FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN January 1989 World Music Programs Weekends in January Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published since 1930 by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Steams Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board of Trustees Robert A. Pritzker Chairman Mrs. T Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. BlcKklll Willard L. Boyd. President Robert D. Cadieux Worley H.Clark James W. Compton Frank W. Considine William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Ronald J. Gidwitz Clarence E. Johnson Richard M. Jones John James Kinsella Robert D. Kolar Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin James J. O'Connor Mrs. JamesJ. O'Connor James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Robert H. Strot: Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Bowen Blair Stanton R. Cook Mrs. EdwmJ. DeCosta Mrs. David W. Grainger Clifford C. Gregg Mrs. Robert S. Hartman Edward Byron Smith John W. Sullivan CONTENTS January 1989 Volume 60, Number i JANUARY EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3 THE BATS OF ILLINOIS Byjames E. Gardner and David A. Saugey 6 SPECIMEN #2,000,000 MOUNTED BY BOTANY DEPARTMENT By William C. Burger, Curator of Vascular Plants 16 VOYAGE TO THE MOON (of Mors, that Is) By Edward Olsen, Curator of Mineralogy 18 BABYSiniNG AND DAYCARE AMONG THE BARBARY MACAQUES By Meredith R Small 24 FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 31 COVER Chilean bat, Stenoderma chiknsis, from a drawing in Atlas de la Historia Fisicay Politica de Chile, by Claudio Gay, vol. II, Paris, 1854. The two-volume set is in the Field Museum's Mary W. Runnells Rare Book Room. Stenoderma chilensis was described by Gay from the arid northern region of Chile in 1847. Because it has never been observed in nature and there are no specimens of this form, its existence has long been held in doubt. The distinctive nose leaf, "epaulettes" on the shoulders, and lack of a tail membrane iden- tify this animal as a member of the fruit bat genus Stumira, wide- ly distributed in wet tropical America but unknown along the dry Pacific slope of the Andes. Recently, populations of this genus were discovered in arid western Peru by Victor Pacheco of the Javier Prado Museum in Lima; these may be related to the enig- matic form described by Gay. In 1986, Pacheco came to Chicago and began study of the evolutionary relationships and distribu- tion oi Stumira with Field Museum curator Bruce D. Patterson, using the Museum's superb Neotropical collections. He has just completed a master's program at the University of Illinois, Chi- cago, in which he has learned a variety of new biochemical, ana- tomical, and statistical techniques. On his return to Peru, these new techniques and skills will be passed on to a new generation of Peruvian scientists. For information on Illinois bats, see pages 6-15. co. Claudio Gay's book) l>y June Bartlett GN-85241 rpholo(fn, Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-9401 is published monlhl> . except tombmed July/AugusI issue, by Field Museum ot Natural HiMitry. Rix^scveli Road al Uke Shore Dnve. Chicago. IL 60bO.S-2496, Copyright © 1989 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 lor .schools Museum member^hip includes Bullelirt subscription. Opinions expressed by authors arc their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts arc welcome. Museum phone: (3121922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Member\hipDcpanmenl. Postmaster: Please send form. 1579to Field Museum of Natuial History. Roosevelt Road tl Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. IL 60605. 2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second cla.ss postage paid al Chicago. Illinois and additional mailing otTice. Winter Fun, Children's Workshops 1989 Beat the Winter Blues! Treat your children (or grandchildren) to weekend workshops at Field Museum. Workshops begin Janu- ary 21 through February 18. Children ages 4-13 can participate in classes that range in topics from sharks, fossils, and dino- saurs to the fascinating culture of the Ancient Egyptians. Anthropologists, biologists, artists, and storytellers bring their creative energies and expertise to this winter's workshops. Advance registration is required. See the new Adult, Children, and Family Program Brochure for a complete schedule and registration form or call (312) 322-8854, Monday through Friday 9:00am-4:00pm for further information. Workshops fill quickly so be sure to get your request in now. Advance registration is required. Adult Courses Adult Courses Begin again the second week of February. Selec- tions include The Incasand Their Ancestors, Conversational Spanish and Owis of North America. Weekend workshops fea- ture Caring for YourBool<.s. Chinese Brushstroke, An l-lerbai Sampler and Mexican Tapestry Weaving. Check the January/ February/March program brochure for details on these and many other adult courses. Call (31 2) 322-8854 if you have ques- tions or need another brochure. Weekend Programs World Music Programs Weekends in January 1:00pm and 3:00pm Program highlights include: D January 7 and 8 1 :00pm — Chinese Music Society of North America demon- strates instruments from the Chinese orchestra 3:00pm — Douglas Ewart plays Japanese bamboo flute n January 14 and 15 1 :00pm — Raices del Ande performs Bolivian and Latin Amer- ican folkloric music 3:00pm — Shanta tells African stories D January 21 and 22 1 :00pm— Eli Hoenai demonstrates African percussion 3:00pm — Darlene Blackburn demonstrates African dance D January 28 and 29 1 :00pm — Fan Wei-Tsu demonstrates the sheng, a Chinese zither 3:00pm — Librado Salazar plays classical guitar The World Music Program is supported by the Kenneth and Harle Montgomery Fund and a City Arts IV grant from the Chica- go Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural Affairs. Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are some of the numerous activities offered each weekend. Check the activity listing upon arrival for the complete schedule, and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Art Council. January 7 12:30pm "Museum Safari" Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven continents. See antiquities from the Ama- zon, big game from Africa, and seals from the Arctic. 21 12:30pm "Museum Safari" Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven continents. See antiquities from the Ama- zon, big game from Africa, and seals from the Arctic. These programs are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. The City Musick Performs January 20 The City Musick, Chicago's highly acclaimed eighteenth century orchestra, pre- sents concerti for diverse instrumental combinations by Antonio Vivaldi, 8:00 Fri- day evening, January 20, in Field Museum's James Simpson Theatre. Ticket prices are $20 and $16 with a 10% discount for Field Museum members. Call City Musick at 642-1 766. ILLUMINATIONS A BESTIARY Enchanting Photo Exhibit Explores Back Rooms of Museums On View through February 26 What natural and artistic phenonnena lurk in the back rooms of natural history museums? What unseen enigmas are locked away from the public eye? "Illuminations: A Bestiary," a compelling and highly unusual collection of color prints by photographer Rosamond Wolff Purcell, will be on display at Field Museum until February 26. The exhibit features fascinating photographs of preserved animal specimens taken for a book Purcell published In collaboration with noted Harvard paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould. These captivating photos explore the living world in a novel way, far removed from the traditional photographic essays associated with natural history. Purcell combed the back rooms of numerous museums searching for skeletons, fossils, and preserved animal specimens to serve as her subjects. "It Is amazing W 1. mi^^w 1 H-'^^^HP ^m£l r m ^H.~^^^^^^%^ Wkmk- B m HR . ^^^H^^ -^ fy^'/ M ^v"\ "W- " x^ mir^-'l^' 1 m,' ■ ^' ■"■ ^ > i/f. IHbL^V ^^^' ^ i R^ar ^jft M ^^^K§' -^p§ J- 1k^ ■%Ri|-^ i 1 tV'i \ ¥ 1 / .^ii .»Sl ivf'^^H _-^d^Hi "Flamingos" from the exhibit "Illuminations: A Bestiary" how the light of day falling on these animals can banish feel- ings of squeamlshness and fear." says Purcell. "Whether photographing a fossil tooth, a desiccated monkey, or a bog woman, I feel a sense of privilege and responsibility. We have devised peculiar rites for animals In natural history museums . . . Inscriptions on bones, chemical baths to ren- der them translucent ... I think of these treatments as forms of burial, but I think of the animals as expressing in various ways, life after death." One aspect of the exhibit questions the life often drawn between art and science. Purcell's specimens were chosen for the artist's personal reasons of curiosity and appeal. They were chosen for their visual power, beauty, and potential for human reference rather than for scientific significance. Many of the photos In the exhibit are accom- panied by Stephen Jay Gould's eloquent prose. The scien- tist, taking his cue from the artist's interpretation, elaborates first on the specimen's scientific characteristics and then in- vites the viewer to speculate on other meanings such as evolutionary changes, social constructs, and even moral messages. The complex Interaction between the Image and the text (the subjective and the scientific) Is a prevailing motif throughout the exhibit. For the most part, Purcell's photos were taken with natural light In their various "museum" settings of chemicals, cotton, jars, and flasks. A richly colored photo of a gannet's skull Is typical of the surrealistic quality the Images In this exhibit possess. The skull Is seen In double as the camera captures the reflection created by a bell jar placed above the bird's skull. The photo suggests characteristics about the skull that science would not substantiate. A dramatic shot of an ancient mastodon's tooth, protected on cotton wool, resembles the startling panoramic view of a moun- tainous terrain. Other compelling compositions of fish skulls form pleasing and intricate patterns as they seem to engage In animated dialogue with one another. Rosamond Wolff Purcell's photographs have appeared worldwide in exhibitions, magazines, and books. Stephen Jay Gould is the author of numerous best selling books on evolution and natural history. The two are currently collaborating on a second publication and several photos taken for this project will be included In the Field Museum exhibit. The exhibit "Illuminations: A Bestiary" will be free with regular Museum admission. The book of the same title from which the exhibit derives is on sale In the Museum store for $1 9.95 (10 percent discount for members). Legends in Stone, Bone, and Wood On view through February 19 Contemporary Native American art is featured in a new exhibit at Field Museum titled "Tsonakwa and Yolaikia: Legends in Stone, Bone, and Wood." Ttie husband and wife artist team of Gerard Rancourt Tsonakwa and Yolaikia Wapitaska display their work in a fascinating exhibition of colorful wooden masks, stone sculptures, and carved miniatures from antlers. The art is accompanied by wall panels bearing Indian legends and commentaries about animals, people, and spirits represented. Tsonakwa and Yolaikia are Abenaki Indians from the province of Quebec. Many of the social and spiritual traditions embedded in their heritage are reflected in their work. The exhibit will run through February 19. Mask made by Rancourt Tsonakwa and Yolaikia Wapitaska TRADITIONAL CRAFTS OF SAUDI ARABIA On view through March 1 2 An authentic goat-haired tent that once sheltered a family of nomadic people in the desert of Saudi Arabia, stands as the centerpiece of a special new exhibit at Field Museum entitled "Traditional Crafts of Saudi Arabia." The exhibition highlights the personal collections of John Topham, an American engineer who worked and lived in Saudi Arabia during the 1970s. This unique collection of textiles, clothing. jewelry, weapons, and household utensils, represents the first comprehensive display of Saudi Arabian crafts to be seen in Chicago. The exhibit captures the beautiful achievements of a vanishing culture and reflects the artistic tradition of Saudi Arabia where artifact and artwork are one. "Traditional Crafts of Saudi Arabia" will be on display through March 12. Section of woman's silver belt with engraved glass insets, made before 1940, On view in exhibit Traditional Crafts of Saudi Arabia.' Burton Cave, Pike County, a protected habitat for the Indiana bat. i e Gardner The Bats of Illnois by James E. Gardner and David A. Saugey BATS Inhabit All of Earth's terrestrial regions, except the polar areas and extreme desert. More than 1,000 species are found worldwide, with 40 species in the continental United States and 12 in Illinois. They are the most important predators of night- flying insects. More than 70 percent of the world's hat species are insectivorous, and most consume over half their body weight in insects nightly. A single little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), a species common throughout Illinois, can consume up to 900 insects in an hour. A common misbelief is that bats attack humans. Another popular miconception is that all bats are rabid but don't suffer from the disease themselves, and there- fore are important reservoirs of the disease among wild animals. None of these beliefs, however, has any basis in fact. Bats do not attack people even when provoked (though some will bite in self-defense if picked up) and less than one half of one percent of all the bats in the world contract rabies. Those that do suffer the disease die from its effects. Fewer than ten cases of rabies in the United States and Canada in the past 40 years have been attributed to rabies. By way of contrast, more peo- ple die annually from bee stings or from attacks by their own pets. Bats are extremely valuable in medical research because of their unique morphological and physiolog- ical adaptations as flying mammals. Most have highly "The Bats ot Illinois" is adapted from "Aerial Acrobats ot the Eve- ning Sky," by David A. Saugey, which appeared in the November/ December 1988 issue of Arkansas Game and Fish, published by the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission. David Saugey is a wildlife biologist with the United States Forest Service. Mr. Gardner, who serves the Illinois State Natural History Division as assistant research biologist, Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identification, emended and adapted Mr. Saugey's article with re- spect to the bat species found in Illinois. sophisticated sonar (echolocation) for navigating and catching prey; they are exceptionally long-lived and resistant to many diseases. Bat research has contributed to the designing of navigational devices for the blind and aided in the development of vaccines and tech- niques for birth control and artificial insemination. Bats have been used to test the effects of new drugs on bacteria and other microorganisms in blood and in investigating the effects of drugs and alcohol on blood vessels and nerves, on muscle regeneration, and on tis- sue repair. How ironic that the cliche "blind as a bat" refers to an animal that allows us to "see" so much. For the record, most bats have good eyesight! Unlike some mammals, bats are true hibernators. In Illinois, they find a suitable environment in caves and abandoned mines from mid-September through early November. Living on deposits of stored fat, they can reduce their basic metabolic rate ( BMR) to a level at which breathing and heartbeat are almost impercep- tible. When disturbed bats are awakened from hiberna- tion, they increase their BMR, exhausting precious fat reserves. The disturbance of hibernating bats can thus result in starvation and death before insects are again available as a food resource. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^v-^B^^M 1 ^^^H^' ' . ^^^^b ^^^^^^^^^^^K '^^4H^li l^K^^v ^HH^^^H ^^^^■^|H [^^^^ Evening bat j e Gardner Hoary bat c1987AH Rider, The National Audubon society collection PR In Illinois, most bats mate in autumn before enter- ing hibernation or during migration. The females don't become pregnant, however, until hibernation ceaseS in the spring. In this reproductive pattern, known as de- layed fertilization, sperm remain viable and are nourished by specialized cells in the female's reproduc- tive tract until ovulation and fertilization occur. their own — about 21 to 30 days after birth. Like many other animals, bats worldwide are seriously threatened by human activities. The worst threats to bats are loss of habitat, disturbance by hu- mans, and poisoning from pesticides. Fortunately, all bats in Illinois are protected by law, but the Indiana bat, the gray bat, the southeastern hat, and Rafines- Hoary bat . ,_ c Merlin Tultle. The National Audubon .♦# Sociely Colleclion PR Young bats, called pups, are generally born be- tween late May and early June. Depending upon the species, bats may have a single pup or up to five in a litter. Females are very attentive mothers, grooming 8 and nursing their pups until they can fly and forage on que's big-eared bat are classified as state endangered species by the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. The Indiana bat and the gray bat are also listed as federally endangered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Illinois Natural History Survey, the Illinois Department of Conservation, and the Illi- nois Department of Transportation are involved in cooperative research programs studying the distribu- tion and ecology of Illinois bats, with emphasis on learning more about such endangered species as the In- diana bat. Everyone can help protect and preserve bats simply by leaving them alone and avoiding the dis- turbance or destruction of their habitat. Habitats for Illinois bats include caves, aban- doned mines, bridges, trees, vacant and occupied buildings, and just about any other kind of shelter. Illi- nois bats are grouped into two categories, tree bats and cave bats, depending upon the type of shelter (known as roosts) they use as well as their respective require- ments and behavior, and their morphological adapta- tions. Tree Bats Tree bats are more solitary and nomadic than cave bats. They roost singly or in small family groups that consist of a female and her offspring. Tree bats migrate in re- sponse to cold temperatures and seldom enter caves or mines to hibernate. The uropatagium (the flight mem- brane between the legs, enclosing the tail) is more fully furred than it is in cave bats, providing added protec- tion from the elements. For reasons not fully under- stood, the fur of tree bats is much more colorful than the drab brown and gray pelage of cave bats. Evening Bat, Nycticeius humeralis. This '/3-ounce, brownish evening bat lacks distinctive features and col- oration. Because of its black membranes and ears, it is often mistaken for the big brown bat (see Cave Bats). During summer, it primarily inhabits older, abandoned buildings, although it can be found in hollow trees or beneath loose bark. Females (seldom more than 150 in a group) establish maternity colonies in these habitats and produce a single litter that characteristically has two pups. Although this species has been reported throughout Illinois, including Chicago, during the summer, it is encountered very infrequently. The evening bat is apparently absent from Illinois during the winter, but its winter range outside the state is virtually unknown. This bat accumulates large fat reserves in autumn, reserves that are sufficient for hibernation or a long migration. Hoary Bat, Lasiurus cinereus. The largest and most colorful bat in Illinois, the hoary bat, has a wingspan ot up to 16 inches and weighs more than IVi ounces. Many of its hair tips are white, giving a frosted or hoary appearance. Females are much larger than males and give birth to two pups among the foliage of trees. Sel- dom seen by most people, this heavily furred bat occurs statewide during spring and summer. A strong, fast flyer, the hoary bat is an accom- plished migrant. Often moving in large groups, these bats spend the winter in the southeastern United States, Mexico and Guatemala, although they have been reported from Indiana and other more northern states during winter months. Generally absent from Illinois during winter, this bat is sometimes found on lawns or sidewalks either dead or near death after autumn migrations that proved too strenuous or too hazardous. Red Bat, Lasiurus horealis. This beautiful, medium- sized bat can be bright red-orange to yellow-brown. It weighs up to Vi ounce and has an 11- to 13-inch wing- span. A very common species in Illinois, the red bat can be found in virtually every county during the sum- mer. Solitary bats roost in daytime retreats near the ground among the leaves of trees or shrubs. Several red bats were once found hanging together on the under- side of a sunflower leaf. Perhaps more than any other bat species, it feeds on insects attracted to lights. Females typically have a single litter of three pups, occasionally as few as one or as many as five. Blue jays prey on their flightless pups (and on those of all other bat species) as do crows and snakes. Red bats are unique among Illinois bats in that males can be easily dis- tinguished from females by their much more reddish pelage. Very little is known about wintering sites of red bats, but they probably hibernate in trees in southern states. Like their close relative the hoary bat, they are sometimes found during autumn migrations and can often be seen flying in late afternoon on warmer winter days. Silver-haired Bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans. Weigh- ing less than Vi ounce, this medium-sized bat has a bearlike face and beautiful dark, silver-tipped fur on its back. It can be found in forested habitats throughout Illinois; however, its occurrence in Illinois can be con- sidered sporadic and its exact status remains unknown. A typical day roost for this bat is under loose bark, but some have been found in hollow trees, woodpecker holes, birds' nests, and even mines. Females typically give birth to two young, but almost nothing is known about the summer maternity roost sites of females. Silver-haired bats apparently do not migrate great g Red bat ig;1979L west. The National Audubon society collection PR distances. During spring and autumn migrations, they are occasionally found clinging to the sides of houses or outbuildings. During a November migration in 1972, a large number of silver-haired bats, apparently con- fused, were killed along with a number of warblers when they flew into Chicago's McCormick Place, just south of Field Museum. Cave Bats 10 Unlike tree bats, cave bats hibernate during winter in caves or other cave-like environments such as aban- doned mines. Cave bats have a hairless uropatagium and rely heavily upon caves for protection from winter temperatures. They are generally much more social than tree bats, often forming groups of thousands. Be- cause they group in such large numbers, in relatively small areas, cave bats are far more vulnerable to human vandalism or natural adverse conditions than are the more solitary tree bats. "Clustering" behavior is carried over into the sum- mer when cave bats form maternity colonies, although these are usually of considerably fewer individuals than hibernating clusters. In Illinois, the gray bat and the southeastern bat are the only species whose females re- main in caves to bear their young; all other cave bat species in Illinois establish maternity colonies in build- ings, trees, or other structures. Little Brown Bat, Myotis lucifugus. This small bat has an 8- to 10-inch wingspan and weighs about Vi ounce. Its sleek, glossy fur ranges from pale tan to reddish or dark brown. Easily confused with several other species of myotine, or "mouse-eared" bats, the little brown bat is very common throughout Illinois during the summer. Females establish large maternity colonies in buildings and give birth to one pup yearly. Males are solitary or live in small bachelor colonies. Following hibernation, this species is rarely found in caves; but without a doubt, little brown bats far outnumber any other spe- cies of hibernating bat in Illinois during winter, with clusters sometimes numbering in the tens of thousands. Accordingly, little brown bats have been one of the most frequently studied species, and they are still a favored subject. Long-term studies of the movements of little brown bats from an abandoned mine in north- central Illinois have given us much insight into the natural history of this species. Gray Bat, Myotis grisescens. Typically weighing less than '/3 ounce, this bat is usually uniformly gray in color (some are russet). It is dependent on caves for roosting habitat during both summer and winter. For this reason, it has never been common in Illinois and has been reported almost entirely from regions with natural caves in the southern and west-central portions of the state. A cave in southern Illinois that once housed more than 10,000 gray bats has now been abandoned; very few of the approximately 400 caves in Illinois pro- vide suitable habitat for this endangered species, and those that do have long since been abandoned because of habitat destruction and human disturbance, for the species is highly sensitive to disturbance. Their vul- nerability is indicated by the fact that 95 percent of the entire known gray bat population hibernates in just eight caves in five states. Maternity colonies may contain thousands of females, each bearing a single pup. These females form tightly packed clusters in dome-shaped pockets in the ceilings of caves. Female gray bats captured over the Cache River in Johnson and Pulaski counties had given birth that season and were nursing young, but their maternity site could not be found. Efforts to capture Silver-haired bat eMeninTullle, rue National Auouu gray bats at caves they once occupied have resulted in the taking of only a few males. Il Eastern Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus suhflavus. The east- em pipistrelle is a small bat with fur that is orangish-tan at the tips and black at the base. The yellow-orange forearm and contrasting blackish wing membranes make it easy to identify. Referred to as "pips," these common, '/5-ounce animals are the smallest Illinois bat. They range throughout Illinois during the summer, but only a single pip has been reported from the Chi- cago area and very few from other northern portions of the state. In winter, when their movement is restricted, at least one pip is commonly found in almost any cave or mine in Illinois. black (charcoal gray) basal portions with cinnamon or chestnut tips. Often confused with the little brown bat it may be distinguished by a keel-like projection from its kalcar (heel bone). The Indiana bat can be found in almost any county in Illinois during summer. It in- habits upland and floodplain forests interspersed with openings that are usually near waterways. These bats are known from very few caves and abandoned mines in Illinois but may form dense clusters of up to 300 bats per square foot when they hibernate on cave ceilings. Females establish nursery colonies of up to 100 adults beneath the bark or in the hollow portions of Hibernating cluster of the little brown bat « 1952 j l upofe rue Nanonai Auouboo soc«iy conecnor pr Females occur singly or band together in small numbers during summer, when they produce their two pups. Summer roosts are virtually unknown but prob- ably occur among the foliage of trees, in tree hollows, or beneath the bark. Pips are rarely found in buildings, but their small size and inconspicuous habits make them difficult to spot. Indiana Bat, Myotis sodalis. Named for the state where it was first described, the medium-sized Indiana 12 bat weighs only '/4 ounce and has bi-colored fur — dull dead trees. Aided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- ice, the Indiana Bat Recovery Team, and several coop- erating state agencies, Illinois was the first state to gather comprehensive information on roost site selec- tion, movements, home range, and activity of Indiana bats. Tiny transmitters, weighing V32 ounce, were glued to the backs of the bats, and their movements monitored intensively. Summertime radiotracking studies identified 45 trees throughout Illinois that were used as roosting sites. Gray bats ■; 1934 Jett lepore. The Nalional Audubon Society Collection PR The Indiana hat is a federally endangered species, and its populations continue to decline. Disturbance to hihemation sites and destruction of summer hahitat are the primary causes of decline, hut pesticide poisoning prohably is a significant culprit. One cave and one abandoned mine in Illinois receive special protection to provide safe winter habitat for Indiana hats. Con- servation measures to ensure the availability of suitable summer habitat are not easily implemented and require concerted efforts and a great deal of support from Illi- nois citizens. Southeastern Bat, Myotis austroriparius. The south- eastern bat typically weighs '/3 ounce. It can be con- fused with several other species of Myotis, but the Illi- nois members of this species have woolly, dark basal fur with orangish tips. The fur on their underparts is more whitish than that on other Myotis and their noses are more pink. The southeastern bat is primarily a coastal species, but its range extends into extreme southern Illinois. It prefers caves and mines, from which it has been reported in southern Illinois, but it may be found in buildings or other types of shelter. Pregnant females and females that had recently given birth were captured in mist nets set over a stream in southern Illinois during the statewide bat research project. These captures represented the first docu- mentation that this species reproduces in the state. Previously, only males had been reported from a few caves and abandoned mines in southern counties. This species normally produces twins, a charac- teristic that is unique among the Myotis species. Females usually establish nursery colonies in caves in much the same way as gray bats. Like gray and Indiana bats, the "social" behavior of this species has led to drastic population declines. Due to habitat destruction and disturbance by man, this species is being consid- ered for endangered status by the U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service. It is already classified as a state endangered species by the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. Keen's Bat, Myotis keenii. The '/s-ounce, brownish Keen's bat is distinguished most easily from other 13 Eastern pipistrelle bat Ejohn M Burnley. The National Audubon Sociely Collection'PR Banded Indiana bat study in Fogelpole Cave, Monroe County, Illi- nois. J E GarOner 14 <^^^ :^^^P§ il M ^1|^ ,;;^?