FIELD MUSEUM OF NAT ULLETl •« '^ #■ iP V ;/ I. *"w ^(% t.- -J^^k vS Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin CONTENTS January, 1985 Volume 56, Number 1 Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin 1. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa January Events at Field Museum Living Together 5 by John E. Terrell, curator of Oceanic archaeology and ethnolo^ Board of Trustees James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley 11 Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. MuUin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin 1. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood Mushroom Mania: Is It for You? byMartynJ. Dibben 12 Fieldiana: Titles Published in 1983 and 1984 25 Index to Volume 55 (1984) 26 Field Museum Tours 27 COVER The scene shown in this month's cover photo by Steven Ashe, assistant curator of Insects, might well be duplicated in the forest preserves of the Chicago area. Ashe's subject, however, was a mule deer in Canada'sjasper National Park. Field Museum of Natural Histonf Bulletin {USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/.'\ugust issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: S6.00 annually, S3. 00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- s.irity reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and t)e sent to M''mbcrship Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- t..r,'. Rn.seN'eil Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 11. 60605. ISSN:OOI5-0703. Second class p;: '-t.'er p.i;d at Chicago. 11. r<^KM^w^''^\ ■» - '/^.♦a"»\'^ T Events A Winter Day Film Series Films are screened on Saturdays. They are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. January 12, Nanook of the North — 64 min. Lecture Hall I This is Robert Flaherty's first 2:00 pm film, made in 1922. Through masterful attention to detail in photography and editing, Nanook, his wife, and children emerge as recognizable individ- uals. Scenes of traditional Eskimo culture are juxtaposed with scenes of an encroaching Western culture. January 19, Eskimo Artist Kenojuak — 19 min. Hall 18 We see Eskimo life through the 2:30 pm eyes of Kenojuak, an Eskimo wife and mother who makes drawings and prints. "Many are the thoughts that rush over me," she says, "like the wings of birds out of darkness." Kenojuak transforms these thoughts into beautiful images which tell us much about the Eskimo's close relationship with nature. The Owl Who Married a Goose — 8 min. In the solitude of the arctic, a goose captures an owl's fancy. This brief animated film recounts the poignant adventures of this unlikely pair Based on an Eskimo legend, the story is told using Eskimo voices to accompany beautiful, shadowlike images. January 19, Eskimo Children — 10 min. Hall 18 Depicts the search for food during the short summer of the Canadian Eskimos. This search is aided by beautifully decorated tools made from bear and seal bones. January 26, Eskimo Summer: People of the Seal Lecture Hall I — 52 min. 2:00 pm In 1963-1965, an ethnographic film record was made of a Netsi- lik family following the tradi- tional migratory route used for centuries by their ancestors. Since that time the Netsilik have aban- doned their traditional way of life and moved into a permanent gov- ernment village. Eskimo Expeditions Saturday January i2&26, 3:00-4:00 pm Stanley Field Hall Arctic sunlight reflecting off snow is so strong that Eskimos have to be careful of snow blindness. They wear special snow goggles with tiny eye openings to cut down on the light entering the eyes. Make a pair of snow goggles for your own snow-bound expedition. These features are free with museum admission and no tickets are required. "Polar Potluck" — a participatory play Saturday, January 19, 1:00 pm Hall 18 Your family is cordially invited to a farewell party for Karl and Katy Caribou, who are getting ready to mi- grate south. Pandora Polar Bear, Samantha Seal, and Walter Walrus are planning a big party to send them on their way. Participate in this play about arctic animals and bid the Caribou Bon Voyage! This feature is free with museum admission and no tickets are required. continued=o CONTINUED from p 3 Events Family Feature Aztec Calendar Stone Sunday, January 13, 1:00-3:00pm January is the time for New Year's resolutions and new calendars. The Aztecs of Mexico used a round calendar, carved from a single stone; it measured 12 feet across and weighed 57,000 pounds. The calendar was covered with symbols chiseled out of stone that named each day of the month. Find out how to read this ancient calendar. Make an Aztec-style calendar using symbols of your own design. Family features are free with museum admission and no tickets are required. January Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. January 5 2:00 pm. Malvina Hoffman: Portraits in Bronze 19 (Slide lecture). Find out about the life and works of Malvina Hoffman, concentrating on the Portraits of Mankind collection commissioned by Field Museum. 20 6 1 :00 pm. Welcome to the Field (Tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 12 11:30 am. /iMcienfE^y/jf (Tour). Explore the 26 traditions of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths and mummies. 13 12:30 pm. Fireballs and Shooting Stars: Keys to the Universe (Tour) . Discover the origlris, types, sizes and importance of meteorites. 1:00 pm. Museum Safari (Tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient 27 Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 1:30 pm. The Brontosaurus Story (Tour). Look at some of the newest discoveries about the "thunder lizards" and other large dinosaurs. 2:00 pm. Traditional China (Tour). Examine the imagery and craftsmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 1 :30 pm. Red Land/ Black Land (Tour). Focus on the geography of the Nile Valley and its effect on the Egyptians who lived and ruled during 4,000 years of change in religion and cultures. 12:30 pm. Treasures from the Totem Forest (Tour). A walk through Museum exhibits introduces the Indians of southeast Alaska and British Columbia, and their totem poles and masks. 2:30 pm. Chinese Ceramic Traditions. A tour of masterworks in the permanent collection explores 6,000 years of Chinese ceramic art. 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (Tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. These public programs are free with museum admission and tickets are not required. warn View of Pitcairn Island, from engraving published in 1667 Historical Pictures Service. Chicago Living Together How rapidly did human numbers increase on Pacific Islands during prehistoric times? How did these people cope with the problems of living together as their numbers increased? by JOHN E. TERRELL Curator of Oceanic Archaeology and Ethnology How can we account for the remar\able diversity of the Pacific Islanders in biology, language, and custom? Europeans and Americans for more than two hundred years have generally found it easy to loo\ at the modem world of the Pacific and see there a number of races of humankind allegedly differing in physical appearance, temperament, achievements, and possibly even in in' telligence. Conventional names for these supposed races are by now deeply ingrained in V/estem thought: Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians, Australians, Southeast Asians, and other labels for geographically more restricted groupings of people. In Prehistory and Human Diversity in the Pacif- ic Islands, forthcoming from Cambridge University Press, ]ohn Terrell argues that simple divisions of humanity such as these do not fit the facts, as we actw ally Mjiow them, of how people in the Pacific vary in biological heritage, traditions, and linguistic convene tions. However obvious racial, ethnic, or geographic divisions in the Pacific may seem to us today, dis' "Living Together" is adapted from ttie book Prehistory and Human Diversity in tine Pacific Islands, by John E. Terrell, and appears here courtesy of Cambridge University Press, which will publish the book in 1985. tinctions among people such as these add up to little more than a crude, static snapshot of human diversity: a picture that gives us little sense of time and a mislead^ ing sense of how variation among the Pacific Islanders came to be. How should a better picture of human diversity in the Pacific be put together? Prehistory and Human Diversity in the Pacific Islands is an invitation to a way ofthin\ing about the past and the causal pathways leading to the present that builds on the modem defini' tion of science as a continuous dialogue with J^ature (including the world of human artifice) joining human imagination with logical and empirical methods of evaluation. The following is an excerpt (somewhat con' densed) from the eighth chapter of Terrell's new boo}{. In this chapter, called "Living Together," he discusses the questions of how fast human numbers could have grown on the Pacific Islands in prehistoric times, and how people came to handle the problems of living together as population increased. He turns to the story of a famous mutiny on the high seas and the recorded history ofPitcaim Island in modem times to document the upper limits of how swiftly human populations can grow. — Ed. T J^ he: he story of the mutiny against Captain Wil- liam Bligh on board the Bounty in April 1789 has been told many times. Bligh had distinguished him- self a decade earlier as sailing master on H.M.S. Resolution during James Cook's third and last voyage to the Pacific. But fable and history alike say Bligh was a stem disciplinarian, strong-willed and prone to sudden bursts of anger, who was a master of foul, stinging rebuke. He finally paid for his quick temper by being cast adrift, along with eighteen other offi- cers and crew, in the Bounty's launch. Thereafter, he once more proved what an uncommonly fine seaman he was, for he navigated the small boat 5,822 kilome- ters from Tonga, where the mutiny had taken place, to Timor In all, twelve of the nineteen men reached England alive. The mutineers were twenty-five in number By the end of September 1789 they had divided into two separate parties. Sixteen sought refuge at Tahiti, where the islanders welcomed them warmly. Two years after the mutiny, H.M.S. Pandora arrived in the Society Islands to capture and return the mutineers to England to stand trial for their conduct against their commander By then there were fourteen. The second party, nine mutineers together with twelve Polynesian women, six men, and an infant girl, went off to Pitcaim, an uninhabited volcanic is- land roughly 6 square kilometers in area which had been discovered by the explorer Carteret in 1767. There they hid from the world until their colony, by then thirty-five in number, was found by Captain Mayhew Folger of Boston in 1808. 6 We will never know precisely what happened on Pitcaim between the founding of the colony in 1790 and Folger's arrival. Murder and rebellion had evidently so troubled the community that by 1808 only one mutineer survived, and all six Polynesian men w^ere dead. It would be an understatement to say living together on Pitcaim had been more difficult than life on board the Bounty. The mutiny on the Bounty and the early years of settlement on Pitcaim are both celebrated examples of the difficulties of living together, of adapting not to impersonal forces in the environment such as drought or typhoons, but to the needs, demands, and even the physical presence of others. Since we are looking first of all at how fast or how slowly human numbers can grow, it is instructive to observe how much, or more accurately how little, the murderous early years on Pitcaim endangered the Bounty's small colony there. Some of the conflicts dealt with on Pitcaim in the years immediately following the establishment of the mutineer colony \vere, of course, more or less unique to that time and place. By the end of 1793, treachery had cut down the number of adult males in the community from fifteen to only four The reasons behind this early bloodshed apparently involved the shortage of women, highhanded treatment of the Polynesian men by the mutineers, lust for revenge, and possibly poor leadership as well. According to a naval captain who visited the island in 1814, the ring- leader of the mutiny and nominal head of the little colony, Fletcher Christian, committed so many acts of Avanton oppression after landing, he "very soon in- curred the hatred and detestation of his companions M^.V. am ' in crime, over \vhoin he practised the same overbear- ing conduct of which he accused his commander Bligh." Regardless of Christian's conduct as leader, the other reasons mentioned for the rapid decline in the number of adult males can hardly be generalized to fit other occasions of island colonization in the Pacific. Of broader interest, therefore, is how the survivors after 1793 handled growing human numbers follo\V' ing their self-induced and decidedly bloody ecological crunch — their sudden loss of so many men of repro- ductive age — at the very beginning of settlement. In spite of this loss, the colony survived and slowly increased in size. Between 1793 and 1800 there were seventeen births and only one infant death. However, between 1801 and about 1805 — when Thursday October Christian, the first male child bom on the island, married Teraura, one of the Tahitian women who had arrived with the mutineers — the only adult male still living was the mutineer known to history both as Alexander Smith and as John Adams (the name Smith preferred). It is worth looking closer at his story, for it shows how custom and human values may influence the biological suc- cess of human groups. Thursday October Christian, son of mutiny leader Fletcher Christian and the first male born on Pitcairn Island. s Nk if'- , t\ 7 1 Bounty mutineer Alexander Smith, alias John Adams, sought to have Pitcairn Islanders transported to Tasmania or Australia, fearing that the island was in danger of overpopulation. According to some biologists today, human beings — and animals in general — seek to maximize their reproductive success. That is, people are pur- portedly driven by some sort of inner urge or instinct to produce as many children as they can. The case of Alexander Smith, alias John Adams, belies the generality of such thinking. Finding himself the pat- riarch of Pitcairn after the last other mutineer had died, apparently of asthma, around 1800, he turned to religion rather than to all the remaining Polynesian women. He and his wife Teio produced his last child, a boy, in 1804. That child was the only birth on Pit- cairn between 1801 and the latter half of that decade: when Thursday October Christian and his bride (who was twice his age) began to add to the popula- tion following their marriage. When Captain Folger discovered the Pitcairn colonists in 1808, their number comprised the two males we have just spoken of, their wives, seven other adult women who were not then bearing chil- dren, and a total of twenty-four children (thirteen males and eleven females, ranging in age from a few weeks to eighteen years). From 1810 onward, mar- riages among the young adults increased and the number of people on the island grew enormously at the swift rate of about 3.7 percent each year: a rate so high, numbers on Pitcairn were doubling every twenty years. Fear of overpopulation on Pitcairn troubled John Adams from an early date. In December 1825 he asked Captain F. W. Beechey of the warship H.M.S. Blossom for assistance in the possible transportation hhstorical Pictures Setvice, Chicago The church on Pitcairn Island. From a mid-nineteenth-century engraving. of the islanders to Australia or Tasmania. Where and when to take them were discussed by the British Admiralty and the Colonial Office. The islanders, however, were later found to be unwilling to aban' don Pitcairn. Thereafter, the British government was uncertain how best to proceed, partly from its reluc- tance to break up so happy, hospitable, and pious a community in the heathen Pacific. John Adams's fear of overpopulation did not go unchallenged. An estimate by Captain William Wal- degrave of H. M.S. Seringapatam, which called at Pit- cairn in March 1830, set the island's size as large enough to maintain 1,000 souls. Back in England, this generous estimate was greeted with skepticism. Sir John Barrow, second secretary to the Admiralty, agreed that the island's population was increasing rapidly. He accepted there was a limit to the number of people it could support, just as Malthus had warned in his Essay on the Principle of Population, first published in 1798. In fact, Barrow suspected the island's insufficiency to support large numbers might explain why its ancient population had sought asy- lum elsewhere. Even so, he concluded the Pitcairn Islanders would be safe from any want of food for half a century at least. These early calculations of Pitcaim's capacity to carry its growing human numbers neglected to allow for ecological crunches now and then: in particular, for shortages of water. Severe drought and crop fail- ure in 1830 finally moved public opinion on the island more in favor of emigration. In 1831 the entire colony was taken on board the Government Bark Lucy Ann and removed to Tahiti. There they remained scarcely five months before they went back to Pitcairn. Sick- ness had so ravaged them while they were away, their numbers were reduced by sixteen deaths through this brief misadventure. The dangers of overpopulation, water shortage, and crop failure once again became all too apparent by the 1850s. There was another severe drought in 1853. Rosalind Amelia Young, a native of Pitcairn, related in 1894 that the people had been obliged back then to eat whatever they could find, unripe pump- kins forming their principal diet. Not long afterwards sickness plagued them, as it had on numerous earlier occasions. During the follow^ing twelve months, Young tells us, "life gradually assumed its ordinary, monotonous round; but every day was bringing near- er the day when everything -was to be changed." That change was the emigration of the islanders once again, not to Tahiti this time, but to Norfolk Island. On 2 May 1856 the entire population of 193 people was removed on the vessel Morayshire. On the 9th of May, there was a birth at sea, a male child, while they were in transit. Young records that the islanders found Norfolk on their arrival to be a land flowing with milk and honey: there were large num- bers of strong, healthy cattle and the honey of wild bees was free for the taking from hollow trees. But not all took to their new home. Two families, 16 peo- ple in all, went back to Pitcaim in 1858. There they were joined by 26 more in 1863. The number of people living on Pitcaim grew once again, reaching a high in 1937 of 23 3. During the present century, numbers have fluctuated signifi- cantly because of individual and family emigration — particularly after World War II. Although the total population in 1961 was 126, there were only 19 men under sixty. There were 74 people in 1976. And only 44 in 1982. The story of increasing human numbers on Pit- caim and the threat there of overpopulation illus- trates one problem of living together that must have confronted prehistoric settlers on all but perhaps the largest islands in the Pacific. What happened on Pit- caim, in fact, may tell us about the most extreme rates of population growth that people any\vhere have ever had to deal with for very long. In the years be- tween 1810 and the disastrous migration to Tahiti — when the proportion of young adults was high — the average annual rate of increase was 3.9 percent. In comparison, growth rates for the Pacific as a whole since 1800 are thought to have gone from a low of 0.9 percent between 1800 and 1850 to a high of 2.7 percent during the decade 1950-60. The present estimated rate of growth in the Pacific is about 2.0 percent. This one example dra-wn from the early history of modern colonization in the Pacific has helped us establish the upper limits to how fast human numbers could have grown in prehistoric times. Of course the one case of Pitcaim Island does not prove, or even Maria Christian. Ellen Quintal, and Sara McCoy — descendants of Bounty mutineers and residents of Pitcaim Island. From an 1888 engraving. necessarily suggest, that ancient island colonies grew at such astonishingly high rates of increase. Given present knowledge, we can only guess what were the usual prehistoric rates of growth, and any estimates we make must try to take into account differing risks and possibilities from one island or archipelago to another. But knowing what the upper limits of growth are likely to have been should give us a clearer sense — as research on the prehistory of the Pacific continues — of how soon and how pressing the prob- lems of population growth might have affected island life in former times. In writing about the prehistory of the islanders we will also need to take into account that there is a limit, as well, to the number of w^ays in which anyone can respond to growing human numbers (if all we are talking about is controlling the natural rate of in- crease). So it is possible to say at least a little about how islanders might have tried to cope with the threat of overpopulation. Emigration is one possible mechanism of population control, a mechanism that stands out prominently in the nineteenth-century history of Pitcaim Island. Other mechanisms that least by present mores. Alternatively, John Adams's "failure" to wed all the adult women he was left with on Pitcaim after 1800 may be seen, at least superfi' cially, as a case of falling short of maximum repro' ductive effort. 250 n CO 200- cc LU m ID 150- Q. o 100- 50- POPULATION ON PITCAIRN ISLAND 1790-1976 RETURN FROM NORFOLK ISLAND —I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 r— T 1 1 I I 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 TIME 10 could have been used to keep numbers down include birth control, marrying late, infanticide, suicide, and warfare. What about the reverse of overpopulation? What could people in the Pacific have done to avoid the "death," or extinction, of island colonies? In general it is more difficult for people to maximize births and minimize deaths. The human species is not one that produces a large number of offspring at every birth, and the period of time between human births is usually a year, or two, or even more. Thus, it is diffi- cult for our species to counterbalance high death rates with equally high birth rates. Yet here, too, Pit- caim illustrates one move that people could have made to increase the number of offspring being pro- duced: they could have loosened social constraints on marriage, or at least on sexual intercourse. The mar- riage on Pitcaim around 1805 between a boy of four- teen or fifteen and a woman twice his age would be an example of a loosening of social constraints, at Talk of "maximum reproductive effort" implies, however, that people may try, consciously or uncon- sciously, to produce as many babies as they can. We will never be able to know for certain how often peo- ple in the Pacific acted as if that was one of their goals in life, biologically speaking. So the best we may someday be able to achieve in telling the story of the islanders will be to determine where and under what circumstances it would have made a real difference to what happened in prehistory if people had, in fact, acted to maximize their colony's rate of population growth. While we have not looked at all possible facets of how fast human numbers could have grown since settlers had founded a new colony on some uninhab- ited island, let us assume that biological success as witnessed by growing human numbers was achieved there. How might people have come to handle the problems of living together as population mounted higher and higher? Continued on p. 19 IF ... . Charity Begins at Home, . THE ULTIMATE GIFT Here is * It helps you while it helps the Museum . . . * It gives you a lifetime income . . . . * It gives you an immediate income tax deduction .... ^ It gives you an estate tax deduction .... ^ It unlocks capital gains, yet. . . . ^ It relieves you of any capital gains tax . . . . * It perpetuates your name and your giving . . . . * It gives you great self-satisfaction . . . . ^ It helps to ensure the future of Field Museum. THE ULTIMATE GIFT FIELD MUSEUM POOLED INCOME FUND IRS approved, the Pooled Income Fund is a trust in which the gifts of several donors are comingled. Your gift of $10,000 minimum mil credit you with "Units" in the Pooled Income Fund. Based on the number of "Units" your gift represents (and you can add in in- crements of $1,000 multiple), you are given a monthly income for life. You can even name a second beneficiary to follow you. After your life, or upon the death of the last beneficiary, the money represented by your "Units" is transferred to the Field Museum General Endowment Fund . . . where your gift perpetuates your giving and honors your name. Income from the Endoivment helps support each annual Operating Budget. Thus, your gift becomes ". . .as perpetual as nat- ural history itself. . . " CUP AND MAIL TODAY! TO: Planned Giving Office Field Museum of Natural History East Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605 Gentlemen: Please send, without obligation, your free brochure on the Field Museum Pooled Income Fund. Also send information on other forms of giving other than cash. NAME (PUase Print) ADDRESS CITY I can be reached at: Bus. : (_ STATE ZIP J_ Home: ( }_ TELEPHONE Best time to call: (Day) (Hour) ANNOUNCING... 12-inch replica of Field Museum's Big Beaver Totem Pole with lesend. $10.00 ($9.00 for Members) Now you can own the beauty and grace of Norman Tait's work of art and help support the Field Museum and its activities. An ideal gift! For telephone orders, call (312) 922-94D, ext. 236. For mail orders, send check or money order to Museum Store, Field Museum of Natural FHistory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II 60605. Please indude appropriate sales tax and $2.00 for shipping. Visa, MasterCard, and American Express cards accepted. U Mushroom Mania: Is It for You? by Martyn J. Dibben Photos by the author A . decade or two ago the promotional line "myco' legists have more fungi " was a rallying call for the professional student. Today, the phrase is more broad' ly applicable as informed amateurs from all walks of life, interested in the edible qualities of wild mush' rooms, have discovered that the fungus among us is not necessarily so evil after all. The Great Lakes region is blessed with an excess of 2,000 fleshy fungi that might be called mUshroom, but of these, maybe only 50 to 100 (some 2.5 to 5.0 percent) are potential- ly edible. When one considers frequency of occurrence, quantity of production, and reliable identification in the field, the average mycophagist (mushroom eater) re- quires familiarity with only some half-dozen or fewer species unless he becomes an ardent lover of fungi. The United States is a melting pot of ethnic origins, yet today's generations are woefully ignorant of past practices in the use of wild mushrooms. While EurO' The Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus, a choice, shelflike edible found on trunks or stumps of many deciduous trees. Two to eight inches broad, it may be found year-round. pean countries maintain the tradition of selling some 30 different species in their local food markets, Amer- ica has gloried in the mass production of just the white form of Agancus bisporus — a hybrid cousin of the Field Mushroom, or Champion. Cultivation of this fungus began near Paris in the seventeenth cen' tury and today France's capital has hundreds of miles of mushroom beds in suburban caves, tunnels, and sheds. But more pounds are consumed each year in the United States than in any European nation, and what was once a cottage industry is today a major commercial enterprise. The largest mushroom opera' tion in the world is the Butler County Mushroom Farm, 30 miles northeast of Pittsburgh. It, and the famed Kennett Square area of Chester County, Penn' sylvania, account for half the USA's production. Pickers wearing miners' hats \vith lamps gather each month's harvest for transport by refrigerated van to canning and produce centers as far away as Milwaukee. Eating mushrooms was a common practice in Re man times, and dignitaries designated such fare cihus diorum, or "food of the gods." Yet, Emperor Claudius Caesar's favorite, Amanita caesaria, is a close relative of some of our most deadly fungi. Although slaves were employed to distinguish between different kinds, Claudius was finally dispatched by a plate of mushrooms supplementarily poisoned by his v/ife, Agrippina, with son Nero's help. Because of similar histories and a plethora of folklore, a goodly portion of today's Americans remain reluctant to eat edible fungi (including the commercial products), although personally they may not be allergic to mushrooms. And where this mycophobia is as strong as the fear of snakes or spiders in others, the concerned individuals resort to needlessly destroying each season's crop of short'lived fruit bodies. Mushroom lore actually matches a given nation's fear of or fervor for fungi. Mycophobia is as prevalent today among the Greek, Iberian, and Scandinavian cultures as it was among America's earliest colonists, whose unbridled terror of fungi overshadowed the native Indians' use of wild plants. The British, in par- "Mushroom Mania: Is It for You?" is reprinted from Lore, with minor emendations, courtesy the Milwaukee Public Museum. Martyn Dibben is a surviving mycophagist and head of the Mil' wau}{ee Public Museum's Section of Botany. He is a past president of both the Botanical Club ofWisconsin and the Wiicomin Myco' logical Society. A lichenologist by profession, he wor}{s on the Mid' west flora, the lichens of Central America, and selected taxafrom the tropics and southern hemisphere continents. ticular, considered nearly all mushrooms poisonous and derisively called them "toadstools," a misleading term that is best dropped in favor of "edible" versus "nonedible" species. Love of fungi is more typical of Far Eastern and Southeast Asian races and those mycophiles of Europe, the French, Italians, Poles, and Russians. These groups are no'w exerting their influence on the American market; but this is not to say that others are unaware of the virtue of truffles, the elegance of the King Bolete, or the call of spring morels. Sparked primarily by a renewed interest in natural foods, increasing numbers of "shroom hunters" are taking to the fields and forests. Stalking the wild mushroom has for some become a thriving American sport — mycology is mushrooming. It constitutes the perfect rainyday activity, with all the thrills of the chase, an open season, far better chance for success than any fishing trip, and more exercise than watch' ing one's favorite athletic event. However, even though armed with a diversity of current field guides and brimming with excitement from a recent ex- tension course, the modem enthusiast may still be courting disaster, for the dangers of mushrooming are atypical in that they follow you back home after the sport. Identification is the }{ey, but like all things biological, fungi are subject to variation and the vagaries of look-alikes. There are no shortcuts to determining edible versus poisonous species, and con- 4 ■B: fl^*IV . _^M^ ^^^^Hk.. ..JOiS 'JBit^B^V ^■SSi^^^lM^SdHBawKE^. fU "■--■^i-.. . . j%, ^S-'^.^s.-^-''^--Wl -% The Wolf's Milk, or Toothpaste, Slime Mold, Lycogala epidendrum, widely distributed throughout the world, commonly occurring on large, wet logs. No slime molds are considered edible, but most are beautiful. fidence comes only with knowledge built up over the years. A mycophagist must know his mushrooms (as a sportsman his prey) or seek the help of an expert or well-informed comrade. In the USA, professional mycologists traditionally join the Mycological Society of America, which pro- motes scientific meetings and publishes the technical journal Mycologia. But many now also belong to a growing amateur group, NAMA — North American For the Novice Mushrooni'Seeker: A Cautionary Note The native peoples of northeastern Afortfi America did not ma]{e extensive use of mushrooms in their diet, but many cultures of Europe have centuries'old traditions of mush' room use. There appears to be an underlying environmental reason for this difference: the poisonous mushrooms ofCen' tral Europe are fewer in number and easier to identify than those of eastern J^orth America. (A curious footnote to this phenomenon is the fact that the European form of one species is edible while the J^orth American form of the same species is poisonous!) Unfortunately, many Europeans who have settled in our area have been unaware of the fact that mushroom identification here is much more difficult. 7<[ot unexpectedly, many mushroom'poisoning victims have been immigrants from those countries or members of their families. Mycologists at Field Museum are regularly asl{ed by local hospitals to identify the stomach contents of patients believed to have eaten poisonous fungi (the toxin, hence the treatment, differs for different species). ^ic\ action by physicians and new methods of treatment have greatly reduced mortalities due to mushroom poisoning — but the hazard remains a serious one. It is especially unfortunate that some deadly mushrooms may be very attractive to the palate: an additional problem is that the victim may not realize for several hours (after the toxin has passed from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood stream and vital organs) that he or she is acutely ill. A final argument against pic\ing wild mushrooms — or any other wild plants for that matter — is an ecological one. Our native forests have been radically contracted by agri- cultural development, industrial encroachment, road build' ing, and man's continual demand for more living space. If even a small percentage ofChicagoland's seven million resi- dents regularly collect wild mushrooms and plants in the few remaining areas of natural vegetation, we will see a serious decline and the likely extinction of those edible species in our area. V/itness the scarcity of the edible morel, or sponge mushroom — now far less common in our area than fifty years ago. — Ed. 13 The delicious Yellow Morel, Morchella esculenta, 3 to 5 inches tall, is the prize midseason find of the Great Lakes area's several sponge mushrooms. Mycological Association, which promotes both mycophagy and the scholarly pursuit of macrofungi and their medical implications. Affiliated with NAMA are some 30'plus regional groups, including the Illinois Mycological Society, which meets at Field Museum on the first Monday of each month. NAMA and its affiliates publish a series of monthly, bimonth- ly, or quarterly newsletters, which release informa- tion on popular mushroom activities across the na- tion. An irregular journal, Mdlvainea, contains more The False t\/lorel, Gyromitra esculenta, shown in face and sectioned views, is found only beneath conifers. Best avoided, it has a variable toxicity level for man. lengthy papers, keys, and critical reports on toxicity matters. It commemorates Charles Mcllvaine, the father of published accounts on the edibility of North American mushrooms. If you wish to learn more about fungi and are interested in nonedibles as well as gastronomic delights, then the recommendation is to join such a local group. To the Greek philosophers, mushrooms were cre- ated by lightning bolts and rain. Not so bad a guess considering today we know that macrofungus fruit- ing is effected by a triggered intake of water. Rapid absorption follows, engorging a preformed and fre- quently substrate-buried miniature version of the ma- ture fruit, transforming it overnight into the fleshy and recognizable carp characteristic for each species. In the Middle Ages such phenomena led toadstools to be relegated to the realm of the occult, and many folk- tales rose with regard to human diseases created by eating or touching them. Fairy rings were supposedly places where elves danced, toads met, deer rutted, or the devil set his chum at night. And many of these ideas became classic when incorporated into the writ- ings of Chaucer, Shakespeare, and their contemporar- ies, as seen more recently, \vhen Alice in Wonderland could grow or shrink according to which Amanita she nibbled on. Today we know that mushrooms are nothing more than the exposed spore-producing bodies of a sub- terranean or host-buried series of elongate fungal cells (hyphae) that mesh together to form an elaborate filamentous mycelium. This absorbs nutrient from within the substrate through which it spreads. From a central point of spore inoculation, the fiangal tissue moves out in all directions until restricted by barriers or increased biological competition. When con- ditions are physiologically correct a ring of fruit bod- ies is created near the outer border With time the ring relationship becomes indiscernible unless the habitat is open grassland. In such areas as Kansas's flatlands, Colorado's alpine meadows, or England's Salisbury Plain around the ruins of Stonehenge, ma- ture fairy rings 400 to 650 years old remain, having originated before Columbus's landing in America. Picking species of Agaricus, Clitocybe, and Maras' mius (the true Fairy Ring Mushroom) is not detri- mental to the mycelium so long as overripe and im- mature specimens are left intact. But overpicking with consequent or deliberate habitat damage is of serious concern. In Europe, seasonal quotas have had to be imposed on certain marketable species for fear of eradication, while in North America the biggest problems relate to trespass in search of "magic mush- rooms" for mind alteration. Hallucinogenic mush- rooms have long had religious significance in both Eurasia (the Fly Agaric — Amanita muscaria) and Mesoamerica (the psilocybin mushrooms — Paw aeolus, Psilocyhe, or Stropharia). But today's North American officiants are not shamans, and the experi- ence sought is personal "recreation," thanks to Blue Legs and Liberty Bells. Though the pharmaceutical industry's interest in these fungal groups is valid as a search for tranquilizers, many amateurs who seek re- lief by means of spotted agarics or ground-dwelling "little brown mushrooms" do not realize the dangers of confusing their targets with similar but deadly Amanita or Galerina mushrooms. Although mycologists are botanists, fungi are not plants but nongreen spore-producing organisms and members of their own biological kingdom. Their lack of chlorophyll to absorb sunlight and manufacture their own food via photosynthesis means they must invade already formed organic matter to obtain nourishment. Those that attack dead material are called saprophytes and play a major world role as decomposers. Those that attack living material, caus- ing disease and eventually killing it are called para^ sites. While some fungi release enzymes that can be deadly, others play an essential role in baking, brew- ing, the manufacture of organic acids, the production of medical drugs, and in the dairy industry. Fungi are thus the third planet's most valued converters, enrichers, and synthesizers. Yet, many mushroom mycelia form a symbiotic relationship with roots of their living host. This intimate interaction is known as a mycorrhizal (fungus-root) association, and through it a cyclic transfer of host organic products and fungal minerals occurs. Perhaps sixty percent of macrofungi occur this way and are limited not by sub- strate specificity but by the occurrence of a specific tree or forest type. And the mycorrhizal role may reach out to a third partner linking that and the tree, as, for example, with the chlorophyll-lacking Indian Pipes. Understanding the ecology and distribution of mushrooms is a complex matter, for not all species fruit regularly or in the same place. Seasonality may mean yearly or twice yearly for one species, periodi- The hard, pore-surfaced Artist's Conk, Ganoderma applanatum, grows up to 20 inches wide. Tliis specimen is providing a feast for tiny thrips insects: but the tough, tannin-loaded mushroom is not edible for humans. cally for another, and many years between fruitings for a third. Those woody conks found on tree trunks are perennial, but most fleshy fruit bodies last only a ^veek or two, and mushroom and mycologist may not meet. Obviously those fiingi less frequently encoun- tered are the ones we know least about, but we do know that most carps are phenomenal producers of spores. A perennial conk like the Artist's Palette (Ganoderma applanatum) or a large specimen of the Giant Calvatia Puffball may produce yearly more than five trillion spores. Most eaten gilled or pored mushrooms produce many million to several billion spores. We must be thankful that most spores fail to germinate successfully, otherwise we would be over- endowed with fungi rather than the organic debris they so fortunately degenerate. Often highly resistant to drying and freezing, the various-shaped spores of fungi are nearly weightless and easily sw^ept into the atmosphere by air currents. Trapping records detect them floating five or more miles high, and they can travel for hundreds or thou- sands of miles before settling or being deposited by rain. Not all spores ride the wind, however, those of subterranean fungi (truffles and false truffles) and the stinkhorns requiring animal intervention for dis- persal; via ingestion and subsequent broadcast in droppings or by the adherence of gelatinous spore masses to body parts, respectively. Other fungi ex- hibit unique spore release methods, from the light- triggered firing of spores in the dung fungus, Pilobolus, 15 16 The Sickener, Russula emetica, is a delight to the eye but will cause vomiting if eaten. through the ballistic firing of spore balls by the Can- non Fungus, Sphaerobolus stellatus, to the rain- splashed dispersal of peridioles ("eggs") from within the cups of Bird's Nest Fungi. Spring is morel season — a special time for mush- room hunters. Yet, more secrecy surrounds the hunt- ing and finding of these fungi than exists for the best fishing holes. Honeycomb, or sponge, mushrooms are a gourmet's delight, and in the Midwest, Boyne City, Michigan currently claims the title of "morel capital of the world," holding an annual National Mushroom Festival each May. The weekend affair may result in visitors collecting more than 20,000 specimens that nationally can fetch up to $8 per pound. The Michi- gan AAA reported that over a half-million people hunted the state during May of last year. But Chica- goans are as likely to join Wisconsinites in the Spring Green area and travel west to morel fairs at Muscoda and Richland Center Fungal diversity reaches its peak in the fall season, and this is when most mushroom societies are likely to hold their fairs and forays. Each year NAMA runs a national foray in a different North American loca- tion; 1984's September meeting was outside Toronto. This was the first time since the 1967 inception of the national society that a meeting has been held in Canada. Mushroom fairs have traditionally been run by the older societies of America's east and west coasts. But recently Colorado has become a popular site and developed a complementary series of amateur and professional summer mushroom conferences associated with the nation's central Rocky Mountain Poison Center. Wisconsin initiated in 1984 its first Fall Mushroom Fair, based on a liaison between the Milwaukee Public Museum and the Wisconsin Mycological Society. For the sake of simplicity, the fungal kingdom may be considered to have four major divisions — only the last two of which form edible mushrooms. One, the Myxomycetes, or Slime Molds, whose life cycle includes a stage with animal-like movement of cells; these multiply, aggregate together, and travel as a cellular ooze across substrates engulfing bacteria prior to forming each species' identifiable fruit bod- ies. Two, the Phycomycetes, or Thread Fungi, whose invading mycelia go unnoticed until decay or disease set in and fruiting occurs; included here are the bread molds, water molds, dow^ny mildews, and white rusts that in part were responsible for Ireland's potato crop failure of the 1840s and its subsequent wave of New World emigrants. Three, the Ascomycetes, or Sac Fungi, which produce their spores within a case (ascus) from which they are forcibly ejected at matur- ity; these embrace the powdery mildews (earth's most notorious crop ravagers), the commercially important blue and green molds, yeasts, truffles, and morels, as well as the highly successful alga-fungus symbioses known as lichens. Four, the Basidi- omycetes, or Club Fungi, that form their spores terminally on short stalks developed from a swollen basidium from which they drop; the agriculturally important rusts and smuts occur here, along with the majority of fleshy fungi whose form can vary from umbrella-shaped to shelflike, cup-shaped to clublike, and ball-shaped to matlike, with spores produced internally or externally on teeth, on flat surfaces with or without convolutions, or lining gills or tubes. Mushrooms lack the energy content of most food plants, but they are often higher in protein, produc- ing all of the amino acids essential to human growth. They are of course low in calories, a good source of mineral and trace elements (especially iron, copper, and phosphorus), and relatively rich in vitamins C and D and those of the B-complex. Although devoid of vitamin A and low in those essential amino acids found in meat, mushrooms are especially rich in those amino acids lacking in most staple cereal foods. The Glasshouse Crops Institute of England has estimated that whereas fish farming yields about nine times the dry protein per acre of beef farming, mushroom farm- ing can yield around 100 times as much, or approx- imately 7,000 pounds per acre annually. When one additionally considers the low cost of mycelium sub- strate, mushroom farming has much going for it. On a global scale, the White Button Mushroom is still the most commonly cultivated fungus, its laboratorygrown mycelium (spawn) being sown on a mixture of farm litter, hay, and crushed com cobs. But Asians are as familiar with the Rice Straw, or Paddy, Mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) of China and the Black Forest, or Shiitake, Mushroom (Lentinus edodes) of Japan, the latter farmed outdoors on hard- wood logs. Both of these are now grown as a cottage industry in the United States as well as strains of the Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus and relatives), which causes spore allergies among some Europeans, the Velvet Stem, or Enokotake (Flammulina velutipes), that in the wild will fruit even under snow; and the Wine Cup {Stropharia rugosoannulata). Other species that warrant attempted domestica- tion or half-culture include the Pine, or Matsutake, Mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake); selected chan- terelles including the GiroUe (Cantherellus spp.); the Milk Mushroom (Lactarius deliciosus); selected spe- cies of False Morels (Gyromitra spp.) — although this one is questionable; the Blewit (Clitocybe nuda); the porous mushroom {Boletus edulis), variously known as Borowiki, Cep, Porcini, or Steinpilz; species of Craterellus like the Horn of Plenty and Black Trum- pet; the jelly fungus Cloud Ears {Auricularia spp.); the Giant Puffball; the Choice Hedgehog, or Sweet Tooth (Dentinum repandum); the French truffle and alternatives, and the various morels. Many of these are already available on supermar- ket shelves as canned or dried wild collections, but only the truffles and morels currently show promise of commercial success. Cultivated seedlings of appro- priate hardwoods impregnated with Tuber melano' sporum are available in Texas and California, but whether such farming of the Perigord truffle (already successful in France after seven years) in the United States will outshine the Oregon White is not yet known. Developed for marketing, American truffles are more likely to compete with the Italian product and not drastically affect the gourmet price of the French (often more than $350 per pound fresh or $20 dollars an ounce canned). Progress is being eagerly watched by world authority James Trappe and the North American Truffling Society. More difficult is the elusive cultivation of the morel, which until 1981 had defied successful repetitive laboratory fruiting. Ronald Ower's pioneering work in San Francisco has now been repeated by scientists at Michigan State University, and the two have contracted to develop The Slippery Jack, Suillus luteus, is one of the many, mostly edible boletes. Found under spruce and pine stands, it grows 2 to 6 inches tall. The cap slime must be removed before eating. their still secret process to the point of commercial success. The world is waiting! One element of folklore that is for real is "foxfire," the colloquial name of the natural bioluminescence exhibited by an assemblage of gilled fijngi that invade wood. Most common among mushroom species from the tropics, the responsible photogen "luciferin" pro- duces light ranging in color from blue to green to yel- low. Rarely formed in freed spores, it can cause the ground beneath fruit bodies to glow at night. But more often it is the mushroom itself or its aggregated hyphal strands that luminesce. In North America two prevalent examples are (1) the rhizomorphs of The Hen of the Woods, Grifolia frondosa, is a choice, late fall edible weighing up to 20 pounds. Often found near oaks or other deciduous trees in mixed woods. J^ ■ y)J^^y 44,-' ' '^ ^ ^ ^^ '^^1 17 The poisonous Pigskin Puffball, Scleroderma citrlnum, grows 2 to 4 inches across. Readily identified, on sectioning, by the purple color of its mature spore mass. the virulent hardwood parasite Armillariella mellea that permeate downed trunks (its fruit body is the edible Honey Cap, or Banana, Mushroom responsible for aborting fructifications of the agaric Entoloma abortivum), and (2) the gills of the pumpkin-colored poisonous mushroom Omphalotus olearins, which is frequently mistaken for a chanterelle. (Known appro- priately as Old Stomachache, or Jack O'Lantem, its tissues have the distinction of turning green on cook- ing— a character not seen for any edible mushroom.) Space does not permit a discourse on the structural variances of the more common fleshy fungi, which are best learned in the laboratory or in the field accompanying others who are knowledgeable. But comments on how best to avoid being poisoned are pertinent, since there is no fool-proof way for a novice to separate edible from nonedible species: Collecting Tips • Know the deadly poisonous mushrooms of your area (Amanitas, Galerinas, certain false morels) and those likely to induce severe illness (some Clitocybes, most Inocybes and Entolomas, selected Inky Caps, also known as Coprinus, certain members of the genera Hebeloma, Lactarius, Russula, and Tricholo^ ma) or hallucinogenic effects (Gymnopilus, Van- aeolus, Fsilocybe, or Stropharia spp.). • Discard belief in folklore. Poisonous mushrooms do not darken onions, potatoes, or silver placed in the cooking pot. Parboiling, drying, or salting removes poisons from only some mushrooms — not all. Poi- sonous mushrooms do not grow only on Avood; they also occur on dung and on the the ground. You cannot be poisoned by touching a dangerous mushroom. 18 • Do not eat any mushroom whose stalk arises from a fleshy cup buried in the ground or which has a bulbous base. Also avoid any white-capped species with white gills and any "little brown mushrooms" from the woods. This will eliminate many hard-to- identify species, including the deadly Amanita and Galerina mushrooms. • When collecting pored boletes avoid those with red pores or that stain blue on bruising, and remove the pored surface prior to cooking. When collecting milk mushrooms (Lactarius spp.) do not expect the color of the exuded gill latex to determine edibility. When collecting corals (C/avaria-like relatives or Ramaria spp.) do not eat those that stain on bruising or taste bitter in the field. • Do not use wild mushrooms in the button stage nor eat any puffball unless it is pure white inside and of marshmallow consistency. Half-section the puff- ball to ensure that (1) each is not a stinkhom or but- ton with outline of cap and stalk, (2) nothing is dis- colored yellow inside and therefore too old, and (3) the inside is neither hard and white nor purple (Scleroderma spp.). • Pick your own mushrooms and keep only the ones in excellent shape that you can identify. Sepa- rate each species within paper or wax bags that can breathe (plastic hastens spoilage). Do not accept oth- ers' gatherings at face value nor give wild mushrooms to the novice — you may be liable. Discard insect- riddled or decayed specimens (they may contain waste products or have bacterial invasions) and those gathered from roadside borders (exhaust and herbi- cide poisoning is possible); discard all unidentified material unless being taken to an expert. • Do not keep mushrooms in a refrigerator for more than 24 hours without preparing them for pres- ervation. Eat only a small amount of any species being tried for the first time (you may be allergic), and keep reserve material on hand for possible Poison Control Center identification. Do not drink alcohol with any meal made from noncommercial mushrooms (espe- cially Inky Cap, or Coprinus, spp.). • If you are going to become an ardent mycopha- gist, appreciate that Latin names, a unique parts ter- minology, and colored spore prints are all part of the game; learn them and how to use them. Buy as many mushroom guides as you can, for no one manual is up-to-date and covers it all. (See list of mushroom books available at the Field Museum Store, page 25.) If possible, join a local mushroom society or seek help from a museum or university expert in finding foray companions. You may indeed find some very worth- while friends. FM LIVING TOGETHER con'tfromp. 10 Three Ways of Living Together Before his death on 5 March 1829, John Adams wop ried about more than overpopulation on Pitcaim. He worried, too, about the education of the young and about who would someday lead -what was then, in economy. But what if avoidance is not practical? Logically, at least, there are two alternatives left. When avoidance will not work, then coexistence calls for cooperation or conflict. If living together is done by working together, the cooperation achieved may be mutually coordi' nated or unintentional. If living together must, how Mid-nineteenth-century residents of Pitcaim, from contemporary engravings. effect, his one large family. What can we say about the ways in which people there and elsewhere in the Pacific have come to organize their numbers and hand down to younger generations their traditions, learning, and practical discoveries? Ecologists recognize that living things in general can live together in several different ways. Perhaps the easiest method of coexistence is simply to avoid potential enemies and rivals by living in a different place, or by coming out at a different time of day or night or season than they do, or by having a different way of making a living, a different role in Nature's ever, bring on conflict, the contest in the natural world may take the form of an open struggle for exis- tence— eating or being eaten, for instance. Or con- flict may be more subtle in character; not eat or be eaten, but domination, selfish exploitation, and clev- er extortion. One example from the natural world would be host-parasite interactions. Such a "parasit- ic" relationship between people has cropped up repeatedly over the course of history. Consider mod- ern urban racketeers, the Sicilian Mafia, and — according to some scholars — even Bronze Age chief- tains in ancient Europe. Living together under such 19 unsavory circumstances certainly entails conflicts of interest, if not the human equivalent of eat or be eaten. These several \vays of coexistence — avoidance, cooperation, and conflict — are not mutually exclu' sive. In fact, avoidance and conflict are both standard methods of living together Perhaps only cooperation is the more unusual means of getting along with oth- ers in the natural world. What about in the world of human affairs? Has coexistence among people in the Pacific more often than not been a matter of avoidance, conflict, or peaceful cooperation? In recent years there has been much discussion and argument about how effectively people in different parts of the Pacific have created ways of managing social and political conflict, and — more fundamentally — how strongly committed some island societies may have become to living together by conflict and competition rather than by the give- and-take of cooperation. In particular, it has been accepted anthropologi- cal wisdom for the last twenty years or so that domi- nation, extortion, and selfish exploitation of the many by the few are conventional ways by which people holding positions of authority and respect in Melanesia traditionally dealt with their underlings. If you open a book dealing with the anthropology of the Pacific Islanders, chances are good that you -will come across one version or another of the following standard portrait of the "typical Melanesian leader" First, unlike their peers of similar or higher rank in Polynesia who are said to inherit their authority, Melanesian leaders are reported to be only "big-men" rather than "chiefs" or "kings" — a label taken from the Melanesian expression bi}{pela man, which means "adult, headman of a village, man of influence and authority, etc." Big-men in Melanesia are said to be merely people who achieve or rise to power by com- peting fiercely with other neighboring big-men, or aspiring big-men. Second, the conventional portrait of the typical Melanesian leader also tells us that the competition for power on which his meager authority rests is played out with food and lavish gifts, and not with real weapons of war (not, at least, since peace came to Melanesia as a consequence of foreign domination by Europeans). In short, so the stereotype goes, leaders in Melanesia are merely persons who elevate themselves above the masses by giving their rivals great feasts — presentations so expensive and over- whelming that all contenders are shamed into 20 subordination. This picture of Melanesian political life as a kind of competitive social climbing has been widely accepted in the scholarly world as true. It has also been blamed for contributing to popular notions about Melanesians as culturally and socially inferior to Polynesians. Epeli Hau'ofa, who is both an anthro- pologist and a Pacific Islander, has warned us in par- ticular about how damaging this stereotype can be when people see themselves thus categorized, dis- torted, and misrepresented. "Somehow or other," he says, "we have projected onto Melanesian leaders the caricature of the quintessential Western capitalist: grasping, manipulating, calculating, and without a stitch of morality." How did this distortion, if it is a distortion, come about? It can be difficult to trace the origins of a stereotype and the caricature of the Melanesian big- man as a thoughtless competitor is no exception. As Hau'ofa comments, however, the anthropological literature on the Pacific — going back for hundreds of years — has often romanticized Polynesians and deni- grated Melanesians. And lest we think the claim he makes that Melanesian leaders have been ridiculed as quintessential Western capitalists is a gross exaggera- tion, here is what one anthropologist, Marshall Sahlins, wrote in 1963 in an article titled "Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief: Political Types in Melanesia and Polynesia," a scholarly paper cited and reprinted numerous times since then: The Melanesian big-man seems so thoroughly bourgeois, so reminiscent of the free enterprising rug- ged individual of our own heritage. He combines with an ostensible interest in the general welfare a more profound measure of self-interested cunning and economic calculation. His gaze ... is fixed un- swervingly to the main chance. His every public ac- tion is designed to make a competitive and invidious comparison with others, to show a standing above the masses that is [the] product of his own personal manufacture. If what these words tell us is true, then living together in Melanesia, at any rate in the political are- na, must be truly competitive and often vicious. Hau'ofa describes Sahlins 's celebrated paper on political types in Melanesia and Polynesia as a "clev- er, thoughtless and insulting piece of writing," an invidious comparison between — to use Sahlins 's ow^n words — the "developed" politics of Polynesia and the "underdeveloped" ways of Melanesia. These are strong words. But are they just? This last question is worth asking here for two reasons. Looking more closely at how Sahlins has de- scribed big-man politics in Melanesia will help us see more clearly some of the ways people in the Pacific have come to handle the problems of living together And, as Hau'ofa has remarked, the issue of Melane- sian big'men vs. Polynesian chiefs has biased not only ho'w foreigners view Pacific Islanders but also how islanders see themselves. If these stereotypes are wrong or just too inaccurate to be useful, then we must look for other ways to describe and model island patterns of diversity in social and political life. There is no denying that the picture of leader- ship in Melanesia sketched by Marshall Sahlins in "Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man,Chief ' and in other scholarly papers is a surprisingly simple portrait of human affairs. A big'man, Sahlins tells us, is someone who has had ambition enough to build a personal fac- tion or in-group of loyal followers — initially drawn mostly from his own household and close kinsmen — whose productive energies and resources he can dominate and mobilize to finance public feasts. Why? Because, as previously mentioned, anyone striving to be called hi}{pela man must hold giveaways to shame competitors and thereby elevate one's social standing ever higher and higher. And elevate, too, the standing of one's followers through their close association with an outstanding individual. When reduced to essentials, such a portrait of politics in Melanesia rests on at least four main assumptions about how people have come to live together in the southwestern Pacific: 1. Some people in the geographic region of the Paci- fie labeled Melanesia are unusually ambitious, driven to make themselves stand out from the crowd, to raise themselves above the common herd. 2. Any ambitious person who is able to gather a per- sonal following can launch himself on the road to becoming a big-man. 3 . People cooperate with an aspiring big-man by con- tributing their help and resources largely because they are attracted to ambitious personalities by the promise of reflected glory (and they are attracted also by the cunning and manipulative skills allegedly pos- sessed by such ambitious people). 