i>^» ":;iiii DAVID O. MCKAY LIBRARY 3 1404 00788 0518 °ATE DUE c °emcc Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from Brigham Young University-Idaho http://archive.org/details/firstbookofnaturOOtalm FIRST BOOK OF NATURE, BY JAMES E. TALMAGE. PUBLISHED BY THE CONTRIBUTOR COMPANY, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. 1888. Copyright 1888:— by J. E. Talmage. FROM THE PRKSS OF THE DESERET NEWS COMPANY. PREFACE. g||N PREPARING this little volume, the author aS* has made no greater pretension than is implied £iS> in its title. The matter here presented is designed to assist in the elementary study of the simplest objects of Nature; such as ail people have more or less necessity of dealing with. The order in which the topics have been treated, is the one that appeared most natural, and easiest to follow — animals, plants, and minerals of earth, and the most conspicuous objects of the heavens. No detailed classification has been attempted; nor have technical definitions or terms been employed; but it is hoped that the plan here adopted, will serve the reader as an introduction to a more thorough and systematic study of natural science, if to pursue such should be his desire. The writer has sought in a sincere though humble way to demonstrate the meaning of "Nature" as defined in the introductory chapter; that Nature is but another name for the will of God as expressed in iv PREFACE. His works. Many of the ideas presented are of necessity far from new — such facts have long been common property of the reading public; but wherever cullings have been made from standard works, credit has been given in the body of the book. All the illustrations in Parts I, III and IV have been taken from "Steele's Zoology," "Geology," and "Astronomy," by the kind permission of the publish- ers, A. S. Barnes & Co. of New York and Chicago. J. E. T. Salt Lake City, Nov., 1888. "And this our life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything." CONTENTS. Chapter I.— Introduction - - 1 PART I. — The Animal Kingdom. Chapter II. — Animals, ... 5 Chapter III. — Apes and Monkeys, - - 7 Chapter IV. — Insectivorous Animals: Bats, Moles, 12 Chapter V. — Carnivorous Animals: Cat Family; Dog Family; Weasel Family, - - -16 Chapter VI. — Herbivorous Animals: Horse Family; Ox Family; Hog, - 24 Chapter VII. — Rodents or Gnawing Animals: Mice; Rats: Gophers, Squirrels; - - -31 Chapter VIII.— The Birds, - - 36 Chapter IX. — Birds at Home, - 43 ChapterX. — Birds of Prey: Condor; Eagles; Hawks; Owls, - - - 51 Chapter XI. — Climbing Birds: Woodpeckers; Par- rots; Toucans, - - - - 58 Chapter XII. — Scratching Birds: Pigeons; Domestic Fowls; Running Birds, - - - 64 Chapter XIII. — Perching Birds; Water Birds, 69 Chapter XIV.— Reptiles; Turtles, - - 74 Chapter XV. — Snakes and Lizards, - - 78 Chapter XVI.— Frogs and Toads, - - 84 Chapter XVII.— Fishes, ... 89 Chapter XVIII.— Some Fishes, - - 95 Chapter XIX.— Insects, - - 99 Chapter XX.— Bees and Wasps, - - - 103 Chapter XXI.— Ants, Grasshoppers and Butterflies, 10!) Chapter XXII.— Flies and Beetles, - - 114 Chapter XXIII.— Spiders, - - - 120 vi CONTENTS. Page. Chapter XXIV. — Worms and Snails, - 122 Chapter XXV.— Some Tiny Creatures, - - 128 PART II. — The Vegetable or Plant Kingdom. Chapter XXVI.— Plants and How they Grow, 131 Chapter XXVII.— Plant Roots, - - 135 Chapter XXVIII.— Plant Stems, - - 140 Chapter XXIX. — Leaves, - - - 146 Chapter XXX. — Some Curious Leaves, - 150 Chapter XXXI — Flower-cups, - - - 155 Chapter XXXII— How Flowers are Fertilized, 159 Chapter XXXIII.— Fruits, - - 166 Chapter XXXIV.— Wandering Seeds, - 174 Chapter XXXV.— Parasitic Plants, - - 180 PART III.-— The Mineral or Stone Kingdom. Chapter XXXVI.— Rocks and Stones, - 184 Chapter XXXVII.— Pebbles and What They Tell, 190 Chapter XXXVIII. — Sand and Sandstones, 195 Chapter XXXIX. - Mud and Mud-Stones, - 199 Chapter XL.— About Limestones, - - 203 Chapter XLI. — Limestone Made Over, - - 208 Chapter XL II.— Rocks Formed by Heat: Veins, 215 Chapter XL I II. —A Talk About Coal, - - 221 Chapter XLIV. — Pictures in the Rocks, - 226 Chapter XLV.— Crystals, - - 234 PART IV.— The Heavens. Chapter XL VI.— A Glance at the Sky, - - 239 Chapter XL VII.— The Sun, - - 245 Chapter XL VIII.— The Moon; Eclipses, - 251 Chapter XL IX.— The Stars. - - - 258 Chapter L. — Conclusion, - - - 264 ILLUSTRATIONS Page. Fig. 1.— Bony Skeleton of a Cow, - - 6 Fig. 2.— Gorilla, .... 8 Fig. 3.— Skeleton of Bat, - - - 13 Fig. 4.— Plan of Mole's Dwelling, - - 15 Fig. 5. — Weasel in its Winter Dress, - - 21 Fig. 6.— Grizzly Bear, ... 23 Fig. 7.— Stomach of Sheep, - - - 27 Fig. 8.— Asiatic Elephant, 28 Fig. 9. — Weaver Bird's Home, - - - 46 Fig. 10.— White-headed Eagle, - - 53 Fig. 11.— Box Tortoise— With Closed Shell. - 75 Fig. 12. — River Tortoise or "Snapping Turtle," 77 Fig. 13.— Rattlesnake's Skull Showing Fangs, - 79 Fig. 14.— Rattlesnake, ... 80 Fig. 15. — Tadpole Changes, - - - 85 Fig. 16.— Skeleton of Frog, ... 85 Fig. 17.— Skeleton of Fish, - - - 90 Fig. 18.— Humble Bee and Honey Cells, - 105 Fig. 19.— Tent Caterpillar Moth, - - - 113 Fig. 20.— Mosquito, 116 Fig. 21.— Stag-horn Beetle, - - 119 Fig. 22.— Trichina in Flesh of Swine, - 126 Fig. 23.— Chalk under the Microscope, - - 128 Fig. 24.— Amoeba, .... 129 Fig. 25. — Structure of Exogenous Stem, - - 143 Fig. 26. — Structure of Endogenous Stem, 144 Fig. 27.— Leaf, - ... . - 147 Fig. 28.— Parts of a Typical Flower, - - 156 Fig. 29.— Morning-glory Flower, - - 158 Fig. 30.— Pollen Grain from Rose Mallow, - 159 vm ILLUSTRATIONS. P»ge. Fig. 31.— Fossil Fern in Coal Slate, - - 222 Fig. 32.— Ammonites, 227 Fig. 33.— Crinoid or "Stone Lily," - - 228 Fig. 34.— Encrinital Marble, 229 Fig. 35.— Rain Drop Marks in Mud and Stone, - 232 Fig. 36.— Ripple Marks in Stone, - - 233 Fig. 37.— Cluster of Quartz Crystals, - - 237 Fig. 38.— Diagram of Earth's Orbit, - - 248 Fig. 39.— Diagram of Moon's Orbit, - - 253 Fig. 40.— Star Cluster in Toucan, - - 262 Fig. 41.— Annular Nebula, - - .263 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. |§&N THE course of a single day, such a great ^JJ variety of things conies before our view, that ? their names and definitions alone would fill a larger volume than this. Yet, they may all be classed in two clearly defined groups. Every object is either a natural or an artificial production; the former division including all those things that have not been in any way changed or operated upon by man; whereas, artificial things, are those that are made from natural materials, through human instru- mentality. Wood, iron and stone are natural products of the earth; but a house made of such materials is an artificial thing. The horses that draw our vehicles are animals, and animals constitute one of the largest divisions of natural objects; but the wagon, which they pull, and the harness, by which they are attached, are artificial products, 2 2 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. having been manufactured through the agency of man. In the course of this little book, we hope to devote some attention to the first class of things, or natural objects — those that are produced without human intervention, through the operation of the laws of Nature. Nature, in our present sense, means that system and order of things about us which is inde- pendent of, and, indeed, superior to human action. Before man was placed on earth, there was day and night, summer and winter; the sun shone, and the rains fell; seeds sprouted, and flowers and fruits appeared in their proper season — these things are not controlled by man; they operate under the laws of Nature. Such laws have been in force since the far distant days of creation, when Jehovah spake, and as a result of His Almighty word, land and water were formed, the grass, and the herb and the fruit tree grew, and each yielded seed after its kind; the sun became visible in the heavens by day, and the moon and stars shed their inspiring rays over the sleeping earth; the fowl, the fish, creeping things and beasts came forth to enjoy the life allotted to them, and to accomplish the object of their existence. Such mighty deeds were done through the word of God, in accordance with His righteous will; yet man says these things were natural occurrences, — taking place in obedience to the laws of Nature. Nature then is but another name for the will of God; that which He decrees is done; His will is the law of existence. Look around the world and behold the uncounted INTRODUCTION. 3 results of His omnipotent labors; — the things of Nature have been called the thoughts of God — they are indeed an embodiment and a realization of His all-wise designs. By learning the use and purposes of things, to a small degree, at least, we grasp the idea of their Creator; and to do this is to become truly wise. From the simplest objects, oftentimes the deepest lessons may be learned: "The waves that moan along the shore, The winds that sigh in blowing, Are sent to teach a mystic lore Which men are wise in knowing." The broad pages of Nature's book are open for us all to read; but, like the schoolboy, poring over his simple lesson, we can study best with the assistance of a skillful teacher; and the wisest instructor is the Author of that great volume. Careful thought and prayerful study, are the mystic raps, before which the doors of Wisdom's temple swing, and by which that sacred edifice is opened for our use. Let us knock and gladly enter, remembering ever the sanctity of the place, and the holiness of our sur- roundings. Confining our attention now to the class of natural things, as distinguished from others which are the products of human art, the objects of interest that present themselves for our study, are so numerous, that they bewilder us by their variety. It is best, therefore, that we follow some system or method of classification in our dealing with such a multitude of things. We are all familiar with the sight of horses and 4 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. cattle, of dogs, butterflies and bees, and many other creatures which resemble, to some degree, one or the other of these; all such are called Animals. Besides these, we see trees and shrubs, grasses, flowers and weeds, all springing from the soil, and these we know under the name of Plants. And again, there are pebbles, and boulders, sand, gravel, and clay, all of which are called Stones. Every natural object belongs to one of these three groups, which, indeed, have been called the Three Kingdoms of Nature: 1. The Animal Kingdom. 2. The Vegetable or Plant Kingdom. 3. The Mineral or &tone Kingdom. Animals all live, grow, and move, though some much more freely than others, and all feed on plants, or other animals. Plants live and grow also, deriving their nourishment from the soil, water, and air. Minerals, however, do not live or grow at all, as do animals and plants; they need no food; the sum- mer's heat does not cause them to fade or faint; the frosts of winter do not kill them, for they are dead. A stone can be cut or broken in any shape, but the nature of the rock itself, is apparently unchanged thereby; while any such violence executed on a liviug thing would result in its death. Part I. Thie Animal Kingdom. "He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small: For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all." CHAPTER II. ANIMALS. rSjHE Animal Kingdom comprises so many differ- ent forms and kinds, that we could not hope to learn even the names of all of them, though we should study for a very long time. For convenience, those who have considered the sub- ject before us, have classified animals according to their likeness or difference; all those that most closely resemble each other being said to belong to the same class. Some animals have hard, solid bones within their bodies, upon which the softer parts, such as the flesh, blood vessels, etc., are supported, as is the case with the cow, rat, snake, frog and fish; while others, like nsects, worms, and the like, have no bones at all. 6 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. All the bones of an animal's body form what is called the skeleton. Fig. 1. — Bony Skeleton of a Cow. Figure 1 represents the skeleton of a cow; all the flesh having been removed from the body of the animal before the drawing was made. Examine it carefully, and compare it with the skeletons of other animals such as frogs and fishes,shown in figures 16 and 17. If we look closely at such a bony skeleton, it will be seen that all the bones seem to be connected with the back bone or spine, which is in fact a long chain of bones extending from the head throughout the whole length of the animal's neck and back. Such animals are called Vertebrates, a word meaning "back-boned;" other animals are called Invertebrates or "non-back- boned." It is remarkable, too, that all. vertebrates have red blood in their bodies, while the invertebrates have none. Think for a moment of this difference as it exists between a cat and a butterfly; the body of the former bleeds even if the skin be but just cut through; but if the latter be accidentally crushed, only a colorless watery juice is found within its body. APES AND MONKEYS. 7 Vertebrates, then, are animals with bones and red blood in their bodies; and invertebrates are animals having no bones within, and no true blood. But vertebrates are not alike in all particulars. Some of them, as cats or fowls always seem warm to us when we touch them; and such, in consequence, are called warm-blooded animals; while others, as the snake, the lizard and the toad are almost repul- sively cold to the touch, and may be appropriately named cold-blooded animals. CHAPTER III. APES AND MONKEYS. gSSjfj^OST of us are somewhat acquainted with these peculiar and interesting creatures, from having watched them in their playful gam- bols and funny tricks in the menageries. A common variety living in Western Africa is the Chimpanzee, a monkey measuring about four feet high when standing erect. Another monkey, with a very peculiar name, and really the largest of the whole tribe is the Orang-outang, some specimens reaching a height of six feet if measured while standing on the hind legs. But the strongest and fiercest of the whole monkey tribe is the terrible Gorilla, also an African animal. A good representation of this creature is given in figure 2. The gorilla is of a savage, cruel disposi- 3 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. tion; and travelers are anxious not to disturb it in its haunts, unless they are well prepared for fight. Its strength is so great that the creature can break off, rsx Fig. 2.— Gorilla, with apparent ease, large branches from trees; and it is recorded, by good authority, that a gorilla has APES AND MONKEYS. 9 been known to kill a hunter with a single blow from its powerful paw; and then to twist and flatten the rifle barrel of its fallen victim as if the weapon were made of wax. Note in the picture (figure 2) the savage expression; the low, retreating forehead, and the large protruding mouth with its sharp teeth. Look carefully at the animal's feet; the inner toe on each is apart from the rest, very much like a thumb. This feature is of great service to the beast in climbing, as it can grasp the boughs of trees more firmly. The monkeys already named, are among the most remarkable of this peculiar tribe of animals. Those mentioned, are all tail-less; and are sometimes called by the general name of apes. They usually live together in small families, each little company appearing very selfish and unsociable, in permitting visits from others, upon its own domain. They live mostly on nuts, fruits, and various kinds of vegetable food, which their native forests produce in abundance. Many other varieties of monkeys, smaller than the apes, are to be found in the warm parts of both hemispheres, living mostly in trees, and feeding upon fruits, nuts, and insects. Unlike the apes, these smaller monkeys usually congregate in large herds. They seem to be of a jolly disposition — leaping and playing among the branches, and all the time chatter- ing in a truly ludicrous and noisy manner. In some species, as for instance, the spider monkey of South America — named from its long, sprawling legs and slender body — the tail is so long that it can be 10 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. twisted round the tree, and thus serve as an aid to the animal in climbing. The end of the tail is destitute of hair, and so sensitive, that it is used to hold small objects, such as fruit and eggs. On each of the monkey's feet, the inside toe, which we may call the great toe, is spread apart from the others, somewhat like our own thumbs, for which reason, monkeys are sometimes called Quadruma- nous, or four handed animals. They can grasp objects with the toes of the hind foot almost as well as with those of the front; but such motions are extremely clumsy, when compared with the almost perfect, action of the truly wonderful and graceful human hand. Some people claim that monkeys resemble men in many respects, and have even gone so far as to say that monkeys and men belong to the same family. Such extravagant statements as these are without doubt entirely unfounded. It is true that some monkeys stand on their hind feet at times, but none do so as a natural and common thing; and when they try to walk in that position, their move- ments are very awkward and unsteady. The gorilla stands erect when striking at an enemy; but this is no characteristic resemblance to human habit, for bears frequently assume a somewhat similar position when fighting. An ape's natural walk is on all fours, the front paws being clenched, so that the knuckles rest on the ground, and the soles of the hind feet in most cases, partly turned toward each other. No comparison of close resemblance, therefore, is admissible between such positions and the stately APES AND MONKEYS. 11 posture and graceful bearing of a human being. Man alone naturally and uniformly walks erect — his head nearest heaven, and his eyes, embracing within their vision, the sky with its countless glittering worlds, as well as the ground, with its soil and flowers. The bones of the monkey's body — especially the hip bones — are of such a shape that an upright position would be positively painful to the animal, if prolonged. The skull is so different in each case, that no one could mistake a human head for that of an ape. What connection is there between the clear intel- ligence of the human countenance, and the dog-like face of the baboon; between man with his heavenly gifts of speech and song, his buildings, railways and ships, and the chattering gambols of the monkey, or the savage strength of the gorilla! We are the children of God, and bear no relationship with the animals, except in the common features of mortality. Our bodies, while in this earthly state, need food, and air, and water, as do theirs, and we are subject to disease and death as are they; but the soul of man is the direct offspring of Deity; our Father has told us so; but sacred writ does not record such parentage of the ape. Words of inspired truth declare that in the eyes of the Lord, a righteous man, though mortal, is but little below the angels. Then let us not assert that our Father's children are scarcely above the monkeys; for such is not true. 12 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. CHAPTER IV. INSECTIVOROUS ANIMALS. ©r&T is common to classify animals according to the &J food of which they seem to be most fond. WS Among quadrupeds, such as feed largely on Y insects are called Insectivorous Animals; those whose principal diet consists of the flesh of other animals are said to be Carnivorous; while plant eaters are called Herbivorous Animals. We shall speak of some members of each of these classes. A common insectivorous animal with which we are familiarly acquainted is the Bat, often erroneously called bat-mouse or flitter-mouse. Because this peculiar little creature flies only at night, and loves to live in quiet, dark places, such as old and deserted houses and the like, and moreover, because according to our sense of beauty it is not particularly hand- some, we are very apt to look upon it as an ill- omened creature, and to shudder at its mere presence. Let us put aside such prejudices for a time, and watch the little fellow with care and interest, and without doubt we shall learn something of value. Although the bat flies in the air, it has no real con- nection with the birds; it is not produced from an egg like birds; its body is covered with a kind of hair or fur, not feathers; and its so-called wings are very different from the true wings of birds. Here is a skeleton of a bat (Fig. 3), which I prepared by placing the body of a dead bat near a INSECTIVOROUS ANIMALS. 13 Fig. 3.— Skeleton of a Bat. nest of large ants; those little insects very soon removed the flesh and left the bones clean and white. Look at the bones of the front limb, they are very much elongated; and in a living specimen a thin skin or membrane* passes from one to the other, and is attached to the side of the body between the front and hind legs forming a kind of web. By expanding and flitting this the creature is able to move quite rapidly through the air. The bat has no beak like a bird, and in its mouth is a full set of teeth, while birds have none. It loves to feed on insects that fly at twilight; and to catch these it curves that part of the wing- membrane between the hind feet and the tail into a * If this membrane be spread out and carefully examined with the microscope while the bat is alive, a truly wonder- ful sight is revealed. Countless little blood vessels are seen filled with blood flowing steadily along like red wine through a pipe. 14 FJRST BOOK OF NATURE. kind of net, which in the course of the animal's rapid flight collects the insects that come in its way. During the day-time, when the light would be alto- gether too bright for its eyes, the bat remains in its dark haunts, suspended by its hooked claws head downward As the cold weather approaches, it seeks some sheltered nook, hangs itself up by its claws, and falls into a deep sleep, remaining dormant till the return of spring. Animals which thus sleep away the winter are said to hibernate. Bats are very attentive to their young; a baby bat is often seen clinging by its claws to its mother's body while she is flitting through the air catching insects for supper. Wherever insects are so numerous as to be trouble- some, bats must be regarded as true friends to man; and as such they should be protected, rather than ruthlessly murdered by cruel boys, as is often the case, while elder ones look on with indifference, believing the animals to be but worthless pests. A very large variety of bat called the vampire is found in the tropical parts of America, often attain- ing a spread of wings from three to four feet. This animal delights to dine on fresh blood drawn from the bodies of living animals; to obtain which it usually approaches its victims while they sleep; and after making a very small puncture in the skin, leisurely sucks the blood therefrom. Though the wound can scarcely be seen, the amount of blood drawn is often considerable. Without doubt, how- ever, the stories so often told of vampires sucking the INSECTIVOROUS ANIMALS. 15 blood from men and large animals until their victims expire are wild exaggerations. A large bat called the Kalong is found in Java. Its wings when extended often measure five feet from tip to tip. Its head is shaped very much like that of a fox; and from this characteristic it is often spoken of as the fox-bat. Thi^ peculiar animal is not insectivorous in its habits; it feeds mostly on fruits, and makes its presence unpleasantly known among the people by plundering their winter stores of fruits and vegetables, if not carefully protected. The Mole is also mostly insectivorous in its diet, though it feeds also on worms. By the aid of its broad snout and wide spreading feet it readily digs long underground passages leading from its dwelling place in different directions. It constructs its home in the most ingenious manner, there being three passages leading from the nest proper to the main run; so that the animal has several avenues of escape if attacked in its stronghold. Fig. 4.— Plan of Mole's Dwelling. In figure 4 the plan of a mole's home is sketched, showing the central castle and the passages connected therewith. Mole-skins are prized on account of their soft, tine 16 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. fur, and in consequence these little creatures are killed in great numbers. This is to be regretted; for without doubt the mole is of far greater benefit than detriment to farmers, feeding voraciously as it does on the larvae or grubs which would eventually de- velop into destructive insects. The skillful manner in which the animal burrows through the ground, has probably furnished man with valuable hints regarding the shape of his shovels and plows. Pope says: "Learn of the mole to plow, the worm to weave." Many of the smallest among the so-called field- mice are in reality shrews — useful little insect hunters, frequenting our meadows and fields. The true field-mice are, however, destructive animals and very injurious to the farmer, devouring, as they do, grain and roots in large quantities. Of these some- thing will be said in another chapter. CHAPTER V. CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. aJjNIMALS that devour others are called Car- nivorous or Flesh-eating Animals. The class is a very large one, including some of our domestic pets as well as many of the most ferocious of the whole animal kingdom. THE CAT FAMILY. The common house cat is the domestic representa- CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. 17 tive of a very distinguished family. Most of pussy's kindred, however, are larger and more to be feared than herself; such as the wild cat, jaguar, leopard, panther, tiger, and lion. All of these have their paws soft and cushioned, so that they can steal, with noiseless step, upon their victims. Their claws are sharp and curved, well adapted both for holding and tearing their prey; and when not in use, these weapons are kept carefully enclosed in sheaths within the foot, by which means their sharpness is preserved. The tongue is covered with many rough points, almost as hard as horn, by the aid of which some of the family, such as the lion and tiger, are able to lick clean the flesh from the bones of the animals upon which they feed. They use their rough tongues also as curry-combs for smoothing and cleaning their skins. Let us observe, carefully, the sly and silent manner in which a cat steals upon a mouse or a bird, the patient way in which she watches for hours beside a mouse-hole — then notice the swift leap — meaning in nearly every case death to the unfortunate victim — and we will have a fair idea of the manner in which the fierce lion, and the dreaded tiger, the savage leopard and the cruel panther hunt and kill their prey. The Lion, though usually measuring less than ten feet in length, is so powerful as to be able to treat a cow or a man, as a cat does a rat. A heavy, shaggy mane covers the neck of the male, giving the animal a most dignified and stately appearance, from which circumstance he has been named "King of Beasts." 18 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. The lioness is smaller than her mate, and is destitute of a mane. The Tiger is found only in Asia, and chiefly in India. It grows usually about three feet in height, and eight feet in length, and its body is beautifully striped in dark-yellow and black. When disturbed in its native haunts, it is a ferocious beast. In one year nine hundred and seventeen men are said to have been killed by tigers in British India alone. THE DOG FAMILY. The ordinary dog owns many relatives among wild animals, such as wolves, foxes, hyenas, and others. The teeth of these animals resemble to a certain extent those of the cat tribe; but the so-called eye teeth are very long and sharp, so much so that some people call the corresponding teeth in other animals, especially if long — "canines" or "dog teeth." The claws in all of them are much thicker and less sharp than among the felines, and cannot be retracted or drawn into the foot. Even among tame dogsthere are many and widely different kinds. Compare, for instance, the majestic Newfoundland, with the frisking little terrier; or the thick-set bulldog, with the slender and swift-footed greyhound; look upon the broad face and rounded head of the mastiff, and then upon the long cranium and pointed nose of the fox-hound. The dog is in truth a companion to man. Wherever man has gone — to the frozen regions round the poles, as well as through the burning wastes and tangled forests of the tropics, the dog has followed and served his mas- CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. 