^ Biy-' PP^w" > .12 1 P'.'jd^^l Indiana bat. j e Gardner myotine species hy its small overall size and longer ears. Apparently distributed throughout Illinois during sum- mer, Keen's bats have been found roosting in buildings and trees and occasionally beneath bridges. Males can be trapped almost anytime during summer at several cave and mine entrances in Illinois. Winter is spent hibernating in the colder areas of mines and caves. Individuals seem to favor crevices and other tight places as roosting spots and so are often overlooked. Females bear a single pup, but almost nothing is known concerning the location or size of nursery ct>l- onies. One colony of 1 5 pregnant Keen's bats was dis- covered beneath the bark of a dead elm tree in Pike County, Illinois, after a male Indiana bat was radio- tracked to the tree. Big Brown Bat, Eptesicusfuscus. The big brown bat is a large, brown, rather nondescript bat. Weighing from Vi to Vs ounces, it is second in size only to the hoary bat. One of the most common bats in Illinois year-round, it is frequently found in houses, occupied or unoccupied. Since this species has become tolerant of people and benefits from their dwellings, it is the most likely spe- cies to occur within urban areas. It has the distinctive habit of snarling when frightened or disturbed in its roost. An efficient feeder, a big brown bat is capable of filling its stomach with insects in one hour. This species often shares maternity quarters with other species of "house bats." Favored summer roosts are attics, between walls, and beneath loose siding or Keen's bat c 1980 John [Jova The National Audutjon Society Collection/PR Other exterior coverings. Hundreds of females form maternity colonies in which each female produces two young. Big brown bats may hibernate in the same build- ing they occupied during the summer, but more com- mon winter quarters are caves and mines. They nor- mally roost singly or in small clusters; however, un- usually large clusters of several hundred individuals were discovered in abandoned mines in Jo Daviess County. Rafinesque's Big-eared Bat, Plecotus rafinesquii. As its name suggests, this species is easily distinguished by its large, conspicuous ears. An attractive bat, it has bi-colored gray dorsal fur and nearly white underparts. Weighing 'A ounce, it is at home in dilapidated houses and barns but probably uses hollow trees when aban- doned structures are sparse. In Illinois, the distribution of this bat is limited to a few extreme southern coun- ties, where almost all records are from caves and mines during winter. One nursery colony was discovered in a dilapidated cabin in Johnson County, but the bats abandoned this structure after human disturbance. Very few big-eared bats were captured in mist nets set over the Cache River during a statewide research project. Big brown bat, 2-3 days old. oavraA saugey Females form nursery colonies with six to several dozen adults, each producing a single pup. Males are generally solitary during nursery season and can be found behind loose bark, in hollow trees, or and in buildings. Because of its vulnerability to disturbance, the destruction of its habitat, and its limited distribu- tion in the state, the big-eared bat has been designated a state endangered species by the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. FM Rafinesque's big-eared bat oavidA saugey 15 2,000,00th Specimen AAounted by Botany Department 6/ William C. Burger Curator of Vascular Plants Plant mounters in the Department of Botany recently mounted our two millionth vascular plant specimen. As one of the world's largest museums, we have an obligation to gather materials for future study. Our strong holdings of material from Latin America makes collecting and preserving specimens from this region especially important. Tropical forests are being cut at an accelerating rate as the populations escalate. Trop- ical forests are poorly known and there is an urgency to sample native forest species before they are replaced by farms, pastures, and housing developments. Thanks to expeditions by Museum staff, active collecting by Latin American colleagues, and exchange of specimens from other institutions, we are adding valuable new mater- ials to our herbarium. 16 Vascular plants include the flowering plants, ferns, conifers, and their relatives. Our collections also include many nonvascular plants, such as mosses, algae, fungi, and lichens. All these, together with our collections of economic plants, total about 2,500,000 specimens. Specimens of vascular plants are generally pressed flat and dried. The flattened specimen is then glued onto a sheet of stiff high-quality herbarium paper 16'/2 X llVz inches in size. A label giving the scientific name, collector, date, geographical origin, ecology, and descriptive details is also glued onto the sheet. Once the specimen is securely glued to the herbarium sheet it can be handled and studied with relatively little damage, despite its being dry and often very brittle. The mounted specimen is filed together with other specimens of the same genus and species in metal cases that hold the herbarium collections. Dried plant specimens are used in a variety of ways. Artists may use the specimens to illustrate details of a particular species. Paleobotanists often compare specimens of living species with fossil remains to try and determine the correct placement of their fossils. Conservationists often use museum specimens to deter- mine the earlier range of a declining species. Ecologists can use the specimens to determine altitudinal range or flowering and fruiting times over the entire geographic range of a species. Chemists and anatomists can re- Plant Preparator Birthel Atkinson mounts two nnillionth plant specimen. June Bartletl 85193 Plant specimens collected in the field, often thousands of miles from Chicago, are carefully prepared and packed to ensure they will be suitable for mounting when they finally arrive at the Museum. ^■l move small portions for detailed analysis. However, the greatest use of these museum specimens is for classification. For tht»e who classify plants and animals, the pri- mary task is to develop sound concepts of the species, often thought to be the basic building blocks of nature. Species are generally defined as populations of plants or animals that do not interbreed with other similar plants or animals. While this is a fine conceptual basis for a species definition, it is difficult to apply in practice. For the vast majority of plant species, especially in the tropics, we look for morphological discontinuities in groups of related species. If two closely similar species consistently differ in minor characteristics (and there do not seem to be any intermediate specimens) we can be quite confident that they are not interbreeding. It is for this reason that the comparison of large suites of specimens are essential for determining and defining species correctly. Thus, the primary use of our speci- mens is by taxonomists in their work of defining species and understanding relationships. A question that often arises about our holdings is whether we have more than one specimen of the same species. The answer is that in the case of all but the rarest species we do indeed have many specimens of the same species. Collectors in the field have no way of knowing what the Museum already holds, and they may not kntiw the identity of many of the specimens they collect. It is thus inevitable that many species are represented by a suite of specimens, collected over many decades and over a large area. The value of these multiple collections is that they are central to dealing with a wide variety of problems, from those of taxo- nomic classification to those of biogeography and ecology. Once a species is properly defined, large numbers of specimens will tell us over what geograph- ical area the species occurs, in what kind of habitat it: grows, when it flowers and fruits, how it varies over its range, how people use it, and other bits of information. In effect, the herbarium is a "library" of dried plants; and, as in the case of libraries, the larger the number of specimens, the greater is the information content. But there is a serious problem in our herbar- ium: misidentified specimens can result in serious mis- information. It is not uncommon for a misidentified specimen to be found in a region or at an altitude where the species whose name it carries has never been found before. Misidentification is a common probem among the plant collections for several reasons. For one thing, higher plants number in the tens of thousands for most continental areas. The sheer number of species invites error and confusion. In addition, plants are highly vari- able. Leaves can differ greatly on different plants of the same species, or even in the same individual under differing environmental conditions. Specimens with flowers (and without fruit) can be difficult to correlate with specimens of the same species with fruit (but lack- ing flowers). Since a great many of our specimens come from tropical areas where many species are still poorly defined, our herbarium suffers from more than its share of misplaced specimens. It is for this reason that we welcome loan requests by researchers working on a par- ticular group. We send about 25,000 specimens out on loan each year and we trust that they will come back in better order than when we sent them. Recently, the National Science Foundation in- creased its support of our loan and curatorial activities, helping us to continue serving the scientific commu- nity. Our two millionth vascular plant is a small mile- stone in a continuing responsibility. FM 17 Voyage io the Moon (of Mars, that is) by Edward O I sen Curator of AA ineralogy "He spake, and summoned Fear and Flight to yoke his steed and put on his glorious armor." —Homer's The Iliad, Book XV Here, Homer tells the legend of Mars, the ancient Greek god of war. To avenge the death of his son he prepares to descend upon the Earth to strike its inhabi- tants with fear (Deimos) and drive them to flight (Phobos). The American astronomer Asaph Hall first dis- covered the two tiny moons that circle the planet Mars 111 years ago (August 16 and 17, 1877). Mars had called upon Fear and Flight (Deimos and Phobos, in Greek) so it seemed appropriate for Hall to give the names Deimos and Phobos to the two small com- panions of the planet Mars. Off and on for over a hundred years, searches had been made for a moon (or moons) around Mars. No one had found them, so the expert opinion was that Mars had none. That didn't seem strange, for only Earth, among the three inner planets, had any moons. It actually seemed odd that the Earth does have one. 18 The Phobos spacecraft. The two landers are not shown. Phobos photographed at a distance of 380 miles in 1978 by Viking Orbiter I during the spacecraft's 854th revolution around Mars, The photomosaic shows the side of Phobos which always faces Mars. The largest crater is 10 km across. counesyNASA 19 Full-scale mock-up of the Phobos spacecraft displayed at ttie 1987 Paris Air Show, counesysovioio Beyond the orbit of Mars lie several belts of orbiting asteroids, and they separate what is called the Inner Solar System from the Outer Solar System. The Inner Solar System contains the solid rock planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The asteroids themselves are solid rock planets, but are very small; the largest is only 300 miles in diameter, and they range downward to gravel-size bits and pieces. There are thousands of them. But, beyond them, the Solar System takes on a very different aspect. The planets of the Outer Solar System are giants — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep- tune. Only little Pluto, with its weird orbit, may be a solid rock body like the inner planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are enormous balls of gases, roil- Phobos Spacecraft Orbits Around Mars 20 Photos Deimos Mean orbtt radius 9.377 km 23.463 km Orbital period 7h 39m 30h 17m Size 19x22x27 km 11x12x15 km Mass 12.7 X 10" g I8x10"g Density 2.2g/cm^ 1.7g/cm' Detail of Phobos photo- graphed at a distance of 75 miles by Viking Orbiter I in 1977. The largest crater shown here Is 1 .2 km across. Courtesy NASA ing in continuous storms. Down deep in their interiors there might be solid rock, but no one knows. They could just as easily be gaseous. These outer planets, however, are rich with moons. Jupiter has 16, Saturn more than 17, Uranus 15, and Neptune a minumum of 3. There is a hint that even little Pluto has at least one moon. Among the inner planets, as already mentioned, the Earth is unusual for having a moon at all, and especially for having a moon that is so large relative to the size of Earth itself. If you add up all the masses of the moons of Jupiter, for exam- ple, they total up to only a fraction of one percent of the mass of Jupiter itself. The same is true for each of the other giant outer planets. Earth's moon, however, is over one percent of the mass of the Earth. The origin of Earth's moon is a fascinating story that has emerged from over fifteen years of analysis of the samples that were returned to Earth during the U.S. program of landings on the lunar surface — the Apollo Program. That's another story. The two moons of Mars are very small compared to the mass of Mars. Deimos and Phobos are not spheri- cal. Each is lumpy and irregular. Phobos looks like a giant Idaho potato. Its dimensions are approximately 17 by 13 by 12 miles (27 by 21 by 19 kilometers). Their orbits are also peculiar — peculiar, that is, in contrast to the orbit of our own moon. Our moon makes a full rotation around the Earth about every 28 days. So it takes almost a calendar month for the moon to go through all of its phases from full moon to new moon and back to full moon again. Our moon rises in the east and sets in the west. Each night it rises a little later than the night before because it has moved l/28th of its way along its eastward orbit around the Earth. So we are used to a moon that rises and sets in the general manner of the sun, once a day. For a person standing on the surface of Mars the two little moons offer a bizarre ballet of risings and settings. A day on Mars is just a bit longer than a day on Earth — 24 hours and 39 minutes. Deimos takes 6 hours longer to go around Mars than Mars takes to go through a full Martian day. This means that Deimos moves sluggishly through the sky and, after rising, takes more than two days to set. Then it takes two more days before one would see it rise again. In the meantime, Phobos whips around Mars in a lively 7 hours and 39 minutes. On Mars, a person would see Phobos rise in the west and set in the east, twice a day. The U.S. Viking program, initiated in 1975, sent rockets to circle Mars, photograph its surface, measure its physical and chemical properties, and drop landers onto the surface. In the process, they obtained pictures 21 of both Phobos and Deimos. The peculiar shapes of these moons led to speculation they could be two aster- oids that passed close to Mars at some times in the dis- tant past and were captured by its gravity field to be- come permanent companions. Mars is, after all, the outermost planet of the Inner Solar System and close to the belts of asteroids. There has long been keen interest among space sci- entists to send a rocket to collect data on an asteroid. We know that most, but not all, of the meteorites that fall on the Earth are bits of asteroids. Altogether there are over two dozen kinds of them. It is not known whether this variety requires separate asteroids for each kind or whether some asteroids are compound types. Meteorites are very ancient matter — the oldest and most primitive objects we have from the Solar System — 4,560,000,000 years old. Everything we know about the history of the Solar System we have learned from them. Targeting an asteroid for a collecting mission is ex- tremely difficult. First off, even a large asteroid is a very small target. Second, asteroids in the asteroid belts move along in orbits that contain thousands of them. In attempting to rendezvous with one asteroid, a space vehicle could be battered and damaged by other tiny asteroids. So, if one wants to land on an asteroid the simplest way is to go after one of the moons of Mars. Mars is a big target and easy to locate. It is out of the main belts of asteroids, so damage by passing bits of space gravel is minimized. Besides, Mars has been suc- cessfully orbited many times before. We know how to get there. It has been known for a long time that 1988-89 is a prime time slot for missions to Mars. Because of the relative orbital motions of the Earth and Mars, the dis- tance of approaches between them varies from as much as 63 million to as little as 35 million miles over a per- iod of 1 5 to 1 7 years. 1988 was one of those years when Mars and Earth were only a little over 35 million miles apart, and now in early 1989 they are still fairly close together. All you have to do is look up into the south- ern sky on a clear night to appreciate this. Mars stands out as a bright disc with its characteristic reddish glow, almost as bright as the brilliant gleam of Jupiter. Because the administration of the United States has decided to limit its space efforts to Space Shuttle pro- External view ot the alpha-backscatter spectrometer, which will make chemical measurements on the surface of Phobos. The device was developed by Prof. Anthony Turkevich, of the University of Chicago's Department of Chemistry and built in West Germany. Earlier versions were carried on Surveyor missions that explored Earth's moon in the 1960s. PhoiocoonesvA Turke»icn 22 jects in near-Earth orbits, to a possible Earth-orbiting space station with military applications, and to mili- tary vehicles supporting the Star Wars program, no effort was made to exploit this infrequent close ap- proach to Mars. The European Space Agency, which expended major resources to rendezvous with Halley's Comet two years ago, also did not plan any project to take advantage of this, but the Russians did. In July of last year the Soviet Union launched two spacecraft from their Baikonur Cosmodrome in central Asia. The plan was for these craft to arrive in the vicin- ity of Mars in 200 (Earth) days and go into orbit around it. The orbits would be made circular and synchronous with that of Phobos. During April and May of this year landing vehicles will be deployed and these will make a series of low-velocit flybys of that little moon. The orbiters are expected to be active for at least 140 (Earth) days after the landers are released. The Soviets are not running the whole operation by themselves. Participants include scientists from Finland, West Germany, France, East Germany, Bulgaria, Austria, and the United States, which is providing ten scientists. After the landers make their flybys they will land on Phobos's surface. The landers are of two types. One kind is to be stationary (called the DAS lander after its name in Russian). It will deploy a series of instruments to measure the chemical and physical features of Pho- bos. The other kind is a mobile vehicle that will move over the surface, making some of the same measure- ments to see if composition and physical features change from place to place. The mobile lander will move in a very odd way compared to the rover vehicles the U.S. sent to the moon years ago. Because Phobos is so small and lumpy, a rover would have serious prob- lems moving about. The lander is this case is called a hopper. It is going to literally hop from place to place. When the hopper completes its measurements in one place, pusher legs will propel it to a new place. Each hop will carry it about 65 feet (20 meters). After a hop is completed, the hopper will bring itself into an up- right position and make a new series of measurements. It is capable of making ten such hops. This kind of vehicle is practical on Phobos, which is so small its gravitational pull is very weak. It doesn't take a lot of energy to propel the hopper. The stationary (DAS) landers are instrumented to make a greater variety of physical and chemical measurements. It is expected they will continue to make measurements for about one (Earth) year. The main part of the mission is expected to take about three months. Besides the gathering of chemical and physi- cal data, television cameras will scan the surface, send- ing back high-resolution images to Earth. The project, however, isn't without its risks. What the plans are and how it all actually functions may be somewhat dif- ferent. One of the Soviet scientists said recently, "It is worth the gamble, and if things work we should have some fantastic data from what will be the first landings on a small body in the Solar System." Many glitches could arise. The DAS landers will be powered by solar panels. If one of these landers ends up landing in the bottom of one of the many craters that pock the Phobos surface it could find itself covered by permanent shadows from the crater rim. The initial power would fade quickly and the solar panels could not recharge the system. So, all data transmission would shut down. Even if a DAS lander happens to land on high ground in full sunlight, it could be oriented in such a way that the data transmission antenna, aimed towards Earth, would cast a shadow across the solar panel, again shutting off all power. Finally, if the land- er finds itself on the side of a hill, the angle of its solar panel to the sun could be so poor that although power might not be cut off, it would be reduced considerably. The experiments in this mission sound like some- thing from science fiction. They sport such acronyms as LIMA-D, GRUNT, DION, FREGAT and KRFM-ISM- THERMOSCAN. One of the experiments is of special interest to Chicagoans. It is a device called an alpha- backscatter spectrometer that makes chemical measure- ments on the surface. It was originally developed by Prof. Anthony Turkevich, of the University of Chi- cago's Department of Chemistry. It is designed to func- tion best in high vacuum, and this condition is met on the surfaces of both our moon and Phobos. It was car- ried on many of the early unmanned Surveyor missions that landed on our moon in the middle 1960s. It pro- vided such good analyses of our moon's surface that it was possible to predict some of the rock types that we could expect to find when the Apollo missions finally went to the moon to collect samples. It will be fascinating if even a part of all this comes off without too many hitches. Already there has been one major failure. Due to an error by a Soviet ground controller, one of the two spacecraft on the mission was accidentally destroyed last September on its way to Mars. There is, however, still the other spacecraft with its landers and instruments. All of us in space research hope that the god Mars will take kindly to this latest incursion into his piece of space and not turn Deimos and Phobos against us puny Earthlings as he did so long ago. Fll 23 BABYSITTING and DAYCARE among the BARBARY MACAQUES by Meredith F. Small photos by the author Three juvenile males rejecting another 24 SCREECH! Screech! Screech! After many years of observing monkeys I knew this was the cry of a young macaque in trouble. Experience also told me that the infant would soon be rescued from peril by its ever-vigilant mother. Sure enough, as I stood staring up at the infant caught in the oak canopy, an animal galloped to the baby's aid. The adult shinnied up the tree, flipped the wailing infant onto its back, and scam- pered to the ground. Resting at the bottom of the tree, the older monkey cuddled the baby and chattered soft- ly to it. In a matter of minutes the infant went from nervous shriek to placid calm. It was my first day of watching this colony of Barbary macaques and 1 needed my binoculars for a closer look at the mother to note her identity. As the pair came into focus, I realized that the scenario was not what I expected. The teeth-chattering adult was a male, and it seemed that the mother was nowhere in sight. 1 was witnessing day-care in the forest, where males, females other than the mother, and even little juvenile mon- keys are responsible babysitters. Research has shown that primates, including hu- mans, have a fascination with infants. This infatuation is usually restrained by mothers, who keep infants close to the belly until the infants are more independent and can escape unwanted attention. Among some pri- mates, such as Indian langurs, this attraction to infants gets out of hand; infants are passed rapidly among adult females from the first day of birth. "Aunt"-infant inter- actions are usually explained as necessary to trigger and refine mothering techniques. Barbary macaques are of special interest because, as I discovered, infants are the focus for just about every member of the troop, not just females who might gain mothering skills. Barbary infants, unlike other species of macaque, grow up in a "community atmosphere," where they are quickly assimilated into the social network of monkey life. Tossed around like footballs and played with like new stuffed toys, these infants are the social glue that connects adult relationships. Macaques are evolutionarily successful; they have adapted to tropical forests in Southeast Asia, arid re- gions in India and Nepal, and snowy mountains of Japan. They are the most widespread primate genus other than humans, probably because they have an omnivorous diet; they eat just about anything. Barbary macaques, the subject of my investigation, are native Meredith F. Small teaches anthropology at Cornell University, where her research focuses on primate behavior. to the high mountains of Morocco and Algeria and are the famous "Barbary apes" of the rock of Gihralter. The group I studied in La Foret des Singes ("Monkey Forest"), in southwestern France, is a visitor park where humans see and learn about macaques under monkey rules. With 23 acres as a home range, and visi- tors restricted to a small path, these captive monkeys decide how much interaction they want with their hu- man cousins. The familiarity between humans and monkeys also means that animal behaviorists, like my- self, can make close observation of the animals without disturbing their normal behavior. I spent a year watching the adult females of this pro- visioned group through the breeding season in the fall of 1986 and the birth season in the spring of 1987. Eleven ot my fourteen focal females gave birth that year, and these females and their infants were my win- dows to understanding the pivotal role that infants play in Barbary macaque community life. The birth season began on March 31. I walked through the morning fog toward my focal female of the hour, who was busily eating grass on the open meadow. She was surrounded by about ten other individuals. There was agitation in the air. As I grew closer to the group, I heard a kitten-like squeak on my right and looked down at the first Barbary infant of 1987, with its wrinkled pink face, large floppy ears, and contrasting black fur. He was promptly christened "Philippe" after one ot my co-workers. His squeaks and wails were Male with 6-month old intant accompanied by a wobbly infant dance, an attempt to reach his mother's nipple. Thea, his mother, eventual- ly moved him into position and he began to suck vigor- ously on her nipple. Next to Thea was her two-year-old juvenile daughter, who stared at the infant as if it had just landed from outer space, and another older daugh- ter, Becky, who guardedly watched the other animals as they fixed on the new infant. Twenty-four other infants were born that spring, including a set of dizygotic (fraternal) twins, Harold and Maude, the offspring of the highest ranking female. In all, there were exactly twelve female and twelve male infants. During the next three months I Two males use Infant In triadic Interaction 25 26 Males use 6-month-old infant in trladic interaction. watched the infants develop from helpless babies to semi-independent toddlers. What was more fascina- ting was how troop-mates used these kids as commod- ities in complex monkey social games. Research in Morocco in the 1970s by John Deag and David Taub and more recently by Jutta Kuester and Andreas Paul on another captive group in Germany, tells us that Barbary macaque males are unusual in their treatment of infants. Primate males usually interact with infants only in monogamous systems. This makes evolutionary sense because monogamous males invest in infants who carry some of their genetic material. But Barbary macaque males cannot be assured of paternity. During breeding season, females in estrus mate two times an hour on the average. More importantly, however, Barbary females move from partner to part- ner, mating with almost every male in the troop. Be- cause of this "promiscuous" behavior, males can never be sure which infants are his — it could be all or none. Even though true paternity is confused, Barbary males spend much of their social time with particular infants. Male-infant interactions come in many forms. For example, males use infants in their own hierarchical tiffs. A lower-ranking male might grab an infant and carry it to a higher ranking male, engaging him in a ritual greeting. The forest is often filled with the grunts of males fawning over infants, or the sharp crack of their large canines as their teeth click together during a teeth-chatter greeting. Males use kids as "passports" to gain access to unapproachable partners, essentially to cement alliances with other males. The infant acts as a bumper against any possible protest by the other male. Although very young infants caught in these triadic interactions sometimes scream, and mothers some- times protest, the infants are helpless pawns in the male-male friendship game. Males apparently use infants for their own gain. But it's more difficult to explain why mothers let it happen. It seems that mothers have little to fear from these would-be uncles; males are usually caring and affec- tionate toward their pint-size friends. In fact, most males have special friendships with particular infants. For example, half of the infants of my females were seen in the care of males. And some males spent time with as many as three different infants. Early in the birth sea- son I saw three males sitting in a circle placidly munch- ing grass. Like human fathers with front-packs, each had a tiny black infant attached to his belly and a pro- tective arm curled around the baby. Males are also highly responsive to infants in trou- ble. One of the twins, Harold, was once kidnapped by a juvenile female. He struggled in her arms and finally wrestled free. His mother was near at hand, but in his distress he ran to an adult male friend, Dionysus, who enfolded him and made monkey-soothing noises. As infants get older they initiate these interactions, and males seem to be safe partners and friends. One day I was calmly recording the behavior of a mother- infant pair. A high-ranking male, Mercuir, swaggered passed me, an infant riding on his back. As Mercuir passed my subjects, he dipped his shoulder in invitation to the infant I was observing, who promptly hopped aboard for a ride. Mercuir then drifted by another mother- infant pair and collected a third infant. I watched in astonishment as the broad back swayed through the forest with three tiny pink rumps hunkered down on top. There are probably long-term consequences of male- infant behavior. Since there is little male emigration, even in the wild, alliances formed between youngsters and adults may last until adulthood. Males may recruit infants as future colleagues by interacting with them as babies; it's as if babies were asked to join a club with a lifetime membership. My research also revealed that males were not the only ones interested in the new troop-mates; adult females were also intrigued by these live-action pink and black squeaky toys. Philippe was only four days old when he was "kid- napped" by adult female "E73." At various times over the next three months, six different females grabbed him from his mother and carried him around for hours at a time. One female, La Petite Belle, just couldn't get enough of him. On fifty-six occasions she was spotted with Philippe in her arms or on her back. Thirty-five adult females out of the total forty-six were seen carry- ing infants that were not theirs. Even mothers, who presumably had their hands full, often went babysitting when their own kid was with someone else. Stealing infants from their mothers wasn't the only way females and infants interacted. Females also spent much of their day walking up to mothers, cocking their heads toward infants, and greeting the infant with a teeth-chatter. These baby-greets might last for a few seconds or evolve into five minutes of buzzing confu- sion between the mother, the greeter, and the infant. The mother and the visitor would grin and clack their teeth together and nuzzle the infant. Sometimes the nonmother threw her arm around the mother and pat- ted her. This may be the Barbary macaque version of a baby shower, only lacking the stuffed teddy-bear gift. Females often seemed mesmerized by the infants of their friends. A female often moved quietly toward an infant, peeked around its mother and took a sur- reptitious look. She might then attempt a touch or Juvenile female tries to take one of the twins from tfie alpfia female. grab, or try to coax the infant away. Mothers didn't usually protest much, and this makes sense. In the analysis of my data, I determined that female babysit- ters were usually well known to mothers and often shared the same rank. Mothers need not fear these females because they have a long-standing relation- ship. In fact, aggressive acts toward infants were rare. But why would females, especially those with their own infants, want to lavish all that time and attention on other babies? Just as in male-male-infant triads, infant- sharing among females probably helps maintain friendships. Infant greeting and babysitting not only allows mothers and "aunts" time together, it also estab- lishes new connections between infants and "aunts." Unlike adults, juvenile animals were often foiled in their attempts to shanghai infants. These adolescent monkeys usually staggered away, dragging an uncoop- erative infant almost as big as themselves. Sometimes young animals would rise up on their back legs and try to steal an infant, furtively looking behind as they clutched the baby to their chest, and stumbling bi- pedally through the grass. Although young Barbary females, and sometime males, were fascinated by in- fants, they didn't get much chance to hone their skills; babies were too often with adult males or females. Juve- niles were most successful when the infant was a new brother or sister. If they hung around their mother long enough, chances were they would get an entree to the infant. The two-year-old sister of Philippe spent most of the spring following him around. Whenever he spent time with a troop-mate, the older sister was right at his side. Most of us humans can empathize with the Barbary macaque fascination for infants. When a human baby accompanies its parents to a gathering, the whole room starts to revolve around that baby. We are attracted to this miniature version of our own species, and perhaps it's the same for Barbary macaques. But there must also be important evolutionary reasons why this species spends so much time riveted on infants. The key to understanding Barbary baby obsession is the complex nature of their social interactions. Pri- mates, especially monkeys, apes, and humans, are adept social tacticians. Some scientists even believe that our large human brains evolved to keep track of social relationships. To operate as a primate in a large group, one needs to remember who is related to whom, who is an enemy and who is a friend. More impor- tantly, those who form strong alliances often win in the game of reproductive success; they produce more off- spring and pass more genes onto the next generation. 