depends on the num- ber of acres, the amount of help available, the weather and other local conditions. To secure the best results on large tracts it is advisable to grow both early and late beets. If the work extends over a long period and only 38 early maturing beets are grown the last of the harvest will result in beets of a lower sugar percentage—as quick maturing beets are at their maximum sugar content when first mature. Ten days after a slight decline sets in which, although not great, will reduce the total sugar output. This is important to the grower who sells on a percentage basis. Moreover, should wet weather set in after the beets mature and before they are harvested, secondary growth may start preparatory to the formation of seed and will be accompanied by a decrease in the sugar content. If all the beets are of the late maturing kind the great- est returns will not be secured at the beginning of the harvest either with respect to tonnage or sugar content— if early plowing out is necessary. A well balanced planting of each type will give the best returns to both grower and mill. Plowing out should be delayed until the beets are ripe. Maturity will be indicated by a yellowing in the color of the leaves after the beets have been in the ground four months or more, accompanied by a slackening of growth and a ring of dead or dying leaves around the outer circle of the beet. Sometimes drying out is confused with ripening but this occurs where the moisture conditions are unfavorable. Where this occurs the seemingly ripe char- acteristics will appear more or less abruptly and the root will be soft, dry and rubber-like. Mature beets are solid, brittle, juicy and with a sweetish taste. In addition to the appearance of the field sugar tests of the beets themselves are sure guides to the degree of ripeness. For testing, a sample of ten beets should be selected. The individual variation of the beets is so great that never less than ten beets should be taken. In taking samples a rough estimate first should be secured of the different types of beets in the field, and an attempt then made to proportion the number in the sample to correspond as closely as possible with the field conditions. Beets should contain at least 12 percent sugar. The sugar content rests largely with the grower. The mill cannot make sugar—it can only extract it. The. sugar is put into the beets in the field under the influence of the conditions surrounding it. While the grower cannot 32) SLAdd ONVTOIVH control the weather conditions, he can, to a great extent, influence the crop by providing proper conditions of seed- bed, thinning, irrigation, cultivation and harvesting. The purity of the juice refers to the amount of sugar in it as compared with the total amount of salts present. Contained in the juice of the beet are substances in solu- tion other than sugar, present in quantities of from 10 to 40 per cent or more of the whole, such as proteins, nitro- genous matters, and the like. It is the presence of these substances which make sugar extraction expensive—the cost being several times increased over the increase in amount of foreign substance, because of the gelatinous nature of these impurities which makes separation much more difficult. They also decrease the amount of sugar which can be extracted. If these impurities pass into the sugar they impart disagreeable odors and discolora- tions, thus seriously impairing the market value of the sugar. As only a small percentage of these impurities is necessary to obstruct mill operations, a comparatively pure beet is the only kind fit for sugar making purposes. lor this reason the factory must insist that beets tesi at least 80 per cent purity. In other words, it means that of the total substances dissolved in the juice of the heet four-fifths must be sugar. In speaking of the sugar content of the beet, however, reference is made to the percentage of sugar based on the weight of the whole juice. That is. a beet testing 15 per cent sugar has fifteen hundredths of its juice pure sugar. Based on the total weight of the beet as it comes from the field the sugar content is from 93 to 96 per cent of the amount in the juice—or an average of 94 per cent. Purity is dependent on a number of factors in the field, such as the amount of sunshine, fog, soil moisture. strength of the land, uninterrupted growth of the plant. temperature of air and soil, and so on. Any condition which will prolong the time of ripening will keep the sugar down. A thoroughly ripe beet is always satis- factory in point of purity. The time of ripening is influenced by: (a) Cold nights or days; (b) foggy spells: (c) hours of sunshine: (d) moisture in the soil; (e) character of the soil; and (f) newness of the land. 41 Usually orders for harvesting come from the mill, based on tests of the grower’s beets. A steady supply of beets is required to run the mill to advantage and*at the same time avoid an overstock because an excess is liable to decay in the bins if left too long. Such beets are worthless for sugar purposes. The superintendent is obliged to gauge the receipts of beets according to the mill’s requirements. In favored localities the beets can be left in the ground until the mill can receive them but where severe spells of weather occur with alternate freez- ing and thawing the beets must be given protection. The added cost of handling, however, is borne by the mill, by paying more for such beets. The mill men are shouldering their share of the burden. Siloing.—The usual method of protecting beets which must be dug and cannot be delivered at once is by siloing. If siloing is found necessary, any method which will pre- vent decay and drying out is good. An atmosphere not too dry with proper circulation of air will do wonders in keeping beets 1n good condition. Good results in siloing are secured by leaving the top of the silo open and covering with a light coat of beet tops while the beets go through the usual sweat and while cold weather comes, when they can be safely covered with soil. Old straw can be used between the beets and the soil to good advantage. If the soil surrounding the silo is dry it can be wet sparingly but thoroughly. The idea is to equalize moisture conditions so that the earth will not draw from the beets in order to bring up its moisture content. This is done away with by wetting the soil. Experiments run in Colorado show a loss of only a little over 2 per cent in weight in beets put in a silo of this kind which was pre- viously moistened, while the beets in a similar silo left dry lost over 5 per cent during the same period. Long, rather low, wide piles of beets are preferable to high conical piles. Handling the Beets in the Field.—The easiest way to handle the beets after they are plowed out is to gather nine rows together in a long windrow with the roots extending all in the same direction. The topper then comes along on his hands and knees. The usual method of cutting with a knife can be facilitated by clamping a 42 small pick extending one inch below the blade on the end of the knife. The next beet to be topped can be picked up with this without the necessity of bending over. The use of this presupposes that they will be worked up immediately at the mill before there is danger of rot setting in at the exposed place. Beet knife tips are some- times objected to, however, on the ground that they open a certain number of sugar cells from which the sugar is lost during the beet washing process at the mill. As the beets are topped, an improvement over throwing them into piles is for the topper to stand them on end right by his side. This will take less time and effort than throwing into piles, reduces evaporation from the cut end, and greatly facilitates loading by hand when the wagon comes along. The beets can be picked up by the tails and two rows of topped beets will be loaded at ° once. The saving in energy and time on the part of the laborers will well repay the effort spent in breaking them in to this method if they are not already accustomed to it. The preceding recommendation applies, of course, tc half-pound beets or larger. Topping Beets—A question often puzzling to the farmer is where to top his beets. Shall it be just below the leaves, half way to the ground line or at the ground line? The answer to this question is to be found in an analysis of the beets. It has been found that a crop of 20 tons of roots per acre will analyze as follows: Phos- Yield per phoric Nitro- acre. Potash. Acid. gen. Lime. Total. Section of the beet. Ibs.) Ibs: = lbsé 2 bss dhe: Ibs. WWiholecheet 2 oc. eaocs 72,000 387 1216 .1%38 224 1,350 Tops cut at ground line. 32,000 235 80 6861138 «©6208 )~=—s«i1,063 ROGES By oae tone. oe at 40,000 182 36 60 16 287 The figures represent the number of pounds of the dif- ferent plant foods taken and used up by the different parts of the beet and the beet as a whole from the soil in one acre of ground. A glance will show that the smallest loss to the land will consist in topping at the ground line, as the “tops” in the table refer to the growth above ground, while the “roots” is the part underground. 43 The sugar in the beet is all that the mill can use. This sugar is “concentrated sunshine’ —not plant foods. There- fore, it stands the farmer in hand to sell as much gun- shine and as little plant food as possible. Moreover, the mill will deduct a certain percentage for green tops as they contain the very salts in largest proportion which makes the extraction of sugar difficult. This deduction is really a protection to the farmer, although few farmers fully appreciate the fact. They keep on sending in beets with green tops receiving a 4, 6 or even a greater percent reduction on them, thus not only receiving nothing but paying the freight and hauling on them and robbing the land of its most valuable ingredients. This represents on a 20-ton crop of roots: Nitrogetnat 14 cents. Ss ozs hick Hon ae ee $15.82 Phosphoric acid’at 442. cents: 2.026. . 20) 2%. 3.60 PGasis atria; Geis: 2. o> anes safeties sk eee Gee 11.75 SE Otello os eerie son ieee Cr oe Iara ake came $31.17 All of this is not sold with the beets, of course, but it is a sum of money which need not be drawn on at all and will then prove more satisfactory to both the farmer and the mill. With certain classes of labor it is almost necessary to stand over the workers with a club (figuratively speak- ing) to insure proper topping, but this pays if it results in correct topping. The disposition of the tops after the harvest is often a pertinent question. From the analysis it is plain that the tops should never be hauled off the land and fed un- less the manure is returned intact. Constant hauling off with no return will mean the eventual purchase of com- mercial fertilizers. The best method is to scatter the tops and plow them under green. This returns humus and all the plant food. Green tops will contain three times as much humus as dry tops or as the manure resulting from feeding. Next to plowing under green is plowing under dry. Third, is feeding to stock on the ground. As long as the soil re- mains dry so that the tramping of the soil will not puddle it and put it in poor physical condition, feeding is very nearly equal to plowing under the dry tops as the manure contains about 80 per cent of the total plant foods re- 44 moved by the crop. More will be said of stock feeding under the consideration of “Feeding By-Products.” Schedules of Payment Determine the Beet to Grow.— A beet weighing two pounds, symmetrical in outline, well-ripened, with small crown and compactly placed leaves, containing a high percentage of sugar of excellent purity is the ideal beet to grow. But the kind of beet the farmer will grow depends on the character of his land and on the mill requirements. This is shown in the schedules of payment offered by the mill. They are based on, first, a desire to stimulate interest and to insure the growing of sugar beets; and, second, to influence the grower to raise the sort of beet desired by the mili. If raw material is wanted the mill offers a flat rate per ton; if sufficient raw material is forthcoming and the mill wishes to raise the quality of the beets it does so by paying for beets on the sugar content basis. In this way a bonus is offered for high testing beets. Often a mill offers a choice of the basis of payment. By tonnage payment is meant the flat rate payment offered for beets by the ton. This varies from $4 to $6, and even more for siloed beets. By sugar content pay- ment is meant the payment for the beets on a plan based on the sugar content of the beets. In other words, the mill recognizes quality. Rates vary considerably at the different mills for quality payments. An example is the following: Beets testing 12 per cent sugar will be paid for at a rate of $4.25 per ton, with an increase of 25 cents for every additional percent of sugar over twelve. By this method, for beets testing 18 per cent the mill would pay $4.25 for the first 12 per cent and $1.50 for the extra percentage, or a total of $5.75 for each ton of beets. Whether the mill specifies payment on a tonnage basis or on the sugar content, or gives a choice of either meth- od, the grower should first of all do everything to get the tonnage. He should, therefore, select his strongest and best land. A study of yields from the different lands quickly will prove this point. For instance, say, the light lands on your ranch will produce Io tons of beets per acre testing 18 per cent sugar, while the heavier, better land will yield 20 tons testing 12 per cent. Sup- 45 pose the mill pays $4.25 a ton for 12 per cent beets with an additional 25 cents for every per cent increase in sugar over the 12 per cent; in other words, pays on aysugar percentage basis, then the light land would bring in from the rich beets $57.50 per acre ($5.75 per ton). The heavy land would bring in $85 ($4.25 a ton). If the beets were paid for on the flat rate basis, the rich land would bring in, supposing the rate to be $5 a ton, $100, while the light land would bring in only half that or $50. Of course the cost of producing the crop would vary, the big crop costing more because of greater expenditures for labor, hauling and freight. Based on actual figures, however, this would be, say $27.85 for the crop on the light land and $49.35 for the heavy crop. Therefore, it would pay to select the heavy, rich, fertile land because on a tonnage basis two and one-fourth times greater profit would be made over the light land; while on a sugar basis it would give one and one-third the profit of the light land. Carrying the point one step farther, leaving aside the question of choice of land and confining attention to a choice of payments it is evident that on the light soil greater profits can be secured from the sugar basis while the reverse is true on the heavy land. Here the tonnage receipts are in excess, being $85 against $100. In each case the cost is the same. The foregoing example illustrates the importance of a proper selection of land for beet growing and of study- ing the payment schedules. A mill wanting sugar makes inducements to get it, while a mill in need of raw material will make it worth the grower’s time to raise quantity instead of quality. Generally, warm, light lands will produce early crops, rich in sugar and only fair in tonnage. The heavier type of lands, as clay loams, will run to tonnage production and less to sugar. Labor Problems.