19 ter. The attachment of the dog to man amounts to a true passion. Many a noble hound has lost his life rather than suffer injury to come to his charge. He considers a kind word and a friendly caress full reward for almost any sacrifice or exertion. The Wolf is in size about equal to a large dog; and of a savage and ravenous disposition. Wolves generally hunt in packs or companies, and so frequently kill and devour larger animals than a single wolf would dare attack. They wage great destruction among sheep, calves and other farm animals. The Grey Wolf is widely distributed over the thinly settled parts of Asia, Europe and America. The Prairie Wolf or Coyote is much smaller and less ferocious, and is found on the plains and prairies west of the Mississippi. The Fox is readily distinguished from the other members of the dog tribe by its long bushy tail and pointed nose. It is a typical farm-yard thief, seem- ing to look upon all chickens, turkeys, ducks and the like as if created for its own special use. Though decidedly carnivorous in habit, it seems to enjoy a meal of ripe fruit occasionally. For craftiness and cunning it is proverbial. In many parts of Europe fox hunting is regarded as a fine sport, in spite of its cruelty. Dogs are trained to hunt the fox — mostly by scent; and in eluding its pursuers the crafty crea- ture resorts to many pretty tricks. When closely followed it will often double on its track, so as to baffle the hounds by throwing them off the course; it has been seen to leap to the top of a fence or hedge 20 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. and run along for a considerable distance, thereby leaving no track which can be followed by the dogs along the ground; it will sometimes run through a flock of sheep, apparently thinking the dogs will fail to follow the track among so many. When the hounds are close upon it, the fox will often drop flat behind some fallen tree or large rock while the dogs, unable to check their headlong flight, rush past. Some observers say that if caught alive the sly crea- ture will lie as if dead, and even allow itself to be severely treated without betraying the trick; but as soon as a chance of escape offers itself, it scampers away. The cunning of the fox is a gift to it from the Creator, whereby it may escape from its cruel and bloodthirsty foes. Jackals and Hyenas are met with in the warmer parts of the Old World; and are of great good as scavengers, devouring large quantities of offal and other decaying and offensive matter. They seem to possess a little of the fox's cunning, with much of the wolf's savageness, and the lion's daring. THE WEASEL FAMILY. The Weasel family, including weasels, pine-martens, otters, skunks, minks and sables, are all small slender animals, and mostly nocturnal, or night-roving, in their habits. Some of the most valuable furs, as the Siberian sable and ermine are obtained from these graceful little creatures. Weasels furnish the ermine — long used in England to decorate the official robes of judges. The fur of these animals undergoes remark- able variations in color at different seasons- beino- J to CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. 21 brownish on the upper parts and white below during the summer months, but turning uniformly white as winter approaches, and resuming its dull hue again in the spring. The hair is not shed to produce these :t>Mlift, v. ^ k Fig. 5. — The Weasel in its winter dress. alterations, but actually changes color. In warm countries, where winter cold is scarcely known the weasel retains one color throughout the year. Figure 5 represents this slender and beautiful creature, bedecked in its snowy winter costume. The sleep of the weasel is so deep that the animal may be readily caught if surprised in slumber, ,and hence the comparison so often used when speaking of an easy task — "like catching a weasel asleep." Otters feed mostly on fish and as we would natur- ally expect, they live generally near the water. They are attractive little animals, though but rarely met 22 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. with in these parts. It is amusing to watch them engaging in their favorite sport of coasting, — down a steep snow bank in the winter, or a slide of slippery clay in the warmer seasons; seemingly with all the gusto of a crowd of merry boys with sleds. Animals appreciate fun as well as we. The otter's eyes are tolerably close together, and are located low on the head so that with a very slight movement it can see in any direction. This wise provision assists the animal greatly while fishing. The Skunk is found only in North America. Its skin is singularly striped lengthwise in white and black or dark-brown; but the creature is most re- markable for its power of emitting, when disturbed or angered, a most offensive odor, absolutely un- endurable by other animals. It retires to its burrow fat and sleek as the winter approaches, and remains there till spring, when it reappears in a pitifully gaunt and hungry state. THE BEAR FAMILY. There are many varieties of bears of which the Grizzly Bear of the Rocky Mountains is the most powerful and ferocious. Its stout and non-retractable claws often measure six inches in length, and its strength is so great, that the animal has been known to carry off the carcass of a buffalo weighing over a thousand pounds. When hungry or attacked, the grizzly bear is regarded as the most formidable of North American wild beasts. The Indians consider it a great feat to kill a grizzly; and the successful CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. 23 hunter usually wears the claws around his neck as a mark of honor. Fig. 6.— Grizzly Bear. Fig. 6 shows the general appearance of this beast. It has derived its name from the peculiar color of its hair, which is a mixture of black and grizzly gray. As seen in the picture, the animal walks on the flat part of its foot, leaving the impression of its broad sole, together with that of its long claws in soft ground, the imprint looking not unlike that of a very large human hand. The American Black Bear is a much smaller animal than its fiercer brother already described; but if compelled to defend itself or to protect its young it will fight desperately. Though classed among carnivorous or flesh-eating animals, it feeds largely on fruit if such be obtainable. It is especially fond of honey, and will frequently venture to assail the nests of wild bees to satisfy its taste for sweets. 24 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. The grizzly bear shows these same traits to some extent. The Polar Bear of the frigid regions is the largest of the bear tribe. The soles of its broad feet are covered with long coarse hair, by which the animal gains a firmer footing on the ice fields and plains of frozen snow of its arctic home. The Raccoon or "coon" as it is sometimes called, is an American animal, about the size of an ordinary dog, and in general appearance suggestive of a small bear, if its long tail be not taken into account. It is not wholly carnivorous, feeding on roots and fruits as well as birds, eggs, small quadrupeds and fish. CHAPTER VI. HERBIVOROUS ANIMALS OR PLANT-EATERS. Sfs^HE perfect manner in which every part of the jj§2/(y body of these animals is adapted to their ¥ habits of life, is another proof of the infinite wisdom of the Creator. Instead of long, pointed teeth, like those of the dog and the lion, suitable only for holding their struggling prey while writhing in death agony, the plant-eating animals have wide chisel-like teeth in front, and broad, flat grinders behind, fitted admirably for cropping the herbage, and grinding the grass and seeds which form their food. Their feet are clad in hard, tough hoofs, either solid as in the case of the horse, or divided HERBIVOROUS ANIMALS. 25 evenly into two toes, as with oxen, sheep, goats, deer and camels, or formed in a greater number of toes as in the case if the gigantic elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus. THE HORSE FAMILY. The Horse is thought by some to be the most graceful of all quadrupeds. It has become indis- pensable in the service of man. Wonderfully sagacious, and closely attached in its feelings to those who care for it, it is at once a companion and a ser- vant. For such a trusty follower, man may well be thankful; and he should show such thanks by treat- ing the animal with due kindness and consideration. A properly trained horse can always be governed more easily by a gentle word than by the lash. There are many kinds of horses, with very different appearance, as will readily be believed by comparing the large, heavy-set cart horse with the slender racer and the pretty little Shetland pony. The digestive organs of the horse are arranged so as to allow the process of digestion to go on in an uninterrupted manner, thus fitting the animal for more continuous movement. The Ass or Donkey is in general form and habit related to the horse, though smaller and more hardy. It feeds upon the coarse forms of herbage, and is of an extremely patient disposition, fitting it for long continued work. As a pack animal it is of great service, and can carry with apparent ease a surpris- ingly heavy burden; but drivers are too apt to over- load the poor beast, and cause it suffering. 26 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. The Zebra runs wild in Southern Africa, and though greatly resembling the horse is readily dis- tinguished by the beautiful stripes of white and black with which its body is covered and by its wild and fractious disposition. It is said that no zebra has ever yet been tamed. THE OX FAMILY. The animals included here are the ox, sheep, goat deer, camel and their relatives, and among the whole range of the animal creation, these are of the great- est value and service to man. From them he obtains milk and meat for his food, leather for his shoes and hair and wool for his clothing; besides tallow, horn and bones. Many of them, too, are his willing and efficient beasts of burden. All of them subsist exclusively on vegetable food and have cloven hoofs. They are frequently called Ruminants or Cud- chewers, from a peculiarity which they show in eating. To understand this more readily, let us examine the stomach of an ox or a sheep, as an illustration of the strange digestive organs of the whole family. The appearance is well represented in figure 7, the upper picture showing an external view, and the lower one the appearance after partial dissection As is there shown, the stomach consists of several cavities, looking, in fact, like separate stomachs. When the animal swallows, the half chewed food passes through the gullet, or oesophagus (o), into the first stomach or paunch (/?); and after becoming- moist and soft it passes to the second cavity (b), HERBIVOROUS ANIMALS. 27 Fig. 7.— Stomach of a Sheep. called from its complicated structure the "honey-comb stomach." Here, by the movements of the stom- ach the food is rolled in- to balls, which are then passed one by one again into the mouth after the animal has ceased feed- ing and is at rest. The food is now thoroughly mas- \p ticatedand then swallow- ed again, passing this time through a valve near the end of the oesophagus tube, directly into the third stomach (/*), called by some the "manyplies," because the inner surface is roughened by numerous folds of the lining membrane; and thence after a short interval into the fourth cavity (c), each process more completely effecting the digestion of the food. The ability to eat rapidly, depending for com- plete mastication upon subsequent chewing is of great practical use especially to the wild animals of this order. Nearly all plant-eating animals are eagerly hunted for food by the bloodthirsty, carnivorous creatures already spoken of; most are also of a shy and timid disposition, unfitted to defend themselves against their savage foes at close quarters, and there- fore relying mostly in flight for safety. Beside this, they are certainly more exposed to attacks while feeding in open glades and pastures, than while hid- ^8 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. den in their coverts and retreats. It is well, there- fore, that they can eat rapidly and hasten back to places of comparative safety. And yet, the food upon which they live requires thorough mastication before digestion can go properly on — and this is secured by the ruminating process. The interesting habits of the many species of deer, including the moose, reindeer, elk, red-deer and antelope, as well as the musk ox, bison, hump-backed camel and dromedary, and the longnecked giraffe, will form very interesting subjects for further read- ing and study. Beside those already named there are many other well known herbivorous animals worthy of our notice. The Elephant is represented in figure 8, and a good idea of the animal's size is to be gained by a compari- son with the picture of the man standing alongside. Fig. 8.— The Asiatic Elephant, HERBIVOROUS ANIMALS. 29 This creature is the largest of all living quadrupeds, sometimes attaining a height of ten feet, and a weight of twelve thousand pounds. The head is extremely large and heavy, and to support it the neck is of necessity short and stout. When in a standing position, therefore, the animal is unable to reach the ground with its head; but to make up for this apparent inconvenience, it has a peculiar organ called the trunk, looking much like a long and very flexible nose. It serves in fact as a nose, as well as for numerous other purposes. By its means the elephant picks up food and conveys the same to his mouth; by suction he fills the trunk with water, and pours it down his throat. This simple organ is said to be composed of over forty thousand separate and distinct muscles, by the action of which the trunk can be placed in almost every conceivable position. It is so strong that by its aid the animal can root up large trees; and so sensitive at the point as to easily pick up a single grain of wheat or rice. The elephant is very intelligent and can be trained to be of great service to man. He can be taught to carry logs and stack them in order; or to lay stone or bricks in a wall as orderly as a mason could. Two large over- grown teeth called tusks, project from the upper jaw; these are the ivory so highly prized for ornaments. A pair of tusks often weigh two hundred pounds. The Rhinoceros, the Hippopotamus and the Tapir are large animals inhabiting only tropical regions and extremely interesting and instructive in their habits. 30 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. THE HOG. Our common pig has a peculiarly shaped skull, adapting it for rooting in the ground. The skin is covered with long bristles, so stout as to be useful to the shoe and harness maker in sewing leather. The uncleanly habits of the animal are proverbial; and these are made the worse by the filthy surroundings among which pigs are usually confined. The flesh of the hog is used as an article of human food; though observation, experience and revelation unite to declare it unwholesome. Learned physicians and scientists of the day say that swine's flesh causes many disorders, and much sickness among those who use it. The food upon which the creature lives is very varied, and much of it is of a most unhealthful kind. It would seem that one object for which the hog was created, was to fill the office of a scavenger; devouring, as it does, large quantities of decaying matter, which otherwise would taint the air, water and soil, and thus favor the spread of disease. The wild boar, an untamed species of hog, is still found in the forests of Europe. Its chase and cap- ture have always been considered as agreeable sport. Another of the hog tribe, and a truly remarkable one at that, is the Babirusa Hog, or Hog Deer, a native of Java and Borneo. Its upper canine teeth are greatly prolonged, and curved backward, so as to form a protection to the eyes when the creature is running through the bushes. RODENTS OR GNAWING ANIMALS. 31 CHAPTER VII. RODENTS OR GNAWING ANIMALS. 33E9SS their name indicates, these animals are noted §jfc& for their biting or gnawing propensities; and ¥they may easily be recognized by the peculiarity of their teeth. In all of them, such as mice, rats, squirrels, etc., the two front teeth of each jaw are very long; the outer part of each tooth consists mainly of the hard white substance called enamel — the hardest substance to be found in the animal body in fact, while the inner or back portion is of a much softer material. The result of such an arrangement is that the teeth, though worn by constant use, always pre- sent a sharp edge, the hard enamel forming the cut- ting part. Unlike the case of most animals, a rodent's teeth grow as fast as they are worn away, and they are therefore in constant working order, unless an accident befall the animal and one or more of the teeth be broken out. In such a case the opposing tooth grows uninterruptedly, causing the animal serious incon- venience. The writer has in his possession a rabbit's skull in which the lower front teeth have attained a length of nearly two inches, through the corresponding upper teeth having been broken out by an accident, so that there was no check to the growth of the lower gnawers. The body from which the specimen was obtained, bore every evidence that the rabbit had 32 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. died of starvation — most likely as a result of such unfortunate accident. Mice and Rats exist in greater variety than any other class of quadrupeds, and include some of the smallest. House-mice, field-mice, harvest- mice, and jumping-mice are familiar acquaint- ances at home and on the farm. The last named, though less frequently seen than most of the others, is an exceedingly interesting and active little creature. Its body is not more than from two and a half to three inches in length, while its tail is more than twice as long. It moves by long and rapid leaps, and is so agile in many of its movements that the observer's eye is scarcely able to follow it. Our domestic friend, the House-Mouse is a graceful and indeed a pretty animal, and could we but put aside our inborn prejudices for a time, we would indeed consider it such. Its slender build, smooth glossy skin, beautiful lustrous eyes, and engaging ways would commend it to favorable notice. It has been in many cases trained as a pet, coming at the call of its master, taking food from his hand and playfully submitting to his caresses. Contrary to common thought, mice are extremely cleanly in their habits; but as they indulge so unreservedly in attacks upon our pantry stores, we prefer them outside the house. With their chisel-edged teeth they can readily cut an entrance through the sides of cup- boards and cases, and then they feast upon the con- tents at leisure. Among rats the brown rat and the muskrat are RODENTS OR GNAWING ANIMALS. 33 common with us in these regions; and occasionally the black rat is met with. This last was formerly the most common of all, infesting alike houses, barns and stores; but it seems now fast becom- ing extinct through the cruel and persistent attacks of the brown rat. It is an interesting creature, exhibiting great sagacity, a deep attachment for its young and a warm affection for others of its kind. It has been asserted by Dr. Franklin, whose trust- worthiness as an observer will pass without question, that he once watched a company of rats migrating in search of a new home; and that among the party he saw a rat carefully leading a blind comrade by a twig held between its teeth. The muskrat is a common inhabitant of our brooks and ponds. It grows usually about a foot in length, exclusive of the tail, which is usually as long as the body. The animals very frequently prove annoying and injurious to the farmer by burrowing into the banks of his irrigating canals. They build their winter homes of rushes and sticks, oftentimes from three to four feet high, the entrance being below water and leading to a dry and warm apartment in the upper story. The skins of muskrats are valuable, the fur being used in trimming winter clothing, under the name of River Sable Fur. The Pouched Bat, often called the Pocket Gopher, makes its presence known by its extensive under- ground burrows. On the outside of its face are large cheek pouches — not connected with the mouth, but in reality pockets in the skin; which in some cases 34 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. extend back as far as the shoulders. These are use- ful in collecting and carrying food. The Beaver is among the largest of the gnawing, or rodent family; and was once to be found in almost all North American streams; but it has been hunted and trapped for the sake of its skin, so persistently, that it is fast becoming extinct. The fur is reddish brown in color, and of a very fine, soft texture. The tail is flat and scaly, and of great service to the animal while swimming. By means of their sharp and very powerful teeth, beavers can readily and rapidly cut down large trees, which they have the ingenuity to fell in such a way as to cause them to fall directly into the water so as to be borne by the current to the spot desired. Of these trees, together with rushes, sticks and earth, the animals build large and substantial dams across the streams; thereby forming deep water places, around which they build their dwellings — one story always being above water, with the entrance below. Squirrels are extremely active and pretty creatures, with their long ears, bright eyes, glossy skins and superb bushy tails. They live mostly on trees, feeding on fruits and nuts, of which they are careful to lay up an ample store for winter use. It is an interesting sight to watch a squirrel perched on its haunches holding an acorn or a nut between its front paws, and all the while nibbling at the hard shell. After a time a clean-cut hole is made through the shell and the little fellow falls to work upon the kernel with evident relish. It is said that in collect- RODENTS OR GNAWING ANIMALS. 35 ing winter supplies the squirrel takes each nut singly in its paws and judges from the weight whether the shell encloses a good kernel or is but empty; in the one case it is stored away; in the other it is rejected. If alarmed, a squirrel will run with wondrous agility up the nearest tree, and then leap from branch to branch, or even from one tree to another with surprising speed. Flying Squirrels have a thin skin extending along the side of the body from the front to the hind legs. By expanding this while in the act of jumping they are able to make greater leaps than would otherwise be possible. Perhaps their large bushy tails are also of assistance in jumping. The charming little Striped Squirrel or chipmunk of our hills, fields and bench lands is provided with cheek pouches connected with its mouth, in which it carries its food to its nest, either for immediate or future consumption. The Prairie Dog is perhaps the quaintest little animal of the whole squirrel kind, and is to be found on our western plains and dry deserts, living in underground burrows. Usually large numbers con- gregate in the same locality, constituting what is called a Prairie Dog Village. They seem to be very inquisitive little creatures, frequently to be seen sitting on their haunches outside their burrows and watching with apparent concern the passers-by; but at the least sign of danger, with a rapid motion each little fellow dives into his hole, at the same time uttering a short, sharp bark or yelp, from which circumstance 36 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. the name of prairie dog has been bestowed. The members of a Dog Village seem to act in such perfect order and system as to lead many people to think that they are a regularly organized community. CHAPTER VIII. THE BIRDS. ^fSMONG the most pleasing and interesting sub- (tjttJ> jects of the whole animal kingdom are the birds. Their beautiful plumage, graceful actions, and, above all, their inspiring songs, combine to charm even the least susceptible among us. And then, what an infinite diversity in form and habit, they present to our view! Look upon the majestic eagle, soaring in dreamy state through the medium of the "upper deep," or standing in grave supremacy on a rugged mountain cliff; then con- template, in contrast, the flitting, flashing, darting humming-bird, scarce larger than your thumb; yet presenting a wider variety of colors, and finer com- binations and contrasts in tint, than could be brought together by the hand of a master artist, on a canvass many times its size. Does not Nature delight in true beauty and wide variety? Watch for a moment, the wood-thrush, or the robin, mounted high, and greeting with joyous soug, the sun's return. See its little breast throb as if about to burst with melody; its whole body intoxi- THE BIRDS. 87 cated with the harmony of its hymn. Is it not to us a fair example of thankful prayer for all the blessings of light and warmth, of happiness and of life? Who taught these birds to sing? Surely one who rejoices in the musical mysteries of those happy songs, who knows the deep import of every note, and takes delight therein. What unbounded trust and implicit faith that little bird possesses, relying with full confidence, upon the providing care of its Maker; as if knowing well that without His knowledge, not one of its family falls to the ground. Surely this world is a much better and more cheerful place for the presence of birds. Then, let the happy songsters be protected among us. Boys, check your reckless love for the slaughter of such innocents as these; never set your target-gun or catapult against one of them; it is a barbarous nature that can be satisfied only by blood. Life is a mysterious and God given power — a power, "Which all can take, but none can give," and everything possessed of life, should be sacred to us all. Observe the great care and the provident concern with which the Creator has fashioned the bird's body in all its parts. Being intended primarily for flight, the structure combines muscular strength with small bulk and great lightness. The air taken into the bird's lungs spreads itself throughout the body, and even enters the bones, which are made hollow for this purpose; so that when a bird takes a full breath 38 FIRST BOOK OP' NATURE. its whole body is inflated and thus well prepared for aerial travel. The muscles operating the wings are comparatively large and remarkably strong; and this is especially true of birds that fly much. Compare for instance the pectoral muscles on the breast of the wild duck with those of a domestic fowl — in the former case the flesh is dark colored and well sup- plied with blood to nourish those much used parts, whereas the chicken's breast is white and compara- tively bloodless through disuse. Look now at the feathers covering the bird's body; a moment's careful study of these simple appendages will not prove to be entirely without value. A large quill feather from the wing, for instance, is seen to consist of a central tube or shaft, attached to which on either side is a blade-like expansion called the vane. If we provide a small magnifying glass and by its assistance look steadily at the feathery vane, we will find it to be composed of a great many separate branches, each of which consists of still smaller ones; and the edges of the finest are covered with little barbs, which hook themselves together so as to form a continuous blade. As the bird flies, the feather strikes the air with its broad surface as a boat-oar does the water, but in the return stroke only the sharp edge is presented. Beside such large and compact feathers, there are many smaller plumes to be seen; these have not the barbed edges, and consequently the fibres are loose and separate, seemingly designed as a protection against cold. In comparison with the size of its body, a bird's THE BIRDS. 