27 ^ # % ^ 2!^" ■■■swiBj %iil :>m k jmm ip^ >'^hHI Ml Nonmother grooms mother to gain access to infant In one sense, Barbary macaques are much like hu- mans. Each animal knows the identities of monkeys with power, and they also have some idea of kinship and friendship. They form social networks that rival the most complex political organizations, and they act on those alliances. Males join together to oust another male from the top position of power, or related females band together to keep other females from getting the best food. Thus, friendships, especially well established ones, have profound evolutionary consequences. Like campaigning politicians, adult male and female macaques enlist infants in their personal causes. In re- turn, these responsible adults form a day-care system for infants that allows mothers time to get on with other things. Infants benefit most of all — they quickly learn the maze of social relationships that will mold their lives. And as an added attraction, they get to fly through the forest astride big furrry males, watching the frantic hubbub of their monkey-world from a safe position. 28 Mother (left) joins nonmother in baby greet. . , FROM OUR GIFT CATALOG THE STORE CHICAGO FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Show your support of the Museum by giving gift certificates tfiat may be used toward purchases in the Museum's gift stores, for educational programs or museum memberships. Available in the following derxjminations: S5, SIO, SIS, S20, S25, S50. Each certificate is en- closed in a harxlsofne gift card. To order by telephone call: 3 1 2/922-94 1 Oext 236 Mon -Fn from 10-4 Custom Cartouches Personalize a cartouche with your name in hieroglyphics. Allow 6-8 weeks for delivery. Sterling Silver Cartouche $45.00 (Member 540,50) 14 i9^ mmm ^^vH ^ Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published since 1930 by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 CONTENTS February 1989 Volume 60, Number 2 FEBRUARY EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3 Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Steams Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board of Trustees Robert A. Pritzker Chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block III WillardL. Boyd, President Robert D. Cadieux Worley H. Clark James W. Compton Frank W. Considine William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley 11 Thomas J. Eyerman Marshall Field Ronald J. Gidwitz Clarence E. Johnson Richard M. Jones John James Kinsella Robert D. Kolar Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin James J. O'Connor Mrs. James J. O'Connor James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Robert H. Strot: Mrs. Thetxlore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Bowen Blair Stanton R. Cook Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta Mrs. David W. Grainger Clifford C. Gregg Mrs. Robert S. Hartman Edward Byron Smith John W. Sullivan TRADITIONAL CRAFTS OF SAUDI ARABIA Continues through March 12 USHABTIS: Tomb Figurines of Ancient Egypt By Frank J. Yurco, Consultant to "Inside Ancient Egypt" THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN MARKETPLACE By Frank J. Yurco 10 TRACKING THE EXTING PYGMY HIPPOPOTAMUS OF CYPRUS By David S. Reese, Research Associate, Department of Anthropology 22 FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 30 COVER View of temporary exhibit "Traditional Crafts of Saudi Arabia," in Gallery 9 through March 12. See pages 4-6. Photo by Ron Testa and June Bartlett. Field Museum of Naiural Hisiory Bulteim [USPS 898-940) is published monthly, cxcepl combined Jul) AugusI issue, by Field Museum of Natural History. Roiisevell Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. IL 60605-2496 Copyright ri989 Field Museum of Natural History Subscriptions: S6,(X) annually. $.1.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulleiin subscription Opinions expressed by authors air their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome Museum phone: (312) 922-94 10. Notification of address change should include address label and be scnr to Membership Dcparimcnt. Postmaster: Please send form .1579 to Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago. Illinois and additional mailing office. Performance Exitacao A Bahia Brazilian Dance Troupe Saturday, Feb. 25 1:00pm and 3:30pm James Simpson Theatre The beauty of African culture, its spirit and joy is the essence of the Brazilian musical and theatrical troupe "Exitacao A Bahia." Their unique Afro-Brazilian heritage is presented in a riot of col- or, rhythm, music, and dance. "Exitacao A Bahia" is dedicated to the authentic and artistic presentation of the culture of Bahia, the center of the Afro- Brazilian people of Brazil. The culture manifests itself in the religious ceremonies brought to Bahia by African slaves, its noted Afro-Brazilian cuisine, and the rhythms of samba, frevo, and other joyous dances; Formed in 1973, "Exitacao A Bahia" has performed extensively in Brazil and around the world. Their colorful repertoire includes "maculele" (a folkdance performed with batons), "galanteio" (the women's flirtation dance), and "puxada" (a representation of the rhythmic pulling of nets by coastal fishermen). Share the magic of brilliant costumes, powerful rhythms, lithe dancers, and the cultural tradition of a people faithfully kept alive by "Exitacao A Bahia." Tickets: $8 ($6 members) $4 Children 12 and under. Special note: Be sure to indicate time of performance requested on registration form. To register, use the coupon provided here. Field Museum presents this performance in cooperation with Urban Gateways, The project is partially supported by a CityArts grant from the Chicago Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural Affairs, Vang Airlines, Inter-Net, and Hyatt Hotels Corporation. Adult Courses Continue to learn more about the world around you by enrolling in Field Museum's adult programs. Evening courses and weekend workshops begin again in February Ancient cultures are considered in "The Incas and Their Ancestors," "Egypt: The Late New Kingdom," "Drawing Ancient Egypt," and "Four Corn- ers Archaeology" Explore the natural world in "Owls of North America," "Predator or Prey" and "Conservation, Zoos, and Peo- ple: The Latin American Effort." Sharpen language skills while learning about a new culture in "Conversational Spanish" and "Intermediate Conversational Japanese." Mexican embroidery Chinese brushstroke, and tie-dye are among weekend work- shop highlights. Consult the January/February/March Adult, Children, and Family Program Brochure for details. For further information please call (312) 322-8854. The City Musick Performs February 17 The City Musick presents the second program in its acclaimed Mozart Series on Friday Feb. 17, at 8:00pm. Works include Mozart's overture to "La Clemenza di Tito," Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550, and the Concerto in E-tlat K. 495, featur- ing Gail Williams, natural horn. The program will be presented in Field Museum's James Simpson Theatre. Ticket prices are $20.00 and $16.00, with a 10% discount for Field Museum members. Call City Musick at 642-1 766. Registration Be sure to complete all requested information on this registration application. Registrations are confirmed by mail. For registrations received less than two weeks before the performance date, con- firmations are held at the West Door one hour before the performance begins. Phone registrations are accepted using Visa/MasterCard/ Amx/Discover. Please call (312) 322-8854 to register. For further registration information, consult the January/February/March Adult, Children, and Family Program Brochure. Return complete registration with a self- addressed stamped envelope to: Field Museum of Natural History Department of Education, Program Registration Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, I L 60605-2497 Name Program Number Program #Member #Nonmember Total Amount PP89101 Exitacao A Bahia 1 :00pm PP89102 Exitacao A Bahia Child's Ticket 1:00pm PP89103 Exitacao A Bahia 3:30pm PP89104 Exitacao A Bahia Child's Ticket 3:30pm D Scholar ship requested total Address City State Zip Telephone: Daytime Evening DAMX nvisa D MasterCard D Discover (Check one) Card # expiration date Signature For office use only: date received date mailed M-m •■•■■v- ;: v^ 1^4 Traditional Crafts of Saudi Arabia Through March 12 An authentic goat-haired tent that once sheltered a family of nomadic people in the desert of Saudi Arabia, stands as the centerpiece of this special new exhibit on view in Gallery 9. The exhibition highlights the personal collections of John Topham, an American engineer who worked and lived in i <*> TI 1 XXX ^ >OC< i Saudi Arabia during the 1970s. This unique collection of tex- tiles, clothing, jewelry, weapons, and household utensils, represents the first comprehensive display of Saudi Arabian crafts to be seen in Chicago. The exhibit captures the beauti- ful achievements of a vanishing culture and reflects the artis- tic tradition of Saudi Arabia where artifact and artwork are one. Before oil drilling became predominant in the 1940s, Saudi Arabia had little organized industry. The country was populated by small village communities and the Bedouins, a nomadic desert people. These two groups depended upon one another through trade of their traditional crafts. With the introduction of the oil industry and mod- ern technology, handcrafted products are being re- placed by mass-produced items of plastic and alumi- num. The tradition of brightly colored, elaborately pat- terned objects that have offset the austerity of the desert for generations is vanishing. Topham's collection includes a rare and educa- tional look at many of the "lost" crafts of Saudi Arabia. A large desert tent woven from goat hair greets visitors as they enter the exhibit. The tent is partitioned into three sections by woven panels, replicating the manner in which it would have been set up in the Saudi Arabian desert. Sections include the men's area, a center sleeping area, and the utility area. While a typical Be- douin tent would be sparsely equipped because of the transient lifestyle of its inhabitants, this tent serves as a showcase for many of the collection pieces. The strength of Topham's collections lies in beau- tiful textiles; weaving remains the country's dominant craft. Arab weavers utilize a horizontal loom that holds the yarn parallel to the ground. Woven rugs, blankets, and tents incorporate geometric design patterns with tassel ornamentation. Human and animal figures are rarely depicted. Traditional colors in woven goods include red, black, white, camel, green, blue, and orange. The similarity between modern and traditional weaving is obscured by the brilliant, synthetic colors of factory-made yarns. Apparel has always varied from region to region in Saudi Arabia, yet certain features like the loose fit that allows air to circulate is common to all. Costumes on display include a variety of women's floor-length dresses with long, wing-shaped sleeves. Women often tie these sleeves behind their neck to keep them out of the way while working. Dresses are often decorated with applique and embroidered with metallic cotton, silk, or rayon thread. Women are expected to covertheir faces with black gauze veils and wear hoods over their head while in public domain. Men's dress is similar to women's, comprised chiefly of ankle-length shirts and a headcloth called a ghutrah. Arab women are likely to wear jewelry at all times. Jewelry plays an important role in courtship rituals and constitutes a large portion of a bride's dowry. Neck- laces, belts, bracelets, and earrings were traditionally made of gold and silver combined with turquoise, coral, agate, and glass. Today costume jewelry has almost completely replaced work in silver and gold. Other pieces in the exhibit include riding accou- trements displayed on a six-foot-tall wooden camel. Camel bags were among Arab men's most richly adorned possessions, woven from brightly dyed wool and often decorated with tiers of sashes, ribbons, and tassels. Traditional weapons, coffee utensils, incense burners, and household crafts are also displayed. Photos of Saudi Arabian art by Ron Testa and June Bartlett \ 12th Annual Spring Systematics Symposium ''History and Evolution Saturday, May 13 99 Speakers Garland E. Allen Robert Boyd Michael J. Donoghue Marc Ereshefsky Douglas J. Futuyma Stephen Jay Gould David L. Hull Moderator: John Flynn David B. Kitts Rachel Laudan William B. Provine Robert J. Richards Michael Ruse Lawrence B. Slobodkin Organizer: Matthew H. Nitecki Registration Kristine L. Bradof. Symposium Coordinator Department of Geology Field Museum of Natural History 312/922-9410, x298 8 Pholo by Diane Alexander White, 1 1 0685C USHABTIS: Tomb Figurines Of Ancient Egypt by Frank J. Yurco In ancient Egypt, the ushahti developed as part of the Osiride funerary practice. None are known from before the Middle Kingdom Period (2134-1786 B.C.). But in that period, they began to be manufac- tured. They may have been derived from small repre- sentations of the deceased in mummiform wrappings, but not long afterward a different association was made for them. In the New Kingdom Period (1570-1 080 B.C. ) the ushabtis came to be inscribed with a text drawn from The Book of the Dead, called the ushabti spell, no. 151: "The deceased NN says: 'Hail ushabti figure, if 1 be called upon, or if any work is allotted to me in the Afterlife, such as is done by people — namely sowing fields, filling irrigation channels, or bringing the sand of the west to the east, may you be present when 1 call unto you.' " The Egyptians' after- life was patterned upon their actual life, and the ushabti was, in effect, a stand-in ready to do the unpleasant chores that the deceased might be called upon to perform. At the height of the New Kingdom Period, a typical tomb held some 400 ushabtis, one for each day of the year, plus 35 or so overseer ushabtis, distinguishable by their customs. The ushabtis follow coffin fashions, but they are usually made of glazed frit, or faience, usually bluish- green, or greenish. Other colors are also found: whit- ish, reddish, depending,on what was mixed into the glaze. In the examples shown here, the three smaller, blue figures belong to a prophet of Amun, named Hori. They resemble coffins of the XVlllth-XXlst Dynasties. The taller, greenish ushabtis in the back row are of the XXVlth Dynasty and were made for an admiral named Heka-em-sa-ef. These four reflect cof- fin design of the period, with a distinct base under the feet and a back pillar to help them stand. Each of these seven figurines may be seen in "Inside Ancient Egypt." FM Franic J. Yurco, consultant for "Inside Ancient Egypt," is a doctor- al candidate in Egyptology in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations of the University of Chicago. The Ancient Egyptian Marketplace by Frank J. Yurco I n the Field Museum's recently opened exhibit "In- side Ancient Egypt," one of the most innovative and important sections is the marketplace setting. The marketplace is unique and important because it pre- sents a cross section of daily life and society in ancient Egypt. It is the central element of the daily life area of the exhibit, together with the Nile marsh diorama. Because so much of many Egyptian exhibits focuses upon mummies and funerary customs, this presenta- tion of daily life assumes even greater importance, and the marketplace is the key to it. The marketplace is based upon a very interesting and rare relief, that of a complete marketplace, found in the tomb of two barbers and cosmeticians, Ny-ankh- Khnum and Khnum-hotep, at Saqqara in Egypt. The two tomb-owners, perhaps brothers, lived in the Vth Mastaba of Ny-ankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep at Saqqara, reconstructed. Dynasty V, ca. 2450 b c "I Q © Margaret Sears Pyramid of Pharaoh Unis, remains of temple and cause- way at Saqqara. Dynasty V, 2400 B c i& Margaret Sears Dynasty (about 2450 B.C.), and became the owners of a fine tomb because ultimately they became pharaoh's barbers and cosmeticians. The fine state of preserva- tion of their tomb is one of those fortunate accidents of circumstance that periodically come along in archaeol- ogy. Later in Dynasty V, Pharaoh Unis (father of Unis- ankh whose tomb chapel and burial chamber are fea- tured in this exhibit) decided to build his pyramid and complex just south of the great and imposing funerary complex of Pharaoh Djoser of Dynasty III. By Dynasty V, this area of Saqqara had already become crowded with private and royal tombs, among which was the tomb of Ny-ankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep. Unis's pyramid complex entailed not only a pyramid, but also a pyramid temple, a long causeway leading past culti- vated fields to a valley temple, frequently found located on a canal that gave access to the river. Unis's causeway crossed over a number of earlier tombs, including that of Ny-ankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep, and these were appropriated by the pharaoh in what might be termed l"'%V Pyramid complex of Pharaoh Djoser (Dynasty III, ca. 2750 B c ), southern end, with tombs of Unis complex (2400 B c ), including Unis Ankh, at Saqqara. © Margaret Sears 11 12 Replica painting by Inigo Manglano-Ovalle of marketplace scene fronn tomb of ^^ly-a^^(h-Khnum and Khnum-hotep at Saqqara, on view in "Inside W^^F^. 13 Photo by Ron Testa 11 1030 Ancient Egypt." «c\ \\ ancient eminent domain. The superstructures of these tombs were demolished and their blocks incorporated in the masonry of the causeway. In 1975, a joint Ger- man-Egyptian expedition was excavating and con- solidating Unis's causeway. There they found the reused blocks from Ny-ankh-Khnum and Khnum- hotep's tomb chapel. These have since been recon- structed into a complete chapel. In 1977, Ahmed Moussa and Hartwig Altenmiiller published a formal description of the tomb.' This complex array of accidents resulted in a remarkable state of preservation in Ny-ankh-Khnum's and Khnum-hotep's tomb chapel. The rooms are com- plete and retain much of the color applied originally to Above: Relief of Armanti hounds and trained monkey from maslaba of Mereruka, Dynasty VI (ca. 2350 b c ), at Saqqara. Kathenne Rosich its sculpted low relief; indeed, this well preserved color helped the Museum's effort to reproduce the color scheme in Unis-ankh's tomb. Among these won- derfully preserved reliefs is the marketplace scene. This represents a complete market, with a personal touch — the barbers and cosmeticians business set up nearby. From later literary texts and tomb paintings and reliefs, it is known that barbers and cosmeticians in business for themselves set up their practice beside markets. Markets were held on specific days of the ten-day- ancient Egyptian week in different towns and villages, and that's where the barbers and cosmeticians set themselves up, attending to all who came to them. Ny- ankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep had become phar- aoh's barbers and cosmeticians, but in their tomb they represented in the reliefs an earlier stage in their ca- reers, when they operated a private practice at the local marketplace. In the topmost register of the four registers form- ing the marketplace relief, the two tomb-owners showed their private practice. They perform their ser- vices for people from all levels of society, from the marsh workers and fishermen to the overseer of an estate seated imperiously on a mat and attended by his own retainer and scribe. The barbering and cosmetics procedures are described in short captions in hiero- glyphs above each scene. The marsh worker at the far left is having his legs massaged (p. 15, top). The next man to the right gets a hair cut. The next is having his pubic hair shaven off; he is a marsh worker so this pro- cedure may have helped him keep clean. The next man gets a shave; behind the operating barber an apprentice barber prepares to hand over a fresh razor, while a standing man described as "teacher" instructs him. The teacher clearly is the master, perhaps either Ny-ankh- 14 Right: Relief showing hunting on the desert with Armanti hounds from mastaba of t\/lereruka, Dynasty VI Katherine Rosich Khnum or Khnum-hotep in person. The next group to the right shows the overseer of the estate receiving a manicure, while his retainer and scribe wait on either side attentively (below). The final scene at the ex- treme right shows a scribe seated and receiving a pedi- cure. The whole register, from right to left (con- ventional reading direction for the Egyptians) presents a cross section of society, such as would be found at a functioning local marketplace. In the spirit of this cross section, in the replica painting of this relief scene, in the exhibit, the Museum has shown another dimension of Egyptian society — the many shades of skin color. In Old Kingdom scenes such variation was not customari- ly shown; it was a concept introduced in the New King- The policemen are at either end of the register, in what is clearly a humorous arrangement, such as the Egyp- tians loved so dearly. At the right, the senior police- man holds a female baboon which has just caught a thief by an unmanned market stall. The thief is naked, and the baboon has bitten his leg (p. 16, lower left). The verbal exchange is indicated by the captions in hieroglyphs. "Catch, catch!" says the policeman. The thief exclaims: "You're the authority, get him (off me) onto the ground! I'll desist from doing wrong." At the left end, a junior policeman pulls on the leash holding a male baboon that is pilfering fruit from a market basket (p. 16, top left). The shop owner volubly protests: "Youngster, you may do as you like — but only until your STp^^ mr—^ dom Period when Egypt's empire brought Egyptians into contact with diverse peoples, Asiatic and African. Yet, even as it is today, the Egyptian population itself ranged from light-toned in the northern regions to dark-toned in the far southern region around Aswan. In between, there is a gradual darkening tone as you progress from the Mediterranean coast to Aswan. It is this variation that our marketplace replica is intended to convey. The regular marketplace is displayed in the next three registers, which may be read from the top down- ward. Again, various segments of society are shown in- teracting. In the second register two policemen are rep- resented, not with dogs, but with baboons, on leashes! boss is brought to you!" The humor of this scene tran- scends the centuries — the police protect, but they also transgress sometimes. .The use of baboons here is not unique. Elsewhere in Old Kingdom Egyptian reliefs ba- boons may be seen performing chores or being led on leashes. The Egyptians no doubt appreciated the ba- boon's intelligence and aggressiveness, but more than one relief also conveys humor using baboons. The Egyptians used dogs as well, but mainly for hunting; in such scenes the hounds are the Armanti breed, still used in Egypt to this day as guard dogs they are fast, with a greyhound-like body, and very ferocious. The remaining scenes are devoted to transactions between customers and merchants. In the second regis- 15 around her neck. Interpretation varies on who she might be — a sub-adult female, perhaps a servant girl. The little girl she holds looks up at her, saying: "Would you like that ( I ) now go home ?" Even this text has some uncertainty because in Old Egyptian grammar first per- son pronouns were not written. Moving down to the third register, the first scene from the left shows a man selling bread and green on- ions (p. 17, top). He says; "See these bread loaves? Six thereof in the basket for two /ie/history published in 1987. The arrival of Europeans on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, beginning with the Spaniards in the early 1500s, led to far-reaching changes along the Seaboard and even in the vast interior drained by the Mississippi River system. Drastic decline in population, the con- sequence of the introduction of such diseases as mea- sles, whooping cough, and smallpox to which the Indi- ans had no resistance, destroyed an estimated 75 to 90 percent of the native people living in the Southeast by about 1 580. For the area north of the Ohio River, including the upper Mississippi valley and the western Great Lakes, there is no generally accepted estimate of the possible loss of life as a result of the further spread of sixteenth-century epidemics. The full impact of changes brought about by Euro- peans on the seacoasts did not reach the western Great Lakes until the middle of the seventeenth century. The era of profound changes was preceded by the advance of French explorers up the St. Lawrence River to create a new base at Quebec City in 1608. At virtually the same time, English settlement began at Jamestown, Va. , and Dutch representatives sailed up the Hudson River to establish a fortified trading post at present Albany, New York. The introduction of European trade goods, and the demands for increasing numbers of beaver pelts in exchange, set up intercolonial and intertribal animosities that first disrupted the lower Great Lakes region of present New York and Ontario. Merchants in all the colonies promoted the lucrative trade in furs with native people, who were eager to acquire iron hatchets, knives, and copper kettles. These European wares were obviously superior to their own stone tools and pottery and bark containers. Native people also were in the market for luxury goods, fancy coats, and shirts, ribbons, and articles for personal adornment. Essentially, leaders among the various Indian coalitions were competing to control the distribution of European imports to their native trading partners, and at the same time trying to monopolize the supply of beaver pelts from an expanding hunting territory for trade with their European allies. The pattern of minor raids and skirmishes characteristic of traditional Indian fighting developed into wholesale economic warfare supported by rival European powers also at war with each other. The period of intensified warfare was accompanied by waves of epidemic disease that des- troyed a third to a half of the regional population. Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the western Great Lakes, one epidemic spread to east-central Wisconsin, vir- tually annihilating the Winnebagos. The introduction of firearms changed the nature Ribbon applique skirt, Sauk and Fox. Cat, 1 7589 neg. 110964c Pair of beaded garters, Potawatomi. Cat. 1 55680 Photo by Ron Testa, neg 1 1 1489 of forest fighting previously limited to how-and-arrow encounters. When the Dutch provided their Iroquois allies with muskets in 1641, they gave these Indians in northern New York a military and psychological super- iority that prevailed for half a century. The French be- came obligated to provide firearms for their supporters, but French guns were not as good and were distributed only to Indians trusted to remain loyal. After the Iro- quois acquired firearms in the 1640s, their next target became the Hurons, another group of Iroquois speak- ing people with an extensive trading empire based at their towns near Lake Simcoe, north of present Tor- onto, Ontario. The Huron country enjoyed a unique climatic advantage as the most northern locale where com could be raised. The Huron and their Ottawa all- ies traded corn through a network that extended north of Lake Superior to Hudson Bay and westward to Green Bay, Wisconsin, where the Fox-Wisconsin river route provided the principal gateway to the upper Mississippi River and western prairies. Iroquois attacks drove the Hurons from their homeland, many succumbing to hunger and disease at a temporary encampment on Christian Island in Geor- gian Bay, Lake Huron. The long odyssey of the refugee Hurons and their Ottawa companions continued to an island at the head of Green Bay, then to the upper Mis- sissippi River below present Minneapolis-St. Paul, where Dakota (or Sioux) opposition forced their re- treat back to the south shore of Lake Superior. Mean- while, Indians of the western Great Lakes district were congregating near Green Bay, home ground for the Menominee and Winnebago, forming an intertribal re- fugee community estimated at 10,000 people. Among the refugees were Illinois Indians, Miamis from the Wabash River country of northern Indiana, and Pota- watomis from southwestern Michigan. The population density strained the agricultural and other food re- sources of the Green Bay region. Iroquois attacks on the northern sector of the Great Lakes subsided after Ojibwa warriors defeated an Iroquois raiding party near the Lake Superior outlet into the St. Marys River in 1662. Iroquois military activity entered a new phase after the English replaced the Dutch in the Hudson River valley in 1669. Since they had dispersed or in- corporated their immediate neighbors, Iroquois attacks from northern New York in the 1670s next swept down the Ohio River through Shawnee country to southern Illinois, and followed the route south of Lake Erie, con- tinuing overland to northern Illinois. Iroquois inflicted a heavy blow on the Illinois village near the mouth of the Illinois River in 1680, and struck Miami Indians encamped near present Chicago in 1687. The series of offensive actions ended in 1691 , when the Illinois and their allies repulsed the Iroquois siege at Starved Rock, on the upper Illinois River near present Utica, 111. The intertribal community at Starved Rock, including resi- dent Illinois, as well as Miami and Shawnee refugees, had collected around the fort established by LaSalle during his first trip downriver in 1682. Thereafter, western Indians allied to carry a counter-offensive aided by French troops into Iroquois territory. Under French auspices, a general peace treaty took place in Montreal in 1701. An important provi- sion of the treaty was the agreement that the Iroquois could hunt peacefully in Canada, and the Ottawa could pass undisturbed through Iroquois territory to trade at Albany. Among the participants in the con- ference were leaders from all the western Great Lakes Indians: Huron, Ottawa, Ojibwa (Chippewa), Meno- minee, Potawatomi (who also represented the Sauk), Winnebago, Mesquakie (Fox), Illinois, Kickapoo, Mascoutin, and Miami. The Kaskaskia village leader from southern Illinois made the longest journey to attend, though there were also representatives from Temiscaming, on the headwaters of the Ottawa River in northern Ontario. Closer to Montreal were the Indi- an mission communities of Mohawk, Algonquin, Abe- naki, and Huron located in the lower St. Lawrence River valley. Only four of the Five Nations of Iroquois participated in the Montreal peace conference: Sene- ca, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Oneida. Later, the Mo- hawk added their approval. In peace-making, as in warfare, trade, and diplomacy, western Great Lakes In- dians carried on constant intertribal activity, but the Montreal council was a special event. Before the final peace treaty was signed in 1701, adjustments began to take place in the western coun- try. Miamis and Potawatomis began to leave Green Bay, moving toward their home territory in southwest- ern Michigan and Indiana. Largely because prices for furs declined drastically in European markets, the French king ordered the cessation of licensed trading and the abandonment of posts throughout the Great Lakes in 1696. This decision forced Indian hunters to deal with the illegal traders, the coureurs de hois, or to seek distant English markets at Hudson Bay or Albany. On the mission frontier, French missionaries shifted southward to found a new center in Illinois at Cahokia, on the east hank of the Mississippi 20 miles south of the mouth of the Illinois River. This mission served nearby Illinois Indian villages, Cahokia, Tamaroa, and Kas- kaskia, and French habitants who began farming the fer- tile Mississippi bottomlands in 1700. The significant new development following the peace treaty was the establishment of a new French base at present Detroit, Michigan in the fall of 1701, when safe travel was assured from Montreal through Lake Ontario and Lake Erie and the surrounding coun- try. From this solitary outpost in the western Indian country, the French commandant promoted the fur trade in a new direction, the Ohio country. Leading the Indians who came to settle at the new location were the Hurons, who ended their half-century of wander- ing at new headquarters on the Detroit River. Their Ottawa friends and two groups of Potawatomi were other long-term residents of the Detroit region. North of Detroit, the St. Clair River district became the home of Ojibwas from Sault Ste. Marie and the north shore of Lake Huron. The period of shortages in European merchandise was alleviated after a rise in the price of furs made reopening the western Great Lakes trading posts eco- nomically feasible. In 1715, new Fort Michillimack- inac — Ojibwa name for the straits region — was constructed on the south shore at present Mackinaw City, Michigan. This site was the crossroads of com- merce for the entire western Great Lakes region, the summer gathering place for vo-yageurs, traders, and thousands of Indians who joined in intertribal cere- monies and celebrations. Subsidiary posts with mili- tary detachments were later established as far south as Fort Chartres, near the French and Indian villages of southwestern Illinois, and westward along the Rainy River route from Lake Superior to Lake of the Woods on the present Minnesota-Canadian border. For Indian people, French military posts offered not only hunting supplies and foreign merchandise, but also the services of blacksmiths and other artisans who could produce metal tools, sharpen axes and knives, and repair guns. Some traders spent the winters with Indians when they dispersed to hunting camps, married 9 Indian women, and became part of the kinship net- work. Yet, Indians never received Europeans in their midst with total enthusiasm, and periodically tried to halt the increase in foreign influence within Indian country. Resistance was most forcefully demonstrated in a series of armed conflicts protesting trade control and pricing, military actions, and takeover of Indian hunting grounds for agricultural settlement. In defense of their own families, homes, and country, Indian war- riors fought French, British, and American armies as well as local militia units. Ironically, the armies all had Indian contingents, so the fighting also involved intertribal and native civil war. After Indian people were forced to surrender their lands to the American government in the curious procedure of land-cession treaties, the confrontation continued as cultural conflict with the policies of the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indian people were reluctant, even under government pressure, to change their language, religion, values, family life, and the way they raised their children. The first major opponents of foreign intrusion into the western Great Lakes were the Mesquakies liv- ing along the Fox River above the entrance to Green Bay. By blocking the Fox River, the Mesquakies pre- vented the French from using the important water route from Green Bay to the Mississippi River by way of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers with a portage at present Portage, Wisconsin. In a series of campaigns from 1712 to 1737 known as the "Fox Wars," the French fought the Mesquakies, who received aid from sympathetic neighboring tribes, the Sauks, Kickapoos, Mascoutens, and Dakotas. This combination carried aggressive war- fare against the Illinois, strong supporters of the French, as a consequence of Christianization and inter- marriage. In their ultimate determination to annihilate the Mesquakies, the French with Indian assistance including Christian Iroquois, drove the Mesquakies from their villages on the Fox River and marshalled 1 ,400 fighting men to carry out a devastating attack on their refugee stronghold in present McLean County, Illinois. French officials transported some of the Mes- quakie prisoners to Martinique to he sold as slaves, but Caribbean plantation owners heard of the warriors' ferocity and refused to accept them as gifts. The last of these Mesquakies were taken to the coast of South America. When warfare ended, the Kickapoos and Mas- coutins left southern Wisconsin, accepting the invita- 10 tion of the Miami to settle on the Wabash River in Indiana. The remaining Mesquakies moved west to the Mississippi Valley and became closely associated with the Sauks. By 1737, the new center for the Sauk was Saukenuk, at present Rock Island, Illinois. Twelve years later, one other group of Mesquakie left the west- em Great Lakes to relocate at a Delaware village in northwestern Pennsylvania. In 1747, other tribes in the Great Lakes region demonstrated their dissatisfaction with French intru- sion. One faction of Hurons who had moved perman- ently to northern Ohio plotted unsuccessfully to seize the fort at Detroit. In other incidents the same year, French traders were killed near Lake Erie, in the Sagi- naw Valley of eastern Michigan, and in the Illinois country. But the Miamis, Hurons, and Shawnees who had recently regathered in southern Ohio presented a more serious challenge to French authorities by accepting British traders from Pennsylvania in their towns. French soldiers and Ottawa allies from Michillimack- inac swept down to the Ohio country and restored French control over the Indian trade before the begin- ning of the next hostilities in the zone contested by rival colonial empires — ^hostilities known as the French and Indian War ( 1 753-60). Indian leaders protested in vain against European use of Indian lands for fighting their imperial battles. Nevertheless, many Iroquois from New York joined the British, and most western Great Lakes Indians sided with the French, taking prisoners and booty in hostilities along the Pennsyl- vania frontier. Hurons and Potawatomis, according to their own tradition, brought back to their villages the first horses owned by these tribes. In 1757, 850 Great Lakes Indians joined French forces in the expedition across northern New York to seize Fort William Henry at Lake George. Menominees from Green Bay and Potawatomis from the St. Joseph River of southwestern Michigan unfortunately entered the smallpox ward of the military hospital and carried the infection back to their home communities. The war ended in this theatre after the British victories at Pittsburgh in 1758 and Montreal in 1 760. The arrogance of the British officers sent to take over the French military posts, and the curtailing of expected gifts — a vital part of amicable Indian transac- tions— aroused general dissatisfaction among Indian communities throughout the Great Lakes and upper Ohio Valley. Under the leadership of Pontiac, an Otta- wa leader living near Detroit, warbelts were secretly circulated to coordinate attacks on the new British military units. In May and June 1763, Great Lakes In- dians forced the British to surrender nine posts: Fort Michillimackinac on the straits between Lakes Huron and Michigan; Fort Edward Augustus at Green Bay, Wisconsin; Fort St. Joseph at Niles, Michigan; Fort Ouiatenon at present Lafayette, Indiana; Fort Miami at present Fort Wayne, Fort Sandusky in northern Ohio, and three posts on the northwestern Pennsyl- vania frontier. The first six were in localities with small French and metis (Indian and White) civilian pop- ulations engaged in trading and farming. The British held out in only two western forts, Pittsburgh and Detroit. Pontiac ended the six-month siege of Detroit in late October, 1 763 after an early snowfall forecast the need to begin winter hunting, and after a French messenger arrived from Fort Chartres, Illinois, bring- ing first news of the terms of the Treaty of Paris signed in June, 1763. This treaty ended the global warfare in which the North American Indians had become in- volved. In European, but certainly not in native Amer- ican perception, the treaty transferred to Great Britain all the French territory east of the Mississippi River, but the New Orleans district and Province of Louisiana west of the Mississippi went to Spain. Pontiac did not really believe the report of the peace terms, and he went to Fort Chartres, still hoping for French assist- ance. The French communities in southwestern Illi- nois, as well as Vincennes in southern Indiana, were not part of Canada, which admittedly had been con- quered, but were on the northern edge of French Louisiana. Illinois Indians made a futile appeal to the French governor in New Orleans, and sympathetic In- dians prevented British occupation of Fort Chartres until Pontiac agreed to make peace in 1765. No longer a war leader, Pontiac's influence faded before his mur- der in 1769. Though the French left the Great Lakes Indian country, native leaders still had diplomatic alternatives when the Spanish established headquarters for Upper Louisiana in 1770 at St. Louis, Missouri, founded by French from Illinois in 1764- The Spanish presence in the Mississippi Valley until recession to France in 1802 and subsequent purchase by the United States in 1803, brought a new element into the western Great Lakes frontier. During the next quarter-century, the Illinois, beleaguered Shawnees, and their Cherokee allies, the Delaware, Kickapoo, and Miami, sought Spanish protection on the west bank of the Mississippi River. In the years following the general uprising associ- ated with Pontiac, the principal concern of all Indian people west of the Appalachian mountains was the pre- vention of further loss of land to the advancing white 11 Floor mat, Potawatomi. Cat 1 5571 1 Photo by Ron Testa, neg 1 1 0293c Quilled cover of birchbark box, Ottawa (?), Cat. 258673 neg 101964c 12 frontier. At an intertribal congress held at Fort Stan- wix, New York in 1768 under auspices of the British superintendent of Indian Affairs, 3,000 Indians present believed they settled the vexing problem of white encroachment. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix stated that the permanent boundary between white settlements and Indian country was the Ohio River On the other hand, the British army could not control the lawless inhabitants of the frontier. The intense struggle of Indian people to maintain the Ohio River boundary line, protecting their vil- lages, cornfields, and hunting grounds, began im- mediately. The first military engagements occurred in southeastern Ohio in 1774, and fighting continued in Ohio and Indiana for twenty years as an extended ven- detta between Kentuckians and Great Lakes Indians. In 1 774, when the first Indian towns in Ohio were des- troyed, only 400 Americans occupied fortified camps in Kentucky. The numbers grew rapidly as ponies and wagons crossed mountain trails and flatboats de- scended the Ohio River — often braving Indian fire — to increase Kentucky's population to 73,000 in 1790. The American Revolution complicated the Indi- an strategy after 1 775. Delawares living closest to Pitts- burgh, the most western military base of the Revolu- tionary army, felt constrained to cooperate with the Americans, who had never undertaken to march on British-held Detroit. In turn, American authorities agreed to recognize the Ohio River boundary estab- lished under the British regime, and in a later 1778 treaty held forth the promise of establishing a separate Delaware state within the American confederation. But that same year, members of the Indian staff at Pitts- burgh fled to join the British Indian service in Detroit. British relations with Indians improved markedly with the addition of the new recruits, former Indian captives with many contacts through trading enterprises and knowledge of several Indian languages. After the American colonies gained their independence in 1783, government officials first in- sisted that Indian people had to surrender the long de- sired land in southern Ohio because they were allies ot the defeated British. Indian spokesmen asserted that the British king had no right to give away Indian land and George Washington had no right to accept it. The secretary of war later modified his view, admitting that the Indians had "rights to the soil," but asked that if they sold any land they should deal with the American government. Long before Americans actually secured Indian land in the Great Lakes, the Northwest Ordi- nance of 1787 outlined plans for future government, including the unrealistic statement "The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward the Indians, their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent." Legislation and frontier war- fare were separate matters. As the fighting strength of the western Pennsyl- vania and Kentucky militia grew, the three thousand or so Shawnees, Senecas, Delawares, and Wyandots (British term for Hurons) nearest the frontier were driven northwest across Ohio by stages. From 1790 to 1794 they made their final stand along the Maumee and upper Wabash rivers, there joined by Indian allies and supported by the British Indian Department in De- troit. Although the Great Lakes confederacies defeated the first expeditions sent from Cincinnati, the well- trained army under General Anthony Wayne along with the Kentucky militia gained a victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, near Toledo Ohio, in 1794. The same year, the British agreed to vacate Detroit and the Straits of Mackinac. In 1795, several thousand Indians assembled at Greenville, to sign the treaty ceding the southern two-thirds of Ohio and in effect giving up the Ohio River boundary line. The end of the warfare opened the Ohio country to a flood of white settlers. By 1810, the state of Ohio had a population of 230,000. Indiana and Illinois soon became the next focus of conflict between Great Lakes Indians and Americans. Indian antipathy toward white settlers intensified after Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee prophet, began preaching in 1805 in the Delaware towns on the White River of Indiana, where they relocated after their homes in Ohio were destroyed. The prophet's message urging rejection of white society, spread through the Great Lakes and beyond. In 1807, when war between Great Britain and the new American republic was already predicted, the prophet's followers held an intertribal council at the Grand Kickapoo village near the head of the Sangamon River in central Illinois. Headquarters for the new militant coalition was established among the Potawatomis, at the juncture of the Tippicanoe and Wabash Rivers in Indiana. Prophetstown was soon surrounded by encampments of Kickapoos, Winneba- gos, Miamis, and a faction of Wyandots. The Shawnee prophet's charisma diminished after the governor of In- diana Territory, William Henry Harrison, made a suc- cessful surprise attack on Prophetstown in November 1811. Already the prophet's brother, Tecumseh, was rising to prominence as a military leader and orator, denouncing further land cession treaties. Settlers from Ohio to Missouri hastily began erecting forts in anti- cipation of Indian warfare. At the beginning of War in 1812, both Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa crossed to the Canadian side of the Detroit River to join the British army. The British re- gained a dominant role among the Indians in the northern sector of the western Great Lakes during the War of 1812. Key figure in organizing Indian military support was Robert Dickson, British trader whose base was among the Dakotas on the headwaters of the Min- nesota River, where he had a Dakota wife and family. Upper Great Lakes Indians contributed the principal troop strength when the British regained the strategic Mackinac Island location in July 1812. (Site for the fort had been moved from the mainland to the island in 1781.) From Mackinac Island, Dickson transported In- dian contingents to military camps on both sides of the Detroit River and the Niagara River war zone. Many Indian veterans returned to the upper Great Lakes with tales of the "burning of Buffalo. " Chicago became an important, but tragic, site at the outset of active warfare. Fort Dearborn on the Chi- cago River had been established in 1803 on one of the strategic sites reserved for military fortification by the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. It was situated in the midst of country occupied by intermixed Potawatomi, Ojibwa, and Ottawa who had moved into northern Illinois lands formerly inhabited by Illinois and Sauk. Soldiers at isolated Fort Dearborn carried out orders for evacuation in August 1812, but almost all lost their lives when they were ambushed by hostile Potawatomis during their attempt to gain safety at Fort Wayne. This tragedy occurred within a day of the American sur- render of Detroit, leaving Fort Wayne as the American outpost nearest the Great Lakes Indian country. Following the American evacuation of Fort Dear- born, Chicago and the entrance to the St. Joseph River across Lake Michigan became British bases for oper- ations during the balance of the war era. Dickson set up a blacksmith shop at a hidden village south of Kalama- zoo to serve the Indian troops. His lieutenant in north- ern Illinois was the Sauk leader. Black Hawk, who col- lected Dakota and upper Great Lakes warriors to oppose American forces in northwestern Ohio. In southern Illinois, hostile incidents occurred as early as 1811. Territorial government had been in exist- ence only since 1809 at Edwardsville, established in 1805 at the northern margin of white settlement. In 1812, Governor Ninian Edwards launched attacks on the Kickapoo and Potawatomi towns along the middle course of the Illinois River, and succeeded in establish- ing Fort Clark at Peoria in 1813. In Indiana, Amer- icans carried out systematic campaigns to destroy Dela- ware towns on the White River, where the Delaware moved after losing their homes in Ohio, but had less success in attacks on Miami towns on branches of the 13 Wabash River. Main Poc, early admirer of Tenskwata- wa and Tecumseh and war leader of the IlUnois River Potawatomi, played a major role in Indian military ex- ploits during the war era. In 1 8 1 2 , he moved to the Fox River west of Chicago, then spent the next three years distributing war parties among the Potawatomis west of Detroit. In this hinterland within fifty miles of Detroit, but never penetrated by Americans, Indians grew corn to augment food supplies provided by the British. Although the American army returned to Detroit in 1813, following victory over the British at the Battle of the Thames and the death of Tecumseh, war on the western margin of the Great Lakes country continued for two more years. In July 1814, British and Indian forces from Mackinac Island captured the American fort at Prairie du Chien at the mouth of the Wisconsin River only a month after it was erected. In response, the military command in St. Louis sent an expedition against the multi-tribal forces collected by Black Hawk around Saukenuk at the mouth of the Rock River. As this war period ended, American commissioners held a series of regional councils in an effort to reach satisfac- tory peace terms with the large number of recent Indi- an opponents. Only part of the Winnebagos agreed to accept American protection, and the Menominees held out until 1817. Yet, Great Lakes Indians still re- tained contacts with the British Indian department. Until 1842, they canoed to posts in Lake Huron or fol- lowed the Sauk trail to Fort Maiden, opposite Detroit, to receive presents from the British acknowledging their services during the War of 1 8 1 2 . The final protests from Great Lakes Indians against white intrusion occurred in 1827 and 1832 in response to sudden white invasion of the lead mines district, a triangular area extending north from Gale- na, Illinois to the Wisconsin River. Until the arrival of a horde of white miners, Mesquakie were digging and selling the ore. The Winnebago attack on a Mississippi River steamboat in 1827 brought immediate military reprisal followed by government demands for land ces- sions in northwestern Illinois. A new military post to oversee the Winnebago was built immediately at the Fox-Wisconsin portage. When the new land cessions opened up the coun- try around Saukenuk in 1829, the elderly Sauk leader insisted that the early treaties had excluded his village. Nevertheless, in the fall of 1831, militia forced Black Hawk's band of Sauk and Mesquakie to leave the place that had been their home for almost a century and move across the Mississippi River. When the men, 14 women, and children came back in May 1832, ostensi- bly to plant com in their accustomed fields, the action aroused broad-scale military opposition. As the band fled northward, the army command summoned several thousand troops from as far distant as Baton Rouge, Louisiana and Atlantic coast ports. Troops coming from the east brought the first cases of Asiatic cholera to the western Great Lakes, an epidemic largely con- fined to the military. Unsuccessful in trying to sur- render. Black Hawk was captured and his band deci- mated within two months. The end of overt Indian resistance came at a time when the opening of the Erie Canal, providing a water route from the Hudson River across New York to Lake Erie, let loose a new population stream that burst west- ward over the road being built from Detroit to Chicago. In 1830 white settlements in southeastern Michigan existed only as far west as present Jackson, but by 1832 families from New York and New England were settling all along the old Indian trail to Lake Michigan. Pota- watomi in southern Michigan gave these newcomers a friendly reception, identifying them as Saganas/i, meaning "Englishman," distinguishing this group from the Chemokoman, or "Big Knives," term for Virginians and Kentuckians who arrived on the Great Lakes fron- tier from south of the Ohio river. The new tide of population was encouraged by In- dian treaties in 1832 and 1833, planning removal of Potawatomi in Michigan and Indiana to reservations west of the Mississippi, and opening up land along Lake Michigan north of Chicago to Green Bay and the Door Peninsula. Yet, the little city of Chicago, established in 1837, still had only 4,853 people by 1840 in a state with a total population of 476,000. From Chicago, the line of settlement moved northward slowly on both sides of Lake Michigan. The Americanization of the northland began as a lumbering and mining frontier. These new enterprises also provided jobs for Indians in logging camps, railroad construction, survey teams, and Great Lakes shipping. The American Fur company and Ottawa and Ojibwas were already engaged in com- mercial fishing in Lake Superior and the Straits of Mackinac. At the same time, the federal Office of Indian Affairs introduced new constraints on the remaining Great Lakes Indians, with plans to make Indian people live and even think like members of western European society. Treaties negotiated in 1854 and 1855 covering land in the northern part of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, the Upper Peninsula, and northern Wis- consin, assigned special sections on reserved land for each local band, to be divided into individual family farms. On the reservations, missionaries, teachers, and government farmers expected to transform Indian families into Christian, Enghsh-speaking, private property-owning, commercial agriculturalists, com- parable to the ideal American citizen of the period, even where the land was unsuitable for farming. The net result of the government program for land distribu- tion, a procedure dominated by fraud, was to divert most of the land to non-Indian ownership. Indian people, in the western Great Lakes as else- where, have been reluctant to give up their own way of life, and frankly considered white society morally in- ferior. The emphasis on saving was viewed as avaricious hoarding in a community where sharing and exchange of gifts were important in life. For Indians, religion was not a separate category, since every act was imbued with religious meaning. Land, like air and water, was a communal resource belonging to, and at the same time the responsibility of, everyone. Personal property was limited to objects personally crafted or acquired by individual effort. High status in the community was accorded the leader on the basis of how much he gave away, not on what he accumulated. A leader had no power of coercion, but was limited to the use of oratory and diplomacy in urging a course of action. Missionaries and teachers taught Indian children that their ancestors were savages, their language was barbaric, their mode of life was heathen, and their religious beliefs were superstition and witchcraft. In the boarding schools that many Great Lakes Indian children were compelled to attend, corporal punish- ment was used freely, particularly for speaking a native language. Missionaries gained some converts, particu- larly among metis families more inclined to accept the advantages of cooperation with the government. Indi- an people were most responsive to the preaching of In- dian converts. On the other hand, native religion sometimes persisted virtually as a secret society, and several Indian religions, old and new, have their followers on present-day reservations. Far south of the forested north country, Chicago developed rapidly as a transportation hub. The city's prominence as an Indian center is a recent twentieth- century phenomenon, and is at least partially the result of excellent travel facilities. Several hundred Indian people were living in the city in the 1940s when the federal Office of Indian Affairs transferred to Chicago during World War II. The city's Indian population grew rapidly after becoming the first relocation center under a new government program instituted in 1951. The Relocation Program brought Indian people from dis- tant reservations, providing job-training and other ser- vices so they could gain permanent employment in the metropolitan area. Results of the program were mixed; some people returned to reservations, but those who remained in the city were joined by friends and rela- tives, and many moved back and forth between city and reservation communities. Among the local events of iniportance to Indian people was the conference held in 1961, through the initiative of Professor Sol Tax of the University of Chi- cago and the National Congress of American Indians. Five hundred Indian people from across the nation joined in drafting a statement indicating the common goals of present-day American Indians. The statement was presented to President John Kennedy as soon as he Cloth shoulder bag, beaded with red yarn tassels and red. green, and black silk binding, Chippewa. Cat. 1 5303 Photo by Ron Testa, neg 1 1 1 491 15 gia«Maig^--^?3re^5:?