4. Lastly, Melanesia is evidently the kind of place where fame and at least a meager degree of political power can be generated by giving people bigger feasts than anyone else can give one in return; provided, Sahlins adds, the aspiring big-man keeps his gaze fixed unswervingly at the big chance: "towards amassing goods, most often pigs, shell monies and vegetable foods, and distributing them in ways which build a name for cavalier generosity, if not for compassion." Working from assumptions such as these, Sahlins concludes in "Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief" that political accomplishments in Melanesia have suffered habitually from several "fundamental defects," or flaws, in their scale, struc- ture, and performance. And as a consequence, most Melanesian societies have been held back at "rudimentary levels" of evolutionary achievement "in the progress of primitive culture." What are these failings or flaws in how Melane- sians have come to conduct themselves in the polit- ical arena? The defects that Sahlins appears to have in mind are said to arise mostly because of the quality or character of the ties believed to link a big-man and his followers together into an organized political force. To be specific, personal loyalities between a big-man and his adherents — who help finance his career as a social climber — have to be carefully con- structed and periodically reinforced. And why is that? Because rank and authority in Melanesia — as we have already noted — are supposedly not inherited by right of birth the way they are in Polynesia. And so, "merely to create a faction takes time and effort, and to hold it, still more effort. The potential rupture of personal links in the factional chain is at the heart of two broad evolutionary shortcomings of western Melanesian political orders." These two shortcomings, Sahlins tells us, are first of all the comparative instability of Melanesian leadership positions, and second, the restrictions that this inherent instability puts on how successfully a big-man can force his followers to increase their eco- nomic productivity — a limitation which thereby holds back the development of wider and wider systems of political integration. "Evoking internal contradictions, the Melanesian big-man system thus defeats its own development. It sets a limit on the intensification of political authority, on the intensification of household production by socio- political means, and on the diversion of domestic out- put to the support of wider organization." The historian Bronwen Douglas has pointed out several ■weaknesses in the approach that Sahlins and others have taken in their efforts to produce theo- retical analyses of traditional systems of leadership in the Pacific. She finds, for instance, that the portraits drawn commonly rely on two stereotypes: "one Polynesian and based on hereditary rank (ascribed status) in a context of social hierarchy; the other Melanesian and based on achieved status in a context of egalitarianism and competition." These stereo- types, she says, have usually been created by studying 21 only a few island societies in each geographic region and generalizing from those individual cases as if they were somehow typical of all "Polynesians" and all "Melanesians." Moreover, once such stereotypes have been erected, scholars and laymen alike have tended to force all Pacific societies into one category or the other and to underplay or simply ignore evidence say ing the fit cannot be made. In addition, and perhaps most telling of all, because such stereotypes do not convey a clear sense of hov/ social conventions and actual practice are related to each other in particular settings, the resulting portraits of "typical Polynesian society" and "typical Melanesian society" are invari- ably static and lifeless. Objections such as these raised by Bronwen Douglas can be leveled against any attempt at model building. The appropriate response to such criticism is not to condemn the efforts they are directed against; instead, the really useful thing to do is see if other kinds of models can be built as alternatives. It is especially useful to see how alternatives to Sahlins's characterization of the Melanesian big' man might be put together, for the alternative we will focus on here shows how the strategies that people use to get along with each other can look quite different, depending upon which side of things an observer happens to be looking from. With regard to big-man politics in Melanesia, to be specific, the costs and benefits of public feasting and aspiring to high social rank may seem quite dif- ferent, depending upon whether you are a big-man or a big-man's follower. Noblesse Oblige Bronwen Douglas has observed that Sahlins's picture of big-man politics in Melanesia relies heavily — too heavily, she suggests — on Douglas Oliver's descrip- tion of kinship and leadership among the Siwai (or Siuai) of southern Bougainville. How well does the characterization built by Sahlins fit the Siwai? Is it possible to model Siwai politics in a way that places less weight on conflict, competition, and human ambition as the organizing forces behind social and political cooperation in Melanesia? Reading the remarkably detailed account of Siwai life and politics given in Douglas Oliver's classic study A Solomon Island Society (1955) can leave one with the feeling that some individuals in 22 southern Bougainville strive to become big-men (called mumi in Siwai) because of overwhelming per- sonal ambition. But Oliver does not say ambition alone is enough. Reaching the top also apparently takes skill, industriousness, and something the Siwai speak of as nommai mirahu, which Oliver translates as "goodness." All of these attributes, Oliver reports, are needed for a man to be successful in becoming a renowned big-man. That leaders in Siwai must be skillfijl and hard-working, judging from what Sahlins has said, makes sense. But where does "goodness" fit in? That trait of personality hardly sounds in keeping with the self-interested cunning and economic cal- culation that are allegedly typical features of a big- man's character. According to Oliver, the Siwai believe high- ranking leaders possess the personal quality of good- ness to a very marked degree, just as such outstanding individuals are also thought to have the other attri- butes mentioned in unusually fijll measure. A Siwai leader's goodness is held to manifest itself in several ways. As a "generous man," a mumi gives frequently and does not weigh too exactly what he gets back in return. He is "cooperative" in the sense that he really likes to work with others. He is "genial." Specifically, he does not easily get angry and he is usually friendly and responsive. Further, a mumi is "decent" and "trustworthy," especially in how he handles property transactions. A good mumi does not take what is not rightfully his own. He gives in full measure. Douglas Oliver says that all of these dimensions of "goodness" are interrelated. "A person cannot be deficient in one of these aspects without being de- ficient in all of them." And their opposites — "sel- fishness," "uncooperativeness," "immorality," and "uncongeniality" — are heartily disliked. One possible response to this talk of "goodness" might be to say that the Siwai were only telling Oli- ver how they wished their leaders would be, rather than how they truly were. It seems certain, however, that leaders in Siwai often lived up to the expecta- tions of those around them. "One has only to listen to the enthusiasm and reverence with which an adher- ent discusses his leader to realize that the latter con- stitutes for his neighbors an element of certainty and security which no other role of authority or set of beliefs has adequately provided." This last remark, in particular, suggests that however much we pay attention to ambition as a per- sonality trait explaining why some men — but not others — seek power and authority in Siwai, we must include the attribute of "goodness" as well when talk- ing about Siwai political life (and when talking about political life elsewhere in Melanesia, too). Even Sahlins, who has written that a big'inan's interest in public welfare is merely "ostensible," has also made the observation that a big-man's dealings help prO' mote society's interests: "In tribes normally seg- mented into small independent groups, he at least temporarily widens the sphere of economics, politics, and ceremony." If goodness as well as ambition must be included when modeling Melanesian ways of living together, then several other thoughts should be kept in mind, too. Maybe people who elect to become a would-be leader's loyal supporters are not simply attracted to him by his outstanding personality and by the prom- ise that they will eventually bask in his reflected glory. Or, alternatively, because they are obligated to him by his economic favors (as Sahlins has also infer- red). Or, alternatively again, because he happens to be one of their kinsmen and hence tradition tells them they must come to his aid. Maybe, in fact, what Oli- ver calls the feelings of certainty and security provid- ed by a big-man are not merely comforting but real and substantial. Reading through what Oliver has written about the Siwai reveals unmistakably that mumi are most decidedly leaders in more than name only. For instance, mumi formerly were the people who orga- nized war parties and conducted raids. Now that times are peaceful, they are still the ones to mobilize friends, relatives, and neighbors for public projects. Similarly, leaders in Siwai serve as arbitrators, judges, sometimes prosecutors, and in general as the people on whom other people can lean during crises, either domestic or civil. Siwai leaders are also the people who are in the best position to exercise considerable influence on affairs beyond their ow^n neighborhoods. "It is not unusual, for example," \vrites Oliver, "for a high-ranking leader to be requested to arbitrate dis- putes between leaders of neighboring settlements." Oliver also reports that leaders in Siwai help cre- ate and strengthen social relationships between neighboring communities, the evidence of which can be seen in political alliances, rivalries, commercial re- lationships, and of course attendance at feasts. "Not only are separate neighborhoods bound closer together in this manner, but social relationships be- come extended even to neighborhoods in other lan- guage areas." And, as Sahlins notes as ■well, Siwai leaders also function as important instruments of so- cial control. Oliver says that commendation by a mumi is for many Siwai males the sweetest of all re- wards; ridicule by a great leader may ultimately result in an offender's suicide in the face of such public humiliation. If ambition, goodness, and public service are therefore all involved in big-man politics in Siwai (and, by inference, elsewhere in Melanesia, too), then what kind of give-and-take goes on among ambi- tion, goodness, and public service? This seems a ques- tion worth asking, for certainly public service in Siwai, as elsewhere in the world, must at times de- mand putting the common good above personal gain. Perhaps more to the point, what in fact goes into the making of a big-man in Siwai? For instance, Oliver tells us that not all Siwai neighborhoods happen to be lucky enough to have mumi residing in them. Does that not seem peculiar if mumi actually are as helpful, perhaps vital, to the smooth working of Siwai society as it would appear? Do some places lack leaders because people with the requisite amounts of ambi- tion, skill, goodness, and industriousness merely hap- pen to be in scarce supply there? And consequently the presence or absence of a leader of renown in one neighborhood or another is just a matter of luck: some places happen to be blessed with at least one resident able to meet the stiff requirements of high rank but other places, sadly, are not so fortunate? Answers to these several questions about what goes into the making of a big-man in Siwai may lie in Oliver's remark, mentioned earlier, that Siwai men imagine themselves to be participants in a way of liv- ing together that draws all of Siwai (and sometimes more distant neighborhoods) into a social system comprising several "ranks" or "layers." Could it be that people gain positions of higher or lower rank in this hierarchic social world for reasons reaching beyond the fact that they are — to differing degrees — more or less ambitious, more or less skillful, more or less industrious, and more or less good by Siwai stan- dards of goodness? If so, what else might be involved? In the Right Place at the Right Time The anthropologist Jay Callen has noted that schol- ars often answer the question "What goes into the making of a big-man?" in a single-minded fashion. The usual reply given is, as \ve have seen, that some men achieve the status of big-man because of certain personal qualities they possess in full measure (ambi- tion, magnetism, charisma, cavalier generosity, and the like) and because they successfully cajole a small ^^ core of followers into giving them aid and needed eco' nomic resources. But, and this is the important point if what Oliver tells us is actually correct, big'men are also participants in a larger social scene, reportedly having a hierarchic structure, that reaches far and wide Big'men and aspiring big'men are part of a polit' ical world that reaches beyond their immediate vil' lages, even beyond their local neighborhoods. They participate, in other words, in a political system that displays a spatial as well as a social structure. "It is this spatial patterning of political phenomena," notes Callen, "which suggests that, in Siwai, leaders were as much a function of the central places they inha' bited as vice versa. In a certain sense, potential polit' ical centers may be said to have 'created' the big'men to occupy them." We have been considering here two funda' mental questions. How fast could human numbers have grown in the Pacific? How well did people learn to handle the problems of living together as popuk' tion increased? We have seen that limits of room and nourish' ment may affect human populations just as they can influence the biological success of other species. Pit' cairn Island gave us a chance to examine in historical detail what might have been the upper limits of long- term population growth among the islanders. We saw that the rate of growth on Pitcaim between 1790 and 1856 became so rapid that population there was actually doubling every twenty years. Pitcaim does not prove that island populations in the past gre-w at such an extraordinary rate. But knowing what the upper limits of growth might possibly have been should help us make clearer sense — as research on the prehistory of the Pacific Islanders continues — of how soon and perhaps how pressing the problems of grow ing human numbers might have affected island life from one island or archipelago to another in pre historic times. We have also seen that living together, in sim- plest terms, can be accomplished in three ways. We can avoid each other; we can compete with each other; we can cooperate v/ith each other These three ways of coexistence are not mutually exclusive. In fact, as the Siwai of southern Bougainville have illus- trated for us, both competition and cooperation, for instance, are likely to be involved in how people come to align themselves around different leaders and di- vide up into separate groups as their numbers grow. Where individuals in Siwai have the opportunity to raise themselves above their neighbors is evidently not simply a matter of personality, motivation, and a driving will to compete. If what both Oliver and Cal- len have told us is correct, then also involved are all the reasons, real or imagined, why people in Siwai want or feel they must place themselves under the leadership of outstanding personalities. One of the particular lessons we have learned in this discussion is that it is far too elementary to por- tray big-man politics in Melanesia as personal social- climbing. We must also ask why on earth anyone would put up with having a big'man around. And as Callen's work suggests, the answer to this very hu' man question is likely to be far more complicated than saying simply that follo^vers become foUoAvers only to bask in the reflected glory of their leaders and thereby raise themselves, however indirectly, above their more distant neighbors.FII Further Reading Callen, J. S. 1976. Settlement patterns in prewar Siwai: An application of Central Place Theory to a horticultural society. Solomon Island Studies in Human Biogeography, no. 5. Chi- cago: Department of Anthropology, Field Museum of Natural History. Christian, G. 1982. Fragile paradise: The discovery of Fletcher Christian Bounty mutineer Boston: Little, Brown and Com- pany Douglas, B. 1979. Rank, power, authority: a reassessment of traditional leadership in South Pacific societies. Journal of Pacific History 14:2-27. Hau'ofa, E. 1975. Anthropology and Pacific Islanders. Oceania 45:283-89. Hough, R. 1973. Captain Bligh & Mr. Christian: The men and 24 the mutiny New York: E. P. Dutton 6? Co. Nicolson, R. B. 1965. The Pitcairners. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. Oliver, D. L. 1955. A Solomon Island society: Kinship and leader' ship among the Siuai of Bougainville. Cambridge, Mass.: Har- vard University Press. Sahlins, M. D. 1968a. Poor man, rich man, big man, chief: polit- ical types in Melanesia and Polynesia. In Peoples and cultures of the Pacific, ed. A. R Vayda, 157-76. Garden City, New York: Natural History Press. 1968b. Tribesmen. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Shapiro, H. L. 1936. The heritage of the Bounty: The story of Pit' cairn through six generations. New York: Simon and Shuster. Silverman, D. 1967- Pitcaim Island. Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company. Fieldiana: Titles Issued in 1983 and 1984 Fieldiana is a continuing series of scien- tific papers and monographs in the dis- cipHnes of anthropology, botany, geology, and zoology; the series is intended pri- marily for exchange-distribution to mu- seums, libraries, and universities, but all titles are also available for public purchase. The following titles, published in 1983 and 1984, may be ordered from the Division of Publications. Members are entitled to a 10 percent discount. Publica- tion number should accompany order. A catalog of all available Fieldiana titles is available on request. (Please specify discipline: anthropology, botany, geology, or zoology.) Fieldiana: Anthropology 1342. "The Simms Collection of Plains Cree Material Culture from Southeastern Saskatch- ewan," by James W. VanStone. New Series No. 6;57pp.,33illus. $8.50. 1358. "Material Culture of the Davis Inlet and Barren Ground Naskapi: The William Duncan Strong Collection," by James W. VanStone. New Series No. 7; 136 pp., 107 illus. $15.75. Fieldiana: Botany 1349. "Ferns and Fern Allies of Guatemala. Part III. Marsileaceae, Salviniaceae, and the Fern Allies (Including a Comprehensive Index to Parts I, II, and III)," by Robert G. Stolze with Benjamin 011gaard and R. James Hickey. New Series No. 12; 91 pp., 10 illus. $9.75. 1350. "Flora Costaricensis. Family #54 Podostemaceae, Family # 55 Proteaceae, Family #56 Olacaceae, Family #57 Opi- liaceae. Family #58 Loranthaceae, Family #59 Aristolochiaceae, Family #60a Hydno- raceae. Family #60b Rafflesiaceae, Family #61 Balanophoraceae, Family #62 Polygo- naceae. Family #63 Chenopodiaceae, Family #64 Amaranthaceae, Family #65 Nyctagi- naceae. Family #66 Phytolaccaceae, Family #67 Aizoaceae, Family #68 Portulacaceae, Family #69 Basellaceae, Family #70 Caryophyllaceae." Edited by William Burger. By William Burger, Job Kuijt, Kerry Barringer, Luis D. Gomez, and Richard Baker. New Series No. 13; 255 pp., 42 illus. $25.50. 1351. "Austral Hepaticae XVIII. Studies Toward a Revision oiTelaranea Subg. Neolepi- dozia (Lepidoziaceae)," by John J. Engel and Rudolf M. Schuster. New Series No. 14; 7 pp., 3 illus. $2.00. 1356. "Useful Plants of the Siona and Secoya Indians of Eastern Ecuador," by William T Vickers and Timothy Plowman. New Series No. 15; 63 pp., 24 illus., 1 table. $9.00. 1357. "A Systematic Study of Flourensia (Asteraceae, Heliantheae)," by Michael O. Dillon. New Series No. 16; 66 pp., 41 illus., 2 tables. $9.25. Fieldiana: Geology 1341. "Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) from the Permian Kaibab Formation, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona," by Frank K. McKinney. New Series No. 13; 17 pp., 5 illus., 3 tables. $3.00. 1354. "The Mammalian Fauna of Madura Cave, Western Australia. Part VI: Macropodi- dae: Potoroinae," by Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr., and William D. Tumbull. New Series No. 14; 63 pp., 15 illus., 21 tables. $8.25 Fieldiana: Zoology 1340. " Spatial and Trophic Interactions in Wet and Dry Seasons Between Gambusia luma and Gambusia sexradiata (Pisces: Poeciliidae) in Belize, Central America," by David W. Greenfield, Chester F. Rakocinski, and Teresa A. Greenfield. New Series No. 14; 16 pp., 8 illus., 3 tables. $2.50. 1343. "The Effectiveness of Methods of Shajje Analysis," by Cliff A. Lemen. New Series No. 15; 17 pp., 5 illus., 6 tables. $3.00. 1344. "The Distribution, Size, and Reproduc- tion of the Pedunculate Barnacle, Ociolasmis mtilleri (Coker, 1902), on the Blue Crab, Cal- linecles sapidus (Rathbun, 1896)," by William B. Jeffries and Harold K. Voris. New Series No. 16; 10 pp., 5 illus., 2 tables. $2.25. 1345. "Taxonomy and Evolution of the Sinica Group of Macaques: 4. Species Account of Macaca thibetana," by Jack Fooden. New Series No. 17; 20 pp., 5 illus., 3 tables. $3.50. 1346. "Morphological and Ecological Varia- tion in the Flying Lizards (Genus Draco)," by Robert F. Inger. New Series No. 18; 35 pp., 3 illus., 17 tables. $5.25. 1347. "Variation in Bomean Frogs of the Amo- lops jerboa Species Group, with Description of Two New Species," by Robert F. Inger and Paul A. Gritis. New Series No. 19; 13 pp., 2 illus., 5 tables. $2.75. 1348. "On the Phyletic Weight of Mensural Cranial Characters in Chipmunks and Their Allies (Rodentia; Sciuridae)," by Bruce D. Patterson. New Series No. 20; 24 pp., 4 illus., 7 tables. $3.50. 1352. "Annotated Checklist of Bird and Mam- mal Species of Cocha Cashu Biological Sta- tion, Manu National Park, Peru," by John W. Terborgh, John W. Fitzpatrick, and Louise Emmons. New Series No. 21; 29 pp., 2 illus., 3 tables. $3.75. 1353. "A New Species of Vinciguerria (Sal- moniformes: Photichthyidae) from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba, with Comments on the Depauperacy of the Red Sea Mesopelagic Fish Fauna," by Robert Karl Johnson and Ross M. Feltes. New Series No. 22; 35 pp., 12 illus., 7 tables. $4.50. 1355. "Systematics of Mice of the Subgenus Akodon (Rodentia: Cricetidae) in Southern South America, with the Description of a New Species," by Bruce D. Patterson, Milton H. Gallardo, and Kathy E. Freas. New Series No. 23; 16 pp., 6 illus., 1 table. $4.00. The Field Museum Store offers the following books on Mushrooms The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms, by Gary H. Lincoff; 926 pp. , 750 color plates. Knopf. $12.50.* Edible Mushrooms, by Clyde M. Christensen; 118 pp., 14 color plates. University of Minnesota Press. $6.95.* A Field Guide to Mushrooms and Their Relatives, by Booth Courtenay and Harold H. Burdsall, Jr. ; 144 pp. , more than 4(X) color plates. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hard cover: $18.95*; paperback $11.50;* Fungi: Delight of Curiosity, by Harold J. Brodie; 131 pp. University of Toronto Press. $10.00* The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide, by Alexander H. Smith and Nan- cy Smith Weber; 316 pp. , about 30 color plates. University of Michigan Press. $14.95.* VNR Color Dictionary of Mushrooms, edited by Colin Dickenson and John Lucas; 160 pp. , more than 350 color plates. Van Nostrand Reinhold. $12.95.* * Field Museum Members entitled to a 10% discount Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Volume 55 (1984) Articles Adult Education Program, by R. Pickering: March 24 Adult Education Update, by R. Pickering: Nov. 7 African and Afro-American Art: Call and Re- sponse, by R. Powell: May 5 Artist Floyd E. Job, Honored By Friends, Was Donor of His Own Painting, "Progress of Mind" (Field Briefs): April 26 Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980, by R. Powell: April 11 Books, Business, and Buckskin, by E. Webber: J/A 5 British Award for Peter Crane (Field Briefs): March 5 Ceramics of the Song Dynasty, by Y. Mino: January 16 Clark Fossil Collection Cataloged By Volun- teers (Field Briefs): April 26 Cranes, by G. Archibald: March 20 Dancing for the Dead, by D. Walsten: March 6 Eskimo Art and Culture: Feb. 5 Field Museum's Planned Giving Program, by C. Buzard: Oct. 24 Fort Ancient: Citadel Or Coliseum?, by P. Essenpreis and M. Moseley: June 5 Fossil Plant Collections at the Field Museum, by M. Bryant and P. Crane: April 5 Images of Yap, by R. Pickering: Feb. 20 In Pursuit of Amphibians and Reptiles in East Malaysia, by R. Inger: June 11 Market Art from Northeastern Asia, by J. VanStone: April 19 My Life, My Music, by Ravi Shankar: Nov. 20 New Look for the Pacific Research Lab, A: Oct. 6 New Women's Board Officers (Field Briefs): Sept. 11 1992 Fair: Catalyst for Chicago's Future, The, by W. Boyd: Jan. 5 On the Trait of the Finest Metallurgy of the Ancient New World, by D. Lathrap, J. Isaacson, andC. McEwan: Nov. 10 Peter Crane Honored (Field Briefs): Sept. 11 Pigeon Whistles, By B. Laufer: Oct. 22 Pill Millipedes from the Coal Age, by J. Hannibal: Sept. 12 President Boyd Honored (Field Briefs): March 5 Ray A. Kroc (Field Briefs): March 5 Right Gift at the Right Time, The: Jack C. Staehle Makes a Difference, by G. Pare: Nov. 24 Sampson's Pearly Mussel (Our Environment): Jan. 26 Sealskin Bags of Unusual Construction from the Bering Strait Region, by J. VanStone: Feb. 23 Search for Paleontology's Most Elusive En- tity: The Conodont Animal, The, by D. Briggs:J/All Shadow Theatre in the Land of the Dragon, by J. Humphrey: Jan. 8 Social and Unsocial Behavior in Dinosaurs, byJ.Ostrom:Oct. 10 STici: A Training Program for Teachers, by C. Blackmon, M. Sedzielarz, and Helen Voris: June 14 Study of Children' s Attitudes Toward Animals, Jan. 26 Terrell Promoted to Curator (Field Briefs): March 5 Tree, the King, and the Cosmos, The, by A. Kolata: March 10 Volunteers Honored, June 18 What Museums Are Good For, by R. Wein- gartner: Sept. 17 William Duncan Strong and the Rawson- MacMillan Expedition of 1927 -1928, by J. VanStone: Sept. 5 Wiliam G. Swartchild, Jr. , in Memoriam: June 13 Why Are There So Many Kinds of Plants and Animals? by W. Burger, Jan. 20 Authors Archibald, George: Cranes, March 20 Boyd, Willard L.: The 1992 Fair: Catalyst for Chicago's Future, iaxi. 5 Bryant, Martha S.: Fossil Plant Collections at the Field Museum, April 5 Burger, William: Why Are There So Many Kinds of Plants and Animals?, Jan. 20 Blackmon, Carolyn: STici: A Training Pro- gram for Teachers, June 14 Briggs, Derek E.G.: The Search for Paleon- tology's Most Elusive Entity: The Conodont Animal, J/A 11 Buzard, Clifford: Field Museum's Planned Giving Program, Oct. 24 Crane, Peter R. : Fossil Plant Collections at the Field Museum, April 5 Essenpreis, Patricia S.: Fort Ancient: Citadel Or Coliseum?, June 5 Hannibal, Joe: Pill Millipedes from the Coal Age, Sept. 12 Humphrey, Jo: Shadow Theatre in the Land of the Dragon Jan. 8 Inger, Robert F.: In Pursuit of Amphibians and Reptiles in East Malaysia. June 11 Isaacson , John S.: On the Trail of the Finest Metallurgy of the New World, Nov. 10 Kolata, Alan: The Tree, the King, and the Cosmos, March 10 Lathrap, Donald W.: On the Trail of the Finest Metallurgy of the New World, Nov. 10 Laufer, Berthold: Pigeon Whistles, Oct. 22 Mason, Keith: Environmental Field Trips, April 22 McEwan, Colin: On the Trail of the Finest Metallurgy of the New World, Nov. 10 Mino, Yutaka: Ceramics of the Song Dynasty, Jan. 16 Moseley, Michael E.; Fort Ancient: Citadel Or Coliseum? June 5 Ostrom, John H.: Social and Unsocial Behavior in Dinosaurs, Ocl. 10 Par6, Glenn: The Right Gift at the Right Time: Jack C. Staehle Makes a Difference, Nov. 24 Pickering, Robert B.: Images of Yap, Feb. 20 : Adult Education Program, March 24 : Adult Education Update, Nov. 7 Powell, Richard: Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980, April 11 : African and Afro-American Art: Call and Response, May 5 Sedzielarz, Maija: STici: A Training Program for Teachers, June 14 Shankar, Ravi: My Life, My Music, Nov. 20 VanStone, James W.: Sealskin Bags of Un- usual Construction from the Bering Strait Region, Feb. 23 : Market Art from Northeastern Asia, Ap. 19 : William Duncan Strong and the Rawson-MacMillan Expedition of 1927- 1928, Sept. 5 Voris, Helen: STici: A Training Program for Teachers, June 14 Walsten, David M.: Dancing for the Dead, March 6 Webber, E. Leiand: Books, Business, and Buckskin . J/A 5 Weingartner, Rudolph H.: What Museums Are Good For, Sept. 17 26 Tours For Members Sailing the Lesser Antilles Aboard the Tall Ship Sea Cloud February 7-16, 1985 Our itinerary offers a superb sampling of the Caribbean's best — Antigua, St. Barts, Saba, Martinique, and lies des Saints. With the professional leadership of Dr Robert K.Johnson, a Field Museum marine biologist, you will see and experience a great deal more than the conventional sightseer Dr Johnson is a topnotch tour lecturer, and your trip will be greatly enhanced by stimulating lectures and field trips. Price range (contingent on cabin se- lection): $3,455-55,755. per person (includes round-trip air fare from Chicago, hotel accommodations in St. John's, Antigua, and full board while on the Sea Cloud). The largest private ship ever built, the steel-hulled Sea Cloud is 316 feet in length and has four Diesel engines with total power of 6,000 B.H.P. The ship accommodates 75 guests in air- conditioned staterooms, each with two beds. The cuisine is in the best tradition of the great yachts of the past. Expert European chefs provide exquisitely prepared meals accompanied by vin- tage wines. A crew of 40 German offic- ers and men, plus 20 cadets sail the Sea Cloud. There is ample deck space for sunning and enjoying the spectacle of the sails. Life aboard is informal and re- laxed, and cruise participants may join in the operation of the sails. Archaeological Tour of Egypt Including 5-day Nile Cruise February 15-March 4, 1985 An unforgettable in-depth visit to the Land of the Pharoahs, including a 5- day Nile cruise aboard the luxurious Hilton Steamer. An Egyptologist will accompany the tour throughout, including the Nile cruise, and person- ally conduct all lectures and sightsee- ing. Tour highlights will include the pyramids and Sphinx of Giza, little- visited monuments of Middle Egypt, King Tut's tomb, the holiday resort of Aswan, and a visit to Abu Simbel. Colonial South April 13-20, 1985 Now you can be among the first passengers to visit the legendary Colo- nial South in the comfort of a relaxing, yacht-like cruise ship, with a friendly American staff to serve you. Our ports of call will be Savannah and St. Simon Island, Georgia; Beaufort, Charleston, and Hilton Head Island, South Caro- lina; with disembarkation at Savannah. Dr Lorin I. Nevling, director of Field Museum and a distinguished botanist, will accompany the tour, sharing his professional expertise on the flora of the exquisite gardens we'll visit. Our tour is planned to coincide with the spring explosion of color in daffodils, tulips, dogwoods, and azaleas — a welcome treat after Chi- cago's long winter Local historians will provide us with talks on historic buildings of the region and on Civil War history. The Nantucket Clipper will cruise through the peaceful waters of the intra-coastal waterways, allowing you to spend each evening in town enjoying the port experience to its full- est, and affording even greater variety in this delightful cruise experience. For fiirther informalioii or to he placed on our mailing list, call or write Dorothy Roder, Tours Manafier, Field Museum , Roosei'elt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr.. Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: 322-8862. Additional Tour Highlights for 1985 Galapagos Islands. China and Tibet. Alaska and Pribilof Islands. Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, II 60605 "'^'«r?vr«««jirw^ -^^ 0017195-00 Miss Marita Maxey 7411 North Greenvieu Chicagoi IL 60626 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN February 1985 "Echoes of Africa" Performance by the Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe Saturday, February 16, 3:00pm Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: F^mela Steams Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board of Trustees James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block IH WUlard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin 1. Nevling, Jr Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Siearle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg WUUam V. Kahler WUUam H. MitcheU John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood CONTENTS February 1985 Volume 56, Number 2 February Events at Field Museum Field Briefs Field Museum Tburs for Members The Japanese Woodblock Print by David M. Walsten 5 6 7 A Respirator, Or Smoke Strainer: An Unusual Eskimo Artifact 23 by James W. VatiStone, curator of North American archaeology and ethnolo^ Founders' Council Honors Stephen Jay Gould 26 by Charles Buzek, assistant to the president COVER Woodblock print by Japanese artist Shunsho Katsukawa fl2%" X 9'/z"). The print Ls the subject of a single volume, published in Thkyo in 1907, showing each oftlje 127 individual additions of color as well as the composite effect at each of the 1Z7 steps. This number of color additions (many of which required separate blocks) is un- usual, but as many as several hundred are known to have been used in creating a single print. The idea of using woodblock printing to produce low-cost, single-sheet illustrations is usually attributed to Japanese artist Hashikawa Moronobu (1625-1694), who is also regarded as founder of the ukiyo-e school of the woodblock print. Multicolor printing, by means of multiple wood blcxks, was first made practical by Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770). The huge volume containing Katsukawa's work (2P/4" X H'/z" X 5'/4") was acquired by Berthold Laufer, then associate curator of Asiatic ethnolo^, during the Mrs. T. B. Blackstone Expedition to the Far East in 1908-1910. The book is now in the Mary W. Runnells Rare Book Room of the Field Museum Library. For more on the Japanese woodblock print see pages 7-22. N109571. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. Sut>scriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opiiuons expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Meml>ership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:001S-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, II. Events Echoes of Africa Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe Saturday, Feb. 16, 3:00pm James Simpson Theatre, West Entrance From Africa to the West Indies, from the West Indies to America, the Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe traces the history of African dance movement. Traditional African dances continue to have a pro- found impact on dance of other cultures. In Echoes of Africa, the special relationship of African dance to jazz and American social dance is explored. Selections performed include: Maiden Dance, a tradi- tional piece from Cross River State; Nigeria Hamba, meaning "to shake the Earth," from the Congo; The Chase, a calypso piece from the West Indies; Raw Soul, a selection of American social dances; Ja^^ /5, American jazz technique as taught by Katheryn Dunham; Afrikan, a synthesis of African, West Indies, and American Dance. Darlene Blackburn has specialized in African dance as dancer, teacher, choreographer, and producer. Created in 1967, the Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe has performed to enthusiastic audiences in Ghana, Niger- ia, and throughout the Midwest. Ms. Blackburn and her troupe are dedicated to the presentation of Afri- can cultural history as a humanistic, creative, and vital influence on the lives of all Americans. Tickets: $5.00 (Members: S3. 00). Fee are nonrefundable. Please use coupon on page 4 to order tickets. Public Programs Information: (312)322-8854 Chinese Shadow Puppet Theatre "Ah Wing Fu and the Golden Dragon" Sunday, February 24, 2:30pm Lecture Hall I, First Floor, West Entrance Shadow Puppet Theatre has been popular in China since the 10th century. Enjoy this ancient art form and attend the premiere performance o( Ah Wing Fu and the Golden Dragon. The delightful Chinese folk tale tells the story of a man who finds out that the carefree life may not be the best. This performance is followed by a repeat of a Field Museum favorite. The Story of Plum Blossom, which re- lates the adventures of a brave young girl and her dog. This program is free with museum admission and no tickets are required. Darlene Blackburn "Dancer of our time " Family Feature Birds in the Backyard Sunday, Feb. 10, 1:00-3:00pm Bird Hall, Second Floor Birds that survive the winter in Chicago are truly winged wonders. It can be hard to find food in the snow and frozen ground, but you can help. Using pine cones and peanut butter, make a special bird feeder that no winter resident can resist. A field guide helps you identify all of the different kinds of birds that come to visit you for a tasty winter snack. Family features are free with museum admission and no tickets are required. continueo? CONTINUED from p. 3 Events February Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed are only a few of the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. These programs are free with museum admission and no tickets are required. February 2 11:30 am Ancient Egypt (tour). Explore the traditions of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths and mummies. 3 12:30 pm Museum Safari (tour). Trek through the four comers of the Museum to see the seven continents. See an Egyptian tomb, big game from Africa, and seals from the Arctic. 9 1:30 pm Ancient Egyptians (tour). Focus on the lives of the pharaohs and the Egyptian people, from daily life to death and mummification. 10 1:00 pm Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 16 2:00 pm Traditional China (tour). Examine the imagery and craftsmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 17 2:00 pm Treasures From the Totem Forest (tour). A walk through Museum exhibits introduces the Indians of southeastern Alaska and British Columbia. 23 12:30 pm Continents Adriji (Lecture/ Demonstration). Why have fossils of similar dinosaur species been found on continents separated by vast oceans? The concept of "moving" continents is illustrated with enormous puzzle pieces. 24 12:30 pm Museum Safari (tour). Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven continents. See an Egyptian tomb, big game from Africa, and seals from the Arctic. 1:30 pm Red Land/Black LMnd (tour). Focus on the geography of the Nile Valley and its effect on the Egyptians who lived and ruled during 4,000 years of change in religion and cultures. Hlnter Fun 1985 Children's Workshops Ages 4-11 Drive away the winter doldrums! Treat your children or grandchildren to weekend workshops at Field Museum during February. Register now! Young people ages 4 to 11 can participate in classes that range from "Volcanoes!" and "The Bear Brigade" to "Dinosaur Debate" and "Pawnee Pow Wow." Anthropologists, zoologists, botanists, geologists, and artists bring their talent and expertise to create new, informative, and creative experiences. See the Winter Fun brochure for a complete schedule. If you have not received one, call 322-8854, Monday through Friday, 9:00am-4:00pm for your free copy. Registration Please complete coupon tor your program selection and any other special events. Com- plete all requested information on the applica- tion and include section number where appro- priate. If your request is received less than one week before program, tickets will be held in your name at West Entrance box office until one-half hour before event Please make checks payable to Field l\^useum Tickets will be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be made only if program is sold out Program Title Member Ticl ;:r;phone Daytime Evening Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Date Received Date Returned Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed stamped envelope to: Public Programs: Department of Education Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605-2497 FIELD BRIEFS StaffNotes Harold L. Voris, curator of Amphibians and Reptiles, has been appointed chairman of the Department of Zoology, succeeding Robert K. Johnson, curator of Fishes. Other recent appointments include Stephen Ashe, assis' tant curator of Insects, who has been named head of the Division of Insects, succeeding John Kethley; and Hymen Marx, curator of Amphibians and Reptiles, who has been named head of the Division of Amphibians and Reptiles. He succeeds Dr Voris in that post. Scott Lidgard, who obtained his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University, has joined the Department of Geology as assistant curator of fossil invertebrates. 1,500 Guests at Christmas Gala More than 1,500 children, parents and grand- parents attended the "Family Christmas Tea" in Stanley Field Hall on December 13. Spon- sored by the Women's Board of Field Museum, the traditional gathering continues to be a very popular holiday activity among Chicagoans. Last December, partygoers enjoyed tea party fare amid beautiful decorations; lis- tened to holiday music by the Stu Hirsh Orchestra; and were entertained by the Westminster Bellringers of the Village Pres- byterian Church of Northbrook, Music and Dance from On Stage Chicago School for the Performing Arts, the Junior League "Mad Hatters," and Bozo the Clown and Cooky the Clown. Ronald McDonald, costumed story- book characters from the Chicago Public Library, the Field Museum dinosaur and, of course, Santa Claus were on hamd to greet the many young visitors. The Women's Board Christmas Tea Committee, co-chaired by Mrs. Stanton R. Cook and Mrs. Robert Lane Cruikshank, is extremely grateful to many individuals, orga- nizations, and corporations whose talents, time, contributions, and services made the occasion so special: Anonymous Angels Arthur Andersen &? Co. The Bureau of Art, Chicago Board of Educa- tion, and all the creative Chicago Public School children who designed ornaments for our children's Christmas tree The Chicago National League Ball Club, Inc. Chicago Park District Chicago Public Library The Chicago White Sox Ferree Florsheim Catering Ltd. Field Museum Staff Helene Curtis Industries, Inc. Illinois Tool Works The Kitchens of Sara Lee Marshall Field's McAdams Florist of Lake Forest McDonald's — Ernie Cochanis Mrs. Arthur C. Nielsen My n Pizzeria Salemo-Megowen Biscuit Company Santa Claus Sweetheart Products Group WGN Continental Broadcasting Company Warehouse Club, Inc. Niles, Illinois The Women's Board cookie bakers and all our generous Women's Board Members All the hostesses and young volunteers. Cameroon Art Exhibit Opens March 9 About 120 art objects from Cameroon, on the coast of west-central Africa, will be on view in the special exhibit area, third floor (for- merly designated second floor), from March 9 through June 16. The Members' preview is set for Friday, March 8. Sponsored by S.I.T.E.S. (Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service), "The Art of Cameroon" consists of pieces selected from U.S., European, and Cameroon collections. Included are prehistoric terra- cotta sculptures, objects in different media of ritual and secular use, and a large number of masks, figural sculptures, and other object types. Concurrent with the object exhibition will be a photographic exhibition (also from S.I.T.E.S.) which will relate topically and visually to the objects while constituting an exhibition component in its own right. The exhibit catalog. The Art of Came- roon, published by S.I.T.E.S., is now available at the Museum Store. ($15.00, 10% discount for Members). The 8 'A x 12 paperbound catalog was written by Tamara Northern, curator of ethnographic art. Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, and is richly embellished with color photography. Kennicott Club Meets The February meeting of the Kennicott Club, a natural history society named for Chicago's first naturalist, Robert Kennicott, will be held at Lincoln Park Conservatory on Friday, February 22, at 7:30pm. Following dinner at R.J. Grunt's Restau- rant (6:00pm), the group will rejoin nearby at the conservatory (7:30pm), where Leonard Gayten, the conservatory's floriculture fore- man, will provide a tour The azalea and camellia show will then be running. The following month's meeting will be held on Monday, March 4, at Field Museum. The speaker at that time, following dinner at the Berghoff Restaurant, will be Dr Stephen Ashe, assistant curator and head, Division of Insects. His topic will be "Relationships and Evolution of Mushroom Feeding among Staphylinid Beetles." Any persons with an interest in natural history are invited to attend the Kennicott Club meetings. For further information, please call or write John Clay Bruner, Kenni- cott Club vice president (Department of Geology), at Field Museum, 922-9410. NOW AVAILABLE AT THE FIELD MUSEUM STORE: "Chicago Area Birds" by Steven MIodinow and sponsored by the Chicago Audubon Society Published by Chicago Review Press 220 pages, $9.95 (10% discount for Members) Just off the press! This comprehensive study provides an account of the rela- tive abundance and seasonal and seo- graphic distribution of the 413 bird species that have been reported at least once in the Chicago area (19 counties in four states). Included are maps of dozens of the primary birding areas. No birdwatcher, casual or dedi- cated, should be without this handy, attractive guide. Tours For Members Ecuador and The Galapagos Islands May 27 -June 11 The Galapagos Islands affect our imagination like no other place on earth. To set foot on these remote islands is to return to a primeval land isolated and protected for millions of years. A distance of 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador are these lost specks of volcanic land on which nature evolved a separate microcosm of animals and plants. Our tour will begin with a visit in the host country of Ecuador, which offers an opportu- nity to enjoy the charm of Old World ambi- ence, along with the color and distinction of the centuries-old Indian market villages of Lactacunga and Ambato. To enhance your learning experience on this tour. Dr. Glen E. Woolfenden, research associate at Field Museum, and professor of zoology at University of South Florida, will be our leader and will accompany the group from Miami and return. This is our exciting itinerary: May 27: Fly from Chicago O'Hare airport to Quito via Miami. May 28: Tour the city of Quito, visit the fabulous Archeological Museum, view the church of San Augustin and Museum of Colonial Art. May 29: Visit the art galleries of the painters Guayasamin and Viteri; tour the Olga Fish Folklore Gallery. In the afternoon visit the Equatorial Monument. Also, visit the Indi- an villages of Pomasqui and San Antonio and the crater of Pululahua. May 30: Full-day excursion over the Andes' western ridge, down into the coastal jung- les with their banana, cocoa, and coffee plantations and see the village of the Col- orado Indians, colorful in dress and custom. May 31: Full day of birding in the area of Papallacta. Ecuador is home to more than 1,400 species of birds. Junel: Morning departure by bus to the Latacunga-Ambato Valley stopping at Latacunga Indian market and the Cotopaxi volcano, where we will visit a small museum at the base of the volcano, and on to Ambato with its huge market. June 2: Leave the frosty Andean heights, travel across a fertile plain and past high- land villages, via Riobamba and Devil's Nose pass to Guayaquil, Ecuador's chief port, where we'll stay overnight. June 3: A morning flight to Baltra, where we will board the MV Santa Cruz. Comfort is indeed the keynote for our life aboard ship in both clothes and atmosphere, with casual attire recommended. Tonight and each evening during the cruise we have a slide presentation and a lecture outlining the next day's highlights. 0 June 4: The first island we see is Bartolome, site of Pinnacle Rock, the most widely rec- ognized landmark in the Galapagos. Later we cruise in Darwin Bay. Tower island is considered one of the most complete bird islands, with virtually millions of sea and land birds resident to its shores. June 5: Cruising Isabela and Femandina Is- lands, entering Tagus Cover in the mor- ning. June 6: Cruising Baltra and North Seymour Islands. After a brief stopover at Baltra, we cruise to North Seymour and will be trans- ported to the rocky shore via small craft. Our first encounter, as we walk on the is- land, is with dense colonies of blue-footed boobies. June 7: Cruising Hood and Floreana Islands. We follow the marked trails on Hood Is- land to search for its own species of mock- ingbird and its most spectacular part-time resident, the waved albatross. Along the way, we catch glimpses of masked boobies and several species of finch. We land at Punta Cormorant on Floreana Island and on an inland lagoon we'll see where multi- tudes of flamingos nest. Floreana's vegeta- tion is particularly interesting. June 8: Cruising Santa Cruz and Plaza Is- lands. Upon arrival at the village of Puerto Ayora on Santa Cruz we walk directly to the Darwin Research Station for a briefing. This afternoon, we call at tiny Plaza Island, where sea lions swim out to welcome us. June 9: We land early in the morning on a beach of black lava sand on James Island, then hike to a tranquil crater lake where fla- mingos feed. Next we can swim with (or just observe) the fur seals in one of the f)ools cut into the cliffs by surf erosion. After lunch we cruise past unusual cinder cones and lava formations along the coast en route to Buccaneer Cove, the former refuge of pirate ships. June 10: This morning we cruise to Baltra, disembarking in time to board our flight to Guayaquil. En route to the Oro Verde Hotel we will tour Guayaquil, seeing the Avenida Olmedo, city watchtower, govern- ment buildings, and the municipal museum. In the evening we'll enjoy a gala farewell dinner. June 11: Return to Chicago via Miami. Early evening arrival at O'Hare. Price per f)erson (double occupancy): $3,545 for main deck cabins. Upgrade to up- per deck: $150; upgrade to boat deck: $310. An extension to Peru is optional. The tour price includes land and cruise costs and round- trip economy air fare. The tour is limited to 25 people, and early reservations are recom- mended. A $500 deposit per person should be sent to Field Museum Tours. Alaska and The Pribilof Islands June 5-19 June 5: Fly from Chicago's O'Hare to Sitka. Welcome dinner. June 6: City tour of Sitka. Marine wildlife motor raft trip with dinner on board cruise vessel. June 7: Late morning flight to Juneau. Men- denhall River raft trip with lunch on board. Evening outdoor salmon bake. June 8: Morning flight to Glacier Bay. Gla- cier Bay cruise aboard the MV Glacier Bay Explorer Overnight on board ship. June 9: After completing Galcier Bay cruise, afternoon flight to Fairbanks via Juneau. June 10: Ride the Alaska Railroad to Denali National Park. Afternoon at leisure; salmon bake dinner and overnight at McKinley Chalets. June II: Full day tour to Kantisna. Return to McKinley Chalets for dinner and over- night. June 12: Morning at leisure. Afternoon motorcoach trip to Anchorage. June 13: Morning at leisure. Afternoon tour to Potter's Marsh Bird Refuge. June 14: Morning at leisure. Afternoon Float Trip on Eagle River with dinner on board. June 15: Flight to St. George Island. June 16-17: Two full days exploring St. George Island. June 18: Return flight to Anchorage. Farewell dinner. June 19: After breakfast transfer to airport for return flight to Chicago. Our leader will be Dr. John W. Fitzpat- rick, associate curator and head of the Divi- sion of Birds at the Field Museum, where he also serves as curator-in-charge of Scientific Services and chairman of the Science Advi- sory Council. He is an experienced tour lectur- er, most recently leading Field Museum tours to Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands, and to the Lesser Antilles. Tour price: $4,625.00, based on double occupancy (includes round trip coach class air fare). We hope you can join us for this excep- tional tour. A deposit of $500.00 per person will confirm your reservation. Additional Tours for 1985 Colonial South Yacht Cruise April 13-20 Grand Canyon Rafting l^ip May 24-June 2 China and Tibet August 10-September 1 For further information or to be placed on our mailing list, call or write Dorothy Roder, Tours Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr. Chicago. IL 60605. Phone: 322-8862. The Japanese Woodblock Print An Art Form Unique in Its Subtlety, Grace and Power by David M. Walsten M^ong before Toyotas and Datsuns were sending Detroit auto makers back to their drawing boards, a different kind of Japanese import, the woodblock print, was making historic inroads into the Western art world. In the latter ISOOs, artists as individual in their vision and technique as Toulouse-Lautrec, Whistler, and Beardsley acknowledged their indebtedness to Japanese printmakers for ne'wways of looking at and interpreting the world about them. The assertiveness of their compositions, sharply defined forms, pleasing decorative patterns, and sub- "An Eagle on a Cliff near a Kin Tree " (c. 1716). 22" X 11 'A", by Torii Kiyo- masu (fl. 1690S-C. 1720). possibly a brother of Torii Kiyonobu. founder of tfie Torii school of ukiyo-e. Kiyomasu is known chiefly for his depictions of women and actors: he frequently used landscape settings and also painted birds of prey All his work was done in black and white, with color sometimes added, as here, by hand. Clarence Buckingham Collection. © The Art Institute of Chicago. All rights reserved. tie coloration found appreciative viewers among Western critics and art collectors as well. The The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge the advice and counsel of}eanine Coupe Ryding and Osamu Veda in the preparation of this material. Mrs. Ryding is lecturer in the Studio Arts Center of Barat College, La}{e Forest, II, and is an instructor in Field Museum's Courses for Adults program. Mr Ueda is peeper of the Clarence Buckingham Collection of Japanese Prints, Art Institute of Chicago. Mr. Ueda also kindly provided the translation for the text in the center panel of "The Port of London, England, " by Toshitora, appearing on page 20. The author, however, assumes full responsibility for the accuracy of this article and for judgements rendered. "A Courtesan Walking" (c. 1715), 21 Vb" X IV/2", byOkamura Masa- nobu (1686-1764). Masanobu is credited witti a number of inno- vations in woodblock print tech- nology, notably development of the two-color process and the pil- lar print orhashira-e, which was made lorjg and narrow so that it could fit on a house pillar He was among those responsible for the introduction of perspective and one of the earliest to use metallic dust. The print shown here was hand-colored. Clarence Bucking- ham Collection. © The Art Insti- tute of Chicago. All rights reserved. "The Sugoroku Players " (c. 1750). 11%" X S'/s". by Tori i Kiyohiro (fl. 1750S-1760). a member of the Torii school. Par- ticularly scarce, his prints were most often of women: he also did theatrical subjects. Nearly all were benizuri- — prints done mainly in pink, often together with green. The Clarence Buck- ingham Collec- tion. © The Art Institute of Chi- cago. All rights reserved. "Catching Fireflies" (c. 1767), 8" X WW. by Suzul^" -i Fl£LD MUSEUM i H w/m 221 f f *' ..^<^k .ft' '»i<^ ## ^i ^A \ i ^ Members' Preview March 8 Tamara Northern Lectures on A \ AMEROON SECRET SOCIETIES March 21 Donald Johanson Lectures on LUCY AND OUR AFRICAN ANCESTORS March 23 Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: I^mela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa CONTENTS March 1985 Volume 5G, Number 3 March Events at Field Museum Our Environment The Silver Lining of a Very Dark Cloud by Michael O. Dillon Assistant Curator of Vascular Plants Board of Trustees James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. MuUin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler William H.Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood The Art of Cameroon by Tamara Northern Exhibit Opens March 9 (Members' Preview March 8) A Prayer of Ancient Egypt by Charles Buzek Assistant to the President Field Museum Tdufs for Members 11 23 27 COVER Zofoa lUfon ofBabungo, a kingdom in the grasslands of north- western Cameroon. Afon is the sacred representative of the found- ing dynasty of a kingdom in the Cameroon. He is the chief priestly leader as well as the cultural guardian and principal actor in cere- monies, rituals, and secular affairs of the kingdom. Zofoa II is shown here surrounded by some of his royal regalia. Art objects of the Cameroon, including pieces such as these, will be on view in the exhibit "The Art of Cameroon ,"at Field Museum March 9 throu^ June 16. See pages 11-ZZ. Photo by Tamara Northern, curator of the exhibit, courtesy sites. Copyri^t ® 1984 Smithsonian Institution. BACK COVER Nineteenth-century prestige cap from the Cameroon, 27cm hi^. This type of cap, made of cotton and adorned with glass beads, is typical of those worn by kings, princes, and royal retainers of the Bamum,a kingdom in the eastern grasslands of northwestern Cameroon. From the Museum fiir Volkerkunde, West Berlin. This cap and about 120 other pieces will be on view in the "The Art of Cameroon." Photo by Dietrich Graf. Field Museum of Natural History Butletiti (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum memtwrship includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, II. T Events Film as Document Cameroon Secret Societies Tamara Northern, Curator of Ethnographic Art, Dartmouth College, and Curator, the Art of Cameroon Thursday, March 21, 7:30 pm, James Simpson Theatre The activities of the men's secret societies of the south- western and coastal forest groups of the Cameroon are sparsely documented. A large part of the documenta- tion that exists was compiled by missionaries and, often, does not provide a culturally relative view. These groups formed a central institution serving ritual needs of the people, preserving forest art traditions, and instructing young males in social and moral behavior Membership in the men's secret societies was open to all men. In effect, however, fee requirements limited access to all but a few. Their meeting grounds and proceedings were not accessible to nonmembers or to women. Tamara Northern, curator of ethnographic art, Dartmouth CoUege, provides narration and personal commentary for a selection of five rare documentary films detailing the secret and unknown activities of these men's groups. The films form a central core to the field work of German ethnographer Dr. J. Koloss, and include private scenes of annual festivals, sacrifice, ritual purification, and a performance of the night masks. Tickets: $5.00 (Members: $3.00). Fees are nonrejundable. Please use attached coupon to order tickets. Public Programs « (312) 322-8854. ^-t •i.>,s*i-^'4iJ3r'^^^ Palaeoanthropologist Donald Johanson lectures March 23 m Lucy and Our African Ancestors: 4 Million Years of Controversy Donald Johanson Saturday, March 23, 2:00 pm, James Simpson Theatre Bitter battles have frequently erupted in the search for our human ancestors. Beginning with the discovery of the Taung baby by Dn Raymond Dart in 1924 to the recent finds in East Africa, the field has been dominated by extraordinary differences of interpretation which have sometimes divided scholars so deeply that produc- tive discourse has become impossible. Dr. Johanson examines recent criticism of Lucy, a tiny lady three feet tall, who weighed 60 pounds and lived some 3.5 mil- lion years ago, and of other fossils which he has assigned to Australopithecus afarensis. He traces the discovery of our African ancestry, now dating back 4 million years. One of the world's leading paleoanthropologists, Donald Johanson was bom in Chicago and received his M. A. and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. In 1973, when Johanson was codirecting the International Afar Research Expedition, he discovered a perfectly preserved knee joint at the Hadar site in Ethiopia; this historic discovery represented the oldest anatomical evidence for human bipedal stature and locomotion — the hallmark of humankind. The following year, also at Hadar, he found Lucy; the year after that, the "First Family. " From 1974 to 1981 he was curator of physical anthropology and director of scientific research at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. In 1981 he became director of the Institute of Human Origins in Berkeley, California, where he is currently based. Tickets: $7.00 (Members: $5.00), Fees are nonrejundable. Please use coupon to order tickets. This program isjunded in part by the Ray A . Kroc Environmental Foundation. Public Programs Information: (312) 322-8854 Edi^ard E. Ayer Film Series Thursdays in March and April, 1:30 pm James Simpson Theatre March 7: Great Railtvay Journeys of the World: Deccan March 14: Baobab: Portrait of a Tree March 21 : Great Railway Journeys of the World: Three Miles High March 28: Audubon CONTINUED from p, 3 Events March Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. These public programs are free with museum admission, tickets not required. March 2 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Explore the traditions of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths and mummies. 1:30 pm. Tibet Today (slide lecture). See Lhasa and other towns now open to the public. 9 1:30 pm. Tibetan Borderland (slide lecture) . Explore Bhutan, "Land of the Thunder Dragon," and important sites of Buddhism in Nepal. 10 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 16 12:30 pm. China's Wondrous Animals (slide lecture). Look at real and imagined beasts in Chinese art, lore, and social life. 17 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 23 1:30 pm. Treasures from the Totem Forest (tour). A walk through Museum exhibits introduces the Indians of southeast Alaska and British Columbia and their totem poles and masks. 24 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy z sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 2:30 pm. Life in Ancient Egypt (tour). Focus on the objects and practices which illustrate ancient life in the Nile Valley. 30 1:30 pm. Traditional China (touv) . Eximine the imagery and craftsmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 31 1:00 pm. Spring Wildflowers (slide lecture). View wildflowers you can see in the woods, meadows, and prairies of the Chicago area. Family Feature Masks of the Cameroons March 23 and 24, 1:00 pm- 3:00 pm Ancient China Hall, Third Floor People throughout the world use masks for holidays and festivals. The African people of the Cameroons use masks in reUgious and political dances and ceremonies. Some masks are made to be worn by a tribal king only. Cameroon masks are made to symbolize special things to the members of the tribe. White chalk around the eyes, ears and mouth identify the wearer as a carrier of bad news. If a mask is carved with a certain type of hat, it may mean the wearer is an official. Certain tribes are represented by different types of animal masks. Find out how these beautiful masks are made and make a symbolic mask of your own. Bring your mask back to Field Museum on Sunday, May 19 to wear in our Festival of Masks. Family Features are free with museum admission and no tickets are required. Registration Please complete coupon for your program selection and any other special events. Com- plete all requested information on tfie applica- tion and include section number wfiere appro- priate. If your request is received less than one week before program, tickets vKill be held in your name at West Entrance box office until one-half hour before event. Please make checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will be mailed on receipt of check Refunds will be made only if program is sold out. Program Title Member Ticl^ets #Requested Nonmember Tickets # Requested Total Tickets # Requested Please check appropriate box: Member: D Nonmember: D American Express/Visa/MasterCard number: Amount Enclosed Signature Expiration date Name Street For Office Use: City State Zip 4 Telephone Daytime Evening Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Date Received Date Returned Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed stamped envelope to: Public Programs: Department of Education Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605-2497 OUR ENVIRONMENT Endangered Species List Modified Fortysix more native and foreign animals and plants, rang- ing from China's giant panda to the diminutive bumblebee bat, thought to be the world's smallest bat, were added to the U.S. List of Endangered and Threatened Species dur- ing 1984. Among United States species, the Wyoming toad, the woodstork, and the woodland caribou are all now protected by the Endangered Species Act. With these additions, the number of endangered and threatened species on the list now stands at 828, of which 331 species are found in the United States and 497 are found solely in other countries. The grand total includes 297 mammals, 220 birds, 99 reptiles, 85 plants, 62 fishes, 24 clams, 16 amphibians, 12 insects, nine snails, and four crustaceans. In addition to the new listings, 54 other species were proposed in 1984 for listing as endangered or threatened. Among these are the wide-ranging interior least tern and piping plover, plants as exotic-sounding as the Last Chance townsendia and the large-flowered fiddleneck, and the Perdido Key beach mouse, believed to be the nation's most critically endangered small mammal. There was good news for several species that appear headed toward eventual recovery. The arctic peregrine falcon and the Utah prairie dog were moved from "en- dangered" to "threatened" listings — reflecting an improve- ment in their status. The tiny snail darter — a southern Appalachian member of the perch family that sparked the most celebrated court test of the Endangered Species Act — was likewise reclassified to "threatened," thanks in part to the discovery of small numbers of the fish in additional locations. Other species on their way to a more secure future include the southeastern population of the brown pelican, whose removal from the endangered list has been pro- posed, and the Florida population of the American alliga- tor, whose numbers have increased sufficiently that limited harvests of the reptile may be permitted, similar to those already held in Texas and Louisiana. The Endangered Species Act entered its second dec- ade in 1984. It is considered the world's foremost law pro- tecting species faced with extinction. Among its major features are penalties for harming endangered animals, obligations placed on federal agencies and projects under federal license or sponsorship to protect endangered spe- cies, and the listing of threatened and endangered species eligible for protection under the act. "The addition of any new species to the endangered species list is no cause for celebration," says Robert Jant- zen, director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. "But such listings enable us to extend legal protections to these species and focus national and international attention on their plight. Our goal is eventual removal of all species from the list as recovery efforts for each of them are suc- cessfully concluded." Listing is only the first step toward bringing a species back from the brink of extinction. Using the goals estab- lished by recovery plans for formally designated en- dangered species, biologists, conservation organizations, and state and federal natural resource managers attempt to improve a species' status through research, habitat protec- tion, increased law enforcement, improved land manage- ment practices, captive breeding, relocations, and establishment of experimental populations. There are now 164 approved recovery plans for endangered and threatened species — an increase of 54 plans over 1983. "Endangered" means that a species is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. "Threatened" means that a species is likely to be- come endangered. NOW AVAILABLE AT THE FIELD MUSEUM STORE: "Chicago Area Birds" by Steven Mlodmow and sponsored by the Chicago Audubon Society Published by Chicago Review Press 220 pages, $9.95 (10% discount for Members) Just off the press! This comprehensive study provides an account of the rela- tive abundance and seasonal and geo- graphic distribution of the 413 bird species that have been reported at least once in the Chicago area (19 counties in four states). Included are maps of dozens of the primary birding areas. No birdwatcher, casual or dedi- cated, should be without this handy, attractive guide. The Silver Lining Of a Very Dark Cloud Botanical Studies in Coastal Peru During the 1982-83 El Nino Event by Michael O. Dillon Assistant Curator, Vascular Plants Department of Botany Photos by the author . he 1982-83 El Nino-Southern Oscillation, by all standards, must rank among the most devastating acts of Nature to be recorded during this century. The term El Niiio ("little Christ Child") was coined long ago by Peruvian fishermen who annually witnessed the warming of the coastal waters just after Christ- mas. However, the 1982-83 reversal of the normally cold-running current off the western coast of South America created climatic conditions that were felt around the world (see September 1983 Bulletin). The southern coast of California had record rains, the mild 1983 winter throughout the northern states caused severe spring flooding, and on the other side of the world drought plagued Africa, Indonesia, and Australia. In similar fashion, as torrential rains fell on western South America, the high-elevation southern Andean Sierra of Peru and Bolivia contin- ued a seven-year drought. The worldwide combined loss of human life from floods, polluted water supplies, and drought has Fig.l. Schematic representation of El Nino cur- rent in the Pacific Ocean. been estimated at more than 10,000. Property damage has been estimated in excess of $10 billion, but rebuilding continues today in Ecuador and Peru, with ultimate costs unknown. However, along with all the adverse effects came a rare opportunity for the modern scientific community to study this age-old phenomenon. The last recorded El Nifio of major proportions was in 1925, when scientists had neither the tools nor the mobility to study the phenomenon on a global scale. Minor El Niiio events were recorded in 1957, 1965, and 1972, but historical records indicate that El Nihos have been occurring at least since- 1541. The reasons for El Nino events continued to elude scien' tists; ho-wever, this time scientists w^ere poised to study the phenomenon as never before. By mid'1982, scientists monitoring climatic condi' tions predicted the coming event, but not its magnitude. As the normally strong westerly winds slackened, satellites equipped with infrared sensors and ships at sea began recording rising water temperatures off the west coasts of North and South America. The cur' Fig. 2. (above) Camp site in the barren desert east of Camand, Are- quipa in southern Peru. Fig. 3. (below) Distribution of lamas forma- tions within the coastal desert of Peru. #- < CEBITO C»MP*NA \» «CEnnO CASEZON \ « CEnnO CMius \ f CERflOCMirUTWI ca.»aV% momoomVA 7 ^(f- F»R*MONQ»\ * SUPE V ■J' Ti- A ■z. rS> ■7 "S* / / MIL CH*nc*t\\ fmamato -z- %} 122- ANCON S^ 'O OUILMANA __ CANETE ATOCONOO ^ O ""«°] V- \ 142- o 16°- o o SAN NICOLASS ^ LOMA?S,_ V TAUCA^VJV ATICO^\-*. ^ CAMANA^-*^. ^ MOLLENOO^^^ 18?