39 head is extremely small, and very light — an admir- able adaptation to easy flight. Instead of a large mouth rilled with teeth, birds have beaks, some short and stout as the robin's and sparrow's, others hooked and sharp-pointed, like those of the hawk and eagle, and still others like the duck's, flat and spreading. Birds swallow their food whole; it passes first into a small sack called the crop, thence into a second receptacle, becoming continually softened by the action of the digestive fluids, and then into the gizzard — a very thick walled stomach, usually con- taining sand, gravel, and other hard substances which the bird has swallowed. By the movements of the gizzard, and the grinding of the hard bodies therein contained,, the food soon becomes reduced to a finer condition, and is ultimately absorbed. The young of birds are produced from eggs, previ- ously laid by the hen, and each covered with a hard shell. Reptiles, such as the tortoise, and serpent, also produce eggs which in shape and size greatly resemble birds' eggs, but these have a tough leathery skin instead of a hard brittle shell. Inside the shell, each egg is seen to consist of a white portion and a yellow part or yelk (sometimes called the yolk). If we examine the uninjured yelk of a freshly laid egg, there will be noticed a small whitish speck floating on the surface; this is called the germ, and under the influence of warmth it undergoes a strange develop- ment, and eventually appears as a living bird. The warmth of the parent bird's body is naturally em- ployed in the hatching; but artificial heat may be 40 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. used with success. The ostrich, a large bird inhab- iting the sandy deserts of Africa, frequently leaves its eggs uncovered during the warm parts of the day, knowing that the heat of the sun will be sufficient to continue the incubation. A peculiarly ingenious habit is practised by the Mound Birds of Australia. Instead of sitting upon the eggs, they place them in large heaps of decaying vegetable matter, which they have previously collected and prepared for the pur- pose; the heat generated by the decay proves to be all that is requisite in the process. The period of incubation varies with different species of birds. The eggs of the humming-bird hatch in twelve days; canaries, from fifteen to eighteen days; fowls, twenty-one; ducks, twenty-five and swans, about forty-five. When the young bird is developed, and ready to escape from the shell, it makes a hole in the latter by means of a hardened appendage on its beak, which Nature seems to have provided especially for this purpose; for soon after the bird leaves the shell, the hardened point, being of no further use, falls off, furnishing another and strong illustration of Nature's tendency to do away with all superfluities. The size of the eggs produced is in general pro- portionate to the size of the birds. The largest eggs are those of the ostrich and the emu, a single one weighing as much as do three dozen eggs of the barn- yard fowl. They are used as food, and the shells being very stout and strong make admirable water vessels. In contrast, the eggs of the fairy-like THE BIRDS. 41 humming-bird may be named, in size about that of a pea and of a pure white color. Generally the larger birds lay but few eggs; the eagle for instance lays two, while the little wren occasionally deposits twelve in a nest.* To this also there are exceptions, which, however, cannot fail to do as much to strengthen our belief in the divine foresight which has planned all, as the rule itself. The ostrich, already referred to, frequently lays ten eggs, some of which are not produced until after incubation has progressed and perhaps not until the young birds from the eggs first laid are hatched. The extra eggs are destined to serve as food for the young ostriches, until they become sufficiently vigorous to digest the hard and uninviting fare of the desert, upon which their parents feed. The incubation process is one of surpassing wonder: man is powerless to explain, far less to imitate, the mystic changes in silent pro- gress within -the shell of a fowl's egg. The great attachment of birds for their mates, and the unusually strong parental instincts, implanted for a wise purpose within their feathered bosoms, find fullest expression during the breeding season. * The most prolific egg-producers among birds are the domesticated varieties which have been bred and cared for by man for long periods. Tame ducks sometimes produce over a hundred eggs within four or five months; while the barn-yard fowl lays frequently 120 eggs during the year. The rearing of such birds for their eggs is now a profitable and an important industry. In 1870 there were imported into Great Britain alone 753 millions of eggs, valued at $13,100,000. 42 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. After the nest is built and the eggs are laid, the long and tedious labor of incubation is begun by the female; while the male usually remains perched in some neighboring bush or tree, ready to defend his household charge against any foe; and, in the mean- time, he enlivens the heart of his patient mate by giving voice to a joyous song, occasionally taking her place on the nest for a short time, while she enjoys her daily exercise and her meals. When the little ones appear, the duties of both parents are of a different, though very laborious nature, nearly all their time and attention being demanded to supply food to their eager offspring; and no amount of hard- ship and self-denial seems too great to be borne, if the babies can be protected and fed. In defense of their eggs or young, even small birds fight most desperately, not hesitating to attack larger birds, animals, reptiles or men, who attempt to desecrate their homes. Some of our smallest and sweetest of singing birds, ordinarily of so tender and timid a nature that we would scarcely think them capable of a daring deed, have been known to fear- lessly dart on large snakes or even cats that seek to rob their nests; and many a man has been driven out of his own barn loft by a pair of owls who had estab- lished their home iu that place. Yet the courage of birds seeking to protect their homes, is not of the blind, rash kind, so often seen among men who are terrorized and excited. No; they seldom lose their presence of mind; but often display at such times most cunning and ingenious devices to draw the enemy THE BIRDS. 43 away. A dove or a partridge on being disturbed on its nest by the approach of man or dog, will often flutter along only a short distance ahead of the pur- suer, and sometimes under his very feet, acting as if lamed or injured, and thus tempting a chase — always leading the enemy farther away from the nest with its precious inmates. Among the many foes which the sitting birds have cause to fear, we may mention reptiles, carnivorous quadrupeds, and birds of prey, and perhaps crudest of all, children with uncurbed passions for destruc- tion. It is disgraceful and wicked to molest an in- nocent bird; and in addition, cowardly and cruel to injure its nest or steal its offspring. The grief man- ifested by the parent birds on being deprived of their young, is pitiful to witness; and their cries of distress are not unheard by the kind Creator "who made and loveth all." As we hope to receive kind treatment and mercy from our Father, let us be willing to show the same toward His humbler creatures, wTho are far more innocent in His sight than the man or boy with barbarous and wanton instincts of slaughter. CHAPTER IX. BIRDS AT HOME. (||s£j?HE great solicitude of birds for their young is (H/3 beautifully shown in the care bestowed upon ¥the nest. Nests are built solely for the pur- pose of rearing the progeny, and not to form a home for the old birds at all; for in the winter-time 44 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. when shelter is most needed the nests are entirely discarded. Many of the larger birds, such as the eagle family, content themselves with a somewhat rude nest lodged on a projecting crag, or between the branches of a tall tree, and consisting of such coarse materials as sticks and twigs, lined, however, very comfortably with hair, wool or feathers. But many smaller species of our feathered friends display wonderful skill and unbounded care in the construction of their children's homes. Look at the pretty cradle-nest of the humming bird; it is a masterpiece of skill — in size not larger than a small blue plum, but shaped with all the care that an expert weaver could bestow. The materials of which it consists are soft mosses and delicate lichens, generally collected by the male, and artistically arranged by his mate; the crevices are closed by a kind of glue formed from the saliva of the bird; and the inside is lined and padded with the richest and softest of vegetable silk. Not less won- derful, though entirely different, are the nests of the wren, the hedge-sparrow, the finches, the blue jay and the magpie; all of them show the effects of a Master's teaching. In the autumn, after the leaves have fallen and the trees and bushes are bare, much may be learned by a close examination of the empty and forsaken nests of the past summer's songsters. See with what care these little creatures have selected the locality and position best calculated to ensure the safety of their BIRDS AT HOME. 45 homes — perhaps a forked bough deeply hidden in the heart of a leafy bush, or a crevice in some dried tree trunk, or a sheltered ledge of rock. Peep within one of these cozy cots, and see the provisions made for the comfort of the birdlings; here they were hatched and reared, learning from the solicitous care of their parents, their own future duty. Look speci- ally at the nest of the tiny wren: from the outside it seems little more than a ball of straw, but within it is lined as soft as a lady's muff of costly fur and finest silk; there is an entrance on the side thus pro- viding a roofed top to keep out the rain. The Bottle-Tit is a small bird, found at the Cape of Good Hope, and remarkable for the ingenuity displayed in the forming of its nest. This is woven of cotton, somewhat in the shape of a bottle, and of such careful workmanship that a single loose fibre is rarely to be seen. While the hen bird is sitting within, the male keeps careful watch from his seat in a little pouch, built for the purpose, on the neck of the curiously shaped abode. When the old birds leave the nest, even for a short time, the opening is securely closed. But in elegance of construction, even this nest is surpassed by that of the Pendulum Titmouse, a bird no larger than a sparrow, and found chiefly in Africa and India. Its nest is in shape like a long- necked retort, such as is used by chemists, and is hung from a branch of a tree, with the opening downward. Nothing is employed in its construction but the finest moss and down, woven so compactly that it forms a kind of felt which is an admirable non- 46 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. conductor of heat, thus insuring the eggs and young good protection from the extremes of temperature. The Tailor Bird is a well deserved title bestowed on a peculiar variety native in India. The nest is built in a large leaf, the edges of which have been sewn together to form a kind of sack. In this labor, the ingenious little seamstress employs a fine kind of flexible grass as thread, and her own sharp bill is an admirable needle. If a single leaf sufficiently large cannot be found, two smaller ones are sewn together. This forms but the casing or holder for the nest, which is then built within, of grass and fibre, and thoroughly lined. In this pendulous cradle, the young are reared, gaily rocked by every breath of air. What child can boast of so ingenious a bed? '-n. Fig. 9.— The Weaver Birds' Home. • Another feathered resident of the Cape of Good Hope claims our attention by reason of the peculi- arity of its nest, viz. the Sociable Weaver Bird, or as some people name it, the Republican Bird. A picture of its strange dwelling is shown in figure 9. BIRDS AT HOME. 47 A great number of these birds live together as a colony: sometimes as many as six hundred building in a single tree. They first construct a huge frame work about the trunk of a tree, resembling some- what an expanded umbrella in form, and beneath this great dome, each has its own apartment. An idea of the size and weight of such a nest may be gained from the statement of Levaillant, that in moving one of them, he was compelled to employ a wagon and several men. A peculiar kind of swallow is found on the coasts of China, Java and Sumatra, which forms a nest unlike that of any other bird. The little builder col- lects a soft, slimy sea weed, abundant in the neigh- borhood, and cements the same by the aid of its own glutinous saliva into a kind of isinglass. These are the edible bird's nests, considered by epicures as a great delicacy for the table. Soup made from these nests is among the most expensive of such luxuries, yet it is in such high favor with the wealthy, that the collection and exportation of edible nests forms a profitable avocation in the parts where they are found.* The noisy magpie, so common about our copses and hills, is a phenomenal thief; and apparently * This peculiar kind of food is more widely consumed than is generally known. Figuier states that from the coast of Cochin China alone, over four millions of nests are exported annually: the proprietors of one cavern in Java, which is frequented by the Esculent Swallow, re- ceive twenty-five thousand dollars per year rent for the place. 48 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. thinking that its own dishonest tricks may be imitated by others, it takes the precaution to surround its nest with a thorny hedge. Some varieties of East Indian birds exhibit a most remarkable domestic arrangement during the hatch- ing season. As soon as the eggs are laid, the male imprisons the female upon her nest by building a stout wall of mud about the same, leaving only a small opening for the supply of air and food. The latter commodity he supplies with assiduous care during the whole period, and as soon as the birdlings are hatched he joyously breaks down the barriers and liberates his patient spouse. Many birds habitually hang their nests, as the golden-crested wren, orioles and humming-birds, and such find at times that their cradles are liable to be overthrown through the increasing weight of the thriving brood. In these cases they promptly provide an equipoise by loading the opposite side of the nest with small stones or mud. Is not this a mark of a high intelligence, looking, indeed, very much like reason? They do not weight the nests until the necessity for such a precaution is plain. Not all birds exhibit the same degree of care and skill either in the nest building or any other duty of life. There are to be found good and bad, kind and cruel, skillful and careless, obedient and rebellious among birds as among men. Many birds are known to use the discarded nests of others rather than build themselves, and some have been known to forcibly dispossessthe rightfuloccupants and appropriate their BIRDS AT HOME. 49 homes. Such is not an infrequent trick of the pug- nacious little house-sparrow, which easily drives the inoffensive swallow from its cozy nest of mud beneath the eaves. The Cuckoos of the Eastern Hemisphere and the Cow-Birds of the Western habitually deposit their eggs in the nests of other birds, and leave them there to be hatched by the owner of the nursery. The young cuckoo seems to know that its foster parents will never be able to keep its hungry mouth well fed, and care for their own legitimate offspring at the same time, so, being larger than the others, he manages to get them one by one on his back and soon pitches them out of the nest. As the cuckoo builds no nest, neither sits on her eggs nor nourishes her young she has been often referred to as the type of a careless mother and a truant wife. But she has a maternal instinct within her breast as have others, and a little study of cuckoo life will perhaps aid us in understanding such recreant tricks. Cuckoos do not pair like most other birds in the breeding season; and the hen bird does not lay all her eggs at one time. She produces eight or ten eggs during the course of a few weeks; in consequence of this, even if she did undertake to construct a nest, she would of necessity have to build it alone, without the assist- ance of a mate; but if the nest were completed and the first eggs hatched, she would have to provide food for her young while still trying to cover the eggs produced later. Apparently knowing that such a labor could not be performed with satisfaction and success, she declines to make the attempt. As soon 50 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. as an egg is laid, she takes it in her beak and flies to the nest of some small inoffensive warbler such as the lark, red-throat, robin-redbreast, hedge-sparrow or nightingale, and leaves it there. She seems to watch for the absence of the proprietor of the nest in making the addition. One observer tells of a red-throat coming home unexpectedly and finding a cuckoo at her nest; the little house-keeper at once began an assault and soon compelled the stranger to retire with her burden. If not interrupted, however, the cuckoo will safely deposit her egg; but it is said she is never known to bring a second one to the same nest. She visits the nests, in which her eggs have been placed, several times before leaving the neighborhood, appar- ently to satisfy herself that her progeny have been left in tender care. She is therefore not entirely free from parental anxiety regarding her offspring; but I do not seek to fully justify the creature in her truant and unsteady life, especially if the following be true. Louis Figuier, the French naturalist, states that the cuckoo, after depositing her own egg in a stranger's nest, frequently takes one of the other eggs from the nest, breaks it and scatters the shell; so that when the lady of the house returns she finds only the usual number of eggs and apparently is slow to discover the deception. Such an act would seemingly indicate a degree of careful thought and reason; but the intelligence so shown is used to assist the bird in its knavery. And such a condition of things is not without its parallel among the unfeathered bipeds of the world; too frequently men use their knowledge BIRDS OF PREY. 51 and skill whereby to bring imposition upon their trustful and non-suspecting fellows. CHAPTER X. BIRDS OF PREY. ^jg^HE birds of prey, include some of the largest among the whole order of birds. Many of them are well known; though the links which bind them to the memory, are not associated with the grace and beauty of form and voice, so characteristic of the smaller and less pretentious birds. As their name implies, these birds feed habitually upon flesh; the bodies of other birds and small quadrupeds usually supplying their larders. They are, indeed, the scourge and terror of all the rest of the feathered tribes; and for the pursuit, capture, and killing of their prey, they seem to be specially adapted. The beak of a bird of prey is usually very strong and sharp, and of a hooked shape, with a characteristic naked membrane or skin, called the cere, at the base. The toes are very flexible, ter- minated by hooked talons, and operated by powerful muscles; even a hasty glance convinces an observer that such are terrible weapons, when vigorously used. Of this large class, we find in nearly all parts of the country, eagles, hawks and owls; and on the Pacific Coast, and in South America, several species of vultures in addition. Among the last named division is the Condor of 52 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. the Andes, a vulture of the largest kind. It often shows a spread of wings of from eight to twelve feet, and the length of the bird from beak to tail, averages four feet. Its plumage is of a blue-black tint, con- trasting strongly with which is a collar on the back and sides of the neck, of dazzling whiteness. The upper part of the neck and the crest, as with all vultures, is devoid of feathers; being covered with a tough, semi-cartilaginous coat. Like others of the vulture kind, the condor seldom kills its own prey, unless it be some animal rendered weak and helpless, from age or disease; usually the creature prefers to feed upon the dead and decaying bodies of animals, which, through the agency of wonderfully keen senses of sight and smell, it is enabled to recognize from a great distance.* It is extremely gluttonous in its habits, so much so, that after a full meal, it is so gorged as to be unable to fly. Taking advantage of this propensity, the inhabitants of the regions frequented by condors, often destroy great numbers of the birds, by setting out for them carrion flesh in abundance; after their meal is over, the capture of the greedy creatures is an easy matter. * The extravagant stories, related of the condors daring, seem, generally, to lack foundation. Those who have studied the habits of the bird most closely say that it will never attack large animals, except they be helpless, or unless it is compelled to tight in self-defence. Even men have been known to be attacked by these rapacious monsters, when famished and overcome from hunger, or fatigue; but, an observer, who has had good opportunity of judging, writes, that a boy of ten years, armed with a stick, can easily put a condor to flight. BIRDS OF PREY. 53 Fig. 10. -White-headed Eagle. Among Eagles we find in the United States, the bald eagle, more properly called the white-headed eagle and the rarer golden eagle. The white-headed eagle is i widely distributed'over North America. This bird is the chosen symbol of our na- tion.* It feeds principally on hares, chickens, young lambs and even larger animals such as sheep, calves and pigs, and at times it betrays a special fondness for fish, though rare- ly taking the trouble to catch them for itself. The osprey is a smaller species of eagle, with a great propensity for fishing, and it is usually successful in its sport. Of this fact the white-headed eagle seems well aware, and is ever on the alert to rob the osprey of its booty. In the eagle the sense of vision is very keenly developed. When soaring in conscious majesty far above the highest mountain crags, so high in, fact, as to be almost imperceptible to the human eye from below, he sees a wild fowl or a hare on the plain, and, * Dr. Steele has made the somewhat humorous remark: "Equally indifferent to the extremes of heat and cold, as well as to a maritime or an inland life; now honestly pur- suing an independent vocation, and anon acting the part of a freebooter, and robbing the fish-hawk of its well- earned food, it is not an altogether unsuitable emblem of the nation." 54 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. folding his wings, drops like a weight to within a short distance of the earth, then preparing his talons he seizes his prey and bears it away to a place of security. The swiftness of the eagle's flight is pro- verbially known; one naturalist claims that the bird is able to sustain a speed of forty miles an hour. Certain it is that its speed is wonderful, and its muscular power and strength still more so. Eagles carry off even sheep and young deer to their aeries; and the sight of an eagle's nest, from the bones and other remains of their victims, might well suggest a charnel house.* The eaglets have an almost insatiable appetite; nevertheless they are able to exist many days without food. The great naturalist, BufFon, states that a young eagle was once caught in a trap and kept five weeks without food, but showed no signs of feebleness till the last few days. Illustrative of the great physical power of eagles in their flight, instances of children being carried off by these birds have often been cited, and accounts of such cases have been recorded by some of the most trustworthy observers. The following are vouched for by the best authority: "In the canton of Vaud two little girls, one three years * The following is recorded by Figuier: "A peasant in Ireland kept himself and the whole of his family for an entire season by robbing the eaglets in a neighboring aerie of the stores of food which were brought to them by the parent birds. In order to prolong this singular means of livelihood, report says, he endeavored to delay the moment when the loved ones would be driven forth, adopting the artifice of cutting their wings to render them incapable of flight." BIRDS OF PREY. 55 old and the other five, were playing together in a meadow. An eagle swooped down upon the eldest and carried her 0f£ * * * Two months having elapsed, a shepherd dis- covered the remains of the little victim horribly mutilated and lying upon a rock half a league from the meadow in which she was taken." "In the Isle of Skye, Scotland, a woman left her child in a field. An eagle carried off the little one in its talons, and passing over a broad lake, laid it upon a rock. For- tunately the robber was perceived by some shepherds, who came up in time to succor the infant." Another authentic case showing still greater mus- cular strength is the following: "In the canton of Geneva a boy ten years old, who was robbing an eagle's nest, was seized by one of the birds and borne to a point six hundred yards from the spot. He was rescued by his companion, however, without having suffered further injury than some severe wounds inflicted by the bird's talons." Hawks, are smaller members of the falcon family, and exist in several varieties. The American Spar- row Hawk is among the smallest of all — scarce larger than a robin. Hawks are powerful, for their size; though they do not approach the strength of the eagle family. Their flight, when in pursuit of prey, is very swift. Closely allied to them, is the whole family of Falcons proper, perhaps the most rapacious, and certainly the most powerful of all birds of prey, in proportion to their size. In the Middle Ages, these birds, when tamed, were largely used in the art of jalconry or hawking, which consisted in loosing trained falcons or hawks, to pursue and capture other birds. It was customary to keep the falcon hooded 56 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. or covered, while hunting, until the game was seen; then, being freed, the bird would immediately start in swift pursuit, very rarely failing to secure the prize. Falcons could be taught to capture herons, kites, crows, quails and pheasants; besides hares, and even gazelles. In Egypt, India, China and Japan, the sport is still practised. All birds of prey seem possessed of wonderful tenacity of life; and if uninjured live to a great age; but such is specially true of the falcons. It is a matter of record that a falcon was captured at the Cape of Good Hope in 1797, apparently in full vigor, bearing upon its neck a golden collar, on which was an inscription dated 1 G 10 and stating that the bird belonged to King James I of England. It must therefore have been over one hundred and eighty- seven years old. Owls are nocturnal or night-roving in their habits, and in consequence have been always regarded with a sort of dread. In America there are upwards of forty separate kinds, varying from the size of a dove to that of a turkey. The plumage of owls is exceedingly soft and full; and their flight is so noiseless that they seem really to be borne upon the air itself without effort of their own. The eyes of the whole owl tribe are exceedingly large, and are directed forward, instead of sideways as is the case with most other birds, so that the owl must needs turn its head even to glance on one side; and this it does with such comical, quizzical movements, as to appear really ludicrous. The eyes are surrounded by BIRDS OF PREY. 57 a large facial disc of slender and stiff feathers. But a more important characteristic of the eye is the excessive dilation of which the pupil is capable. This enables the bird to see more clearly in dim light; though of course the idea that the owl, or in fact any othe*r animal, can physically see in absolute darkness is absurd. The brilliancy of day, however, seems to be almost insupportable to owls, and con- sequently they remain safely and snugly hidden in their dark abodes till twilight comes. If an owl be disturbed during the day and driven into the light, it is almost helpless. Many small birds, such as the saucy black-bird, and the mischievous sparrow delight to catch their common enemy in such a plight; they join forces and usually pick and annoy him without mercy, all the time chirping and chattering as if every one of them were giving the broad-faced gentle- man a special lecture, with practical demonstrations on the evils of his ways. Owls wage great destruction among mice, rats and other farm vermin, and in consideration of this alone they are entitled to protection and respect. Mr. Waterton, a very reliable observer, expresses as his opinion, that a pair of Barn Owls while rearing their young, bring to the nest four or five mice every hour during the night. He domesticated a colony of owls, and was rewarded for his pains by the disappearance of rats and mice about his premises. These birds are far more effectual than cats as vermin destroyers on a farm. As is the case with all birds which subsist on living or freshly-killed prey, 58 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. the owl devours its food entire, swallowing alike the flesh, bones and hair — usually rejecting the feathers, however, if birds have been captured. The digestive organs are so constructed as to readily separate the digestible from the non-digestible portions, which latter are formed into a ball within the stomach and then ejected by vomiting. An observer has thus described the barn owl's style of dining: "The mouse is first bitten smartly across the back so as to destroy all life, and when it hangs motionless from the bird's beak it is tossed into the air very adroitly so as to fall with its head down- ward. The owl then catches the head in his mouth and holds it for a few seconds; then a sharp toss sends it down his throat, leaving the tail hanging out usually at the left side of the bird's beak. The bird rolls this about for a bit, as a boy would a stick of candy, and then another jerk puts all out of sight." CHAPTER XL CLIMBING BIRDS. §&8$LL climbing birds have their toes equally Skw divided, two in front, and two behind; and so ^o^? arranged as to firmly grasp the branches and tgf trunks of trees. Among our common birds of this sort are woodpeckers and cuckoos ; but in warmer parts, many other varieties are found com- prising the parrots and all their kindred. CLIMBING BIRDS. 