—Every sugar beet grower who 1s raising beets to any extent at all is confronted with the labor problem, for beet growing requires much hand labor, especially at thinning and harvesting times. Scarcity of labor and high wages are doing much to stifle the industry. When a man puts in only enough land so 46 that he and his family can do all the work themselves the work is taken care of automatically. But for large acre- ages requiring much hired help the problem grows in extent as the acreage increases. Best results come from hiring labor on a time or ton- nage basis. To have the labor done by piece work, that is, by the row or field, is not at all satisfactory. The time work has its objections as well, but is an improve- ment over piece work. For best results with a fairly intelligent class of labor, the sliding scale tonnage basis of payment is proving the most satisfactory. The ton- nage basis alone fixes a set price to be paid for the hand labor based on the yield of the field and is offered to con- tractors (Chinese, Japanese, Mexican or the like) who guarantee to furnish all the help needed for properly thinning the beets, hoeing weeds from the rows, cleaning irrigation ditches, handling the irrigation water, and at harvest for pulling, topping and loading the beets onto wagons. This scheme has worked fairly well for a long time, especially in California, but the wily contractor soon began to discriminate between the fields on different soils. A growing scarcity of labor made this still more ap- parent, and also forced the contractor to pay higher wages so that he was compelled to ask more money for his work in order to protect himself. A farmer then raising beets on poor Jand or by poor methods suffered by the greater price asked of him, supposing he was able to get some one to handle his contract at all. To equalize matters for both contractor and grower many sections adopted the sliding scale tonnage basis. In this scheme the different vields per acre are recognized and the pay proportioned according to the vield. In fact, the method merely brought to a uniform plane the methods being practiced in a haphazard manner by the labor contractors. Thinning is as expensive on one kind of land as on an- other where the stand and soil preparation is the same. Then at harvest the work in handling the beets is propor- tionate to their weight, being greater for the smaller beets. This scheme is worked out on actual cost of the work and gives a high rate for low yields and a low rate for big yields, the rate thus decreasing as the yield in- creases. In this way a basis of payment mutually sat- 47 isfactory to all concerned can be worked out for all conditions. Where labor conditions are especially bad, care in working the land to make it as smooth as possible and to destroy the greatest number of weeds will aid materially in cutting down the cost of maintenance. If the surface of the ground is cloddy the time and fatigue of thinning is greatly increased. If cultivations are neglected the cost of extra weedings must be borne by the crop. The use of the best types of farm implements is worth mentioning in this connection. Money spent in the pur- chase of improved modern sugar beet machinery or for any other kind of farm work for that matter is well invested. Irrigation.—There is nothing equal to natural rain- fall for beets. Not only does it soak into the ground better than irrigation water, but it soaks levees, ditch banks, and other necessary high spots which are inac- cessible to irrigation. Rainfall also lessens evaporation. This is accomplished not only by the fact that moisture is gained from the clouds during rainy weather, but also because evaporation from the fields is reduced to almost nothing. Moreover, when evaporation does again set in the drain from the beet land is not as great as it other- wise would be because the whole surrounding country is soaked. When any portion of the country is dry it heats the atmosphere, and as dry air makes big demands upon the soil for moisture, the irrigated fields are forced to give up more in proportion than they would otherwise be obliged to do. On the other hand, the opportunity to put water on the fields when the crop is in need of it, the less danger of rains interfering with the farming operations, or with the crop during maturity are big advantages in favor ot irrigation. Preparation for Irrigation.—The construction of irri- gation facilities will pay in many localities even when, in general, the rainfall is sufficient. The use of a small quantity of water at just the time the plant requires it will mean an increase in the final returns. Should the rains come nothing further need be done, but if no rain does fall when the beets are in need of water, then the 48 supply of irrigation water will be appreciated. I believe that in many sections where full dependence is now placed on the rainfall that a judicious amount of irriga- tion facilities will prove to be a paying proposition. To put in an irrigation system is by no means a very difficult job, although it is a subject requiring fore- thought and study. Various factors enter into the plan- ning of a system and each must be considered, not only separately but in connection with the scheme as a whole. A few of these are: (a) The source of the water, whether stream or well ; (b) The necessity for storing ; (c) Whether a sufficient quantity is available; this de- pends on: the distance it must be carried; the character of the soil in the field and in the ditch; the amount of land to be covered; the number of men using the water ; the height of the stream above the land (if a stream is the source) at the time when water is required ; (d) Whether the water is secured by gravity fall or by pumping. (e) If pumped, the height to be raised; and the amount of water needed. (f{) The slope of the land, (g) The amount of money available for the purpose. Accurate determination of all the foregoing is neces- sary in order to arrive at an estimate of the cost and possibilities which will in turn determine the system to be used both as regards securing the water, and for proper preparation of the fields for the reception and handling of the water when it gets to them. In most of the beet growing sections irrigation has been so instrumental in developing the industry that the systems for applying the water are well worked out. On a large scale, involving much water and considerable land, the services of a well trained, competent irrigation engineer are necessary. His training and experience will mean the installation of the most efficient system at the minimum cost. How the water shall be put on the land once it arrives can be determined by the farmer for himself, whether his supply comes from a small private plant or from a big mutual canal. This will depend on a number of fac- 49 tors, such as the amount of labor available for handling the water, the lay of the land, the quantity of water avail- able, and the amount of acreage to be covered. m When the water supply is to be developed for tracts of small area, the problem often can be worked out by the farmer himself, if the development of the project in- volves no serious problems in the selection of machinery or in field surveying. Even if the farmer should under- take the work himself it will usually pay him to secure the services of a good surveyor for two or three days in order properly to plan the line of ditches and the location of the checks. It is practically impossible to determine the direction and amount of slope of the land with the naked eye, when the amount of fall is but two or three feet to the hundred, or even less. In arid sections where beet growing is an established industry or in new districts of the same nature where sugar beets are to be grown, the water supply is one of the first factors determined by the mill people. The many thousands of dollars which must be invested to put up a sugar mill means that great care is exercised in in- vestigating the water resources and in developing a sup- ply where one does not already exist. In such localities the grower need not concern himself with the develop- ment of the water supply, as it is brought right to the land. All he has to do is to take care of it after it ar- rives. It is beyond the scope of this work to more than hint at the results to be gained by developing the irriga- tion possibilities of a country. Many factors enter into the profitable utilization of water which cannot be touched upon at this time. But it is a fact that many advantages result from a constant, ever-ready reserve of water, which can be drawn upon when needed, even if irrigation is not an absolute necessity. The discussion of the ways of preparing the land for the irrigation of sugar beets may well be discussed, as it is the aim of every grower to get the greatest returns possible from the use of the water. Irrigation is expen- sive work, and anything that will reduce the cost of handling the water will redound in greater profits on the crop. One of the most economical ways of saving is by the proper preparation of the land in the first place for 50 the reception of the water. There are several different methods which can be used in irrigating beets, or any other general farm crops, for that matter, each of which has its advantages as well as certain disadvantages. Which shall be used largely must be determined by the prevailing conditions of the section as well as by the object sought. In this connection the different methods must first be discussed and then the proper way of preparing the land for these methods. Methods of Irrigation. A number of methods are practiced such as: I. Flooding, by means of (a) Slip pipe, (b) Contour level checks, (c) Rectangular level checks, (d) Sloping checks. 2. Furrows. 3. Ditches. 4. Underflow. 5. Subirrigation. The slip pipe method consists in the use of galvanized iron pipe made in 12-foot lengths with the ends so fash- ioned that one joint will fit into the next and make a fairly tight connection. The pipe is laid to the part of the field to be irrigated, and as fast as a piece of land 1s irrigated successive sections of pipe are slipped off until the line of pipe is exhausted, or until the section of the field to be watered is completed. With the check system, the land is surveyed, graded, and leveled, the water being run into basins of varying sizes (usually not over two acres being in one check). The checks either follow the natural contour of the land, following the rise and fall, or if the land is level they are made rectangular in shape. In either case the bottoms of the checks are level. The water is held in these basins by either temporary or permanent earth borders or levees. A variation of the level check system is the sloping check or “blanket” check. These checks are from 200 to 1,000 feet long, and from 50 to 100 feet wide, with a fall af from 3 to 6 inches to the hundred feet—the greater 51 fall for the sandy land, the lesser for the heavy soils. With any of the flooding systems, the checks are some- times placed in series so that the water can be drawn off from one to another, after it has stood in the first check long enough to penetrate to the required depth. When im series the fall of the land determines the posi- tion amd size of the checks. Furrow irrigation consists in running the water down little ditches scraped or cultivated out between the rows of growing plants. The water is allowed to flow slowly down these little ditches in tiny rivulets. The furrows have a fall of three to six inches to the hundred feet, and water is allowed to run in them until the soil is moistened by the percolation of the water down to the required depth. Diteh irrigating consists in plowing out temporary ditches, 4 to 10 inches deep, right in the beet fields, for use in guiding the water in a general direction. Underflow irrigation is accomplished by a series of underground pipes which carry the water to the various parts of the field and release it underground. Subirrigation is irrigation by means of a natural sup- ply of water under the soil where the beets grow, ac- complished by raising the water table or by utilizing hard strata of soil for holding up the water and permitting it to spread throughout the mass of top soil. All of these methods have their advantages and disad- vantages. Around the sugar mill where the waste water must be taken care of the use of large checks are the first consideration so that large quantities of water can be handled cheaply and quickly. The irrigation serves the double purpose of disposing of the waste water from the mill, and of supplying needed moisture to the fields. It is put on at a time when the land is unoccupied so that large quantities of water can be used. This is the pre- vious-to-planting irrigation of the crop. In many sections this one irrigation will suffice to carry the crop through the season without further application of water. The method to employ depends on the individual case. The amount of water required by the crop, of course, is the first consideration. If crop irrigations are needed the frequency and quantity required must be taken into ac- 52 count, and whether the summer irrigation is united with a winter application. We can count on three condi- tions, winter irrigation alone, summer irrigation, or crop irrigation, alone, or winter combined with summer. By winter is meant the previous-to-planting irrigation; by summer the crop irrigations. When the winter irrigation alone will suffice, the best method is the one which will cover the most area in the shortest possible time. When crop irrigations are required, the method will depend on the climatic conditions and the amount of help available. In countries where beet culture is a new industry, con- siderable experimenting to determine the proper method of irrigation will be necessary. By actually growing the beets in the field under different periods of irrigation, the requirements as regards the application of water can be determined. On this basis the subsequent scheme for preparing the land can be worked out. This is something that is usually done in determining the value of a country for a sugar mill. Once the needs of the crop are known, the method of irrigation can be planned. If the crop re- quires one or more applications of water when growing, the method must take this into account. In general the advantages and disadvantages of the various systems are rather sharply defined. The slip pipe method requires but little preparation of the land and the water can be taken to any point without loss. With high priced water this method has its ad- vantages, but at best is costly to install and handle. For sugar beets it has but a limited use. The check system must be based on the character of the land. Where the grade is very nearly uniform the rectangular check can be used. Otherwise the contour check is necessary. In no case can the check system be used where the land does not slope evenly for from three to fifteen feet to the mile. When the grade is steeper, high levees are required close together, and these tend to be- come of such height that farming operations are difficult and the cost of construction is almost prohibitive. The advantages of a properly constructed system of this kind is the opportunity to irrigate with a large volume of wa- ter and the cost of applying is less than in any other sys- tem. The cost of maintenance is small after the first year, and, with certain soils, it is often the only method which 53 will give satisfaction. This is especially true on sandy lands where the seepage is so great that a big body of water put on all at once will prove to be about the only ‘vay to reach all parts of the field and checks alike. With ilooding the distribution of