•NRLF

B 3 301 Ifl2

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

BIOLOGY
LIBRARY

6 Class

FIELD

ORNITHOLOGY

COMPRISING A

MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION1

PROCURING, PREPARING AND PRESERVING BIRDS

Check List of North Americaij Birds.

BY

DR. ELLIOTT COUES, U.S.A.

SALEM :
NATURALISTS' AGENCY.

BOSTON: ESTES & LAFRIAT.
NEW YORK : DODD & MEAD.

1874.

PKINTKD AT

THE SALEM I' R E 8 S .
F W. PUTNAM & Co.,

Proprietors.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by

F. W. PUTNAM AND ELLIOTT COUES,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

CONTENTS

Page.
PRELIMINARY AND EXPLANATORY, 1

CHAPTER I. IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING AND THEIR USE, . . 5
§1. THE DOUBLE-BARRELLED SHOT GUN, 5.— §2. BREECH LOADER. 6.—
§3. OTHER WEAPONS, ETC., 7. — §4. AMMUNITION, 8. — §5. OTHER
EQUIPMENTS. 10. — §6. QUALIFICATIONS FOR SUCCESS, 12. — §7. To
CARRY A GUN, 12.— §8. To CLEAN A GUN, 13.— §0. To LOAD A GUN,
14.— §10. To SHOOT, 16.

CHAPTER II. DOGS, .... 19

§11. A GOOD DOG, How USEFUL, 19.

CHAPTER III. VARIOUS DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FIELD WORK, 21

§12. To BE A GOOD COLLECTOR, 21. — §13, 14, 15, 16. BIRDS, How,
WHERE AND WHEN SOUGHT, 21, 22, 25.— §17. How MANY OF A KIND
WANTED, AND WHY, 27. — §18. WHAT is A GOOD DAY'S WORK? 30.
—§19. APPROACHING BIRDS, 30.— §20. RECOVERING BIRDS, 33.— §21.
KILLING WOUNDED BIRDS, 33.— §22. HANDLING BLEEDING BIRDS,
35.— §23. CARRYING BIRDS HOME SAFE, 36.— §24. A SPECIAL CASE,
37.— §25. HYGIENE OF COLLECTORSHIP, 37.

CHAPTER IV. REGISTRATION AND LABELLING, 44

§26, 27. RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS, 44.— §28. ORNITHOLOGICAL BOOK-
KEEPING, 45.— §29. LABELLING, 46.— §30. DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURE-
MENT, 49.

CHAPTER V. INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS AND FIXTURES FOR

PREPARING BIRDSKIXS, 52

§31. INSTRUMENTS, 52.— §32. MATERIALS, 53.— §33. INDEPENDENT PAR-
AGRAPH, 56.— §34. FIXTURES, 56.— §35. QUERY, 57.

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216971

IV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI. How TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN, 58

A. The Regular Process (§36), 58 — B. Special Processes; Complications
and Accidents (§ZT), 70. — §38. SIZE, 70.— §39. SHAPE, 73. — §40. THIN
SKIN; LOOSE PLUMAGE, 75.— §41. FATNESS, 75.— §42. BLOOD-STAINS,
ETC., 77. — §43. MUTILATION, 79. — §44. DECOMPOSITION, 80. — §45.
How TO MOUNT BIRDS, 82.

CHAPTER VII. MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS, 93

§46. DETERMINATION OF SEX, 93.— §47. EECOGNITION OF AGE, 94.— §48.
EXAMINATION OF STOMACH, 95.— §49. RESTORATION OF POOR SKINS,
96.— §50. MUMMIFICATION, 97.— §51. WET PREPARATIONS, 97. — §52.
OSTEOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS, 98.— §53. NESTS AND EGGS, 100.

CHAPTER VIII. CARE OF A COLLECTION, 106

§54. WELL PRESERVED SPECIMENS, 106.— §55. INSECT PESTS, 106.— §56.
CASES FOR STORAGE OR TRANSPORTATION, 107.— §57. CABINETS, 108.
—§58. To DESTROY BUGS, 110.— §59. Two ITEMS, 111.
APPENDIX, ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS, 113

CHECK LIST.

LIST OF BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA, 1

EXTINCT SPECIES, 119

APPENDIX, ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS, .123

MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION

CHECK LIST OF THE BIRDS OP NORTH AMERICA,

PRELIMINARY AND EXPLANATORY.

BOTH author and publisher of the "Key to North American
Birds" intended that the work should contain instructions for
collecting and preparing birds, and that a CHECK LIST, accord-
ing with the author's views, should appear simultaneously with
the volume. This proved impracticable : partly because the
work so far overran the original estimates, that the additional
expense and risk, which the publisher, an accomplished natu-
ralist, generously offered to assume, seemed to the author
unjustifiable ; and partly because the writer's unexpected call
to another field of official duty suddenly threw such a pressure
of other engagements upon his hands that he could not just
then find time to write out even so slight a treatise as this.
The CHECK LIST and MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION are therefore
now presented together, as a Supplement to the Key.

The demand for a new CHECK LIST has become urgent. The
last one published, and only one now in use, expresses a
former state of American ornithology. That great changes —
presumably for the better — have lately been made, is shown
by the fact that, in round numbers, fifty species have been

2 EXPLANATORY.

since ascertained to inhabit North America, while one hundred
and fifty have been removed from the former list as being
extralimital, invalid or otherwise untenable. Of whatever
part the author may have taken in remodelling the list, it
would be obviously indelicate to speak. But he cannot refrain
from alluding to the signal services of reform rendered by Mr.
Allen, of Cambridge, whose stanch advocacy, under circum-
stances that might have excused flinching, did so much to
precipitate the changes, long while progressing and inevi-
table, for which the time was at length at hand. Nor would
this allusion be entirely just, did he not in the same connection
refer to the thorough revision now making by Prof. Baird him-
self, with the cooperation of Dr. Brewer and Mr. Ridgway, the
results of which are about to appear in what promises to be
one of the greatest monuments ever erected to American
ornithology. The notable concordance of the several writings
in question, an agreement the more gratifying because a short
time since it might have been considered impossible, marks an
important period in the history of the science. The outlook
promises well, when different premises lead up to the same
conclusions, and conflicting views are reconciled.

The present CHECK LIST, prepared in strict accordance with
the KEY, reflects exactly whatever of truth or error that
work represents. The typography and press work render it
susceptible of use in labelling a collection.* It shows mainly
three points of disagreement with the current Smithsonian
List. The number of genera is reduced though not to the extent
that may be desirable. It is perhaps to be regretted, that so
many needless and burdensome generic names, for which
Bonaparte, Cabanis, Kaup and Reichenbach are largely re-

*For this purpose the LIST will be issued as a pamphlet by itself as well
as forming part of this little volume.

EXPLANATORY. 6

sponsible, were adopted in Prof. Baird's great work;* for,
sanctioned by the usage of such eminent authority, they have
passed current, and are too closely ingrained in our nomen-
clature to be soon eradicated. The writer feels at liberty
to speak plainly, for his own skirts are not clear. Secondly,
not a few species, new to North America, or to science, or
both, have of late years been ascertained to inhabit this country.
The third and principal variance between the present CHECK
LIST and its predecessor results from a large reduction of the
number of admitted species. Part of them are excluded sim-
ply because extralimital ; but most because they are considered
untenable as species. In the present state of our knowledge,
and under a system of nomenclature that is proven inadequate
and may before long become obsolete, recognition of numerous
"Varieties" — resultant modifications of species by physical
conditions of environment — is imperative ; and what are these
varieties but the rills that flow into and help to swell the mighty
stream of descent with modification?

The Instructions for Collecting and Taxidermy, herewith
offered, are drawn almost entirely from the writer's experience,
acquired during several years he has spent, with little interrup-
tion, in the study of our birds. He has collected over a wide
area from Labrador to California, in northwestern territories,
and in several southern states ; enjoying opportunities for
field investigations that no one with the least taste or aptitude
for the pursuit could fail to profit by. In the matter of col-
lecting, therefore, he may reasonably venture to speak with
confidence. Since, furthermore, a taxidermal process that has
been repeated several thousand times with fair results is by
this simple circumstance proven satisfactory, he feels no diffi-

* " Birds of North America " by Baird, Cassin and Lawrence.

4 EXPLANATORY.

dence in presenting his metftod as a model to be followed in
the absence of a better one. The Instructions will, it is be-
lieved, enable any one to become reasonably proficient in certain
of the indispensable qualifications of a good working ornithol-
ogist. He intends to take what may or may not be a liberty,
and to presume that the reader is entirely inexperienced in
field- work j and he begs the further privilege of waiving
formality, that he may be allowed to address the reader very
familiarly, much as if chatting with a friend on a subject of
mutual interest.

Bendire's Mocking-thrush, Harporliynchus Bendirei Coues.
See American Naturalist for June, 1873, vol. vii, p. 330.

MANUAL OF T

ANUAL OF NSTRUCTION,

CHAPTER I.

IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

§1. THE DOUBLE-BARRELLED SHOT GUN is your main reliance.
Under some circumstances you may trap or snare birds, catch
them with bird-lime, or use other devices ; but such cases
are exceptions to the rule that you will shoot birds, and for
this purpose no weapon compares with the one just mentioned.
The soul of good advice respecting the selection of a gun, is,
get the best one you can afford to buy ; go the full length of your
purse in the matters of material and workmanship. To say
nothing of the prime requisite, safety, or of the next most
desirable quality, efficiency, the durability of a high-priced
gun makes it cheapest in the end. Style of finish is obviously
of little consequence, except as an index of other qualities ;
for inferior guns rarely, if ever, display the exquisite appoint-
ments that mark a first-rate arm. There is really so little
choice among good guns that nothing need be said on this
score ; you cannot miss it if you pay enough to any reputable
maker or reliable dealer. But collecting is a specialty, and
some guns are better adapted than others to your particular
purpose, which is the destruction, as a rule, of small birds, at
moderate range, with the least possible injury to their plumage.
Probably three-fourths or more of the birds of a miscellaneous
collection average under the size of a pigeon, and were shot
within thirty yards. A heavy gun is therefore unnecessary, in
fact ineligible, the extra weight being useless. You will find
a gun of 7j to 8 pounds weight most suitable. For similar

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6 IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIK USE.

reasons the bore should be small ; I prefer 14 gauge, and
should not think -of going over 12. To judge from the best
sporting authorities, length of barrel is of less consequence
than many suppose ; for myself, I incline to a rather long bar-
rel — one nearer 33 than 28 inches — believing that such a
barrel may throw shot closer ; but I am not sure that this is
even the rule, while it is well known that several circumstances
of loading, besides some almost inappreciable differences in
barrels, will cause guns apparently exactly alike to throw shot
differently. Length and crook of stock should of course be
adapted to your figure — a gun may be made to fit you, as well
as a coat. For wild-fowl shooting, and on some other special
occasions, a heavier and altogether more powerful gun will be
preferable.

§2. BREECH-LOADER vs. muzzle-loader, a case long argued,
may be considered settled in favor of the former. Provided
the mechanism and workmanship of the breech be what they
should there are no valid objections to offset obvious advan-
tages, some of which are these : ease and rapidity of loading,
and consequently delivery of shots in quick succession ; facil-
ity of cleaning ; compactness and portability of ammunition ;
readiness with which different sized shot may be used. This
last is highly important to the collector, who never knows
the moment he may wish to fire at a very different bird from
such as he has already loaded for. The muzzle-loader must
always contain the fine shot with which nine-tenths of your
specimens will be secured ; if in both barrels, you cannot deal
with a hawk or other large bird with reasonable prospects of
success ; if in only one barrel, the other being more heavily
charged, you are crippled to the extent of exactly one-half of
your resources for ordinary shooting. Whereas, with the
breech-loader you will habitually use mustard-seed in both
barrels, and yet can slip in a different shell in time to seize
most opportunities requiring large shot. This consideration
alone should decide the case. But, moreover, the time spent
in the field in loading an ordinary gun is no small item ; while

GUXS AND OTHER WEAPONS. 7

cartridges may be charged in your leisure at home. This should
become the natural occupation of your spare moments. No
time is really gained; you simply change to advantage the time
consumed. Metal shells, charged with loose ammunition, and
susceptible of being reloaded many times, are preferable to
paper cartridges, even such as you load yourself, and are far
more eligible than any special fixed ammunition which, once
exhausted in a distant place, and circumstances may upset
the best calculations on that score, leaves the gun useless.
On charging the shells mark the number of the shot used on
the outside wad ; or better, use colored wads, say plain white
for dust shot, and red, blue and green for certain other sizes.
If going far away take as many shells as you think can possi-
bly be wanted and then add a few more.

§3. OTHER WEAPONS, ETC. An ordinary single-barrel gun
will of course answer but is a sorry makeshift, for it is some-
times so poorly constructed as to be unsafe,* and can at best be
only just half as effective. The cane-gun should be mentioned
in this connection. It is a single-barrel, lacquered to look like
a stick, with a brass stopper at the muzzle to imitate a ferule,
counter-sunk hammer and trigger, and either a simple curved
handle, or a light gunstock-shaped piece that screws in. The
affair is easily mistaken for a cane. Some have acquired con-
siderable dexterity in its use ; my own experience with it is
very limited and unsatisfactory ; the handle always hit me in
the face, and I generally missed my bird. It has only two
recommendations. If you approve of shooting on Sunday
and yet scruple to shock popular prejudice, you can slip out
of town unsuspected. If you are shooting where the law
forbids destruction of small birds — a wise and good law that
you may sometimes be inclined to defy — artfully careless
handling of the deceitful implement may prevent arrest and
fine. A blow-gun is sometimes used. It is a long slender tube
of wood, metal or glass, through which clay -balls, tiny arrows,

*This remark does not apply to any of the fine single-barrelled breech-loaders
now made.

8 IMPLEMENTS FOE COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

etc., are projected by force of the breath. It must be quite an
art to use such a weapon successfully, and its employment is
necessarily exceptional. Some uncivilized tribes are said to
possess marvellous skill in the use of long bamboo blow-guns ;
and such people are often valuable employes of the collector.
I have had no experience with the noiseless air-gun, which is,
in effect, a modified blow-gun, compressed air being the explo-
sive power. Nor can I say much of various methods of trap-
ping birds that may be practised. On these points I must leave
you to your own devices, with the remark that horse-hair
snares, set over a nest, are often of great service in securing
the parent of eggs that might otherwise remain unidentified.
I have no practical knowledge of bird-lime; I believe it is
seldom used in this country. A method of netting birds alive,
which I have tried, is both easy and successful. A net of fine
green silk, some 8 or 10 feet square, is stretched perpendicu-
larly across a narrow part of one of the tiny brooks, over-
grown with briers and shrubbery, that intersect many of our
meadows. Retreating to a distance the collector beats along
the shrubbery making all the noise he can, urging on the little
birds till they reach the almost invisible net and become en-
tangled in trying to fly through. I have in this manner taken
a. dozen sparrows and the like at one "drive." But the gun
can rarely be laid aside for this or any similar device.

§4. AMMUNITION. The best powder is that combining
strength and cleanliness in the highest compatible degree. In
some brands too much of the latter is sacrificed to the former.
Other things being equal, a rather coarse powder is preferable,
since its slower action tends to throw shot closer. Some num-
bers are said to be "too quick" for fine breech-loaders. In-
experienced sportsmen and collectors almost invariably use
too coarse shot. When unnecessarily large, two evils result :
the number of pellets in a load is decreased, the chances of
killing being correspondingly lessened ; and the plumage is
unnecessarily injured, either by direct mutilation, or by subse-
quent bleeding through large holes. As already hinted, shot

POWDER, SHOT AND WADS.

cannot be too fine for your routine collecting. Use "mustard-
seed," or "dust-shot," as it is variously called; it is smaller
than any of the sizes usually numbered. As the very finest
can only be procured in cities, provide yourself liberally on
leaving any centre of civilization for even a country village,
to say nothing of remote regions. A small bird that would
have been torn to pieces by a few large pellets, may be riddled
with mustard-seed and yet be preservable ; moreover, there is,
as a rule, little or no bleeding from these minute holes, which
close up by the elasticity of the tissues involved. It is aston-
ishing what large birds may be brought down with the tiny
pellets. I have killed hawks with such shot, knocked over a
wood ibis at forty yards and once shot a wolf dead with No.
10, though I am bound to say the animal was within a few feet
of me. After dust-shot, and the nearest number or two, No.
8 or 7 will be found most useful. Waterfowl, thick-skinned
sea birds like loons, cormorants and pelicans, and a few of the
largest land birds, require heavier shot. I have had no ex-
perience with the substitution of fine gravel or sand, much less
water, as a projectile ; besides shot I never fired anything at a
bird except my ramrod, on one or two occasions, when I never
afterwards saw either the bird or the stick. The comparatively
trivial matter of caps will repay . attention. Breech-loaders
not discharged with a pin take a particular style of short cap
called a "primer;" for other guns the best water-proof lined
caps will prevent anno}Tance and disappointment in wet weather,
and may save }TOU an eye, for they only split when exploded ;
whereas, the flimsy cheap ones — that "GD" trash, for in-
stance, sold in the corner grocery at ten cents a hundred
— usually fly to pieces. Moreover, the top of such a cap is
sometimes driven into the nipple. Using Ely's caps, I shot a
whole season in the fog and rain of Labrador, without a single
miss-fire, though my gun was sometimes dripping. Cut felt
wads are the onty suitable article. Ely's " chemically prepared "
wadding is the best. It is well, when using plain wads, occa-
sionally to drive a greased one through the barrel. Since you
may sometimes run out of wads through an unexpected contin-

10 IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

gency, always keep a wad-cutter to fit your gun. You can
make serviceable wads of pasteboard, but they are far inferior
to felt. Cut them on the flat sawn end of a stick of fire-
wood ; the side of a plank does not do very well. Use a
wooden mallet, instead of a hammer or hatchet, and so save
your cutter. Soft paper is next best after wads ; I have never
used rags, cotton or tow, fearing these tinder-like substances
might leave a spark in the barrels. Crumbled leaves or grass
will answer at a pinch. I have occasion alty, in a desperate
hurry, loaded and killed without any wadding.

§5. OTHER EQUIPMENTS.* a. For the gun. A gun-case will
come cheap in the end, especially if you travel much. The
usual box, divided into compartments, and well lined, is the
best, though the full length leather or india-rubber cloth case
answers very well. The box should contain a small kit of
tools, such as mainspring-vise, nipple-wrench, screw-driver,
etc. A stout hard- wood cleaning rod, with wormer, will be
required. It is always safe to have parts of the gun lock,
especially mainspring, in duplicate. For muzzle-loaders extra
nipples and extra ramrod heads and tips often come into use.
For breech-loaders the apparatus for charging the shells is so
useful as to be practically indispensable, b. For ammunition.
Metal shells or paper cartridges may be carried loose in the
large lower coat pocket, or in a leathern satchel. There is
said to be a chance of explosion by some unlucky blow, where
they are so carried, but I never knew of an instance. Another
way is to fix them separately in a row in snug loops of soft
leather sewn continuously along a stout waist-belt ; or in sev-
eral such horizontal rows on a square piece of thick leather, to
be slung by a strap over the shoulder. The appliances for loose
ammunition are almost endlessly varied, so every one may con-

* Parker Brothers, West Meriden, Conn., publish a pamphlet which I should
advise you to get. I suppose it would be mailed on application. It i? of course
entirely in the business interest of the Parker gun, but gives many useful hints ol
general practical applicability, respecting the appliances for guns and ammu-
nition. There is a good deal of apparatus that I pass over as not being indispen-
sable, but which you might find convenient.

APPARATUS . CLOTHING . 1 1

suit his taste or convenience. The shot-pouch I had settled
upon before using a breech-loader, as the most satisfactory is
the "double-barrelled" one, so to speak, that buckles round
the waist, and is further supported by shoulder-straps crossing
on the back exactly like a pair of suspenders. This so fixes
and distributes the weight that it is carried with the least
fatigue ; I think it far preferable to the pear-shaped hand
pouches dangling by a cord. Since it cannot be raised to the
muzzle of the gun, and since moreover mustard-seed will easily
slip through the openings for the slides of the ordinary lever
arrangement for measuring the charge of shot, the nozzle of
the pouch should have a thimble for the same purpose. The
rule of loading being bulk for bulk of powder and shot it is
often convenient to carry mustard-seed in a powder-flask ; the
slide works readily through fine shot to cut off a charge, though
it will not do so with coarser. Caps are most conveniently
carried loose in a right-hand vest pocket, or fob on the outside
of the coat ; wads in a lower right-hand pocket, c. For speci-
mens. You must always carry paper in which to wrap up your
specimens, as more particularly directed beyond. Nothing is
better for this purpose than writing-paper ; " rejected " or other-
wise useless MSS. may thus be utilized. The ordinary game
bag, with leather back and network front, answers very well ;
but a light basket, fitting the body, such as is used by fisher-
men, is the best thing to carry specimens in. Avoid putting
specimens into pockets, unless you have your coat tail
largely excavated : crowding them into a close pocket, where
they press each other, and receive warmth from the person,
will injure them. It is always well to take a little cotton into
the field, to plug up shot-holes, mouth, nostrils or vent,
immediately, if required, d. For yourself. The indications to
be fulfilled in your clothing are these : Adaptability to the
weather ; and since a shooting coat is not conveniently
changed, while an overcoat is ordinarily ineligible, the require-
ment is best met by different underclothes. Easy fit, allowing
perfect freedom of muscular action, especially of the arms.
Strength of fabric, to resist briers and stand wear ; velveteen

12 IMPLEMENTS FOB COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

and corduroy are excellent materials. Subdued color, to render
you as inconspicuous as possible, and to show dirt the least.
Multiplicity of pockets — a perfect shooting-coat is an inge-
nious system of hanging pouches about the person. Broad
soled, low heeled boots or shoes, giving a firm tread even when
wet. Close-fitting cap with prominent visor, or low soft felt
hat, rather broad brimmed. Let india-rubber goods alone ;
the field is no place for a sweat-bath.

§6. QUALIFICATIONS FOR SUCCESS. With the outfit just
indicated you command all the required appliances that you
can buy, and the rest lies with yourself. Success hangs upon
your own exertions ; upon your energy, industry and persever-
ance ; your knowledge and skill ; your zeal and enthusiasm,
in collecting birds, much as in other affairs of life. But
that your efforts — maiden attempts they must once have been
if they be not such now — may be directed to best advantage,
further instructions may not be unacceptable.

§7. To CARRY A GUN without peril to human life or limb is
the a b c of its use. "There's death in the pot." Suclr con-
stant care is required to avoid accidents that no man can give
it by continual voluntary efforts ; safe carriage of the gun
must become an unconscious habit, fixed as the movements of
an automaton. The golden rule and whole secret is : the muz-
zle must never sweep the horizon; accidental discharge should
send the shot into the ground before your feet, or away up in
the air. There are several safe and easy ways of holding a
piece : they will be employed by turns to relieve particular
muscles when fatigued. 1. Hold it in the hollow of the arm
(preferably the left, as you can recover to aim in less time than
from the right), across the front of }7our person, the hand on
the grip, the muzzle elevated about 45°. 2. Hang it by the
trigger-guard hitched over the forearm brought round to the
breast, the stock passing behind the upper arm, the muzzle
pointing to the ground a pace or so in front of you. 3. Shoulder
it, the hand on the grip or heel plate, the muzzle pointing upward

CARE OF A GUN. 13

at least 45°. 4. Shoulder it reversed, the hand grasping the
barrels about their middle, the muzzle pointing forward and
downward : this is perfectly admissible, but is the most awk-
ward position of all to recover from. Always carry a loaded
gun at half-cock^ unless you are about to shoot. Unless the
lock fail, accidental discharge is impossible, except under
these circumstances : a, a direct blow on the nipple or pin ; 6,
catching of both hammer and trigger simultaneous!}7", drawing
back of the former and its release whilst the trigger is still
held — the chances against which are simply incalculable.
Full-cock, ticklish as it seems, is safer than no-cock, when a
tap on the hammer or even the heel-plate, or a slight catch and
release of the hammer, may cause discharge. Never let the
muzzle of a loaded gun point toward your own person for a
single instant. Get your gun over fences or into boats or
carriages, before, you get over or in yourself, or at any rate no
later. Remove caps or cartridges on entering a house. Never
aim a gun, loaded or not, at any object, unless you mean to
press the trigger. Never put a loaded gun away long enough
to forget whether it is loaded or not ; never leave a loaded gun
to be found' by others under circumstances reasonably presup-
posing it to be unloaded. Never put a gun where it can be
knocked down by a dog or a child. Never forget that though
a gunning accident may be sometimes interpretable (from a
certain standpoint) as a "dispensation of Providence," such
are dispensed oftenest to the careless.

§8. To CLEAN A GUN properly requires some knowledge,
more good temper, and most "elbow-grease ;" it is dirty, disa-
greeable, inevitable work, which laziness, business, tiredness,
indifference and good taste will by turns tempt you to shirk.
After a hunt you are tired, have your clothes to change, a meal
to eat, a lot of birds to skin, a journal to write up. If you
" sub-let" the contract the chances are it is but half fulfilled ;
serve yourself, if you want to be well served. If you cannot
find time for a regular cleaning, an intolerably foul gun may
be made to do another day's work by swabbing for a few mo-

14 IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

ments with a wet (not dripping) rag, and then with an oiled
one. For the full wash use cold water first ; it loosens dirt
better than hot water. Set the barrels in a pail of water ;
wrap the end of the cleaning rod with tow or cloth, and pump
away till your arms ache. Change the rag or tow, and the
water too, till they both stay clean for all the swabbing you
can do. Fill the barrels with boiling water till they are well
heated ; pour it out, wipe as dry as possible inside and out,
and set them by a fire. Finish with a light oiling, inside and
out ; touch up all the metal about the stock, and polish the
wood-work. Do not remove the locks oftener than is neces-
sary ; every time they are taken out, something of the exqui-
site fitting that marks a good gun may be lost ; as long as they
work smoothly take it for granted they are all right. The
same direction applies to nipples. To keep a gun well, under
long disuse, it should have had a particularly thorough cleaning ;
the chambers should be packed with greasy tow ; greased wads
may be rammed at intervals along the barrels ; or the barrels
may be filled with melted tallow. Neat's-foot is recommended
as the best easily-procured oil ; porpoise-oil which is, I believe,
used by watch-makers, is the very best ; the oil made for use
on sewing machines is excellent; "olive "oil (made of lard)
for table use answers the purpose. The quality of any oil
may be improved by putting in it a few tacks, or scraps of
zinc, — the oil expends its rusting capacity in oxidizing the
metal. Inferior oils get "sticky." One of the best prevent-
ives of rust is mercurial ("blue") ointment: it may be freely
used. Kerosene will remove rust ; but use it sparingly for it
" eats" sound metal too.

§9. To LOAD A GUN effectively requires something more
than knowledge of the facts that the powder should go in
before the shot, and that each should have a wad a-top. Prob-
ably the most nearly universal fault is use of too much shot
for the amount of powder ; and the next, too much of both.
The rule is bulk for bulk of powder and shot ; if not exactly
this, then rather less shot than powder. It is absurd to sup-

LOADING A GUN. 15

pose, as some persons who ought to know better do, that the
more shot in a gun the greater the chances of killing. The
projectile force of a charge cannot possibly be greater than
the vis inertice of the gun as held by the shooter. The explo-
sion is manifested in all directions, and blows the shot one way
simply and only because it has no other escape. If the resist-
ance in front of the powder were greater than elsewhere the
shot would not budge, but the gun would fly backward, or burst.
This always reminds me of Lord Dundreary's famous conun-
drum— Why does a dog wag his tail ? Because he is bigger than
his tail ; otherwise, the tail would wag him. A gun shoots shot
because the gun is the heavier ; otherwise, the shot would shoot
the gun. Every unnecessary pellet is a pellet against }'ou, not
against the game. The experienced sportsman uses about one-
third less shot than the tyro, with proportionally better result,
other things being equal. As to powder, moreover, a gun can
only burn just so much, and every grain blown out unburnt is
wasted if nothing more. No express directions for absolute
weight or measures of either powder or shot can be given ; in
fact, different guns take as their most effective charge such a
variable amount of ammunition, that one of the first things you
have to learn about your own arm is, its normal charge-gauge.
Find out, by assiduous target practice, what absolute amounts
(and to a slight degree, what relative proportion) of powder
and shot are required to shoot the furthest and distribute the
pellets most evenly. This practice, furthermore, will acquaint
you with the gun's capacities in every respect. You should
learn exactly what it will and what it will not do, so as to feel
perfect confidence in your arm within a certain range, and to
waste no shots in attempting miracles. Immoderate recoil is
a pretty sure sign that the gun was overloaded, or otherwise
wrongly charged ; and all force of recoil is subtracted from the
impulse of the shot. It is useless to ram powder very hard ;
two or three smart taps of the rod will suffice, and more will
not increase the explosive force. On the shot the wad should
simply be pressed close enough to fix the pellets immovably.
All these directions apply to the charging of metal or paper

16 IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

cartridges as well as to loading by the muzzle. When about
to recharge one barrel see that the hammer of the other stands
at half-cock. Do not drop the ramrod into the other barrel,
for a stray shot might impact between the swell of the head
and the gun and make it difficult to withdraw the rod. During
the whole operation keep the muzzle as far from your person
as you conveniently can. Never force home a wad with the flat
of your hand over the end of the rod, but hold the rod between
your fingers and thumb ; in case of premature explosion, it
will make just the difference of lacerated finger tips, or a
blown-up hand. Never look into a loaded gun barrel ; you
might as wisely put your head into a lion's mouth to see what
the animal had for dinner. After a miss-fire hold the gun up
a few moments and be ^low to reload ; the fire sometimes
"hangs" for several seconds. Finally, let me strongly impress
upon you the expediency of light loading in your routine col-
lecting. Three-fourths of your shots need not bring into
action the gun's full powers of execution. You will shoot
more birds under than over 30 yards ; not a few, you must
secure, if at all, at 10 or 15 yards ; and your object is always
to kill them with the least possible damage to the plumage.
I have, on particular occasions, loaded even down to -^oz. of shot
and l^dr. of powder. There is astonishing force compressed
in a few grains of powder ; an astonishing number of pellets
in the smallest load of mustard-seed. If you can load so
nicely as to just drive the shot into a bird and not through
it and out again, do so, and save half the holes in the skin.

§10. To SHOOT successfully is an art which may be acquired
by practice, and can be learned only in the school of experi-
ence. No general directions will make you a good shot, any
more than a proficient in music or painting. To tell }^ou that
in order to hit a bird you must point the gun at it and press
the trigger, is like saying that to play on the fiddle you must
shove the bow across the strings with one hand while you fin-
ger them with the other ; in either case the result is the same,
a noise — vox et prceterea nihil — but neither music nor game.

ABOUT SHOOTING. 17

Nor is it possible for every one to become an artist in gunnery ;
a "crack shot," like a poet, is born, not made. For myself I
make no pretensions to genius in that direction ; for although
I generally make fair bags, and have destroyed many thousand,
birds in my time, this is rather owing to some familiarity I
have gained with the habits of birds, and a certain knack,
acquired by long practice, of picking them out of trees and
bushes, than to skilful shooting from the sportsman's stand-
point ; in fact, if I cut down two or three birds on the wing with-
out a miss I am working quite up to my average in that line.
But any one, not a purblind " butter fingers," can become a
reasonably fair shot by practice, and do good collecting. It
is not so hard, after all, to sight a gun correctly on an immov-
able object, and collecting differs from sporting proper in this,
that comparatively few birds are shot on the wing. But I do
not mean to imply that it requires less skill to collect suc-
cessfully than to secure game ; ou the contrary, it is finer
shooting, I think, to drop a warbler skipping about a tree-top
than to stop a quail at full speed ; while hitting a sparrow that
springs from the grass at one's feet to flicker in sight a few
seconds and disappear is the most difficult of all shooting.
Besides, a crack shot, as understood, aims unconsciously, with
mechanical accuracy and certitude of hitting ; he simply wills,
and the trained muscles obey without his superintendence,
just as the fingers form letters with the pen in writing ;
whereas the collector must usually supervise his muscles all
through the act and see that they mind. In spite of the pro-
portion of snap shots of all sorts you will have to take, your
collecting shots, as a rule, are made with deliberate aim.
There is much the same difference, on the whole, between the
sportsman's work and the collector's, that there is between
shot-gun and rifle practice, collecting being comparable to the
latter. It is generally understood that the acme of skill with
the two weapons is an incompatibility ; and certainly, the best
shot is not always the best collector, even supposing the two to
be on a par in their knowledge of birds' haunts and habits.
Still, a hopelessly poor shot can only attain fair results by

MAXUAL. 2

18 IMPLEMENTS FOR COLLECTING, AND THEIR USE.

extraordinary diligence and perseverance. Certain principles
of shooting may perhaps be reduced to words. Aim deliber-
ately directly at an immovable object at fair range. Hold
over a motionless object when far off, as the trajectory of the
shot curves downward. Hold a little to one side of a station-
ary object when very near, preferring rather to take the chances
of missing it with the peripheral pellets, than of hopelessly
mutilating it with the main body of the charge. Fire at the
first fair aim, without trying to improve what is good enough
already. Never "pull" the trigger, but press it. Bear the
shock of discharge without flinching. In shooting on the
wing, fire the instant the butt of the gun taps your shoulder ;
you will miss at first, but by and by the birds will begin
to drop, and you will have laid the foundation of good
shooting, the knack of "covering" a bird unconsciously.
The habit of " poking" after a bird on the wing is an almost
incurable vice, and may keep you a poor shot all your life.
(The collector's frequent necessity of poking after little birds
in the bush is just what so often hinders him from acquiring
brilliant execution.) Aim ahead of a flying bird — the calcu-
lation to be made varies, according to the distance of the
object, its velocity, its course and the wind, from a few
inches to several feet ; practice will finally render it intuitive.

CHARTER II.

DOGS.

§11. A GOOD DOG is one of the most faithful, respectful,
affectionate and sensible of brutes ; deference to such rare
qualities demands a chapter, however brief. A trained dog is
the indispensable servant of the sportsman in his pursuit of
most kinds of game ; but I trust I am guilty of no discourtesy
to the noble animal, when I say that he is a luxury rather than
a necessity to the collector — a pleasant companion, who knows
almost everything except how to talk, who converses with his
eyes and ears and tail, shares comforts and discomforts with
equal alacrity, and occasionally makes himself useful. So
far as a collector's work tallies with that of a sportsman, the
dog is equally useful to both ; but finding and telling of game
aside, your dog's services are restricted to companionship and
retrieving. He may, indeed, flush many sorts of birds for
you ; but he does it, if at all, at random, while capering
about ; for the brute intellect is limited after all, and cannot
comprehend a naturalist. The best trained setter or pointer
that ever marked a quail could not be made to understand
what you are about, and it would ruin him for sporting pur-
poses if he did. Take a well-bred, high-toned dog out with
you, and the chances are he will soon trot home in disgust
at your performances with jack-sparrows and tomtits. It
implies such a lowering and perversion of a good dog's in-
stincts to make him really a useful servant of yours^, that I am
half inclined to say nothing about retrieving, and tell you to
make a companion of your dog, or let him alone. I was
followed for several years by " the best dog I ever saw" (every
one's gun, dog, and child is the best ever seen), and a first-
rate retriever ; yet I always preferred, when practicable, to
pick up my own birds, rather than let a delicate plumage into
a dog's mouth, and scolded away the poor brute so often,
that she very properly returned the compliment, in the end, by

(19)

20 DOGS.

retrieving just when she felt like it. However, we remained
the best of friends. Any good setter, pointer or spaniel,
and some kinds of curs, may be trained to retrieve. The
great point is to teach them not to "mouth" a bird ; it may be
accomplished by sticking pins in the ball with which their
early lessons are taught. Such dogs are particularly useful in
bringing birds out of the water, and in searching for them
when lost. One point in training should never be neglected :
teach a dog what "to heel" means, and make him obey this
command. A riotous brute is simply unendurable under any
circumstances.

CHAPTER in.

VARIOUS SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WOEK.

§12. To BE A GOOD COLLECTOR, and nothing more; is a
small affair; great skill may be acquired in the art, without
a single quality commanding respect. One of the most vulgar,
brutal and ignorant men I ever knew was a sharp collector and
an excellent taxidermist. Collecting stands much in the same
relation to ornithology that the useful and indispensable office
of an apothecary bears to the duties of a physician. A field-
naturalist is always more or less of a collector ; the latter is
sometimes found to know almost nothing of natural history
worth knowing. The true ornithologist goes out to study birds
alive and destroys some of them simply because that is the
only way of learning their structure and technical characters.
There is much more about a bird than can be discovered in
its dead body — how much more, then, than can be found out
from its stuffed skin! In my humble opinion the man who
only gathers birds, as a miser, money, to swell his cabinet,
and that other man who gloats, as miser-like, over the same
hoard, both work on a plane far beneath where the enlightened
naturalist stands. One looks at Nature, and never knows that
she is beautiful ; the other knows she is beautiful, as even a
corpse may be ; the naturalist catches her sentient expression,
and knows how beautiful she is ! I would have you to know
and love her; for fairer mistress never swayed the heart of
man. Aim high ! — press on, and leave the halfway-house of
mere collectorship far behind in your pursuit of a delightful
study, nor fancy the closet its goal.

§13. BIRDS may be sought anywhere, at any time ; they
should be sought everywhere, at all times. Some come about
your doorstep to tell their stories unasked. Others spring up
before you as you stroll in the field, like the flowers that enticed

(21)

22 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

the feet of Proserpine. Birds flit by as you measure the tired
roadside, lending a tithe of their life to quicken your dusty
steps. They disport overhead at hide-and-seek with the foliage
as you loiter in the shade of the forest, and their music now
answers the sigh of the tree-tops, now ripples an echo to the
voice of the brook. But you will not always so pluck a thorn-
less rose. Birds hedge themselves about with a bristling
girdle of brier and bramble you cannot break ; they build their
tiny castles in the air surrounded by impassable moats, and
the drawbridges are never down. They crown the mountain-
top you may lose your breath to climb ; they sprinkle the desert
where your parched lips may find no cooling draught ; they
fleck the snow-wreath when the nipping blast may make you
turn your back ; they breathe unharmed the pestilent vapors
of the swamp that mean disease, if not death, for you ; they
outride the storm at sea that sends strong men to their last
account. Where now will you look for birds ?