59 The Woodpecker is finely adapted to the habits of its allotted life, which are in many respects peculiar. The busy little bird may readily be observed about our woods and orchards, plying its avocation with enthusiastic ardor. Its principal food consists of insects and their larvae, in search of which it goes from tree to tree, examining every crevice in wood or bark, and occasionally sounding the tree by re- peated blows from its stout bill to ascertain if the trunk be in any part unsound; in which case, it would most probably secrete insects. The bird easily cuts holes in tree and post to reach its prey; its tongue is very long and barbed at the tip, and by its aid the bird readily secures any insect within reach. This interesting little creature also bores in wood to form secure places for its nest. In many places, the woodpecker has been cruelly treated, under the mistaken notion that it is injurious to trees. On the contrary it is of very great benefit in the orchard and the forest, by ridding the trees of destructive insects in great numbers. The wood- pecker never bores a sound limb; insects do not hide in any but dead wood, and stories about the bird's injurious carpentry are unconfirmed. As already stated, the cuckoo belongs also to the class of climb- ing birds ; many of the peculiar habits of the European cuckoo have been already dwelt upon at some length. Parrots are to be found native only in the warmer parts of the earth, where they live amid the sur- roundings of a perpetual summer; but they are com- 60 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. mon in a state of captivity nearly all over the world. Only one species, the Carolina Parrot of the South- ern states, not larger than a dove, is to be met with in our country. All parrots are characterized by a stout, thick bill, the upper mandible of which far overlaps the lower so as to form a hooked beak, which proves of as much use in climbing and grasping small objects as the claws. The colors of some species are most gaudy and gay; all the tints of the heavenly bow seem to have been appropriated to adorn their dress. They are proud, too, of their flashy apparel, and take great pains to preserve their finery in an unsullied state. Bathing is a delight, aud in the warm weather, they splash about in the water, with keen enjoyment. Then they smooth and stroke their plumage, till every fibre is laid aright. Parrots are especially remarkable, on account of their varied powers of voice. They readily learn to pronounce distinctly, any word or sentence they may hear; and frequently, they imitate familiar voices, so perfectly, as to deceive even intimate acquaintances. They may be taught to speak in any ordinary voice, to shout, to sing, and to laugh, with all the per- fection of a trained actor In consequence of such extraordiuarypDwers, parrots have been widely adopted as pets, and many an I strange are the stories told of their loquacity. It is not to be supposed, however, that these birds partake of the spirit of true lauguage, so as to form new and independent sen- tences themselves, from the words they have heard. CLIMBING BIRDS. 61 They learn to imitate known sounds and to repeat what they hear; frequently, also, gaining an idea of the meaning, from the actions that accompany the speech; but this is only a highly developed act of imitation. Articulate speech, that is, language con- sisting of separate sentences and definite words, seems to be a gift to the human family alone. All birds and beasts, it is true, possess some system of communication between themselves, which, indeed, we may call their language; but this consists usually of disconnected sounds, and inarticulate cries, often associated with expressive gestures, serving, however, the purposes of their sphere of thought and action, as fully and as well as does the heaven-born speech of man fit him for his mode of being. The language of man differs from that of the animal creation, over which he rules, in kind, as well as in mere degree of perfection; and his speech is as far above theirs, as are his spirit and his mind superior to them. Parrots, however, and some few other birds, learn to repro- duce the words .of man, oftentimes with strange effect. The author knew a fine gray parrot once, which had been taught to stretch out her foot when told so to do, and each time she did this her master rewarded her with a piece of sugar. She heard him say, "Polly, hold out your claw," so often that at length she learned to repeat the words in a very perfect imita- tion of his voice and manner. Frequently she would call out herself, "Polly, hold out your claw;" and at such times she would invariably stretch out her foot, 62 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. as if someone else had told her to, and then she would appear extremely disappointed because the sugar was not forthcoming. The bird seemed not to recognize the difference between her own voice and that of a person by her. Her performance then was purely an act of imitation. I remember making the acquaintance of another parrot under somewhat peculiar circumstances. Calling once at a gentleman's house on business, I was left alone for a time in the sitting-room — at least I thought I was alone; but soon I was very much surprised to hear in a pleasing time the words, "Please scratch my head." Looking around with no common interest to discover the person asking such an unusual accommodation at the hands of a stranger, I saw, in a corner of the room, a large cage containing a magnificent green parrot. As I ap- proached the cage, the pretty prisoner repeated the request and in exactly the same tones of voice, at the same time bending her poll forward so that I could reach it easily through the bars. I complied, of course, rubbing her head for some time; in which process she seemed to take considerable delight, and at the conclusion, in a very distinct and pleasant manner she said, "Thank you, sir." I was inquisitive enough to ask the owner of the bird how she had acquired such an education. He told me, that finding the parrot enjoyed having her head rubbed, he made it a rule to do this for her every day, invariably repeating before beginning the process, "Please scratch my head," and at the" conclusion always CLIMBING BIRDS. 63 saying "Thank you, sir," till the bird picked up the words and used them for herself.* The many truly interesting species of macaws, parrakeets, love-birds and cockatoos, which we are always sure to find in any traveling menagerie, are all varieties of the parrot tribe. Before forsaking our present subject of climbing birds, we must mention the truly wonderful Toucan of the South American forests. It has an enormous bill, almost as large as a boy's wrist, while the body of the bird is but little bigger than that of a tame pigeon. Though apparently clumsy, this wonderful beak is in reality very light, being of a spongy or honey-combed structure, and the bird seems to take great care of it — carefully hiding it in the feathers of its wing and breast when at roost, at the same time also curving its long tail over the back, and thus disposing of the two lengthened appendages, so that its whole body appears compact and inconspicu- * Goldsmith tells a story about a parrot owned by King Henry VIII of England. This bird was usually confined in a room overlooking the river Thames, in which abode it had learned many phrases from the boatmen and others passing on the river. One day it fell from the window into the river, when it cried with a powerful voice; "A boat! a boat! twenty pounds to save me." A man on the bank, hearing the cry, and thinking some one was drown- ing, sprang into the water without delay, and was con- siderably surprised to find it was only a bird. Recognizing the king's pet, he carried it to the royal palace and claimed the reward promised by the bird when in distress. We are assured by the narrator that when the circumstance was related to the king, he laughed heartily and paid the money with a good grace. 64 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. ous. The tongue of this bird is long, straight and barbed on each side like a stiff feather. From this peculiarity the people of Brazil, where the bird is often found, gave it the name it bears. In their language toucan means "feather." The toucan feeds mostly on insects and soft fruits, in eating which it tosses its head back so that the food falls of itself into the throat, appearing at first sight as if the bird really threw the morsel into the air and caught it again. % CHAPTER XII. SCRATCHING BIRDS. ,*ANY birds seem to be adapted mostly for a (yj® life on the ground. Such are the doves, pigeons, farm -yard fowls, turkeys, prairie- chicken, etc. ; all of them feeding mostly on seeds and grains. From their habits when searching for food they are called scratching birds. These are to man among the most useful of birds, furnishing him with some of his daintiest foods. But few of this class are adapted for long continued flight; but to this a notable exception is found in the Wild Pigeons, which are really among the strongest and swiftest of flyers. Audubon, the great Ornith- ologist (one who studies birds) states that he has killed pigeons in the vicinity of New York City, having their crops still full of rice which must have SCRATCHING BIRDS. 65 been gathered on the fields of Georgia and South Carolina — places from six hundred to seven hundred miles away. As it has been proved that the digestive organs of a pigeon will decompose a grain of rice in less than twelve hours, these birds must have traveled that distance with the speed of a fast express train. A mile a minute is said to be common flight for such birds. Wild pigeons live together in large numbers, and frequently migrate in a body when the supply of food runs short. A flock of such travelers on the wing is an imposing sight. The light of the sun at such times is obscured, as if a solar eclipse were in progress, and the sound of their wings can be compared only to the rush of a tornado. When they alight, they frequently pile upon each other to a considrable height, and the whole region is speedily cleared of everything edible to them; while their weight frequently breaks down the trees upon which they seek to rest. The same authority already referred to, Audubon, estimated that a single flock of these birds which he viewed in flight, com- prised about eleven hundred and fifteen millions; and that the food required for such a host would be nearly nine millions of bushels per day. Pigeons have been domesticated by man for many years; and at present a very great number of varie- ties are known. The Carrier Pigeon has proved itself of great service in bearing messages from place to place; and especially was this benefit felt before the invention of the electric telegraph. Knowing that these birds would always go straight to their 66 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. homes when liberated at a distance, travelers used to take several with them on their journeys; and after having fastened a small note to a carrier's wing or foot, would set the bird free. It would be seen im- mediately to rise in the air, and, having made several circular sweeps as if to ascertain the direction of its home, it would dart off on a straight line for its des- tination almost with an arrow's flight. Carrier pigeons have been known to make an exceptional speed of over one hundred miles in an hour, such, however, could not be continued for any considerable length of time. The Domestic Fowl, another familiar example among the scratchers, and fully deserving of the class title, becomes readily attached to its home. These birds are poorly fitted for flight, and seldom attempt to rise in the air, except as a recourse of safety in time of danger, or to reach some elevated place to crow or to roost. At such times they seem so awkward in their attempts, and accompany the effort with such a noisy cackling and fuss, that one must think them engaged in an unusual undertaking. The male fowl, called the cock or rooster, is a magnifi- cent bird, carryiug himself with a dignity scarcely to be surpassed; but he is an aristocratic ruler, if not indeed a tyrant at times, in his dominion, and so jealous is he of his authority and rights, that the in- troduction of another rooster within his kingdom is a signal for battle: this will be continued between the rivals until one is vanquished. After the victory is decided, the defeated hero scarcely ever ventures RUNNING BIRDS. 67 to meet the victor in combat again, usually fleeing even upon his approach. The fighting propensities of these birds used to be taken cruel advantage of to furnish barbarous sport for depraved people. The trained birds, pitted against each other, would usually fight to the death, in a determined manner, with both beak and spur. The spur can be seen on the back of the rooster's leg, just above the toes; it is a stout and sharp projection of a horny nature, and the owner knows how to use it to good advan- tage. The flesh and the eggs of tame fowl are highly prized as food, and man bestows great care and makes ample profit in their breeding. As w7ith all other domestic animals, chickens must be kept among clean surroundings if they are to be healthy in body and wholesome for food. Too often, however, their coops are allowed to become filthy, and in consequence the birds sicken and die. RUNNING BIRDS. There are some birds that live naturally upon the ground, being entirely devoid of the power of flight. Such is the case with the ostrich and its relatives, in all of which the wings are so small that they are entirely useless as organs of flight, whereas the legs are extremely stout. These have been called by naturalists, Running Birds. The true Ostrich is found native in Africa, and occasionally on the plains of Arabia. It is the tallest of all birds, frequently attaining a height of six feet, and sometimes even eight feet; and weighing 68 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. upwards of a hundred pounds. It is the swiftest of all animals. A hunter mounted on the fleetest horse could not overtake the bird in a line of direct pur- suit; but the ostrich always runs in a curve, and the pursuer follows along a straight line in the same main direction so as to intercept the creature along its course. Dr. Livingstone says: "The legs of an ostrich running at full speed can no more be seen than the spokes in the wheel of a vehicle drawn at a gallop." Various artifices are resorted to in hunting the ostrich. Beside the method of chase and capture already described, the hunter sometimes hides himself in a hole in the sand, near the bird's nest. He takes his position while the owners of the nest are away in search of food, and usually succeeds in killing both the male and female birds when they return. Among the negroes, some hunters dress themselves in ostrich skins and in this disguise are able to approach the birds within bow shot. The ostrich is hunted mainly for its plumage. If taken young it may be tamed and even trained to carry burden. The negroes in Africa ride this bird as we do the horse. The ostrich has a voracious appetite, though capable of enduring hunger and thirst for long periods. It swallows at times, gravel, and even large pebbles, and other hard substances probably to aid in grinding its food, as fowls swallow sand. Its senses of taste and smell seem extremely imperfect, and this renders the creature less particular than it would otherwise be, as to the things it swallows. PERCHING BIRDS. 69 The Rhea is a running bird of South America, and from its general form, is frequently called the "American ostrich." It is usually not more than half the size of its African brother. Besides the peculiarities of structure before noted, as fitting these birds for life on the ground, instead of in the air, the plumage of the Runners must be mentioned. The blades of the feathers are not joined compactly, by means of barbs, as in the case of flying birds. The wings are not used in beating the air, and there is no need of a continuous feather- vane ; in such feathers, therefore, barbs would be useless, and consequently they are not provided. CHAPTER XIII. PERCHING BIRDS. jjSKSJIRDS that habitually build and dwell in trees, qgjjs^ and that do not belong to the other orders n£$j? already named are called Perching Birds. The ~6L class is so large, presenting such great varia- tions and wide extremes that it is difficult, if not indeed impossible, to give any distinctive features of the whole tribe. We find included here most of the common birds of our orchards and fields, the happy songsters whose pleasing. music imparts such a charm to both hill and valley, as well as others whose voices are by no means entrancing to the ordinary ear. In this respect let it be noted that the gifts of Nature, even among birds, are distributed upon a plan 70 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. of equity if not indeed of exact equality. Favorites are difficult to find. The Father's preserving care and kind concern is exercised over all alike. The birds most famed for song are generally dressed in the plainest garb. Look at the lark, the mocking- bird, the nightingale and the thrush — they all are clothed in simple unostentatious colors, though they charm the hours of sunrise, and even rob midnight of its dreariness by their songs; then glance at the humming-bird bedecked in its robes of crimson and of gold, but with no power of voice above a chirp; and at the elegant bird of paradise — so proud of its gaudy attire that it will not touch earth with its feet unless of necessity — then listen to its compar- atively inharmonious notes; think too of the gorgeous peacock with the eyes of Argus upon its train, but no nearer approach to a song than a discordant scream. Thus it is among birds as among men, the endowments of Nature are not all bestowed on one. The eagle excels in majestic strength, the nightin- gale in soul-inspiring notes; the pigeon and the swallow tax our belief in their feats of endurance and speed; the paradise bird has gained its name out of our homage to its almost heavenly lustre. So it is that each surpasses all in the special gift to which he is the lawful heir, everyone superior and at once inferior to all others, and — "Thus all enjoy the power which suits them best." Here also is a lesson for us. Among the Perchers, belongs the Humming Bird, the tiniest of all the feathered tribes — the flying PERCHING BIRDS. 71 gem, as it is called. There are many species of these remarkable little creatures, though all native to the American Continent. The gayest in color are to be found in the warmer countries. Their long beak and flexible tongue, are admirably fitted for draining the honey cups of flowers — and such dainty food forms their chief support; though, indeed, they relish a meal of insects, occasionally. But it is the sad fate of these fairy-like creatures, to suffer for their beauty. The humming birds are eagerly caught to adorn the dress of those who aspire to a beauty not their own. The sacrifice of such innocent lives, for the cruel requirements of fashion, is both unnatural and wicked. Who sees aught of true beauty in the stuffed body of a bird, sewn on a head-gear? Are not the observer's feelings of sympathy and pity aroused to the exclusion of admiration; except, indeed, for the dead glories of the tiny creature? True beauty and proper taste are opposed to cruelty in any form; and will never countenance such bar- barous practices, as are here referred to, by any act of encouragement. The Mocking Bird, though common only in the Southern States, is a bird whose praises every Amer- ican is proud to spread. It is in reality a member of the great family of thrushes. In size, it is about that of the meadow lark, of a dull ashy color, with a long tail; but in no manner remarkable either for brilliancy of plumage or beauty of form. It is a matter of surprise that such powers of song are concentrated within its little throat. But its music 72 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. is beyond description; it will never be forgotten by one who has once listened to those notes with all their wealth of inexpressible melody. It has a won- derful faculty too of imitating the voices of other birds or even quadrupeds; and this feat it accomplishes with such perfection as to deceive the animals them- selves, who move about with evident coucern thinking, they heard the call of their mates. The Indians call the mocking-bird the "bird of four hundred tongues." Many of its admirers declare its voice to be superior even to that of the far-famed nightingale. The class of birds known as the Perchers include also the numerous varieties of night-hawks, king- fishers, fly-catchers, warblers, thrushes, sparrows, larks, black-birds, crows, jays and many others. WATER BIRDS. In our mention of the chief classes of birds, we must not fail to speak of the Water Birds, both Waders and Swimmers. The former are provided with very long legs; so long in fact, that some naturalists call them stilt- walkers. Through this peculiarity of their shape, they are able to wrade into the water in search of food, consisting of worms, fish, or in fact any small aquatic animals. Herons, cranes, bitterns, snipes and plovers are common around our lakes and big streams. The largest ones are very dignified and imposing in their bearing. The snipes and plovers (the latter sometimes called "pee-wits" from the peculiar cry which they utter when disturbed) are the only ones commonly used for food. WATER BIRDS. 73 The swimmers, including our common ducks, geese, swans, pelicans, divers and gulls are fitted for life in the water. They all have webbed feet, and swim and dive with skill. Their plumage is heavy and thick, and is kept well oiled from certain glands of the skin, so that their feathers are not saturated and their bodies moistened by the water. Every thing is arranged, it seems, to cause the water to slide off the polished surface of the outer feathers, while the thick undergrowth of down furnishes an admir- able protection even from the severe cold of winter. None of these birds build very complicated nests; being usually content with a simple hollow among the rushes, always lined and carpeted however with the softest down, often obtained from their own breasts. The celebrated eider-down, of which the most expensive pillows and beds are made, is procured from the nest of a northern species of duck called the eider-duck. Many swimming birds are able to remain under water for a surprising length of time; while others, as the tern and gull, do not dive at all. The family of the last named, the Gulls, are of peculiar and affecting interest to the inhabitants of this Terri- tory; from the way in which they were brought by Divine power, in vast hosts in answer to the prayers of the people, to devour the ravenous locusts, which were producing such terrible destruction among the crops. Gulls have shown themselves to be veritable scavengers; and the good they accomplish by this propensity is extremely great. 74 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. CHAPTER XIV. REPTILES. s i^HE word Reptile is derived from a Latin term %2/Sl meaning "to creep," or "to crawl," and is applied to a large class of cold-blooded animals characterized by such actions. Some of them, it is true, have limbs, but these are so short that part of the body is drawn on the earth. Turtles, lizards and serpents constitute our commonest classes of reptiles, and to these should be added the crocodiles and alligators, which though practically unknown in a wild state among us are unpleasantly common in the warm regions of both hemispheres. Turtles or Tortoises are reptiles of a flat sprawling- form, but particularly noted for their strange covering. This consists of a shell of bony and horny matter, made up of two parts, an arched roof- like upper part called the carapace; and a flat plate below called the plastron. The carapace, though composed largely of bone, is covered on the outside by a great many plates or scales of horn, fitted one to the other as accurately as are the ornamental tiles in a figured floor; and frequently of very varied colors. It is from this that the highly prized tortoise- shell ornaments are made. In most of the species, the two parts of the shell are immovably fixed to each other; the animal being able however to with- draw the head and limbs completely within as a plan of defense in case of threatened injury. But the REPTILES. 