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C 7 As ante eatin iE | cae pA etn ty ory asi ts plicated Rade ere 7 7 nen BAS > 9 sieaes pie a prime tcor Bos rear aie rene ee eres tsi nae Patina ree nt oe a Pan aa A ea iia Poatelaatiar hemes te andl out r= ral ae Dairy Cows Should Be Fed Milk-Stimulating Rations_.__ Typical Steer for Peeding..._-_._-_-._- eee Alfalfa Ready for Cutting 22/2223.) eee Laboratory Where Food Values Are Determined_______- Revealing Facts About Digestion= a Mature’ Steers’ Nearly, Ready for Marke === Oats and Peas Are Excellent for Hay or Soiling-_______ Converting ‘Corn into, Coin- 22-2222 ae Remarkable Leghorn and Her Achievements__________=_ The Newly Born Require Colostruns= aa Young Calves Should Be Kept Steadily on the Gain_____ Gathering, up’ What the Steers’ Drop! 2 Ready tor wohen,, breaktast=—- =e Piet es) Beef inthe Making. —-..- 2-22 ee Bred for Beéfs..222.-J2--t= 8 ee Thrifty Lambs Follow Good Care and Wise Feeding___-_- Large Litter of Vigorous Pigs 22. 32) =e Resting in the Pasture Fieldi2.-22.2 2 eee An Inexpensive Colt Creep 2.21{._-2.2__ 2) eee Too Fat for Good Breederszi-1_2__--.: eee ‘Feeding Box for Alfalfa Hay2 22 A’ Portable Hog House... 2i) 2-20 eee Making Pork. trom: Rape. 25-22 i eee Rounding, Them up in the Pastures---22- Well Bred and-Well Feds.c._:.2-._./4 eee Equal to-Any Task...) --2) 2222 ae eee Showing Them Offi... 02. eee Exercise Necessary Even on Farms 5292") Stallion tor BParm Uses... 2245) | eee Horses Sell Best ‘When Fat-{122. 2. eee The Milk-Yielding Function .Exemplified________-----_- A Clear Case‘of Dairy Types... 22 eee PISTOL TELUSERATIONS XV. Page Dairy Cows Thoroughly Contented in Pasture Field____- 178 Peanonsrormene. Dairy Perdss "e012 00 ash (Oeil oe 180 Eaelinexpensive Covered Barnyard::.---2-)2) 222. 182 Peecmnede@ut for Mxercise. 5 ob 185 eniacu@ne or Best Dairy Peeds- 22. ee 186 meeiekcd’@utstor the Dairy. .22 8 oe 189 Per cicwrawatlaple All the Mimeo-+_-* 22 22 os. ees 192 eeeeormcilhat Lopped the Market_/.--__-___ =) 2222 196 Mace Same Cow, Sideand Rear . 2.92242 4 199 emeceteStecmotuciich Oualityo0s224 ese ee 20 — Feprogalin Teed ies ak a ee UR nla a ce 202 Beclicecul ton Baby Bech... = 212-972. cle. 204 Mer MEN fe allammrmn en se nd Se ee A a oe 205 Beale cCipme mes coe ee ae eee Ee 207 Bpraniin@emOPechcie oh ss 10a ha ae ee 209 ieelekdvoryaneus in Middle Westie 2-952 12 210 Bete cmome Miata. (2 ek be Ge 88 eimiiltar Scene om the Stock Parm—2---- 9 —- 214 mecameribeer Cattle in the Openze.—2--- 221-2 a 216 REO Taino stcersy es ae te Dees oe oe ee 218 esac Contiivance for Heeding GCattle:_-222_ -. ss) 220 The Pasture Is Good and the Sheep Are Satisfied__-____ 224 Sitcepmancerin the Northwest=22-2-2.2 2-25.02. es Le 226 Melctiipenatsyadeastures best for Sheep=—-22ae22 ss 229 Beincepronekwape Pasture: - 2522 oe es oe ee 231 | Dawe ave Petia Sa eae a er oe ae 234 Excaciapioige Matiket. iso. 22 RAS eae ee a eT eee 235 BOON avetomhiced Sieepil= 28 a soe es ee 237 Bunchor Hogs Ready to Be Slaughtered--s_--_=-___=__ 242 They Ate Much and Developed Rapidly_---------------- 244 iemyeoanttainy and, Very Costly2--2- 2-2-8 ee 246 Bebecume seastures Udeal tor Pigs.- 22-82 28s seas 247 MelanonGrazine Runs. tor, Hogs.222 02) 227 es 249 fennoyane the Charcoal Box 22-2-— ee see ees 25ill Meeting heir Rations in a Portable Pen_----------2) 252 BeteeimecOttherCom. 2s 2 254 Pmicidesse bloc Ot light. Bralimaszoes 22 ss eee ee 259 + Syeerae. TE eG eg aN ae re age RS NS elena 260 i | XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Combination Elopper tor Field or Yard Use22222ss2s2—= 261 Leghorn: Flock “at: Ranges eee 263 Crate Meeding for ancy, Marke(=) 922 265 Protected Feed) Trough 2.2 = eee 266 Feed Hoppers Filled=irom Alley. = eee 266 fhe Double-Vardinge System ==. 22 268 Interior of Well-Arranged Poultry Pen "=== 269 Feed. Hopper: 2-2. 3-22 eee Puig Feed and Work house of Large Poultry Farm 222s 272 Open Feed Trough for Fowls at Range. none Mixed: Flock ‘Eating Grain! 2220 222 eee 275 Neat Silo-tor Long Services_i22.-2- 2 eee 277 Harvesting the Silage Corn=2)-. 2 ee 280 Filling the ‘Silozs.c.-..---:-.--2. eee 286 Concrete Silos 22-224-1- 8522212 eee 287 Hauling: Soiling Crops to the Barn] === 290 Wheat aGood ‘Soiling Crop.2=2-. >) ee 292 Alfalfa the Best Soiling Crop 2422 eee 293 Barnyard Mallet a Heavy Yielder22=22> see 295 Crop of Cowpeas and Kafr Com 22) eee 297 Crimson Clover-for, Soilinge: 2 eee 299 Either Teo Much or Too Litte:2—_ = eee 306 Removal of Fertility 2222222145222 _ eee 3120 How Farm Manure is Wasted aaa 314 CHAP ii Ret THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL How Nature Is Balanced.—The soil, the plant, | agricultural activity. They are dependent upon one | . less, if not a barren soil. : The three divisions of nature have come in natural plant is food for the soil. and the animal represent the three great fields of another, each giving to, or receiving from, the others the things vital to its very existence. Without a soil, there would be, of course, neither plant nor ani- _ mal life; without plants there could be no animals; and without plants or animals there would be a use- order. First, the soil; then tiny plants, that were succeeded in time by other plants of a higher form, to which animals welcomed themselves, satisfying their appetites and nourishing their bodies with what they secured as food. Soil is food for plants, the plant is food for animals, and the dead animal or Plant Food a Small Part of Soil—The whole of the soil is not plant food—only certain elements: chemical elements, we call them. In all nature there are 81 known distinct substances or elements. They are called elements because they represent distinct substances not one of which can be broken up into two or more other distinct substances. Common table salt is not an element, since it can be separated into two elements, sodium and chlorine. Neither 2 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS sodium nor chlorine can be divided into two or more substances, and hence each is a fixed unit or sub- stance, known by the term element. Of the 81 elements to be found in the world only 12 enter in the life of plants and animals. These 12 are very important because they are positively Nec €SSapyaee@ plants or animals. | They are the very \\ | basis of lite: Pie : ee I oe eae the eS ney mal is compose i of the elements found in plants, yet the plant must grow in order to make it possible for the animal to grow. From the air and? the) soil Cross SECTION OF RooT HAIR Oatiat cultivated Soluble plant food is carried into the plant 1 h 15 through root hairs. These are very small. DP ants gather the Th t pictured here is greatly magnified. ° oar TS (Seay ater mere chemical elements together, and with them build plant tissue. By means of roots, the soil is searched in every direc- tion for soluble plant food, and this is drawn into the plant. The leaves in the air, also at work, entice into their being the floating carbon which, trapped and held, is mixed, as it were, by means of cellular life with the soil elements that have been carried into the plant in the soil water. As a result com- pounds are formed, the cells enlarge and increase, THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 3 the plant becomes bigger. It grows. In other words, the plant, by feeding on soil and air, is enlarged through growth. Elements of Plant and Animal Life——The ele- ments that enter into plant and animal growth are the following: Iron, an element of universal use. All soils contain iit Calcium, a yellowish metal, abundantly found in limestone soils. Potassium, a whitish metal and soft. It is called potash when united with oxygen. Sodium, soft and light, and when united with chlorine forms ordinary salt. Magnesium, is white in color and a hard metal. Aluminum, looks like silver and is very hard. Silicon, a substance earthy in appearance and, next to oxygen, the most abundant element in the earth crust. Sulphur, associated with nitrogen in the protein compounds. Phosphorus, soft and yellow, often HESS o in cul- tivated soils. Chlorine, a colorless gas which, when united with sodium, forms common table salt. Hydrogen, the lightest known substance, a color- less gas. United with oxygen it forms water. Oxygen, a colorless and abundant gas. One-fifth of the air, one-half of the earth’s crust, and eight-ninths of the water of the world is formed of it. 4 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Carbon, a principal substance of plants and animals. It is found in soil and air. Animals give it off in breathing and plants take it in through their leaves. United with oxygen it makes carbon dioxide of the air, the principal source for plants to get their supply. Nitrogen, a gas in its free state. Both plants and animals require it, and four-fifths of the air 1s composed of it. Elements are U nited—Few of these elements ex- ist in the soil in a free state. Two or more ~ have aimitede In this “association they exist as com- pounds. Thus nitro- gen, potassium and oxygen united form potassium nitrate STOMATA, OR LEAF MOUTHS (KNOs) and hydro- As seen under the microscope on the uadernide of the, leat | Carbon Meee ge A ue eae se ae of carbon dioxide or carbonic united form water (H20). So, through- out the world, various combinations of these ele- ments are found and are known as chemical com- pounds. Cycle oi Life-—The elements here described as essential to plant growth are needed by animals also. But animals neither can gather them from the soil and the air, nor would it be possible for. animals to tHE SO tHE PVAN TT, tab -ANEMAL 5 use them if they could. Obtained in the form that plants utilize they would be poison to animal life. Nature’s way is different. Plants grow: which means they feed on the element compounds. But, young or mature, these same plants are food for.ani- mals. The elements, by means of the plant cells, have been worked up into plant tissue; and as such animal forms of life are sustained. The animal cannot feed from soil and air direct. Two SouRCES OF PHOSPHORUS In the early days bones were gathered for fertilizing. The Indians used fish. Today the phosphoric acid of fertilizers is secured largely from “ground bone-or finely ground phosphate re It is necessary for the plant to take these elements and build them into tissue first. On this plant tissue the animal feeds. After the animal dies, with its decay and decomposition, come the changes of animal tissue back to soil and air—back to the original materials they go again, as they were before the time when captured by roots and leaves and made into plants. But once back in soil and air the Same story is repeated: another capture is made by 6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS other roots or leaves, that new plant tissue may be made for another generation of animal life. It is in this manner that the plant grows out of the soil and the air, the animal out of the plant, the soil out of the animal. The animal when living contributes active supplies, and when dead both humus and mineral ingredients are returned to the soil; the soil thus reinforced favors the new plants now growing in it; and the new plants, now more abundantly nourished, more effectively take care of the animals. Thus we have the cycle of life: from the plant is fed the animal; from the animal is sus- tained the soil; from the soil is nourished the plant. The Farm and the Animals.—The best system of agriculture is based upon good crops and well-bred live stock. With these to be possible the follow- ing propositions must always be kept in mind: I. The soil must be rich in the simple elements of plant food, that there may be an abundance of farm crops. 2. The farm crops must be adapted to their cli- matic and soil environments so as to produce from the elements in the soil the largest growth of desirable plant life for animal food. 3. Superior farm stock must be raised in order to produce cheaply the maximum quantity of high-quality meat and milk or wool and labor with the least expenditure of food. Supply of Plant Food.—The farmer, to make agri- culture remunerative, must adapt his work to what falls within these lines. He must enrich the soil. AB0E, GOW, AMSUd TL AUN ates Ab Sid) UNI OM ey Ly i He must aid nature in her efforts to maintain the present supply of plant food, to increase it, and to make unavailable plant food available so as to be assmailable to, plants... Adter. death) of) plant, or animal the plant food contained in these organic forms is still unusable by plants until decay and decomposition have done their work. In a like manner the soil itself holds locked-up plant food in Poor CATTLE OFTEN INDICATE PooR LAND If soils have been intelligently tilled and manured they produce good pasture and profitable crops. These in turn furnish appetizing and nutritious feed for the rapid development of farm stock. If the grass is scanty live stock will reflect the condition of the land. its storehouses. The farmer’s work is to find the key that will unlock this plant food. Shallow plow- ing, removal of organic matter, carelessness in till- age, excessive water, bad bacteria, all unite in mak- ing soils hard, dead and lifeless, and when so made they refuse to release their soil-food possessions, a condition that either prevents plant growth alto- gether; or, if not that severe, in so lessening the vigor as to give a crop of small worth. 8 FEEDING: FARM ANIMALS Poor Grass, Poor Cattle.—If the plow be turned loose in these soils, and the land be drained and limed and carefully and intelligently tilled and cul- tivated; at the same time if organic matter be added by means of stable manure, legumes or green crops, the soils will quickly change from their unproduc- tive condition into the other state that produces remunerative crops. When the soil is poor the DouBLE Goop From Soy BEANS This magnificent crop of soy beans will be a blessing to both soil and animals. They enrich the land and provide a feeding crop of the highest excellence. crops are poor; when the crops .are poor the animals are poor; when the animals are poor the soils are poorly nourished. Soil Improvement and Live Stock.—The ideal agriculture maintains itself. Every system of farm- ing should consist of both plant production and animal feeding. The importance of this is seen from the following: 1. Clover, cowpeas, alfalfa and other legumes are needed to build up the soil. These, together THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 9 with the cereal crops, are the very kinds of plants we want for horses, cattle, sheep and swine. They should be grown, and especially the legumes, to 1m- prove the soil; which done there will follow larger yields of grain, forage and grass crops that, either directly as money crops, or indirectly as feeding crops, will make larger the total farm returns in money or production. WHAT THE FERTILIZING ELEMENTS ARE WORTH wR SCOONANHREW_— a The drawing shows the money value of the fertilizing materials of several farm products in a ton of each substance. These should be considered in connection with the commercial worth of each product. 2. Natural manures and fertilizers are needed for improving the soil. The more live stock there is on each farm the greater will be the quantity of manure made, and hence a less amount of pur- chased fertilizers will be required. The fertilizer bill is a great farm tax. A part of it would be un- necessary ‘f business-like farming were followed. It should be a set policy to purchase as much of the 10 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS fertilizers as possible in the form of feeding stuffs. Take a dollar and get cottonseed meal, gluten, bran | or tankage, but instead of applying these direct to” the soil as sources of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, first feed them to live stock to get the CONVERTING RAW MATERIAL INTO FINISHED PRODUCTS Dairy cows are excellent machines for converting the rough products of the farm into human food. ; value of the organized nature of the elements as! feed. Then, this accomplished, the resulting} manure will provide plant food for the land. | The important difference between plant food or fertilizers and animal food or plants is in the fact that plants take the unorganized chemical elements | and manufacture or build or organize them into | living tissue, which is the plant or the fruit of the é THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL Jidi plant, and as such is the food of the animal. Feed the plant or its fruits to live stock and get meat or wool or milk or labor from the organized tissue; then let the animals return these, now disorganized and broken up, back to the soil, in manure or ex- crement, so as to get a new growth of plants. By letting live stock prepare the plant food you gain in both ways. 3. The animal changes raw materials into fin- ished products. The feeder can take corn, grass, clover, bran, gluten and other feeding stuffs and from them compound balanced rations for all classes of live stock. These are simply raw materials, and as such command low prices if placed on the markets of the world. An increased value follows their change into a finished product. A dairy cow, fed a mixture of 25 pounds of corn stover, clover hay, wheat bran and gluten, worth a few cents, will produce butter or milk worth many cents. The in- creased value is the result of the change from the form of raw materials into a finished product at once usable as food for human beings. CEA EA eeu WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN How Plants Grow.—Plants get their food from ‘the soil and the air. When supplied abundantly with food, and surrounded by favorable conditions like warmth, moisture, sunlight and an agreeable soil free of weeds and insect enemies, they grow How AN ANIMAL CELL DIVIDES Here is shown nuclear and cell division. The letters A, B and C indicate the successive stages. The region of the nucleus is a; cytoplasm or pro- toplasm, 6; and the beginnings of the daughter nuclei, c. The letter d shows how the original cell has divided internally into two, each with a large nucleus. (After Guignard.) rapidly and produce bountifully. Their method of using food is much different from that of animals; and their digestive system is of another order. Plant Cells—A plant is formed of myriads of cells. These increase im numbers as) tae plans erows larger. Stated in a simple way, the cell is an inclosed sac within whose walls are the juices and other substances required for growth and develop- 12 WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN 13 ment. The cell walls are made up of a woody sub- stance called cellulose. In green and growing plants this cellulose is thin and tender, but as the plant matures it becomes hard and woody. The roots, trunk, leaves and all other parts of the plant are formed of cells. Plant food in the soil is made soluble in soil moisture, and by means of the cells comprising the roots the soluble substances are sucked in and carried in water to all parts of the plant. The process by which this is done is known as osmosis. The soluble plant food left in the cells as the water passes along is met by the carbon that has also been passed into the cells, not through the roots, however, but through the leaves, and thus brought together all building materials are at hand for the manufacture of the plant compounds. The master builder is the protoplasm tucked away in the cells. No one knows just what protoplasm is, but it represents life, without which there could _be no growth. _ Building Plant Tissue—The building work is _done in the plant cells, within whose tiny walls the compounds are formed. These cells within which this process is going on are either enlarged them- selves or else the compounds are used for making new cells. Every live, active cell contains proto- plasm, the life principle. Herein is contained the vital spark that makes all growth possible. _ Starch—When the soluble soil material or plant _food has been carried up through the long channel of cells and reaches the leaves, it is brought in contact with the carbon dioxide that has been pulled into I4 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the leaf through the little mouths on the undersides of the leaves. There these various compounds are upset and disintegrated through the action of heat, sunlight, protoplasm and chlorophyll, with the result that a grain of starch is made out of the water and CARBONIC ACID Sk Ly! A | x WL | ya CARBONIC ACID UNDERSIDE OF A LEAF When studied under the microscope the underside of a leaf appears as sketched above. The letter a shows the stomata or mouths, and b the cells of the leaf. carbonic acid gas. Some of these starch grains are changed by protoplasm into sugar, which, being readily soluble, soon is transferred by diffusion from cell to cell and left in those cells that need it the most. How Plants Use Starch.—Starch is not the life substance of the plant, but helps to make it. It is WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN T5 necessary, because not only more life substance is required as the plant grows larger, but because in | one kind of work that the plant does some of the @@essubstance is used up. Not all of the starch, ‘therefore, remains as originally formed; some of it is assimilated along with other foods taken up by the roots, and living material is made. meerorein.— The formation of the protein constit- ‘uents is more com- fee than the lmetimation of starch. In a gen- |eral. way it may be ‘said that starch or some starch deriva- tive is united in the cells with nitrates and sulphur that have been brought STARCH CELLS ‘into the plant from This is the way the starch cells from potato tubers look when seen under the microscope. ithe soil. The liv- ing matter, or protoplasm, then breaks up the litrates in the active cells, uniting them in some way with starch, with the result that a protein com- sound is formed. Fat or Oil.—Oil is made out of the same chemical 2lements that enter into the building of starch zrains. Both are formed of carbon, hydrogen and axygen. In the oil compounds there is a larger 16 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS number of the carbon and hydrogen units in pro- portion to the oxygen than in the case of starch. While all plants contain some oil or fat in their woody tissue, the great bulk of it is deposited in the seed or the fruit. Protein differs in composition from oil or starch in having nitro- gen and sulphur in addition to car- bon, hydrogen and oxygen. What Plant Building Means. Before the simple elements are taken into tg plant they are of little value. No animal can use them as food@] they cannot be burned to furnish : heat; and thas /(PROTOPLASM store up no ‘ea [ke N ergy to carry on LEAF CELLS any of the world’s How the cells from the interior of a leaf look when seen under the microscope. work. What a change the plant makes of them! Without value in soil and air, these elements when taken into the plant and built inte tissue at once become of vast importance. They be- come the source of all animal food, and, constructed | WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN Wy into vegetable life, supply the human race with most of the essential things for comfort, life and food. Ash or Mineral Materials.