§14. AND YET, as skilled labor is always most productive,
so expert search yields more than random or blundering pur-
suit. Imprimis; The more varied the face of a country, the
more varied its birds. A place all plain, all marsh, all wood-
land, yields its particular set of birds, perhaps in profusion ;
but the kinds will be limited in number. It is of first impor-
tance to remember this, when you are so fortunate as to have
choice of a collecting-ground ; and it will guide your steps
aright in a day's walk anywhere, for it will make you leave
covert for open, wet for dry, high for low and back again.
Well-watered country is more fruitful of bird-life than desert or
even prairie ; warm regions are more productive than cold ones.
As a rule, variety and abundance of birds are in direct ratio to
diversity and luxuriance of vegetation. Your most valuable as
well as largest bags may be made in the regions most favored
botanically, up to the point where exuberance of plant-growth
mechanically opposes your operations.

§15. SEARCH for particular birds can only be well directed,

HAUNTS OF BIRDS. 23

of course, by a knowledge of their special haunts and habits,
and is one of the mysteries of wood-craft only solved by long
experience and close observation. Here is where the true
naturalist bears himself with conscious pride and strength,
winning laurels that become him, and do honor to his calling.
"Where to find game ("game" is anything that vulgar people do
not ridicule you for shooting) of all the kinds we have in this
country has been so often and so minutely detailed in sporting-
works that it need not be here enlarged upon, especially since,
being the best known, it is the least valuable of ornithological
material. Most large or otherwise conspicuous birds have
very special haunts that may be soon learned ; and as a rule
such rank next after game in ornithological disesteem. Birds
of prey are an exception to these statements, they range
everywhere, and most of them are worth securing. Hawks
will unwittingly fly in your way oftener than they will allow
you to approach them when perched : be ready for them. Owls
will be startled out of their retreats in thick bushes, dense
foliage, and hollow trees, in the daytime ; if hunting them at
night, good aim in the dark may be taken by rubbing a wet
lucifer match on the sight of the gun, causing a momentary
glimmer. Large and small waders are to be found by any
water's-edge, in open marshes, and often on dry plains ; the
herons more particularly in heavy bogs and dense swamps.
Under cover, waders are oftenest approached by stealth ; in
the open, by strategy ; but most of the smaller kinds require
the exercise of no special precautions. Swimming birds,
aside from water-fowl (as the "game" kinds are called), are
generally shot from a boat, as they fly past ; but at their
breeding places many kinds that congregate in vast numbers
are more readily reached. There is a knack of shooting loons
and grebes on the water ; if they are to be reached at all by
the shot it will be by aiming not directly at them but at the
water just in front of them. They do not go under just where
they float, but kick up behind like a jumping-jack and plunge
foncard. Rails and several kinds of sparrows are confined to
reedy marshes. But why prolong such desultory remarks?

24 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

Little can be said to the point without at least a miniature
treatise on ornithology ; and I have not yet even alluded to
the diversified host of small insectivorous and granivorous
birds that fill our woods and fields. The very existence of
most of these is unknown to all but the initiated ; yet they
include the treasures of the ornithologist. Some are plain and
humble, others are among the most beautiful objects in nature ;
but most agree in being small, and therefore liable to be over-
looked. The sum of my advice about them must be brief.
Get over as much ground, both wooded and open, as you can
thoroughly examine in a day's tramp, and go out as many days
as you can. It is not always necessary, however, to keep on
the tramp, especially during the migration of the restless
insectivorous species. One may often shoot for hours with-
out moving more than a few yards, by selecting a favorable
locality and allowing the birds to come to him as they pass in
varied troops through the low woodlands or swampy thickets.
Keep your eyes and ears wide open. Look out for every
rustling leaf and swaying twig and bending blade of grass.
Hearken to every note, however faint ; when there is no
sound, listen for a chirp. Habitually move as noiselessly
as possible. Keep your gun ahvays ready. Improve every
opportunity of studying a bird you do not wish to destroy ;
you may often make observations more valuable than the
specimen. Let this be the rule with all birds you recognize.
But I fear I must tell you to shoot an unknown bird on
sight ; it may give you the slip in a moment, and a prize may
be lost. One of the most fascinating things about field-work
is its delightful uncertainty : you never know what's in store
for you as you start out ; you never can tell what will happen
next ; surprises are always in order, and excitement is contin-
ually whetted on the chances of the varied chase.

For myself, the time is past, happily or not, when every
bird was an agreeable surprise, for dewdrops do not last all
day ; but I have never yet walked in the woods without learn-
ing something pleasant that I did not know before. I should
consider a bird new to science ample reward for a month's

ALL TIMES FOR SHOOTING. 25

steady work ; one bird new to a locality would repay a week's
search ; a day is happily spent that shows me any bird that I
never saw alive before. How then can you, with so much
before you, keep out of the woods another minute?

§16. ALL TIMES are good times to go a-shooting ; but some
are better than others, a. Time of year. In all temperate
latitudes, the spring and fall — periods of migration with most
birds — are the most profitable seasons for collecting. Not
only are birds then most numerous, both as" species and as
individuals, and most active, so as to be the more readily found,
but they include a far larger proportion of rare and valuable
kinds. In every locality in this country the periodical visit-
ants outnumber the permanent residents ; in most regions the
number of regular migrants, that simply pass through in the
spring and fall, equals or exceeds that of either of the sets of
species that come from the south in spring to breed during the
summer, or from the north to spend the winter. Far north, of
course, on or near the limit of the vernal migration, where
there are few if any migrants passing through, and where the
winter birds are extremely few, nearly all the bird fauna is
composed of " summer visitants ;" far south, in this country,
the reverse is somewhat the case, though with many qualifica-
tions. Between these extremes, what is conventionally known
as "a season" means the period of the vernal or autumnal
migration. For example, the body of birds present in the
District of Columbia (where I collected for several years) in
the two months from April 20th to May 20th, and from Sep-
tember 10th to October 10th, is undoubtedly greater, as far as
individuals are concerned, than the total number found there at
all other seasons of the year together. As for species, the num-
ber of migrants about equals that of summer visitants; the
permanent residents equal the winter residents, both these being
fewer than either of the first mentioned sets ; while the irregular
visitors, or stragglers, that complete the bird fauna, are about,
or rather less than, one-half as many as the species of either of
the other categories. About Washington, therefore, I would

26 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

readily undertake to secure a greater variety of birds in the nine
weeks above specified than in all the rest of the year ; for in that
time would be found, not only all the permanent residents, but
nearly all the migrants, and almost all the summer visitants ;
while the number of individual birds that might be taken ex-
ceeds, by quite as much, the number of those procurable in the
same length of time at any other season. Mutatis mutandis,
it is the same everywhere in this country. Look out then, for
" the season ;" work all through it at a rate you could not pos-
sibly sustain the year around ; and make hay while the sun
shines, b. Time of day. Early in the morning and late in
the afternoon are the best times for birds. There is a mysteri-
ous something in these diurnal crises that sets bird-life astir,
over and above what is explainable by the simple fact that they
are the transition periods from repose to activity, or the reverse.
Subtile meteorological changes occur ; various delicate instru-
ments used in physicists' researches are sometimes inexplicably
disturbed ; diseases have often their turning point for better
or worse ; people are apt to be born or die ; and the suscep-
tible organisms of birds manifest various excitements. What-
ever the operative influence, the fact is, birds are particularly
lively at such hours. In the dark, they rest — most of them
do : at noonday, again, they are comparatively still ; between
these times they are passing to or from their feeding grounds
or roosting places ; they are foraging for food, they are singing ;
at any rate, they are in motion. Many migratory birds (among
them warblers, etc.) perform their journeys by night ; just at
daybreak they may be seen to descend from the upper regions,
rest awhile, and then move about briskly, singing and search-
ing for food. Their meal taken, they recuperate by resting till
towards evening : feed again and are off for the night. If you
have had some experience, don't you remember what a fine spurt
you made early that morning? — how many unexpected shots
offered as you trudged home belated that evening ? Now I am
no fowl, and have no desire to adopt the habits of the hen-yard ;
I have my opinion of those who like the world before it is
aired ; I think it served the worm right for getting up, when

WHAT BIRDS YOU WANT. 27

caught by the early bird ; nevertheless I go shooting betimes in
the morning, and would walk all night to find a rare bird at day-
light, c. Weather. It rarely occurs in this country that either
heat or cold is unendurably severe ; but extremes of tempera-
ture are unfavorable, for two reasons : they both occasion great
personal discomfort ; and in one extreme only a few hardy birds
will be found, while in the other, most birds are languid, dis-
posed to seek shelter, and therefore less likely to be found.
A still, cloudy day of moderate temperature ofiers as a rule the
best chance ; among other reasons, there is no sun to blind the
eyes, as always occurs on a bright day in one direction, partic-
ularly when the sun is low. While a bright day has its good
influence in setting many birds astir, some others are most
easily approached in heavy or falling weather. Some kinds
are more likely to be secured during a light snowfall, or after
a storm. Singular as it may seem, a thoroughly wet day ofiers
some peculiar inducements to the collector. I cannot well
specify them, but I heartily endorse a remark John Cassin
once made to me : — "I like," said he, "to go shooting in the
rain sometimes ; there are some curious things to be learned
about birds when the trees are dripping, things too that have
not yet found their way into the books."

§17. HOW MANY BIRDS OF THE SAME KIND DO YOU WAXT ?

— All you can get — with some reasonable limitations ; say fifty
or a hundred of any but the most abundant and widely diffused
species. You may often be provoked with your friend for
speaking of some bird he shot, but did not bring you, because,
he says, "Why, you've got one like that!" This is just as
reasonable as to suppose that because you have got one dollar
you would not like to have another dollar. Birdskins are
capital ; capital unemployed may be useless but can never be
worthless. Birdskins are a medium of exchange among orni-
thologists the world over ; they represent value — money value
and scientific value. If you have more of one kind than 3^011
can use exchange with some one for species you lack; both
parties to the transaction are equally benefited. Let me bring

28 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

this matter under several heads, a. Your own "series" of
skins of any species is incomplete until it contains at least one
example of each sex, of every normal state of plumage, and
every normal transition stage of plumage, and further illus-
trates at least the principal abnormal variations in size, form
and color to which the species may be subject ; I will even add
that every different faunal area the bird is known to inhabit
should be represented by a specimen, particularly if there be
anything exceptional in the geographical distribution of the
species. Any additional specimens to all such are your only
"duplicates," properly speaking, b. Birds vary so much in
their size, form and coloring, that a "specific character" can
only be precisely determined from examination of a large num-
ber of specimens, shot at different times, in different places ;
still less can the "limits of variation" in these respects be
settled without ample materials, c. The rarity of any bird is
necessarily an arbitrary and fluctuating consideration, because
in the nature of the- 0ase there can be no natural unit of com-
parison, nor standard of appreciation. It may be said, in
general terms, no bird is actually " rare." With a few possible
exceptions, as in the cases of birds occupying extraordinarily
limited areas, like some of the birds of paradise, or about to
become extinct, like the great auk, enough birds of all kinds
exist to overstock every public and private collection in the
world, without sensible diminution of their numbers. "Rar-
ity" or the reverse is only predicable upon the accidental (so
to speak) circumstances that throw, or tend to throw, specimens
into naturalists' hands. Accessibility is the variable element in
every case. The fulmar petrel is said (on what authority I
know not) to exceed any other bird in its aggregate of indi-
viduals ; how do the skins of that bird you have handled com-
pare in number with specimens you have seen of the "rare"
warbler of your own vicinity ? All birds are common somewhere
at some season ; the point is, have collectors been there at the
time? Moreover, even the arbitrary appreciation of "rarity"
is fluctuating, and may change at any time ; long sought and
highly prized birds are liable to appear suddenly in great num-

COMMON AJTD RAKE BIRDS. 29

bers in places that knew them not before ; a single heavy
" invoice " of a bird from some distant or little-explored re-
gion may at once stock the market, and depreciate the current
value of the species to almost nothing, d. Some practical de-
ductions are to be made from these premises. Your object is
to make yourself acquainted with all the birds of your vi-
cinity, and to preserve a complete suite of specimens of every
species. Begin by shooting every bird you can, coupling this
sad destruction, however, with the closest observations upon
habits. You will very soon fill your series of a few kinds, that
you find almost everywhere, almost daily. Then if you are
in a region the ornithology of which is well known to the pro-
fession, at once stop killing these common birds — they are in
every collection. You should not, as a rule, destroy any more
robins, bluebirds, song-sparrows, and the like, than you want
for yourself. Keep an eye on them, studying them always,
but turn your actual pursuit into other channels, until in this
way, gradually eliminating the undesirables, you exhaust the
bird fauna as far as possible (you will not quite exhaust it —
at least for many years). But if you are in a new or little
known locality, I had almost said the very reverse course is the
best. The chances are that the most abundant and character-
istic birds are " rare " in collections. Many a bird's range is
quite restricted : you may happen to be just at its metropolis ;
seize the opportunity, and get good store — yes, up to fifty,
or a hundred ; all you can spare will be thankfully received
by those who have none. Quite as likely, birds that are scarce
just where you happen to be, are so only because you are on
the edge of their habitat, and are plentiful in more accessible
regions. But, rare or not, it is always a point to determine the
exact geographical distribution of a species : and this is fixed
best by having specimens to tell each its own tale, from as
many different and widely separated localities as possible.
This alone warrants procuring one or more specimens in every
locality ; the commonest bird acquires a certain value if it be
captured away from its ordinary range. An Eastern Blue-
bird shot in California might be considered more valuable

30 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

than the "rarest" bird of that state, and would certainly be
worth a hundred Massachusetts skins ; the Varied Thrush
(Turdus ncevius) that was killed at Ipswich, Mass., is worth a
like number from Oregon. But let all your justifiable destruc-
tion of birds be tempered with mercy ; your humanity will be
continually shocked with the havoc you work, and should never
permit you to take life wantonly. Never shoot a bird you do
not fully intend to preserve, or to utilize in some proper way.
Bird-life is too beautiful a thing to destroy to no purpose : too
sacred a thing, like all life, to be sacrificed, unless the tribute
is hallowed by worthiness of motive. " Not a sparrow falleth
to the ground without His notice."

§18. WHAT is "A GOOD DAY'S WORK?" Fifty birds shot,
their sldns preserved, and observations recorded, is a very
good day's work ; it is sharp practice even when birds are
plentiful. I never knew a person to average anywhere near it ;
even during the "season" such work cannot possibly be sus-
tained. You may, of course, by a murderous discharge into a
flock, as of blackbirds or reedbirds, get a hundred or more in
a moment ; but I refer to collecting a fair variety of birds.
You will do very well if you average a dozen a day during the
seasons. I doubt whether any collector ever averaged as many
the year around ; it would be over four thousand specimens
annually. The greatest number I ever procured and prepared
in one da}? was forty, and I have not often gone over twenty.
Even when collecting regularly and assiduously I am satisfied
to average a dozen a day during the migrations, and one-third
or one-fourth as many the rest of the year. Probably this
implies the shooting of about one in five not skinned for vari-
ous reasons, as mutilation, decay, or want of time.

§19. APPROACHING BIRDS. There is little if any trouble in
getting near enough to shoot most birds. With notable excep-
tions, they are harder to see when near enough, or to hit when
seen; particularly small birds that are almost incessantly in
motion. As a rule — and a curious one it is — difficulty of

APPROACHING BIRDS. 31

approach is in direct ratio to the size of the bird ; it is perhaps
because large, conspicuous birds are objects of more general
pursuit than the little ones you ordinarily search for. The
qualities that birds possess for self-preservation may be called
wariness in large birds, shyness in small ones. The former
make off knowingly from a suspicious object ; the latter fly
from anything that is strange to them, be it dangerous or not.
This is strikingly illustrated in the behavior of small birds in
the wilderness, as contrasted with their actions about towns ;
singular as it may seem they are more timid under the former
circumstances than when grown accustomed to the presence of
man. It is just the reverse with a hawk or raven, for instance ;
in populous districts they spend much of their time in trying
to save their skins, while in a new country they have not learned,
like Indians, that a white man is "mighty uncertain." In
stealing on a shy bird, you will of course take advantage of
any cover that may offer, as inequalities of the ground, thick
bushes, the trunks of trees ; and it is often worth while to make
a considerable detour to secure unobserved approach. I think
that birds are more likely, as a rule, to be frightened away by
the movements of the collector, than by his simple presence,
however near, and that they are more afraid of noise than of
mere motion. Crackling of twigs and rustling of leaves are
sharp sounds, though not loud ones ; you may have sometimes
been surprised to find how distinctly you could hear the move-
ments of a horse or cow in underbrush at some distance.
Birds have sharp ears for such sounds. Form a habit of
stealthy movement ; it tells, in the long run, in comparison with
lumbering tread. There are no special precautions to be taken
in shooting through high open forest ; you have onty to saunter
along with your eyes in the tree-tops. It is ordinarily the easiest
and on the whole the most remunerative path of the collector.
In traversing fields and meadows move briskly, your principal
object being to flush birds out of the grass ; and as most, of
j^our shots will be snap ones, keep in readiness for instant
action. Excellent and varied shooting is to be had along hedge
rows, and in the rank herbage that fringes fences. It is best

32 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

to keep at a little distance, yet near enough to arouse all the
birds as you pass : you may catch them on wing, or pick them
off just as they settle after a short flight. In this shooting, two
persons, one on each side, can together do more than twice as
much work as one. Thickets and tangled undergrowth are
favorite resorts of many birds ; but when very close, or, as
often happens, over miry ground, they are hard places to shoot
in. As you come thrashing through the brush, the little inhab-
itants are scared into deeper recesses ; but if you keep still a
few minutes in some favorable spot, they are reassured, and
will often come back to take a peep at you. A good deal of
standing still will repay you at such times ; needless to add,
you cannot be too lightly loaded for such shooting, when birds
are mostly, out of sight if a dozen yards off. When yourself
concealed in a thicket, and no birds appear, you can often call
numbers about you by a simple artifice. Apply the back of your
hand to your slightly parted lips, and suck in air ; it makes a
nondescript "screeping" noise, variable in intonation at your
whim, and some of the sounds resemble the cries of a wounded
bird, or a young one in distress. It wakes up the whole neigh-
borhood, and sometimes puts cerlaiti birds almost beside them-
selves, particularly in the breeding season. Torturing a
wounded bird to make it scream in agony accomplishes the
same result, but of course is only permissible under great exi-
gency. In penetrating swamps and marshes, the best advice
I can give you is to tell you to get along the best way you can.
Shooting on perfectly open ground offers much the same case ;
you must be left to your own devices. I will say. however, you
can ride on* horseback, or even in a buggy, nearer birds than
they will allow you to walk up to them. Sportsmen take advan-
tage of this to get within a shot of the upland plover, usually a
very wary bird in populous districts ; I have driven right into
a flock of wild geese ; in California they often train a bullock to
graze gradually up to geese, the gunner being hidden by its
body. There is one trick worth knowing ; it is not to let a bird
that has seen you know by your action that you have seen it,
but to keep on unconcernedly, gradually sidling nearer. I have

RECOVERING BIRDS. KILLING WOUNDED BIRDS. 33

secured many hawks in this way, when the bird would have
flown off at the first step of direct approach. Numberless
other little arts will come to you as your wood-craft matures.

§20. RECOVERING BIRDS. It is not always that you. secure the
birds you kill ; you may not be able to find them, or you may
see them lying, perhaps but a few feet off, in a spot practically
inaccessible. Under such circumstances a retriever does excel-
lent service, as already hinted ; he is equally useful when a
bird properly "marked down" is not found there, having flut-
tered or run away and hidden elsewhere. The most difficult
of all places to find birds is among reeds, the eternal sameness
of which makes it almost impossible to rediscover a spot
whence the eye has once wandered, while the peculiar growth
allows birds to slip far down out of sight. In rank grass or
weeds, when you have walked up with your eye fixed on the
spot where the bird seemed to fall, yet failed to discover it,
drop your cap or handkerchief for a mark, and hunt around
it as a centre, in enlarging circles. In thickets, make a "bee
line" for the spot, if possible keeping your eye on the spray
from which the bird fell, and not forgetting where you stood
on firing ; you may require to come back to the spot and take
a new departure. You will not seldom see a bird just shot
at fly off as if unharmed, when really it will drop dead in a
few moments. In all cases therefore when the bird does not
drop at the shot, follow it with your eyes as far as you can ;
if you see it finally drop, or even flutter languidly downward,
mark it on the principles just mentioned, and go in search.
Make every endeavor to secure wounded birds, on the score
of humanity ; they should not be left to pine away and die in
lingering misery if it can possibly be avoided.

§21. KILLING WOUNDED BIRDS. You will often recover
winged birds, as full of life as before the bone was broken ;
and others too grievously hurt to fly, yet far from death. Your
object is to kill them as quickly and .painlessly as possible,
without injuring the plumage. This is to be accomplished,

MANUAL. 3

34 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

with all small birds, by suffocation. The respiration and cir-
culation of birds is very active, and most of them die in a few
moments if the lungs are so compressed that they cannot
breathe. Squeeze the bird tightly across the chest, under the
wings, thumb on one side, middle finger on the other, forefin-
ger pressed in the hollow at the root of the neck, between the
forks of the merrythought. Press firmly, hard enough to fix
the chest immovably and compress the lungs, but not to break
in the ribs. The bird will make vigorous but ineffectual efforts
to breathe, when the muscles will contract spasmodically ; but
in a moment more, the system relaxes with a painful shiver,
light fades from the eyes, and the lids close. I assure you, it
will make you wince the first few times ; you had better habit-
ually hold the poor creature behind you. You can tell by its
limp feel and motionlessness when it is dead, without watching
the sad struggle. Large birds obviously cannot be dealt with
in this way ; I would as soon attempt to throttle a dog as a
loon, for instance, upon which all the pressure you can give
makes no sensible impression. A winged hawk, again, will
throw itself on its back as you come up, and show such good
fight with beak and talons, that you may be quite severely
scratched in the encounter ; meanwhile, the struggling bird
may be bespattering its plumage with blood. In such a case
— in any case of a large bird making decided resistance — I
think it best to step back a few paces and settle the matter
with a light charge of mustard-seed. Any large bird once
secured may be speedily dispatched by stabbing to the heart
with some slender instrument thrust in under the wing — care
must be taken too about the bleeding ; or, it may be instantly
killed by piercing the brain with a knife introduced into the
mouth and drawn upward and obliquely backward from the
palate. The latter method is preferable, as it leaves no out-
ward sign, and causes no bleeding to speak of. With your
thumb, you may indent the back part of a bird's skull so as to
compress the cerebellum ; if you can get deep enough in, with-
out materially disordering the plumage, or breaking the skin,
the method is unobjectionable.

HANDLING BLEEDING BIRDS. 35

§22. HANDLING BLEEDING BIRDS. Bleeding depends alto-
gether upon the part or organ wounded ; but other things
being equal, violence of the haemorrhage is usually in direct
proportion to the size of the shot-hole ; when mustard-seed is
used it is ordinarily very trifling, if it occur at all. Blood
flows oftener from the orifice of exit of a shot, than from the
wound of entrance, for the latter is usually plugged with a
little wad of feathers driven in. Bleeding from the mouth or
nostrils is the rule when the lungs are wounded. When it
occurs, hold up the bird by the feet, and let it drip ; a general
squeeze of the body in that position will facilitate the drainage.
In general, hold a bird so that a bleeding place is most depend-
ent ; then, pressure about the part will help the flow. A " gob "
of blood, which is simply a forming clot, on the plumage may
often be dextrously flipped almost clean away with a snap of
the finger. It is first-rate practice to take cotton and forceps
into the field to plug up shot-holes, and stop the mouth, nos-
trils and vent on the spot. I follow the custom of the books
in recommending this, but I will confess I have rarely done
it myself, and I suspect that only a few of our most leisurely
and elegant collectors do so habitually. Shot-holes may be
found by gently raising the feathers, or blowing them aside ;
you can of course get only a tiny plug into the wound itself, but
it should be one end of a sizable pledget, the rest lying fluffy
among the feathers. In stopping the mouth or vent, ram the
fluff, of cotton, entirely inside. You cannot conveniently stop
up the nostrils of small birds separately; but take a light
cylinder of cotton, lay it transversely across the base of the up-
per mandible, closely covering the nostrils, and confine it there
by tucking each end tightly into the corner of the mouth. In
default of such nice fixing as this, a pinch of dry loam pressed
on a bleeding spot will plaster itself there and stop further mis-
chief. Never try to wipe off fresh blood that has already wetted
the plumage ; }TOU will only make matters worse. Let it dry on,
and then — but the treatment of bloodstains, and other soilings
of plumage, is given beyond.

36 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

§23. CARRYING BIRDS HOME SAFE. Suppose you have se-
cured a fine specimen, very likely without a soiled or ruffled
feather ; your next care will be to keep it so till you are ready
to skin it. But if you pocket or bag it directly, it will be a
sorry looking object before you get home. Each specimen
must be separately cared for, by wrapping in stout paper ;
writing paper is as good as any, if not the best. It will
repay you to prepare a stock of paper before starting out ;
your most convenient sizes are those of a half sheet of note,
of letter, and of cap respectively. Either take these, or fold
and cut newspaper to correspond ; besides, it is always well to
have a whole newspaper or two for large birds. Plenty of
paper will go in the breast pockets of the shooting coat.
Make a "cornucopia" — the simplest thing in the world, but,
like tying a particular knot, hard to explain. Setting the
wings closely, adjusting disturbed feathers, and seeing that the
bill points straight forward, thrust the bird head first into one
of these paper cones, till it will go no further, being bound by
the bulge of the breast. Let the cone be large enough for the
open end to fold over or pinch together entirely beyond the
tail. Be particular not to crumple or bend the tail feathers.
Lay the paper cases in the game bag or great pocket so that
they very nearly run parallel and lie horizontal ; they will
carry better than if thrown in at random. Avoid overcrowding
the packages, as far as is reasonably practicable ; moderate
pressure will do no harm, as a rule, but if great it may make
birds bleed afresh, or cause the fluids of a wounded intestine to
ooze out and soak the plumage of the belly — a very bad acci-
dent indeed. For similar obvious reasons, do not put a large
heavy bird on top of a lot of little ones ; I would sooner sling
a hawk or heron over my shoulder, or carry it by hand. If it
goes in the bag, see that it gets to the bottom. Avoid putting
birds in pockets that are close about your person ; they are
almost always unduly pressed, and may gain just enough addi-
tional warmth from your body to make them begin to decompose
before you can get at skinning them. Handle birds no more
than is necessary, especially white plumaged ones ; ten to one

GETTING YOUR BIRDS HOME. 37

your hands are powder-begrimed ; and besides, even the warmth
and moisture of your palms may tend to injure a delicate feath-
ering. Ordinarily pick up a bird by the feet or bill ; as you
need both hands to make the cornucopia, let the specimen dan-
gle by the toes from your teeth while you are so employed.
In catching at a wounded bird, aim to cover it entirely with
your hand : but whatever you do, never seize it by the tail, which
then will often be left in your hands for your pains. Never
grasp wing tips or tail feathers ; these large flat quills would
get a peculiar crimping all along the'webs, very difficult to
efface. Finally, I would add there is a certain knack or art in
manipulating, either of a dead bird or a birdskin, by which }^ou
may handle it with seeming carelessness and perfect impunity ;
whilst the most gingerly fingering of an inexperienced person
will leave its rude trace. You will naturally acquire the cor-
rect touch ; but it can be neither taught nor described.

§24. A SPECIAL CASE. While the ordinary run of laud birds
will be brought home in good order by the foregoing method,
some require special precautions. I refer to seabirds, such as
gulls, terns, petrels, etc., shot from a boat.^ In the first place,
the plumage of most of them is, in part at least, white and of ex-
quisite purity. Then, fish-eating birds usually vomit and purge
when shot. They are necessarily fished all dripping from the
water. They are too large for pocketing. If you put them on
the thwarts or elsewhere about the boat, they usually fall off, or
are knocked off, into the bilge water ; if you stow them in the
cubbjvhole, they will assuredly soil by mutual pressure, or by
rolling about. It will repay you to pick them from the water
by the bill, and shake off all the water you can ; hold them up,
or let some one do it, till they are tolerably dry ; plug the
mouth, nostrils and vent, if not also shot-holes ; wrap each
one separately in a cloth (not paper) or a mass of tow, and
pack steadily in a covered box or basket taken on board for
this purpose.

§25. HYGIENE OF COLLECTORSHIP. It is unnecessary to

38 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WOKK.

speak of the healthfullness of a pursuit that, like the collector's
occupation, demands regular bodily exercise, and at the same
time stimulates the mind by supplying an object, thus calling
the whole system into exhilarating action. Yet collecting has
its perils, not to be overlooked if we would adequately guard
against them — as fortunately we may, in most cases, by sim-
ple precautions. The dangers of taxidermy itself are else-
where noticed ; besides these, the collector is exposed to vicis-
situdes of the weather, may endure great fatigue, may breathe
miasm, and may be mechanically injured. ACCIDENTS from
the gun have been already treated ; a few special rules will
render others little liable to occur. The secret of safe climbing
is never to relax one hold until another is secured ; it is in
spirit equally applicable to scrambling over rocks, a particu-
larly difficult thing to do safely with a loaded gun. Test rot-
ten, slippery or otherwise suspicious holds before trusting
them. In lifting the body up anywhere keep the mouth shut,
breathe through the nostrils, and go slowly. In swimming,
waste no strength unnecessarily in trying to stem a current ;
yield partly, and land obliquely lower down ; if exhausted,
float — the slightest motion of the hands will ordinarily keep
the face above wat^r; and in any event keep your wits col-
lected. In fording deeply a heavy stone will strengthen your
position. Never sail a boat experimentally ; if you are no
sailor take one with you or stay on land. In crossing a high,
narrow footpath never look lower than your feet ; the muscles
will work true, if not confused with faltering instructions from
a giddy brain. On soft ground-, see what, if anything, has
preceded you ; large hoof marks generally mean that the way
is safe ; if none are found, inquire for yourself before going
on. Quicksand is the most treacherous, because far more dan-
gerous than it looks ; but I have seen a mule's ears finally
disappear in genuine mud. . Cattle paths, however erratic, com-
monly prove the surest way out of a difficult place, whether of
uncertain footing or dense undergrowth. MIASM : Unguarded
exposure in malarious regions usually entails sickness, often
preventable, however, by due precautions. It is worth knowing

HYGIENIC NOTES. 39

in the first place that miasmatic poison is most powerful between
sunset and sunrise — more exactly, from the damp of the
evening until night vapors are dissipated ; we may be out in
the daytime with comparative impunity where to pass a night
would be almost certain disease. If forced to camp out, seek
the highest and dryest spot, put a good fire on the swamp side,
and also, if possible, let trees intervene. Never go out on an
empty stomach ; just a cup of coffee and a crust may make a
decided difference. Meet the earliest unfavorable symptoms
with quinine — I should rather say, if unacclimated, antici-
pate them with this invaluable agent. Endeavor to maintain
high health of all functions by the natural means of regularity
and temperance in diet, exercise and repose. "TAKING COLD :"
This vague "household word" indicates one or more of a long
varied train of unpleasant affections, nearly always traceable
to one or the other of only two causes : sudden change of tem-
perature, and unequal distribution of temperature. No ex-
tremes of heat or cold can alone effect this result ; persons
frozen to death do not "take cold" during the process. But
if a part of the body be rapidly cooled, as by evaporation from
a wet article of clothing, or by sitting in a draught of air, the
rest of the body remaining at an ordinary temperature ; or if
the temperature of the whole be suddenly changed by going out
into the cold, or, especially, by coming into a warm room, there
is much liability of trouble. There is an old saying — "when
the air comes through a hole say }rour pra}^ers to save your
soul;" and I should think almost any one could get a "cold"
with a spoonful of water on the wrist held to a key-hole. Sin-
gular as it may seem, sudden warming when cold is more dan-
gerous than the reverse ; every one has noticed how soon the
handkerchief is required on entering a heated room on a cold
day. Frost-bite is an extreme illustration of this. As the
Irishman said on picking himself up, it was not the fall, but
stopping so quickly, that hurt him ; it is not the lowering of
the temperature to the freezing point, but its subsequent ele-
vation, that devitalizes the tissue. This is why rubbing with
snow, or bathing in cold water, is required to restore safely a

40 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

frozen part ; the arrested circulation must be very gradually
reestablished, or inflammation, perhaps mortification, ensues.
General precautions against taking cold are almost self-evident,
in this light. There is ordinarily little if any danger to be
apprehended from wet clothes, so long as exercise is kept up ;
for the "glow" about compensates for the extra cooling by
evaporation. Nor is a complete drenching more likely to be
injurious than wetting of one part. But never sit still wet ;
and in changing, rub the body dry. There is a general ten-
dency, springing from fatigue, indolence or indifference, to
neglect damp feet ; that is to say, to dry them by the fire ;
but this process is tedious and uncertain. I would say es-
pecially, off with the muddy boots and sodden socks at once
— dry stockings and slippers, after a hunt, may make just the
difference of your being able to go out again or never. Take
care never to check perspiration ; during this process the body
is in a somewhat critical condition, and sudden arrest of the
function may result disastrously — even fatally. One part of
the business of perspiration is to equalize bodily temperature,
and it must not be interfered with. The secret of much that is
to be said about bathing, when heated, lies here. A person over-
heated, panting it may be, with throbbing temples and a dry
skin, is in danger partly because the natural cooling by evapo-
ration from the skin is denied, and this condition is sometimes
not far from a " sunstroke." Under these circumstances, a per-
son of fairly good constitution may plunge into the water with
impunity — even with benefit. But if the body be already cool-
ing by sweating, rapid abstraction of heat from the surface
may cause internal congestion, never unattended with danger.
Drinking ice-water offers a somewhat parallel case ; even on
stooping to drink at the brook, when flushed with heat, it is well
to bathe the face and hands first, and to taste the water before
a full draught. It is a well known excellent rule, not to bathe
immediately after a full meal ; because during digestion the
organs concerned are comparatively engorged, and any sudden
disturbance of the circulation may be disastrous. The imper-
ative necessity of resisting drowsiness under extreme cold re-

HUNGER AND FATIGUE. 41

quires no comment. In walking under a hot sun the head
may be sensibly protected by green leaves or grass in the hat ;
they maybe advantageously moistened, but not enough to drop
about the ears. Under such circumstances the slightest giddi-
ness, dimness of sight, or confusion of ideas, should be taken
as a warning of possible sunstroke, instantly demanding rest,
and shelter if practicable. HUNGER and FATIGUE are more
closely related than they might seem to be ; one is a sign that
the fuel is out, and the other asks for it. Extreme fatigue,
indeed, clestroj^s appetite ; this simply means, temporary inca-
pacity for digestion. But even far short of this, food is more
easily digested, and better relished after a little preparation
of the furnace. On coming home tired it is much better to
make a leisurely and reasonably nice toilet than to eat at
'once, or to lie still thinking how tired you are ; after a change
and a wash you will feel like a "new man," and go to table
in capital state. Whatever dietetic irregularities a high state
of civilization may demand or render practicable a normally
healthy person is inconvenienced almost as soon as his reg-
ular meal-time passes without food ; and few can work comfort-
ably or profitably fasting over six or eight hours. Eat before
starting ; if for a day's tramp, take a lunch ; the most frugal
meal will appease if it do not satisfy hunger, and so postpone
its urgency. As a small scrap of practical wisdom, I would
add, keep the remnants of the lunch, if there are any ; for
3'ou cannot always be sure of getting in to supper. STIMULA-
TION : When cold, fatigued, depressed in mind, and on other
occasions, you may feel inclined to resort to artificial stimulus.
Respecting this many-sided theme I have a few words to offer
of direct bearing on the collector's case. It should be clearly
understood in the first place that a stimulant confers no
strength whatever ; it simply calls the powers that be into
increased action at their own expense. Seeking real strength
in stimulus is as wise as an attempt to lift yourself up by the
boot-straps. You may gather yourself to leap the ditch and
you clear it ; but no such muscular energy can be sustained ;
exhaustion speedily renders further expenditure impossible.

42 SUGGESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FIELD-WORK.

But now suppose a very powerful mental impression be made,
say the circumstance of a succession of ditches in front, and
a mad dog behind ; if the stimulus of terror be sufficiently
strong, you may leap on till you drop senseless. Alcoholic
stimulus is a parallel case, and is not seldom pushed to the
same extreme. Under its influence you never can tell when
you are tired ; the expenditure goes on, indeed, with unnatural
rapidity, only it is not felt at the time ; but the upshot is you
have all the original fatigue to endure and to recover from,
plus the fatigue resulting from over excitation of the system.
Taken as a fortification against cold, alcohol is as unsatisfac-
tory as a remedy for fatigue. Insensibility to cold does not
imply protection. The fact is the exposure is greater than
before ; the circulation and respiration being hurried, the waste
is greater, and as sound fuel cannot be immediately supplied,
the temperature of the body is soon lowered. The transient
warmth and glow over, the system has both cold and depres-
sion to endure ; there is no use in borrowing from yourself
and fancying you are richer. Secondly, the value of any
stimulus (except in a few exigencies of disease or injury) is
in proportion, not to the intensity, but to the equableness and
durability of its effect. This is one reason why tea, coffee,
and articles of corresponding qualities, are preferable to al-
coholic drinks ; they work so smoothly that their effect is often
unnoticed, and they "stay by" well ; the friction of alcohol is
tremendous in comparison. A glass of grog may help a vet-
eran over the fence, but no one, young or old, can shoot all
day on whiskey. I have had so much experience in the use of
tobacco as a mild stimulant that I am probably no impartial
judge of its merits : I will simply say I do not use it in the
field, because it indisposes to muscular activity, and favors re-
flection when observation is required ; and because temporary
abstinence provokes the morbid appetite and renders the weed
more grateful afterwards. Thirdly, undue excitation of any
physical function is followed by corresponding depression, on
the simple principle that action and reaction are equal ; and
the balance of health turns too easily to be wilfully disturbed.

INTEMPERANCE UNSCIENTIFIC. 43

Stimulation is a draft upon vital capital, when interest alone
should suffice ; it may be needed at times to bridge a chasm,
but habitual living beyond vital income infallibly entails bank-
ruptcy in health. The use of alcohol in health seems practi-
cally restricted to purposes of sensuous gratification on the
part of those prepared to pay a round price for this luxury.
The three golden rules here are — never drink before breakfast,
never drink alone, and never drink bad liquor ; their observ-
ance may make even the abuse of alcohol tolerable. Serious
objections for a naturalist, at least, are that science, viewed
through a glass, seems distant and uncertain, while the joys of
rum are immediate and unquestionable ; and that intemper-
ance, being an attempt to defy certain physical laws, is there-
fore eminently unscientific.