75 Box Tortoise has a movable plastron or lower plate fixed to its hard covering, by which it so effectually closes its shell, that a knife-blade can scarcely be forced into the joints. Fig. 11. — Box Tortoise, with closed shell. Figure 1 1 is a very good picture of the box tortoise, with its shell closed, as has been described, and lying upon its back. The tightly-fitting plas- tron is well shown, and the curiously-marked sections of which it consists, are very distinct. Dead and empty shells of these reptiles, are often used as boxes and trays. The senses of these creatures, seem, as a rule, to be extremely dull; and many injuries that usually prove fatal to the water-blooded animals, are borne by them with but few signs of discomfiture. They are said to live, under favorable circumstances, more than two hundred years. Many varieties of tortoises are known, of which, the land tortoises, fresh -water tortoises (the last named more precisely called turtles), are the chief. From a hasty glance, it would seem impossible for an animal so heavily laden as the tortoise, with its cumbrous shell, to move at all readily, on land 76 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. or in water; but, contrary to such superficial appear- ance, those tortoises that frequent the water, are expert swimmers and divers; the whole internal structure being an admirable adaptation to such actions. The lungs are connected with numerous air-cells, looking much like small bladders, and situated in many parts of the body; so that when the creature inhales, all these air-bags become in- flated, and the whole body is made specifically light. Land tortoises, though seldom larger than a dinner-plate, and usually very much smaller in temperate countries, grow to great size in warm parts; some specimens weighing over two hundred pounds each. They live almost exclusively on vege- table food. The flesh of some kinds of land tortoises is eaten and considered a luxury; the animals being fattened for the purpose as we would feed a fowl or a tame duck for the table. Fresh-water tor- toises are to be found in the marshes and rivers of heated regions. Their feet differ from those of land tortoises in being webbed, thus enabling the animals to swim easily. They are in general car- nivorous in habit, feeding largely on fish, frogs and toads, small birds and insects. The Snapping Turtle of many American rivers is represented in Figure 12 and deserves special men- tion. It is larger than other fresh-water species, measuring over three feet, and in exceptional cases four feet from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail. The head of this turtle is comparatively large and is terminated by a pair of strong hooked jaws, REPTILES. 77 which it can fasten with wonderful strength upon an enemy in case of molestation. Fig. 12.— The River Tortoise, or "Snapping Turtle." Sea Turtles are in general very large. Their feet are shaped like fins or flippers, which are admirable organs of locomotion in the water, but give to the animal a very awkward appearance when it tries to make progress on land. These appendages, however, are of great service in scooping holes in the sand on the shore, in which to deposit its eggs. When laid, these eggs are carefully covered with sand and then abandoned, the heat of the sun being sufficient to effect the incubation. Although turtles are strong for their size, some of the largest being indeed possessed of a muscular vigor little less than marvelous, yet they are entirely helpless when turned on their backs. Hunters take advantage of this in capturing large sea turtles, by rushing suddenly upon the creatures when on the shore, and turning them over before they are able to regain the water. After having disabled as many as possible in this novel way, the captors return and kill their game at leisure. 78 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. CHAPTER XV. SNAKES. jjjgajNAKES are characterized by very long bodies, SSI covered with scales, but without external limbs of any sort. Even a hasty examination, however, shows their scales to be materially different from those of fishes, being formed really as wrinkles or folds in the skin, and covered with a thin delicate membrane, which is sloughed or shed at in- tervals, once a year, or oftener. Though devoid of limbs, snakes are able to move over the ground with great rapidity by a sliding or telescoping action of the scaly rings around their bodies. Their teeth are sharp and well fitted for holding their prey; for such purpose, indeed, the teeth are intended to serve, rather than as organs of mastication, as serpents swallow their food whole. The mouth and throat are capable of distension, in consequence of which, a snake is often known to swallow animals many times larger than itself. Some of the largest of snakes, such as the boa constrictor and anaconda reach a length of thirty or forty feet. As a proof of their great mus- cular strength, it needs only be stated that either of them can easily crush the bones of a sheep or a deer by the embrace of its powerful coils. The ordinary black, striped and water snakes of America are harmless in their bite, though usually held in great dread. Their chief food consists of small animals such as mice and rats, frogs, toads, SNAKES. 79 and birds, which seem to be overcome with fear at the presence of a snake, and so become a ready prey to the devourer. The rattlesnake on the other hand is of so venom- ous a character that its bite is commonly fatal to large animals, and even to man. An examination of figure 13 will aid in gaining a clear idea as to the manner in which the poisonous bite is inflicted. Fig. 13.— Rattlesnake's skull, showing the fangs. In the upper jaw are two fangs or curved teeth which are hollow, and connected with a little sac or pouch containing the deadly poison. This is injected into the wound made by the two fangs whenever the animal bites. The rattlesnake derives its name from a series of hard, horn-like rings on the tail, with which the rep- tile produces a peculiar rattling noise whenever dis- turbed. Were it not for this warning sound, the ani- mal would be even more dreaded than it is. In color it is usually two shades, of brown with points of yellow. The arrangement of the rattles, as well as 80 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. the general shape and appearance of the rattlesnake may be fairly understood from figure 14. The poison from any venomous serpent seems of little effect unless introduced into the blood of the body, which of course is the case whenever a bite from such a snake is received on the flesh; and in these emergencies, quick and efficient meas- ures should be tak- en. If possible,let the wound be promptly and vigorously suck- ed; there is no dan- ger of injury from drawing the venom into the mouth, un- less sores or abra- sions exist on the lips or within. The ; Fig. 14. — Rattlesnake. j i u i wound should also be enlarged by a cut from a sharp knife — unless, of course, located where such surgery would be danger- ous. If the bite be on a limb, a tight ligature should be bound on the side of the wound toward the heart so as to prevent as much as possible the spread of the poison through the medium of the circulating blood. The injured part may with great advantage be washed with hartshorn, or ammonia, previously diluted with twenty times its bulk of water; and REPTILES. 81 with alcohol. Small quantities of alcoholic liquor may very properly be taken inwardly at such time: but the common belief that the injured person's chances of recovery are in direct proportion to the amount of liquor drunk by him, is erroneous. Lizards are reptiles, usually possessing a long, slender body and tail, and a comparatively large mouth, well filled with teeth. Many pretty and harmless creatures of this class are found in our Utah valleys, but none of a venomous kind. In tropical lands, lizards are met with, whose bite is dangerous The Horned Toad, of the Western plains, is a true lizard, the name toad, being a great misnomer; though its broad and comparatively short boby, is an exception to the ordinary shape of lizards. The head is provided with spines and the body is covered with tubercles, suggesting the character of a mail- clad reptilian knight; this armor, however, is about its only means of protection. It is a timid, harmless little creature; and in the warm, Southwestern States, is tamed as a house pet. A very slight degree of cold causes it to become torpid and inactive. Chameleons are peculiar and interesting lizards found only in the warm portions of the Old World, and possessing a number of strange distinctive features. The tongue is really a long tube, with an enlargement on the end, and can be darted out with unlooked-for rapidity, if a small insect comes within its reach. The chameleon's eyes can be moved inde- pendently of each other— a strange feature, and one that imparts to the animal a most remarkable appear- 82: FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. aace at times. Then its tail is prehensile, that is, it can be used for grasping and holding branches of trees — and this is an unusual power among reptiles. The skin does not adhere to the body in all parts; spaces are left into which air at times enters, causing the skin to expand, and the whole body to appear enormously inflated; perhaps in less than a minute following one of such actions, the air cells are emptied, and the animal appears curiously lean and shrunken. In addition to these peculiarities, the creature is able to modify the color of its skin by expanding or contracting certain pigment cells situ- ated just below the cuticle or outer layer of the skin, by which means the chameleon assumes the tint of the tree or ground upon which it happens to be, and so is in far less danger of detection by its enemies The largest members of the whole lizard tribe, often reaching a length of thirty feet, are the dreaded Croco- diles of Africa and India; then follow in order the somewhat smaller Alligators of the Southern States of America. The crocodile infests the rivers and sea shores, and surpasses even the fiercest of carnivorous mammalia in its powers of destruction. Its favorite method of attack is to remain concealed on or near the river shore till some animal or man draws near; then by a swift movement of its powerful tail the victim is stunned, and if not at once thrown into the water by the force of the blow, is seized and dragged beneath the surface, there drowned and devoured at the pleasure of its captor. The alligators of America, though smaller than REPTILES. 83 their African relatives, are yet deservedly dreaded in their native swamps. As winter approaches, the alligators usually bury themselves in the mud, on the margins of their summer homes, and there sleep till the warmth of spring awakens them to a life of cruel rapacity. Travelers relate the thrilling concern with which they have sometimes viewed the heaving and swelling of a baked mud patch in the early part of the year; at such a sight they usually seek a place of safety without idle delay, knowing well that a hungry alligator is there throwing off the covers of its winter bed and getting ready for breakfast. The Indians of the south usually capture the alligator by baiting a huge hook with meat, then securing 'it to a long stout rope, and placing it in a promising locality. When hooked, the huge game is soon drawn ashore and despatched with clubs. A method more ingenious and effective is practised oif the banks of the Orinoco iu South America. A bamboo, or some other elastic tree near the water is selected, the top is then bent down to the butt, and a baited hook is attached to the depressed top by a stout line. The tree is so arranged that its top is automatically released the instant a strain is felt upon the line; and consequently as soon as the alligator seizes the bait the tree forthwith straightens itself with great velocity and the victim is dragged from the water. Alligators seem to hold dogs in high favor as food, and it is said the voracious creatures may be enticed from the water by the real or imitated bark of a dog. 84 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. CHAPTER XVI. FROGS AND TOADS. @j5jHESE strange creatures undergo such wonder- ful changes in the course of their life, that there is very little resemblance between the young and the adult. Their eggs may be seen during the early spring floating in the water of ditches and ponds, and looking like numerous black specks enclosed in a mass of jelly; those of the frog existing in large clusters, while the toad eggs are joined in long glutinous strings. Under the warm rays of the sun, these soon develop into small living structures, each looking much like a very little fish, with a disproportionate head and a flattened tail. These are called Tadpoles or Polly wogs. They live wholly in the water, are entirely destitute of limbs, and breathe by means of gills, as do fishes. These gills are seen as little feathery appendages on the sides of the head. In this stage of their existence they are extremely active, and grow with great rapidity; but soon, changes far more striking than mere increase in size manifest themselves. The legs are seen to grow, the hind ones appearing first. As these appendages become larger, the tail diminishes in size, and finally is entirely absorbed: the gills at the same time disappear, and to supply their place lungs are developed within the body. All traces of the fish-like tadpole are soon obliterated, and the mature toad or frog is the result. Originally a FROGS AND TOADS. 85 thoroughly aquatic animal, it becomes in adult life of an aerial or air-breathing nature, though it is still able to remain for considerable time submerged in water; it can only breathe, however, in the air. In figure 15 are shown the principal stages in the wonderful development of a frog or toad. Fig. 15. — Tadpole changes. Figure 1 6 represents the skeleton or bony frame- work of the adult frog. Frogs may be distin- guished from toads by their stronger hind legs, their large horny ears seen just behind the eyes and the presence of teeth in the upper jaw. Both feed largely Fig. 16.— Skeleton of a Frog. Up0n insects, and to aid in capturing their winged prey the tongue is made very long and supple, and fastened at the front of the mouth, so .that the greater part when inactive reaches down the throat. Yet the animal can dart this forward with surprising quick- ness and unerring accuracy upon any unlucky fly that may venture within range. Unlike most cold- 86 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. blooded animals the frog and the toad are endowed with powers of voice, and these too of no low order. The croaking bull-frog of American waters may be heard at the distance of a mile, in fact it has re- ceived its impressive name from the low, bellowing tone of its voice; while the gentle warbling chirp — it can scarcely be called a croak — of the festive toads, as they congregate in still ponds and quiet marshes on a summer evening and indulge in their mutual serenade, is known to all. Many people believe the toad to be of a venomous nature, whereas it has no means of wilfully injuring anything larger than a fly or a moth. Of insects, however, it destroys great numbers, and deserves therefore a more considerate protection than is commonly awarded to it. The toad's skin is frequently seen covered with drops of moisture even though the creature be at a considera- ble distance from water; this is a fluid which exudes from the skin under certain conditions, very much as does the perspiration of our own bodies. This fluid, which appears in greatest quantity if the toad be an- noyed or frightened, is really of an acrid irritating nature and produces unpleasant and even severe smarting if conveyed to one's hand through touch- ing a toad, and thence to the eyes. A dog is often seen to snap a toad in his mouth as if in a freak of sport; but he usually drops his plaything with a yelp of surprise, caused without doubt from the irritating effect of this exudation, upon the delicate lining membrane of the mouth. During the winter frogs and toads hibernate in FROGS AND TOADS. 87 large companies, having previously buried themselves deep in the soft earth. Frogs and toads, and several other animals that pass through similar peculiar changes of growth are called by naturalists amphibians, a word meaning "with a double life," because they pass part of their lives in water, breathing by means of gills as do the fishes, and spend the other part of their existence on land, breathing through lungs as do true reptiles or any of the other animals of which we have thus far spoken.* Naturalists who have traveled and studied much, tell us of many rare and peculiar forms of frogs and toads to be found in various parts of the world though not common with us here. There is a some- what remarkable variety of the former called the Tree Frog, common in many parts of the globe. It is a smaller animal than the ordinary frog, and, as its name indicates, lives mostly on trees. To properly fit the animal for such a life, several wise provisions have been made by the Creator. In the first place, each toe of the tree frog is terminated by a small pad, looking and operating much like the leathern * In this class belong the different varieties of Newts of which some are found hereabouts, and the curious Sal- amanders regarding which so many strange and exagger- ated stories are told. It is incorrectly said they can remain in fire without injury; the only fact upon which such a statement rests being that these animals are able to cover themselves with a sort of milky fluid or perspira- tion, which perhaps protects them in a small degree from moderate heat. 88 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. suckers with which boys often amuse themselves. These little cushions are covered with a sort of glue; and by their action the animals cling tight to the trunks or branches of trees. Then again these frogs are of a singular color; — a sort of dull green, very much resembling the hue of the leaves among which they live and move. Such is an odd color for an animal, but to the tree-frog such an oddity is a matter of very great advantage, as by it the little creature can lie among the leaves and branches with very little danger of being discovered. But its sight is just as keen as if it were of some bright and con- trasting color. It can see therefore with little danger of being seen, and is consequently able to lie safely in wait for the insects which form its chief food. Tree-frogs are capital trappers and hunters, and a study of their ways is an interesting and deeply instructive lesson. The voice of the tree-frog is mellow and agreeable in comparison with that of other species; it is heard chiefly in the cool of the morning and evening. Among toads there is a very strange individual called the Pipa or Surinam Toad, found on this continent only in some parts of Guiana and Brazil. Unlike ordinary toads it has very small eyes, and no tongue. But the distinguishing feature about this queer creature is the manner in which its eggs are hatched. Our common kinds of toads always deposit their eggs in the water and then abandon them; but not so with the Surinam Toad. The female takes the eggs, as soon as laid, upon her back, where they FISHES. 89 soon sink beneath the skin, forming each for itself a little socket or hole. The heat of the body soon hatches the eggs, and it is a funny sight to see the young brood in their queer nests. Ct CHAPTER XVII. FISHES. 8S?HE animals, about which we talked last, viz., 19s the frogs and toads, and their kindred, were seen to live part of the time in water and part of the time on land. Fishes, however, seem intended, by the Creator, to pass the whole of their lives in water. Let us examine carefully, either of our common stream fishes, such as a trout, a chub, or a herring, and we will discover a great many valuable facts about the curious lives these finny creatures pass in their watery home. In the first place, we cannot fail to observe the slender form and regular shape of the fish. There are no irregularities about it as are to be seen in other animal bodies; not even a depression, where the neck would seem to be. This spindle form enables the fish to move more readily through the water; any irregularity in shape, on the other hand, would tend to retard the swimmer. Men have learned this, among many other lessons, from the animal world; they now build their marine torpedoes, which are to be shot with great speed 90 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. through the water — in a form very much like that of an ordinary fish. Now let us look at the sail-like appendages on the back and sides of the body, the fins and the tail. These serve the fish as means of propelling and steering itself through the water; the tail operating chiefly as a sculling-oar and the fins serving to balance and direct the animal in its rapid course. Then there are to be noticed the scales with which most fishes are covered — so different from the hair, fur, wool or feathers, which form the dress of most land animals. These scales are inserted separately in folds of the true skin beneath, and they are made to overlap each other as do the shingles or slates on a roof, the free edges all being directed backward. The whole surface is covered with a slimy, oil-like matter which is also effectual in aiding rapid motion through the water. Fig. 17.— Skeleton of a Fish. • A fair idea of the plan after which the body of the fish is shaped may be obtained from a careful study of the skeleton as represented in figure 17. From the fact that fishes naturally live in the FISHES, 91 water throughout their whole existence, some people think that they do not need air by which to breathe as do other animals. But fishes offer no exception to the rule; they, like other animals, must receive air into their bodies, by which the blood is purified, or they die. We all well know that if a land animal such as a dog or a fowl, be closely confined in a box or a small room, as soon as all the air contained therein has been breathed and rendered impure, the animal is suffocated to death. So with fishes; if they be deprived of a free supply of fresh air, they will suffer and die. Naturally, fishes breathe the air contained in the water- in which they live. That water does so contain air — entangled perhaps between the liquid particles — may be readily proved by watching an open vessel of water when placed over the fire. In a very short time after heat is first applied — long before the water has become heated so as to produce steam, bubbles are seen to rise to the surface and there break and escape. These bubbles are portions of the air originally contained in the water; and upon this supply the living inhabitants of the liquid element subsist. A very conclusive, though cruel experiment is often performed to illustrate and prove this fact. If a vessel of water be boiled so that all the air con- tained in it is driven away and if then it be cooled to the ordinary temperature, and a small fish intro- duced into it, the little creature swims around as if in agony for a short time, keeping its mouth close to the surface seeking what little air it can reach, but 92 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. soon it becomes exhausted and dies. It has been drowned in fact for want of air. It is true that fishes do not need as much air as land animals do; the water in which they live usually contains air suf- ficient for their use. Instead of lungs, fishes have peculiar organs called gills, so constructed as to readily separate the air from the water; and this, the lungs of animals are unable to do. These gills are seen on the sides of the head, looking like small, blood-red feathers, fixed to arches of bone; there are usually four of them on each side, covered by a hard, bony lid, called the gill-cover, or operculum. By watching a fish quietly at rest in the water, we may easily see how these peculiar organs are used. We notice the little swimmer continually opening and closing its mouth, and just as regularly, the gill- covers are seen to rise and fall — in fact, water is constantly being taken in through the mouth, and driven out between the gills, from under the gill- covers, thoroughly bathing the little feathery fringes with a continuous supply of fresh water charged with the life-giving air. Through the filaments of the gills blood is con- stantly flowing in very fine vessels or tubes; there are so many of them that if looked at with a magni- fying glass, the gills appear almost like bundles of blood-vessels; it is the large quantity of blood in these vessels that gives to the gills their bright red color. While passing through the gills, the blood is purified by the action of the air, and cleansed from the many foul matters with which it had become FISHES. 93 contaminated in its former courses through the body, and is again started on its rounds to invigorate and to strengthen. These fringe-like gills are kept apart from each other by the action of the water passing between them; but when a fish is taken from the water the fringes fall together and become dry, although supplied more plentifully than usual with air. Some fishes can keep their gill-covers forcibly closed for considerable time in the air, so that the feathery gills beneath are kept moist; such fishes live much longer than others out of water. A fish weighs almost exactly the same as a quan- tity of water equal in bulk to itself, consequently it has no tendency through its weight alone either to rise or fall in the wrater, and a very slight change is sufficient to enable it to move easily up or down. There is found inside the fish's body and near the back bone a peculiar membranous sack called the swimming-bladder, filled with air, and capable of being contracted or enlarged at pleasure. When the fish compresses this bladder by a muscular effort the bulk is decreased, though the weight in reality remains the same, and consequently the fish sinks. On the other hand, if the fish removes the pressure from the bladder of air so that it assumes a larger size, the bulk of the fish is increased, whereas its weight remains unchanged, and as a consequence the animal rises toward the surface. The eyes of fish are generally large and motion- less and as they are kept constantly moist by the water in which the animals live, there is no need 94 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. of protecting lids or lashes, nor of any apparatus to produce tears, which are of such service in our own eyes, by preventing the delicate coverings from becoming dry. Only a thin transparent skin covers the most delicate parts of the eye. Most fishes are voracious feeders,* living mostly upon the various kinds of aquatic animals inhabit- ing the same water; indeed many of them feed on fishes smaller than themselves, and do not always hesitate to include their own young in their bill of fare. Most fishes have large mouths, containing several rows of teeth; the tongue and palate are also very frequently covered with teeth; while others, devoid of teeth, habitually swallow their food whole. Fishes are generally oviparous, that is to say they are hatched from eggs previously deposited in the water. Most of them are prolific to an astonishing degree, a single salmon being known to lay some- times twenty thousand eggs; a herring over sixty thousand, and a cod-fish frequently deposits nine millions of eggs. In contrast with this there are some fishes that deposit but very few eggs; and here is another illustration of Divine wisdom; the fishes * "At a lecture delivered before the Zoological Society of Dublin, Dr. Houston exhibited as 'a fair sample of a fish's breakfast' a frog-fish two and a half feet long, in the stomach of which was a codfish two feet in length. The cod's stomach contained the bodies of two whitings of ordinary size; and the whitings in their turn held the half-digested remains of many smaller fishes, too much broken up to be identified. SOME PISHES. 