- ? " T ILO V SAMA 1^ GRANDE T»C«A^ 1^ ^^ 7^= }r rent along the equator, normally east to west, was reversing itself and forcing warm water up and down the coast from Alaska to Chile, thus displacing the cold-running currents that normally flow from both poles (fig. 1). These oceanographic changes stimulated unpre' cedented rainfall. Hardest hit was coastal Ecuador and Peru where record rains fell, causing massive flooding that destroyed roads, agricultural irrigation systems, and disrupted drinkable water supplies. Many towns and villages were left isolated for up to two months, as bridges on primary and secondary roads were wiped out and swollen rivers could not be forded. Peru's offshore anchovy and sardine fishing industry was devastated as the cold, nutrient-rich waters were displaced by warm, nutrient-poor wa- ters. Central Pacific seabird populations experienced dramatic reductions in population levels because of the lack offish and squid, their primary food source. Some seabird colonies, notably those of the Christ- mas Islands, completely disappeared, abandoning F\g.4. A few trees persist in the lush hillsides of the lomas of Mejia, Arequipa. Fig. 5. The lomas of Atiquipa display a rich variety of annual herbs very near the Pacific Ocean (background). nest and young. Numbers of salmon returning to the rivers of Alaska and Canada were at unusually low levels. But, in the midst of this colossal disaster came an opportunity to study the effect of El Niiio on the unique South American coastal vegetational forma- tions known as "lomas." Lomas Formations The western coast of Peru and northern Chile is the ■world's driest desert, where virtually no precipita- tion occurs below elevations of 1,500 meters. This se- vere aridity is due to a climatic regime dominated by a constant temperature inversion which is generated, in part, by the cold, north-flowing Peruvian (Hum- boldt) Current. At some localities, however, wet sea- fog drifts landward, settling on low coastal hills. Where this fine precipitation (garua) is heavy enough and lasts long enough, a remarkable seasonal flora develops: the lomas. These communities occur not as a continuous band along the western coast but rather as an "island archipelago" within the desert, separated by large expanses of unvegetated arid land (fig. 2). They contain high numbers of endemic genera and species, i.e., those occurring in only one ecological or geographical locality. Present data sug' gest that no less than 20 percent of the species found within the lomas formations are narrow endemics; higher figures are expected in certain localities. Within coastal Peru, significant desert rains occur only in association with rare, but recurrent. El Nirio perturbations of normal marine and meteoro' logical currents of the Tropical Pacific Basin. In 1983, the events previously outlined stimulated a uniquely rich bloom w^ithin these communities, and species numbers and density were at high levels. National Geographic Society and Field Museum (Jack C. Staehle) funding* was used to support *See J f ^. . ■■ -^:"\, ^ ^y < ^Iv 4. Prow ornament of canoe model, 19thcentury. Wood, paint, 200 cm long (entire model). Collection of Field Museum i(f 175469. Photo by Fleur Hales Testa. 22 works from this period, while not the only, are surely the most dramatic and persuasive remaining testi' mony. These works embody the fruition of a rich and complex cultural legacy. Cameroon's entry into the twentieth'century coincided with the imposition of colonial gov ernance. Traditions, including those of art, continued to change, but after colonization, the change was of a different quality and alien. It was a response to values and norms of the European industrialized world. It was fast and relentless for some groups, such as the coastal Bantu and the Grassfields kingdom of Bamum, gradual and less incisive for others. Many of the traditional art forms are as alive in the present as they have been in the past. Some are disappearing, and all have adapted to the changes of the late twen- tieth century. But the young nation Cameroon exer- cises prudent stewardship of its diverse cultural heritage and proudly supports its continuation in the frameAvork of a contemporary nation-state. An Ancient Egyptian Prayer A Beginner's Exercise For Those Who Would Learn Hieroglyphics by Charles Buzek Assistant to the President he most recent example of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing dates from AD. 394. These inscriptions were found on what was once the island of Philae, which now lies submerged in Nile waters held by the Aswan Dam. Leading backward into antiquity from that date, we have a 3,000'year continuum of hieroglyph use — a longer tradition of writing than anything we know from our European cultural antecedents. This three'millennium record has provided us with the rare opportunity to know the thoughts and share the dreams of men and women who lived when most of the world was still locked in barbarism and ignorance. When Jean Francois Champollion solved the mystery of these strange but beautiful inscriptions early in the nineteenth century, he opened a whole realm of research and scholarship that has continued to increase our understanding of the language and its grammar. Countless epigraphic (inscription) surveys have produced a flood of material that histories are made of Most of these inscriptions have been pray- ers, magical formulas, and spells, often so arcane that we can only speculate about their meanings; but it is unlikely that the ancient Egyptians understood these writings much better. The power of these symbols, after all, lay not in their content, but in actually recit- ing them. The best known among these prayers is the htp di nsw.These three words, taken from the prayer's open- ing, remain almost unchanged from the earliest dynasties to the latest. For the amateur Egyptologist stunned by textual difficulties of the written lan- guage and dismayed by the amount of time needed to develop a working vocabulary, this prayer, in particu- lar, can be a most useful tool. Understanding it can also enable one to translate some of the inscriptions one may see in Field Museum's Hall of Ancient Egypt. It is the purpose here to provide an introduc- tion to this prayer and to the study of monumental hieroglyphics — the written language of the ancient Egyptian monuments. Examples of text used here are all from inscriptions to be found in the hall. The prayer htp di nsw is easy to recognize when seen by itself, but may be less so within the context of other inscriptions. By examining monuments with such inscriptions, the viewer will come to know where the prayers are most apt to be found in any particular relief; with a little experience he will also be able to spot individual differences in ancient arti- sans' techniques of incising hieroglyphs. Beginning at the north end of the case along the east wall ("Casts of Egyptian Sculptures"), the first example of the prayer is on a section of the false door (an original, not a cast) from the tomb of Setjew, de- scribed as "overseer of the craftsmen." This spelling of the name, which differs from that given in the case label copy ("Sethau"), might be a good point at which to deliver a useful aside: The sounds of ancient Egyp- tian are a matter of conjecture among scholars, for the reason that vowels were not expressed in their writ- ing, just as they are not shown in the w^riting of present-day Nile dwellers. Educated guesses about how ancient Egyptian was spoken have been made on the basis of dialects which have evolved from the original tongue and also from the ways in ^vhich early Egyptian words were later blended into Greek and Latin; but none of these attempts to reconstruct the sounds of the bygone lan- guage are entirely satisfactory. According to current practice, the title of the prayer under discussion here ■would be "hetep di nesw," but no pronunciation of this could be cited as more accurate than any other. 23 Returning to the relief of Setjew, we see a bas' relief of him seated at a table. Directly below this scene is a box containing a number of hieroglyphs* This text is the earliest version of the prayer in the Museum's collection, probably coming from the Third or Fourth Dynasties (30th'28th century B.C.). Among the hieroglyphs in this box are some common, easily recognizable representational figures, such as Left of "king" is the recumbent figure of a dog- like figure, representing the jackal'headed god Inpu, also known as Anubis. The remainder of the glyphs in this inscription are much abbreviated and crudely cut. The quality of Egyptian inscriptions, it should be noted, varies not only with the artisan's skill, but with the amount that the candidate for eternity was willing to pay for his stone-cutting. Artisans usually The tomb of Setjew — a portion of the false door, nte 24 birds. The inscription reads in the direction opposite that in which these figures are facing — from right to left. The text is arranged, by and large, horizontally, as are the other versions of the prayer discussed here, though vertical arrangements are not unusual. Beginning at the right, the first words in the for- mula are ^ nsw (or nesw), which means "king," and htp (hetep), which means "boon" or "gift." A third -word, hardly recognizable, is a triangular shape just to the left of htp. This glyph is transliterated di, meaning "to give." It will be more legible in inscrip- tions discussed further on. As in Chinese writing, the pictographic element in a glyph is often a good clue to its meaning. Thus, the symbol \- is the sedge, a plant common in Up- per (southern) Egypt, where it became a symbol for kingship. In Lower (northern) Egypt, the bee became the symbol for kingship. The symbol . "-. , "boon" or "gift," is an offering stone — a flat slab seen from the side. The triangle-shaped glyph for "give," ^ , dis- cussed above, probably represents a cone of unguents or incense. Its representation in later times — an extended arm, with a cone in the palm — makes the meaning clearer *The terms "glyph" and "word" are used interchangeably here with "hieroglyph." were not scholars. They reproduced copy prepared by priests or scribes, but often did not know the meaning of what they carved. Some reliefs and stelae, with glyphs crudely cut and jumbled, appear to have been done in haste; portions of glyphs or entire symbols might be omitted. Other difficulties could be created by more artistically inclined stone-cutters, who would change the word order for aesthetic effect alone. Though sometimes frustrating for the transla- tor, these departures from convention can also lend a charming element to an otherwise sterile text. Setjew's relief has given us the prayer's first com- ponent, which we may no\v translate: "A boon which the king gives to Inpu " (Gods other than Inpu, especially in later times, might also be invoked.) The inscription reads ^ ^ .jt> htp di nsw. The trans- literation (which is in correct order grammatically) does not follow the order of the hieroglyphs. In writ- ing, as in life, it was the king's privilege and custom to precede all others; hence, the inverted arrangement — a departure from grammatical convention in defer- ence to his majesty. Immediately to the right of the Setjew inscrip- tion in this same exhibit case is the door frame of one Katepi, apparently one of the engineers who worked on the Great Pyramid of Khufu during the Fourth Dynasty (29th century, B.C.). His list of titles includes "Overseer of the Work," a fairly common title but in this case making it quite clear that he participated in some way in constructing one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The artisan has placed Katepi's prayer at the top of this door frame. Reasonably complete and con- siderably more complex than the example we have just examined, the Katepi inscription is in raised re- lief achieved by the laborious process of removing the mass of material surrounding the glyphs. The alternative to this technique — sunken relief — was far simpler to carve, but often less aesthetic. Either method, in any case, was so costly and time- consuming that even the wealthy came to recognize the advantages of painting over stone-cutting. Again, beginning from the right, the initial ele- ments of the prayer on Katepi's door frame are easily visible and the figures handsomely cut — nsw ("king") at the upper right, di ("to give") to the left of nsu;, and htp ("boon" or "gift") directly below the first two. Although inscriptions of the prayer for the next 2,000 years may have individual differences, these three words w^ill be almost constant. Here the prayer is again directed to Inpu, and we find the gracefully rendered representation of this jackal-headed god immediately left of di. The three characters below Inpu, llWl 1 m , hnti sh ntr (\henti seh netjer), may be translated "(who is) in front of (his) divine booth." The "booth," M , may be the place where embalming was performed, with which Inpu had some connection in Egyptian mythol- ogy. I , ntr, a glyph frequently seen in inscrip- tions, loosely designates any god. Its position next to the noun £ indicates that here it is an adjective modifying ^ and translated accordingly as "divine." m\ , hnti, a representation of a temple utensil or ornament, functions in this text as a prep- ositional element: "in front of" The three-word phrase hnti sh ntr is specific for the god Inpu and used only w^hen he was being invoked. In later dynasties the god Wesir (Osiris) was more commonly invoked. The second major part of Katepi's prayer con- cerns one of the principal motives of the htp di nsw — a request to be buried in the necropolis. The vo- cabulary for this segment consists of the group ^pT|3 , }{rst, "burial," and 1 , hrt'ntr, "necropolis." The next part of Katepi's prayer betrays the very human reluctance to reap his posthumous benefits prematurely; a good old age is requested for the en- gineer: (^ u ^ ^^^* '^fr ^^^ (y"'^ nefer wert), "[he having reached (implied in the text)] a very good old ^g^" Ui ,i3w, obviously represents a bent old man leaning on a cane — personifying old age. | , nfr, meaning "good," "beautiful "- the cross-shaped top of which has been broken off here — appears with great frequency in inscriptions. <=. , wrt, means "great" or "large." For the sake of brevity, artisans often used 1^ just by itself to convey "having reached a very good, old age," or similar idea. The following phrase in Katepi's prayer expresses the worthiness of the deceased; he is the "possessor of blessedness," ==r^^^..^ s nb im3h (neb imac}{h), "before the great god" ^^ll hr ntr '3 (\her netjer aa) — apparently a formula for establish- ing the candidate's moral and religious qualifications. In prayers of later times there appear phrases speaking of never having done anyone harm and of having clothed the naked. *T}ie Arabic numeral "3" within the transliteration "i3w" isacon' ventiona] phonetic device approximating a short "a." The tomb of Katepi — a portion of the door frame. n6839i 25 The tomb of Iry—a portion of ttie door frame, ueaaae Having established his worthiness in the eyes of the diety, Katepi no'w requests various provisions to sustain him in the afteriife. Consequently he requires an invocation-offering ^ pr hrw (per \herew), liter- ally "a going forth of the voice," — , n, "to"; ^^ , f, "him." This phrase is probably a magical formula which, by reciting it, will guarantee the deceased all his needs. This would be followed by a list of items, often abbreviated to the basics: "bread," 0 t, and "beer," s hn}{t (hen\et). A more complete list would also include "beef," ^ , "fowl," 7 , "clothing," Jl , and "alabaster," (plates, cups, etc.), '^ . These offerings were to be made at "every fes- tival" f n ^1:7 , hb nb (of) "every day," o ^^ r' nb. 26 Vocabulary for the "hetep di nesw" ^^ king ^ <=. great, large cJ^. boon, offering blessedness ^ Anubis ^ before tl in front of "1 1 Great God s bootfi q[^ going out of ttne voice J,n^ to bury m festival 1 cemetery 'c:' every f?. old age © day r- good, beautify In many inscriptions, the major festivals are then listed, notably the Festival of the New Year \J f and the Festival of the First Day of the Year, J f Thus we have the basic text of an Old Kingdom htp di nsw prayer: "A boon which the king gives to Anubis, in front of his divine booth, that he (the de- ceased) may be buried in the necropolis, he having reached a very good, old age, possessor of blessedness before the great god, that invocation offerings con- sisting of bread and beer may come forth for him at every festival of every day." Individual prayers differ, however, because of local custom, theological affilia- tion, politics, or simply as the result of the stone- cutter's carelessness. To the right of Katepi's door frame in the same case is another bas-relief inscription, rendered in a quite different style, involving Iry, (or Irii), inspector of priests in the Fifth Dynasty (28th cent. B.C.). Addi- tional complexities of this particular text will be apparent to those who attempt to decipher it. In the opening, for example, the verb and object are doubled — a peculiarity of Fifth Dynasty inscriptions. The artisan also appears to have made an error midway in the text and, in order to cover himself, has taken the liberty of changing the word order. After the budding translator has negotiated the Iry text, many more inscriptions and even tomb walls in Field Museum's Hall of Ancient Egypt await him. To paraphrase our prayer: The boon that Egyptologic- al research has given is the ability to reach back through the centuries and read the aspirations of an ancient people. We may find them speaking to us on a subject that remains one of the great mysteries — our fate after death, m The author wishes to than\Dr. Janetjohnson, director of the Orieri' tal Institute, who graciously filled the lacunae in his knowledge of th is fascinating subject. Tours For Members ^■f Sailing the Lesser Antilles Aboard the Tall Ship Sea Cloud February 7-16, 1985 Our itinerary offers a superb sampling of the Caribbean's best — Antigua, St. Barts, Saba, Martinique, and lies des Saints. With the professional leadership of Dr Robert K. Johnson, a Field Museum marine biologist, you will see and experience a great deal more than the conventional sightseer. Dr. Johnson is a topnotch tour lecturer, and your trip will be greatly enhanced by stimulating lectures and field trips. Price range (contingent on cabin se- lection): $3,455-$5,755. per person (includes round-trip air fare from Chicago, hotel accommodations in St. John's, Antigua, and full board while on the Sea Cloud). The largest private ship ever built, the steel-hulled Sea Cloud is 316 feet in length and has four Diesel engines with total power of 6,000 B.H.P. The ship accommodates 75 guests in air- conditioned staterooms, each with two beds. The cuisine is in the best tradition of the great yachts of the past. Expert European chefs provide exquisitely prepared meals accompanied by vin- tage wines. A crew of 40 German offic- ers and men, plus 20 cadets sail the Sea Cloud. There is ample deck space for sunning and enjoying the spectacle of the sails. Life aboard is informal and re- laxed, and cruise participants may join in the operation of the sails. Archaeological Tour of Egypt Including 5-day Nile Cruise February 15-March 4, 1985 An unforgettable in-depth visit to the Land of the Pharoahs, including a 5- day Nile cruise aboard the luxurious Hilton Steamer. An Egyptologist will accompany the tour throughout, including the Nile cruise, and person- ally conduct all lectures and sightsee- ing. Tour highlights will include the pyramids and Sphinx of Giza, little- visited monuments of Middle Egypt, King Tut's tomb, the holiday resort of Aswan, and a visit to Abu Simbel. Colonial South April 13-20, 1985 Now you can be among the first passengers to visit the legendary Colo- nial South in the comfort of a relaxing, yacht-like cruise ship, with a friendly American staff to serve you. Our ports of call will be Savannah and St. Simon Island, Georgia; Beaufort, Charleston, and Hilton Head Island, South Caro- lina; with disembarkation at Savannah. Dr. Lorin I. Nevling, director of Field Museum and a distinguished botanist, will accompany the tour, sharing his professional expertise on the flora of the exquisite gardens we'll visit. Our tour is planned to coincide with the spring explosion of color in daffodils, tulips, dogwoods, and azaleas — a welcome treat after Chi- cago's long winter. Local historians will provide us with talks on historic buildings of the region and on Civil War history. The Nantucket Clipper will cruise through the peaceful waters of the intra-coastal waterways, allowing you to spend each evening in town enjoying the port experience to its full- est, and affording even greater variety in this delightful cruise experience. For further information or to be placed on our mailing list, call or write Dorothy Roder, Tours Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: 322-8862. 27 Additional Tour Highlights for 1985 Galapagos Islands. China and Tibet. Alaska and Pribilof Islands. Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, II 60605 The Art of Cameroon Opens March 9 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN April 1985 The King's Dance: A Cameroon Celebration by the Muntu Dance Theatre April 20 Talking Drums of Africa April 13. 14 Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: f^mela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board of Trustees James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M.Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F MuUin Charles F Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leiand Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler William H. MitcheU John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin {USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined Julv/August issue, bv Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicagc>. 11. 60605. Subscriptions: S6.00 annually, S3. 00 tor schools. Museum meml>ership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address laljel and l>e sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 11. 60605. 1SSN:0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, 11. CONTENTS April 1985 Volume 56, Number 4 April Events at Field Museum Members' Night, May 3 Chilean Serendipity by Bruce D. Patterson, Associate Curator ofMammals Hawaiian Quilt-Making at Its Finest What Is Jade? by Edward J. Olsen, Curator of MineraloQf Field Museum Iburs for Members COVER Cotton quilt (about 83" square) from Hawaii, made probably befo 1918. On temporary view on the First Floor (formerly designated the Ground Floor), near the Place for Wonder. Cat. 259778. Photo (109505), by Diane Alexander-White. For more on this quilt see page 23. Kennicott Club Meets The April meetins of the Kennicott Club, a natural history society named for Chicaso's first naturalist, Robert Kennicott, will be held at Field Museum on Monday, April 8, from 7:30 to 9:00 pm. The evenins's suest speaker will be Dr. Kenneth Wilson, professor of bioiosy, Purdue University Calumet, whose topic will be "Sex and the Single Orchid." Any persons with an interest in natural history are in- vited to attend the Kennicott Club meetings. For further information, please call or v^ite John Clay Bruner, Kennicott Club vice president (Department of Geology), at Field Museum, 922-9410. Birders: Raise Your Binoculars! Join Field Museum's weekend birding excursion to Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin, on April 13 and 14. This famous area for observing birds is about 50 miles northwest of Milwaukee. Leader of the tour will be Dr. David Willard, custodian of Field Museum's bird collection. For additional information on this exciting event, please call Dorothy Roder, Field Museum Tours manager, at 322-8862, or write her at Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr, Chicago, II. 60605. T Events The King's Dance: A CamercMin Celebration Muntu Dance Theatre Saturday, April 20, 2:00 pm Stanley Field Hall One of Chicago's premiere dance companies, Muntu Dance Theatre, creates in music, dance, and song, a dramatization of Hfe in a Cameroon village. The story unfolds we learn of the plot of the selfish Waba who intends to marry his beautiful daughter, Shem- sun, to the fon. Shemsun, however, loves a young man from the village. The fon, who must set a good example for his villagers, is put to a test, and what- ever his decision, it will affect all in the village. Muntu Dance Theatre, founded in 1972, is a Muntu Dance Theatre performs Saturday, April 20 King's Dance portrays three days in the life of a fon, the king of a Cameroon village. This dance drama opens with the fon in discussion with the newest of his 36 wives. The routine of a fon's wife proves to be less than exciting as she can no longer go to market — the village social center — and must be content to tend her fields in relative isolation from her family. As the group full of vitality, humor, music, and powerful dance movements. It has achieved an unequaled reputation throughout the Midwest and in Africa for making a consistent artistic statement of cultural and historical significance. This program is free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. continueiw CONTINUED from p. 3 Events April Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed are only a few of the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. April 6 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Explore the traditions of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths and mummies. 7 11:30 am. Traditional China (tour) . Examine the imagery and craftmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 14 2:00 pm. Malvina Hoffman: Portraits in Bronze (slide lecture). Find out about the life and works of Malvina Hoffman, con- centrating on the Portraits of Mankind collection commissioned by Field Museum. 20 12:00 noon. Dinosaur Lifestyles {tour). Tour contrasts old ideas about dinosaurs with new ones about their appearance, behavior, and environment. These public programs are free with museum admis- sion and no tickets are required. Talking Drums of Africa Saturday and Sunday, April 13 and 14 1:00 pm African Cultures Hall, First Floor The voices of African instruments sing history as well as music. The drum is essential in Africa and its sounds are a language understood by all. Join with Chicago drummer Sabur-Abdul as he demonstrates a variety of drums. Help to create the sounds of Africa as you play the talking drums. Edward E. Ayer Film Series Thursdays in April 1985 1:30 pm James Simpson Theatre April 4 The Mystery ofAnasazi April 11 Great Railway Journeys of the World: Changing Times April 18 Captain James Cook: South Pacific 1768 April 25 Renaissance Muntu Dance Theatre performs Saturday, April 20 '•^WM "Exploration '85" Friday, May 3 5:00-10:00 pm Aren't you the least bit curious? Don't you wonder? Wouldn't you like to wander through some of those "off-limits" areas at Field Museum? We take great pleasure in announcing our annual Members' Night, and invite you, your family and guests to participate in one of our most popular events. Once a year we throw open the doors and invite our Members "behind the scenes" at Field Museum to do some exploring on their own. Of course, our staff of world-renowned scientists, curators, and preparators will be available to guide you on this exploration and share the wealth of their experience and expertise. There w^ill also be nonstop entertainment in Stanley Field Hall and an abundance of exciting special exhibits, events, and surprises designed to let your curiosity challenge our collections. This is our chance to salute Field Musuem and its members, and your chance to explore Field Museum — claim it, use it, and above all, enjoy it. If you are coming by car, you may park free in the Museum's North Lot as well as the Soldier Field Lot. Simply show your membership card or Members' Night invitation. Free charter bus service will be operating between the Loop and our south door These CTA buses, marked Field Musuem, will originate at the Canal Street entrance of Union Station (Canal at Jackson), and stop at the Canal Street entrance of Northwestern Station (Canal at Washington); Washington and State; Washington and Michigan; Adams and Michigan; and Balbo and Michigan. Buses will run beginning at 4:45 pm and continue at approximately 20'minute intervals until the Museum closes at 10 pm. "Behind the Scenes" activites will stop at 9:00 pm. (Buses will travel to the train stations until the departure of the last train. Please check your train schedule for exact times.) You may board the free Field Museum CTA bus by showing your membership card or invitation. Members are invited to bring family and up to four guests at no additional charge. Arrangements for handicapped individuals can be made by calling (312) 922-9410, ext. 453, beginning April 22. 5 Members' Night Scenes of Previous Years •^f < v^;^(kl< Chilean Serendipity Records of a Fortuitous Field Season In Temperate Rain Forests Primary Valdivian rain forest at 505m. Little light readies tlie ground beneath canopies exceeding 100 feet in height. The ground is densely covered by ferns and bamboo. Photo by B. D. Patterson. B by Bruce D. Patterson Associate Curator of Mammals 'ENEATH ITS ORDERLY VENEER, science is serendipitous. It would be interesting to know how much of our present body of kno\vledge took origin in chance, seemingly incidental discoveries. The father of modern genetics, Gregor Mendel, established basic laws of inheritance from the variations he observed in pea plants. Modem geneticists shake their heads with incredulity that, of all the characters that vary in peas, Mendel chose to look at a few encoded by single genes. Had he chosen characteristics such as leaf length or germination responses (properties controlled by many genes with complex interactions), he would have been unable to formulate his theory. Science abounds with stories like this. Darwin's observation of distinct variants among animal pop' ulations inhabiting the Galapagos Islands supposedly triggered the development of his comprehensive theory of evolution by natural selection. The universal laws of motion crystallized in the mind of Isaac Newton after he allegedly observed a falling apple. The point of these observations is that science as a body of \nowledge is neat, orderly, logical, and predictive, like a system of mathematical postulates and theorems. However, sci' ence as a system of gaining \nowledge is fraught with the chance, uncertainty, and luck that characterize all hu' man enterprise. "Luck" or uncertainty in the scientific process ex' tends to all levels, firom the discovery of the last bit of data needed to crystallize new theories (as in the previ' ous examples) to such mundane matters as the proper setting for complex scientific instruments. Nowhere in modem science is this fact more plain than in com' parisons of basic versus applied science. "Basic" science is knov/ledge for kno^vledge s sake. Questions posed by basic science have no known relation to technological or sociological problems: "Why is grass green?" "Why is the sky blue?" Answers to such questions are incorpo' rated into the evepgrowing body of scientific knowl' edge. "Applied" science, on the other hand, seeks to answer questions of pressing human concern: "What are the effects of DDT and industrial pollutants on birds in urban parks?" "How much com do natural pop' ulations of rodents consume each year?" It is noteworthy (and reassuring to basic scien- tists!) that, although 85 cents of every research dollar funds applied research, nearly all scientific break' throughs are critically based on basic research. We can't accurately say at the time of discovery what use a bit of basic knowledge might have. However, we can observe that applied science, which directly benefits man, is fundamentally dependent on basic research, and that the converse is not true." Basic research adds to the scientific tool box the nuts and bolts that are needed for applied science to work. While doing basic research might seem an "act of faith," a long and rich history documents its essential, fundamental importance. Volcin Osorno, rising 8, 700 feet above sea level, presents one of tfie most symmetric volcanic cones known. Photo taken at the Refugio. Photo byB.D. Patterson. So, scientific discoveries usually depend on oth' ers having discovered the right nuts and bolts for a given job, and having these at hand at the right time. The usual course of the scientific method is to: 1) begin with a question to be answered, 2) canvas pub' lished literature to determine what is known, 3) develop an approach likely to yield relevant con' elusions, 4) propose the question and approach to suitable governmental or private funding agencies, and 5) hope for a positive response (!) Only then can one proceed with the execution of the methodology. But, as previously discussed, serendipity plays a role in the conduct of science at all levels. Even if one has all the necessary nuts and bolts at hand and has secured adequate funding, and it only remains to con' duct the experiment and collect data, still one never knows until afterwards what the outcome might be. What follows is a description of scientific field' work conducted in Chile last year. As things turned out, it was a fortunate manifestation of scientific serendipity. Like virtually all Field Museum scientific pro' grams, mine concerns basic research. For the past two years, Milton Gallardo (of Universidad Austral de Chile) and I have worked among the countless is' lands comprising the coastal archipelago of Chile and Argentina, conducting basic scientific explorations. Our goals are quite humble (especially in view of the introductory remarks!), namely to ascertain what mammal species live on various islands in this archipelago and to determine the microhabitats they live in and the foods they eat. Assembling data on the animals themselves (including their anatomy, chromosomes, and genes), the habitats they live in (estimated from about 20 measurements of habitat structure), and the foods they eat (determined from stomach contents), we hope to address questions of more general interest. These include: 1) How regular are patterns of species distribution in the archipek' go? If we know how big, how high, or how diverse an island is, can we predict the number of mammal spe- cies it supports? (an important question, given that there are more than 3,000 islands). Do sea'level changes that occurred during the Ice Age influence patterns of island occupation? 2) How integrated are the small mammal communities on these islands? If other species are present on an island, does this change "the economy of nature" for a given species? 9 10 Is competition between species evident in food use or space use? Do species shift their "niches" in response to co'occurring competitors? If niche shifts occur, do they involve only ecological attributes or are they also products of deeper-seated evolutionary changes? 3) How do patterns of geographic variation among island populations compare with those on the adja- cent mainland, where clinal (smoothly grading) var- iation seems the rule? While simple enough at face value, these ques- tions may be very difficult to answer. Some have important implications for biological science as a whole. For example, to answer question 3 above, one needs to sample sufficient island populations throughout an adequate latitudinal range, say 20 is' lands and 10 degrees of latitude (this is roughly equiv' alent to 4 years of work). Concomitantly, one needs samples from adjacent mainland localities; in our The valley at La Picada, taken from trap line at 1, 135 m. The transect followed the course of the Rio Blanco, seen here as a Tight patch of open vegetation. Clouds in the background cover the surface of Lago (Lake) Llanquihue. The roof of the Refugio is visible at4o 'clock. Photo by B. K. Lang. case, much of this work has already been done by Field Museum's W. H. Osgood (1875-1947), and his samples are part of the extensive mammal collections at Field Museum. Once collected, both data sets must be analyzed to see whether variation in, say, tail length or the frequency of certain enzymes, follows smooth latitudinal patterns. Finally, the agreement between the island and mainland patterns must be evaluated. Although this sequence of activities is laborious, the scientific payoff may be rich. There is much cur- rent debate over the relative roles of natural selection versus undirected, random change in the evolution of life. If we could demonstrate that strictly concordant patterns of variation exist on the mainland (where adjacent populations are linked by interbreeding and gene flow) and on the islands (where gene flow is absent and each population is fully independent) in response to common environment settings, the role of selection would be greatly substantiated. In 1983, Gallardo, Kathy Freas (of Brookfield Zoo), and I sampled islands and the adjacent main- land in southernmost Chile, on the Straits of Magel- lan (54° S latitude). In 1984, I returned to Chile where Gallardo, two of his graduate students (Eduar- do Palmas and Gonzalo Aguilar), and I sampled four islands at the northern end of the archipelago (ca. 42° S). At the end of six weeks of field work, the Chilean team returned to campus in Valdivia to begin labora- tory analyses. At this point, I set out to secure a main- land sample for comparison with the northern islands. Previous collections by Field Museum personnel at Volcan Osorno, in the Lake District of Chile, showed that a rich assemblage of small mammals in- habit temperate Andean rain forests there. As many as nine species of marsupials and rodents live in the same or closely adjacent habitats, which raises intriguing questions concerning their population ecologies and mechanisms of coexistence. These have recently become the subject of basic ecological research by Peter L. Meserve (Northern Illinois Uni- versity) and his Chilean associates Roberto Munia and Luz, Gonzales (also of Universidad Austral). Since 1979, this team of ecologists has studied the mammal fauna of Valdivian and North Patagonian rain forests using live-trapping techniques. During his 1983-84 sabbatical leave from NIU as a Fulbright Scholar, Meserve conducted an intensive census sur- vey of small mammal populations in two rain forest communities, one of which w^as at La Picada, a valley on the northern side of Volcan Osorno. 11 Collaborators in the La PIcada study at conclusion of the transect (I. tor): "Conejo" (nickname meaning "Rabbit"), B. K. Lang, and PL. Meserveof Northern Illinois University. Photo by B. D. Patterson. 12 The mammal species that occur at La Picada •were of great interest to Gallardo and me. All six of the species we found on the largest island studied thus far (Isla Chiloe) are also found there, with three additional species found only on the mainland. Given the detailed ecological information Meserve and associates have gathered for several common species over the past five years, samples from La Picada would greatly aid our efforts to understand ecological relationships among island populations. On short notice, Meserve invited me to accom- pany his group to the volcano. While he and assistant Brian Lang worked their census grids at 450 m and 550 m elevation, I placed lines near the Refugio (about 820 m above sea level), where Field Museum curators W. H. Osgood and C. C. Sanborn had col' lected in 1939-40. During the week we worked on our respective projects, we were each impressed by the quantitatively different views we obtained on the forest's small mammal community: the most abun- dant small mammal on their grids (a vole-like rodent A^odon olivaceus) turned up in my lines at lo>ver frequencies. Conversely, a pouched marsupial named Dromiciops australis was far more abundant in my lines than in theirs. By week's end, both Meserve and I had collected all the data needed to answer the ques- tions Ave had set out to ansAver: Meserve had his monthly sample from La Picada and I had sufficient material from this mainland locality to compare with the northern islands. HoAvever, a new project, replete with new questions and requiring new data, had hatched. Meserve has followed the waxing and waning of small mammal populations at La Picada from season to season and year to year. However, his insight into the dynamics of these changes was limited to two nearby points in the valley floor Declining numbers of rice rats {Oryzomys) on his grids during the sum- mer, for example, could be due to uncompensated mortality or instead to their seasonal migration to higher or lower elevations. In addition, two of the most common rodents in the valley, A\odon \ongipi\is and A\odon sanhomi, either converge in color and size or else interbreed, making it difficult to reliably identify them in the field. To understand their ecol' ogy, it is imperative for Meserve to know whether they represent one species or two. On the other hand, Gallardo and I have studied mammal communities from place to place, with an orientation different from that of the ecologists. Like them, however, we had never studied how these com- munities change at refined spatial scales. The situa- tion at La Picada is excellent for such studies, because it presents an altitudinal gradient along which to study the mammal species. Altitude influences a host of biologically important physical variables, such as precipitation, temperature, and insolation (amount of sunlight), which in turn determine the plant com- munities that live there and the animal communities that depend on them. Refined studies along altitU' Forest's edge, near course of the Rio Blanco at 505 m. supported mammals that also occur at high- er elevations. Photo by B. D. Patterson. 13 dinal gradients can tell us much about ecological tol- erances and evolutionary capabilities of species. Samples taken at different altitudes usually present continously grading differences in temperature, precipitation, exposure to sunlight, soil type and tex' ture, and so forth, producing varying responses in the organisms that live there. By understanding how organisms respond to such an environmental gra- dient, we can learn how these environmental var- iables relate to the ecology and evolution of the species under study. Realizing, in the field, that a cooperative research program would greatly enhance each of our respective projects, we designed and executed the first altitudinal transect for small mam- mals in the southern Andes. The basic design of the study revolves around altitude, because altitude influences so many other variables. We sought to understand how the small The transect at La Picada. stiowing elevational contours (in meters). The road from the village of La Picada to the Refugio is shown by dotted lines: major water courses are indicated by bold lines. The location of each trap line is shown by dotted lines, o mammal species, individually and collectively, re- spond to gradually altered ecological conditions. We therefore decided to set trap lines in the valley from top to bottom at intervals of about 100 m. Each trap line was set and run by one of us (Meserve, Lang, or me) for a week. Forests at the foot of the valley begin at about 400 m elevation, below which cleared farmland pre- dominates. The forests themselves are nothing short of spectacular, containing enormous trees that reach 100 to 150 feet in height. In contrast to the coastal rain forests of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia (which reach similar stature under virtu- ally identical regimens of temperature, sunlight, and rainfall), the vast majority of Chilean rain forest trees tire broad-leaved rather than coniferous. Most com- mon are the southern beeches Q*/•:> J- VS^ :^-;Vv^^^ ■i:o'^;T^>«i ^ A Yican Heritage Dancers andJ)runiL Saturday, May 18 ; A Danice toJldbora^on: African Heritage D^^rs & h(rummers,% Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: I^mela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa CONTENTS May, 1985 Volume 56, Number 5 May Events at Field Museum African Art at Field Museum by Richard J. Powell Chicago's Parakeets fay David M. Walsten 11 Field Museum Tours for Members 27 Board of Trustees James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F Mullin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler WUliam H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood COVER Monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) clustered about their largs communal nest in Chicago^s Hyde Park. Now in its fifth season, the colony of birds normally found in subtropical and temperate South America has preuailedy despite subzero weather and the nets cf par- akeet hunters. Photo by D. Walsten. For more on the monk parakeet see pp. 11-17. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 11. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone; (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN; 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, H. Events Festival of Masks PERFORMANCES "Masquerade of Cameroon andAbang: Rites of Passage Suite" African Heritage Dancers and Drummers Saturday, May i8, 3:00pm Stanley Field Hall, Second Floor African Heritage Dancers and Drummers present an electrifying performance celebrating the ritual com- ing of age of a young Cameroon maiden, the cultural counterpart of the debutante's ball. In the traditional manner, a young maiden is shut away for a period of one year. There she is fattened — spiritually, mental- ly, and physically, in preparation for her future role as wife, mother, and productive member of her vil- lage. Our dance begins as the young girl is led out for the first time and the celebrations begin — a leopard, an idim ebok bird, and a turtle perform masquerades for the fon. Next, a group of dancing warriors appear, followed by the matriarchs. In a grand finale of explosive dance and music, a group of mirror- bearing amazon women accompany the maiden as she parades before her village, no longer a girl. African Heritage Dancers and Drummers is one of the first black performing arts companies originat- ing from the inner city of Washington, D.C. Begun in 1960 as a black community cultural awareness project and comprised of local people, it now includes performers from West Africa, the Carib- bean, and South America. m^i ^" "A Dance Collaboration" African Heritage Dancers and Drummers Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe Muntu Dance Theatre Sunday, May 19, 1:00pm Stanley Field Hall, Second Floor As a finale to our Festival of Masks, three dance companies present a spectacular collaboration of masking, dance, and music. Join us as Washington's African Heritage Dancers and Drummers, Chicago's Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe, and Muntu Dance Theatre collaborate in a breathtaking dance piece. Then, each group presents its own dance interpreta- tion. In "Mask Suite," the African Heritage Dancers and Drummers present a dogon funerary ceremony using a Serege mask to conduct prayers to the spirit world. Muntu Dance Theatre performs a piece from "The King's Dance" and the Darlene Blackburn Dancers present dances from West Africa. At the end of this celebration, the dancers invite the audience to participate in a dance from Ghana. Beginning in Stanley Field Hall, the dancers lead us through the Museum to our special exhibit of masks produced by children from Chicago area schools. Festival of Masks activities are free with museum admission. DEMONSTRATION "Masquerade and Mask Making" African Heritage Dancers and Drummers Saturday, May 18, 12:30-1:30 pm Stanley Field Hall, Second Floor The use of masks and costumes in the grassfields and forest areas of Cameroon is widespread. The making of these ceremonial objects forms part of the rich art CONTINUED Irom p. 3 Events tradition of Cameroon. Using traditional methods, members of the African Heritage Dancers and Drummers exhibit costumes and explain the difficult and complex procedures used to create these beauti- ful objects. Masks and costumes on display include leopard, dogon, and stilt walker, each of which will be used in their dance performance later that day. Family Feature MASK MAKING Saturday and Sunday, May 18 and 19 12:00 noon-2 :00 pm Stanley Field Hall, Second Floor Come to Field Museum's Festival of Masks in celebration of our exhibit, "The Art of Cameroon." When Africans from Cameroon wear masks in rituals and celebrations, they are only part of an entire cos- tume known as a masquerade. The mask itself holds no special power until it is combined with a symboUc gown, the rhythm of the drums, and the dance. The mask puts the finishing touch on creating a personal- ity or emotion for the dancer. After walking through the exhibit filled with Cameroon masks, find out how they are made. Make a mask that reflects your personality like the ones from Cameroon. Also, on Sunday, May 19, you can wear your mask and join in a dance celebration with the African Heritage Danc- ers and Drummers, the Darlene Blackburn Dance Troupe, and the Muntu Dance Theatre. May Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. May 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Explore the traditions of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths and mummies. 1:30 pm. Tibet Today (slide lecture). See Lhasa and other towns now open to the public. 2:30 pm. Tibetan Tour (tour). Take a trip through our Tibetan Hall. 5 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 12 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 1:30 pm. A Walk With China's Animals (tour). Meet Su Lin the panda and other animals found in China, then meet imaginary and real beasts through Chinese art masterworks. 19 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 26 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. These programs are free with museum admission and tickets are not required. African Art at The Field Museum by Richard J. Powell L 1. Memorial figure, Kongo, Zaire. Wood, pigment, 60cm. Museum purchase. Photo by Ron Testa. N109451. (ike most natural history museums. Field Museum of Natural History features the ethnology of Native Americans, Pacific peoples, Asians, and Afilcans. Since the museum's inception in 1893, approximately 500,000 items of prehistoric, archaeological, and ethno- logical import have entered the collection. Though Afri- can artifacts account for only a small part — roughly 1 6,000 specimens — of the entire anthropological hold- ings at the Field Museum, this number represents sever- al world-class collections of African material culture, as well as many individual objects of artistic merit. With the tastes of African art cormoisseurs in con- stant flux, and access to information about African tradi- tions on a steady rise, African art coUertors, scholars, and enthusiasts are increasingly turning to institutions like the Field Museum, where relatively unknown, yet important Afiican objects have long been viewed from a largely anthropological, rather than aesthetic, perspec- tive. Serious scholars of Africa, especially those with an interest in the material culture of Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo, Zaire, Angola, Kenya, and the Malagasy Re- public, have usually found researching the Field's corresponding collection to be a worthwhile endeavor. What today's art-oriented visitors are discovering is that the museum offers a wealth of African artistry as well as anthropology, and that both work together in establish- ing a total setting for the coUeaion. The first African acquisition for the Field Museum's "African Art at the Field Museum" originally appeared in African Arts, Vol. XVIU. No. 2 (February 1985), copyright © 1985 by the Regents of the University of California. 5 aJu h V^H "'vll i^L^ 2. Fragment of a medicine staff (osum ematon). Benin, Nigeria. Iron. 67cm. Museum purchase. Cat. 89835. N99373. ethnological collection came about as a result of transferring objects from the World's Columbian Exposi- tion to the newly incorporated Columbian Museum of Chicago in 1893. Frederick W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum and professor of anthropology at Har- vard University, was the primary catalyst in developing the anthropological exhibits for the World's Columbian Exposition. Putnam, along with assistants Franz Boas and George A. Dorsey, enlisted the help of several Amer- ican and European collectors in assembling materials for exhibition. One of their European contacts, collector Carl Hagenbeck of Hamburg, Germany, eventually sold his ethnographic collection to the newly formed museum. 'Among the many fine artifacts that the Col- umbian Museum purchased from Hagenbeck is a Kongo carving of a seated man (fig. 1). This cross-legged and tankard-carrying image subscribes to a category of com- memorative sculptures that remind the living of their still-influential ancestors. As with other sepulchral fi- gures by Kong artisans, the white pigment on this depic- tion of an important man refers to his place in the world of the dead, rather than to race (Laman 1957: 96, pi. 2). In a reorganization of the trustees in 1894, the museum was renamed the Field Columbian Museum, after Marshall Field, the head of a major retail business in Chicago and one of its leading citizens. Under the aegis of the trustees and George A. Dorsey, chief curator of anthropology from 1896 to 1915, several groups of objects from the court of Benin entered the collection of the Field Columbian Museum. Included in the first Be- nin acquisition is an elegant memorial head of a queen mother (fig. 3). Distinguishing traits like the four keloids above each eye, inlaid strips of iron on the forehead, a single coral cluster on each side of the head, and a flanged base decorated with a low-relief guilloche de- sign tentatively date this commemorative head and tusk stand to the first half of the eighteenth century. The head was purchased from H. O. Forbes, director of the City of Liverpool's PubUc Museums and one of the first scholars 3. Memorial head of a queen mother Benin, Nigeria. Cast brass, 42.5cm. Museum purchase. Cat. 8262. Photo by Diane Alexander- White. N109487. to make a serious study of Benin art. The 1899 acquisi- tion date for this Benin masterpiece makes the Field Col- umbian Museum one of the first American institutions to obtain art examples from this area following the high- ly publicized British punitive expedition into the king- dom of Benin in 1 897. This purchase was followed by other Benin ac- quisitions in the years 1902 through 1907. During this period, London-based dealer W. D. Webster was the source for several Chicago-destined Benin objects, among them the upper portion of a diviner's/healer's iron staff (fig. 2). Chameleons, ibislike birds, and minia- ture blacksmith's tools are the iconographic elements on this wrought-iron insignia. As with many of the iron staffs by the neighboring Yoruba peoples, this partial Be- nin staff features birds and iron implements in a larger statement on the complex relationship between righteous and malevolent forces in the universe (Thompson 1975: 56-59; Rebora 1983: 30-32). An oath-taking figure from the Chiloango River area of lower Zaire (fig. 5) was one of the more impor- tant purchases from W. D. Webster's sale of 1907. Of the dozen or so large, so-called Kongo nail fetishes in collec- tions throughout Europe and the United States, the Field Museum's nkisi nkondi is one of the most striking and well preserved. Beyond the figure's near-intact resin beard and raffia skirt, it is host to a large number of blades, nails, screws, and machine parts. Since each piece of metal represents an important matter that was resolved by hammering staves into its body, arms, and shoulders, the aggregate record of literally hundreds of legal and ethical disputes attests to this particular nkisi nkondi 's powerful role as arbitrator, notary, and law en- forcer among the Yombe people (Bassani 1977: 38-39; Thompson 1978: 214-16). These factors, combined with a tour-de-force conceptualization of this figure, make it certainly one of the finest examples of a sculpted Kongo charm in a museum collection today. Besides Benin and Kongo, other African cultures were represented in early acquisitions for the museum. In 1905, the newly renamed Field Museum of Natural History purchased a collection of approximately 200 ob- jects from the Togo hinterland. The former owner of these ethnological specimens was Otto Finsch, director of the Brunswick City Museum. Finsch had received the artifacts several years earlier from Captain Thierry, an administrative officer in the former German colony of Togo.^ A few of the textiles in this collection, especially an embroidered apron that was collected among the Moba people of northwest Togo (fig. 4), reflect the per- vasive stamp of Hausa design sensibilities on local you CAN LEAVE EVERYTHING TO YOUR SPOUSE, TAX-FREE, BUT SHOULD YOU? Under new estate tax laws, you can leave all your property to your spouse with no estate tax liability. But, that's true only at the death of the first spouse. What about taxes at the death of the survivins spouse? To reduce these taxes, the first spouse misht want to leave a portion of his or her estate in trust to a final beneficiar/, such as Field Museum, one of the world's sreat museums. What's more, the income of that trust can 30 to the survivins spouse for life. Your spouse stiJI gets the benefit of your total estate. Then, at death, the principal of that trust passes tax-free, outside his or her estate, to the Museum, perpetuating your family name. For more information about planning and writing an effective will, send for the free booklet, using the coupon below. CUP AND MAIL TODAy TO: Clifford Buzard Planned Givins Officer Field Museum of Natural Histor/ Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicaso, Illinois 60605 LJ Please send me my free copy of "How To Make a Will That Works." NAME (Please print) ADDRESS CIT/ <;tatf 7IP PHONE: BUS:( ) ReS:( ) BEST TIME TO CALL: (Day of week): .(Hour): 4. Apron. Moba (?), Togo. Dyed and embroidered cotton, 53cm x 60cm. Museum purchase. Cat. 104865. Photo by Diane Alexander- White. N109450. artisans.' This region's position on the East-West trade route and the resultant cultural congress of various Vol- taic, Manding, and Sudanic peoples make an exact identification of this textile problematic, but its V-shaped opening on the centralized pocket, as well as its general form, link it to the more traditional genre of Voltaic fash- ion (Froelich 1963: 133-34). The African collection added 500-odd artifacts from the Kenya highlands in 1907. These objeas were the bounty of a successful expedition into that area by Field Museum taxidermist Carl E. Akeley. Figuring prom- inently in this acquisition are some strong examples of Kikuyu culture, represented here by two dance shields (fig. 7) for male initiates. As part of the initiate's cere- monial costume, these shields, or ndome, are worn on the left arm of the decorated boy and incorporated into a panoply of movement, sound, and visual expression. Painted designs in red, black, and white appear on the outer sides of the shields, with contrasting patterns usu- ally converging on a central, oval opening. The in- ner sides are equally graphic, consisting of engraved chevrons and zigzags that echo the op artlike body painting on the initiates (Routledge 1910: 154-57, pis. 82-85, 104, 106a, 107-9; Leakey 1977: 335-36,406-10). Chief Curator George A. Dorsey was succeed- ed by Berthold Laufer, a University of Leipzig-trained anthropologist, whose expertise was Asiatic ethnology. Under Laufer's leadership ( 19 1 5-34), the Department of Anthropology continued a steady expansion of its Afri- can holdings through expeditions, purchases, ex- changes, and gifts. Although the receipt of gifts can often be an unpredictable transaction for a museum, one early 8 gift- accession to the Field Museum proved to be espe- cially important to the coUertion. Included in this 1915 gift is an outstanding example of Ibibio dance headgear (fig. 8). White, yellow, black, and red pigments cover the small, placid face and wooden "flaps" of this masked representation of a good ancestor, or mfon ekpo (Messen- ger 1973: 121-23). For many years listed as originating in Congo, this eastern Nigerian mask came to the Field via Jamaica, probably the memento of a tum-of-the- century British colonial administrator. The next major African acquisition took place ten years later, with the purchase of approximately 1 ,800 ceremonial objects, household furnishings, weapons, tools, architeaural elements, clothing, and other items from New York dealer Jan Klegkamp. Klegkamp acted as an intermediary for the Museum Umlauff a distribu- tion house in Hamburg that supplied many German ethnographic museums with specimens.* The Field's purchase consisted predominantly of Cameroon arti- facts, covering the entire range of art-producing areas. An enormous helmet crest (fig. 11), depicting a human face wdth inflated cheeks and balancing six long-tailed serpents on its head, is one of many western Grassfields masquerade costumes that came to the museum in 1925.' Acquired along with this helmet crest, but hailing from the coastal region of Cameroon, is the well-known Duala canoe model with prow ornament (fig. 9). Like similar works in other American and German collec- tions, the juxtaposing of regimented rowers with undulating water creatures poses some provocative questions concerning myth, narrative, and history among the Duala. Unfortunately, the actual use and symbolism of these fantastic configurations remain, at best, speculative (Northern 1984: 179). In addition to the art and material culture of south- em forests, grassfields, and northern Cameroon peoples, this 1925 purchase encompassed artifacts from such peripheral areas as the Cross River region and the south- em Cameroon/northem Gabon border. A spectacularly coiffured human head (fig. 16), conceived in the naturalistic style of Nigerian artists from the lower Cross River town of Calabar, is one of the many skin-covered headcrests accessioned that year. This particular crest, for a society of selected men in the community (Nicklin 1974: 14- 1 5), is decorated with facial tattoos, raised cir- cles or "targets" on its temple, and unusual down- curved braids. Representing an altogether different part of Came- 5. Oath-taking figure (nkisi nkondi). Yombe, Zaire. Wood, clay, fiber, metal, pigment, cowrie shell, 113cm. tt^useum purchase. Cat 91300. Photo by Diane Alexander-White. N109327. 10 roon's artistic heritage at the museum is a huge snake (fig. 12) carved out of a massive log and painted black and white. Leon Siroto, an authority on the art of west- em equatorial Africa and a former Field Museum cura- tor of African Ethnology, identifies this object as part of a larger initiatory sculpture grouping made by the Eton people, a subgroup within the Beti-Bulu cultural net- work of southern Cameroon (Siroto 1977: 40-41).' Parallels between this snake and one at the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Munich again illustrate the Field's close connection to German collections and collectors. A Hemba-allied ancestor sculpture (fig. 10) and a woven Mende hammock (fig. 6) were two gifts that complemented existing Field Museum specimens dur- ing the 1920s. The three locks of hair on the beard, the uncharacteristic, open-eyed expression, and the flat, wide feet on the male ancestor stylistically place it be- tween the Songye territory and the area immediately west of Lake Tanganyika in southeastern Zaire.' John Quinn, the celebrated American collector of early twentieth-century modem art, once owned this figure. It was purchased from his estate auction in 1926 by the Arts Club of Chicago, which in turn gave it to the Field. The Mende hammock came into the collection in 1929 as a gift from a Chicagoan who had received the textile from her collecting father at the tum of the century. The trademark of these prestigious. Sierra Leonean-made country cloths is the corresponding and contrasting pat- tern, manipulated by the weaver via natural and dyed yams, weft-faced weaves, and supplementary tapestry techniques (Easmon 1924: 16-24). The ever-growing African collection in the 1920s created a place on the museum staff for an African specialist. This curatorial vacancy was filled by Ralph Linton and Wilfred D. Hambly. Although Linton was a curator of Oceanic ethnology from 1926 until 1929, his interest in the Malaysian- influenced African island of Madagascar led him to become the first full-time curator of African Ethnology in 1926, specializing in the physic- al anthropology and ethnology of Angola and Nigeria. Both Linton and Hambly headed museum- sponsored expeditions in their respective parts of the world, bringing back with them a variety of objects that illuminate aspects of African society circa 1920. Ham- bly's 1929 expedition to Angola yielded for the museum one of the largest American-based collections of ethno- logical specimens from that country (Hambly 1934:86). Continued on page 18 6. Hammock (kpokpoi). Mende. Sierra Leone. Natural and dyed cotton, 70cm x 234cm. Gift of Mrs. William G. Burt Cat. 175957. Pl^oto by Fleur Hales Testa. N109216. Chicago's monk parakeets at their communal nest. Chicago's Parakeets After Five Years ' Residence The Colony of South American Birds Is Still Hanging in There by David M. Walsten photos by the author W. hile golfing on Chicago's Jackson Park course in 1981 I heard for the first time of the city's resident parakeets. On that July afternoon my golfing partner mentioned having seen green parrots on several occa- sions swooping over the fairway. I may have been tempted to enquire if these bizarre sightings occurred as he was winding up 18 holes under a blistering sun; in any case, I forgot about his observation until two years later, when I happened to see the gigantic nest built by these birds in Hyde Park, about a mile north of the golf course. The nest was hard to miss, since it looked every bit like a miniature hay stack that had been flung into the green ash tree by some capricious tornado. Eight or ten of the stunningly beautiful birds were clustered about the communal nest, chattering and muttering con- tentedly to themselves and disporting their bright green plumage like fashion queens in the afternoon sun. For one who had been a nonbeliever until then, it was an unforgettable experience. The Hyde Park assemblage of monk parakeets u (Myiopsitta monachus), I learned, had first been sighted in the area in February 1 980, when they were reportedly trying to establish a nest on an apartment building fire escape.