CHAPTER IV.

REGISTRATION AND LABELLING.

§26. A MERE OUTLINE of a field naturalist's duties would be
inexcusably incomplete without mention of these important
matters ; and, because so much of the business of collecting
must be left to be acquired in the school of experience, I am
the more anxious to give explicit directions whenever, as in
this instance, it is possible to do so.

§27. RECORD YOUR OBSERVATIONS DAILY. In one sense the
specimens themselves are your record — primd fade evidence
of your industry and ability ; and if labelled, as I shall presently
advise, they tell no small part of the whole story. But this is
not enough ; indeed, I am not sure that an ably conducted or-
nithological journal is not the better half of your operations.
Under your editorship of labelling specimens tell what they
know about themselves ; but you can tell much more yourself.
Let us look at a day's work : — You have shot and skinned so
many birds and laid them away labelled. You have made ob-
servations about them before shooting, and have observed a
number of birds that you did not shoot. You have items of
haunts and habits, abundance or scarcity ; of manners and ac-
tions under special circumstances, as of pairing, nesting, lay-
ing, rearing young ; feeding, migrating and what not ; various
notes of birds are still ringing in your ears ; and finally, you
may have noted the absence of species you saw awhile before,
or had expected to occur in your vicinity. Meteorological and
topographical items, especially when travelling, are often of
great assistance in explaining the occurrences and actions of
birds. Now you know these things, but very likely no one else
does ; and you know them at the time, but you will not recollect
a tithe of them in a few weeks or months, to say nothing of
years. Don't trust your memory ; it will trip you up ; what
(44)

WRITE OUT YOUR NOTES ! 45

is clear now will grow obscure ; what is found will be lost.
Write down everything while it is fresh in your mind ; write
it out in full — time so spent now will be time saved in the end,
when you offer your researches to the discriminating public.
Don't be satisfied with a dry-as-dust item ; clothe a skeleton
fact, and breathe life into it with thoughts that glow ; let the
paper smell of the woods. There's a pulse in a new fact;
catch the rhythm before it dies. Keep off the quicksands of
mere memorandum — that means something "to be remem-
bered," which is just what you cannot do. Shun abbrevia-
tions ; such keys rust with disuse, and may fail in after times
to unlock the secret that should have been laid bare in the
beginning. Use no signs* intelligible only to yourself; your
note-books may come to be overhauled by others whom you
would not wish to disappoint. Be sparing of sentiment, a
delicate thing, easily degraded to drivel ; crude enthusiasm
always hacks instead of hewing. Beware of literary infe-
licities ; "the written word remains," it may be, after you
have passed away ; put down nothing for your friend's blush,
or your enemy's sneer ; write as if a stranger were looking
over your shoulder.

§28. ORNITHOLOGICAL BOOK-KEEPING may be left to your
discretion and good taste in the details of execution. Each
may consult his preferences for rulings, headings, and blank
forms of all sorts, as well as particular modes of entry. But
my experience has been that the entries it is advisable to
make are too multifarious to be accommodated by the most
ingenious formal ruling; unless, indeed, you make the con-
ventional heading "Remarks" disproportionately wide, and
commit to it everything not otherwise provided for. My pref-
erence is decidedly for a plain page. I use a strongly bound
blank book, cap size, containing at least six or eight quires of

* This direction does not apply to a regular code of signs, which may be found
extremely convenient. The Messrs. A. & E. Newton have, for example, perfected
a system of symbols that leaves little if anything to be desired. See Am. Nat.
1872, p. 360.

46 REGISTRATION AND LABELLING.

good smooth paper ; but smaller may be needed for travelling,
even down to a pocket note-book. I would not advise a multi-
plicity of books, splitting up your record into different depart-
ments ; let it be journal and register of specimens combined.
(The registry of your own collecting has nothing to do with the
register of your cabinet of birds, which is sure to include a pro-
portion of specimens from other sources, received in exchange,
donated, or purchased. I speak of this beyond.) I have found
it convenient to commence a day's record with a register of the
specimens secured, each entry consisting of a duplicate of the
bird's label (see bej^ond), accompanied by any further remarks
I have to offer respecting the particular specimens ; then to go
on with the full of my day's observations, as suggested in the
last paragraph. You thus have a "register of collections" in
chronological order, toed off with an unbroken series of num-
bers, checked with the routine label-items, and continually
interspersed with the balance of }Tour ornithological studies.
Since your private field-number is sometimes an indispensable
clew in the authentication of a specimen after it has left your
own hands, never duplicate it. If you are collecting other ob-
jects of natural history besides birds, still have but one series
of numbers ; duly enter your mammal, or mineral, or what-
ever it is, in its place, with the number under which it hap-
pens to fall. Be scrupulously accurate with these and all other
figures, as of dates and measurements. Always use black ink ;
the "fancy" writing-fluids, even the useful carmine, fade sooner
than black, while lead pencilling is never safe.

§29. LABELLING. This should never be neglected. It is
enough to make a sensitive ornithologist shiver to see a speci-
men without the indispensable appendage — a label. I am
sorry to observe that the routine labelling of most collections
is fax from being satisfactory. A well-appointed label is some-
thing more than a slip of paper with the bird's name on it, and
is still defective, if, as is too often the case, only the locality
and collector are added. A complete label records the follow-
ing particulars: — 1. Title of the survey, voyage, exploration,

LABELLING. 47

or other expedition (if any), during which the specimen was
collected. 2. Name of the person in charge of the same (and
it may be remarked, that the less he really cares about birds,
and the less he actually interests himself to procure them, the
more particular he will be about this). 3. Title of the insti-
tution or association (if any) under the auspices or patronage
of which the specimen was procured, or for which it is de-
signed. 4. Name of collector; partly to give credit where it
is due, but principally to fix responsibility, and authenticate
the rest of the items. 5. Collector's number, referring to his
note-book, as just explained ; if the specimen afterwards forms
part of a general collection it usually acquires another num-
ber by new registry ; the collector's then becoming the "origi-
nal," as distinguished from the "current," number. 6. Local-

ig

ity, perhaps the most important of all the items. A specimen
of unknown or even uncertain origin is worthless or nearty so ;
while lamentable confusion has only too often arisen in orni-
thological writings from vague or erroneous indications of
locality : I should say that a specimen "not authentic" in this
particular had better have its supposed origin erased and be let
alone. Nor will it do to say simply, for instance, "North
America" or even "United States." Ornithologists generally
know already the quarter of the globe from which a bird comes ;
the locality should be fixed down to the very spot. If this be
obscure add the name of the nearest place to be found on a
fairly good map, giving distance and direction. 7. Date of
collection — day of the month, and year. Among other reasons
for this may be mentioned the fact that it is often important
to know what season a particular plumage indicates. 8. Sex,
and if possible also age, of the specimen ; an item that be-
speaks its own importance. Ornithologists of all countries are
agreed upon certain signs to indicate sex. These are <£ for
male, 9 for female; the symbols respectively of Mars and
Venus. Immaturity is often denoted by the sign 0 ; thus, $ 0,
young male. Or, we may write 9 ad., 9 yg., for adult
female, young female, respectively. It is preferable, however,
to use the language of science, not our vernacular, and say $

48 REGISTRATION AND LABELLING.

juv. (juvenis, young). " Nupt" signifies breeding plumage;
"hornot." means a bird of the year. 9. Measurements of
length, and of extent of wings ; the former can only be ob-
tained approximately, and the latter not at all, from a prepared
specimen. 10. Color of the eyes, and of the bill, feet, or other
naked or soft parts, the tints of which may change in drying.
11. Miscellaneous particulars, such as contents of stomach,
special circumstances of capture, vernacular name, etc. 12.
Scientific name of the bird. This is really the least important
item of all, though generally thought to take precedence. But
a bird labels itself, so to speak ; and nature's label may be
deciphered at any time. In fact, I would enjoin upon the col-
lector not to write out the supposed name of the bird in the
field, unless the species is so well known as to be absolutely
unquestionable. Proper identification, in any case to which
the slightest doubt may attach, can only be made after critical
study in the closet with ample facilities for examination and
comparison. The first eight items, and the twelfth, usually
constitute the face of a label ; the rest are commonly written
on the back. Labels should be of light card-board, or very
stiff writing paper ; they may be dressed attractively, as fancy
suggests ; the general items of a large number of specimens
are best printed ; the special ones must of course be written.
Shape is immaterial ; small " cards" or " tickets " are preferred
by some, and certainly look very well when neatly appointed ;
but I think on the whole, that a shape answering the idea of a
"slip" rather than a "ticket" is most eligible. A slip about
three inches long and two-thirds of an inch wide will do very
well for anything, from a hawk to a humming-bird. Something
like the " shipping tags" used by merchants is excellent, par-
ticularly for larger objects. It seems most natural to attach
the string to the left-hand end. The slip should be tied so as
to swing just clear of the bird's legs, but not loose enough to
dangle several inches, for in that case the labels are continually
tangling with each other when the birds are laid away in
drawers. The following diagrams show the face and back
of the last label I happened to write ; they represent the

HOW TO MEASURE A BIRD. 49

size and shape that I find most convenient for general pur-
poses; while the "legend" illustrates every one of the twelve
items above specified.

g Explorations in Dakota. Dr. Elliott Coues, U. S. .

*3

1 No. 2655. Butes borealis (Gm.) V. $ juv.

1 Fort Randall, Mo. R. — Oct. 29, 1872.

Obverse.

23.00 X 53.00 X 1"-50. — Eyes yellowish gray; bill horn-blue,
darker at tip; cere wax-yellow; tarsi dull yellowish; claws
bluish-black. Stomach contained portions of a rabbit; also, a
large tapeworm.

Reverse.

§30. DIRECTIONS FOR MEASUREMENT may be inserted here,
as this matter pertains rightfully to the recording of specimens.
The following instructions are repeated in substance from the
"Key," p. 55 ; they apply not only to length and extent, but
to the principal other dimensions, which may be taken at any
time. For large birds a tape-line showing inches and fourths
will do ; for smaller ones, a foot-rule graduated for inches and
eighths, or better, decimals to hundredths, must be used ; and
for all nice measurements the dividers are indispensable. —
"Length:" Distance between the tip of the bill and end of the
longest tail feather. Lay the bird on its back on the ruler on
a table ; take hold of the bill with one hand and of both legs
with the other ; pull with reasonable force to get the curve all
out of the neck ; hold the bird thus with the tip of the bill
flush with one end of the ruler, and see where the end of the
tail points. Put the tape-line in place of the ruler, in the
same way, for larger birds. — "Extent:" Distance between
the tips of the outspread wings. They must be fully out-
stretched, with the bird on its back, crosswise on the ruler, its
bill pointing to your breast. Take hold of right and left meta-
carpus with the thumb and forefinger of your left and right

50 EEGISTRATION AND LABELLING.

hand respectively, stretch with reasonable force, getting one
wing-tip flush with one end of the ruler, and see how much the
other wing-tip reaches. With large birds pull away as hard
as you please, and use the table, floor or side of the room ;
mark the points and apply tape-line. — "Length of wing :" Dis-
tance from the angle formed at the (carpus) bend of the wing
to the end of the longest primary. Get it with compasses for
small birds. In birds with a convex wing do not lay the tape-
line over the curve, but under the wing in a straight line.
This measurement is the one called, for short, " the wing." —
"Length of tail:" Distance from the roots of the rectrices to
the end of the longest one. Feel for the pope's nose ; in either
a fresh or dried specimen there is more or less of a palpable
lump into which the tail feathers stick. Guess as near as you
can to the middle of this lump ; place the end of the ruler op-
posite the point and see where the tip of the longest tail
feather comes. — "Length of bill:" Some take the curve of
the upper mandible ; others the side of the upper mandible
from the feathers ; others the gape, etc. I take the chord of
the culmen. Place one foot of the dividers on the culmen just
where the feathers end ; no matter whether the culmen runs
up on the forehead, or the frontal feathers run out on the cul-
men, and no matter whether the culmen is straight or curved.
Then with me the length of the bill is the shortest distance from
the point just indicated to the tip of the upper mandible ;
measure it with the dividers. In a straight bill of course it is
the length of the culmen itself; in a curved bill, however, it
is quite another thing. — "Length of tarsus:" Distance be-
tween the joint of the tarsus with the leg above, and that with
the first phalanx of the middle toe below. Measure it ahvays
with dividers, and in front of the leg. — "Length of toes:"
Distance in a straight line along the upper surface of a toe
is from the point last indicated to the root of the claw on top.
Length of toe is to be taken ivithout the claw, unless otherwise
specified. — "Length of the claws:" Distance in a straight line
from the point last indicated to the tip of the claw. — "Length
of head" is often a convenient dimension for comparison with

HOW TO MEASURE A BIRD. 51

the bill. Set one foot of the dividers over the base of the
culraen (determined as above) and allow the other to slip
just snugly down over the arch of the occiput; this is the
required measurement.

CHAPTER V.

INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS AND FIXTURES FOR PREPARING
BIRDSKINS.

§31. INSTRUMENTS. The only indispensable instrument is a
pair of scissors or a knife ; although practically you want both
of these, a pair of spring forceps and a knitting-needle, or some
similar wooden or ivory object, yet I have made hundreds of
birdskins consecutively without touching another tool. Odi,
puer, Persicos apparatus! I always mistrust the emphasis of
a collector who makes a flourish of instruments. You might
be surprised to see what a meagre, shabby-looking kit our best
taxidermists work with. Stick to your scissors, knife, forceps
and needle. But you may as well buy, at the outset, a com-
mon dissecting case, just what medical students begin business
with ; it is very cheap, and if there are some unnecessary things
in it, it makes a nice little box in which to keep your tools.
The case contains, among other things, several scalpels, just
the knives you want ; a " cartilage-knife," which is nothing
but a stout scalpel, suitable for large birds ; the best kind of
scissors for your purpose, with short blades and long handles
— if " kneed" at the hinge so much the better ; spring forceps,
the very thing ; a blow-pipe, useful in many ways and an-
swers well for a knitting-needle ; and some little steel-hooks,
chained together, which you may want to use. But you will
also require, for large birds, a very heavy pair of scissors, or
small shears, short-bladed and long-handled, and a stout pair of
bone-nippers. Have some pins and needles ; surgical needles,
which cut instead of punching, are the best. Get a hone or
strop, -if you wish, and a feather duster. Use of scissors re-
quires no comment ; and I would urge their habitual employ
instead of the knife-blade ; I do nine-tenths of my cutting with
scissors and find it much the easiest. A double-lever is twice
as effective as a single one, and besides, you gain in cutting
soft, yielding substances by opposing two blades. Moreover,
(52)

MATERIALS FOR STUFFING. 53

scalpels need constant sharpening — mine are generally too
dull to cut much with, and I suppose I am like other people —
while scissors stay sharp enough. The flat, thin ivory or ebony
handle of the scalpel is about as useful as the blade. Finger-
nails, which were made before scalpels, are a mighty help.
Forceps are almost indispensable for seizing and holding parts
too small or too remote to be grasped by the fingers. The
knitting-needle is wanted for a specific purpose noted beyond.
The shears or nippers are only needed for what the ordinary
scissors are too weak to do. Our instruments, you see now,
are " a short horse soon curried."

§32. MATERIALS, a. For stuffing. " What do you stuff 'em
with?" is usually the first question of idle curiosity about
taxidermy, as if that were tbe great point ; whereas, the stuff-
ing is so small a matter that I generally "reply — "anything, ex-
cept brickbats !" But if stuffing birds were the final cause of
Cotton, that admirable substance could not be more perfectly
adapted than it is to the purpose. Ordinary raw cotton batting
or wadding is what you want. When I can get it I never
think of using anything else for small birds. I would use it
for all birds were expense no object. Here tow comes in ; there
is a fine, clean, bleached article of tow prepared for surgical
dressings ; this is the best, but any will do. Some say chop
your tow fine ; this is harmless but unnecessary. A crumpled
newspaper, wrapped with tow, is first-rate for a large bird.
Failing cotton or tow, any soft, light, dry vegetable substance
may be made to answer, rags, paper, crumbled leaves, fine dried
grass, soft fibrous inner bark, etc. ; the down of certain plants,
as thistle and silk-weed, makes an exquisite filling for small
birds. But I will qualify my remark about brickbats by say-
ing : never put hair, wool, feathers, or any other ANIMAL sub-
stance in a birdskin — far better leave it empty ; for, as we
shall see in the sequel, bugs come fast enough, without being
invited into a snug nest. b. For preserving. ARSENIC* is the

* " Arsenic " — not the pure metal properly so called, but arsenic of the shops,
or arsenious acid.

54 MATERIALS FOR PREPARING SKINS.

great preservative. Use dry powdered arsenic, plenty of it,
and nothing else. There is no substitute for arsenic worthy of
the name, and no preparation of arsenic so good as the simple
substance. Various kinds of "arsenical soap" were and may
still be in vogue ; it is a nasty greasy substance, not fit to
handle ; and although efficacious enough, there is a very serious
hygienic objection to its use.* Arsenic, I need not say, is a
violent irritant poison, and must therefore be only guarded;
but may be used with perfect impunity. It is a very heavy sub-
stance, not appreciably volatile at ordinary temperatures, and
therefore not liable, as some suppose, to be breathed, to any
perceptible, much less injurious, extent. It will not even at
once enter the pores of healthy unbroken skin ; so it is no
matter if it gets on the fingers. The exceedingly minute
quantity that may be supposed to find its way into the system
in the course of time is believed by many competent physi-
cians to be rather beneficial as a tonic. I will not commit
myself to this ; for, though I never feel better than when work-
ing daily with arsenic, I do not know how much my health is
improved by the out-door exercise always taken at the same
time. The simple precautions are, not to let it lie too long in
contact with the skin, nor get into an abrasion, nor under the
nails. It will convert a scratch or cut into- a festering sore of
some little severity ; while if lodged under the nails it soon
shows itself by soreness, increased by pressure ; a white speck
appears, then a tiny abscess forms, discharge's and gets well
in a few days. Your precautions really respect other persons

* "Strange as it may appear to some, I would say avoid especially all the so-
called arsenical soaps; they are at best but filthy preparations; besides, it is a
fact to which I can bear painful testimony that they are, especially when applied
to a greasy skin, poisonous in the exti'eme. I have been so badly poisoned, while
working upon the skins of some fat water birds that had been prepared with arsen-
ical soap, as to be made seriously ill, the poison having worked into the system
through some small wounds or scratches on my hand. Had pure arsenic been
used in preparing the skins the effect would not have been as bad, although gi'ease
and arsenic are generally a blood poison in some degree; but when combined
with "soap" the effect, at least as far as my experience goes, is much more inju-
rious." MAYNATCD, Guide, p. 12.

In endorsing this I would add, that the combination is the more poisonous, in
all probability, simply because the soap, being detersive, mechanically, facilitates
the entrance of the poison, without, however, chemically increasing its virulence.

POISONING AND CLEANING. 55

more than yourself ; the receptacle should be conspicuously la-
belled "POISON !" Arsenic is a good friend of ours ; besides
preserving our birds, it keeps busybodies and meddlesome
folks away from the scene of operations, by raising a whole-
some suspicion of the taxidermist's surroundings. It may be
kept in the tin pots in which it is usually sold ; but some shal-
lower, broader receptacle is more convenient. A little drawer,
say 6X6 inches, and an inch deep, to slip under the edge of
the table, or a similar compartment in a large drawer, will
be found handy. A salt-spoon, or little wooden shovel whit-
tled like one, is nice to use it with, though, in effect, I always
shovel it up with the handle of a scalpel. As stated, there is
no substitute for arsenic ; but at a pinch you can make tempo-
rary shift with the following, among other articles : — table salt,
or saltpetre, or charcoal strewn plentifully ; strong solution of
corrosive sublimate, brushed over the skin inside ; creosote ;
impure carbolic acid ; these last two are quite efficacious, but
they smell horribly for an indefinite period. A bird threatening
to decompose before you can get at it to skin, may be saved
for a while by squirting weak carbolic acid or creosote down
the throat and up the fundament ; or by disembowelling, and
filling the cavity with powdered charcoal, c. For cleansing :
Gypsum* is an almost indispensable material for cleansing '
soiled plumage. The mode of using it is indicated beyond.
It is most conveniently kept in a shallow tray, say a foot
square, and an inch or two deep, which had better, further-
more, slide under the table as a drawer ; or form a compart-
ment of a larger drawer. Keep gypsum and arsenic in different
looking receptacles, not so much to keep from poisoning }rour-
self, as to keep from not poisoning a birdskin. They look
much alike, and skinning becomes such a mechanical process
that JTOU may get hold of the wrong article when your thoughts
are wandering in the woods. Gypsum, like arsenic, has no
worthy rival in its own field ; some substitutes, in the order of

* "Gypsum" is properly native hydrated sulphate of lime ; the article referred to
is " plaster of Paris" or gypsum heated up to 260° F. (by which the water of crys-
tallization is driven off) and then finely pulverized. When mixed with water it
soon solidifies, the original hydrate being again formed.

56 MATERIALS FOR PREPARING SKINS.

their applicability, are: — calcined magnesia (very good, but
too light — it floats in the air, and makes you cough) ; bicar-
bonate of magnesia ; powdered chalk ("prepared chalk," creta
prceparata of the drug shops is the best kind) ; fine wood-
ashes ; clean dry loam. No article, however powdery when
dry, that contains a glutinous principle, as for instance gum
arabic or flour, is admissible, d. For wrapping, you want a
thin, pliable, strong paper ; water-closet paper is the very best ;
newspaper is pretty good. For making the cones or cylinders
in which birdskins may be set to dry, a stiffer article is re-
quired ; writing paper answers perfectly.

§33. INDEPENDENT PARAGRAPH. Naturalists habitually carry
a pocket lens, much as other people do a watch. You will find
a magnifying glass very convenient in your search for the sex-
ual organs of small birds when obscure, as they frequently are,
out of the breeding season ; in picking lice from plumage, to
send to your entomological friend, who will very likely pro-
nounce them to be of a "new species ; " and for other purposes.

§34. FIXTURES. When travelling, your fixtures must ordi-
narily be limited to a collecting-chest ; you will have to skin
'birds on the top of this, on the tail-board of a wagon, or on
your lap, as the case may be. The chest should be very sub-
stantial — iron-bound is best ; strong as to hinges and lock —
and have handles. A good size is 30X18X18 inches. Let it
be fitted with a set of trays ; the bottom one say four inches
deep ; the rest shallower ; the top one very shallow, and divi-
ded into compartments for your tools and materials, unless
you fix these on the under side of the lid. Start out with
all the trays full of cotton or tow. At home, have a room to
yourself, if possible ; taxidermy makes a mess to which your
wife may object, and arsenic must not come in the way of chiL
dren. At any rate have your own table. I prefer plain deal
that may be scrubbed when required ; great cleanliness is indis-
pensable, especially when doing much work in hot weather, for
the place soon smells sour if neglected. I use no special re-

WORKING TABLE. 57

ccptacle for offal, for this only makes another article to -be
cleaned ; lay down a piece of paper for the refuse, and throw
the whole away. A perfectly smooth surface is desirable. I
generally have a large pane of window glass on the table be-
fore me. It will really be found advantageous to have a scale
of inches scratched on the edge of the table ; only a small part
of it need be fractionally subdivided ; this replaces the foot-
rule and tape-line, just as the tacks of a dry goods counter
answer for the yardstick. You will find it worth while to rig
some sort of a derrick arrangement, which you can readily
devise, on one end of the table, to hitch your hook to, if you
hang your birds up to skin them ; they should swing clear of
everything. The table should have a large general drawer,
with the little drawer for gypsum and arsenic already men-
tioned, unless these be kept elsewhere. Stuffing may be kept
in a box under the table, and make a nice footstool ; or in a
bag slung to the table leg.

§35. QUERY : Have you cleansed the bird's plumage ? Have
you plugged the mouth, nostrils and vent ? Have you meas-
ured the specimen and noted the color of the eyes, bill and
feet, and prepared the labels, and made the entry in the regis-
ter? Have you got all your apparatus within arm's length?
Then we are ready to proceed.

CHAPTER VI.

HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

A. The regular process.

§36. LAY THE BIRD on its back, the bill pointing to your
right * elbow. Take the scalpel like a pen, with edge of blade
uppermost, and run a straight furrow through the feathers
along the middle line of the belly, from end of the breast bone
to the anus. Part the feathers completely, and keep them

parted, t

Observe a strip of skin either perfectly naked, or only cov-
ered with short down; this is the line for incision. Take
scissors, stick in the pointed blade just over the end of the
breast bone, cut in a straight line thence to and into the anus ;
cut extremely shallow. J

Take the forceps in your left hand, and scalpel in your right,
both held pen-wise, and with the forceps seize and lift up one
of the edges of the cut skin, gently pressing away the belly-
walls with the scalpel-point ; no cutting is required ; the skin
may be peeled off without trouble. Skin away till you meet
an obstacle ; it is the thigh. Lay down the instruments ; with
your left hand take hold of the leg outside at the shank ; put

* Reverse this and following directions for position, if you are left-handed.

fThe motion is exactly like stroking' the right and left sides of a moustache
apart; you would never dress the hairs smoothly away from the middle line, by
poking from ends to root; nor will the feathers stay aside, unless stroked away
from base to tips.

J The skin over the belly is thin as tissue paper in a small bird; the chances are
you will at first cut the walls of the belly too, opening the cavity; this is no great
matter, for a pledget of cotton will keep the bowels in; nevertheless, try to di-
vide skin only. Reason for cutting into anus : this orifice makes a nice natural
termination of the incision, buttonhole-wise, and may keep the end of the cut
from tearing around the root of the tail. Reason for beginning to cut over the
edge of the sternum : the muscular walls of the belly are very thin, and stick so
close to the skin that you may be in danger of attempting to remove them with
the skin, instead of removing the skin from them; whereas, you cannot remove
anything but skin from over the breast bone, so you have a guide at the start.
You can tell skin from belly-walls, by its livid, translucent whitishness instead of
redness.

(58)

PROCESS OF SKINNING. 59

your right forefinger under the raised flap of skin, and feel a
bump ; it is the knee; push up the leg till this bump comes into
viev^, hold it so. Take the scissors in your right hand ; tuck
one blade under the concavity of the knee,, and sever the joint
at a stroke ; then the thigh is left with the rest of the body,
while the rest of the leg is dissevered and hangs only by skin.
Push the leg further up till it has slipped out of its sheath of
skin, like a finger out of a glove, down to the heel-joint. You
have now to clear off the flesh and leave the bone there ; you
may scrape till this is done, but there is a better way. Stick
the dosed points of the scissors in among the muscles just be-
low the head of the bone, then separate the blades just wide
enough to grasp the bone ; snip off its head ; draw the head to
one side ; all the muscles follow, being there attached ; strip
them dowmvard from the bone ; the bone is left naked, with
the muscle hanging by a bundle of tendons ("leaders") at its
foot ; sever these tendons collectively at a stroke.* Draw the
leg bone back into its sheath, and leave it. Repeat all the
foregoing steps on the other side of the bird. If you are
bothered by the skin-flaps settling against the belty-walls, in-
sert a fluff of cotton. Keep the feathers out of the wound ;
cotton and the moustache movement will do it. Next you
must sever the tail from the body, leaving a small "pope's-
nose" for the feathers to stay stuck into. Put the bird in
the hollow of your lightly closed left hand, tail upward, belly
toward you. ; or, if too large for this, stand it on its breast on
the table in similar position. Throw your left forefinger across
the front of the tail, pressing a little backward ; take the scis-
sors, cut the end of the lower bowel free first, than peck away
at bone and muscle with cautious snips,! till the tail-stump is
dissevered from the rump, and the tail hangs only by skin.
Now you have the rump-stump protruding naked; the legs

*This whole performance will occupy about three seconds, after practice; and
you may soon discover you can nick off the head of the bone of a small bird with
the thumb-nail.

t You will soon learn to do it all at one stroke ; but you cannot be too careful at
first; you are cutting right down on to the skin over the top of the pope's-nose,
and if you divide this, the bird will part company with its tail altogether.

60 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

dangling on- either side ; the tail hanging loose over the bird's
back between them. Lay down scissors ; take up forceps* in
your left hand ; with them seize and hold the stump of the
rump ; and with point or handle of scalpel in the other hand,
with finger tips, or with thumb-nail (best), gently press down
on and peel away skin.f No cutting will be required (usually)
till you come to the wings: the skin peels off (usually) as-
easily as an orange rind ; as fast as it is loosened, evert it ;
that is, make it continually turn itself more and more com-
pletely inside out. Work thus till you are stopped by the
obtruding wings.]: You have to sever the wing from the body
at the shoulder, just as you did the leg at the knee, and leave
it hanging by skin alone. Take your scissors, § as soon as the
upper arm is exposed, and cut through flesh and bone alike at
one stroke, a little below (outside of) the shoulder-joint. Do
the same with the other wing. As soon as the wings are
severed the body has been skinned to the root of the neck ;
the process becomes very easy ; the neck almost slips out of
its sheath of itself; and if you have properly attended to
keeping the feathers out of the wound and to continual ever-

* Or at this stage you may instead stick a hook into a firm part of the rump, and
hang up the bird about the level of your breast; you thus have both hands free to
work with. This is advisable with all birds too large to be readily taken in hand
and will help you at first, with any bird. But there is really no use of it with a
small bird, and you may as well learn the best way of working at first as after,
ward.

t The idea of the whole movement is exactly like ungloving your hand from the
wrist, by turning the glove inside out to the very finger tips. Some people say,
pull off the skin; I say never pull a bird's skin under any circumstances : push it
off, always operating at lines of contact of skin with body, never upon areas of
skins already detached.

J The elbows will get in your way before you reach the point of attack, viz., the
shoulder, unless the wings were completely relaxed (as was essential, indeed, if
you measured alar expanse correctly). Think what a difference it would make,
were you skinning a man through a slit in the belly, whether his arms were
stretched above his head, or pinned against his ribs. It is just the same with a
bird. When properly relaxed the wings are readily pressed away toward the bird's
head, so tjiat the shoulders are encountered before the elbows.

§ Shears will be required to crash through a large arm-bone. Or, you may with
the scalpel unjoint the shoulder. The joint will be found higher up and deeper
among the breast muscles than you might suppose, unless you are used to carving
fowls at table. With a small bird, you may snap the bone with the thumb-nail and
tear asunder the muscles in an instant.

PROCESS OF SKINNED. 61

sion of the jskin, you now find you have a naked body con-
nected dumb-bell-wise by a naked neck to a cap of reversed
skin into which the head has disappeared, from the inside
of which the legs and wings dangle, and around the edges of
which is a row of plumage and a tail.* Here comes up an im-
portant consideration : the skin, plumage, legs, wings and tail
together weigh something — enough to stretch^ unduly the skin
of the neck, from the small cylinder of which they are now
suspended ; the whole mass must be supported. For small
birds, gather it in the hollow of your left hand, letting the
body swing over the back of your hand out of the way ; for
large ones, rest the affair on the table or your lap. To skin
the head, secure the body in the position just indicated, by
confining the neck between your left thumb and forefinger ;
bring the right fingers and thumb to a cone over the head, and
draw it out with gentle force ; or, holding the head itself be-
tween the left thumb and forefinger, insert the handle of the
scalpel between the skin and skull, and pry a little, to enlarge
the neck-cylinder of skin enough to let the head pass. It will
generally J slip out of its hood very readily, as far as its
greatest diameter ;§ there it sticks, being in fact pinned by
the ears. Still holding the bird as before, with the point of
the scalpel handled like a nut-picker, or with your thumb-nail,
detach the delicate membrane that lines . the ear-opening ; do
the same for the other ear. The skull is then shelled out to
the eyes, and will skin no further of its own accord, being

* You find that the little straight cut you made along the belly has somehow be-
come a hole larger than the greatest girth of the bird; be undismayed; it is all
right.

t If you have up to this point properly pushed off the skin instead of pulling it,
there is as yet probably no stretching of any consequence; but in skinning the
head, which comes next, it is almost impossible for a beginner to avoid stretching
to an extent involving great damage to the good looks of a skin. Try your utmost,
by delicacy of manipulation at the lines of contact of skin with flesh and only
there, to prevent lengthicise stretching. Crosswise distension is of no conse-
quence—in fact more or less of it is usually required to skin the head, and it tends
to counteract the evils of undue elongation.

I The special case of head too large for the calibre of the neck is treated beyond.

§ And you will at once find a great apparent increase of amount of free skin in
your hand, owing to release and extension of all that was before shortened in
length by circular distension, in enlargement of the neck-cylinder.

62 HOW-TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

again attached by a membrane, around the border of the eye-
socket. Holding the scalpel as before, run its edge around an
arc (a semicircle is enough to let you into the orbit) of the
circumference, dissevering the membrane from the bone. Re-
verse the scalpel, and scoop out the eyeball with the end of
the handle ; you bring out the eye betwixt the ball of your
thumb and the handle of the instrument, tearing apart the
optic nerve and conjunctival tissue, but taking care not to open
the eyeball* nor lacerate the eyelids. Do the same with the
other eye. The head is then skinned far enough ; there is no
use of getting quite to the base of the bill. You have now to
get rid of the brain and flesh of the nape and jaws,t and leave
most of the skull in ; the cranial dome makes the only perfect
" stuffing" for the skin of the head. This is all done at once
by only four particular cuts. Hold the head between your left
thumb and fingers, the bill pointing towards you, the bird's
palate facing you ; you observe a space bounded behind by the
base of the skull where the neck joins, in front by the floor of
the mouth, on either side by the prongs of the under jaw —
these last especially prominent. Take the scissors ; stick one
blade just inside one branch of the lower jaw, thence into the
eye-socket which lies below (the head being upside down)
thence into the brain-box ; make a cut parallel with the jaw,
just inside of it, bringing the upper scissor blade perpendicu-
larly downward crashing through the skull just inside of the
angle of the jaw. Duplicate this cut on the other side. Con-
nect the anterior ends of these cuts by a transverse one across
the floor and roof of the mouth. Connect the posterior ends
of the side cuts by one across the back of the skull near its
base — just where the nape-muscle ceases to override the cra-

* An eyeball is much larger than it looks from the outside; if you stick the
instrument straight into the socket, you may punch a hole in the ball and let out
the water; & very disagreeable complication. Insinuate the knife-handle close to
the rim of the socket, and hug the wall of the cavity throughout.

t You may of course at this stage cut off the neck at the nape, punch a hole in
the base of the skull, dig out the brains, and scrape away at the jaw-muscles till
you are satisfied or tired; an unnecessary job, during which the skin may have
become dry and shrivelled and hard to turn right side out. The operation de-
scribed in the text may require ten seconds, perhaps.

PROCESS OF SKINNING. 63

ninm. You have enclosed and cut out a squarish-shaped mass
of bone and muscle, and on gently pulling the neck (to which
of course it remains attached), the whole affair comes out,
bringing the brain with it, but leaving the entire roof of the
skull supported on a scaffolding of jaw-bone. It only remains
to skin the wings. Seize the arm-stump with fingers or for-
ceps ; the upper arm is readily drawn from its sheath as far as
the elbow ; but the wing must be skinned to the wrist (carpus
— "bend of the wing") ; yet it will not come out so easily,
because the secondary quills grow to one of the forearm bones
(the ulna) pinning down the skin the whole way along a series
of points. To break up these connections, hold the upper arm
firmly with the left thumb and forefinger, the convexity of the
elbow looking towards you ; press the right thumb-nail closely
against the back edge of the ulna, and strip downward, scrap-
ing the bone with the nail the whole way.* If you only hit
the line of adhesion, there is no trouble at all about this. Now
you want to leave in one of the two forearm bones, to preserve
sufficiently the shape of the limb, but to remove the other, with
the upper arm bone and all the flesh. It is done in a moment ;
stick the point of the scissors between the heads of the two
forearm bones, and cut the hinder one (ulna) away from the
elbow; then the other forearm bone (radius), bearing on its
near end the elbow and the whole upper arm, is to be stripped
away from the ulna, taking with it the flesh of the forearm,
and to be cut off at its far end close to the wrist-joint, one
stroke severing the bone and all the tendons that pass over the
wrist to the hand ; then the ulna, bare of flesh, is alone left in,
attached at the wrist. Draw gently on the wing from the out-
side till it slips into the natural position whence you everted
it. Do the same for the other wing. This finishes the skin-
ning process. The skin is now to be turned right side out.
Begin any way you please, till you see the point of the bill
reappearing among the feathers ; seize it with fingers or for-
ceps as convenient, and use it for gentle traction. But by no
means pull it out by holding on to the rear end of the skin —

* For special case of wing too large to be handled thus, see beyond.

64 HOW TO MAKE A BIEDSKIN.

that would infallibly stretch the skin. Holding the bill, make
a cylinder of your left hand and coax the skin backward with
a sort of milking motion. It will come easily enough, until
the final stage of getting the head back into its skull cap ; this
may require some little dexterity ; but you cannot fail to get
the head in, if you remember what you did to get it out.
When this is fairly accomplished, you for the first time have
the pleasure of seeing something that looks like a birdskin.
Your next* care is to apply arsenic. Lay the skin on its back,
the opening toward you and wide spread, so the interior is in
view. Run the scalpel-handle into the neck to dilate that cyl-
inder until you can see the skull ; find your way to the orifices
of the legs and wings ; expose the pope's-nose ; thus you have
not only the general skin surface, but all the points where some
traces of flesh were left, fairly in view. Shovel in arsenic ;
dump some down the neck, making sure it reaches and plenti-
fully besprinkles the whole skull ; drop a little in each wing
hole and leg hole ; leave a small pile at the root of the tail ;
strew some more over the skin at large. The simple rule is,
put in as much arsenic as will stick anywhere. ' Then close
the opening, and shake up the skin; move the head about
by the bill ; rustle the wings and move the legs ; this distrib-
utes the poison thoroughly. If you have got in more than is
necessary, as you may judge by seeing it piled up dry, any-
where, hold the skin with the opening downward over the poi-
son-drawer, and give it a flip and let the superfluous powder fall
out. Now for the " make up," upon which the beauty of the
preparation depends. First get the empty skin into good
shape. Let it lie on its back ; draw it straight out to its nat-
ural length. See that the skin of the head fits snugly ; that
the eyes, ears and jaws are in place. Expand the wings to
make sure that the bone is in place, and fold them so that the
quills override each other naturally ; set the tail feathers shin-

* Some direct the poisoning to be done while the skin is still wrong side out;
and it may be very thoroughly effected at that stage. I wait, because the arsenic
generally strews over the table in the operation of reversing the skin, if you use
as much as I think advisable; and it is better to have a cavity to put it into than a
surface to strew it on.