95 most useful to man are of all the most abundantly prolific, while the dangerous and injurious kinds multiply but slowly. CHAPTER XVIII. SOME FISHES. g£?0 ATTEMPT any sort of a description of the different classes or kinds of fishes, is almost a hopeless undertaking, from their wonderful and surprising number. There are no less than ten thousand kinds of fishes now known and in part described. The ordinary fresh water fishes of our rivers and lakes exhibit the features already pointed out; but for species of almost incredible size and strength, the finny denizens of the ocean must be examined. Many sea fishes, as for instance shad and salmon, go up the rivers aud deposit their eggs in fresh water; the young fry, however, soon seek the briny ele- ment. Among salt water fishes, some are of migratory or wandering habits, appearing off certain coasts regularly at particular seasons. It is found to be a fact also, that individual fishes frequently visit the same place year after year. This interesting item has been proved by fishermen taking fishes from the uets, marking them and setting them at liberty again. The same marked fishes have been re-caught year after year. 96 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. Among ocean fishes, the Sharks are of great inter- est. Sharks grow sometimes to a length of thirty feet, and all varieties of them are extremely ferocious. They are the tigers of the ocean, the dread and the scourge of all other inhabitants of the deep. Their covering is not scaly, but formed of a hard, tough, leathery skin, and the bones are soft and gristle-like. Such bones are said to be cartilaginous in structure. The shark's mouth is comparatively large and filled with numerous rows of sharp, lance-like teeth. These readily attack men who may be swimming or diving in the water, and are able to bite off a human leg with ease at a single snap. Though these savage monsters are doubtlessly in- tended to be butchers and destroyers, the Creator has wisely checked their facilities for unrestricted slaughter. The shark's mouth is not at the end of the nose as is the case with most fishes, but under- neath the head — much as the mouth of a hog is situ- ated. The shark therefore is unable to bite without first turning over on its back; and while doing this, its intended victims sometimes make good their escape. * * Many accounts of shark fishing have been given; and the following is taken from one of our popular works on zoology, the author of which quotes it from some unspeci- fied source: — "I was holding the heavy hook and wire rope over the side, when I felt that I had caught a big fish, and pulling it cautiously, a shark came to the surface. I called out, when the passengers ran to my help. He struggled so violently, lashing the water with his tail and trying to bite the hook asunder, that we were obliged to keep dipping his head under the water and then haul him SOME FISHES. 97 The Sword-fish often reaches a length of from twelve to fifteen feet. It owes its celebrity and its name to a peculiar elongation of its upper jaw into a kind of dagger, called its sword, of surprising strength. This it uses in transfixing its prey, and some species have so powerful a sword, that they have been known to drive it for a third of its length through the copper-covered hull of a vessel. There is preserved in the British Museum an interesting specimen, it being a part of a ship's side with a sword of a sword-fish thrust through. The Saw-fish is appropriately named from the notched or toothed prolongation of its jaw. This is a formidable weapon, and the owner is not afraid to attack with it any inhabitant of the sea; even the gigantic whale not being exempt. The Flying-fish, about which so many "fish stories" have been told, is a brilliantly colored crea- up two or three feet to let it run down his throat. At last he was nearly drowned, when, sending a running bow-line down the rope by which he was caught, and making it taut under his back fin, we clapped it round the steam winch, and turned the steam on. Some then hauled him up while all available hands dragged at the other line, which held his head. As soon as we got him on board he broke off about three feet of the ship's bulwarks by a single lash of his tremendous tail. This was then cut off by the boatswain with a hatchet, while a dozen of us with bowie-knives finished him. We found in his stomach six large snakes, two empty quart bottles, two dozen lobsters, and a sheep-skin with the horns and shank-bones, which the cook had thrown overboard two days before. The liver filled two large wash-deck tubs, and when tried out gave us ten gallons of oil," 98 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. ture with very broad pectoral or breast fins, so large in fact, that when the animal swims with great velocity to the surface of the water, these fins sus- tain the impetus for a sufficient time to bear the fish a considerable distance through the air. It cannot flap the tins at all, neither change the direction of its so-called "flight" when once in the air; and it falls into the water again at the expiration of a short time. Then there is the so-called Fishing Frog, common about the coasts of Europe and America. Its bead is so large that the rest of the body looks much like a mere appendage thereto. The wide mouth is lined with long and sharp teeth. The front, or pectoral fins are so large and spiny, that they support the weight of the body when the creature rests upon them; and this it often does, seeming really to walk, or crawl along the bottom of the sea. All around the head, and on some parts of its body are fringed outgrowths, looking very much like the sea-weeds, among which it usually lies concealed. Along the top of the creature's head, in the median line, are three long filaments, the first terminating in a kind of drooping fringe. This is the fisher's bait; by lying quiet in the weeds and causing its brightly- colored filaments to wave back and forth, it readily attracts the smaller fishes of the neighborhood, who seem to be deceived by the bait, thinking it to be, perhaps, a worm, or an insect; as soon as they are within easy range, by a quick movement, they are engulfed in the capacious gape. INSECTS. 99 A very large fish family are knowu under the name of Flat Fish. They usually lie while at rest flat on one side at or near the bottom of the water; but while swimming they take the usual vertical position. The under side is light-colored, and the upper surface dark — a provision of Nature shown also in the case of other fish — by which they are difficult to see from above or below, the dark upper side appear- ing much of the same color as the bottom; and the light under surface being scarcely visible from below. In the case of the turbot — a common flat fish, the eyes are both placed on the same side of the head. When the fish rests upon its side, this is the position of greatest service. For the description of many interesting fishes, the reader is recommended to any good work on Zoology. CHAPTER XIX. INSECTS. [EXT to the joyous song of birds, there is per- haps no sound more pleasing to the ear than the merry buzz and cheerful hum of insects abroad among the flowers, in the brilliant summer time. They seem so happy in their darting flight; stopping here to sip a tiny drop of nectar from the lncern or clover flower; and yonder to pick honey from the wild blossoms of the roadside: chas- ing each other through the air with untrammeled 100 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. gaiety, and all the unconcern of romping schoolboys — every day seems a holiday with them. Yet oftentimes when we think that they are sport- ing in the depths of fun they are in reality accom- plishing the work of their lives; but they have acquired the happy faculty of looking upon labor with joy and of taking pleasure in their work. Here is a lesson for us from the butterflies and the bees. Most of these little' winged beauties seem deter- mined to extract all the pleasure and joy that life can lend, as if they realize that their time of exist- ence is very brief. Some of them live but a day in a full)'- developed state; but before reaching that perfection they pass through great and complicated changes, occupying weeks and in the case of some insects even years. A more wonderful series of changes than that which is shown in the course of an insect's life, it is difficult to imagine. There appears, for instance, but little resemblance between the green caterpillar so often seen crawling about the cabbages, amusing itself by making sieves of the leaves, and the white or yellow butterfly noticed a short time after; yet the caterpillar is in truth the baby butterfly. It will be worth the trouble to capture a few of these cater- pillars, and keep them under observation during the time of their growth, supplying them with plenty of leaves upon which to feed. The caterpillar is usually called the larva of the insect — this word means literally a mask and is applied in this way because the insect seems to be in INSECTS. 101 a sort of disguise, the future appearance of the fully developed insect not^being at all recognizable. Most insects in the larval condition are prodigious feeders; they seem to consider eating as the main object of their existence; and in consequence many of them prove pests and nuisances to man. Their growth is so rapid that at very short intervals they find themselves too big for their skin; whenever this is the case, the skin is cast away, as one might discard an outgrown coat, and another covering soon comes in its place. After several of such "moults" have occurred, the larva seems to lose its appetite; it seeks some quiet and sheltered place, under a leaf, or in a crevice of a building or the bark of a tree, or perhaps it buries itself in the earth, and there prepares for a long sleep. This preparation consists in very carefully constructing a sleeping apartment; it may be a woven chamber of fine silk called the cocoon in which the larva incloses itself — or perhaps the little creature forms a cell in the earth or on a tree, and lines this with its own fine-spim silk; in other cases it becomes coated with a hard leathery shell, in which the out- lines of the future insect, its wings, feet etc. can be readily traced. In this case the little thing does not look unlike a miniature baby trussed up in its swad- ling clothes; and from such resemblance the insect in this stage is called a pupa, from an ancient word meaning an infant. Many of these pupae are to be found in the spring lying on the newly plowed land as they have been turned up by the plow from their 102 FIRST BOOK OF| NATURE. underground sleeping quarters. But soon another change follows; the pupa case, whether leathery shell or silken cocoon, bursts open, and the winged insect called the imago issues therefrom. In figure nineteen are shown the larva and imago of one of our common moths; and in figure twenty may be seen the larva, pupa, and imago of the mosquito. Let us capture a butterfly or a moth, or in fact any flying insect, and carefully look at its parts. A large volume could well be written upon the wonderful structure of an insect's body. Its head is seen to bear two appendages looking something like horns; these are smooth in the butterfly, jointed in the beetle, and feathered or plume-like in the moth. These peculiar organs are called antenna; and they seem to serve important purposes in the insect's little life. With them it feels, and perhaps also smells. By their aid insects seem able to converse with one another, and so perfect their understanding appears to be that Huber, a great naturalist, has called this system of communication antennal language. Watch a couple oi ants from the same nest when they meet; they approach and seem to tap each other with their antennas in a very significant way, and apparently with perfect success. It is not hard to imagine that they are making a mutual report as tD the results of the morning's hunt for food; or perhaps consulting as to the best way home, or discussing the affairs of their ant-world in general. Look carefully now at the insect's eye — it is far BEES AND WASPS. 103 different from the visual organs of most other ani- mals. By the assistance of a magnifying glass we shall doubtless discover a most remarkable arrange- ment. Select for instance the large, prominent eye of the dragon-fly for examination. It seems to be made up of a great many brilliant little plates placed edge to edge like the facets on the surface of a cut diamond. Each of these facets or plates faces in a different direction, so that although the insect's eye is fixed and immovable in its place, yet by its peculiar shape and setting the little creature is aWe to see in nearly all directions. Such an eye is said to be compound in distinction from the simple eye of most other animals, which consists of but one ball and face. In the ant's eye there are fifty such facets, in the eye of the common house-fly over four thou- sand, some butterflies possess upwards of seventeen thousand, and many beetles show over twenty-five thousand. We are not able to tell the range of in- sect vision; some of the tiniest have to all appear- ances powers of sight but poorly imitated by man even with his wondrous microscopes. CHAPTER XX. BEES AND WASPS. tfjsajEES and wasps, and all their relatives, are pro- oSSi vided with thin, nearly transparent wings. &£a Bees have a short body, covered with crisp, 3a) dark hair; the first joint of the hind legs is, in comparison, very large, with grooves and channels 104 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. upon it, for collecting and carrying the pollen of flowers. They are very industrious little creatures, living generally in communities, in which, there appears to be a most perfect system of organization. A queen bee, is recognized in each colony; she is the only perfectly developed female among them all; and by her, all the eggs are produced. Beside the queen, there are workers and drones, the latter, being the male bees, and, for the most part, con- summate idlers; they are stung to death by the workers, without mercy, as soon as the pairing season is over. The honey-comb, which is manufactured by the bees from the pollen of flowers, is built in the form of numerous little rooms, or cells, each six-sided in form, and all placed side by side, so that each divid- ing partition is in fact a wall for two cells at once. This is the shape by which all the waste room between the cells is avoided, and at the same time the struct- ure is the strongest imaginable, and the amount of wax employed in the construction, is the smallest. The division of labor within the hive, seems to be most perfect; the workers laboring with such pre- cision, that an ordinary swarm of bees can construct upwards of four thousand comb-cells within twenty- four hours. As soon as the cells are completed, the working bees industriously gather the nectar and sweet juices of flowers, and store the same as honey within the comb. The value of this delicious material, as one of our most wholesome sweets, is known and appreciated by us all. It has always BEES AND WASPS. 105 been held in high esteem; — Deseret, the honey-bee, was carried by the Nephites of old, from place to place in their wanderings, and gave the sweet fruits of its industry for sustenance and enjoyment. Humble Bees, or, as they are sometimes named, Bumble Bees, are considerably larger than the ordinary honey bees. They are of a wild nature, preferring not to accept any of the provisions that men may make for their residence, such as hives or boxes; they usually build their nests under the surface of tne ground, or beneath a large stone or some such object. Figure 18 shows the humble bee, natural size, and its peculiarly-shaped honey cells. The bees already spoken of are some- times called social bees from their in- stinctive association in communities; but beside such, there are a number of bees that lead a more se- cluded life, each liv- ing by itself; all such are termed for dis- Fig.18. — Humble Bee and its honey " ceils. bees. Of these there are some that build for themselves little cells, covered with sand grains or small stones fastened together by means of a sticky fluid formed in their mouths; these 106 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. are called Mason Bees. Then there are the truly ingenious little Carpenter Bees, those that bore holes in dry tree trunks and the like, in which they deposit their eggs. In each of the cells so formed, along with the eggs, they lay away a store of pollen gathered from flowers, to serve as food for the larvae, as soon as hatched from the eggs. And still another kind are noted for their wonderful skill in shaping cells from leaves; they cut and fashion these leaves with all the precision of trained workers, and they fully deserve their title of Upholsterer Bees. Many kinds of Wasps show a remarkable dexterity in the construction of their homes. They usually build with a stout sort of paper which they produce by first gnawing wood to a fine powder, and then mixing it with the saliva to form a kind of pulp; this dries and becomes very hard and tough in the air. It is only during the last few years that man has learned to follow the example so long set by these humble insects — using of wood in paper- making. From this tough material the "paper wasps" build their cells, six-sided in form like the cells of the honey-bee's comb. The wasps arrange their cells within the nest in stories or floors of different levels, each floor being suspended from the one above it by stout rods of paper. Wasps build their nests as homes for themselves and their young and not for the storing of food. They do not gather or eat honey as do bees, but feed on insects more defenseless than themselves. The Hornet is a large and fierce kind of wasp, BEES AND WASPS. 107 which lives in a paper house constructed as before described and usually hung from the branch of a tree. Such nests frequently measure from one and a half to two feet in diameter. The inmates are so pugnacious in their dispositions, and so ready to resent any intrusion on their domains, that one has usually cause to regret his temerity in approaching the paper mansion too closely. The Mud Wasps construct with great skill and precision small cylindrical cells of mud, the material for which they temper and mix as carefully as a brickmaker does his clay. These are used only as depositories for the eggs and as nurseries for the young. As soon as a cell is completed, the wasp places an egg or two within, then fills the remaining space with spiders or caterpillars or the like, and seals up the opening. These imprisoned insects are designed to serve as food for the larvae as soon as de- veloped from the eggs; for these infantile wasps seem to inherit and show from their birth the prodigious appetites and ravenous dispositions of their parents. The female insects of nearly all of the wasp and bee families sting severely if angered. The sting of the working bee is curved, so that when thrust into the flesh of an animal it is held there; it is usually therefore torn from the stinger's body and remains in the wound. Such is not true of the stings be- longing to the queen bee and the wasps, which are straight and can be repeatedly used without serious injury to the owner, but always with considerable inconvenience to the unfortunate victim. 108 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. The sting is connected with a poison gland, from which an irritating fluid issues and enters the wound whenever the sting is used. The effects are in all cases painful and in some actually dangerous to health and life. In case of such a sting, great relief may be gained from rub- bing a little dilute ammonia (hartshorn as it is fre- quently named) -over the affected part. If this be not obtainable, a little soda dissolved in water may be used. The poison from the sting is of an acid character and any weak alkali will tend to neutralize it and diminish the distressing effects.* Even mud, if applied immediately after the injury, will afford relief, owing to the action of the free alkali always present, though in very small quantity, in the earth. Most of us have perhaps observed at times a number of small hard swellings on the leaves of such plants as the oak, willow, or rose. These so-called galls are produced through punctures in the leaves made by insects very much like bees and wasps in character, and known as Gall Flies. Let us cut through some of these galls with a sharp knife; within we[are apt to find either eggs or young gall- flies; or perhaps a little hole through the side of the gall, tells us that the tenant has already taken his breakfast and left home. As soon as hatched the ♦Ordinary prudence will indicate the care to be used in applying any remedy if the injury be near the eye or any such delicate part of the body. In such a case, the appli- cation may cause greater trouble than the original injury, unless very feeble solutions are used. ANTS, GRASSHOPPERS, BUTTERFLIES. 109 larva feeds vigorously on the soft, pulpy material of the gall, which strange food seems to be of all kinds best adapted to its nature. Nut-galls formed on oak trees in tropical parts are used very extensively in the manufacture of ink and other coloring matters, and also in medicine. CHAPTER XXI. ANTS, GRASSHOPPERS AND BUTTERFLIES. p^SSNTS are usually wingless for the greater part of their lives; in fact they voluntarily tear off their wings as soon as a place has been selected for a permanent residence. Most of them live underground, their houses being marked by mounds of sand, or earth, or, even such loose material as bits of sticks and the like. The interior arrangement of the ant-dwelling shows numerous chambers and halls, in which food is stored, and the young are protected and reared. These little creatures seem to live under a remark- able system of organization and government. The wise man of old gave good advice when he said: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways and be wise." Within the ant kingdom, labor is divided, and each inhabitant follows the profession for which it is best fitted; some of them are builders, others hunters, and some do nothing else but fight; these are soldiers by profession, and seemingly take no part in ordinary labor and household duties. 110 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. Most ants are extremely fond of sweets; and we may often find a score of red or black ants feasting on a fallen pear or peach, if soft and ripe, provided there is a crack in the rind. But they frequently seek to satisfy their liking for sweet things in a more inter- esting way. There is a remarkable little insect called the Aphis or plant-louse, in size about that of a large pin head, and usually of a greenish or black color, often to be seen on the leaves of peach and plum trees and many garden plants. These little creatures have the power of forming within their bodies a sweet fluid called honey-dew, and of this the ants are extremely fond. Toward the plant- lice they show the greatest respect, and the kindest of treatment, often carrying them off bodily to their nests, and there tending them with all the solicitous care of a faithful herder watching his cattle. The plant-lice have been called the ant's milch cows; and these they keep in little pens or stables within their nests, feeding and fattening them, and frequently taking them out to pasture when the day is fine, and returning them to their stalls at proper time. The ants greedily devour the honey-dew as fast as pro- duced; and frequently excite the flow of the juice by stroking the aphides with their antennas, as a milker presses the teats of the cow. ABOUT GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS. Grasshoppers and Locusts have many peculiarities by which they are distinguished from other insects. They do not pass through the complete changes already spoken of, as common to insects generally, ANTS, GRASSHOPPERS, BUTTERFLIES. HI appearing first as larvae, then as pupae, and finally as imagos or perfect insects. As soon as hatched from the eggs, they exhibit a ravenous appetite, and seem to retain it throughout their lives. Ordinarily, we make little or no distinc- tion in speaking of grasshoppers or locusts; but, for the sake of precision, it should be known that the insects we usually call grasshoppers, are, according to the classification of entomologists, in reality, locusts. The pretty little katy-did. with its delicate wings, its pale green color, and its monotonous sound — from which it gets its name — is a species of the true grass- hopper. It is thought that the male katy-did, pro- duces the characteristic sound, by rubbing together a couple of stiff membranes, like drum -heads, situ- ated at the base of the wings. Locusts have larger bodies, shorter antenna}, and much smaller limbs than grasshoppers. As is known to us through the sad and painful experiences of our early settlers in these parts, locusts prove a most distressing scourge when present in great numbers. They swarm at times so thick as to partially obscure the sun's light in their flight. The land was "as the Garden of Eden before them, and behind them as a desolate wilderness." But terrible as their visitation has proved itself in these mountain vales, they have been miraculously removed through [the prayers of the people and the mercy of a kind Protector BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. These may be called the aristocrats of the insect- world; with their delicate wings painted as if by fairy 112 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. fingers in heavenly tints, and their dainty tastes, they offer truly a strange contrast with the worm- like caterpillars from which they sprang. They are usually called Scale- ivinged Insects, from the feathery scales that form the gaily colored covering of their wings. These brilliant scales are easily rubbed off if the insect be at all roughly handled; and a little of this dust looked at through a powerful microscope shows itself to be made up of many little plates, each as distinct and perfect as the coarse, heavy cales on the body of a fish. Each is shaped some- what like a blunt-tipped leaf, with a little stalk by which it is inserted into the membranous frame- work of the wing. They are so placed as to overlap and by their symmetrical and truly artistic arrange- ment to produce the wondrously beautiful effects of color — too gorgeous in fact to admit of an adequate description; but why should such be attempted in words when the living wonder in all its glorious beautjr can be observed by every one who has such a desire. Upon the butterfly's wing the brightest hues of nature seem to be assembled; there we behold the flashing light of the diamond together with the brilliancy of the sapphire the depth of the emerald, and the lustre of burnished gold. Let us glance now for a moment at the peculiar form of the insect's head. The antennae are long and club-shaped in the case of the butterfly, and generally of a featherly form in the moth. On the under side of the head of a butterfly is seen a long slender trunk, usually coiled up as a rope when not ANTS, GRASSHOPPERS, BUTTER ^LIES. 113 in use- This is a tube, which can be made to operate as a perfect little suction pump and pipe. By this ingeDious mechanism the insect readily pumps up the juicy sweets from the flower cups which it honors by its visits. Butterflies feed and fly in the day-time and rest at night, but most moths are night- fliers. Many moths are of great use to man, by furnishing a kind of silk in their cocoons. This is especially true of the silk worm, which spins a large oval cocoon in which it rests during its sleep as a pupa. The silk is in fact a hardened kind of glue or gum, Fig. 19.— Tent Caterpillar Moth, showing the eggs, larva, and imago. which the insect secretes in a cavity near the head; and the cocoon consists of a single continuous thread. In the processes of preparing this silk for 114 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. use, the pupae within the cocoons are killed by heat or suffocation, else they would cut their way through the silken house and thus destroy the continuity of the thread. The silk is then unwound, reeled and spun. Fig. 19 shows the "Tent Caterpillar Moth," which has several times destroyed the fruit crops in different parts of Utah. The eggs are deposited as a collar around some small twig. The caterpillar is a pretty creature in spite of its destructive nature, ornamented with brilliant tufts of colored bristles. The name tent caterpillar is given to these insects from the silken net which they spin upon the tree, and which serves as a temporary house or tent. CHAPTER XXII. FLIES AND BEETLES. HOUSE-FLIES, mosquitoes, and all their kindred ^ are characterized by having but two wings instead of four, the latter being the usual number with insects. In place of the hind wings, they have a pair of thread-like appendages with knobs at the extremities called balancers. The ordinary house-fly is well worth our attentive study. Watch it while it is quietly feeding, you see it thrust out apparently from the head a short club-shaped organ, usually of a brown color, and commonly called the tongue, but more properly FLIES AND BEETLES. 