the water is more even, and the amount put on can be readily gaged both by gates and by borings made in the field. The last advantage is a distinct one as the need of accurate knowledge concern- ing the movement of the soil moisture is of vital impor- tance in determining the needs of the crops. The method has its disadvantages. Surface soil must be removed for levees, the levees do not receive water equally with the rest of the field, in the heavier soils per- colation does not reach beneath them, and they prove an- noying when using the farm machinery. Its first cost is high, a large volume of water is necessary, and care must be exercised in using water on lands which are liable to suffer from oversaturation. In many cases this may mean the proper installation of drainage facilities. The sys- tem cannot be used in countries where excessive dry tem- peratures will heat the water to a point involving danger of scalding the beets. With the furrow system the advantages consist in a saving of water from seepage and evaporation, the doing away with levees, the convenience in handling the water, the absence of soil crusts after irrigating, and the possi- bility of using a small head of water. The greater length of time required to spread the wa- ter, the unequal flow which usually occurs, the uneven dis- tribution of the water in the furrow and soil, the neces- sity for making the furrows each time, and the danger of using an insufficient amount of water, especially when trying to cover a large tract of land in a short time, are the disadvantages of furrow irrigation. The ditch method has little to recommend it. It is a scheme which can be used on land requiring an unfore- seen irrigation for which there is inadequate preparation. It is cheap to construct, the ditches do not interfere with farming as they are put in only when needed, and it per- mits the deliverance of water in continuous sheets. Its disadvantages are the difficult and excessive labor in handling, the difficulty in controlling the water, the un- 54 even distribution, the loss of the beets in plowing out the ditches, and the necessity that the land be of such texture that sideways—as well as downward—percolation will readily take place. | Only passing reference need be made to subirrigation and subflow. With the former initial outlay is heavy, and will seldom pay with a crop like beets. It does away with surface cultivation, but this is a doubtfui gain. Both of these methods are feasible only in special and ex- ceptional situations. Underflow or “‘natural subirrigation” consists in rein- forcing the natural country drainage. It is available only where a cheap, large supply of water can be obtained and where the soil rests on a hardpan or the previous clay layer, which will hold up the water. Where natural sub- irrigation occurs, it can be made good use of, but for a general scheme of development it does not compare with others. From the results obtained in sections using irrigation extensively the sloping check or the furrow systems will, I believe, offer the most universal satisfaction. Which of these to choose will depend on the labor available for put- ting on the water, the slope of the land, the amount of water obtainable, the periods when the water must be applied, and the amount of acreage to be covered in a given time. The flooding method gives the ground a more uniform soaking, and is rapid. Therefore, it re- quires a big head. The labor is less in handling. The furrow requires less water but necessitates more help. Where the soil tends to bake or crack, or when there is liability of scalding the plants with the water, furrowing will be the preferable method to use. If there is much irrigating up of the seed to do furrowing methods are pre- ferable. Preparation of the Land for Irrigation.—The first work to be done in actually preparing the fields for irriga- tion is to determine the direction and rate of fall. The most profitable way to do this, in the majority of cases, is to hire a surveyor to run the lines and from these deter- mine the location of the ditches and levees. This applies to even comparatively small tracts—2o or 30 acres. This work is especially necessary when the slope is slight. SI Methods have been evolved for a small amount of work by which the farmer can run his own lines. An example is the use of a spirit level, or something of that nature. Descriptions of these methods can be obtained from the nearest experiment station or from the United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Sta- tions, Washington, D. C.; but at best these methods are crude and unless the farmer understands something of surveying he will find the descriptions rather complicated. The main fact to bear in mind in getting the land in shape is to put it in as good condition as possible at the start. Reworking, to correct initial mistakes, is costly and unsatisfactory. To properly prepare it, the land should first be plowed or cultivated to a depth of 8 inches. Dead furrows and headlands should be avoided as far as possible. Follow- ing the plowing, such implements as are required to put the land in a finely pulverized condition should be used. The aim should be to work the land at the right degree of moisture in order to put it in as good shape as for a crop of alfalfa. After the soil is properly fined it should be allowed to settle and to dry on top. Leveling and grading come next. Leveling to cut off slight irregularities on the surface will be required in every case. For this purpose a stand- ard well made grader, wooden float, or leveller made of timber can be used, the kind which will pay best depend- ing on the amount of the work which is to be done. Once the land is in good, smooth condition, the actual work on the irrigation system will go forward. First of all comes the placing of the network of ditches which are to convey the water to the different parts of the field. These will be placed in accordance with the original plan of irrigation decided on. The size to make the ditches depends on the amount of water which is to be carried in them. They should be large enough to carry all the water with an additional depth sufficient to offset silting or sand- ing up which is bound to occur with muddy waters or where the fall varies in different parts of the same ditch. The shape of the ditch and its grade will affect its capac- ity. The shape will be determined largely by the imple- ments used in making it. As a general rule it will be 56 more or less rounded out. The grade will be determined by the character of the soil—the danger of scouring out the ditch being greater in sandy soils—and by the voluine of water required. The greater the grade the more wa- ter it will carry. A fall of from one-fourth to one foot per 100 feet is usually correct. The initial point where the water is received should be at the highest point of land under which the farmer ever expects to irrigate, and from there carried to the differ- ent parts of the farm. By winding around hills, by using flashboards, by siphoning, fluming or filling in depressions ditches can he made to carry water almost everywhere but uphill. After the ditches are put in the character of the work will change to suit the method which is to be installed. If the land is to be furrowed, no further work beyond the making of the field ditches will be required until it is time to fix the land for the proper reception of the water, whether this be before planting or after the crop is in. Furrows are then made from two to five or six inches deep with smooth firm sides. This is most easily accom- plished by means of a furrowing sled, or by attaching regular furrowing shovels to the beet cultivator frame. The sled is made of two 6x6 or 8x8, forty-two inches long. These are the runners. They are spaced and well braced far enough apart so that each runner will run in the center on either every row or of every other row of beets. The runners travel on edge and are sharpened at the forward end to a vertical wedge shape. The parts coming in contact with the soil should be faced with iron, especially at the forward ends. The furrows are made between the rows and end in a head ditch which is plowed out parallel to the main field lateral ditch. In irrigating with these ditches and fur- rows only a small amount of water is turned in at once. This is made to run slowly and to penetrate deeply. The furrows should be between 300 and 500 feet long, the lesser distance for the greater slope. But in no case should the grade be greater than 6 inches to the hundred feet in light lands and 3 inches in heavy soils if the best results are to be obtained. Improvements over the usual methods of regulating the water by means of a shovel- 37 ful of earth placed in the head ditches, consist of short wooden sprouts made of four pieces of lath nailed to- gether, which is placed in the ditch bank. These regulate the flow in each ditch and do away with all danger of washing out the temporary ditch banks. potatoes Several fields should be devoted to the rotation, and to follow out the scheme to the best advantage the ranch should be divided into fields as nearly of the same size as possible. The ideal condition is level, uniform land under irrigation. But as this happy ideal is seldom met with, each farmer must do the best he can with what he has. This scheme would call for six fields. The ranch would therefore be divided into six parts. Each part or field would then receive the treatment according to the scheme, each field starting in at a different point of the rotation the first year; that is, field No. 1 would have beets the first year, beets the second year and so on down the list. But field No. 2 would omit the first year’s beets, starting in with second year and then continue. Field No. 3 would start in with the third year’s crop— grain—and then continue, and so on until all the fields were accounted for. Summed up, it would give: Field. lst Year. 2d Year. 3d Year. 4th Year. 5th Year. 6th Year. beats DEES beets grain alfalfa .-alialfa potatoes Borst, eEtS grain alfalfa alfalfa potatoes beets a ante bai alfalfa alfalfa potatoes beets beets 4... alfalfa. alfalfa-.. potatoes: beets beets grain 5... ahtalta. potatoes >bacts beets grain alfalfa 6 ..potatoes beets beets grain Sudiia © altaita By this means one-third of the ranch is in beets each year, one-sixth in barley or other grain, one-sixth in one- year alfalfa, one-sixth in second year alfalfa and one- sixth in potatoes. Congestion of work is prevented and provision is made for the principal crop to be beets, while the land is left in good shape for the succeeding crop. This example is simply a rough guide to indicate the scheme of figuring out rotations. It considers only one- sixth the land in grain. If more is wanted, some varia- 91 tion will be required from the plan given above. In such a case a rotation might prove feasible consisting of : Hunsty cviears..b eee ee a ee beets - Seconds iveari ss teks’ grain, followed by green manure crop Eiheevieatanesaneetes: sacs potatoes Pourthswvedhucee ni. sa hue o beans In planning the rotations, those fields* which are to have the same crops at the start should be brought to- gether to facilitate handling. By adopting a system making the sugar beet the major crop and regulating the crops which are to follow, the producing capacity of any farm can be held at the maxt- mum, while the danger of congesting the work at some one time of the year will be effectually done away with. Sugar Beets in Orchards. The three principles of suc- cessful orcharding are pruning, cultivation and fertiliza- tion. To this must be added spraying, when insect or fungus foes are troublesome. The questions of pruning and fertilizing have been given much attention and methods have been evolved which amply cover most conditions. The main question is one of cultivation and this is a very important subject. For the proper growth of the tree, careful handling of the land is absolutely necessary. Pick up any authority on orcharding, and invariably he will advise deep, thorough plowing, preferably for one, two or three years before the trees are set out. After the trees are in, the order of the day is rather deep plowing and cultivation just as soon as the trees have been set. Thorough breaking up of the land accomplishes four things. It makes plant food available, it preserves the loss of moisture through evaporation, it holds the weeds in check and it permits air to circulate in the soil. Any- thing that will produce a condition of perfect tilth with no drain on the trees is to be recommended. Alfalfa, clover or grain have been suggested for use in the or- chard but they are not desirable. The difficulty in keeping the crop where it belongs, and the impracticability of giv- ing them proper attention while growing are factors against their general use, to say nothing of the large amount of plant foods removed by them. One of the finest crops for use in orchards is the sugar beet. Four rows among old trees and eight rows between 92 1 | } | ! : SUGAR BEETS IN ORCHARDS. 93 the rows of young trees not over three years old will ac- complish wonders. In the first place the land is deeply plowed for the beets, 10 to 16 inches, and the thorough handling required by them is reflected in the trees. Then careful hoeing and cultivating throughout the season is a direct benefit to the trees. The moisture is preserved by the maintenance of a surface mulch. As the beets grow they shade the ground and prevent evaporation. The consequent result of such treatment is to cause the roots of the fruit trees to go deeper, the land is left in much better shape, and the tiny rootlets of the beets help to break up the deeper layers of soil. When the beets are dug these small roots return humus to the soil while the tops return not only humus but a large amount of avail- able plant food. And finally when the crop is harvested there is the possibility of a snug return from the sale of the beets. Only one possible objection can be raised to sugar beets in orchards and that is the question of a moisture supply. Both the beets and fruit trees are heavy drawers of water, and to mature both to advantage an ample sup- ply of moisture must always be at hand, with the excep- tion of the ripening period in the fall. Watsonville, a great apple growing district of Califor- nia regularly practices this method, and finds the sugar beet a valuable adjunct even in full bearing orchards. Mechanical Labor Savers. No effort should be spared to utilize all mechanical contrivances possible, such as blockers in connection with thinning, toppers, elevators and diggers—all of which are described from time to time in the agricultural papers, sugar journals, govern- ment and state publications. Elevators and mechanical toppers are beyond the reach of the small farmer, but there are many ingenious little devices he can use, such as hooks for use on seeders or heavy land to pull the seeder down into the ground, crust breakers, and cultivator appliances. The selection of proper wagons is important. While these must conform to the unloading platforms it is well to get away from nets and use, as far as possible, self- dumping wagons. All beet tools should be heavy, well constructed and ser- viceable. Care both in first selection and in subsequent 94 ~. protection of implements ‘is well worth the taking. Leav- ing tools out in all kinds of weather is a very bad policy. Not only do stiff, rusty tools create a larger draft for the stock but their life is shortened 50 per cent. A decent tool shed will soon pay for itself. The Factory Agriculturist. The