* Had these birds been of a quiet disposition they might have remained unmolested, but their strident chatter earned them an eviction even before settling in. the birds were imported into the U.S. in 1983; 10,807 was the preliminary figure for 1984. Its occurrence in Chicago and other North American locations may be ex- plained by the occasional release of these birds, accidental and otherwise, from homes where they have been kept as pets or while in shipment. Skins of the monk parakeet, Myiopsitta monachus, in the Field Museum collection. These specimens were obtained in Argentina in the 1920s— long before the bird was seen in the wild in the United States. The Specimen at top is about 1 1 inches in length. The sexes are outwardly alike. It was then that they flew a few blocks north to build in the green ash tree. Known in the pet trade variously as the quaker, gray-headed, or gray-breasted parakeet, the species is native to the subtropical and temperate zones of South America, where it occurs in Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, southern Brazil, and in Argentina as far south as 40° S latitude (the Southern Hemisphere equivalent of Phi- ladelphia, Denver, and Champagne-Urbana). In the United States it is favored as a cage bird, despite its noisy chatter (at least one Chicago pet dealer, however, refuses to carry the species because of its raucous nature). According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 9,308 of *In the early 1970s monk parakeets were reliably reported in the 12 city 's southeast suburbs. Since first being reported in the wild in the United States about 18 years ago, the monk parakeet has some- times given the impression that it would settle into a per- manent, breeding status, only to disappear after a season or two. Some observers believe that it can and will fill that ecological void left by the closely related Carolina parakeet, now extinct, which occurred solely in the United States. (Another competitor for the Carolina's niche may be the evening grosbeak. Norman L. Brunswig, Stephen G. Winton, and Paul B. Hamel in a recent issue of Wilson Bulletin, speculate that the gradually expanding winter range of the evening grosbeak may be in part attribut- able to the disappearance of the Carolina parakeet. Only these two birds, they suggest, have or had the ability to crack open very hard items such as cones of the bald cypress and pond cypress, which occur in the Seaboard states and, in the case of the latter, westward to Texas and up the Mississippi Valley to Illinois — areas where the Carolina parakeet was prevalent.) The monk parakeet is about 1 1 V2 inches long, near- ly half of this being tail. The back is bright green or gray- green, the tail green and blue. The upper belly is a soft yellow, the head and breast grayish. (It is for this grayish pattern, presumably, that the sobriquet "monk" was ap- plied.) The wings are mostly blue. The mature bird weighs about five ounces; coloration and size appear identical for both sexes. Among all the known species in the parrot family, numbering well over 300, the monk parakeet is the only builder of such a nest: an irregular-shaped stack of twigs which may be as large as 1 5 to 20 cubic feet in mass and weigh several hundred pounds. In South America the birds seem to favor thorny trees (particularly the tala, Celtis spinosa) for the nest, but they are commonly con- structed on manmade structures such as telephone or utility poles, under eaves, or on window ledges. Eight of the nests have been found in a single tree. Some huge parakeet nests in Argentina have been used by continu- ing communities for decades. A dozen pairs may breed in a single nest, each with its own compartment. The nest is used all year round and damaged sections are re- paired at the approach of the breeding season. The entrances are generally protected by overhanging twig masses, thought to provide protection against oppo- sums, which sometimes live in the upper compartments. Other species that make this unusual type of nest are the palm chat of Haiti and Santo Domingo, the buffalo weaver of subsaharan Africa, and the sociable weaver of southwestern Africa. The individual nesting compartment is about 18 cm (about 7 inches) in diameter and the entire tunnel 34 to 40 cm (about 14 to 16 inches) long. From five to nine glossy white eggs (relatively small for the bird's size) are customarily laid once or twice a year and hatch in 3 1 days. In its native countries, the monk parakeet favors areas of low rainfall in savannah, thorn scrub, palm groves, open forest, fruit orchards, and crop lands, most commonly in lowlands, but ranging to altitudes of 3,000 feet in the foothills of the Andes. Here the temperature may drop to as low as 20° F. The species feeds on a variety of seeds and fruits, including apples, cherries, grapes, and citrus. In South America, where it has been described by a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service publication as "one of the worst pests of agricultural crops," the monk parakeet reportedly des- troys from 2 to 45 percent of those crops within its range, notably millet, sorghum, com, sunflower, and a variety Skin of the extinct Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, in the Field Museum collection, collected in Florida in the 1890s. The species occurred only in the United States, mainly in the Southeast, though at one time it ranged up the Mississippi Valley and was apparently not uncommon in the Chicago region. The last known member of the species died in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914, though there were unconfirmed reports of wild birds into the 1920s. ^ ■^^ ^ - V '.^ FP 13 of fruit crops. The incentive of a bounty for the birds has not succeeded in alleviating the problem. The bird is gregarious as a rule, and in South Amer- ica flocks of up to 50 birds have been observed. The bird flies swiftly, with rapid wing beats, usually not far above treetop height, screeching loudly as it goes. Its cry is so typically parrotlike that the sound is immediately recognizable to anyone who has visited those tropical areas where parrots are common.* A recent visitor to Chicago — a native of the tropics — had a heated discus- sion with his Hyde Park hosts (who were unaware till then of the local parakeet colony), insisting that he heard parrots in the trees. Monk parakeets can leam to whistle and to mimic human words, but not as well as some other members of the parrot family. They are friendly, intelligent birds, which accounts for their popularity as pets. Prices for the bird in Chicago-area pet stores range from about $25 and up. Having first appeared in the New York area in 1 967, the monk parakeet became a not uncommon sight there within several years and its greater New York population was then estimated at around 2,500. In the Wilson Bulle- tin of December 1973, John Bull of the Department of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History, wrote that "Multiple releases by design and by accident have resulted in a sizeable resident population in south- eastern New York, and the adjacent portions of Con- necticut and New Jersey. These releases, that is escaped birds, came from broken crates at Kennedy Airport, accidental escapes from pet shops, aviaries, and private owners, as well as intentional releases by persons tired of caring for these parrots." Bull also mentions that the bird has bred in the outdoors in the London and Paris zoos andintheparks of Amsterdam (52.4° N latitude — further north than Saskatoon, Saskatchewan!) At about the same time that the monk was trying to accommodate itself to the greater New York area, others of this species were reported to be taking up residence at various sites along the Atlantic Seaboard and as far west as around Pittsburgh. David B. Freeland reported at some length on the Pittsburgh community in the Sep- tember 1973 Wilson Bulletin, where he noted that "at least five rather bulky nests had been located — all within a quarter-mile-square area covering two rather urba- nized ridges and a partially wooded ravine. Two of the nests were on utility poles, three in trees, and all were the apparent work of one pair of parakeets .... On 12 *The main distinction between parrots and parakeets is size; thefor- 14 mer are generally larger. August 1972 I observed both adults and one well- fledged bird. Residents of the area later confirmed the existence of three young of the year .... The birds have had wide exposure in the [local] media, but nest dis- turbance has not visibly deterred the birds from begin- ning what may well become a small colony similar to those on the Atlantic Seaboard." Freeland's apparent hope that the parakeets would thrive in the Pittsburgh area was not to be fulfilled. According to Carnegie Museum ornithologist Keimeth Parks, there have been no reports of monk parakeets in that region for years. Much the same fate befell the New York city area population of wild monk parakeets. The Seventy-ninth Audubon Christmas Bird Count of 1978 reported only six for the entire state of New York, all of these in Brooklyn. (The highest Christmas count in the country for that year was seven in Fort Lauderdale, Flor- ida.) According to Thomas Burke, of the Audubon Soci- ety's Rare Bird Alert team in New York City, none have been reported there for at least several months. An accurate count of the current population of the parakeets in Chicago's Hyde Park is clearly not possible, and even an approximation would prove difficult since the birds are in constant aaivity, do not maintain a sing- le, cohesive flock, and are not approachable; there may also be additional nests in the area that have escaped notice. (There are unconfirmed reports of a nest in Lin- coln Park, on the city's north side; another nest, later destroyed, was confirmed on the far north side. There were also unconfirmed reports of flocks in Chicago's southwestern suburbs as well as in Kenosha, Wisconsin, about 60 miles to the north.) Flocks of as many as 17 individuals were observed at private feeders in Hyde Park during the winter of 1984-85 — even following January's record-breaking low temperatures ( -27° F). At least two smaller nests in Hyde Park, no larger than squirrel nests, in addition to the large communal nest near 53rd Street are known. Birds were active at one of these — 100 yards north of the larger nest — in the late autumn of 1 984. The other smaller nest, near the Jack- son Park lagoon, is believed to be no longer aaive. How have the birds managed to survive these five years in Chicago — through the coldest period in the ci- ty's history? The answer to this may be found in the largess of various Hyde Park residents who regard the monk parakeets as a cheerful, welcome addition to the neighborhood. Among these Hyde Parkers are Robert and Rita Picken and David and Sylvia Smith, next-door neigh- bors who live about a mile from the communal nest, and who play host to the parakeets twice a day with the Skins of the thick-billed parrot, Rhyncopsitta pachyrhyncha, in the Field Museum collection (top specimen about 15 inches long). These were collected in Mexico in 1918. Now rare, and apparently confined to the pine forests of the Sierra Madre, the bird formerly ranged across the Rio Grande into Arizona and New Mexico, where the last confirmed sighting occurred in 1936. Other than the Carolina parakeet (now extinct), it is the only member of the parrot family known to have occurred in the United States naturally. The parrot family (Psittacidae) is well represented in warm- er parts of the United States by a number of species in addi- tion to the monk parakeet, though most of these are rare here and occur only locally if not intermittently. Notable among these are the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), from Australia, found in Florida and southern California; green parakeet (Aratinga holochlora), from Mexico, found in Texas and Florida; Hispaniolan parakeet (Aratinga chlorop- tera), from the West Indies, found near Miami; orange- fronted parakeet (Aratinga canicularis), from Mexico, found in New Mexico and from Florida to New York; black- hooded conure (Nandayas nenday), from South America, found in southern California; canary-winged parakeet (Brotogeris versicolurus) , from South America, found in Flor- ida, southern California, and northeastern states; orange- chinned parakeet (Brotogeris jugularis), from South and Middle America, found in Florida; yellow-headed parrot (Amazona ochocephala), from Mexico, found from Florida to California; red-crowned parrot (Amazona viridigenalis), from Mexico, found in southern California, Texas, and Flor- ida; rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri), from Asia, found in Florida, southern California, and northeastern states; and blossom-headed parakeet (Psittacula roseata), from Asia, found in northeastern states. The best estab- lished of the above are the budgerigar, which is also the most widely domesticated member of the parrot family; the orange-fronted and the rose-ringed parakeets. The thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), now found only in Mexico, is the only member of the group, other than the extinct Carolina parakeet, to natu- rally occur in the United States in historic times. This large, robust bird, measuring up to 1 6 '/a inches in length, was last reliably reported in the United States (Arizona) in 1936. A vicious biter, it seldom, if ever, was kept as a pet. The parrot would occasionally flock in from its main nesting area, the pine forests of Mexico's Sierra Madre, where it is now rare. 15 Part of the Hyae rdti\ pdraneei coionyin the back yard of Robert and Rita Picker). During the winter of 1984-85, the feeding flock some- times numbered as many as 17 — even after the January cold wave, the severest in the city's history. amply provisioned feeders in their back yards. Every morning and afternoon the birds arrive on schedule to feed on the sunflower seeds and mixed bird seed that have been set out for them. Now in their fourth season of providing for the birds, the Smiths and Pickens begin filling their feeders with the arrival of cold weather. Within a couple of days the parakeets have somehow come to know that the feeders have been reactivated. Although monk parakeets are commonly reported to be aggressive at feeding stations ("intimidating all other birds from approaching the food," according to one Eastern observer), Rita Picken remarks on the socia- bility of the parakeets that flock to their stations, feeding companiably there and on the ground with sparrows, blackbirds, red-winged blackbirds, starlings, pigeons, and other avian visitors. The birds are easily disturbed, however, and even the most cautious human movement will startie them into the branches of nearby trees or send them whirling off, out of the neighborhood. The parakeets' behavior, says Rita Picken, also pro- vides clues to impending weather conditions. Before the coming of a storm, she reports, the birds arrive at the feeders earlier than usual and consume more seed. When balmy weather is in store, their visits are more casual and occur later in the day. Until the 1 984 season it was not known for certain 16 if the Hyde Park colony was a breeding community. But A monk parakeet shares a Hyde Park bird feeder with three house sparrows. This sociability of the Chicago parakeets disputes claims by Eastern observers that they "intimidate all other birds from approaching the food. " on Memorial Day last year a strong gale dislodged about a third of the communal nest; shattered eggs with four parakeet embryos were subsequently discovered on the ground among the nest debris by ornithologist Doug Anderson, vice president of the Chicago Chapter of the National Audubon Society and a close observer of the colony since its first appearance. How do the environmentalists look upon this new immigrant species? In the early 1 970s there was more than a littie apprehension about the possibility that the monk parakeet would wreak disaster for farmers of var- ious fruit and grain crops, that it might dislodge native species from their respective ecological niches (as the immigrant starling and house sparrow have done),* or that it might bring in diseases such as chlamydiosis (for- merly called parrot fever or psittacosis) or Newcasde's *In addition to the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and starling (Stumus vulgaris), other introductions of foreign birds to con- tinental U. S. that have been more or less successful include the black francolin (Francolinus francolinus), blue-gray tanager (Thraupis virens), cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), chukar (Aleaoris chukar), crested mynah (Acridotheres cristatellus), Eurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis), Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus), European goldfinch (Carduelis caiduelis) , gray partridge (Perdix perdix), hill mynah (Gracula religiosa), melodious grassquit (Tiaris canora), muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), mute swan (Cygnus olor), red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), riw^- necked pheasant (?\ias\3jaxsco\c):ac\is), ringed turtle dove (Stiti>- topelia risoria), rock dove or common pigeon (Columba livia), spot-breasted oriole (Icterus pectoralis), and spotted dove (Strep- topelia chinensis) . Many of the above are extremely local in range. Among the most "successful" introductions of foreign species have occurred in the state of Hawaii, where their success has often been achieved at the expense of native species. Eight of the 23 mem- bers of the Hawaiian honeycreeper family (Drepanididae) are now believed extinct, a phenomenon largely attributed to competition from introduced species. For discussion of introduced parrots in the continental U.S. see box, p. 15. disease. Oscar Owre, a University of Miami ornitholo- gist, came out strongly in 1973 about the "time bomb" posed by the presence of the monk and 1 1 other intro- duced parrot species; he remains apprehensive today. Owre is not alone in his convictions; other ornithologists and environmentalists fear that the monk may yet gain a foothold in this country and ravage crops as it has done in its native regions. The American Museum's John Bull, cited above, seemed less concerned than Professor Owre that year, having "heard of no protests about depredations from landowners, gardeners, or fruit growers." He feared, however, that the story would be different in the South and Southwest, "where these birds would be sure to thrive." Since Bull made his observation twelve years ago, the monk parakeet has yet to demonstrate that it is capable of "thriving" anywhere in North America, including the South and Southwest. Doug Anderson is among those who believe that the bird is filling an eco- logical niche — at least in the Chicago area. He also observes that the bird's behavior in other parts of the country, where it was formerly regarded with some con- cern, has "moderated" and has demonstrated that it poses no threat to the environment. William J. Beecher, director emeritus of the Chicago Academy of Sciences and a noted ornithologist, says that "now, nobody cares about the birds; nobody is very worried about them." Roger Tory Peterson, perhaps the nation's best known ornithologist and a student of the monk parakeet in its native, Argentine habitat, observes that the monk para- keet "probably will not become established here." What, then, are the chances for the Hyde Park col- ony? Will the birds build more nests in the community, breed successfully, and perhaps proliferate to other re- gions? The poor survival record for colonies elsewhere does not bode well for the future of the Hyde Park com- munity. Nor does the fact that the conspicuous nests pro- vide inviting targets for vandals or that the birds are a marketable commodity. In view of these salient disadvantages, the parakeets could not have been more discriminating in their choice of a nesting site: Their massive nest is in a tree directly across the street from the residence of Chicago's Mayor Harold Washington, who is said to regard the colony with particular affection; and police cars, by happy cir- cumstance, are parked around-the-clock within a few feet of the nest. Before Mayor Washington's incumben- cy, the nest was sometimes raided, but enough birds have evaded hunters' nets to keep the colony going. Should Mr. Washington change either his residence or his means of livelihood, the colony's future might again be in jeopardy. FM A possible key to the continued sun/ival of the Chicago parsKeers is the police car, always within a few yards of their main nest A clear deterrent to would-be vandals, the patrol car is parked there for the protection of Chicago tVlayor Harold Washington, who lives close by. A second, smaller nest, 100 yards north, may be seen slightly left of the picture 's center 17 AFRICAN ART con't from p. 10 7. Dance shields (ndome). Kikuyu, Kenya. Wood, pigment, 68cm, 66cm. Collected by Carl E. Akeley for the British East Africa Expedi- tion. Cat. 104445, 104444. Photo by Diane Alexander-White and Ron Testa. N109424. Ovimbundu, Chokwe, Songo, and other Angolan peo- ples are represented by scores of artifacts, most of them documented with field notes and photographs. A cere- monial staff, sporting a standing female figure and her- ringbone-patterned finial (fig. 14), was collected in the largely Ngangela town of Cuchi, as indicated in the fi- gure's characteristic hairstyle and body cicatrization (Delachaux 1936: 16-17, pi. 1). Following the 1929 stock-market crash, museum- sponsored expeditions and large-scale purchasing stopped. Instead, staff activity focused more on col- 18 lection research and on WPA-supported renovation of exhibits. Other means of acquiring specimens, such as museum exchanges, took precedence in the 1930s, especially in regard to the African collection. In 1933, the Musee d'Ethnographie in Paris exchanged four Western Sudanic specimens for several Mexican pieces owned by the Field. These Sudanic objects came from the well-known Dakar-Djibouti Mission organized by Marcel Griaule in 1931. In the mid-1930s, an exchange also occurred between the Field Museum and the Musees Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire in Brussels. Seven- teen objeas from the Belgian Congo enlarged the Afri- can collection; of special note is a raffia-edged mask (fig. 17) from the Pende people along the Kwilu River. Shar- 8. IVIask (mfon ekpo). Ibibio, Nigeria. Wood, pigment, woven and raw fiber, width 51cm. Gift of Calvin S. Smith. Cat. 25038. Photo by Ron Testa. N109452. 19 20 9. Canoe model with prow ornament. Duala, Cameroon. Wood, paint, length 200cm. Museum purchase. Cat. 175469. Photo by John Bayalis. N100850. ing many characteristics of the arts to the east and west, these small masks with heart-shaped faces belong to a corpus of initiatory, chieftaincy-related and theatrical masquerades (Lema Gwete 1982: 53). Although funds for purchasing were scarce in the years following the Depression, occasional gifts and ex- changes continued to account for new acquisitions. A shift in priorities — from collecting new specimens to gathering information about the museum's concurrent holdings — placed a greater emphasis on the Field Museum as a research institution. After World War II, visiting research associates like Mexican artist/anthro- pologist Miguel Covarrubias began to bridge the philo- sophical gap between anthropological research and art historical studies within the context of the natural his- tory museum.' With the incorporation of the curator- ship of primitive arts in 1957, the museum was taking concrete steps toward a new way of seeing non- European art and culture. An example of the ideological shift was the 1961 exhibition "Primitive Artists look at Civilization." This exhibition, organized by Phillip H. Lewis, curator of primitive art and Melanesian ethnol- ogy, presented a cross- section of African, Oceanic, and 10. Ancestor figure. Hemba (?), Zaire. Wood, pigment, 49cm. Gift of the Arts Club of Chicago. Cat. 143954. Photo by Diane Alexander- White. N10923. 11. Helmet crest. Babanki, Cameroon. Wood, pigment, 77cm. Museum purchase. Cat. 175595. Photo by Diane Alexander-White. N109453. 12. Figure of a snake. Eton, Cameroon. Wood, pigment, length 212cm. Museum purchase. Cat 175746. Photo by Diane Alexander- White and Ron Testa. N109420. 21 13. Plaque. Benin, Nigeria. Cast brass. 39.7cm. Gift of Mrs. A.W.F. Fuller Cat 210354. N99509. 14. Ceremonial staff (detail). Ngangela, Angola, Wood, figure 17.5cm, entire staff 129cm. Collected by Wilfred D. Hambly for ttie Frederick H. Rawson-Field Museum Ettinological Expedition to West Africa. Cat 206746. Phioto by Diane Alexander-White and Ron Testa. N109449. 22 American art objects that either portrayed or were con- ceptually conscious of "the exotic white man."' One of the museum's most important acquisitions during these years was the collection of a noted English collector of Oceanic, African, and North American arti- facts. Captain A. W. F. Fuller. Discussions between the Field and Captain Fuller resulted in his arranging for the museum to purchase his important Oceanic collection, numbering over 6,000 specimens. Following this 1958 transaction. Captain Fuller and his wife most generously gave the Field Museum more than 230 major African pieces. Of the specimens in this 1963 Fuller gift, 190 are from the court of Benin, collected by Fuller through art auctions, dealers, and other private collectors. A kola- nut box (fig. 15), carved in the form of leopard's head, was once a part of the tum-of-the-century Benin hold- ings of dealer W. D. Webster.'" The subtractive rendering of anatomical features and the clever utilization of wood grain reveal the hand of an accomplished artist, as well as the inspiring powers of this feline totem. Animal imagery in Benin art is also present in several brass plaques from the Fuller collection. In one plaque (fig. 13), a European is flanked on each side by a pair of mudfish, a Benin symbol for the supernatural powers of their ruler, the oba. Apart from the Benin objects, about forty pieces in this gift are from other African cultures. One of the finest objects in this group is an ivory bell/tapper (fig. 18) from the Yoruba people. This divination component incorpo- rates the classic elements of its genre: a kneeling woman holding a round fan in front of her genitals and support- ing a bittemlike bird on top of her head. Despite some expected ritual wear on this iro ifa, the lower bell still has its tiny ivory clapper, thus making it a prime implement for the divination ceremony." 15. Kola-nut box. Benin, Nigeria. Wood, length 17.8cm. Gift of Mrs. A.W.F Fuller Cat. 210259. Photo by Diane Alexander-White. N109465. Another stunning piece from the Fuller gift is a Luba ceremonial spear (fig. 19). As with many Luba objects, this one includes a female figure, resplendent in beads, a red body wrap, intricate scarifications, and an elaborate coiffure. The female presence on status objects like this one alludes to the essential role of women in chieftaincy- related activities among the Luba.'^ Under the guidance of Leon Siroto, curator of Afri- can ethnology from 1965 until 1970, the African collec- tion began to expand its holdings to include objects from previously under- represented African peoples. Siroto's stature in African studies and his contaas with scholars in the field prompted African-based American students and senior researchers to collect with the Field Museum in mind. One of the fruits of this kind of arrangement is an Akan comb (fig. 20) collected by Roy Sieber in south- eastern Ghana. The framing of the akuaba head with engraved animals, a sacred heart, celestial bodies, and abstraa designs most certainly has a proverbial purpose. That combs like this one are intentionally cryptic and open to interpretation speaks to their encoded, love- letter- like use by Akan men and women." One of the more recent surges of collecting African objects for the museum revolved around the 1974 exhibition "Contemporary African Arts." Maude Wahl- man, a consultant in African ethonology from 1971 un- til 1974, curated this exhibition and was instrumental in acquiring wood, stone, and calabash carvings; leather-. 16. Head crest. Calabar area/Efik (?), Nigeria. Wood, s/c/n, basl:♦ .A v♦^v*.♦:♦:*%%v/ > • .:v%v»v^:. :.\\v,v^^^^^ \%\\** .w.^/ Events GARDEN IIV THE CITY '^Garden of Eden,'' film June 8, 2:00-2:30 pm Ecology Hall, Second Floor The Garden of Eden explains — on film for the first time — why protecting the great variety of the world's plant and animal life, the gene pools of our planet, is critical to our future. Combining a series of compelling interviews with a mixture of animation, archival news reel clips, and feature film footage. The Garden of Eden reveals the reasons for conservation today. Color My World, Demonstration Saturday, June 15, 1:00-3:00 pm Stanley Field Hall, Second Floor. Add color to your life on a dull day. Centuries before commercial dyes were invented, you could have col- ored your T-shirts with things from your own kitchen. Find out what kinds of household and backyard items you can use for fabric dyes. Watch white wool be- come the colors of the rainbow. Then try your hand at spinning it into yarn and weaving it into a piece of cloth. This program is free with museum admission and no tickets are required. Children's Program June 22, 2:00-3:00 pm Ecology Hall, Second Floor WHAT DO PLANTS DO? While emphasizing the importance of plants in our daily lives, this film explores the many uses of plants and the ways plants adapt to life in a particular habitat. WILD GREEN THINGS IN THE CITY A young girl learns about plants that live in an urban environment. After reading about these plants in library books, she searches for plants in neglected comers and vacant lots, and transplants them into containers at home. GROWING, GROWING An impressionistic film about children and their gardens. This photomontage features flowers, vege- tables, and children to the accompaniment of light- hearted verse and song. At the conclusion of the children's film program, join us at the entry room to the Ecology Hall and view our display of woodland and prairie wild flow- ers, and vacant lot plants. Examine a whole gamut of seeds — from tiny dandelions to coconuts, which demonstrate how plants spread their seeds. June 22, 2:45 pm A GARDEN OF HERBS— POTPOURRI Herbs are known for their medicinal, savory, and aromatic qualities. Become familiar with these plants, many of which you can grow at home, and construct your own potpourri sachet from a fragrant bouquet of dried flower buds and petals. All Garden In the City programs are free with Museum admission, and tickets are not required. CONTINUEOcJ J CXJNTINUED (roni p 3 Events Family Feature Growing Together June i and 2, 1:00-3:00 pm Stanley Field Hall, Second Floor. Grow a philodendron in an old tennis shoe or an asparagus fern in a Chinese bronze pot. The first weekend in June is a great time to plant that garden, and you don't need an acre of land to do it. Plants can grow in almost any kind of container, and can be a city gardener's best friend. Chicago horticulturalist Virginia Beatty is on hand to demonstrate and give tips on all aspects of city gardening. Get some ideas on how to make the most out of the space you have. Start a plant of your own to take home and watch it grow. This program is free with museum admission and no tickets are required. June Weekend Programs Each Samrday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history and Field Museum. Free tours, demon- strations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and pro- gram locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. June 15 1:30 pm. Tibet Today (sUde lecture). See Lhasa 16 and other towns now open to the public. 2:30 pm. Tour of Tibet (tour). Take a closer look at the objects in our Tibetan hall. 22 1:00 pm. Traditional China (tour). Examine the imagery and craftsmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 23 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum 30 exhibits. 11:30 am. Ancient Egypt (tour). Explore the traditions of ancient Egypt from everyday life to myths and mummies. 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 1:00 pm. Red Land/Black Land (tour). Focus on the geography of the Nile Valley and its effect on the Egyptians who lived and ruled during 4,000 years of change in religion and cultures. 1:00 pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 12:30 pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. These public programs are free with museum admission and tickets are not required. FIELD BRIEFS Recent Visitors Friday, March 8, marked the Members' Preview of the tem- porary exhibit "The Art of Cameroon," at Field Museum. Among the evening's special guests were Mr. Harold Wash- ington, mayor of the City of Chicago, shown at right. With Mr. Washington is Dr. Tamara Northern, curator of ethno- graphic art at Dartmouth College, who is also curator of the exhibit. Mr. Washington holds a copy of the exhibit catalog, written by Dr Northern. "The Art of Cameroon," organized and circulated by Smithsonian Institution "n-aveling Exhibit Service (SITES), was made possible by a grant from Mobil Corporation. It continues on view at Field Museum through June 16. Earlier this season. Field Museum was visited by Peter Jennings (lower photo, at right), anchor and senior editor of ABC World News Tonight, who was particularly inter- ested in the exhibit "Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast." With him are (1. to r.) Field Museum President Willard L. Boyd, Carolyn P. Blackmon, chairman of the Museum's Department of Education, and Gretchen Babarovic, Mr. Jenning's assistant. FIELD BRIEFS Col. Clifford Gregg (left) and William H. Mitchell (right), at January 24. 1949. fortieth anniversary celebration in honor of Stanley Field, then president of Field Museum. Others in the photo are (I. to r) Marshall Field III, George A Richardson, and Lester Armour Gregg was then in his twelfth year as director, Mitchell in his twenty-first as a trustee. Field, Richardson, and Armour were also trustees. Clifford C. Gregg and William H. Mitchell Celebrate 90th Birthdays Col. Clifford C. Gregg, who served for near- ly 2 5 years as director of Field Museum, and William H. Mitchell, who served on the Board of Ttustees for 52 years, have the spe- cial privilege in 1985 of celebrating their ninetieth birthdays. Mr Mitchell was bom on January 31, 1895; Col. Gregg was bom on July 9 of the same year Both men are now Field Museum life trustees. The fourth director in the Museum's history. Col. Gregg joined the staff in Febru- ary 1926 as assistant director, serving in that post under the directorships of David C. Davies (until 1928) and Stephen C. Simms. Upon the death of Simms in January of 1937, Gregg was made acting director; the following June the Board of TVustees elected Gregg director as well as secretary of the Museum, both posts having been held by Simms. It was a particularly difficult period for the Field Museum, as indeed it was for all nonprofit institutions at the depths of the Depression. Revenues from endowment fund investments were at all-time lows, as were amounts received from taxes levied for the benefit of museums. But Gregg served with uncommon distinction. Among his notable achievements was the establish- ment of the Museum employees' pension plan, which contributed immeasurably to the betterment of staff relations, morale, and performance. Having served as a lieutenant with the infantry during World War I, Gregg had continued his association with the Army Reserve Corps, and in July 1942, then with the rank of major he was recalled for active duty in World War II. He remained on leave of absence from the Museum directorship until May 1945, when he was discharged from active duty with the rank of colonel. He continued as director until January 1962, when he retired at age 66. As he re- signed the directorship, the Board of TVust- ees elected Gregg president of Field Museum. He remained active on the Board of TVustees until 1969, when he was made a life trustee. The son of a founder and incorporator of Field Museum, John J. Mitchell, William H. Mitchell carried on the tradition of family service to the Museum when he was elected to the Board of TVustees in January 1928. During his extraordinary period of tenure — 52 years — he served on the Nominating Committee, the Finance Committee (later designated Investment Committee), Execu- tive Committee, Development Committee (later designated Resource Planning and Development Committee), and Capital Re- quirements Committee. Mitchell played a major role in Field Museum's first Capital Campaign — both as a solicitor of funds from others and as a pace-setting donor in his own right. In 1974, mindful of the Museum's new situa- tion, William Mitchell made a decision which epitomizes the meaning of his Field Museum career. He determined to focus his attention on two things: investment and development of the Museum's resources. Because of this far-sighted stewardship, the Museum now is poised for its second cen- tury. Indeed, it has the vigor to go forward with a second Capital Campaign designed to strengthen the Museum. In 1974, the year when Mitchell turned especially to Museum investment and development work, he and his wife, Anne, were both eleaed Field Museum benefactors. Happy Birthday, Clifford C. Gregg and William H. Mitchell! Robert K. Johnson Robert K. Johnson Co-Convener for International Conference on Pelagic Biogeography The National Science Foundation (nsf) has awarded $17,661 to Field Museum in sup- port of the International Conference on Pelagic Biogeography being held in Amster- dam May 28 through June 6. Robert K. Johnson, curator of Fishes, a specialist on deepsea fishes, is conference co-convener and president of the Scientific Committee for the conference, nsf funds will be added to previously awarded grants from the Office of Naval Research, unesco, the Netherlands Ministry of Education and Sci- ence, the Netherlands Marine Research Council, and the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences. This funding is paying the conference expenses of 60 participating marine scien- tists from 14 nations. The purpose of the conference is to bring together a diverse group of marine biogeographers, scientists who seldom interact outside their respec- tive disciplines. This permits extensive research presentations, review, and dis- cussion of modern concepts and advanced methodologies in studies of the origin and maintenance of pattern in the distributions of open-ocean organisms; it also assists in the development of research agendas for the future. In addition to its direct conference support, UNESCO has agreed to publish the volume of conference proceedings. Fitzpatrick Coauthors Monograph on Florida Scrub Jay The Florida Scrub Jay, coauthored by John W. Fitzpatrick and Glen E. Woolfenden, was published recently by Princeton Uni- versity Press. Fitzpatrick is associate curator of Birds and chairman of Field Museum's Department of Zoology. Woolfenden is pro- fessor of zoology at the University of South Florida, Tampa. Subtitled "Demography of a Cooperative-Breeding Bird," The Florida Scrub Jay (406 pp.) is the twentieth in a series of technical works entitled "Mono- graphs in Population Biology," edited by Robert M. May. Florida scrub jays are an excellent ex- ample of a cooperative-breeding species, in which adult birds often help raise offspring not their own. For more than a decade Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick have studied a marked population of these birds in an attempt to establish a demographic base for understanding the phenomenon of "help- ing at the nest." By studying both pop- ulation biology and behavior, the authors find that habitat restraints rather than kin selection are the main source of the be- havior of Florida scrub jays: the goal of in- creasing the number of close relatives other than descendants in future generations is of relatively minor importance in their cooperative-breeding behavior. Fitzpatrick and Woolfenden also coauthored an article on the Florida scrub jay "The Helpful Shall Inherit the Scrub," which appeared in the May 1984 issue of Natural History. Peter Crane Chosen One of Chicago's "Ten Outstanding Young Citizens" Peter Crane, associate curator in the De- partment of Geology, was chosen recently as one of Chicago's "Ten Outstanding Young Citizens for 1985." The prestigious award was conferred on Crane by the Chi- cago Junior Association of Commerce and Industry on April 10 at an awards dinner at the Drake Hotel. This was the third time in recent months that Crane has been the recipient of special honors. Early in 1984 he was given the British Paleontological Association's annual award for the best paper given by a research worker under the age of 30; late in the year he was recipient of the Bicentenary Medal of the Linnean Society of London. The Linnean Society is the premier society for professional biologists in the United Kingdom and makes the award annually in recognition of scientific work done by a biologist under the age of 40. More than a year ago he was appointed co-editor of the premier scientific journal Paleobiology, an Peter Crane honor which is unusual for someone his age. Field Museum, too, has given recent recognition to Crane by promoting him on April 20 to associate curator. Crane joined the Field Museum staff in September 1982 after a year of research at Indiana University and three years on the faculty of the University of Reading, En- gland, the institution where he earlier re- ceived both his bachelor's degree and Ph.D. Since his arrival at Field Museum he has chaired search, publications, and science advisory committees and has helped to re- surrect the Field Museum seminar series. His research activities focus on Cenozoic plant evolution, morphology, and phy- togeny. He has published his work as well as presented it at international meetings and university seminars. His work on angio- sperm evolution represents some of the most distinguished in that field. Kennicott Club Meets The June meeting of the Kennicott Club, a natural history society named for Chicago's first naturalist, Robert Kennicott, will be held on Monday, June 3, beginning at 7:30 pm. The meeting place will be Sciences Building 130, Department of Earth Sci- ences, Northeastern Illinois University, located at 5500 N. St. Louis Avenue, in Chi- cago. The evening's speaker will be Prof Charles Shabica, of Northeastern Illinois University, whose topic will be "Richard- son's Guide to the Fossil Fauna of Mazon Creek: Status of the Shaggy Dog Story." The June meeting will be preceded by 6 pm dinner at the Mongolian House, 6345 N. Western Ave. ^ Ornamented Coats of The Koryak by James W. VanStone Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology O NE OF THE LARGEST and most important na- tive groups inhabiting northeastern Siberia are the Koryak, who occupy the northern part of the Kamchat- ka Peninsula, the Kamchatka Isthmus, and the adjacent continental area (see map). In the nineteenth century the Koryak were divided into nine territorial groups and their subsistence activities included reindeer herding, sea mammal hunting, land hunting, and fishing. The various groups differed in their economic emphasis. Those living in the interior were herders of reindeer and knew nothing of sea hunting, while groups living on the coast hunted sea mammals exclusively. In 1900 the total population of the Koryak was 7,530. Among all the Koryak, winter clothing was made primarily of reindeer skins. Koryak women were among y ^^ U.S.S.R .Okhotsk SEA OF OKHOTSK BERING SEA the best skin sewers in the far north, being particularly noted for their fine and elaborate needlework. The skins of the adult reindeer were never used for clothing, only those of fawns beginning with the newly bom and in- cluding animals up to seven months old. The warmest coats were made of the skins of fawns six or seven months old which were killed late in the fall. These skins consisted of fine, soft hair that was very thick but not long. Clothing made of fawn skins was warm and light in weight. Among the finest examples of reindeer skin winter clothing were the men's and women's traveling coats which usually, but not always, had hoods. The man's traveling coat was double, with one garment inside the other and so adjusted that the two could be put on and taken off together. The inner coat was worn with the hair facing the body, while the hair of the outer coat faced outward. Russianized Koryak, wealthy reindeer breeders, and those engaged in trade preferred outer coats made of dark skins. The inner coat was usually constructed from the skins of younger fawns, from one to three months old, so that the double coat would not be so thick as to hinder movement. The soft hair of young fawns was also more comfortable to wear next to the skin. All Koryak winter coats for both men and women were carefully constructed and skillfully sewn, but elaborate decoration occurred only on those garments known as dancing coats, which were worn at cere- monies honoring the spirits of whales killed by Koryak hunters. The ethnographic collections of Field Museum contain two such coats collected at the end of the nine- teenth century among the Alyutortsy, one of the nine Koryak subgroups. The Alyutortsy Koryak occupied a large area of the 1. FM photo, N86147. upper Kamchatka Isthmus and their economy was un- usual in that it combined fishing and sea mammal hunt- ing with reindeer breeding. With rare exceptions, all the Alyutortsy hunted sea mammals, especially in spring when seals and whales were plentiful among the drifting ice floes. In summer during fish runs, those reindeer- breeding Alyutortsy who lived in the interior migrated to the mouths of rivers, where they lived with their seden- tary relatives while preparing a supply of fish for winter use. Hunting sea mammals was the principal occupation of those Alyutortsy living in permanent settlements on the Bering Sea coast. The first of the two Alyutortsy Koryak dancing coats (32009) in Field Museum's collections, the less elabo- rately decorated of the two, is made of dark brown fawn skin trinmied with sealskin and white deerskin (fig. I ) . Sewing throughout is with sinew. The irmer coat with the hair facing the body is constructed of a number of large rectangular pieces of skin filled out with numerous small pieces of irregular shape. Around the lower edge is a wide rectangular band also filled out with smaller pieces. At the cuffs and inside the hood this inner coat is stitched to the outer garment to hold it in place. The skin fragments which make up the inner hood are from an adult reindeer. The outer coat is made from pieces of very dark brown fawn skin. The pattern of the front and back con- sists primarily of large rectangular pieces which flare toward the lower edge. These are joined along the sides by narrower rectangular pieces. At either side in front and on the back are narrow, vertical strips of fur mosaic in brown and white deerskin, each small piece sepa- rately cut and stitched together in a pattern of zig zags. Each sleeve consists primarily of two rectangular pieces of skin sewn together along both sides of the arm. The cuffs are trimmed with narrow rectangular strips of beaver fur. The sleeves are very full at the shoulders and about the forearms so that the wearer can draw his or her arms out for extra warmth. The wrists are narrow to pre- vent access of cold air. Below the hood opening is sewn a large flap made of rectangular pieces of skin from reindeer legs. There are white strips on the sides of this flap, and between the brown sections are three separate vertical strips of fur mosaic consisting of paired white pieces with alternating brown and white squares between them. This flap, which when raised served to protect the wearer's face from cold winds, is edged with tanned, bleached seal- skin. Decoration of the flap is a particular feature of dancing coats. In funeral coats, which were made of white fawn skin and nearly covered with decoration, especially in front, this flap covered the face of the deceased. The hood consists of numerous separate pieces of irregular shape. At the top there is a fur mosaic pattern of 10 large brown and white zigzags which does not show in the photograph. The opening of the hood is edged with tanned, bleached sealskin. Around the lower edge of the garment is a broad band of fur mosaic in brown and white, consisting of squares, rectangles, diamonds, and triangles. As in the other decoration, each small piece is separately cut and stitched to the others. Below this broad band is an edging of rectangular pieces of skin on which the hair is some- what longer than on the rest of the garment. The second dancing coat in the collection (32007) (fig. 2) is also double, the inner coat being constructed of scraps of fawn skin of various sizes. It is fastened to the outer coat at frequent intervals with braided sinew. On the inner surface of the hood and the insides of the sleeves, the inner coat consists of pieces of adult deerskin. Construction of the outer coat, which is sewn with sinew throughout, is similar to that of the previously de- scribed garment, with broad rectangular pieces of dark fawn skin on the front and back joined by narrower pieces of the same shape at the sides. The sleeves, each consisting essentially of two pieces, are edged with bea- ver fur. They are full but do not narrow at the cuffs. The hood consists of a number of small pieces of skin and a separate piece around the opening. The square flap be- low the hood is constructed of several pieces of reindeer leg skin on the underside with narrow, rectangular strips of brown fawn skin on the outer surface to form a sub- dued decorative pattern. There is a border of reindeer leg skin. In the photograph the flap is shown roughly in the position it would have when covering the face. An outstanding feature of this garment is the elabo- rate decorative band around the lower edge (fig. 5). At the top of this broad band are fur mosaic patterns featur- ing brown and white diamonds, squares, and rectangles. There are narrow strips of tanned, dark sealskin near the upper and lower edges of the decorative band which fea- ture designs made by a method called "slit embroidery" A series of narrow slits were made in the dark sealskin, and narrow pieces of bleached sealskin of the same width as the slits were laid under them. A small loop of this skin was pushed from underneath up through the slits, where it was caught by a sinew thread which lay on the surface of the skin. The thread was passed through the loops which were then drawn tight (fig. 4). The tech- nique of slit embroidery is such that the designs neces- sarily consist of a long series of cormected rectangles. Between the two strips of dark sealskin with slit embroidery is a wide band of embroidered rectangles, squares, and diamonds in red, blue, purple, and several shades of brown cotton thread; some of the colors have faded considerably. Along the lower edge of the decora- tive band is a narrow strip of tanned, bleached sealskin 2. FM photo, N86150. u 3. From W. Jochelson, The Koryak, pt. 2. pi. IV, tig. 1. into which, by the slit embroidery technique, a con- tinuous length of sinew has been inserted. Below that, by the same technique, tassels of the hair of young seals dyed red are doubled over and passed through the slits. Finally, the lower edge of the garment is trimmed with rectangular pieces of beaver fur. A characteristic feature of the ornamentation on these two garments, and, in fact, on all Koryak clothing, is that the designs are arranged throughout in horizontal or vertical bands. These decorative bands are made sepa- rately from the rest of the garment and, as they are con- structed, wound on reels. When a garment is worn out, the decorative elements may be detached and saved to use again on a newly made coat. Most of our knowledge concerning Koryak cloth- ing, and in fact all aspects of Koryak culture, is derived from the work of Waldemar Jochelson, a Russian *Jochelson, W. The Koryak. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 1 1. Publications of the Jesup North Pacific 12 Expedition, vol. 6. New York. ethnographer who worked among these people in the winter of 1900-01 as a member of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition sponsored by the American Museum of Nat- ural History in New York.* His collections are in that in- stitution; there are also sizeable Koryak collections in Soviet museums, particularly the Peter the Great Mu- seum of Anthropology and Ethnography and the Muse- um of the Peoples of the U.S.S.R., both in Leningrad. In his monograph on the Koryak, Jochelson de- scribed villages of the maritime peoples, especially their summer villages, as being located primarily on rocky shores rising to a considerable height above the sea. While the men of a village were out hunting, the women frequently went outside to sit on the roofs of the houses and await the return of the hunters' boats. When the women belonging to a certain house observed one of their boats returning and towing a whale, they put on their dancing coats and went down to the beach to meet the whale. If there was an old man in the house who stayed home and did not join the hunt, he also put on a dancing costume, which sometimes included elaborate- ly decorated reindeer skin boots. The women and old men were joined by women from other houses who also wore their festive coats. All welcomed the whale while dancing around a fire that was brought from the hearth and built up outside the house (fig. 3). This dance was designed to show great respect for the dead whale, which was believed to be 5. FM ptioto, N86152. ^^■-x '^^^ ii ^ .j..rM ,..^mu ^..j-r iTm ff'§ §*w Jh^ V''m It II i Mil I "BS^-1 '."►A!!r*..'a; '*f^-* iP^B-^^^t^a*^-^' '^J'h ,v« ■ 1' IHM ^*^H.; ki'fi^'ijj'' ^eUl^fiCUi^^i^iM^i'' i*. ::^.' M'i .V ./^ ■\: riioiuiij -♦ - ««. ».rs?r='rrs^"'°"--^ LlllMltUnj' lUJ ^^^XJCCEOUa Mill 11 II mmi *^^*Mk«im«Mk»*. - "*>! W/^^^Tjmwi'j^Hf/.-^'-f"'^ .ajVuT- 14 visiting the village. If treated kindly, the animal would repeat its visit the following year and persuade its rela- tives to come along. According to Koryak belief, whales, like all other animals, constitute a family of related indi- viduals who are grateful for any kindness and respect they receive. The collections also contain a third decorated coat ( 32014) , which is identified in the catalog as a "woman's dress" (fig. 6). It is made of white fawn skin, is not dou- ble like the others, and lacks a hood. The front and back consist of large, rectangular pieces of skin which flare toward the lower edge. On each side there is a narrow single piece which joins the front and back; there are also occasional patches. The full sleeves consist of sever- al narrow rectangular pieces sewn horizontally. The cuffs and collar are separate pieces of dark brown fawn skin and there is a short opening in front below the col- lar which is edged with dark brown fawn skin along one side. Around the lower edge is a broad band of fur mosaic in brown and white skin, utilizing small squares to form a pattern of large diamonds. Along the upper and lower edges of the band is a row of alternating brown and white triangles. The diamond design has been empha- sized by fastening small tufts of red yarn to the small white squares with short lengths of sinew. Sewing throughout this garment is with single-strand sinew. Jochelson described funeral coats made of the skins of white fawns that were worn by deceased individuals when the body was prepared for cremation. However, such garments are said to have had hoods and were usually much more highly decorated than this coat. It is clear that this garment was not made for everyday wear and although its specific use cannot be determined with certainty, its decorative band is a fine example of the fur mosaic technique. The interesting methods of artificially processing skin that have been described here, particularly the tech- nique of slit embroidery, which is peculiar to the Koryak, are now almost forgotten. Museums and institutes in the Soviet Union interested in preserving native craft tech- niques are developing programs through which tradi- tional sewing techniques can be taught to a younger generation of native craftswomen so that the skills of their ancestors will not be forgotten. A recently pub- lished manual for teachers in the Soviet Far East de- scribes and illustrates a variety of traditional sewing techniques that can be taught in the local schools, some- times by the teachers but more often by older native skin sewers, and will, hopefully, ensure the survival of one of the most intricate skin-working traditions in the world. FH 6. FM photo, N86149. you CAN LEAVE EVERYTHING TO YOUR SPOUSE, TAX-FREE, BUT SHOULD YOU? Under new estate tax laws, you can leave all your property to your spouse with no estate tax liability. But, that's true only at the death of the first spouse. NX^at about taxes at the death of the survivins spouse? To reduce these taxes, the first spouse misht want to leave a portion of his or her estate in trust to a final beneficiary, such as Field Museum, one of the world's sreat museums. What's more, the income of that trust can so to the survivins spouse for life. Your spouse still sets the benefit of your total estate. Then, at death, the principal of that trust passes tax-free, outside his or her estate, to the Museum, perpetuatins your family name. For more information about plannins and writins an effective will, send for the free booklet, usins the coupon below. -CUP AND MAIL TOD/»y- TO: Clifford Buzard Planned GIvlns Officer Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, Illinois 60605 I I Please send me my free copy of 'How To Make a Will That Works." NAME (Please print) AnnRF?;<; riTY STATF ZIP PHONE: B"s^( ) Res;( ) BEST TIME TO CALL: (Day Of W^ek); .(Hour): Volunteers Honored F ield Museum honored its 1984 volunteers with a special reception on February 14 in Stanley Field Hall. Together with their guests, volunteers had a chance to visit with staff members in a festive, relaxed atmosphere (brightened with balloons) away from the libraries, lab- oratories, and classrooms where they customarily per- form their volunteer work. In a brief ceremony, Willard L. Boyd, president, welcomed the volunteers and expressed the Museum's gratitude for their contributions during the preceding year. James J. O'Connor, chairman of the Board, spoke of the group's dedication. Of the current 282 volunteers, 70 percent have been volunteering for over one year, 54 percent for over 3 years, and 9 percent have been active volunteers for over 10 years. During 1984 the volunteer contribution of 36,579 hours was the equivalent of 22.6 additional full-time staff members. The special honoree of the evening was Marie Louise Rosenthal, who has given 15 years of volunteer service to the Museum. William Fawcett, head librarian, who has been her supervisor during that time, spoke about Marie's many contributions as a Library volun- teer. Mrs. Rosenthal has primarily worked with the con- servation of bindings, an extremely important function in the library. Box-making for fragile items was another specialized job she has undertaken. Mrs. Rosenthal has also served the Museum in another volunteer role, as a member of the Women's Board. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr, director, also expressed his thanks to the 1984 volunteers, and presented those four volunteers who had contributed over 500 hours in ser- vice to the Museum, with gifts of appreciation. Joyce Matuszewich, volunteer coordinator, thank- ed both volunteers and staff for their cooperation during the year. "Although years of service and numbers of hours given are measurable indications of the value of volunteers to the Museum," said Mrs. Matuszewich, "the unmeasurables, like the pride volunteers take in their jobs and the satisfaction staff members take in the important work accomplished by volunteers — these re- flect the true value of a volunteer program." Volunteers work throughout the Museum — in sci- entific and administrative areas as well as in the public areas such as the Education Department and Mem- bership. Volunteers catalog, label, prepare specimens, prepare charts, maps, and scientific illustrations, do research, edit, type, and file. They also conduct school tours, give programs to the public, and assist on special events. 16 Volunteers Who Have Served 500 Hours Or More Sophie Ann Brunner, Reptiles: skeleton preparation, orga- nization, and maintenance. Margaret Martling, Botany: worked with reprint collections, helped select negatives for type photograph program, up- dated nomenclatural indices, helped process plant col- lections from Latin America. David Matusik, Insects: preparation of butterflies and moths from backlogged material to condition suitable for research. Llois Stein, Anthropology: researched and cataloged Oceanic, Malaysian, and African collections, assisted in Pacific storeroom reorganization, assisted with cataloging the gamelan collection. Volunteers Who Have Served 400 Hours Or More 501 Century, Anthropology: cataloging, general projects in Asian Division. Patricia Dodson, Anthropology: manuscript editing and proofing, correspondence, and research. Ingrid Fauci, Reptiles: translated French into English for staff and a translation project organized by one of the pro- fessional herpetological societies. Connie Koch, Development and Public Relations: com- puterized funding searches and development of funding source files for Grants office; updating mailing lists, organiz- ing clipping files, special mailings for Public Relations. Dorothy Oliver, Library: filed new book cards; retrieved books for visitors and assisted in Reading Room; special projects. Volunteers Who Have Served 300 Hours Or More Jackie Arnold, Education: weekend clerical assistance. Place for Wonder; assisted in special events and children's work- shops. Dennis Bara, Membership: weekend Membership represen- tative. Warren Batkiewicz, Insects: intern, prepared drawings of research material for use in scientific publications. Trace Clark-Petravick, Anthropology: textile conservation, worked with pre-Columbian textiles. Jeannette DeLaney, Anthropology: textile conservation, worked with pre-Columbian textiles. 300 Hours (continued) Joseph Levin, Geology: finished cataloging John Clark Col- lection of Oligocene mammals, assisted in curating col- lection of Pleistocene mammals. Carolyn Moore, Anthropology: researched special projects in Asian Division. Forman Onderdonk, Education: conducted tours in the animal and Indian halls. Pawnee Earth Lodge and Place for Wonder; assisted with children's workshops and special events. Gary Ossewaarde, Education: researched and conducted weekend tours on Egypt and China; assisted on special events and workshops. Jean Seller, Geology: Research in variation of dental charac- teristics of neotropical primates, photography, measure- ments of teeth and jaws, statistical analysis of data. Harold Waterman, Education and Reptiles: Maintained reprint card catalog and performed other library duties, compiled information from catalog data in response to in- quiries in Reptiles; greeted school groups, gave "Museum Favorite" programs to groups in Education. David Weiss, Anthropology: Administrative assistant in Asian Division. Laury Zicari, Exhibition: fabrication and installation of ex- hibits. 