115 the trunk ^ or proboscis, for the appendage serves many purposes foreign to the ordinary uses of a tongue. It is in fact a very delicate though perfect pump, by means of which liquids may be drawn into the fly's mouth. A piece of dry sugar or any such solid substance must first be moistened by a fluid from the fly's mouth, so as to form a syrup which is then drawn through the trunk into the mouth. Each tiny foot of the fly has a sole con- sisting of a couple of expanded plates or discs, acting like suckers. By pressing these little discs firmly against any smooth surface, the fly is enabled to hold itself attached, though hanging back down- ward. The flaps are lifted and the foot loosened by means of a set of little hooks with which each foot is provided. Mosquitoes are on quite intimate terms of acquaint- ance with most of us, and need no introduction. In the early part of their existence, they live in the water and are known among the boys as wigglers, or wiggle-tails. They are extremely active in all their movements, offering a strong contrast to the slow- moving caterpillars and maggots, which are the lar- va? of some other insects. Swarms of wigglers ma3^ be seen frequently, during the warm weather in stagnant pools, each hanging head downward in the water, the posterior part of the body being kept at the surface. A small breathing tube is attached near the extremity of the body. The appearance of the larval mosquito, also the pupa, the imago just escaping from the pupa- case, 116 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. and the perfect insects, male and female are shown enlarged in figure 20. Fig. 20. — The Mosquito — male, female; imago, pupa and larva. The activity of the wiggler is not lost even when the mosquito reaches its adult age. The lances with which the little creature bores the skin of its victim are very sharp, and when not in use the3T are kept care- fully protected within a double sheath or covering. We are very apt to think of mosquitoes as if they were worthless pests, calculated only to cause annoy- ance and pain to man and beast. Such an extreme judgment is in a degree unjust. Earnest students of FLIES AND BEETLES. 117 nature have not yet been able to declare any created thing positively worthless : the Creator has a purpose in all his works; and even flies and mosquitoes are of cer- tain benefit to the rest of the animal world, and to man who claims superiority over all. Flies devour vast quantities of decaying matter about our houses and premises, which, if left unconsumed, would prove a most fertile soil for disease germs; and mos- quitoes do similar work in the marshes and swamps, which form their homes. They are found in great- est numbers during the heated season, when their services are most needed. They certainly do not seem to have been created as ministers to man's present comfort; but they do him good nevertheless, and that too in spite of his enmity and disgust for them. Dragon Flies or Darning Needles, as some are used to call them, have very large wings of a beauti- ful gauzy character, looking finer than the finest muslin. They possess very long bodies, and large lustrous eyes, and cannot fail to attract one's notice by their swift and graceful flight. Far from being harmful, as many suppose them, they are incapable of doing hurt to anything larger than a mosquito or a gnat, but upon the hosts of these troublesome little creatures they wage an incessant warfare. They are indeed the hawks of the insect world; and whenever we see them darting about over pools of water or across the meadow lands, we may know that a whole- sale destruction is going on among the smaller flies hovering in those places. 118 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. Beetles are frequently called sheath-winged in- sects from the fact that the first pair of wings are hard and horny, forming an effectual sheath for the more delicate wings beneath. Only the hind wings are used for flight, and when not in use these are safely packed away beneath the cases. Watch a beetle just alighted from its flight; see how skillfully it folds and lays aside its lace-like wings by the help of its hind legs. The known varieties of beetles are said to exceed thirty thousand and these differ widely in size. There is the delicate little Half-winged Beetle, smaller than a millet seed, which flies mostly at night, and occasionally makes its presence uncomfortably felt by getting inside our eye-lids. There is also the gaudily-dressed Lady- bird Beetle, so common about our gardens and flower plats, which should be carefully protected for the good it works by destroying such vast numbers of plant lice. Then we meet frequently with the busy little Tiger Beetle and a great many forms of Water Beetles. A very remarkable beetle is shown in figure 21. It is called the Stag Beetle, or stag-horn beetle, from the stout branched projections upon its head, resembling, somewhat, the antlers of a deer. It flies mostly at night, and is often attracted by the light into our houses, where it usually is an innocent cause of much alarm among the frightened inmates. The stag-beetle, however, is harmless; though, ir picked up and handled roughly, it may resent such treatment by a sharp pinch from its powerful jaws. FLIES AND BEETLES. 119 Figure 21. — Stag-horn Beetle. The Grave-diggers are remarkable little beetles, almost sure to be found near any small animal carcass left upon the ground. They usually travel in pairs, and seem to discover the existence of their prey from very great distances. Several roving couples soon congregate about the body of a mouse or a small bird; and by shoving away the earth around and beneath the same, soon lower it below the surface. The females then deposit their eggs in the flesh — where the maggots or larvae will be sure of finding abundant food. By performing such offices for the unburied dead, they not alone provide suitable places for the growth of their offspring, but, in addition, benefit us all by safely removing from the surface of 120 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. the ground decaying and offensive matters, and also do much in fertilizing the soil. Thus the beetle, by serving itself does good to all. CHAPTER XXIII. SPIDERS. „ jpROM what has already been said we are fairly k^S acquainted with the essential characteris- ¥^2> tics of true insects. Now, let us catch and V5 examine some common spider. We would better select for our study, a fairly small kind; the bite of nearly all is severe, and of many, poisonous. But we do not need to handle the specimen, so as to be bitten at all. Our spider has eight legs — insects have but six; its body is naturally divisible into two parts, the front being head and chest, and the hind part the abdomen; while, in insects, three divisions are noticeable; the head, chest, and abdomen being each distinct. The spiders are devoid of wings, and do not pass through the changes of life, characteristic of insects. In consequence of such facts, spiders are usually considered apart from the true insects. Most spiders have, connected with the abdomen, a reservoir of sticky fluid, which hardens in the air; and from this, the web is spun. The microscope shows each delicate thread of the spider's web to be composed of four thousand smaller ones; and each of these comes from a separate opening in the spider's spinneret. SPIDERS. 121 These threads are so fine, that Leowenhoeck, calculated that it would require four millions of them to make a thread as large as a human hair. The holes in the spider's body, through which these threads issue, are so small that, according to Reamur, a thousand of them occupy a space no larger than the point of a pin. The four thousand strands, of which each thread of the web consists, are united at some little distance from the spinnerets, so that each is dry before it is joined to the rest. By this arrange- ment, greater strength is secured; for it is a well- known fact, that a rope or cable, made of many fine cords, is much stronger than one of the same size consisting of a single cord. Many spiders construct large and beautiful webs, which are spread out in various forms to serve as nets for the capture of insects. Let us seek a freshly made web, and watch the spider as it captures its prey. As soon as a fly or other insect becomes ensnared in the meshes of the web, the spider rushes from its place of concealment near the centre of its silken net, and pounces upon the body of its victim, holding it firmly by means of its own powerful jaws; or if the captive be of large size, the spider spins additional cords about its body, so as to keep it as secure as possible during its death struggles, and avoid all unnecessary injury to the web. The body of the victim is sucked dry of its juices at leisure, and the dessicated remains are dis- carded. Not all spiders spin webs however; some called 122 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. Mason Spiders make for themselves nests of clay in the earth, lining the cavity with a stout silky tissue, and fitting to the opening on the surface of the ground, a door which works on a durable hinge. When hiding within, the spider keeps the door closed against intrusion by holding firmly to the under side; and when the ingenious little builder leaves its nest, it is careful to close the opening in as perfect a manner as possible, so that it is almost invisible. These interesting little creatures are not common in these parts: occasionally specimens are met with in the warm south, and in California. The Tarantula is a hairy spider, common in all parts of our Territory, sometimes attaining a spread of feet of over three inches, and capable of inflicting a dangerous bite. Several enormous spiders abound in the tropical regions, characterized by powers of quick movement and surprising strength. They capture and kill the largest insects, and even small lizards and birds. CHAPTER XXIV. WORMS AND SNAILS. SJSi^ORMS and snails! Not a very elegant title JSsStaia for a chapter, you say! Well, no; but an H©^ interesting and instructive subject neverthe- G§S less. Let us capture an ordinary Earth Worm or Angle Worm; we can find them in numbers WORMS AND SNAILS. 123 thrown up by the spade or plow in rich soil. Its body seems to consist of a number of rings or segments, each of which is provided on the under surface with several little bristles or short hairs, tolerably stout, and all directed backward. By rubbing a worm lightly between the fingers, from head to tail, the body seems perfectly smooth, but on attempting to stroke the animal in an opposite direction the bristles can be distinctly felt. By the aid of these little appendages the worm holds itself steady while boring its way through the soil, and resists any effort made to draw it forcibly from its burrow. Earth worms prove of very great benefit to the farmer by boring and loosening the ground below the reach of the plow. They eat by swallowing large quantities of soil, and after the vegetable matter has been extracted within their bodies, the rest is rejected in the form of worm-casts, which are composed of the richest and most produc- tive mould. In some parts, especially in moist climates, these little creatures are found in very great numbers, and the labor that they accomplish in rejuvenating the soil is surprising. These common worms upon which we are inclined to bestow hardly a single serious thought, will often convert a barren patch into a most productive field. We may often observe a number of dark colored worms crawling on the bottoms of our ditches and ponds, especially in low marshy places. These are called Leeches; but the boys have given them the title of blood-suckers, and with very good reason too, 124 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. as we shall see. Let us pick one of them from the water and look at it closely. We see on each end of the body a flat disc by means of which it can fasten itself firmly to any solid object, such as an animal's body. In its mouth we observe three sharp teeth; which very readily bore through the skin of its victims. The most active leeches are met with in the running streams of southern Europe, and one common variety is called the medicinal leech from having been once so extensively used by the surgeon in drawing blood from the body of his patient, for the purpose of allaying fever or local inflammation. When applied to the affected part, the leech soon perforates the skin with its lance-like teeth and draws the blood with vigor.* But there are worms much smaller than these. The little Hair-worm, or as we erroneously name it the hair-snake, is a common inhabitant of our ditches. Ordinarily it grows from four to six inches long, and in thickness about equal to a hair. The notion has gained a foundation in the minds of many that this little creature is a transformed horse-hair. The author has talked with many people who feel absolutely certain that such an unnatural change as the resurrection of a lifeless hair into a living worm * This professional use of leeches is now very greatly restricted; but a few years ago they were as common as the lance is at present in medical practice. In 1846 it is said that between twenty and thirty millions were used in France, and in 1863 there were used in London alone over seven millions, and in the hospitals of Paris from five to six millions. WORMS AND SNAILS. 125 is a matter of every day occurrence. A careless experiment is always likely to suggest erroneous conclusions. If you throw a handful of horse-hair into a pool of standing water, very likely in a few days several hair-worms will be found wriggling among the hairs, but the little wrigglers have probably come there from other portions of the pool. Such is an improper way to make a trial. Now, count several hairs, place them in water in a safe place, then if you are lucky enough to find a hair-worm among them, count again; and all the hairs will be there. No such transformation can be effected; a hair is a hair and a worm is a worm, and nothing short of a Creator's power can form one from the elements [of the other. The hair-worm during its early life is a parasite in the intestines of many insects and small aquatic animals. Lying coiled up within the body of its host it attains a great length; but at maturity it escapes and deposits its eggs in the water. There are many parasitic worms, that is to say worms that live in the bodies of other animals. One of these called the Trichina is found in diseased flesh, especially that of hogs. Figure 22 shows the appearance of a piece of in- fected pork, as seen under the microscope, highly magnified; 1 shows the worms migrating in the fibres of the muscles; 2 represents a single worm encysted in the flesh, and 3 is a picture of a worm very much enlarged. The trichinae usually lie coiled within a little cell, 126 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. in the muscles of the animal. If such meat be eaten, these dreaded parasites live and multiply within the m* 1.1 1 J . Fig. 22. — Trichina in flesh of Swine, body, and terrible disease, or even death frequently follows. * SNAILS- AND THEIR KINDRED. Now let us catch a common snail, and see what it has to tell us. The most striking peculiarity is its colored shell, in which the soft body is enclosed. This snail is a member of a very large family of animals, called Mollusks, from a word, meaning "soft." It can withdraw its body completely within the shell when alarmed, and even close the entrance, * Only meat from clean and healthy animals should be eaten; swine's flesh, never: and all meat should be thor- oughly cooked, so as to kill the parasites if they are present. Living worms are not good for food. Meat need not be burned or scorched, but it should be cooked through. Meat "done rare," may be a favorite article of diet with some, but it is always liable to contain living germs of troublesome parasites. SNAILS AND THEIR KINDRED. 127 by means of a horny plate or disc. When extended, however, the head and main part of the body are outside the shell; and a couple of little pillars are seen affixed to the head, on the top of which the eyes are placed. Kather strange, isn't it, that the little creature should carry its eyes on a couple of poles, so that it can see farther? Some mollusks live on land in damp parts, but by far the greater number inhabit the water, either fresh or salt. The beautiful sea shells with such an infinite variety of color and form, and an indescribable lustre are examples of the houses in which these humble creatures dwell. The highly- prized "mother of pearl" is obtained from the shells of such mollusks; and the beautiful pearls so much used in jewelry are derived from a species of oyster. Returning to our snail once more, we seethat its shell consists really of one continuous piece; the snail and all such mollusks are called univalves in consequence, while the oyster, clam and the like, the shells of which consist of two parts, are called bivalves. Some mollusks are destitute of any shell, such is the case for instance with the common garden slug, a thick fleshy mollusk, usually covered with slime and looking much like a snail that has escaped from its shell. On the head are four little pillars, the longer pair bearing the eyes. The head can be drawn in somewhat as the finger of a glove is inverted. 128 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. CHAPTER XXV. SOME TINY CREATURES. RESIDE the many forms of animal life at which J5 we have already glanced, there are countless ^g)c others too small to be perceived by the un- ^> aided vision. A drop of stagnant water by the magic power of the microscope is seen to be literally a world of wonders: it is densely inhabited by crea- Fig. 23. — Chalk from Gravesend. tures, whose smallness alone would make them remarkable, and yet as wonderfully formed and as SOME TINY CREATURES. 129 admirably fitted for their prescribed course of life, as is the kingly lion or the eagle in its sphere. Figure 23 is a picture made from a drawing by the celebrated microscopist, Ehrenberg, of a bit of chalk dust seen under the microscope. Chalk then is seen to be made up of the shells and calcareous skeletons of these minute animals. Who of us has an imagination sufficiently strong to picture the myriads of separate shells in a moun- tain of chalk? Much of the beautiful marble and the solid limestone of our hills consisted once of such hard shells and the stony skeletons of similar minute animals. Many of these smallest f forms are so simple in structure that they seem to consist only of a little fleshy sac, filled with Fig. 24.-The Amoeba. flu ' Two pictures are given m figure 24 of a form fre- quently found in the water of our ponds and streams, invisible to the unaided eye, and looking, when mag- nified, like a very small patch of jelly, with no regu- lar shape. It is called the Amoeba; and though so simple, it lives and moves in its allotted way with perfect order. Some people have argued that from such minute and simple structures as this one, all the higher animals have been developed in course of time through a process of growth or evolution. Such an idea is without the least foundation in fact or observation; no man has yet succeeded in producing io 130 FIRST BOOK OFLNATURE. from the amoeba any other kind of animal than itself. Each animal produces others of its own kind, and its own kind only. This seems to be a law of creation. An animal may grow and develop till it becomes perfect in its own sphere ; but one cannot transform itself into others. The Creator has placed upon His earth a vast variety of living forms, small and large, simple and complicated, some to live in the air, others in the water, and still others on the ground, yet each with a special purpose to meet, and a par- ticular place to fill in the great household of Nature; and every one is contented to live and to move within the sphere for which its Maker intended it. Part II. The Vegetable or Riant Kingdom, "Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin, and yet, I say unto you that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these."— Matthew vi, 28, 29. CHAPTER XXVI. PLANTS, AND HOW THEY GROW. gtftN THIS great kingdom of Nature, we may find ^JJ a variety and diversity even greater than fthat already seen to exist among animals. Like animals, plants also live; they need food and drink, which they absorb through their roots, and they breathe through their leaves. Their nourish- ment is derived from the soil, water and air; and in turn they furnish food for animals. It appears to be a universal law that plants should form the food of animals. Carnivorous or flesh-eating animals feed upon the bodies of other animals, which in their turn lived upon plants; and thus even they are indirectly sustained by the great vegetable king- dom. The food of all animals is produced by plants. 132 FIRST BOOK OF NATUFE. As a consequence of this alone the study of plants should be of interest to us. Surely Solomon was wise in his declaration: "The profit of the earth is for all: the king himself is served by the field." Plants exist under most extreme circumstances in different parts of the globe. Wherever man has gone on the surface of the earth, he has found vegetation of some kind, even far beyond the limits of animal life. Among natural objects, there are none others that do so much as plants to change and diversify the general aspect of the landscape. Without flowers and trees this would be to most of us a dreary world indeed. But these fixed residents of the soil do more for man than merely ministering to his sense of beauty, they offer him shade and shelter from the heat of summer, and bring him sweet perfumes, and untold treasures for food and useful service. From plants come the almost endless variety of fruits, which furnish us with so many of the necessaries and luxuries of diet: sugar and spices, the frankincense and the myrrh; tonic herbs and wholesome medicines, resins and waxes; starch and oil, cotton, linen and paper, gums, rubber, cork and dyes, beside the many varieties of truly beautiful woods, for his buildings, furniture and fuel — woods, hard and soft, coarse and fine — 0f almost every conceivable shade and condition, and of universal adaptability to the needs of man. Let us change our attention from the general aspect of vegetation to the more intimate examina- tion of a single plant. We may select a young fruit PLANTS, AND HOW THEY GROW. 133 tree, for example. We perceive that it consists of three distinct and separate parts. There is the root, deeply inserted in the soil, and firmly holding the growing tree in position; next, the stem rising above the ground and oftentimes to a great height, and bear- ing branches from which grow the leaves. It is through these organs, root, stem and leaves, that the ordinary processes of vegetation are performed, and hence they are frequently termed the vegetative organs of the plant: contrasting with the reproductive organs, which comprise the flower, fruit and seed. THE ROOT. The roots of all plants show a natural tendency to grow downward. They are usually colorless, though occasionally of a reddish or brown tint, but never green. Suppose we now continue our exam- ination of the young fruit tree already selected, by digging around it and removing the soil from its roots. Without doubt, we will find the main roots divided into many branches, as we follow them in their winding courses through the ground, and these branches again divide, to form still smaller ones, and so on, till the final divisions are so small, that they are to be seen only by means of the microscope. The ordinary branches of the root are called rootlets, and the finest divisions are termed root-hairs. Of what use are these hair-like outgrowths? To obtain an answer to this question let us transfer our attention from the young fruit tree already examined to some smaller plant; an ordinary "weed" will do. If we pull it from the ground carefully, but little or 134 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. no injury will befall the roots; a gentle shake will remove the bulk of soil which clung to the roots as we pulled the plant and the general form and structure of the underground parts will be easy to follow. There is the main root, connecting with the stem at the surface of the ground, and giving rise to numerous rootlets. A careful scrutiny of the rootlets by the help of a pocket glass will show the root -hairs in great numbers; and it is these little structures that entangle and hold the soil so firmly. The roots striking into the soil and branching in so many different directions give the plant a firm support in the earth, insuring it against the danger of being torn from its established home by any ordinary force. And it may be noticed that the plants hav- ing the longest main roots and the greatest number of branches are the firmest in position. Try to pull from the ground a thriving lucern or clover plant, and see if you have cause to doubt the statement. We may illustrate in a very pretty and instructive way the growth of roots, and at the same time observe the germination or sprouting of seeds, by performing the following simple experiment: Take a piece of muslin, — cheese cloth will be best, but a double thickness of mosquito netting will answer; tie it over the top of an ordinary tumbler, and fill the glass with water. Press the muslin or netting lower in the middle, so that it is kept moist, but not flooded; then sprinkle over it a pinch of seed of any small garden vegetable — the common garden cress seed will answer admirably. Set the glass aside for a day PLANT ROOTS. 135 or two, carefully supplying more water to replace that lost by evaporation, so as to keep the seeds con- stantly damp. In a few days the seeds begin to sprout; each sends a tiny white root between the fibres of the netting into the water below and at the same time small leaves appear above. It would be well to set the glass near a window, so that it may have plenty of light; and if it be put in direct sun- light for a short time each day, it will be all the better, provided that the roots be kept below the water. The roots will spread within the glass till they appear to fill it, and a luxuriant crop of cress flourishes above. The writer frequently keeps several vessels of cress growing in this manner during the winter, and raises enough of this pungent salad for table use. And farther, a glass holding a growing crop of cress is no less ornamental than useful, and it is certainly as instructive as could be wished. CHAPTER XXVII. PLANT ROOTS. |ITH a powerful magnifying glass the tiny root hairs, already spoken of, appear to be perfect W tubes, through which the moisture of the soil is absorbed and conveyed to the main parts of the plant. In this interesting way the plant derives its food and drink — by absorbing the same through the tubular hairs covering the rootlets, thence passing it to the larger branches, and finally 136 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. through the main root, and the vessels of the stem to the most distant twigs. We are usually not aware of the great force exhib- ited by the plant in absorbing water from the ground and distributing the same throughout its structure. Follow this simple experiment, first performed by Dr. Hales over a hundred and fifty years ago, and since that time repeated by many others. The stem of a young grape vine in vigorous growth was cut off a few inches above the surface of the ground and a small pressure guage, similar to the kind used on steam-boilers and the like, was attached. The moisture absorbed by the roots and passed upward through the stem, escaped where the stem was cut, and exerted its force on the liquid within the pres- sure guage; the pressure thus produced was sufficient to force water to a height of over thirty- six feet in the long arm of the guage tube. Since all the material upon which plants feed has to be absorbed in this way, it follows of necessity that all such food must be in a state of solution, or the plant cannot absorb and use it. The soil may be rich in all the solid matters needed by the plant; but such cannot be absorbed unless water be supplied. The rain falling upon the soil, as well as the irrigat- ing stream flowing over the surface, soaks into the ground, and in so doing dissolves all that is soluble; and when this water passes through the root hairs into the plant, it carries with it the materials in solution. During the growing season, when plants require the largest amounts of food material, the PLANT ROOTS. 