factory agriculturist is paid by the management to produce the beets. As far as possible his training, previous record, capacity for work and capabilities are looked into before he 1s em- ployed. Because of the fact that he is well fitted to handle the difficult questions of plant growth, the grower should get in close touch with him. If the agriculturist 1s a new man, unfamiliar with the local conditions he will be only too glad to accept the statements of men fitted by long residence and successful experience, as to the methods which have produced the best results. Later, after be- coming acquainted with local conditions, he may be able to introduce improvements over the old way which will result to the mutual advantage of all concerned. The interests of the agriculturist and of the grower are one—the production of the beets. To be thoroughly successful each must recognize the viewpoint of the oth- er. The agriculturist can help the grower to a great ex- tent, especially in suggesting remedies for unfavorable conditions, such as the gradually lessened production brought about by over or under-irrigation, alkalies, seep- age water, improper rotations, lack of plant foods, insect and fungous pests, and so forth. The choice of the seed to plant properly comes under his jurisdiction. In short the training of the agriculturist along the lines of soil physics, plant pathology and plant physiology fit him to properly solve the problems incident to-plant growth. The true agriculturist is growing beets, not for this year alone, nor for next year, but for many years to come. The million-dollar investment, more or less, that a sugar mill represents, cannot be made a paying invest- ment in a single season or in two seasons. Only after long years of bountiful harvests can the investment be considered a success. And the agriculturists’s duty is to bring this about as far as possible. His suggestions, therefore, are based on the future, rather than on the a5 present. Too often losing sight of this point of view, the grower blames the agriculturist for adopting policies which may not wholly favor the grower. This point should not be overlooked in judging the agriculturist’s actions. Therefore, every grower should feel free to use the ser- vices and experiences of the agriculturist for by so doing the interests of both will be furthered to a great extent. Sugar Beet Culture in the Salt River Valley. The soil conditions in Arizona are such that no land that has not previously been in cultivation should be se- lected for sugar beet culture. The land that has proved to be best suited to this crop is the loose, soft land that at some time previous has been cultivated to alfalfa. The soil in general is not impregnated with sufficient humus unless alfalfa has been grown or material of a humus nature plowed into it. There are sediment soils in the lowlands along the rivers or irrigation ditches that grow excellent sugar beets, but it is advisable to select an ol¢ alfalfa field for growing the crop. Experiments have been carried on in all different soils in the valley, and according to the topographical map of the government, the Glendale Loess and the Maricope sandy loams have by far demonstrated their adaptability over all other classes of soils. This land is found in the vicinity of Glendale, Kyrene, Mesa and the Buckeye country. It can be readily distinguished from the unde- sirable adobe and sandy soils. The planting season extends from the first of Novem- ber to the middle of February. Continued experience has shown that the land should be plowed early and allowed to lay fallow for a month or more before preparation. The land should be plowed 8 to 10 inches in depth and if the beets are continued on the land for a period of three or four years, which is possible and also advisable in this valley, the second or third year a deep tilling machine should be used, plowing the land from 14 to 16 inches deep. About two or three weeks before planting the land should be well levelled, borders thrown up and flooded evenly. Care should be taken not to keep the water on 96 the land too long or to allow it to back up at the head or waste ditches. When dry enough to work, the borders should be split and levelled down and the field worked up with any of the approved cultivators. Discing or spring-toothing does not give the good results obtained in some other places. The land, permits working quite wet and forms an excellent seed bed by using the harrow and ordinary board float. The practice is in all cases to work the land with the tools referred to frequently enough to bring it into garden shape on the surface. Planting is done with the regular beet drills, in rows 18 inches apart. The climatic conditions are such that most excellent stands are procured from any of the standard seeds. Cultivation should begin as soon as the beets can be liscerned plainly in the rows. In most cases the field “sould be well rolled before the cultivation begins. Xnives, discs or spiders should be the cultivator equip- ‘ent for the first cultivation. All later cultivations should Se given with the chisels and duck feet. The standard makes of 4-row cultivators have proved the best in all cases. After the first cultivation the beets should be thinned, ‘eaving a single beet every 8 to 10 inches in the row. Labor for this work is very easily procured in the valley, the charges being from $4.50 to $5 per acre. Very little hoeing is necessary if the thinning is well done and the expense therefore is materially lessened, as after the thin- ning the cultivator if properly adjusted, will keep the field clean of grass and weeds until laid by. After the first flooding irrigation for the preparation of the seed bed, only two irrigations are necessary. Whe first of these two irrigations is given in the latter part of March and the other in May or June, according to the time the field is to be harvested. The cross-field irriga- tion ditches should not be farther than 4o rods apan, and in the irrigation of the rows, every row should be well furrowed out and the water conducted so that as little flooding as possible is done. Flooding is a bad feature as the ground bakes around the plants and also endangers scalding. The harvesting and delivery of the beets starts in May 97 and June and continues until August. On account of the temperature this must be a very rapid operation. As before stated there is ample labor available, and for tep- ping, piling and loading into wagons the charge is from 57) to SO; per acre. The yield on good land will run as high as 27 tons per acre, and the harvest is over in plenty of time to plant a crop of cowpeas, sorghum or milo maize on the same piece of ground after the beets are removed, thereby giv- ing the man who is willing to work the opportunity of producing two crops on the same piece of land the same year. Conclusion to Cultural Work. In general, the aver- ages of tonnage and quality of sugar beet production are tar below what they should be. Examples of high yields in every section indicate the possibility of raising the average far above of what it is. In 1910 the average for the whole United States was 9.73 tons per acre. This means that the profit is not as great as it should be. In fact, cost of production and receipts are not very far re- moved. The beet crop requires proper handling and care to do its best and is by all means a crop for intensive farming. Certain rules have been worked out which will aid the grower in producing his crop, but only by unceasing study of local methods can the greatest ulti- mate profits be secured from his land. It is not always possible for every man to attain the highest yields of any section, because of the difference in his land or be- cause of unfavorable location, but it is a fact that with the majority of farmers more knowledge concerning the crop’s needs and greater attention to the details which will result in fulfilling those needs will bring about in- creased profits. Sugar beet growing demands that the work be done on time. Planting, cultivation, thinning, irrigating and har- vesting cannot be delayed without detriment to the crop. But on the other hand no crop responds more freely or promptly, or manifests its appreciation of proper atten- tion more quickly, than does the sugar beet. Further development of the beet sugar industry will doubtless result in a greater tonnage and higher sugar content and purity, but much of this must be brought 98 about by the appreciation and practice of better farming methods on the part of the grower. The aim should be to make the land pay increased profits rather than to look to the mill for a higher price. At the present time the farmer receives for a ton of beets nearly one-half the market value of the sugar in those beets. The other half must pay operating expenses, interest on money invested, risks, depreciation of mill and the profit. Unless the market price of sugar goes up, the chances of the farmer receiving more money from the mill is doubtful in most sections. But an improvement, however, can well be looked for in the soil of his fields. Throughout this discussion of the culture of the sugar beet, I believe the fact which stands out most prominently is the need for every farmer to know his soil. Only by a study of each field by itself can the proper principles of crop handling be worked out. This can easily be done by each individual farmer and in the determination of the character of his soil will come the solution of most of the cultural problems. The greatest factor in this study is a good preparatory course in common sense. Should work spring up in this study which is beyond the scope of the farmer—such as alkali determinations— the State Experiment Stations and the United States Department of Agriculture stand ready to help. As the farmer pays his share of the taxes to support these insti- tutions he is entitied to his share of their work. YG CEA? Ren, FEEDING BY-PRODUCTS. Pulp. Beet pulp is the beet slices after the sugar has been extracted, and these constitute in weight about 85 per cent of the total beets worked. These cuttings are run out into a big silo or else shipped fresh. As cattle feed the pulp is very valuable. Even to this day there are many sections which do not fully appreciate this im- portant food. For sheep, hogs and cattle it proves a cheap and desirable feed. For dairy cows it acts as a condi- tioning food, thus increasing the milk flow. Beet pulp is put out in three forms—wet, siloed and dry. The siloed is more or less moist, but a great deal of the water present in fresh pulp drains off down the silo drainage system. All are desirable foods. The wet pulp varies in analysis but in general consists of: Per cent. WET: Siete ky eee Ce men See en tOeL Oe Nitrogenous, matter *250.050 223 ok tee 88 Digestible: car bohydratesi v.04 tie. eee OO indigestible carbohydrates: 7s 04.2).0% < rat 2.40 2) ena se ene Sa aa EE ese aie gee oe O07 aN gat ae rey Sy OD GR eR ML ge ETE 1.02 Digs Mat Bhens Se eos Petes ies eae eee 10.67 Siloed pulp loses mostly excess water. It experiences some changes through butyric and lactic fermentation so that it gains in dry matter. Its average composition is: Per cent: Witenes te CA Senta eee ee ea ak 88.01 INTEFOR eNOS APAGEE Tie Say Rice one as, ees 13 Disestible. carbohydratesy o7.5 2h. wa aee tee ee Tndigestible Carbohydrates = 2.8.22. 4s 2.90 VRE Ds aed ebony Ribs) Reman ven Gara coh CAG ANE Net ate 11 BIST AA iene ie eh. RR ce eS SL hee) 1.00 POV RINE Nice. detainee Sea ene cee Ak tes, os 11.99 Dry pulp is simply fresh pulp with the bulk of the 100 water removed by means of some mechanical heating method. When dried it is unaltered in composition—sim- ply contains the same ingredients of the fresh pulp, only in larger proportion. In general it contains: Per cent: ViaweR. F385 28 bis Suaenali Metre nomta tte, Cae neeaeiees aS 7 -10 Nitrogenous matter ......... is oh Sees 7-8 Divestible carbohydrates +. 72.0. o sos. ae dd -60 indigestible carbohydratess. <2 222.2... 18-20 Eke tee he oh cok She ay) Wize? Beale a epee ae o- 1 BOGEN pie tie a et ec See Bete he OA Poi 10 -12 Dey MAE Ts 64.45 Sako ro tet cet oe 90 -92 The selling price of dried pulp varies greatly, ranging from $12 to $25 a ton. Often the pulp is mixed with a portion of the waste molasses or with: some other edible or nutritious foods. From the standpoint of the feeding value it is worth eight times as much as siloed pulp and ten times as much as fresh pulp. When the savings in freight is taken into account it is worth still more. Pulp commands various prices. The rate is by no means uniform and is seldom based on the feeding value of the pulp. From the standpoint of feeding value fresh pulp is worth from $1 to $2.50 a ton. The feeding value is largely determined by the character and amount of the feed given with the pulp, the kind of stock which is fed (age, weight, condition, etc.), the initial cost of the feeders and the value of the finished product. Just as these factors vary from one year to another in different sections so will the value of the pulp vary. From analysis the pulp is worth at least $1.29 a ton. Compared with corn silage containing 70 per cent water it is worth half as much. If the pulp is pressed so that it contains 70 per cent water its value is equal. The cattle, however, will eat twice as much of the pulp. Pulp forms a nutritious and wholesome, although a rather poorly balanced ration. Pulp is fed either for fattening purposes or as a main- tenance ration. Of the two methods the lesser amount of pulp will be used under the second way of feeding. Pulp fed in small quantities to dairy cows (20 to 40 pounds) will in- crease the flow of milk. It will not affect the butter fat. The pulp will not impart any unpleasant taste to milk, cheese or butter when used in this quantity. Care must 101 be exercised in starting in to feed pulp. Small quantities should be fed at first and gradually increased until the desired amount is being given. Experiments run_ with dairy cattle at the Utah experiment station showed that 24 pounds of beet pulp per day per cow for six weeks in addition to the hay and grain gave a better weekly gain than twelve pounds of sugar beets. With the pulp the average weekly yield of milk was 131 pounds. With beets it was 127.4. In fact, on a small place of 40 or 50 acres of tillable iand, and a little pasture, the use of beet pulp and alfalfa, where it can be grown, with a small ration of grain will make dairying a very profitable industry. By rotating the land, one-half in beets and one-half in alfalfa for three years and then alternating, profit can be secured from the crops and work provided for the men. The beets themselves will prove profitable, the alfalfa will produce hay and prepare the land for the beets, while the pulp secured will prove a most desirable feed. Fifteen to twenty head of cows means a steady income of $150 to $200 a month. The use of the manure secured and the effects of the crops on the land will result in an actual increase in fertility—a welcome contrast to the hard usage most land receives. For fattening cattle, beet pulp can be fed with profit either in a large or a small way. On small farms a few head can be successfully fattened. On a large scale four factors determine profit in pulp feeding to fatten cattle, or any other stock, for that matter: (ay . The cost of the feed, (b) The cost of the feeders. (c) Feeding must be complete in three months. (d) The selling price. Feeding Beet Pulp. To obtain the greatest returns from the use of beet pulp it should never constitute the total ration. This applies to