STUFFING. 65

glewise also ; draw down the legs and leave them straddling
wide apart. Give the plumage a preliminary dressing ; if the
skin is free from kinks and creases, the feathers come naturally
into place ; particular ones that may be awry should be set
right, as may be generally done by stroking, or by lifting them
free repeatedly, and letting them fall ; if any (through care-
lessness) remain turned into the opening, they should be care-
fully picked out. Remove all traces of gypsum or arsenic
with the feather duster. The stuffing is to be put in through
the opening in the belly ; the art is to get in just enough, in
the right places. It would never do to push in pellets of cot-
ton, as you would stuff a pillow-case, till the skin is filled up ;
no subsequent skill in setting could remove the distortion that
would result. It takes just four* pieces of stuffing — one for
each eye, one for the neck, and one for the body ; while it re-
quires rather less than half as much stuffing as an inexperienced
person might suppose. Take a shred of cotton that will make a
tight ball as large as the bird's eye ; stick it on the end of your
knitting needle, and by twirling the needle whilst the cotton is
confined in your finger tips, jrou make a neat ball. Introduce
this through the belly-opening, into the eyesocket ; if you have
cut away skull enough, as already directed, it will go right in ;
disengage the needle with a reverse twirl, and withdraw it.
Take hold of the bill with one hand, and with the forceps in
the other, dress the eyelids neatly and naturally over the elas-
tic substance within. Repeat for the other eye. Take next a
shred of cotton that will roll into a firm cylinder rather less
than the size of the bird's neck. Roll it on the needle much

* For any ordinary bird up to the size of a crow. It is often directed that the
leg bones and wing bones be wrapped with^cotton or tow. I should not think of
putting anything around the wing bones of any bird up to the size of an eagle,
swan or pelican. Examination of a skinned wing will show how extremely com-
pact it is, except just at the shoulder. What you remove will never make any dif-
ference from the outside, while you would almost inevitably get in too much, not
of the right shape, and make an awkward bulging no art would remedy ; I say,
then, leave the wings of all but the largest birds empty, and put in very little under
any circumstances. As for legs, the whole host of small perching birds need no
wrapping whatever; depend upon it you will make a nicer skin without wrapping.
But large birds and those with very muscular or otherwise prominent legs must
have the removal of flesh compensated for. I treat of these cases beyond.

MANUAL. 5

66 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

as you did the eyeball, introduce it in the same way, and ram
it firmly into the base of the skull ; disengage the needle by
twisting it the other way, and withdraw it, taking care not to
dislodge the cotton neck. If now you peep into the skin you
will see the end of this artificial neck ; push it up against the
skin of the breast — it must not lie down on the back between
the shoulders.* The body-wad comes next ; you want to imi-
tate the size and shape of the bird's trunk. Take a mass of
cotton you think will be enough, and take about half of this ;
that will be plenty (cotton is very elastic). It should make a
tolerably firm ball, rather egg-shaped, swelling at the breast,
smaller behind. If you simply squeeze up the cotton, it will
not stay compressed ; it requires a motion something like that
which bakers employ to knead dough Into the shape of a loaf.
Keep tucking over the borders of the cotton till the desired
shape and firmness are attained. Insert the ball between the
blades of the forceps in such way that the instruments con-
fine the folded-over edges, and with a wriggling motion insin-
uate it aright into the body. Before relaxing the forceps, put
your thumb and forefinger in the bird's armpits, and pinch the
shoulders together till they almost touch ; this is to make sure
that there is no stuffing between the shoulders — the whole
mass lying breastwards. Loosen the forceps and withdraw
them. If the ball is Brightly made and tucked in, the elasticity
of the cotton will chiefly expend itself in puffing out the breast,
which is just what is wanted. Be careful not to push the body
too far in ; if it impacts against the skin of the neck, this will
infallibly stretch, driving the shoulders apart, and no art will
remedy the unsightly gape resulting. You see I dwell on this

* Although a bird's neck is really, of course, in direct continuation of the back-
bone, yet the natm-al sigmoid curve of the neck is such that it virtually takes de-
parture rather from the breast, its lower curve being received between the prongs
of the merrythought. This is what we must imitate instead of the true anatomy.
If you let the end of the neck lie between the shoulders, it will infallibly press
them apart, so that the interscapular plumage cannot shingle over the scapular as
it should, and a gaping place, showing down or even naked skin, will result.
Likewise if the neck be made too large (the chances are that way, at first), the
same result follows. These seemingly trifling points are very important indeed ;
I never made a decent birdskin till I learned to get the neck small enough, and to
shoye the end of it against the breast.

SETTING THE SKIN. 67

matter of the shoulders ; the whole knack of stuffing correctly
focusses just over the shoulders. If you find you have made
the body too large, pull it out and make a smaller one ; if it
fits nicely about the shoulders but is too long to go in, or
too puffy over the belly, let it stay, and pick away shreds at
the open end till the redundancy is remedied. Your bird is
now stuffed. Close the opening by bringing the edges of the
original cut together. There is no use of sewing* up the cut,
for a small ' bird ; if the stuffing is correct, the feathers will
hide the opening, and if they do not, it is no matter. You are
not making an object for a show case, but for a naturalist's
cabinet. Supposing you to have been so far successful, little
remains to be done ; the skin already looks very much like a
dead bird ; you have only to give the finishing touches, and
"set" it. Fixing the wings nicely is a great point. Fold
each wing closely ; see that the carpal bend is well defined,
that the coverts show their several oblique rows perfectly, that
all the quills override each other like shingles. Tuck the
folded wings close up to the body — rather on the bird's back
than along its sides ; see that the wing tips meet over the tail
(under the tail as the bird lies on its back) ; let the carpal
angle nestle in the plumage ; have the shoulders close together,
so that the interscapulars shingle over the scapulars. If the
wing be pressed in too tightly, the scapulars will rise up on
end ; there must be neither furrow nor ridge about the inser-
tion of the wings ; every thing must lie perfectly smooth. At
this stage of the process, I generally lift up the skin gingerly,
and let it slip head first through one hand after the other, press-
ing here or there to correct a deformity, or uniformly, to make
the whole skin compact. The wings set, next bring the legs
together, so that the bones within the skin lie parallel with
each other; bend the heel-joint a little, to let the tarsi cioss
each other about their middle ; lay them sidewise on the tail,

* But sew it up, if you please, though you may be perhaps giving the man who
subsequently mounts the bird the trouble of ripping out the stitches. Stitches
however, will not come amiss with a large bird. I generally, in such cases, pin the
edges of the cut in one or more places.

68 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

so that the naturally flexed toes lie flat, all the claws mutually
facing each -other. See that the neck is perfectly straight, and,
if anything, shortened rather than outstretched ; have the crown
of the head flat on the table, the bill pointing straight forward,*
the mandibles shut tightly. f Never attempt any "fancy" atti-
tudes with a birdskin ; the simpler and more compactly it is
made up the better.^ Finally, I say, hang over your bird (if
you have time) ; dress better the feathers' that were well
dressed before ; perfect every curve ; finish caressingly, and
put it away tenderly, as you hope to be shriven yourself
when the time comes. .

There are several ways of laying a birdskin. A common,
easy and slovenly way is to thrust it head first into a paper cone;
but it makes a hollow-chested, pot-bellied object unpleasant to
see, and renders your nice work on the make-up futile. A
paper cylinder, corresponding in calibre to the greatest girth
of the birdskin, binds the wings well, and makes a good ordi-
nary specimen — perhaps better than the average. Remarking
that there are some detestable practices, such as hanging up
a bird by a string through the nose (methods only to be men-

* Exceptions. Woodpeckers, ducks and some other birds treated of in §39, are
best set with the head flat on one side, the bill pointing obliquely to the right or
left; owls, with the bill pointing straight up in the air as the bird lies on its back.

t If the mandibles gape, run a thread through the nostrils and tie it tightly under
the bill. Or, since this injures the nostrils (and we frequently want to examine
their structure) stick a pin in under the bill close to the gonys, drawing it obliquely
into the palate. Sometimes the skin of the throat looks sunken betwixt the sides
of the jaw. A mere shred of cotton introduced with forceps through the mouth
will obviate this.

% Don't cock up the head, trying to impart a knowing air— it cannot be done, and
only makes the poor bird look ridiculous. Don't lay the skin on one side, with the
legs in perching position, and don't spread the wings— the bird will never perch nor
fly again, and the suggestion is imartistic because incongruous. The only permis-
sible departure from the rule of severe simplicity is when some special ornament,
as a fine crest, may be naturally displayed, or some hidden markings are desired to
be brought out, or a shape of tail or wing to be perpetuated ; but in all such cases
the "flowery" inclination should be sparingly and judiciously indulged. It is,
however, frequently desirable to give some special set to hide a defect, as loss of
plumage, etc.; this may often be accomplished very cunningly, with excellent re-
sult. No rules for this can be laid down, since the details vary in every case; but
in general the weak spot may be hidden by contracting the skin of the place and
then setting the bird in an attitude that naturally corresponds, thus making a vir-
tue of necessity.

DRYING AND PACKING SKINS. 69

tioned to be condemned), I will tell you the easiest and best
way, by which the most elegant and tasteful results are almost
necessarily secured. The skins are simply laid away in cotton,
just as they come from your hands. Take a considerable wad
of cotton, make a " bed " of it, lay the specimen in, and tuck
it up nicely around the edges. In effect, I generally take a
thin* sheet of cotton wadding, the sizing of which confers some
textile consistency, and wrap the bird completely but lightly in
it. By loosening or tightening a trifle here or there, laying
down a "pillow "or other special slight pressure, the most deli-
cate contour-lines may be preserved with perfect fidelity. Un-
necessary pother is sometimes made about drying skins ; the
fact being that under ordinary circumstances they could not be
kept from drying perfectly ; and they dry in exactly the shape
they are set, if not accidentally pressed upon. At sea, how-
ever, or during unusually protracted wet weather, they of
course dry slowly, and may require some attention to prevent
mildew, and even souring, especially in the cases of very large,
thick-skinned or greasy specimens. Thorough poisoning, and
drying by a fire, or placing in the sun, will always answer.
Very close packing retards drying. When travelling or oper-
ating under other circumstances requiring economy of space,
you must not expect to turn out your collection in elegant
order. Perfection of contour-lines can only be secured by put-
ting each specimen away by itself ; undue pressure is always
liable to produce unhappily outre configuration of a skin.
Trays in a packing box are of great service in limiting possi-
bilities of pressure ; they should be shallow ; for one four
inches deep will take a well stuffed hen hawk, for example, or
accommodate 3-6 sparrows a-top r>f each other. It is well to
sort out your specimens somewhat according to size, to keep
heavy ones off little ones ; though the chinks around the
former may usually be economized with advantage by packing
in the less valuable or the less neatly prepared of the latter.
When limited to a travelling chest, I generally pass in the
skins as fast as made, packing them "solid" in one sense, yet
hunting up a nice resting place for each. If each rests in its

70 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

own cotton coffin, it is astonishing how close they may be laid
without harm ; and how many will go in a given space — a tray
30X18X4 inches will easily hold three hundred and fifty birds
six inches long. As a tray fills up, the drier ones first put in
may be submitted to more pressure. A skin originally dried
in good shape may subsequently be pressed perfectly flat with-
out material injury; the only thing to avoid being contortion.
The whole knack of packing birds corresponds to that of filling
a trunk solidly full of clothes — as may easily be done without
damage to an immaculate shirt-front. Finally, I would say,
never put away a bird unlabelled, not even for an hour ; you
may forget it, or die. Never tie a label to a bird's bill, wing
or tail ; tie it securely to both legs where they cross, and it will
be just half as liable to become detached as if tied to one leg
only. Never paste a label, or even a number, on a bird's plu-
mage. Never put in glass eyes before mounting. Never paint
or varnish a bird's bill or feet. Never replace missing plumage
of one bird with the feathers of another — no, not even if the
birds came out of the same nest.

.B. Special Processes ; Complications and Accidents.

§37. THE foregoing method of procedure is a routine prac-
tice applicable to three-fourths if not nine-tenths of the "gen-
eral run" of birds. But there are several cases requiring a
modification of this programme ; while several circumstances
may tend to embarrass your operations. The principal special
•conditions may therefore be separately treated to your advan-
tage.

§38. SIZE. Other things being equal,- a large bird is more
difficult to prepare than a small one. In one case, you only
need a certain delicacy of touch, easily acquired and soon be-
coming mechanical ; in the other, demand on your strength
may be made, till your muscles ache. It takes longer, too ;*

* The reader may be curious to know something of the statistics on this score
—how long it ought to take him to prepare an ordinary skin. He can scarcely
imagine, from his first tedious operations, how expert he may become, not only in

SPECIAL PROCESSES. 71

I could put away a dozen sparrows in the time I should spend
over an eagle, and I would rather undertake a hundred hum-
ming birds than one ostrich. For "large" birds, say ai^thing
from a hen hawk upward, various special manipulations I have
directed may be foregone, while however you observe their gen-
eral drift and intent. You may open the bird as directed, or,
turning it tail to you, cut with a knife.* Forceps are rarely
required — there is not much' that is too small to be taken in
hand. As soon as the tail is divided, hang up the bird by the
rump, so you will have both hands free. Let it swing clear of
the wall or table, at any height most convenient. The steel
hooks of a dissecting case are not always large enough ;' use a
stout fish-hook with the barb filed off. Work with 3^0111* nails,
assisted by the scalpel if necessary. I know of no bird, and
I think there is none in this country at least, the skin of which
is so internally adherent by fibrous or muscular tissue as to
require actual dissecting throughout ; a pelican comes perhaps
as near this as any ; but in many cases the knife may be con-
stantly employed with advantage. Use it with long clean

beauty of result, but in rapidity of execution . I have seen taxidermists make good
small skins at the rate of ten an hour; but this is extraordinary. The quickest
work I ever did myself was eight an hour, or an average of seven and a half minutes
apiece, and fairly good skins. But I picked my birds, all small ones, well shot,
labelled, measured and plugged beforehand, so that the rate of work was excep-
tional besides including only the actual manipulations from first cut to layin g away.
No one averages eight birds an hour, even excluding the necessary preliminaries
of cleansing, plugging, etc. Four birds an hour, everything included, is good
work. A very eminent ornithologist of this country, and an expert taxidermist,
once laid a whimsical wager, that he would skin and stuff a bird before a certain t
friend of his could pick all the feathers off a specimen of the same kind. I forget
the time, but he won, and his friend supped that night on some very tough game !
* Certain among larger birds are often opened elsewhere than along the belly —
with what advantage I cannot say from my own experience. Various water birds?
such as loons, grebes, auks, gulls and ducks (in fact any swimming bird with
dense under plumage) maybe opened along the side by a cut under the wings from
the shoulder over the hip to the rump; the cut is completely hidden by the make-up,
and the plumage is never ruffled. But I see no necessity for this; for. as a rule,
the belly opening can, if desired, be completely effaced with due care ; though a
very greasy bird with white under plumage generally stains where opened, in spite
of every precaution. Such birds as loons, grebes, cormorants and penguins are
often opened by a cut across the fundament from one leg to the other; their con-
formation in fact suggests and favors this operation. I have often seen water
birds slit down the back; but I consider it very poor practice.

72 HOW TO MAKE A BIKDSKIN.

sweeping strokes, hugging the skin rather than the body. The
knee and shoulder commonly require disarticulation, unless
you use bone-nippers or strong shears ; the four cuts of the
skull may presuppose a very able-bodied instrument — even a
chisel. The wings will give you the most trouble, and they
require a special process ; for you cannot readily break up the
adhesions of the secondary quills to the ulna, nor is it desi-
rable that very large feathers should be deprived of this natural
support. Hammer or nip off the great head of the upper arm-
bone, just below the insertion of the breast muscles ; clean
the rest of that bone and leave it in. Tie a string around it
(what sailors call "two half hitches" gives a secure hold on
the bony cylinder), and tie it to the other humerus, inside the
skin, so that the two bones shall be rather less than their natu-
ral distance apart. After the skin is brought right side out,
attack the wings thus : spread the wing under side uppermost,
and secure it on the table by driving a tack or brad through
the wrist-joint ; this fixes the far end, while the weight of the
skin steadies the other. Raise a whole layer of the under
wing coverts, and make a cut in the skin thus exposed, from
elbow to wrist, in the middle line between the two forearm
bones. Raise the flaps of skin, and all the muscle is laid bare ;
it is to be removed. This is best done by lifting each muscle
from its bed separately, slipping the handle of the scalpel
under the individual bellies ; there is little if any bony attach-
ment except at each end, and this is readily severed. Strew
in arsenic ; a little cotton may be used to fill the bed of mus-
cle removed from a very large bird ; bring the flaps of skin
together, and smooth down the coverts ; you need not be par-
ticular to sew up the cut, for the coverts will hide the opening ;
in fact, the operation does not show at all after the make-
up. Stuffing of large birds is not commonly done with only
the four pieces already directed. The eyeballs, and usually
the neck-cylinder, go in as before ; the body may be filled any
way you please, provided you do not put in too much stuffing
nor get any between the shoulders. All large birds had better
have the leg bones wrapped to nearly natural size. Observe

LARGE HEADED BIRDS. 73

that the leg-muscles do not form a cylinder, but a cone ; let
the wrapping taper naturally from top to bottom. Attention
to this point is necessary for all large or medium sized birds
with naturally prominent legs. The large finely feathered legs
of a hawk, for example, ought to be well displayed ; with these
birds, and also with rails, etc., moreover, imitate the bulge of
the thigh with a special wad laid inside the skin. Large birds
commonly require also a special wad introduced by the mouth,
to make the swell of the throat ; this wad should be rather
fluffy than firm. As a rule do not fill out large birds to their
natural dimensions ; they take up too much room. Let the
head, neck and legs be accurately prepared, but leave the main
cavity one-third if not one-half empty ; no more is required
than will fairly smooth out creases in the skin. Reduce bulk
rather by flattening out than by general compression. Use
tow instead of cotton ; and if at all short of tow, economize
with paper, hay, etc., at least for the deeper portions of the
main stuffing. Large birds may be "set" in a great quantity
of tow ; wrapped in paper, much like any other parcel ; or
simply left to dry on the table, the wings being only supported
by cushioning or other suitable means.

§39. SHAPE. Some special configurations have been noticed
in the last paragraph, prematurely perhaps, but leading di-
rectly up to further considerations respecting shape of certain
birds as a modifying element in the process of preparation.
As for skinning, there is one extremely important matter.
Most ducks, many woodpeckers, flamingoes, and doubtless
some others, with which I am not familiar, cannot be skinned
in the usual way, because the head is too large for the calibre
of the neck and cannot be drawn through. In such cases, skin
as usual to the base of the skull, cut off the head there (in-
side l!he skin of course), and operate upon it, after turning the
skin right side out, as follows: — Part the feathers carefully
in a straight line down the back of the skull, make a cut
through the skin, just long enough to permit the head to pass,
draw out the skull through this opening, and dress it as already

74 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

directed. Return it, draw the edges of the cat nicely to-
gether; and sew up the opening with a great many fine stitches.
Simple as it may appear, this process is often embarrassing,
for the cut has an unhappy tendency to wander about the neck,
enlarging itself even under the most careful manipulation ;
while the feathers of the parts are usually so short, that it is
difficult to efface all traces of the operation. I consider it
very disagreeable ; but for ducks I know of no alternative. I
have however found out a way to avoid it with woodpeckers,
excepting the very largest : it is this : — Before skinning, part
the eyelids, and plunge the scalpel right into the eyeballs ;
seize the cut edge of the ball with the forceps, and pull the
eye right out. It may be dextrously done without spilling the
eye water on the plumage ; but, for fear of this, previously put
a little pile of plaster on the spot. Throw arsenic into the
socket, and then fill it with cotton poked in between the lids.
The eyes are thus- disposed of. Then, in skinning, when you
come to the head, dissever it from the neck and work the skull
as far out as you can ; it may be sufficient^ exposed, in all
cases, for you to gouge out the base of the skull with the scis-
sors, and get at the brain to remove it. Apply an extra large
dose of arsenic, and you will never hear from what jaw-muscle
has been left in. In all these cases, as already remarked, the
head is preferably set lying on one side, with the bill pointing
obliquely to the right or left. Certain birds require a special
mode of setting ; these are, birds with very long legs or neck,
or both, as swans, geese, pelicans, cormorants, snakebirds,
loons, and especially cranes, herons, ibises and flamingoes.
Long legs should be doubled completely on themselves by
bending at the heel-joint, and either tucked under the wings,
or laid on the under surface ; the chief point is to see that
the toes lie flat, so that the claws do not stick up, to catch
in things or get broken off. A long neck should be carefully
folded ; not at a sharp angle with a crease in the skin, but
with a short curve, and brought round either to the side of
the bird or on its breast, as may seem most convenient. The
object is to make a "bale" of the skin as nearly as may be,

THIN SKINS, ETC. — FAT. 75

and when it is properly effected it is surprising what little space
a crane, for instance, occupies. But it is rarely, if ever, admis-
sible to bend a tail back on the body however inconveniently
long it may be. Special dilations of skin, like the pouch of a
pelican, or the air sacs of a prairie-hen, may be moderately
displayed.

§40. THIN SKIN. LOOSE PLUMAGE. It is astonishing how
much resistance is offered by the thin skin of the smallest bird.
Though no thicker than tissue paper, it is not very liable to tear
if deftly handled ; yet a rent once started often enlarges to an
embarrassing extent if the skin be stretched in the least.
Accidental rents, and enlargements of shot-holes, should be
neatly sewn up, if occurring in an exposed place ; but in most
cases the plumage may be set to hide the openings. The tro-
gons are -said to have remarkably thin and delicate skin ; I
have never handled one in the flesh. Among our birds, the
cardinal grosbeak has, I think, about the tenderest skin. The
obvious indication in all such cases is simply a little extra
delicacy of manipulation. In skinning most birds, you should
not loose more than a feather or two, excepting those loos-
ened by the shot. Pigeons are peculiar, among our birds,
for the very loose insertion of their plumage ; you will have
to be particularly careful with them and in spite of all your
precautions a good many feathers will probably drop. Strip-
ping down the secondary quills from the forearm, in the manner
already indicated, will so almost invariably set these feathers
free from the skin that I recommend you not to attempt it,
but to dress the wings as prescribed for large birds.

§41. FATNESS. Fat is a substance abhorred of all dissec-
tors ; always in the way, embarrassing operations and obscur-
ing observations, whfle it is seldom worth examination after
its structure has once been ascertained. It is particularly
obnoxious to the taxidermist, since it is liable to soil the plu-
mage during skinning, and also to soak into the feathers after-
wards ; and greasy birdskins are never pleasing objects. A

76 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

few birds never seem to have any fat ; some, like petrels, are
always oily ; at times, especially in the indolent autumn season,
when birds have little to do but feed, the great majority ac-
quire an embonpoint doubtless to their own satisfaction, but to
the taxidermist's discomfort. In all such cases, gypsum should
be lavishly employed. Strew plaster plentifully from the first
cut, all through the operation ; dip your fingers in it frequently,
as well as your instruments. The invaluable absorbent will
deal with most of the " running" fat. When the skin is com-
pletely reversed remove as much of the solid fat as possible ;
it is generally found occupying the areolar tissue of particular
definite tracts, and most of it may usually be peeled or flaked
off in considerable masses. Since the soft and oozy state of
most birds' fat at ordinary temperatures may be much im-
proved by cold, it will repay you to leave your birds on ice for
a while before skinning, if you have the means and time to
do so ; the fat will become quite firm. There is a device for
preventing or at any rate lessening the soiling of the plumage
so apt to occur along the line of your incision ; it is invaluable
in all cases of white plumage. Take a strip of cloth of greater
width than the length of the feathers, long enough to go up
one side of the cut and down the other. Sew this closely to
the skin all around the cut, and it will form an apron to guard
the plumage. You will too frequently find that a bird, pre-
pared without soiling and laid away apparently safe, after-
wards grows greasy ; if the plumage is white, it soon becomes
worse than ever by showing dust that the grease catches.
Perhaps the majority of such birds in our museums show the
dirty streak along the belly. The reason is, that the grease
has oozed out along the cut and wherever else the skin has
been broken, and infiltrated the plumage, being drawn up ap-
parently by capillary attraction, just as a lampwick "sucks
up " oil. Sometimes, witftout obviously- soiling the plumage,
the grease will run along the thread that ties the label, and
make a uniformly transparent piece of "oil-paper." I have
no remedy to offer for this gradual infiltration of the plumage.
It will not wash out, even with soap and water. Possibly

BLOODSTAINS, ETC. 77

careful and persistent treatment with an ether might be effec-
tive, but I am not prepared to say it would be. Removal of
all fat that can be got off during skinning with a liberal use
of plaster will in a measure prevent a difficulty that remains
incurable.

§42. BLOODSTAINS, ETC. In the nature of the case, this com-
plication is of continual occurrence ; fortunately it is easier
dealt with than greasiness. Much may be done, in the field,
to prevent bloodying of the plumage, as already said. A little
blood does not show much on a dark plumage ; but it is of
course conspicuous on light or white feathers. Dried blood
may often be scraped off, in imitation of the natural process
by which a bird cleanses its plumage with the bill ; or be pul-
verized by gently twiddling the feathers between the fingers,
and then blown off. But feathers may by due care be washed
almost as readily as clothing ; and we must ordinarity resort
to this to remove all traces of blood, especially from white
surfaces. If properly dried they do not show the operation.
With a soft rag or pledget of cotton dipped in warm water
bathe the place assiduously, pressing down pretty hard, only
taking care to stroke the feathers the right way, so as not to
crumple them, until the red color disappears ; then you have
simply a wet place to deal with. Press gypsum on the spot ;
it will cake ; flake it off and apply more, till it will no longer
stick. Then raise the feathers on a knife blade and sprinkle
gypsum in among them ; pat it down and shake it up,
wrestling with the spot till the moisture is entirely absorbed.
Two other fluids of the body will give you occasional annoy-
ance— the juices of the alimentary canal, and the eye-water.
Escape of the former by mouth, nostrils or vent is preventable
by plugging these orifices, and its occurrence is inexcusable.
But shot often lacerates the gullet, crop and bowels, and though
nothing may flow at the time, subsequent jolting or pressure
in the game bag causes the escape of fluids : a seemingly safe
specimen may be unwrapped to show the whole belly plumage
a sodden brown mass. Such accidents should be treated pre-

78 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

cisely like bloodstains ; but it is to be remarked that these
stains are not seldom indelible, traces usually persisting in
white plumage at least in spite of our best endeavors. Eye-
water, insignificant as it may appear, is often a great annoy-
ance, this liquor is slightly glairy, or rather glassy, and puts a
sort of sizing on the plumage, difficult to efface — the more so
since the soiling necessarily occurs in a conspicuous place,
where the plumage is too scanty and delicate to bear much
handling. It frequently happens that a lacerated eyeball, by
the elasticity of the coats, or adhesion of the lids, retains its
fluid till this is pressed out in manipulating the parts ; and
recollecting how the head lies buried in plumage at that stage
of the process, it will be seen that not only the head, but much
of the neck and even the breast may become wetted. If the
parts are extensively soaked, the specimen is almost irrepa-
rably damaged, if not ruined. Plaster will absorb the moist-
ure, but much of the sizing may be retained on the plumage ;
therefore, though the place seems simply wet, it should be thor-
oughly washed with water before the gypsum is applied. I
always endeavor to prevent the accident ; if I notice a lacer-
ated eyeball, I extract it before skinning, in the manner de-
scribed for woodpeckers. Miscellaneous stains, from the juices
of plants, etc., may be received ; all such are treated on gen-
eral principles. Blood on the beak and feet of rapacious birds,
mud on the bill and legs of waders, etc., etc., may be washed
off without the slightest difficulty. A. land bird that has fallen
in the water should be recovered as soon as possible, picked
up by the bill, and shaken ; most of the water will run off, un-
less the plumage is completely soaked. It should be allowed
to dry just as it is, without touching the plumage, before being
wrapped and bagged. If a bird fall in soft mud, the dirt
should be scraped or snapped off as far as this can be done
without plastering the feathers down, and the rest allowed to
dry ; it may afterward be rubbed fine and dusted off, when no
harm will ensue, except to white feathers which may require
washing.

MUTILATION. 79

§43. MUTILATION. You will often be troubled, early in your
practice, with broken legs and wings, and various lacerations ;
but the injury must be very severe (such as the carrying away
of a limb, or blowing off the wrhole top of a head) that can-
not be in great measure remedied by care and skill. Sup-
pose a little bird, shot through the neck or small of the back,
comes apart while being skinned ; you have only to remove the
hinder portion, be that much or little, and go on with the rest
as if it were the whole. If the leg bone of a small bird be
broken near the heel, let it come away altogether — it will
make little if any difference. In case of the same accident to
a large bird that ought to have the legs wrapped, whittle out
a peg and stick it in the hollow stump of the bone ; if there
is no stump left file a piece of stout wire to a point and stick
it into the heel joint. If the forearm bone that you usually
leave in a small bird is broken, remove it and leave the other
in ; if both are broken, do not clean the wings so thoroughly
that they become detached ; an extra pinch of arsenic will
condone the omission. In a large bird, if both bones of the
forearm are broken, splint them with a bit of wood laid in
between so that one end hitches at the elbow, the other at the
wrist. A humerus may be replaced like a leg bone, but this is
rarely required. If the skull be smashed, save the pieces, and
leave them if you can ; if not, imitate the arch of the head
with a firm cotton-ball. A broken tarsus is readily splinted
with a pin thrust up through the sole of the foot : if too large
for this, use a pointed piece of wire. There is no mending a
bill when part of it is shot away, for I think the replacing of
part by putty, stucco, etc., inadmissible ; but if it be only frac-
tured, the pieces may usually be retained in place by winding
with thread, or with a touch of glue or mucilage. It is singu-
lar,'by the way, what unsightliness results from a very trifling
injury to the bill — much, I suppose, as a boil on a person's
nose is peculiarly deplorable. I have already hinted how art-
fully various weak places in a skin, due to mutilation or loss
of plumage, may be hidden.

80 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

§44. DECOMPOSITION. It might seem unnecessary to speak
of what may be smelled out so readily as animal putrescence,
but there are some useful points to be learned in this connec-
tion, besides the important sanitary precautions that are to be
deduced. Immediately after death the various fluids of the
body begin to "settle" (so to speak) and shortly after, the
muscular system as a rule becomes fixed in what is technically
called rigor mortis. This stiffening usually occurs as the ani-
mal heat dies away ; but its onset, and especially its duration,
is very variable, according to circumstances, such as cause of
death ; although in most cases of sudden violent death of an
animal in previous good health, it seems to depend chiefly upon
temperature, being transient and imperfect, or altogether want-
ing in hot weather. As it passes off, the whole system re-
laxes, and the body soon becomes as "limp" as at the moment
of death. This is the period immediately preceding decompo-
sition— in fact, it may be considered as the stage of incipient
putridity ; it is very brief in warm weather ; and it should be
seized as the last opportunity of preparing a bird without
inconvenience and even danger. If not skinned at once,
putrescence becomes established ; it is indicated by the efflu-
vium (at the outset "sour," but rapidly acquiring a variety of
disgusting odors) ; by the distension of the abdomen with
gaseous products of decomposition ; by a loosening of the
cuticle, and consequently of the feathers ; and by other signs.
If you part the feathers of a bad-smelling bird's belly to
find the skin swollen and livid or greenish, while the feathers
come off at a touch, the bird is too far gone to be recovered
without trouble and risk that no ordina^ specimen warrants.
It is a singular fact that this early putrescence is more
poisonous than utter rottenness ; as physicians are aware, a
post-mortem examination at this stage, or even before it, in-
volves more risk than their ordinary dissecting-room expe-
rience. It seems that both natural and pathological poisons
lose their early virulence by resolution into other products
of decay. The obvious deduction from ail this is to skin
your birds soon enough. Some say they are best skinned per-

DECOMPOSITION. 81

fectly fresh, but I sec no reason for this ; when I have time to
choose, I take the period of rigidity as being preferable on the
whole ; for the fluids have then " settled," and the limbs are
readily relaxed by manipulation. If you have a large bag to
dispose of, and are pressed for time, set them in the coolest
place you can find, preferably on ice ; a slight lowering of
temperature may make a decided difference. Disembowelling,
which may be accomplished in a moment, will materially retard
decomposition. Injections of creosote or dilute carbolic acid
will arrest decay for a time, for an indefinitely long period if
a large quantity of these antiseptics be employed. When it
becomes desirable (it can never be necessary) to skin a putres-
cent bird, great care must be exercised not only to accomplish
the operation, but to avoid danger. I must not, however, un-
consciously lead you to exaggerate the risk, and will add that
I think it often overrated. I have probably skinned birds as
" gamey " as any one has, and repeatedly, without being con-
scious of any ill effects. I am sure that no poison, ordinarily
generated by decomposition of a body healthy at death, can
compare in virulence with that commonly resulting after death-
by many diseases. I also believe that the gaseous products,
however offensive to the smell, are innocuous as a rule. The
danger practically narrows down to the absorption of fluids
through an abraded surface ; the poison is rarely taken in by
natural pores of healthy skin, if it remain in contact but a
short time. Cuts and scratches may be closed with a film of
collodion, or covered with isinglass or court plaster, or pro-
tected by rubber cots on the fingers. The hands should, of
course, be washed with particular care immediately after the
operation, and the nails scrupulously dressed. Having never
been poisoned (to my knowledge) , I cannot give the symptoms
from personal experience ; but I will quote from Mr. Maynara.
"In a few days numerous pimples, which are exceedingly
painful, appear upon the skin of the face and other parts of
the person and, upon those parts where there is chafing or rub-
bing, become large and deep sores. There is a general languor
and, if badly poisoned, complete prostration results ; the slight-

82 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

est scratch becomes a festering sore. Once poisoned in this
manner (and I speak from experience) , one is never afterward
able to skin any animal that has become in the least putrid,
without experiencing some of the symptoms above described.
Even birds that you handled before with impunity, you cannot
now skin without great care. The best remedy in this case is,
as the Hibernian would say, not to get poisoned, . . bathe the
parts frequently in cold water ; and, if chafed, sprinkle the parts
after bathing, with wheat flour. These remedies, if persisted in,
will effect a cure, if not too bad ; then, medical advice should
be procured without delay."*

§45. How TO MOUNT BIRDS. As some may not improbably
procure this volume with a reasonable expectation of being
taught to mount birds, I append the required instructions,
although the work only professes to treat of the preparation
of .skins for the cabinet. As a rule, the purposes of science
are best subserved by not mounting specimens ; for display,
tne only end attained, is not required. I would strongly advise
you not to mount your rarer or otherwise particularly valuable
specimens ; select for this purpose nice, pretty birds of no
special scientific value. The principal objections to mounted
birds are, that they take up altogether too much room, require
special arrangements for keeping and transportation, and can-
not be handled for study with impunity. Some might suppose
that a mounted bird would give a better idea of its figure and
general aspect than a skin ; but this is only true to a limited
extent. Faultless mounting is an art really difficult, acquired
by few ; the average work done in this line shows something
of caricature, ludicrous or repulsive, as the case may be. To
copy nature faithfully by taxidermy requires not only long
and close study, but an artistic sense ; and this last is a rare

* Avoid all mechanical irritation of the inflamed parts ; touch the parts that
have ulcerated with a stick of lunar caustic; take a dose of salts; use syrup of
the iodide of iron, or tincture of the chloride of iron, say thirty drop^s of either, in
a wineglass of water, thrice daily ; rest at first, exercise gradually as you can bear
it; and skin no birds till you have completely recovered.

MOUNTING BIRDS. 83

gift. Unless you have at least the germs of the faculty in
your composition your taxidermal success will be incommensu-
rate with the time and trouble you bestow. My own taxider-
mal art is of a low order, decidedly not above average ;
although I have mounted a great many birds that would look
well enough by the side of ordinary museum work, few of them
have entirely answered my ideas. A live bird is to me such a
beautiful object that the slightest taxidermal flaw in the effort
to represent it is painfully offensive ; perhaps this makes me
place the standard of excellence too high for practical pur-
poses. I like a good honest bjrdskin that does not pretend to
be anything else ; it is far preferable to the ordinary taxider-
mal abortions of the show-cases. But if, after the warnings
that I mean to convey in this paragraph, you still wish to try
your hand in the higher department of taxidermy, I will ex-
plain the whole process as far as manipulation goes ; the art
you must discover in yourself.

The operation of skinning is precisely the same as that
already given in detail ; then, instead of stuffing the skin as
directed above, to lie on its back in a drawer, you have to stuff
it so that it will stand up on its feet and look as much like a
live bird as possible. To this end a few additional implements
and materials are required. These are : — a, annealed wire
of various numbers ; it may be iron or brass, but must be
perfectly annealed, so as to retain no elasticity or " spring ;"
&,' several files of different sizes ; c, some slender, straight
brad awls ; c?, cutting pliers ; e, setting needles, merely sew-
ing or darning needles stuck in a light wooden handle, for
dressing individual feathers ; /, plenty of pins * and sewing
thread ; g, an assortment of glass eyes. (The fixtures and
decorations are noticed, beyond, as occasion for their use
arises.)

There are two principal methods of mounting, which may
be respectively styled soft stuffing, and hard stuffing. In the
former, a wire framework, consisting of a single anterior

* The long, slender insect pins used by entomologists are the best.

84 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

piece passing in the middle line of the body up through the
neck and out at the top of the head, is immovably joined
behind with two pieces, one passing through each leg : around
this naked forked frame soft stuffing is introduced, bit by bit,
till the proper contour of the skin is secured. I have seen
very pretty work of this kind, particularly on small birds ; but
I consider it much more difficult to secure satisfactory results
in this way than by hard stuffing, and I shall therefore con-
fine attention to the latter. This method is applicable to all
birds, is readily practised, facilitates setting of the wings,
arranging of the plumage, and giving of any desired attitude.
In hard stuffing, you make .a firm ball of tow rolled upon a
wire of the size and shape of the bird's body and neck to-
gether ; you introduce this whole, afterwards running in the
leg wires and clinching them immovably in the mass of tow.