——Starch, oil and pro- tein are not the only constituents found in plants; ash or mineral matter is found in every form of plant life. This is observed when any vegetable material has been burned. The organized condition TOTAL POUNDS OF WATER IN lOO POUNDS OF SUBSTANCE FEEDING STUFF SUIONISH2Z0)255S 0395140 5S OMMCOR OMS ORSON 100 GREEN CORN CORN SILAGE CORN STOVER,FIELD CURED DENT CORN PASTURE GRASS RED CLOVER RED CLOVER HAY TURNIP WHEAT, GREEN WHEAT STRAW WHEAT, GRAIN OF WHEAT BRAN APPLES POTATOES SKIM MILK GROWING PLANTS CONTAIN MucH WATER Several common feeding stuffs are here compared to show the large quan- tities of water they contain. Note the change when harvested and cured as dry provenders. is destroyed, but the ash remains. In green plants or fodder or the vegetables the minerals are always at hand, and when eaten by man or beast they go to form bone, teeth and other tissue structures of the body. In most feeding stuffs sodium and chlorine are lacking, but the deficiency is corrected by the artificial supply of common salt. Poor teeth, > small and weak bones in children and domestic » animals result when an insufficient amount of ash 18 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS or mineral material is furnished in the food. A variety of food, including coarse fodders and the legumes, makes it possible to supply the mineral materials in abun- dance. Water is found in all plants; evengam those dead and air- dry. Young grow- ing plants) /contan# much, often three- fourths or more of their weight. De you wonder now why water in the soil is sO important for CARBONIC ACID NO MOVEMENT We 8 the production of s/S/= good crops? ‘The x < a plant not only must have the water, but the only way it can make use of it is to OX ee Carry. it) imtoparue plant through the YW SS roots. WATER AND IMIS oaCee MINERALS Water serves as a How THE SAP CURRENTS MOVE carrier of plant food The unmanufactured sap current taken through the roots to into the plant through the roots moves up- ward, while the manufactured product of every part of the the leaves moves downward. e plant. dt is*tem tite plant what blood is to the animal. Some people think that dew or rain on the leaves is of value to * WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN ime) the plant. But is it? The mission of the water is to dissolve plant food in the soil and when in solution to get it into the plant. Surely a heavy dew on a crop of corn dissolves no plant food in the earth, and certainly carries none into the plant. Dew, then, is not a means of feeding the plant. What water the plant gets is obtained, as has been explained, from the soil by means of the roots. Crude Fiber serves as a framework of the plant. It is to the plant what bones and skeleton are to the animal. It is made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the same elements that go to form starch. Immature and young plants are tender because the crude fiber is tender; as the plant matures, the fiber hardens and toughens, as we find it in hay and corn stover and trees. Grouping the Plant Constituents—When the chemist analyzes plants he finds many kinds of compounds. He finds that while there is a physical difference, the chemical elements are’ invariably united in definite combinations producing definite compounds. For the sake of convenience the plant’s constituents may be grouped as follows: ls ZANSIas DES Vater. IIf. Protein or compounds containing nitrogen. IV. Nitrogen-free compounds or compounds containing no nitrogen. is Sueesrela, A, (Candle inner, @, SUIGENy, eabbons, Gu, Ney Ether extract, or oil or! fat. 20 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS What the Plant Has Done.—The relation between soil and plant is now apparent. The soil elements have been taken into the plant. From now on they lose their individual identity and, united in various ways, they now become organized compounds. They are no longer carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but starch or sugar, or oil; or, if nitrogen and sul- phur are added, they become protein compounds. The plant has now fulfilled its destiny and is ready ~ to be used as food for the support of animal life. Elements and Their Symbols.—For the sake of brevity the symbols or letters representing the various agricultural elements are often used, and for the purpose of becoming acquainted with them the list below is given: O—Oxygen P—Phosphorus H—Hydrogen K—Potassium N—Nitrogen Mg—Magnesium C—Carbon — Al—Aluminum Cl—Chlorine Fe—Iron Na—Sodium Si—Silicon S-—Sulphur Ca Calcima (ClaUAVE TIBI Ui HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED Making Ready for Digestion.—Digestion is more than chewing and swallowing. Both of these are important, but they are only the beginning of a complicated act that has to do with every con- stituent taken into the mouth as food, regardless of its nature, whether of vegetable or animal origin. Before the several ingredients composing the plant can be used as food they must be prepared for ab- sorption into the system of the animal. This prep- aration takes place in the mouth, the cesophagus tube, the stomach and the intestines. Throughout the process various secretions are supplied to make assimilation and absorption into the system pos- sible. What Is Done in the Mouth.—When food is taken into the mouth, it is masticated by the teeth. Wiindlesthis is soins on there are poured into the mouth large quantities of saliva, which soften and soak the foods and start digestion. The active principle of saliva is a soluble ferment called ptyalin that converts the starch into sugar. One authority states that the saliva of a horse will convert raw starch into sugar in 15 minutes. The organic mat- ter contained in this secretion is formed by the cells comprising the structure of the salivary glands. _ A large amount of saliva is soaked up by the food. This is often expressed as being as much as one- 21 22 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tenth of the weight of the animal. Colin states that 84 pounds is secreted by the horse and 112 pounds by the cow in a single day. As a matter of fact, the nature of the food greatly influences the flow, although the control rests with the nervous system. The ferment of the saliva is inactive in young animals. It bears a close relationship to the de- velopment of the teeth. Starchy food, therefore, is not desirable for newly born farm animals nor for the human young. While bread, potatoes and other soft food of a starchy nature are frequently, if not commonly, given to children, it can be only to their hurt, for the reason the teeth slowly develop, thus failing” to provide the ferment toy prepancueme starches for digestion, although moisture is naturally secreted by the glands. From Mouth to Stomach.—The food, after being ground and mixed with the saliva, is forwarded to the stomach. Horses, hogs and humans have a single stomach compartment, while cows, sheep and goats have a different arrangement, embodying four divisions. With the former the stomach is com- paratively simple. It is a single sac not capable of holding a large quantity at one time. On the other hand, in the ruminants, the family to which cattle and sheep belong, the stomach is large, and capable of con- siderable extension. The capacity of the stomach of the average horse runs from three to four gallons, and of the cow to as much as 50 gallons or more. The Compartments of the Cow’s Stomach are known as the rumen, or paunch, the reticulum, the HOW EFOOD IS DIGESTED 23 omasum, and the abomasum. ‘The last is the true digestive stomach, the others are largely storage places for the saliva-mixed food. ‘The first of these compartments is very decidedly a storing place where the food is placed until it is thrown back to STOMACH OF RUMINANT The four main divisions of the ruminant’s stomach are pictured here. The first three divisions are the storehouses for food until it is prepared for the fourth or true stomach. the mouth for further mastication. This act, or cud chewing, refers to rechewing the food so as to get it finer and better ground for digestion. The food, on leaving the mouth the second time, is passed through the rumen into the reticulum, then to the omasum and finally into the abomasum, or true stomach, where digestion is continued. In the first compartment, or rumen, a churning process is carried on continually. Some think this division of the stomach is never wholly empty. An alkaline fluid is furnished here, as is the case also 24. FEEDING FARM ANIMALS in the second compartment. Food in the third com- partment is subjected to a squeeze which dries it, forcing the extracted juices into the true stomach or fourth compartment. Stomach Secretion—The stomach of every class - of animals is lined by two kinds of membrane: one, similar in nature to the lining of the cesophagus tube, and the other that ‘admits of secretion. These do not form a double coat but one blends into the other. The section giving off the secretion is known as the willous coat. It extends to the poste- rior end, and to the point where the small intestine joins with the stomach. While in the stomach, the saliva continues the digestion of the starchy matter, and is assisted by the gastric juice that pours in from the stomach lining. This secretion has three constituents, acid, rennet and pepsm. ‘The pepsin is a ferment, its work being to split up the protein compounds. ‘The rennet is also a ferment, which assists in the digestion of milk. There is much of this’ secretion iucalyes aaa. gastric juice converts the protein substances into peptones. The mucus glands of the stomach secrete mucin, a substance that lines the walls of the stomach, at all times. From Stomach to Intestines—v7The constant churning movement in the stomach causes the food to travel from the entrance to the exit, the small intestine. Up to this time there has been no ab- sorption of the food into the body. Nor is diges- HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED 25 tion yet complete. When the partly digested ma- terial or chyme leaves the stomach it passes into the duodenum, one of the three parts of the small intestine, and is subjected to further action of other digestive juices. Here the bile, the pancreatic and intestinal juices are admitted to complete the work. The bile, dark green or brownish in color, is se- creted by the liver and acts in conjunction with the BLooD PLASMA This shows blood plasma passing out of the capillaries to feed the cells. It is there taken up by the lymph vessel. pancreatic juice. The pancreatic juice, alkaline and watery, is secreted by the pancreas, or “sweet bread.” ‘The bile acts as a bowel regulator when the liver is active and healthy. The pancreatic juice has a treble function: it is able to change starch into sugar, protein into peptones, and the oils into fatty acids. The intestinal juices perform similar work. The Two Intestines are not only important for storage purposes, but in them, particularly the 26 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS smaller, the real digestive act, the absorption of the nutriment in the food by the blood, takes place. Up to this point, although the fluids have been at work, there has been little if any active absorption into the system. Ihe food up to now is) am a sense outside the body; and there is no entrance or opening for it to get into the body, save through the cells that line this part of the digestive tract. In a way similar to that by which soluble plant food is admitted into the plant roots through the cell walls, so is the digested food, after it has bee broken up and made soluble, absorbed through) them eam walls of the intes- AN Ss Se system of the ani- mal. Wau Chane From Intestines to Section of intestine showing villi. The Bee parts are as follows: a, arteries; b, villi; Blood. When food c, villi cut open to show lacteal (1), and j it 4 2 blood tubes; d, glands; m, muscle; vr, 1S absorbed it 1s ad veins; and w, wall of intestine. mitted either to the capillaries of the blood or to the lymphatic system. If collected by the capillaries the absorbed food is carried to the portal vein, thence to the liver and finally to the heart, where it is poured with the blue blood as it is brought in from all parts of the body. At this point the blood contains tines into the blood — HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED 27 both nutriment and the waste or broken-down mat- ter of the body. The part of the absorbed food that enters into the lymphatic system is carried to the thoracic duct, which extends along the spinal column, and enters one of the main blood vessels. The lymph is blood without the red blood corpuscles. It wanders to all parts of the body, surrounds all the cells in all the tissues and carries to the cells the very kind of food they most need. Once the food gets into the circulatory system it takes the regular course of the blood. In impure Moodnit oes to the right auricle of the heart, then to the right ventricle. This in turn contracts and forces the blood into the lungs, where oxygen is taken on and carbonic acid gas and other impu- rities are given off. From the lungs the blood, now red and pure, passes into the left auricle, and thence into the left ventricle, from which it is forced into the aorta, to be distributed to all parts of the body. Villi Cells——The digested food in the intestines is gathered in by the villi cells. The mucous mem- brane lining the small intestines possesses highly differentiated structures that appear as minute fingers. These tiny, hair-like projectiles reach into the intestinal mass for sugar, peptones and fatty acids, which they transfer, through the cells, into the absorbent vessels or lymphs that in turn empty the assimilated stores of food into larger and still larger vessels. This process continues until the whole of the nutritive fluid is collected in the cir- culatory system to become the very basis of the blood. 28 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Respiration When the impure blood passes through the lungs, carbonic acid gas and other impurities are held back and in breathing are ex- haled and thrown out of the system. At the same time oxygen is taken in with great greediness by the cells of the blood, which distribute it where needed in all parts of the body. When vplantstane growing, oxygen is released and thrown into the DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRIBUTION OF CAPILLARIES CAPILLARIES IN LUNGS. Se ore POSTERIOR AORTA YY 7 ana ARTERIES. N RS QOo's TRIBUTION A oF PORTAL XX \\ VEIN IN LIVER HEAD AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. DISTRIBUTION OF LE CAPILLARIES IN VENTRICLE) ; a ABDOMINAL ORGANS How THE BLoop CIRCULATES THROUGH THE BODY The blood is collected from the body and delivered into the right auricle, which on contracting, forces the blood into the right ventricle; this in turn contracts and forces the blood into the lumgs, where oxygen is taken on and carbonic acid gas and other impurities are “thrown off. From the lungs the blood is returned to the left side of the heart and distributed through arteries and capillaries to all parts of the body. air. At the same time, by means of leaves, the car- bonic acid gas is drawn in and used in the construc- tion of the plant compounds. This was got from the air. The animal, in performing its functions and in building its tissue, inhales oxygen from, and exhales carbon dioxide into, the air. Thus it is that animals use what is waste to the plant and the plants use what is poison to the animal. _—— (Clabavle MBAS IL USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS Foods Must be Appetizing.—Plants are most liked when young and tender. They are then agree- able to the taste and induce a maximum consump- tion. At this stage of growth little woody tissue has developed, the juices are abundant, the sub- stances are freely acted upon by the secretions, and Corn IN Goopd SHOCKS Corn may be preserved for a time in shocks in the field. If left until winter, rains and snows cause rapid deterioration and great loss of feeding value. the largest amount of nutriment is absorbed into the system. Feeds that are unappétizing and dis- 29 30 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS agreeable to smell or taste will be rejected, or if eaten at all will be only to satisfy hunger. The good feeder endeavors to tempt the taste and increase the appetite of his animals, that the largest possible consumption of food may be had to secure the quickest and largest returns. A STEER THAT WAs A Poor FEEDER Scrub animals as a rule are not good feeders. Pure-bred animals render a much better account of what they eat. Since growth can result only from the food con- sumed, it follows as an undisputed conclusion that light feeding will retard development. Hence, not only good food must be provided, but much food also. Many a feeder owes his success to his ability to get before his animal a bountiful ration that is both wholesome and nutritious. Hunger may make USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 31 his animals partake of almost any kind of food, but nothing he can do will induce these same animais to eat a disagreeable or unappetizing food heartily enough to get a response much beyond their main- tenance needs. Growth and production are invaria- bly associated with well-flavored and appetizing food, even though they add nothing to the energy or nutritive value of the food. Digestibility Little Influenced by Quantity.— Ordinarily digestion is but slightly influenced by big appetites. Heavy eaters are usually the most profitable animals. Fed to their full capacity they give as good an account of their food as when lim- ited to half feeds. Food is digested and assimilated just as completely in full as in half-filled stomachs. The most rapid growth, or the largest milk flow, is to be had when the animal is permitted to eat to its full capacity ; and this is another reason why the ration must be palatable and attractive to taste and smell. The Individual Character of the Animal undoubt- edly affects the proportion digested. Armsby has found that a pure-bred animal of superior breeding men@ers a better account of its food than a scrub. Of two animals supplied with the same feed, one will often persistently digest a larger proportion than the other. Often very greedy eaters show very poor fattening qualities. In young animals the digestive power is appar- ently equal to animals of mature age. Digestibility Decreases as Plants Mature.—All classes of plants show a striking diminution in 32 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS digestibility as they approach maturity, and this is very equally spread over all the constituents. The composition varies also, and for the same reason. Hence, no fixed nutritive value can be ascribed to the hay and fodder crops except in a general way. The young plant is always the most nutritious. The - superior fattening quality of a pasture, as compared MAKING Goop Hay Is A FINE ART _ Hay often is improperly made. If cut late it is less nutritious and appetiz- ing. If soaked with rains, or the finer parts are lost by bad treatment, the feeding value will be decreased. with that of the hay made from it, is clearly due to the fact that on land continuously grazed the animal is fed entirely on young forage, while hay will largely consist of the mature or nearly matunea plants. If hay making is carefully carried out in good weather so the finer parts are not lost by bad treatment, or the soluble matter is not washed out by rain, the digestibility will not be diminished consid- erably. | e USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 33 Every kind of hay should be cured in the shock before being placed in the mow; otherwise it may become brown by heating and the digestibility of the protein and soluble carbohydrates be diminished. Early cut hay is richer in protein and contains less crude fiber than that cut late. The increased weight, due to the longer growing period, chiefly develops cellulose. As the plant ripens the more nutritious compounds move into the seed, and leave the food part of hay less valuable. The best time for cutting hay is when the plants are in blossom; the nutritious compounds at this time are dis- tributed throughout the plants, and there is cor- respondingly less woody tissue. Shall Grain Be Ground?—Many grain feeds in- crease their digestibility if they are ground. Corn, oats, wheat and other grains often are so hard that if passed into the stomach without mastication the digestive juices fail to do their full duty. While this is a true and an unfortunate condition, it does not always follow that it is good business management to grind these feeds. Experiments show that when corn, for instance, is ground the returns are in- creased from 8 to 15 per cent; yet the labor of haul- ing to and from the mill or of grinding the grain at home may mean a loss in the end. This factor must be determined by each individ- ual, for no cut-and-dried rule will apply. The cus- tom of following cattle and horses with pigs to pick up the undigested grain or other food is both wise and profitable, and satisfactorily meets this condi- tion. 34 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Steaming and Cooking Food.—A great many de- vices have been placed on the market for the prep- aration of feeding stuffs for live stock. The labor and expense connected with the practice is usually unwarranted and uneconomical. What Most Influences Digestion.—Feeding farm stock is a gentle art. The old adage, “the hand of the master fattens the flock,’ is a clear expression of the intimate relation that should exist between SSS SESS ia see ; FROM A GRAIN OF WHEAT Traverse section near the outside of a wheat grain. The letters show the following: a, the husk (pericarp, integuments); b, cells with protein gran- ules; c, starch cells. (After Tschirch.) the feeder and the animals in his charge. Two men may provide the same feed for two lots of live stock, similar in kind, and far different results will be ob- tained at the end of a given period. The one studies his individual animals, knows each as if by name, takes an interest in its progress, endeavors at all times to help in case of mishap, and actually en- courages, as if to induce greater endeavor. ila other feeds the stock and lets it go at that. USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 35 This personal touch is of great importance, and includes everything involved in the preparation of feeds that the highest digestibility may be secured. Rough treatment, bad quarters, irregularity in feed- ing, usually in themselves will overbalance the ad- vantages gained in attempting to influence digesti- bility and larger consumption through better prep- aration for easier mastication, or through appeal to the taste and appetite. The good feeder is a good judge of stock. He is careful, cautious, and habitually regular; endowed with virtues of patience, perseverance, and good common sense, he treats his animals as though they were children in a schoolroom. He watches every detail; if a slight change or modification of method is necessary, he sees that this is effected at once. He meets all contingencies as they arise, calmly and without excitement. Above all, he possesses a refinement of manner and disposition that causes his animals to know and love him. Thus they will repay in more willing labor or in more milk or in cheaper beef, pork or wool. Herein is the real secret of feeding the animals of the farm successfully. (CISUAIP I als. WW COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS Combustible Matter—Animals are often de- stroyed by fire; they possess, therefore, combusti- ble materials. These consist largely of the nitrog- enous substances, and the fats, both of which are present in the frame, tissue and other organic por- tions of the body. In the skeleton, or frame, three classes of substances are formed—protein, gelati- AGE OF STEERS IN RESPECT TO COST OF 100 POUNDS GAIN © AVERAGE Weenies [ERAGE COST IN DOLLARS OF 100 POUNDS GAIN CALVES ONE YEAR OLD TWO YEARS OLD THREE YEARS OLD CHEAPEST GAINS ARE MADE WITH YOUNG ANIMALS As animals advance in age the cost of food for maintenance and increase advances also. Compare the four classes of cattle as sketched above. nous matter, and horny matter. Of first importance is the protein, which forms the greater part of the muscular tissue, the various organs, the material of which the nervous system is made, and the major portion of the solid matter of blood. Connective tissue, the combustible part of the cartilage and bone, and the skin, are formed of the gelatinous matter. Horn, hair, wool, and feathers constitute the horny matter. The animal juices are of a nitrog- enous origin also. The fats contain no nitrogen, but are combustible and are either of a hard or a fluid nature. 36 COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS By Incombustible Matter.—The bones contain the largest part of the incombustible constituents. Here are found calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and magnesium phosphate in greatest abundance. Potassium phosphate heads the list in the tissues. These mineral substances constitute from three to five per cent of the live weight of the animal. Water.—More than half of the entire weight of the animal is water. It is to be found in all parts of the body and is as essential for the development of solid tissue as any of the other ingredients. - Young and growing animals, like young and grow- ing plants, contain the highest percentage of water. As the animal matures the proportion of water dimin- ishes until it reaches about one-half of the total weight. Range of Variation of Materials——The amounts of water, nitrogenous matter, fat, and the mineral constituents present in a large number of animals have been determined at Rothamsted Station in Eng- land. The table following shows the range of variation of the various constituents and for different animals. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF WHOLE ANIMAL (WARRINGTON ) Constit-| Fat Half Mat Fat Fat | Store Fat uent Calf |Fat Ox; Ox Lamb | Sheep Pig Pig Water ..| 65.1 56.0 48.4 52.2 46.1 58.1 43.0 Protein .| 15.7 18.1 15.4 ESD 13.0 14.5 11.4 TENEVIG . ie we aes ance See ee Ome 1 1.8 ately eimalon says iva raroiers 1G) 7 Li 1.7 Mat {SWC Di ecesaano es acne 19.8 10.4 iL 6 Storer Picr iar. c eee reall 10.7 2.0 TEMS Pad eaten CANA eh aie ea iene 6.5 1.4 Washed Wool ..... 