^.' "^^1 ii^Wmn iKiitiiib •iiiSk iiii&lMii ''friTrSrf r^^jfs^^*^^ytj^y:f Field Museum and Bolivian biologists explore the interior of the Beni Biosphere Reserve, conducting biological inventories on various groups of plants and animals. This large forested area will be managed for long-term conservation goals as part of the "debt for nature" swap arranged by Conservation International. Photo by r. b Foster Conservation of Tropical Diversity The Field Museum Connection By Bruce D. Patterson, Associate Curator and Head, Mammals 18 There is great current interest in what has been termed the "biodiversity crisis." The threatened collapse of biological diversity has attracted wide media coverage the world over, all of it sympathetic to the preservation of diversity. Yet, 20th-century life-styles have intricate interdependencies: one can contribute unwittingly to the destruction of natural diversity simply by purchasing a hamburger or bedroom furniture in Chicago! Obviously, many of society's relationships to tropical diversity are indirect and generally unappreciated, including some critically important ones. Thus far, media coverage of the diversity crisis has paid only lip service to the crucial roles that natural history museums play in tropical conservation efforts. Far more attention is deserved. Natural history mu- seums are society's only institutions devoted entirely to the study of biological and cultural diversity. Field Museum is especially important to the science of diversity because it is one of the world's four largest natural history museums and has a principal focus in the tropics. Three of the Museum's four scientific departments (Botany, Geology, and Zoology) focus on biological diversity, its origins, interrelationships, and conservation. Each day, museum scientists discover diversity in nature, document it through collections and study, and disseminate this information to others through scholarly publications and public programs. Many of these contributions are significant to conservation. I will try here to identify some key relationships between Field Museum's scientific programs and trop- ical conservation. Although my review is far from comprehensive, it may serve to indicate the range and value of efforts now underway. Readers interested in further information on these programs are encouraged to contact the Museum's Development Office or scientific departments. The Diversity Crisis: Causes and Consequences According to current estimates, at least half of all life on earth is threatened with extinction over the next 150 years. The reasons for this calamity do not involve the "death star," Nemesis, or climatic catastrophes, which may have caused massive extinctions in the past. Today's extinction wave is the direct result of nat- ural habitats being converted for human use. Wholesale habitat conversion is proceeding at dif- ferent rates in different regions. The most alarming and biologically significant form of habitat conversion is taking place in wet tropical forests. Tropical moist for- ests now cover a scant 6 percent of earth's land area but support at least half of all living species. Most of these forests are in developing countries that have expanding human populations and economies overburdened by debt to creditor nations. The forests represent uninha- bited frontiers for new human settlements and ex- panded agricultural production. Additionally, trade based on forest commodities provides a major source of foreign currencies, which are needed for economic and social development. Given this political, economic and social con- text, tropical forests are under relentless exploitation. An estimated 71,000-92,000 sq. km (about 27,000- 35,500 sq. mi.) of tropical moist forest lands are de- nuded each year, and 119,000-200,000 sq. km are seriously degraded. This scale of destruction is hard to imagine and impossible to accept. If you are not already committed to conservation, use your next cross-town trip to imagine the sight of fallen forest giants and wandering, homeless animals stretching from Evan- ston to Hammond and west to Oak Park — this much devastation happens each day in the world's tropical for- ests. Tropical forests today cover only two-thirds of their extent two or three centuries ago. If deforestation continues at current rates, a fifth of the remaining for- ests will be cut over by the year 2000 and the last rem- nant patches would disappear entirely in 150 years. However, growing human populations, especially in the Third World, will probably destroy these habitats much more quickly. Extinction of species is an inevitable outcome of habitat destruction. Is this all bad? Geological studies tell us that all species eventually go extinct, making room for new forms that constitute evolutionary ex- periments; further, extinctions have claimed an esti- mated 99 percent of all species that have appeared through geological time. Even so, today's high standing diversity indicates that, over time, many more new species have been produced than those that dis- appeared. Much of systematics, the science of biologi- cal diversity, focuses on factors affecting the production of new species, the loss of existing ones, and the bal- ance between these opposing rates. Since its emergence, our species has played an in- creasingly dominant role as an agent of extinction. At the end of the last Ice Age, when climates were in great flux but human economies were mostly of the hunter- gatherer kind, about two species of birds and two spe- cies of mammals went extinct each century. Human hunters may have contributed to the sudden extinc- tions of large vertebrates (the "overkill hypothesis" of Paul Martin at the University of Arizona), but rapid climatic changes may also have been involved in the disappearance of these forms. Between 1600 and 1900 AD, when climates were stable but human technologies were considerably more developed, extinction rates in- creased ten-fold: roughly 10 mammal species and 27 bird species went extinct each century. Most extinc- tions during this period resulted from direct human persecution — Steller's sea cows, Tasmanian marsupial wolves, passenger pigeons, and dodo birds would still exist today but for humans. A host of other species only narrowly escaped extinction (perhaps not for long), including whales, bison, and cranes. Today, human-caused extinctions are rapidly accelerating and now vastly exceed the origination of new species by evolution. Direct persecution of some 19 species ctintinues, despite protective legislation, hut these effects are dwarfed hy hahitat destruction. Hahi- tat destruction causes an indiscriminate loss of species throughout an ecosystem, not only the meaty, attrac- tive, or threatening targets of human exploitation. All species need a place to live, and many exhibit adapta- tions that intricately hind them to specific hahitats or to particular biological associations within habitats (e.g., many forest trees and the hats or rodents that The disappearance of this diversity has unfathom- able consequences for human beings. Tropical diversity represents a storehouse of potential human applica- tions, hut one being looted and vandalized by uncon- trolled development. Few people realize that almost all of the world's agriculture involves only 25 species of plants (one ten-thousandth of the species we've identi- fied). Nor do many appreciate the constant threat to agricultural production or human health posed by new- Deforestation In ttie upper Amazon Basin of Rondonia, Brazil, termed "an environmental holocaust" by a recent National Geographic article. Field [Museum mammalogists and ornithologists conducted biological Inventories at a nearby dam site on the Rio Jl-Parana In late 1986. Their work provides a baseline against which future degradation can be assessed, as well as information to mitigate the effects of construction. PnotobyB D Pattefson 20 pollinate their flowers or disperse their seeds) . When the habitat disappears, so do all the species that inhabit it. Scientists estimate that rates of extinction caused hy habitat destruction are at least a thousand times greater than normal "background" extinctions. Daniel Sim- berloff of Florida State University predicts that as many as two-thirds of all tropical species will go extinct through deforestation over the next 150 years. ly appearing pathogens and parasites. Fewer still are aware that many "wonder drugs" of modem medicine (including penicillin, atropine, and digitalis, among many others) are compounds "invented" and produced by species in nature. Our daily reliance on biological materials and understanding will increase dramatically over the next century. As human populations treble (to an estimated 1 1 billion) by the year 2100, food produc- tion and disease prevention must grow in parallel. We cannot guess the possible agricultural, medical, or eco- logical benefits that disappearing tropical species could offer a needy mankind. Reld Museum and Tropical Diversity The majority of forms at immediate risk in the diversity crisis inhabit moist tropical forests. Although many of these forests have never been studied, existing infor- mation suggests that most tropical species have yet to be discovered: tropical samples of many groups of organisms contain more new species than previously described forms. Such ratios indicate that from 3 to 28 million species in tropical forests await scientific dis- covery and description. The magnitude of this scien- tific challenge may be dimly appreciated when one considers that, throughout the Age of Exploration and Discovery (1760-present), scientists described about 1.7 million species. The scientific community is ill-equipped to address this profound deficiency in our biological understanding. Edward O. Wilson of Harvard Univer- sity estimates that fewer than 1,500 scientists world- wide are trained in the systematics of tropical organ- isms (or about one scientist per 2,000-18,700 species). At present, less than 1 percent of known species is under scientific investigation. Exacerbating this prob- lem, available funds for systematic research are minim- al: annua/ allocations in the United States could not support a single working day in the "exploratory phase" of Star Wars development. Consequently, the numbers of scientists attracted to careers in systematics and training programs for them have declined at the very time that need is greatest. Field Museum is one of the world's four largest centers of systematic biology. Each scientist in its de- partments of Botany and Zoology studies tropical plants and animals, contributing in different ways to knowledge of tropical diversity. It goes without saying that the patterns and processes affecting natural diver- sity must be studied if we are to devise effective strat- egies for conserving it. Areas in which museum staff contribute directly to tropical conservation efforts are sketched below, but space limitations make this very incomplete. Inventories of Unknown Biotas Priorities are essential for effective conservation be- cause the entire globe is under seige and there are in- adequate funds to protect all or even much of it. Most conservationists focus on saving habitats rather than individual species — because organisms are intricately interrelated, functioning ecosystems must be preserved in order to retain all the resources, checks, and ba- lances required for the stable persistence of individual species. Various criteria are used to decide which habi- tats are most important to conserve, but the number of species inhabiting an area and their uniqueness (or endemism) rank high. This information can only come from biological inventories of the species occurring there: the richer the biota and the greater its dis- tinctiveness, the higher the value of preserving its habitat. Applying this simple rule-of-thumb in the world's tropics is a surprisingly difficult task. For one thing, identifying species in nature isn't easy. We can all rec- ognize hummingbirds at our bird-feeders, but few can recognize the 300+ species that occur in the New World tropics. Remember, there are no field guides to most tropical organisms because they have never been studied, and this information doesn't exist even in the largest technical libraries. In addition, many species of organisms are distinguished by such subtle differences that chromosomal, genetic, acoustic, microscopic, and other kinds of characters must be examined by special- ists before the species can be identified. As a group, museum curators surpass all other sci- entists in their ability to identify organisms. This key ability rests on extensive training and resources. After nearly a century of active work in tropical systematics. Field Museum maintains enormous reference collec- tions that are broadly representative and compre- hensive. As examples, all continents and most coun- tries are represented in most collections; in addition, 98 percent of all living families of mammals and 99 percent of all bird families are represented at Field Museum. The collections are also rich in "type" speci- mens, which have special value in making identifica- tions. Comprehensive libraries of scientific literature are also crucial — Field Museum's is one of the best, with over 235,000 volumes in natural history dating back to the bestiaries and herbals of the Middle Ages. Because most tropical regions are poorly known, inventories there typically uncover species new to sci- ence. These must first be distinguished from known forms and then scientifically described. Only systema- tists are qualified to describe new forms, according each a unique name. This process provides an essential foundation for every other branch of biological sci- ence: ecologists and physiologists cannot accurately 21 record and report their work without a name to associ- ate their observations or the means to distinguish that form from others. Virtually all museum scientists de- scribe new organisms, expediting the work of other biologists through the publication of floras, faunas, and identification keys. For example, malacologist Alan Solem has described more than 250 species of land snails from Australia, representing at least a quarter of all the species known from that continent. For nearly all groups, inventories are impossible without making new collections. Collections of speci- mens represent the primary, enduring documentation of an inventory — study and analysis of collections leads to identification and description, in addition to enabling a host of other biological studies. Gathering comprehensive collections in the field is another forte of museum scientists — many groups are so incon- spicuous that only an expert is able to detect their pres- ence at a site. Detailed knowledge of the distribution and natural history of species enable museum scientists to record plants and animals that are overlooked by other kinds of field biologists. The scientific community constantly reviews its own priorities for conservation, and these guide pat- terns of funding and publication. There is now a con- sensus that detailed ecological studies contribute most to protecting temperate-zone species. This is only pos- sible because temperate-zone organisms can be easily identified and their basic biology is relatively well known. However, focused collecting surveys at a vari- ety of sites provide the most "bang-for-the-buck" in the unstudied tropics. They yield materials that permit diversity to be discovered and described; they identify habitats with exceptionally high diversity; and they indicate (by numbers of species shared) the distinctive- ness of habitats from one another. Each of these is fun- damental to conservation planning. Definition of Biogeographic Regions Protecting areas that are rich in species does not ensure that the goals of conservation will be met. Many areas, such as the Galapagos Islands or Hawaii, support rel- atively few species, yet these may be so distinctive that their preservation is a high priority. Through coordin- ated inventories of sites throughout a given geographic region, museum scientists help to identify and delimit areas that are internally similar in terms of their biotas while differing from all other areas. Conservationists need this information to ensure that each biogeo- 22 graphic region, with its unique species and resources, Rabor's tube-nosed bat {Nyctimene rabon) was collected by mam- malogist Larry Heaney In 1981 during an inventory of Negros Island, Philippines, This animal was recognized and described as a new fruit-bat species in 1 984 — by 1 987, It had become severely en- dangered by deforestation. Photo by P D Heideman contains a sufficient number of protected sites. Museum scientists work at different scales in such regional studies. Some study the biotas of far-flung con- tinents, while others concentrate on those of adjacent communities. All begin their work from a specific site inventory that identified large fractions of unique spe- cies. Working outwards from this point of knowledge, researchers sample adjacent areas to determine the geo- graphic limits of these regions. General collections, a hallmark of museum research, are essential to such studies because they document a large segment of a re- gion's biota and hence characterize its general features. In addition, systematic collections are needed to deter- mine a biota's affinities or evolutionary histories and this is also important to conservation. The conserva- tion value of Darwin's finches derives in no small part from the substantial evolutionary differences that sepa- rate these Galapagos Island birds from continental forms. Species of Special Concern Biologists maintain "Red Books" in which the world's endangered and threatened species in all taxonomic groups are listed. Rates of current habitat destruction are such that these compilations can never be up-to- date — by the time they are compiled and published, many more species are known to be endangered. In addition, such books cannot be more than indicative, given the large proportion of biological species still un- known to science. Many unknown species are un- doubtedly imperiled, but detailed knowledge is re- quired to demonstrate that a species is imperiled. Jared Diamond of the University of California, Los Angeles has suggested that a more scientifically defensible en- deavor would be to publish "Green Books," enumerat- ing those (relatively few) species that are known to be secure. Museum scientists generally focus on ecosystem- level conservation but also make important contribu- tions to efforts to conserve particular species. These contributions rest on broad training. Through study of all aspects of natural history, museum scientists com- monly assemble the foundations of ecological and be- havioral information on species of special concern. This information is essential to management of natural populations. Recent Field Museum studies on diets of harpy eagles, abundance and habitats of Chilean shrew-opossums, geographic ranges of New World monkeys, and ecology of Asian flying lizards serve as examples. These contributions can have value to con- servation which transcends management programs fo- cused on single species — individual species such as har- py eagles, spectacled bears, and lion tamarins can serve as "flagships" for conservation efforts, igniting public interest and support. Conceptual Studies in Conservation Conceptual studies are key to making conservation biology a predictive and powerful science. It is impos- sible to study individually all the areas that need pre- servation, given shortages of money, manpower, and time. By assembling information on general patterns and processes, scientists can make inferences that per- Discovered and described by Field Museum zoologist W, H, Osgood during the Marshall Field Chilean Expedition of 1922-23, the Chilean shrew-opossum {Rhyncholestes raphanurus) remained virtually unknown for 60 years. In 1 977, Chilean researchers de- clared it "the rarest mammal in Chile." During an inventory of Parque Nacional Vicente Perez Resales, mammalogist Bruce Patterson found that this form was abundant and occupied a variety of habi- tats, indicating its current status as secure. Photo by b d Patterson mit informed conservation decisions in a timely and cost-effective fashion. Most predictions of species loss in the wake of tro- pical deforestation are based on an analogy between nature reserves and islands. Like islands, nature pre- serves are often surrounded by inhospitable areas and isolated from sources of colonization. By studying is- land biology, museum researchers have identified some general patterns of natural distribution and abundance that have direct conservation implications. Working in the Philippines, mammalogist Larry Heaney has stu- died how extinction rates change over time. Extinc- tion rates are apparently very high soon after islands become isolated and subsequently decrease to minor or insignificant levels. Thus, fragmentation of forests through cutting should produce rapid extinctions of many species, after which the communities will stabil- ize. Small islands have long been known to support impoverished faunas, but scientists have generally re- garded the species comprising them as being random samples of a given biota. In 1985, I noted that the spe- cies found on small islands were also present on larger islands, but other species are never present on small islands. This pattern characterizes mammal and bird fauna in several archipelagos. The significance of such patterns of species richness and composition is clear: 23 high species richness low species richness © A schematic view of "nested subsets," a pattern of distribution sliown by mammals and birds on islands. When islands are arranged in order of species richness, it is obvious that smaller islands support fewer species than large islands and that these are the same spe- cies, not different ones. Only the largest islands (or island-like preserves) support rare or narrowly distributed species such as "C" or "D." Figure by B D Patterson only the largest isolated preserves will sustain pop- ulations of most species. In addition, the rare, narrowly distributed species that need special protection occur only on the largest islands. Other conceptual studies underway at the Mu- seum do not employ island analogies; instead, they address basic mechanisms of community ecology that are useful in management. Herpetologist Robert Inger is studying the dynamics of amphibian and reptile com- munities in Bornean rainforests, and his 30 years of fieldwork give him unique perspectives on their stabil- ity over time. By comparing community patterns in in- tact forests and forests subjected to cutting at various times in the past, Inger is determining the susceptibil- ity of these communities to deforestation. In the pro- cess, he is acquiring important information on the vul- nerability of particular species to disturbance. Coordination with Resource Managers Direct coordination of scientific studies with resource managers ensures that information on tropical species and habitats is quickly passed from the volumes of research libraries to conservation action. The nature of 24 these interactions depends on the specific needs and objectives of a management authority and the Field Museum resource that is called upon to address it. Field Museum's collections of specimens resemble immense libraries that chronicle the occurrence of myriad species at particular places and times. The col- lections are maintained in excellent condition, being continually curated (re identified, relabelled, reorga- nized) according to the current state of knowledge. Data from several Field Museum collections are now fully computerized, and fiinding for data base projects in other collections is being sought. Collection in- formation can now be easily shared with managers and planners who seek to inventory imperiled biotas or to determine the range and status of individual species. Because the collections have been amassed over the last 100 years, they are especially useful in assessing the effects of environmental degradation during the 20th century. As computer networking develops, Museum data bases will contribute significantly to a global heri- tage program. Field Museum researchers are also called upon to share their personal knowledge and expertise on the floras and faunas of specific regions, entire countries, and even continents, as well as the specific biologies of endangered species. These collaborations are essential for the development of national inventories and for meaningful "survival plans" for endangered forms. Recent consultations with the Nature Conservancy on distributions of South American mammals and with lUCN ■ editors of Red Data Book: Aves serve as exam- ples. Frequently, coordination with resource managers involves fieldwork. During the last decade. Field Mu- seum personnel have conducted benchmark surveys in many national parks and reserves throughout the world's tropics. In most cases, these studies generated the first inventories of species that are protected by the parks. Once the richness of these areas is documented, it is easier for managers to justify additional funds to maintain the parks and to devise specific measures for their protection. To date, park surveys have been con- ducted in Costa Rica, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Philippines, Borneo, and China. Plans call for additional surveys of parks in Mexico, Guatemala, Bra- zil, Peru, Bolivia, Uganda, Madagascar, and Borneo in the near future. Studies of distribution and abundance at particu- ■ International Union for Conservation ot Nature and Natural Resources Biologists sorting leaf- litter in the course of inventorying amphi- bians and reptiles in Borneo. Specialized techniques are needed to adequately sannple tropical diversity and to provide data for rigorous analyses of distribution and abundance. Photo by R F Inger As part of the ongoing systematic and conservation research on the fishes of the Orinoco Basin in Venezuela, ichthyologist Barry Chernoff, along with colleagues and students from the Universidad Central de Venezuela, inventories rivers and flooded savannahs on the Guyana Shield. They are searching for areas used by fishes for reproduction and as nurseries. To conserve these fishes, areas must be set aside v*/here both younger and older fishes flourish. Photo By R.M Peck lar sites or involving particular species may also be undertaken as part of more extensive research pro- grams. Museum personnel have participated in eco- logical impact studies at future dam sites in Borneo and Brazil. These studies yield unique information on natural biotas before construction begins, providing benchmark data needed to monitor subsequent en- vironmental changes. Further, they often identify measures that can minimize the negative impact of construction (see "Paradise Being Lost" by John W. Fitzpatrick, Jan., 1988 Bulletin). Studies on the dis- tribution and population ecology of species harvested for food, such as fishes of the Orinoco River system studied by Barry Chernoff or Brazilian rainforest tor- toises studied by Debby Moskovits, can be used to gauge whether natural resources are being used at sus- tainable levels. The broad spectrum of mutual interests and pro- ductive interactions between museum scientists and conservationists recently led to a landmark event. In September 1988, Field Museum formed a cooperative partnership with Washington-based Conservation International (CI). CI is one of the most widely acclaimed and accomplished organizations involved in conservation of Neotropical diversity. Coordination of missions at this level has facilitated the effective shar- ing of resources and talents and heightened the con- servation impact of museum-based programs. Through this agreement, Field Museum's unique expertise and resources are being skillfully coordinated with a variety of Latin American institutions, organizations and needs. CI personnel arranged the highly publicized debt-for-conservation swap that enabled Bolivia to protect large tracts of its tropical rainforests; a large- scale biological inventory of this reserve currently in- volves Field Museum researcher Robin Foster. Another early product of this partnership is a book jointly spon- sored by CI and Field Museum (now in preparation) on the distribution and ecology of South American birds, the world's richest avifauna. Training and Education of Conservation Biologists Spectacular recent advances in molecular biology have led many universities and other research institutions to focus increasingly on cells and molecules. Few institu- tions remain dedicated to "whole organism" biology, which heralded the fields of evolution, ecology, and genetics as we know them today. Natural history mu- seums remain bastions of integrated biology — al- though molecular techniques are increasingly used in systematic research, an essential focus on organisms and populations remains. Museums are associated with most vigorous programs in evolutionary biology. Peruvian Victor Pacheco came to Field Museum for education and training in 1986. Here doing fieldwork in Monteseco. northern Peru, he is surrounded by local schoolchildren captivated by the thought that their local bat fauna warrants study by Chicago-based researchers, Pacheco received an M.S, degree from the University of Illinois, Chicago in December: on returning to Peru, he began training and advising his own students at San Marcos University in Lima. Ptioto by S D. Patterson Moreover, they are indispensable for training the future systematists we must rely on to identify and document the world's diversity. No free-standing museum maintains better, more productive associations with neighboring universities than Field Museum. Individual Field Museum biolo- gists have faculty appointments at the University of Chicago, University of Illinois, Chicago, Northwest- em University, and Northern Illinois University, ser- ving on graduate student committees at these institu- tions and others. Field Museum researchers comprise about a third of the acclaimed Committee on Evolu- tionary Biology, an interdepartmental degree-granting body of the University of Chicago. Perhaps a quarter of the graduate students enrolled in this illustrious pro- gram are now studying at Field Museum, many in areas related to conservation. In the course of conducting their own fieldwork in the tropics. Museum researchers routinely teach col- lecting and data-gathering activities to local students and technicians. This training continues after field- work is completed, as specimens are prepared, sorted, identified, and described, often in collaboration. A variety of accomplished scientists in tropical countries received their first exposure to the skills and techniques of biological inventories in association with Field Museum collecting parties. This expanding pool of persons able to conduct tropical inventories and train other biologists has immeasurable effects on conserva- tion. Field Museum's role in training biologists in con- servation is not limited to area universities or field- work. Museum funds in support of international scholarship enable a host of Third World researchers engaged in independent projects to study Field Mu- seum collections, use its libraries, and interact with its staff. Grant recipients gain valuable observations and experience that would otherwise be out of reach econom- ically. Critically, this program has a snowballing effect as foreign scholars return home to share new experi- ences, techniques, and perspectives with their own colleagues and students. Field Museum is actively working to expand this training-education program. Development of Public Awareness Ultimately, the problems of tropical deforestation are driven by social, political, and economic factors. It would he shortsighted to address conservation prob- lems without attending to these ultimate causes. A var- iety of avenues are open to