Having your empty skin in good shape, as already described,
cut three pieces of wire of the right * size ; one piece some-
what longer than the whole bird, the other pieces two or three
times as long as the whole leg of the bird. File one end of
each piece to a fine sharp point, try to secure a three-edged
cutting point like that of surgical needles, rather than the
smooth, punching point of a sewing needle, the former perfo-
rates more readily. Have these wires perfectly straight.-}-
Bend a small portion of the unfiled end of the longer wire ir-
regularly upon itself, as a convenient nucleus for the ball of
tow.j Take fine clean tow, in loose dossils, and wrap it round
and round the wire nucleus, till you make a firm ball, of the
size and shape of the bird's body and neck. Study the con-
tour of the skinned body : notice the swelling breast muscles,
the arch of the lower back, the hollow between the furcula into

*The right size is the smallest that will support the whole weight of the stuff-
ing and skin without bending, when a piece is introduced into each leg. If using
too thick wire you may have trouble in thrusting it through the legs, or may burst
the tarsal envelope.

tlf accidentally kinky, the finer sizes of wire may be readily straightened by
drawing strongly upon them so as to stretch them a little. Heavier wire must be
hammered out straight.

t Cotton will not do at all ; it is too soft and elastic, and moreover will not allow
of the leg wires being thrust into it and there clinched.

STUFFING AND WIRING. 85

which the neck, when naturally curved, sinks. Everything
depends upon correct shaping of the artificial body ; if it be
misshapen, no art can properly adjust the skin over it. Firm-
ness of the tow ball and accurate contour may both be secured
by wrapping the mass with sewing thread, loosening here,
tightening there, till the shape is satisfactory. Be particular
to secure a smooth superficies ; the skin in drying will shrink
close to the stuffing, disclosing • its irregularities, if there be
any, by the maladjustment of the plumage that will ensue.
Observe especially that the neck, though the direct continua-
tion of the backbone, dips at its lower end into the hollow
of the merrythought, and so virtually begins there instead of
directly between the shoulders. The three mistakes most
likely to be made by a beginner are, getting the body
altogether too large, not firm enough, and irregular. When
properly made it will closely resemble the bird's body and
neck, with an inch or several inches of sharp-pointed wire pro-
truding from the anterior extremity of the neck of tow. You
have now to introduce the whole affair into the skin. With the
birdskin on its back, the tail pointing to your right elbow, and
the abdominal opening as wide as possible, hold the body
in position relative to the skin ; enter the wire, pass it up
through the neck, bring the sharp point exactly against the
middle of the skull, pierce skull and skin, causing the wire to
protrude some distance from the middle of the crown. Then
by gentle means insinuate the body, partly pushing it in,
partly drawing the skin over it, till it rests in its proper
position. This is just like drawing on a tight kid glove, and
no more difficult. See that the body is completely encased ;
you must be able to close the abdominal aperture entirely.
You have next to wire the legs. Enter the sharp point of
one of the leg wires already prepared, exactly at the centre
of the sole of the foot, thrusting it up inside the tarsal en-
velope the whole length of the " shank," thence across the
heel-joint * and up along the next bone of the leg, still inside

* There is occasionally difficulty in getting the wire across this joint, from the
point sticking into the enlarged end of the shin-bone. In such case, take stout

86 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

the skin. The point of the wire will then be seen within the
skin and may.be seized and drawn a little farther through,
and you will have passed a wire entirely out of sight all the
way along the leg. The end of the wire is next to be fixed
immovably in the tow ball. Thrust it in at the. point where
the knee, in life, rests against the side of the body.* Bring
the point to view, bend it over and reinsert it till it sticks
fast. There are no special directions to be given here ; fasten
the wire in any way that effectually prevents " wabbling."
You may find it convenient to wire both legs before fasten-
ing either, and then clinch them by twisting the two ends
together. But remember that the leg wires may be fixed re-
specting each other, yet permit a see-saw motion of the body
upon them. This must not be, the body and legs must be
fixed upon a jointless frame. Having secured the legs, close
the abdominal opening nicely, either by sewing or pinning, you
may stick pins in anywhere, as freely as in a pin cushion ; the
feathers hide their heads. Stick a pin through the pope's
nose, to fix the tail in place.

All this while the bird has been lying on its back, the neck
stretched straight in continuation of the body, wired stiffly,
the legs straddling wide apart, straight and stiff, the wings
lying loosely, half-spread. Now bring the legs together, paral-
lel with each other, and make the sharp bend at the heel joint
that will bring the feet naturally under the belly (over it as
the bird lies on its back) . Pick up the bird by the wires that
project from the soles and set it on its stand, by running the
wires through holes bored the proper distance apart, and then
securing the ends by twisting. The temporary stand that you
use for this purpose should have a heavy or otherwise firm sup-
port, so as not easily to overturn during the subsequent manip-
ulations. At this stage the bird is a sorry looking object ; but

pliers and pinch the joint till the bone is smashed to fragments. The wire will
then pass and the comminution will not show. If there is any trouble in passing
the wire through the tarsus, bore a hole for it with a brad awl.

*This point is further forward and more belly-ward than you might suppose.
Observe the skinned body again, and see whei'e the lower end of the thigh lies. If
you insert the wire too far back, you cannot by any possibility balance the bird
naturally on its perch; it will look in imminent danger of toppling over.

SETTING THE BIRD. 87

if you have staffed correctly and wired securely, it will soon
improve. Begin by making it stand properly. The common
fault here is placing the tarsi too nearly perpendicular. Perch-
ing birds, constituting the majority, habitually stand with the
tarsi more nearly horizontal than perpendicular, and generally
keep the tarsi parallel with each other. Wading and most
walking birds stand with the legs more nearly upright and
straight. Many swimming birds straddle a little ; others
rarely if ever. See that the toes clasp the perch naturally, or
are properly spread on the flat surface. Cause the flank feath-
ers to be correctly adjusted over the tibiae (and here I will
remark that with most birds little, if any, of the tibiae shows
in life) the heel joint barely, if at all, projecting from the gen-
eral plumage. It is a common fault of stuffing not to draw
the legs closely enough to the body. Above all, look out for
the centre of gravity ; though you have really fastened the bird to
its perch, you must not let it look as if it would fall off if the
wires slipped ; it must appear to rest there of its own accord.
Next, give the head and neck a preliminary setting, according
to the attitude you have determined upon. This will bring the
plumage about the shoulders in proper position for the setting
of the wings, to which you may at once attend. If the body
be correctly fashioned and the skin of the shoulders only ad-
justed over it, the wings will fold into place without the slight-
est difficulty. All that I have said before about setting the
wings in a skin applies here as well ; but in this case they will
not stay in place since they fall by their own weight. They
must be pinned up. Holding the wing in place thrust a pin
steadily through, near the wrist joint, into the tow body.
Sometimes another pin is required to support the weight of the
primaries ; it may be stuck into the flank of the bird, the
outer quill feather resting directly upon it. With large birds
a sharp pointed wire must replace the pin. When properly set
the wing tips will fall together or symmetrically opposite each
other, the quills and coverts will be smoothly imbricated, the
scapular series of feathers will lie close, and no bare space
will show in front of the shoulder. Much depends upon the

88 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

final adjustment of the head. The commonest mistake is get-
ting it too far away from the body. In the ordinary attitudes
of most birds, little neck shows, the head appearing nestled
upon the shoulders. If the neck appears too long, it is not
to be contracted by pushing the head directly down upon it,
but by making an S curve of the neck. No precise direc-
tions can be given for the set of the head but you may be
assured it is a delicate, difficult matter ; the slightest turn of
the bill one way or another may alter the whole expression of
the bird. You will of course have determined beforehand
upon your attitude — upon what you wish the bird to appear
to be doing ; then, let your meaning be pointed by the bird's
bill.

On the general subject of striking an attitude, and giving
expression to a stuffed bird, little can be said to good purpose.
If you are to become proficient in this art, it will come from
your own study of birds in the field, your own good taste and
appreciation of bird life. The manual processes are easily
described and practised — it is easy to grind paint, I suppose,
but not so to be an artist. I shall therefore only follow the
above account of the general processes with some special
practical points. After "attitudinizing" to your satisfaction, or
to the best of your ability, the plumage is to be carefully
" dressed." Feathers awry may be set in place with a light
spring forceps, or needles fixed in a handle — one by one if
necessary. When no individual feather seems out of place, it
often occurs that the general plumage has a loose, slovenly
aspect. This is readily corrected by wrapping with fine thread.
Stick a pin into the middle of the back, another into the breast,
and perhaps others elsewhere. Fasten the end of a spool of
sewing cotton to one of the pins, and carry it to another,
winding the thread about among the pins, till the whole surface
is covered with an irregular network. Tighten to reduce an
undue prominence, loosen over a depression ; but let the wrap-
ping as a whole be light, firm and even. This procedure, nicely
executed, will give a smoothness to the plumage not otherwise
attainable, and may be made to produce the most exquisite

SPREADING TAILS, ETC. 89

curves particularly about the head, neck and breast. The
thread should be left on till the bird is perfectly dry ; it
may then be unwound or cut off, and the pins withdrawn.
When a particular patch of skin is out of place, it may often
be pulled into position and pinned there. You need not be
afraid of sticking pins in anywhere ; they may be buried in the
plumage and left there, or withdrawn when the skin is dry.
In addition to the main stuffing, a little is often required in
particular places. As for the legs, they should be filled out
in all such cases as I indicated earlier in this chapter ; small
birds require no such stuffing. It is necessary to fill out the
eyes so that the lids rest naturally ; it may be done as hereto-
fore directed, or by putting in pledgets of cotton from the out-
side. .A little nice stuffing is generally required about the
upper throat. To stuff a bird with spread wings requires a
special process, in most cases. The wings are to be wired,
exactly as directed for the legs ; they may then be placed in
any shape. But with most small birds, and those with short
wings, simple pinning in the half spread position indicating
fluttering will suffice ; it is readily accomplished with a long,
slender insect pin. I have already spoken of fixing the tail by
pinning or wiring the pope's nose to the tow body ; it may be
thus fixed at any desired elevation or depression. There are
two ways of spreading the tail. One is to run a pointed wire
through the quills, near their base, where the wire will be
hidden by the coverts ; each feather may be set at any required
distance from the next by sliding it along this wire. This
method is applicable to large birds ; for snjall ones the tail
may be fixed with the desired spread by enclosing it near its
base, in a split match, or two slips of card-board, with the ends
tied together. This holds the feathers until they dry in posi-
tion, when it is to be taken off. Crests may be raised, spread
and displayed on similar principles. A small crest, like that
of a cardinal or cherry bird, for instance, may be held up till it
dries in position by sticking in behind it a pin with a little ball
of cotton on its head. It is sometimes necessary to make a
bird's toes grasp a support by tying them down to it till they

90 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

dry. The toes of waders that do not lie evenly on the surface
of the stand may be tacked down with small brads. The bill
may be pinned open or shut, as desired, by the method already
given. Never paint or varnish a bird's bill or feet.

Substitution of an artificial eye for the natural one is essen-
tial for the good looks of a specimen. Glass eyes, of all sizes
and colors, may be purchased at a moderate cost. The pupil is
always black ; the iris varies. You will, of course, secure the
proper color if it is known, but if not, put in a dark brown or
black eye. It is well understood that this means nothing — it
is purely conventional. Yellow is probably the next most com-
mon color ; then come red, white, blue and green, perhaps
approximately in this order of frequency. But do not use these
striking colors at hap-hazard, sacrificing truth perhaps, to
looks. Eyes are generally inserted after the specimen is dry.
Remove a portion of the cotton from the orbit, and moisten
the lids till they are perfectly pliable ; fix the eye in with
putty or wet plaster of Paris, making sure that the lids are
naturally adjusted over it. It goes in obliquely, like a button
through a button-hole. Much art may be displayed in this
little matter, making a bird look this way or that, to carry out
the general "expression."

On finishing a specimen, set it away to dry — the time re-
quired varies, of course, with the weather, the size of the bird,
its fatness, etc. The more slowly it dries, the better ; there is
less risk of the. skin shrinking irregularly. You will often find
that a specimen set away with smooth plumage and satisfac-
tory curves drie| more or less out of shape, perhaps with the
feathers raised in places. I know of no remedy ; it may, in a
measure, be prevented by scrupulous care in making the body
smooth and firm, and in securing slow, equable drying. When
perfectly dry remove the wrapping, pull out the superfluous
pins or wires, nip off the others so short that the ends are con-
cealed, and insert the eyes. The specimen is then ready to
be transferred to its permanent stand.

Fixtures for the display of the object of course vary inter-
minably. We will take the simplest case, of a large collection

STANDS AND ORNAMENTAL SUPPORTS. 91

of mounted birds for public exhibition. In this instance, uni-
formity and simplicity are desiderata. "Spread eagle" styles
of mounting, artificial rocks and flowers, etc., are entirely out
of place in a collection of any scientific pretensions, or de-
signed for popular instruction. Besides, they take up too much
room. Artistic grouping of an extensive collection is usually
out of the question ; and when this is unattainable, half-way
efforts in that direction should be abandoned in favor of severe
simplicity. Birds look best on the whole in uniform rows, as-
sorted according to size, as far as a natural classification allows.
They are best set on the plainest stands, with circular base
and a short cylindrical crossbar lightly turned upright. The
stands should be painted dead-white and be no larger than is
necessary for secure support ; a neat stiff paper label may
be attached.* A small collection of birds, as an ornament to a
private residence, offers a different case ; here, variety of atti-
tude and appropriate imitation of the birds' natural surround-
ings, are to be secured. A miniature tree, on which a number
of birds may be placed,' is readily made. Take stout wire, and
by bending it, and attaching other pieces, get the framework
of the tree of the desired size, shape and number of perches.
Wrap it closely with tow to a proper calibre, remembering that
the two forks of a stem must be together only about as large
as the stem itself. Gather a basket full of lichens and tree
moss ; reduce them to coarse powder by rubbing with the
hands ; besmear the whole tree with mucilage or thin glue, and
sift the lichen powder on it till the tow is completely hidden.
This produces a very natural effect, which may be heightened
by separately affixing larger scraps of lichen, or little bunches
of moss ; artificial leaves and flowers may be added at your
taste. The groundwork may be similarly prepared with a bit
of board, made adhesive and bestrewn with the same substance ;

* A very simple and neat way of attaching the label to the stand is that used in
the Peabody Academy of Science and, other museums. It consists of narrow
strips of tin bent over at each end so as to hold the label, and fixed to the stand by
a small tack at any desired angle. These tins and neat red-lined labels can be had
at the Naturalists' Agency, or the printed names can be cut from the " Check List "
and used for labels for North American birds.

92 HOW TO MAKE A BIRDSKIN.

grasses and moss may be added. If a flat surface is not de.
sired soak stout pasteboard, till it can be moulded in various
irregular elevations and depressions ; lay it over the board and
decorate it in the same way. Rocks may be thus nicely imi-
tated, with the addition of powdered glass of various colors.
Such a lot of birds is generally enclosed in a cylindrical glass
case with arched top. As it stands on a table to be viewed
from different points, it must be presentable on all sides. A
niche in parlor or study is often fitted with a wall-case, which,
•when artistically arranged, has a very pleasing effect. As such
cases may be of considerable size, there is opportunity for the
display of great taste in grouping. A place is not to be found
for a bird, but a bird for the place — waders and swimmers
below on the ground, perchers on projecting rests above. The
surroundings may be prepared by the methods just indicated.
One point deserves attention here — since the birds are only
viewed from the front, they may have a " show-side " to which
everything else may be sacrificed. Birds are represented flying
in such cases more readily than under other circumstances —
supported on a concealed wire inserted in the back of the case.
I have seen some very successful attempts to represent a bird
swimming, the duck being let down part way through an oval
hole in a plate of thick glass, underneath which were fixed
stuffed fishes, shells and seaweed. It is hardly necessary to
add that in all ornamental collections, labels or other scien-
tific machinery must be rigorously suppressed.

Transportation of mounted birds offers obvious difficulty.
Unless very small, they are best secured immovably inside a
box by screwing the foot of the stands to the bottom and sides,
so that they stay in place without touching each other. Or,
they may be carefully packed in cotton, with or without re-
moval of the stands. Their preservation from accidental
injury depends upon the same care that is bestowed upon ordi-
nary fragile ornaments of the parlor. The ravages of insects
are to be prevented upon the principles to be hereafter given
in treating of the preservation of birdskins.

CHAPTER VII.

MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

§46. DETERMINATION OF SEX. This is an important matter^
which must never be neglected. For although many birds
show unequivocal sexual distinctions of size, shape and color,
like those of the barnyard cock and hen for instance, yet. the
•outward characteristics are more frequently obscure, if not
altogether inappreciable on examination of the skin alone.
Young birds, moreover, are usually indistinguishable as to sex,
although the adults of the same species may be easily recog.
nized. The rule results, that the sexual organs should be ex-
amined, as the only infallible indices. The essential organs of
masculinity are the testicles; similarly, the ovaries contain the
essence of the female nature. However similar the accessory
sexual structures may be, the testicles and ovaries are always
distinct. The male organs of birds never leave the cavity of
the belly to fill an external bag of skin (scrotum) as they do
among mammalia, they remain within the abdomen, and lie in
the same position as the ovaries of the female. Both these
organs are situated in the belly opposite what corresponds to
the "small of the back," bound closely to the spine, resting on
the front of the kidneys near their fore end. The testicles are
a pair of subspherical or rather ellipsoidal bodies, usually of
the same size, shape and color ; and are commonly of a dull
opaque whitish tint. They always lie close together. A re-
markable fact connected with them' is, that they are not always
of the same size in the same bird, being subject to periodical
enlargement during the breeding season, and corresponding
atrophy at other seasons. Thus the testicles of a house spar-
row, no bigger than a pin's head in winter, swell to the size of
peas in April. The ovary (for although this organ is paired
originally, only one is usually functionally developed in birds)
will be recognized as a flattish mass of irregular contour, and
usually whitish color ; when inactive, it simply appears of finely
granular structure which may require a hand lens to be made

(93)

94 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

out; when producing eggs, its appearance is unmistakable.
Both testis and ovary may further be recognized by a thread
leading to the end of the lower bowels — in one case the sperm-
duct, in the other the oviduct ; the latter is usually much the
more conspicuous, as it at times transmits the perfect egg.
There is no difficulty in reaching the site of these organs. Lay
the bird on the right side, its belly toward you : cut with the
scissors through the belly-walls diagonally from anus to the
root of the last rib — or further, snipping across a few of the
lower ribs, if these continue far down, as they do in a loon for
instance. Press the whole mass of intestines aside collectively,
and you at once see to the small of the back. There you ob-
serve the kidneys — large, lobular, dark reddish masses moulded
into the concavity of the sacrum (or back middle bone of the
pelvis) and on their surface, towards their fore end, lie testes
or ovary, as just described. The only precaution required is,
not to mistake for testicles a pair of small bodies capping the
kidneys. These are the adrenals or " supra-renal capsules " —
organs whose function is unknown, but with which at any rate
we have nothing to do in this connection. They occur in both
sexes, and if the testicles are not immediately seen, or the
ovary not at once recognized, .they might easily be mistaken
for testicles. Observe that instead of lying in front, they
cap the kidneys ; that they are usually yellowish instead of
opaque whitish ; and that they have not the firm, smooth, reg-
ular sphericity of the testicles. The sex determined, use the
sign <^ or 9 to designate it, as already explained. In the very
rare cases of impotence or sterility among birds, of course no
organs will be observed ; but I should dislike to become respon-
sible for such labelling without very careful examination. The
organs of a small bird out of the breeding season are never
conspicuous, but may always be found on close scrutiny, unless
the parts are disintegrated by a shot.

§47. RECOGNITION OF AGE is a matter of ornithological ex-
perience requiring in many or most cases great familiarity with
birds for its even approximate accomplishment. There are,

EXAMINATION OF THE STOMACH. 95

however, some unmistakable signs of immaturity, even after a
bird has become full-feathered, that persist for at least one
season. These are, in the first place, a peculiar soft fluffy
"feel" of the plumage — the feathers lack a certain smooth-
ness, density and stiffening which they subsequently acquire.
Secondly, the bill and feet are softer than those of the adults ;
the corners of the mouth are puffy and flabby, the edges and
point of the bill are dull, and the scales, etc., of the legs are
not sharply cut. Thirdly, the flesh itself is tender, and pale
colored. These are some of the points common to all birds,
and are independent of the special markings that belong to the
youth of particular species. Some birds are actually larger for
a while after leaving the nest, than in after years when the
frame seems to shrink somewhat in acquiring the compactness
of senility. On the other hand, the various members, espe-
cially the bill and feet, are proportionally smaller at first.
Newly growing quills are usually recognized on sight, the
barrel being dark colored and full of liquid, while the vanes
are incomplete. In studying, for example, the shape of a wing
or tail, there is always reason to suspect that the natural pro-
portions are not yet presented, unless the quill is dry, colorless
and empty, or only occupied with shrunken white pith.

§48. EXAMINATION OF THE STOMACH frequently leads to inter-
esting observations, and is always worth while. In the first
place, we learn most unquestionably the nature of the bird's
food, which is a highly important item in its natural history.
Secondly, we often secure valuable specimens in other depart-
ments of zoology, particularly entomology. Birds consume
incalculable numbers of insects, the harder kinds of which?
such as beetles, are not seldom found intact in their stomaqhs ;
and a due percentage of these represent rare and curious spe-
cies. The gizzards of birds of prey, in particular, should
always be inspected, in search of the small mammals, etc.,
they devour ; and even if the creatures are unfit for preserva-
tion, we at least learn of their occurrence, perhaps unknown
before in a particular region. Mollusk-feeding and fish-eating

96 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

birds yield their share of specimens. The alimentary canal is
often the seat of parasites of various kinds, interesting to the
helminthologist ; other species are to be found under the skin,
in the body of muscle, in the brain, etc. Most birds are also
infested with external parasites of many kinds, so various,
that almost every leading species has its own sort of louse,
tick, etc. Since these creatures are only at home with a live
host, they will be found crawling on the surface of the plu-
mage, preparing for departure, as soon as the body cools after
death. There is in effect much to learn of a bird aside from
what the prepared specimen teaches, and moreover apart from
regular anatomical investigations. Whenever practicable, brief
items should be recorded on the label, as already mentioned.

§49. RESTORATION OF POOR SKINS. If your cabinet be a
"general" one, comprising specimens from various sources,
you will frequently happen to receive skins so badly prepared
as to be unpleasant objects, besides failing to show their spe-
cific characters. There is of course no supplying of missing
parts or plumage ; but if the defect be simply deformity, this
may usually be in a measure remedied. The point is simply
to relax the skin, and then proceed as if it were freshly removed
from the bird ; it is what bird stuffers constantly do, in mount-
ing birds from prepared skins. The relaxation is effected by
moisture alone. Remove the stuffing ; fill the interior with
cotton or tow saturated with water, yet not dripping : put pads
of the same under the wings ; wrap the bill and feet, and set
the specimen in a damp cool place. Small birds soften very
readily and completely ; the process may be facilitated by per-
sistent manipulation. This is the usual method, but there is
another, more thorough and more effective ; it is exposure to a
vapor-bath. The appointments of the kitchen stove furnish all
the apparatus required for an extempore "steamer ;" the regu-
lar fixture is a tin vessel much like a wash-boiler, with closed
lid, false bottom and stopcock at lower edge. On the false
bottom is placed a heavy layer of gypsum, completely satu-
rated with water ; the birds are laid on a perforated tray above

ALCOHOLIC SPECIMENS. 97

it ; and a gentle heat is maintained over a stove. The vapor
penetrates every part of the skin, and completely relaxes it,
without actually wetting the feathers. The time required varies
greatly of course ; observation is the best guide. The chief
precaution is not to let the thing get too hot. Professor Baird
has remarked that crumpled or bent feathers may have much of
their original elasticity restored by dipping in hot water. Im-
mersion for a few seconds suffices, when the feathers will be ob-
served to straighten out. Shaking off superfluous water, they
may be simply left to dry or they may be dried with plaster.
The method is chiefly applicable to the large feathers of the
wings and tail. Soiled plumage of dried skins may be treated
exactly as in the case of fresh skins.

§50. MUMMIFICATION. As before mentioned, decay may be
arrested by injections of carbolic acid and other antiseptics ;
if the tissues be sufficiently permeated with these substances,
the body will keep indefinitely ; it dries and hardens, becoming,
in short, a " mummy." Injection should be done by the mouth
and vent, be thorough, and be repeated several times as the
fluid dries in. It is an improvement on this to disembowel,
and fill the belly with saturated tow or cotton. Due care
should be taken not to soil the feathers in an}T case, nor should
the carbolic solution come in contact with the hands, for it is a
powerful irritant poison. I mention the process chiefly to con-
demn it as an atrocious one ; I cannot imagine what circum-
stances would recommend it, while only an extreme emergency
could justify it. It is further objectionable because it appears
to lend a dingy hue to some plumages, and to dull most of
them perceptibly. Birds prepared — rather unprepared — in
this way, may be relaxed by the method just described, and
then skinned ; but the operation is rather difficult.

§51. WET PREPARATIONS. By this term is technically under-
stood an object immersed in some preservative fluid. It is
highly desirable to obtain more information of birds than their
stuffed skins can ever furnish, and their structure cannot be

7

98 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

always examined by dissection on the spot. In fact, a certain
small proportion of the birds of any protracted or otherwise
"heavy" collecting may be preferably and very profitably pre-
served in this way. Specimens in too poor plumage to be
worth skinning may be thus utilized ; so may the bodies of
skinned birds, which, although necessarily defective, retain all
the viscera, and also afford osteological material. Alcohol is
the liquid usually employed and, of all the various articles
recommended, seems to answer best on the whole. I have
used a very weak solution of chloride of zinc with excellent
results ; it should not be strong enough to show the slightest
turbidity. As glass bottles are liable to break when travelling,
do not fit corners, and offer practical annoyance about corkage ;
rectangular metal cans, preferably of copper, with screw-lid
opening, are advisable. They are to be set in small, strong
wooden boxes, made to leave a little room for the lid wrench,
muslin bags for doing up separate parcels, parchment for
labels, etc. Unoccupied space in the cans should be filled with
tow or a similar substance, to prevent the specimens from
swashing about. Labelling should be on parchment : the writ-
ing should be perfectly dry before immersion : india-ink is the
best. Skinned bodies should be numbered to correspond with
the dried skin from which taken ; otherwise they may not be
identifiable. Large birds thrown in unskinned should have
the belly opened, to let in the alcohol freely. Birds may be
skinned, after being in alcohol, by simply drying them : they
often make fair specimens. They are best withdrawn by the
bill, that the " swash" of the alcohol at the moment of emer-
sion may set the plumage all one way, and hung up to dry,
untouched. Watery moisture that may remain after evapora-
tion of the alcohol may be dried with plaster.

§52. OSTEOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS. While complete skele-
tonizing of a bird is a special art of some difficulty, and one
that does not fall within the scope of this treatise, I may prop-
erly mention two bony preparations very readily made, and
susceptible of rendering ornithology essential service. I refer

SKULLS AND BREAST BOXES. 99

to the skull, and to the breast bone with its principal attach-
ments. These parts of the skeleton are, as a rule, so highly
characteristic that they afford in most cases invaluable zoo-
logical items. To save a skull is of course to sacrifice a skin,
to all intents ; but you often have mutilated or deca3Ted speci-
mens that are very profitably utilized in this way. The breast
bone, excepting when mutilated, is always preservable with
the skin, and for " choice " invoices may form its natural ac-
companiment. You want to remove along with it the cora-
coids (the stout bones connecting the breast bone with the
shoulders), the merrythought intervening between these bones,
and the shoulder-blades, all without detachment from each
other. Slice off the large breast muscles close to the bone ;
and divide their insertions with the wing bones, scrape or cut
away the muscles that tie the shoulder-blades to the chest;
snip off the ribs close to the side of the breast bone ; sever a
tough membrane usually found between the prongs of the wish-
bone ; then, by taking hold of the shoulders, you can lift out
the whole affair, dividing some slight connections underneath
the bone and behind it. The following points require atten-
tion : the breast bone often has long slender processes behind
and on the sides (the common fowl is one of the extreme illus-
trations of this) liable to be cut by mistake for ribs, or to be
snapped : the shoulder-blades usually taper to a point, easity
broken off; the merrythought is sometimes very delicate, or
defective. When travelling, it is generally not advisable to
make perfect preparations of either skull or sternum : they are
best dried with only superfluous flesh removed, and besprin-
kled with arsenic. The skull, if perfectly cleaned, is particu-
larly liable to lose the ocld-shaped pronged bones that hinge
the jaw, and the freely movable pair that push on the palate
from behind. Great care should be exercised respecting the
identification of these bones, particularly the sternum, which
should invariably bear the number of the specimen to which it
belongs. A skull is more likely to be able to speak for itself,
and besides, is not usually accompanied by a skin ; neverthe-
less, any record tending to facilitate its recognition should be

100 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

duly entered on the register. There are methods, with which I
am not familiar, of making elegant bony preparations. You
may secure very good results by simply boiling the bones
or, what is perhaps better, macerating them in water till the
flesh is completely rotted away, and then bleaching them in
the sun. A little potassa or soda hastens the process. With
breast bones, if }rou can stop the process just when the flesh
is completely dissolved but the tougher ligaments remain, you
secure a ''natural" preparation, as it is called; if the liga-
ments go too, the associate parts of a large specimen may be
wired together, those of a small one glued. I think it best,
with skulls, to clean them entirely of ligament as well as
muscle ; for the underneath parts are usually those conveying
the most desirable information, and they should not be in the
slightest degree obscured. Since in such case the anvil-shaped
bones, the palatal cylinders already mentioned, and sometimes
other portions come apart, the whole are best kept in a suitable
box. I prefer to see a skull with the sheath of the beak re-
moved, though in some cases, particularly of hard billed birds,
it may profitably be left on. The completed preparations
should be fully labelled, by writing on the bone, in preference
to an accompanying or attached paper slip, which may be lost.
Some object to this, as others do to writing on eggs, that it
"defaces" the specimen ; but I confess I see in dry bones no
beauty but that of utility.*

§53. NESTS AND EGGS.f A few words upon this subject will
not come amiss. Ornithology and oology are twin studies, or
rather one includes the other. A collection of nests and eggs
is indispensable in a thorough study of birds : and many persons
find peculiar pleasure in forming one. Some, however, shrink
from "robbing birds' nests" as something particularly cruel,
a sentiment springing, no doubt, from the sympathy and def-

*Prof. Newton's excellent suggestions for saving parts of the skeleton arerepub-
lished in one of the Smithsonian Reports, and may also be had separately.

t Complete instructions for collecting and preserving nests and eggs are pub-
lished by the Smithsonian Institution and can be obtained from the Naturalists'
Agency.

NESTS AND EGGS. 101

erence that the tender office of maternity inspires ; but with
all proper respect for the humane emotion, it may be said
simply, that birds'-nesting is not nearly so cruel as bird-
shooting. What I said in a former section, in endeavoring to
guide search for birds, applies in substance to hunting for their
nests ; the essential difference is, that the latter are of course
essential objects, and consequently more liable to be over-
looked, other things being equal, than birds themselves. I have
not nryself proven a very successful finder of eggs, for no other
reason than that a motionless object does not arrest my atten-
tion, when the swaying of a leaf, or the faintest chirp, would be
instantly noted. Most birds nest on trees or bushes ; many
on the ground and on rocks ; others in hollows. Some build
elegant, elaborate structures, endlessly varied in details of
form and material*; others make no nest whatever. In this
country, egging is chiefly practicable in May and during the
summer ; but some species, particularly birds of prey, begin
to lay in January while, on our southern border at least, the
season of reproduction is protracted through September ; so
there is really a long period for search. Particular nests, of
course, like the birds that build them, can only be found
through ornithological knowledge ; but general search is usu-
ally rewarded with a varied assortment. The best clew to a
hidden nest is the actions of the parents ; patient watchful-
ness is commonly successful in tracing the birds home. As
the science of oology has not progressed to the point of deter-
mining from the nests and eggs, to what bird they belong, in
even a majority of cases, the utmost care in authentication is
indispensable. To be worth anything, not to be worse than
worthless in fact, an egg must be identified beyond question ;
must be not only unsuspected, but above suspicion.* It is
often extremely difficult to make an unquestionable determi-
nation, as for instance when numbers of birds of similar hab-
its are breeding close together ; or even impossible, as in case

*A shade of suspicion is often attached to dealers' eggs — not necessarily im-
plying bad faith or even negligence on the dealers' part, but from the nature of the
case.

102 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

the parent eludes observation. Sometimes the most acute ob-
server m&y be mistaken, circumstances appearing to prove a
parentage when such is not the fact. It is in general advis-
able to secure the parent with the eggs ; if shot or snared on
the nest, the identification is simply unquestionable. If you
do not yourself know the species, it then becomes necessary to
secure the specimen, antl retain it with the eggs.

It is not required to make a perfect preparation ; the head,
or better, the head and a wing, will answer the purpose.
When egging in downright earnest, a pair of climbing irons
becomes practically indispensable ; these are the only field im-
plements required in addition to those already specified. For
blowing eggs, a set of special tools is needed. These are " egg-
drills " — steel implements with a sharp pointed conical Lead
of rasping surface, and a slender shaft ; several such, of differ-
ent sizes, are needed ; also blow-pipes of different sizes ; a deli-
cate thin pair of scissors ; light spring forceps ; and a small
syringe.* Eggs should never be blown in the old way of
making a hole at each end ; nor are two holes anywhere usu-
ally required. Opening should be effected on one side, prefer-
ably that showing least conspicuous or characteristic markings.
If two are made, they should be rather near together ; on the
same side at any rate. But one is generally sufficient, as
the fluid contents can escape around the blow-pipe. Holding
the egg gently but steadily in the fingers, apply the point of
the drill perpendicularly to the surface, unless it be preferred
to prick with a needle first. A twirling motion of the instru-
ment gradually enlarges the opening by filing away the shell,
and so bores a smooth edged circular hole. This should be no
larger than is required to insert the blow-pipe loosely, with
room for the contents to escape around it. The blowing
should be continuous and equable, rather than forcible ; a
strong puff easily bursts a delicate egg. Be sure that all
the contents are removed ; then rinse the interior thoroughly
with clean water, either by taking a mouthful and sending it

*We notice an advertisement in the AMERICAN NATURALIST to the effect that
these various instruments can be had at the Naturalist^' Agency, Salem, Mass.

BLOWING EGGS. 103

through the blow-pipe, or with the syringe. Blowing eggs is
a rather fatiguing process — more so than it might seem ; the
cheek muscles soon tire, and the operator actually becomes
" blown " himself before long. The operation had better be
done over a basin of water, both to receive the contents, and
to catch the egg if it slip from the fingers. The membrane
lining the shell should be removed if possible. It may be
seized by the edge around the hole, with the forceps, and
drawn out, or picked out with a bent pin. Eggs that have
been incubated of course offer difficulty, in proportion to the
size of the embryo. The hole may be drilled, as before, but
it must be larger ; and as the drill is apt to split a shell after
it has bored beyond a certain size of hole, it is often weU to
prick, with a fine needle, a circular series of minute holes
almost touching, and then remove the enclosed circle of shell.
This must be very carefully done, or the needle will indent or
crack the shell, which, it may be remembered, grows more
brittle towards the time of hatching. Well formed embryos
cannot be got bodily through any hole that can be made in an
egg : they must be extracted piecemeal. They may be cut te
pieces with the slender scissors introduced through the hole,
and the fragments be picked out with the forceps, hooked out,
or blown out. No embryo should be forced through a Hole too
small ; there is every probability that the shell will burst at
the critical moment. When emptied and rinsed, eggs should
be gently wiped dry, and set hole downward on blotting paper
to drain. Broken eggs may be neatly mended, sometimes with
a film of collodion, or a bit of tissue paper and paste, or the
edges may be simply stuck together with any adhesive sub-
stance. Even when fragmentary a rare egg is worth preserv-
ing. Eggs should ordinarily be left empty ; indeed, the only
case in which any filling is admissible is that of a defective
specimen to which some slight solid^ can be imparted with
cotton. It is unnecessary even to close up the hole. It is
best, on all accounts, to keep eggs in sets, a " set" being the
natural clutch, or whatever less number were taken from a
nest. The most scrupulous attention must be paid to accu-

104 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS.

rate, complete, and permanent labelling. So important is this,
that the undeniable defacing of a specimen, by writing on
it, is no offset to the advantages accruing from such fixity of
record. It is practically impossible to attach a label as is
done with a birdskin, and a loose label is always in danger of
being lost or misplaced. Write on the shell, then, as many
items as possible ; if done neatly, on the side in which the hole
was bored, at least one good "show side" remains. An egg
should always bear the same number as the parent, in the col-
lector's record. In a general collection, where a separate
ornithological and oological register is kept, identification of
egg with parent is nevertheless readily secured, by making one
the numerator the other the denominator of a fraction, to be
simply inverted in its respective application. Thus bird No.
456, and egg No. 123, are identified by making the former f |f ,
the latter ]ff . All the eggs of a clutch should have the same
number. If the shell be large enough, the name of the species
should be written on it ; if too small, it should be accompanied
by a label and may have the name indicated by a number
referring to a certain catalogue. . According to the present
"Check List" for example, " No. 1 " would indicate Turdus mi-
gratorius. The date of collection is a highly desirable item ; it
may be abbreviated thus ; 3 | 6 | 72 means June 3, 1872. It
is well to have the egg authenticated by the collector's initials
at least. Since " sets " of eggs may be broken, up for distribu-
tions to other cabinets yet permanent indication of the size of
the clutch be wanted, it is well to have some method. A good
one is to write the number of the clutch on each egg compos-
ing it, giving each egg of the set, moreover, its individual num-
ber. Supposing for example the clutch No. ^ff contained five
eggs ; one of them would be Jf jj | 5 | 1 : the next Jf-g | 5 | 2,
and so on. But it should be remembered that all such arbi-
trary memoranda must be systematic, and be accompanied by
a key. Eggs may be kept in cabinets of shallow drawers in
little pasteboard trays, each holding a set, and containing a
paper label on which various items that cannot be traced on
the shell are written in full. Such trays should all be of the

KEEPING EGGS AND NESTS. 105

same depth — half an inch is a convenient depth for general
purposes ; and of assorted sizes, say from one inch by one and
one-half inches up to three by six inches ; it is convenient to
have the dimensions regularly graduated by a constant factor
of, say half an inch, so that the little boxes may be set side
by side, either lengthwise or crosswise, without interference.
Eggs may also be kept safely, advantageously, and with at-
tractive effect, in the nests themselves, in which a fluff of
cotton may be placed to steady them. When not too bulky,
too loosely constructed, or of material unsuitable for preser-
vation, nests should always be collected. Those that are very
closely attached to twigs should not be torn off. Nests threat-
ening to come to pieces, or too frail to be handled without
injury, may be secured by sewing through and through with
fine thread : indeed, this is an advisable precaution in most
cases. Packing eggs for transportation requires much care,
but the precautions to be taken are obvious. I will only
remark that there is no safer way than to leave them in their
own nests, each enwrapped in cotton, with which the whole
cavity is to be lightly filled ; the nests themselves being
packed close enough to be perfectly steady. Single eggs may
be safely mailed to any distance in auger-holes bored in wood.