137 roots are most active absorbents; but as soon as the leaves fall and the plant prepares for its winter sleep, the roots rest from their labors, most of the tiny root-hairs shrivel and die, the soft parts become hard, and the whole activity of the plant is suspended till awakened once more to growth by the return of spring warmth and moisture. During this period of rest, the plant may be removed from the soil and reset, with less danger of injury, as there are fewer active rootlets to be broken and checked in their work. The quantity of roots attached to an ordinary plant is far greater than is ordinarily supposed. By digging away the soil some distance from plants selected for examination, and then washing the rest till the roots are laid bare and clean, the roots of beans, peas and rye have been found to form a tangled mat beneath the ground to a depth of about four feet from the surface. Roots of winter wheat have been found seven feet in the soil in less than seven weeks from the time of sowing. Complete measurements of the roots of several plants with all their branches have been made for the purpose of determining the total extent of root material. A barley plant was found in this way to possess one hundred and twenty-eight feet of roots. Remembering that the small rootlets are thickly covered with root hairs as before described, the ab- sorbing surface of the plant is seen at once to be very great. And this explains also why the plants that send their roots deepest into the soil are able to endure the vicissitudes of dry weather with fewest ill 138 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. consequences, — the deep branches of their roots reach the moist subsoil below, though the ground near the surface may be parched and dry. Through the uncounted multitudes of root hairs with their eager thirst for moisture, the plant is fed. These are its mouths, and their capacity is great. In this perfect manner has the Creator provided for the welfare of the herb and tree; they too are sub- jects of His care. He made them, and in their welfare -He takes delight. Another great use served by the roots of plants, is that of preserving and storing for future use the materials taken from the soil. This is especially true of plants that require two seasons of growth in which to fully develop and produce their flowers and seed; such as the carrot, turnip, beet and parsnip. The roots of these plants are extremely large as compared with the other parts and very fleshy at the end of the first year's growth. If, however, we carefully watch such a root during the second season, while the plant is blossoming and maturing its seeds, we will doubtless see that the root withers and shrinks as if being gradually exhausted of its store. By removing these roots from the soil at the close of the first season, the farmer secures the rich sup- plies of food material for the support of himself and his animals; but if left to follow its natural course of life uninterruptedly, the plant employs that food to nourish its flowers and fruit. All plants that re- quire two growing seasons in which to perfect their growth are called biennial plants; such are the PLANT ROOTS. 139 carrot, beet, parsnip and turnip already named, and to this list the cabbage may be added. Distin- guished from all such are the annual plants, which ripen their seed during the first year, and then die roots and all, re-appearing only through the growth of the seed. Such is the nature of wheat and barley, and in fact all our grains, beans and peas and all crops that need to be re-sown each year. Other plants are said to be perennial in nature; they live several years before they bear flowers and seed, and after that continue to bear for a great many seasons in succession or at intervals. This we know to be the nature of ordinary trees and shrubs, such as the apple, peach, oak and the rest. In all of this class the leaves, flowers and root-hairs die with the sum- mer; but the roots and stem retain their vitality, and annually renew the beauties of flower and richness of fruit with the return of the sun in its power. These fleshy roots, forming, as we have seen, rich stores of plant food appear in a number of shapes. They may be conical as is the case with the carrot and parnsip, or more globular like the turnip, or spindle-shaped — that is long and tapering, and thick- est near the middle as are beets and long radishes. We are apt to speak of some underground growths as roots whereas in reality they are not roots at all. A potato for instance, though growing beneath the surface, is a thickened part of the stem. True roots never produce buds; whereas a single potato tuber often shows many buds; these are the "eyes" seen upon its surface from which branches will rise and 140 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. true roots will sprout if it be planted. The onion is another example of a plant stem being called a root, because of it happening to grow under ground. The large onion bulb is in reality but a swollen part of the stem, the true roots, being seen at the lower extremity in the form of a tuft. Underground stems of the rose-bush, raspberry and other shrubs greatly resemble roots in outward appearance; but their true nature may be unmistak- ably recognized by the buds upon their surfaces. From these buds, branches are sent upward, each of which may grow into a perfect stem, bearing branches smaller than itself and these support leaves, flowers and fruit. After having reached a fair size these underground branches may be safely cut off from the parent stem; the severed parts strike root for them- selves and become independent plants. Gardners frequently increase their stock of such plants in this way; the process is called "multiplying by the root" — really an incorrect term, because, as we have already seen, the growth is from stems below ground and not from roots at all. CHAPTER XXVIII. PLANT STEMS. ^AKE a sharp knife and cut straight across, a &JM small branch or stem of a currant shrub, or ^W other small, woody plant; and now, look care- X at the cut surface. Several distinct parts are clearly seen; there is a rather dark-colored bark or fa PLANT STEMS. 141 skin on the outside; a light and hard part inside the bark, which we call the wood, and a very soft, central core, or pith. Jf such a stem be more closely looked at, by the assistance of a microscope, a truly beautiful arrangement of parts, of complicated structure, is at once apparent. The woody part of the stem, for instance, looks like a bundle of vessels or tubes, which, during the growing season, are filled with the sap of the plant, as it flows from the roots to the farthest branches and twigs. Not all of these tubes, however, are of exactly the same shape and size; some appear plain and others beautifully marked and ornamented with rings and spiral lines, and orderly-arranged dots; all such markings seeming to be really thickenings on the walls of the tubes, im- parting thereto strength and stability. Thus, even in the structure of these smallest of small things, a principle of order and system, has been followed. Not an ornamental dot is found, without a purpose and a use. The outside covering of the stem, if hard and coarse, we are apt to call bark, but if softer and finer in structure, we speak of it as the rind. To this bark or rind also there are an outer and an inner portion; the outer being in most cases hard, and in some scaly and apparently lifeless, while the inner part is of a fine fibrous nature. The bark of the birch tree is so fine and smooth that it is useful for wrapping and even for writing purposes in place of paper. People who visit the great birch forests of the Northern and Eastern States, frequently strip off 142 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. the smooth bark by the aid of their pocket knives, and use the same in writing letters to their distant friends. In former days, before paper was known, it was cus- tomary to write all kinds of books and records on the smooth inner bark of trees. In fact the Latin name for book, liber, is the name given by botanists to the inside layer of the bark of trees. The bark fibres of some plants are of great use to us in the manufac- ture of ropes and cordage. The well known linden tree derives its peculiar name from the fact of its bark being so valuable in making lines or ropes. Let us now examine, attentively, the end of a large tree or log that has been sawn squarely off. Here we notice that the hard part of the stem or wood proper, is marked by a series of rings, all of different sizes, arranged concentrically , that is around the same centre, the smallest, of course, being inside. These concentric rings indicate the different periods of growth through which the tree has passed. Some people believe that each ring indicates one year of the plant's development, and that the number of the rings expresses the age of the plant in years. This is not strictly true. In tropical lands, where there is no clear division of the seasons, no summer during which plants grow, and, no winter during which they rest, rings in the stems of plants, are still to be seen; and in our own parts, several rings are frequently produced during a single year. The soft, new wood found just below the bark is called sap wood; this is comparatively useless as tim- ber, and the lumber cutters strip it off from the PLANT STEMS. 143 trunks of their trees and discard it. The hard, solid wood within — that which we usually call wood, is much harder and more solid; it is called heart wood. This is the part of the tree so useful to the carpenter and the builder, and occurs in a great many different forms. In some plants it is white and soft, as in the pine, grayish in the locust, dark brown and very dense in the walnut tree, hard and dark-colored in mahogany, black and almost of stony hardness in the tropical ebony. In all of these woody plants, the stem increases in thickness through forming layers of new wood be- tween the bark and the old wood, the sap wood being the newest and youngest part of the stem. Such a method of growth must appear to us to be the most natural; it is almost impossible to imagine very extensive growth and increase in size occurring in the solid heart wood. Plants that grow in this way are called Exo- genous Plants or outside growers. The arrangement of parts in such plants is shown in Fig. 25.— Structure of an Exogenous figure 25; the layers Stem, of inner and outer bark, of wood and of pith are clearly illustrated. For comparison, let us now look at a stem of maize or sorghum cane, or one of the many kinds of rushes to be found so abundantly in marshy places. Here we find no such arrangement of parts as we discovered 144 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. while examining the woody stem. Take a sharp knife and cut off the stem of one of these plants; it will be seen to consist mostly of a porous, spongy material inside a hard rind. There is no distinction of parts into sap-wood and heart-wood; such plants seem to increase in size uniformly throughout the whole stem, and hence are called Endogenous Plants or inside growers. Figure 26 represents such a stem; the outer rind and the porous con- tents are clearly shown; the dark dots seen in the cross sec- tion and appearing as dark- colored streaks are the hard or woody parts of the stem. Nearly all the endogenous plants of these regions are small when compared with the larger trees of the exogenous class, but in warmer climates many of the largest trees belong to the end- ogenous kind. Such for in- stance are the palmetto trees of Fig. 26.-Structure of the Soutliem States and the an Endogenous Stem, larger palms of the torrid zone. The trunk or stem of these trees is of nearly the same thickness from the ground upward. Then again, the palm throws off no branches along the trunk, but bears at the top a wide-spreading bunch of stout thick leaves. In these stems, though large, there is no distinction into bark, wood and pith, and no con- PLANT STEMS. 145 centric rings of growth are to be found. There are to be seen scattered throughout the whole thickness of the stem, hard black spots or streaks of woody tissue. The difference between these two great orders of plants, does not lie wholly in their stems; the leaves and the seeds of these two divisions differ materially from one another as we shall subsequently see. Let us now examine a stem of some smaller plant, for instance a straw of wheat or barley, or the vine from a pea or a bean. Cut this across in the same way, and note the difference between it and the others already examined. All of these smaller stems are hollow and therefore extremely light and yielding. Every mechanic knows that an iron tube is much stronger than a solid iron bar of the same weight; and the Master Workman who fashioned the grass stalk and the wheaten straw, employed that principle by which to give pliant strength to these lowly objects of His care. In consequence, the stalk of grain supports an ear of many times its own weight, and bends and bows before every breeze, but does not often break. Most branches resemble the stems from which they grow, in form and structure; they seem, in fact, to be divisions of the stem; but in the case of many plants, rather odd branches are produced. Look, for instance, at a growing grape vine, a Virginia creeper, a squash, or a cucumber vine; growing from the stem of each of these, are several small, slender branches, devoid of leaves and buds, and apparently not intended for the offices that branches ordinarily 146 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. fill. These are called Tendrils, and are admirably devised to assist the plant in climbing or spreading over the ground as it grows. Observe, carefully, such a tendril, at intervals, for several days in succession. It grows comparatively straight, until it reaches some support near by, such as a post, or an adjacent stem; the point of the tendril then hooks around, and the slender branch twists itself into a spiral coil, like a cork-screw, thus drawing the growing plant closer and closer to the support. When such plants grow near a wall, or other flat object, around which, the tendril cannot twine, the end of each tendril flattens itself, forming a kind of sucker-like disc, which adheres closely and firmly to the neighboring surface, and thus supports the plant. Such a re- markable adaptation to circumstances as this, is not mere chance; it is a mark of infinite wisdom; the creeping plant and the twining vine speak forth in their very growth, the wisdom and care of their Maker. CHAPTER XXIX. LEAVES. I ^EAUTY and usefulness are frequently associ- ated in Nature. The arrangement of the vegetable kingdom offers an illustration and a proof of this remark. The most attractive and strikingly beautiful parts of plants are as a rule, the most indispensable organs. Look for a moment upon the tree in the fulness of its summer foliage; if each LEAVES. 147 of the unnumbered host of leaves does but a trifle toward the general good of the plant, the result must be indeed stupendous. To learn something regarding the structure and use of leaves, let us pluck some from the tree and look at them with thoughtful care. A leaf from a fig tree is pictured in figure 27. There is to be noticed a stalk (p) by which the leaf was attached to the branch; this is called the petiole and the two small appendages (st) seen at the base are the stipules. The expanded portion of the leaf is called the blade (b). Running through this blade we see a number of* small lines of harder and denser material than the thinner and smoother parts of the leaf. These lines or veins branch again and again till they form a per- fect network of fibres over which the true fabric or membrane of the leaf is stretched. In the case of leaves belonging to the K endogenous plants, already described, the veins are nearly parallel with one another from base to tip, and in consequence, such leaves are said to be par- allel-veined, while the leaves from exogenous plants are net-veined. Fig. 27.— Leaf. Figure 27 is a good 'picture of a leaf from an 148 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. exogenous plant. The frame or skeleton upon which the green tissue is stretched can be readily observed. If the thin membrane or skin from the under side of a leaf be carefully stripped off by means of a small pair of forceps or pliers, and then examined with the microscope, it would be found to be full of little holes which we call the stomata or breathing pores of the plant. The number of these present in com- mon leaves is indeed surprising; five thousand of them are found in a single square inch of the rhu- barb leaf; twelve thousand per square inch in the garden iris or blue-flag, thirty-six thousand per square inch in the leaf of the pink, and one hundred and sixty thousand per square inch in the hydrangea. Through these thousands of little pores the plant breathes, as perfectly as animals do by means of mouth, lungs and skin. We can very readily prove that plants do breathe by proceeding as follows. Secure a clean dry glass bottle having a large mouth — a common fruit-bottle will answer admirably; invert the bottle over any small growing plant, say a house plant in its flower pot; now watch the bottle carefully, and within a very short time the inside will be seen to be clouded from the deposition of vapor; and after a longer interval, so much moisture will be condensed that it gathers in drops and trickles down the sides of the bottle. A sunflower, standing three feet and a half high, was found by experiment to exhale between twenty and thirty ounces of water every twelve hours. When tested in a similar way, a cabbage breathed out between fifteen and twenty LEAVES. 149 ounces of water in the same length of time. This would be equal to the amount of moisture exhaled in the breaths of half a dozen men. But even more surprising than this is the almost perfect manner by which the exhalation of moisture is controlled and varied. Around each of these tiny pores, is a thickened band which has the power of automatically opening and closing the little mouth, according to the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere. Thus, when the air is drier than usual, and there is danger that the plant would lose too much moisture, these little pores close by contraction of the rim or band around each, and so any undue evaporation is checked; but whenever the air is moist, the breathing pores are opened wide, and free transpiration is encouraged. The green color of leaves is an important feature. Most leaves are of this characteristic tint when in a state of vigorous growth, and they lose it wholly or in part when they become affected in any way to interfere with the proper discharge of their functions. Loss of green color in a leaf is indicative of a check of growth, usually resulting in the death of the leaf. In general shape, we find almost an endless diver- sity of leaves; some smooth and others rough on their surface, some toothed like a saw, others gently waved or deeply cut on their margins. Compare for instance a leaf from an apple or a pear tree with that of the common dandelion. Indeed, the name dan- delion is but a changed form of a French expression meaning "lion-toothed," having reference to the 150 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. tooth-like, jagged edges of the leaves. Look now at a leaf from a peach tree; it consists of but a single blade growing from the stalk; then compare with it a locust leaf; — that is said to be compound — it con- sists of a number of separate blades all joined, how- ever, to a single stalk. We are liable to mistake such compound leaves, and think of each as really a small branch bearing several leaves; now let us examine more closely and discover, if we can, how to guard against such an error. We find at the bottom or base of each leaf stalk a tiny bud from which the leaf seems in reality to grow; but one such bud is found in a compound leaf, and that is situated at the junction of the main stalk with the branch. As an- other method of proving the true nature of compound leaves, notice that in the autumn, the whole leaf, or what appears to be the branch of leaves, falls from the tree entire; and such would not be the case if the so-called leaf were really a branch with leaves upon it, for branches do not fall as winter ap- proaches. CHAPTER XXX. SOME CURIOUS LEAVES. ^fjjjgjHE general shapes and uses of leaves have been already pointed out; but Nature presents us with a great many variations from the com- mon condition, or, as we may say, adaptations to special purposes. In the case of peas and wild SOME CURIOUS LEAYES. 151 vetches, for instance, the upper part of each leaf is prolonged so as to serve as a tendril, very similar in form and use to the tendrils already noticed on the grape vine and other plants, which, it will be re- membered are, in reality, modified branches. By the aid of these tendrils, these plants climb in a very perfect and well-adapted way. But, perhaps, of all curious developments of leaves, the strangest and most remarkable are shown in the various forms of Pitcher-plants, which are so named, from the peculiar jug-like shape of the leaf. In the Nepenthes — an East India variety of pitcher-plant, the blade of the leaf contracts into a tendril; but the end of the tendril expands again to form a very beautiful hollow pitcher, wonderfully regular and symmetrical in form, and usually from five to six inches in length. At the top of the pitcher is a lid, which exactly fits the opening, and works auto- matically upon an admirably-fitted hinge. Usually, the pitchers contain a considerable quantity of water — a half-pint in each, being a very ordinary amount. Following are the words of a traveler, Mr. Alfred R. Wallace, in reference to our subject. He is describing an ascent of Mount Ophir, and says: "The height was about two thousand eight hundred feet. We had been told that we should find water, * * * but we looked about for it in vain, as we were exceedingly thirsty. At last we turned to the pitcher-plants, but the pitchers were full of insects, and otherwise uninviting. On tasting it, however, we found it very palatable, though 152 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. rather warm, and we all quenched our thirst from these natural jugs." Another variety of this interesting class is called by various names, such as side-saddle flower, hunts- man's horn, Sarracennia, etc. Its leaf is curved and the edges joined so as to form a slender cup, bulging near the middle and bearing at the top a hood-like expansion of the blade. The California pitcher-plant or Darlingtonia is found growing under favorable circumstances in various parts of the Western and South-western States, but principally in California. The pitcher here seems to have been produced by an expansion or flattening of the leaf stalk, the thin part of the leaf or the blade as we call it, appearing as an appendage or a hood. This is remarkable for the fact that the opening to the pitcher is beneath the curved or vaulted hood, and consequently the liquid contained therein cannot be attributed to rain or dew, but must have been secreted by the plant itself. Inside the pitcher at different heights are fringes of hairs, all directed downward. Many insects enter the hood and explore the recesses of the pitcher, though but very few of them escape to tell their fellows what they saw. It is easy for an insect to pass down the pitcher toward the bottom, but any attempt to return is frustrated by the hairs within, as they cannot be pushed upward, and so the insect is held a prisoner. Its death is a matter of short time only, and as its body decays within the cup, it furnishes without doubt a rich nourishment for the SOME CURIOUS LEAVES. 153 plant. All pitcher plants partake somewhat of the nature of insect traps; their victims being most likely allured into the treacherous cups by the spark- ling liquid contained therein and a sweet exudation to be found on most of the leaves. But even more remarkable and strange in this respect is the so called Venus Fly Trap, a small though common plant in the bogs and marshes of the south, as far north as South Carolina. Each leaf of this truly wonderful growth is divided at its end, forming a pair of thick, somewhat fleshy lobes, so placed as to resemble in form a book with rounded corners held partly open. The surfaces of the lobes are covered with a set of stiff hairs or bristles, which are as sensitive as the whiskers of a cat. Whenever a small insect alights on one of the lobes, and brushes against the bristles, the two portions of the leaf fly together with the rapidity of a spring trap, usually enclosing the intruder as a prisoner. The lobes press closer and closer together till the little victim is crushed and smothered to death. The bodies of the captured insects undergo a kind of rapid decay or rather digestion, to accomplish which a fluid oozes out from the surfaces of the lobes, and rapidly accomplishes the process, after which the softened parts are absorbed or soaked up by the leaf. The more common Sundew family of plants are also professional insect catchers. Each member is small; the leaves growing directly from the roots flat upon the ground so as to form a kind of rosette. The leaf is shaped somewhat like a tennis racquet or 154 FIRST BOOK OF NATURE. an old-fashioned wooden spoon with a comparatively large round bowl. On the upper surface of the expanded or bowl-shaped part of the leaf a great number of fine long filaments are to be found, each of them terminated by a little ball or knob. These filaments and glands are usually of some bright color, and at first sight the leaf looks very like a small flower. It may be that insects visit the leaves under such a mistaken notion. To render these pretty leaves more attractive and illusive, a viscid fluid is secreted and poured out on the surface, each tiny drop glistening like a diamond in the sunlight. This sticky fluid disables any insect that may alight upon the leaf; in its annoyance and efforts to escape, the unfortunate little creature struggles violently, and in so doing touches the sensitive little knobs or glands already referred to; immediately the filaments bend over toward the excited spot and hold the struggling prisoner in a secure grasp. An acid fluid soon appears on the surface of the leaf, and the body of the insect is soon dissolved and absorbed. The extreme sensi- tiveness of these glands and filaments is worthy of our notice and admiration. An experimenter found that a short piece of hair, weighing only one seventy- eight thousandth part of a grain was sufficient to cause a bending of the filaments with which it was in contact. Any small object, whether living or dead, — a fragment of dust for instance, if brought in contact with the leaf surface will cause the filament to bend and hold it secure, but the plant soon seems to discover its error if an indigestible morsel be FLOWER-GUI'S. 155 caught, for it soon releases its hold and resets its trap. But whenever a nourishing substance is secured, the plant loses its extreme sensitiveness for some little time — its hunger appears to have been satisfied and it is less eager and ravenous in its efforts to capture additional prey. Truly, the Creator has inscribed a record of His power, even on the leaves of plants. Each bears marks of the wisest adaptation. What man can suggest, even, in his own mind, an improvement on the purpose and effect of the leafy fabric, or, in fact, any other item of Jehovah's hand-work? Each in its sphere, every one after its kind, is the great law in Nature. CHAPTER XXXI. FLOWER-CUPS. fw|/Rr^ ARE now to talk for a short time about Sal