museum scientists, hut the The Pantiacolla of southeastern Peru, a ridge separated from Andean foothills by the Rio Alto Madre de Dios, Ornithologists John Fitzpatrick and David Willard have assembled a complete inventory of birds at this site, one of the world's richest. In the process, they have described new species that are restricted to this isolated range and detailed the elevational ranges of the entire avifauna. This information is critical to understanding dynamics that shape these avian communities. Photo by j w Fuzpatnok most important of these is public education. Once systematic studies of a group or a region have been completed, this information can be pre- sented readily to the public. Popular accounts often have tremendous impact on the general public by mak- ing complex biotas generally accessible to nonspecial- ists. Clifford Pope's Reptiles of China and Robert Inger's The Fresh-water Fishes of North Borneo and The Amphi- bia of Borneo are enduring examples of such work. Through fostering an appreciation of a region's natural resources and providing keys for the identification of its species, these works enable the public to observe and study nature. Through its public programs (exhibits and public education), the Museum also communicates the find- ings of its scientists on the nature of diversity and its interdependencies. Public lectures, tours, and popular articles by the scientists themselves are valuable ad- juncts to these efforts, as is technical consultation on public programs of other communications media and organizations. Together, these efforts shape the value systems of people, both in this country and abroad. In the final analysis, all development decisions involve weighing the value of conserved diversity versus development of natural resources for some other end. Conclusions Scientific progress takes a very predictable historical course. One first identifies the variables that are in- volved in a phenomenon, and then evaluates them singly or in concert with others; ultimately, one derives predictions of their specific effects. Tropical biology is still in its infancy. Only recently have we discovered that some high-calorie seeds not eaten by modern con- sumers are actually vestiges of prehistoric ecologies, that hunting behavior of bats can affect the mating calls of frogs, and that mice play a key role in growth 27 Field Museum researcher Mike Dillon collecting a new and very un- usual bromelid {Tillandsia sp.) with a botanical "lasso " This plant is known from a single canyon in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, where its rocky purchases protect it from hungry goats. Courtesy M. O. Dillon 28 and regeneration of some rainforests. We need to iden- tify the players and we must do it quickly, before they are forever lost. Because systematics is the mother of all other biological sciences, furnishing the basic framework for their observations, systematists will be at the vanguard of this expanding tropical data base. We sorely need inventories of many more tropical sites, to document patterns of species richness, to identify "hot spots" of diversity, and to delineate regions of endemism. We must also characterize previously unknown species, de- termine their derivations, and uncover their ecologies. While lacking the romance of rainforest exploration, there is no other way to document natural diversity in a manner useful to science. We need to revisit areas that have been sampled previously to determine the stabil- ity of ecological relationships and the effects of en- vironmental perturbations between sampling periods. We need to train new researchers, especially biologists in the Third World who are in the frontlines of the battle to save the globe's diversity. In this piece, 1 have tried to explore the integral relationship between the study of life's diversity and its conservation. The two fields are associated both scien- tifically and philosophically. The idea that evolution- ary biology has left an indelible mark on conservation isn't new. Darwin's conclusion to The Origin of Species, published 130 years ago, bears this out: It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed ivith many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a man- ner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. . . . There is grandeur in this view of life, with its sever- al powers, having been origirmlly breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being evolved. Darwin considered this to be the scientific chal- lenge of his evolutionary theory, for humans to recog- nize the fundamental unity of life and to take our own place in nature, with wonder not ignominy. Tropical deforestation is now transforming the grandeur of this view into horror — myriad lineages around us are end- ing forever at the hands of human wantonness and greed. Darwin's placid reflection on life's continuity, with its reference to future evolution, is haunting in today's context. It is a vision that can no longer he ignored. FM of big airlines on the way to Europe? shrin w k. ■Hr- \--?l^355B5Sr^SSSKi-'A^?,TF«AJ':W?--«r«B^!8»i You board a large, well-connected airline and fly across the Atlantic. You land. Suddenly you discover that, in Europe, this "large'airline is just a small shadow of its transatlantic self, lacking many of the resources to take you to points beyond. But you can avoid that problem by the simple act of flying KLM. In which case Europe isn't the end of the line but just the beginning. We fly to more places in Europe, Africa and the Mideast than all U.S. airlines combined. With departures so frequent that every five min- utes, somewhere in the world, a KLM plane is either landing or taking off. Which is worth remembering the next time busi- ness takes you overseas. After all, why fly an airline that covers the con- tinent you just left, when you can fly one that covers the continents you're going to? For more information, just call your travel agent or KLM Royal Dutch Airlines. The airline + of the seasoned traveler. wSSm The Reliable Airline KLM Royal Dutch Airlines FIELD MUSEUM TDURS^ ENGLISH HOMES and GARDENS July 4- 15 Tuesday, July 4: Tour members will be met by the local tour director at London Heattirow, Terminal 4 {British Airways). Board a luxury coach for the short journey to Canterbury where we will be met by our hostesses and driven to their homes. Lunch with the host- esses, followed by a restful afternoon and dinner with hostesses this evening. Wednesday, July 5: Sandwich Nature Reserve & Canterbury. First to Sandwich Bay Nature Reserve for a conducted coastline walk to see tFie wildflowers there. Stop at a pub for lunch, before continuing on to Canterbury for a private tour of this great cathedral, for those who wish. Followed by free time to wander or explore be- fore returning to hostesses in the late afternoon. Dinner this evening in a private home. Thursday, July 6: Ladham and Great Dixter First a short drive to the West, towards the county of Sussex to visit Ladham, the home of Betty Lady Jessel, who will personally conduct a tour of her gardens. A pub lunch in Goud- hurst, followed by another short journey to Great Dixter, a small gem of a house, built in ab- out 1450, which now has a most interesting gar- den, created and maintained by the author and broadcaster, Christopher Lloyd. The grounds include areas of native wildflowers and gras- ses. Return to hostesses and later on dine in a private home. Friday July 7: Leeds Castle and Sissinghurst. First a private visit to Leeds Castle, including its gardens and aviary which was described by Lord Conway as "the loveliest Castle in the world." Drive on through the Kent countryside to Sissinghurst Castle, for lunch in its restaurant. In the afternoon, visit its well-known, and very beautiful gardens, created by Vila Sackville- West and her husband, Harold Nicholson. Dine this night with hostesses. Saturday. July 8: Heaselands. Goodbye to Canterbury hostesses and first drive to Hease- lands, the home of Mrs. J. N. Kleinwort, for a pri- vate tour of her seventeen-acre garden, con- ducted by her head gardener. This outstanding garden was created by Mrs. Kleinwort and her late husband over a period of thirty years. A pub lunch close to Sheffield Park, before travelling on North and West to the Cotswolds to meet, and later dine, with hostesses there. Sunday, July 9: The Cotswolds. In the morning, an opportunity for those who wish, to worship before luncheoning with hostesses. In the after- noon, visit Hidcote, a lovely garden created by the American horticulturalist. Major Lawrence Johnston. Hidcote is a series of small gardens, surrounded by walls and hedges, contained within the whole. Dine this evening in a private home. Monday, July 10: Oxford and Blenheim. In the morning we visit Oxford for a tour, first of its Botanic Gardens, followed by a general tour of Oxford colleges, for those who wish. Lunch in a private home. In the afternoon visit Blenheim Palace, home of the 11th Duke of Malborough, and birthplace of Sir Winston Churchill. Dinner this evening will be with hostesses. Tuesday, July 1 1: Travel to Bath. Farewell to Cotswold hostesses, and board the coach for a short drive South to Barnesley. Here, the well- known gardening author Rosemary Verey will personally conduct a tour of her outstanding gardens, which surround her delightful South Cotswold house. Lunch in the local pub, and in the afternoon, continue to Bowood, the family home of the Earl of Shelburne, to see both the house and its gardens. The Robert Adam Diole- tian houses magnificent rooms and a 5,000- volume library. In the gardens the collections of trees and shrubs include 153 species and over 900 varieties, all of which are labelled. Later in the afternoon, continue to the Bath area to meet, and later dine, with Bath hostesses. Wednesday, July t2: Bath. In Bath we tour this elegant Georgian city with its outstanding crescents, not the least of which is the Royal Crescent, claimed to be the finest in Europe. Lunch in a restaurant in town. In the afternoon, a choice either to stay in Bath to shop and ex- plore, or to visit Wells for a private tour of its 30 Sissinghurst Castle Garden & copyright British Tourist Authority eight-hundred-year-old cathedral. Return to hostesses in the late afternoon, and later this evening, dine in a private home, Thursday. July 13: Wilton and Heale. We drive south down the lovely Wylie Valley to Wilton House, |ust North of Salisbury Visit the home of the 17th Earl of Pembroke to see its magnificent State Apartments, including the famous Double Cube Rooms, and one of the finest art collec- tions in Europe, The gardens contain an inter- esting variety of trees, including the Golden Oak tree and giant Cedars of Lebanon. Roses are a feature and Lord Pembroke recently opened an Old Rose Garden. After a pub lunch, visit Heale House, the home of Mrs. David Rash, with its superb five-acre garden. Shrub roses and perennials are a prominent feature, together with Japanese tea house and magnolias. Return to hostesses in the late after- noon to dine with them, Friday. July 14: Travel to London. Goodbye to Bath hostesses and drive east to the Royal Hor- ticultural Society Gardens at Wisley These gar- dens, which extend over 470 acres, are "work- ing gardens," with every plant and flower or shrub labelled. They are a joy for both the serious and amateur gardener, or horticultural- ist. Lunch in the garden's restaurant. In mid- afternoon, continue into central London and check into the Naval and Military Club, located in the heart of London's West End, where we will be the guests of Lt. Colonel Ronnie Adam, He will host a Welcome to London Reception in the Leeds Castle, Kent © copyright British Tourist Authority Club for Tour Members this evening. Dinner by own arrangements, Saturday July 15. A free day for Tour Members to pursue their own interests, either shopping or sight-seeing. The booklet in the personal fold- ers given to each guest on arrival in England list places of interest in London, how to get there, and times of opening. The tour director will assist in putting together the day's program, for those who wish. Lunch and dinner by own arrangements. Sunday July 16. Those returning home this day will be escorted to the departure airport by the tour director for the return flight home. Addition- al night's accommodation may be arranged at the Naval and Military Club for those wishing to stay on longer in London, subject to availability As you see, we will visit a numtper of outstand- ing gardens, and your enjoyment will be en- hanced by the leadership of Bertram G. Wood- land, a former curator at Field Museum, who will accompany the group throughout the tour. Additionally the opportunity to stay in private homes and share tfie hospitality of the English hostesses, and the overnight stay at the Naval and Military Club should offer some delightful and interesting experiences. We hope you will join us for this very special tour, PRICE: $3,575. (includes $100 tax-deductible contribution to Field Museum). Ctiristchurch Gate leading to Canterbury Cathedral « copyright British lounsi Authority For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr. , Chicago, 1160605 Field Museum of Natural History Membership Department Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicaso, IL 60605-2499 MISS MARITA MAXEY 7411 NORTH OREENVIEW CHICAGO IL 60626 April: Family Month at Field Museum! ^'Families at Work*' Exhibit Formally Opens. Dr. Benjamin Spock on Parenting, Saturday, April 8. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published since 1930 by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 Editor/T)esigner: David M. Walsren Production Liaison: Pamela Sterns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board OF Trustees Robert A. Prit:ker ChaiTman Mrs. T. Sranttm Armour Robert O. Bass Gordon Benr Mrs. Philip D. BkKklll WiilardL. Bind. Presideni Robert D. Cadieux WorlevH. Clark James W. Compton Frank W. Considine Thomas E. rXinneiley II Thomas J. Everman Marshall Field RonaldJ. Gidwitz Wayne E. Hedien Clarence E. Johnston Richard M. Jones John James Kinsella Robert D. Kolar William Kunkler Hi Hu^oJ. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin James J. O'Cimnor Mrs. James J. O'Ctmnor James H. Ransom Jt>hn S. Runnells Patrick G. Rvan William L. Searle Mrs. Thev>dore l~*. Tieken E.Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrintiton LifeTrlstees Harrv O. Bercher B^>wen Blair Stanton R. Cix>k Mrs. Edwin J. OeCosta William R. Dickinson, Jr. Mrs. I\ivid W. Grainijer Clittord C. Greui: Mrs. Robert S. Hartman Edward Bvron Smith Robert H. Strot: John W. Sulli\an CONTENTS April 1989 Volume 60, Number 4 APRIL EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3 COYOTE: A MHH IN THE MAKING Featuring the work of Native American Artist Hany Foiiseca .... 7 CHANGING CHICAGO: CULTURAL DIVERSITY Photo Doamientary of Chicago and Its People 10 0 DARKLY BRIGHT The Labrador Jotmieys of William Brooks Cabot n "HUMAN, APPROACHABLE, AND FUN"— The Families at Worii Exhibit By Fredelle Maynard 12 MUSICAL AMPHIBIANS OF CHICAGOLAND By John C. Murphy. Associate, Division of Amphibians and Reptiles 18 FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 30 COVER Portion of the new "Families at Work" exhibit, formally opened this month. See pp. 12-17. Pholo by Ron Testa and Diane Alexander White n85228 Volunteer at Field Museum Learn somethins new or share your expertise — a wide variety of challensins and rewardins volunteer oppor- tunities for either weekdays or weekends are currently available. Please call the Volunteer Coordinator at (31 2) 922-9410, extension 360, for more information. MEMBERS' NIGHT Friday, May 5 5:00-10:00pm Field \luseum of Siiiural Hnior\ ButUttn (USPS 8'»8'W()| is published iimnrhK. eVLCpl comhincd Jul> AuiiuM issue, h\ Field Musi-uni .>! Naturji Hisi.>r>. R.'dm.'.cIi Ko, Museum of Natural History Suhscnpihwis S6 OOannu^IK S.l 00 for schoiils Museum mcmbciNhip includes BwWcnH suhsi.n[>tion Opmumscvprvsscd h\ authors jrv their manuMrnpCs arc welcome Museum phone 1 312l 'JZ^-'M 10 NoCificalionol address change should inilude address lahel and be sent to Membership IX-pannK-ni Posmustet: Pli Lake Shore Dnve. Chicago. IL 6060^-24% ISSN: (Xll.S-0705 Second class pivstagc paid at Chicagn. Illinois jnd addiinHial mailmi: office id Ji lake Shore DriM-.thicji:.'. ILW>M>.^-:4'>6 t.op\nghl ' I4SV hicid ,i» n and do (Krt necessanl> rcl icci ihc pi>lic> ol F-icId Mu^-um L nsohciied ;ase send lonn .l.'>7y to hield Museum ot Natural Histor> . Rtxjsc^elt Ri^ad at Dr. Spock on Parenting Dr. Benjamin Spock Saturday, April 8, 2:00pm Afternoon Films Thursdays in April 1 :30pm, Lecture Hall I April 6 April 13 April 20 April 27 Dr. Benjamin Spock's name has become synonymous with parenting. Perhaps the most eminent pediatrician and child psychiatrist in the world, Dr. Spock has been studying and writing about children for over 40 years. Join Dr. Spock as he expresses his views on the "strange mixture of stress and joys" of parenting. He recognizes that today's parents need guidance beyond their concerns for the physical well-being of their children. He feels the new American family needs new guideposts. From the universal concerns of all parents to the contemporary problems of the '80s, Dr. Spock shares his wisdom and experience. In an era when simply defin- ing a parent can be a complex matter, gain some sensible in- sights from America's most trusted child care expert. LL89201 Dr. Spock on Parenting Tickets: $10 ($8 members) Audubon 1977. 50 min. Color A fascinating film that traces the travels of John J. Audubon (1785-1 851) throughout Europe and North America. Although Audubon named, classified, and wrote about birds, he is probably best known as an artist. The minute detail he portrayed as he painted birds in their natural settings can be seen in film scenes taken from his most famous book, The Birds of America. Xian: Cities in China 1980. 60 min. Color This captivating film unlocks many of the secrets of Xian, the ancient imperial city of China. This city has many archaeological treasures including the life-size pottery army of the emperor Qin. Mzima: Portrait of A Spring 1978. 53 min. Color The hippopotamus is the central character in this examination of African wildlife at Kenya's Mzima, where 50 million gallons of water flow daily. Nature maintains a delicate balance between animals and the food supply at the spring. The survival of the hip- popotamus ensures the existence of other species at the spring such as elephants, baboons, kingfishers, butterflies, spiders, fish, and frogs. The Tribal Eye: Sweat of the Sun 1980. 50 min. Color Little of the golden hoard of the Aztecs and the Incas escaped the brutal pillaging of the Spanish conquistadores. In Sweat of The Sun, David Attenborough examines some of the most important pre-Columbian objects that eluded European smelt- ing furnaces and describes how these objects werf used by priests of the Aztec and Inca cultures in practical and ritual fashion. Films are free and tickets are not required. Please use the coupon p 4 PROJEQ! A Musical Documentary Free Street Theater Friday, April 21 , 7:00pm Saturday, April 22, 2:00pm, 7:00pm Sunday, April 23, 2:00pm Free Street Theater performs April 21 , 22, 23 PROJECTI, a musical documentary, explores the humanity be- hind the negative headlines of the troubled Cabrini-Green neighborhood. With a background of lively dance and song, children and adults from Cabrini-Green tell their story. Through the use of 70 television sets, stacked to suggest the high-rises, residents talk about daily life in videotaped interviews, inter- woven between live dance and vocal numbers. What makes PROJECTi special? For one, these are not actors playing parts. These are Cabrini-Green residents playing themselves, telling of daily life in this all-black ghetto, from their own personal experience. Their ages range from 8 to 48 and their story is real. Tickets: $1 2 ($1 0 members): $7 children (12 and under). Special note: Be sure to indicate time of performance requested on registration form, p. 4. Registration Be sure to complete all requested information on this registration application. Registrations are confirmed by mail. For registrations received less than one week before the program date, confirmations are held at the West Door for pick-up one hour before the program begins. Phone registrations are accepted using Visa/MasterCard/ AMX/Discover, Please call (312) 322-8854 to register. The minimum amount for credit cards is $15,00, For further registration information, consult the April/May Adult, Children, and Family Program Brochure, Return complete registration with a self- addressed stamped envelope to: Field Museum of Natural History Department of Education, Program Registration Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605-2497 Program Number Program #Child #Member #Nonmember Total Amount LL89201 Dr, Spockon Parenting LL89202 Bug Basics LL89203 Bug Basics-Ctiild PROJECTI Friday. April 21. 7:00 pm PROJECTI Saturday, April 22, 2:00 pm PROJECTI Saturday, Apnl 22, 7:00 pm PROJECTI Sunday, Apnl 23, 2:00 pm D Sctiolars hip requested total Name Address City State Zip 4 Telephone: Daytime Evening DAMX nVisa a MasterCard D Discover (Ctieckone) Card # expiration date Signature For office use only: date received date mailed Bug Basics Hugh Danks, Heod, Biological Survey of Canada; National Museum of Natural Sciences Saturday, April 1,2:00pm Have you ever wondered why a firefly glows or how ants can carry enormous crumbs on their baci<;s? How does a hairy green caterpillar change into a brilliant butterfly? Join Dr. Hugh Danks as he introduces the wonderful world of insects. In a program designed for families with children ages 5 to 1 2, learn to observe, identify, and enjoy the tiny creatures that populate even the smallest patch of grass or flower bed. All children receive a "bug certificate" and activities to try at home. LL89202 Bug Basics LL89203 Bug Basics-Child Tickets: $4 adults: $2 children 1 2 and under. Adult-Child WoHcshops Adult-Child workshops provide an exciting, participatory learn- ing experience. Children and adults work together to build a kite, experience a traditional Eastern Woodlands Indian pow- wow, learn colorful Mexican cross-stitch patterns, or explore the natural world using scientific skills and techniques. Workshops are designed for specific age groups covering an age range from two to thirteen years. For a full listing of adult- child workshops and registration information, call the Depart- ment of Education at (312) 322-8854, Monday through Friday, 9:00am-4:00pm. 5 FIELD BRIEFS Thomas R. Sanders, Vice President Of Development, Retires Thomas R. Sanders, vice president for Development of Field Museum, retired on January 31, after having served as chief development officer for the Museum fi>r almost twenty years. In a profession known, among other things, for a tradition of transiency in tenure, that tenure, alone, is cause for notice. But Tom Sand- ers did far more than just put in two decades of service. More than any other person, he is the leader and the craftsman of, and the glue that held together. Field Museum's fund-raising effort over that period. Tom Sanders joined the Museum staff in the fall of 1969. He inherited little more than an emhryonic fund-raising program and financial needs of awesome proportions. In typical Sanders fashion, he went to wt:)rk — planning, organizing, and producing. During Tom's tenure, more than $65 million in private contri- butions have come to Field Museum. No one who knows anything about development work would sug- gest that it is a one-person operation. Tom had a dis- tinguished institution and staff, an outstanding board of trustees, and dedicated friends of the Museum to work with. But Tom Sanders was the dynamo and the continuum, without which no development effort can succeed. His contributions were much more than pure fund raising. He understood the values of Field Mu- seum, he is unfailingly loyal, and he possesses an energy level seldom seen in today's world. Perhaps more valu- able than any other single characteristic, one working with him could always be assured that, regardless of any possible disagreements, Tom's opinion always ex- pressed what he believed what was in the best interests of Field Museum. One never had to search for a hidden agenda. In short, Tom Sanders was a valued member ot senior management. Prior to joining the Field Museum staff, Mr. Sand- ers had served the Chicago Heart Association, the Community Fund-Red Cross Joint Appeal (now the Crusade of Mercy), the American Cancer Society, and for nine years was director of Development of Loyola University. Thus, his entire career has been in the field of development. The 35 years in development repre- sent a great contribution to the organizations and in- stitutions of Chicago. All those who know Tom Sanders, and particular- ly those who have worked with him for the good of Field Museum, wish him and his wife, Mary, all the best in retirement. With those wishes come apprecia- tion for a major contribution toward the advancement of the Museum. — E. Lehmd Webber Willard E. White Named Vice President For Development and External Affairs Succeeding Thomas G. Sanders as Field Museum's chief development officer is Willard E. White, who joined the Field Museum November 28. Mr. White comes to the Museum from the Newberry Library, where he was vice president for Development and Pub- lic Affairs. He has previously been a development officer at the Illinois Institute of Technology, Northwestern University, and the University of Chicago. Prior to entering the development field in 1977, Mr. White served with the journals division of the University ot Chicago Press; as chief, Personnel Branch, Third U.S. Army, Atlanta; and as instructor in English at the Uni- versity of Illinois, Chicago. He received his Ph.D. and M. A. in English literature from the University of Chi- cago and his B. A. from Denison University. As vice president for Development and External Affairs, he is responsible for development, member- ship, tours, sponsored programs, government rela- tions, external communications, marketing, public re- lations, and the Bulletin. Clarification: Symposium on History and Evolution We regret the understandable confusion generated by the announcement of the symposium "His- tory and Evolution," which appeared in the February Bulletin. The reproduction of the annoimce- ment sent to universities and other scientific institutions across the country was intended not as an invitation for registration from the general public but rather as a notice to the membership of an activity of the scientific staff. This distinction was not made clear. Coyote Serigraph, 22" X 30" COYOTE: A MYTH IN THE MAKING Contemporary Native American art April 8 to July 9 "Coyote: A Myth in the Making" presents the paintings and sketches of contemporary Native American artist Harry Fonseca. The exhibit focuses on Fonseca's vision of Coyote, a magical being prominent in the traditional liter- ature and religious beliefs of many Native American cul- tures. The exhibit traces Coyote's history as he emerges from Fonseca's Maidu heritage and leaves the reservation to participate in many facets of American life. Through Coyote, Fonseca provides a lively commentary on con- A Gift from California Serigraph, 22" X 30" A Gift from California presents Fonseca's assertion that the Indi- an culture of California was alive and very different from that of the Southwest. The serigraph illustrates a women's dance, which honors both the acorn and women as givers of life,- the four dancers carry burden baskets filled with acorns, a traditional staple of life for the Maidu and a symbolic representation of Maidu culture. The traditional Maidu basket designs are, left to right, winged lightning, angleworm, quail plume, and ants on a log. C> temporary urban life and timeless human nature. As an artist, Fonseca has developed his own style that has been referred to as "primitive," "naive," and "California funk." While his bold and colorful v\/ork reflects qualities of each of these styles, it goes beyond to create his own personal statement as a visual artist. Among many Native American peoples, the coyote is a trickster figure. Among the Maidu of northern California, however. Coyote is more than just a spoiler — he also provides a guide through life, demonstrating what be- havior is unacceptable and dangerous, providing oppor- tunities for others to learn from his mistakes. According to Maidu oral tradition. Coyote is also responsible for the existence of work, suffering, and death. He is, on the other hand, a buffoon, the trickster who is only tricking himself, who comes out of his adventures in a sorry plight. Harry Fonseca was born in Sacramento, California, in 1 946; he is of Maidu, Portuguese, and Hawaiian descent, C" Coyote in front of Studio Acrylic, 30" X 24" Fonseca uses Coyote to poke fun at the familiar stereotype of the American Indian. The urbanized Coyote, in block leather jacket, Levi's, and high-top tennis shoes, wears the Hollywood- approved version of the most recognizable item of Indian dress, a full Plains-style feather headdress. Coyote also carries a large beaded leather bag and holds three cigars as he stands on a vv/ooden box. Through Coyote's regalia, which is not worn in the artist's own Maidu culture, Fonseca satirizes the stereotype of the "real" Indian. and he grew up in Sacramento acutely aware of his mixed heritage. However, he was greatly influenced by his uncle Henry Azbill, a Konkow Maidu elder, who encouraged him to attend the Maidu dances at Grindstone, near Chi- co. Azbill was a great promoter and preserver of the Maidu culture, which hod undergone tremendous turmoil after the tribe was decimated following the influx of gold seekers and settlers to their land in California's northern Sierra. Fonseca is largely self-taught: "I've been drawing this way since I was twelve years old," he said in a recent interview. His earliest works relate directly to his Maidu heritage. As part of on assignment for a class in American Indian art at California State University, Sacramento, Fon- seca tape-recorded his uncle telling the Maidu creation myth. After recording the story, Fonseca realized that it was more than a creation myth; it was the tribal history. In 1 976, Fonseca applied for and received a Special Pro- jects Grant from the California Arts Council to aid in the making of the Creation Story. This marked the beginning of the three-year project that became the visual record of an oral history. Fonseca's early works, created in the late 1 960s through the 1 970s, have been referred to as his "tradi- tional" paintings — traditional because Fonseca was illustrating the Maidu culture, the dances, the regalia, and the basket designs, "the beginnings," as he said, "of the California people." ^ f^Kf^fU^ Sketch Book, Vol. 1 Ink and wotercolor, 9" X 12" Fonseca spent a year researching and sketching dance classes at the Alvin Alley American Dance Center In New York. Ttie Sketcti Book, Vol I contains Fonseca's notations about the dances, dancers, costumes, and sets — later used In his Interpretation of European animal myths In his Swan Lake series. ■ i m 1 f 1 « 1 1 . IlLW s 1 IRON DEN -/ fh l^lO -.1 .G JS Tojn Hocker Changing Chicago: Cultural Diversity Photo Exhibition April 22-September 4 The Essence of Chicago's diverse communities emanates from the still photography of six area photographers on display from April 22 to September 4, 1989. "Changing Chicago: Cultural Diversity" is one of five simultaneous exhibitions in Chicago organized by the Focus Infinity Fund. Field Museum's exhibit includes more than 100 black-and-white and color photographs by Dick Blau, Kerry Coppin, Tom Hocker, Jim Newberry, Marc PoKempner, and Richard Younker. The communities rep- resented through their work include African-American, Polish, and Asian. The photographers participating in Field Museum's exhibition spent a full year documenting the customs, traditions, and values of their assigned communities. 