CHAPTER VIII.

CAEE OF A COLLECTION,

§54. WELL PRESERVED SPECIMENS will last "forever and a
day," so far as natural decay is concerned. I have handled
birds in good state, shot back in the twenties, and have no
doubt that some eighteenth century preparations are still ex-
tant. The precautions against defilement, mutilation or other
mechanical injury, are self-evident, and may be dismissed with
the remark, that white plumages, especially if at all greasy,
require the most care to guard against soiling. We have,
however, to fight for our possessions against a host of ene-
mies, individually despicable but collectively formidable, foes
so determined that untiring vigilance is required to ward off
their attacks even temporarily, whilst in the end they prove
invincible. It may be said that to be eaten up by insects is
the natural end of all birdskins not sooner destroyed. The
matter, therefore, demands particular attention.

§55. INSECT PESTS with which we have to contend belong
principally to the two families Tineidce and Dermestidce — the
former are moths, the latter beetles. The moths are of species
identical with, and allied to, the common clothes moth, Tinea
flavifrontella, the carpet moth, T. tapetzella, etc., — small species
observed flying about our apartments and museums, in May and
during the summer. The beetles are several rather small thick-
set species, principally of the genera Dermestes and Antlirenus.
The larvae ("caterpillars" of the moths, and "grubs" of the
beetles) appear to be the chief agents of the destruction. The
presence of the mature insects is usually readily detected ; on
disturbing an infested suite of specimens the moths flutter
about, and the beetles crawl as fast as they can into shelter, or
simulate death. The insidious larvae, however, are not so easily
observed, burrowing as they do among the feathers, or in the

(106)

INSECT PESTS — CASES FOR STORING SKINS. 107

interior of a skin ; whilst the minute eggs are commonly
altogether overlooked. But the "bugs" are no't long at work
without leaving their unmistakable traces. Shreds of feathers
float off when a specimen is handled, or fly out on flipping the
skin with the fingers, and in bad cases even whole bundles of
plumes come awa}T at a touch. Sometimes, leaving the plu-
mage intact, bugs eat away the horn}^ covering of the bill and
feet, making a peculiarly unhappy and irreparable mutilation.
I suppose this piece of work is done by a particular insect, but
if so I do not know what one. -It would appear that when the
bugs effect lodgment in any one skin, they usually finish it
before attacking another, unless they are in great force. We
may consequently, by prompt removal of an infested specimen,
save further depredations ; nevertheless the rest become "sus-
picious," and the whole drawer or box should at any rate be
quarantined, if not submitted to any of the processes described
beyond. Our lines of defence are several. We may mechan-
icalhr oppose entrance of the enemy ; we may meet him with
abhorrent odors that drive him off, sicken or kill him, and
finally we may cook him to death. I will notice these methods
successively, taking occasion to describe a cabinet under head
of the first.

§56. CASES FOR STORAGE OR TRANSPORTATION should be rather
small, for several reasons. They are easier to handle and
pack. There are fewer birds pressing each other. Particular
specimens are more readily reached. Bugs must effect just so
many more separate entrances to infest the whole. Small lids
are more readily fitted tight. For the ordinary run of small
birds I should not desire a box over 18 X 18 X 18, and should
prefer a smaller one ; for large birds, a box just long enough
for the biggest specimen, and of other proportions to corres-
pond fairly, is most eligible. Whatever the dimensions, a proper
box presupposes perfect jointing ; but if* any suspicion be en-
tertained on this score, stout paper should be pasted along
all the edges, both inside and out. We have practically to do
with the lid only. If the lot is likely to remain long untouched,

108 CARE OF A COLLECTION.

the cover may be screwed very close and the crack pasted like
the others. Under other and usual circumstances the lid may
be provided with a metal boss fitting a groove lined with India
rubber or filled with wax. An excellent case may be made of
tin with the lids secured in this manner, and further fortified
with a wooden casing. Birdskins entirely free from insects or
their eggs, encased in some such secure manner, will remain in-
tact indefinitely ; but there is misery in store if any bugs or nits
be put away with them. When many boxes are stored or
forwarded, much time and inconvenience may be saved by
labelling each with a summary of contents, or with a number
referring to an inventory.

§57. CABINETS. As a matter of fact, most collections are
kept readily accessible for examination, displa}^ or other im-
mediate use, and this precludes any disposition of them in
"hermetical" cases. The most we can do is to secure tight
fitting of movable woodwork. The "cabinet" is most eligible
for private collections. This is, in effect, simply a bureau, or
chest of drawers, protected with folding doors, or a front that
may be detached, either of plain wood or sashing for panes of
glass. It is simply astonishing how many birdskins of average
size can be accommodated in a cabinet that makes no incon-
venient piece of furniture for an ordinary room. A cabinet
may of course be of any desired size, shape and style. In gen-
eral it will be better to put money into excellence of fitting
rather than elegance of finish : the handsomest front does not
compensate for a crack in the back or for a drawer that hitches.
There should not be the slightest flaw in the exterior, and doors
should fit so tightly that a puff of air may be felt on closing
them. The greatest desideratum of the interior work, next
after close fitting yet smooth running of the drawers, is econ-
omy of space. This, is secured by making the drawers as thin
as is consistent with stabilit}' ; by having them slide by a boss
at each end fitting a groove in the side wall, instead of resting
on horizontal partitions ; and by hinged countersunk handles
instead of knobs. I do not recommend, except for a suite of

CABINET FOR SKINS. 109

the smallest birds, a multiplicity of shallow drawers, accom-
modating each one layer of specimens ; it is better to have
fewer deeper drawers, into which light shallow movable trays
are fitted. These trays never need be of stuff over one-eighth
or one-fourth thick, and may have stiff pasteboard bottoms
glued or tacked on. They may vary from one-half inch to two
inches in depth, but this dimension should always be some
factor of the depth of the drawer, so that a certain number of
trays may exactly fill it. They should be just as long as one
transverse dimension of the drawer, and rather narrow, so that
two or more are set side by side. Finally, though the}' may
be of different depths, they should be of the same length and
breadth, so as to be interchangeable. They may simply rest
on top of each other, or slide on separate projections inside the
drawer. Such trays are extremely handy for holding partic-
ular sets of species, to be carried to the study table without
disturbing the rest of the collection.

If a collection be so extensive that any particular specimen
may not be readily hunted up it will be found convenient to
have the drawers themselves labelled with the name of the
group within. A collection should always be methodically
arranged — preferably according to some approved or sup-
posed natural classification of birds ; this is also the readiest
mode, since, with some conspicuous exceptions birds of the
same natural group are approximately of the same size. If I
were desired to suggest proportions for a private cabinet of
most general eligibility, I should say four feet high, by three
feet wide, by two feet deep, in the clear ; this makes a portly
yet not unwieldy looking object. It is wide enough for fold-
ing doors, to be secured by bolts at top and bottom, and lock ;
not so high that the top drawer is not readily inspected ; and
of proportionate depth. Such a case will take seven drawers
six inches deep either of the full width, or in two series with a
median partition ; these drawers will hold anything up to an
eagle or crane. A part of them at least should have a full
complement of such trays as I have described — say three or
four tiers of the shallower trays, three trays to a tier, each

110 CARE OF A COLLECTION.

about two feet long by about a foot wide ; and one or two
tiers of deeper trays. There are about forty thousand cubic
inches in such a cabinet, of which perhaps one- tenth is occu-
pied with woodwork; and I should judge that some eight or
ten thousand hummingbirds, for instance (and other birds in
proportion), could be accommodated in layers, a single bird
deep. Be this as it may, I have kept all the birds, excepting a
few of the largest, that I ever cared to have at my elbojv at
any one time, in one cabinet of such dimensions.

§58. To DESTROY BDGS. In our present case prevention
is not the best remedy, simply because it is not always practi-
cable ; in spite of all mechanical precautions the bugs will get
in. We have, therefore, to see what will destroy them, or at
least stop their ravages. It is a general rule that any pun-
gent aromatic odor is obnoxious to them, and that any veiy
' light powdery substance restrains their movements by getting
into the joints and breathing pores. Both these qualities are
secured in the ordinary " insect powder," to be had of any lead-
ing druggist. It should be lavishly strewn on and among the
skins, and laid in the corners of the drawers and trays. Thus
used it proves highty effective, and is on the whole the most
eligible substance to use when a collection is being constantly
handled. Camphor is a valuable agent. Small fragments may
be strewn about the drawers, or a lump pinned in mosquito
netting in a corner. Benzine is also very useful. A small
saucer full may be kept evaporating, or the liquid may be
sprinkled — even poured — directly over the skins ; it is very vol-
atile and leaves little or no stain. It is, however, obviously
ineligible when a collection is in constant use. My friend Mr.
Allen informs me he has used sulphide of carbon with great
success. The objection to this agent is, that it is a stinking
poison ; should be used in the open air, to escape the ineffa-
bly disgusting and deleterious odors, and its employ is prob-
ably restricted to cases for storage. When the bill or feet
show they are attacked, further depredation may be prevented
by pencilling with a strong solution of corrosive Sublimate ; a

DESTROYING BUGS — CONCLUDING ITEMS. Ill

weaker solution, one that leaves no white film, on drying, on a
black feather, may even be brushed over the whole plumage in
certain cases. But remember that this is a deadly poison and
must be used with care. Specimens may be buried in coarse
refuse tobacco leaves. One or another of these lines of de-
fence will commonly prove successful in destroying or driving
off mature insects, and even in stopping the ravages of the
larvae ; but I doubt that any such means will kill the "nits."
With these we must deal otherwise ; and their destruction no
less than that of their parents is assured, if we subject them to a
high temperature. Baking birdskins is really the only process
that can make us feel perfectly safe. Infected specimens, along
with suspected ones, should be subjected to a dry heat, from
212° F. up to any degree short of singeing the plumage. This
is readily done by putting the birds in a wooden tray in any
oven — they must however be watched, unless you have special
contrivances for regulating the temperature. How long a time
is required is probably not ascertained with precision ; it will
be well to bake for several hours. When the beetles and larvae
are found completely parched, it may be confidently believed
that the unseen eggs are out of the hatching way forever. The
specimens may be immediately replaced in the cabinet, after
flipping or brushing off loosened feathers.

§59. Two ITEMS. One is, that arsenic helps to keep out
the bugs, besides preventing decay — a fact that should never
be forgotten, and that should give sharper edge to my advice
respecting lavish use of the substance at the outset. If it be
true, as some state, that bugs can eat arsenic without dying, it
is also true, that they do not relish it ; and in entering a case
of skins they will burrow by preference in those holding the
least of it. This fact is continually exhibited in large collec-
tions, where, if two birds be side by side, one being duly ar-
senicized and the other not so, one will be taken and the other
left. My second item, with its proper deduction, will form, I
think, a fitting conclusion to this treatise. It is a fact in the
natural history of these our pests, that they are fond of peace

112 CARE OF A COLLECTION.

and quiet — they do not like to be disturbed at their meals,
nor even between times. So it results, that they rarely effect
permanent lodgment in a collection that is being constantly
handled — though the doors stand open for hours daily, they
will seek elsewhere. As a consequence, the degree of our
diligence in studying birdskins is likety to become the measure
of our success in preserving them. I once read a work, by an
eminent and learned divine, on the u Moral Uses of Dark
Things," under which head the author included everything
from earthquakes to mosquitoes. If there be a moral use in
the "dark thing" that museum pests certainly are to us, we
have it here. The very bugs urge on our work.

APPENDIX

MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

As the author's absence on a collecting tour during the printing of
this volume rendered revision of proof-sheets impracticable, some
notes since received from him are appended. A few self-correcting
typographical errors, notably in punctuation, are passed over.

The comparatively few technical terms used in the treatise for the
parts and organs of birds are defined and explained in the "Key to
North American Birds," obviating the necessity of a separate glossary.
Familiarity with the "Topography" of birds will facilitate taxidermy;
the subject is treated at length in the work just mentioned. (F. W. P.)

Page 7. Further experience changes ray former preference for metal
instead of paper cartridges for breech-loaders. The latter may of
course be loaded according to circumstances with the same facility,
and even reloaded if desired. It is a good deal of trouble to take
care of the metal shells, to prevent loss, keep them clean, and avoid
bending or indenting; while there is often a practical difficulty in re-
capping— at least with the common styles that take a special primer.
Those fitted with a screw top holding a nipple for ordinary caps are
expensive. Paper cartridges come already capped, so that this bother
is avoided, as it is not ordinarily worth while to reload them. They
are made of different colors, distinguishing various sizes of shot used
MAXUAL. 8 (113)

114 APPENDIX TO MANUAL.

without employ of colored wads as suggested in the text. They may
be taken into the field empty, and loaded on occasion to suit ; but it is
better to pay a trifle extra to have them loaded at the shop. In such
case, about four-fifths of the stock should contain mustard-seed, nearly
all the rest about No. 7, a very few being reserved for about No. 4.
Cost of ammunition is hardly appreciably increased ; its weight is put
in the most conveniently portable shape; the whole apparatus for
carrying it, and loading the shells, is dispensed with; much time is
saved, the entire drudgery (excepting gun-cleaning) of collecting
being avoided. I was prepared in this way during the past summer
for the heaviest work I have yet succeeded in accomplishing during
the same length of time. In June, when birds were plentiful, I easily
averaged fifteen skins a day, and occasionally made twice as many.
As items serving to base calculations, I may mention that in four
months I used about two thousand cartridges, loaded, at $42 per M.,
with seven-eighths of an ounce of shot and two and three-fourths
drachms of powder ; only about three hundred were charged with shot
larger than mustard-seed. In estimating the size of a collection that
may result from use of a given number of cartridges, it may not be
safe for even a good shot to count on much more than half as many
specimens as cartridges. The number is practically reduced by the
following steps :— Cartridges lost or damaged, or originally defective;
shots missed : birds killed or wounded, not recovered ; specimens
secured unfit for preservation, or not preserved for any reason ; speci-
imens accidental!}' spoilt in stuffing, or subsequently damaged so as
to be not worth keeping; and finally, use of cartridges to supply the
table. I will add, that my preference for central-fire cartridges con-
tinues.

Page 10, line 7 from bottom, for where read when.

*« 134 "a« half-cock." Some guns are now fitted with a "re-
bounding" lock, as it is called; an arrangement by which the hammer
flies back to half-cock as soon as it has delivered the blow. This
device enhances safety, and is particularly eligible for breech-loaders,
since the gun may at once be broken down, reloaded and relocked,
without fingering the hammer.

Page 28; rarity of birds. In striking illustration of the text may be
cited the cases of Baird's Bunting and the Missouri Skylark, both
birds which remained for many years among our special desiderata,
but which are two of the most abundant and characteristic species of
Northern Dakota, where I lately took as many of each as I wanted.
(See Am. Nat. vii, 1873, p. 695.)

Page 28. Treating of the suite of each species that it is desirable
to secure, I neglected to speak particularly of the care that should be
taken to procure full series of females. Most miscellaneous collections

APPENDIX TO MANUAL. 115

contain four or more males to every female — a disproportion that
should be as far reduced as possible. The occasion of the disparity is
obvious — females are usually more shy and retiring in disposition,
and consequently less frequently noticed, while their smaller size, as
a rule, and plainer plumage, further favor their eluding observation.
The difference in coloring is greatest among those groups where the
males are most richly clad, and the shyness of the mother birds is
most marked during the breeding season, just when the males, full of
song and in their nuptial attire, become most conspicuous. It is often
worth while to neglect the gay Benedicts, to trace out and secure the
plainer but not less interesting females. This pursuit, moreover, often
leads to discovery of the nests and eggs — an important consideration.
Although both sexes are generally found together when breeding, and
mixing indiscriminately at other seasons, they often go in separate
flocks, and often migrate independently of each other — in this case
the males usually in advance. Towards the end of the passage of
some warblers, for instance, we may get almost nothing but females,
all our specimens of a few days before having been males. The not-
able exceptions to the rule of smaller size of the female are among
rapacious birds and many waders — though in these last the disparity
is not so marked. I do not recall an instance, among American birds,
of the female being more richly colored than the male. When the
sexes are notably different in adult life, the young of both sexes resem-
ble the adult female — the young males gradually assuming their dis-
tinctive characters. When the adults of both sexes are alike, the
young commonly differ from them.

In the same connection I wish to urge a point, the importance of
which is often overlooked ; it is our practical interpretation of the
adage, ua bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." Always keep
the first specimen you secure of a species till you get another; no
matter how common the species, how poor the specimen, or how cer-
tain you may feel of getting other better ones, keep it. Your most
reasonable calculations may come to naught, from a variety of cir-
cumstances, and any specimen is better than no specimen, on general
principles. And in general do not, if you can help it, discard any
specimen in the field. No tyro can tell what will prove valuable and
what not ; while even the expert may regret to find that a point comes
up which a specimen he injudiciously discarded might have -determined.
Let a collection be "weeded out," if at all, only after deliberate and
mature examination, when the scientific results it affords have been
elaborated by a competent ornithologist; and even then, the refuse
(with certain limitations) had better be put where it will do some
good, than be destroyed utterly. For instance, I myself once valued,
and used, some Smithsonian " sweepings"; and I know very well what

116 APPENDIX TO MANUAL.

to do with specimens, now, to which I would not give houseroom in
my own cabinet. If forced to reduce bulk, owing to limited facilities
for transportation in the field (as too often happens), throw away ac-
cording to size, other things being equal. Given only so many cubic
inches or feet, eliminate the few large birds, which take up the space
that would contain fifty or a hundred different little ones. If you have
a fine large bald eagle or pelican, for instance, throw it away first, and
follow it with your ducks, geese, etc. In this way, the bulk of a large
miscellaneous collection may be reduced one-half, perhaps, with very
little depreciation of its actual value. The same principle may be ex-
tended to other collections in natural history (excepting fossils, which
are always weighty, if not also bulky) ; very few bird-skins, indeed,
being as valuable contributions to science as, for example, a vial of
miscellaneous insects that occupies no more room may prove to be.
Page 34, line 7 from bottom, for drawn read driven.
" 41, " 3, for drop read drip.
" 46, " 15, for toed read told.
" 49, obverse of diagram, for Butes read Buteo.
" 52, line 12 from bottom, for answers read answering.
" 50, "5 from bottom, omit is before from.
" 54, " 8, for only read duly.

" 66, " 17, for instruments confine read instrument confines.
" 68, " 6 of footnote, for drawing read driving.
" 69, " 10 from bottom, omit for before one.
" 71, " 4 from bottom, for internally read intimately.
" 75. Mentioning the thin-skinned cardinal grosbeak, I over-
looked the night-hawks and whippoorwills ( Caprimulgidce) , in which
the skin is still more tender and liable to be torn.
Page 87, line 15 from bottom, for only read duly.
" 91, " 12, after crossbar insert on a.

" 94. Testes vary more in shape and color than may be inferred
from the text, being sometimes rather linear or oblong, and grayish,
livid bluish, or even reddish. I lately found, in a bay- winged bunting,
only one testis, twice as large as natural to compensate for want of
the other.

Page 94, line 3, for bowels read bowel.
" 101, " 7, first word, for essential read stationary.
" 108, " 5, for lids read lid.

CHECK LIST

OP

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS,

CHECK LIST OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.

NOTE. — The species are numbered consecutively from 1 to 635.
Stragglers have the number in brackets. Varieties bear the number
of the species to which they belong, with a, 6, cr, etc., unless a variety
is our only representative of the species, when it is separately enu-
merated. Obscure or doubtful species are marked with a note of
interrogation after the number. Each species is followed by the
original describer's name; when this is not also the authority for
the nomenclature adopted the name of such authority is added, the
former being retained in parenthesis. A similar practice is observed
in the cases of varieties ; when, as in most instances, they were origi-
nally described as species they are followed by the authority for their
reduction to varieties, as well as by the name of the describer; the
latter in parenthesis.

The List contains a very few species discovered since the "Key"
was printed; otherwise, it is an exact reflection of that work, the
arrangement and nomenclature being identical. The numbers of the
genera as used in the Key are given in the head lines of the List in
order to facilitate reference.

Authors are at variance in the formation of the genitive of Latinized
proper names ; in the absence of any universally observed rule, euphony
may perhaps be advantageously consulted. In the Key, the i was
doubled in all cases of words ending in a consonant, the nominative
being considered to end in -ius ; this practice is preferably applicable
to monosyllables, as Bairdii, and polysyllables, as Audubonii. But it
is necessary to use single i in words ending in r, as Cooperi, and best
to do so in most cases of dissyllables, as Wilsoni, Cassini, Swainsoni.
The same is the case with all words ending in a vowel.

The following are the abbreviations used for authors' names occur-
ring most frequently ; others are for the most part written in fall : —
All, Allen; And., Audubon; Bd., Baird; Bodd., Boddaert; Bp., Bona-
parte; Cab., Cabanis; Cass., Cassin; Cys.,Coues; Gamb., Gambel; Gm.,
Gmelin; Gr.t Gray; L. , Linnaeus ; Lafr., Lafresnaye; Lath., Latham;
Laicr., Lawrence; Licht., Lichtenstein ; Nutt., Nuttall; Belch., Reich-
enbach; Ridg., Eidgway; Scl., Sclater; Steph., Stephens; Sw., Swain-
son; Temm., Temminck;. Towns., Townsend; F., Vieillot; Viff.,
Vigors; Wagl., Wagler; Wils., Wilson.

GEN. 1-3 OF KEY.

^ 1. TUBDUS MIGBATOBIUS L.
Robin.

la. TUBDUS MIGBATOBIUS L.,
var. CONFINIS (Bd.) Cs.
Robin.

2. TUBDUS NJBVIUS GM.

Varied Thrush.

3. TUBDUS MUSTELINUS GM.

Wood Thrush.

4. TUBDUS PALLASI CAB.

Hermit Thrush.

4a. TUBDUS PALLASI CAB.,
var. AUDUBONH (Bd.) Cs.
Andubon's Thrush.

4b. TUBDUS PALLASI CAB.,
var. NANUS (Aud.) Cs.
Dwarf Thrush.

5. TUBDUS SWAINSONI CAB.

Olive-hacked Thrush.

5a. TUBDUS SWAINSONI CAB.,
var. ALICLE (Bd.) Cs.
Alice's Thrush.

5b. TUBDUS SWAINSOISTI CAB.,
var. USTULATUS (Nutt.) Cs.
Oregon Thrush.

6. TUBDUS FUSCESCENS STEPH.

Thrush. Veery

7. OBEOSCOPTES MONTANUS (TOWNS.) BD,

Mountain Mocking-bird.

8. MIMUS POLYGLOTTUS (L.) BOIE.

blocking-bird.

GEN. 3-6 OF KEY.

~* 9. MIMUS CAROLIN-ENSIS (L.) GR.
Catbird.

-* 10. EARPORHYNCHUS RUPTJS (L.) CAB.
Brown Thrush. Thrasher.

lOa. HARPORHYNCHUS RTTFTTS (L.) CAB.,
var. LONGIROSTRIS (Lafr.) Cs.
Thrush.

11. HARPORHYNCHTJS CURVIROSTRIS (Sw.) CAB.,

var. PALMERI Kidg.
Curve-billed Thrush.

llbis.* HARPORHYNCHTJS BENDIREI Cs.
Bendire's Thrush.

12. HARPORHYNCHTJS CINERETJS BD.

Cinereous Thrush.

13. HARPORHYNCHTJS REDIV1VUS (GAMB.) CAB.

Sickle-billed Thrush.

13a. HARPORHYNCHITS RED1V1VUS (GAMB.) CAB.,
var. LECONTEI (Lawr.) Cs.
X^eConte's Thrush.

14. HARPORHYNCHTJS CRISSALIS HENRY.

Red-vented Thrush.

[15]. SAXICOLA CENANTHE (L.) BECHSTEIN.
Stone Chat.

-* 16. SIALIA STATiIS (L.) HALDEMAN.
Eastern "Bluebird.

17. SIALIA MEXICANA Sw.

Western Bluebird.

18. SIALIA ARCTICA Sw.

Arctic Bluebird.

*llbis. Not in the Key. See Am. Nat., Vol. vii,"p. 330, 1873.

GEN. 7-13 OF KEY.

19. CINCLUS MEXICAHTTS Sw.
Water Ouzel. Dipper.

[20]. PHYLLOPNEUSTE BOREALIS BLASIUS.
Kennicott's

21. REGULUS CALENDULA (L.) LIGHT.

Ruby-crowned Kinglet.

22. REGULUS SATRAPA LIGHT.
Golden-crested King-let.

23. POLIOPTILA C-3ERULEA (L.) SCL.

Blue-gray Gnatcatcher.

24. POLIOPTILA MELANURA LAWR.
Black-neaded Onatcatcner.

25. POLIOPTILA PLUMBEA BD.
Plumbeous Onatcatcner.

26. CHAMPA FASCIATA GAMB.
Fasciated Tit. O round

27. LOPHOPHANES BICOLOR (L.) BP.

Tufted Titmouse.

28. LOPHOPHANES INORNATUS (GAMB.) CASS.

Plain Titmouse.

29. LOPHOPHANES ATRICRISTATUS CASS.

Black-crested Titmouse.

30. LOPHOPHANES WOLLWEBERI BP.

Bridled Titmouse.

31. PARUS ATRICAPILLUS L.
Black-capped Cltickadee.

31 a. PARUS ATRICAPILLUS L.,
var. SEPTENTRIONALIS (Harris) All.
Chickadee.

GEN. 13-17 OF KEY. 11

31b. PARUS ATRICAPILIiUS L.,
var. CAROLIXENSIS (Aud.) Cs.
Carolina Chickadee.

31c. PARUS ATRICAPILLUSL.,
var. OCCIDEXTALIS (Bd.) Cs.
Western Chickadee.

32. PARUS MONTANUS GAMB.

Mountain Chickadee.

33. PARUS HUDSONICUS FORSTER.

HiHlsoiiiaii Chickadee.

34. PARUS RUFESCENS TOWNS.
Chestnut-hacked Chickadee.

35. PSALTRIPARUS MINIMUS (TOWNS.) BP.

I^east Titmouse.

36. PSALTRIPARUS PLUMBEUS BD.

Plumheous Titmouse.

37. AURIPARUS FLAVICEPS (SUXD.)BD.

ITelloiv-headed Titmouse.

38. SITTA CAROLINENSIS GM.
White-hellied IVuthatch.

38a. SITTA CAROLINENSIS GM.,

var. ACULEATA (Cass.) All.
Slender-hilled Nuthatch.

39. SITTA CANADENSIS L.
Red-hellied Nuthatch.

40. SITTA PUSILLA LATH.
Kronen-headed Nuthatch.

41? SITTA PYGMJEA VIG.
Pygmy Nuthatch.

. 42. CERTHIA PAMILIARIS L.
, Brown Creeper.

GEN. 18-23 OF KEY. 13

43. CAMPYLORHYNCHUS

BRUNNEICAPILLUS (LAFR.) GR.
Vro wn-Iieadeil Creeper-wren.

44. CAMPYLORHYNCHUS AFFLN1S XANTUS.

Allied Creeper-wren.

45. SALPINCTES OBSOLETUS (SAY) CAB.

Rock "Wren.

46. CATHERPES MEXICA1TCTS (Sw.) BD.

White-throated Wren.

47. THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS (On.) BP.

Great Carolina Wren.

47a. THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIA1OTS (Gn.) BP.,
var. BERLANDIERI (Couch) Cs.
JBerlandier's Wren.

48. THRYOTHORUS BEWICKII (Auo.) BP.

Bewick's Wren.

48a. THRYOTHORUS BEWICKII (Auo.) BP.
var. LEUCOGASTER (Gould) Bd.
Wliite-beUied ^Vreii.

48b. THRYOTHORUS BEWICKII (AuD.) BP.,

var. SPILURUS (Vig.) Bd.
Speckled-tailed "Wren.

— 49. TROGLODYTES AEDON V.

House Wren.

49a. TROGLODYTES AEDON V.,

var. PARKMANNI (Aud.) Cs.
Wrestern House Wren.

— 50. ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES (L.) Cs.,

var. HTEMALIS (Wils.) Cs.
W"inter Wrren.

GEN. 23-34 OF KEY. 15

50a. ANOBTHTJBA TBOGLODYTES (L.) Cs.,
var. ALASCENSIS (Bd.) Cs.
Alaskan Wren.

« 51. TELMATODYTES PALTTSTBIS (WiLS.) CAB.
Long'-billed Marsh Wren.

52. CISTOTHOBUS STELLABIS (LIGHT.) CAB.
Short-billed Marsh Wren.

- 53. EBEMOPHILA ALPESTBIS (FORST.) BODE.

Horned !Lark; Shore JLark.

53a. EBEMOPHIIiA ALPESTBIS (FOKST.) BOIE,
var. CHRYSOL^EMA (Wagl.) Bd.
South- we*t«*rn I,ark.

54. BUDYTES FLAVA (L.) Cuv.
Yellow Wag-tall.

- 55. ANTHTJS LUDOVICIAJSTTS (Gxi.) LIGHT.

Mro^vii Lark; Titlark; Pipit.

56. NEOCOBYS SPBAGUEI (Am>.) SCL.
Missouri Skylark.

- 57. MNIOTILTA VABIA (L.) V.

Black-and-white Creeper.

- 58. PABULA AMEBICAWA (L.) BP.

Blue yello^v-baeked "Warbler.

59. PBOTONOTABIA CITB^A (BODD.) BD.

Prothonotary Wrarbler.

60. HELMITHEBUS VEBMIVOBUS (GM.) BP.

W^orm-eating- Warbler.

61. HELMITHEBUS SWAINSONI (AuD.) BP.

Swainson's Wrarbler.

62. HELMINTHOPHAGA PIWTJS (L.) BD.

Blue-wingred Yellow ffarbler.

GEN. 34-35 OF KEY. 17

63. HELMINTHOPHAGA CHRYSOPTERA (L.) BD.

Blue Crolden-wing-ed Wurbl <>r.

64. HELMINTHOPHAGA BACHMANT (AuD.) CAB.

f t a <-liimtir* Warbler.

65. HELMINTHOPHAGA LUCUE COOP.

I,u<\v > Warbler.

66. HELMINTHOPHAGA VIRGINIA BD.

Virginia's Warbler.

67. HELMINTHOPHAGA RUFICAPILLA (WILS.) BD.

Xashville ^Varbler.

68. HELMINTHOPHAGA CELATA (SAY) BD.

Orangre-cro^^ned Warbler.

69. HELMINTHOPHAGA PEBEGBINA (WiLS.) CAB.

Tennessee Warbler.

- 70. DENDRCECA 2ESTIVA (Gn.) BD. .
Summer Warbler.

71. DENDRCECA VIRENS (GM.) BD.
Black-tnroated Oreen Wrarbler.

72. DENDRCECA OCCIDENTAIiIS (TOWNS.) BD.

Western Warbler.

73. DENDRCECA TOWNSENDII (Nurr.) BD.

To^-nsend's Wrarbler.

74. DENDRCECA CHRYSOPAREIA SCL. ET SALV.
. Oolden-cneeked Wrarbler.

75. DENDRCECA NIGRESCENS (TOWNS.) BD.

Black-throated Gray Warbler.

76. DENDRCECA OZERULESCENS (L.) BD.

Black-throated Blue "Warbler.

77. DENDRCECA CJERULEA (WILS.) BD.

Ceerulean Wrarbler.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 2

GEN. 35-36 OF KEY. 19

78. DENDRCECA CORONATA (L.) GR.
Yellow-rumped W arbler ; Myrtle Bird.

79. DENDRCECA AUDUBONII (TOWNS.) BD.

Warbler.

— 80. DENDRCECA BLACKBTTRNL2E (GM.) BD.

U3ac*kbiiriiiaii Warbler.

— 81. DENDRCECA STRIATA (FORST.) BD.

Black-poll Warbler.

82. DENDRCECA CASTANEA (WILS.) BD.
Bay-breasted Warbler.

-* 83. DENDRGECA PENNSYLVANICA (L.) BD.
Cliestnut-sided M'arbler.

- 84. DENDRCECA MACULOSA (GM.) BD.
lllac*li-aiid- Vellotv ^Varbler.

85. DENDRCECA TIGRINA (GM.) BD.

Cape May f^arbler.

86. DENDRCECA DISCOLOR (V.) BD.

Prairie Warbler.

87. DENDRCECA GRACLS! COUES.

Orace's

88. DENDRCECA DOMINICA (L.) BD.

Yellow-throated Wrarbler.

89. DENDRCECA KIRTLANDI BD.

Itirtland's Warbler.

* 90. DENDRCECA PALMARUM (GM.) BD.
Y ellow Red-poll M" a rblt»r .

91. DENDRCECA PINUS (WILS.) BD.

Pine-creeping- WTarbler.

92. SEIURUS AUROCAPILLUS (L.) Sw.

CrOlden-cro^-ned Tnrusn.

GEN. 36-41 OF KEY. 21

93. SEIUBUS NOVEBOBACENSIS (G»i.) NUTT.

Water Wag-tail; Water Thrush.

94. SEIUBUS LUDOVICIANUS (V.) BP.

Water Thrush .

95. OPOBOBinS AGILIS (WILS.) BD.

Connecticut ff'arbler.

96. OPOBOBNIS POBMOSUS (Was.) BD.

Kentucky ^Warbler.

97. GEOTHLYPIS TBICHAS (L.) CAB.

Maryland V«kllo%v-tliroa t.

98. GEOTHLYPIS PHILADELPHIA (Was.) BD.

Mourning* ^f^arbler.

99?* GEOTHLYPIS MACGILLIVBAYI (AuD.) BD.

100 ICTEBIA VIBENS (L.) BD.
Yello^ir-1>reasted Chat.

lOOa. ICTEBIA VIBENS (L.) BD.,
var. LONGICAUDA (Lawr.) Cs.
$f -tailed Cbat.

101. MYIODIOCTES MITBATUS (Gil.) AUD.

Hooded Fly catching- >V ar bU'r .

102. MYIODIOCTES PUSILLUS (WILS.) BP
Careen Black-capped Flycatchingr

103. MYIODIOCTES CANADENSIS (L.) AUD.

Canadian Flycatching- ^Tarbler.

— 104. SETOPHAGA BUTICILLA (L.) Sw.
Redstart.

105. SETOPHAGA PICTA Sw.
Painted Flycatcher.

* This is probably only a variety of 98.

GEN. 42-50 OF KEY. 23

106. CEBTHIOLA PLAVEOLA (L.) SUND.
Honey Creeper.

- 107. PYBANGA BUBBA (L.) V.
Scarlet Tanag-er.

108. PYBANGA JESTIVA (L.) V.

Summer Bedhird.

108a. PYBANGA JESTIVA (L.) V.,

var. COOPERI (Ridg.) Cs.
Cooper's Tanag-er.

109. PYBANGA HEPATICA Sw.

Hepatic Tanagrer.

110. PYBANGA LUDOVICIANA (WiLS.) BP.

Louisiana Tanag*er.

. — 111. HIBUNDO HOBBEOBUM BARTON.
Barn Swallow.

— 112. TACHYCINETA BICOLOB (V.) Cs.

ITltite-bellied Swallow.

113. TACHYCINETA THALASSINA (Sw.) CAB.
Violet-grreen Swalloir.

»- 1U. PETBOCHELIDON LUNIPBONS (SAY) CAB.
Cliff * %va 1 low ; ISave swallow.

— 115. COTYLE BIPABIA (L.) BOIE.

Bank Swallow ; Sand Martini

116. STELGIDOPTEBYX SEBBIPENNIS (Ain>.) BD.
Itoug-n-wing-ed ^ wa 1 1<» w .

•*• 117. PBOGNE PUBPUBEA (L.) BOIE.
Purple Martin.

118. AMPELIS GABBULUS L.
Bohemian Waxwing*.

~* 119. AMPELIS CEDBOBUM (V.) BD.
Cedar Bird; Cherry Bird.

GEN. 51-53 OF KEY. 25

120. PHJENOPEPLA NITENS (Sw.) SCL.

Black Ptilogronys.

121. MYIADESTES TOWNSENDII (Auo.) CAB.

T<>*vii*»«'iicl'* JM> catching- Thrush.

122. VIBEO OLIVACEUS (L.) V.

Red-eyed Vireo.

123. VIREO ALTILOQUTJS (V.) GRV

var. BARBATULUS (Cab.) Cs.
Black-whiskered Vireo.

124. VIBEO PHILADELPHICUS CASS.

Brotherly-love Vireo.

125. VIREO GILVUS (V.) BP.

Warbling- Vireo.

125a. VIREO GILVTJS (V.) BP.

var. SWAINSONI (Bd.) Cs.
Western Warbling: Vireo.

126. VIREO FLA VTPRONS V.
Yellow-throated Vireo.

127. VIREO SOLITARIUS (Was.) V.
Blue-headed Vireo ; Solitary Vireo.

127a. VIREO SOLITARIUS V.,
var. PLUMBEUS (Cs.) All.
Plumbeous Vireo.

128? VIREO VICINIOR COUKS.
Gray Vireo.

129. VIREO NOVEBORACENSIS (GM.) BP.
White-eyed Vireo.

130? VIREO HTJTTONT CASS.
11 utton > Vireo.

GEN. 53-58 OF KEY. 27

131. VIREO BELLII AUD.

Bell's Vireo.

132. VIREO PUSILIiUS COUES.

!Least Tireo.

133. VIREO ATRICAPILLUS WOODH.

JBlack-headed Tireo.

134. COLLURIO BOREALIS (V.) BD.
Great Northern Shrike; Butcherbird.

135. COLLURIO LUDOVICIANUS (L.) BD.

XiOgrgrerliead Shrike.

135a. COLLURIO LUDOVICIANUS (L.) BD.,
var. EXCUBITOROIDES (Sw.) Cs.

136. HESPERIPHONA VESPERTINA (Coop.) BP.
£veningr Grosbeak.

- 137. PINICOLA ENUCLEATOR (L.) V.
Pine Grosbeak.

[138.]? PYRRHULA CASSINI (BD.) TRISTR.
Cassin's Bullfinch.

^ 139. CARPODACUS PURPUREUS (Gif.) GR.
Purple riiu'ii.

HO. CARPODACUS CASSINI BD.
Cassin's Purple Finch.