both fattening and main- taining stock. Feeders can be fattened on pulp alone, but the dangers of weak, broken-down backs and kidney trou- bles are ever present and the stock must be marketed as soon as ready. Moreover, while a ration of pulp alone will put more flesh on a cow or steer that is already in good condition, it will not fatten poor stock unless used 102 ‘VINHOMITVO NI dINd LHAdG NO WILLVO DNIGHHA 03 1 in connection with something else. Chemical analysis shows that only a small per cent of the fresh pulp is food, go per cent being water. But cattle certainly make gains cn it. This is due to the fact that it is a succulent feed and by increasing the digestive capacity of the animal and providing certain conditioning properties it fits the animal to make better use of its hay and grain. Cattle fed entirely on beet pulp cannot be put back on pasture. They must then be sold to the butcher. The kind of feed to give with the pulp for fattening depends on the local supply. The use of oil meal, corn, alfalfa or barley hay, field peas, barley, or roughage, such as straw, dried beet leaves or coarse hay, is determined by the amount at hand and the value. Consequently the method varies with different sections. Ten to 12 pounds of alfalfa seems to be the best combination. Later this may be supplemented with 5 pounds of corn, or 2 to 5 pounds of oil meal. The character of the feed, too, de- pends on the object sought, whether quick finishing or partial maintenance and partial fattening. At first the cattle must be starved to the pulp, for they co not always take to it readily. This will require four or five days, but once they do take to it they will eat it with relish. In general it may be said that the daily ration of pulp should amount to about 150 to 180 pounds of fresh pulp, or 80 to 110 pounds of siloed pulp, with 10 to 15 pounds of roughage and 2 to 5 pounds of oil meal or grain for cattle averaging 1,000 pounds. This means that steers totaling 100,000 pounds (say 100 head) will require 7.5 tons of pulp, one-half ton of roughage, and from 200 to 500 pounds of grain a day. It is usually the plan to chop the roughage or hay and mix with the pulp, but this is a wasteful practice. The most successful way is to feed separately, as the hay fer- ments very easily when mixed with the pulp and large quantities have to be thrown out. The sour pulp left contaminates the new supply and causes it to spoil rap- idly. The untouched stuff litters up the yards and causes an unwholesome condition. When men and teams are available the putting of the pulp in the feed boxes every few hours will result in a 104 saving of material, as the stock will then keep it eaten up clean. The hay should be fed from stalls or scattered on the ground from the wagon. In dry weather the latter way is preferable, as it gives the weaker stock an equal chance while feeding. Siloing. Pulp is easy to silo, as it protects itself where- ever it is in quantity by the formation of a hard, shell- like covering 3 to 6 inches deep. This protects the pulp beneath. To be handled most economically the pulp should be put in large piles as the outer coating is best discarded. There, therefore, will be less waste from the big piles. Pulp differs from other ensilage as corn, clover, pea, etc., in that no care is required to exclude the air. The beet pulp takes care of itself in either the silo or when merely thrown in a pile. When the amount of pulp fed is small the piling method will answer. But for storing any quantity for any length of time, the construction of a suitable silo will prove a profitable investment. The location of the silo is important. In curing, pulp gives off a vast amount of water—from two-thirds to four-fifths of the original weight. For this reason land having quick and easy drainage is necessary. When this does not occur naturally it must be artificially provided. Water standing in a silo gives water logged, soggy, im- perfectly cured pulp. This is difficult to handle, has a tendency to sour quickly and is distasteful to the stock. Silos should, where possible, be placed above the feeding _pens. The pulp can then be carried by hand cars to the feed boxes, or if wagons are used to transport it the haul will be easier, especially when the roads are muddy. This means a saving in time and money. In building the silo the best kind to make is one built in the ground by excavating a long, shallow hole and lining with inch planks on the sides, and two inch on the bottoms. Pulp silos differ from those for corn, alfalfa, etc., in that provision must be made for great laterai swelling power. This strain is so great that only earth walls will withstand it. The silo can be built in the ground or on it. In the latter case walls of earth are drawn up around the silo. For most situations the re- moval of the soil for use in building the sides will ae 105 mane most economical, the pulp being stored where the soil is taken out. Board or plank silos built above ground will not stand the pressure, even when reinforced with iron bands. ' It is best to make the silo wide and shallow rather than deep and narrow so that the wagons can be loaded in the silo and then driven out without too great an expen- diture of energy. When the silo is too small to back the wagon into it, the extra work in shoveling from a deep silo will not compensate for the saving in space. The floor of a silo is the important part. It must be so laid that the drainage is good, the flooring solid, and shoveling easy. If the soil is gravel the drainage will take care of itself. But when the soil is heavy artificial drainage must be provided. Two-inch planks set at a slight angle to permit the excess water to drain off at one side and far enough apart to prevent clogging, will do nicely. From the side where the planks discharge, a ditch or pipe can be laid to the nearest slough. As the value of pulp becomes more generally recog- nized the sugar companies are building big silos for stor- ing and then shipping out as needed by the feeder. Siloed pulp is worth more than fresh pulp. I have in mind a factory which sells fresh pulp for 25 cents a ton and siloed for 65 cents, yet it takes five tons of fresh to make one of siloed, due to the very large size of the silo and the great pressing given much of the pulp in it. Feeding on a Large Scale. Pulp feeding on a large scale has been proved a profitable venture. There is a zood market for all pulp-fed stock, as the flesh is tender though firm, and can be cut off the carcass almost before the meat is cold. In other words it does not require ripen- ing. This appeals to the trade and pulp-fed meat always commands top-notch prices and often a premium in addi- tion. Moreover, the stock fattens six weeks earlier when fed on pulp. To properly feed cattle (the usual stock considered) a number of factors must be carefully studied out. Among these are: (a) The feeders, their source, kind, condition, age and cost. (b) A dry, well drained- yard with ample corral room and railroad facilities. (c) An ample supply of pulp and roughage or other feed. (d) The market. 106 Manifestly the buying and selling price must be far enough apart to permit feeding and transportation costs and to allow a fair profit. It is usually cheaper to bring the cattle to the pulp, i. e., in the vicinity of the sugar mill, than to transport the heavy pulp to the cattle. By shipping, cattle can be sent many hundreds of miles, and finished off to advantage. The kind and condition of the feeders is an important point. Profitable feeding means that the cattle (the stock most generally used, the same thing would apply to sheep or hogs, only in a different degree) must be finished in 120 days for light stock and 150 days for heavy. The feeding, of course, will keep up as long as the pulp lasts, usually six to eight months. New stock will be brought in to take the place of that sent to the block. To make the greatest gain stockmen favor animals ranging from three to five years of age. Less food is utilized for growing purposes and the stock can put on fat rapidly. For this reason two-year-olds do not make the gains that older animals do. Animals with large, well sprung ribs, broad backs and small necks and shoulders—in other words, the best beef type—should be selected. These make greater gains in weight and com- mand better prices. Durhams are a class of cattle well fitted for fattening. Even should there be but a dash of Durham present in grade stock it will show in the better fattening of the animal. The proper feeding facilities are very important. To feed to the best advantage the animals must be confined. It is then possible to gauge the amount of food required, and there is less loss. The labor item is also reduced. Sufficient corrals should be available so that there will be a few extra ones for use in wet weather. It is very important that the corrals be kept dry and the proper selection of soil is necessary. Pulp-fed cattle secrete great quantities of urine, which, combined with the water from the pulp, means that in soils other than those of a very sandy or gravelly nature, muddy conditions are bound to result. This has been the cause of failure in many an instance. Young bullocks are fastidious. They dislike sloppy, wet conditions. Old cows and steers are not so particular, but even with them fattening will be delayed. 107 The yards should be near enough to a main line of railroad so that there is but a short drive, and at the saine time far enough away so that passing trains will not disturb the cattle. This is especially necessary with range stock, as being unaccustomed to trains, barking dogs, a continual stream of people, or much shooting, quiet and peace are essential to rapid gains. At the same time the yards should be on a spur track so that the pulp can be shipped direct to them. When it is necessary or desirable to store a portion of the pulp, a properly constructed silo is a valuable requisite. This should be located with ref- erence to the feeding scheme, and preferably should go on high ground so that the pulp can be carried by grav- ity cars to the feeding pens, as described under “‘Siloing.” Corrals of fairly large size are desirable, for instance five acres in each, as they permit moving the feed boxes around when the ground becomes sloppy. It also keeps the cattle from crowding by giving them room for feed- ing or basking. In this connection it might be well to draw attention to dehorning, which is an advantageous method to follow with feeders. By means of a network of wooden or iron track cars can be used to carry the food to the cattle. Any method of loading or unloading which will save time and labor will mean increased profits. Trees for shade and windbreaks are advisable. Where they do not occur naturally they should be planted, using kinds best adapted to the section. The protection and comfort for the cattle will be returned in the faster rate of fattening. ‘ The troughs for feeding should be wide, fairly shal- low and long so that the cattle can feed from both sides without interfering with one another. A convenient size is 18 inches deep, 3 feet wide, and 10 feet long, made with ample drainage to take off the excess water. This can be done by boring holes or leaving spaces between the planks, or if the troughs are wanted for some other purpose a hole can be bored in one end and through which the excess water can be poured. When the troughs are wanted elsewhere this can be stopped up and all made watertight. The feed boxes should be made as light as possible to facilitate moving and yet solid enough to pre- vent the cattle moving them aroun‘. 108 When the boxes are to remain permanently they can be made as long as wanted with a platform on one side for the cattle to stand on while feeding. The track can run along the other side and the pulp be put in very easily. A constant supply of roughage must be on hand. If this can be grown in the immediate vicinity, so much the better, but if it must be hauled provision must be made to insure a constant supply on hand at all times. It is a wise policy to contract for the hay in advance. Beet pulp feeding has made money for every man who has studied his conditions. With the prospect of a steady market, and the increasing necessity of raising stall fed cattle to meet much of the demand, the value of the beet pulp for feeding is bound to advance. It is an investment well worth investigating. Preserving Pulp. The odor emanating from pulp silos is often so offensive that means for stopping it are desir- able. Common salt at the rate of four pounds to the ton of pulp put on every 6-inch layer has been recom- mended and found good. The use of certain lactic fer- ments to put in the silos is coming to the front, but up- todate they have not had sufficient trial in this country to show their value. Molasses. Molasses is the final residuum of the beet juice after it has gone through all the sugar extraction processes. It still contains a large quantity of sugar, and all the salts and other impurities which were present in the beet juice. It also contains the unextracted sub- stances which are used in the process. The molasses has a bitter and disagreeable taste and is unfit for human consumption, but is well worth considering as a stock food. Mixed with ground dry feeds and other rations it has given excellent results. It is quite generally fed in Germany. The molasses must not be fed alone or in large quantities because of its purging effect. When fed without mixing with dry feeds it should be diluted with two times its volume of water. In Europe it is fed mixed with a kind of mull from the top of moss, mixed while hot, and sold as a patent food. As a recommenda- tion for use in this country mix 20 pounds of molasses with 100 pounds of chopped hay or straw. After getting used to it cows will eat 20 pounds of this with 15 pounds 109 of cottonseed or linseed meal, or 20 pounds of wheat bran. When first feeding only small quantities of. mo- lasses should be given, gradually increasing the amount until the full ration is being fed. At the start only one- fourth the amount should be fed. Molasses is of great value to all kinds of stock, including horses, if not fed in too large amounts, as it has certain conditioning prop- erties. For work stock the molasses can be sprinkled on the hay either normal or diluted, at a trial rate of two pounds per day. Beet Tops. Beet tops are an important addition to the list of stock foods. They can be fed fresh, dried, siloed and either alone or in combination. They give a rare flavor and color to pork and beef. Stock fattened on tops command highest prices at killing time. Mechanically-dried tops contain about 10 per cent of water, and the feeding value is about nine times that of fresh tops. The field dried tops are about equal in feeding value, ton for ton, to first quality hay. It takes about four tons of fresh tops to make one of dry. The tops will equal from 20 to 4o per cent of the total weight of the plant—the usual average being 25 per cent. That is for every 12-ton crop of roots, there will be three tons of tops. In order to arrive at the value of the tops for feeding, whether this be done on the home ranch or on purchased tops, knowledge of the relation of tops pro- duced to roots is necessary. If the value of first-class hay is $10 per ton, the fresh tops will be worth $2.50, as they lose three-fourths of their weight in drying in the field, since dry tops are equal to hay. If the yield of roots is sixteen tons, the yield of tops (if they are 25 per cent of the whole) will be four tons of fresh tops or one ton of dried tops. If taken up and fed these will be worth $10 per ton, or $10 per acre when dry. The fresh tops will be worth $2.50 per ton or $10 per acre. Beet tops should be fed preferably in the field. The reason for this is pointed out under “Correct Topping of Beets.” If taken off all the fertilizing ingredients are lost, unless every bit of the manure made is returned to the land. Feeding on the land is not so bad, although even in this case about one-fifth the value is lost, as the 110 manure returns 80 to 85 per cent. Figuring in this way the following table is interesting: A crop of Gives Ingredients returned Ingredients roots of tops in manure at 80% Lost. 8 tons 2 tons 1.6 tons 4 tons 12 tons 3 tons 2.4 tons .6 tons 16 tons 4 tons 3.2 tots 8 tons But as 25 to 50 per cent of the tops will be trampled in, the actual loss in feeding in the field is only from 400 to 800 pounds, of which go per cent is water. The tops for feeding in the field—less 25 per cent trampled under—are therefore worth: Froimean-6"-ton- crop of roots. -. 