10 O DARKLY BRIGHT THE LABRADOR JOURNEYS OF WILLIAM BROOKS CABOT 1899-1910 Historic Photo Exhibit On View until April 23 For More Than Two Decades, beginning in 1898, William Brooks Cabot, a prominent American engineer turned explorer, made annual treks into the remote regions of the Quebec-Labrador peninsula to travel and live with small bands of Eskimo and Naskapi Indian hunters. The exhibit "O Darkly Bright" contains approximately fifty photo- graphs that Cabot took of the people and lifestyles he en- countered. Cabot was one of the first explorers to travel with a camera in Labrador and his photographs provide unique historical documentation of now vanished cultures. The exhibition was developed by Stephen Loring, an anthropologist and archaeologist who has done extensive research on Labrador. In 1980 Loring tracked down Cabot's descendants and was given Cabot's original jour- nals and more than 3,000 negatives, glass lantern slides, and photographs. The photographs in the exhibition are drawn from this collection which is now part of the Smithso- nian's National Anthropological archives. "O Darkly Bright " can be seen in the gallery of the Webber Resource Center for Native Cultures of the Americas. The Christian A Johnson Memonal Gallery Young women at Kanekautsh Lakes, interior Quebec-Labrador. 8 August. 1910. Photo by William Brooks Cabot MiddieburvCoiiege,M.dtjiebury,vermoni 05753 // Human, Approachable, and Fun — The Families at Work Exhibit // By Fredelle AAaynard Ron Testa and Diane Alexander White Just beyond the ancient China collection — past the marble sarcophagus and those austere deities (God of Creation, Judge of Purgatory), the Bud- dhas and bottles and polychrome bowls — visitors to the Field Museum this spring now find themselves in a surprising world. Here, stuffed and mounted, are a white-tailed doe with two fawns, a baby bat clinging to its mother in a windowless cave, a newly hatched monarch caterpillar. Here, too, are cases of brilliant child garments from Pakistan, Botswana, Greenland, the American 12 Southwest. Here are hand-fashioned toys from round the world — carts and dolls and balls and miniature farm implements. Life-size photographs of the world's families illustrate and elaborate displays. At the heart of the exhibit, under banners which identify its themes (Bearing, Tending, Feeding, Carr;ving, Covering, Protecting, Teaching), children — real live Chicago children — are playing. In the baby area, one toddler pushes a cart while another chatters into a dis- connected phone; a third delightedly contemplates her own mirror image. Some mothers sit on bright floor pillows, directing and commenting. ("Look, Jason, A white bear, a blue fish, an orai-ige carrot.") Others read aloud from the picture book collection or join in animated parent talk. ("What do you do when your kid throws a tantrum?") Beyond the baby-fence, a laughing, shouting, jostling group of preschoolers explores the possibilities of an imaginative play struc- ture composed of differing heights, open-ended hard- board tubes. Created by Don Skinner, designer of the exhibit, the tubes have clear plastic tops which en- close bright, intriguing objects: silk leaves, fishes, a moon and stars. At the base of each tube, an open Dr. Fredelle Maynard, a specialist in family life, is a writer, lecturer, columnist, and radio/TV broadcaster based in Toronto. She has taught at Harvard, Radcliffe, Wellesley, and the University of New Hampshire and has served as educational consultant for the U.S. National Assessment of Educational Progress. She is the author of several books, the most recent of which is Tree Houses and Tarn- bourines: Raising Creative Children, to be published this year by Pen- guin Viking. Other books include Guiding Your Child to a More Creative Life, The Child Care Crisis, and two volumes of memoirs: Raisins and Almonds and The Tree of Life. Her articles have appeared in Maclean's, Woman's, Day, Parents, Reader's Digest, the Atlantic, and numerous other periodicals. doorway invites movement and invention. "This could be a space ship!" "It's a forest!" "No, it's our house. " What's happening here is lively evidence of the Field Museum's enlarged sense of purpose. For almost Diane Alexander While a century now, this has been a world-class museum, eminent both as a research institute and as an agency of public education. Meanwhile, community com- position and community needs have changed. The suburban population, split otf from the central city, is less likely to use the Museum's resources. Blacks and Hispanics, now a majority of Chicago's population, have been underserved by the Museum's programs and parents can release babies from backpacks and stroll- ers, at the same time providing older children with a child-centered exhibit and the opportunity for imag- inative play. Oversize photographs surrounding the area suggest the universality of parent tasks; here's a father giving a bottle, a robin with worm and eager babies, a mother breastfeeding twins. Both parent and child visitors are led — casually, without didacticism underrepresented among its visitors. The very splen- dor of the building, its classic dignity and formality, may well make it less attractive to the present genera- tion of visitors. Always solid, comprehensive, rich and varied in its holdings, the Field Museum has ac- quired an image awesome rather than exciting. Today the stated aim — while preserving its established tradi- tion of scholarship — is to reach a new generation of museum-goers. Centennial Directions, a looking- forward document published in October, 1986, sets forth an agenda for the future: "to offer informal ex- hibits and programs, providing direct, hands-on ex- periences with natural history materials and themes"; to attract a broad range of museum-goers, from casual lookers to serious scientists; to make the Museum's vast resources more usable; above all, "to lighten the public face of the Museum, making it more human and approachable." Families at Work is a brilliant first step in this direction. On the most obvious level, it's a refresh- ment for the gallery-goer: an attractive space where 14 — towards an understanding of family structures and practices. The free arrangement of exhibits — fox and cubs next to a photo of father with backpack — invites reflection. What have animal and human families in common? How do they differ? What do the toys of China, Indonesia, South Africa tell us about the cul- ture of those countries? How do parents in all parts of the world prepare the young for adult roles and responsibilities? Unlike conventional museum labels, with their facts and figures and Latin names, the labelling here is offhand, provocative. The exhibit of Khoi-Khoi dolls, for example, provides no pedestrian data. (Assumption: you can see what there is to see.) Rather, it asks: "What does this doll family teach chil- dren about adult life?" A child who tires of racing through the tubes or manipulating beads on the mar- blechase, can choose any exhibit (all cases are at child's eye-level) for a moment's quiet observation. Oh boy, oh boy, look at that sivord. Do Japanese kids really get to play with stuff like that? Or The baby rabbits look like mice. When do they get their fur? Families at Work poses a question: What are families for? What common impulses unite the mother raccoon with her tumbling babes, the talismans attached to children's garments in many cultures, the ingenious toys constructed of locally available materials — rushes, gourds, animal bones? A useful formulation comes from Dr. Dorothy Gross, of New York's Bank Street College of Education: "What the young need, what parents provide, is affection, pro- tection, role modelling and elbow room." Protection is the bottom line. Families at Work shows how animals born naked and blind are sheltered in nests where pa- rents keep them safe and warm. Human babies are swaddled, strapped onto carrying boards, bundled into baskets and backpacks. (Some carriers come equipped with drainage facilities; others divert young riders with bouncing devices and jingling bells. ) In the in- sect world, protection may be a simple matter of shielding eggs and larvae from predators; more soph- isticated, but still instinctive, is the canny ruse of the killdeer faking a broken wing to distract attention from the vulnerable eggs. Human parents move beyond physical protection to spiritual; the exhibit showcases a wonderful variety of supernatural defenses against harm: the Chinese silk lion, stuffed with frag- rant leaves to protect a playing child, Indonesian charm necklaces, a Sioux Indian turtle amulet containing — magic specially potent — a piece of the wearer's umbilical cord. Even color may be chosen for its magical properties, like the yellow dye of Kiowa Indian leggings. Most often charms are worn, but some may be placed by cradle or basket, like the silky Ojibwa nets designed to catch bad dreams, or the evil-looking fungus used in Madagascar to scare off malign spirits. Affection, surely revealed in the multiple Ron Testa and Diane Alexander While ingenious devices hy which human parents hope to safeguard their young, appears vividly too in chil- dren's garments. In a very real sense, here, clothes make the man (or woman), foreshadowing adult roles and responsibilities and expressing the values of the culture. From the Eskimo parka to the brief pubic shield of a Javanese girl, clothing typically moves beyond merely practical considerations to celebrate the child and his hoped-for future. The silk coat of a Chinese infant is richly embroidered with symbols of health, wealth, and power: a cat to protect against evil spirits, butterflies for happiness, and the swastika- shaped wamzi for luck. A woolen jacket for a Guate- malan boy displays the quetzal bird motif, symbolizing greatness. Clothing the world over is in fact a rich language communicating, besides feeling, the wearer's status, the community's resources and, frequently, the pure art impulse of elaboration. One of the exhibit's most enchanting items is an infant hat from Pakistan, a kind of helmet with elongated ear flaps, extrava- gantly decorated with a mix of traditional embroidery and commercial artifacts. The cap is edged with white beading (no surprise), hung with silver coins and small bells (no great surprise) and then improbably finished off with key chains, pearl buttons, and split zippers. Role modelling begins in children's garments — often, as the exhibit reveals, miniature versions of adult apparel. The suit for a four-year-old Bagobo boy of the Philippines is a perfect replica of his father's, down to the attached sling bag . A young girl Diane Alexander White of the Karok — a California Indian tribe — destined to be a healer and dance leader early assumes ceremonial garments. Above all, though, it's in play that role- modelling and Elbow Room, hanging loose, come together. Is the Cameroon child's tiny Land-Rover life-learning, or pure highjinks? In Families at Work — the exhibit and the real-life activity — play emerges as both diversion and serious business. When an adult plays — at golf, dancing, chess — he turns aside from his "real" work to relax; this is recreation. But the child's play is a continuous act of creation. Running or digging, building or pretending, the child creates himself; he discovers who he is, what he can do, how things work, where he fits into the total scheme. The cradle board encourages nurturing, the how competi- tion. A Cheyenne boy's slingshot is not just amuse- ment (though it's surely that); it's practice in develop- ing eye and hand for targeting small game. With his toy rake, the Indonesian child prepares for life in the rice fields, just as the young Malay moves towards his destiny with a miniature cart made of coconut husks. The child-size Japanese sword, the scaled-down Hopi bow and arrow — these toys express the culture's val- ues and standards. Children envy — how can they not? — what seems the absolute freedom and power of adults. And when they rush out to play — with ball, top, wagon, skates — they're impelled not only by a desire for fiin, but by a drive for mastery, over them- selves and the physical world. Many young creatures play. Look at the fox cubs in a Families at Work display — pouncing on wind- blown leaves, chasing each other's tails. Just as this kind of play looks ahead to the adult hunt, so chil- dren's games (and the toys parents provide) constitute a special kind of life preparation. Consider the doll. The most minimal one, in this exhibit, made by the Naskapi-Montagnais Indians, is a paper cutout, a crude representation of the human form cut into birchbark. Without features, without sex, this de- humanized figure suggests a culture in which natural and supernatural forces dominate man. The Ndebele bead dolls, and the straw dolls of Ecuador (with bells concealed in bright skirts) express a delicate, decora- tive image of woman, contrasting strongly with a lusty leather doll from southern Africa, her sexual role ac- centuated by breasts, thrust buttocks, and back-borne infant. A Japanese daruma doll, designed to teach forti- tude, armless and legless, is all head; the Cheyenne doll, on the other hand, has a head the size of a bead. Some cultures produce baby dolls; in others, dolls represent adult ideals. And then there is Barbie, the All-American dream. Seeing her in this context, viewers may be moved to reflect on the elements of that dream. With her improbably small feet, long legs, perky breasts, elaborate hair, and bland expres- sion, she seems neither mother, sexual partner, nor worker but a fantasy of purely decorative femininity. (Barbies come, these days, with briefcases and hard hats for construction work, but one can't take such accessories seriously. Would Barbie do anything likely to disarrange costume or hair?) In the low-walled enclosure of Families at Work's play space, two preschoolers squabble over a puzzle. "I had it first!" "M31 turn!" When push and pull fails, the smaller child offers a canny solution. "Let's both do it!" Together, they make short work of the puzzle; having discovered the pleasures of bot/iness, they move towards the baby doll and the wagon. "I'll be the mother and you can be the bus driver." The bus driver's mother, meanwhile, has made herself com- fortable in a nest of bright pillows. Asked what she thinks of the exhibit, she offers a brass-tacks response. "It's great to sit down and let the kids work off some energy. They hate being dragged around museums, and half the time they can't see." A father — he's a re- cent immigrant from Guatemala — says, "I like that here we all learn. I talk to American parents. I watch." Other visitors join in. "My boys mostly play in the tubes. But then they'll race over to look at the stuffed deer, or the toy sword." "I think a dress-up box would be great. Stuff like what they see in the cases, the wild hats and shoes." Some parents would like more things for children to make and do; some wish the Museum would provide staff to answer questions about child care and development. A father asks if there couldn't be at least one live animal for children to observe. There's a silence while parents mull over these possibilities. Then a young woman who identi- fies herself as a university student of Early Childhood says, "The Field's full of good stuff. What's special here is the feeling — about families and the young. Like that little jacket from Panama, the one with reverse applique and a hood. That's not about keeping a kid warm and dry. It's about love, and celebration, and hope."FM 17 A Chicagoland pond in April. DaveVisisten 18 Musical Of Chicagoland By John C. Murphy frog photos by the author Frog choruses have always held a special fascination for me. With the exception of a few spectacular bird and primate calls and those of emerging cica- das, no animals' auditory display can, in my estima- tion, rival a chorus of frogs. I have waded in sloughs with alligators and venomous snakes, warded off hordes of mosquitoes, climbed trees while wearing chest waders, laid on snow-covered ground, and been preyed upon by black flies, leeches, and other creatures — all for the singular delight of listening to frogs and studying their be- havior. But anyone who wants to observe calling frogs in the Chicago area can do so without many of these inconveniences; and now, as we advance into spring, the opportunities to do so are abundant. The presence of frogs in a forest pond can usually be determined by a nighttime visit in spring or early summer. While just sitting in the car with the window rolled down and engine turned off one can hear the frog chorus, but approaching the sound to actually watch the calling frogs is something else. Listening to them, then locating the source of their call is challenging and John C. Murphy is an associate in the Division of Amphibians and Reptiles. He teaches biology at Plainfield High School, Plainfield, Illinois, and has served as herpetology consultant for agencies such as the Illinois Department of Transportation and for the govern- ment of Trinidad and Tobago. Mr. Murphy is a past president of the Chicago Herpetological Association and has been a generous donor of specimens to Field Museum, notably of amphibians and reptiles. "Water Snakes That You Might See around Chicago," by Mr. Mur- phy, appeared in the March 1987 Bulletin. _ requires some patience, but it is an excellent way to learn how to identify them by their vocal characteris- tics. In some cases, as described below, identification is easier on the basis of sound rather than appearance. Frogs are necessarily sensitive to the approach of any large animal, particularly one that may be inter- ested in them as food. Even the most casual observers have probably noticed that while approaching a pond where frogs are calling, the closer ones go silent while those farther off continue. Most of the Chicago-area jaws, tongue, and occasionally, their front legs, and swallow it whole. Two of the Chicago-area frogs are commonly called toads. There is no scientific distinction between frogs and toads, but most tailless amphibians known as toads are in the family Bufonidae, which contains almost 300 species worldwide; many have thick, glandular, warty skin, and land-dwelling adults. Toad eggs can be identified by the fact that they are laid in a long chain, usually on vegetation, in shallow water. Eastern American toad, Bufo americanus americanus species — there are 13 around Chicago, about 20 in Illinois — call from the water or from vegetation emerg- ing from the water, and such frogs detect movement from waves created by the intruder. Frogs are tailless amphibians: animals that usually pass through an aquatic fish-like larval stage before becoming adults. Like salamanders, which have tailed adults, frogs are dependent on water for reproduction and for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide through their skin. Adult frogs are carnivorous, eating mostly insects, but a few large species eat birds or mammals. Lacking true teeth, frogs must capture their prey with The eastern American Toad, Bufo americanus americanus, is probably the most frequently encoun- tered amphibian in northeastern Illinois, inhabiting many bodies of water in the urban and suburban areas during the breeding season and spreading out from the ponds in late spring to feed, often in gardens and lawns. Depending upon temperature, sometime during April, and usually at night, males migrate to the breeding ponds and females soon follow. At the peak of the explosive breeding season, the male toads call during daylight hours; this diurnal calling may last only one or two days, but a week or so before this peak and for a 20 Fowler's toad, Bufo woodhousii fowleri Left: Egg chains of American toad 24 hours after being laid. Right: The same chains three days later, showing newly hatched tadpoles After Dickerson. month or more afterward, the males can still be heard calling, usually after dark. The purpose of all this noise is to advertise the male's presence to females and to warn other males to keep their distance. Calling males stay about 36 to 60 inches apart; if one male ventures too close to another, he may be driven off by an agres- sive charge. The call of this toad is a sustained, musical trill lasting 6 to 30 seconds, one that is not easily forgotten and which may be heard as far away as a quarter mile. The time needed for egg and tadpole development var- ies with temperature and other factors, but small toad- lets become obvious during mid- to late summer. Females reproduce for the first time at three years of Leon L Pray Note the differences here in warts and blotches between Fowler's toad (top) and the American toad (bottom). 21 Blanchard's cricket frog, Acris crepitans blanchardi age, males reproduce at age two. Females grow to a body length of 4-5 inches, males are smaller, hut aver- age size for both sexes is 2.0 to 3. 5 inches. Fowler's toad, Bu/o woodhousii fowleri, is similar to the American toad, and for the casual observer dis- tinguishing between them can be difficult. The Amer- ican toad has a darkly mottled breast, as do some Illi- nois Fowler's toads; however, most Fowler's toads have a solid white or cream underside. Fowler's toad has lar- ger dark dorsal (back) blotches with three or more warts per blotch, while the American toad has only one or two warts per blotch. There are other subtle differences, but the situation is further complicated by the occasional interbreeding of the two species, with resultant hybrids that show characters of both. Fowler's toad seems to have a preference for sandy soil, while the American toad prefers darker, organic rich soils, and Fowler's toad usually breeds later in the spring. However, I have seen both species calling together at a dark-soil locality. The voice of Fowler's toad — quite different from that of the American toad — is a nasal "waah," lasting one to four seconds. Fowler's toad feigning death. After Dlckerson. Fowler's toads average 2 to 3 inches in length, but large females reach 3. 75 inches. In the New World, the treefrogs, family Hylidae, range from cold temperate latitudes in North America, through the tropics, to cold temperate latitudes in South America. The family contains about 630 spe- cies, with diverse adaptations to the many environ- ments they inhabit. Despite the common name "tree- frogs," some do not climb at all, while others spend their entire life in the forest canopy. Blanchard's cricket frog, Acris crepitans blanchardi, was considered the "most common amphibian in Illi- nois" by Philip W. Smith in his 1961 book The Amphi- 22 Western chorus frog, Pseudachs triseriata bians and Reptiles of Illinois, published by the Illinois Natural History Survey. However, this tiny, 0.75-1.5- inch frog underwent drastic population reductions in the next two decades. It is a ground-dwelling treefrog with numerous small warts and may have a green or rust-colored mid- dorsal mark. Its cryptic coloration makes it all but invisible when sitting on a muddy shoreline with small pebbles. As one approaches a cricket frog along the shoreline, it waits until one is three to four feet away, then leaps into the water and swims out; within seconds, however, it turns back, returning to within a short distance of its original position. Males call in late April with a series of short, metallic clicks. Newly metamorphosed individuals (i.e., transformed from tadpole to frog) are present in late summer or early fall. An Iowa study found that they feed continuously day and night during the seven months of the year they are active. They eat any small arthropod, mostly insects, consuming about 20 prey C J AlbrecW Female western chorus frog (left) approacfiing a male. items per day, or 4,800 prey per year per frog. Thus, a small population of 1 ,000 frogs would consume 4.8 mil- lion arthropods per year. The western chorus frog, Pseudacris triseriata triscriata, is a 0.75-1.5-inch frog with three broad stripes on its back and a light line along the upper jaw. This abundant frog is heard calling in large choruses in March and April; the call of a single frog is best de- scribed as the sound made by a running a finger slowly over a comb's teeth. As settlers moved into the mid- western grasslands during the 1800s, chorusing chorus frogs provided the musical background for man's altera- tion of the prairie. Today, chorus frogs will use almost any shallow body of water for reproduction — cattail marshes, flooded farm fields, suburban drainage ditch- es, even water-filled tire tracks. Small clusters of eggs m gelatinous masses float in the water or are attached to submerged vegetation. Chorus frogs rarely climb and are relatively poor swimmers. After reproducing, the adults spread out into surrounding upland habitats, sometimes where it is quite dry, to feed. The western chorus has an interesting relative in central Illinois, the Illinois chorus frog, Pseudacris streckeri illinoiensis, a frog unknown to science until 1950. This is a subterranean treefrog, a true paradox, that burrows into the sandy soil of Illinois sand prairies and feeds while underground. Males may chorus while the ground is snow covered, in March and April. The spring peeper, Pseudacris crucifer crucifer, has been long considered a true treefrog and placed in the genus Hyla. However, it has recently been reassigned to the chorus frog genus, Pseudacris. The spring peeper can be readily identified by the large X on its back. Like Spring peeper, Pseudacris crucifer crucifer. Note characteristic Xon back. the toads and chorus frogs, it is an explosive breeder; large choruses sing day and night for a day or two in late March or early April, until most of the eggs in the pop- ulation have been laid and fertilized. The male's call is a single, clear, high, piping note. This call is used to Eggs of spring peeper attached to submerged plant stem. After Wright. 23 Gray treefrog, Hyla versicolor advertise the male's presence; hciwever, when another male gets too close, the single notes become a trill, a signal that the caller's territory is being invaded. After the breeding period, males still call, but in small chor- uses, or singly. Unlike the western chorus frog, the female spring peeper deposits one egg at a time on sub- merged vegetation after it has been fertilized; thus, the eggs are not found in gelatinous masses, but are scat- tered along stems and leaves. The gray treefrog, Hyla versicolor, and Cope's treefrog, Hyla chrysocelis, are considered together because, even to the trained naturalist, they look alike and both are about 1 . 5 to 2.0 inches in length. Because of this similarity, they are still sometimes collectively called gray treefrogs. The gray treefrog has a slower, guttural trill, but to distinguish it from Cope's in the field, the two must be calling near each other so their calls may be compared under the same conditions — temperature affects the speed of frog calls; the warmer the frog the more rapid the call. These normally gray frogs can change to green or to a pasty-white, have bumpy skin, webbed toes, fin- gers ending in expanded disks, a distinctive white spot under the eye, and yellow and brown mottling on the groin and hidden surfaces of the thigh. Males have a single vocal sac and a rough pad of tissue on the inner thumb. The thumb pad is used for gripping the female during amplexus, or mating. During dry weather these frogs live in tree hollows, under tree bark, in rotten stumps and even abandoned bird houses. The two gray treefrog species spread their reproductive activity from April to August, latitude having some influence on the timing. Two other species of true treefrogs are found in the southern part of Illinois. The bird-voice treefrog, Hyla 24 avivoca, is a miniature version of the gray treefrogs, be- ing 1 . 2 to 1.75 inches in length, and it inhabits wooded swamps. This treefrog's call has been described as the most beautiful of all in North America. Males produce a clear, bird-like whistle at a pulse rate of about two to five per second. The green treefrog, Hyla cinerea, is leaf-green with a creamy side stripe, is 1.25 to 2.0 Male frogs with vocal sacs inflated. Top: leopard frog: bottom: green frog. inches long and inhabits swamps and marshes. Green treefrogs have a "quank"- or "quonk"-like voice, but when a large chorus is close to synchrony the sound produced is similar to cow bells. Both the bird-voice Wood frog, Rana sylvatica Bullfrog, Rana catesbiana and green treefrog are gulf plain species, extending their range into extreme southern Illinois. The true frogs, family Ranidae, is a collection of about 650 species that is almost worldwide in distribu- tion. It contains many species that are less than one inch long, but it also contains the world's largest frog, the African goliath frog, Conraua goliath, that has a body length of 12 inches. The habits of ranid frogs are as variable as their body sizes, but all of the Illinois species have webbed feet, free fingers (fingers that lack webbing), smooth skin, long legs, and narrow waists. Males may have single or paired vocal sacs, one on each side of the throat. The wood frog, Rana sylvatica, is the only frog in the Chicago area that has a dark brown mask through each eye. Adults are 1.5 to 3 inches long, males being smaller than females. Wood frogs are active in late Feb- ruary or early March, appearing in woodland ponds and breeding as soon as the air temperature reaches 50°F. During the breeding season males are darker than females and have swollen thumbs. Males also have paired vocal sacs and a duck-like hoarse cackling voice which says "waaaduck," lasting about one second. Wood frogs are an explosive breeder, laying all their eggs in a few days. Clutches of 500 to 1,000 or more eggs are laid in forest ponds and hatch in 10 to 14 days. Tadpoles transform in May or June. In Illinois this frog is restricted to small, localized populations where suit- able forest habitat exists; thus, they are uncommon in the Chicago area. The species is frequently associated with beech-maple forests, in the eastern part of the country, and lives farther north than any other am- phibian— above the Arctic Circle. The bullfrog, Rana catesbiana, is the largest native North American ranid frog, averaging 3. 