HI. CARPODACUS PRONTALIS (SAY) GR.
Crimson-fronted Finch; House Finch.

141a.* CARPODACUS PRONTALIS (SAY) CAB.,
var. HJEMORRHOUS (Wagl.) Ridg.
Mexican Purple Finch.

*Not in the Key. See Ridgway, Am. Jour. Sci. Art, v, p. 39.

GEN. 59-62 OF KEY.

142. LOXIA LEUCOPTERA (Was.).
White-winded Crossbill.

14& LOXIA CURVIROSTRA L.,
var. AMERICANA (Wils.) Cs.
Common Crossbill.

H3a. LOXIA CURVIROSTRA L,,

var. MEXICANA (Strickl.) Cs.
rarg-e-billed Crossbill.

144. LEUCOSTICTE TEPHROCOTIS Sw.

Gray-crowned Finch.

144a. LEUCOSTICTE TEPHROCOTIS Sw.,
var. GRISEINUCHA (Brandt) Cs.
Gray-eared Finch.

145. LEUCOSTICTE ARCTOA (PALL.) BP.

Siberian Finch.

146. J3GIOTHUS LINARIA (L.) CAB.

Red-poll linnet .

146a. JEGIOTHUS LINARIA (L.) CAB.

var. FUSCESCENS Cs.
Dusky Red-poll.

146b. JEGIOTHUS LINARIA (L.) CAB.

var. EXILIPES Cs.
American Mealy Red-poll.

[147.] LINOTA PLAVIROSTRIS (L.) BP.
var. BREWSTERI (Ridg.) Cs.
Rrewster's I^innet.

148. CHRYSOMITRIS PINUS (WiLS.) BP.

Pine linnet.

149. CHRYSOMITRIS TRISTIS (L.) BP.
American Goldfinch; Yellowbird.

GEN. 62-65 OF KEY. 31

150. CHRYSOMITRIS LAWRENCEI (CASS.) BP.

Goldfinch.

151. CHRYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA (SAY) BP.

Arkansas Goldfinch.

151a. CHBYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA (SAY) BP.,

var. ARIZONA Cs.
Arizona Goldfinch.

151b. CHRYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA (SAY) BP.,

var. MEXICANA (Sw.) Cs.
Mexican Goldfinch.

152. PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS (L.) MEYER.

Snow Bunting-.

153. PLECTROPHANES LAPPONICUS (L.) SELBY.

I, a pi a ii (I Long-spur.

154. PLECTROPHANES PICTUS Sw.

Painted Lark Bunting-.

155. PLECTROPHANES ORNATUS TOWNS.
Chestnut-colored Lark Bunting*.

156. PLECTROPHANES MACCOWNII LAWR.

McCown's Lark Bunting*.

157? CENTRONYX BAIRDII (AuD.) BD.
Baird'M Bunting-.

157bis.* CENTRONYX OCHROCEPHALUS AIKEN.
Ochreous-headed Bunting*.

158. PASSERCULUS PRINCEPS MAYNARD.

Maynard's ft par row.

159. PASSERCULUS SAVANNA (WiLS.) BP.

Savanna Sparrow.

* Not in the Key. See Aiken, Am. Nat., vii, 237.

GEN. 65-69 OF KEY. 33

159a. PASSERCULUS SAVANNA (WILS.) BP., ,
var. ANTHINUS (Bp.) Cs.
Titlark Sparrow.

159b. PASSEHCULUS SAVANNA (WILS.) BP.,

var. SANDVICENSIS (Gm.) Cs.
Northwestern Sparrow.

160. PASSERCULUS ROSTRATUS (CASS.) BD.

Beaked Sparrow.

160a. PASSERCULUS ROSTRATUS (CASS.) BD.,
var. GUTTATDS (LAWR.) Cs.
St. JLucas Sparrow.

161. POOECETES GRAMINEUS (GM.) BD.
Bay-wingred Bunting*; Orass Fiiirli.

161a. POOECETES GRAMINEUS (GM.) BD.,
var. CONFINIS Bd.

Fiiioli.

162. COTURNICULUS PASSERINUS (WILS.) BP.
Yello w-wing-ed Sparroir.

162a. COTURNICULUS PASSERINUS (WILS.) BP.,

var. PKRPALLIDUS Ridg.
Bleacned Yello^v-n'ing-ed Sparrow.

163. COTURNICULUS HENSLOWI (AUD.) BP.

Henslow's Sparronr.

164. COTURNICULUS LECONTEI (AUD.) BP.

165. AMMODROMUS MARITIMUS (WILS.) Sw.

Seaside Finch.

166. AMMODROMUS CAUDACUTCJS (GM.) Sw.

Sharp-tailed Finch.

167. MELOSPIZA LINCOLNI (AUD.) BD.

Lincoln's Finch.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 3

GEN. 69-70 OF KEY. 35

*• 168. MELOSPIZA PALTJSTRIS (WILS.) BD.
Swamp Sparrow.

- 169. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.
Song- Sparrow.

169a. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.,

var. FALL AX (Bd.) Ridg.
Gray Song- Sparrow.

1691*. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.,

var. GUTTATA (Nutt.) Ridg.
Cinereous Song* Sparrow.

169c. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.,

var. RUFINA (Brandt.) Ridg.
Rufous Song- Sparrow.

169d. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.,

var. HEERMANNI (Bd.) Ridg.
Heermann's Soiigr Sparrow.

169e. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.,

var. GOULDH (Bd.) Ridg.
Gould's Song* Sparrow.

169f. MELOSPIZA MELODIA (WILS.) BD.,

var. iNSiGNis (Bd.) Ridg.
HiM'lioff '*» Song- Sparrow.

170. PETJCJSA JESTIVALIS (LIGHT.) CAB.

Bacnman's Finch .

170a. PEUOS1A ^SSTIVALIS (LIGHT.) CAB.,.
var. CASSINI (Woodh.) All.
Cassin's Fincn.

171. PETJOZEA RTJTICEPS (CASS.) BD.

Rufous-crowned Fincn.

171bis.* PETJC.ZEA CARPALIS COUES.
Rufous-¥«Ting-ed sparrow.

*Xot in the Key. See Am. Xat., vii, p. 322.

GEN. 71-74 OF KEY. 37

172. POOSPIZA BILINEATA (CASS.) SOL.

Black-throated Finch.

173. POOSPIZA BELLI (CASS.) SCL.

Bell's Finch.

174. JUNCO HYEMALIS (L.) SCL.

*iio\v1»ir<l.

175 ? JUNCO OREGONUS (TOWNS.) SCL.
Oregron Snowbird.

176? JTHSTCO CINEREUS (Sw.) CAB.,
var. CANICEPS (Woodh.) Cs.
Cinereous Snowhird.

177. SPIZELLA MONTI COL A (GM.) BD.

Tree Sparrow.

178. SPIZELLA SOCIALIS (WILS.) BP.

Chipping- Sparrow.

178a. SPIZELLA SOCIALIS (WiLS.) Bp.,

var. ARIZONA Cs,
Arizona Chipping* Sparrow.

179. SPIZELLA PUSILLA (WILS.) Bp.

Field Sparrow.

180. SPIZELLA PALLIDA (Sw.) BP.

Clay-colored sparrow.

180a. SPIZELLA PALLIDA (Sw.) BP.,

var. BREWERI (Cass.) Cs.
Brewer's Sparrow.

181. SPIZELLA ATRIGULARIS (CAB.) BD.

Black-chinned Sparrow.

182. ZONOTRICHIA ALBICOLLIS (GM.) BP.

White-throated Sparrow.

GEN. 74-80 OF KEY. 39

183. ZONOTRICHIA LEUCOPHRYS (FORST.) Sw.

Wfiiite-crowoed Sparrow.

183a. ZONOTRICHIA LEUCOPHRYS (FORST.) Sw.,
var. GAMBELI (Nutt.) All.
Gambel's Sparrow.

184. ZONOTRICHIA CORONATA (PALL.) BD.

Oolden-crow~ned Sparrow.

185. ZONOTRICHIA QTJERTJLA (NUTT.) GAME.

Harris's Sparrow.

186. CHONDESTES GRAMMACA (SAY) BP.

I, ark Fiiaeli.

[187.] PASSER DOMESTICUS LTNN.
Mparrow.

*• 188. PASSERELLA ILIACA (MEKIIEM.) Sw.
Fox Sparrow.

189. PASSERELLA TOWNSENDII f AUD.) NUTT.

Townsend's Fox Sparrow.

189a. PASSERELLA TOWNSENDII (AUD.) NUTT.,

var. SCHISTACEA (Bd.) Cs.
Slate-colored Fox Sparrow.

190. CALAMOSPIZA BICOLOR (Towxs.) BP.
l.arli Hunting-; >Vliit<k-wiiig*ed Blackbird

191. EUSPIZA AMERICANA (G.M.) BP.

Ifilacii-tnroated Bunting*.

192? EUSPIZA TOWNSENDII (AUD.) BP.
Towii!*€»ii€i*j* Bunting-.

•-* 193. GONIAPHEA LUDOVICIAWA (L.) BOWDICH.

Oro^beak.

194. GONIAPHEA MELAWOCEPHALA (Sw.) — .
Black-headed Orosbeak.

GEN. 80-85 OF KEY. 41

195. GONTAPHEA CJEBTJLEA (L.).

Blue Grosbeak.

196. CYANOSPIZA CIBIS (L.) BD.
Painted Fincli: Nonpareil.

197. CYANOSPIZA VEBSICOLOR (Bp.) BD.

Western Nonpareil.

198. CYANOSPIZA AMCENA (SAY) BD.

Lazuli Finch.

199. CYANOSPIZA CYANEA (L.) BD.

Indigro Bird.

[200.] SPERMOPHILA MORELETII PUCHERAN.

[201.] PHONIPARA BICOLOB (L.) BP.
Black-faced Finch.

202. PYBBHTJLOXIA SINUATA BP,

Texas Cardinal.

203. CAKDLNALIS VIRGINIANUS (BRISSON) BP.

Cardinal Redbird.

203a. CABDINALIS VIRGINIAJHTS (BRISSON) BP.,
var. IGNEDS (Bd.) Cs.
fiery Redbird.

204. PIPILO EBYTHBOPHTHALMTJS (L.) V.

Townee Bunting-; Chewink.

204a. PIPILO EBYTHBOPHTHALMTJS (L.) V.,
var. ALLENI Cs.

Townee.

205. PIPILO MACULATUS Sw.,
var. OREGONUS (Bell) Cs.
Oregron Townee.

GEN. 85-89 OF KEY. 43

205a. PIPILO MACULATUS Sw.,
var. ARCTICUS (Sw.) Cs.
Arctic Towhee.

205b. PIPILO MACULATUS Sw.,
var. MEGALONYX (Bd.) Cs.
Towhee.

206. PIPILO PUSCUS Sw.
Brown Towhee; Canon Finch.

206a. PIPILO FUSCUS Sw.,

lar. ALBIGULA (Bd.) Cs.
White-throated Towhee.

206b. PIPILO PUSCUS Sw.,
var. CRISSALIS (Vig.) Cs.
Crissal Towhee.

207. PIPILO ABERTIBD.

Abert's Towhee.

208. PIPILO CHLOBUBUS (TOWNS.) BD.

Green-tailed Towhee.

209. EMBEBNAGBA BUPIVIBGATA LAWR.

Green Finch.

210. DOLICHONYX OBYZIVOBUS (L.) Sw.

Bobolink; Reedhird; Ricehird.

211.* MOLOTHBUS PECOBIS (GM.) Sw.
Cowhird.

211a. MOLOTHBUS PECOBIS (GM.) Sw.,
var. OBSCURUS (Gm.) Cs.
Dwarf Cowbird,

212. AGEL2EUS PHCENICEUS (L.) V.
Red-wing-ed Rlackbird.

* This should stand as Molothrus ater (Gm.) Gr.

GEN. 89-93 OF KEY. 45

212a. AGEL^IUS PHCENICEUS (L.) V.,

var. GUBERNATOR (Wagl.) Cs.
Bed-shouldered Blackbird.

212b. AGELJEUS PHCENICEUS (L.) V.,

var. TRICOLOR (Nutt.) Cs.
II ed-and- white-shouldered Blackbird. .

213. XANTHOCEPHALUS ICTEROCEPHAT.US (Bp.) BD.
Yellow-headed Blackbird.

~ 214. STUBNELIiA MAGNA (L.) Sw.
fieldlark; Headou'lark.

214a. STURNELLA MAGNA (L.) Sw.,
var. NEGLECTA (Aud.) All.
» <"*K'rii fieldlark.

. 215. ICTEKUS SPURIUS (L.) BP.
Orchard Oriole.

215a. ICTERUS SPURIUS (L.) BP.,

var. AFFINIS (Lawr.) Cs. *

Texan Orchard Oriole.

* 216. ICTERUS BALTIMORE (L.) DANDIN.
Baltimore Oriole.

217. ICTERUS BULLOCKII (Sw.) BP.

Bullock's Oriole.

218. ICTERUS CUCULLATUS Sw.

Hooded Oriole.

219. ICTERUS PARISORUM BP.

Scott's Oriole.

220. ICTERUS MELANOCEPHALUS (WAGL.) GR.,

var. AUDUBONH (Girand.) Cs.
Audubon's Oriole.

^- 221. SCOLECOPHAGUS PERRUGINEUS (GM.) Sw.
Busty Orackle.

GEN. 93-97 OF KEY. 47

222. SCOLECOPHAGUS CYANOCEPHALUS (WAGL.) CAB.

Blue-beaded Grackle.

223. QUISCALUS MACROURUS Sw.

Great-tailed Grackle.

224. QUISCALUS MAJOR VIEIL.
Boat-tailed Grackle; Jackdaw.

225. QUISCALUS PURPUREUS (BARTR.) LIGHT.
Purple Grackle; C 'row Blackbird.

225a. QUISCALUS PUBPUREUS (BARTR.) LIGHT.,

var. AGL.EUS (Bd.) Cs.
Florida Orackle.

226. CORVUS CORAX LINN.

Haven.

227. CORVUS CRYPTOLEUCUS COUCH.

White-necked Haven.

228. CORVUS AMERICAKTTS AUD.

Common Crow.

228a. CORVUS AMERICANUS AUD.,
var. FLORID ANUS Bd.
Florida Crow.

228b. CORVUS AMERICANUS AUD., '

var. CAURINUS (Bd.) Cs.
northwestern Fish Crow.

229. CORVUS OSSIPRAGUS WILS.

Fish Crow.

230. PICICORVUS COLUMBIANUS (Was.) BP.

Clarke's Crow.

231. GYMNOKITTA CYANOCEPHALA MAXIM.

Blue Crow.

GEN. 98-101 OF KEY. 49

232. PSILOBHINUS MOBIO (\\TAGL.) GR.

Brown Jay.

233. PICAMELANOLEUCAV.,

var. HUDSONICA (Sab.) All.
American Hag*pie.

233a. PICA MELANOLETJCA V.,

var. NUTTALLI (Aud.) Cs.
Yellow-billed Hagi>ie.

234. CYANUBUS CBISTATUS (L.) Sw.

Blue Jay.

235. CYANUBUS STELLEBI (GM.) Sw.

dteller'8 Jay.

235a. CYA3STUBUS STELLEBI (GM.) Sw.,
var. MACROLOPHA (Bd.) All.
!Longr-crested Jay.

235b.* CYANUBUS STELLEBI (GM.) Sw.,

var. FRONTALIS Ridg.
mue-fronted Jay.

236. APHELOCOMA FLOBIDANA (BARTRAM) CAB.

Florida Jay.

236a. APHELOCOMA FLOBIDANA (BARTR.) CAB.,
var. WOODHOUSEI (Bd.) All.
Woodliouse's Jay.

236b. APHELOCOMA PLOBIDANA (BARTR.) CAB.,
var. CALIFORNICA (Vig.) Cs.
Californian Jay.

237. APHELOCOMA SOBDIDA (Sw.) CAB.

Sieber's Jay.

* Not in the Key. See Ridgway, Am. Journ ., v, p. 43.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 4

GEN. 102-107 OF KEY. 51

238. XANTHOURA YNCAS (BODD.) BP.,

var. LUXUOSA (Less.) Cs.
Rio Grande Jay.

239. PERISOREUS CANADENSIS (L.) BP.

Canada Jay.

[240.] MILVULUS TYRANNITS (L.) BP.
Fork-tailed Fly catcher.

241. MILVULUS FORPICATUS (Gai.) Sw. .

ft wallow -tailed Flycatcher.

242. TYRANNUS CAROLINENSIS (L.) BD.

King-Mrd; Bee-martin.

243. TYRANNUS DOMINICENSIS (On.) RICH.

Gray King-bird.

244 TYRANNUS VERTICALIS SAY.
Arkansas flycatcher.

245. TYRANNUS VOCIPERANS Sw.
Cassin's Flycatcher.

[246.] TYRANNUS MELANCHOLICUS V.,

var. COUCHII (Bd.) Cs.
Couch's Flycatcher.

247. MYIARCHUS CRINITUS (L.) CAB.

Great-crested Flycatcher.

248. MYIARCHUS CINERASCENS LAWR.

Ash-throated Flycatcher.

[249.] MYIARCHUS LAWRE3STCEI (GIRAUD.) BD.
Lawrence's Flycatcher.

250. SAYORNIS SAYUS (Bp.) BD.

Slay's Flycatcher.

251. SAYORNIS NIGRICANS (Sw.) BP.

Black Flycatcher.

GEN. 107-110 OF KEY. 53

252. SAYORNIS FUSCTTS (Gar.) BD.

Pewee; I»ewit; Phoebe.

253. CONTOPUS BOREALIS (Sw.) BD.

Olive-sided Flyc*atcher.

254. CONTOPTJS PERTINAX CAB.

Cones' Flycatcher.

255. CONTOPUS VIRENS (L.) CAB.

Wood Pewee.

255a. CONTOPUS VIRENS (L.) CAB.,
var. RICHAKDSONII (Sw.) Cs.,

256. EMPIDONAX ACADICUS (Gsi.) BD.

Acadian Flycatcher.

257. EMPIDONAX TRAILLII (AuD.) BD.

Traill'8 riycatclier.

257a. EMPIDONAX TRAILLII (AUD.) BD.,

var. PUSILLUS (Bd.) Cs.
pLittle ^irestern Flycatcher.

258. EMPIDONAX MINIMUS BD.

Least Flycatcher.

259. EMPIDONAX FLAVIVENTRIS BD.

Yellow-liellieil Flycatcher.

260. EMPIDONAX HAMMONDII BD.

Hammond^ Flycatcher.

261. EMPIDONAX OBSCURUS (Sw.) BD.

's Flycatcher.

262. MITREPHORUS FTJLVIFRONS (GIRAUD.) SCL.

var. PALLESCENS Cs.
BuflT-hreasted Flycatcher.

GEN. Ill, 114-120 OF KEY. 55

263. PYROCEPHALUS RUBINEUS (BODD.) GR.,

var. MEXICAXUS (Scl.) Cs.
Vermilion Flycatcher.

264. ANTROSTOMUS CAROLINENSIS (GM.) GOULD.

Chuck-will's-widow.

265. ANTROSTOMTJS VOCIFERUS (WILS.) BP.

W hip p <><>f" ill: irig-ht-jar.

266. ANTROSTOMUS NTJTTALLII (AUD.) CASS.

X ii tta I T» >V h i i>]>oor*vil I.

267. CHORDEILES VIRGINIANTJS ^BRISS.) BP.

Xig-hthawk.

267a. CHORDEILES VIRGINIANUS (BRISS.) BP.,

var. HENRYI (Cass.) All.
Western \ i^ lulia \\ k.

268. CHORDEILES TEXENSIS LAWR.

Texas

269. PANYPTILA SAXATILIS (WOODH.) Cs.

White-throated Swift.

270. NEPHCECETES NIGER (GM.) BD.,

var. BOREALIS (Kennerly) Cs.
Black Swift.

271. CHJETURAPELASGIA (L.) STEPH.

Chimney Swift.

272? CHJETURA VAUXII (TOWNS.)

Swift.

273. HELIOPJ3DICA XANTTJSII LAWR.
X am 11* Humming-bird.

[274.] LAMPORNIS MANGO (L.) Sw.,

(var. PORPHYRULA?)
Black-throated Humming-bird.

GEN. 121-125, 112, 113, 126, 127 OF KEY. 57

-*- 275. TROCHILUS COLUBRIS L.

Buby-throated Humming-bird.

276. TROCHILUS ALEXANDRI BOURC.
Black-chinned Humming-bird.

277. SELASPHORUS RUFUS (Gaf.) Sw.
Butous-backed Humming-bird.

278. SELASPHORUS PLATYCERCUS (Sw.) GLD.

Broad-tailed Humming-bird.

279. SELASPHORUS ANNA (LESS.)—.

Anna Humming-bird.

280. SELASPHORUS COSTJE (Bounc.) BP.

Costa Humming-bird.

281. SELASPHPRUS HELOIS-S1 ( ) .

Heloise Humming-bird.

282. STELLULA CALLIOPE ( ) GLD.

Calliope Humming-bird.

[283]. AGYRTRIA LINNJSI (Bp.) .

JLiiuit' Humming-bird.

[284]. TROGON MEXICANUS Sw.
Mexican Trog-on.

[285]. MOMOTUS C-SJRULEICEPS GOULD.
Blue-headed Sawbill.

- 286. CERYLE ALCYON (L.) BOIE.
Belted King-fisher.

287. CERYLE AMERICANA (GM.) BOIE,

var. CABANISI (Reich.) Cs.
Cabanis' King-fisher.

288. CROTOPHAGA ANI L.

Ani.

289. GEOCOCCYX CALIPORNIANUS (LESS.) BD.

Ground Cuckoo ; Chaparral Cock.

GEN. 128-131 OF KEY. 59

rf 290. COCCYZUS EKYTHROPHTHALMTJS (WILS!) BD.
Black-billed Cuckoo.

V ^ 291. COCCYZUS AMERICANTJS (L.) BP.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo.

292. COCCYZUS SENICULUS (LATH.) .

Mangrove Cuckoo.

293. CAMPEPHILUS PRINCIPALIS (L.) GR.

Ivory-billed Woodpecker.

294. HYLOTOMUS PILEATUS (L.) BD.
Pileated Woodpecker ; Log-cock.

295. PICUS ALBOLARVATUS (CASS.) BD.

White-headed Woodpecker.

296. PICUS BOREALIS V.
Red-cockaded Woodpecker.

297. PICUS SCALARIS WAGLER.

Texas Woodpecker.

297a. PICUS SCALARIS WAGL.,

var. NUTTALLI (Gamb.) Cs.
Nuttall's Woodpecker .

297b. PICUS SCALARIS WAGL.,

var. LUCASANUS (Xant.) Cs.
St. I^ucas Woodpecker.

\ •» 298. PICUS VILLOSUS L.
Hairy f^oodpecker.

298a. PICUS VILLOSUS L.,

var. HARRISI (Aud.) All.
Harris' Wroodpecker.

- 299. PICUS PUBESCENS L.
Downy Woodpecker.

GEN. yJl-134 OF KEY. 61

299a. PIOUS PUBESCENS L.,

var. GAiRDNEitii (And.) Cs.
Gairdner's Woodpecker.

300. PICOIDES ARCTICUS (Sw.) GR.
Black-backed Woodpecker.

301. PICOIDES AMERICAMTTS BREHM.
Banded-backed Woodpecker.

301a. PICOIDES AMERICANUS BREHM.,

var. DORSALIS (Bd.) All.
Striped-backed Woodpecker.

302. SPHYEAPICUS VARIUS (L.] BD.
Yellow-bellied Wroodpecker.

302a. SPHYRAPICUS VARIUS (L.) BD.,

var. NUCHALIS (Bd.) All.
]¥ucnal Woodpecker.

303?* SPHYRAPICUS RUBER (GM.) BD.
Red-breasted Wroodpecker.

304. SPHYRAPICUS THYROIDEUS (CASS.) BD.

ISro^vn-lieadod Wroodpecker.

305. SPHYRAPICUS WILLIAMSON1 (NEWB.) BD.'

Williamson's Woodpecker.

306. CENTURUS CAROLINUS (L.) BP.

Bed-bellied Wroodpecker.

307. CENTURUS AURIFRONS (WAGL.).

Yellow-f ace«l Wroodpecker.

308. CENTURUS UROPYGIALIS BD.

Oila Woodpecker.

* Apparently a var. of 302.

GEN. 135-140 OF KEY. 63

< -* 309. MELANERPES ERYTHBOCEPHALUS (L.) Sw.
Red-beaded Woodpecker.

310. MELANERPES FORMICIVORUS (Sw.) BP.

California!! Woodpecker.

310a. MELANERPES FORMICIVORUS (Sw.) BP.,

var. ANGUSTIFROXS BD.
Harrow-fronted Woodpecker.

311. ASYNDESMUS TORQUATUS (WILS.) Cs.

Lewis' Woodpecker.

V — 312. COLAPTES AURATUS (L.) Sw.

Golden-wing-ed Woodpecker; Flicker.

313. COLAPTES CHRYSOIDES MALH.

Gilded Woodpecker.

314. COLAPTES MEXICANUS Sw.
Red-shafted Woodpecker.

315. CONTJRUS CAROLINENSIS (L.) KUHL.

Carolina Parroquet.

316. STRIX FLAMMEA L.,
var. AMERICANA (Aud.) Cs.

liar i! Owl.

[ ^ 317. BUBO VIRGINIANUS (GM.) BP.
Oreat Horned Owl.

317a. BUBO VIRGINIANUS (GM.) BP.,

var. ARCTICUS (Sw.) Cass.
Arctic Horned Owl.

317b. BUBO VIRGINIANUS (GM.) BP.,

var. PACIFICUS Cass.
Pacific Horned Owl.

GEN. 141-147 OF KEY. 65

+. 318. SCOPS ASIO (L.) BP.

Screech Owl ; Mottled Owl.

318a. SCOPS ASIO (L.) BP.,
var. KENNICOTTH (Ell.) Cs.
Kennicott's Owl.

318b. SCOPS ASIO (L.) BP.,
var. MACCALLII (Cass.) Cs.
McCall's Owl.

319. SCOPS PLAMMEOLA SCL.
Flammiilated Owl.

*, 320. OTUS VULGARIS (L.),
var. WILSONIANUS (Less.) All.
Longr-eared Owl.

321. BRACHYOTUS PALUSTRIS AUCT.

Short-eared Owl.

322. SYRNIUM LAPPONICUM (L.),

var. CINEREUM (Gm.) Ridg.
Great Gray Owl.

X - 323. SYRNIUM NEBULOSUM (FORST.) GR.
Barred Owl.

324. SYRNIUM OCCIDENTALE XANT.
Barred Owl.

325. NYCTEA NIVEA (BAUD.) GR.
Owl.

326. SURNIA ULULA (L.) BP.,

var. HUDSONICA (Gm.) Kidg.
Hawk Owl ; l>a.r Owl.

327. NYCTALE TENGMALMI (GM.),

var. RICHARDSOXII (Bp.) Ridg.
Teiig-nialni's Owl.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 5

GEN. 147-157 OF KEY. 67

328. NYCTALE ACADICA (Gai.) BP.
Acadian Owl ; Saw-whet Owl.

329. GLAUCIDIUM PASSERLNTTM,

var. CALIFOKNICUM (Scl.) Ridg.
Owl.

330. GLAUCIDIUM FERRUGINEUM.

ferrugrineous Owl.

331. MICRATHENE WHITNEYI (Coop.) Cs.

Whitney'* Owl.

332. SPEOTYTO CUNICULARIA (MoL.),

var. HYPOG.EA. (Bp.) Cs.
lliirrowingr Owl.

~ 333. CIRCUS CYANEUS (L.) LAC£P.,

var. HUDSONIUS (L.) Cs.
Marsh IlawK; Harrier.

334. ROSTRHAMUS SOCIABILIS (V.) D'ORB.

Kverg-lade Kite.

335. ICTINIA MISSISSIPPIENSIS (WiLS.) GR.

Kite.

336. ELANUS LEUCURUS (V.) BP.
^^bite-tailed HLite ; Slack-shouldered Mite.

337. NAUCLERUS FURCATUS (L.) VIG.

§wrallow-tailed Kite.

338. ACCIPITERPUSCUS (GM.)Bp.
Hharp-shiniied Ha wit ; Pigreon Hawk.

339. ACCIPITER COOPERI BP.
Cooper's Hawk; Chicken Hawk.

340. ASTUR ATRICAPILLUS (WiLS.) BP.

GEN. 158-159 OF KEY. 69

341. FALCO SACER FORST.
Ctyrfalcon ; Jerfalcon.

341a. FALCO SACER FORST.,
var. CAXDICANS (Gm.) Ridg.
Greenland Gyrfalcon.

342. FALCO MEXICANUS LIGHT.

l^anier Falcon.

•*% 343. FALCO COMMUNTS VARIORUM.
Peregrine Falcon ; Duck Hawk

- 344. FALCO COLUMBARIUS L.
Pig-eon Hawk.

345. FALCO RICHARDSONI! RIDG.
Ricnardson's Falcon.

^ 34G. FALCO SPARVERIUS L.
Hawk.

34Ga. FALCO SPARVERIUS L.,
var. ISABELLINUS (Sw.) Ridg.
Isabella Sparrow Hawk.

347. FALCO FEMORALIS TEMM.

Femoral Falcon.

348. BUTEO UNICINCTUS (TEMM.) GR.,

var. HARRISI (Aud.) Ridg.
Harris' Buzzard.

349? BUTEO COOPERI CASS.
Cooper's JBuzzard.

350? BUTEO HARLANI (AUD.) BP.
Harlan's Buzzard.

351. BUTEO BOREALIS (GM.) V.
Red-tailed Buzzard; Hen Hawk.

GEN. 159-161 OF KEY. 71

351a. BUTEO BOREALIS (GM.) V.,

var. CALURUS (Cass.) Ridg.
Western Red-tailed Buzzard.

351b. BUTEO BOREALIS (GM.) V.,

var. LUC AS AN us Ridg.
St. Lucas Buzzard.

351c.* BUTEO BOREALIS (GM.) V.,

var. KRIDERI.
Krider's Buzzard.

t "- 352. BUTEO LINEATUS (GM.) JARD.
Bed-shouldered Buzzard.

352a. BUTEO LINEATUS (GM.) JARD.,

var. ELEGANS (Cass.) Ridg.
Western Bed-shouldered Buzzard.

353. BUTEO ZONOCERCUS SCL.

Band-tailed Hawk.

354. BUTEO SWAINSONI BP.

Swainson's Buzzard.

355. BUTEO PENNSYLVANICUS (WILS.) BP.

Broad-wingred Buzzard.

->• 35G. ARCHIBUTEO LAGOPUS (BRUNN.) GR.,
var. SANCTI-JOIIANNIS (Gin.) Ridg.
Roiigrli-leg*g-ed Buzzard.

357. ARCHIBUTEO PERRUGINEUS (LIGHT.) GR.

ferrugrineous Buzzard.

358. ASTURINA PLAGIATA SCHLEGEL.

CJray Ilan'k.

359.f OTT5TCHOTES GRUBERI RIDG.
Buzzard.

* Sole. Not in Key ; not published at date of going to press.
t359. Questionably North American.

GEN. 162-171 OF KEY. 73

- 3GO. PANDION HALIAETUS (L.) SAVIGNY.
Fi*li Kawk; Osprey.

3G1. A<$UILA CHRYSAETUS (L.).
Golden £ag*le.

— 3G2. HALIAETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS (L.) SAVIGXY.
Wliitck-hckadikd £agle; Bald Eagrle.

363. POLYBORTJS THABUS (MOLL.) CASS.,
-oar. AUDUsoxiiXCass.) Kidg.
'iii Caracara.

364. CATHARTES CALIFORNIANTJS (SHAW) Cuv.

Californian Vult lire.

365. CATHARTES AURA (L.) ILLIGKR.

Turkey Suzzard.

366. CATHARTES ATRATUS (BARTR.) LESS.

Black Vulture ; Carrion Crow.

367. COLUMBA FASCIATA SAY.

Hand-tailed Pig-eon.

368. COLUMBA FLAVIROSTRIS WAGLER.

Red-billed Pigreon.

369. COLUMBA LEUCOCEPHALA L.

White-crowned Pig-eon.

- 370. ECTOPISTES MIGRATORIUS (L.) Sw.
M'ild Pig-eon.

371. ZEN^IDURA CAROLINENSIS (L.) BP.

Carolina Dove.

372. ZENJEDA AMABILIS BP.

Zenaida Dove.

373. MELOPELEIA LEUCOPTERA (L.) BP.

White-wingred Dove.

GEN. 172-178 OF KEY. 75

374. CHAMJEPELEIA PASSERINA (L.) Sw.

Ground Dove.

374a. CHAMJEPELEIA PASSEBINA (L.) Sw.,

var. PALLESCENS (Bd.) Cs.
St. JLucas Ground Dove.

375. SCARDAPELLA SQUAMOSA (TEMM.) BP.,

var. INCA (Less.) Cs.
Scaled Dove.

376. GEOTRYGON MARTINICA (Gn.) REICH.

Key West Dove.

377. STARNCENAS CYANOCEPHALA (L.) BP.

Diue-headed Ground Dove.

378. ORTALIDA VETULA (WAGL.).

Texan Guan.

379. MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO L.

Turfeey.

379a. MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO L.,

var. AMERICANA (Bartr.) Cs.
Common Wild Turkey.

380. TETRAO CANADENSIS L.
Canada Grouse ; Spruce Partridgre.

380a. TETRAO CANADENSIS L.,
var. FRANKLINI (Douglas) Cs.
Franklin's Grouse.

381. TETRAO OBSCURUS SAY.

Dusky Grouse.

381a. TETRAO OBSCURUS SAY,
var. RICHARDSONH (Dougl.) Cs.
Rlcnardson's Grouse.

GEN. 179-184 OF KEY. 77

382. CENTROCERCUS UROPHASIANTJS (Bp.) Sw.

Sag-e Cock; Cock-of-tbe-Plains.

383. PEDICECETES PHASIANELLUS (L.) ELL.

Xortliorn Mliarp-tailcd Grouse.

383a. PEDICECETES PHASIANELLUS (L.) ELL.,

var. COLUMBIANUS (Ord.) Cs.
Common Sharp-tailed Grouse.

384. CUPIDONIA CUPIDO (L.) BD.
Pinnated Grouse ; Prairie Hen.

385. BONASA UMBELLTJS (L.) STEPH.
Ruffed Grouse ; Partridgre ; Pheasant.

385a. BONASA TJMBELLUS (L.) STEPH.,
var. UMBELLOIDES (Dougl.) Bd.
Gray Ruffed Grouse.

385b. BONASA UMBELLUS (L.) STEPH.,

var. SABINEI (Dougl.) Cs.
Oreg-on Ruffed Grouse.

386. LAGOPUS ALBUS (GM.) AUD.

^Villow Ptarmigran.

387. LAGOPUS RUPESTRIS (GM.) LEACH.

Rock Ptarmig-an.

388. LAGOPUS LEUCURUS Sw.
White-tailed Ptarmigran.

389. ORTYX VIRGINIANUS (L.) BP.
Virginia Partridgre ; Quail; Ifoli-wliito.

389a. ORTYX VIRGINIANUS (L.) BP.,

var. FLORIDANUS Cs.
Florida Partridgre.

GEN. 184-192 OF KEY. 79

389b. ORTYXVIRGINIANUS (L.)Bp.,
var. TEX ANUS (Lawr.) Cs.
Texan Partridgre.

390. OREORTYX PICTUS (DOUGL.) BD.

Plumed Partridge.

391. LOPHORTYX CALIPORNICUS (SHAW) BP.

Californian Partridgre.

392. LOPHORTYX GAMBELI NUTT.

Chambers Partridgre.

393. CALLIPEPLA SQUAMATA (ViG.) GR.

Scaled Partridgre.

394. CYRTONYX MASSENA (LESS.) GLD.

IKassena Partridgre.

395. SQUATAROLA HELVETICA (L.) Cuv.

Black-bellied Plover.

396. CHARADRIUS FTJLVTJS GM.,

var. VIRGENICUS (Borck.) Cs.
Oolden Plover.

— 397. JEGIALITIS VOCIPERUS (L.) CASS.
Kildeer Plover.

398. ^IGIALITIS WILSONIUS (ORD) CASS.

Plover.

— 399. JEGIALITIS SEMIPALMATUS (Bp.) CAB.
Semipalmated Plover ; lliiig-iieck.

400. .ffiGIALITIS MELODUS (ORD) CAB.

Piping: Plover; Ringrneck.

401. ^IGIALITIS CANTIANUS (Lath.).

Snowy Plover.

GEN. 191-202 OF KEY. 81

402.* ^IGIALITIS ASIATICTTS (PALL.),
var. MONTANUS (Towns.) Cs.
Mountain Plover.

403. APHRIZA VIRGATA (GM.) GR.

Surf Bird.

404. HJEMATOPTJS PALLIATUS TEMM.

Oyster-catcher.

405. HJEMATOPUS NIGER PALLAS.

Black Oyster-catcher.

406. STREPSILAS INTERPRES (L.) ILL.

Turnstone.

406a. STREPSILAS INTERPRES (L.) ILL.,

var. MELANOCEPHALUS (Vig.) Cs.
mack-headed Turnstone.

407. RECURVIROSTRA AMERICANA GM.

Avocet.

408. HIMANTOPTJS NIGRICOLLIS V.

Stilt.

409. STEGANOPUS WILSONI (SAB.) Cs.

Wilson's Phalarope.

410. LOBIPES HYPERBOREUS (L.) Cuv.

Northern Phalarope.

411. PHALAROPUS FULICARIUS (L.) BP.

Bed Phalarope.

412. PHILOHELA MINOR (GM.) GR.

American Woodcock.

[413.] SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA L.
European Woodcock.

*May require to stand as Eudromias montanus (Towns. ^ Harting.

CHECK LIST BIKDS. 6

GEN. 203-207 OF KEY. 83

- 414. GALLINAGO WILSONI (TEMM.) BP.
American Snipe; Wilson'** Snipe.

415. MACRORHAMPHUS GRISEUS (GM.) LEACH.
Ited-oreasted Snipe.

415a. MACRORHAMPHUS GRISEUS (GM.)
var. SCOLOPACEUS (Say) Cs.
Snipe.

416. MICROPALAMA HIMANTOPUS (Bp.) BD.

Stilt Sandpiper.

417. EREUNETES PUSILLUS (L.) CASS.

Semipalmated Sandpiper.