94.4 1.8 9 MIMS Gobo bisGo dod565 68 5.8 2.0 1.7 SNiaioay “WMO Gob oocco8 5.0 1 2.0 In the fat calf and the fat ox the largest amount of these three important fertilizing elements is removed, and in the fat pig the least. Hog raising, therefore, is less hard on the land than beef produc- tion. Dairying is more favorable even than pork. If we assume a cow produces 5,000 pounds of milk during a lacteal period and this milk is sold to the city, the loss to the land will be 29 pounds of nitro- gen, 10 pounds of phosphoric acid and 8.5 pounds of potash. Rating the nitrogen at 16 cents a pound, COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 39 the phosphoric acid at 5 cents and potash at 5 cents, the total money loss will be $5.57. The milk, if sold at 4 cents a quart, would bring $100. Consid- ering the large amount of feed furnished and the large amount of manure resulting therefrom, the loss in plant food is small. If, instead of selling milk, butter is sold, the loss of these three elements will be insignificant. FATTENING HOGS-F OOD CONSUMED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS GAIN 500 600 700 FIRST FORTNIGHT 2S SECOND FORTNIGHT [anna THIRD FORTNIGHT SS FOURTH FORTNIGHT Sain FIFTH FORTNIGHT [iiinnnEeeeereS Foop CONSUMED DURING FATTENING PERIOD During a ten-week fattening period with hogs the food consumption in- creases more than 50 per cent to produce 100 pounds of increase. There is a limit to which hogs can be profitably fed. Percentage of Increase in Fattening.—When ani- mals are fattened for market an increase of all con- stituents is noticed. This is shown in the table below. | INCREASE DURING FATTENING STAGE (WARRINGTON ) Water Protein Fat Ash TPR EAS. © Sei Ae eerie 23.6 7.8 63.1 0.5 HIGGWES. Glos cise ends 24.6 Uetl 66.2 1.5 SINCE ee eee oe ess 22.0 Tor 68.8 2.0 The sheep, during the fattening period, stores up fully four times as much ash as the pig. The sig- nificant thing brought out in this table is the fact 40 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS that the protein increase is very similar in the three classes, and that the fat increase ranges between eight and nine times the quantity of the protein. Group Constituents.—The substances of the ani- mal’s body may be grouped under four heads: lis) Weaver, 2 SNsh Or muinteraleiiarcen, 2a rOveni: Ae IBN, WHAT AN ANIMAL CONTAINS Protein, the dark red substance; fat, the white strips; bone or mineral matter; and water, comprise the distinct groups of substances that form the animal body. This grouping differs little from that of plants. Since starch, the vegetable gums, sugar, cellulose, etc., are derived from the same elements and have the same fuel value when assimilated by the animal, they can be classed as carbohydrates. The carbo- COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 4lI hydrates are formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen; the last two elements are in the proportion to form water, hence the name. When all the plant constituents are grouped together the five divisions are as follows: ie VV ater. 2 NS, . 2, JerOwsiia. aly EVM, 5. Carbohydrates. THEPLANT THE ANIMAL AND CELLULOSE fair FIBER ASH OR MINERAL MAT TER—— ASH CYCLE OF LIFE | From the plant is fed the animal; from the animal is sustained the soil; | from the soil and air is nourished the plant. 42 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS From the standpoint of composition the only dif- ference between plants and animals is in the fact that the former contain carbohydrates and the latter do not. What These Compounds Do.—Protein is the “muscle maker” of the body; fat and carbohydrates, the “heat and energy producers.” The protein of the plant is changed into the protein of the animal. In the animal this constituent comprises the mus- cular tissue, blood, hair and nerves, the internal organs, skin, etc. In addition the protein is used in the repair work of the body. Every beat of the heart, every circuit of the blood, and every move of a muscle, demands that some protein sub- stance be used up. To keep the animal machine in good working order these parts must be kept in repair. Hence, protein at all times must replace the broken parts with a new supply. If this supply satisfies the waste, the weight of the animal will remain unchanged. When the supply is liberal, or exceeds the demands of the system, material may be stored in the body as flesh or fat, and the animal will gain in weight. Food is needed to keep animals warm. As wood gives off heat when burned in the stove, so food consumed in the body furnishes heat. This con- sumption of fuel food is so well regulated in a healthy animal that the temperature remains at the same point at all times. Carbohydrates and fats are mainly the sources of the heat supply. These same ingredients are used for the production of fat COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 43 in the body and of muscular energy; yet protein may also be used. Protein Food furnishes in the animal body: ee rOte ta Blood, Brain and nerves, Internal organs and skin, Flesh, etc. Dee Cleat Be bat An Biersy Fat of Food furnishes in the animal body: To Jaleeke 2B, Adene Gu Eerey, Carbohydrates of Food furnish in the animal body: Py eleat 2a bat ae ener ey (ClabAledh igs WAI FOOD NUTRIENTS Nutrients Defined.—Any substance absorbed into the system in the process of digestion or that con- tributes to the support of animal life is a nutrient. Hence, the albumen of an egg, the starch of a potato, CoOWPEAS A RICH Foop Much nutrition is obtained from cowpeas and other leguminous crops. These are relatively rich in protein, and hence should have a place in every system of farming. the salts of an apple, the ash of wheat bran, the fiber of pasture grass, are all nutrients and as such pro- mote the well-being of animals which can grow, do work, give milk or lay on fat or flesh. 44 FOOD NUTRIENTS 45 Most Feeding Stuffs are Unbalanced.—lf every food were wholly digestible and the digestible pro- tein, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fats were united in every feeding stuff in just the right proportion to meet the needs of the particular ani- mal, the feeding of farm animals would be a simple problem. But plants vary in composition; their food constituents are neither all nor yet equally digestible; some are much concentrated in form, while others place their food nutrients in large bulk. Because of these differences in the nature of feed- ing stuffs it is necessary to resort to wide variety and to blend or mix the provender that the varying needs of the various classes under continuous change of method of feeding or of age or of pur- pose may be met. This gives rise to the compound- ing of rations for each special class of live stock. But few single feeding stuffs furnish the required quantities of protein, carbohydrates and fat; the most economical and best results are secured when two or more are combined. By such a combination, imone feed is lacking in protein, for instance, this deficiency may be met in the ration through the selection of another substance possessing the pro- tein element in unusual abundance. In this man- MeGgethe shortage of the one is balanced by the abundance of the other. Digestibility Defined.—Every feeding stuff con- tains protein, carbohydrates, fat, ash and water. Of each of these there is a distinct proportion absorbed, and the remainder is rejected and excreted in the feces. The proportion which represents the quan- 46 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tity absorbed is spoken of as the amount digested or absorbed into the system. Digestibility refers to the true food value of any nutrient. Every food, there- fore, regardless of the balance of its proximate principles, contains both digestible and indigestible matter. To know the proportion of each part is TOTAL NUMBER OF POUNDS IN 2000 POUNDS OF SUBSTANCE 510 2030 50 75 100 [2550 175200 WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR WHEAT BRAN CORN CORN MEAL DRIED BEET PULP OATS OAT MEAL PEAS, GARDEN BEANS, GARDEN: BEEF CHEESE TIMOTHY HAY RED CLOVER HAY ALFALFA HAY MINERAL MATTER IN SOME COMMON Foops The total number of pounds of mineral matter in a ton of certain sub- stance is here shown. Notice how small is the quantity in a ton of wheat flour. Wheat bran, on the other hand, is abundantly supplied. In our methods of manufacture farm animals profit at the expense of the human family. necessary if the feeder is to make use of his feeds to the best advantage. How Digestibility of a Food Is Determined—The general method of investigation to obtain the diges- tibility of the various constituents of a feeding stuff has been to supply an animal with weighed quanti- ties of food the composition of which has been as- certained by chemical analysis. Within the period during which such an experiment is being con- FOOD NUTRIENTS 47 ducted, the solid excrements are collected, weighed and analyzed by the same chemical methods applied previously to the food. By this plan the amount of each constituent of the food which has passed through the animal unabsorbed is determined. It is a simple matter now to subtract this quantity from the amount found to have been present in the food originally and to obtain the difference, which is the amount digested and absorbed. First Step Is to Obtain Composition.—Chemists have analyzed all the important feeding stuffs. Slight variation is noted, which is due largely to difference of variety, soil, climate, season, fertiliza- tion and culture. Based on averages, the resulting figures of composition are sufficiently accurate for all purposes of ration building. In the table follow- ing a few common feeding stuffs are included for assistance in determining the real nutritive value of each constituent. COMPOSITION OF SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS In 100 pounds of fresh substance Nitrogen- Crude free Feeding stuffs Protein fiber extract Fat Corn stover— field cured .... 3.8 19.7 31.5 oil Red clover hay .. 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 Timothy hay .... 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 Cottonseed hulls.. 4.2 46.3 33.4 BD Worn—dent ....<. 10.3 DoW 70.4 "5.0 | Wheat bran ..... 15.7 9.0 53.9 4.0 Cottonseed meal.. 45.3 6.3 24.6 10.1 Gluten feed ..... 25.0 6.8 53.5 3.5) TAIN Rt SO OR TE oh ee nS WN ON 48 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS By this table not only a wide difference in the quantity of each constituent of each feeding stuff is noticed, but also that this obtains in all feeds; with no regularity of quantity for any constituent. The amount of protein varies from 3.8 pounds in corn stover to 45.3 pounds in cottonseed meal. In respect WHaAT FIELD CoRN CONTAINS When corn is analyzed nitrogen-free extract. or starch, is found to be present in the largest quantity. The amount of protein is not large and the ash supply is small. Corn as an exclusive food would insufficiently supply the mineral elements, and there would be too little protein in proportion to the starch and fat. to crude fiber the amount ranges from 2.2 pounds in corn to 46.3 pounds in cottonseed hulls. The greatest variation is with the nitrogen-free extract; it runs from 24.6 pounds in cottonseed meal to 70.4 pounds in corn. Much difference is observed also in the fat; 1.1 pound is present in corn stover, but this advances to ten times that in the cotton meal. potters es FOOD NUTRIENTS 49 Coefficient of Digestibility—In the composition of feeding stuffs, both the digested and unabsorbed materials are included. The absorbed matter only is of importance as food. The data obtained through the digestion trials make known the percentage of each nutrient digested. Such figures express the digestion coefficient for each constituent of the food consumed. In the table following are given the figures representing the coefficients of digestibility for each constituent of each feeding stuff previously given. DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OF SOME COMMON FEEDING SLUEES Percentage digestible Feeding stuffs Nitrogen- Crude free Protein - fiber extract Fat COM MSIKO\KSIO Go ciate S 45 67 61 62 Red clover hay.... 5d 46 64 53 MURANO INEAY 3S Gad Be 48 52 63 60 Cottonseed hulls .. 6 47 34 79 (COTE (eee Sie peer tere 76 58 93 86 \WWINGENE 1eehn bo ee oa6 CU 41 Yat 63 Cottonseed meal .. 83 35 78 94 Gluten feed ....... 85 76 89 82 A marked variation is shown in this table. None of the constituents are equally well digested. In few instances are more than three-fourths of any __ one substance absorbed into the system. With cot- - tonseed hulls but 6 per cent of the protein is digested, but a large amount of the fat—7g per cent —is absorbed. 50 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Digestible Nutrients.—W ith both the composition and the digestible percentage known, it is a com- paratively simple matter to determine the digestible quantity of each constituent. This is done by multi- WHAT Corn STOVER CONTAINS Corn stover contains more ash, water and fibre, and less protein, starch and fat than corn. Ear corn contains the same food ingredients, but these are more valuable because less fibrous and more concentrated. The real worth-while nutrients are protein, starch, and fat. plying the figures representing the total amount of each constituent by the coefficient of digestibility, the resulting product being the quantity digested. For example, corn stover contains 3.8 pounds of pro- tein, 19.7 pounds of crude fiber, 31.5 pounds of nitro- FOOD NUTRIENTS 51 gen-iree extract and 1.1 pounds of fat. By multi- plying these amounts by the figures representing the digestibility for each constituent respectively, the amount of each digestible nutrient will be ob- tained. This is done as follows: Digestible Digestible Constituent Composition Coefficient Nutrient TEPOUROUE = 6:65 5/5 Contre Oh eee CIEE es 3.8 x 45 = 16% (OGLE M HDCT! bis ce ores sie ere 19.7 x 67 — 13.2 Nitrogen-free extract ..... 31.5 x 61 = 19.2 TEP G6. bier gOe oa CEE ICH ORC ae i ileal x 62 = 0.7 The total digestible nutrients may be determined Minis amanner for each feeding stuff. Crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract, being used for the same purpose after absorption, may be included as a single group. They stand for the same thing, and from now on will be grouped under the term car- bohydrates. In the table below the feeding stuffs previously mentioned are listed and the total diges- tible nutrients of each are shown. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN SOME COMMON FEEDING SDUEFFS Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Feeding stuffs Protein Carbohydrates Fat Corn stover ....... Mod 32.4 0.7 Red clover hay .... 6.8 35.8 Lo C minnothy, hiay =. - 2.8 43.4 1.5 Cottonseed hulls 583 ore: ez WORM Bie kc csle Bea eS 66.7 4.3 Wiheat .bran ....... 12.1 41.9 2.5 Cottonseed meal 37.6 PADS T 9.5 Gluten feed ...... Dili 51.8 2.9 Correct Rations are Based on Digestibility.— From the data here given the importance of basing 52 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS all feeding rations on the digestible matter rather than on the total composition is clearly seen. Only a part of the food taken into the stomach is assim- ilated—just a part; sometimes gO per cent, some- times 75 per cent, some times 50 per cent and in the case of some foods as little as 25 per cent is digesti- ble. Hence, in every feed there is a part lost and HE HaApD a Good RATION This is a picture of the champion grade steer at the 1909 International live stock show. He was fed a variety of food, and with great care and thought. wasted to the animal; therefore, this serves no con- tribution to the nutriment of the body. Nor can one constituent be used wholly to take the place of any other. Since protein contains nitro- gen and sulphur in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, it is evident that neither the carbohydrates nor the fats which contain carbon, hydrogen and ee ee Le ae — FOOD NUTRIENTS 53 oxygen only can be substituted for protein. Just as the phosphorus or potassium of a fertilizer cannot re- place nitrogen, so the carbohydrates or the fats can- not replace the protein of a food. While it is true that protein may be substituted for the carbohy- drates and fats, it is to a limited extent, and only for a limited time. Even though the well-being of the animal would permit of this substitution the added expense would be against the practice. Ci Sean ka Val SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING The Animal as a Machine.—Considered as a ma- chine, the animal body needs two classes of food: one, to furnish the materials by which the machine may be constructed and kept in repair; and a sec- ond, or sustaining reserve, to develop heat to keep the body warm and to supply energy for the pro- duction of internal and external work: Water, ash and protein are the essential building materials and the fats and carbohydrates the primary fuel sub- stances. This distinction gives rise to the grouping of feeding stuffs as being either of a building or fuel nature. All individual foods contain both, but in varying proportions ; some are heavy carriers of the first, others of the second, and still others within these two extremes. Food values, therefore, are somewhat dependent upon the manner in which they are classified; this, of course, being consistent with the nature of their digestible nutrients. Nutritive Ratio—A point of some importance in determining the suitability of a feeding stuff as an article of diet is the proportion between the digesti- ble protein and the digestible non-protein organic constituents. This relation is most conveniently termed the nutritive ratio of the food. Simply de- fined, this term means the ratio which exists between the amount of digestible protein to the combined digestible carbohydrates and fat. It is B4 SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 55 NUTRITIVE | SN PROTEIN FEEDING STUFF RATIO ———_ICAREDHYDRATES & FAT DRIED BLOOD THT PASTURE GRASS WHEAT MIDDLINGS UR —UN—-OCHOD-—UNe2®WUy—" | ata: WHEAT STRAW NutTRITIVE RATIO OF SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS 56 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS obtained as follows: The fat is reduced to its car- bohydrate equivalent and added to the digestible carbohydrates. The sum of the two, representing the non-protein, is then divided by the figure or fig- ures representing the quantity of protein. The resulting figure is the second factor, which means that for each pound of protein in the feed or ration there are so many pounds of non-protein or carbohydrates. Reducing Fat to Carbohydrates—The non- protein constituents of a feed—starch, fiber, fats, etc.—are used to develop heat, energy and fat in the animal body. Their efficiency for this purpose has been ascertained by numerous experiments, which show that a pound of fat will develop as much heat energy as 2.3 pounds of starch. Hence, this more concentrated energy must be taken in consideration in combining the carbohydrates and fat as a single unit group if a definite, accurate value is to be obtained with reference to any feeding stuff. In all calculations from now on this higher efficiency of fat will be given its proper weight. Determining the Nutritive Ratio.In a previous table the digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of corn were shown to be as follows: Protein 7.8 pounds, carbohydrates 66.8 pounds and fat 4.3 pounds. The fat first is reduced to its carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying the number of pounds representing it by the authoritatively taken factor 2.3; which being done, shows that 4.3 pounds of fat equal 9.9 pounds of the carbohydrates in producing heat and energy. The fat, now having been reduced to a carbohydrate basis, can be added to 66.8, the amount of carbo- SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING Br hydrates in corn, which gives 76.7 pounds of total carbohydrates. This sum divided by the number representing the quantity of protein, which in the case of corn is 7.8 pounds, gives the final factor of the ratio; or 9.8. In the form of proportion the stages are as follows: (1) The amount of protein is to the amount of the Canpohydrates as: lis) tothe lactor tobe determined. @)eroreime: Carbohydrates > 1 = x @)-7-8 : (66.8 + 9.9) fe XK (4) 7.8 3 WO eye OES iiesnitritive tatio) Of corm is thereiore 1 to 9.8, which means that in this feeding stuff for every pound of digestible protein there are 9.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and fat equivalent. Wide or Narrow Nutritive Ratio—A wide diti- ference exists among feeds as to the proportion of protein which they contain. The oil meals and the legumes, especially their seeds, are rich in protein, roots and straw very poor, while cereal grain and their products occupy a middle place. These differ- ences give rise to the terms wide and narrow nutri- tive ratios which apply both to single feeds and rations. peiced) Or a tation has a Narrow nuthitive ratio when the digestible protein contained in it is high in comparison to the carbohydrates and fat, and “wide” when the reverse to this; that is, little protein and much of the carbohydrates and fat. Balanced Ration.—Since all feeding stuffs, with the possible exception of pasture grass, are unfit as single food substances, they naturally fall in a class 58 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS as being either wide or narrow. If two or more are combined in the proper proportions to furnish all the digestible nutrients, with no excess or shortage of any nutrient, but in just the quantity needed by a certain class of animals fed for a distinct purpose, the combination is then satisfactory, and does pro- vide a balanced ration. BALANCING THE RATION IMPROVES IT The two larger pigs at the right have been fed corn and tankage, while the two smaller ones at the left have been fed corn only, This shows why a balanced ration is worth while. Feeding Standards——For many years investi- gators have been conducting feeding tests to learn the amount of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat best for farm animals under average conditions. They have studied the results of various foods and varying amounts in thousands of animals. The re- sults are embodied in what are called feeding stand- ards. Vhese tell the proper amounts of the nutri- SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 59 ents, or one day’s food, for an animal of a certain weight under ordinary conditions. The subject is complicated in so many ways that it is out of the question to say with great definite- ness in the present light of feeding knowledge just what amount of each nutrient to give so the very best results may be obtained for the average animal FATTENING STEERS—GRAIN CONSUMED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS GAIN NUMBER OF DAYS FEEDING 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1.000 WHEN THE FEEDING PERIOD IS EXTENDED When fattening steers were fed for 56 days slightly over 700 pounds of food were consumed for each 100 pounds of gain. When the feeding period was lengthened to 182 days over a thousand pounds of grain was necessary to give 100 pounds of increase. under the average methods of feeding. The early standards proposed by German experimenters have been somewhat modified by other investigators, but so far, even though other attempts have been made to simplify these standards, the original Wolff-Leh- mann feeding standards are still the most popular guides in all studies of ration making. Maintenance Standard.—For one thing, these early teachers stated that less nutrients are neces- sary for animals doing no work, or giving no milk, or not fed for fattening purposes, than for animals actually so engaged. This has given rise to a stand- ard for maintenance when the animal is at rest in 60 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the stall. They showed, also, that a dairy cow giv- ing little or no milk does not require nearly as large a quantity of food as one in full flow of milk. Of course, every farmer knows this; but these investi- gators prepared a guide giving the quantity of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat so as to meet the maintenance needs of the dry cow. The dry cow does need daily a certain amount of each of the food nutrients. She must keep her body warm, maintain the regular blood supply, repair the broken-down tissues and meet all the requirements of life and health. These things are obtained from the food. If more food is provided than necessary to meet these daily demands, the animal will increase in weight. If too little food is given, then themes verse will happen, the animal will lose in weight, and, as popularly expressed, will become thin in flesh, or poor. Working from this point, these nutrition investigators carefully prepared standards for cows giving various quantities of milk, for steers at dif- ferent stages of fattening, for horses doing little or much work, and for hogs and sheep at their various periods of growth and fattening. Standards for Farm Animals.