2. us. ; $3.10". (per.acre: Krona: 12: fonerop of Toots... .t:.... 56252 per “acre: FromraiGton (Crop2ot foots. :<...255 + oor? Peracre: When selling tops for feeding it is well to contract by the acre. It is sometimes a question how much stock an acre will support and again there is no assurancre that all cattle will be put on which the land can carry. Acre rates will prove more satisfactory to both buyer and seller than a per head pasturage rate. An important provision should be inserted which requires that all cattle be re- moved from the land as soon as serious rains come, as their tramping over the muddy ground will result in puddling the soil, something difficult to overcome in fu- ture working. Cattle on the fields will trample down levees and ditch banks and even tramp down the land if dry. These things must be taken into account when con- sidering the pasturing of cattle on beet tops. The gain on beet tops depends, as in feeding pulp, on the age, condition and kind of stock at the start, the length of time fed, and the location of the fields as re- gards noise and disturbances. An actual experiment with ranch steers and Mexican cows (the cows were poor feed- ing stock) gave after being on tops 75 days an increase of 170% pounds for the steers and 118 pounds for the cows. They sold for 5% and 4% cents on the hoof with no deduction for shrinkage. The original cost was 4% and 3% cents respectively. The net profit was the value of the fat stock over the thin—one cent a pound, and the value of the increase in weight. When sold the steers averaged 1,283 and the cows 832 pounds. The stock re- ceived nothing but beet tops and such green stuff as they could pick up along the ditch banks. 111 With reasonable care there is no danger in feeding beet tops. They should not be fed moldy. Care must also be exercised when bringing cattle from dry feed to the tops. If fed too much at first they scour badly and fattening will be set back several weeks. In a large field it will pay to herd the stock on the portion which has been har- vested long enough to permit the tops to wither and wilt, as there is no danger of scouring when the tops have reached this stage. In this way, too, there is less loss, for stock will leave dry tops for fresh ones if they can get at them. The greatest danger is from choking and moldy beets. For choking a piece of stiff rubber hose three feet long should be always at hand to be used in forcing a lodged top on down through the animal’s throat. If a choking animal is not prompt'y attended to it will strangle to death. When a beet top becomes stuck the affected ani- mal will hunt some shrub or low spot to hide. Such places should be constantly watched. After the stock has been on tops for three or four days the avaricious greed they show at first slackens, and the danger of choking is then slight. Moldy beets are the outcome of moist, warm weather. Dry, or nearly dry, tops will not become readily affected. Tops showing mold should not be fed. While any moldy food is bad, moldy tops are especially so. Beet tops make a good feed and will prove an extra source of income from the land. The more land put in beets the greater will be the return from this source. Personally, the author believes the income derived from the beets more than offsets the damage to the land, pro- vided the stock is not left on after the land becomes wet. The amount of fertility lost is hardly enough to take into account, 1f proper methods of green manuring, fertiliz- ing and crop rotation are being followed. Of course, when the land is in need of humus, plowing the tops under green is most advisable, but after a few treat- ments of this kind, the tops can be used to advantage for stock feed. 112 ee, Ware BEET TROUBLES. The discussion of beet troubles will prove more for- midable in these pages than their real occurrence in the field. The beet is singularly free from insect and fungus pests, so that only at rare intervals is the application of any remedy necessary. When a trouble does appear, however, a quick, correct diagnosis and the speedy ap- plication of a remedy will often mean insurance against damage. For this reason the different general troubles are taken up here. Many of these are purely local, others are more or less general, while some appear only at more or less infrequent intervals. Probably no section is trou- bled by all of them. Insect Control.—The direct control of insects depends on their method and way of feeding. For forms which feed on the top of the beet, spraying is employed to a large extent. It is beyond the scope of this work to do more than point out the best method to employ. Insects gain their food by either sucking (as plant lice, leaf hop- pers, etc.) or by actually eating the tissues of the plant (as caterpillars, leaf miners and many beetles). To kill the former, a spray must be employed which will come in actual contact with the insect. Sprays for this pur- pose are of an oily nature and kill by forming a film over the insect, thereby shutting out the air and causing the insect to suffocate to death. For insects which gain their food by eating parts of the plant, poison for them can be put on where they are in the habit of feeding, so that when the insect feeds it will take in the poison with its food. Sprays for this purpose should contain very active poisons which will stick to the plant during wet spells of weather. 113 For sucking insects the contact poison, as it is called, usually employed is kerosene emulsion. It is made of: 14 pound whale-oil soap. . 2 gallons kerosene. 1 gallon water. The water is brought to a boil and the soap is dis- solved in it. Then this mixture is removed from the fire and the kerosene added, the whole then being churned together until of the consistency of thick cream. The easiest way to do this is to pour it into the spray tank and pump it back into itself under high pressure for a few minutes. This constitutes the stock solution. For use against the insects it is diluted at the rate of one part of stock solution to fifteen parts of water. The formula given will, therefore, be sufficient for one ordinary 50-gallon barrel of spray. It 1s absolutely necessary that the spray be thoroughly prepared, so that there will be no free kerosene present. This would tend to be injurious to the plants. For insects which chew their food, arsenate of lead is at the head of the list. It is easy to mix and spray, is effective, and sticks on once it is dry, in spite of numer- ous rains. The usual rate of application is three to five pounds to a barrel of water (50 gallons). Clean culture around the fields will go far toward re- ducing insect pests. The removal of rubbish piles, the cleaning out of fence corners and lines, the picking up of old pieces of board and other trash, and the removal of weeds will prevent the wintering over of many adults, with a consequent reduction of insects. Cleanliness around the fields is worth more attention than it usually receives. And the beauty of stich a cotifse is that it benefits the farm where it is practiced, irrespective of neighbors’ neglect. The pasturing of turkeys or poultry on the beet fields until the young plants begin to peep through will go far toward ridding the land of many insect pests. Fungus Control—Bordeaux mixture is the nsual rem- edy for fungus troubles. It consists of a combination of bluestone (copper sulphate), lime and water. It is usu- ally made of five pounds of bluestone and six pounds of 114 lime to 50 gallons of water. The bluestone is dissolved in 25 gallons of water. Unslaked lime is used for the lime part. The required amount of lime is slaked with just enough water to moisten it, care being taken not to drown it. When thoroughly slaked, enough water is added to bring the total up to 25 gallons. For spraying, the two are run together into the spray tank through strainers, and thoroughly stirred together. In spraying, either for insects or fungi, the material should be put on when it will dry. It will then be quite resistant to rains. Any spray outfit is satisfactory which throws a fine, mist-like spray under pressure. The noz- zle is important in this connection. The Bordeaux and Vermoral are both standards. With a growing plant like the beet it is necessary to repeat the sprayings as often as new erowth appears, and to protect all parts it is necessary that the spraying be very thorough. In fact, the degree of “success -at; tained by the spray will be directly determined by the thoroughness of the work. Combined Insect and Fungus Control-—This is accom- plished by using three to five pounds of arsenate of lead in Bordeaux mixture, and spraying both at once. It can only be utilized against insects which chew their food. When any general insect or fungus trouble is apt to appear, it is good policy to spray the crop when it gets above ground and to repeat the spraying at intervals of two or three weeks. This is especially applicable to sec- tions suffering from leaf-spot. By putting on a com- bined fungicide and insecticide, as just described, many insects will be destroyed with the fungi, and vice versa. In using combined sprays they should be mixed only when needed for immediate use. Insect Troubles—It would be a long list to name all the insects which feed on the beet. For general purposes the following only are of sufficient importance to war- rant special notice: Insects Affecting the Beet Foliage——A host of insects occur here, for the succulent green leaves offer an at- tractive addition to insect diet. Blister beetles, both the striped one, or old-fashioned potato beetle (Diabrotica vittata), one-half inch long, with black and yellow 115 stripes, and the cucumber beetle (Diabroctica 12—punc- tata), same length, but green in color, with twelve black spots on the back, are voracious feeders. These ar@ fa- miliar to all. Plant bugs of various kinds, leaf hoppers and web- worms, of which the beet webworm (Lo-vostege Stic- tacalis) is the most important, feed on the beet. The latter is a pale, yellowish-green caterpillar, spotted with black points, from each of which a hair arises. When full grown they are three-quarters of an inch long. They are the young of a moth with fringed wings. They live under a web which they spin for protective purposes, on the crown leaves, or underside of old leaves. Woolly bears (Spilosoma virginica)—large hairy cat- erpillars—are familiar feeders. The beet army-worm (Caradrina exigua) also feeds on the tops, as does the zebra caterpillar. The irregular channels often seen in beet leaves are caused by the migrations of a tiny slug working between the two surfaces of the leaf. It is the young of a fly (Pegoya vicina), resembling the common housefly, only one-half as large. It is more interesting than serious. Thrips, tiny insects with featherylike wings, do some damage to the leaves but are seldom serious. They differ from the ones just mentioned in that they require a contact poison. The flea beetle, several families of which are usually represented, is the worst pest of the beet top. The beetles have strong, well-developed hind legs, with which they propel themselves forward with great leaps, similar to the action of a flea. They skeletonize the leaf of the beet by eating the pulp out from between the veins. The red spider (Tetraynchus bimaculatus) is easy to recognize. They are tiny mites, visible on the underside of the leaf as red specks. They spin a protective web. Contact poisons will assist in reducing them. Plant lice are known to all. Any contact poison will hold them down. The ladybirds (red beetles) are the greatest factor in keeping them down, and in ordinary seasons will be the only control required. Insects Affecting the Roots——Few insects attack the roots of the beet, which is indeed fortunate, as this is 116 the real marketable part. The root louse (woolly apis) and wireworms are the two worst pests. These will be taken up in detail with one or two other insects demand- ing more than passing notice. The Woolly Aphis (Pemphigus betae)—The woolly aphis is closely related to the same insect on the roots of apple trees. It lives in the soil on the fine roots of the beet, drawing its nourishment from the sap. As a re- sult the beet suffers, and if the insect is present in any number, it will be dwarfed and much reduced in weight. The presence of the insect is easy to determine from the small, white, woolly-like masses which, like mold, surround the insect for protection. This gives the insect its name. Within this protective covering is the insect, a pale, lemon-yellow or whitish pear-shaped body of all sizes up to one-eighth inch in length. The legs are black and the insect is equipped with a beak through which it sucks its food. Early in the spring the insect flies into the beet fields and settles down. They breed very fast, no winged forms being present until the numbers have multiplied to such an extent that crowding results. Then a brood of winged forms will be produced which fly off to other parts of the field. In the fall, on the approach of cold weather, or after the beets are harvested, winged forms also ap- pear which leave the field and seek winter quarters. The insect will live on either dock (Rumex), pigweed or lambs quarters (Chenopodium), or on beets. If stray beets remain in the field they will winter over on these. If there are no beets the insects will come from the dock or lambs quarters in the spring. Prevention is the sole method of control. As the in- sects are under the soil on the beets there is no cheap remedy which will reach them. Irrigation is of no use, other than to encourage the beet to renewed effort to withstand the insect attack. The removal of other plants upon which the insects feed is the main source of con- trol. Dock and lambs quarters should never be permitted in the fields, in the ditches, or along the fence lines. While only a general campaign, involving all growers, will give anything like complete freedom from the aphis, the killing of the weeds will result in a greater freedom 117 on that particular place, as well as prolong the time be- fore the insects appear. To successfully kill dock it should be either dug up or else cut off below the crown. Chopping it off at the*sur- face will merely result in the throwing up of new growth. Beet Blight or Curly Top.