1984 Volunteers Bulletin Anthropology Dodie Baumgarten Charles Braner James E. Burd Louva Calhoun Sol Century TYace Clark-Petravick Connie Crane Jeannette DeLaney Patricia Dodson Nancy Fagin Peter Gayford Tamara Kaplan Withrow Meeker Lauren Michals Carolyn Moore George Morse Louise Neuert Ernest Newton Herta Newton Susan Parker Christine Pavel Dorothea Phipps-Cruz Philip Pinsof Lolita Rogers William Rom Susan Saric Sara Scherberg Abraham Simon Llois Stein Cathy Tlapa Robbie Webber David Weiss Botany Virginia Beatty Jeyson Daniel Diane Dillon Elisabeth Farwell Jane Fulkerson Mary Lou Grein Nancy Harlan Patricia Klick Margaret Martling Naomi Pruchnik Elizabeth Rada Carol Schneider Daniel Snydacker Susan Stolze Lorraine Thauland Lillian Vanek Sarah Wilkinson Building Operations Helen Ruch Hermann Bowersox Development William Briggs Maria Fox Ann Gerber Connie Koch Lou Levine James Rakowsky Education Paul Adler Dolores Arbanas Jacqueline Arnold Margaret Axelrod Beverly Baker Jean Baldwin-Herbert Lucia Barba Gwen Bamett Winifred Batson Stuart Becher Elaine Bernstein Carol Briscoe Carolyn Bma Karen Bryze Teddy Buddington Mary Ann Bulanda Nancy Burke John Burnett Joseph Cablk Kathy Cagney Deborah Carey Linda Celesia Marilee Cole Eleanor DeKoven Carol Deutsch Violet Diacou Marianne Diekman Millicent Drower John Dunn Ruth Egebrecht Anne Ekman Agatha Elmes Bormie Engel Jean Ettner Martha Farwell Ruth Fouche Gerda Frank Shirley Fuller Miriam Futransky Bemice Gardner Suzanne Garvin Patricia Georgouses Phyllis Ginardi Delores Glasbrenner Halina Goldsmith Miriam Goldsmith Helen Gomstein Evelyn Gottlieb Ann Grimes Karen Grupp Sylvia Haag Michael Hall Patricia Hansen Mattie Harris Shirley Hattis Audrey Hiller Clarissa Hinton Zelda Honor Scott Houtteman Ellen Hyndman Delores Irvin Connie Jacobs Malcolm Jones Carol Kacin Elizabeth Kaplan Mansura Karim Barbara Keune Dennis Kinzig Alida Klaud Glenda Kowalski Anita Landess Carol Landow Shun Lee James Lowers Mary Jo Lucas Gabby Margo Clifford Massoth Britta Mather Marita Maxey Melba Mayo Faye McCray Louise McEachran Carole McMahon Ixtaccihuatl Menchaca Beverly Meyer Barbara Milott Daniel Monteith Charlotte Morton Charlita Nachtrab Mary Naunton John B. Nelson Mary S. Nelson Natalie Newberger Elaine Olfson Forman Onderdonk Joan Opila Marianne O'Shaughnessy Gary Ossewaarde Anita Padnos Frank Paulo Mary Anne Peruchini Jacquelyn Prine Jean Pritzger Pamela Rahmann James Rakowsky Ann Ratajczyk Marie Rathslag Emest Reed Henry Rich Lucille Rich Elly Ripp Rhonda Rochambeau Barbara Roob Beverly Rosen Sarah Rosenbloom Anne Ross Lenore Ruehr Janet Russell Gladys Ruzi'ch Vivian Sadow Linda Sandberg Marian Saska Everett Schellpfeffer Marianne Schenker Florence Seiko Ttoyes Shaw Jessie Sherrod Judith Sherry Linda Skorodin Irene Spensley Mary Alice Sutton Beatrice Swartchild Jane Thain Alice TXilley Janet Ujvari Karen Umezis Barbara Vear Charles Vischulis Harold Waterman Mary Wenzel Cynthia Whalen James Wilber Char Wiss Zinette Yacker Ben Zajac Exhibition Audrey Bums Susan Walker-Waber Laury Zicari Fieldiana Donald Gemmel Geology Catherine Becker Hermann Bowersox Irene Broede Marie Cuevas Margaret DeJong Linda Egebrecht Dolores Fetes Marie Fischl Melanie Goldstine Cecily Gregory Catherine Handelsman Calvin Harris Clarissa Hinton Harold Honor Ellen Hyndman Doy Howland Joyce Kieffer Patricia Klick Susan Knoll Tom Ladshaw Joseph Levin Doris Nitecki China Oughton Ann Rubeck Susan Saric Jean Seller Joan Skager Patricia Thomas Gerda Watson Arm West Library Michael Chaneske Arden Frederick Claxton Howard Ruth Howard Mabel S. Johnson Dorothy Oliver Marie Louise Rosenthal James Skorcz Membership Dennis Bara Harold Honor Sylvia Rabinkoff Irnia Wetherton Photography Reeva Wolfson Public Relations Lisa Camillo Ollie Hartsfield Marianne Hermann Harold Honor Connie Koch Frank Leslie Nicholas Selch Tamara Spero Publications Loretta Green Tours William Roder Zoology Neal Abarbanell Paul Adler Warren Batkiewicz Lawrence Berman Sophie Ann Brunner Barbara Clauson Stanley Dvorak Ingrid Fauci Richard Frank Andrea Gaski Bea Goo Henry Greenwald Dorothy Karall Julian Kerbis Joseph P. Levin Barbara Latondress Lucy Lyon Selwyn Mather David Matusik Rosanne Miezio Richard Moser Lorain Olsen Charies Plasil Martin Pryzdia Sheila Reynolds Stephen Robinet Diana Rudaitis Kregg Sal vino David Walker Maxine Walter Harold Waterman Mary Wenzel Roy Yanong 17 The C omet C ometh by Edward J. Olsen Curator of Mineralogy Sixteenth-century woodcut depicting the anival ol the comet of 1596. T 18 he Chinese called them "broom stars." Europeans called them "hairy stars." At the appearance of one, people's hearts were often filled with fear and foreboding. To King Harold of Britain the 1066 appearance of Halley's Comet was a bad sign, and he was right — William of Normandy soon arrived to conquer him. Napoleon regarded the great comet of 1 8 1 1 as a good sign — and he was wrong! During the next winter his troops met bitter defeat in Russia. For whenever a comet appears it cannot be ignored. It is such a weird object that humankind must make a big deal of it — one way or another. Comets will never be commonplace in human experience even though they are very commonplace in the antics of our solar system. Even experienced astronomers find comets of great interest, for in them are to be found implications about the birth of the solar system, the origin of life, and possibly the occasional catastrophic destruction of much life on our planet. By late November of this year, Halley's Comet will return to the vicinity of the earth from the far reaches of space, just beyond the orbit of planet Neptune. It will be the second time it has appeared this century; the last time was in 1910. In the twenty-first century it will appear only once — in 2061. The 1910 appearance was spectacular, but the 1985-86 appearance is going to be one of the worst for viewing by eye in a thousand years. As you can see from the table (p.OO) the best time to see Halley's Comet with the naked eye will be only from the middle of this coming December to early January. From then until early March (1986) it will appear so close to the bright sun that it will be blotted out. Then again from early March until early May, naked-eye viewing will be possible if you are far out in the country, away from all lights, and the moon isn't up. The reason for the poor showing this time is the earth's position in its orbit around the sun, relative to Halley's orbit. The comet this time crosses the earth's orbit on the opposite side of the sun. In 1910 Halley ren't even sure whether comets were out in space or within the earth's atmosphere. The Greek philosopher Aristotle, for example, was convinced they were atmo- spheric aberrations. Halley had a friend at Cambridge University named Isaac Newton, who had recently cre- ated a mathematical method for describing the motions of objects in space, gravitationally attracted to one another. To do this Newton had to invent a new form of mathematics, which he called fluxions, but we today call the calculus. (This calculus was also invented at exactly HALLEY'S COMET VIEWING CONDITIONS Time Viewing 1985, Jan-Oct. 15 Telescope only 1985, Oct. 15-31 Very strong binoculars (7x50 or better) 1985, Oct. 31-Dec. 15 Standard binoculars (7x35, 8x30, etc.) 1985/1986, Dec. 15-Jan. 15 Eye (away from city lights) 1986, Jan. 15-Feb. 28 Too close to sun — can't be seen 1986, Mar 1-May 1 Eye (away from city lights) 1986, May 1-31 Standard binoculars 1986, June 1-July 1 Very strong binoculars July 1, 1986 — 1988 Telescope only — gradually fading crossed the earth's orbit close to the position of the earth at the time. Also in 1985-86, because of the winter/early-spring passage of the comet the best viewing (however poor) will be in the Southern Hemisphere — South Africa, South America, Australia, and the South Pacific. In spite of all the problems for good viewing, 1 985-86 is going to make comet watchers out of a lot of people — as this comet has done 28 times over the past 2,227 years since the first recording of its passage by the Chinese in 240 B.C.! Usually a comet is named after the first person to spot it. So there are comets with names like Bennett, Kahoutek, Morehouse, Enke, Biela and DeCheseaux. When more than one person reports a new comet at the same time it gets a hyphenated, and sometimes sort of funny-sounding name: Comet Mitchell-Jones-Gerber, Comet Ikeya-Seki, and Comet Schwassmann-Wach- mann, for example. Comet Halley (incidentally Halley rhymes with "valley," not with "daily," as you'll often hear) got its name a different way. Were it named for its finder it would have a Chinese name. Edmond Halley (1656-1742) was an English as- tronomer and mathematician. For part of his life he was a professor at Oxford University and Royal Astronomer. In 1 682 a comet appeared in the sky and he became fas- cinated with it. At the time there was a huge ignorance about comets. In ancient times some learned men we- the same time by the great German mathematician Leib- nitz, and there was, for some years, bad feeling between Newton and Leibnitz over who did it first — but back to our story.) Newton's methods were ideal for analyzing the (then) puzzling orbits of comets. These were times long before any kind of calculating machine, and all these tedious calculations had to be done by hand. Hal- ley undertook to learn Newton's methods and compute the orbits of three comets that had been measured tele- scopicallyin 1531, 1607, and 1682 — when he had sight- ed the comet himself. He concluded that the orbits of these three comets were almost identical and, further, that they were all really the same comet returning pe- riodically every 76 years from deep interplanetary space to make a swing around the sun. He wasn't the first to suggest that some comets were periodic (Robert Hooke, the British physicist, had already guessed that), but he was the first to prove the idea with calculations. He pre- dicted that the same comet would return late in 1758. Unhappily, he didn't live to see the event, but almost on schedule — in March of 1759 — it arrived and swung around the sun. This comet has been called Halley's Comet ever since. The fact that Halley didn't precisely calculate the passage time became a new puzzling feature. In fact, modem (computer-driven) analysis of this comet's pas- sages projected backwards over 30 centuries reveals that 19 20 English astronomer-mathematician Edmond Halley (1656-1742) was the first to provide a mathematical basis for the periodic return of comets. Courtesy the Bettman Archive. the period varies from 68 to 79 years, and its orbital plane fluctuates a shade under 2°. These variations are due in part to the presence of the giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, which, if the comet passes near enough, can gravitationally tug it out of its old orbit causing it either to retard or speed up. With these small uncertainties, one might ask, how can we be so sure it's going to arrive on schedule this time? The answer is, it's been spotted already. On October 16, 1982 astronomers David Jewitt and G.E. Danielson of the California Insti- tute of Technology recorded its approach on a large tele- scope camera. It's on its way! Comets have always been a source of deep supersti- tion in the western world (not, however, in China). They've been regarded variously as good luck, bad luck, foretelling periods of rotten weather or personal illnes- ses, or as a portent of death for some person of royalty: "When beggars die, there are no comets seen. The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes." — W. Shakespeare, from Julius Caesar When one is used to looking at a sky that parades past a familiar family of objects — sun, moon, a variety of stars and planets, and the occasional "shooting star" {i.e., incoming meteorite) — the sudden appearance of a starlike object with an elongated tail that, for some un- usual comets, spans over 100° of arc, can make you jit- tery if you're superstitious, ignorant, or both. For a fact, the earth can be smacked by a comet traveling in a collision orbit, and the effect can be devas- tating depending on the size of the comet and where on earth it hits. In 1908, for example, a very small comet impacted the earth in, fortunately, a remote region of Siberia near the Tlinguska River. Trees were flattened over an area 40 miles across! It had an energy equivalent to 10 million tons of TNT! In a populated region it would have been the worst natural disaster in history. For Com- et Halley, however, we have no fear it will hit earth. Its orbit doesn't intersect the earth's orbit. At worst, it can only be a near miss! In 1910 Halley's Comet caused a fearful uproar when it was predicted (correctly) that the earth would pass within 5 million miles of its head and would be bathed partially in its tail. Some people prepared for the end of the world. Others sealed themselves into rooms and stuffed door sills and keyholes with rags to keep out the noxious gases they expected would fill the air. In- deed, one chemical that does come off comets is highly toxic cyanogen gas. However, our thick layer of atmo- sphere is more than enough to keep such gases from penetrating to the surface of the earth. Besides, the great bulk of the gas in comet tails is plain water. The 1910 passage of the comet (known officially as P/Halley — the P is for periodic — not all comets are) added some new facts to our knowledge about these strange objects. In 1910 P/Halley passed directly across the face of the sun from earth's point of view. Despite intense study, there was no black dot to be seen against the sun's disk. Conclusion: it isn't very big at all! Current esti- mates make Halley out to be only about 5.5 miles across. Its gaseous outpourings make it appear larger than it is. Also, earth's passage through part of the tail produced no observable or measurable result. As already sus- pected, the tail is very tenuous. To get some idea of what these things are made of and how they got to be the way they are, a lot of different comets had to have been studied. First off, it is known that comets begin to glow only when they approach to within about 500 million miles of the sun (over five times farther than the earth's dis- tance from the sun). The glow consists of gases — mainly water — that the sun's energy vaporizes off them. The .^^ORBiT oftAf Comet n-/iuA ^ SOLAL S Y S^T E M /C-/«v, /Af onA/Ow yet t/f/»rm^nei/ ant/Jr.in •» nt/u/Z^MaM. . Early diagram of the orbit ofHaliey's Comet, based on l-ialley's calculations. Courtesy the Bettman Archive. m^^ ■7'^P ISTIMIRRNI Drawing based on sec- tion of the 11th-.century Bayeux Tapestry, show- ing Halley's Comet on the eve of the Battle of Has- tings (1066). The "cap- tion " at the top may be loosely rendered, "The men marvel at the star " Courtesy the Bettman Archive. 21 ultraviolet part of the sun's light is able to break up some of the gaseous molecules and the complex processes of recombinations of molecules causes light to be given off. Although some people have reported comets with differ- ent colors of light — red, blue, green — this appears to be due more to their imaginations or to effects from our own atmosphere. The light is white. The brightness of comets varies considerably. The solar wind) push the gases backward and the tail de- velops. When the comet swings around the sun the tail, of course, always points away from the sun, the direc- tion the solar wind is pushing it. So when the comet is heading back out into space, going away from the sun, it does so tail first. The Chinese astronomers realized this a couple of thousand years ago; Europeans didn't figure it out until the sixteenth century. Sixteenth- century en- graving of astronomer Peter Opianus observing comet of 1532. Cour- tesy tt)e Bett- man Arcliive. 22 great majority are very faint and can be seen only with good telescopes. In fact, comets pass the earth every year, observed only by astronomers and not by the public. Comet P/Enke, for example, returns every 3.5 years! Many small comets go unnoticed by anyone, even astro- nomers. A couple have been accidentally discovered passing close to the sun during solar eclipses when the sky, next to the sun, is dark for a few minutes. Without the eclipses they would never have been seen. On the other hand, a few rare ones are so bright they can be seen in the daytime! Comet DeCheseaux, which has been seen only once — in 1 744, was like that. Several comets have been observed to vary rapidly in brightness over short periods of time — long tails forming, fading, and spurting out again. As the gases vaporize, a glowing envelope of light, known as the coma develops around a comet. Getting closer to the sun, the effect of the blast of radiation and atomic particles that stream from the sun's surface (the A lot of effort has been expended, using a variety of optical devices, to study the make-up of the coma and tail — all we can see of a comet when it gets into the vicinity of the earth. Besides gases, dust grains stream off all comets and, because of the complex nature of the sun's radiation, some comets have two tails, a straight one made mostly of dust grains and a separate, curved one made mostly of gas molecules. A few odd comets have four, six, or twelve tails radiating off like feathers. No one has a good explanation for the extra tails. Many comets have elongated orbits that take them out to the edge of the solar system over long periods of time. Halley is one of these. Others have orbits that are nearly circular and travel at about the same distance away from the sun all the time, continually glowing. About half of all known comets have motions about the sun revolving in the same direction as the planets. The other half travel in the opposite direction — called retro- grade (Halley again). A few have orbits that indicate they will make only one swing around the sun and then be flung out into interstellar space — out of the solar system, never to return. There are those that have orbits lying in the plane of the orbits of the planets (called the ecliptic plane). Others have orbits inclined to that plane, like Halley at 1 8° inclination. This means that when Halley is at its farthest point from the sun it is almost a billion miles out of the plane of the ecliptic. emerged that seems to fit the facts. It is the result of dec- ades of comet studies by American astronomer Fred Whipple. It's called "the dirty snowball" hypothesis. Think of a day after a light snowfall. The neighbor- hood kids get out in a gravel and dirt playground to romp around. The snow is only a few inches deep. Sud- denly one of them scoops up some snow, packs it into a snowball and flings it at you. Smack! Wow, that hurts! French carica- turist Honore Daumier (1808-79) has a spectator lamenting, "Oh, carv- els! . . . they're always a bad omen. No wonder that Madame Galuchet just took up and died last night! " J^ Certainly the most fascinating feature of comets is the reaction of some of them as they pass close to large bodies and suffer gravitational stresses. Halley appears to be pretty firm stuff and doesn't show any serious effects. Others, however, appear to come "unglued." Comet Ikeya-Seki appeared to break into two pieces as it passed the sun on October 2 1 , 1965. In 1846 Comet P/Biela was reported to have broken in two, one part fading rapidly in brightness. Comet Morehouse broke in two on Octo- ber 15, 1908 but the pieces stayed close together in space. Comet Brooks was observed to break apart as it passed between the planet Jupiter and one of Jupiter's many moons, Amalthea, in 1889. Apparently the gravi- tational pull of Amalthea on one side and giant Jupiter on the other was too much for it. The strength of the solid material of the comet wasn't enough to hold it together. Putting all observations together, a picture has Sure, the snowball is only part snow. The rest is gravel and dirt he scooped up with it. Well, according to Whip- ple, that's what a comet is. It's ice laced through with bits of rock, maybe even a huge hunk of rock in the middle, and lots of dust. The ice has frozen within it other "ices" — that is, other gases frozen by the intense cold of deep space. The "snowball" may be a few hundred feet to many miles across. In this game giant snowballs are easy to make. You make them the same way you make planets like the earth. Most people would expect an ice ball to melt com- pletely in passing the sun. A small enough one would, of course. Large ones, like Halley, lose over six or seven feet in their diameters each time they make a trip into the center of the solar system and around the sun. They get smaller and smaller and eventually disappear, except for any large masses of rock that were held in the ice. Some comets, in fact, give off little gas, glow feebly, and have 23 Halley's Comet seen in 1910 from Yerkes Observatory. Williams Bay. Wisconsin. Photo by F. E. Barnard. Courtesy the Bettman Arctiive. 24 only a faint coma and no tail. These have lost almost all their ices and gaseous matter and are reduced to rocky masses. A few of the rocky asteroids (minor planets that orbit the sun) give off no light at all have comet like orbits; they are suspected of being comets that long ago lost all their ices and gases. As comets melt, they release bits of rock and lots of dust. The dust and small rocks lag a little behind, form- ing a trail in the wake of the comet. Long after the comet is out of sight, the trail is still drifting along the orbital route. If the earth should pass through such a trail the bits of dust and rock are pulled by earth's gravity into the upper atmosphere where they bum up. These are called meteor showers. A number of annual meteor showers coincide with the orbits of known comets. Other annual meteor showers cannot be associated with any currently known comets and are suspected of being all that's left of periodic comets that wasted away long before the begin- ning of recorded history. A lot of our scientific "knowledge" about comets is obviously only educated hypothesis and speculation. Halley arrives for the first time in the Space Age that has given us a taste of space exploration: manned lunar landings, unmanned landings on Mars and Venus, probes past Mercury, Jupiter, and Saturn. Clearly, means now exist to make close-up measurements of this famous comet. The most ambitious plan (which failed to be carried out) was that of the United States. A new type of space engine was to be developed, called the ion drive. Because of Halley's retrograde orbit it is difficult to get into synchrony with it. Any rocket launched from earth has, necessarily, as a large part of its initial motion the velocity of the earth in its orbit. This motion is, of course, opposite that of this retrograde comet. The ion drive vehicle was a nifty scheme. The vehicle would be launch- ed in the normal fashion and head out toward the direc- tion of approach of the comet. The ion drive would steadily retard the vehicle, slowly stopping it, then accelerating it back in the direction from which it came — that is, in a retrograde path. With everything timed properly, as Halley came along, the vehicle would be put into a nearby orbit with it, adjusting the velocity so it would "park" near the comet. Observations, measure- ments, probes, samplings of gases and solids would all be made at low relative velocity. Superb detailed measure- ments could have been made. The plan was scrapped, however, because of budget cuts to the space agency (NASA) early in Mr. Reagan's first administration. As it now stands, the U.S., once a leader in space, will have no major close-up study of this comet. Most of the significant studies will be made by ESA (the Euro- pean Space Agency), Japan, and (of course) the USSR. The Russians will, in fact, have the first close en- counter with Halley. They have two probes, Vega 1 and Vega 2. Vega I will pass about 6,000 miles away from the head ofthe comet on March 6, 1986. Ve^fliwillpassbyit three days later at about the same distance. These probes are designed to take TV pictures and measure dust, gas, and heat from the comet. The ESA probe has been named Giotto, after the Ital- ian painter, Giotto di Bondone (12767-1337), who de- picted Halley's Comet as the Star of Bethlehem in one of his frescoes, the Adoration ofthe Magi, in Padua. He had seen this comet when it appeared in 1 301 . The Giotto probe is very ambitious. A total often groups of meas- urements will be made on the chemical and physical make-up of the comet, including, of course, color im- ages of it with, it is hoped, resolution of about 30 feet. The experiments are being put together by laboratories in Germany, France, England, and Switzerland. Giotto is to be launched in July of 1985 and encounter the comet at close range in a four-hour period late on March 1 3 to early March 14, 1986. Because the comet and Giotto will be passing each other in opposite directions, the total encounter velocity will be about 152,000 miles per hour! Measurements will have to be made very fast. The aim of Giotto is to go through the tail and the coma, passing to within 600 miles ofthe solid body of it (the nucleus). Such a close pass creates big concern for the whole mission. Dust grains and bits of rock can hit the Giotto probe faster than rifle bullets and cause mechanical damage or rotate the vehicle, turning its data transmission antennae away from the earth (it will take 8 minutes for a bit of message sent from the probe to reach earth stations) . If all goes reasonably well even this fast grab at measuring Halley's properties should in- crease our real knowledge about this comet, and of com- ets in general. The Japanese probes. Planet A and MST-5, will make initial measurements at great distances from the comet from late January to mid-February, 1986. Then on March 8, Planet A will pass closer, about 125,000 miles from the head ofthe comet. In order to get into the act, at least a little, the U.S. will aim a Pioneer vehicle, orbiting Venus, to snatch a few measurements on Halley as it passes by. In addition, a number of U.S. space scientists are involved with some of the experiments on the Giotto probe, and (sur- prisingly) a package of instrumentation from the Uni- versity of Chicago will be carried aboard the Soviet mis- sions. The 1956 book Wonders of the Heavens, by Kenneth Heuer, offered this artist's (/Vlatthew Kalmenoff) conception of IHalley's Comet as viewed 30 years hence, in 1986. Courtesy Dodd, t^ead, & Company. With even moderate success a lot will be learned this time. For those who are poets at heart, cool scientific measurements may threaten to diminish some of the mystery and romance of this comet. That, for certain, will not happen. We have only to remember that our first close-up views of objects seen previously as distant patches of light have increased the mystery and wonder of them: the unexpected huge dry watercourses that ramble across the now waterless planet Mars; the inex- plicable braided twists in the rings around Saturn; the lack of any similarity among the once-thought-similar moons of Saturn and Jupiter; the sodium-spouting vol- canoes on Jupiter's moon, lo. Each closer view answers ancient questions and piles up new ones. It's all part of a master plan to protect human scientists from com- placency and smugness. The mystery goes on, and that, surely, is the joy of it. 25 African Art, Paleoanthropology, and Fellowship: Themes of Two Founders' Council Affairs On March 8, prior to the public opening of the Art of Cameroon exhibit. Founders' Council members and their guests were treated to a special evening of fun, friendship, and education. Following a beautiful reception in the Founders' Room, Guest Curator Tamara Northern provided a brief introduction to the Cameroon exhibit. The group then toured the Cameroon hall, with Dr. Northern fur- nishing fascinating commentary on the history of this magnificent assemblage of African art. World renowned paleoanthropologist Dr. Donald Johanson delivered a compelling lecture to a standing-room crowd in Field Museum's Simpson Theatre on March 23. Following his presenta- tion. Dr. Johanson, who discovered the 3.5-million-year-old hu- man fossil "Lucy," joined Founders' Council members and other Museum contributors for a reception in the Founders' Room. The enjoyable Saturday afternoon function was highlighted by Dr. Johanson's inspiring remarks about his high regard for Field Museum, and the invaluable support the Founders' Council pro- vides toward strengthening the Museum. Tours For Members China and Tibet August 10-September I $5,975 (double occupancy) Field Museum's journey through the Orient pro- vides an evocative contrast of cultures. From the bustling streets of Hong Kong, where we find a mine of curios in its well-stocked shops, we travel into the serene beauty of traditional Chi- na, to Kunming. This mountain city rests on the shores of Lake Dianchi, which ten centuries of poets have likened to a pearl. The palace of San Qing has 1,333 steps climbing up to the Dragon Gate and on, to the splendid stone chamber called "Leading to Heaven." A day trip takes us to the Forest of Stone, 64,000 acres of up-thrust limestone pinnacles, where we may visit one of China's minority peoples, the Lu Nan Yi. Lhasa, the snow-shrouded capital of Tibet inspires awe in the visitor. Here, we see modern factories and communes contrasting sharply with the mystic retreats of monks. The Dalai Lama's palace, one of the architectural wonders of the world, is thirteen stories high, with 999 rooms, 10,000 chapels, and 200,000 golden im- ages. An excursion by coach reveals a wild, steep, and rugged country of breathtaking beau- ty. Along the Tsampo river, past glaciers and ■waterfalls, we travel through colorful villages, viewing the native crafts and precarious lifestyle of the Tibetan people. At last we find the glo- rious city of Shigatse, home of ancient art and history. Inside theTVashilunpo Monastery is the Goddess Palace, the colossal gold-plated Mait- reya Buddha, and the throne of the Panchen Lama, all worked in silk brocade. One of the trip's many highlights is a visit to Xian, where the vast life-size terra cotta army was discovered in 1974. We also see Ban Po vil- lage where the Neolithic site of Yan Shao (6,000 B.C.) was discovered. Beijing (Peking) offers us the Forbidden City with its dynastic treasures on display. The Gate of Heavenly Peace rests on the square of monuments to the People's Heroes, and no one would want to miss the 4,000- mile-long Great Wall. Nearby, the Valley of the Thirteen Tombs, with its rows of crouching carved animals beckons us to the burial site of the Ming emperors. The Summer Palace and shopping conclude our visit to China. Finally, we enjoy a day of sightseeing in Narita, Japan, before boarding our homebound night. Mr. John Brzostoski, professor of Oriental art history at New School for Social Research in New York City, is our lecturer. A specialist on Tibet, he is fluent in Mandarin, has written numerous articles on the art of Asia, and lec- tures widely. He is founder and director of the Center of Oriental Studies in New York. Kenya September 6-23 $3,695 (double occupancy) Rift Valley optional extension through October 1 $1,085 per person (double occupancy) An exciting, adventurous experience awaits you in mysterious Kenya. Take a safari through some of the world's finest game reserves during the spring migration. Follow the steps of Ernest Hemingway, Theodore Roosevelt, and Robert Ruark to the foot of Africa's highest mountain, snow-capped Kilimanjaro. At its base lie five distinct habitats justly famous for such big game as lion, wildebeest, and rhino. In Tsavo National Park, East Africa's largest, great herds of elephant roam free, sometimes right up to the waterhole easily observed from Kilagumi Lodge. At Mzima Springs enjoy the aquatic ballet of hippo, fish, and crocodile from an underwater viewing tank. Aberdare Park boasts the giant forest hog, buffalo, and the rare bongo antelope. Around the rugged northern slopes of Mount Kenya through local villages where you can bargain for beautiful bracelets of twisted copper, you come to Samburu River Lodge whose terraces overlook the Uaso Nyiro River, its crocodile and elusive leopard. The nearby game reserve is a photographer's paradise and the specially equipped safari vehicles provide clear shots of zebra, giraffe, and gazelles, and of the vivid, contrasting colors of sky, bush, and sand. On to Mount Kenya Safari Club, made famous by actor William Holden, you can relax beside the mountain in magnificent gardens, fishing, golfing, playing tennis, swimming, or riding horseback. One of the safari's many highlights will be a visit to the Masai Mara Game Reserve of rolling savannah plains. This is the very best reserve in Kenya and from your luxury safari camp you can see far across vast grassland spotted with acacia woodlands and thickets of scrub. Impala, giraffe. Grant's and Thompson's gazelle make their home here. Lions move restlessly in search of a kill. In Narok, you may wish to buy Masai wares, such as belts, spears, wooden head-rests, and bead necklaces. In addition, Nairobi is a mine of souvenirs and many happy hours can be spent in the colorful African Market. As an option, bird lovers may wish to travel to Lake Nakuru in the Great Rift Valley, where thousands of flamingos make their home. Lake Naivasha with its papyrus fringe supports over 500 species of exquisitely colored birds. Audrey Faden, a native of Kenya, will be your guide. She was Education Officer at the National Museum of Kenya and has been a Field Museum volunteer for many years, conducting field research and collecting plants in Kenya. She is a seasoned guide and lecturer and is well- versed in the wildlife, plant life, and ecology of Kenya. Ms. Faden is eager to share her home- land with you. If you have an interest in joining our Kenya Safari adventure, please call Dorothy S. Roder at 322-8862 for a detailed itinerary. Informa- tion about this and other tours may also be obtained by writing the Tours Department, Field Museum, Roosewll Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, II. 60605. 27 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN July/August 1985 *^ X y Biennial Report 1983-1984 Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Steams Staff Photographer: Ron Testa CONTENTS July/ August 1985 Volume 56, Number 7 Board of TIjustees James J. O'Connor, Chairman Mrs. T. Slanlon Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon BenI Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson. Jr Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin Charles F Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin I. Nevling. Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington LlFElkUSTEES Harry O. Bercher Bowen Blair Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood Field Museum of Natural History Biennial Report, 1983-1984 3 COVER Natural history specimens — a tiny jar, a flower, a stone, and a butterfly — representing Field Museum 'sfour main scientific disciplines: anthropology, botany, geology, and zoology. Special thanks to Polly Breul, Gene Olson, Stefan Suchec, and Willy Watkins, who graciously provided their hands for the cover photos. Photography and design by David M. Walsten. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. 11. 60605-2495. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually S3. 00 for schools Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited man- uscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (512) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. 11. 60605-2496. ISSN:001 5-0703. Second class posuge paid at Chicago, Illinois. On Fridays Watch for Researchers At the Place for Wonder This summer get a glimpse of some activities which usually go on only behind-the-scenes. Meet and observe Field Museum staff work- ing with specimens from research collec- tions. Friday afternoons, 1:00-3:00, Place For Wonder. July 5 Observe bird specimens being prepared for research. 12 Compare various saber-toothed skulls. 19 Watch insect specimens being mounted for research collections. 26 Explore mysterious plants we eat. August 2 Observe your name being written in Egyptian hieroglyphs. 9 Learn techniques the Museum uses to maintain the books in its libraries. 16 Study reptile skins and skulls. 2 3 See a display of various weaving looms. 30 Discover the process and art of decorating gourds. T Events ^\ SUMMER FUN 1985 Workshops for Young People Daily (except Monday) July 2 to August 4 Beginning July 2, Field Museum offers more than 90 summer workshops for young people ages 4 to 13. Museum halls come to life through tours, demon- strations, science projects, and art experiences. Explore the world of the dinosaurs Triceratops, Tyrannosaurus rex, and Dimetrodon — and unlock the secrets of the past. Travel the plains with a Sioux Indian and earn a sacred feather Learn the newest archaeological methods or reconstruct the fossil fish Cephalaspis. Anthropologists, zoologists, artists, dancers, and filmmakers bring their talent and expertise to create new, informative, and creative experiences. Workshops are held throughout the Museum. Enrollment is limited and children must be reg- istered in advance by mail. Call (312) 322-8854 for Suinmer Fun brochures, and up-to-date information about workshop availability. FAMILY FEATURES Tell a Story, Write a Play Saturday and Sunday, July 20, 21; W0-3:00pm Ecology Hall, second floor. Dr. Doolittle, the Ugly Duckling, and Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories are a few examples of the animal stories we enjoy today. Take a look at Field Museum animals from a literary point of view. Talk about the kinds of characters we would see if the animals in our exhibits came to life at night. Put a story together as a group. At home, write your own animal story and send it to us for possible use in Animal Antics this December 1985. Child's Play Tour- ing Theatre plans to select a number of stories to per- form on December 28 and 29 in Stanley Field Hall. Volcanoes Saturday and Sunday, Aug. 10, 11; 1:00-3 :00pm Ecology Hall, second floor. Early people witnessed the eruption of Vesuvius in Italy, and thought it was the gods having a battle. When it erupted again in August, 79 a.d. the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried beneath layers of volcanic ash and lava for centuries. Today we know that many of our most useful rocks, such as granite and pumice originated from volcanic lava. Find out how and why volcanoes explode. Using magnets, compasses, and streak plates, test various rocks for their mineral content. Take home a piece of rock that may have started as lava beneath our earth's surface. WEEKEND PROGRAMS FOR JULY & AUGUST Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend in July and August. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. July Saturday, 2:00 p.m. Traditional China (tour). Delight in the timeless imagery and superb craftsmanship of Chinese masterworks in our collection. August 4 Sunday, 2 :00 p.m. Wonderful World of Plants (tour). Take a botanical trip through jungles and deserts, mountains and seasides. 7 Sunday, 1 :00 p.m. Welcome to the Field (tour). Explore the highways and byways of Field Museum while sampling some of its most significant exhibits. 14 Sunday, 1 :00 p.m. Chinese Ceramic Traditions (tours.) Take a close look at 6,000 years of Chinese ceramic art. 20 Saturday, 1 2 : 00 noon. Life in Ancient Egypt (tours). Focus on the objects and practices which illustrate ancient life in the Nile Valley. 21 Sunday, 1 :00 p.m. Welcome to the Field (tour). Explore the highways and byvvays of Field Museum while sampling some of its most significant exhibits. 28 Sunday, 2: 30 p.m. China's Wondrous Animals (slide lecture). Look at real and imagined beasts in Chinese art, lore, and social life. 10 Saturday, 12:00 noon. Continents Adrift (demonstration). Why have fossils of similar dinosaur species been found on continents separated by vast oceans? The concept of "moving" continents is illustrated with enormous puzzle pieces. 17 Saturday, 11 :30 a.m. Ancient Egypt (tour). Experience the mystique of ancient Egypt from everyday life to mummification. 18 Sunday, 1 :00 p.m. People of the Long House (slide lecture). A look at the Iroquois, once the most powerful and influential of the Northeastern woodland tribes. 24 Saturday, 1 1 :00 a.m. Stories Around the World (story telling). Listen to the tales children around the world have loved through the centuries. These public programs are free with Museum admission and no tickets are required. FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BIENNIAL REPORT 1983-1984 People, not structure, make a great museum. Through the years the number of people who commit their time and funds to advance the Museum has greatly multi- plied. This report is about the wonderful people who make Field Museum an excit- ing place to visit and learn. ENDINGS and BEGINNINGS Field Museum's two-man welcoming force at the North entrance were William Thompson (left) and James Hammond, of Security and Visitor Services. The Field Museum suffered the loss throughi death in 1984 of two trustees, William G. Swartchild, Jr and John B. Wilkins. Mr Swartchild had served on the Board since 1966, for four years as chairnnan; Mr Wilkins had been on the Board since 1969. Two life trustees also died during the bienniunn: Williann McCormick Blair, who had served on the Board from 1939 to 1972, and John M. Simpson, 1961-74. Additions to the Board of Trustees were Mrs. Philip D. Block III, FrankW.Considine, Thomas J. Eyerman, LeoF Mullin, Earl L. Neal, Robert A. Pritzker, and Patrick G. Ryan. Eugenes. Richardson, Jr, curator of fossil inver- tebrates from 1946 to 1982, died on Jan. 21, 1983, only a few months after his retirement. Mary A. Hagberg, Field Museum registrar since 1967, died on August 16, 1984. Additions to the staff included the following: Jimmie W. Croft, vice president of Finance and Museum Ser- vices; David W. Booz, manager of Financial Services; Arlene Kiel, administrator of Human Resources; Sherry L. Isaac, manager of Public Relations; Barbara I. Stuark, manager of the Museum Store, and Barbara Blum, assis- tant manager; Obie M. Collins, executive housekeeper; and Thomas B. Dugan, manager of Security and Visitor Services. The Department of Development staff gained records coordinator Leonard Evans, Development man- ager David G. McCreery, grants officer Glenn S. Pare, and corporate development officer Thomas D. Wilson. R. Lance Grande joined the Department of Geology as assistant curator of fossil fishes; Scott H. Lidgard joined Geology as assistant curator of fossil invertebrates. Charles T Buzek, formerly with Security and Visitor Services, joined the Office of the President as project coordinator Centennial Directions. Promotions included Benjamin W. Williams's move to associate librarian and Rare Books librarian. Botany's Timothy C. Plowman was promoted to associate curator of vascular plants. Michael E. Moseley was promoted to curator of Middle and South American archaeology and ethnology; John E. Terrell was promoted to curator of oceanic archaeology and ethnol- ogy Dr Plowman was also appointed scientific editor of Field Museum Press (which produces Fieldiana), while James W. VanStone, curator of North American archae- ology and ethnology, was named assistant editor of the press. Bruce D. Patterson, assistant curator of Mammals, was named chairman of Scientific Support Services (for- merly designated Advanced Technologies Laboratory), while John J. Engel, associate curator of Bryology was named supervisor of that group's scientific illustrators. William G. Swartchild, Jr. The death of William G. Swartchild, Jr., former chairman of Field Museum's Board of Trustees, on March 15, 1984, was a loss beyond measure to Field Museum and its trustees, Women's Board, and staff. Mr Swartchild was born in Chicago in 1909. After graduating from Dartmouth, where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, he entered Swartchild & Company, a family business of which he was president at the time of its sale in 1 973. Although he devoted a great deal of his time to public service throughout his life, his retirement from active business responsibilities freed him to devote full time in service to others — service which continued until his death. He was elected a trustee of Field Museum in 1966. Typical of his sense of commitment to any institution with which he became associated, he quickly took an active leadership position among the trustees. In 1972-73 he was a member of a trustees' committee that developed a reorganized Board structure. Upon that reorganization he became vice chairman of the Board, heading the important Pro- gram Planning and Evaluation Committee. He was elected chairman of the Board of Trustees in 1978, serving in that capacity until 1982, at which time he was suc- ceeded by James J. O'Connor Following his chairmanship, Mr. Swartchild served as vice chairman. Internal Affairs, and as a member of the Nominating Committee. William Swartchild had an extraordinary understanding of the dynamics of nonprofit institutions and the various constituencies comprising them. At Field Museum this was evidenced by the complete confidence in him on the part of the staff, Women's Board, and trustees. He was active and equally respected in the American Association of Museums, serving as a vice chairman of the Trustees' Committee and as a member of the Commission on Museums for a New Century — a national planning effort for the years ahead. He was instrumental in preparing American Association of Museums' Museum Trusteeship and Museum Ethics. Active for many years in the field of health care, Mr. Swartchild served as Trus- tee of Michael Reese Hospital, Children's Memorial Hospital, and McGaw Medical Centers and he was chairman of Children's and McGaw, as well as the Council on Governance of the Illinois Hospital Association, at the time of his death. He had served as a director of Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Illinois and of HMO Illinois. Mr. Swartchild was also a trustee of the Brookfield Zoo. Beyond all of his achievement in business and philanthropy, he was a warm and thoughtful person who cared about people. He brought a quality of excellence and humanity to anything he touched. He was a model of dedication of personal energy for the public good. The City of Chicago is a better place because of William Swartchild's life. DEVELOPMENT Bowen Blair (center), first president of ttie newly organized Founders' Council, sfiown with Mr. and l^rs. Henry W. Meers, council members. Highlighting the Biennium in the area of support for ttie Museum was creation of the Founders' Council in 1 983. In September of that year, an inaugural banquet launched the support club's program with a charter membership of approximately 250 of the principal donors to the Museum. The driving force behind estab- lishment and recruitment for the Founders' Council was Bowen Blair, partner, William Blair & Company, and a Museum trustee. Mr. Blair also during 1 983 served as the Council's first president. He was succeeded by Mr. Tho- mas J. Eyerman, partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Mr Eyerman continued to build upon the strong foundation established by Mr Blair, and the Founders' Council grew, not only in numbers, but in programmatic support. In 1 984 the council initiated its Founders' Council Award of Merit program, through which a world-famous scientist is honored. The first award went to Stephen Jay Gould, Ph.D., distinguished scientist, educator and commenta- tor, currently professor of zoology at Harvard University and curator of Invertebrate Paleontology at the universi- ty's Museum of Comparative Zoology The challenge to and goal of Founders' Council members is to pass on to Chicagoans of the 21 st century a museum as vital and prestigious as original founders passed on to Chicagoans of this century (Persons inter- ested in joining this group should contact David G. McCreery, director of Development (31 2) 322-8877.) The years 1 983 and 1 984 also saw increases in and new records set in support from all areas of the private sector: corporations, foundations, and individuals. 1984 was the final year of a second five-year support program entitled "Commitment to Distinction." At the end of the 1 980-84 period, a total of more than $14,000,000 had been donated, including more than $3,000,000 in bequests. Changes were effected in the organizational struc- ture of the Development Office during the biennium, to enhance the capabilities, scope, and efficiency of the department: yet, with the expansion, fund-raising costs have been kept at a minimum in relation to annual operat- ing budgets. A grants office was created in 1 983, and Glenn S. Pare, who came from a similar post at Loyola University, was appointed grants officer The Grants Office coordinates proposals from the scientific and educational departments of the Museum, seeking funds from governmental agencies such as the National Sci- ence Foundation. Special proposals to foundations and individuals are also generated by the Grants Office. In order to carry out the departmental expansion ex- peditiously and efficiently, a "development audit" was conducted by an independent consultant firm, Donald A. Campbell & Company, Inc., in 1984. This study affirmed the direction the Museum and its Development Office had been taking, and made recommendations by which the department could "fine tune" the procedures. The internal audit by the Campbell Company was also made as part of a feasibility study looking toward a major capital campaign for endowment and for repair and improvements of the building and exhibits. Success of support efforts during the period was due in no small part to the vigorous leadership and self- less commitment of time and talent on the part of the DEVELOPMENT Board of Trustees, especially members of the Resource Planning and Development Committee of the Board. Robert O. Bass, retired vice-chairman of Borg-Warner Corporation and now chairman and president of the Borg-Warner Foundation, completed a term as chairman of this committee at the end of 1983. Richard M. Jones, vice chairman of the board and chief financial officer, Sears, Roebuck and Company, succeeded Mr Bass. Prior to that, both Mr. Jones and Mr Bass had each been chairman of the Corporations and Foundations Division of volunteer businessmen and executives; 1 984 Cor- porations and Foundations Division chairman was Gene L. Harmon, vice president for Corporate and Public Affairs, Sears, Roebuck and Company. Field Museum is particularly grateful to these persons and to the members of the Resource Planning and Development Committee for their efforts in recruiting exceptionally generous donors in all sectors: corporations, foundations, and indi- viduals. The Museum wishes to cite these donors: Benefactors elected during the biennium were: Amoco Foundation, Miss Virginia Billow (bequest). The Chicago Community Trust, Field Foundation of Illinois, Walter E. Heller Foundation, Mrs. Jean Butz James, The Joyce Foundation of Chicago, W. K. Kellogg Foundation, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Robert R. McCormick Charitable Trust, and the Searle Family Trust. Major Donors (Corporate, Foundation, and Indi- viduals) were: The Allstate Foundation, Atlantic Richfield Foundation, Barker Welfare Foundation, Mr and Mrs. Gordon Bent, Mrs. G. E. (Katharine) Boone, Borg-Warner Foundation, Mr. and Mrs. Roger O. Brown, Buchanan Family Foundation, Commonwealth Edison Co., The Con- solidated Foods Corporation (now Sara Lee), Continental Bank Foundation, Mr and Mrs. Robert O. Delaney Mr. and Mrs. Gaylord Donnelley, Mrs. Marjorie H. Elting, FMC Foundation, Mr and Mrs. Joseph N. Field, First National Bank of Chicago, Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts, Mrs. William A. Hark, Illinois Bell, Mr and Mrs. Oscar G. Mayer, Mr and Mrs. Kenneth Montgomery McMaster Carr Supply Co., Sterling Morton Charitable Trust, Naico Foundation, The Northern Trust Company, Frederick Henry Prince Charitable Trust, The Pritzker Foundation, Mrs. T. Clifford Rodman, Mr and Mrs. Samuel R. Rosenthal, S & C Electric Co., Dr. Scholl Foundation, Mr and Mrs. William L. Searle, Mrs. George T Spensley Mr. and Mrs. Jack Staehle, Mr and Mrs. Wil- liam Street, Mrs. Phelps Hoyt Swift, and Mr and Mrs. Roderick S. Webster The Planned Giving Office, organized within the Development Office in 1981, continued to conduct an aggressive "will approach" in its program to interest members, donors, and friends in deferred giving. The program increased the popularity of making gifts through bequests, to perpetuate one's name and one's annual giving. In the biennium, $806,554 was received by way of bequests and added to the Museum's endowment funds. The Planned Giving Program has also sparked interest in deferred gifts (giving through life income annuity trusts), and, during the biennium, received three such gifts of future interest that totaled more than $400,000. Since its inception, a trustee committee of W.R. Dickinson, Jr., partner, Wilson & Mcllvaine, and Hugo Melvoin, Hugo Melvoin, P.C., has given the Planned Giving Office cap- able leadership and wise guidance. All bequests and deferred gifts are placed in the Museum's endowment portfolio to ensure the Museum's future. D The dedicated service of Llois Stem, a Field Museum volunteer since 1972. was invaluable in Itie transformation and reorganization of Field Museum s Pacific Research Latxyratory. Shown with her are carvings of human figures from New Guinea. 10 COLLECTIONS and RESEARCH: ANTHROPOLOGY Bennet Bronson, associate curator of Asian archaeol- ogy and ethnology, continued researching preindustrial iron metallurgy of Asian cultures; History and Ethnology of Iron, coauthored with Professor William Rostoker of the University of Illinois at Chicago, was in progress. Bron- son spent two months in Thailand surveying archaeo- logical sites and consulting with the Thai Archaeology Division and with officials of the Fine Arts University. Related research has resulted in published articles on the casting of farm tools and hardware in China, the cast iron bells of China, and archaeological radiocarbon dates from Indonesia. Glen Cole, curator of prehistory and department chairman, continued work on the analysis of raw mater- ials used at the Isimilia prehistoric site in Tanzania. Cole also studied Upper Paleolithic artifacts and associated faunal material from several sites in the Pyrenees area in southern France, acquired by former curator Henry Field in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Cole and collaborator Dr Paul Bahn of Hull, England, a specialist in Pyrenean prehistory, worked toward publishing this material. Alan L. Kolata, visiting assistant curator of Andean archaeology, did research for a monograph entitled An Architectural History of Chan Chan. Phillip H. Lewis, curator of primitive art and Melane- sian ethnology, compared the tourist art of the Sepik, the traditional art in the social context of New Ireland memo- rial ceremonials, and the National Museum of Papua New Guinea both as patron and as repository of art in a paper presented at the Pacific Arts Association's 3rd Interna- tional Symposium on Oceanic Art. This research was based on field work done in New Ireland and on obser- vations made in New Guinea in 1981. Michael E. Moseley, curator of Middle and South American archaeology and ethnology, and Robert Feld- man, visiting assistant curator of Andean archaeology, directed the continuing field research of Programa Con- tisuyu, a bi-national archeological project in the Mo- quegua Valley of southern Peru. Sites under study range from a shell midden near the coastal port of llo, radiocar- bon dated at more than 10,500 years old, to sites around the city of Moquegua, ranging in age from Spanish Colo- nial (ca. AD 1650) to Tiwanaku (ca. ad 600-1000) and Pukara (ca. 300 BC). With the aid of students from the Universidad Catolica Santa Maria of Arequipa, Feldman directed excavation of a cemetery of the Chiribaya cul- ture {ca. AD 1200) and a Tiwanaku house site, both threatened by urban expansion and construction. Moseley took a leave of absence starting September, 1984, to teach at the University of Florida, Gainesville. John Terrell, curator of Oceanic archaeology and ethnology, completed his book Prehistory in the Pacific Islands, to be published by Cambridge University Press. He extended this line of research to give an unconven- tional picture of Australian prehistory, presented in a lec- ture delivered at the Quarternary Research Center at the University of Washington in May 1984, entitled "Pre- historic Peoples of the Western Pacific." He also began work on an alternative biological model of the origin of Polynesian speakers and the evolution of human diversity in the Fijian archipelago. James VanStone, curator of North American archaeology and ethnology, completed studies of two collections of ethnographic material, one collected by William Duncan Strong in 1928 from the David Inlet Barren Ground Naskapi in Labrador, the other collected at the end of the nineteenth century from the Oroki and Nivkhi of Sakhalin Island, Work continued on two other studies, one of contemporary Athapaskan Indian eth- nographic objects from interior Alaska and another of Nunivak Eskimo material culture based on field notes of Dr Margaret Lantis in the 1930s. VanStone also con- tinued translating and editing the journals of nineteenth- century Russian explorers in southwest Alaska. A major advance in the storage of anthropological materials was achieved with the reorganization and renovation of the Pacific Research Laboratory, a facility with some 35,000 objects from Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia, Indonesia/Malaysia, and Madagascar. The project, initiated in 1981, was made possible by a $168,800 grant from the National Science Foundation. Codirectors of the project were Phillip Lewis and Phyllis Rabineau, custodian of collections. Staff members who worked on the project were Kathleen Christon, Christine Taterka Gross, E.B. O'Malley, Beth Koenen-Seelbach, Maryanne Schoch, and Col. Millard Rada. Volunteer Llois Stein also contributed invaluably to the project. Before reorganization, the Pacific Research Lab was equipped with 10,525 sq. ft. of shelving, an insufficient amount to properly accommodate the collection. During the grant-funded reorganization project, shelf area was increased by almost 70 percent. Three thousand sq. ft. of new shelving were purchased, and this was supple- mented with 4,000 sq. ft. of used shelving already on hand. Lighting throughout the storage area was im- proved by adding new fluorescent fixtures and installing ultraviolet filters. All objects in the prl were cleaned and their storage arrangement was shifted to a rational arrangement based on provenience data. In addition to the tasks funded by the nsf grant, several other improvements were carried out with museum resources: Interior walls of the storage area were painted; the concrete floor was sealed; the work area just outside the storage area of prl was redesigned to be used for processing accessions and loans, and as research space; the climate control system in prl was retrofitted to ensure an absolutely stable temperature and humidity (70°Fand 50% rh). The techniques used to stabilize climate control in prl will be used to help redesign other heating and airconditioning systems in the building. D 12 w Plants of the World Hall, viewed from the lounge. COLLECTIONS and RESEARCH: The work of the Department of Botany falls into several categories. The research activities of 1983-84 are best expressed by the published research of staff members (see page 31 ). The five staff curators in Botany cov- ered a wide range of research interests. William Burger continued his work on the Flora of Costa Rica project with a study of the Lauraceae family This family includes the avocado and sassafras and many important tropical timber trees, but is also marked by a very poorly devel- oped system of classification. Michael Dillon continued his work in the sunflower family (Compositae), especially those in Peru, where more than 1,400 species are found. He also began a major study of the lomas formations, unusual "islands of vegetation" within the deserts of Peru's arid Pacific coast. John Engel continued his work on liverworts (Hepaticae) of the southern end of the world, especially Tasmania and New Zealand. He continued his revision of several large and difficult groups well represented in this area as part of this pro- ject. Timothy Plowman's interest focused on the origin, history, and ethnobotany of the coca plant, as well as the taxonomy of the coca family (Erythroxylaceae). Another important research interest was the ethnobotany of the upper Amazon Basin, and Dr Plowman worked together with several anthropologists to produce documented treatments of how plants are used in this area. Patricio Ponce de Leon continued his studies in the puffball and earth stars fungi (Gastermycetes) and aided physicians in the identification of mushrooms in cases of suspected poisoning. Botany was fortunate in having a number of visiting assistant curators working in the department during the 1 983-84 biennium. Kerry Barringer worked on the Flora of Costa Rica program; he prepared a treatment of the snapdragon family (Scrophulariaceae) and, with a colleague, a listing of Costa Rica's 1,130 species of orchids. Sylvia Feuer-Forster worked on her own pollen- study research in the mistletoes (Loranthaceae) and related families. Michael Huft participated in the Flora Mesoamericana project of the Missouri Botanical Gar- den, but he was stationed at Field Museum because of its very strong holdings from Central America. Michael Nee worked with the Flora of Veracruz, Mexico, program and collected intensively in the area of the flora. Closely related to research as well as to the Museum's collecting programs are the expeditions and field work. These usually are planned well in advance and are part of long-term projects. However with the unusual E/ /V/no weather perturbation of 1982-83, the coastal deserts of Peru burst into full flower and Michael Dillon initiated a series of three collecting trips (see "The Silver Lining of a Very Dark Cloud," by Dillon in the March 1 985 Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin). Timothy Plowman participated in two important expeditions: the western Amazon of Brazil and to the Cerro de la Neblina in southernmost Venezuela. In addition, he visited sev- BOTANY eral other areas of Brazil to gather rarely collected species. John Engel spent five months collecting and working with colleagues in New Zealand's South Island and in Tasmania. Ourvisiting curators did field work in Veracruz and Chiapas, Mexico, and in Costa Rica during 1983 and 1984. A major category of work in Botany deals with the collections themselves and our loan program. We sent 53,1 66 specimens out on loan for study during 1983 and 1 984. This loan program makes our material available to scholars all over the world. In this same period we took in about 42,000 specimens through expeditions, ex- changes, gifts and purchases. Many of the new collec- tions were not identified and require the efforts of our staff or outside specialists to identify. This work, together with providing loans, mounting of speciments, and main- tenance of collections, required the full-time effort of more than six staff members. Care of our 2.2 million plant specimens and the addition of high-quality new material were central responsibilities for the Museum's botanists. In September 1983 the Museum reopened its largest botanical exhibit, "Plants of the World." Used as a staging area for the "King Tut" exhibit of 1977 and having suf- fered minor damage during the building renovation, the hall was in need of a major face-lifting. Generous contri- butions from the Field Foundation of Illinois and the Women's Board made possible a reorganization of the hall and the reinstallation of nearly all the exhibits. Warm incandescent lights'were provided to highlight the plant models against a natural wood background. Color photo- graphs, diagrams, and a uniform format of easily read explanatory labels complement the life-like models. These models, more than 400 in number, were built in the Museum's plant reproduction laboratory (no longer in operation) over a period of sixty years and are notable for their natural appearance. The collection includes many tropical and economically important plants, providing a richly aesthetic experience as well as fulfilling an impor- tant educational role. D 13 Scott Lldgard (left) and Lance Grande were Field Museum 's new curators in 1983-84. Lidgard, wtio joined the Geology staff as assistant curator of Fossil Invertebrates in October 1984, is investigating evolutionary patterns ofgrowtti and form in fossil animal colonies. Grande, who arrived in October 1983, is particularly interested in the relationships and comparative osteology of fossil teleost fishes. As assistant curator of Fossil Fishes, he oversees one of the world's finest collections of such material. 14 COLLECTIONS and RESEARCH: GEOLOGY The Department of Geology appointed two new staff members during the 1983-84 biennium. Published research addressed a broad spectrum of geological problems (see page 32) in the fields of paleontology, petrology, and meteoritics. Growth of the departmental collections continued in all areas but was especially strong in fossil fishes, mineralogy and fossil plants. In the sphere of public programs, Edward Olsen was heavily in- volved in the planning and design of the new Gem Hall. Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany. Scott Lidgard joined the staff from Johns Hopkins University in October 1984, as assistant curator, Fossil Invertebrates. He initiated several projects on the fossil history of .changing patterns of growth and form in animal colonies. Matthew Nitecki continued his research on the evolution, morphology and systematics of Lower Paleozoic problematic fossils and algae. He was co- organizer of the Third International Congress on Fossil Algae, and in conjunction with his research he spent six months during 1984 as an exchange scholar in the USSR, supported by the U.S. and Soviet Academies of Scien- ces. With the support of the National Science Founda- tion, Nitecki also continued to organize the Field Museum Spring Systematics Symposia, which dealt with the topics of Extinctions and The Evolution of Behavior dur- ing 1984 and 1985. Peter Crane completed studies of fossil plants from southern England and western North America that provided the first detailed information on several widespread and ecologically important early Ter- tiary species. He also continued his work (with D. L. Dil- cher) on the morphology systematics, and biology of some of the most ancient angiosperm flowers currently known. In May 1984 Crane was awarded the Bicentenary Medal of the Linnean Society of London in recognition of his paleobotanical work. Vertebrate Paleontology. John Bolt continued his research on Upper Paleozoic and Triassic reptiles and amphibians, with field work in Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma. Studies of the origin of frogs, and patterns of jaw growth and tooth replacement in fossil amphibians and reptiles were completed, and new projects on larval amphibians from the Pennsylvanian "Mazon Creek" fauna were initiated. Lance Grande joined the staff in October 1983 from the American Museum of Natural His- tory as assistant curator. Fossil Fishes. His research interests focus on the systematics and biogeography of Mesozoic to Recent fossil fishes, particularly the rela- tionships and comparative osteology of fossil and Recent herring and herring-like fishes. Grande's 1984 field sea- son in the Green River Formation of Wyoming substanti- ally enhanced the fossil fish collections at Field Museum with numerous spectacular specimens. William Turnbull carried out field work on Eocene mammalian faunas in the Washakie Basin of Wyoming. He is currently studying the rodent Protoptychus and (with Research Associate Kubet Luchterhand) the primates from the Washakie fauna. Turnbull also continued his research on the func- tional morphology of the mammalian masticatory appar- atus and ear region. During 1984 he visited the Museum of Victoria (Australia) to complete several aspects of his work (with Research Associate Ernest Lundelius, Jr., Uni- versity of Texas, Austin) on Tertiary and Pleistocene- Holocene fossil faunas in Australia. Meteoritics, Mineralogy and Petrology. Edward Olsen continued his research in various aspects of meteoritics, and with George McGhee of Rutgers Univer- sity completed an initial study aimed at testing the hypothesis of asteroid impact in the Late Devonian. Collaborative research continued with colleagues at Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Chi- cago, and several projects were completed dealing par- ticularly with carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites. Bertram Woodland continued studies on the origin of rock cleavage and mineral fabric development in very low-grade metamorphic rocks, and completed work on the growth and shape modifications of chlorite por- phyroblasts relating to cleavage in mudstone and con- cretions. These studies have now been extended to include biotite and chlorite porphyroblasts in slates from upper Michigan. D The outstanding work of Peter Crane, assistant curator of Paleobotany. was widely recognized. He received in 1984 ttie British Paleontological Association 's annual award for the best paper given by a research work- er under the age of 30. Later he received the Bicentenary Medal of the Linnean Society of London — an annual award to an outstanding biologist under the age of 40. In 1983 he was named co-editor of the distinguished journal Paleobiology. Crane joined the Field fvluseum staff in 1982. S 15 Field Museum has a long tradition of hosting visiting scientists who wish to draw upon the Museum's vast collection resources and research facilities. Mr Yang Datong (left), curator of Herpetology at Kunming Institute of Zoology, the People's Republic of China, spent several months studying the taxonomy of the frog genus Amolops. Jack Fooden (right), a research associate in Zoology since 1969 and professor emeritus of Zoology at Chicago State University, continues his work at Field Museum on the evolution and biology of the Asian monkey genus Macaca (macaques), on which he is a world authority 16 COLLECTIONS and RESEARCH: ZOOLOGY The Department of Zoology, the largest of the Museum's four curatorial departments, consists of six divisions: Amphibians and Reptiles, Birds, Fishes, Insects, Inverte- brates, and Mammals, staffed by twelve curators, six collection managers, and support personnel in various technical and nontechnical positions. The range of their research activities was reflected in the publication of more than 60 papers and monographs during the 1 983- 84 biennium (see pp. 33-35). Amphibians and Reptiles. Harold Voris studied sea snake populations in Malaya. He also studied aspects of the biology of sea snakes and developed procedures for marking the live snakes, thus solving a major problem in ecological studies of this group. With Research Associ- ate William Jeffries and Mrs. Yang Chang Man, Voris also worked on the growth and life history of two barnacle species that occur symbiotically with the crab Scylla serrata. Robert F. Inger continued an ecological analysis of frogs of southern India. He also completed a key to the frogs of Sarawak and studies on paternal care in a Sarawak frog species. Hymen Marx completed (with Research Associate Eric Lombard) studies of a highly variable skull bone in the feeding apparatus of snakes. Alan Resetar worked on revision of two genera of African snakes. Research Associate Sharon Emerson did re- search on the biomechanics and development of frog pectoral girdle morphology — work supported by a Na- tional Science Foundation grant. Birds. John Fitzpatrick completed a checklist of birds and mammals of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Manu National Park, Peru. The list is the most complete inventory of these fauna for an Amazonian locality ever published. Fitzpatrick continued (with Research Associ- ate G. E. Woolfenden of the University of South Florida) life history and demography studies of the Florida scrub jay Their book. The Florida Scrub Jay, was published late in 1984. Fitzpatrick also completed (with Jurgen Haffer of West Germany) analysis of geographic variation of cer- tain Amazonian bird species. This was the first use of computer-generated "trend surface" maps to illustrate regional patterns of variation across the Amazon basin. David Willard continued to study mensural characteris- tics of spring versus winter migrants salvaged from the Chicago area. With J. Fitzpatrick he also studied winter distribution of birds in the western Great Lakes region. Willard and Research Associate Joel Cracraft con- tributed to a survey of Venezuela's Cerro de la Neblina. This highly publicized project is producing the first thorough scientific collection from this isolated massif. Fishes. Robert Johnson continued studies on the shore fishes of Belize and Honduras in Central America. He organized two collecting expeditions to Isia Roatan off the north coast of Honduras. In 10 years of collecting in Belize and Honduras he and colleagues have amas- sed the largest and most diverse (by habitat and by spe- cies) collection of Caribbean fishes from Central Amer- ica. Johnson was an invited speaker and contributed 3 papers in the international symposium, "Ontogeny and the Systematics of Fishes," held in La Jolla, California. He was elected and is serving as managing editor of Copeia, the scientific journal of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. The work of Donald J. Stewart focused on neotropical freshwater fishes. His 1983 collecting expedition to Amazonian Ecuador yielded (together with materials from a similar expedition in 1981) the single most comprehensive set of fish sam- ples ever taken in the Upper Amazon, covering nearly all available habitats between altitudes of 200 and 2,500 meters. Insects. Research focused on the systematics and evolution of staphylinid beetles and of soil and parasitic mites. John J. Kethley completed a study of relationships among harpypalpine mites, which are parasitic on birds. Larry Watrous continued study of the systematics and evolution of certain staphylinid beetles and worked with James S. Ashe on studies of descriptive features of im- mature staphylinids. Ashe continued work on mushroom- inhabiting staphylinids, including studies of the evolu- tionary relationships between structure and food-plant preference in these beetles. Invertebrates. Alan Solem completed 20 years of research with publication of a 336 quarto-page mono- graph, Endodontoid Land Snails from Pacific Islands. Part II. Families Punctidae and Charopidae, Zoogeogra- ptiy, which includes descriptions of 19 new genera and 50 new species; carried out extensive fieldwork in central and northwestern Australia, collecting about 20,000 specimens of land snails; published 500 pages of technical reports on Australian camaenid land snails; organized and chaired in September 1 983 a three-day symposium in Budapest, Hungary that resulted in a 1 91 -page volume, World-wide Snails: Biogeographical Studies on Non-marine l^ollusca, published by E. J. Brill, Leiden, in late 1984. Mammals. Bruce Patterson, whose work focuses on morphological and genetic variation in mammals, conducted detailed studies of mammal populations along altitudinal transects of rain forest habitats in Chile and surveyed the fauna on six islands in the Chilean Archipelago. This work resulted in the discovery of a new mammal species and a valuable data base for addi- tional studies. Robert Timm, whose work focuses on the ecology and systematics of Neotropical bats and on host-parasite coevolution, made a mammal survey in Amazonian Ecuador This work included studies of tent- making bats, and a survey and report on the endangered Amazonian manatee. 