—These feeding standards as guides indicate for feeders what amount of each nutrient is required in the body, not only for maintenance and support, but also for milk or beef, wool or mutton, and labor. A different standard is provided for different animals and con- sistent with the purposes for which the animals are fed. A cow giving little milk, according toy the standard, is to be given smaller quantities of food SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING 61 than another in heavy milk flow. Likewise rations for beeves differ considerably from those for horses or pigs. These feeding standards, though easily under- stood, are still very complicated, but they clearly show that the practice of feeding is not only an interesting art, but one that calls for much skill and training also. WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS Daily allotment on basis 1,000 pounds live Weight Digestible nutrients in pounds Dry Carbo- matter | Protein] hydrates Fat Milk cows when giving daily 11 poundsof milk ... 25 1.6 10.0 3 22 pounds of milk ... 29 2.5 13.0 5 27.5 pounds of milk ... 32 3.3 13.0 8 Fattening cattle First period ......... 30 2.5 15.0 5 Second period ....... 30 3.0 1405 7 Miaind=e DeriOd) ~....% 2 TALEO <6) shapers ove ons. cxerensls 84.7. = 100. = 284A exalt are Protebin 55 wircthene eo cnc Tis] 100 = 2001 ab eae Garhbohwanravte siren coeineees 37.8 = 100) =]-7308 25 be no halt sie areata cde tovewotece ene noveneeiene 13) ==" 100" = "s sxe —— oat THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 69 If we arrange these figures in a table and add the nutrients together, we shall have a statement of the quantity of each constituent supplied in these feeds, and will be in a position to compare with the stand- ard to know what nutrients are insufficiently pro- vided. This is done as below: Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Dry Carbo- matter Protein hydrates Fat 10 lbs corn stover.. 5.95 14 3.24 07 £0 lbs corn silage.. 6.27 art 3.78 .18 15 lbs clover hay.. 12.70 1.06 5.67 PAU MROCAIS eee rece cc sic 25.92 1.47 12.69 HH Feeding standard... 29.00 2.50 13.00 OU, Comparing the nutrients in the feeds as used above with the standard, it will be seen there is a deficiency in every instance. It will now be neces- sary to introduce into the ration one or more other feeds in order to correct the faults so evident in the table. Since the greatest deficiency is in the protein, we must seek a supply from among such feeding stuffs as are particularly rich in protein. The oil meals and the gluten meals are of this kind. If, then, we add 234 pounds of cottonseed meal, we shall very nearly approximate the standard. The digestible nutrients for this feed are ascertained in the same manner as before, and a second trial made, 70 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS FEEDING RATION FOR DAIRY COW Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Dry Carbo- matter Protein hydrates Fat Ifa OEXOSCliae soooce 25.92 1.47 12.69 a2 2% lbs cottonseed 1G dYEYS)) Loic SiPsee esl oeabOseck bat 2.55 1.03 .59 26 TEOPATS) sens cnet 28.47 2.50 13.28 .18 Feeding standard... 29.00 2.50 13.00 .50 In this ration no serious faults are noticed. We have the correct amount of protein, butvanvexeess in carbohydrates of .28 pounds and of fat .28 pounds. The dry matter is slightly under the standard. This does not matter, however, so long as the quantity does not so greatly overrun the standard as to give greater bulk than the average cow has room to ac- commodate. This deficiency can be considerable and still not affect the efficiency of the ration. The excess of the fuel foods is so small as to be of no. importance at all. Were a pound less of clover hay and a quarter of a pound more of cottonseed meal to be used in the ration, the ration would correspond to the standard with considerable exactness. Feeding for Heavy Milkers.—This ration is for dairy cows averaging 22 pounds of milk a day. Suppose a ration is wanted for the same cows at another period when they are giving more milk than in the case just cited, say 27.5 pounds daily. How shall we proceed to adjust this ration to the new requirements, using as nearly as possible the THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 71 same feeding stuffs as before? The first step is to consult the standard. This we find calls for 32 pounds of dry matter; 3.3 poumds of protein; 13 pounds of carbohydrates; 0.8 pound of fat. - Our second step will be to consider the feeding stuffs as to the quantity to be used. Obviously, each cow has a certain limit as to storage and diges- mem capacity for bulky feeds. .In the preceding ration we have provided for about all of the corn HEAVY MILKERS REQUIRE BIG RATIONS The more milk a cow gives the more she must eat. The biggest eaters are usually the heaviest producers. stover, silage and clover hay that the average cow can handle. Her limit, therefore, is reached as far as the roughage foods are concerned. We resort, in consequence, to the concentrated mill feeds to supply the additional food required because of the extra milk produced. Since the ration already contains just about all that a cow of this size can eat, we will prepare a 72 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS place in the ration by withdrawing three pounds of the clover hay. We will increase the cottonseed meal to four pounds and add 2% pounds of gluten feed. This done we have the following: - Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Dry Carbo- matter Protein hydrates Fat 10 lbs corn stover 5.95 14 3.24 07 30 lbs corn silage 6.27 Bat 3.78 18 12 lbs clover hay.. HOP2 28D 4.54 sail 4 lbs cottonseed Teale ear ie ee 3.76 1.50 .84 36 2% lbs gluten feed DF Eo 1.30 66 MOEAISS eisks cece 28.35 2.29 13.76 288 Sita diandiaersemse 32.00 3.30 13.00 .80 This ration agrees closely with the standard and is assumed to satisfy all the requirements for a cow yielding 27.5 pounds of milk daily and weighing 1,000 pounds. Using the Standard in Practical Work.—Too many people take feeding standards and balanced rations far too seriously. They fail to understand that it is in the spirit and not im themelteralenmse that these feeding aids are to be adopted. The bal- anced ration at best can be made to approach only approximately the food requirements for any ani- mal or set of animals. This has been pointed out before. The composition of a feeding stuff is always open to considerable variation, and what adds still to the uncertainty is the fact that foods are not digested with equal facility or completeness by dif- THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 73 ferent animals, even in the same herd and given the identical feeding stuffs. Moreover, it is both im- possible and impracticable to provide a ration for every individual in a herd. To do this would re- quire as many different rations as there are animals to be fed, and definite weighings of every feeding stuff contained in the ration. But all this is un- necessary and no exponent of the balanced ration asks that it be done. WHERE SCIENCE HELPS TO FATTEN The man who approximates the feeding standards has an advantage over his competitor who ignores them. lhe aim of this scheme in feeding stock is to avoid serious faults in the use of feeding stuffs. Used on broad lines, the balanced ration enables the stock feeder to utilize to the best advantage the plant products which he raises. In case he needs an addi- tional supply he will be fully advised as to what class of available purchased feeds he should obtain in order to secure the greatest efficiency from the food. 74 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS What Foods to Choose.—On every farm some feeding stuffs are grown that possess little commer- cial value. These should form the basis of that ration. Corn stover, the straws, legume hays, and silage are all splendid bulk foods, are easily raised on the farm and should be used freely in ration mak- ing. They will supply also the greater part of the carbohydrates and fat. The farm, therefore, is the best factory for the production of the fuel nutrients. In the legumes and cereal grains much of the pro- tein will be obtained. If any protein shortage exists it is good business sense to meet it, even though expensive concentrates must be purchased. The wise farmer will figure the cost of foodstuffs very carefully to find out what is most profitable to feed. It is often best to sell some of the food having a wide nutritive ratio, such as timothy, corn, oats, and wheat, and to purchase foods having a narrow nutritive ratio, such as the oil meals, and the factory by-products. Very often this exchange is made; and not only is the ration improved, thus bringing about better results from the animals under feed, but a money profit 1s secured in addition to that obtained because of the greater efficiency of the ration. i oe CREA Aine ye BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK Oversupply of Protein.—While the old German standards have been used generally and are still the most popular in this country, many investigators now hold that the protein requirements are higher than practical experience indicates as being neces- sary. This is particularly the case with dairy cows. Many of our most successful dairymen have ob- tained as satisfactory results and at less cost by us- ing smaller amounts of protein in the rations as macmiueney literally follow the: Wolt “teeding standard. The fact is, all good dairymen use the balanced ration. Many may not do this intentionally, but the feeds they provide follow more or less the stand- ards and furnish approximately the requisite amounts of the digestible nutrients. The feeding stuffs available admit of this. With corn silage, clover hay, cowpea hay, alfalfa, corn stover, mixed hay, the oil meals and the factory by-products, the food requirements are met within reasonable limits, even though the feeder may be unaware of the fact. Tt is true, nevertheless, that when these rations are analyzed those netting the most profit often show less protein than what the old standards really call for. 15 76 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS It must be remembered that these standards were made many years ago when scientific appliances were less adequate than now, and when little was known about either food or animals. The experi- ments were also made with German feeds when given to German animals, a circumstance that may Butter produced from Idollar's worth of Feed By 8.9 (bs. PTT SE x Vy] Alt TANI a NY YY) G8 lbs. Mixed fay Pes IES KG We = Neg f = S VY x5 wees Shs BS Pua “~~ Z y Ree ACS y (= se LAA Z. ah EA ie amy SILAGE- GRAIN FOR DAIRY COWS SV AEE YF) LGR LEE fy AVERAGE DAILY RATION Consumed byeach cow fed the special grain ration AVERAGE DAILY RATION Consumed by each cow fed the silage ration It Pays To GIVE THE RIGHT FEED Two rations for dairy cows have been compared. From the one 8.9 pounds of butter were produced from one dollar’s worth of feed while from the other but 5.28 pounds of butter was obtained from one dollar’s worth of feed. This shows how two rations may cost the same and one may be worth a great deal more for final returns. BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK WG be sufficient to modify the standards when American feeds are given American-raised live stock. Another factor that enters into the problem is the ever-increasing improved quality of our farm animals. On the same food, as Armsby has deter- mined, the pure-bred steer will make better gains than the scrub. If our farm animals are selected for high production, are we not warranted in contribut- ing some part of this increase to the digestive appa- ratus of the well-bred animal? If the selected strain is better in other respects, does it not improve also in ability to digest and utilize food to the best ad- vantage? Moreover, our feeding stuffs are grown under different soil and climatic conditions and are fed under different environments, and these may account in part for the higher efficiency of our feeding stuffs. Haecker’s Investigations.—Aifter a study in vari- ous parts of the country of dairy rations some of which demonstrate very practically that less protein would give the same results, Professor Haecker of the Minnesota station undertook a series of experi- ments to determine, if possible, just what the food requirements are when dairy cows are cared for under average conditions. The results sug- gested by these experiments are the following: 1. That less protein is required in the ration than called for in the old standard for dairy cows. 2. That the food nutrients should correspond to the quantity of milk given. 3. That the amount of butter fat in the milk must be given due weight in providing the food nutrients. SNOILVY DONILVIOWILS-W1IW Gada Aa AINOHS SMOO AUIVAG BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY. OF MILK 79 4. That size and weight of the animal influence the food requirements similarly as worked out in the old standards. The Haecker Standard is based on two general propositions: First, the maintenance requirements of a cow weighing 1,000 pounds; and, second, an additional and shifting allowance of digestible nutri- ents that is dependent on the per cent of butter fat contained in the milk. The maintenance factor is 0.7 pound of protein, 0.7 pound of carbohydrates and o.1 pound of fat. For cows weighing more than 1,000 pounds these quantities are proportionately increased, and for cows weighing less than 1,000 pounds they are proportionately decreased. If, for instance, a cow weighs 1,100 pounds, the amounts of each nutri- ent for maintenance would be as follows: Protein, .77 pound ; carbohydrates, .77 pound; and fat, .11 pound. The additional food requirements are dependent on the quantity and the fat content of the milk as arranged below: NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY THE HAECKER STANDARD In accordance with weight For milk production of cow ce n cae 33 g ie ~ SI ie ee es Blea | Se ee eee he | OS eS lg Le] = i a a ons cs S a On é 3.0 04 19 015 600 42 4.2 .06 3.5 042 aval .016 700 49 4.9 UIC 4.0 046 BZ) .018 800 56 5.6 08 4.5 049 .26 .020 900 .63 6.3 .09 5.0 052 aZAtl 021 1,000 .70 7.0 .LO 5.5 055 29 022 1,100 Pill Tol silat 6.0 057 .ol .024 1,200 604 8.4 12 So FEEDING FARM ANIMALS How to Establish a Standard.—It will be observed that no definite standard is provided. It all depends on what the maintenance requirements are, what amount of milk the daily yield is, and on the per cent of butter fat contained. Assuming that a cow weighing 1,000 pounds daily gives 22 pounds of milk, which tests 5 per cent fat, what will be the actual requirements of digestible nutrients accord- ing to the Haecker standard? ‘The first step is to consult the table for the nutrient allowance as given for milk of the grade under consideration. This we find to be as follows: Protein, 0.052; carbohy- drates, 0.27; and fat, 0.021. But the cow gives 22 pounds daily, in which case the quantities for one pound will be multiplied by 22 to meet the real daily production. The form is as follows: im In’ 22 pound pounds IPP OPED MG: 5% ieicsco erie 6\ 6. 6550, alley See western, auiseotel Pee oleate 05 liexe2 2 3 aie CarboORyVarateS. cans eis ics ences ote ake s wnecenole sere ue 2U Xo 228=> bess INDE ne a eizoe ase: oh sgh lw. Gilera soja volerioraere Sues Tene eee O21) x22) == seca These amounts added to what is required for the maintenance of a cow weighing 1,000 pounds and giving 22 pounds of five per cent milk are shown in the table following: Digestible nutrients Carbo- Protein hydrates Fat Maintenance requirements 70 7.00 .10 Need for milk yield ...... iLL 5.95 46 AMOUBIISS Veo hs copoccos 6d 1.82 12.95 -56 BASING STANDARDS ON QUALITY OF MILK SI Compared with Wolff Standard.—From this it is observed that by the Haecker standard when a cow weighs 1,000 pounds and gives daily 22 pounds of 5 per cent milk she will require 1.82 pounds of pro- tein, 12.95 pounds of carbohydrates, and .56 pound of fat. The Wolff standard calls for 2.5 pounds of protein, 13 pounds of carbohydrates, and .5 pound of fat, which conforms very nearly to the Haecker standard in all but the protein, where a difference of .68 pound is observed. CRAP AERIS COMPUTING RATIONS ON BASIS OF STARCH VALUES Starch as the Standard Nutrient.—In the German investigations with fattening oxen conducted by Kellner typical representatives of the several food nutrients were obtained and added one at a time to a ration that gave a slight gain in weight. The amounts of lean meat and fat were determined both before and after the addition of the extra food. The difference between the two gains was then assumed as being a reasonable measure of the fattening effect of the added food. After repeated trials it seemed advisable to use starch as a standard by which other nutrients or feeding stuffs might be measured. The use of this nutrient in this way has given rise to the term starch value, which means the quantity by weight of any nutrient, or foodstuff, or ration that is equivalent to starch for fattening or other produc- tive purposes. Starch Value Illustrated.—In one of Kellner’s ex- periments, a certain sample of linseed cake was found to contain 34.5 per cent of digestible protein; 26.1 per cent of digestible carbohydrates, including the fiber; and 8.4 per cent of digestible fat. When 100 pounds of this was fed to a fattening ox, it was found that the increase was the same as when 77 pounds of starch were fed. From this it was con- 82 COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 83 cluded that 100 pounds of linseed cake have a starch value, or starch equivalent, of 77 pounds. Other substances—gluten, earthnut oil, potato starch, cane sugar and pulped rye straw—were all used and the weight of fat produced per 100 pounds of the food ingredient digested was obtained, showing averages as follows: Pure protein, 23.5 pounds; fat, 59.8 pounds; potato starch, 24.8 pounds; cane sugar, 18.8 pounds; and crude fiber, 25.3 pounds. Relative Starch Values.—Kellner has devised a method for calculation of values based on the fat- producing ability of starch. He puts starch at 100 and grades the other nutrients to starch in accord- ance with their fat-producing values. Using starch as the unit of measure, the following values of the other nutrients were found to be as follows: Relative starch values Nutrient In 100 pounds In 1 pound SIGAIRC la canes ticeoueue letele wails aes 100 1.00 FEU e Cheah Deis Be, ces GaN sens leks Gia cs 102 1OF SOE Os 2 Sites na ane ee 76 .16 UIT SP ROC 38 6 ssc ee wea ete 94 .94 Fat (Seeds of certain plants) 241 41 Fat (other seeds, ete.) ... ale, pale Fat (coarse fodders, chaff, TO OES) Me ereme vores evetsu sre teuctone te ook 191 1.91 Here we see that fat or oil ranks first, ranging from I.9I in roots, chaff and coarse fodders to 2.41 in the important seeds or their by-products, like the oil meals. Sugar is decidedly inferior to starch, the inferiority being due, it is claimed, to fermentation while this nutrient is in the digestive tract. Protein is 84 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS nearly on a par with starch. The fiber, when made easily digestible by pulping, is almost exactly equal to starch. How to Obtain Starch Value—By means of the above table it is an easy matter to calculate the starch value of any feeding stuff or ration. The form is as follows: Multiply the digestible protein by .94; add to this the carbohydrates, fiber, and the fat after multiplying the digestible fat by the percentage cor- TYPICAL STEER FOR FEEDING In planning to fatten beeves make certain that the feeding stock is of a high grade. This steer is a fancy selected feeder. responding to its source. Expressed arithmetically we have the following: 3 (Digestible protein x .94) + digestible carbohy- drates + digestible fiber + (digestible fat X 2.41 OF 2.12 OF 1.91) == starch valueyorgnam pounds. Using the digestible nutrients in linseed cake, as previously given, we have the following: (34:5 X94) 7201 -- (64 23) COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 85 Thus the 78.7 pounds represent the calculated starch value of I00 pounds of linseed cake, which actually had the same fattening increase as 77 pounds of starch. Actual Starch Value Below Calculated Starch Value——When put to actual tests the calculated starch values failed to show an increase in produc- tion that the values really indicated them to possess. This is particularly the case with foods containing much fiber. The difference is accounted for in the work occasioned in digesting the foodstuff. Foods like cottonseed meal, linseed meal, corn, etc., possess little fiber, and therefore, the work of mastication and digestion requires only a small part of the nutri- ents contained in them for their necessary but un- productive purposes. Foods like wheat bran, oat straw, hay, etc., on the other hand, require much labor in the digestive processes, and consequently much of their nutriment is used up in this way. Kellner has met this difficulty by assigning co- efficients of availability to each feeding stuff based on its calculated and actual starch values. Some of these are given on the next page. Considerable variation is here noted. The oil meals, which carry little fiber, are very largely avail- able on the basis of their calculated starch values. Wheat bran has more fiber and its coefficient of availability drops to 77. The more fibrous meadow hay drops to 70, while oat and wheat straw, with much fiber, go down to 61 and 29 respectively. Calculating Starch Values on Basis of Availabil- ity.—To reduce the calculated starch values to their 86 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS actual value as indicated by the availability of the digestible nutrients, the following method is pur- sued: Multiply the digestible protein by its starch equivalent; add to this the digestible carbohydrates, fiber, and the fats after the fat has been multiplied by its starch equivalent; then multiply this sum by the coefficient of availability. The arithmetical re- OBTAINING THE ACTUAL STARCH VALUE (KELLNER) Starch value in 100 pounds Feeding stuffs Percentage of actual as against Calculated : Found calculated Pounds Decorticated cotton- seed meal ...... 80.0 79.0 98 IEVONEANHOES- conodccds 74.0 U ed 98 Linseed cake ..... 79.0 MeO 97 iIBeammamMiealerssnc 1 69.0 65.5 95 UVic ane ale eo seecncretet 72.5 68.0 93 IMMEHOSONUIS “Goo Gocccoe 60.0 52.0 87 Dricdisxrains! sso 62.0 52.0 84 Wheat bran ...... 62.0 48.0 ee Meadow hay ..... 57.0 38.0 67 OaiGasitraiwaeeo acer. 43.5 26.5 60 Wheat straw ..... 37.0 9.0 24 sult will be the actual starch value. To illustrate: In linseed oil cake containing 34.5 pounds of digestible protein, 26.1 pounds of digestible carbo- hydrates and fiber and 8.4 pounds of fat what is the actual starch value of 100 pounds of the fresh substance? The process is as follows: ( (34-5 X .94) + 26.1 + (8.4 X 2.4) ) X 07 —- 703 Thus the actual starch value of 100 pounds of lin- seed cake is 76.3. COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 87 Feeding Stuffs with Much Fiber.—Kellner recom- mends that when coarse feeding stuffs and foods containing much fiber are used the correction should be made in accordance with the following schedule: 1. When hay, straw or green food contains 16 per cent or more of crude fiber, reduce the uncor- rected calculated starch value by 0.58 for each per CeMinykeSemt. 2. When chaff contains not more than 4 per cent of crude fiber, reduce by 0.29. ALFALFA READY FOR CUTTING Our most profitable farm crop is alfalfa. Fed green, preserved in the silo, ground into meal, or used as hay, it is adapted to all classes and is good for all seasons. 3. When green foods contain between 4 and 16 per cent reduce as follows: For 6 per cent of crude fiber reduce by 0.34 for each per cent; for 8 per cent, 0.38; for 10 per cent, 0.43; for 12 per cent, 0.48; and for 14 per cent, 0.53 starch value. To illustrate the manner of making these reduc- tions let us assume clover hay contains 5.4 per cent “88 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS of digestible protein, 38 per cent digestible carbo- hydrates and fiber, the total crude fiber being 25 per cent; and 1.5 per cent fat. The process is as follows: Starch value of 100 pounds = (5.4 * .94) + (38 — (25 X 0.58) + (1.5 X 1.9) = 30:9 pounds: The protein is multiplied by .94, the starch equiv- alent for protein; the carbohydrates and fiber are reduced in accordance with the reduction factor as assigned for the per cent of the total crude fiber; the fat is multiplied by 1.9, the starch equivalent for fat in clover hay. When these changes are made the starch value of 100 pounds of clover hay is found to be 30.9 pounds. In case a green fodder 1s used the process is very similar. Take green alfalfa as an example, the digestible nutrients contained in it being as follows: Digestible protein, 2 per cent; digestible carbohy- drates and fiber, 9 per cent; total crude fiber, 7 per cent; digestible fat, 0.5 per cent. Starch value of 100 pounds = (2 * .94) + (9— (7 < 0.36) + (0.5 & 1.9) —9.31 pounds. Starch Values for All Classes of Stock.—While Kellner obtained his results from fattening oxen, it is believed the starch values will apply equally well to all classes of animals and for all kinds of produc- tive purposes, provided, of course, enough protein is furnished to meet the body requirements for this food nutrient. A reasonable amount of fat is also necessary if the full starch value of any combination of feeding stuffs is to be secured. Feeding Standards on Basis of Starch Values.