—The trouble known by these names is a condition produced by the feeding of a small leaf hopper on the beet. For many years the con- dition has appeared to a greater or less extent in many of the semi-arid sections. It is unknown in humid re- gions, so far as the author can learn. It bafiled all attempts at solution until recently, when Dr. E. D. Ball of the Utah Experiment Station definitely located the cause in the feeding of a small leaf hopper (Futettix tenella). The author has verified Dr. Ball’s conclusions and worked out quite a little concerning the insect in California. As the subject is by no means thoroughly understood at the present time, a fairly complete descrip- tion may not be out of place. The insect which produces the trouble is about one- eighth inch long, whitish or cream in color, and has a hump-backed or round-shouldered appearance when at rest, because of the position of the wings. Unless one is familiar with leaf hoppers he would be apt to overlook this one, as it is not at all conspicuous, and, being shy, rapidly flies ahead of all comers. It is commonly known as “white fly’ when numerous enough to attract atten- tion. The damage is done by the insects feeding on the plant. In so doing a bacterial or insect poison is ap- parently injected into the plant, which, passing to the growing crown, seriously interferes with the normal de- velopment of the leaves. The nature of the poison is not well understood, and for practical purposes it makes lit- tle difference. It is sufficient to know that if the insect is feeding on the beet it will blight, and that blight (re- ferring to blight characterized by symptoms which will be discussed after a little) cannot be produced without the insect’s attack. Beets will blight no matter how old, but the younger the beet the greater will be the damage. Beets are very tender until they have grown eight to ten leaves, and 118 study of the insect on the spot is really valuable, as there is no cure-all which can be applied. Weather conditions play a very important part; cold, wet winters killing many, while dry, warm ones will result in the survival of some to reinfest the fields. No spray can be used which will reach them, as they gain their food by suck- ing, and to be effective the spray must reach every one. This is an impossibility, due to their active movements, shyness, and quick flight on the approach of danger, and to the scarcity of the individuals which will produce dam- age. Parasites will prove of little value because of the variable number of insects from one year to another. As the insects usually come onto the field in numbers, any remedy must be cheap, quick and applicable to a large area at once. As stated before, a knowledge of the insect’s habits is necessary to determine this point. Where much damage is done it will pay the beet sugar interests, either mill or growers, to get together and hire some good entomologist to make this study. If the time of the insect’s appearance is known, the time of planting can be planned accordingly. The whole idea is to bring the plants to the twelve-leaf stage by the time the insects appear, or else to delay planting, or, rather, the appear- ance of the seedlings until after the insects have arrived and are settled. When possible, the first way will usu- ally prove to be the more satisfactory. In connection with the planting, the judicious use of irrigation water is advisable when the insects first appear in the fields. This tends to drive them off and at the same time provides conditions for the plant’s growth so that it will have greater resistance. In order to use irri- gation water, the beets must have at least four leaves. The main factors to bear in mind, then, in controlling the beet blight are: (a) A knowledge of the insect’s local habits; (b) a twelve-leaf growth when the insects arrive, and (c) a judicious irrigation to hold off the insects and to stimu. late the plant. Blapstinus (sp.).—These are black, rather dusty look ing beetles, one-third of an inch long, which can be found traveling the beet fields in the spring when the seedlings are coming up. They do damage by nippinz 119 previous to this are very sensitive te insect attack. But after they have from twelve to fourteen leaves the dam- age will be materially reduced. This is due to the fact that only the new leaves which are produced are blighted. The older ones remain normal. Therefore when a plant has grown twelve leaves it is still capable of making considerable growth even without the aid of the new leaves formed, and while the plant continues to blight in its new growth, it has impetus enough to produce a marketable, although smaller, beet. When small beets are attacked they make very little additional growth. While they seldom die, they remain dwarfed and stunted and never amount to much. The reason that blighting is so pronounced after thinning time is because the insects which are present are scattered over the field by the thinning gang and become generally distributed. More- over, one-twentieth as many plants must now withstand their onslaught because of the large number of beets removed in thinning. Each insect will blight every beet it feeds upon, so that with migratory insects only a few are needed to do a great deal of damage. The chief characteristics of blighted beets is the thick- ened, prominent veins with small bunches or swellings in them. Accompanying these are a thickening of the leat tissue, a darkening in color, and a generally distorted, incurling habit of growth of the foliage, so that it forms a close-clustered, cabbage-like head. A big mass of fibrous roots occur along the seams of the main root, which carry large quantities of soil and give a bewhisk- ered appearance to the beet. The texture of the root is hard and woody, making it difficult to cut in the mill. Rings of a blackish or brownish hue are present which rapidly blacken on exposure to the air. The juice 1s intensely bitter to the taste. To successfully work out a method of control, a study of the habits of the insects is necessary in each locality. If the insect is natural to the section, the spread from its food plants—Atriplex, Russian thistle, sage brush, etc.—will depend much upon climatic conditions. If the descent upon the beets is from other valleys or sections of the country the conditions determining the flight of the insect will be purely local. For this reason, only a 120 GOOD SPECIMENS OF BEETS. BLIGHTED AND NEMATODE BEETS. Blighted, two pots on left. Nematode, pot on right. BLIGHTED BEETS. 121 the tender seedlings and sucking the juice, so that in many cases the stand will be seriously curtailed. The beetles usually winter as adults in old fencé cor- ners or around buildings. They lay their eggs in the field and the young develop in the soil. Because of their habits they are rather hard to deal with. Pasturing the fields with poultry or turkeys previ- ous to and at the time the beets are coming up will give comparative immunity. At the same time many other in- jurious insects will be destroyed. Cleaning up corners and all stray trash will go far toward ridding the fields, as the insects must then travel beyond their confines to get winter quarters. The use of 50 per cent more seed in sowing, and earlier sowing, to precede the arrival of the insects, is advisable. Once the beets have two true leaves they are beyond danger. } Cutworms.—Cutworms are the young of certain moths. They are ugly, mottled brown, rather smooth caterpillars which feed at night and hide in crevises during the day. They are one and a half inches long when mature. They damage the beets by cutting off the young plants and by feeding on the leaves of older ones. The use of arsenate of lead on the older plants will effectually stop their work. To protect the young plants a poisoned bait of clover sprayed with arsenate of lead should be spread in the fields previous to and at the time of sowing the beets. In this connection the edges of the field should receive special attention. Turkeys and poul- try are also useful in reducing the damage from this source, Wireworms are hard, yellow, shining worms, from dif- ferent sizes up to one inch long, living in the soil. They are the young of ordinary click beetles. They attack the roots of the beet and are mostly serious when the beet is very young, for by eating the young, tender roots they kill out the beets. Wireworms are always worse in sod, clover or grass land, or after corn, potatoes or beans. When land is once infested the pest must be partially starved out by either summer fallowing the land and keeping down the weeds, by growing crops which they will not attack, or 122 by sowing corn poisoned with stryehnine and harrowing it in. Another method is to poison potatoes or wads of succulent vegetation with strychnine and place them around the fields under boards early in the spring. A further desirable prevention is the removal of all trash, so that the adult beetles will have no place to hibernate during the winter. Wireworms pass two years in the ground. Their pres- ence can be detected by pulling out wilted beets and ex- amining the beet and the soil around where the beet was growing. Chewing Insects —There are a large number of insects which are fond of the foliage of the beet—caterpillars of various kinds, canker worms, woolly bears and a host of others. These can be controlled by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead. For the web-worms it is neces- sary to spray before the insects are protected by their webs, as the spray cannot penetrate these. By spraying early and repeating the spraying often enough to keep the additional growth covered, the beets can be successfully protected. Bordeaux mixture will prove a desirable repellant for flea beetles. When spraying for plant diseases the flea beetle will be taken care of at the same time. Sucking Insects. Plant lice and thrips are examples of these. They require a dose of kerosene emulsion when- ever they become numerous. Care must be taken to hit the insects with the spray, and to reach the parts of the plant where the insects are most numerous. Conclusion. When an insect becomes numer- ous enough to cause uneasiness it is well to consult the mill agriculturist or send specimens to the nearest state experiment station for identification and information as to the proper control. Beyond the mere hint at the subject, entomology is be- yond the scope of this text. Fungus Troubles —Foremost among the fungus trou- bles is “leaf spot” (Cercospora beticola). This is the result of the growth of a fungus inside the leaf tissue. The fungus is a parasatic plant like mistletoe on oak, dodder on alfalfa, Spanish moss and the like, which grows from a small seedlike body. These “seeds” are 123 blown about in the air and fall on the leaf. They ger- minate as soon as a little moisture is present, sending down little threadlike, bulb-tipped suckers into the, leat through which the fungus gains its food. When nu- merous the drain on the beet will result in impaired vi- tality and a lowered yield. The disease is easy to recognize by its characteristic formation of shrunken spots at the points of infection. At first these are about the size of the head of a pin but they gradually increase until they are about one-fourth inch in diameter. If numerous several will coalesce, and pale brown or ashy gray patches of leaf are the result. The edge of the more or less circular spot is a purplish color and it is at this point that the fungus is getting in its active work, the dead and shriveled tissue having been drained dry. It is rare that the leaf spot is fatal for new leaves are formed to take the place of those de- vitalized by the fungus. But there is no question as to the reduction of sugar and weight from the ravages of the disease. Sprays have not been remarkably successful but the use of Bordeaux mixture is recommended. If put on when the plants are very young and repeated at intervals of two or three weeks it will prove partially successful. The breeding of plants naturally more resistant to the disease seems to be the most promising way of con- trolling it. This, however, is a matter beyond the scope of the farmer. [It is a question receiving attention from the more progressive seed growers and something is likely to be done along this line. Discontinuing the growing of beets on land which is badly infested for two or three years is a prescription which has been recommended, with a view to reducing the fungus. Another leaf-spot (Phyllosticta betae) has been re- ported from certain sections and the above remarks will also apply to it. Its appearance is about the same as the Cercospora. Beet Scab is another fungus trouble, this one affecting the roots instead of the top. It is caused by the same organism (Oospora scabies) as that which produces scabby potatoes. The roots show roughened, woody, 124 brown patches of warty-like excresences which are the result of the formation of an abundance of corky tis- sues induced by the activities of the fungus. Beets and potatoes should never follow one another where this disease exists. An over abundance of water will pro- duce conditions favorable for scab development and proper regulation of the water supply is essential. Beet Rust (Uromyces betae), characterized by small brown pustules or pimples on the leaves which give off a copious brown powder, is seldom serious, but it will surely attract attention is present in any amount. Cold, damp weather is favorable to the development of this disease. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will check it should it become serious enough to warrant a control. A Downy Mildew (Peronospora Schachti) has been reported from one section. It is characterized by downy, cobweb like growth on the undersides of the leaves. Bor- deaux is the remedy. A Soft Rot of the roots caused by bacteria (Bacterium teutlem) will sometimes occur on wet land. The avoid- ance of such land or the supplying of proper drainage will be the remedy. The Rhizoctonia Root Rot (Rhizoctoma betae) is an- other outcome of too cold or too wet soil. It attacks both seedlings and adult beets. The following paragraph will describe it more in detail: Seedling Root Rot——-When beet seedlings on being drawn out of the ground show blackened root tips or brownish, juicy spots on the roots it is evidence of root rot. It is caused by a fungus or fungi which are pres- ent in all soils. It gains a foothold on the seedling when the vitality of the plantlet is weakened. Root rot only attacks plants growing in cold, wet, uncongenial soils. If the disease progresses far the stand will be cut down and in some instances seriously impaired. A change of weather to warm, dry spells will often save a crop suf- fering from this trouble. Precaution consists in holding off planting until the land is warm enough to start and carry on germination rapidly and evenly. When the soil is cold to the touch it should not be planted. Plants once attacked by root rot are beyond remedy. When the attack is quite general so i225 that most of the plants are suffering from it, replanting will be necessary. But when there is enough healthy plants to give a stand nothing need be done other than to insist that in thinning the largest and most vig6rous plants be left. Seedling root rot is sometimes confused with a naturai condition of the root which comes when the beet has two or three true leaves. The outer epidermis then splits lengthwise and gradually shrivels away until it becomes nothing but a black, thread-like string. This is an entirely normal condition and is no cause for alarm. Crown Rot.