5 to 6.0 inch- es in body length and sometimes attaining 8 inches. It differs from the green frog by lacking skin folds along the sides. Bullfrogs are usually green, but they change colors and may be green-brown. Males have a yellow throat during the breeding season. Their single, inter- nal vocal sac generates a vibrating snore that somewhat imitates the phrase "jug-o-rum." When a group of males are in a synchronous or near-synchronous chorus the sound produced is similar to that of a freight train. Bullfrogs actively call and reproduce from late April throughout most of the summer until August. A clutch of eggs may contain 20,000 or more and form a floating raft one egg thick that may be 3 feet or more in dia- meter. Females sometimes lay two clutches per season. The eggs hatch in 4 to 5 days; tadpoles overwinter, and may exceed 6 inches in length, transforming in their second summer. Bullfrogs will eat anything that moves and are considered pests in many locations, threaten- ing the survival of smaller frog species, which are com- Green frog, Rana clamltans melanola monly eaten. Bullfrogs are, in fact, attracted to the dis- tress calls of other frogs. The green frog, Rana clamitans mekmota, is similar in appearance to the bullfrog but has a fold of skin on each side of its back. Green frogs average 2.25 to 3.5 inches in length, but may reach 4 inches. They are green to green-brown above, with a white underside. Like the bullfrog, they are habitat generalists, using almost any body of freshwater. Reproductive activity extends from April to September, with most of the ac- tivity probably occurring in June. The male's advertise- ment call is a loud squawking "bong," repeated several times; it is similar to the sound made by plucking a banjo. A clutch may contain more than 4,000 eggs, which hatch in 3 to 6 days, depending upon tempera- ture. The tadpoles overwinter and transform the following season. Green frogs reach very high popula- tion densities. At one northern Illinois beaver pond I estimated that there was more than one green frog for every square meter of pond surface. While walking along the edge of a stream or pond, an observer may often frighten a green frog, which then jumps into the water, uttering a distress call that sounds like a banjo string breaking under stress — a sound unlike any other Illinois frog distress call. In northern Illinois, the pickerel frog, Ranapalus- tris, prefers ponds, creeks, and marshes. Elsewhere it uses caves, bogs, fast-moving streams, and springs. It is rarely found in the Chicago area. This 1 .75-3-inch spe- cies has a double row of squarish spots on the back, as well as a yellow or yellow-orange area on the underside of its hind legs, which distinguish it from the two leopard frog species (described below). Reproduction outside the Chicago area has been reported froin March to May. Males have double vocal sacs that pro- duce a low-pitched, musical snore lasting one or two seconds, and males may call while they are submerged. A globular clutch of 2,000-3,000 eggs is usually laid in clear, shallow water with a temperature between 50° and 65°F. These hatch in 10 to 14 days. Northern leopard frogs, Ranapipiens, are common and frequently encountered around streams and ponds. They may be brown or green, with two or three rows of :4i .^ - ■■- »■,. ''^^4. ., :_ : fil^' -i^ ^ fc:^ ^ i" *- ^ ^ Pickerel frog. Rana palustris round spots on the back; the spots may be scattered, run together, or missing entirely. These frogs average 2 to 3.5 inches long, but sometimes exceed 4 inches. Males call with paired vocal sacs from shallow, stag- nant water with vegetation, and may call while sub- merged. This habit makes them difficult to be heard and more difficult to locate. The sound has been likened to that made by rubbing a finger over an in- Northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens flated balloon, but it often consists of a one deep snore that is interrupted with a clucking grunt that lasts about a second. Three to five thousand eggs are laid between March and May in spherical masses and the eggs hatch in about seven days. The tadpoles transform from June to August. Adults spend the summer months replenishing their energy supply by capturing insects and spiders in grassy habitats near their egg-laying sites. Leopard frogs have long been used as laboratory ani- mals and, as such, one would think that everything would be known about these frogs; that is not so. The plains leopard frog, Rana blairi, was described in 1973. Until then it had masqueraded as the north- ern leopard frog. It is widely distributed in the central plains, but its separate identity was not noted because of the similarity in appearance to its sister species. Ex- ternally, the plains leopard can be distinguished from the northern leopard by a broken fold of skin on each side of the back, and occasionally by yellow coloration on the abdomen and thighs. Another major difference is in the pulse rate of the mating calls; the plains leopard frog calls at about five or six pulses per second, while the northern leopard frog calls at a pulse rate of about twenty per second at temperatures below 75°F. Further complicating the leopard frog situation is a third species found in the southern part of the state — the southern leopard frog, Rana sphenocephala. Three other frogs that inhabit Illinois are found at the southern end of the state and tend to be restricted in distribution or very secretive. The northern crayfish frog, Rana areolata circulosa, gets its name from spend- ing much of its time in crayfish burrows, as well as from eating small crayfish. The great plains narrowmouth toad, Gastrophryne carolinensis, is small and squat, has a collar-like fold of skin behind its head, runs on all four feet in a very unfrog-like way, and spends much of its time eating ants. The eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphious holbrookii, is subterranean, coming to the surface to re- produce after heavy rains. Fll Suggested Readings R. Conant: A Field Guide lo Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastevi and Central North America, 429 pp., 1975, Houghton Mifflin. C. Pope: Amphibians ami Reptiles of the Chicago Area, 275 pp. , 1944, Chicago Museum of Natural History (Field Museum). P. Smith: The Amphibians and Reptiles of Illinois. 298 pp., 1961, State of Illinois, Dept. of Registration and Education, Natural History Survey Division. 27 Pipe with catlinite bowl and stem wrapped in fur, Potawafomi, Cat. 1 55801 Photo by Diane Alexander White, neg 1 10294c CONSERVATION SYMPOSIUM FOR COLLECTORS Saturday, April 22 9:30am to 12:30pm Do you hove a collection of quilts, books, or photographs? Are you uncertain about how they should be displayed or handled? If so, come to Field Museum on Saturday, April 22. In the Founders' Room, from 9:30am to 12:30pm, a panel of conservation experts will discuss basic care and handling of a variety of materials. Learn about the major causes of damage and deterioration to collections and what precautions you can take to avoid them. Find out when to call a professional conservator. SPEAKERS Carol Turchan on photographs Bill Minter on books Nancy Rubin on textiles Christine Del Re on objects Mary Lee on paper Faye Wrubel on paintings Catherine Sease on general problems Come with as many questions as you like, but please do not bring in objects for discus- sion. Space for this free discussion is limited, so please call Mono Barz at 322-8885 by April 1 4 to reserve a place. 28 of big airlines on the way toEuroper ^^They shrinkr Mf- You board a large, well-connected airline and fly across the Atlantic. You land. Suddenly you discover that, in Europe, this "large'airline is just a small shadow of its transatlantic self, lacking many of the resources to take you to points beyond. But you can avoid that problem by the simple act of flying KLM. In which case Europe isn't the end of the line but just the beginning. We fly to more places in Europe, Africa and the Mideast than all U.S. airlines combined. With departures so frequent that every five min- utes, somewhere in the world, a KLM plane is either landing or taking off. Which is worth remembering the next time busi- ness takes you overseas. After all, why fly an airline that covers the con- tinent you just left, when you can fly one that covers the continents you're going to? For more information, just call your travel agent or KLM Royal Dutch Airlines. The airline + of the seasoned traveler. ■££■ The Reliable Airline KLM Royal Dutch Airlines HELD MUSEUM TDUR3^ Southwestern China Cultural Relics Study Tour September 15 - October 6 Leader: Katherine Lee Yang Street peddler with wares, Yunnan. Kathenne Yang Sept. 15. Chicago/Tokyo. Your adventure begins as you board Japan Airlines flight #9. Departure 12:00 noon. Sept. 16. Tokyo/Hong Kong. Arrive Tokyo 2:45 p.m. Connect with Japan Airlines Flight #65 at 5:30 p.m. to Hong Kong. Arrive at 8:50 p.m Overnight at Shangri La Hotel. Sept. 17. This morning we fly to Kunming. After transfer to the hotel, the remainder of the day is at leisure. This evening you are invited to a ban- quet hosted by the provincial government. Sept. 18. Visit the Unnan Provincial Museum. Several professionals who are specialists in their field will give us an introduction to the study program we'll cover in the next two weeks Sept. 19. This morning we leave by deluxe motorcoach for a countryside tour of Dali and Lijiang. Few foreign visitors have seen this area. We will have an opportunity to observe the life style of Han. Bai. and Naxi people. We will stay in the unique architectural style of Bai houses at Erhai Guest House. It is a walled compound: three sides are built with rooms while the fourtt- side IS used as a backdrop displaying ornamental bonsai trees or flowers. Sept. 20. This morning a well-known archaeologist in Dail will introduce us to Dali Nanzhou culture of the eighth century. We'll visit several sites as well as take a cruise on Lake Erhai. On our return we see homes where hand- icrafts are made, and how marble products are cut and polished. Sept. 21. Today enroute from Dali to Lijiang we will see the beautiful mountains of southwestern China and we'll visit the Jianchuan cave stone carvings of the Tang Dynasty. Tonight we'll stay in Lijiang No. 1 Guest House. Sept. 22 A scholar of Naxi minority culture. Mr. Zhao Gin Xiu. will help us understand the history, the people, and their way of life. Mr. Xiu was featured in the National Geographic article "Mountain World " As we walk through old Fang Clien. meaning "Square City. " our experience will be enhanced by the expertise of Mr. Zhao and Mr. Lee Zi. the director of Lijiang Museum. Sept. 23. We leave today for Dali, and enroute we will walk through Xhou Chen, where we will visit homes to see how traditional tie-dying is done. We will examine the process of marble finishing. As we are approaching Dali. we will stop to see three Pagodas at Chongsheng Tem- ple, which were built in the late Tang dynasty. Sept. 24. Today we return to Kunming, with some leisure time to reflect on the memories of Yunnan's hidden treasures. Then we prepare for our departure to Chengdu. Sichuan to experience another culture of China. Sept. 25. This morning we fly to Chengdu and transfer to Jin Jiang Hotel (West Wing). After lunch we will walk through the marketplace near the hotel to see how shopping for food is done in the most populated province in China. This evening the Sichuan Cultural Department will host us to a banquet at Lais Restaurant, where we will enjoy the world-famous Sichuan cuisine. Grandmother and granddaughter, Yunnan. Sept. 26. Today we will visit the Chengdu City Museum and Sichuan Provincial Museum, and Wang Jians Tomb. We will see the bronze arti- facts recently discovered in San Xin Due. Sept. 27. We will begin our four-day country- side motorcoach tour to Meishan. Leshan. and Zigong. Our first stop is at San Su Shi (The Three Su's home estate) at Meishan After lunch at San Su Shi, we will walk around the estate to see the home/garden architecture of south- western China. We will arrive in Leshan in the evening for dinner and overnight at Jia Zhou Guest House on the shore of the Mian river. Sept. 28. After breakfast we take a boat ride across the Mian river to see the Big Buddha. We then walk on a paved path along the river to Mao Hao Cave tombs, to observe a unique way of burial during the Han Dynasty. This afternoon we depart for Zigong by motor coach. Over- night at Tan Mu Lin Guest House Sept. 29. This morning we will visit the Salt Museum at Shaanxi Salt Merchants Guild. The exhibits are interesting: however, the archi- tecture of the Shaanxi Salt Merchants Guild is outstanding. 30 Sept. 30. We travel from ZiGong to Chengdu. Oct 1 Aday at leisure. We can help the Chinese celebrate their Independence Day. It IS the 40th anniversary of the founding of the new government. Oct. 2 We take a scenic motorcoach trip from Chengdu to the Wolong Panda Reserve District. We will stop enroute to visit farm families and a small botanical museum hidden in the mountains. Oct. 3. Our itinerary will be adapted to the flight schedule for the return to Hong Kong We will schedule time for rest and prepare for our re- turn home. There will be a farewell banquet this evening hosted by the Sichuan Province. Oct. 4. Departure from Chengdu in the early afternoon. We will arrive in the evening and transfer to the now familiar Shangri La Hotel (Kowloon) for the night. Oct. 5. This morning we fly to Tokyo, arriving in time to enjoy a leisurely evening. Overnight at Narlta Hotel. Oct. 6. Today we continue our journey home, leaving Tokyo on Japan Airlines flight #10 at 1 2:00 noon and arriving at Chicago O'Hare at 9:25 p.m. This Is an outstanding cultural study tour which we believe is an excellent itinerary, especially for those who have previously visited China. It Is the first time this area has been opened to visitors. Katharine Lee Yang was accompanied by gov- ernment officials as they established the Itiner- ary, and she has given Field Museum Tours the opportunity to offer the first tour. As many of you know, Katharine is an exceptional tour leader, and we are pleased to offer this program. We do not have the price finalized as of this writing, but we invite you to call for more information. An eve- ning program will be scheduled at the fyiuseum to show slides and give a more complete orientation about this area of China. We invite you to |Oin us. Please make reservations by writ- ing or call 322-8862. TURKEY PAST fit PRESEnT October 21 - November 4, 1989 Leader: Dr. David S. Reese Panda in Wo Long Panda Reserve Center. Dall city gate, Yunnan, Kamc For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605 31 J MISS f'ARITA MAXTY Field Museum of Natural History ' 7A11 NORTM GREENJVIiTW Membership Department CHICAGO IL 6C62e Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicaso, IL 60605-2499 f ; ' :[._;. j j; j j / FlELDMUSELM The Smart WvyTo Have Fun. May 1989 U% ^^^1 ^•^^f 'r sT^- ^ ■>^ r~i »-. ■f' c^Z-^? d/^f Members' Night ;^*:>^ Friday, May 5 .v"^rJ* Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published since 1930 by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa Board OF Trustees Robert A. Pritzker Chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Mrs. Philip D. Block III Willard L.Boyd, President Robert D. Cadieux Worley H.Clark James W. Compton Frank W. Considine TTiomas E. Donnelley II Thomas j. Eyerman Marshall Field Ronald J. Gidwitz Wayne E. Hedien Clarence E. Johnson Richard M. Jones John James Kinsella Robert D. Kolar WaiiamKunkierlll Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mull in James J. O'Connor Mrs. James J. O'Connor James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Blaine J. Yarrington Life Trustees Harry O. Bercher Bowen Blair Stanton R. Cook Mrs. Edwin J. DeOista William R. Dickinson, Jr. Mrs. David W. Grainger Clifford C. Gregg Mrs. Robert S. Hartman Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz John W. Sullivan CONTENTS May 1989 Volume 60, Number 5 MAY EVENTS AT HEID MUSEUM 3 TROPKAL FORESTS AND THE NUMBER OF PUNTS AND ANIMALS ON PUNET EARTH By William Burger, Curator of Vascular Plants S COlUaiNG SMALL MAMMALS IN THE ATUNTK RAIN FORESTS OF BRAZIL By Barbara E. Brown, Technical Assistant, Mammals 16 A DAY IN THE LIFE OF THE A.B. LEWIS PROJEG 22 PUNT COLLECTING IN PAUWAN By Djaja Djendoel Soejarto, Research Associate, Botany 24 FIOO MUSEUM TOURS 30 COVER Costa Rican cloud forest. Photo by Bin Burger See pp 8-14 Volunteer at Field Museum Learn something new or share your expertise — a wide variety of challenging and rewarding volunteer oppor- tunities for either weekdays or weekends are currently available. Please call the Volunteer Coordinator at (312) 922-9410, extension 360, for more information. MEMBERS' NIGHT Friday, May 5 5:00-10:00pm Field Museum of Naiurai History Bu/(c"n i USPS 898-940) is published monthly, ciccpt combined July August issue, by Field Museum of Natural Hisior>, Roosevelt Road ai Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. IL 60605-2496, Copynghl 0 1989 FieW Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: S6. 00 annually S3 00 for schools Museum membership includes SuZ/rrin subscription. OpiniiMi!) expressed by authon >%- -=^"lr=^ 'A/wx^tr^i^ PLANT COLLECTING IN PALAWAN 6/Djaja Djendoel Soejarto Photos courtesy of the author Western coastal slopes of Irawan mountain complex. Palawan Is a Southwestern Island Province of the Philippines, the fifth largest in this country of more than 7,000 islands. It is located about 100 miles north of the tip of Borneo, has an area of some 4,500 miles (slightly smaller than Connecticut), and is about as far north of the equator as Costa Rica (8°-12°). It consists mostly of mountain ranges, notably the Mt. Man- talingajan Range at the southern end (highest peak 2,085 m), the Victoria Range (1,798 m) to the north of it, and the Cleopatra Range (1,593 m) next. The 24 Cleopatra Range gradually descends northward into the Pagdanan Range. Another, lower range is at the island's far northern end. Because of Palawan's mountainous character, the flat lowlands are limited to alluvial strips (silt, sand, and gravel left by streams), mostly on the eastern side. Good forest cover is still to be found over most of the Dr. Djadja Djendoel Soejarto is a research associate in the Depart- ment of Botany and associate professor of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, at the University of Illinois at Chicago. island, though this is being depleted at an alarming rate. Palawan's floristic richness — that is to say, the wealth and diversity of its plant species — qualifies the island as the Philippines' last frontier of wilderness as well as a tropical rain forest reserve. The island's flora bears close relationships with that of Borneo as well as with the more northerly Philippine floras, and it holds an important key to understanding the history of plant distribution in Malesia, that region between and in- cluding Malaysia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Bismarks, and Indonesia. The economic potential of Palawan's rain forests as a source of timber, food- stuffs, and other forest products (cane, gums, resins, etc. ) was brought to light by a Swedish expedition in 1984. Its medical importance, however, has until now been ignored. Tropical Rain Forests and Medicine Tropical rain forests may contribute to medicine in three ways: They may directly provide pharmaceutical products, such as plant extracts and pure chemical compounds; they may serve as models for chemical syn- thesis of related medicinal compounds; and they may provide investigative, evaluative, and other research tools in drug development and testing. Many of our most important plant-derived medi- cinal compounds come from tropical species. Notable among such compounds are vincristine and vinblastine (from Catharanthus roseus), used in the treatment of cancer; quinine, used to treat malaria, and quinidine, to control heart arrythmias (both from Cinchona ledge- nana); the contraceptive diosgenin (Dioscorea species); the local anaesthetic cocaine {Erythroxylum coca); re- serpine and deserpidine {Rauvolfia species), used as tranquilizers and to control high blood pressure; castor oil {Riciniis communis); and the heart stimulant oua- bain (Strophanthus gratus). Thus, the possibility exists that additional medicinal compounds remain to be dis- covered among the still unknown plants in Palawan's rain forests. Since the importance of Palawan's forests as a medicinal resource has not been explored, I traveled to Manila in July of last year to collect plants in Palawan for anti-cancer and anti-AIDS screening, under the au- spices of the United States National Cancer Institute. This field work was carried out between July 12 and August 23 jointly with Dr. Domingo A. Madulid, botanist at the Philippine National Herbarium, National Museum, Manila, with the assistance of Ernesto Reynoso and Epifanio Sacgal, herbarium tech- nicians at that museum. Our collecting was slightly different from the kind one usually hears about — collecting herbarium speci- mens for botanical study. Actually, we did collect her- barium specimens for this purpose, but only secondari- The expedition crew having a lunch break. Trident Mining site at the base of Victoria Range. The author is sixth from left. 25 ly. Much of our work involved locating species already identified. Samples of these (0.3-1 kg dry weight) were collected for the biological tests. To make sure we had identified the plants correctly, as well as provide for future reference needs, additional specimens of the same plants were collected for the herbarium. The identity of these co-called "voucher specimens" was la- ter confirmed or newly determined, and duplicates dis- tributed to other botanical institutions. Collecting such plant samples in the tropical rain forest presents several challenges, such as on-the-spot identification of specimens and logistics. Transportation of bulky par- cels, the drying and processing of samples, and air car- go dispatching were major logistical problems. Modern botanical exploration of Palawan had its origins at the beginning of this century through the work of a number of botanists and collectors, notably the American botanists E. D. Merrill and A. D. E. Elmer. By mid- 1980, about 1,500 flowering plant spe- cies (649 genera in 138 families) were known from Palawan, of which 5 to 15 percent were believed to be unique to this island. In 1984 a floristically oriented three-month expedition was carried out by Sweden's Hilleshog Forestry, and as a result of this expedition, 153 species new to Palawan — about 10 percent — were added, so that at least 1,672 species are now known to occur there. Getting to Our Collecting Sites And Expedition Logistics Puerto Princesa, Palawan's capital, may be reached from Manila by ship (one day) or by plane (2 hours). It is a large city of more than 100,000 people, where many items for our expedition could be purchased and vehicles rented. There is a partially paved road con- necting important towns along the east coast, from Brooke's Point, near the southern tip, to Puerto Prin- Our Jeepney negotiating the Irawan River. cesa, and from Puerto Princesa to Roxas, in the north. This road continues north along the east coast to Taytay and beyond, towards the northern tip; but beyond Roxas it is safely passable only during the dry season (February to May). The west coast may be reached from the east coast at three points. Along the east coast, limited roads, built by min- ing and timber concession companies, connect a num- ber of towns with points located at the base of the east- em mountain slopes, such as from Puerto Princesa, from Aborlan, and from Nara. Where these roads start winding up the mountain slopes, they may be negoti- ated only by 4-wheel-drive vehicles. Few bridges have been constructed, so that motor vehicles usually have to ford rivers and stream beds. Other than by roads, access to forested areas is along forest paths and trails by foot. Our expedition headquarters was established at Puerto Princesa, from which short trips (3-7 days) were made to various forested regions. Temporary bases, set up in different collecting areas, consisted of tents in the forest, of lodging houses in nearby towns, or of thatched houses near the collecting sites. Field work mobility was provided by a rented Jeef)- ney, a jeep/ truck/minibus hybrid specially built for per- sonnel transport. The spacious rear benches could accommodate large amounts of equipment and passengers at the same time, while the high chassis clearance and the powerful engine made it possible to cover terrains otherwise appropriate only for 4-wheel- drive vehicles. Though the Jeepney didn't have this last feature, it was able to negotiate the forested and top- ographically difficult terrains. It was our experience, however, that the ]eepney is not the ideal vehicle for such travel during the rainy season. Health conditions in Puerto Princesa and other large towns of Palawan are generally good, and Puerto Princesa has an adequately staffed hospital. In most towns, running water is available either from private wells or from a municipal system. In smaller villages and in forested areas, water is obtained from rivers and streams. The major infectious disease still prevalent on the island is malaria. With this in mind, we took every precaution to avoid contracting it during our stay. Given the short time that was available to accom- plish all our objectives, and the heavy, almost daily monsoon rains (mostly in the afternoons) during the expedition period, a large field staff, including four worker-tree climbers and a driver-cook, was recruited. Collecting was done in four main areas: the Ira- wan River Valley, the Takdua Zig-zag, the Trident Mine area at Victoria Range, and on Tabon Island. Minor collections as part of area surveys for future col- lecting were also made in the Langugan Zig-zag, Pagda- nan Range, and Mt. Bloomfield at St. Paul's Bay. More than 200 species and slightly more than 400 samples of flowering plants were collected altogether. Identifica- tion of most of the specimens has now been completed at herbaria of Harvard's Arnold Arboretum, the Philip- pine National Museum, and the Field Museum. The Irawan Valley collection site is at the foot of Mt. Beaufort, between 100 and 200 meters above sea level, north-northwest of Puerto Princesa. Although this site is only about 16 miles from the capital city, it took more than an hour to reach because of bad road con- A special hand-operated chopper was developed for the expedition. ditions. The forest road, built by a chromite mining company, is part gravel, part rock, and part muddy tracks. It crosses and recrosses the meandering Irawan River eleven times, and after heavy rains the river is impassable. The vegetation cover of this collecting site is good primary lowland mixed forest, with several sub- types, such as riverine forest, valley floor forest, and rocky slope forest. This part of Palawan appears to re- ceive the most rainfall, with the consequent luxuriant forest cover and species richness. Takdua Zig-zag site is named for the switching back and forth of the paved road as it crosses the eastern slopes of the northern reaches of the Victoria Range. Despite the construction work in putting this road 27 Colorful nylon net bags of various sizes were used to dry samples. through, the forests along this "zig-zag" remain well preserved, going right down to the sea in some places. The valleys and slopes are covered by tall mixed forest, the ridges by a lower forest. The Trident Mine site at Victoria Range (50-200 m altitude) is located near the Trident or Bloomfield min- ing area, along the Victoria Range's eastern slopes. Collecting was done in a flat alluvial plain, forested river banks, and in the more luxuriant forests along the slopes. The Tabon Island site is on Tabon, a small island off the coast of Quezon town. It consists of a limestone formation at an elevation of about 200 m, with almost vertical cliffs. The forest cover on the sea side goes straight down to the sea, the one facing Palawan Island gradually sloping at its base into a coastal forest and mangrove formation. The island is officially preserved under the management of the Philippine National Museum. It is on this island that the famous Tabon Caves, site of the oldest human remains in the Philip- pines, are located. An Invaluable Resource, Its Potential and Its Fragility In order to get an idea of the potential medical value of Palawan's forests, a preliminary assessment was made by comparing the list of plants we collected in Palawan during the present field work against those which have been computerized in the NAPRALERT ("Natural products alert") data base at the University of Illinois at 28 Chicago. NAPRALERT is a unique data base of the world literature on natural products, including chemical con- stituents, pharmacological activities, and ethnomedi- cal (i.e., folk medicine) information. The data base now contains information on more than 30,000 flower- ing plant species, but includes chemical or pharmacological data on only about 20 percent of the plants collected in Palawan. Another comparison was made between the Palawan list and the plants listed in Quisumbing's Medicinal Plants of the Philippines (1978). Again, only 20 to 30 percent of the Palawan plants collected are to be found in this book. It is our hope and expectation that the remaining 70 to 80 percent of the plants may yield species of medi- cinal importance, but serious problems confront us. At the present rate of Palawan's rain forest depletion, time may be running out. While Palawan's tropical rain forests covered 1, 109,918 hectares (95 percent of the island) in 1972, today there are but 741,000 forested hectares — a loss of one third in the space of only 15 years. The situation in other Philippine islands is even more serious. At least four island provinces (Cebu, Masbate, Negros, and Panay) have lost almost all their forest cover. One way of slowing down this process in Palawan is to impose strict conservation measures. This kind of control could greatly improve our chances of discover- ing more medically useful plants; it would also enhance the island's potential for economic development. I look forward to returning soon to do further field work in Palawan's magnificent rain forests. A distant voice rings in my ears: "Balik balik Palawan — 'come back, come back to Palawan,'" — traditional words of farewell to the departing visitor. FM of big airlines on the way h to Europer ''They shrinkr You board a larj^e, well-connected airline and fly across the Atlantic. You land. Suddenly you discover that, in Europe, this "large'airline is just a small shadow of its transatlantic self, lacking many of the resources to take you to points beyond. But you can avoid that problem by the simple act of flying KLM. In which case Europe isn't the end of the line but just the beginning. We fly to more places in Europe, Africa and the Mideast than all U.S. airlines combined. With departures so frequent that every five min- utes, somewhere in the world, a KLM plane is either landing or taking off. Which is worth remembering the next time busi- ness takes you overseas. After all, why fly an airline that covers the con- tinent you just left, when you can fly one that covers the continents you're going to? For more information, just call your travel agent or KLM Royal Dutch Airlines.The airline + of the seasoned traveler. wSSm The Reliable Airline KLM Royal Dutch Airlines FIELD MUSEUVI Southwestern China Cultural Relics Study Tour September 15 - October 6 Leader: Katherine Lee Yang Street peddler with wares, Yunnan. Katherine Yang Sept. 15. Chicago/Tokyo. Your adventure begins as you board Japan Airlines flight #9. Departure 1 2:00 noon. Sept. 16. Tokyo/Hong Kong. Arrive Tokyo 2:45 p.m. Connect with Japan Airlines Flight #65 at 5:30 p.m. to Hong Kong. Arrive at 8:50 p.m Overnight at Shangri La Hotel. Sept. 17. This morning we fly to Kunming. After transfer to the hotel, the remainder of the day is at leisure. This evening you are invited to a ban- quet hosted by the provincial government. Sept. 18. Visit the Unnan Provincial Museum. Several professionals who are specialists in their field will give us an introduction to the study program we'll cover in the next two weet