—In COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 89 the table below are given the daily food require- ments for the several classes of farm animals as devised by Kellner and on the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight: FOOD REQUIREMENTS ON BASIS OF STARCH VALUES (KELLNER ) Dry Digestible Stareh Kind of animal matter protein values Cattle Pounds Pounds Pounds Maintenance of steer 15 to 21 0.6 6.0 Fattening steer ..... 30 2.0 15.0 Age Live weight 6 to 12 mos 550 26 3674 14.4 12 to 18 mos 770 26 2.6 111.2 18 to 24 mos 950 26 1.8 10.0 Sheep 6 to 7 mos 66 31 4.0 17.0 7to 9mos 88 30 3.5 16.0 9 to 11 mos 110 28 3.0 15.0 Pigs 2to 38mos 44 44 6.6 33.8 3 to 5 mos 110 36 5.6 32.0 5 to 6mos 143 BY 4.4 26.5 6to 8 mos 198 28 3.9 24.5 9 to 12 mos 286 25 3.2 59 Last fattening stage 26 2.6 19.8 Milk cows Yielding 20 lbs milk 25 to 29 1.6 to 1.9 12.5 to 14.5 Yielding 30 lbs milk COR 2.2 to 2.5 11.8 to 13.9 Yielding 40 lbs milk 27 to 34 2.8 to 3.2 13.9 to 16.6 Horses Light work ......... 18 to 23 1.6 9.2 Medium work ...... 21 to 26 1.4 11.6 Heavy work ........ 23 to 28 2.0 15.0 See Appendix for complete list of Kellner standards. Method of Computing a Ration.—There are avail- able for feeding a herd of cows clover hay, oats, green alfalfa and linseed cake. These feeding stuffs, if of good average quality, will furnish in 100 pounds the nutrients as given on the next page. go FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Total ry Carbo- crude matter Protein | hydrates Fat fiber Clover hay..... $4.7 5.41 38.0 1.5 25.0 BUSMeacracereueiy 89.0 9.0 45.0 5.0 Linseed cake .. 90.8 25.0 32.0 aks Alfalfa (green) 28.2 2.0 9.0 5.0 7.0 The cows average, let us say, 1,000 pounds in weight, and yield on an average 30 pounds of milk daily. According to the standard the total feed requirements per day and head will be as follows: Dry matter, 27 to 33 pounds; digestible protein, 2.2 to 2.5 pounds; starch value, 11.8 to 13.9 pounds. The first step is to determine the starch value of each of these feeding stuffs. Taking the feeds in order, the following calculation will be made: I, Starch value, 100 pounds linseed cake = ( (25 X 94) + 32 + (9:5 xX 2-4) ) He Aa a> Lbs Lbs Therms | Lbs Therms} Lbs Lbs Therms 150 0.15 at 0.30 2.00 20 0.23 0. 250 0.20 2.40 0.40 2.80 40 0.05 0.54 500 0.30 3.80 9.60 4.40 60 0.07 0.71 750 0.40 4.95 0.80 5.80 80 0.09 0.87 1,000 0.50 6.00 1.00 7.00 100 0.10 1.00 1,250 0.60 7.00 1.20 8.15 20% 0.11 tbls; 1,500 0.65 7.90 1.30 9.20 140 0.13 5 iy) Requirements for Growth.— Young animals con- sume more food than adult animals in relation to the weight of the body. They lay on much less fat and carry much more water in their increase. As they grow older and exercise more freely, additional sup- plies of food are necessary for the production of heat and mechanical work. These demands give rise to a constantly changing balance of food nutrients. The following estimates are for growing cattle and sheep: ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 99 ENERGY VALUE OF ONE POUND OF GAIN IN WEIGHT (ARMSBY ) Age Knergy value Montns Therms 3 1.50 6 1.75 iL 2.00 18 2.50 24 2.75 30 3.00 These figures apply to growth only. The require- ments for maintenance must be added to get the amount necessary for both purposes. This has been done in the following table: DAILY REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH AND MAINTENANCE (ARMSBY ) Cattle Sheep 2 g 2 2 » rae > » Fal (S| al G no 0 G nD 0 ® Oe ce 05 o @ 0 aS oS an iG) SO ei a0 Be Hl ere aa < He aye) cole 4 He Aa copie Mo’s Lbs Lbs Therms Mo’s Lbs Lbs Therms 3 205 itil 5. 0.30 1.30 6 425 1.30 6.0 9 90 0.25 1.40 ie, 659 1.65 7.0 2, 110 0.23 1.40 18 850 1.70 7.5 15 130 0.23 1.50 24 1,000 1,75 8.0 18 145 0.22 1.60 30 1,100 1.65 8.0 Requirements for Fattening.—Armsby estimates that fairly mature steers from two to three years of 100 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS age will require approximately 3.5 therms a pound of gain in live weight. Requirements for Milk.——Armsby estimates that for the production of milk containing 13 per cent of total solids and 4 per cent of fat approximately 0.3 of one therm of production value in the feed will be required daily. Requirements for Work.—The estimate below is for work horses weighing 1,000 pounds. Both the work and maintenance requirements are included: REQUIREMENTS FOR WORK HORSES (ARMSBY ) Kind of work Digestible protein Energy value Pounds Therms IMoye Ihielane WOU Goodoc 10 9.80 For medium work ... 1.4 12.40 Kor heavy work ..... | 2.0 16.00 Computing a Ration for Steers.—Suppose a steer weighing 1,000 pounds is to be brought to weigh 1,500 pounds in 250 days. This will mean an aver- age daily gain of two pounds, just what in practice is considered satisfactory. Our problem 1s to pre- pare a suitable ration at reasonable cost to do this. How shall we proceed? As a satisfactory starting point we will need to determine the number of therms of energy value needed for two pounds of daily increase. Taking the standard, 3.5 therms for one pound of gain, this steer would require 7 therms of energy value each day as the fattening requirement. Taking 1,250 pounds as the average weight during the feeding period, ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS ‘IOI the maintenance requirements as set forth by Arms- Ly will be 7 therms for an animal making this daily gain in weight. This, added to what is required for fattening increase, will bring the total energy re- quirement to 14 therms of net energy for each day up to the time when the steer weighs 1,250 pounds. The protein requirements for this steer, as given MATURE STEERS NEARLY READY FOR MARKET Many steers are finished at pasture, the grain supply being increased as the fattening period advances. Pasture as the sole feed is not best for finishing fattening animals. 3 previously, are 1.65 pounds daily The complete standard, then, will be as follows: Digestible pro- tein, 1.65 pounds;.energy, value, 14 therms. Our second step is to select the feeding stuffs and to combine them in such proportion as will best mectthne feeding standard) Wet us assume ‘that clover hay is available as roughage, and corn and cob meal as a concentrate. In practice we know 102 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS that 10 pounds of hay and 15 pounds of grain are often used in that proportion as a beef ration. Our problem is to learn how nearly this combination of the amounts given approaches the standard and if any additional food may be given so as to improve on the ration. By consulting the table giving the protein and energy values of feeding stuffs, we find that in 100 pounds of clover hay there are 34.7 therms energy value, and in corn and cob meal 72.0 therms. Therefore we have: Therms lin ILO) jooaacls ie Clonee WMeny Songooubocasc helolateiaisletsnetens 34.7 In 150 pounds of corn and cob meal ......... BobooOUd = 10850 in 250° pounds Of teed! cc cniehc wi sicnens ete cleneheteneterenenenone 142.7 AG oleae oXo bu ols Ree OECD ico oC OO Od OCOS 065 To supply 14 therms divide 14 by .565 to obtain the number of pounds of this combination for the daily energy requirements. Thus, 14 ~ .565 = 24.8 pounds, of which 1%z, or 9.9 pounds, is to be clover hay and 1%5, or 14.9 pounds, is to be corn and cob meal, or 10 and 15 pounds each approximately. This quantity meets the energy requirement, but is there enough or too much protein? This will be determined by proceeding as below: Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Dry Energy matter Protein value Pounds Pounds Therms 0.54 3 IL) FOewhaGls ClOwWGIr INE? sooooséoo 8.87 f AT 15 pounds corn and cob meal 9.34 0.68 10.81 TOtAIS © (sacs ele sss ate ee 18.21 1822; 14.28 Stan dard se act oe 1.65 14.00 ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 103 Here we find the protein is under, and the energy value slightly over, the daily requirements. The ration is, therefore, not quite satisfactory. To im- prove it we will reduce the corn and cob meal by three pounds and add two pounds of cottonseed meal. The ration will then be as follows: Digestible nutrients Feeding stuffs Dry Protein Hnergy matter value Pounds Pounds Therms 10 pounds clover hay ........ 8 0.54 3.47 12 pounds corn and cob meal. 7.47 0.55 8.65 2 pounds cottonseed meal.... 1.83 0.70 1.68 FINO CNS as epee cueione: dalla Scianentevs 18.17 1.79 13.80 Sitanm@andy ey. ne sis a auc hare 1.65 14.00 By substituting two pounds of cottonseed meal for three pounds of corn and cob meal the ration has been greatly improved, since the deficiency of pro- tein has been brought up to, and even beyond, the standard. The revised ration almost exactly approx- imates the standard in energy value, and, also, the quantity of dry matter is easily handled by a steer of this age and weight. Computing a Ration for Dairy Cows.—lIif a ration is to be computed for dairy cows the first step will be to determine the food requirements. If it is as- sumed that the cows weigh 1,000 pounds and yield daily 25 pounds of milk, there will be needed 0.5 of a pound of digestible protein and 6.00 therms of energy for maintenance. For the production of 25 104 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS pounds of milk there will be needed 1.25 (0.05 x 25) pounds of digestible protein and 7.5 (0.3 & 25) therms of energy value. The total daily food require- ments per animal will therefore be: Purpose Digestible protein Energy value Pounds Therms Hor Maintenances eile. 0.50 6.00 Hor 25, pounds mili 24. - Ue 7.50 TOCA Stisocieateclecete ere cke ees 13.50 The second step in the computation is to decide on the kind and quantity of the feeding stuffs. Assuming that corn stover, corn silage, and clover hay are available, we will use such quantities as have been found in practice to be satisfactory, although used in varying quantities. As a starting point, we will use 5 pounds of corn stover, 10 pounds of clover hay and 30 pounds of corn silage. Con- sulting the table giving the digestible protein and energy values, we find that in 100 pounds of each of the above feeding stuffs the following will be fur- nished : Digestible Feeding stuffs Dry matter protein Energy value Pounds Pounds Therms Gorn: StOvVer va... - 59.5 1.80 26.53 @lowermhiatyaree ee 84.7 5.41 34.74 Corn silage ..... 25.6 2a 16.56 We now calculate the amounts of digestible pro- tein and of energy contained in the quantity of each feed selected and arrange them as below: ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 105 TRYING OUT THE RATION COMPARED WITH THE ARMSBY STANDARD Dry Digestible | Energy Feeding stuffs matter protein value Pounds Pounds | Therms 5 pounds corn stover ...... Poss) fh 0.09 1833 10 pounds clover hay ....... 8.47 0.54 3.47 30 pounds corn silage....... 7.68 0.36 4.95 Moy Ce SPR aE aes age =e 19.12 10299 SGD tema Gan its eons ileus a aveceice 1.75 13.50 Compared with the standard we find a deficiency in every instance, therefore it will now be necessary to introduce into the ration one or more feeds to cor- rect the faults so evident in this trial ration. Since there is a greater lack of the protein than of energy value, we will select concentrates from among such feeding stuffs as are particularly rich in protein. Sup- pose we use I pound of gluten meal, I pound of cot- tonseed meal and 3 pounds of dried beet pulp, and add these to the ration. SECOND TRIAL RATION FOR DAIRY COWS Dry Digestible | Energy Feeding stuffs matter protein value Pounds Pounds Therms 5 pounds corn stover ..... 2.97 0.09 1 Bs 10 pounds clover hay ....... 8.47 0.54 3.47 30 pounds corn silage ....... 7.68 0.36 4.95 1 pound cottonseed meal ... 0.91 0.35 0.84 1 pound gluten meal ...... 0.91 0.21 0.88 3 pounds dried beet pulp .. 2.80 0.20 1.80 MN OVI S i ecestnssarorn oie wel slens oe oes 23.74 15 B27 SHEEN OCIS OO bl ita a ae ele ora eae icin = 1.75 13.50 106 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The second trial corresponds very nearly to the standard. The protein does this with exactness, while the energy value is just slightly under what the standard calls for. This is of small importance since, as explained heretofore, it is not expected that the rations shall be made to meet the standards with mathematical accuracy. The aim should be to ap- proximate them. From this we learn that, accord- ing to the Armsby standard, a satisfactory ration for milk cows weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 25 pounds of milk daily may consist of 5 pounds of corn stover, 10 pounds of clover hay, 30 pounds of silage, I pound of cottonseed meal, 1 pound of gluten meal, and 3 pounds of dried beet pulp. (Clee IMa IS SU! THE COST OF THE RATION The Practical Question.—Secondary only in im- portance to a proper balance of the feeds is the cost of the ration. It is much to have a ration approxi- mate the theoretical standard, since it is necessary to get the digestible nutrients in reasonable propor- tion in order to obtain success in the feed lot or the dairy stable. A dairy cow, if given an insufficient amount of protein, will show the shortage sooner or later in her milk yield; and the beef steer, while he may make good gains by laying on fat, will lack quality at the block and will show gains, likely, at considerable cost. In both instances if some of the non-nitrogenous feeding stuffs were to be exchanged for one or more of a more protein nature, the pro- ductive ends might be more perceptible and the units of gain might be more cheaply acquired. It is always important to use as the basis of every farm ration just as much of the farm-raised feeds as is possible. In the first place farm animals provide a market right at home, and at the same time they are generous to the farm because of the manure they return to the soil. The less feed that is purchased the less the labor required to get concentrated grains from the distributing centers. Nevertheless, it is generally profitable to use some of the mill concen- trates for purposes of balancing the ration and to 107 ONIMOS YO AVH YOd LNATIAOXA FeV SVdd GNV SLVO 108 THE COST OF THE RATION 10g induce larger consumption—two conditions always consistent with large production with any class of animals. However, there is much objection to heavy grain feeding, as every practical feeder knows. What profit is there in expending much for grain if the additional production is wholly absorbed in the feed bills? Much has been said and written in re- cent years about the proper proportion of grain to roughage in the feeding ration. In the past, per- haps, the roughage allotment in proportion to the grain was too large, and to-day perhaps it is the reverse. Two Rations Compared on Basis of Cost.—Some years ago two rations were compared in milk pro- duction at the Ohio station. One consisted largely of a corn-soybean-cowpea silage, and mixed hay; aideenecwotner or more than halt grain. Phe first produced 96.7 pounds of milk for each 100 pounds, based on the dry matter contained in it, and the sec- ond 81.3 pounds of milk for each 100 pounds, based on the dry matter init. In the one, the silage ration, 89 per cent was of a roughage nature or farm-raised food, while in the other, 43 per cent, or just about half as much, was farm-raised. The two rations are given in the table on the following page. The practical question that arises is this: If both are available today, which would cost the more? That depends on the prices at which each could be purchased; and each and every feeder will need to determine that point for himself. However, let us assume the following as fair prices for the feeds: Corn silage, $2 a ton; corn stover, $5; mixed hay, $12; 110 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS linseed oil meal, $34; wheat bran, $30; and corn meal, $30. At these prices a pound of silage will be worth .1 cent; of corn stover, .4 cent; mixed hay, .6 cent; oil meal, 1.7 cents; bran, 1-50cents sama corn meal, 1.5 cents. The cost of the two rations would therefore be as follows: Silage = (58 .1) + (68 X 6) = °@Ries (2 Se m5) = TEES Grain — (47 X 4) 4, ©4 X06) (2 5 tee (5 X 1.5) + (6 X 1.5) = 25.97 25.97 — 15.88 — 10.09 cents, the difference in cost of the rations. SILAGE VERSUS GRAIN FOR MILK COWS ty fe Bs = o 2 » fr pe} ae z wn Sy on Sy OY n Dn ; She} Pale ae Saige’ OD S| a S aS oe Oo e oss = ® ea os 52 es Popa) ° ® Oo (ZS) = Se 4 29 ex Oo A, & AA A, A, OA Zi BoA, I—Silage ration 58.0 Silage 10.83 ieas7/ eral 5.43 D) 6.8 Mixed hay Brad 0.55 1.90 2o 0.21 2.0 Oil meal 1.80 0.66 0.19 0.77 0.06 2.0 Bran 1.76 Oxsat 0.18 1.08 0.08 Total . | 20.16 | 2.89 4.98 | 10.04 | 0.88 II—Grain ration 4.7 Stover 3.29 0.21 1s iL 0) 9.06 6.4 Mixed hay 5.43 0.52 1.79 2.60 0.19 ay Oil meal 2225 0.83 0.24 0.96 0.08 5.0 Corn meal 4.25 0.46 0.09 3.43 0.19 6.9 Bran 5.29 0.92 0.54 3 0.24 Total OMe 2.94 Bisa 11.92 0.76 1In these rations the total composition is given, and not the digestible nutrients. THE COST OF THE RATION IIl Both of the rations approximate the standard for dairy cows, and both are equally good since they are productive of a good milk yield. Yet when com- pared from the standpoint of cost there is a differ- ence of 10.09 cents. It might seem a matter of small consequence for a single day and a single cow, but for a winter feeding period of seven months and 40 cows ina herd it assumes a new importance. This is seen when the simple calculation is made. We have— 210 days & 40 cows X 10.09 cents == $847.50 Thus the grain ration, which actually produced 15.4 pounds less milk for each 100 pounds of dry matter, if used instead of the silage ration, provided it was available, would mean a net cost of nearly $850 more than the other. This amount is sufficient to make this dairy venture either a losing or a profit- able proposition. Two Rations for Horses Compared.—A common ration for horses is timothy hay and oats. When doing severe work 10 pounds of hay and 14 pounds of oats are commonly recommended and used. At prevailing prices of $16 a ton for hay and 56 cents a bushel for oats, the daily cost would be: (10 X ($16 + 2,000) ) + (14 X (.56 + 32)) = © 32.5 cents At the prices just quoted the daily cost for feed- ing a medium-sized horse at hard work would be 32.5 cents a day. The practical question to ask is this: Is it possible to substitute some other feed or feeds for the more expensive oats and thus reduce the daily cost? It is. From many tests made many 112 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS substitutes may be chosen. Corn, wheat bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal, brewers’ grains and many other feeding stuffs can be substituted for oats. Suppose we use g pounds of corn and 2 pounds of oil meal in place of 14 pounds of oats. The nutrients of the two will be as follows: OATS VERSUS CORN AND OIL MEAL } Digestible nutrients Feed Protein Carbohydrates Fat 14 poundSNOatS ela 1.28 6.62. 0.58 9 pounds corn and 2 pounds oil meal ..... 29 6.64 0.52 From the standpoint of nutrients these two are approximately equal. Let us compare the two as to cost when oats are worth 56 cents a bushel, corn 65 cents a bushel, and oil meal $30 a ton. In both rations 10 pounds of hay are to be given, and hence the cost will rest with the kind of grain provided. The cost of the two grain rations will be as follows: Corn and oil meal —= (9 X (.65 = 56)) + (2 X ($20 == 2,000) )) ss ae cenes | Oats —= 14 X (.56 + 32) — 24.5 cents Thus at prices quoted, but substituting 9 pounds of corn and 2 pounds of oil meal for 14 pounds of oats, the same quantity of digestible nutrients can be obtained and at a daily saving of 11.1 cents a horse. If six horses are kept and are fed in accordance with this saving for the working period of nine months a net saving of $149.82 would result. | THE COST OF THE RATION ns Feeding Stuffs Vary in Price.——The wise feeder watches the market prices of the various feeds. To a certain extent the law of supply and demand fixes the prices for most feeds. When the corn crop is large the price drops, and-even influences the value of other feeds, although there may be a short crop @ifeach. Yet irom: year to year farm grains, hays, and commercial feed crops fluctuate within certain limits from month to month and from year to year. _ By taking cognizance of this fact and by studying the market values of available and desirable feed- ing stuffs in relation to their digestible ingredients, substitutions can be made, often at a great saving and frequently with even more favorable results than through the use of the more familiar feeds. See that the combination gives a balanced ration, and then seek good feeds that will continue the bal- ance, selecting those that will most cheaply do it. In this way a handsome profit may often be secured in addition to greater efficiency. Kasy to Swap Feeds.—Since transportation is now so easy, an exchange of one class for another is easily made, furnishing no reason why each sec- tion should not have such nutrients as it needs to balance properly its standard feeding rations. The farmer who has an abundance of timothy and corn, which he is now feeding his farm stock, can well afford to dispose of a part of one or both and expend the entire receipts for some good substitute of equal or greater efficiency. By so doing he need not in- crease his outlay at all; but he will supply his ani- mals with a more satisfactory ration. 114 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS But there are large quantities of food each year going to waste in every section. Thousands and thousands of tons of corn stover, cottonseed meal, and the by-products of the slaughtering houses rot each year in American farm fields. The quantity of this rich animal food and real wealth is so vast as to be almost beyond estimation. Much of it is wasted and unutilized each year. Of course, these CONVERTING CORN INTO COIN materials help the soil, but they could help the ani- - mal first, and to the land might go the resulting | manure, doing the land as much good as the raw animal food. : Use Judgment in Purchasing Feeds.—Often very © poor judgment is shown in the purchase of feeds. © Just think of the great quantities of timothy and other hays that are each year sent into some sec: tion to be fed to live stock! It is not wise farm — f ; | THE COST OF THE RATION I15 management to buy timothy hay, and yet this prac- tice prevails in many parts of the country. It is not economical feeding. There is no special virtue in timothy hay. A feeding stuff is valuable only in pro- portion to its ability to furnish protein, carbohy- drates and fat. Why buy timothy hay when it is little better than corn stover asa feed? Grow plenty of corn and the legumes, and you need not bother about timothy hay. The good farmer and the wise feeder aims to have some legume crop at all times. Grow the Legumes.—Cowpeas and clovers and alfalfa are needed, not only to catch nitrogen out of the air and store it in the soil so as to maintain the fertility of the land, and add humus thereto, but they are needed as feed for cattle and sheep and hogs and horses. Many feeding experiments have shown that in feeding value, either of these three feeds is not much less than wheat bran. Many farmers do not grow wheat, yet they buy wheat bran for the protein it contains, because they look upon wheat bran as a valuable feeding stuff. And it is; but, in addition to being good, it is also costly. It takes money from the pocket. Still, if a man could sow ten acres or more each year to a crop of wheat bran, and if he could sow the wheat bran just as he can now sow cowpeas or alfalfa or clover, and if he could get two tons or more of bran an acre, the practice would become general throughout the country. And why? Because every farmer has learned of the value of wheat bran as a feed. But if alfalfa and cowpeas and clover are almost as good / as wheat bran for all feeding purposes, why refrain 116 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS from growing alfalfa, cowpeas and clover when you can get from three to six tons of the former and a ton and a half to three tons an acre of the latter two crops from the land, and by so doing get feeding crops that actually are unexcelled? —— GENER ER rh COST OF NUTRIENTS Bulk Food Should Be Home-Grown.—Little needs to be said about the importance of growing on the farm all the bulk food required for live stock. For one thing, the greater part of the feeding stuffs can be grown cheaper than they can be bought of someone else. Practically all materials grown on the farm and used for feeding purposes are low in protein but correspondingly high in other nutrients. The farmer can raise all the carbohydrates and fat needed for either the dairy or the block; but, un- fortunately, there are no feeding stuffs made up wholly of protein. If there were, the balancing of rations in reference to cost would be a very simple process indeed. Protein Not Solely Purchased.