17 FlEliMNA RELDIANA Geology Zoology „l i^ Sabgeam Akodmi .-..,. J tisidael in SoBthem Sooth Aawric* '.].,■'[ ■,- riptioD ot» New Speci« 18 Zbigniew T. Jastrzebski, senior scientific illustrator. Scientific Support Services, was the senior member of a team of four artists who provided a wide variety of illustrations for the scientific departments. THE MAMWUAN FMOU Of rA»T Vt MAOKKCODAt KiKmcmut nN0iL un^mMAm mUMMD TV«NtuU Fieldiana. Field Museum's research journal published since 1895, underwent a change of format in 1984. The new format left, and the old format right. SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT SERVICES, FIELDIANA The Department of Scientific Support Services (former- ly the Advanced Technology Laboratories) had a busy tDienniunn. Rechristened in recognition of the expanded services it provides, the department was responsible for the scientific computer, the scanning electron micro- scope, and scientific illustration, as well as the histologic- al and biochemical laboratories. Major initiatives during the last two years included: full-fledged collection com- puterization efforts by several scientific departments; development of short-term and long-term plans for future computerization; expanded laboratory facilities for the scanning electron microscope; continued production of highest-quality scientific illustrations for publications by the Museum's curatorial staff; acquisition of photostat copier and label generator, enlarging the scope of illustration services; refurbishment of the histological laboratory; coordination of long-term plans for the biochemical labs. The range and quality of these essen- tial services are reflected in the quality and number of scientific articles published by the Museum's scientific staff (pp. 30-35). D Fieldiana, Field Museum's research journal, underwent a change in format in July, 1 984, increasing in page size from 6x9 inches to 7 x 10 inches, and changing in page design from one column to two. Of the 1 8 titles published during the biennium (Anthropology 1, Botany 5, Geology 2, Zoology 10), three appeared in the new format. Timothy C. Plowman, associate curator of Botany and former chairman of the Publications Committee, suc- ceeded John R. Bolt as scientific editor. James W. VanStone, curator of North American archaeology and ethnology, was named assistant scientific editor. TanisseR. Bezin, managing editor of F\e\(i\ar[a. 19 A school teacher and students enjoy exhibit-viewing in field trip portion of the program "Student/Teacher Internship in a Cultural Institution, " or STtci STici is the Education Department's program of workshops and field trips designed to train Chicago teachers in the special object-based skills needed to teach effectively in museums. The two-year program was funded by the Joyce Foundation. 20 EDUCATION The Programs Offered by the Department of Education are as diverse as the many publics that are served. Field Museum provides a unique learning environment with its rich resource of real objects. The visitor may contemplate the meanings of these treasures at leisure or actively par- ticipate in a program or series of programs that builds on a special interest and/or personal experience. Museum "education" is interpretive and interactive. It is designed to lead the visitor to explore and discover the mysteries of the earth and its inhabitants at specific points in time together with the implications for the future. During 1983-84, the Museum hosted 9,041 school classes with 400,000 students and their teachers. Of these, 6,582 classes received special programs designed to aug- ment their classroom studies. In addition, 3,246 teachers borrowed over 8,500 items from the department's free loan center, Harris Extension. Over 4,500 adult learners enrolled in 207 multi-session courses, and 4,222 visited 117 eco- logically important sites during Kroc field trips. Over 244,000 parents and children shared the delight of touch- ing and exploring shells, meteorites, birds, and beaver among many other objects in the Place for Wonder, and 104,000 experienced what life was like in the 1850s in the Pawnee Earth Lodge. Each weekend, visitors received a "Passport to Discovery," listing the events for the day when they entered the Museum. Free programs included the Chi- na Festival, Najwa Dance performance, paper-making, Japanese Tea Ceremony Dinosaur Days, Caribbean Con- nection, Gospel Choir, and the Darlene Blackburn Dancers. Theatre programs included Peking Opera, Ravi Shankar, Renowned composer- musician Ravi Shankar performed to capacity au- diences on November 16 and 17, 1984, in James Simpson Tlieatre. The Shankar performances were among many by lead- ing singers, dancers, puppeteers, musicians, and opera groups offered by the Education Depart- ment during the biennium. Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre, John Paling lecturer, and the Anthropology Film Festivals. Summer and Winter Fun — ^two- hour workshops — attracted over 3,700 children, who par- ticipated in everything from making masks or clay pots, and bug-hunting to spending a night in the Field. In total, 11,516 programs were presented to 759,725 individuals. Much of this would not have been possible without our 150 volunteers who assist and teach with the staff. Another 150 volunteers work in the scientific collec- tions, public relations, development, and so forth. Together, this volunteer support equalled 77,821 hours, or 42.75 man- years of work. In financial terms, this contribution was over $500,000. But even more important — volunteers bring a fresh perspective and the public's viewpoint to our work, and their enthusiasm bolsters our spirit. Outside support for the education program continued from other sources: a two-year extension by the Joyce Foundation for Student Teacher Internships 1984-1986; the national program "Museums: Agents for Public Education," W. K. Kellogg Foundation; "Science in Action," University of Illinois — Chicago and the Spensley Fund; "Museology for Gifted High School Students," Chicago Board of Education; "Ethnic and Folk Art Museum Survey," Illinois Arts Council; "African Insights: Sources for Afro-American Art and Cul- ture," Illinois Humanities Council; interpretive programs "Treasures from the Shanghai Museum, " National Endow- ment of the Humanities; interpretive programs "Black Folk Art in America 1 930-1 980," National Endowment for the Humanities and the Teacher Preview "Black Folk Art," Atlantic Richfield. D 21 22 EXHIBITION The Halls of Field Museum provided venue for eight temporary, traveling exhibits in 1983-84. "Master Dyers to the World: Early Fabrics from India," made available by the Textile Museum of Washington, opened to the public on January 29 and closed on April 10, 1983. Selected from museums and private collections around the world, the exhibit consisted of more than 100 textile items pro- duced in India betv\/een the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, illustrating India's supremacy in the dyer's art. The Scientific Illustration Exhibit, on view from Febru- ary 14 to April 15 and again from July 15 to December 15 of 1983, was produced by the Field Museum staff. It uti- lized scientific illustrations (mostly by Field Museum staff illustrators, past and present) to explain the history, tech- niques, and rationale of this special discipline. Approx- imately 40 illustrations in a variety of sizes and rendered in a number of media were displayed. Photographs as well as actual specimens used as subjects were also shown. The show was mounted on individual frames and designed to "rotate" in exhibit areas at times when those spaces were to be othenwise vacant. "Louis Agassiz Fuertes: A Retrospective," organ- ized by the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, was on view April 30 through June 26, 1983. It was the first comprehensive display of works of this American artist, who lived from 1874 to 1927. The exhibit examined Fuertes' historical and stylistic antecedents, traced the particular artistic influences shaping his destinctive style, and analyzed the development of his techni- cal mastery "The Vanishing Race and Other Illusions: A new Look at the Work of Edward Curtis," was on view from May 21 through July 21, 1983. One hundred twenty origi- nal prints from Smithsonian and Library of Congress collections provided insight into photography as doc- umentation vs. photography as art. Many of these previously unpublished photos gave "before" and "after" views of the same image, showing the effects of dark- room manipulation caused by Curtis' attempts to remove evidence of white influence on the Indians from his photos. The exhibit also included about 20 pieces of equipment of the type used by Curtis. "Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 Years of Chinese Art," organized by the Shanghai Museum of the People's Republic of China and by the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, was on public view November 5, 1983, through February 14, 1984. This unique exhibi- tion of 232 objects was selected entirely from the collec- tion of Shanghai's major museum. Spanning the period from Chinese prehistory through the twentieth century the exhibit reflected the varying techniques and styles of Chinese artists in a multitude of forms: sculpture, paint- ing, ceramics, bronzes, and jades. "Eskimo Art and Culture," on view from March 10 through May 27, 1984, consisted of two separate shows: "Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo" and "Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art." The former was circulated by Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (sites), the latter by the Art Gallery of Ontario. The sites exhibit was drawn from the extensive, never-before-exhibited Edward W. Nelson collection at the National Museum of Natural History "Grasp Tight the Old Ways"— about 175 pieces- consisted mostly of works by contemporary artists. "Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980," on view April 14 through July 15, 1984, was circulated by the Corcoran Gallery of Art and consisted of works by twenty sculp- tors, painters, and other graphic artists. Partly concurrent with that show was "African Insights: Sources for Afro- American Art and Culture," on view April 29 through December 31 , and drawn largely from Field Museum's own collection. Guest curator for the exhibit was Richard J. Powell, who provided accompanying lectures. Mr Powell also wrote the text African and Afro-American Art: Call and Response, to accompany the exhibit. A major achievement of the Exhibition Department was the modernization of the Museum's signage system and its installation in 1984 — a radical improvement over the previous system of signs for guiding visitors about the building. The system included directory maps, a handout map, elevator directories, and temporary signs. All components were designed to be easily modified or changed, according to the dictates of future needs. The major permanent installation during the bien- nium was "Plants of the World," in what had formerly been designated Hall 29. The exhibit presents more than 600 species of plants, fossil as well as living. (For more on this installation see page 13.) To improve the effectiveness of exhibit planning, the Controls Division of the Exhibition Department com- puterized the department's financial operation. As a re- sult, it was able to more accurately and rapidly develop exhibit budgets, monitor and control exhibit costs, and produce weekly or — on demand — project reports designed to fit special needs, on the financial status of any project or of the department as a whole. The ability to easily establish encumbered costs as incurred, made it possible to better anticipate deviations from the budget and to take corrective action. It also permitted the de- velopment of special cost analyses tailored to the department's needs. With the inception of a projected ten-year plan, this would enhance planning efficien- cy and make possible the maximum output for expenditures. D Opposite.- Display of polychrome pottery figurines from the Ming dynasty (ad 1368-1644). These, together with 200 other art objects and artifacts were on view November 5. 1983, to February 14, 1984. com- prising the exhibition "Treasures from the Shanghai Museum — 6, 000 Years of Chinese Art. " The exhibit was organized by the Shanghai Museum of the People 's Republic of China and the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Principal funding was by Control Data Corp. , Sargent & Lundy and Consolidated Foods Corp 23 Cjcnuina oipitis c^xoni Uclincatio . OiCv^llnoiJak- tnTiirCi^Uifn, CUM linQua J vcnirivoijalt- inliircaUim. CUM offjarinafutaincarliUJiiicm actincntc. PapiUo IJanwitui JfoU ,^^ Slcrniun cyOni pcrlbratum 24 iuiusAvis insolcns ma^niludo cj^utJuoriini .ioJi.uidmi umtonulum mens fVoslnun rccuniim noiir.i^UiUiiii inori- iv J inAiriraK«.-uitfsJain Cormic fronic ciuscifUr^llNOCCK^TIi cornu non Uiuuniic «a infinc ircuAvm C^Mor msu^xn Jit A iiilmo " f^ ■macniiiiimf jia lulcm ul ma lynw liix.-d tnijr j oMiuit in- (Above left) Original pencil and ink and (below right) watercolor renderings by Christophe Paulin de Fremin- ville: from a collection of 28 original drawings, ttie gift of Albert G. Lowenthal. (Above right) One of 35 engraved plates from Michael Besler's Gazophylacium Rerum Naturalium (Leipzig, 1642), depicting objects in the au- thor's natural history "cabinet": and (left) Polydore Roux, Ornithologie Provencale ('Paris, 1825-1830), with 450 hand-colored plates of the birds of southern France. Both the Besler and the Roux were the gifts of Mr and Mrs. John Runnells. A«y THE LIBRARY In 1983-84, The Library entered a period of self-evaluation, which has already resulted in improved processing routines and in more effective services to Museum staff and public patrons. Over 5,500 monographic volumes and as many volumes of journals were added to the Lib- rary collections through a variety of means, including the international publications exchange program, the U.S. Depository System, gifts and purchases. As in former years, regular acquisition funds were supplemented through endowed acquisition funds given by Louis A. and Frances B. Wagner, Mr. and Mrs. Walter Cherry, and Mrs. Chester Tripp. These funds have continued to strengthen the Library resources that are indispensable to the Museum's scientific research programs. With the end of the biennium, the volumes held in the general, departmental and divisional Libraries totaled 215,000. The Library extends its services to the public as a noncirculating research collection, and during this per- iod more than 2,000 visitors to the public Reading Room made use of over 12,000 volumes. The Library's highly specialized collections continued to be made available to the wider scholarly community through the Interlibrary Loan system, with over 1,400 loans of Library materials made to libraries throughout North America for use by their patrons. The majority of these loans were initiated through oclc (Online Computer Library Center), a computerized bibliographic service center with 5,000 member libraries nationwide. A member of OCic since 1977, the Library has acquired a second oclc terminal which operates both online and offline as a standalone computer. This tool has greatly improved many aspects of library processing and has enabled staff to collect and analyze large amounts of data, contributing to more effective planning and improved services to Museum staff. Among the many gifts received, mention should be made of a collection of chiefly botanical works donated by Mrs. Robert Van Tress of Chicago, and of a copy of William Nelson's limited edition portfolio of color litho- graphs. The Sun Dance, depicting the traditional Sioux ceremonial, donated by Connie G. Westenfelder of Glenview, Illinois. This has been a very active period in the Mary W. Runnells Rare Book Room. Through the continuing sup- port of Trustee and Mrs. John Runnells, several important works have been added to the Rare Book Collections. Of special note are three illustrated bird books that Edward E. Ayer, Field Museum's first president, was unable to ac- quire in the course of building his magnificent ornitholo- gical library: Captain Thomas Brown's Illustrations of the Genera of Birds (London, 1845-46); B. L. Du Bus de Gisignies, Esquisses Ornithologiques (Brussels, 1845-48); and Polydore Roux, Ornithologie Provengale (Paris, 1825-30). Another acquisition was the rare and beautiful Gazophylacium Rerum Naturalium of Michael Besler, printed in Leipzig in 1642. Bound in gold-stamped vel- lum, this work consists of 35 exquisitely engraved illustra- tions of objects held in Besler's private natural history collection. This copy, printed on unusual fine blue paper, with remarkably fresh and clear impressions from the en- graved plates, may well be a proof copy or at the very least one of the first copies to be printed from the plates (see illustration). In recognition of the importance of the Rare Book Collections, the Runnells have also supported the restoration program for these materials. Two signifi- cant works have been completely restored: Pierre Belon, UHistoire de la Nature des Oyseaux (Paris, 1555), the first illustrated ornithological treatise; and Rosel von Rosenhof, Historia Naturalis Ranarum Nostratium (Nurn- berg, 1758), containing richly hand-colored illustrations of the anatomy and life cycles of frogs. Another important addition to the Rare Book Room was a collection of 28 unpublished original zoological drawings and watercolors by Christophe Paulin de Frem- inville, an early nineteenth-century French naturalist. Fre- minville's drawings blend precise detail with artistic sub- tlety and, had they been published, would have brought him renown as one of the finest natural history illustrators of his time. Apparently lost during his lifetime, his works were only recently rediscovered. Purchase of this collec- tion of Freminville originals was made possible by a generous donation from Mr. Albert G. Lowenthal of New York. D 26 William Grim6. manager of the Systematic Botanical Collec- tion, with the intriguing, instructive display he created as a Members' Night exhibit — "Legends of Luxury: Botanical Cosmetics " (detail belowl In the uniqueness of the learning experience offered. Grim&s remarkable exhibit was typical of many created for the annual occasion by Museum staff THE WOMEN'S BOARD, TOURS, MEMBERSHIP Founded in 1966 by the late Ellen Thorne (Mrs. Hermon Dunlap) Smith, the Women's Board continues its tradi- tion of leadership, support, and involvement at Field Museum. At the close of 1 984, three Women's Board members were serving on the Board of Trustees, fifteen on committees of that group, and many more as volun- teers in various Museum departments. Susan Vanden- Bosch served as Women's Board coordinator. Mrs. T. Stanton Armour, a dedicated and inspired president, completed her term of office at the 1 984 Women's Board annual meeting and was ably suc- ceeded by Mrs. Philip D. Block III, who continues to bring creative and dynamic leadership to the office. The Women's Board sponsored a number of major programs during these two years. In March 1 983, Mrs. Byron C. Karzas and Mrs. Edward F. Swift were co- chairmen of the Botany Ball and Botany Day — a formal dinner dance and a day of special botanic lectures — to raise funds for the renovation of the magnificent per- manent exhibit, "Plants of the World. " These activities and other Women's Board fund-raising projects enabled the Board to successfully meet its goal of $300,000 in sup- port of the renovation of the Hall to match a contribution from the Field Foundation of Illinois, in memory of its for- mer chairman, the late Hermon Dunlap Smith. In Septem- ber 1983, Museum trustees, staff, and special guests joined the Women's Board in welcoming members of the Smith family in celebration of the opening of the newly renovated hall. In November 1983, Women's Board member Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith served as chairman of a gala preview dinner to recognize the opening of the travelling exhibit "Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 Years of Chinese Art." Over 600 guests attended the pre- view event. In December 1983 and 1984, the Women's Board sponsored the popular annual holiday gathering, "A Family Christmas Tea at Field Museum." Festive decor, special entertainment and activities, and music of the holiday season combined for an enjoyable family outing. D Field Museum Tours, under the direction of Dorothy S. Roder, offered itineraries involving each of the Museum's four scientific disciplines during 1983-84. These natural history tours went both years to Egypt, the People's Re- public of China, Kenya, and to the Grand Canyon. In addition, tours were offered to Alaska, Baja California, southern England, Peru and Bolivia, New Providence and Andros Islands, to the Lesser Antilles aboard the sailing ship "Sea Cloud," and to the Isia Roatan for a trop- ical marine biology exploration. Baraboo, Wisconsin was featured as a weekend trip, and in 1984 our first tour for Founders' Council members was offered — a trip to north- ern Michigan. All tours were led by scientists, most of them curators in the Field Museum departments of Anthropology, Botany Geology, and Zoology. D During the 1983-84 Biennium, the Membership Depart- ment encouraged Members to actively participate in ex- hibit previews and in the annual Members' Night. The reinstallation of the South Information booth, staffed by Membership representatives, encouraged current and prospective Members to take part in the "Treasures of the Shanghai Museum" Members' preview, on November 4, 1983. The event drew 3,593 viewers. March 9, 1984, was the date of the "Inua: Eskimo Art and Culture" Members' preview. The 1,500 participating Members and guests took part in igloo-building, mask- making, and telling tall tales at the Northwest Coast totem poles. Members' Night for 1984, coordinated by the Membership Department, fell on October 12. For five hours, more than 5,000 visitors enjoyed special exhibits, activities, and entertainment throughout the Museum, with access to the research and preparation areas that are customarily not accessible to visitors. D Field Museum of natural history Financial Activity For the year ended December 31 , 1984 Admissions 6.0% Membership 2.7% 'Museum Store, food service, special events Revenues Capital Improvements 5.0% Development 3.0% Public Affairs 5.2% Expenses 28 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Balance Sheet December 31, 1984 Board Designated 1984 1983 Unrestricted Funds Restricted Funds Endowment Funds Combined Total Combined Total Assets Cash $ 588,304 $ $ $ 588,304 $ 446,841 Marketable Securities 9,453,251 — - 9,453,251 7,332,842 Accounts Receivable 378,209 333,899 - 712,108 930,620 Museum Store Inventory 479,442 - — 479,442 402,215 Prepaid Expenses 10,840 - - 10,840 19,255 Deferred Charges 40,436 - - 40,436 55,644 Investments - - 42,181,448 42,181,448 45,593,700 Collections 1 - - 1 1 Museum Property $ 7,136,866 $18,087,349 - - $ 7,136,866 $60,602,696 $ 7,136,866 Total Assets $ 333,899 $42,181,448 $61,917,984 Liabilities and Fund Balances Accounts Payable $ 705,412 $ $ $ 705,412 $ 552,509 Accrued Liabilities 294,91 7 - - 294,917 285,236 Accrued Pension Contribution 165,496 — - 165,496 202,810 Deferred Revenue Contributions 75,000 — - 75,000 - Pension Gain 213,057 — — 213,057 158,234 Restricted Contributions — 5,790,401 - 5,790,401 - Other 58,887 30,238 - 89,125 153,485 Due to (from) Other Funds $ 7,710,922 $ 9,223,691 $(6,930,047) $(1,109,408) $ (780,875) $ (780,875) - - Total Liabilities $ 7,333,408 $ 1,352,274 Museum Property Fund Balance $ 7,136,867 $ $ $ 7,136,867 $ 7,136,867 Fund Balance 1,726,791 1,443,307 42,962,323 46,132,421 53,428,843 $ 8,863,658 $ 1,443,307 $ 42,962,323 $53,269,288 $60,565,710 Total Fund Balance $18,087,349 $ 333,899 $42,181,448 $60,602,696 $61,917,984 STAFF PUBLICATIONS DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY Bronson. Bennet 1983. (with K. Smith and K. Petersen) Using Remote CP/M Computer Systems. Microsystems July . pp. 5-9. (with W. Rostoker, J. Dvorak, and G. Shen) Casting farm imple- ments, comparable tools and hardware in Ancient China. World Archaeology ]5{2):196-2]0. 1984. (with I. Glover) Archaelogical Radiocarbon Dates from Indonesia: A First List. Indonesia Circle 34:37-44. (with W. Rostoker and J. Dvorak) The Cast Iron Bells of China. Technology and Culture 25(4):750-67. (with W. Rostoker and J. Dvorak) Studies on an Ancient Chinese Object with a Bronze Coating. Journal of Historical Metallurgy Society ^a{2). 89-94. (with P. Charoenwongsa) Sites of the Highest Possible Priority: Tar- gets for Archaeological Research in Thailand. SPAFA Digest 5(2):9-11 (Bangkok). (with I. Glover) A List of Southeast Asian Radiocarbon Dates, Part I: Indonesia. SPAFA Digest, 5(2):26-29. Feldman, Robert A. 1983. El Nino: Recent Effects in Peru. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 54{8):^6-^8. El Nino Strikes Again. El Chasqui (Journal of the Peruvian Arts Society Chicago), July pp. 4 & 14. From Maritime Chiefdom to Agricultural State in Formative Coastal Peru . In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey eds. Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata, pp. 289-31 0. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, (with C. R. Ortloff and Michael E. Moseley) The Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal: Social Explanations and Physical Paradigms. American Antiquity 48(2):375-389. (with Michael E. Moseley) The Northern Andes. In Ancient South Americans, ed. Jesse D. Jennings, pp. 139-178. San Francisco Freeman and Company (with Michael E. Moseley) Hydrological Dynamics and the Evolu- tion of Field Form and Use: Resolving the Knapp-Smith Con- troversy American Antiquity 49(2):403-408. (with Michael E. Moseley, Charles R. Ortloff, and Alfredo Narvaez) Principles of Agrarian Collapse in the Cordillera, Negra, Peru. Annals of Carnegie Museum 52(13):299-327. 1984. (with Michael E. Moseley) Vivir con crisis: percepcion humana de proceso y tiempo. Revista del Museo Nacional (Lima) 46:267-287. Kolata, Alan 1983. (ed., with Richard M. Leventhal) Civilization in the Ancient Amer- icas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Chan Chan and Cuzco: On the Nature of the Ancient Andean City In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey eds. Richard M. Leventhal and Alan L. Kolata. pp. 345- 371 . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. The South Andes. \n Ancient South Americans, ed. Jesse D.Jen- nings, pp. 240-285. San Francisco: Freeman and Company Lewis. Phillip 1984. (with Phyllis Rabineau) A New Look for the Pacific Research Lab. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin. October 1984. pp. 6-9. Moseley. Michael E. 1983. Desert Empire and Art: Chimor, Chimu, and Chancay \ri Art of the Andes. Pre-Columbian Sculpted and Painted Ceramics from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections, ed. L. Katz, pp. 78-85. Washington D.C.: the Arthur M. Sackler Foundation. Patterns of Settlement and Preservation in the Viru and Moche Val- leys. In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns, Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey eds. E.S. Vogt and R. M. Leventhal, pp. 423-442. Albu- querque: University of New Mexico Press. 3Q (with C. R. Ortloff and R. A. Feldman) The Chicama-Moche Inter- valley Canal: Social Explanations and Physical Paradigms. Amer- ican Antiquity 48(2):375-3a9. Central Andean Civilization. In Ancient South Americans, ed. Jesse D. Jennings, pp. 179-239. San Francisco: Freeman and Company (with Robert A. Feldman) The Northern Andes. In Ancient South Americans, ed. Jesse D. Jennings, pp. 139-178. San Francisco: Freeman and Company The Good Old Days Were Better: Agrarian Collapse and Tectonics. American Anthropologist 85(4):773-799. (with Robert A. Feldman) Hydrological Dynamics and the Evolu- tion of Field Form and Use: Resolving the Knapp-Smith Con- troversy American Antiquity A9{2):A03-408. (with Robert A. Feldman. Charles R. Ortloff. and Alfredo Narvaez) Principles of Agrarian Collapse in the Cordillera Negra. Peru. Annals of Carnegie Museum 52(13):299-327. 1984. (with Robert A. Feldman) Vivir con crisis: percepcion humana de proceso y tiempo. Revista del Museo Nacional (Lima) 46:267-286. Rabineau. Phyllis 1984. (with Phillip Lewis) A New Look for the Pacific Research Lab. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, October 1984, pp. 6-9. VanStone. James 1983. The Simms Collection of Plains Cree Material Culture from South- eastern Saskatchewan. Fieldiana: Anthropology, new series, no. 6. 57 pp. Athapaskan Indian Clothing in the Collections of Field Museum." Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, vol. 54. no. 4. pp. 22-27. (ed., with H. N. Michael) Cultures of the Bering Sea Region: Pap- ers from an International Symposium. New York: International Research and Exchange Board. Ethnohistorical Research in Alaska: A Review, In Cultures of the Bering Sea Region: Papers from an International Symposium, ed., H.N. Michael and James VanStone, pp. 289-31 0. New York: Inter- national Research and Exchanges Board, (with H. B. Collins, and D. J. Ray) Artifacts. In Grasp Tight the Old Ways: Selections from the Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art, ed . Jean Blodgett. pp. 253-264. Art Gallery of Toronto. Sealskin Bags of Unusual Construction from the Bering Strait Region. Field Musuem of Natural History Bulletin, Vol. 55, No. 2, pp. 23-26. Eskimo/lnuit Culture Change: An Historical Perspective. In Arctic Life: Challenge to Survive, ed. M. M. Jacobs and J. B. Richardson, pp. 133-147 Carnegie Museum of Natural History Pittsburgh. 1984. Protective Hide Body Armor of the Historic Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos. Etudes/lnuit/Studies 7(2):3, 24. Market Art from Northeastern Asia: A Nineteenth Century Siberian Souvenir Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, April 1984, pp. 19-21. William Duncan Strong and the Rawson-MacMillan Subarctic Ex- pedition of 1927-28. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Sept. 1984. pp. 5-10. Exploration and Contact History of Western Alaska. In Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 5. Arctic, pp. 149-160. Introduction of Southwest Alaska Eskimo: Introduction in Hand- book of North American Indians, vol. 5, Arctic, pp. 205-208. Mainland Southwest Alaska Eskimo. In Handbook of North Amer- ican Indians, vol. 5, Arctic, pp. 224-242. STAFF PUBLICATIONS DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY Barringer. Kerry A. 1983 Family No. 59, Aristolochiaceae In: W. C. Burger, Ed., Flora Costar- icensis, Fieldiana: Botany, N.S. No. 13, pp. 79-87. The identity of Gomara racemosa R. & P. Taxon 32(4): 627-629. Monopera, a new genus of Scrophulariaceae from South America. Bn/ton;a 35(2): 111-114. Notes on Central American Aristolochiaceae. Brittonia 35(2): 171-174. Polygala dukei (Polygalaceae), a new species from Panama. Ann. Mo. Bot Gard 70(1): 203-204. 1984. Aa (Orchidaceae) in Costa Rica. Phytologid 55(6): 443-446. Cubitanthus. a new genus of Gesneriaceae from Brazil. J. Arnold Arboretum 65: 145-147. Seed morphology and the classification of the Scrophulariaceae. Abstract. Amer. J. Bot. 71(5), Part2: 156. Burger William C. 1 983. AInus acuminata, Piper auritum, and Ouercus costaricensis In: D. H. Janzen, Ed., Costa Rican Natural History, pp. 188-189, 304- 305,318-319. Families 54-58, 62-70, 58 (with J. Kuijt), and 70 (with R. Baker), In: Flora Costaricensis. Fieldiana: Botany, N.S. No. 13, pp. 1-78, 99-255. Flora of Panama: a milestone in neotropical floristics. Taxon 32; 515-516. Plants that lie and cheat (well, almost). Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 54(2): 22-25. Dillon, Michael O. 1983. A new species of Bidens (Heliantheae-Asteraceae) from Guate- mala. Phyto/og/a 54(4): 225-228. (with Beverly Serrell). The botanical world in replica. The story of Field Museum's astonishing collection of plant models. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 54(8): 5-10. 1984. A systematic study of Flourensia (Asteraceae, Heliantheae). Field- iana: Botany N.S. No. 16, pp. 1-67. A new combination of Ambrosia (Heliantheae-Asteraceae). Phyto- tog/a 56(5): 337-338. Two new species of Vernonia (Asteraceae: Vernonieae) from Peru. Brittonia 36(4): 333-336. Engel, John J. 1982. (with R. M. Schuster). Austral Hepaticae XVI. Gondwanalandlc Leptoscyphoideae (Geocalycaceae). LindbergiaS: 65-74. (not in- cluded in previous biennial report) 1983. Austral Hepaticae XV. Brevianthaceae: A monotypic family ende- mic to Tasmania. Bryologist 85: 375-388. (with R.M. Schuster). Austral Hepaticae XVIII. Studies toward a revision of Telaranea Subg. Neolepidozia (Lepidoziaceae). Field- iana: Botany, N.S. No. 14, pp. 1-7. 1984. Botanical exploration and collection of bryophytes in southern Chile. National Geographic Researcf} Reports\lo\. 16: 239-244. (with R. M. Schuster). An overview and evaluation of the genera of Geocalycaceae Subfamily Lophocoleoideae (Hepaticae). Nova Hedwigia 39: 385-463. Review of Karen S. Renzaglia, A comparative developmental in- vestigation of the gametophyte generation in the Metzgeriales (Hepatophyta). Bryophytorum Bibliotheca24: i-x, 1-253. Cramer, 1982. Bryologist 87: 93-95. Index Hepaticarum Supplementum: 1978-1979. Taxon 33:761-779. Feuer Sylvia M. 1983. (with C. Niezgoda and L. I. Nevling, Jr). Pollen ultrastructure of the tribe Ingeae (Mimosoideae: Legumiriosae). Amer. J. Bot. 70: 650-667. 1984. (with P. Crane). Pollen ultrastructure and evolution in the Betula- ceae. Abstract. International Palynological Conference Abstracts. Calgary, Alberta, Canada. HUFT, Michael J. 1983. The identity of Cunuria casiquiarensis (Euphorbiaceae) and a range extension. Phytologia 53: 449-450. 1 984. A new combination in Dalechiampia (Euphorbiaceae). Ann. Mis- souri Bot. Gard. 71:341. Nee. Michael 1 983. Flora de Veracruz #21 . Casuarinaceae. 6 pp. 1984. Flora de Veracruz #34. Salicaceae. 24 pp. Niezgoda. Christine 1983. (Sylvia Feuer and Lorin I. Nevling, Jr). Pollen ultrastructure of the tribe Ingeae (Mimosoideae: Leguminosae). Amer J. Bot. 70: 650-667. Plowman. Timothy 1982. (Not reported in previous biennial report.) (with M. J. Balick and L. Rivier). The effects of field preservation on alkaloid content in fresh coca leaves (Eryttiroxylum spp.) Journal of Etfinopharmacology^: 287-291. Three new species of Eryttiroxylum (Erythroxylaceae) from Vene- zuela. Srifton/a 34(4): 442-457. 1 983. Collecting in the Upper Amazon. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 54(3): 8-^3. (with L. Rivier). Cocaine and cinnamoylocaine content of thirty-one species of Eryttiroxylum (Erythroxylaceae). Annals of Botany (Lon- don) 51 (5): 641-659. (with M.J. Balick and L. Rivier). The effects of field presen/ation on alkaloid content in fresh coca leaves (Eryttiroxylum spp.) Re- printed in: Atti del II Seminario Internazionale suite Piante Medici- nali ed Aromatiche. Communita Montana. Citta de Castello. pp. 81-86. New species of Eryttiroxylum from Brazil and Venezuela. Bot. Mus. Leaf I., Harvard Univ. 29(3): 279-290. Erythroxylaceae. In: S. A. Mori, B. M. Boom, A. M. de Carvalho and T S. dos Santos. Southern Bahian moist forests. Bot. Rev. 49: 214-215. (with P. Rury). Morphological studies of archeological and recent coca leaves (Eryttiroxylum spp.) Bot. Mus. Leafi, Harvard Univ. 29(4): 297-341. 1 984. The ethnobotany of coca (Eryttiroxylum spp. , Erythroxylaceae) In: G. T Prance and J. A. Kallunki, Eds. Etfinobotany in ttie neotro- pics. New York Botanical Garden. Bronx, NY. pp. 62-111. (with W. Vickers). Useful plants of the Siona and Secoya Indians of eastern Ecuador Fieldiana: Botany, N.S. No. 15: 1-63. The origin, evolution and diffusion of coca (Eryttiroxylum spp.) in South and Central America. In: D. Stone, Ed., Precolumbian Plant Migration. Papers of tfie Peabody Museum of Arctiaeology and Ettinology 76: 125-163. Stolze. Robert G. 1983. (with Benjamin 0llgaard and R. James Hickey). Ferns and fern allies of Guatemala. Part III. Marsileaceae, Salviniaceae, and the fern allies (including a comprehensive index to Parts 1,11, and III). Fieldiana: Botany N.S. No. 12. pp. 1-91. 1984. Problems in Asplenium. with some new species from Ecuador. American Fern Journal 74(2): 40-50. Two new tree ferns from Panama. American Fern Journal 74(4): 101-104. 31 STAFF PUBLICATIONS DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY Bolt John R. 1 983. (with R. E. Lombard) Evolution of thie amphibian tympanic ear and the origin of frogs. BlologicalJournal of the Linnean Society 11:19-76. (with R. DeMar) Simultaneous tooth replacement in Euryodus and Card/ocepha/us (Amphibia: tvlicrosauria). Journal of Paleontology 57:911-923. 1984. (with A. RicqISs) Jaw growth and tooth replacement in Captor- filnus aguti (Reptilia: Captorhinomorpha): a morphological and histological analysis. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 3(1 ):7-24 Bryant. Martha 1 984. (with Peter R. Crane) Fossil Plant Collections at the Field Museum. Field ivluseum of Natural History Bulletin, vol. 55(4):5-10, 24-25. Crane. Peter R. 1 983. (with S. R. Manchester) Attached leaves, inflorescences and fruits of Fagopsis, an extinct genus of fagaceous affinity from the Florris- sant Flora of Colorado, U.S.A. American Journal of Botany vol. 70:1147-1164. (with R. A. Stockey) In situ Cercidiphiyllum-Wke seedlings from the Paleocene of Alberta, Canada. American Journal of Botany, vol. 70:1564-1568. The earliest plants on land. Field l^useum of Natural History Bulle- tin, vol. 54 (9):20-25. The inside story on fossil plants. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, vol. 54(10):10-12,18-19. 1 984. Misplaced pessimism and misguided optimism: a reply to Mab- berley Taxon, vol. 33:79-82. (with D. L. Dilcher) Lesqueria: an early angiosperm fruiting axis from the mid-Cretaceous. Annals of the H/lissouri Botanical Gar- den, vo\. 7 ^ -.384-402. (with D. L. Dilcher) Archaeanthus: an early angiosperm from the Cenomanian of the western interior of North America. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 71 :351 -383. A re-evaluation of Cercidiphyllum-Wke plant fossils from the British Lower Tertiary. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society vol. 89:199-230. (with D. L. Dilcher) In pursuit of the first flower. Natural History, vol. 93(3):56-61. (with M. S. Bryant) Fossil plant collections at the Field Museum. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, vol. 55(4):5-10, 24-25. Grande, R. LjAnce, 1 984. The Paleontology of the Green River Formation with a Review of the Fish Fauna, 2nd Edition. Geological Survey Wyoming Bulletin, 63:1-333. NiTECKi. Matthew H. 1 983. Coevolution. University of Chicago Press, 392 pp. (editor). Third International Symposium of Fossil Algae. Lethaia. 16(1 ):50. (with D. C. Fisher) Status and Composition of Archaeata. 3rd Inter- national Symposium of Fossil Algae. Colorado School of Mines, p. 21. Life History of a Fossil. Paleogr. Paleoclimatol.. Paleoecol., 43: 357-358. 1984. Extinctions. University of Chicago Press, 354 pp. (editor). Fossils: the key to the past. Jour Geoi, 92:351 . Genetic takeover. Earth-Sci. Rev.. 20:177-179. (with S. Rietschel) Ordovician receptaculitid algae from Burma. Palaeontology 27:415-420. Precambrian and Paleozoic Algal Carbonates. Jour Geo!.. 92:492. Olsen. Edward J. 1983. (with G. J. MacPherson, M. Bar-Matthews, T Tanaka, and L. Grossman) Refractory Inclusions in the Murchison Meteohte. Geo- chimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 47, pp. 823-839. (with P. S. Sipiera, D. Eatough, and B. D. Dod) Summary of Several Recent Chondrite Finds from the Texas Panhandle. Meteoritics, Vol. 18, pp. 63-75. (with R. Clayton, T Mayeda, and M. Prinz) Oxygen Isotope Rela- tionships in Iron Meteorites. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 65, pp. 229-232. Si02-bearings Chondrules in the Murchison (C2) Meteorite. In Chondrules and Their Origins, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, TX, pp. 223-234. (with R. Clayton, N. Onuma, Y. Ikeda, T Mayeda, I. Hutcheon, and C. Molini-Velsko) Oxygen Isotopic Compositions of Chondrules in Allende In Chondrules and Their Origins, Lunar and Planetary In- stitute, Houston, TX, 37-43. Thinsections: A Natural Art Form. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Vol. 54, No. 4, pp. 19-21. 1984: 1985: The Year of the Gemstone. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Vol. 55. No. 11, p. 3. (with G. R. McGhee, Jr, J. S. Gilmore, and C. J Orth) No Geo- chemical Evidence for an Asteroidal Impact at Late Devonian Mass Extinction Horizon. Nature, Vol 308, pp. 629-631. (with T Bunch) Equilibration Temperatures of the Ordinary Chon- drites: A New Evaluation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 48, pp. 1,363-1,365. Review of Proceedings of the Eigth Symposium on Antarctic Meteorites (T Nagata, ed), in Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol.48, p 2,773. TuRNBULL, William D. 1984. Cenozoic Fossil Vertebrate Search: Australian Pilbara and Can- ning Basin areas. National Geographic Society Research Reports 1 7:883-888. (with Walter Segall) The Ear Region of the Marsupial Sabretooth, Thylacosmilus. Journal of Morphology yo\. 181, No. 3, 239-270. (with E. L. Lundelius) The Mammalian Fauna of the Madura Cave, Western Australia Part IV. Fieldiana: Geology U.S. No. 14: i-ix, 1-63. Woodland. Bertram G. 1983 Fabric of the Clastic Component of Carboniferous Concretions and Their Enclosing Matrix in Part 3 of Atlantic Coast Basins, Paleogeography and Paleotectonics, Sedimentology and Geo- chemistry (eds. Belt, E S and Macqueen, R.W.). Compte Rendu Ninth International Congress on Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Geo/ogy Vol. 3: 694-701. (with R. M. Coveney and R. Zangerl) Metalliferous Shales of the Illinois Basin. Geol. Soc. of America Field Trips in Midwestern Geology Vol. 2. (eds R H. Shaver and J. Sunderman), 147-171. 32 STAFF PUBLICATIONS DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY Ashe, James S. 1984, Generic revision of the subtribe Gyrophaenina (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Aleocharinae) with a review of described sub- genera and major features of evolution. Questiones Entomologi- cae 20: 129-349, Description of the larva and pupa of Scaphisoma terminata Melsh. and the larva of Scaphium castanipes Kirby (Scaphidiidae) with notes on their natural history Coleoptehsts Bull., 38(4): 361-373. (with L.E. Watrous) Larval Chaetotaxy of Aleocharinae (Staphylini- dae) based on a description of Atheta coriaria Kr Coleoptehsts So//. 38(2): 165-179. FiTZPATRiCK. John W. 1983. (with W.E. Lanyon) Behavior, morphology and systematic position of S/rystes s/tw/ator (Tyrannidae). Au/c100:98-104. Tropical Kingbird, Tyrannus melancholicus. In Janzen, D. (ed.), Costa Rican Natural History, pp. 611-613. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (with N. Pierpont) Specific status and behavior of Cymbilaimus sanctaemahae, an antshrike from southwestern Amazonia. Auk 100: 645-652. (with G.E Woolfenden) Staying Around the Nest. 1984 Science Year. Worldbook Childcraft Inc., Chicago, pp. 13-25, frontispiece 1984. (with J.W. Terborgh and L. Emmons) Annotated checklist of bird and mammal species of Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Manu National Park, Peru. Fieldiana: Zoology New Series, no. 21:1-29. (with G.E. Woolfenden) The Florida Scrub Jay: Demography of a Cooperative-breeding Bird, xiv x 410 pp., Mongr Pop. Biol. No. 20, Princeton University Press. (with G.E. Woolfenden) The helpful shall inherit the scrub. Natural History 93:55-63. (with R. Kiltie) Reproduction and social organization of the Black- capped Donacobius (Donacobius atricapillus) in Amazonian Peru. /Au/< 101:804-811. Gritis, PaulA, 1983, (with R.F. Inger) Variation in Bornean frogs of the Amolops jerboa species group with descriptions of two new species. Fieldiana: Zoology (N.S.), no. 19, 13 pp. Hershkovitz, Philip 1983, The staggered marsupial lower third incisor (I3). Geobios, Memoire Special, 6:191-200. Two new species of night monkeys, genus Aotus (Cebidae, Platy- rrhini): A preliminary report on Aotus taxonomy Amer. Jour Prima- toiogy 4:209-243. 1984 On the validity of the family group-name Callitrichidae (Platyrrhini, Primates). Mammalia, 48(1): 153. Taxonomy of squirrel monkeys genus Saimiri (Cebidae, Platyrrhi- ni): A preliminary report with description of a hitherto unnamed form. Amer Jour Primatology 7(2): 151 -210. lyiore on the Homunculus Dpm4 and ml and comparisons with Aiouatta and Stirtonia (Primates, Platyrrhini, Cebidae). Amer Jour Primatology 7(3):261-283. Inger, Robert R 1983, l^orphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards (genus Draco). Fieldiana: Zoology (N,S.), No, 18, 35 pp. Larvae of Southeast Asian species of Leptobrachium and Lepto- brachella (Anura: Pelobatidae). Advances in Herpetology and Evolutionary Biology pp. 13-32. (with Paul Gritis) Variation in Bornean frogs of the Amolops jerboa species group with descriptions of two new species. Fieldiana: Zoology (N.S.), no. 19, 13 pp. 1984. (with Hymen Marx and Mammen Koshy) An undescribed species of gekkonid lizard (Cnemaspis) from India with comments on the status of C. tropidogaster Herpetologica, Vol. 40:149-154. IzoR. Robert J. 1983. (with J. Fooden) Grovrth cun/es, dental emergence norms, and supplemental morphological observations in known-age captive Orangutans. Amer Jour Primatology 5(4):285-301 . 1 984. (with T. J. McCarthy) Heteromys gaumeri (Rodentia: Hetero- myidae) in the Northern Plain of Belize. Mammalia, 48(3):465-467. Johnson, Robert K, 1 983. (with David W. Greenfield) Clingfishes (Gobiesocidae) from Belize and Honduras, Central America, with a redescription of Gobiesox barbatuius Starks. Northeast Gulf Science, 6(1 ):33-49. (with Ross M. Feltes) A new species of Vinciguerria from the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba with Comments on the Depauperacy of the Red Sea Mesopelagic Fish Fauna. Fieldiana: Zoology New Series, no. 22, vi -I- 35 pp. Ontogeny and systematics of the Evermannellidae, the saber- toothed fishes, pp. 250-254, in: Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes — A Symposium Held in Memory of E. H. Ahlstrom, La Jolla CA, August, 1983. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. Ontogeny and systematics of the Scopelarchidae, the pearl-eyed fishes, pp. 245-250, in: Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes — A Symposium Held in Memory of E. H. Ahlstrom, La Jolla CA, Au- gust, 1 983. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. Ontogeny and systematics of the Giganturidae, p. 199-201 , in: Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes — A Symposium Held in Memory of E. H. Ahlstrom, La Jolla CA, August, 1983. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, Kethley, John B. 1 983. Modifications of the deutonymph of Uropodella laciniata Berlese, 1888, for phoretic dispersal (Acari: Parasitiformes). J. Ga. En- tomol.Soc. 18(2): 151 -155. The deutonymph of Epiphis rarior Berlese, 1916 (Epiphidinae n. subfam., Rhodacaridae, Rhodacaroidea). J. Can. Zool. 61(11):2,598-2,611. (with W.T. Atyeo and T.M. Perez) Paedomorphosis in Metacheyletia (Acari: Cheyletidae), with the description of a new species. J. Med. Entomol. 21(2):125-131 Marx. Hymen S. 1983. (with Charles A. Reed) Lung disorder not necessarily respon- sible for non-swimming behavior in aquatic turtles Copeia, 1 983: 571-573. 1984, (with Robert F Inger and Mammen Koshy) An undescribed spe- cies of gekkonid lizard {Cnemaspis) from India with comments on the status of C, tropidogaster Herpetologica, Vol. 40: 1 49-1 54. Patterson. Bruce D. 1983. Baculum-body size relationships as evidence for a selective continuum on bacular morphology. Jour of Mammalogy, 64(3): 496-499 Grasshopper mandibles and the niche variation hypothesis. Evolution, 37(2):375-388. On the phyletic weight of mensural cranial characters in chip- munks and their allies (Rodentia: Sciuridae). Fieldiana: Zoology (New Series), 20:1-24. The Joumal of Wilfred Osgood: The Marshall Field Chilean Expedi- tion of 1922-23. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, 54(2): 8-11,28-33. 1 984. Mammalian extinction and biogeography in the Southern Rocky Mountains, pp. 247-293 In Nitecki, M H. (ed). Extinctions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 354 pp. Correlation between mandibular morphology and specific diet of some desert grassland Acrididae (Orthoptera). American Midland Naturalist, 111(2):296-303. Geographic variation and taxonomy of Colorado and Hop! chip- munks (Genus Eutamias). Jour of Mammalogy 65(3):442-456. (with M.H. Gallardo and K.E. Freas) Systematics of mice of the subgenus Al^odon in southern South America, with the description 33 of a new species. Fieldiana: Zoology (New Series), 65(3): 1 -1 6. 34 Charles M. Johnson (left) and Chirkina I. Chirklna, members of the Security and Visitor Services staff, over- see the coming and going of all materials at the ship- ping dock: traveling exhibits, provisions, and mail. John P. Harris, fossil preparator Department of Geology, gently guides into position one of the largest known bones in the world of science: the femur of a Brach- iosaurus. The 675-pound bone was discovered by the late Elmer S Riggs. former Field l^useum paleontolog- ist, in Colorado, in 1900. fvluch of Harris's work involves the restoration and cleaning of fossil material, as well as the fabrication of copies of bones that are exact to the finest detail. STAFF PUBLICATIONS SCHAFFER, H. Bradley 1 983. Biosystematlcs of Ambystoma rosaceum and A. tighnum in north- western Mexico. Copeia, 1983(1):67-78. Review of Metamorphosis: A Problem in developmental biology. (Gilbert and Frleden, eds.) Herpetologica, 39(3):311-313. SOLEM, G. Alan 1 983. Endodontoid Land Snails from Pacific Islands (Mollusca: Pulmo- nata: Sigmurethra). Part II. Families Punctidae and Charopidae. Zoogeography Field Museum Press, Cfiicago, 336 pp. First Record of Amphidromus from Australia, withi Anatomical Notes on Several Species (Mollusca: Pulmonata: Camaenidae). Rec. Aust. Mas.. 35:153-166. Lost or Kept Internal Whorls: Ordinal Differences in Land Snails. J. Moll. Studies. Suppl. 12A: 172-1 78. 1984. Small Land Snails from Northern Australia. III. Species of Helico- discidae and Charopidae. J. Malac. Soc. Aust., 6(3-4):155-179. Camaenid Land Snails from Western and central Australia (Mollus- ca: Pulmonata: Camaenidae). IV. Taxa from the Kimberley, Wes- traltrachia Iredale, 1933 and Related Genera. Rec. West. Aust. Mas., Suppl. no. 17:427-705. (with Carl C. Christensen) Camaenid Land Snail Reproductive Cycle and Growth Patterns in Semi-Arid Areas of Northwestern Australia. Aust. J. Zooi, 32(4):471-491 . (with Simon Tillier and Peter B. Mordan) Pseudo-operculate Pul- monate Land Snails from New Caledonia. The Veliger, 27(2): 193- 199. (with AC. van Bruggen) Preface in World-wide Snails: Biogeog- raphical studies on non-marine Mollusca, Alan Solem and AC. van Bruggen (eds.), E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp. vii-ix. Introduction in World-wide Snails: Biogeographical studies on non- marine Mollusca, Alan Solem and AC. van Bruggen (eds.) E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp. 1-5 A World Model of Land Snail Diversity and Abundance in World- wide Snails: Biogeographical studies on non-marine Mollusca, Alan Solem and A.C. van Bruggen (eds.), E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp. 6-22. Simultaneous Character Convergence and Divergence in Western Australian Land Snails Biol. J. Linnean Soc. London, 23:(21 printed pages). Stewart, Donald J. 1983 (with R.M. Bailey) Bagrus Bosc, 1816 (Pisces, Siluriformes): pro- posal to place on the official list. Z.N. (S.) 2371 Bull. ofZool. Nomenclature, 40(3):167-172. (with E.K. Balon) Fish assemblages in a river with unusual gradient (Luongo, Africa-Zaire system), reflections on river zonation, and description of another new species. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 9(3/4): 225-252. (with D. Weininger, D.V. Rottiers, and T.A. Edsall) An energetics model for lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush. Application to the Lake Michigan system. Can. Jour Fish. Aquat. Sci., 40(6):681-698. 1984 (with T. R. Roberts) A new species of dwarf cichlid fish with re- versed sexual dichromatism from Lac Mai-nadombe, Zaire. Cope/a, 1984(1 ):82-86. (with R. M. Bailey) Bagrid catfishes from Lake Tanganyika, with a key and descriptions of new taxa. Misc. Pub. Mus. Zooi, Univ. Mich. 168:1-410. Review of Man, Fishes, and the Amazon, by Nigel J. H. Smith (1981). F/sA7er/es, 9(5):44. TiMM. Robert M. 1983 (with D.D. Baird and G.E. Nordquist) Reproduction in the arctic shrew, Sorex arcticus. Jour of Mammalogy, 64(2):298-301. (with L.R. Heaney) Relationships of pocket gophers of the genus Geomys from the Central and Northern Great Plains. Misc. Pub., Museum of Natural History University of Kansas, 74:1-59. (with L.R. Heaney) Systematics and distribution of shrews of the genus Crocidura (Mammalia: Insectivora) in Vietnam. Proc. of the Biol. Soc. of Washington, 96(1): 11 5-1 20. Fahrenholz's Rule and Resource Tracking: a study of host-parasite coevolution. Pp. 225-265, in Coevolution {M.H. Nitecki, ed.). Uni- versity of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1984 (with B.L. Clausen) Ferrets, p. 78. In The World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 7. Tent construction by Vampyressa in Costa Rica. Jour of Mamma- fogy 65(1): 166-1 67. Traylor. Melvin a., Jr. 1 983 (with A.L. Archer) Some Results of the Field Museum 1977 Expedi- tion to South Sudan. Scopus 6(1 ):5-12. (with J. V. Remsen, Jr.) Additions to the Avifauna of Bolivia, Part 2. Condo/- 85:95-98. (with L. Stephens) Ornithological Gazetteer of Peru. Harvard Uni- versity Cambridge, vi -i- 273 pp. VoRis, Harold K. 1983 (with H.H. Voris) Feeding strategies in marine snakes: an analysis of evolutionary, morphological, behavioral and ecological rela- tionships./Amer: Zoo/., 23:411-425. (with W.B. Jeffries) Some aspects of the distribution, size and re- production of the pedunculate barnacle, Octolasmis mulleri (Coker, 1902) on the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus (Rathbun, 1896). Fieldiana: Zoology (N.S.), no. 16, 10 pp. Pelamis platurus (Culebra del Mar, Pelagic Sea Snake) in Costa Rican Natural History, ed. D. H. Janzen, pp. 411-412. 1984 (with H.H. Vons and W.B Jeffries) Sea Snakes: Mark-Release- Recapture. Malayan Naturalist. 38(1):24-27. (with W.B. Jeffries and CM. Yang) Diversity and distribution of the pedunculate barnacle Octolasmis epizoic on the scyllarid lobster, Thenus orientalis (Lund, 1973). Crusfaceana 46(3):300-308. Watrous. Larry E. 1984 (with J.S Ashe) Larval Chaetotaxy of Aleocharinae (Staphylinidae) based on a description of Atheta coriaria Kr Coleopterists Bulletin, 38(2): 165-1 79. Wenzel, Rupert L. 1 984 Two name changes for Neotropical Streblidae (Diptera). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 86(3):647. SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT SERVICES Jastrzebskl Zbigniew T. 1984. Technique of making fish illustration, introduction, parts land II. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1 1 (1 ): 1 5-20. Dr W. Junk Publish- ers, The Hague, The Netherlands. Technique of making fish illustration, parts III and IV. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1 1 (4):276, 300. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. 35 BOARD OF TRUSTEES, December 31, 1384 BOARD OF TRUSTEES Mrs.T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert 0. Bass Gordon Bent Bowen Blair Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L. Boyd Frank William Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F Mullin Charles F Murphy Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin I. Nevling, Jr James J. O'Connor Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom Johns. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz William G.Swartchild.Jr* Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E, Leiand Webber Julian B. Wilkins* Blaine J. Yarrington LIFE TRUSTEES Harry 0. Bercher William McCormick Blair* Joseph N. Field Paul W. Goodrich* Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John M. Simpson* J. Howard Wood *Deceasecl OFFICERS James J. O'Connor, Board Chairman Frank William Considine, Vice Chairman Richard M. Jones, Vice Chairman James H. Ransom, Vice Chairman William L. Searle, Vice Chairman Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken, Vice Chairman Blaine J. Yarrington, Treasurer Johns. Runnells, Secretary Willard L.Boyd, President Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., Director Executive Committee James J. O'Connor, Board Chairman Frank William Considine, Vice Chairman Richard M. Jones, Vice Chairman James H. Ransom, Vice Chairman William L. Searle, Wee Chairman Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken, Vice Chairman Blaine J. Yarrington, Treasurer John S. Runnells, Secretary Willard L. Boyd, President Staff Liaison: Williard L. Boyd Vice Chairman — Program Planning & Evaluation Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken Program Planning & Evaluation Committee Mrs. T Stanton Armour Stanton R. Cook Hugo J. Melvoin William L. Searle Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta Mrs. John H. Leslie Theodore Van Zelst Staff Liaison: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr Wee Chairman— Facilities Planning Frank William Considine Facilities Planning Committee Harry O. Bercher William R. Dickinson, Jr. Charles F Murphy Jr Johns. Runnells Mrs. Walter L. Cherry Mrs. Stanton R, Cook Mrs. Corwith Hamill Mrs Wood-Prince Staff Liaison: J. W. Crott Wee Chairman — Internal Affairs William L. Searle Internal Affairs Committee Mrs. Philip D. Block III William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Hugo J. Melvoin David Rewick Mrs. Edward F Swift Staff Liaison: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. J. W. Croft Arlene Kiel Chairman — Retirement Subcommittee of the Internal Affairs Committee Hugo J. Melvoin Retirement Subcommittee of the Internal Affairs Committee George R. Baker William R. Dickinson, Jr Staff Liaison: J. W. Croft Chairman — A udit Subcommittee of the Internal Affairs Committee Hugo J. Melvoin Audit Subcommittee of the Internal Affairs Committee Mrs. Philip D. Block III David Rewick Staff Liaison: J. W. Croft Treasurer — Investment Committee Blaine J. Yarrington Investment Committee George R. Baker Frank William Considine Richard M.Jones William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz E. Leiand Webber Staff Liaison: J. W. Croft Chairman — Nominating Committee Marshall Field Nominating Committee Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Gordon Bent E. Leiand Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Staff Liaison: Willard L. Boyd Vice Chairman — Resource Planning & Development Richard M. Jones Resource Planning & Development Committee Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Bowen Blair Marshall Field Mrs. Vernon Armour Mrs. Hammond E. Chaffetz Mrs. Byron C. Karzas John C. Meeker Staff Liaison: Thomas R. Sanders Wee Chairman — Public Affairs James H. Ransom Public Affairs Committee Charles F Murphy, Jr Blaine J. Yarrington Mrs. Michael A. Bilandic Howard E. Johnson Mrs. Frank D. Mayer Mrs. Nevrton N. Minow James Riley Staff Liaison: Willard L, Boyd 36 WOMEN'S BOARD Mrs. Keene H. Addington Mrs. Edward King Aldworth Mrs. Richard I. Allen Mrs. James W. Alsdorf Mrs AngeloR. Arena Mrs. A. Watson Armour III Mrs. Laurance H. Armour, Jr Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Mrs. Vernon Armour Mrs. Edwin N. Asmann Mrs. Thomas G. Ayers Mrs. George R. Baker Mrs. Claude A. Barnett Mrs. Roberto. Bass Mrs. George R. Beach Mrs. James H. Becker Mrs. Edward H. Bennett, Jr Mrs. B. Edward Bensinger Mrs. Gordon Bent Mrs. Richard Bentley Mrs. Harry 0. Bercher Mrs. Michael A. Bilandic Mrs. Harrington Bischof Mrs. Bowen Blair Mrs. Frank W.BIatchtord III Mrs. Joseph L. Block Mrs. Philip D. Block, Jr Mrs. Philip D. Block III Mrs. Edwin R. Blomquist Mrs. Arthur S. Bowes Mrs. Willard L. Boyd Mrs. Lester Harris Brill Mrs. Robert E. Brooker Mrs. Cameron Brown Mrs. Isidore Brown Mrs. Jennifer Martin Brown Mrs. Roger O. Brown Mrs. Evelyn M. Bryant Mrs. I von Donop Buddington Mrs. Robert A. Carr Mrs. Robert Wells Carton Mrs. Hammond E. Chaffetz Mrs. Henry! Chandler Miss Nora F. Chandler Mrs. Walter L. Cherry Mrs. John Coale Mrs. J. Nothhelfer Connor Mrs. Frank W. Considine Mrs. Stanton R. Cook Mrs. Edward A. Cooper Mrs. James R. Coulter Mrs. William S. Covington Mrs. Mark Crane Mrs. Sandra K. Crown Mrs. Robert Lane Cruikshank Mrs. Herschel H. Cudd Mrs. Leonard S. Davidow Mrs. Orval C. Davis Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta Mrs. Emmett Dedmon Mrs. Robert 0. Delaney Mrs. Charles S. DeLong Mrs. Charles Dennehy Mrs. Edison Dick Mrs. William R. Dickinson, Jr Mrs. Stewarts. Dixon Mrs. Wesley M. Dixon Mrs. Gaylord Donnelley Mrs. Thomas E. Donnelley II Mrs. Maurice F Dunne, Jr. Mrs. Robert C. Edwards Mrs. R. Winfield Ellis Mrs. Marjorie H. Elting Mrs. Victor Elting III Mrs. Winston Elting Mrs. Gordon R. Ewing Mrs. Thomas J. Eyerman Mrs. Ralph Falk Mrs. Suzanne Clarke Falk Mrs. Calvin Fentress Mrs. Robert C. Ferris Mrs. Joseph N. Field Mrs. Marshall Field Mrs. Charles Robert Foltz Mrs. Peter B. Foreman Mrs. Francis G. Foster, Jr Mrs. Hubert D. Fox Mrs. Earl J. Frederick Mrs. Gaylord A. Freeman Mrs. William D. Frost Mrs. James C. E. Fuller Mrs. Maurice F Fulton Mrs. John S. Garvin Mrs. John S. Gates Mrs. Robert H. Gayner Mrs. IsakV. Gerson Mrs. Gerald S. Gidwitz Mrs. James J. Glasser Mrs. Julian R. Goldsmith Mrs. Paul W. Goodrich Mrs. David W. Grainger Mrs. Donald C. Greaves Mrs. Roger Griffin Mrs. Robert C. Gunness Mrs. Robert P. Gwinn Mrs. Burton W. Hales Mrs. Corwith Hamill Mrs. Charles L. Hardy Mrs. Frederick Charles Hecht Mrs. Ben W. Heineman Mrs. William A. Hewitt Mrs. Stacy H.Hill Mrs. Edward Hines Mrs. John H. Hobart Mrs. Richard H. Hobbs Mrs. Thomas D. Hodgkins Mrs. Thomas J. Hoffmann Miss Frances Hooper Mrs. Janice S. Hunt Mrs. Chauncey Keep Hutchins Mrs. Robert C. Hyndman Mrs. Stanley O. Ikenberry Mrs. Robert S. Ingersoll Mrs. Samuel InsutI, Jr Mrs. Frederick G. Jaicks Mrs. Richard M. Jones Mrs. John B. Judkins, Jr Mrs. Byron C. Karzas Mrs. Walter A. Krafft Mrs. Bertram D. Kribben Mrs. Gordon Leadbetter Mrs. John H. Leslie Mrs. John Woodworth Leslie Mrs. Edward H. Levi Mrs. Michael S. Lewis Mrs. Chapin Litten Mrs. Albert E. M. Louer Mrs. Donald G. Lubin Mrs. Franklin J. Lunding Mrs. Walter M. Mack Mrs. John W Madigan Mrs. James F Magin Mrs. Robert H. Malott Mrs. Philip C. Manker Mrs. Richard Marcus Mrs. David Mayer Mrs. Frank D. Mayer Mrs. Frank D. Mayer, Jr. Mrs. Franklin B. McCarty, Jr Mrs. Brooks McCormick Mrs. George Barr McCutcheon I Mrs. Eugene J. McVoy Mrs. John C. Meeker Mrs. Henry W. Meers Mrs. Hugo J. Melvoin Mrs. J. Roscoe Miller Mrs. Newton N. Minow Mrs. William H. Mitchell Mrs. Kenneth F Montgomery Mrs. Evan G. Moore Mrs. Graham J. Morgan Mrs. Arthur T Moulding Mrs. Aidan I. Mullett Mrs. Leo F. Mullin Mrs. Elita Mailers Murphy Mrs. Patricia S. Murphy Mrs. Charles Fenger Nadler Mrs. Charles Fenger Nadler, Jr Mrs. Earl L. Neal Mrs. Edward FNeild III Mrs. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr Mrs. John D. Nichols Mrs. Arthur C. Nielsen Miss Lucille Ann Nunes Mrs. John Nuveen Mrs. James J. O'Connor Mrs. Ralph Thomas O'Neil Mrs. Richard C. Oughton Mrs. Donald W. Patterson Mrs. O. Macrae Patterson Mrs. R. Marlin Perkins Mrs. Seth Low Pierrepont Mrs. Charles S. Potter Mrs. Frederick Childs Pullman Mrs. Howard C. Reeder Mrs. Robert W. Reneker Mrs. Peter A. Repenning Mrs. Don H. Reuben Mrs. Joseph E. Rich Mrs. T. Clifford Rodman Mrs. Frederick Roe Mrs. Edward M. Roob Mrs. Samuel R. Rosenthal Mrs. John S. Runpells Mrs. Patrick G. Ryan Mrs. George W. Ryerson Dr Muriel S. Savage Mrs. Arthur W. Schultz Mrs. William L. Searle Mrs. C. William Sidwell Mrs. John R. Siragusa Mrs. Gerald A. Sivage Mrs. Edward Byron Smith Mrs. Edward Byron Smith, Jr Mrs. Gordon H. Smith Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith Mrs. Lyie M. Spencer Mrs. Gatzert Spiegel Mrs. Jack C. Staehle Mrs, E. Norman Staub Mrs. Gardner H. Stern Mrs. Adiai E. Stevenson III Mrs. Robert E. Straus Mrs. William S. Street Mrs. Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Walter A. StuhrJr Mrs. Barry F Sullivan Mrs. John W. Sullivan Mrs. William P Sutter Mrs. James Swartchild Mrs. William G. Swartchild, Jr Mrs. Edward F Swift Mrs. Hampden M. Swift Mrs. Phelps H. Swift Mrs. John W. Taylor, Jr Mrs. John W. Taylor III Mrs. Edward R. Telling Mrs. Richard L. Thomas Mrs. Bruce Thorne Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken Mrs. Melvin A. Traylor, Jr Mrs. Howard J. Trienens Mrs. Chester D. Tripp Mrs. C. Perin Tyler Mrs. Theodore W. Van Zelst Mrs. V L. D. von Schlegell Mrs. C. Armour Ward Mrs. Thomas M. Ware Mrs. Hempstead Washburne, Jr Mrs. E. Leiand Webber Mrs. John Paul Welling Mrs. John L.Welsh III Mrs. Henry P. Wheeler Mrs. Julian B. Wilkins Mrs. Albert W. Williams Mrs. Philip C.Williams Mrs. Norman B. Williamson Mrs. Robert H.Wilson Mrs. Wallace C. Winter Mrs. Arthur W.Woelfle Mrs. Peter Wolkonsky Mrs. J. Howard Wood Mrs. William Wood-Prince Mrs. Frank H. Woods Mrs. Blaine J. Yarrington Mrs. George B. Young 37 THE FOUNDERS' COUNCIL Individuals Mrs. Lester S. Abelson Mr & Mrs James W. Alsdorf Mr & Mrs. Stanley N. Allan Mr & Mrs. Lowell E. Ackmann Mrs. Lester Armour Mr. & Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Mrs. P. Kelly Armour Mr & Mrs. Edwin N. Asmann Mr & Mrs. George R. Baker Mr. George Barr Mr. & Mrs Robert 0. Bass Mr & Mrs. George R Beach Mr. & Mrs. Gordon Bent Mr & Mrs. Harry O Bercher Mr & Mrs. James F. Bere Mr. & Mrs. Edward F. Blettner Mrs. Philip D. Block, Jr Mr. & Mrs. Philip D. Block III Commander* & Mrs. G. E. Boone Mr. & Mrs. .William A. Boone Dr & Mrs. Willard L. Boyd Mrs. Harold S. Brady Mr. & Mrs. Robert E. Brooker Mr & Mrs. Cameron Brown Mr & Mrs. Henry A. Brown Hon. & Mrs. Isidore Brown Ms. Jennifer Martin Brown Mr. & Mrs. Roger O. Brown Mr & Mrs. DeWitt Buchanan Mr & Mrs Donald P. Buchanan Mr. & Mrs. A. C. Bushier, Jr. Mr & Mrs. James E. Burd Mr. & Mrs. Vincent J. Cannella Dr. & Mrs. Robert Wells Carton Mr & Mrs. Hammond E. Chaffetz Mr & Mrs. Jerry Chambers Mr & Mrs. Henry T. Chandler Mr & Mrs. Walter L. Cherry Mrs. Jane Kuppenheimer Coale' Ms. MarciaS. Cohn Mr. & Mrs. Frank W. Considine Mr. & Mrs. Stanton R. Cook Mr. & Mrs William S. Covington Mr. & Mrs. Mark Crane Mr. & Mrs. William F Crawford Mr & Mrs. Irving Crown Mr & Mrs. Lester Crown Mrs. Sandra K. Crown Mr. O. C. Davis Dr & Mrs Edwin J. DeCosta Mr. & Mrs. James A. Delaney Jr. Mr & Mrs Jay Delaney Mr & Mrs Robert O Delaney Mrs. Edison Dick Mrs. Clinton O. Dicken Mr. & Mrs. William R Dickinson, Jr. Mr. & Mrs. Wesley M. Dixon, Jr. Ms. Patricia Dodson Mr & Mrs. Gaylord Donnelley Mr. James R Donnelley Mr & Mrs. Thomas E. Donnelley 11 Mr & Mrs. George Dovenmuehle Mr. & Mrs. R. Winfield Ellis Mrs. MarjorieH Elting Mr & Mrs. Gordon R. Ewing Mr & Mrs. Thomas J Eyerman Mr. & Mrs. Melvin Fakter Mr. & Mrs. Joseph N. Field Mr & Mrs. Marshall Field Mr Charles C. Fitzmorris Mrs. Robert L. Foote Mr. & Mrs Peter B Foreman Mr. & Mrs. Gaylord A. Freeman Mr & Mrs. William M. Freeman Mrs. Edmund W. Froehlich Mr. & Mrs. Maurice F Fulton Mr. & Mrs. Isak V Gerson Mr & Mrs. Gerald S. Gidwitz Mr Joseph L. Gidwitz Dr & Mrs. John G. Graham Mr. & Mrs. David W Grainger Mrs Donald C. Greaves Mr & Mrs. Roger Griffin Mr & Mrs. Paul Guenzel Mr. & Mrs. Robert P Gwinn Mr. Daniel R Haerther Mrs. Burton W Hales Mr & Mrs. Corwith Hamill Mrs. Anna Emery Hanson Mrs. Charles L. Hardy Mrs. William A Hark Mr. & Mrs. D. Foster Harland Mr & Mrs. Robert S. Hartman Mr. Joseph B. Hawkes Mr & Mrs. Laurin H. Healy Mr Charles K. Heath Mr. & Mrs Ben W Heineman Mr. & Mrs Scott Hodes Mr. & Mrs. John J. Hoellen Mr. Carl Holzheimer Mr. George R Hooper Mr & Mrs. H. Earl Hoover Mr & Mrs. Robert C. Hyndman Mr & Mrs. Robert S Ingersoll Mr. & Mrs. Reinhardt Jahn Mrs. Harold James Mr. & Mrs Richard M. Jones Mrs. John B. Judkins Mr. & Mrs Byron C Karzas Dr. Margaret Katzin Mr & Mrs. Robert D Kolar Mr. & Mrs. Gunnar Klarr Mrs. Bertram K. Kribben Mrs. Ray A. Kroc Mr & Mrs. Carl A. Kroch Mr Henry H. Kuehn Mrs. Richard W Leach Mr. & Mrs. Elliot Lehman Mr. & Mrs. John H. Leslie Mrs. John Woodworth Leslie Mr Robert A. Lewis Mrs. Renee Logan Mrs. Albert E. M. Louer Mrs. Robert L Lyon Mr & Mrs. Brooks McCormick Mr. & Mrs. Robert H. Malott Dr. & Mrs. Richard E. Marcus Mrs. Geraldine Martin Mr. & Mrs. Oscar G. Mayer Mrs. Remick McDowell Mr & Mrs. John C. Meeker Mr. & Mrs. Henry W. Meers Dr. & Mrs. Steven Medgyesy Mr. & Mrs. Hugo J. Melvoin Mr & Mrs. Charles A Meyer Mrs. J. Roscoe Miller Mr & Mrs. Newton N. Minow Mr. & Mrs. William H. Mitchell Mr & Mrs. Kenneth Montgomery Mr. Richard M. Morrow Mrs. Arthur T. Moulding Mr & Mrs. LeoMullin Mr. Charles F Murphy Jr Mr. & Mrs Timothy H. Murphy Miss Jeanne E. Murray Colonel & Mrs. John B. Naser Mr. & Mrs. Earl L Neal Mr. & Mrs. Stephen C. Neal Dr. & Mrs. Lorin I Nevling Mr. Bruce L. Newman Mrs. Arthur C. Nielsen Mr. & Mrs Karl F Nygren Mr. & Mrs. James J. O'Connor Mr. Wrigley Offield Mr. & Mrs James Otis, Jr Mr. & Mrs. Donald W. Patterson Mr. & Mrs David D. Peterson Mr. & Mrs Marvin A. Pomerantz Mr. & Mrs Charles S Potter Mr. & Mrs A. N. Pritzker Mr. & Mrs Robert A. Pritzker Mr. James H. Ransom Mr. & Mrs. John Shedd Reed Miss Ruth Regenstein Mr. & Mrs Don H. Reuben Mr. & Mrs Thomas A. Reynolds, Jr. Mr. & Mrs. Leo L Roberg Mrs T Clifford Rodman Mr. & Mrs Mark Rosenberg Mr. & Mrs. Richard M Rosenberg Mr. & Mrs. Andrew Rosenfield Mr. & Mrs. Samuel R. Rosenthal Mrs. Dorothy C. Rowley Mr. & Mrs Arthur Rubloff Mr. & Mrs Charles G Rummel Mr. & Mrs John S. Runnells Mr. & Mrs. Norman J. Schlossman Mrs W. W. Scott Mr Charles E. Schroeder Mr & Mrs Arthur W. Schultz Dr. & Mrs. John S. Schweppe Mr & Mrs. John W. Seabury Mr. & Mrs. William L. Searle Mr. & Mrs. Roger M. Seitz Mr. & Mrs. Henry Shapiro Mr. Jeffrey Shedd Dr Thomas W. Shields Mrs. John M. Simpson Mr & Mrs. Harry I. Skilton Mr & Mrs. Edward Byron Smith Mr & Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith Mr Solomon B. Smith Mrs George T Spensley Mr. & Mrs. Jack C. Staehle Mrs. Donna Wolf Steigerwaldt Mrs. David B. Stern, Jr. Dr & Mrs. David W. Stewart Mrs. Robert E. Straus Mr & Mrs. William S. Street Mr & Mrs. Robert D. Stuart, Jr. Mr & Mrs. Bolton Sullivan Mr & Mrs. John W. Sullivan Mrs James Swartchild Mrs. William G. Swartchild, Jr. Mrs. Phelps Hoyt Swift Mr. & Mrs. John W. Taylor, Jr. Mr. & Mrs. John W. Taylor III Mr. & Mrs. Edward R. Telling Mr. & Mrs. Bruce Thorne Mrs. Jean D. Thorne Mr. & Mrs. Reuben Thorson Mr. & Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken Dr & Mrs. Melvin A. Traylor, Jr Mr. & Mrs George S. Trees, Jr. Mr & Mrs. Howard J. Trienens Mrs. Chester D. Tnpp Mr. & Mrs. Theodore W. Van Zelst Mr. Glen R. Verber Mr & Mrs. Robert E. Vernon Mr & Mrs. Louis A. Wagner Mr & Mrs. Daniel J. Walsh Mr & Mrs. E Leiand Webber Mr & Mrs. Rodenck S. Webster Mr & Mrs. John L.Welsh III Mr & Mrs. Henry P Wheeler Mr Gordon Wildermuth Mr J Humphrey Wilkinson* Ms. Nicole Williams Dr & Mrs. Philip C. Williams Mrs. Benton J. Willner Mr John W. Winn Mr & Mrs. Arthur W. Woelfle Mr & Mrs. J. Howard Wood Mr & Mrs. Herbert N. Woodward Mr & Mrs. Blaine J. Yarrington Mr Richard W. Yeo Mr & Mrs. George B. Young Mrs. Claire Zeisler Honorary Members Their Royal Highnesses The Grand Duke and Duchess of Luxembourg Dr Stephen Jay Gould, Professor of Geology at Harvard University Dr. Donald C. Johanson, Paleoanthropologist at The Institute of Human Origins * Deceased 38 THE FOUNDERS' COUNCIL Corporate Abbott Laboratories Mr Robert A, Schoellhorn, Chairman and CEO Mr Laurence R. Lee, Senior Vice President, Administration Allstate Insurance Company Mr. Donald F. Craib, Jr., Ctiairman of the Board Mr. Larry H. Williford, Vice President, Corporate Relations Amsted Industries, Inc. Mr. O. J. Sopranos, Vice President Mr. Eugene W.Anderson, Jr., Director, Public Affairs & Advertising Arthur Andersen & Co. Mr. Patrick J. Condon, Partner Atlantic Richfield Company Mr. J. Carlton Norris, Manager, Public Affairs Borg-Warner Corporation Mr Clarence E. Johnson, President and CEO Mr Dennis Grant, Retail Advertising Manager Combined International Corporation Mr Patrick G. Ryan, President and CEO Commonwealth Edison Mr James J. O'Connor, Chairman Continental Bank Mr Caren L. Reed, Executive Vice President DeSoto, Inc. Mr J. Barreiro, Vice President, Personnel & Industrial Relations Mr W. L. Lamey Vice President, Finance FMC Corporation Mrs. Robert H. Malott, Corporation Representative Fel-Pro/Mecklenburger Foundation Mr Paul Lehman, President Mr Harold Heft, Vice President First National Bank of Chicago Mr. Leo F Mullin, Executive Vice President Mr. Norman Ross, President, First National Bank Foundation Mr. Patrick T. Rossi, Assistant Vice President Harris Bank Foundation Mr. John L. Stephens, President Mr. H. Kris Ronnow, Secretary/Treasurer Household International, Inc. Mr Edward G. Harshfield, Senior Executive Vice President & COO Mr Norman Ridley, Director of Philanthropic Services Illinois Bell Telephone Company Mr Ormand J. Wade, President and CEO Mr John A. Koten, Vice President, Corporate Communications Interlake, Inc. Mr Harry Henderson, Vice President, Marketing & Public Affairs Kemper Educational and Charitable Fund Mr. Peter Van Cleave, Vice Chairman Mr. Maurice F Thunack, Secretary-Treasurer Kraft, Inc. Mrs. Richard P. Strubel, Vice President, Public Relations McMaster-Carr Supply Company Mr Kevin Kasmar, Comptroller Mr Harry Zoberman, "A" Division Manager, Purchasing Midcon Corporation Mr Thomas E. McGough, Vice President Mr John L. Pelletier, Vice President The Northern Trust Company Mr. Robert F Reusche, Vice Chairman Peat, Manwick & Mitchell & Co. Mr Maurice J. DeWald, Managing Partner Ms. Andrea G. Bonnette, Controller The Quaker Oats Company Mr William D. Smithburg, Chairman and CEO Mr Frank J. Morgan, President and CEO S & C Electric Company Mr John R. Conrad, President Mr John W. Estey, Executive Vice President Santa Fe Southern Pacific Corporation Mr Frank N. Grossman, Vice President, Corporate Communications Mr George D. Scheckel, Director Community Relations Sara Lee Corporation Mr John H. Bryan, Jr., Chairman and CEO Mr. Robert E. Elberson, President and COO Sears Roebuck and Company Mr Gene L. Harmon, Vice President, Corporate Public Affairs Mr William Whitsitt, Director Contributions and Memberships USG Foundation, Inc. Mr Eugene Miller President & Director Mr Stanton Hadley Senior Vice President and Secretary 39 DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS* Total for 1983-84 40 The following roster lists those donors who generously contributed gifts of $100 or more during 1983-84. In addi- tion, we are grateful for the gifts of less than $100, which numbered almost 4,000 for this biennium. INDIVIDUALS Donors of $5,000 or More Anonymous Mrs. Lester Armour Mrs, P, Kelly Armour Mr, & Mrs, T, Stanton Armour Estate of Abby K, Babcock Mr, & Mrs, George R, Baker Mr, & Mrs, Gordon Bent Estate of Miss Virginia Billow Mr, & Mrs, Bowen Blair Estate of William McCormick Blair Mr, Leigh Block Dr, & Mrs, Willard L, Boyd Mrs, Jennifer Martin Brown (Martin Foundation) . Mr, & Mrs, Roger O, Brown Mr, & Mrs, DeWitt Buchanan, Jr, (Buchanan Family Foundation) Dr, & Mrs. Robert Wells Carton Mr, & Mrs, Jerry Chambers Patrick & Anna Cudahy Fund Dr, & Mrs, Edwin J, DeCosta Mr, & Mrs, James A, Delaney Jr, Mr, & Mrs. Robert O. Delaney Mr, & Mrs, Clinton 0, Dicken Mr, & Mrs, William R, Dickinson, Jr, Mr, & Mrs, Wesley M, Dixon, Jr, Mr, & Mrs, Gaylord Donnelley Mr, & Mrs, Thomas E, Donnelley II Mr, & Mrs, R.Winfield Ellis Mrs, Marjorie H, Elting Mr, & Mrs, Thomas J, Eyerman Mr, & Mrs, Joseph N. Field Mr, & Mrs, Marshall Field (Peterborough Foundation) Mr, & Mrs, William M, Freeman Mrs, Edmond W. Froehlich Mr, & Mrs, David W, Grainger Mr, & Mrs, Corwith Hamill Mrs, Anna Emery Hanson Mrs, William A, Hark Mr, & Mrs, Launn H, Healy Mr, & Mrs, Ben W, Heineman Estate of Floyd Job Mr, & Mrs, Gunnar Klarr Estate of Grace A. Kreck Mrs, Albert E, M, Louer Trust Mr, & Mrs, John H, Leslie (Leslie Fund) Mr. Albert G. Lowenthal Charitable Trust Mrs. Robert L. Lyon Dr. & Mrs. Richard E. Marcus (Marcus Family Foundation) Ms. Geraldine Martin (Martin Foundation) Mr. & Mrs, Oscar G, Mayer (OscarG,&ElsaS, Mayer Charitable Trust) Mr, & Mrs, Charles A, Meyer Estate of Mildred Miller Mr, & Mrs, William H, Mitchell Mr, & Mrs, Kenneth Montgomery Mr, Richard M. Morrow Mrs, Arthur! Moulding (Arthur T& Mary B, Moulding Fund) Mable Green Myers Trust Mr, & Mrs, Charles S, Potter Mr, &Mrs, A, NPritzker (Pritzker Foundation) Mr, & Mrs, Robert A, Pritzker (Pritzker Foundation) Miss Ruth Regenstein Mr, Donald Richards (Richards Foundation) Mrs, T Clifford Rodman Mr. & Mrs. Samuel R. Rosenthal (D and R Fund) Mr. & Mrs. John S. Runnells Mr. & Mrs, William LSearle Estate of Sam Shapiro Mr, Frank E. Shevlin (Arthur J, Schmitt Foundation) Mrs, John M, Simpson Mrs, Phelps Hoyt Smith (Ruth & Vernon Taylor Foundation) Mrs, George T, Spensley Mr, &Mrs, JackC, Staehle Mrs, Donna Wolf Steigenwaldt (Donna Wolf Steigerwaldt Foundation) Dr, & Mrs, David W, Stewart Carolyn & Rush Taggert Trust Mr, & Mrs, John W, Taylor, Jr, Mr, & Mrs, Edward R, Telling Mr, & Mrs, Howard J, Trienens Mrs, Chester D, Tripp Mr, & Mrs, Louis A, Wagner Estate of Marguerite S, Walker Mr, & Mrs, Rodericks, Webster Mr, & Mrs, Blaine J, Yarrington $1,000-$4,999 Mrs, Lester S, Abelson Mr, & Mrs, Lowell E, Ackman Mrs, Abra Prentice Anderson (Abra Prentice Anderson Charitable Trust) Mr, Robert S.Adler (Robert S, Adier Family Fund) Mr, & Mrs, Stanley N, Allan Mr, & Mrs, James W, Alsdorf (Alsdorf Foundation) Anonymous Mr, & Mrs, A, Watson Armour III Mr, & Mrs, Edwin A, Asmann (O, Paul Decker Memorial Foundation) Mr, Morton John Barnard (Lillian Molner Charitable Trust) Mr, George Barr Mr & Mrs, Robert O, Bass Mr & Mrs, George R, Beach, Jr Mrs, James H, Becker Mrs, Richard Bentley Mr & Mrs, Harry O. Bercher Mr & Mrs, Allen C, Berg Mr Edwin A, Bergman Mr & Mrs, James R Ber6 Mr & Mrs, Carl G. Bjorkman (Bjorkman Foundation) Mrs, Carolyn Blackmon Mr Donald L, Blanke (H, B, Blanke Charitable Trust) Mr & Mrs, Edward F Blettner Mrs, Philip D, Block, Jr (Philip D, Block, Jr Family Foundation) Mr & Mrs, Philip D, Block III (J, B, Charitable Trust) Mrs, Gilbert R Bogert Mr & Mrs, William A, Boone Mrs, Bertram Z, Brodie (Edwin J, Brach Foundation) Mrs, Harold S, Brady Mrs, Elizabeth Bramsen (Svend & Elizabeth Bramsen Foundation) Mr & Mrs, Robert E. Brooker Mr & Mrs, Cameron Brown (Cameron Brown Foundation) Mr & Mrs, Henry A. Brown Hon, & Mrs, Isidore Brown Mr & Mrs, Donald P Buchanan Mr & Mrs, A, C, Buehler Jr (ACP Foundation) Mr & Mrs, James E, Burd Mr & Mrs, Vincent J, Cannella Mr & Mrs, Henry T Chandler Mr & Mrs, Walter L, Cherry Mrs, Jane Kuppenheimer Coale" Mr John Coale Miss MarciaS, Cohn Mr & Mrs, Frank W, Considine Mr & Mrs, Stanton R, Cook Mr & Mrs. David R, Corbett Mr & Mrs, William S, Covington AG, Cox Charity Trust Mr & Mrs, Mark Crane Mr & Mrs, William F Crawford (Crawford Foundation) Mr & Mrs, Irving Crown Mr & Mrs, Lester B, Crown (Arie & Ida Crown Memorial) Ms, Sandra K, Crown Mr Michael Cudahy Mr & Mrs, George H Dapples Mr Ken M, Davee (Davee Foundation) Mr & Mrs, Leonard S, Davidow Mr O, C, Davis Mr & Mrs, Jay Delaney Mrs, Charles S, De Long Mr A, B, Dick (Dick Family Foundation) Mrs, Edison Dick Mrs, Arthur Dixon Mrs, Wesley M, Dixon, Sr Ms, Patricia Dodson Elliott & Ann Donnelley Foundation Mr James H, Douglas Mr & Mrs, George H, Dovenmuehle Mrs, Lyman M, Drake, Jr Mrs, Robert T Drake Mr & Mrs, Robert C, Edwards (Woodruff & Edwards Foundation) Miss Shirley M, Evans Mr & Mrs, Gordon R, Ewing Mr & Mrs. Melvin Fakter Mrs. Calvin Fentress, Jr Mrs, Robert C, Ferris Mr Charles C, Fitzmorris, Jr Mr & Mrs, Harold E, Foreman (Peroke Foundation) Mr & Mrs, Peter B, Foreman Mr & Mrs, Gaylord A, Freeman Mr & Mrs, Maurice F Fulton Mr & Mrs, Isak V, Gerson Mr & Mrs, James R. Getz Mr & Mrs, Gerald Gidwitz Mr Joseph L, Gidwitz Mrs, Paul W, Goodrich Dr & Mrs, John G, Graham Mrs, Donald C, Greaves Mr&Mrs, Rogers, Griffin Mrs, Rose B, Grosse Mr & Mrs, Paul W, Guenzel Mr & Mrs, William N. Guthrie Mr & Mrs, Robert P Gwinn Mr Daniel P Haerther Mrs, Charles C, Haffnerlll Mr William M, Hales (Hales Charitable Fund) Mrs, Charles L, Hardy Mr & Mrs, D, Foster Harland Mr & Mrs, Robert S, Hartman Mrs, William H, Hartz, Jr Mr & Mrs, Edward Hines Mr & Mrs, Scott Hodes Mr & Mrs, John J, Hoellen (Sulzer Family Foundation) Mr Gerald Hollins Dr Hellen Holt Mr & Mrs, Carl Holtzheimer (HoltzheimerFund) Mr & Mrs, H. Earl Hoover (H, Earl Hoover Foundation) Mr Howell H, Howard Mr & Mrs, Chauncey K, Hutchins Mr & Mrs, Robert C, Hyndman Mr & Mrs, Reinhardt Jahn Mr & Mrs, Thomas J, Johnson Mr & Mrs, Richard M, Jones Mr Emmett M, Joyce Mrs, John G, Judkins, Jr Mr & Mrs, Byron C, Karzas Dr Margaret Katzin Mrs, Spencer R, Keare Mr & Mrs, George R Kendall, Jr Mrs, E, Ogden Ketting Mr & Mrs, Robert D, Kolar Mrs, Bertram D, Kribben Mr & Mrs, Carl A, Kroch Mr Henry H, Kuehn Mrs, Allen B, Kuhlman Mrs, Richard W, Leach Mr & Mrs, Elliot Lehman Mr Robert L, Lehmann (Otto W, Lehmann Foundation) Mrs, John Woodworth Leslie Dr & Mrs, Edward H, Levi Mr & Mrs, Michael D, Levin Mr Robert A, Lewis (Robert A, Lewis Fund) Mrs, Renee Logan Mr & Mrs, Franklin J, Lunding Mr & Mrs, Robert H, Malott Mr & Mrs. Jerome W, Mandell Mrs. Frank D. Mayer Mr & Mrs. Brooks McCormick Mrs. Remick McDowell Mr Foster G, McGaw (Foster G, McGaw Foundation) Mrs, Frank McLoraine Mr & Mrs, Edwin E, Meader Mr & Mrs, John C, Meeker Mr & Mrs, Henry W, Meers Mr & Mrs, Hugo J, Melvoin Mrs, J, Roscoe Miller Mr & Mrs, Newton N, Minow (Minow Charitable Fund) Mr & Mrs, Frank J, Mooney Dr & Mrs, Evan Gregory Moore Mr & Mrs, Graham J, Morgan Mr & Mrs, Leo F Mullin Mr Charles R Murphy Jr Miss Jeanne E, Murray Mr Hisazo Nagatani Col, & Mrs, John B, Naser Mr & Mrs, Earl L. Neal Mr & Mrs, Stephen C. Neal DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS, Total for 1963-84 Dr. & Mrs. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Mr & Mrs. John D. Nichols Mrs. Arthur C. Nielsen Mr & Mrs. Arthur Nolan, Jr. Mrs. John Nuveen Mr & Mrs. Karl F. Nygren Dr & Mrs. Eric Oldberg Mr & Mrs. Ralph T. O'Neil Mr & Mrs. James Otis, Jr Mrs. Richard C. Oughton Mr George A. Pagels, Jr Mr. Bryan Patterson Mr & Mrs. Donald W, Patterson Mr. & Mrs. David D. Peterson Mr Seymour Phillips Mr. & Mrs. Allen M. Pickus Mr & Mrs. James D. Polls Mr & Mrs. Marvin A. Pomerantz Mr. Richard J. Radebaugh Mr. & Mrs. L. W. Ramsey Mr James H. Ransom Ms. Helen Reed Mr. & Mrs. John Shedd Reed Mr Howard C. Reeder Mr & Mrs. Don H.Reuben Mr & Mrs. Thomas A. Reynolds, Jr Mr & Mrs. Leo Roberg Mrs. Ward C. Rogers Mr William R. Rom Mrs. Annie May Rosenberg Mrs. Leona Rosenberg Mr & Mrs. Richard M. Rosenberg Mr & Mrs. Andrew M. Rosenfield Mr & Mrs. Harold R. Rosenson Mrs. Dorothy C. Rowley Mr & Mrs. Arthur Rubloff Mr & Mrs. Charles G. Rummel Mr Leonard B. Sax (Sax Family Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Norman J. Schlossman (Jocarno Fund) Mr Walter E, Schuessler Mr & Mrs. Arthur W. Schultz Dr & Mrs. John S. Schweppe Mrs. W. W. Scott Mr & Mrs. John W. Seabury (Seabury Foundation) Mrs. Charles H. Seevers Mr & Mrs. Roger M.Seitz Mr & Mrs. Henry Shapiro Mr John I. Shaw (Arch W. Shaw Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Jeffrey Shedd Dr Thomas W. Shields (Bessie Shields Foundation) Mrs. C. Sidamon-Eristoff Mr & Mrs. Richard W. Simmons Mr&Mrs. Harryl.Skilton Mr George D. Smith II Mr & Mrs. Edward Byron Smith Mr & Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith Mr Solomon B. Smith Mr Thomas J. Smith Mrs. Toni S. Smith Dr & Mrs. Daniel Snydacker Dr & Mrs. Jack D. Sparks Ms. Elizabeth Stein Mr Sydney Stein, Jr Mrs. David 8. Stern, Jr W. Clement & Jessie V. Stone Foundation Mrs. Robert E. Straus (Marjorie & Robert Straus Endowment Fund) Mr & Mrs. Robert D. Stuart, Jr Mr & Mrs. Bolton Sullivan (Bolton Sullivan Foundation) Mr & Mrs. John W. Sullivan (Bolton Sullivan Foundation) Mrs. Harry B. Sutter* Mr William P Sutter Mrs. James Swartchild (Collier-Swartchild Foundation) Mrs. William G. Swartchild, Jr Mr&Mrs, John Taylor III Mr & Mrs. Bruce Thorne Mrs. George A. Thornton Mr & Mrs. Rueben Thorson (Thorson Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken Mr & Mrs. Melvin A. Traylor, Jr Mr George S. Trees Mr & Mrs. George S. Trees, Jr Mr & Mrs. Theodore Van Zelst (Minann, Inc. Foundation) Mr Glen R. Verber Mr & Mrs. Daniel J. Walsh Mrs. Hempstead Washburne, Jr Mr & Mrs. E. Leiand Webber Mr&Mrs. John Welsh III (McCrea Foundation) Henry E. & Consuelo S. Wenger Foundation, Inc. Mr & Mrs. Henry P Wheeler Mrs. Jay N.Whipple Mr Harold A. White Mr Gordon Wildermuth Mr & Mrs. George F Wilhelm Mr J. Humphrey Wilkinson* Dr & Mrs. Philip C, Williams Mrs. Benton J. Willner Mr & Mrs. Robert H. Wilson Mr James R. Wimmer Mr & Mrs. Arthur W.Woelfle Mr & Mrs. J. Howard Wood Mr & Mrs. Herbert N. Woodward Mr & Mrs. George B. Young Mrs. Claire B. Zeisler (Claire B. Zeisler Foundation) Mr E. W. Zimmerman $100-$999 Mr & Mrs. Charles Aaron Mr & Mrs. L. Meredith Ackley Mr Cyrus H. Adams III Mr & Mrs. Leiand C. Adams Mr & Mrs. R. J. Adelman Dr Robert Adier Mr Thomas W. AdIer Mr & Mrs. Edward K. Aldworth Mr John Alexander, Jr Mr & Mrs. John A. Alexander Mr & Mrs. Walter Alexander Mr Louis A. Allen Mr Brierly W. Anderson Mr & Mrs. Roger A. Anderson Mr & Mrs. Scott Anderson Mr Thomas W. Andrews Mr Donald Angus Mr Joseph P. Antonow Mr & Mrs. Arthur I. Appleton (Arthur I. Appleton Foundation) Mrs. E. A. Archer Mr & Mrs. Angelo Arena Mr & Mrs. Thomas Arthur Mr Frederick Asher Mrs. Edwin N. Asmann Mr & Mrs. Wallis Austin (Oak Park-River Forest Community Foundation) Dr Orren D. Baab Mrs. William T Bacon Mr & Mrs. Eugene C. Bailey Mr E. M. Bakwin Mr & Mrs. Elmer Balaman Dr & Mrs. George E. Ball Mr & Mrs. James L. Ballard Mr & Mrs. Carl Balonick Mr George M. Bard Mr Ralph Austin Bard, Jr Mrs. Etta Moten Bamett Mrs. George Barnett Mrs. F Rose Barr Mrs. Warren Barr Mr William C. Bartholomay Mrs. Robert Bartlett Mrs. George A. Basta Mr James Bateman Mr Rex J. Bates Mr Michael Bayard Mrs. George W. Beadle Mr Ross J. Beatty Mrs. B. E. Bensinger (B. E. Bensinger Foundation, Inc.) Mr & Mrs. Edward M. Becht Mrs. Ethel G. Becker Miss Lucille Becker Mr Walter Belinky Mr Chauncey M. Bell Mr & Mrs. Edward H. Bennett, Jr R. Clay Bennett Mr & Mrs. John P Bent Mrs. Richard Bentley Mr Edwin A. Bergman Mr Robert Bergman Mr & Mrs. Richard N. Bergstrom Mr Richard C. Berliner Mrs. Edward J. Bermingham Mr John A. Bernauer (Bernauer Family Charitable Trust) Mr & Mrs. George L. Beslow Mrs. Harry J. Bettendorf Ms. Jacqueline Beu Mrs. Helen U, Bibas Mr Andrew P. Bieber Mr Lee F. Biedermann Mr & Mrs. Michael A. Bilandic Mr & Mrs. Harrington Bischof Mr Einar L. Bjorklund Mr Stephen Blackmon Mr Ralph C. Blaha Mr Blake Blair Mr & Mrs. Edward McCormick Blair Mr Edward McCormick Blair, Jr Mrs. Frank W.BIatchford Mrs. W. R. Blew Mr & Mrs. Joseph L. Block Mrs. Samuel W. Block Mr & Mrs. Donald G. Bloom Mr & Mrs. Harold R, Blumberg Mr Joseph James BIy Mr Thomas Board Mr & Mrs. George H. Bodeen Mr W. S. Bodman Mr George T Bogert Mr & Mrs. Harlan G. Bogie Mr & Mrs. R. B. Bohnen Mrs. Daniel N. Boone Commander & Mrs. G. E. Boone Mr John Jay Borland II Mr Robert E. Bouma Mr & Mrs. Arthur S. Bowes (Bowes Foundation) Mr & Mrs. William E. Bowman Mr & Mrs. William Beaty Boyd Mr Paul F. Boyer Mrs. Clarence G, Brack Mr & Mrs. Roscoe R, Braham, Jr Dr & Mrs. Joseph T. Branit Mrs. D. T. Braun Mr & Mrs. James L. Breeling Mr & Mrs, William E. Breitzke Mrs. Elmo F. Brennom Mrs. Paul K. Bresee Mr & Mrs. Derrick L. Brewster Mr James J. Brice Mr & Mrs. Gordon R. Briggs Mrs. Lester Harris Brill Mr & Mrs. Warren G. Brockmeier Mr Alan R. Brodie Mr Beckwith R. Bronson Mr Herbert C. Brook Mrs. Charles H. Brown Mr Charles L. Brown, Jr Mrs. Murray C. Brown Mr & Mrs. William M. Brown Mr & Mrs. Herbert A. Bruckner Robert & Sophie Anne Brunner Mr & Mrs. Edward A. Bruzewicz Mrs. Charles W. Bryan, Jr Mr & Mrs. C. Lawrence Buchanan Mr Henry Buchbinder Mr & Mrs. George Buckman Mrs. T Von Donop Buddington Mr Robert Buehler Mr & Mrs. Theodore H. Buenger Mr & Mrs. Gunnar Burgeson Mr & Mrs. Robert K. Burgess Mr Grinnell Burke Ms. Romana Burke Mrs. Thomas B. Burke Mr Homer A. Burnell Mrs. Joseph S, Burnham Ms, Marie Kraemer Burnside Mr Robert S, Burrows Mr George W, Butler Mr Robert B. Butz Mr James E. Byrne Mr Morton D. Cahn Mr John F Calmeyn Mr William T. Cameron Mr & Mrs. Donald A. Campbell, Jr Mr Hugh Campbell Mr Leo J. Carlin (Carlin Fund) Mr & Mrs. William Carmichael Mr Peter R. Carney Mr William J. Carney Dr & Mrs. Michael S. Carroll Mr Philip V Carter Mr Silas SCathcart Mrs. Jack Cavenaugh Mr Jac A. Cerney Mr & Mrs. Hammond E. Chaffetz Mr & Mrs. Willard T. Chamberlain Mr Raymond M. Champion, Jr Mr Kent Chandler, Jr Mr & Mrs. Douglas K. Chapman Mrs. George S. Chappel, Jr Mr Sidney Cheresh Mr Eugene J. Chesrow Mr & Mrs. Frank W. Chesrow Mr W. T Chester Mr F Newell Childs Mr & Mrs, Charles Chomsky Dr & Mrs, Cyril MChrabot Mr & Mrs, Weston R, Christopherson Mr & Mrs, Allen NCIapp Mr & Mrs. Donald C. Clark Ms. ZetaE. Clark Mr & Mrs. John Walter Clarke (Clarke Foundation) Mr S. P Clay Jr Mr & Mrs. Harry B. Clow, Jr Mr & Mrs. Eric W. Cochrane Mr & Mrs. Charles W.Cole 41 DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS, Total for 1983-84 42 Mr. Franklin A. Cole Jane B. & John C. Coleman Philanthropic Fund Mrs. John Coleman Mr John E. Coleman Mr. & Mrs. John R. Coleman Ms. Angela Colletti Mr. Orell T. Collins Mr. & Mrs. EarleM Combs III Mr. John T. Concannon Dr. & Mrs. Raymond H. Conley Mr Louis J, Conti Mrs. Edward A Cooper Drs. Daniel & Marie! Cooperman Mr Donald C. Cottrell, Jr. Mr. & Mrs, James R. Coulter Miss Marion E. Cowan Mrs. Norman L. Cram Mrs. Elisabeth M. Crow Ms. Marianne J. Cruikshank Mr. & Mrs. Herschel Cudd Mr. Tilden Cummings Mr. Edward A. Cushman Mr. Paul W. Cutler Mr. & Mrs. Loren Daily Mr. Bruce E. Dalton Dr. & Mrs. Tapas K. Das Gupta Mr. & Mrs. Louis E. Davidson Mr. & Mrs. W. Allen Davies Mrs. Louise F. Davis Mr. & Mrs. Orville M. Davis Mr. & Mrs. William R. Davis Mr. Cyrus C. De Coster Mr. & Mrs. Seymour S. De Koven Mr. Patrick A. De Moon Mr. R. J.DeMotte Mr Donald J. DePorter Mr. & Mrs. James R. De Stefano Mr. & Mrs. Herbert C. De Young Dr. Sam Decker Mrs. R. Emmett Dedmon William G. Demas Mr & Mrs. Jerry E Dempsey Mr David O. Denison Mrs. Charles Dennehy, Jr. Mr. Edison Dick Mr. & Mrs. Duane A. Diehl Mr. & Mrs Robert L. Dietmeier Mr. Stewart S. Dixon Nina B & James R. Donnelley Foundation Mrs. Robert D. Dooley Dr. & Mrs. Samuel R. Doughty Mr. Charles H. Douglas Mr. William C. Douglas Mr H. James Douglass Ms. Mary T. Drazba M. F DuChateau Mr & Mrs. Paul R. Duncan Mr & Mrs, M. F Dunne, Jr. Mr B. L. Durling Mr & Mrs. Peter L. Dyson Mrs Percy B. Eckhart Mr & Mrs. Sigmund E. Edelstone (Sigmund E. Edelstone Foundation) Mr. & Mrs. Robert C. Edwards Mr. Gerard J. Eger Mr. James G. Ek Mr William J. Elberson Mrs. Hannah B. Eldridge Mr & Mrs. John W. Ellas Mr David P. Eller Mr. & Mrs. F. Osborne Elliott Mr. & Mrs. Russell C. Ellis Miss Caryl L. Elsey Miss M. Caroline Emich Mr. & Mrs. Richard Engler Mr E. Stanley Enlund Mr. Sidney Epstein (Epstein Foundation) Mr & Mrs. E. J. Erick Mrs. William T. Erickson Mr Harry F Espenscheid Mrs. Bergen Evans Mr & Mrs. Clay Evans Mr Kenneth A. Evans Mr & Mrs. David L. Everhart Mrs, Crawford F. Failey Mrs. John J. Faissler Mr. & Mrs, Milton Falkofi (Frank & Leah Falkoff Memorial) Mrs, Robert E, Fanning Mr Richard J. Farrell Mr & Mrs. William E. Fay Jr Mr Frederick R. Fechtner Mrs. R. W. Ferguson Ms. Virginia Ferrell Mr Wade Fetzer Dr & Mrs. Robert E. Field Mr & Mrs. Steven D. Fifield Mr & Mrs. Robert C. Fink Ms. Marie FinkI Mr William FinkI Mr & Mrs. Russell W. Fisher Mr & Mrs. Walter Fisher (L-M-PFund) Mr Morgan L. Fitch Dr C. Larkin Flanagan Mrs. Mildred C. Fletcher Mr & Mrs. James G. Flood Mr & Mrs. Harold M. Florsheim Mrs. Leonard Florsheim (Enivar Charitable Fund) Mr & Mrs. C. Robert Foltz Mrs. Robert L. Foote Mr Edwin S. Ford Mrs. Zachary D. Ford Mr Harold E. Foreman, Jr Mr & Mrs. Frank B. Foster Mrs. Herbert D. Fox Mr & Mrs. A. A, Frank, Jr Mr & Mrs. Richard J. Franke Mr & Mrs. Marshall I. Frankel (Marshall Frankel Foundation) Dr Christabel Frederick Mr Earl J. Frederick Mr William M. Frederick Mr & Mrs. Donald B, French Mrs. Herbert A. Fhedlich Mrs. Allan Friedman Mr & Mrs. Paul Frisch Mr & Mrs. John W. Fritz Mrs. William D. Frost Mr & Mrs. Carlos M. Frum Mr & Mrs. R. Neal Fulk (Fulk Family Charitable Trust) Mr Douglas R. Fuller Mr & Mrs. James C. E. Fuller Mr Rudolph R. Gabriel Mrs. Charles B. Gale Mrs, Nicholas Galitzine Mr & Mrs. George H. Galloway Mr Bruce M. Ganek Mr Henry K. Gardner Dr & Mrs. John S. Garvin Mr & Mrs. John S Gates Mr Alfred Gawthrop Mr Robert H. Gayner Dr John E. Gedo Mr & Mrs. Thomas A. Gelderman Mr&Mrs. J. B. Gelling Mr Calvin M. George Mr John B. Gerlach Mr William J. Gibbons Mrs. Mary Jane Gibbs Mrs. Willard Gidwitz Mr & Mrs. Harvey B. Gill Mr J. William Gimbel (Gimbel Foundation) Mr James J. Glasser Albert H. & lona D. Glos Foundation Mr Gordon T. Goethal Mr & Mrs. David F Goldberg Mr & Mrs. Milton D. Goldberg (Isgo Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Robert Goldman Dr & Mrs. Julian R. Goldsmith Mr & Mrs. Michael Goodkin Mrs. Alexander Gorbunoff Mr Edward Gordon Mr. Jerome S. Gore Mr Robert R. Gowland Dr & Mrs. John S. Graettinger Mr Bruce J. Graham Dr & Mrs. John G. Graham Miss Mary E Graham Mr & Mrs. Gerard E. Grasshorn Mr William S. Gray Col. & Mrs. Clifford C. Gregg Mr & Mrs. Edward D. Greiner Mr G. P. Gneve Mr & Mrs. Kalvin M. Grove Mr & Mrs Carl A. Grunschel Dr & Mrs. Rolf M. Gunnar Mr & Mrs. Robert C. Gunness Dr & Mrs. Edwin L. Gustus Mrs, Irene Gustus Mr William N, Guthrie Mr Rudolph Guttosch Dr & Mrs. Vernon L. Guynn Mr & Mrs. Richard J. Haayen Mr John W. B Hadley Mr Arthur G.Hailand Mrs Burton W. Hales Mr Burton W. Hales, Jr Mr&Mrs. J Parker Hall III Dr Carol A .Haller Mr & Mrs. Andrew C. Hamilton Mr & Mrs Robert F Hanson (Dave Hokin Foundation) Mr Leon E. Hapke Miss Virginia Hardin Mr Jack R. Harlan Mr & Mrs. James D. Harper Jr Mr David J. Harris Mr Irving B. Harris (Harris Foundation) Mrs. Mortimer B. Harris Mr E. Houston Harsha Mrs. Augustin S Hart Mr Chester C.Hart Mr & Mrs. Irvin H. Hartman, Jr Dr & Mrs. Malcolm H. Hast Mr & Mrs. Jerome Hasterlick Mr & Mrs. Graham A. Hatfield Mr Lawrence Hattenbach Mr & Mrs. Marty Hauselman Mrs. William HHazlett Mr & Mrs. Reuben L. Hedlund Ms. Grace C. Hefner Mrs. Wilfred H. Heitmann Mr Frank X Henke, Jr Mr & Mrs. Joel F. Henning Mr O. L. Henninger Mrs. John Heymann Mr & Mrs. Edward H. Hickey Ms. Roberta A. Hill Mr & Mrs. Stacey H. Hill Mr E. H. Hillman Mr John L. Hines Mr & Mrs. Harold H. Hines, Jr Mr & Mrs. Donald M. Hintz Mr Edwin W. Hirsch Dr & Mrs. Jerome H. Hirschmann Mr & Mrs. John Hobart (J & M H Trust) Mrs. Richard H. Hobbs Ms. Josephine Hockenbeamer Mrs. William R. Hodgson Mr & Mrs. Edward N. Hoffman Mr & Mrs. Thomas J. Hoffman Mr & Mrs. Frank Hollingsworth Dr & Mrs. John A. Holmes Mr Stanley H. Holmes Mr Thomas Holmquest Edwin & Grace Hokin Foundation Mrs. William D. Home, Jr Mr Franklin Horwich (Franklin & Francis Horwich Family Foundation) Mr Leonard J. Horwich (Leonard J. Honwich Family Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Roger F. Howe Mr & Mrs. Lincoln B. Hubbard Mrs. Otis L. Hubbard, Sr Miss Katherine J. Hudson Mr & Mrs. Peter H. Huizenga Mr & Mrs. R. B. Hulsen Mr & Mrs. Peter D. Humleker Mr & Mrs. Reed E. Hunt Mr & Mrs. William 0. Hunt Mrs. C. K. Hunter Mrs. Harvey Huston Mr & Mrs. John B. Hutchins Mr & Mrs. Robert A. Hutchins Mr & Mrs. William Y. Hutchinson Mrs. Stanley O. Ikenberry Mr Charles Iker Mr George M. Illich, Jr Dr & Mrs. Robert F. Inger Miss Marion F. Inkster Mr Hans D. Isenberg (Hans D. Isenberg Foundation) Mr George S. Isham Dr & Mrs. Michael Jablon Mr & Mrs. Charles M. Jacobs Mr Charles Jahn Mr & Mrs. Frederick G. Jaicks Mr Kenneth J. James Mr & Mrs. Downing B. Jenks Mr Albert E. Jenner Jr Mr & Mrs. William R. Jentes Dr George N. Jessen Mr & Mrs. Charles R. Jewell Mr & Mrs. Edward C. Johnson Dr Frank R. Johnson Mr Henry A. Johnson Mr & Mrs. James David Johnson Mr & Mrs. James E. Johnson Mr & Mrs. Richard L. Johnson Mr & Mrs. Robert L. Johnson Mr Robert L. Johnson Mr Frank J, Jonak Mrs. Robert V. Jones Mr Robert B. Joshel Mrs. Elizabeth Jung MissOlga Jurco Mr William V Kahler DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS, Total for 1983-84 Dr. & Mrs. Jerome O. Kaltman Miss Patricia M. Kammerer Mr Ernest W. Kaps Dr & Mrs. Robert M. Kark Mr Bernard Karlin Virginia K. Karnes (William G. Karnes Charitable Trust) Mr & Mrs. David Karraker Mr Lawrence Kasakoff Mr Frederick M. Kasch Mr & Mrs. V. Kasmerchak Mr Frank Katkus Mr Fred R. Kaufman Mr & Mrs. Edward Keating Mr & Mrs. Lee B. Keating (Keating Family Foundation) Miss Catherine M. Keebler Mr Nelson H. Kehl Dr Algimantas Kelertas Mr & Mrs. C. J. Kelleher Mr Thomas H. Keller, Jr Mr. &Mrs. FrankJ. Kelleylll Mr Russell P. Kelley, Jr Mr Donald P Kelly Mr & Mrs. Frederick T. Kelsey Mr & Mrs. George P Kendall, Jr Mr Taylor L. Kennedy Dr & Mrs. William E. Kennell Mr William Kerr Mr Charles C. Kenwin Dr & Mrs. Merrill S. Kies Mr&Mrs. Charles W.King Mrs, Han/ey W. King Mr Harvey Kipen Mr & Mrs. Robert P. Kirchheimer Mr Clayton Kirkpatrick Mr & Mrs. John E. Kirkpatrick Mrs. Rose Tracy Kirschner Mr Glenn E. Kischel Herman & Gertrude Klafter Foundation Mr & Mrs. Jules Klapman Mr & Mrs. Stephen Klemen Mr James C. Klouda Mr Philip Klutznick (Ethel & Philip Klutznick Charitable Trust) Mr Arthur R. Kneibler Mrs. Robert G. Knight (R.G.&M.E. Knight Fund) Mr Maurice G. Knoy Dr Karl Koopman Mr Newton F. Korhumel (Korhumel Foundation) Mrs. Neal Kottke Mrs. Bertram Kribben Mrs. Maynard C. Krueger Mr&Mrs. Arthur H.Kruse Mr & Mrs. George C. Kuhlman, Jr Mr & Mrs. Joseph Kukenis Mrs. Louise B. Kuppenheimer Mrs. John F Kurfess Mrs. Charles La Bow Mr J. C. Laegeler Jr Dr & Mrs. Amrum Lakritz Mrs. Walter D. Larkin Mr Earl D. Larsen Mrs. Jack A. Larsh Mr Harry Lasch Mr & Mrs. Charles P. Laurenson Mr William J. Lawlor Jr Mr & Mrs. John K. Laws Mr & Mrs. Gordon Leadbetter Mr & Mrs. Marshall S. Leaf Dr & Mrs. Henry S. Lebioda Dr Bernard S. Lee Mr Richard Lee Mr & Mrs. Paul H. Leffman Mr &Mrs. WilberS. Legg Ms. Margie Lehman Mr John G. Leininger Mr Frederick K. Leisch Mr Richard A. Lenon Mr. Frederick R. Lent Mr Robert L. Leopold (Robert L. Leopold Family Foundation) Mr John R. Le Valley Jr Mr & Mrs. Daniel E. Levin Mr & Mrs. Lawrence R. Levin Mr Charles Levy (Charles & Ruth Levy Foundation) Dr & Mrs. Michael S. Lewis Mr & Mrs. Thomas M. Lillard Mr Harrison C. Lingle Mr David E. LTpson Mr Donald C. Lisle Mr & Mrs. Chapin Litten Dr W. C. Liu Mrs. Homer J. Livingston Mrs. Glen A. Lloyd Dr Henry S. Loeb (Allen & Elizabeth Loeb Fund) Mr & Mrs. John W. Loeding Mr Philip W. Lotz Louis & Ruth Kahnweiler Family Foundation Dr Lloyd S. Lourie Mr H. Norris Love Mr M. R. Lowenstine, Jr Mr & Mrs. Donald G. Lubin Mr & Mrs. Frank W. Luerssen Ms. Margaret Lundahl Miss. Louise Lutz Mrs. Florence Mabie Mrs. William D. Mabie Mr James W. MacDonald, Jr Mr David 0. MacKenzie Mr John A. MacLean, Jr. Mr & Mrs. Walter M. Mack Mr J. N. Macomb, Jr Mr & Mrs. John W. Madigan Mr Bernard S. Madorin (Madorin-Sink Foundation) Mrs. Lorraine B. Madsen Mr & Mrs. Emil L. Makar Mr Phillips. Makin Mr James E. Mandler Mr & Mrs. Harold Manhoff (Harold & Edna Manhoff Foundation) Mrs. Philip C. Manker Mr & Mrs. Steven C. March Ms. Joyce Marcus Mr & Mrs. S. Edward Marder Mr R. Bailey Markham Mrs. IraG. Marks Mr McKim Marriott Mr Frank G. Marshall H. D. Marshall Mrs. Harold T. Martin Mrs. Jennifer L. Martin Dr & Mrs. Nester S. Martinez Mrs. Keith Masters Mr & Mrs. Bruce D. Mateer Mr Thomas N. Mathers Mr Paul Mavros Mr Augustus K. Maxwell, Jr Mr Harold M. Mayer Mrs. Robert B. Mayer Dr & Mrs. Samuel T. Mayo Mr & Mrs. Franklin McCarty Jr Mr Archibald McClure Mr & Mrs. David G. McCreery Mr Walter C.McCrone Mr & Mrs. G. Barr McCutcheon Mr & Mrs. Clement J. McDonald Mr & Mrs. Robert McDougal, Jr Mr Charles S.McGill Mr Arthurs. McGinn Mr John E. McGovern, Jr Mrs. John P. McHugh Mr William B. Mcllvaine Mr Neil McKay Mr & Mrs. Thomas McKay Jr Mr William W. McKitterick Mr James A. McMullen Mr James E. McNulty Mrs. Constance F. McVoy Dr L. Steven Medgyesy Elisabeth C. Meeker Mr & Mrs. Bernard D. Meltzer Mr & Mrs. Ronald McK. Melvin Mr Charles Melvoin (Melvoin Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Glenn E. Merritt Mr Matthew A. Meyer Mr Harry W. Michael Mr D. Daniel Michel (Greene-Michel Foundation) Mr Bert H. Michelsen Mr Andrew Michyeta Mr Paul E. Miessler Mr J. Patrick D.Miller Philip B. Millers Family Mrs. C.Phillip Miller Richard H. Miller Mr Robert E. Miller Mr Robert L. Milligan Mr Frank R. Milnor Mr Thomas M. Mints, Jr. Mr DominickW. Mirowski Mr Harry W. Mitchel Mr & Mrs. Ned E. Mitchell Mr B. John Mix, Jr Mr H. G. Mojonnier Mr J. D. Mollendorf Miss Marion Molyneaux Mr & Mrs. Graham J. Morgan Mr Jerrold L. Morris Mr & Mrs. Robert A. Morris Mr & Mrs. John H. Morrison Mr George L. Morrow Mrs. John Morrow, Jr Mr George Morse Mr Michael E. Moseley Mr Horace C. Moses, Jr Dr & Mrs. Gerald S. Moss Mr & Mrs. John D. Mueller Mr Aidan I. Mullett Richard J. Murphey Mr & Mrs. William E. Mussett Dr & Mrs. Charles F Nadler Mr Roscoe C. Nash Mr Stephen C. Neal Mr Kenneth Nebenzhal Mr Joseph B. Neiweem Mr & Mrs. William G. Neuert, Jr Mr J. Robert Newgard Dr & Mrs. Francis Newman Mr George Nicholas Mr Frank B. Nichols Mr & Mrs. John D.Nichols Mr & Mrs. Philip H. Niederman Mr & Mrs. Jon E Niehus Mr Charles F Nims Ms. Grace Nissman (Murray & Grace Nissman Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Ronald D. Niven Mr & Mrs. Ragnar W. Nordlof Mrs. Lawrence E. Norem Mr & Mrs. Harold W. Norman Ms. Lucille Ann Nunes Mr Francis X. G'Donnell Mr William P O'Keefe, Jr Mr Patnck L. G'Malley Mrs. Francis M. O'Neil Mr &Mrs. Milo E. Oliphant Rev. & Mrs. Alfred Raa Olson & Family Miss Mary Olson Mr & Mrs. Fred W. Opitz Mrs. Gilbert H. Osgood Mr W. Irving Osborne, Jr Mrs. J. Sanford Otis Mrs. Fentress Ott Mr David B. Owen Mr & Mrs. Brian M. Owens Ms. NedraOyen Mrs. Walter Paepcke Mr & Mrs. Lloyd J. Palmer Mr Robert R. Palmer Mr George Parker Mr Norman S. Parker Mrs. J. W. Parson Mr Lloyd C. Partridge Dr Joan E. Patterson Mr & Mrs. O. Macrae Patterson Mr William Pavey Mr & Mrs. R. Marlin Perkins Mr & Mrs. Julian S. Perry Mr & Mrs. Donald Peters (Donald & Evelyn Peters Foundation) Mr Clifford T Peterson Mr Frank E. Pielsticker Mr Robert R. Pierson Mr Roy J. Pierson Dr Richard N. Pipia Mr & Mrs. Joseph B. Plauche Mrs. Bernard Pollack Mr Oren T Pollock Mr & Mrs. George A. Poole Mr Persius Pooley Mrs. William P. Pope Mr & Mrs. Sidney L. Port Mr Edward C. Porter Dr Edward Poser Mr & Mrs. Newell Pottorf Mr & Mrs. Eugene L. Powell Mr Robert C. Preble Mrs. George Preucil Mrs. Thomas Pritzker Mr Ralph E. Pro|ahn Mr & Mrs. John A. Prosser Mr Frederick C. Pullman Mr Jack Purcell Mr & Mrs. Allen L. Pusch Mr Jack A, Quigley Mr & Mrs. George G. Rabb Col. & Mrs. Millard E.Rada Miss Audree M. Ragan Mrs. M.G. Rahal Mr Norman X. RaidI Mr L. S. Raisch Mr & Mrs. Lon W. Ramsey Mr & Mrs. George A. Ranney Mr & Mrs, W. E. Rattner Mrs. Paul H. Rauhoff Dr Peter Raven Mr&Mrs. Frank S. Read Mr William M Redfield 43 DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS, Total for1983-84 Miss Gertrude E. Reeb Mr. & Mrs. Charles A. Reed Mrs. Louise Reed Dr Clifton L. Reader Mr & Mrs. Gunther Reese Mrs. Robert G. Regan Mr Joseph Regenstein, Jr Dr. Stanton F. Reldberg (Stanmart Fund, Inc.) Miss Marie K. Remien Mrs. Robert W. Reneker Mr Robert F Reusche Mr David W. Rewick Mrs. Charles M. Rhodes Mr. George A. Rice Mrs. Joseph E. Rich Mr & Mrs. R. Norton Richards Mrs. Harold Richardson Mr & Mrs. Jerald F. Richman Mr H. C. Rickert Mr. Laurence M. Rieckhoff Mrs. Mary Riley Mr Michael D. Risser Mrs. John Ritchie Mr M. H. W. Ritchie Mr Charles Ritten Mrs. Jack L. Robbins Mr & Mrs. Charles C. Roberts Mr & Mrs. Harry V. Roberts Mr William J. Roberts Mr William R Roberts IV Mrs. Martha F. Robertson Mrs, Sanger P. Robinson Mrs, Ward C, Rodgers Mrs, Hugh Rodman Dr & Mrs. Arthur A. Rodriguez Mrs. Frederick Roe (Milius Roe Foundation) Alma R & Selma Roeder Mr Ottomar D. Roeder Mr Kenneth K. Roehler Mr & Mrs. Karl V. Rohlen (Rohlen Foundation) Mr & Mrs. Karl V. Rohlen, Jr Mr William R. Rom Mr & Mrs. Edward M. Roob Mr Harry A. Root, Jr Mrs, Philip Rootberg Mrs Leona Rosenberg Mr Mark Rosenberg Mr & Mrs Harold R Rosenson Mr Gerson M, Rosenthal, Jr Mr & Mrs. Richard N. Rosett Hon, & Mrs. Dan Rostenkowski Miss Elizabeth B. Roth Mr A. Frank Rothschild (Mr & Mrs. A. Frank Rothschild Fund) Aid. Fred B. Roti Mr & Mrs. Wilbur Rowley Ms. Harriet Rozier Mr & Mrs. D. G. Ruegg Mr Charles T. Rufener Ms, Ruth Cain Ruggles Mr & Mrs, Thomas D. Rutherford Mr & Mrs. Robert M, Ruud Dr Vincent J, Sacchetti Mr & Mrs, Thomas R. Sanders Mr Norman L. Sandfield Miss Margaret H, Sanderson Mr Joram Sassower Mrs. Anna Saupe 44 Dr Muriel Savage Mr Calvin P. Sawyier Mr Philip Schaff, Jr Mr Francis R. Schanck Mr & Mrs. William J, Schefle Mr & Mrs, John Scheid Mrs. Gerhart Schild A. Bruce Schimberg Mrs. Mary E. Schlageter Mr & Mrs. John Schlossman Mr & Mrs. Rudolph Schmidt Mrs. Barbara B. Schmitt Mr & Mrs. Lawrence K. Schnadig Mr. & Mrs. Barry Schrager Dr J. R Schweitzer Mr & Mrs. John Scott Mr Frank Sedlacek Mr & Mrs. Robert M, Seeley Mr & Mrs, William S. Seeley Mrs, Mary S. Seidler Mr & Mrs, Richard M, Seifert Mr Edwin A, Seipp, Jr Mr Calvin F Selfridge Miss Denise Selz Mr&Mrs. Charles W.Sena Mr & Mrs. C, Clin Sethness Mrs, Eileen G. Sexton DrSidJ.Shafer Mr James G. Shakman Mr & Mrs. Robert M. Shannon Mr Chester Shell Mr James G, Shennan Robert T Sherman, Jr Mr John W. Shields Mr De Ver Sholes Mrs. Mary Shrimplin Mr S. N, Shure (Sidney N Shure Fund) Herbert & Wilma Silberm Charitable Foundation Mr Stephan H, Sills Mr C. C. Simmons Mr & Mrs. Richard W. Simmons Mr Harold Simpson Mr Howard G. Simpson Mr & Mrs, John R. Siragusa Mrs. Gerald A Sivage Mr K. A. Skopec Mr Louis J. Slavin Dr & Mrs, Albert H, Slepyan Mr & Mrs, Robert W, Smick Mrs. C. Philip Smiley Mr & Mrs. Edward Byron Smith, Jr Mr Goff Smith Mr Gordon Smith Mr Harold Byron Smith Mr Matthew D Smith Mrs, Raymond F Smith Mr William S, Smith Mrs, S, R, Snider Dr Gary M. Sollars Mr & Mrs. Jack D. Sparks Mr & Mrs. Harold E. Spencer Mrs, William M, Spencer Mrs, Clara Spiegel Mr Charles R, Staley Ms, Zelda L. Star Mr John H. Stassen Mrs Pericles P. Stathas Mr E. Norman Staub Mrs. Henry L, Stein Mr Grundy Steiner Mrs. W. H. Stellner Mr & Mrs. Gardner H. Stern Mr Russell T. Stern, Jr Mr & Mrs. John C. Stetson Mr & Mrs. William R, Steur Mr Hal S, R. Stewart Mr & Mrs, Robert C, Stewart Mr Donald M. Stillwaugh Mr John W, Stimpson Mr Edwin H. Stone Mrs. James H, Stone Mr Lloyd Stone Mr & Mrs, Mark Stone Mr Marvin Stone (Marvin & Anita Stone Family Foundation) Mrs, Stanley Stone Mr & Mrs, Howard A. Stotler Mrs. Harold E, Strauss Mr & Mrs. Ivan G. Strauss (R.I. S. Foundation) Dr & Mrs. John S. Strauss Dr & Mrs Siegfried F, Strauss (MGS Charitable Fund) Mr Charles L, Strobeck Dr Robert HStrotz Mr Erwin A. Stuebner Mr & Mrs. Charles J. Sugrue Mrs, Audrey M, Sullivan Mrs. Frank L. Sulzberger Mrs. James L. Surpless Mr William P Sutter Mr Philip W.K. Sweet Mr A. Dean Swift Mr & Mrs Edward F Swift III Mrs, Gustavus F Swift, Jr Mr J, R. Swihart Mr & Mrs James B, Tafel Mr & Mrs James M, Tait Mr & Mrs, Robert P Tallian Miss Mary Tamarri Mr Jordon M, Tark Mr Rodger M, Tauman Ms, Brenda J, Taylor M, J, Hall Taylor Mrs. Samuel G Taylor III Mr William L. Taylor, Jr Miss M. Evelyn Thomas Mr & Mrs. Paul A. Thomas III Mr & Mrs. Richard L. Thomas Mrs Thomas M Thomas Mr Henry M. Thullen Mr. & Mrs, Stanley E. Tierney Mr Richard E. Timler Mr Karl M. Tippet Mr Walter A. Tomlinson Mr Philip T Toomin Mr Norman Tucker Mrs, Robert Tullis Dr & Mrs. William D. Turnbull Mr & Mrs, Herbert G, Twaddle Mrs. C. P Tyler Ms. Marian Phelps Tyler Mr & Mrs. Robert D. Tyler Mr Edgar J, Uihiein, Jr Mr & Mrs, Bohus Ulicny Dr Victoria B. Vacha Mr & Mrs. Murray Vale (Murray & Virginia Vale Foundation) Mrs. R. D. Van Kirk Mrs. Errett Van Nice Mr & Mrs Herbert A. Vance Mr & Mrs, William C, Vance Mr Frank Peter Vander Ploeg Mr M. P, Venema Mr & Mrs. Richard A, Waichler Mr Edwin A, Walcher, Jr Mr & Mrs, C. Ives Waldo, Jr. Mr Charles R, Walgreen (MaryAnn & Charles R. Walgreen, Jr Fund) & Mrs, Harvey M, Walken ;. Samuel J. Walker George M. Walker & Family & Mrs. Robert P. Wallace & Mrs. Daniel J. Walsh & Mrs. John P. Walsh s. Cynthia Armour Ward Isabel B. Wasson s. Theron Wasson s. George W. Watts Morrison Waud Frances X. Wazeter William D. Weaver s. C. F Weber & Mrs. Norman R Wechter Morris S. Weeden & Mrs. Charles W. Wegener & Mrs. S. Sol Weiner (VogI Family Foundation) & Mrs. Jack Weinstein & Mrs. Paul J. Weir Jack Weisman & Mrs. William L, Weiss s, Paul A, Welbon s Donald P Welles Edward K, Welles s. John Paul Welling William D, Wells s, Louis Werner (Louis Werner Fund) &Mrs.B, Kenneth West s, Joseph B, Wharton & Mrs, Richard Wheatland E. Todd Wheeler & Mrs. Jay N. Whipple, Jr H.Blair White & Mrs. David E. Whiting A. D. Whitney & Mrs. George D. Wilbanks & Mrs, Lawrence G, Wilcox & Mrs, Lydon Wild & Mrs, George F. Wilhelm & Mrs, Louis O, Williams Albert D, Williams, Jr AmosG. Willis s. Benton J, Willner, Jr Robert M, Wilson James R, Wimmer s. Nancy Corwith Hamill Winter Michael Wirtz & Mrs, Richard M, Withrow & Mrs, William W. Wittie John C, Wolfe Arnold R, Wolff s, Peter Wolkonsky Arthur M, Wood • & Mrs. Henry C Wood Frank H. Woods William Wrigley & Mrs. David E. Wulf Theodore N, Yelich & Mrs, Bruce A, Young & Mrs. Hobart P Young Ms. Betty Yonker Ms Judy L. Zamb Mr & Mrs. Carl M. Zapffe Mr & Mrs. Carl A. Zehner Mr & Mrs. Howard B Zimmerman DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS, Total for 1983-84 CORPORATIONS and PHILANTHROPIC FOUNDATIONS $5,000 or more Abbott Laboratories Fund Allen-Health Memorial Foundation The Allstate Foundation American National Bank Foundation Amoco Foundation, Inc. AMSTED Industries Foundation Arthur Andersen & Co. Atlantic Richfield Foundation The Barker Welfare Foundation Beatrice Companies, Inc. Borg-Warner Foundation, Inc. The Chicago Community Trust Chicago Tribune Foundation Coleman Foundation Combined International Corporation Commonwealth Edison Continental Bank Foundation The DeSoto Foundation R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company Ernst SWhinney Esmark Foundation FMC Foundation FRC Investment Corporation Fel-Pro/Mecklenburger Foundation The Field Foundation of Illinois, Inc. Marshall Field's First National Bank of Chicago Foundation Flair Communications Agency, Inc. Ford Motor Company Fund Lloyd A. Fry Foundation Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts H B B Foundation Harris Bank Foundation Hartmarx Corporation Walter E. Heller Foundation Household International, Inc. International Business Machines Corporation IC Industries, Inc. I. V. I. Travel, Inc. Illinois Bell Telephone Company Illinois Tool Works Foundation Interlake Foundation International Minerals & Chemical Foundation Jewel Foundation The Joyce Foundation W. K. Kellogg Foundation Kemper Educational and Charitable Fund Kraft, Inc. John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation McGraw Foundation McGraw-Edison Company Robert R. McCormick Charitable Trust McMaster-Carr Supply Company Magenta Corporation Midcon Corporation Montgomery Ward Foundation Sterling Morton Charitable Trust The Naico Foundation Northern Illinois Gas The Northern Trust Company Charitable Trust Northwest Industries Foundation, Inc. Peat, Manwick, Mitchell & Co. J. C. Penney Company Inc. The Peoples Energy Corporation The Albert Pick, Jr. Fund Pittway Corporation Charitable Foundation Frederick Henry Prince Testamentary Trust The Quaker Oats Foundation S&C Electric Company Sahara Coal Company Santa Fe Southern Pacific Foundation Sara Lee Corporation Sargent & Lundy Engineers Arthur J. Schmitt Foundation Dr. Scholl Foundation John S. Swift Charitable Trust Tishman Midwest Management Corporation Torco Oil Company Touche Ross & Company UOP Foundation USG Foundation, Inc. Urban Investment & Development Company Walgreen Benefit Fund Western Electric Fund Whirlpool Foundation W. P. & H. B. White Foundation Wilson & Mcllvaine E. W. Zimmerman Construction Products, Inc. $1,000-$4,999 AT&T Communications AT&T Information Systems AXIA Inc. Aetna Life and Casualty Insurance Companies of Illinois Akzo Chemie America Alcoa Foundation Allied Corporation American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. American Hospital Supply Corporation Americana Hotels Corporation Aileen S. Andrew Foundation (Andrew Corporation) Anixter Brothers, Inc. Arco Metals Company Avon Products Foundation BankAmerica Foundation Bankers Trust Company Baxter Travenol Laboratories, Inc. A. G. Becker Paribas Foundation Blum-Kovler Foundation Bozell& Jacobs The Brand Companies Charitable Foundation Brown & Root Incorporated The Brunswick Foundation, Inc. Burlington Northern Foundation Leo Burnett Company Inc. Burson-Marsteller, Inc. CFS Continental Foundation, Inc. Carson Pirie Scott Foundation Centel Corporation Central Steel & Wire Company Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A. (Rose & Company Investment Brokers, Inc.) Cherry Electrical Products Company Chicago Bears Football Club, Inc. Chicago Bridge & Iron Company Chicago and North Western Transportation Company Chicago Title and Trust Company Foundation Citicorp (USA), Inc. Clark Foundation (J. L. Clark Manufacturing Co.) Comdisco, Inc. Consolidated Papers Foundation, Inc. Container Corporation of America Foundation John Crane-Houdaille, Inc. Crum & Forster Foundation (L. W. Beigler, Inc.) Helene Curtis Industries, Inc. Reuben H. Donnelley Corporation EPCO Services, Inc. Ehico Foundation (Edward Hines Lumber Co.) The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States Federal Signal Corporation The Florsheim Shoe Company The Fluor Foundation Foote, Cone & Belding Foundation GATX Corporation GenCorp General Motors Corporation Geraldi-Norton Memorial Corporation Max Goldenberg Foundation Goldman, Sachs & Co. Gould Inc. Foundation W. W. Grainger Inc. Guarantee Trust Life Insurance Company A. S. Hansen, Inc. Heller International James C. Hemphill Foundation Inland Steel-Ryerson Foundation Intermatic, Inc. Fred S. James & Co. of Illinois Johnson & Higgins of Illinois, Inc. K Mart Corporation Kemper Financial Services Ketone Automotive Inc. Kirkland & Ellis LaSalle National Bank Viola Aloe Laski Charitable Trust Latham & Watkins M & O Insulation Company McDonald's Corporation McKinsey & Company Inc. MacLean-Fogg Company Masonite Corporation William M. Mercer, Inc. Moore Business Forms, Inc. Philip Morris Incorporated Morton Thiokol Foundation Motorola Foundation Nash Brothers Construction Company Inc. National Boulevard Foundation National Can Corporation Needham Harper Worldwide Gust. K. Newberg Construction Co. New York Community Trust Ogiivy & Mather, Inc. Phelan, Pope & John, LTD George Pick & Company Power Systems, Inc. Price Waterhouse The Prudential Insurance Company of America 45 46 Oath-taking and tiealing figure from the Chiloango River area of lower Zaire, one of the finest known examples of a sculpted Kongo charm. Late 19th century. Made of wood, clay, fiber, metal, pigment, and cowrie shell, the figure was on view during the 1984 exhibit "African insights: Sources for Afro-American Art and Culture. " Cat. 91300, N109327. DONORS TO THE OPERATING FUNDS* Total for1983-84 Reliable Sheet Metal Works, Inc. Rice Foundation Rockwell International Corporation Trust RyderTypes, Inc. Scott Foresman & Company Sealy Mattress Connpany G. D. Searle&Co. Seattle Foundation Security Pacific Foundation Seyfartti Shaw Fairweather & Geraldson Shell Companies Foundation, Inc. Signode Foundation, Inc. Sonnenschein Carlin Nath and Rosenthal Spiegel, Inc. Square D Foundation Stein Roe & Farnham Sunbeam Corporation Sweetheart Cup Corporation Texaco Philanthropic Foundation J. Walter Thompson Company Fund The Oakliegh L. Thorne Foundation (Commerce Clearing House) Time Incorporated The Travelers Companies Foundation Inc. Turner Construction Company UARCO Foundation UnibancTrust Foundation Union Oil Company of California United Conveyor Foundation United States Steel Foundation Waste Management, Inc. Wheelabrator Foundation, Inc. $100-$999 ACME Mills Company Alberto Culver Company All-Types Office Supply Anderson Secretarial Service, Inc. Anthony and Company, Inc. Ashland Products Company The Baird Foundation Bernhard Woodv^ork Ltd. Beverick Corporation Bosler Supply Company Bronson & Brattson, Inc. Chemical Bank Champion Parts Rebullders Inc. Chicago Board of Trade The Chicago Corporation Chicago Mountaineering Club Chicago Rawhide Manufacturing Company Chicago Shell Club Chicago White Metal Charitable Foundation Cities Service Corporation Clow Corporation Colby's Home Furnishings Corey Charitable Foundation Coronado Publishers Inc. Crain Communications, Inc. DLM, Inc. Dale Maintenance Systems, Inc. Danly Machine Company Deloitte, Haskins and Sells Draper & Kramer, Inc. Electro-Kinetics, Inc. Elkay Manufacturing Company Erman Corporation Inc. Ethyl Molded Products Evans Products Company Faville-Levally Corporation Ferrara Pan Candy Company Follett Corporation Franklin Picture Company General Binding Corporation Edward Gray Corporation Gulf Oil Foundation The Russell Hampton Company Heco Envelope Company Heidrick and Struggles, Inc. Humboldt Manufacturing Company Hutchinson Fox, Inc. Jobbers Supply Company Johnson Kiddie Rides Inc. Keck, Mahin & Gate Kimberly Clark Inc. Kupferberg, Goldberg & Neimark Lake View Trust & Savings Bank Liquid Carbonic Corporation Magnetrol International, Inc. J. L. Manta, Inc. Marsh & McLennan Inc. Martin Marietta Corporation Matkov, Griffin, Parsons, Salzman & Madoff George S. May International Mid-City National Bank Monsanto Fund John Nuveen & Company Olsten's of Chicago P-K Tool and Manufactunng Company PPG Industries Packaging Corporation of America Pepper Construction Company Pepsi-Cola General Bottlers H. F. Philipsborn and Company Meryl Piatt, Inc. The Presidents Association Process Gear Company, Inc. Processed Plastic Productigear, Inc. R. J. Reynolds Industries Richardson Electronics, Ltd. Safety-Kleen Corporation Schal Associates Schuessler Knitting Foundation Scribner & Company Silvesth Paving Company Sleepeck Printing Company Standard Federal Savings and Loan Stepan Chemical Company Stocker Hinge Manufacturing Company Stouffer Corporation Fund David F. Swain and Company Tax Security, Inc. Trainer Glass Company Turtle Wax, Inc. United Technologies Corporation Universal Metal Hose Company Vance Publishing Corporation Ventfabrics Vienna Sausage Manufacturing Company Vogue Tyre and Rubber Company Wallace Computer Services, Inc. Harry Weese and Associates, Ltd. Westinghouse Electric Corporation Wisconsin Tool and Stamping Company Companies that Have Matched Their Employees' Contributions to Field Museum in 1983 and 1984 AT&T Foundation Allied Corporation Ameritech Atlantic Richfield Foundation Beatrice Companies, Inc. Borg-Warner Foundation Brunswick Foundation CPC International, Inc. Chemical Bank Continental Bank Foundation Dart & Kraft, Inc. Digital Equipment Corporation Emerson Electric Company The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States Follett Corporation GATX Corporation Gulf Oil Corporation Harris Bank Foundation Household International, Inc. Illinois Bell Telephone Company Illinois Tool Works Foundation Kemper Group Kirkland& Ellis McDonald's Corporation Montgomery Ward Foundation Morton Thiokol Foundation The NCR Foundation The Northern Trust Company Charitable Trust Northwest Industries Foundation John Nuveen & Co., Inc. The Quaker Oats Foundation Peoples Energy Corporation Pittway Corporation Charitable Foundation R, J. Reynolds Industries Santa Fe Southern Pacific Foundation Signode Foundation, Inc. Time, Inc. Transamerica Corporation USG Foundation, Inc. United Technologies Westinghouse Electric Fund 47 DONORS TO THE COLLECTIONS DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY Armour, Mr. and Mrs. T. Stanton Areen, Mr. and Mrs. G. E. Barclay, Harry Benton, Marjorie and Charles Bomberg, Fay Bowen, Jeff Branske, Ronald Brittingham, Irene Brown, Dr Victor Chicago Token Taikai Society Coppersmith, Sylvia (in memory of Leila Rosen) Dark, Dr. Philip J. C. Eliscu, Avery Z. Eliscu, Edvi^ard H. Fisher, Mr. and Mrs. Milton L. Freeman, Arthur Gelb, Mr and Mrs. Howard H. Gordon, Jerry Hodes, Mr and Mrs. Scott Lamey, Robert J. and Theresa Liebman, Mr and Mrs. Bob McDaniels, Dr Herbert E. McQuarrie, Catherine Mittel, Dr. Neuman S. Murphy Robert Nelson, Mr and Mrs. R. Nelson, Mrs. Lloyd E. Norman, Harold Oscar, Sheila Pinsof, Philip Rydell, Mr and Mrs. Allen G. Sandstrom, Dr Alan R. Seefeldt, Lyie Sievers, W. D. Sirritella, Vincent J. Siskin, Dr and Mrs. Edgar E. Slagle, Mr and Mrs. Paul Smith, Mr and Mrs. Malcolm Stevenson, Adiai Tarbet, Edythe Timeshevska, Olga VanStone, Dr James W. Van Zelst, Mr and Mrs. T. W. Weil, Mr and Mrs. Christopher Welsch, Dr Robert Wbolley, William DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY University of Aarhus Thomas Ackerman University of Alabama University of Alberta Appalachian State University Auckland Institute and Museum Austin College Connie Bodner Universidad Simon Bolivar Herbario Nacional de Bolivia Brandeis University Universidade de Brasilia Republica Feduativa de Brazil California Academy of Sciences University of California, Berkeley University of California, Davis University of California, Riverside Institute Botanico, Caracas Herbario Alberto Castellanos Universidad Federal do Ceara Centro de Botanico, Chapingo Universidad de Chile Forest Research Institute, Christchurch University of Colorado, Boulder University of Connecticut, Storrs Cornell University Museo de Costa Rica Museu Botanico Municipal, Curitiba Jeyson Daniel Dr Michael Dillon Duke University Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh Dr Robert Faden Fairchild Tropical Garden Herbario Ovalles Farmacio Florida International University Florida Tropical Garden University of Florida, Tampa Blanca Perez Garcia Dr Elizabeth Girardi University of Goteborg College of Great Falls Linda Greenberg Universidad de Guadalajara University of Guelph William Hahn Harvard University Herbarium Botanical Museum of Harvard University of Helsinki Hiroshima University Illinois Natural History Survey University of Illinois. Medical Center University of Illinois, Urbana Indiana University Peter Johnson Lagee's Greenhouse Dr Harvey LeRoy Los Angeles State and County Arboretum Andrew Lugden Luis Eduardo Luna Lyndon State College University of Maine, Orano University of Manitoba Jardin Botanico de Maracaibo Penny Matekaitis Colegio Superior de Agricultura Tropical Mexico Institute Politecnico Nacional, Mexico Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Missouri Botanical Garden University of Missouri Morton Arboretum University of Munchen National Botanical Gardens, Newlands (South Africa) New York Botanical Garden Northeast Louisiana University Ohio State University National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Paris Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana Centro Pesquisas do Cacau Institute Nacional de Pesquisas, Belem Jane Plowman Dr Timothy Plowman Mr & Mrs. Robert Poetter Projecto Radambrasil Miquel Ramirel Rengifro R. K. Roelter Dr Ursula Rowlatt Universidad de San Carlos Jose Schunke V. Franz Seidenschwarz David Smith Smithsonian Institution Southern Illinois University National Herbarium, Stellenbosch (South Africa) Robert G. Stoize Dimitri Sucre Dr Richard Taylor Texas A. & M. University U.S.D.A.,Beltsville University of Texas, Austin University of Texas, Dallas National Science Museum, Tokyo Universidad Nacional de Truijillo University of Utrecht Departmendo de Investigacion, Venezuela Wayne State University University of Wisconsin University of Wyoming DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY 48 Edward Bara Sr Dr Gordon Baird Dr. Peter Crane Edward Biba Dr Jose Bonaparte George E. Bryant John Chapman Earl Cornwell Raymond M. Coveney Jr Dr Mary R. Dawson Department of Education (FMNH) Dr James O. Farlow R.W. Flynn Ken Fraser Barry A. Frey Mrs, Jonathan Goldstine Dr Lance Grande Ms. Cecily Taylor Gregory Charles Grindele Paul Gritis Dr Tu Guangzhi Ms. Erika HartI Robert HartI Ms. Giselle Hartle Dr Ella Hoch Dr Bob Hunt Larry Jeffries Robert Klocek Mrs. John Woodward Leslie Phillip Lochman Company Heinz Lowenstam Dr Kubet Luchterhand B.G. MacNabb Dr Gary T Madden Dr Kenneth J. Maier Steven Manchester Bob Masek Paul C. Miller Dr Robert F. Marschner Tom Nicholson Ms. Kimberly Novaski Dr Edward J. Olsen Larry Osterberger Larry Passaro Dr Ronald H. Pine LeoPlas Jr Dr William Read Paul Rechten Dr T Rich Dr Eugene Richardson John Runnells Dr Paul Sipiera Gary P. Smith Dr Nils Spjeldnaes Gene Stanley Dr R.A. Stockey Paul Sunby Theodore W. Van Zelst Donald A. Weiss Fran and Terri Wolff Alan Woodland Dr Rainer Zangerl DONORS TO THE COLLECTIONS DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY Dr. T. Abe LAIbujaV. Dr. Rosario Alonso Dr. Peter Ames Anti-Cruelty Society, Chicago Jean Armour Dr. Stephen Ashe Mr and Mrs. Fred Aslin Kurt Autfenberg Dr James Bacon Dr R. M. Bailey Margaret Baker Karl Bartel Dr. R. Barriga Helen Becker Roy Behnke Kevin Bell Anthony Bogadek Dr M. Bradbury Brookfield Zoo Barbara Brown J. C. Bruner Dr. G. H. Burgess Carpenter Nature Center Dr J. Carter Dr Donald Chandler Chicago Zoological Society Barbara Clausen Paul Clyne Dr K. Cole R. Coleman, Indiana Dr Joel L. Cracraft G. Cruz L, A. Deutsch, Brazil Robert W. Dickerman Mary Ann Diekman Martha Drake Henry Dybas Mary Ela Dr John Fitzpatrick S. Friedman M.H. GallardoN. Andrea Gaski Dr R. H. Gibbs Dr M. L. Goff Daniel Gonzales Dr Lance Grande Dr David W. Greenfield Paul Gritis Mrs. M.J. Gustin E. R. Hall Nankins, World Museum of Natural History H. J. Harlan Harvard University Museum of Comparative Zoology Dr A. A. Hassan Craig Hendee Dr. Philip Hershkovitz Mrs. Harold Hines L. J. Hitz Peter Hocking Philip Hershkovitz Dr Harry Hoogstraal Dr. K. Hosoya Dr. Miquel Ibanez Dr Robert F Inger F. Ivkien Dr T. Iwomoto Robert Izor Connie Janousek Dr. Alan Jaslow M. Jenks Dr R. K. Johnson J, Karls Steve Karsen Jeff Kaufmann Julian Kerbin J. Kerbis Dr J. Kethley Dr Bong Heang Kiew Chong-Wha Kim Dr Ik-soo Kim Dr Kistner Dr L. W. Knapp H. L. H. Krauss Aagje Kroos Robin Lambert Dr W. W. Lamar B. K. Lang Dr Harry Lee Cliff Lemen Thomas O. Lemke V. Linares Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens Dr. P. Loiselle Dr F. S. Lukoschus Dr J. Lundberg Bart Lysy J. H. Makler Borys Malkin David Matusik Dianne Maurer Timothy J. McCarthy Ray McCraren Dr W. Medina Dr N. Menezees P. L. Meserve Dr Walter B. Miller Milwaukee Public Museum Gabriel Mitchell Dr H. Mok Debra Moskovitz Richard Moss Mrs. Arthur! Moulding John Murphy Wanda Murphy Mus. of Vert. Zoo., Univ. of Cal., Berkeley Pat Nacnic National Museum of Natural History Michael Nee Dr H. G. Nelson Kenneth Nemuras Doris Nitecki Northern Illinois University Dr. Roy A. Norton Mr. Michael O'Connor Elizabeth O'Hara Fernando Orces Dr Jacques Pasteels Dr. Bruce Patterson Ray Pawley Dr. Stewart Peck Luis Pena Dr Ronald Pine Dr Norman Platnick Dr Timothy Plowman Princeton University Claddia Putnam Norman P. Radtke Dr J. Randall Michael Reed J. Reichel Mr Alan Resetar Robin Restall Dr T Roberts Dr R. S. Rosenblatt Dr Barry Roth Dr J. Russo San Diego Zoo R. Schoknecht Beverly Scott Ken Schuiz Tony Silva Mrs. Clara Richardson Simpson James Sipiora Southern Illinois University William E. Southern H. R. Sleeves Dr D. J. Stewart John Stone D. Stotz Dr Walter Suter Dr D. Taphorn C. Thaeler Dr. J. Thrall Dr Robert Timm PriscillaTurnbull R. C. Tweit USNM, National Museum of Natural History Dr R. P. Vari Dr John Visser Dr Harold Voris Dr John Wagner VanWallach Dr Larry Watrous Hugh Watson A. Weisenheimer John S. Weske Dr A. Wiktor Dr David Willard Dr J. Williams Dr Louis Williams Dr R. S. S. Wu Mrs. Yang Chang Man Dr Frank N. Young THE LIBRARY Teresa Acedo Aegean Press Bolerium Books Willard L. Boyd Adelaide K. Bullen William C. Burger Grace Burkholder Colorado River Wildlife Council Dorothy L. Eatough W. Peyton Fawcett Eugene Pieter Feldman Henry Field Dian Fossey Joseph B. Gill Elizabeth-Louise Girardi Willis A. Gortner Kenneth J. Grabowski Raymond Graumlich buzanne Greub Paul Gritis Julian W. Harvey Hirohito, Emperor of Japan Hugh H. litis Robert F. Inger International Cultural Society of Korea Thor Janson Jens Kroger Molly Lee Anne W. Leonard Ernest A. Liner Mrs. Albert Louer Albert G. Lowenthal Kubet Luchterhand Maria Yolanda Manga Gonzcilez Margaret Martling Mr & Mrs. John C. Meeker Mary Metzger Seymour Miller Scott Michael Moody Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Matthew H. Nitecki G. L. Nogr^dy ClaudioOchsenius Virgil L. Pederson Robert B. Pickering Georg Pilleri Mr & Mrs. Oscar Pinsof Mr & Mrs. Philip Pinsof Timothy Plowman Phyllis Rabineau Jose R^mirez-Pulido Charles A. Reed Alfreda C. Rogowski Joyce Saffir Pablo Enrique Sanchez Vindas Robert Jerome Schmitz Wayne Serven Joyce Shaw Farwell Smith Alan Solem Llois Stein Lorain Stevens John Terrell Robert Timm Edward Valauskas James W. VanStone Mrs. Robert T Van Tress Leigh Van Valen Theodore W. Van Zelst Connie G. Westenfelder Benjamin W. Williams Louis O. Williams Dennis Witsberger 49 Sfe FIELD MUSEUM STAFF Willard L. Boyd, President Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Director E. Leiand Webber, B.B.Ad., C.PA.,LH.D., President Emeritus OFFICE of the PRESIDENT Charles T. Buzek, M.A., Project Coordinator, Centennial Directions Deborah Cooke, Secretary to tine President Deborah L. Towers, B.A., Secretary, President's Office OFFICE of the DIRECTOR Alice L. Lewis, Secretary to the Director VICE PRESIDENT, FINANCE & MUSEUM SERVICES JimmieVi/. Croft, M.S., VICE PRESIDENT, DEVELOPMENT Thomas R. Sanders, B.S. Archives Mary Ann Johnson, Archivist Public Relations Sherry L. Isaac, B.A., Manager OIlie M. Hartsfield, M.S., Assistant Shirlana S. Meander, Secretary Bulletin David M. Walsten, B.S., Editor Department of Anthropology Glen H. Cole, Ph.D., Chairnnan and Curator, Prehistory Donald Collier, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus, twiddle and South American Archaeoiogy and Ethnology Bennet Bronson, Ph.D. Associate Curator, Asian Archaeology and Ethnology Robert A. Feldman, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Curator, Andean Archaeology Phillip H. Lewis, Ph.D., Curator, Primitive Art and Melanesian Ethnology Michael E. Moseley, Ph.D., Curator, Middle and South American Archaeology John E. Terrell, Ph.D., Curator, Oceanic Archaeology and Ethnology James W. VanStone, Ph.D., Curator, North American Archaeology and Ethnology Ruth I. Andris, Restorer Lucy Bukowski, B.S., Administrative Assistant Kathleen A. Christon, B.S., Technical Assistant Christine S. Danziger, M.S., Conservator Paul S. Goldstein, M.A., Special Project Assistant Christine T. Gross, B.A., Departmental Assistant Lillian Novak, B.A., Department Registrar Phyllis G. Rabineau, M.A., Collection Manager Millard E. Rada, B.S.. Collections Assistant Loran Schell Recchia, Technical Assistant Sylvia P. Schueppert Clerk-Typist Department of Botany William C. Burger, Ph.D., Chairman and Curator, Vascular Plants Louis O. Williams, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus, Vascular Plants JohnJ. Engel, Ph.D., Associate Curator, Bryology Patricio Ponce de Leon, Ph.D., Associate Curator Cryptogams Timothy C. Plowman, Ph.D., Associate Curator, Vascular Plants Michael O. Dillon, Ph.D., Assistant Curator. Vascular Plants Sylvia M. Feuer-Forster, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Curator Palynology Kerry Alan Barringer, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Curator, Vascular Plants MichaeU. Huft, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Curator Vascular Plants Robin B. Foster, Ph.D., Visiting Research Associate William Ed Grim6, B.A., Manager of Systematic Botanical Collection Christine J. Niezgoda.M.A., Research Assistant RobertG. Stoize, B.S., Collection Manager Pteridophyte Herbarium Herbarium Assistants Stephen P. Dercole, B.S. Peter E. Johnson, M.A. Penny A. Matekaitis, B.S. Alfreida Rehling Preparators: Birthel Atkinson Freddie Robinson Roberta C. Becker, B.A., Department Secretary Mary Lou Grein, B.A., Secretary Department of Geology John R. Bolt, Ph.D., Chairman, and Associate Curator, Fossil Reptiles and Amphibians Rainer Zangerl, Ph D., Curator Emeritus, Fossil Fishes Matthew H. Nitecki, Ph.D., . Curator Fossil Invertebrates EdwardJ. Olsen, Ph.D., Curator Mineralogy William D. Turnbull, Ph.D. Curator Fossil Mammals Bertram G. Woodland, Ph.D., Curator Petrology