417a. EREUNETES PUSILLUS (L.) CASS.,

var. OCCIDENTALIS (Lawr.) Cs.
Western Semipalinated Sandpiper.

418. TRINGA MINUTILLA V.

Least Sandpiper.

419. TRINGA BAIRDII COUES.

Sandpiper.

420. TRINGA MACULATA V.

Pectoral Sandpiper.

421. TRINGA BONAPARTE! SCHL.
White-rumped Sandpiper.

422? TRINGA COOPERI BD.
Cooper's Sandpiper.

423. TRINGA MARITIMA BRUNNICH.

Purple Sandpiper.

424. TRINGA ALPINA L.,

var. AMERICANA Cass.
American Dunlin.

GEN. 207-217 OF KEY. 85

425. TBINGA SUBABQTJATA GULD.

Curlew Sandpiper.

426. TBINGA CAWUTUS L.
Red-breasted Sandpiper; Knot.

426bis.* TBINGA CBASSIBOSTBIS SCHLEGEL.
Thick-billed Sandpiper.

427. CALIDBIS ABENABIA (L.) ILL.
Sanderlingr ; Rudd y riover.

428. LIMOSA FEDOA (L.) ORD.
Great Garbled Oodwit.

429. LIMOSA HTJDSONICA (LATH.) Sw.

Hudsonian Oodivir.

430. LIMOSA TJBOPYGIALIS %OULD.

TTnite-rumped Ood^'it.

431. TOTANUS SEMIPALMATUS GM.
Semipalniated Tattler; Willet.

432. TOTANUS MELANOLEUCUS GM.

Greater Tell-tale.

433. TOTANUS PLAVIPES GM.

Y e 1 1 o w - s li anks .

[434.] TOTANUS CHLOBOPUS NILSSON.
Oreen-slianks.

435. TOTANTJS SOLITABIUS WILS.

Solitary Tattler.

436. TBINGOIDES MACULABIUS (L.) GR.

Spotted Sandpiper.

*Not in the Key. Obtained at St. Paul's Island, by H. W. Elliot. Identified by
J. E. Harting. See DALL, Am. Nat., vii, Oct., 1873, p. 634.

GEN. 218-222, 224-228 OF KEY. 87

[437.] PHILOMACHUS PUGNAX (L.) GR.
Ruff; Reeve.

438. ACTITUKUS BARTRAMIUS (WiLS.) BP.
Ila rt ram iaii Sandpiper ; Upland Plover.

439. TRYNGITES RUPESCENS (V.) CAB.

Ruff-breasted Sandpiper.

440. HETEROSCELTJS INCANTJS (Gn.) Cs.

Wandering- Tattler.

441. NTJMEimJS LONGIROSTRIS WILS.

JLongr-billed Curlew.

442. NTJMENITJS HUDSONICUS LATH.

Hudsonian Curleiv.

448. NUMENIUS BOREALIS (FORST.) LATH.
Ksquimaux Curlew.

444. TANTALUS LOCULATOR L.

Wood Ibis.

445. IBIS PALCINELLUS AUCT.,

var. ORDn (Bp.) All.
Crlossy Ibis.

446. IBIS ALBA (L.) V.

Wliif e Ibis.

[447.] IBIS RUBRA (L.) V.
Searlet Ibis.

448. PLATALEA AJAJA L.
Roseate Spoonbill.

— 449. ARDEA HERODIAS L.
Great Rlue Heron.

450? ARDEA WURDEMANNI BD.
Florida Heron.

GEN. 228-238, 223 OF KEY. 89

451. ABDEA OCCIDENTALIS AUD.

Groat White Heron.

452. ABDEA EGBETTA GM.
Great White Egret.

453. ABDEA CANDIDISSIMA JACQUIN.

little White Eg-ret.

454. ABDEA LEUCOGASTBA GM.,

var. LEUCOPRYMNA (Licht.) Cs.
louisiana Heron.

455. ABDEA BUPA BODD.

Reddish Egret.

456. ABDEA C^BTJLEA L.
l,i t tie Blue He roii.

*e 457. ABDEA VIBESCENS L.
Green Heron.

— 458. NYCTIABDEA GBISEA (L.) STEPH.,
var. iraviA (Bodd.) Allen.
Heron.

459. NYCTIABDEA VIOLACEA (L.) Sw.
Yellow'-crowTied ^igrht Heron.

460. BOTAUBUS MINOB (GM.).
Bittern; Indian Hen.

461. ABDETTA EXILIS (GM.) GR.

least Bittern.

462. GBUS AMEBICANTJS (L.) ORD.
Wrhite Crane ; Whooping- Crane.

463. GBUS CANADENSIS (L.) TEMM.
Brown Crane ; Sandhill Crane

GEN. 239-247 OF KEY. 91

464. ABAMUS SCOLOPACEUS (GM.) V.,

var. GIGANTEUS (Bp.) Cs.
Scolopaceous Courlan.

465. BALLUS LONGIBOSTBIS BODD.
Clapper Rail; Salt-wrater Marsh Ken.

466. BALLUS ELEGANS AUD.
Fro *li -water 3Iar»H Hen.

467. BALLUS VIBGINIANUS L.

Virginia Rail.

f — 468. POBZANA CABOLINA (L.) V.

Carolina Rail; Nora; Ortolan.

469. POBZANA NOVEBOBACENSIS (GM.) CASS.

Yellow Rail.

470. POBZANA JAMAICENSIS (GM.) CASS.

. Slack Rail.

[471.] CBEX PBATENSIS BECHSTEIN.
Com Crake.

472. GALLINULA GALEATA (LIGHT.) BP.,

(CHLOROPUS var?).
Florida Oallinule.

473. POBPHYBIO MABTINICA (L.) TEMM.

Purple Oallinule.

474. FULICA AMEBICANA GM.

Coot.

475. PHGENICOPTEBUS BUBEB L.

Flamingro.

476. CYGNUS BUCCINATOB KICHARDSON.

Trumpeter §wran.

GEN. 247-250 OF KEY. 93

477. CYGNUS AMERICANO'S SHARPLESS.

Whistling- Swan.

478. ANSER ALBIFRONS GM.,

var. GAMBELI (Hartl.) Cs.
American White-fronted Goose.

479? ANSER CJSRULESCENS L.
Blue Goose.

480. ANSER HYPERBOREUS PALL.

Snow Goose.

480a. ANSER HYPERBOREUS PALL.,

var. ALBATUS (Cass.) Cs.
iLesser Snow Goose.

481. ANSER ROSSII BD.

Goose.

482. PHILACTE CAWAGICA (SEVAST.) BANN.
Painted Goose.

[483.] BRANTA LEUCOPSIS (L.).
Barnacle Goose.

484. BRANTA BERNICLA (L.).

Brant Goose.

485. BRANTA CANADENSIS (L.),
Canada Goose; Wild Goose.

485a. BRANTA CANADENSIS (L.),

var. LEUCOPAREIA (Brandt) Cs.
White-collared Goose.

485b. BRANTA CANADENSIS (L.),
var. HUTCHINSII (Rich.) Cs.
Hutchins' Goose.

GEN. 251-259 OF KEY. 95

486. DENDBOCYGNA FULVA (GM.) BURM.

Fulvous Tree Duck.

487. DENDBOCYGNA AUTUMNALIS (L.) EYTON.

Autumnal Tree Duck.

488. ANAS BOSCHAS L.

Mallard.

*~ 489. ANAS OBSCUBA GM.
Duck.

490. DAPIIiA ACUTA (L.) JENYNS.

Pintail; Sprig-tail.

491. CHAULELASMUS STBEPEBUS (L.) GRAY.

C» ad wall ; Gray Duck.

[492.] MABECA PENELOPE (L.) BP.
European Widgreon.

493? MABECA AMEBICANA (GM.) STEPH.
American Widgreon; Daldpate.

[494.] QUEBQUEDULA CBECCA (L.) STEPH.

Teal.

495. QUEBQUEDULA CABOLINENSIS (GM.).

Green-wing-ed Teal.

496. QUEBQUEDULA DISCOBS (L.) STEPH.

JBlue-wing-ed Teal.

497. QUEBQUEDULA CYANOPTEBA (V.) CASS.

Cinnamon Teal.

498. SPATULA CLYPEATA (L.) BOIE.

Snoveller.

X— 499. AIX SPONSA (L.) BOIE.

Summer Duck ; Wood Duck.

GEN. 260-268 OF KEY. 97

600. PULIGULA MAKILA (L.) STEPH.
Greater Blackhead.

501? FULIGULA APPINIS EYTON.
Lesser Rlackliead.

502. FULIGULA COLLABIS (DONOVAN) BP.

Ring--necked Duck.

503. FULIGULA FEBINA (L.) Sw.,

var. AMERICANA (Eyton) Coues.
Redhead; Pochard.

504. PULIGULA VALLISNEBIA (Was.) STEPH.

Canvas-hack.

505. BUCEPHALA CLANGULA (L.) GR.

CJoIdeii-eyed Duck.

506. BUCEPHALA ISLANDICA (GM.) BD>

llarroiv's Golden-eye.

507. BUCEPHALA ALBEOLA (L.) BD.

Ruffle-headed Ruck.

508. HABELDA GLACIALIS (L.) LEACH.

liongr-tailed Ruck.

509. CAMPTOLJEMUS LABKADOKIUS (GM.) GR.

Labrador Ruck.

510. HISTBIONICUS TOBQUATUS (L.) BP.

Harlequin Ruck.

511. SOMATEBIA STELLEBI (PALL.) JARDINE.

atelier's Ruck.

512. SOMATEBIA PISCHEBI (BRANDT) COUES.

Spectacled Eider.

513. SOMATEBIA MOLLISSIMA (L.) LEACH.

Eider Ruck.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 7

GEN. 268-274 OF KEY. 99

514? SOMATERIA V-NIGRA GRAY.
Pacific Eider.

515. SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (L.) LEACH.

Eider.

516. CEDEMIA AMERICANA Sw.
American lilack Scoter.

517. (EDEMIA FUSCA (L.) Sw.,

(?var. VELVETINA Cass.)
Velvet Scoter.

518. CEDEMIA PERSPICILLATA (L.) FLEMING.

Surf Duck.

518a. CEDEMIA PERSPICILLATA (L.) FUQHXG,
var. TRowmuDGEi (Bd.) Coues.
!Longr-billed Scoter.

519. ERISMATURA RUBIDA (WILS.) BP.

Ruddy II uck.

[520.] ERISMATURA DOMINICA (L.) EYTON.
St. Roming-o 11 uck.

521. MERGUS MERGANSER L.
Merg-anser ; Goosander.

522. MERGUS SERRATOR L.
Red-breasted ]tterg-anser.

523. MERGUS CUCULLATUS L.

Hooded

524. SULA BASS ANA L.
Oannet; Solan Ooose.

525. SULA FIBER L.
Rooby Oaiinet.

526. PELECANUS TRACHYRHYNCHTJS LATH.

Pelican.

GfiEN. 274-280 OP KEY. 101

627. PELECANUS PUSCTJS L.
llroivii Pelican.

528. GRACULUS CARBO (L.) GRAY.
Common Cormorant; Shag*.

529. GRACULUS CINCINNATUS (BRANDT) GMAT.

Wliite-tuftefl Cormorant.

530. GRACULUS DILOPHUS (Sw.) GRAY.

Double-crested Cormorant.

530a. GRACULUS DILOPHUS (Sw.) GRAY,
var. FLORID ANUS (A ad.) Cones.
Florida Cormorant.

531. GRACULUS MEXICAMTTS (BRANDT) BP.

Mexican Cormorant.

632. GRACULUS PENICILLATUS (BRANDT) BP.
Brandt's Cormorant.

533. GRACULUS PERSPICILLATUS (PALL.) LAWK.

Pallas' Cormorant.

534. GRACULUS BICRISTATUS (PALL.) BD.

Red-faced Cormorant.

635. GRACULUS VTOLACEUS (GM.) GR.

Tiolet-grreen Cormorant.

636. PLOTUS ANHINGA L.

Anliingra; Darter.

537. TACHYPETES AQUILUS (L.) V.
JFrigrate.

638. PHAETHON FLAVIROSTRIS BRANDT.

Yellow-billed Tropic Bird.

639. STERCORARIUS SKUA (BRUNN.) COUBB.

(ikua Oull.

GEN. 280-231 OF KEY. 103

540. STERCORARIUS POMATORHINUS (TKMM.) LAWR.

Pomarine Jaegrer.

541. STERCOKARIUS PARASITICUS (BRUNN.) GRAY.

Jaegrer.

542. STERCORARIUS BUFFONI (BOIE) COUES.
Arctic Jaeg-er ; l.ong--tailed Jaegrer.

543. LARUS GLAUCUS BRUNN.

Glaucous Gull.

544. LARUS LEUCOPTERUS FABER.

White-wing-ed Gull.

545. LARUS GLAUCESCENS LIGHT.

Glaucous-wing-ed Criill.

546. LARUS MARINUS L.
Great Black-backed Gull.

647. LARUS ARGENTATUS BRUNN.
Herring* Gull; Common Gull.

547a. LARUS ARGENTATUS BRUNN.,

var. SMITHSONIANUS Coues.
American Herring* Gull.

547b. LARUS ARGENTATUS BRUNN.,
var. OCCIDENTALS (And.) Coues.
Western Herring- Gull.

548. LARUS DELAWARENSIS ORD.

Iting*-billed Gull.

548a. LARUS DELAWARENSIS ORD,
var. CALIFORNICUS (Lawr.) Coues.
Californian Gull.

549. LARUS CANUS L.,

Var. BRACHYRHYNCHUS (Rich.) COUCS.

American ^lew Gull.

GEN. 281-291 OF KEY. 105

550. LARUS EBURNEUS GM.

Ivory Gull.

551. LARTJS BELCHERI VIGORS.

White-headed Gull

552. LARUS TRIDACTYLUS L.

Kittiwake Gull.

552a. LARUS TRIDACTYLUS L.,
var. KOTZEBUI (Bp.) Coues.
Pacific Kittiwake.

553. LARUS BREVIROSTRIS (BRANDT) COUES.

Short-hilled Kittiwake.

554. LARUS ATRICILLA L.

Gull.

555. LARUS FRANKLINI RICH.

Franklin's Rosy Gull.

556. LARUS PHILADELPHIA (Oiu>) COUES.

Bonaparte's Gull.

557. RHODOSTETHIA ROSE A (MACGILL.) BP.

Wedgre-tailed Gull.

558. XEMA SABINEI (SAB.) BP.

Fork-tailed Gull.

659. XEMA FURCATUM (NEBOUX).
Swallow-tailed Gull.

560. STERNA ANGLICA MONTAGU.
Gull-hilled Tern ; Jflarsh Tern.

561. STERNA CASPIA PALLAS,

var. IMPERATOR Coues.
Caspian Tern.

662. STERNA REGIA GAMBEL.
Royal Tern.

GEN. 291-295 OF KEY. 107

563. STERNA GALERICULATA LIGHT.
JBlegrant Tern.

5G4. STERNA CANTIACA GM.
Sandwich Tern.

565. STERNA HIRUNDO L.
Common Tern; Sea * wallow.

566. STERNA PORSTERI NUTT.

Forster's Tern.

567. STERNA MACROURA NAUMANN.

Arctic Tern.

568. STERNA LONGIPENNIS NORDMANN.

Pike's Tern.

569. STERNA PARADIS^IA BRUNN.

Roseate Tern.

670. STERNA SUPER CILIARIS V.
Least Tern.

[571.] STERNA TRUDEAUI AUD.
Trudeau's Tern.

572. STERNA ALEUTICA BAIRD.

Aleutian Tern.

573. STERNA FULIGINOSA GM.

Sooty Tern.

[574.] STERNA ANOSTHJETA SCOPOLI.
Bridled Tern.

575. HYDROCHELIDON PISSIPES (L.) GRAY.

Black Tern.

576. ANGUS STOLIDUS (L.) LEACH.

Noddy Tern.

577. RHYNCHOPS NIGRA L.

Black Skimmer.

GEN. 296-305 OF KEY. 109

578. DIOMEDEA BBACHYUKA TEMM.

Short-tailed Albatross.

579. DIOMEDEA NIGBIPES AUD.
Black-footed Albatross.

580. DIOMEDEA FULIGINOSA GM.

Sooty Albatross.

581. FULMABUS GIGANTEUS (GM.).

Giant Fulmar.

582. FULMABUS GLACIALIS (L.) STEPH.

fulmar Petrel.

582a. FULMABUS GLACIALIS (L.) STEPH.,
var. PACIFICUS (Aud.) Coues.
Pacific Fulmar.

582b. FULMABUS GLACIALIS (L.) STEPH.,
var. RODGERSI (Cass.) Coues.
Rodgrers' Fulmar.

[583.] FULMABUS TENUIBOSTBIS (AUD.) COUKS.
Slender-billed Fulmar.

[584.] DAPTION CAPENSIS (L.) STEPH.
Pintado Petrel ; Cape Pig-eon.

[585.] JSSTBELATA HJESITATA (KUHL) COUES.
Black-capped Petrel.

586. HALOCYPTENA MICBOSOMA COUES.
Wedgre-tailed Petrel; Least Petrel.

587. PBOCELLABIA PELAGICA L.

Stormy Petrel ; Mother Carey's Chicken.

588. CYMOCHOBEA LEUCOBBHOA (V.) COUES.

Leach's Petrel.

589. CYMOCHOBEA MELANIA (Bp.) COUES.

Black Petrel.

GEN. 305-310 OF KEY. Ill

590. CYMOCHOREA HOMOCHROA COUES.

Ashy Petrel.

591. OCEANODROMA FURCATA (GM.) BP.

Fork-tailed Petrel.

592. OCEANODROMA HORNBYI (GBAY) Bp,

Hornby's Petrel.

593. OCEANITES OCEANICA (KUHL) COUES.

Wilson's Petrel.

[591.] FREGETTA GRALLARIA (V.) Bp.
White-beHied Petrel.

[595.] PUPFINUS MELANURUS (BONN.) COUES.
Jflack-tailetl Shearwater.

596. PUFFINUS KUHLII BP.
Cinereous Shearwater.

597. PUFFINUS MAJOR FABER.

Oreater Shearwater.

598? PUFFINUS CREATOPUS COUES.
flesh-tooted Shearwater.

599. PUFFINUS ANGLORUM TEMM.
Shearwater.

600. PUFFINUS OBSCURUS (Gsi.) LATH.

Dusky Shearwater.

001? PUFFINUS OPISTHOMELAS COUES.
Itlacli-veiited shearwater.

602? PUFFINUS FULIGINOSUS STRICKL.
Sooty Shearwater.

603? PUFFINUS AMAUROSOMA COUES.
Dark-bodied Shearivater.

601. PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS TKMM.

Slender-billed Shearwater.

GEN. 311-314 OF KEY. 113

605. COLYMBUS TORQUATUS BRUNN.
toon; Groat 3fortlicrii IHvcr.

605a. COLYMBUS TORQUATUS BRUNN.,

var. ADAMSII (Gray) Coues.
irelloiv-billcd to on.

606. COLYMBUS ARCTICUS L.
ISlacK-tltroatcd Diver.

606a. COLYMBUS ARCTICUS L.,
var. PACIFICUS (Lawr.) Coues.
Pacific Diver.

— 607. COLYMBUS SEPTENTRIONALIS L.
Red-tbroated Diver.

608. PODICEPS OCCIDENTALS LAWR.

Western O relic.

608a. PODICEPS OCCIDENTALS LAWR.,
var. CLARKII (Lawr.) Coues.
Clarke's Grebe.

609. PODICEPS CRISTATUS (L.) LATH.

Crested Grebe.

610. PODICEPS GRISEIGENA (BODD.) GRAY,

var HOLBOLLI (Reinh.) Coues.
Red-necked Grebe.

— 611.*PODICEPS CORNUTUS (Gai.) LATQ.
Horned Grebe.

612. PODICEPS AURITUS (L.) LATH.,

var. CALIFORNICUS (Heerm.) Coues.
American Eared Grebe.

613. PODICEPS DOMINICUS (L.)

St. Domingro Grebe.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 8

GEN. 315-323 OF KEY. 115

6H. PODILYMBUS PODICEPS (L.) LAWR.
Pied-billed l>al>< hi< k.

615. ALGA IMPENNIS L.

Oreat Auk.

[Extinct ?]

616. UTAMANIA TORDA (L.) LEACH.

Razor-billed Auk.

617. FRATERCULA CORNICULATA (NAUM.) GRAY.

Honied Puffin.

618. FRATERCULA ARCTICA (L.) STEPH.

Common Puffin; Sea Parrot.

618a. PRATERCULA ARCTICA (L.) STEPH.,
var. GLACIALIS (Leach) Cones.
Largre-billed Puffin.

619. PRATERCULA CIRRHATA (PALL.) STEPH.

Tufted Puffin.

620. CERATORHINA MONOCERATA (PALL.) CASS.

Horn-billed Auk.

621. PHALERIS PSITTACTJLA (PALL.) TEMM.

Parroquet Auk.

622. SIMORHYNCHUS CRISTATELLUS (PALL.) MBRREM.

Crested Auk.

623. SIMORHYNCHUS CAMTSCHATICUS (LEPECH,) SCHL.

Whiskered Auk.

624. SIMORHYNCHUS PUSILLUS (PALL.) COTTES.

K^nob-billed Auk; Least Auk.

626. PTYCHORHAMPHUS ALEUTICUS (PALL.) BRANDT.
Aleutian Auk.

GEN. 324-328 OF KEY. 117

626. MERGULUS ALLE (L.) VIEILL.

Sea Dove ; I>ovekie.

627. SYKTTHLIBORHAMPHUS ANTIQUUS (Gn.) BRANDT.

lllack-tliroatctl Guillemot.

628. SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS

WURMIZUSUME (TEMM.) COUM.
Temmiiick's Auk.

629. BRACHYRHAMPHUS MARMORATUS (GM.) BRANDT.

Marbled Murrelet.

630. BRACHYRHAMPHUS KITTLITZII BRANDT.

JKittlitz's Murrelet.

631. URIA GRYLLE (L.) BRUNN.
Slack Ouillemot ; §ea Pig-eon.

632. URIA COLUMBA (PALL.) CASS.

Pig-eon Oulllemot.

633. URIA CARBO (PALL.) BRANDT.

Sooty Guillemot.

634. LOMVIA TROILE (L.) BRANDT.
Common Guillemot; IHurre.

635. LOMVIA ARRA (PALL.) COUES.

Tnick-billed Guillemot.

EXTESTCT SPECIES.

1. TJINTOBNIS LUCABIS MARSH.

2. AQUILA BANANA MARSH.

3. BUBO LEPTOSTEUS MARSH.

4. MELEAGBIS ANTIQUUS MARSH.

5. MELEAGBIS ALTUS MARSH.

6. MELEAGBIS CELEB MARIH.

7. GBTTS HAYDENI MARSH.

8. GBUS PBOAVUS MARSH.

9. ALETOBNIS NOBILIS MARSH.

10. ALETOBNIS PEBNIX MARSH.

11. ALETOBNIS VENUSTUS MARSH.

12. ALETOBNIS GBACILIS MARSH.

13. ALETOBNIS BELLUS MARSH.

14. TELMATOBNIS PBISCUS MARSH.

15. TELMATOBNIS AFPINIS MARSH.

(119)

EXTINCT SPECIES. 121

16. PALJSOTRINGA LITTORALIS MARSH.

17. PAL^OTRINGA VETUS MARSH.

18. PAL-ffiOTRINGA VAGANS MARSH.

19. STJLA LOXOSTYLA COPE.

20. GRACULUS IDAHENSIS MARSH.

21. GRACULAVUS VELOX MARSH.

22. GRACULAVUS PUMILUS MARSH.

23. GBACULAVUS ANCEPS MARSH.
23bis.* GRACULAVUS AGILIS MARSH.

24. ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR MARSH.
24bis.f APATORNIS CELER MARSH.

25. PUPPINUS CONRADI MARSH.

26. CATARRACTES ANTIQUUS MARSH.

27. CATARRACTES APPINIS MARSH.

28. HESPERORNIS REGALIS MARSH.

29. LAORNIS EDVARDSIANUS MARSH.

*Not in the Key. (Marsh, Am. Jour., Sci. and Arts, v, p. 230, March, 1873.)

fNot In the Key. This species, with No. 24, represents a nevr order, Ichthyor-
nithes, of a new subclass, Odontornithes. (Marsh, Am. Jour., Sci. and Arts, v,
p. 161, Feb., 1873.)

APPENDIX

CONTAINING

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS
TO THE CHECK LIST.

PREPARED under circumstances of remote isolation which deprived
the author of the advantage of certain works of reference he desired
to consult, the CHECK LIST contains some names for which no
authority is cited, and in a few instances a change of the authority
given may be required.

One new species has been added to the North American fauna during
the printing of the List ; five additional known species have since been
ascertained to occur in this country, and meanwhile several new varie-
ties have been published after the impression had passed the page
where they should respectively appear; these are brought into the
present connection. Most of them appear entitled to varietal recog-
nition; but in printing the names formally, for the convenience of
those who may desire to use such names in labelling, the author must
not necessarily be held to endorse them in every instance.

The body of the List was printed, and some early copies distributed,
in Dec., 1873; but the publication of the volume was held over until
1874, to insert in the Appendix names then about being published.

No. 41? The query indicates a probability that this is a variety of
No. 40, as held by Mr. Allen.

No. 46. The United States form constitutes a variety of true mexi-
canus. See Ridgway, Am. Nat., vii, 1873, 603.

(123)

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 125

46. CATHERPES MEXICANUS (Sw.) BD.,

var. COXSPERSUS Ridg.
White-throated Wren.

No. 53a. The pale western Eremophila, not the same as the small
bright southwestern var. rufa, may be distinguished as

53b. EBEMOPHILA ALPESTRIS (FORST.),
var. LEUCOL^EMA Coues.
Prairie

No. 55bis. The following species, a straggler from Asia, is in the
Smithsonian Institution from St. Michael's, Alaska, and should take
place in the list.

[55bis.] ANTHUS PRATENSIS BECHST.
Aleadow Pipit.

No. 68. *The Pacific form is varietally distinguishable. See Ridg-
way, Am. Nat., vii, 1873. 606. The Floridan form, later distinguished
by Mr. Ridgway as var. obscurus, seems hardly worthy of recognition
by name.

68a. HELMINTHOPHAGA CELATA (SAY) BD.,

var. LUTESCENS Ridg.
Golden Orangre-crowned Warbler.

No. 88. On the Mississippi Valley form, see Ridgway, Am. Nat.,
vii, 1873, 606.

88a. DENDRCECA DOMINICA (L.) BD.,

var. ALBILORA Bd.
White-browed Yellow-throated Warbler.

No. 99 ? The probability mentioned in the text may be regarded as
assured.

No. 102. The Pacific form is varietally distinguishable. See Ridg-
way, Am. Nat., vii, 1873, 608.

102a. MYIODIOCTES PUSILLUS (WILS.) BP.,

var. PILEOLATA (Pall.) Ridg.
Pacific Flycatching- Warbler.

[No. 106.] According to Baird and Ridgway, Am. Nat., vii, 1873,
612, this should stand as C. bahamensis.

[106.] CERTHIOLA BAHAMENSIS Reich.
Honey Creeper.

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 127

No. 135a. The C. elegans of Baird (not of Swainson) has been re-
named G. ludomcianus var. robustus, a name which, however, it may
not be necessary to adopt. (Am. Nat., vii, 1873, 609.)

[No. 138] ? The query indicates that the determination of specific
validity, cited and adopted in the Key, may have been made by Dr.
Tristram on grounds held in the Key to constitute only geographical
varieties ; so that we may revert to the view of its original describer
as P. coccinea var. cassini Bd.

[138.] PYKRHULA COCCINEA,

var. CASSINI Bd.
Cassin's Bullfinch.

No. 144. The Leucosticte tephrocotis var. australis Allen, lately de-
scribed by Mr. Ridgway (Ess. Inst. Bull., v, 197), I believe to be
merely the midsummer plumage of the ordinary bird, as my ^Egiothus
var. fuscescens probably is of A. linaria.

No. 155. For chestnut-colored read chestnut-collared.

" 157. Omit the query, which should have been affixed to the next
species.

No. 157bis. To be cancelled. See Scott, Am. Nat., vii, 1873, 564;
Coues, ibid., p. 696.

No. 165. There is a curious small blackish form of this species from
Florida, which has been distinguished (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 198) as

165a. AMMODROMUS MARITIMUS Sw.,

var. NIGRESCENS Ridgw.
Dusky Seaside Fiiicli.

No. 170a. Mr. Ridgway has lately demonstrated to my satisfaction
that Peuccea cassini is a distinct species ; the bird which I called "var.
cassini" is a variety of cestivalis which he proposes to call var. arizonce.
Am. Nat., vii, 1873, 616. So the species and varieties will stand :—

170a. PETJCJEA .ZBSTIVALIS (LIGHT.) CAB.,

var. ARIZONA Ridg.
Arizona Pine Fiiioli.

170bis. PETJC-SIA CASSIWT (WOODH.) BD.
Cassin's Pine Finch.

No 173. A very notable variety of Poospiza belli, from Nevada, has
lately been characterized (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 198). It is much larger,
paler and grayer, with streaked interscapulars.

173a. POOSPIZA BELLI (CASS.) SCL.,
var. NEVADENSIS Ridg.
lievadan Fincn.

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 129

No. 174. The form of Junco with white wing-bars, noted in the
Key, p. Hi, is named J. hijemalis var. aikeni Kidgway, Am. Nat., vii,
1873, 616. See also Pr. Bost. Soc., xv, 1872, p. 201.

174a. JUNCO HYEMALIS (L.) Scl.,

var. AIKENI Ridg.
White-wingrcd Snowbird.

Nos. 175? 176? The queries indicate the gradation with No. 174
noted in the Key, p. 141.

No. 183a. The true Z. leucophrys var. gambeli is a Pacific coast form,
from which the Middle Coast form has been distinguished (Bull. Ess.
Inst., v, 198) as

183b. ZONOTRICHIA LEUCOPHRYS (FoRST.) Sw.,

var. INTERMEDIA Ridgw.
Ridgrway's Sparrow.

No. 206. For Canon read Canon.

" 210. The prairie form has been characterized as Dolichonyx
oryzivorus var. albinucha Ridg. (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 198), a name it
may not be necessary to adopt.
No. 216. For Daudin read Daudin.

" 220. For Girand read Giraud.

" 226. For Nuttallii read Nuttalli.

" 229a. For Gairclnerii read Gairdneri.

" 237. The question of synonymy left open in the Key, p. 166, has
been determined (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 199) as follows: "A. sordida"
of the Key is a new variety, arizonce of ultramarina, the true sordida
being a Mexican variety of the same species. Accordingly, No. 237
should stand as

237. APHELOCOMA ULTRAMARINA (Bp.) CAB.,

var. ARIZONA (Ridg.)
Arizona Ultramarine Jay.

No. 239. Two varieties of Canada jay, one from Alaska, the other
from the Rocky Mountains, have lately been named (Bull. Ess. Inst.,
v, 199).

239a. PERISOREUS CANADEWSIS (L.) BP.,

var. OBSCURUS Ridg.
Dusky Canada Jay.

239b. PERISOREUS CANADENSIS (L.) BP.,

var. CAPITALIS Bd.
Rocky ^fountain Jay.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 9

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 131

No. 274bis. A fine species of humming bird has been discovered by
Mr. H. W. Henshaw to inhabit Arizona, and has been determined
by Mr. Lawrence to be Eugenes fulgens. (Am. Nat., viii, 1874, in
press.)

274bis. EUGENES FULGENS (Sw.).
Refulg-ent Humming-bird.

No. 279. The authority is (LESS.) BP.

" 281. The authority is (LESS.) GLD.

" 292. The authority is (LATH.) NUTT.

" 303 ? This species, queried in the text, and in Key, p. 195, may
be regarded as a variety of 302, the intergradation, through 302a, prov-
ing complete. See Ridgway, Am. Jour., iv, Dec., 1872.

302b. SPHYRAPICUS VAKIUS (L.) BD.,

var. RUBER (Gm.) Ridg.
Red-breasted Woodpecker.

Nos. 304, 305. Observations lately made by Mr. H. W. Henshaw
(Am. Nat., viii, 1874, in press) are to the effect that Sphyrapicus thy-
roideus is the female of S. williamsoni. The opposite sexes of each
of these species have not been satisfactorily recognized, and upon
examination of Mr. Henshaw's material, I find almost conclusive evi-
dences in favor of his views, substantiating his observations. Such
sexual differences are unique in the family. As the older name, S.
thyroideus will stand for the species, 8. williamsoni becoming a syno-
nyme. No. 305 is therefore to be cancelled.

No. 307. The authority is (WAGL.) GRAY.

No. 318. A dark Floridan form of Scops has been characterized
under the following name (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 200) :—

818c. SCOPS ASIO (L.) BP.,

var. FLORIDANUS Ridg.
Flo rid a ii * ere celt Owl.

No. 320. The authority is FLEMING.
" 321. The authority is (BKCHST.) BP.

" 322. The term cinereutri has priority over lapponicum ; the bird
should stand as

322. SYRNTUM CINEBEUM (GM.) AUD.,
Circa* Gray Owl.

No. 327. The authority is (GM.) BP.
" 329. The authority is (L.) BP.
" 330. The authority is (MAX.) KAUP.

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 133

Nos. 343, 344. The dark northwest coast forms of duck hawk and
pigeon hawk respectively have been named (Bull. Ess. lust., v, 201)
as follows : —

343a. PALCO COMMUNIS GM.,

var. PEAT.EI Kidg.
Peale's Duck Hawk.

344a. PALCO COLUMBABIUS L.,

var. SUCKLEYI Ridg.
Buckley 's Pig-eon Hawk.

No. 351c. The authority is HOOPES, Pr. Fhila. Acad., 1873, 238, pi.
5 (Iowa).

No. 381. A dark form of Tetrao obscurus, from Sitka, has lately been
characterized (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 199) : it is more like true obscurus
than like var. richardsoni, having the broad terminal slate bar of the
tail.

381b. TETRAO OBSCURUS SAY,

var. FULIGINOSA (Ridg.).
Sitkan Dusky Grouse.

No. 384. A pale form of Cupidonia, from Texas, has lately been
characterized (Bull. Ess. Inst., v, 199) :—

384a. CUPIDONIA CUPIDO (L.) BD.,

var. PALLIDICLNCTA Ridg.
Texas Prairie Hen.

No. 400. A variety of this species is described by Mr. Ridgway,
(Am/ Nat., viii, 1874, 109), as A. melodus var. circumcinctus, having
the black pectoral band complete.

400a. JBGIALITIS MELODUS (ORD) CAB.,

var. CIRCUMCINCTUS Ridg.
Missouri Piping- Plover.

No. 400bis. A new species of jEgialitis is described from Sar Fran-
cisco by Mr. Ridgway (Am. Nat., viii, 1874, 109).

400bis. ^IGIALITIS MICRORHYNCHUS RIDG.
Slender-billed Plover.

No. 401. The American form of j3S. cantianus may be considered

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 135

varietally distinct from the European (see Ridgway, Am. Nat., viii,
1874, 109).

401. JEGIALITIS CANTIAMTTS (LATH.),
var. NIVOSUS (Cass.) Ridgw.
Snowy JPlover.

No. 402*. As intimated in the text, the North American mountain
plover is perfectly distinct from the Asiatic. I have only lately seen it
in breeding dress : it has no black pectoral band, but a transverse
black coronal belt and black loral stripe.

402. EUDROMIAS MONTANUS (TOWNS.) HARTING.
Mountain Plover.

No. 415a. It is not necessary to recognize this even by varietal
name; " M. scolopaceus" being merely longer-billed specimens of M.
griseus, such as may be shot out of almost any flock of the latter.
The range of variation in length of bill is no greater than that occur-
ring in Ereunetes pusillus, as noted in the Key, p. 254.

No. 442bis. A well known Pacific curlew, before overlooked in the
Smithsonian collection, was taken at Fort Renai, Alaska, May 18, 1869,
by F. Bischoff, and should be added to the last as a straggler.

[442bis.] inJMENTUS FEMORALIS PEALE.
Bristle-bellied Curlew.

No. 445. According to Mr. Ridgway (Am. Nat., viii, 1874, 110), the
ordinary North American glossy ibis is absolutely identical with that
of the Old World. He, however, finds two other species in western
United States, /. guarauna and /. thalassinus. According to this
determination our species would stand as follows : —

445. IBIS FALCINELLUS AUCT.
Glossy Ibis.

445bis. IBIS GUARATTNA (LINN.) RIDG.
White-faced Ibis.

445ter. IBIS THAI. ASBESTOS RIDG.
Green Ibis.

No. 448bis. I am informed by Prof. Baird that the Jabiru, of Cen-
tral America, was taken some years since at Austin, Texas. It should
enter the list as a straggler.

[448bis.] MYCTERIA AMERICANA L.
Jabiru.

APPENDIX TO CHECK LIST. 137

No. 450? For occasion of the query see Key, p. 2G7.
No. 466. A pale form is described from California. See Ridgway
(Am. Nat., viii, 1874, 111).

46Ga. RALLTTS ELEGANS AUD.,

var. OBSOLETUS Ridg.
Califomian Rail.

No. 470. A peculiar variety of the black rail is described from the
Faralloues by Mr. Ridgway (Amer. Nat., viii, 1874, 111).

470a. PORZANA JAMAICENSIS (GM.) CASS.,

var. COTURXICULUS Bd.
Pacific Black Rail.

No. 472. The relationships of this form to the European £. chloropus
require further investigation. It will probably stand as

472. GALLINULA CHLOROPUS LATH.,
var. GALEATA (Licht.) Hartl.

No. 479? Compare Key, p. 282.

No. 489. A lighter colored form of dusky cluck, with a buff throat, is
described from Florida (by Mr. Ridgway, I. c.), where it is resident.

489a. ANAS OBSCURA GM.,

var. FULVIGULA Ridg.
Florida™ Dusky Duck.

No. 493? The query indicates probability of only varietal distinction
from No. 492.

No. 501 ? The query indicates probability of only varietal distinction
from No. 500.

No. 575bis. A specimen of the European white-winged tern, Hydro-
chelidon leucoptera, was taken in Wisconsin, July 5, 1873, by Th. Kum-
lein, and presented to the Smithsonian by Dr. Brewer This is the
flrst instance known of its occurrence in this country.

[575bis.] HYDROCHELIDOW LEUCOPTERA (MEis.) BOIK.
White-wiiig-ed Slack Tern.

CHECK LIST BIRDS. 9*

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