—Though protein is the constituent most needed on most farms when purchased, other nutrients must be taken along with the protein. Carbohydrates and fat are present in all feeding stuffs, and they have a commercial value. Consequently when we buy protein we get carbo- hydrates and fat also. It should not be understood that these latter constituents are a trouble or a nui- sance; they have a value. But you readily see it is unfortunate to purchase them when their like can be secured at home. It suggests the same idea that 117 ‘SsUIpselg [nyWYsnoyy pue JUSWIOSBUBUT [NJolvO Y}IA payTdnoo SuIpesy [BUoI}eI 0} ONp SI psJOoel SIV, “Spunod peg Sulysiom s33o QOZT piv] sys aeok puooss Jay Ul “SsUIpIOA Jo spunod ¢y pue spunod g'6z Sulysiom ssde /GZ 9oONpoid 0} JBdA JSIY JOY UI POOy JO spunod QI] 938 ‘spunod Z°¢ Sulysiam ‘UJOYs9] 94M QUIOD a[suIg B ‘]JoUIOD ApB] ‘BOBYI] Ul einj[NoIIdY JO 93a]]0D 9}81G YIOX MON OY) IV SLNAWHXASIHOY YAH GNV NUYOHOST F1IAVNYVWAY 118 COST OF NUTRIENTS Te@ a necktie always must be purchased with a collar. One may never wear a necktie, or he may have all the ties he needs at home, yet every time he buys a collar he is obliged to pay for a necktie as well. If a necktie is not needed, but only a collar, it is likely the rule would be to get the collar having the least necktie about it and the value of the purchase depend wholly upon the collar and nothing on the necktie. If the farmer raises on his farm all he needs of the carbohydrates and fat which have a low commercial value, he cannot afford to buy more of the same con- stituents at a price many times higher than he can raise them himself. Yet the feeder is obliged to do this very thing when he purchases protein. It can- not be helped and it is no one’s fault. There is a point of practical bearing, however, in this matter. If you have to take carbohydrates and fat along with protein and pay for them, get as ht- tle of the carbohydrates and fat in the feeding stuff as possible and just as much protein as you can. The aim should be to buy the feeding stuff having the highest quantity of digestible protein that costs the least for a pound of protein. Expressed in a few words, a good rule to follow is this: Grow all the carbohydrates and fat on the farm; never be placed in a position that requires you to purchase any. Then grow the protein rough- ages, like clover, cowpeas and alfalfa, and little protein will need to be bought. This is economical and practical feeding. It is good farming. Purchase of Protein.—It is not always practical or possible under ordinary methods of farm practice 120 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS to grow all the protein on the farm. Hence this nutrient must be secured elsewhere. This is done either through purchase of grain materials not raised on the farm, or the purchase of by-products from manufacturing concerns. Bran comes from flour mills, gluten products and meal from the manufac- turing of starch, and cottonseed meal from the oil mills, and various other mill products from other forms of manufacture. There is a long list of con- centrates as the source of protein consumption. The feeder is interested in knowing which of them he shall purchase. Three things will aid him in the selection: The protein content, the total digestible nutrients, and the market price of the feeding stuff. A wise selection requires the three to be consid- ered together. For instance, the following food- stuffs at market prices are available to a feeder: CORT ee Ble eat e e E ale ee ee eee 65 cents a bushel OBES ae Sees Bie Ea ieee ae au etiay a ewe eer 56 cents a bushel Gluten! mea ic 35 eek OS aha ek Sao een Recon nenene $30-a ton Cottonseed: meal (an. 6 42% 2a Sosa ee ee eee $32 a ton PPA ind eke Oe eo BOE pe ne Ra Oe Ge Aenea $30 a ton Using the above as examples, which shall be selected if the feeder simply desires to get protein for the purpose of balancing a ration, having as its basic constituents feeding stuffs raised on the farm? In other words, if the feeder is abundantly supplied with roughage materials like corn stover, silage, grass, and legume hays, what concentrate shall he select in order to get protein to balance his ration? The sensible thing to do is to determine which food furnishes a pound of protein at least cost. We find in 100 pounds of each of these feeds the follow- ing quantities of protein are to be obtained: COSE, OF NUSRIENTS AIL PROTEIN IN CERTAIN FEEDING STUFFS Pounds of digestible protein Feeding stuffs In 100 pounds In 1 ton (COTE. 7 e Eiea sa oe SUa Maee 7.9 158 OBES 5S SIS ESO Ree ere 9.2 184 Cintemmmle alin Saas eects ec 454 644 Cottonseed meal’. saa... BUoe 744 STAB RA shore ela vies eee ae 2 e 2, 244 A ton of corn contains 158 pounds of protein, which is worth 65 cents a bushel, or $25 aton. One pound of protein will therefore cost 2,500 divided by 158, or 15.8+ cents a pound. In like manner the cost of a pound of protein in each feeding stuff is determined, giving us the fol- lowing: Pounds diges- Cost per pound Feeding stuffs | Price per tible protein protein in ton per ton cents (CORN. adn eee eee $25 158 15.8 OTS Tae oie Ceres 39 184 18.9 Gluten meal ... 30 644 4.5 Cottonseed meal 32 744 4.3 IBGE Op. gas alee aueees 30 244 AS Here we see that at the prices assumed cottonseed meal and gluten meal are by far the cheapest sources of protein. The same method is followed in determining the protein value of every other foodstuff. So simple is it, every feeder and stockman should make it a point to determine always the feeding values of different feeding stuffs in this comparative manner. [22 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS On Basis of Total Digestible Nutrients——The comparative cost of digestible nutrients is deter- mined in the same way and has an important bear- ing on feeding farm animals. If it is necessary to purchase some grain or concentrated feeding stuff, in addition to a comparison of the protein, let the quantity of total digestible nutrients be taken in consideration also. A feeding stuff that will furnish not only the protein, but the total digestible nutri- ents, at the cheapest cost per pound, other things being satisfactory, should certainly be the one chosen. Using the same feeds as before, we have the fol- lowing: Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Total digestible Feeding stuffs Carbo- nutrients Protein | hydrates | Fat Total | in one ton COM geese Ue 66.7 4.3 78.9 1,578 Oats ecw eeys 9.2 47.3 4,2 60.7 1,214 Gluten meal .. 32.2 43.3 11.0 80.1 E30 Cottonseed meal 37.2 10.8 ae 66.3 1326 BP ELIN cess th Siete atts LA a9e2 2. 54.1 1,082 In the following table is shown the price a pound of digestible nutrients when the market price a ton and total digestible nutrients are given: Price in cents ’ Total per pound Feeding stuffs - Market digestible of digestible price nutrients nutrients GOP oe ae eee ee $25 1,578 ales Qatsrro eA acca ae 35 1,214 2.8 Cuinitenwnie alia see 30 1,730 12 Cottonseed meal ... 32 1,326 2.4 BTA ie cite eee ee 30 1,080 2.8 COST OF NUTRIENTS 123 Here we find that a pound of digestible nutrients is most costly in oats and wheat bran; and cheapest in gluten, corn, and cottonseed meal. The various kinds of feeding stuffs can be de- termined in this manner by obtaining the market prices and dividing these prices by the quantities of total digestible nutrients of the respective feed- ing materials. Taking these facts in consideration, with the cost of a pound of protein in each, and then the purposes for which the feed is given, it is possi- ble to make a more intelligible selection than on the basis of cost only. If dairy cows are to be fed, then clearly gluten or cottonseed meal would be chosen, and particularly would this be true if grass hays, silage and corn stover were at hand in abundance. Using Judgment in Getting Protein—In purchas- ing protein judgment must be exercised in selecting the carrier of it. For instance, corn is cheaper than bran on the basis of total digestible nutrients, but if for the dairy, bran should be purchased rather than corn, because the bran contains nearly twice the .amount of protein. Cottonseed meal contains just about five times the quantity of digestible protein that corn does. If the two could be purchased at the same price per pound of digestible nutrients, cotton- seed meal would be many times more valuable than corn, because of the very much larger quan of protein. Roughage Materials should be as carefully selected as the concentrates. It is often advisable to sell one kind of feeding stuff and purchase one or more kinds in exchange. It is usually economy to 124 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS sell corn and oats and make an outright purchase of cottonseed meal, gluten meal and bran, if dairy cows are to be fed. Often one can sell roughage materials to good advantage and secure others that contain more of the constituents desired, and in so doing the amount of concentrated foods can be cut down. If the feeder uses corn stover and timothy hay, he will necessarily be forced to balance his rations with concentrated materials. On the other hand, if he uses cowpea hay, alfalfa or clover hay in the main for roughage, the necessary grain material will be small. In many markets timothy hay is sold for $20 to $30 a ton and up, while cowpea hay, alfalfa and clover sell for $20 a ton and under. You see at once that the legume hays are the most economical, for they contain several times more digestible protein than timothy. It is to the feeder’s advantage to dis- pose of the timothy, often, and with the same money purchase the legume hays. The saving in corn and bran or other concentrates will be clear profit. Of course, the desirable way is to grow the legumes in abundance; then, with much silage, the call for pur- chased grain, or concentrates, will be of little con- sequence. CIBUNE DIDI, DIV’ FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS Food Requirements of the Young—yYoung ani- mals require food that will form tissue and bone rapidly. Hence, nitrogenous and mineral substances must be supplied abundantly ; and from sources that appeal to the taste and that are easily digested. In this supply milk comes first. It is nature’s choice, THE NEWLY BorRN REQUIRE COLOSTRUM When an offspring is born, the dam for a period of a few days secretes colostrum. This milk acts beneficially on the digestive tract. and for young animals is the most desirable. It contains the necessary nutrients in a properly bal- anced form, in most cases is liberally provided by the mother, and in all respects is the ideal food to start the offspring on its way to maturity. 125 126 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Milk contains not only protein and ash, but fat, sugar and water also. But the protein of milk is in a much larger proportion to the fat than is the case with other food that meets all nutritive requirements at later periods of growth. And at the time of birth this is particularly the case. When a calf, for in- stance, has just been born, the dam for a period of a few days secretes colostrum. ‘This fluid, or first milk, is of a very concentrated description. It is yellow or yellowish in color, is of a viscid nature, possesses a peculiar smell and salty taste. As it is slightly purgative, it acts beneficially on the diges- tive tract, and, if the young is to be started forward favorably, it should not be withheld. Colostrum.— Compared with ordinary milk, colos- trum is rich in protein and the mineral substances, but relatively lower in milk sugar and fat. In five days to a week after birth the secretion of milk in- creases, and the composition gradually changes from colostrum to ordinary milk. The composition of cow’s milk at calving and at a later period shows the higher food value of the first milk. This will be observed below: DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS OF COW'S MILK IN 100 POUNDS Digestible nutrients Dry Carbo- Nutritive Kind matter | Protein | hydrates} Fat ratio Colostrum ... 25.4 Whe U6 3.6 1:0.6 Ordinary milk 12.8 3.6 4,9 3.7 IER {ts FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 127 From this comparison we note the large amount of dry matter and protein in the first milk as against ordinary milk. With both kinds there is almost perfect digestibility. The proportion of the protein or tissue formers to the fat or heat producers is much higher in colostrum than in ordinary milk, and in each more than in most vegetable and commer- cial foods. The nutritive ratio of colostrum is in the proportion of one of protein to six-tenths of fat and sugar, and of ordinary milk of one of protein to 3.7 of fat and sugar. This difference indicates the rapid change that takes place in the milk soon after the birth of the offspring. The protein diminishes, while both the fat and the sugar increase. Ration Should Be Changed as Age Advances.—As young animals grow older and consequently enlarge in size they call for increasing amounts of the heat and fat-producing elements. This is illustrated in the table below, and is based on 1,000 pounds live weight: FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING CALVES Live weight Dry Carbo- Nutritive of calf | matter | Protein | hydrates Fat - ratio 150 23 4.0 13.0 2.0 11244 is 300 24 3.0 12.8 1.0 le ealt 500 Di 2.0 12.5 0.5 1:6.8 700 26 1.8 12.5 0.4 1:7.5 900 26 1.5 12.0 0.3 1:8.5 This table shows the alterations in the rations of a growing calf from shortly after birth up to a period of a year or a year and a half. As the calf grows NIVO HHI NO ANGVALS LdauM Aa GINOHS SHAIVO ONNOA 128 Sah Pe scorn sonatas enact ey FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 129 older, adding age and weight, the nature of the ra- tion changes through decreasing demands for pro- tein and in increasing demands for the carbohy- drates. In its early days a calf takes on weight very rapidly. Compared with its weight the amount of food consumed is very large. Often a small calf will gain in weight as fast as a mature steer ten times as big. Of course the flesh is less solid, the increase is of a more watery nature, and the food consumption in proportion to the size of the animal is enormous. Nature Widens the Ration.—During the baby- hood of the calf, or of any other animal, not much exercise is taken; hence, less of the heat and energy materials are called: for; but. as this condition changes, there arises a need for more of the carbo- hydrates and fats to provide for mechanical work both within and without the body. As these are supplied the ration takes on more of each and de- creases proportionately the protein. Nature supplies the needed carbohydrates by creating an appetite for grass and roughage mate- rials. Just after birth a calf, partaking of colostrum, is fed abundantly with protein; in a few days this gives way to ordinary milk, with less of protein and more of sugar and fat; and then a week or two later iiecall of nature is further met by means of the nibbles of grass or grain wherein is stored still larger quantities of the carbohydrates and fat to meet the cravings occasioned by exercise, energy and me- chanical work. In this manner every offspring gradually adjusts its food to its needs and very largely balances its own ration. 130 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS From Whole to Skim Milk.—It is not uncommon to give whole milk to a young calf for a short period after being removed from its mother. The period, during which whole milk is supplied varies more or less, depending on the value of the calf or the use to which milk on the particular farm is put. Sooner or later, however, skim milk is substituted for the whole milk. If the substitution is gradually made, and if some additional food is provided, no objection to the change will arise. But too fre- quently skim milk is abruptly substituted, and it only is fed. This is bad practice. Skim milk contains little if any fat; consequently, the young animal is deprived of this nutrient and will not thrive in a satisfactory manner. Nor will increasing the quantity of skim milk help. Death will ultimately follow if the skim milk ration is con- tinuously fed and not balanced by means of some substitution for the fat removed from the milk. Be- low are shown the digestible nutrients in whole and skim milk: WHOLE AND SKIM MILK COMPARED Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Dry Kind matter Protein Carbohydrates Fat Whole milk ... 12.8 3.6 4.9 3.8 Siktream Taal ooooe 9.6 all 4.7 0.2 When the fat is removed by skimming and the remaining liquid fed exclusively, the calf or the pig develops slowly, shows dissatisfaction with the food, FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS Sal and is less thrifty generally. This condition is over- come by supplying shelled corn or oil meal in addi- tion to the skim milk. Not only will a more rapid growth soon be apparent, but gains will result more ‘economically. | Little Trouble with Suckling Animals.—With colts, pigs and lambs during their suckling age there GATHERING Up WHAT THE STEERS Drop If pigs are permitted to follow cattle and horses much waste food will be utilized. Often no additional food is required than what the pigs themselves gather in the feed lots. is usually no problem at all. If the mothers are properly supplied with food the regular course will be taken and each will adjust its ration to its own individual needs, provided grass or grain is available. This is likely to be the case as the offspring feeds with its dam. It will soon learn to eat at its mother’s side. 132 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Calves, on the other hand, present a different case. Their original food has a great commercial value; and whole milk for the market or for butter is too valuable to be used as a feed for average calves. Consequently, milk is not set before them until after the butter fat has been removed. A practical way is to feed the new born calf whole milk for a week or ten days, then gradually change from whole milk to skim milk. During, or follow- ing this change, the young calf will begin to eat corn and oil meal, and never will notice the sub- stitution either in temper or development. With oil meal worth a cent and a half a pound, and butter fat worth 25 or 30 cents a pound, it is apparent that it is a heavy loss to feed butter fat when oil meal is as wholesome and nutritious. Calf Feeds.—Many especially prepared calf feeds are on the market as substitutes for milk or for but- ter fat. Many of these are excellent and perfectly satisfactory. “Their one objection 1S them costumes ton of prepared calf food may cost $50 to $100, but practically all of the substances were obtainable at $20 to $35 a ton. When linseed oil meal, boiled flax seed, corn and pea meal, etc., are available, it is possible for every farmer to secure his own supply and to obtain a satisfactory substitute for the butter fat that he removes from his milk. Feeding the Dairy Calf—Opinions vary as to whether it is best to remove the calf from its mother at once or to wait until some days after birth. It is becoming more and more a custom to remove the calf early, within two or three days at the most. FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 133 The calf is allowed to nurse at its mother’s side at first. It.is then removed to a box stall or an open lot away from its dam, and allowed to get hungry. Then, with three or four pints of its mother’s milk, ice tavelhte to drink, “This teaching, may Tun through a period of two or three trials. Two or three feeds a day should be given, three being bet- fem tham two. . lf the cali:is*not very strong, four feeds are desirable. READY FOR THEIR BREAKFAST This simple contrivance is much esteemed where many calves are fed and raised. Each gets its own ration without fuss, confusion or fight. The milk used should be from the mother and not from another cow, because it is the colostrum that is desired; and this milk should be fed while warm from the cow. This should be kept up until the calf has a good start and is drinking well. Some dairy- men begin to change from whole to partly whole and skim milk in a week or ten days, while others 134 ‘FEEDING FARM ANIMALS continue the whole milk for a period covering two or three weeks. Some time between ten days and three weeks skim milk may be substituted for a part of the whole milk. To the allotment of whole milk add about one-fourth more of skim milk and keep increasing the skim milk for a week or ten days, until the whole milk has been entirely dis- placed by skim milk. When the skim milk has been started, a teaspoonful of linseed oil meal may be mixed with a half cup of warm water, then added to the milk, which is, of course, partially skim milk. The calf at this time will be taking two quarts three times a day. It is worth while to be careful not to overfeed. Overfeeding on skim milk always stunts a calf. During this early feeding period not more than three quarts should be fed at a time and three feeds a day should be given. The oil meal is to be gradually increased until, in the course of a few months, a half pint is fed daily. Some dairymen get excellent results by using a flaxseed jelly in the skim milk. To make this jelly, soak whole flaxseed in hot water. Many calf rais- ers think this food far superior for young calves to any calf meal used as a substitute for milk. The best substitute for the flaxseed is linseed oil meal. When the calf is two or three weeks old a little whole corn and oats in the box where the calves can get at it will be eaten and relished, “Phe cal anal soon take to hay. The aim should be to keep the calf growing steadily and in a thrifty condition. Spring calves can soon be turned in a pasture lot. If FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 12 fed the skim milk and the cream substitutes, they should show steady growth and plenty of thrift. After such calves have reached the age of four to six months, the skim milk may be dropped out of the ration, but the grain concentrates like oil meal, corn and oats, should be continued, even increased slightly, and fed in con- junction with pasture Srasson, the lesume hays. During the first winter let these hays be abundantly fed, so as to develop large stomachs, and to fur- nish plenty of protein and the ash materials. Feeding the Beef Calf.—In some sections Stine recountry «calves anemereiuider vedled. OF saved for beef, and yet the cows are managed so as to get the most 5 0 : The new idea in beef production mill possible either for is to grow beef and not to fatten sale or for butter. Best “"* results are obtained when veal calves are given all of the whole milk they will use. Many allow the calf to stay with its mother during a period of three or four weeks, taking all of the milk that the mother gives. In addition, some grain is allowed, consisting of oil meal or flaxseed and corn. When disposed of as veal calves, the mother is put in the herd and BEEF IN THE MAKING 130 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS milked thereafter. This practice is permissible with cows of a poor grade. It is injurious in high milk production, and inevitably leads to the destruction of the herd, because many of the good dairy calves are vealed and forever lost as dairy prospects. If calves are allowed to suck their dams for as long a period as required for making good veal, the value of the cow as a milk producer is somewhat lessened. BRED FOR BEEF Ths pure-bred Shorthorn calf was left with its mother for a week. After that time it was fed whole milk, then whole and skim milk mixed, then skim milk and oil meal. Objection to the practice of first milking the cows and giving the whole milk to the veal calves is raised because of the labor expense. Some farmers meet this by removing some of the butter fat and provid- ing substitutes as previously described for the cream removed. Where calves intended for beef stock are removed from their mothers cream substitutes can FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS LS 7, be given in addition to skim milk, as described for dairy calves. They should be fed so as to obtain quick development. Larger quantities of concen- trated grains are admissible in proportion to the roughage materials than where whole milk is fed; yet the aim is not to fatten this young stock, but to grow beef. This means gradually to widen the ration, basing it on good grass, skim milk, oil meal, and corn, and later, on silage, if available, and a rea- sonable amount of hay, the legume kind preferred. Where beef is raised exclusively, particularly on the western ranges and in beef herds produced from beef breeding stock, calves are allowed to suckle their mothers until naturally weaned. If allowed the run of the pasture with the mother, little, if any, food is given in addition to what is obtained by suckling the dam and by grazing. These beef dams are not heavy milkers as a rule; consequently, the food supply from the milk is much smaller than if the same practice were followed in the dairy herd. As weaning time approaches either an abundance of succulent grass should be available, or else substi- tutes should be provided in the way of concentrates and hay. During their first winter beef calves raised in this manner, either while on or off the cows, should be given grain, silage if available, and good bright hay. The quantity of each will vary with individuals. The aim should be to provide the pro- tein liberally. If good hay and silage are available the proper balance of food material will follow. The Feeding of Lambs.