PeterR. Crane, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Paleobotany R. Lance Grande, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Fossil Fishes Scott H. Lidgard, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Fossil Invertebrates John Clay Bruner, M.S., Collection Manager Vertebrate Paleontology Marthas. Bryant, B.S., Collection Manager Fossil Plants/ Invertebrates Dorothy L. Eatough, M.A., Technical Assistant. Mineralogy/Petrology Gary J. Galbreath, Ph.D., Curatorial and Technical Assistant William F. Simpson, B.S., Chief Preparator Fossil Vertebrates John P. Harris, Fossil Preparator Monica A. Mikulski, A.A., Departmental Secretary Elaine Zeiger, B.Mus., Secretary Department of Zoology Robert K. Johnson, Ph.D., Chairman, and Curator Fishes Emmet R. Blake, D.Sc., Curator Emeritus, Birds Philip Hershkovitz, M.S., Curator Emeritus Mammals Melvin A. Traylor, Jr., A.B., Curator Emeritus, Birds Rupert L Wenzel, Ph.D., Curator Emeritus. Insects Darlene Pederson, Department Secretary Division of Amphibians and Reptiles Robert F. Inger, Ph.D., Curator Hymen Marx, B.S., Curator Harold K. Vbris, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Division Head H. Bradley Schaffer, Ph.D., Research Associate. Sharon B. Emerson, Ph.D., Research Associate, GaryMazurek, B.A., Collection Manager Molly Ozaki, Secretary Technical Assistants: Paul A. Gritis, B.S., Martin Pryzdia, Kregg Salvino, B.S., SO FIELD MUSEUM STAFF Division of Birds John W. Fitzpatrick, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Division Head. David E. Willard, Ph.D., Collection Manager, Jennifer M. Shopland, B.S., Technical Assistant, ■ M. Dianne Maurer, B.A., Assistant Division of Fishes DonaldJ. Stewart, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Division Head, TerryC. Grande, M.S., Collection Ivlanager RobertJ.Schmltz, M.S., Technical Assistant, Division of Insects John B. Kethley, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Division Head, James S. Ashe, Ph.D., Assistant Curator, Daniel Summers, M.S., Collection Ivlanager, HarryG. Nelson, Ph.D., Summer Curator, Technical Assistants: Steve Holzmann, B.S., Bartholomew M. Lysy, B.S,, Cynthia L. Milkint, B.S., Thomas G. Mooney, B.S., Division of Invertebrates G. Alan Solem, Ph.D., Curator and Division Head, Kenneth C. Emberton, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Curator, Margaret L. Baker, B.S., Collection Manager, Linnea M. Lahlum, B.A., Scientific Illustrator, Patricia H. Johnson, Secretary, Division of Mammals Robert M. Timm, Ph.D., Assistant Curator and Division Head, Bruce D. Patterson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator, RobertJ. Izor, B.S., Collection Manager, Technical Assistants: Sophie Andris, Barbara E. Brown, B.S., LisaA. Dorn, M.S. Scientific Support Services Bruce D. Patterson, Ph.D., Chairman John J. Engel, Ph.D., Supen/isor, Scientific Illustrators Rosetta D. Arrigo, M.A. Computer Operations Specialist Zbigniew T. Jastrzebski, M.F.A., Senior Scientific Illustrator Zorica Dabich, B.F.A., Scientific Illustrator Marlene H. Werner, A.A., Scientific Illustrator Clara L. Simpson, M.S., Scientific Illustrator/ Technician Christine J. Niezgoda, M.A., SEM Coordinator Ronald G. Wibel, SEM Technician Fieid Museum Press Timothy C. Plowman, Ph.D., Scientific Editor James W. VanStone, Ph.D., Assistant Scientific Editor Tanisse R. Bezin, Managing Editor Museum Library W. Peyton Fawcett, B.A., Librarian Benjamin W. Williams, B.A., Associate Librarian and Librarian, Rare Books Michele Calhoun, M.S.L.S., Reference Librarian Chih-Wei Pan, M.S., Cataloger Alfreda Rogowski, Acquisitions Library Assistants: MarciaL. Carey, A.B.; Kenneth J. Grabowski, M.S., Raymond Graumlich, M.A., Florence Hales Testa, B.A. Department of Education Carolyn P. Blackmon, B.S., Chairman PhilipC. Hanson, M.S., Head, Group Programs Susan E. Stob, B.A., Head, Public Programs Instructors: Elizabeths. Deis, M.S., Marie S. Feltus, M.A., Edith Fleming, M.A. Janeen Schmidt, B.A., Assistant Instructor Teresa K. LaMaster, M.A., Program Coordinator, Kellogg Foundation Program Developers: Susan M. Curran, B.S., Nancy L. Evans, B.A., Keith Mason, B.A., (field trips) Robert B. Pickering, Ph.D. Jacqueline J. Tumolonis, M.S., MarciaZweig, B.A. Joyce Matuszewich, B.A., Volunteer Coordinator Maija L. Sedzielarz, B.A., Teacher Training Program Coordinator Mary Ann Bloom, B.S., Coordinator: Pawnee Lodge, Place for Wonder Vincent T. Davis, B.A., Loan Coordinator/ Harris Extension Helen H. Voris, M.S., Writer/Researcher, Kellogg Foundation Robert Cantu, Resource Coordinator Sue G. Rizzo, Resource Coordinator Norann C. Michaels Department Secretary Vickie S. Richards Secretary Public Programs Muluemebet Alemayehu, Secretary Adult Education/ Field Trips Department of Exhibition Donald R. Skinner, M.FA., Chairman Harvey M. Matthew, B.S.E.E., M.B.A., Head, Controls Richard T. Pearson, B.A., Head, Production Howard J. Bezin, B.F.A., Supervisor, Exhibit Services John K. Cannon, M.F.A., Supervisor, Production Daniel L. Weinstock, B.FA., Supervisor Production Jeff E. Hoke, B.F.A., Supervisor, Carpenter Shop Designers: Clifford L. Abrams, B.F.A.; Louise M. Belmont, B.A.; Paul L. Bluestone, B.A.; Catherine L. Chmura, B.F.A.; Donald P Emery, B.FA.; Lynn Burnett Hobbs, B.FA., Gail Rogoznica- McKernin, B.FA. Preparators: Tamara K. Biggs, B.A.; Mark Staff Brandl, B.FA.; Carol Brunk- Harnish, B.A.; Barbara A. Burkhardt, B.FA,; RaoulG. Deal, B.FA.; Richards. Faron, B.FA.; Calvin Gray B.A.; Kerry John Haulotte, B.FA.; John Thomas Judd, M.F.A.; David A. Lapaglia; Tom G. Lucas, B.A.; Michael E. Paha, B.FA.; Cameron A. Zebrun, M.FA. Jessica A. Newman, Secretary BeverlyC. Scott, B.S.C, Secretary FINANCE and MUSEUM SERVICES Jimmie W. Croft, M.S., Vice President Patricia N. Phillips, Secretary Department of Financial Operations David Wayne Booz, M.B.A., Manager Alexander R. Friesel, B.G.S., Senior Accountant Gloria T. Hardison, Data Processing Coordinator, Accounts Payable Sheryl L. Heidenreich, B.S., Payroll Coordinator, Grants Accountant Gregory J. Kotulski, Accountant Darlene Brox, Head Cashier Alix M. Alexandre, Accounting Clerk Admission Cashier/Accounting Clerks: Irma Sanchez, Nancy Thomas, Doris 8. Thompson, Dora G. Vallejo Maria Matos-Burns, Student Intern Department of Building Operations Norman P. Radtke, Physical Plant Administrator Gerald J. Struck, B.S., Project Engineer/ Construction Coordinator Andris Pavasars, M.S., Assistant Engineering Division Rudolph Dentino, Chief Engineer Robert J. Battaglia, Assistant Chief Engineer . Stationary Engineers: Earl W. Duncan, Joseph A. Nejasnic, Edward John Penciak, Harry Rayborn, Jr., Raymond D. Roberts, Timothy Tryba -» 51 Assistant engineers Kevin Kirby (left) and Phil Savio pose proudly with one of the l^useum 's giant boilers. Until the late 1960s, the boilers were fueled with coal: today the fuel is gas. The Engineering Division of Building Operations is comprised of a chief en- gineer an assistant chief engineer, six licensed sta- tionary engineers, and five assistant engineers. In addition to operating the high-pressure boilers, they maintain the entire heating-ventilating-air- conditioning environment for the IVIuseum. FIELD MUSEUM STAFF Assistant Engineers: Floyd W. Bluntson, Matthew Alan Covey, Kevin Kirby Donald K. Ross, Larry O'Neal Thompson Gerald C. Keene, Lead Audiovisual Technician Ronald R. Hall, Audiovisual Technician Edward D. Rick, Electrician Malntenanca Division Jacques L. Pulizzi, Supervisor Louis M. Hobe, Plasterer Painters: George Schneider, Jr., Robert D. Vinson Carpenters: Stanley B. Konopka, George C. Petrik, Dale S. Akin, Ernst P. Toussaint Housekeeping Division Obie M. Collins, B.C.S., Executive Housekeeper Ezell Holmes, Group Leader Juanita Wallace, Group Leader Lee Mister, Supervisor Housekeepers: Harold A. Anderson, Cleola Davis, Edward J. Jurzak, Juanita Wallace, Josef M. Duanah, William F. Dullen, Jr., Claudia Felix, Rodolfo Flores, Theodore J. Green, Kwan-Soo Han, B.S., Dewayne Jamison, Don E. Jones, Gerard Kernizan, Jose Mendez, Mary Monoz, Ermite Nazaire, Louis P. Phipps, Lucinda Pierre-Louis, Georgia Pullium, Michael L. Roache, Kettly Rodrigue, John A. Stahl, Leroy P. Thomas, Anthony D. Valentino, Dieudalde M. Victor, Alvin G. Webb Department of General Services Gustav A. Noren Administrator Susan M. Olson Coordinator Pamela Stearns, B.S., Print Production Coordinator Arline E. Sparacino Secretary Division of Photography Ronald Testa, M.F.A., Head Diane Alexander-White, B.A., Photographer Nina M. Cummings, B.A., Photo Researcher Department of Purchasing and Publications Thomas W Geary, B.S., Purchasing Agent Lorraine Petkus, Assistant Publications Roger L. Buelow, Head of Publications Frantz Eliacin, Assistant Kevin Swagel, B.S., l^essenger Lorraine H. Hobe, Secretary Department of Human Resources Arlene Kiel, M.S., Administrator Jill V Knudsen, B.A., Representative Margo Pecoulas, B.A., Benefits Assistant Department of Pubiic Merchandising Barbara I. Stuark, B.S., C.B.A., Manager Barbara Blum, B.S., Assistant t^anager Betty J. Green, Senior Sales Supervisor Dolores E. Marler, Weekend Supervisor Kathy Hardin, Secretary Robert T Chelmowski, Stock Clerk Sales Clerks: Kim Michelle Ambrose, Candy Chin, Gloria Clayton, Helen Cooper, Louis Douyon, Eleanor Fuentes, Dale R. Johnson, B.A., Fern E. Konyar, Marie Jose Perotte, Delisa V. Retrigue, Victor Sanchez, Levertia Short, Louise Waters, Elise Willoughby, Joe Wong Department of Security and Visitor Services Thomas B. Dugan, M.S., t^anager Senior Security Supervisors: Richard H. Leigh, Kathleen Q. McCollum, B.A. Security Supervisors: Arnold C. Barnes, Jr, B.A., Rudolph Gomez, Jose Preciado, Earl M. Singleton III, M.A., Will Washington Clifford Augustus, Senior Security Officer Security Officers: Larry J. Banaszak, Andrew J. Bluntson, Craig Bolton, Willie J. Brimage, Marcia Susan Carr,B.S., Elizabeth W. Castro, B.A., Chantal L. Charles, Chirkina I. Chirkina, Michael A. Croon, B.A., Lionel O. Dunn, Norval Glover, Jesse Gomez, Rosalie J. Gomez, Vanessa K. Goston, Steven A. Grissom, Richard D. Groh, A.A., Norman Hammond, Stanley Haynes, Roberto Hernandez, Michael C. Holt, imelda Jacob, Charles M. Johnson, Michael A. Jones, Eddy Joseph, Mirielle M. Laforest, Howard Langford, Jr, Charles Lozano, Derek McGlorthan, Antonio J. Martin, Francisco G. Mendoza, B.F.A., Cozzetta Morris, Karlyn Morris, Jose Pena, Jaime Piedra, Rosemarie Rhyne, Martlne Rousseau, Emanuel Russell, Jr, Elmer W. Sagehorn, Elkin B.Smith, Jr., Edmund L. Steward, Joe W Vallejo, Otto R. Vilimek, Keith Williams, Clifford Zigler, B.S. Geraldine Havranek, Telephone Receptionist Josie Poole, Coat Check Attendant William F Thompson, Information Booth Attendant Dolores M. Diaz, Secretary DEVELOPMENT Thomas R. Sanders, B.S., Vice President David G. McCreery, M.A., Director of Development Clifford Buzard, M.Div, Planned Giving Officer Thomas D. Wilson, B.M.E., Corporate Development Officer Glenn S. Par6, B.A., Grants Officer Leonard Evans, Records Coordinator Craig J. Byrum, B.A., Research Coordinator Elizabeth A. Moore, Secretary Veitrice L. Thompson, Office Coordinator Anita del Genio, Administrative Assistant Uembership Division Patricia M. Long, M.F.A., (Manager Marilyn E. Cahill, M.A., Assistant h/lanager Jean Stroup Miller, B.A., Special Events Coordinator James N. Davis, Secretary Robert Mijatov, B.S., Cash Processor Alice H. Crawford, CRT Coordinator Mary H. Millsap, Assistant CRT Coordinator Gregory K. Porter, B.A., Booth Coordinator Toby D. Rajput, B.A., Supervisor, Telephone Solicitors Pearl M. Delacoma, Telephone Solicitor Loretta Reyes, Ma;7 Processor Women's Board Division Susan E. VandenBosch, B.A., Coordinator Tours Division Dorothy S. Roder, Ivlanager Pamela Sims, Secretary Division of Printing George C. Sebela, Head Edward D. Czenwin, Printer 53 54 DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY Research Associates Robert J Braidwood, Ph.D., Old World Prehistory James A. Brown, Ph.D., North American Archaeology Jane E. Buikstra, PhD , Physical Anthropology WilliamJ. Conklin. M.A., Peruvian Architecture & Textiles PhillipJ.C. Dark, Ph.D., African Ethnology Richard D. DePuma, Ph.D., Etruscan Archaeology FredR. Eggan, Ph.D., Ethnology Patricia S. Essenpreis, Ph.D., North American Archaeology BillHolm, M.F. A., North American Native Art F.Clark Howell, Ph.D., Old World Prehistory Janet H. Johnson, Ph.D., Middle Eastern Archaeology Maxine R Kleindienst, Ph.D., Old World Prehistory AlanL. Kolata, Ph.D., South American Archaeology & Ethnography W. Frederick Lange, Ph D., MesoAmerican Archaeology DonaldW. Lathrap. Ph.D., South American Archaeology Michael A. Malpass, Ph.D., Andean Archaeology Jorge Gabriel Marcos, Ph.D., South American Archaeology Fred L. Nials, Ph.D., Archaeological Sediments Charles R. Ortloff, M.Ae.E., Peruvian Archaeology Jeffrey Quilter, Ph.D., South American Archaeology George I. Quimby A B./A.M., North' American Archeology & Ethnography Susan Elizabeth Ramirez-Horton, Ph.D., South American Ethnohistory Donalds. Rice, Ph.D., Latin American Prehistory & Ethnohistory Prudence Ellen MacDermod Rice, Ph.D. MesoAmerican Archaeology William Rostoker, Ph.D., Metallurgy RonaldL. Weber, Ph.D., Amazon Basin, Northwest Coast Archaeology and Ethnology RobertL. Welsch, Ph.D., New Guinean/lndonesian Ethnology Field Associate James R. Getz, B A., North American Archaeology Associate Louva Calhoun, B.F.A.. Prehistory DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY Research Associates RobertF. Betz, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Margery C. Carlson, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany RobinB. Foster, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Sidney F., Glassman, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Arturo Gomez-Pompa, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Carol Henry, Ph.D., Cryptogamic Botany Rogers McVaugh, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Luis D.Gomez P., Ph.D., RichardW. Pohl, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Ursula Rowlatt, DM., Abundio Sag^stegui A., Ph.D., RudolfM. Schuster, Ph.D., RolfSinger PhD , Cryptogamic Botany Djaja doel Soejarto, Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany Tod F. Stuessy Ph.D., Phanerogamic Botany James Arthur Teeri, Ph.D., Field Associates Marko Lewis, Botany ing. Agr Antonio Molina R., Botany DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY Research Associates Edgar F.AIIin,M.D., Research Associate Fossil Vertebrates David Bardack, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Herbert R. Barghusen, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Frank M. Carpenter, Sc.D., Research Associate, Fossil Invertebrates Albert Dahlberg,D.D.S., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Robert DeMar, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Robert Dennison, Ph.D.. Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Daniel Fisher, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Invertebrates Arnold Friedman, Ph.D., Research Associate, Geology Lawrence Grossman, Ph.D., Research Associate, Meteoritics Antoni Hoffman, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Invertebrates James A. Hopson, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Riccardo Levi-Setti, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Invertebrates Kubet Luchterhand, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr., Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Frank K. McKinney Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Invertebrates EverettC. Olson, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Leonard B. Radinsky Ph.D., Research Associate. Fossil Vertebrates DavidM. Raup, Ph.D., Research Associate. Fossil Invertebrates J. John Sepkoski, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Invertebrates Paul Sipiera, Ph.D., Research Associate, Meteorites Joseph V Smith, Ph.D., Research Associate, Mineralogy PriscillaTurnbull, M.S., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates Leigh Van Valen, Ph.D., Research Associate, Fossil Vertebrates DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY Research Associates Arthur Allyn.B.S., Insects David R. Cook, Ph.D.. Insects Joel Cracraft, Ph.D., Birds Gustavo A. Cruz, M.Sc, Fishes Sharon Emerson, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Jack Fooden, Ph.D., Mammals KarlJ. Frogner, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Elizabeth-Louise Girardi, Ph.D., Invertebrates David Greenfield, Ph.D., Fishes Harry Hoogstraal. Ph.D., Insects WilliamB. Jeffries, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles A. RossKeister, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles David H. Kistner, Ph.D., Insects George Lauder, Ph.D., Fishes R.Eric Lombard, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Fritzs. Lukoschus, Ph.D., Insects Robert E. Martin, Ph.D., Mammals Lee Miller, Ph.D., Insects W. Vfeiyne Moss, Ph.D., Insects RoyA. Norton, Ph.D., Insects Ronald Pine, Ph.D., Mammals George Rabb, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Charles Reed. Ph.D.. Mammals Howard B. Shaffer, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Jamie Thomerson, Ph.D., Fishes Robert Traub, Ph.D., Insects John Wagner, Ph.D., Insects Richard Wassersug, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Glen Woolfenden, Ph.D., Birds Field Associates James P. Bacon, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Kiew Bong Heang, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Thomas O. Lemke, Ph.D., Mammals EdwardO. Moll, Ph.D., Amphibians and Reptiles Laurie Price Invertebrates Janice K. Street Mammals Williams S. Street Mammals Walter R.Suter, Ph.D., Insects Donald Taphorn, M.A., Fishes Chang Man Yang Amphibians and Reptiles Associates Sophie Ann Brunner Amphibians and Reptiles Teresa Arambula Greenfield, M.A., Fishes Dorothy T Karall Invertebrates HarryG. Nelson, Ph.D., Insects Lorain Stephens Birds Last Call! Kenya Safari September 6 -23, 1985 This Adventurous Tour will take you through diverse habitats featuring rolling savannah plains, and the breathtaking slopes of Mounts Kenya and Kilimanjaro. From safari lodge to luxury camps, this tour makes acces- sible the land of lion, elephant, rhino, and giraffe. It is especially exciting for the photographer since our safari vehicles will provide clear shots of gazelle and zebra as they race across the grassland. Bird lovers will relish the optional extension to the Great Rift Valley (through Octo- ber 1), where over 500 species of birds make their homes around Lake Naivasha alone. Visits to Nairobi and the Masai village of Narok provide a view of Kenyan life as well as an opportunity to collect souvenirs. Depar- ture time is not far distant, so call the Tours Depart- ment now. Egypt February, 1986 Explore Egypt, the land of ancient mysteries. Journey from bustling Cairo, with its renowned Egyptian Museum, its mosques, minarets, and markets, into the ghostly silence of ruined cities, splendrous temples, and noble tombs. The 5,000-year-old Step Pyramid, the mas- sive stone ruins of Kamak, and the Colossi of Memnon all beckon the curious and inspire respect for a culture as old as Western civilization itself As you cruise the Nile, observe age-old scenes along the shore, for life in the fer- tile Nile Valley has changed but little. We encourage early enrollment, since spaces fill quickly for this breathtaking journey into the past. Baja California March 9-23, 1986 Less Than 50 Miles South of the U.S. -Mexico border begins a peaceful world of subtropical beauty — the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California). Over 600 miles long, this gulf is a paradise for marine vertebrate and invertebrate life — and for those of us who enjoy its study. Field Museum members will have the opportunity to know this sea of The Pacific Northwest Explorer wonders in a voyage that will all but complete the circumnavigation of the peninsula of Baja California. Until 1973 road travel in Baja California required rug- ged vehicles and rugged souls. Even now less than 5 per- cent of the coast is accessible by road. And although for decades fishermen and scientists have found the region a treasure house of riches, it has escaped popular attention. In the 1970s world interest in whales grew. At the same time there was a dramatic increase in the numbers of Cali- fornia gray whales, and today each year from December through April, 15,000 gray whales visit Baja's Pacific lagoons to breed, give birth, and nurture their young. It was our desire to organize a Field Museum tour to this area. All that was needed was a small, maneuverable, comfortable ship. We found it — the Pacific Northwest Explorer — and in January 1981 our first Field Museum circumnavigation from San Felipe to San Diego began. There were pelicans and hummingbirds, strange endemic plants, lovely scenery, and whales and dolphins beyond expectation. During this and the next two voyages we encountered not only many gray whales, but also fin, humpback, sei, and, the largest of all — blue whales. At San Benitos we walked among huge "hauled-out" colo- nies of northern elephant seals. And we saw more than 130 different birds and 120 fish species. -> .»♦»•.♦« — - *«.*#< Now is your chance to experience the solemnity and the life, the aridness and the wealth, the starkness and the beauty that is Baja California. Now is your chance to join Field Museum's 1986 tour to Baja California, to be led by Dr. Robert K. Johnson, curator of Fishes at Field Museum. Dr. Johnson is a highly experienced tour leader. This will be his fourth trip around Baja California. Special Expedi- tions, a division of Lindblad TVavel, operators of the ship to be used, will provide several additional naturalists whose expertise will further enrich our experience. Our home for the voyage is the one-class, fully air-conditioned 143.5-foot MV Pacific Northwest Explorer, built in 1980. Early expression of interest and reservations are advisable. For tour prices, itineraries, or other tour information, please write the Tours Office, at Field Museum, or call: 322-8862. We would be pleased to put your name on our special mailing list. The Island World of Indonesia March 21 - April 8, 1986 Composed of Thousands of islands forming a vast archi- pelago, Indonesia is an ancient land of gentle peoples, rich and varied cultural traditions, and tropical landscapes of unsurpassed beauty. With its panoply of religions, art forms, rituals, and dances found nowhere else in the world, Indonesia confronts the visitor with a fascinating past; its history, myth, and legend are often inseparable. On an itinerary which has been carefully planned to in- clude well-known sites as well as remote, verdant isles, we will travel aboard the ship Illira to destinations of immense beauty. The Great Silk Route of China May 21 -June 15, 1986 Our Flight from Chicago is direct to Tokyo. Then on to Beijing. After several days there, viewing such marvels as the Forbidden City and the 98-acre Tien An Men Square, we go on to Urumqi, Dunhuang, Lanzhou, Xian, Shang- hai, and Guilin. Xian is of particular interest to archaeol- ogy buffs for here we find the vast life-size terra cotta army discovered as recently as 1974. We return to the U.S. via Hong Kong. China's lamed Great Wall Alaska June 1986 Visit Alaska in Summer! Explore magnificent waterways and vast parklands abundant with many species of birds. At Sitka, a marine wildlife rafting trip gets you started on this spectacular ornithological tour. From Juneau, a trip on the Mendenhall River offers unusual wetland viewing. From Anchorage one easily reaches Potter Marsh Bird Re- fuge and the Eagle River. Denali National Park (formerly called McKinley National Park) and the Glacier Bay cruise are special highlights. We conclude our trip with three days on St. George Island. Few people have visited this is- land, which boasts spectacular birding. For more informa- tion contact the Tours Department. Grand Canyon/Colorado River Rafting Trip August 22 -31 1986 Well Traverse the entire 300-mile length of the Grand Canyon by two motorized rubber rafts. Nearly 200 rapids, both large and small, make the journey thrilling, but you needn't be a "rough rider" to join in the fun. We will sleep on sandy beaches, swim in Colorado tributaries, hike to places of unusual geologic and anthropologic interest, sometimes through the most pleasant and enchanting stream beds and valleys, at times along waterfalls. Dr. Matthew H. Nitecki, curator of fossil invertebrates, will be our tour leader. Participants may eru-oU now with a de- posit of $50 per person. For further information or to be placed on our mailing list, call or write Dorothy Roder. Tours Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: 322-8862. VOLUNTEERS Neil Abarbanell Paul Adier Gretchen Ainley Cathy Ag none Dolores Arbanas Arden Frederick Jacqueline Arnold Terry Asher Margaret Axelrod Gail Bahl Beverly Baker Dennis M. Bara Lucia Barba Gwen Barnett Warren Batkiewicz Winifred Batson Dodie Baumgarten Virginia Beatty Stuart Becher Catherine Becker William C. Bentley Lawrence Berman Elaine Bernstein Blanche Blumenthal Sandra Boots William Berth Hermann Bowersox Charles Braner William Briggs Carol Briscoe Carolyn Brna Irene Broede Linda Brown Sophie Ann Brunner Janet Bry Karen Bryze Teddy Buddington Mary Ann Bulanda Laurel Bunce James Byrd Nancy Burke John Burnett Audrey Burns Eleanor Byman Joseph Cablk Kathy Cagney Louva Calhoun Lisa Camillo Linda Celesia Donna Campeol Deborah Carey Sol Century Michael Chaneske Margaret Chung Trace Clark-Petravick Barbara Clausen Marilee Cole Charlotte Cram Connie Crane Marie Cuevas Jeyson Daniel Margaret Davis Margaret DeJong Eleanor DeKoven Jeannette DeLaney Carol Deutsch Violet Diacou Marianne Diekman Diane Dillon Phyllis Dix Patricia Dodson Millicent Drower John E. Dunn Stanley Dvorak Carolyn Eastwood Linda Egebrecht Ruth Egebrecht Anne Ekman Agatha Elmes Bonnie Engel Sara Erve Jean Ettner Nancy Evans Nancy Fagin Martha Farwell Ingrid Fauci Dolores Fetes Louise Fields Marie FischI Michael Fisher Ruth Fouche Maria Fox Brad Foxen Gerda Frank Richard Frank Arden Frederick Ruth Fritz Janine Fuerst Jane Fulkerson Shirley Fuller Miriam Futransky Bernice Gardner Suzanne Garvin Andrea Gaski Peter Gayford Donald Gemmel Patricia Georgouses Ann Gerber Marty Germann Audrey Gilman Phyllis Ginardi Elizabeth Louise Girardi Delores Glasbrenner Caria Goldsmith Halina Goldsmith Miriam Goldsmith Paul Goldstein Melanie Goldstine Bea Goo Evelyn Gottlieb Julie Gray Loretta Green Henry Greenwald Cecily Gregory Mary Lou Grain Ann B. Grimes Karen Grupp Sylvia Haag Michael J. Hall Catherine Handelsman Judith Hannah Patricia Hansen Nancy Harlan Curtis M. Harrell Calvin Harris Mattie Harris Nancy Hartnett OIlie Hartsfield Noreen Haslinger Shirley Hattis Margaret Helbing Marianne Hermann Audrey Hiller Clarissa Hinton James Hitz Peggy Hoberg Harold Honor Zelda Honor Scott Houtteman Claxton Howard Ruth Howard Doy Howland Ellen Hyndman Delores Irvin Connie Jacobs Doug Jacobs Paul Jensen Micki Johns Mabel S. Johnson Nancy Jonathan John Jones Malcolm Jones Carol Kacin Elizabeth Kaplan Tamara Kaplan Dorothy Karall Mansura Karim Dorothy Kathan Shirley Kennedy Julian Kerbis Barbara Keune Joyce Kieffer Dennie Kinzig Alida Klaud Susan Knoll Connie Koch Glenda Kowalski Tom Ladshaw Anita Landess Carol Landow Barbara Latondress Shun Lee Marion Lehuta Anne Leonard Frank Leslie Joseph F Levin Laura Lewis James Lowers Mary Jo Lucas Lucy Lyon Ruth Luthringer Susan Lynch Gabby Margo Barbara Marion James A. Marshall Margaret Martling Clifford Massoth Britta Mather Selwyn Mather David Matusik Marita Maxey Melba Mayo Faye McCray Carole McMahon Louise McEachran Withrow Meeker IxtaccihuatI Menchaca Beverly Meyer Jerry f\/1eyer Robyn Michaels Lauren Michals Rosanne Miezio Lenore Miller Barbara Milott Alices. Mills Star Mitcheff Daniel Monteith Carolyn Moore Holly Morgan Eileen Morrow George Morse Charlotte Morton Richard Moser Anne Murphy Charlita Nachtrab Mary Naunton Jean Nelson John B. Nelson Mary S. Nelson Louise Neuert Natalie Newberger Jennifer Newman Ernest Newton Herta Newton Doris Nitecki Edwardine Nodzenski Sandra Nuckolls Elaine Olfson Randolph Olive Dorothy Oliver Lorain S. Olsen Forman Onderdonk Joan Opila Marianne O'Shaughnessy Gary Ossewaarde China Oughton Anita Padnos Michelle Parker Raymond Parker Susan Parker Frank M. Paulo Christine Pavel Dagmar Persson Mary Anne Peruchini Dorothea Phipps-Cruz Philip Pinsof Charles Plasil Jean Porretto Steffi Postol Georgianne Prather Jacquelyn Prine Jean Pritzger Naomi Pruchnik Martin Pryzdia Sylvia Rabinkoff Elizabeth Rada Pamela Rahmann James Rakowsky Lee Rapp Marie Rathslag Ann Ratajczyk Ernest Reed Sheila Reynolds Henry Rich Lucille Rich EllyRipp Stephen Robinet Rhonda Rochambeau William E. Roder Lolita Rogers Mary Anne Rogers William Rom Barbara Roob Beverly Rosen Sarah Rosenbloom Marie Louise Rosenthal Anne Ross Ann Rubeck Helen Ruch Diana Rudaitis Lenore Ruehr Janet Russell Gladys Ruzich Vivian Sadow Kregg Salvino Linda Sandberg Susan Sane Marian Saska Everett Schellpfeffer Marianne Schenker Sara Scherberg Carol Schneider Sylvia Schueppert Thelma Schwartz Jean Seller Nicholas Selch Florence Seiko Troyes Shaw Jessie Sherrod Judith Sherry Abraham Simon Joan Skager James Skorcz Linda Skorodin Daniel Snydacker Beth Spencer Irene Spensley Tamara Spero Llois Stein Robyn Strauss Susan Stoize Mary Alice Sutton Beatrice Swartchild Gloria Taborn Catherine Tanner Elisabeth Taylor JaneThain Lorraine Thauland OsaTheus Patricia Thomas Cathy TIapa Mark Tokarz Alice Tulley Janet Ujvari Ann Underriner Karen Urnezis Lilian Vanek Dalia Varanka Paula-Ann Vasquez-Wasserman Rita Veal Barbara Vear Virginia Vergara Charles Vischulis David Walker Sue Walker-Waber Maxine Walter Harold Waterman Gerda Watson Robbie Webber Alice Wei David Weiss Mary Wenzel Ann West Irma Wetherton Cynthia Whalen Lisa Wibel James Wilber Sarah Wilkinson CharWiss Norma Witherbee Reeva Wolfson Zinette Yacker Roy Yanong Ben Zajac Larry Zicari 55 :iTi of Natural History rship Department It Road at Lake Shore Drive , II 60605-2499 0017195-00 Miss Marita Maxey 7411 North Greenview Chicago* IL 60626 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN September 1985 y y The Arts of Mexico: September 21 Fiesta de Mexico: September 22 Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board OF ■R^usTEES James J. O'Connor, Chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Annour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Blocl< HI Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Earl L. Neal Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom Johns. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life TRUSTEES Harry O. Bercher Bovven Blair Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosla Clifford C. Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood CORRECTION The July/August issue of the Bulletin (biennial report) gave an incorrect first name for the late Julian B. Wilkins, former trustee of Field Museum who died in 1984. The editor deeply regrets this mistake and tenders his apologies to Mr. Wilkins 's family, to the Board of Trustees, and to readers of the Bulletin. CONTENTS September 1985 Volume 56, Number 8 September Events at Field Museum Founders' Council — Serving and Learning by Charles T. Buzek Assistant to the President The World of Agustin Victor Casasola, Mexico 1900-1938 Exhibit Opens September 12 The Beginning of Life by Matthew H. Nitecki Curator of Fossil Invertebrates In Quest of Starlings by William J. Beecher 16 Founders' Council Member Honored 24 by Alan Solem Curator of Invertebrates Field Museum Tours 27 COVER Reconstruction ofradiocyathid, from the Lower Cambrian period (about 550, 000, 000 years old) . The primitive organism, ranging from about two to six inches in length, was representative of an extinct group of earliest skeletal organisms, possibly belonging to the calcareous algae: it may also represent a failed evolutionary experiment. See "The Beginning of Life. " page 7. Drawing by Zbigniew Jastrzebski, senior scientific illustrator Open Letter to Field Museum Members Field Museum is fortunate indeed for the many thou- sands of Members who have continued to support it through the years. Thanks to these devoted friends, the institution has been able to vigorously pursue its primary goals of preserving, increasing, and dis- seminating knowledge of natural history. Since 1979, the Museum has striven to keep membership fees at the same level. Rising costs, how- ever, now make it necessary for the Museum to raise those fees. Asof September 1, 1985, individual member- ships will be offered at $30, family memberships at $35. In appreciation for their loyal support, the Museum is offering current Members the opportunity to renew at the prior rate ($20 for individual, $25 for family memberships) through December 31. Mem- berships that expire after this date may be "pre- renewed" at the old rate through December 31. The benefits gained through Field Museum membership are numerous and lasting: from dis- counts on classes, tours, and purchases to the opportu- nity to discover — or rediscover — the exciting world of natural history. We cherish your continued interest and look forward to having you with us in the years to come. Field Museum cfSatural History Bulleiirt (USPS 898-940I is published monihly, except combined July August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago. IL 60605-2496. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessanly reflect the policy of Field Museum Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent lo Membership Depanmeni. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 lo Field Museum of Natural Hisior>', Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago. IL 60605-2496. ]SSN:001 5-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago. Illinois T Events Family Feature The Arts of Mexico Saturday, September 21, 1:00pm. Ecology Hall, second floor. Bursts of colored flame lighting the Mexican night sky explode on film to delight the whole family. Follow Marcelo Ramos and his family as they prepare the firework display for a fiesta in Marcelo Ramos — the Firework Maker's Art. Delight in Pedro Linares — Papier-Mache Artist and understand the traditions this maestro's art serves. Explore the art and architecture of the Aztecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Toltecs, combined with murals of the 20th- century Mexican artist Diego Rivera. Develop your own picture of the life of America's original inhabi- tants by viewing the film Mexico Before Cortez. This program is free with museum admission and no tickets are required. Mexican Folklohc Dance Company of Chicago performs Sunday, Sept. 22. Fiesta de Mexico Sunday, September 22, 12:00 noon-4 :00pm An afternoon of festive dancing, artists at work, and activities for the whole family. In celebration of Mexican Independence Day and the opening of the special exhibit "Agustin Victor Casasola, Mexico, 1900- 1938," Field Museum presents Fiesta de Mex- ico. Come hear the music and dance of Mexico. The lively rhythms of "El Mariachi Guadalajara" will accompany the colorful ballet folkloric by "The Mexican Folkloric Dance Company of Chicago, Inc." Selections include dances from northern Mexico, Veracruz, and Jalisco. All activities are free with Museum admission. s. CONTINUEDO J CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3 Events Edivard E. Ayer Film Series Thursdays in September, 1:30pm James Simpson Theatre September 5: Great Railway Journeys: The Long Straight September 12: /« the Sweat of the Sun September 19: Hawaii Revisited September 26: Margaret Mead: Taking Note Mexican dancers will be accom- panied by El t^ahachi Guadala- jara on Sunday, September 22. .'' %-\^ I B> ikn^mm September Weeicend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed, below are only a few of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. September 1 2 :00pm. China 's Wondrous Animals (slide lecture). Meet the real and imaginary ani- mals of China and the lore and significance attached to them. 8 12:30pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 14 1 : 30pm. Tibet Today (slide lecture) . Visit Lhasa and other towns now open to tourists. 2:00pm. Traditional China (tour). Examine the imagery and craftsmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 15 21 22 29 1 :00pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. 2:00pm. Chinese Ceramic Traditions (tour). Explore 6,000 years of ceramic art from our permanent exhibit. 12:30pm. Museum Safari (tour). Seek out big game from Africa and mummies from ancient Egypt as you travel through Field Museum exhibits. 1 :00pm. Welcome to the Field (tour). Enjoy a sampling of our most significant exhibits as you explore the scope of Field Museum. These public programs are free with museum admission and tickets are not required. The Founders' Council Serving and Learning by Charles T. Buzek Assistant to the President ield Museum thrives because many people give. Time, money, expertise are generously given by a devoted few to move this great Museum along in its day-to-day tasks. In the spirit of the old Chinese proverb that opines "it is better to light a candle than to curse the darkness," the Founders' Council of the Field Museum stands annually with a very timely "match." The most overt expression of this "match" is the annual gift each member makes to the Museum. A more subtle aspect comes from the support and advocacy that results as the Council introduces its members to the varied and complicated tasks of the institution. Through lectures, dinners, and tours, members have a chance to meet and hear the people who are "keepers of the flame." Recently, Above: Thomas Eyerman makes in- troductory remarks in advance of ttie lecture whiclt was among the highlights of the Founders' Council Egyptian Night. Right: Founders' Coun- cil members en/oying the luncheon break which linked the talks given by Dr Michael Dillon and Dr John Fitz- patrick. Photos by Ron Testa. members met for a luncheon in the curatorial offices of Dr. Wil- liam Burger, chairman of the Botany Department, after hear- ing Dr. Michael Dillon of that department recount his work in Peru. They then adjourned to a meeting with Dr. John Fitzpatrick, Chairman of the Department of Zoology, who had co-authored a re- cently published, highly acclaimed work on the Florida scrub-jay. On another occa- sion, Frank Yurco, a lecturer at the Museum, gave a fasci- nating talk on Ancient Egypt. As a special amenity, the evening offered members the opportunity to dine among the splendors of our Egyptian collection. They enjoyed an excellent meal while flanked by mummies, statuary, and tomb facades. Future Council plans involve a trip to Starved Rock and a dinner sym- posium, "Field Museum: Ambassador to the World," spot- lighting the importance of Peru with respect to our collections. ?/A\♦.^v:VAV*%*.'A^^\♦.v/:v/\*-^v7/.^\**^vV'AV^%^v^^^^^ The World of Agustin Victor Casasola, Mexico, 1900-1938 Thursday, September 12 through Sunday, November 3 One of the most important documentary photographers of the early 20th century, Agustin Victor Casasola, was a Mexican jour- nalist who used photography as the most effective means of communicating with the largely illiterate Mexican populace. His life's work coincided with a period of turbulent social, political, and economic change in his country (1900-38), spanning the era between the government of Porfirio Diaz through the revolution to the creation of the modern Mexican nation. This exhibit of his photographic works offers a unique opportunity to better under- stand the cultural mythology and political realities involved in the heritage of today's Mexico. The importance of Casasola to the visual documentation of Mexican history is comparable to that of Matthew Brady with re- spect to the American Civil War. This exhibi- tion is the first major retrospective of Casasola with prints supplied through the Archive Casasola, an official institution of the Mexican government. Complementing the exhibit are two days of activities featuring the living, contemporary arts of Mexico: "The Arts of Mexico," on Sat- urday, September 21, and "Fiesta de Mexico," on Sunday, September 22. For details of these activities, free with Museum admission, see page 3. General of the federal army. Rodrigo Paliza, March 1914 (detail). '/,* » 4 4 \*»'. V 4 . • I \V»V > • 4 4 \V.»i ^ • 4 » \***.V ^ 4 . V*k».»/,^ .XV»*V* A 4 4 *^»».*# 4/- . •."•^•A •/a %'»*«4#* •/-*. %♦-•.#- [ i^^^^B President of the Mex- ican republic, Alvaro Obregon, Hortensia, ?^»-"3; Mexico City 1921. Sanitary and transportation workers ^ kv/f/i f/ie Mexican Regional Confederation ' ^ of IVorters, Mexico City. 1922. Music hall dancers. Mexico Cily. ca. 1928. Federal soldier with wile and child. 1913- 14. 'Archive Casasola. Mexico The Beginning of Life by Matthew H. Nitecki Curator of Fossil Invertebrates Photos Courtesy of the Author T JLh( .here is a word the meaning of which has always eluded man: life. The understanding of the nature of life has been the most serious dilemma in the long history of human inquiry into the abyss of the unknown. When a creature not quite yet a man crawled from the cave of his unconsciousness, he faced the eternal tyranny of death, a cessation of his individual life. The first deliberate effort to defy nature must have been caused by the discovery of the omnipotence of death. Man learned that there was no freedom, that his short sojourn on Earth was clearly defined, and that forces he could not control — the inhuman, the hostile, blind fury of the unconscious universe — will over- power every man and forever banish him to eternal darkness and nothingness. In his fear, man turned to the examination of the past. The past appears motionless, unchanging — there- fore secure and hence beautiful. Man began to see life as part of a larger condition of oneness with nature, and with life that appeared to him eternal and divine. Thus, man began to think of life's origin. The problems of the origin of life have been the most unyielding stumbling blocks in the intellectual growth of man. Political, religious, and philosophical systems have been built upon the various hypotheses of life's origin in general, and of man's in particular Wars, atrocities, pain, savage and brutal deeds were inflicted upon fellow men in the name of different doctrines of life and human origin. It is only quite recently that man has attempted analytical and rational studies of life. Perhaps it is only in our era, possibly because of Charles Darwin, that such inquiries are possible. Per- haps only our revolutionary time, with changing mor- als, art, patterns of behavior, a whole gamut of social change and scientific adventure, could foster a suitable atmosphere for such studies. Origin of Life All studies, including the study of life's origins, change continuously, sometimes sweepingly. Medieval philosophers knew that life was created in the days of Methuselah. The eighteenth- and nineteenth-century geologists believed that life was eternal, perhaps begin- ning when the world itself was created. Darwin had life evolve. Twentieth-century postulates considered life on Earth to have originated from inorganic matter via electric discharge, ultraviolet radiation, or other magical sparks. All human activity, including scientific beliefs and works, reflects the larger system of beliefs of a particu- lar culture. For this reason no scientific or religious world views are permanent, and today's dogmas be- come tomorrow's cobwebs of antiquity. One such mid- twentieth century subculture is the study of the origin of life, which occupies, as ever, the finest intellects among the biological, geological, biochemical, and astronomical disciplines. Why did man begin rational investigations of nature and origin of life so late in his development? Because the problems were too difficult, the chemistry of living processes unknown, and no information on the early condition of the Earth was available. Nor were studies of other planets made for comparison with early Earth. Thus, it was not until the mid-twentieth century that we began the experimentation and the buildup of rational models of life's origin. And we do not yet know much about it. It is remarkable that the origin of life, known to pious men with such rock-solid certainty for ages, is the least understood phenomenon in biology. Whether defined in terms of molecular biology, biochemistry, or paleontology, life is not only qualities, states, or experiences, but processes that because of their complexities defy our comprehension. Whether these processes define chemical interaction, genetic in- heritance, or evolutionary change, they are still pro- cesses. At what state of complexity a process should be referred to as living cannot be easily answered. It also cannot be answered whether a molecule, a protein, or a gene is living or not. There are, moreover, other uncertainties about the definition of life. It is believed that life is an end result of a series of events that, when understood, will make life understood. Without ever questioning that life in general follows the same laws that control the arrange- TO VACUUM ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE COOLING CONDENSER Stanley L. Miller's 1953 apparatus for producing amino acids under possible primitive Earth conditions. 10 merits of these events, what is generally implied is that once these laws of events are understood, life will be ultimately understood. But these claims may not be correct, because of the entirely different levels of com- plexity, elements of chance, unpredictability, and acci- dents that may require altogether different models and different statistics to comprehend. We know possible pathways through which life could have proceeded. We think that life, once started, has been continuous, without interruption. We know that the individual organism dies, but that the germ cell continues on and is eternal. Life itself appears immor- tal, continuous, continually changing. We have gained a realization that life is a process, and that this process takes place when conditions are right. Life is a process that has capacities to reproduce, to change, and to re- produce these changes. However, what is passed from one generation to another is information. Organisms do not change; information does. It has been generally assumed that organic compounds formed after the Earth formed — more accurately, after the crust was formed. However, the discovery of amino acids in meteorites offers an alternative explanation that the complex organic com- pounds on Earth may have accreted at low temperature and at the time prior to, or simultaneous with, the formation of the Earth. Astronomical calculations suggest that the lumi- nosity of the sun four billion years ago was only 60 percent of what it is now. Such low luminosity would produce less heat for the early Earth, and unless some greenhouse effects were operating, the temperatures at the beginning of the Earth were below the freezing point of water. It is possible that the Earth during its early history lay under mile-thick ice. It follows that the "higher" forms of life capable of synthesizing from simple compounds all of their needed materials (autotrophs) evolved before the depletion of available organic matter. These organisms, through their metabolic activities, produced the oxygen in the atmosphere, which in turn controlled the evolu- tion of organisms capable of living in an oxygenated environment (aerobic forms). However, solar radiation could also cause the atmosphere to be oxygenated by decomposing water and carbon dioxide. From geologic and biologic considerations it is assumed that the first organisms did not require free oxygen to maintain life (they were anaerobic) and that they obtained their nourishment from the available organic compounds (they were heterotrophs). It is safe to say that great revolutions (which may have lasted for vast periods of time and appear revolu- tionary only from a distance) — the origin of life, self- nourishment, and synthesis of chemical compounds with the aid of radiant energy (autotrophism and photosynthesis) — all occurred long before the first fos- sil record, some 3.5 billion years ago. The other major events — the emergence of sexuality, respiration, and the formation of multicellularity — all occurred later, yet before the appearance of the abundant fossil record of plants and animals. The final inventions of animals, invasion of land, and great complexities of social evolu- tion occurred at an accelerated tempo in the later part of Earth's history. The First Organism What was the first organism? We can of course specu- late, but we will probably never know exactly. The dif- ference between living and nonliving may be semantic where the earliest organisms are concerned, and it may be impossible to decide whether the fossil represents a living or nonliving entity. The exact date of the origin of life cannot be known. Since life cannot be defined with mathematical rigor, the time at which it first started de- pends upon our definition of life, and that date may therefore include a considerable period of time. The assumption made that all living organisms are truly related to one another by common ancestry can- not any longer be accepted literally. It surely seems reasonable to assume that if life development was grad- ual, more than one molecule or assemblage "evolved" to be living. If this was the case, there could have been many "first" organisms. There is no reason to doubt that early organic molecules were also subject to change and experimentation, and many systems under suitable conditions crossed the boundary of "living." The early organisms were unlikely to possess com- plicated anatomical, biochemical, physiological, enzymatic, and other tools to deal with fluctuating environments. We generally assume that the first organism was small, uncomplicated, and without any special organs or apparatuses. It had no powers of locomotion, no abilities to perform complex biochemical or physiolog- ical functions. Hence, it could not have been an auto- troph, which is capable of combining simple, inert matter into complex, living, high-energy matter. There- fore, early life could not have flourished in soil, on ex- posed surfaces of crystal faces, or even in protected shallow marine pools. Early life appears to have been necessarily restricted to more protected, less changing, less fluctuating, stabler areas of the surface of the Earth. The ability to cope with a changing, unstable, or fluctuating environment requires a mechanism for adjustment to these changes. In order for an organism to live in fresh water, it must be able to control diffusion and interchange with the environment; in order to withstand effects of drying in the air, protection of water content has to be assured. There is no need to cite many examples of locomotion, control of temperature change, gas pressure, radiation, daily changes. Generalized scheme of Earth's history ("b.y. " = billion years). Draw- ing by Zbigniew Jastrzebski. II Reconstruction of Precambrian shoreline some two billion years ago The structures are stromatolites that reached several feet In height. Similar stromatolltic heads are known from certain Isolated areas of today s oceans. Drawing by Zblgniew Jastrzebskl. 12 illumination, and so on; suffice it to say that organisms require abilities (or apparatuses) for control of these changes in the environment. The rate of evolution is greatly influenced by pop- ulation size, geographic dispersal, isolation, and the complexities of organisms. The simplicity of early life was its built-in conservatism. Little dispersal was pos- sible at the early period of life; hence, slow rates of evolutionary innovations in a great part of the Pre- cambrian resulted. Over the Hill? The possibility, however, exists that early organisms on Earth had more abilities. Andre Lwoff, the great French biologist, suggested that evolution is a downhill race. He visualized the first life as capable of total synthesis, and he saw living organisms as having lost most of their synthetic abilities. Although it is true that animals are dependent upon plants, the idea that the proto- organisms were superstars, capable of all synthesis, has been discarded by most investigators for the reason that such organisms would have to originate outside of the solar system or at least somewhere other than Earth. Yet the fossil organisms are either the autotrophic blue- green algae or bacteria (the blue-greens appear to differ from bacteria only in their photosynthetic activities; hence, they are now known as cyanobacteria); their living representatives today certainly possess these biochemical powers. How was food provided for the first organisms? Was the sea indeed full of the diluted soup of organic molecules, and did the organism move to a new area as it depleted its immediate surroundings of nutrients? Or was there movement of water that carried "food" to the organism? Were there convection cells, changes in pressure and water current; and how did organisms be- have in them? Or perhaps there is no need for nor any evidence of hot dilute soup of organic matter. Perhaps the inorganic molecules became the first "organisms" that learned survival and propagation, and perhaps the inorganic molecules became the "first" life. Maybe all the early organic matter was made by and from inor- ganic molecules, just as organic matter must be made outside of the solar system. Finally, the first inorganic organisms may have had an altogether different bio- chemistry from the later organic organisms. Clays with- out carbon, living organisms without organic matter! Precambrian Geologic time is commonly divided into Precambrian and Phanerozoic. Phanerozoic is the time of evident life. Cambrian, the first Phanerozoic period, began about 600 million years ago. The Earth is considered to be about 4.5 billion years old; therefore, the Pre- cambrian encompasses approximately four billion years, or nine-tenths of all the Earth's history — an unbelievably long period of time! There are two reasons for a distinct Cambrian- Precambrian boundary. One is that fossil animals with hard skeletal elements are found above and slightly below this separation line. A second is that Cambrian rocks often rest upon Precambrian with great unconformity or hiatus of the record. Generally, Pre- cambrian rocks are either remnants of old worn down mountains or continental shields. Precambrian rocks are generally more twisted, deformed, and upturned than younger rocks. In many parts of the world the Precambrian consists of granites, deformed crystalline metamorphics, and other igneous rocks. In other places there is a great thickness of sedimentary and volcanic rocks and, except for the absence of fossil animals, they are not substantially different from rocks of later periods. The oldest fossils so far known are 3.5 billion years old. Therefore, life has been present on Earth for at least the last seven-ninths of the Earth's existence; only one-fourth of the Earth's history appears to have been lifeless. It is, however, possible that eventually we will find life in still older rocks. The older the rocks, the more rarely they appear at the surface. But what we know now is that major events in the history of life took place prior to the Cambrian period. It was an immeasurably long time, representing the first six-sevenths of the known history of life. The tempo of biological inventiveness and change was incredibly sluggish, yet all major developments of multicellularity of plants and animals, origin of sexuality and social organization, and all the complexities of life known to- day took place in the Precambrian. Ironically, individual death also originated in the Precambrian. Individual nonaccidental death is un- known among one-celled organisms, since they con- tinuously divide. (It may be that the first organisms continue to live today! ) Such death is known only to those larger organisms that are differentiated into body cells and sex cells; the wages of sex are death! In such forms the sex cells, when put to use, are eternal, as all microbes and blue-green algae are, and only the vehicle of genetic continuity, the organism it- self— the body — dies. Death thus is a necessity of life, a part of growth of the sex cell, which discards its bodily "booster" after its journey has been completed. All of the Precambrian rocks are immersed in the sea of time, the sea that is almost opaque to examina- tion, with most traces of life permanently obliterated. Rocks yield but a few of their mysteries. Occasionally "windows" are found that allow us a closer examina- tion of Precambrian seas. We have five such major win- dows into the Precambrian life. The oldest fossils, representing actual anatomical entities 3.5 billion years old, appear in the Warrawoona Group of Western Australia. The second are simple spheroids and stromatolites from the Fig Ttee Forma- tion in South Africa. The next significant record of Precambrian fossils is the much younger Gunflint For- mation of Ontario, about two billion years old. From this time on a number of other, more or less important finds are scattered through the Precambrian; algal megafossils are found in Montana; diverse cyanobac- teria and possibly the first eukaryotes in California. But the best studied is the Bitter Springs flora of Australia, only about one billion years old. The animals from Ediacara Hills in Australia are the youngest group; in fact they are just below the Cambrian. The Oldest Record of Life The oldest rocks found on the surface of the Earth are meteorites, almost all of which are 4.6 billion years old. When we assume that meteorites and the Earth formed at the same time, and that the time was always uni- form, then 4.6 b.y. must also be the highest limit of the age of the Earth. The oldest terrestrial rocks from the shores of West Greenland and from Zimbabwe, in Africa, are around 3.8 b.y. old. These, particularly the Isua supracrustal samples from Greenland, are now well known, though their interpretation is still con- troversial. The Isua rocks contain banded iron forma- tions and an isotopically light form of carbon. This has suggested to some researchers that by the Isua time, photosynthesis was already occurring, implying the presence of microbes. However, such interpretations are dependent on a particular model of banded iron formation and on an assumed absence of other than a biological dissociation of water, and a subsequent re- lease of oxygen. Thus, while the Isua rocks attest to the antiquity of the Earth's crust, they tell us little about the earliest life. The first unquestioned evidence of life comes from the Warrawoona Group in North Point Barite Mine in Western Australia. This consists of at least five different kinds of cells, but all appear to be cyanobacteria. These microbes were extracted from certain kinds of silica and have a distinct filamentous habit with a possible pres- ence of cell membranes. They are extremely rare, not well preserved, and difficult to assign to any group; this is about all that can be said about them. The Fig Ti-ee Formation The second oldest known microscopic fossil organisms, found in the Fig Tree Formation, come from black cherty rocks (types of silica) that are about three billion years old. They already consist of cells and were almost certainly photosynthetic; they are therefore already on 13 a "higher" rung of life! One of these is the bacterium- like Eobacterium isolaium: a second is a spheroid, aquatic, most probably photosynthetic alga-like Archaeospheroidesbarbertonensis. These fossil forms, together with recent bacteria and cyanobacteria, are placed in a great group of orga- nisms called prokaryotes. The living world is divided into organisms whose cells contain a nucleus (eukary- otes, meaning truly nucleated) and those devoid of a nucleus — prokaryotes. The prokaryotes reproduce only asexually, without the union of specialized sex cells. Because they have no organized nucleus and are sexless, they are considered more primitive than eukaryoles. Caution must be exercised not to consider blue-greens and bacteria as simple or primitive forms. They are simple only in structure, in lack of nuclear membrane and cell organelles. In their synthetic vigor .md in their chemistry, they are as complex as many living organisms. Primitive or not, prokaryotes have a complex internal morphology, as seen under the electron micro- scope, and are ecologically highly adapted. Today's blue-green algae and some bacteria manufacture their iood by means of photosynthesis. Their photosynthetic pigments differ from those of "higher" plants in that they are in lamellae, or layers, located peripherally around the body. Nevertheless, photosynthesis, the build-up of highly complex, high-energy, organic molecules from the simple, nonliving, low-energy molecules, is a most complex process. The blue-greens, as a group and as individual spe- cies, are uniquely varied in their ecologic adaptations. They live in fresh, salt, or brackish waters; they are successful on glaciers; in hot springs, and in soil, both as parasites and as free-living organisms. They man- 14 This page; Pre- cambrian fossils from Great Slave Lake, Canada. Opposite page: liv- ing stromatolites in Sliark Bay. Australia. ufacture their food by means of photosynthesis and are capable of efficient utilization of various light frequen- cies. Certain of these algae require oxygen; others do well without it. All possess gliding locomotion, and some filamentous forms can move relatively fast through water. Certain species can prosper where no others can survive; hence, they thrive in rich pastures of highly polluted waters and in human cesspools. Thus, cyanobacteria are highly adapted and appear primitive only in their lack of some anatomical organelles. This is one of our great difficulties: if the first organisms were blue-green algae or bacteria, then they possessed very specialized cell walls capable of control- ling the inflow and outflow of salts, they were able to control their internal environment, and they must have had a very long life history prior to the time of deposi- tion of the Warrawoona sediments. The intriguing question then is, was Andre Lwoff right? Was the protoorganism really capable of total synthesis; hence, is evolution going downhill? Were the blue-greens or bacteria the first organisms? Were they already so advanced? Was there enough time in the Precambrian before the Warrawoona to make life? Could life have come from another planet? The Gunflint Formation The Gunflint Formation, our third major window, is approximately two billion years old, and because it contains iron ore, it has been extensively studied for a long time in the field and in detail under the micro- scope. For many years some geologists believed that the Precambrian iron was formed by microorganisms. The Gunflint iron formation is now a very famous geologic formation because well-documented Precambrian Continued on p. 22 15 In Quest OF Starlings by William J. Beecher Photos by the Author Quite possibly the long episode at Field Museum was the best time of my life — when I was at the same moment the poorest and richest I have ever been. I owned nothing more valuable than a camera and binocular but was at the height of my sci- entific creativity. At the famous "lunch club," which convened daily in Karl Schmidt's herpetology lab, I bubbled with enthusiasm over my latest discoveries. Karl, who was mother hen to all the young zoologists, was indulgent. Curator of Paleontology, Bryan Patter- son, observed tolerantly that I was experiencing the euphoria that comes to every young scientist when he is opening the mother lode of a new field of investigation. I mined that mother lode for seven years, day and night, as though I were reading a marvelous book and could not wait to see what was on the next page. I was locked in a study of the evolutionary relationships of the 60 families of songbirds, which make up more than half the 9,000 species of birds in the world. After 30 months of war in the South Pacific, I was back in the Field Museum bird range on a University of Chicago Ph.D. project. In the alcove farthest from the office I dissected birds through a binocular microscope far into the night. Rules required that I use only one light after dark and, when leaving, I found my way along pitch- black corridors the entire length of the building to the one lighted stairwell that led from the third floor to the 16 Common starling front door exit. When I was not drawing my dissections I was typing notes with an old typewriter on a large specimen drawer set on end, which I could straddle with my long legs. I chose this over a table because I could tilt my chair back to reflect from time to time! It was now 1946 and I had begun my rich experi- ence in the bird range in 1935 as a volunteer. In those days spent labelling bird skins laid row on row in drawer on drawer a deep curiosity possessed me about the relationship of songbird families to each other. I never doubted the species placement in the finch family or tanager family or warbler family by such ancient (and even extinct!) taxonomists as Hellmayr and Ridg- way, but I knew that the family groupings had been made by ornithologists who used only study skins and intuition. Most of the bird had been thrown away! Fortunately, Rudyerd Boulton had built up the "spirit collection" of birds (those preserved in alcohol) while curator of the Bird Division in the 1930s — and now Dwight Davis, curator of Anatomy, encouraged me to dissect these specimens in a study of the func- tional anatomy of the feeding mechanism in birds. It was after I began to realize that the jaw muscles of a warbler had a diagnostic pattern different from that of a tanager or a vireo that I could see how my dream of showing the relationships of families to each other might come true. It was suddenly clear that songbirds differed little from each other in the anatomy of the body as a whole but differed a great deal in the head region, as the emerging families adapted to specialized feeding on insects or nectar or fruit or seeds. In time it began to seem that the seed-eating finches formed the terminal twigs, as the latest innovations, in this tree of relationships I was building. The insect-eating vireos and warblers seemed to be simpler, more primitive, so I was inclined to place them in the trunk, with the fruit- and nectar-eating tanagers in the larger branches be- tween the two. It was not lost on me that this agreed with the fossil record of the flowering plants to which the songbirds were obviously adapting. The plants with numerous seeds were last to evolve, and so were the finches that eat them. It made evolutionary sense and it was elegant! At the end of seven years I had dissected all of the spirit-preserved specimens of songbirds in Field Museum, as well as in New York's American Museum and Washington's Smithsonian. I had also had speci- mens sent to me from Europe and had visited New York and Washington — but I shall leave that. All of the above is merely stage-setting for the story at hand, with which I now proceed. Quite early in the game I dissected a European star- ling and found its jaw musculature and accompanying Dr. Beecher is director emeritus of This Chicago Academy of Sciences. Bank myna Chinese starling 17 Jaw Musculature -^^ Eye position in myna species skull — side view Mynas skull — view from lower side Protractor Muscles (red) open the bill Adductor Muscles (blue) close ttie bill Jaw musculature and skull adaptations in prying and nonprying birds (starlings and mynas respectively)^ Note in particular the size of the protractor muscles (red) in the starling relative to that of the mynas, and the relative narrowness of the starling skull. Drawings by the author Jaw Musculature sl