—This is caused by bacteria or fungi of different kinds gaining admittance into the growing heart of the beet, through cavities formed by rapid growth of the beet. A rich soil, an overabundance of water, too much organic matter in the soil, too much stimulating fer- tilizer, hot forcing weather or a combination of two or more of these conditions which result in an overstimu- lance of plant growth which will cause the beet to grow a soft, watering crown and to have a tendency to split just below this crown. Bacteria and fungi gain admittance and, with the moisture which collects from fogs, rain, dew or irrigation, produce crown rot. The furnishing of proper conditions for steady beet growth will largely do away with this trouble. If it: starts, air-slaked lime or wood ashes dusted over the plant will go far towards correcting the trouble. Physiological Troubles.—In addition to the insect and fungus troubles the beet will sometimes show symptoms which cannot be traced to either of these. Such trou- ‘bles when they entail the derangement of the natural functions of the plant, are called “physiological” troubles. Sprangley roots due to hardpan is a physiological trou- ble. Naturally the correction of this will be the elimina- tion of the hardpan. Compound Tops is another case of this kind. It is the result of excessive growth of the beet (as described under “crown rot”). Instead of one top being sent up, the original splits, and several are produced. An open cavity usually accompanies it. The correction lies in the provid- ing of right soil conditions, neither too rich nor too moist, so that excessive growth will not result. Com- 126 pound top beets are always large beets but their sugar content is poor, and they are not satisfactory for manu- facturing purposes. Compounds tops will always form as secondary growth when the beet is preparing to send up seed stalks. These seed stalks are the natural outcome of a desire on the part of the beet to reproduce itself when growth is com- pleted or when the plant receives a sudden check. Seed Stalks will form with little attendant secondary growth early in the plant’s growth if any serious check spells followed by dry, or the everse, are apt to cause the plant to produce seed stalks. It is a tendency on the part of the beet to perpetuate its kind in case poor grow- ing weather is to come. Seed formation is usually accom- panied by a loss in sugar (although there are some sec- tions which are an exception to this) and such beets are as a rule unfit for milling purposes. Lack of Plant Foods.—The lack of certain of the main elements required by plants for their normal development produces certain physiological disturbances. When the leaves turn yellow before maturity and are reduced in size from no apparent cause (such as hard soil) it indi- cates a lack of nitrogen. When the leaves do not turn lighter when mature, but wither while still remaining upright and the usual dark shade of green they indicate a deficiency of phosphoric acid. : A tendency to curl and wither quickly in sunlight, with the presence of large yellow spots, later turning brown, and the rather sudden change to this condition from the rich, dark green indicates a lack of potash. These symptoms presuppose proper methods of grow- ing the crop. Animal Troubles—Under this heading must be re- corded the presence of the worst sugar beet pest in our American fields—Nematodes or eel worms (Heterodera Schachtii). To the casual observer the eel worms are more like insects than animals. Only the females are visible to the naked eye. They appear as small, whitish sac-like or bead-like protuber- ances about one-sixty-fourth of an inch in diameter on the fine feeding roots of the beet. The males are only visible 127 under a microscope. There they appear like small thread- like eels. The young are produced from eggs and when hatched they crawl around until they find a suitable pla@e to settle down and feed. The females soon lose their power of locomotion and develop into something little more than a living sack full of eggs. They appear on the roots like little spots of mold, but when squeezed between the thumbnail and finger squash into a liquid-like mass. The males do not lose their power of locomotion for a considerable period but work around at ease. The Nematodes are very destructive. The extent of the damage can be judged from the following: Fifty beets were taken from both a Nematodes infested patch and from healthy beets near by. The two lots were taken from the same field, from beets raised under the same conditions, and were but a dozen or twenty feet apart. They were about four months old. The weight of the infested beets was two pounds nine ounces for the lot; the healthy beets weighed sixty-eight pounds six ounces. If a small, irregular spot of undersized beets appears in your field among the healthy beets a number should be carefully dug up, the clinging soil gently washed off and the fine roots examined for the females. Samples of the beets should also be forwarded to the nearest Ex- periment Station for further examination. The Nematodes will feed on almost anything 1f forced to it. To combat them in the field, irrigation water must be kept off the patches and no more beets raised there. Alfalfa is a good crop to put in as the Nematodes seem to fail on it. Absolutely clean cultivation for two years will also tend to starve them out. For very small patches fumigation with carbon bi-sulphide or formalin will prove feasible. Whether trap crops, fumigation, rotation or fallowing shall be practiced depends on the size of the patch, the degree of watchfulness which can ~ be exercised, and the amount of work which can be done. There is no worse pest than the Nematodes and their presence in our beet fields, even if in only two instances, is good grounds for alarm. Nematodes beets will not 128 be knowingly accepted by the mill as the danger of spreading them in the wash water is very great. Gophers, Moles, Ground Squirrels and Rabbits all feed upon the beet. For Rabbits wire fencing to keep them off the fields will prove effective, or a couple of good rabbit dogs will produce comparative immunity. When the rabbits are numerous the old fashioned rabbit hunt cannot be beaten. For Moles trapping is best, while irrigation will de- stroy large numbers. For Gophers conscientious trapping will rid fields if there are not too many alfalfa or neglected fields near by for them to breed in. With both moles and gophers early spring trapping is best as one caught then counts for a dozen later on. Gophers will also take poisoned baits if put onto their runways. For trapping gophers the California Maccabee trap is hard to beat. The trap is placed in the entrance of the burrow, staked with a wire and the entrance then closed with a handful of green grass or weeds. Irrigation will also destroy large numbers of them. When putting the water on, the levees and high places should be watched as the gophers, forced out by the water, seek these spots to remain until the water sub- sides. A good fox terrier at such a time will prove a most desirable aid. Ground Squirrels may be destroyed when the ground is wet by the use of a wad of cotton, burlap or old cloth half the size of one’s fist, saturated with carbon bi- sulphide, tossed into the open burrow, followed by a lighted match (to ignite it), and the entrance then closed with a shovelful of earth. In doing this work it is a good plan to close all entrances a day or two before the work is to be done, and then confine attention to those which are reopened. The saving in the amount of carbon used will more than offset the extra labor. Care should be exercised not to have lighted pipes or other fire around the carbon as it is very inflammable. The can containing it should always be kept closed as the substance is very volatile. For poisoning, grains, sweet potato, water melon rind, 129 beet root, raisins and prunes are all good. Strychnine is the best poison to use. Grains can be used to best advan- tage when the vegetation is green, while the succulent things will give best returns during the dry seasons. The best all around grain *formula I have found is: WV holesbanley sr WIHCHE: 5 vsgiss 1. s gcc ok seen ays 20 pounds SEAT EMR IASU CNS ae ae PEN wale eran sose scene See 1 pint Suby cunime: «sibipmates 6. ois ee US se eee 1 ounce STU Ae Searing Aue Cite 5 Relveta fe: kere ty Reema ¥g ounce The grain should be placed in a receptacle large enough to hold it easily. One pint of water is then brought to a boil and two tablespoonsful of laundry starch, previously dissolved in a little cold water, is slowly added to the boiling water, to form when well cooked a paste about the consistency of cream. The strychnine (previously powdered if in crystals) and the sugar should then be added to the hot starch paste and the mixture well stirred until thoroughly incorporated to- gether. While still hot it is poured over the grain and the whole thoroughly mixed until each kernel is coated. It is then set aside to cool. In scattering the poison, only a few kernels should be used near each burrow. It too large a supply is left the squirrel will become suspicious and refuse to touch it. The grain should be scattered on the hard dry ground along the runways and not in the loose son at the mouth of the burrows.. A point to bear in mind is to look for the presence of young growing grain at the mouth of the burrow. If this is present it is a sign that the place is unoccupied and the putting of poison here would be a useless waste. To add poison to the other substances mentioned insert a crystal of the strychnine (or as much as can be held on the point of a knife) into pieces of the material of a size large enough to handle easily. With raisins or prunes a bit of poison is put into each one. *This is the formula worked up by the Biological Survey of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 130 CHAPTER AW: IMPROVEMENT OF OUR AGRICULTURE. When discussing the value and need of rotation crops, the subject of improving our agriculture was discussed at some length. European soils have been farmed for hun- dreds of years longer than ours yet European countries. in many instances, are producing more to the acre than are we. France harvests over 23 bushels of wheat to the acre with her so-called “worn out’ soil. We pro- duced in the same year a trifle over 11 bushels. Germany in 1907 produced one-fifth as much wheat from one-eleventh the acreage as did we. In other words, her yields, like France’s, was over twice ours. Holland and Belgium harvest over twice as much rye as do our greatest rye producing states. Germany pro- duced nearly 140 per cent more than do we. And so it goes. Germany in 1907 harvested 70 per cent more barley than our best producing states, 135 per cent more oats, and 112 per cent more potatoes to the acre. Figured on an acreage basis (as compiled by Truman G. Palmer) Germany’s figures are very instructive: United States. Germany. | Bushels. Bushels. Niblett Pic eet ton ters. te ee ete 14.0 29.6 raster el! nse oo is Pn ck ee Ee Down 58.2 Bee Aakers 5. ory ie 8 Biers cece ots SoC a 23.8 38.2 fea Smee Pe Be, Reb ot ae GAPS sc so kha tact 16.4 25.7 PiGeanme sus ects es edn eee 95.4 Aas Germany teaches us a lesson. And as our population increases we shall be forced to do as Germany has done— learn the principles of intensive farming. And into this scheme the sugar beet is bound to play an important part, just as it has done in Germany. It is far better to sell sunshine and rain off the farm in the form of sugar than 131 nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. While a certain amount of the latter are needed in the form of grain crops to feed the people, the former will go far towards fitting the soil for the better production of the latter. These facts are being more appreciated as time goes on, and the sugar beet in consequence is receiving more of the attention to which it is rightly entitled. What the sugar beet has done for Germany it will do for us. This shows in the following table (inserted here again for the purpose of illustrating this point): Average Crops Per Acre Showing Increase After Beets. In Pounds. In Per Cent. NWine@at Si teorc Neen waste seen 444 24 | eS IS, PS ie aN SO oe ge Da 216 15 Biche yast ait ee one ee ee cet aes 422 25 (GT ER DA Eg ne AM BDA AE, eh ailien eat ees 563 42 Peas tate ree ee ish WA POM hg Me ES 849 86 I GEATORS MA Soca e bh a leanne 6,874 102 This shows the increase in eld of staple crops after beets were introduced into the rotation over the yields on land not planted to beets. They indicate why Germany’s agriculture is ahead of America’s. Tartff.—And this brings us to the matter of a tariff to protect an industry which needs and deserves protection. The good to be gained from the culture of the sugar beet in connection with our general agriculture is a matter of nation-wide knowledge on the part of our keen witted, clear sighted, thinking men. The tariff is a business question pure and simple. And like all other business propositions the procedure will go forth which will result in the most good for the greatest number of people. The tariff is not a moral question any more than is any other business proposition. It is not the author’s purpose to create a political dis- cussion, but simply to point out that the advancement of our beet sugar industries with their many attendant bene- ficial influences on the agriculture of the country must be protected. To know what a business needs requires a knowledge of that business. The beet sugar interests know they could not exist a day without protection. If put in competition with cheap tropical sugars they would go to the wall. Prosperity depends not on trade but on production. Tariff acts should be compromises of all the interests. 166 924 The national policy should be, and is, to stimulate produc- tion. When producers are prosperous every one is pros- perous, as there is money to pay for goods. It is a wise policy, therefore, which protects the sugar industries, or any other legitimate producing interest of the country, while at the same time measures are insti- tuted for protection against internal abuse of that pro- tective policy. Under “Statistics” the rapid rise of the beet sugar in- dustry is shown. The amount of money which an in- dustry of this scope brings in—$20,000,000 for beets alone—indicates the wisdom of protecting it. 133 Cie Pia We STATISTICS. Amount of Sugar Produced—Average in Long Tons for Five- Year Periods. Beet septa ee Cane Sugar. Po SUB Oe donee ecraa aiiheieera ie oak oie 136,939 7 ETT ES CTE iia eae NG rp Ot OLR ree ae 116,931 1 SUES 12 ea a SIR SIC 400 20,947 ASTON es, bs Bees cela va ee eRe 480) 60,979 LRT nbinetp te hook Ste Oh teen tee 100 82,501 TBST S Toy. a re eS 647 114,816 Pee LOS rshie to ME ke one ee a ee 894 128,630 ACEP ROAN er esi os show kent cetes 8,597 203,821 SOAEN OG) |S rer eee aaa ey Fel ia a kien 31,943 284,207 PIGO2TO 04 ates ce as ee ee 144,892 266,835 1905-1909 . Serena tee ree ee: ean eS 336,857 1909-1910 (1 year). Pete Paetsch 2 457,562 339,000 LOLOL Cleary Ate mee 5 oe 455,511 311,000 (From U. S. Dept. of Agri. Yearbook.) The averages of the last ten years in beet sugar pro- duction are of interest as they show the rapid rise of the industry. Average Sugar Yield Manufac’d. No. Mills Beet Per Acre. Miaillion Average Year. Running. Acreage. Tons. Pounds. Sugar. Purity. NETS eee se 36 175,000 9.6 369 14.8* 82* TOO s cx est AY 216,000 8.7 436 14.6 83 13s eae Ae 242,500 8.5 481 15.1 83 HOO. Merton, pee 197,500 10.4 484 15.3 83 056 ee ee 307,000 8.6 625 15.3 83 0G at ee 0a 376,000 11.2 967 14.9 82 LOTR Scio. 63 370,900 10.1 927 15.8 83 AGOB se 2 vs) 62 364,500 9.3 851 5.7 83 WOOD Cabin ata: 65 420,000 2h 1,024 16.1 84 $OLQHIA 2 2) OGL 398, 029 10.7 1,020 16.5 84 (From the United States Dept. of Agriculture Yearbook.) *Means in beet. (The End:} 134 ND 000931334