—At birth the main thing is to see that the lamb gets its mother’s milk. The ESE ONIGasad ASIM GNV FAV Good MOTIOS SAWV1 ALAIMHL [ee] 13 FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 139 ewe’s udder should be examined to see that it is in a healthy condition. If the ewe is receiving the proper kind of food and her udder is doing its work, no further attention is necessary. From the time the lambs are dropped until taken from the flock they are dependent on the mother ewe both for milk and for companionship. If the lambs are taken from the ewe and compelled to suffer from hunger and lonesomeness, it is no wonder that they bewail their condition and shrink in flesh. The good flock- master avoids this, because it is inhumane and al- ways acts as a physical shock that requires some MntctOk KecOvVery. The mother ewes should be given some grain food, in addition to pasture or other roughage, dur- ing the period the lambs are with them. If the lambs are thrifty, they will soon learn to eat of the same kind of food. Such lambs, being thrifty, are always good eaters and make but little fuss when removed at weaning time. It is good practice to prepare for weaning. Prior to weaning, teach the lambs to eat some food that will take the place of the mother’s _ milk better than the grass of the pasture. Get the flock into an inclosure where they will be com- fortable after having fed on grass in the morning, and give them a light feed of some mixture of con- centrates like oats and bran, half and half, or oats and bran with some oil meal added. The ewes will enjoy a light feed of this morning and night, and the lambs will learn to eat with them. When the lambs have learned to eat these concentrates in the in- closure, the ewes may be separated from the lambs. 140 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS When the day of separation has arrived, get the flock in the inclosure earlier than ordinary, feed, and then hold until nearly time to turn out. Now sort the ewes, then feed the lambs, and take the ewes to some distant field out of hearing of the lambs. After the lambs have had a good feed of grain turn them back LARGE LITTER OF VIGOROUS PIGS Creeps for young pigs in which they may go for slop food are desirable. Both mother and pigs benefit. to their old pasture ground, and they will go to picking up grass at once. The lambs should be taken up each day, fed a fairly liberal portion of grain, be given access to all the water needed and plenty of grass, and they will make good growth without further bother. FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS I4I The Feeding of Pigs.—The sow while nursing re- quires liberal feeding, as the rearing of a large litter is a-severe drain on her system. Skim milk, butter milk, bran, shorts, ground oats, wheat and barley, with a run on pasture grass, will meet the situation. No care or attention will be needed to get the little pigs to drink when two or three weeks old. A good method is to provide a shallow, flat-bottom trough in a small inclosure in one corner of the lot where the sow is fed, allowing the young pigs access to this at will, but where the sow cannot reach it. For the first day or two a little fresh milk can be used; after- wards give sweet skim milk, properly warmed. If skim milk is not available, then middlings or shorts mixed in a thin slop are a good substitute. This can be fed twice daily. The pigs should not be weaned abruptly, because of the injury that would result to the sow. There is a large flow of milk, which should be dried up grad- ually. It is not a good plan, either, to remove some of the pigs, allowing the remaining ones to stay with the mother a few days or a week or so. This is admissible, however, if part of the litter has profited at the expense of other members. In case this is so, the larger ones can be removed after they have become satisfied with their slop ration, and the less thrifty ones kept back to dry off the sow. Weaning should be done gradually ; then there will be no sudden check either to the pigs or the mother. If the sow is fed a spare diet consisting of a little dry grain or given the run of an old pasture, the 142 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS secretion of milk will be arrested and both sow and pigs will adjust themselves to the new order. When the young pigs have learned freely to take slop made of shorts or middlings and skim milk, they are ready for weaning. This usually takes place at seven to ten weeks of age. If skim milk is not available, then the longer the pigs remain on RESTING IN THE PASTURE FIELD The brood mare may be worked practically up to foaling time. After foaling for 10 days or two weeks she is entitled to ease and rest. In sum- mer the pasture or paddock is the best place for her and plenty of fresh water and grain should be supplied. the dam the better. In no case should they be weaned until they take food freely apart from their mother. After being weaned, give them access to a good pasture and a grain slop of middlings, shorts or corn meal twice daily. The amount of meal fed will depend upon the condition of the pasture. FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 143 Young clover, or a mixture of young timothy and clover or alfalfa, will meet the requirements excel- lently. The custom of preparing grazing lots of cowpeas, rape, peanuts, sweet potatoes or rye is growing, and where this method is followed the cost of producing pork is materially lessened. At wean- ‘ Sh alee Th y } AN Nl AN Pie aut my Hs Y | IN N " i a i Me a ha Ls va A ae - a Na tna une Nt) fs Al liq Ne Ih ih Mu Mi AN INEXPENSIVE COLT CREEP Young colts, on pasture with their mothers, may be given grain by means of some contrivance as this. ing time the ration must contain a liberal amount of protein, but as age advances this will decrease proportionately, and the pigs, if admitted to good pasture, will grow rapidly and thrive as they should. Feeding the Foal.—Until the foal is a month old it ought not to get wet nor have a damp bed. Dur- ing this time it will obtain its food largely from its 144 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS mother as milk. For a week or ten days after birth the mother should be given rest in the pasture field, after which she can be started in again on light work. Ordinarily, it is best to train the foal to re- main in its stall while the mother is at work. When the mare is started in at work again, the foal should be allowed for a while to have its mother’s milk at least once in the forenoon and once in the afternoon, and to remain at its mother’s side during the noon hour, and from quitting time in the evening until the mare is put to work in the morning. If allowed to stand at its mother’s side, the foal will soon eat of grain in the manger, and in this way learn to eat both grain and hay, in addition to grass in the pasture field. By weaning time the foal should know how to eat what it subsequently will be given. Corn, oats, bran, and oil meal make an ex- cellent mixture and can be given in equal parts, though at first only in small amounts. Grass is an ideal food when supplemented with oats or with the combination just mentioned. The weaning should be done gradually; then neither foal nor the dam will suffer. After weaning, increase the grain and provide good bright hay for roughage. Handled in this manner, the foal will go through the winter nicely and when turned out to pasture in the spring will show thrift and make rapid growth. (CaP NaI DOW THE FEEDING OF BREEDING ANIMALS The excessive feeding of breeding stock is harm- ful; indeed, more so than when animals are under- fed. This is especially true when the feeding ration contains an overabundance of carbonaceous foods. When such are supplied to mature breeding stock, Too FAT FOR Goop BREEDERS | Breeding stock should be thrifty, but not excessively fat. Otherwise their breeding qualities will sooner or later be impaired. the animals often become very fat, and are not as prolific as they otherwise might be. The adult ani- ‘mal, if properly nourished, neither gains nor loses ‘in weight. It requires food for the repair of tissues, ‘to maintain its regular supply of hair, wool and 145 146 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS horn, and to produce heat and mechanical work by combustion of the food in the body. In addition, breeding animals must have food enough to provide for the growth of the fetal young. This means blood and tissue for every part of the offspring. Carbohydrates and fat cannot assist in providing this material. It must come solely from the protein of the food. Consequently, every preg- nant animal should be given considerable protein in her ration, both for her own use and for the deve!- oping progeny. Feeding the Dairy Cow When Carrying Calf. After calving, and then for a period of several months, the good dairy cow drops off in flesh, even though liberally supplied with food. She should never be fat as that condition is known in respect to the beef cow. After she has caught her gait in milk production, her weight is maintained for a con- siderable period, and if the food supply is still lib- eral, she will gain in weight and flesh. Ordinarily, the rations of the dairy stable are satisfactory both for milk production and for the support of the fetal calf. Heavy concentrated’ grains may be injurious, hence caution will not be out of place if taken at the time the cow approaches parturition. During the latter part of her lactation period concentrated feeds like cottonseed meal or gluten meal should be les- sened or discontinued altogether and food like wheat bran or some of the laxative commercial feeds given instead. Some grain will be necessary at this period in order to maintain the milk flow, even though it THE FEEDING OF BREEDING ANIMALS 147 has become lessened naturally in quantity. This grain should be of a nature that will tend to make milk and that will at the same time act as a good carrier of mineral substances. Thus not only the cow but also the developing offspring will benefit. Just before parturition laxative foods are to be preferred. Of course, nothing is better than good pasture grass, and if cows have the run of a pasture field from spring to winter little trouble will be met with at calving time. If, however, the calves are dropped during the winter when pastures are no longer available, the next best thing is silage for succulence, and if silage is not available, then mo- lasses, molasses feeds, or the beet pulps and roots. Dur- ing the winter cows either in milk or carrying offspring should be liberally supplied with the legume hays like clover, alfalfa or cowpea, so as not only to pro- vide an abundance of protein but of ash material as well. While it is not desired that the dairy cow be fat, still she should carry a reasonable amount of flesh. The production of fat cells in the body is, to a cer- tain extent at least, at the expense of milk cells; therefore the dairy cow with beef tendencies is usu- ally not a profitable milk producer. Since milk is not an object of great importance with the beef animals, bloom, quality and flesh are desired in this class of stock. To be profitable the dairy cow should be in milk ten or eleven months each year. The cow that goes dry after five or six months of milk- ing would be more profitable for the farmer in the fattening lot than in the dairy herd. Two or three 148 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS months prior to calving, the dairy cow or the beef cow should receive daily a pound or two of wheat bran, four or five pounds of alfalfa, clover, or cow- pea hay, for needed protein and the ash constituents. This is particularly needed during the winter and during the summer or the fall when the pasture grass is short or withered. At Calving Time the cow should be put off by herself. Bran, clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, to- gether with silage or some other succulent food, should compose the daily ration. After calving, cut out the ration entirely for a day or so; feed only a little bran and succulent food. The quantity of food may be increased from the second day gradually un- til the cow is placed on her full ration. It is not well to be in too big a hurry to get the caw on a full ra- tion or to bring her up to the full capacity as a milk producer. It is often a wise practice to use a full month to get the cow on full feed and to her pro- duction capacity. The beef cow usually is given the range of the field in which she may drop her calf. She is placed under conditions more natural to her, and hence, usually, will take care of herself and her offspring. If pasture is abundant, supplementary feeds will not be required; but if she is an important breeding cow herself, in high breeding form and flesh, and if, because of her breeding, it is desired to secure the quickest and fullest development of the calf, addi- tional food in form of concentrates may be given to advantage. If the herbage is scant or otherwise in- sufficient or improper, a grain ration should be pro- a THE FEEDING OF BREEDING ANIMALS 149 vided. In either case the ordinary commercial feeds like cottonseed meal, the glutens, wheat bran, oil meal or corn may be furnished singly or in com- binations, depending on the cost or the ease of ob- taining them. The Brood Sow.—Corn has been connected for so long a time with hog feeding that it still holds a high place as a food for the brood sow. To a certain ex- tent this practice is wrong, but though many lead- FEEDING Box FoR ALFALFA HAY Hogs relish alfalfa during all seasons of the year. In winter dry hay may be placed in a box as here shown and much less wil! be wasted than when thrown on the ground or placed in racks. ing hog men caution against the heavy use of corn, they nevertheless do resort to it more or less. This is partly because in the important hog sections corn is always available and usually abundant as a hog food, and because it is home raised and seldom re- fused or rejected. Food of a more protein nature should be fed the sow previous to the time of dropping her pigs and 150 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS while she is suckling them. This does not mean that corn should be cut out of the ration altogether. In sections where corn is not freely produced, and where its commercial value is high, substitutes are more generally provided and the objections to its use are not usually met. A PORTABLE HoG HOUSE Here is shown a hog house that can be moved to various parts of the field, insuring cleanly quarters and new feeding grounds. Both are items of great importance in hog raising. The food of the brood sow should be similar to that given the dairy cow, particularly the grain part of the ration. Even silage is good, as are also alfalfa and clover hay. To those unaccustomed to the use of alfalfa or clover hay it may seem impossible that the brood sow would use either to any great extent. Nevertheless, the consumption of such is practically as great as when either is fed to horses or cows. THE FEEDING OF BREEDING ANIMALS I5I Bran slop makes a very desirable food, as do also middlings and shorts, and should be fed both before and after the pigs have been dropped. At Pigging Time, the sow should not be disturbed and her ration should be diminished for a day or two. A thin slop or clear water should be set in her pen and nothing done to excite or disturb the sow in any way. Brood sows should be accustomed to handling MAKING PORK FROM RAPE This forage crop is gradually extending its boundaries, and, while useful for all stock, is especially prized as a green pasture for hogs. and at pigging time should admit the owner or an attendant to give quiet assistance when necessary. If the weather is cold some provision for heating may be advisable, or the newly born pigs may be removed to a basket after having been carefully wiped and dried, and after having fed on the milk that by this time has been secreted. It is important that the pigs get the first milk soon after birth. Otherwise their strength soon declines. 152 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS In a day or two the food supply should be in- creased. It should consist of milk-stimulating and milk-producing foods like middlings, shorts, gluten, linseed oil meal, pea meal, skim milk, etc. A little corn or corn meal may be given, but this should be limited. Exercise for Brood Sows.—See that the brood sows take exercise and that they get succulent food. It is doubtful if any other factor in hog raising has brought about quite as much injury as the practice of placing brood sows in little pens, preventing them from getting juicy roots or green foods and cutting off their opportunity for exercise entirely. The run of the pasture field, or in the winter of rye or wheat lots, or in fall of harvesting peanuts, artichokes, cowpeas, or of cleaning up old meadows, all add vigor to the sows, largely wipe out the cost of keep, and increase the vitality of the coming offspring. The best mother is one that supplies a heavy flow of milk. To do this she must be healthy, strong, and be liberally supplied with food. From well fed brood sows, therefore, usually come the healthiest and quickest maturing offspring. The Brood Mare.—There is no objection to work- ing the brood mare or of exercising her right up to foaling time. Liberal feeding on oats, or bran, bal- anced with corn and hay, will furnish a satisfactory ration for the mare before and after foaling. The same precaution should be taken to diminish the food supply when the colt is born as when the calf is born. The mother at foaling time is in a fever- ish condition, and weak also. She should be fed only what is needed for appeasing the appetite. THE FEEDING OF BREEDING ANIMALS 153 Succulent grass is cooling and is never objection- able. The grain allotment for a day or two, how- ever, should be small and should consist of ground oats or wheat bran, or both, without corn. After a day or two the milk secretion will become active and the mare will recover her appetite. For a week or ten days she should have complete rest, preferably in a paddock, or the run of a pasture will ROUNDING THEM UP IN THE PASTURE do. When put to work at the end of this rest period, her tasks should be of a light nature at first, not of long duration, and not in excessive heat or sunshine. Gradually increase the rations until a liberal sup- ply is given so as to meet the demand occasioned by work and the production of milk: The Ewe.—In localities where the ground re- mains uncovered during much of winter flock mas- ters are fortunate because of the pasture and the tough sod on which the sheep can at times be grazed. Lambs will not come large and strong un- less’ the,ewes have been properly ted, properly 154 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS housed, and properly exercised. Where pasture is not available during the winter, no feeds are quite ’ as good as alfalfa and clover hay. Either may be fed once or twice a day. If but one feed of either is given, then good corn stover, or millet, or even oat straw, may be used as a roughage for the other feed. Peas and oats, vetches, and cowpea hay, are all ex- cellent roughage feeds for breeding ewes. When thus supplied with good fodder, the ewes do not need much grain until toward the approach of the lambing season. They will be in better con- dition, however, at lambing time if they have been fed a small quantity of grain previously. Whole oats are very suitable for them, but what is better is a little bran or oil cake along with the oats. Neither the bran nor the oil cake is necessary, but either or both will add to the efficiency of the ration. Field roots are also excellent, but before lambing it is not necessary to feed more than two or three pounds a day. If roots cannot be had, and corn silage is avail- able, it will be in order to feed silage at least once a day. Either clover or alfalfa goes admirably with silage. Sheep will take ample exercise if given the free- dom of one or more fields when the snow is not deep or altogether absent. It is only when snow is deep and the ewes are unable to move about that they are in danger of becoming too sluggish. The more highly they are fed, the more sluggish they become. To avoid this, it may be necessary to put some of the feed in racks some distance away from the shed, but preferably in a secluded and protected spot. The THE FEEDING OF BREEDING ANIMALS 155 ewes will find their way to these racks if the feed is enticing, and thus get needed exercise. If the lambs are to come early, the ewes should be in the pink of condition, or they will not be able to keep the lambs growing well until grass comes. The grain supply should be small at first, then increased gradually. Very many lambs are weakened before birth by the injudicious feeding of the mother. At Lambing Time.—After the lambs begin to come let the grain supply be reasonably generous, so as to provide an ample milk supply. This will follow if the roughage materials suggested above or others similar to them are given. Milk-stimulat- ing concentrates, which mean an ample amount of protein, are positively indispensable if a generous milk supply is to be obtained. A method followed under this general plan will be certain to bring sturdy, vigorous lambs. These will grow rapidly, the mothers will not drop off in flesh materially, and the milk will be abundant and nutritious for the sturdy and greedy offspring. CHAPTER XVI FEEDING FARM HORSES Food Requirements for Horses.—W ork horses re- quire protein to repair the broken-down tissues ; fats and carbohydrates to produce heat and energy. The harder an animal works, the more food required. The Wolff-Lehmann standards for feeding farm horses are shown in the table below. They indicate the amount of food required per 1,000 pounds live weight and are for horses when doing light, moder- ate and heavy work. WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARDS FOR HORSES Digestible nutrients Nature of work Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter | Protein | hydrates | Fat ratio Lightly worked .. 20 Hea 19.5 0.4 2760 Moderately worked 21 iLs7 11.0 0.6 iLe(5 24 Heavily worked .. 23 225 1133.33 0.8 GRO A Fundamental Principle in Horse Feeding is to use a relatively smaller quantity of roughage and a correspondingly larger amount of concentrates than for bovines. The kind of work to which horses are put calls for the least possible load on the digestive organs, which even in the heavy draft breeds are small, particularly the stomach. Hence, the food 156 FEEDING FARM HORSES WS 7 of the horse should be nutritious in quality, be sup- plied frequently, and in comparatively small quan- tities. Nature of Food.—The food, of whatever variety— and it may include a wide range of feeding materials —must be clean, wholesome, and sound; but beyond this no specific rules can be laid down, except that, generally speaking, reasonable attention should be given to the digestible nutrients, in that they should WELL BRED AND WELL FED bear the proper proportion one to another. The amount and character of the food must vary with the size of the horse and the purpose for which it is used, the climate and the season, and the section in which it is used. Character of Food.—The horse feeds on a wider range of food substances than is popularly supposed. In Arabia, where stamina and sinew are famous, the principal food is barley and scant herbage; in 158 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Ireland it is dried fish mainly ; in England hay, oats, and beans comprise the food supply largely; on the continent of Europe, rye, barley and inferior wheat make up the grain portion of the rations; while in this country many feeding stuffs, covering a wide — range of roughage and grain, find their way into the feed mangers and satisfactorily keep the horse stock in health and vigor. It is not so much the kind of food, but the purity and character, that count. Moldy hay and grain cause many of the ills that the horse is heir to and © imperfect methods of preparation and curing have cast an odor of unpopularity on many meritorious feeds that, if properly handled, would be eagerly sought because of their ease of production or rela- tively less cost when compared with the standard horse feeds of each particular section. Requirements for Work.—Naturally the work de- manded of a horse will influence the choice and amount of food its caretaker gives it. The race horse or the roadster, fed on coarse roughage and little grain, will be greatly handicapped if in com- petition with another that has been supplied with nutritious and appetizing concentrates and little rough fodder in the ration. In winter the draft horse can subsist very nicely on hay or fodder and little or no grain, providing the work is light and the hours of labor few. But this same horse, when put to hard labor in spring and summer, at plow, culti- vator or harvester, will demand less hay and more grain if the highest efficiency is to be had. FEEDING FARM HORSES 159 Farm work is usually not of a strenuous nature, even in the busy season. On some days and during some periods the work is light and not infrequently there are many days of rest. At such times less food should be given, but the feeding should be done EguaL To ANY TASK Heavy farm horses require nutritious food when at severe work. The grain portion of the ration should increase or decrease in accordance with the severity of the work. in such a fashion as to keep the horses in good work form and in thrifty condition. It is believed by many feeding experts that thie protein requirement as called for in the feeding standards is unnecessarily high. Many good rations have been studied under practical test, the efficiency of which is well known, and the conclusion is un- 160 FEEDING. FARM ANIMALS questioned that with our feeds and under our work conditions less protein is required than what the Wolff standards set forth. Quite recently Kellner, the celebrated German authority, as a result of his experiments, stated that the large quantities of protein called for in the old standards are unnecessary for working animals, there being required only enough for the general main- tenance of the animal machine and to insure the com- plete digestion of the food. To bring this about the nutritive ratio of the ration can range from one pound of protein to eight or even ten of carbohy- drates and fat. This view is substantiated by many tests in this country. Hence the conclusion that two pounds of protein will answer the requirements for that nutri- ent for a 1,000 pound horse doing heavy work can be accepted as both conservative and wise because of the less expense at which energy can be obtained. Of course young animals not fully matured will fare much better when rations are prepared contain- ing more protein. In cases like these, and where horses are put to very severe work, the older stand- ard for protein is to be recommended. Giving Water.—In a state of nature horses feed upon juicy herbage and drink at pleasure only pure water when that is available. No animal is more delicate and fastidious about its drink than the horse, and often these animals will suffer agonies of thirst rather than quench it with impure, stale or tepid water. Water should be given frequently and in small quantities. FEEDING FARM HORSES 161 Some horses require more water than others, the quantity varying with the nature and amount of the ration, the propensity to sweat, and the season of the year. Ina test at the New Hampshire station the amount of water drunk by five horses was recorded, showing a variation of from 25,895 pounds to 32,997 pounds in the course of a year. Stale or foul water from a neglected cistern is unfit for a horse and will be refused, except in case of extreme thirst or when no other kind is provided. The custom of not giving horses a drink during the forenoon or the afternoon when working in the field is frequently condemned but generally fol- lowed. In our larger cities horses are often never given water between morning and evening. This is cruel, of course. The good horseman will be more thoughtful of these dumb beasts intrusted to his charge. Not only should the horse be permitted to drink his fill at noon, but during hot weather in the dusty fields a cool drink should be provided also. Order of Hay, Grain and Water.—In a broad way, drinking water should be given at least three times a day to horses at rest, and more frequently when at work. Small quantities of water may be given horses at work, even though they are hot and tired. The custom is rather general to give water first, and then after the water some hay, with the grain following later. When horses are put to heavy work their noon feed should consist largely of grain. After being watered the grain is fed and some hay given, that the horse may eat of it between his finishing the grain and the time he is taken out to work. 162 ’ FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Many horses show impatience when taken to the stable at noon and are given hay before the grain. For the evening meal the grain should come first, and then, after a brief interval, the hay portion of the ration. A drink of water after feeding is both humane and desirable. Regularity in Feeding and Watering.— Whatever system of feeding and watering is followed, it should SHOWING THEM OFF be strictly adhered to during the season. Habit is part of the ration. To be given water one day be- fore meals and the following day after meals, is as unsatisfying to the horse as it would be to man. If accustomed to grain before the hay at noon, there will be dissatisfaction if this procedure is reversed the following day. Drink and food should be given at about the same time each day. a re FEEDING FARM HORSES 163 Not only does the animal know when to expect its grain and hay, but the animal system adjusts it- self accordingly, and discomfort results if this order is not adhered to. This does not mean that a set scheme should be followed throughout the year, but rather followed during certain periods of the year when special work is performed. During the winter season when farm horses are not called to do stren- uous or regular work, a different plan may be fol- lowed than that employed in the summer season, when every minute counts. But, winter or summer, a reasonable regularity should be required. Roughage Feeds for Horses.—Timothy hay, oats and corn have become standard articles in horse rations, but many other grasses and legumes are equally available and equally satisfactory. In the middle and northern states the red and alsike varie- ties of clover, alfalfa and timothy are all good and may be fed in varying amounts. On some farms red clover:hay is often the sole food of the work horse during the winter season. It is a balanced food in itself, but somewhat too bulky to be used exclusively when these same horses are put to heavy farm work. On other farms corn stover, with a few ears of corn, make up the winter ration. Neither of these rations is to be considered ideal, but each would be improved if the two were mixed together. They would give variety, a factor never to be ignored, and the ration would be improved both as to bulk and proportion of digestible nutrients. In the southern states, Bermuda, herd’s grass, 164 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS cowpea hay, corn stover, the cereal hays with or without vetch, and other legumes and grasses, ad- mit of considerable choice and variety. Although crimson clover is frequently fed to horses it is not a desirable roughage because of the fuzzy condi- tion of the clover head. Frequently this fuzz curls up into balls, lodges in the intestinal organs, and causes digestive disorders and sometimes death. EXERCISE NECESSARY EVEN ON FARMS When not worked farm horses require exercise. If at pasture this is un- necessary, but during winter, or if pastures or paddocks are not available, they should be driven or led about. In the western states many of the cereal hays, brome grass, alfalfa, prairie hay, corn stover, timo- thy and the clovers are available. Whesevallowa wide range of roughage materials for horses. In every section millet grows well and is frequently fed. If cut and cured just as the first blossoms ap- pear, a hay scarcely inferior to timothy is made. Overripe millet should not be fed to horses. FEEDING FARM HORSES 165 Corn stover is a better feed than is generally sup- posed, but it must be bright, clean and well cured. If allowed to stand in the field for months, the tops and leaves being exposed to the weather, it becomes unfit for fodder. On the other hand, if stored in the barn when damp, it is quite certain to mold, and if fed in this condition will bring on trouble—diges- tive and nervous disorders. Corn stover is not a well-balanced food. It carries little protein and much of the carbohydrates. With it should go some Sancy OG Oats, ald corm, Or corn and bran, or corn and bran and one of the oil meals. The truth of the matter is, it does not matter very much what kind of roughage is fed to horses, pro- viding the roughage is well cured, free from dust, and wholesome. An important thing is to provide concentrates that will carry the nutrient or nutri- ents lacking in the roughage but which are abun- dantly supplied in the concentrates. Thus, if legume hays are fed the concentrates need not be high in protein, and if the roughage is of a carbonaceous iaAmiTe uixe timothy Or Corn Stover, Some concen- trate like bran or oil meal should be introduced into the ration. Grain Feeds for Horses.—It used to be thought that oats were indispensable for horses. There seems to be some constituent of this grain that gives met- tle and energy. For horses of the roadster type and those where quick action is demanded, oats should be, and no doubt will continue to be, a principal part of the ration, but for farm work the value of oats perhaps has been overestimated. Many tests have 166 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS been conducted in which various feeding stuffs have been compared, and the oats theory has been over- thrown. It is not so much the kind of concentrate, but rather that the grain portion shall contain the digestible nutrients in the best balance and that they be of an easily digestible nature. Indian corn shares with oats popularity as a horse food. Corn is a very concentrated food, is heating, but deficient in muscle-forming elements. If fed in combination with timothy or corn stover, too lit- tle protein will be provided. Concentrates of a nitrogenous nature, therefore, should be admitted to the ration. Oats then may be used, or bran, or the oil meals, indeed practically any commercial con- centrated feed. Bran and oil meal are laxative, and are particularly good when succulence otherwise is not to be had. These may be given in small quan- tities daily, or fed in larger quantities two or three times a week. Both are extremely valuable articles for horses and may be fed either dry or in mashes. When fed as mash once a week, night is the best time, preferably before a day of rest. Barley is a principal grain food for horses in many parts of the world. In some of the great breeding stables barley and oats are ground together in pro- portions varying with the season and fed to stallions and mares. Cottonseed is similar in its chemical composition to linseed meal, but is more highly con- centrated and contains more protein. It should be fed with caution, one or two pounds a day, and never to exceed three or four pounds. This concen- trate is coming more and more into favor, but some FEEDING FARM HORSES 167 ltonses seem mever to learn to like it. It) is more often used in rations for mules than for horses. The carrot is the root crop par excellence for the horse. It serves to cool the system and assists in the digestion of other food. Only a few roots should bewedeat a time and two or three times weekly. Salt is wholesome and beneficial for horses, and at- tention should be given to this matter. An occa- sional feeding of salt is not desirable. Salt should be in rock form and placed where the horses can get it at all times when they want it. Selecting the Ration.—In making up a feeding ra- tion for a horse the first point is to find out how much the horse will eat, the next is to regulate the ration according to the demand to be made upon the animal, whether the work is heavy or light, regular or irregular, then consider the feeding stuffs that are available, and finally the season and the weather. The harder the work and the colder the weather, the greater the proportion of carbohydrates required in the food. Be particular, however, to get enough protein, even though it necessitates the purchase of some concentrate, that the horse may get enough to meet the needs of the body machine and to secure the fullest digestion of the other substances. Feeding the Stallion—A growing three-year-old stallion should do well on the following grain feed: In the morning five quarts of oats and four fair- sized carrots; noon, eight to 10 quarts of mixed feed consisting of two-thirds bran and one-third oats, and a small quantity of hay, if chopped, then mixed with the grain, and dampened with water; at night, 168 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the same mixture as at noon. After the horse has finished this grain ration let him have some timothy and clover hay in addition; no more than what he will eat up clean should be given. What has been said in reference to roughage and grain materials will apply as well to the feeding of the stallion as to work horses. The stallion should STALLION FOR FARM USE not be overfed but kept in good flesh and in trim condition. Exercise is necessary. During the sery- ice period he should have a large box stall wherein he will have freedom to move around, and should be exercised out in the open air a half hour each day. Light work in harness or in the field is not objec- tionable. This will keep the stallion quiet, make him docile and contribute to vigor and health. FEEDING FARM HORSES 169 Fattening Horses for Market.—The number of horses sold annually is large in the aggregate. The animals are collected from all over the country— one from this farm, one from that, from this place and that. At last all are brought together, whence they are sent to the larger markets in great num- bers. Every farmer who has sold a horse knows Horses SELL BEST WHEN FAT When horses are to be sold they should be fat and sleek. The cost of labor and feed will be many times returned. that each brings a better price if fat than if poor. A fattening ration, therefore, will be profitable for a considerable period before the time set for the sale. Horses will gain from three to five pounds daily for two or three months if properly fed. A common fattening ration consists of barley, sugar beets, corn meal and bran. The sugar beets are mixed with barley, 25 pounds of beets to a bushel of barley. This mixture is boiled until soft. 170 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS To every three pounds of this mixture two pounds of corn meal and three pounds of bran are added and fed warm, mixed with an equal bulk of clean-cut hay. In addition to this, a pint of linseed oil meal is fed. As much salt and water as the fattening ani- mal relishes are given. If roots are not available, then a few pounds of silage will do. In place of barley, oats may be substituted, but corn should compose a large part of the ration. Give freely of the grain mixture. While not stinting in roughage materials, these should be held down to the mini- mum. A horse will fatten most rapidly on the grain. Feeding Mules.—There is a prevailing notion that mules eat less than horses. Riley, after a long ex- perience with thousands of army mules, maintains that “a mule requires just as much as a horse of similar dimensions.” In fact, at hard work, Riley says “that the mule will eat more than the horse will or can.” In general, an animal that eats little is a poor animal, regardless of its class or kind. The mule will manage to get along on poor feed given at irregular intervals, but this neglect is manifest in its condition and efficiency. What has been said about feeding work horses applies to mules. Good Rations Commonly Used.—The following rations are in common use at various times and in various sections of the country: 1. Timothy hay, 12 pounds; corn meal, 11 pounds; malt sprouts, 5 pounds. 2. Red clover hay, 8 pounds; oat straw, 6 pounds; corn meal, 12 pounds; wheat middlings, 6 pounds. FEEDING FARM HORSES 171 3. Alsike clover, 8 pounds; corn stover, 6 pounds; corn meal, 10 pounds; rye bran, 6 pounds; linseed oil meal, 2 pounds. A. Timothy hay, 12 pounds; corn, 8 pounds; oats, 8 pounds. 5. Hay, Io pounds; corn, 8 pounds; bran, 2 pounds ; ' linseed oil meal, 2 pounds. 6. Corn stover or timothy hay, 12 pounds; oats or bran, 7 pounds; corn, 7 pounds. 7. Timothy hay, 8 pounds; corn meal, 6 pounds; wheat bran, 6 pounds; oil meal, 1.5 pounds. 8. Timothy hay, to pounds; gluten meal, 6 pounds ; corn, 6 pounds; bran, 2 pounds. Owe Oatehiay, 12 pounds; corm, 3 pounds; "bran, 5 pounds. foe Nialta shay, 16 pounds; bran and ‘shorts, 13 - pounds. 11. Hay, 6 pounds; brewers’ grains, 8 pounds; oats, 8 pounds; corn, 4 pounds; wheat bran, 2 pounds. 12, Hay, 15 pounds; corn,/10 pounds; oats, 13 pounds, wheat bran, 6 pounds. These last two are for very heavy horses doing very severe work. In the far West a common ration is alfalfa hay to pounds and barley 12 pounds. This ration has been modified elsewhere by using alfalfa hay Io pounds and corn 1o pounds, and increased or de- creased as the work is light, moderate or severe. The army horses in the cavalry are given 14 pounds of hay and 12 pounds of oats. CEAP ARB RA Gy alii FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE Food Requirements of Dairy Cattle—The Wolff- Lehmann standards for feeding the various classes of dairy animals are shown in the table below. They indicate the amount of food required for 1,000 pounds live weight, and are for growing cattle and for cows yielding varying qualities of milk. WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARDS FOR FEEDING DAIRY CARLIE | Digestible nutrients Kind of cattle Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter |Protein} hydrates | Fat ratio Growing cattle Agein months Weight BO) Be 150 23 4.0 13.0 2.0 11 241-5 Bio 300 24 3.0 12.8 1.0 apa 6 to 12 500 | 2.0 12.5 0.5 1:6.8 12 to 18 700 26 1.8 12.5 0.4 es 18 to 24 900 26 ney 12.0 0.3 12825 Milking cows; when yielding daily: 11.0 pounds milk 25 1.6 10.0 0.3 EOS 7 16.6 pounds milk 27 2.0 ILC 0.4 620 27.5 pounds milk 32 BoB 13.0 0.8 1:4.5 The Milk-Yielding Function.—In milk production some breeds have become markedly specialized. The function of giving milk is natural with them, but it has been artificially developed. During the 172 -FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 178 lapse of the centuries, cows have been saved for the dairy because of their tendency to give much milk or milk of a rich quality. The milk-yielding capac- ity of the breeds was not achieved in one genera- tion, or in two, nor can it be discarded readily once it has become habitual to the breed, the strain, or the individual. To the practiced eye there are several indications of milky tendency in dairy cows. These are known THE MILK-YIELDING FUNCTION EXEMPLIFIED This Jersey cow comes from a long line of milk producers. It is as nat- ural for her to give milk as it is for her to eat. to be the wedge-like shape of the body when ob- served from front, side or rear; the width between the eyes; the fine, narrow forequarters and broad spacious hind quarters; springing ribs, long and wide apart; the refined feminine countenances; the hair, silk-like and smoothly laid on the skin, which, itself, is fine, mellow, and soft to the touch. In addition to these characteristics the stomach should 174 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS be prominent, the udder large and neither flabby nor fleshy, with medium large teats, evenly set; and ex- tending forward along the abdomen should be no- ticed strong, tortuous milk veins, which, carried internally, are admitted by means of large milk wells. These external traits are just opposite to those that mark the best types of the beef breeds. What Influences Milk Formation?—The milk- yielding function is hereditary to a certain extent. Certain breeds and certain strains of these breeds possess the ability to yield much milk and to trans- mit this characteristic to their offspring. Other breeds yield very little milk, and no manner of care or feeding will largely increase the amount or change the character of its quality, “iheretone can be said with certainty that the influences back of heavy milk formation are the breed and the in- dividuality of the cows of the breed. Some breeds rank high as milk producers in respect to quantity, others in respect to quality; but in both classes much variation is noted. Among dairy cows there remain large numbers that are use- less as milk producers, and their production returns in money are less than the cost of keeping them. In time the milk scales and Babcock test will point these out and they will be discarded from the dairy herds. How Often to Milk—The custom of milking twice a day has become fixed, and no marked ad- vantage is secured when the number of milkings is increased. Experience and experiments show that three milkings a day increase the amount of milk FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 175 secured less than 7 per cent. Considering the ex- tra labor involved, the extra milk obtained by three milkings will not repay the cost and trouble. What Age of Cow Is Best?—The formation of milk is closely associated with the birth of the off- spring. ‘The yield increases for several months after calving, and may abruptly or gradually decrease, as the case may be. Asa rule the fat increases slightly as the lactation period advances. The young heifer generally will give increasing amounts of milk with each successive calf until the sixth or seventh year, and remain near that point a few years longer, then the milk flow will gradually diminish. A CLEAR CASE OF DAIRY TYPE Bred for the dairy this cow represents the highest ideals in dairy confirma- tion and milk production. 176 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS What Influences the Quality of Milk?—So. far as the question can be decided, the influences that bear most on the quality of milk are breed, heredity and inherent functional capacity. It used to be thought that the kind of food, the care, and the sur- roundings influenced the quality of milk. When put to actual test this was proved to be incorrect. The quantity of milk, on the other hand, may be, and commonly is, influenced by the amount and nature of the food, the treatment bestowed, and the atten- tion given to all details of dairy management. The condition of the mammary gland will have much to do with a heavy milk yield. If its capacity is limited, naturally the results will be apparent. Its efficiency is dependent upon the food digested and assimilated. If the food provides the various nutri- ents abundantly and in favorable balance to meet the needs of the body and of milk production, the quantity of milk will reach the maximum possibili- ties of the mammary gland and the quality will be in accordance with the functional nature of this organ. From this it follows that the quality of milk of a given cow is without special variation, but that the quantity will be dependent on food and treat- ment. In this connection it may be said that certain foods influence the milk yield. Unappetizing and ill-smelling foods depress milk secretion, although they normally provide the nutrients abundantly. The same foods set before the cows in more appe- tizing and tempting ways often cause an increased flow, although no more provender is consumed. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 177 The appetite has a direct connection with the udder. Cows that are annoyed by flies and other insects, or that are chased about by dogs or other tormen- tors, will yield milk less in quantity, and, perhaps, poorer in quality, than if they are placed under more comfortable and agreeable conditions. Dairymen are more and more realizing the importance of these facts in practice, and are now giving much attention to the simple details of cow comfort. A little care at this point assists each cow of a herd in giving more milk. Pastures Are Ideal Basic Rations.—In early spring, cows are usually put out on the pastures as early as there is food enough to support them. New grass has generally a very laxative effect on the cows, and if it alone is relied on, it often has a very bad effect. This can be avoided by feeding only partially on grass, completing the ration through the use of both hay and concentrates. In a short time cows become accustomed to grass, on which they may then be left to subsist entirely. Pasture grass is one of our best foods. It is succu- lent, fresh and appetizing, and possesses a high nutritive value. The splendid results obtained by having cows at pasture is not solely because the food is unusually well utilized over winter rations, but because it is rich in nutriment. It ranks with the cereals, and everyone knows how effective such feeds are in milk production. No doubt more protein is consumed than cows re- quire when feeding on pasture, but this cannot be avoided unless the daily grazing period is limited 78 1 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 179 and some substitute of a carbohydrate nature like straw, timothy, or stover is provided. The objec- tion lies in the refusal of the animals to eat when Stlem@pane put petore them. -©nce the taste of orass is obtained, cows reject other foods, often including grain concentrates. When cows in milk are on pasture their treat- ment is very simple, and quite in contrast to the - diligent necessities of the stable during winter. Labor is largely dispensed with, except what is re- quired for milking. Cows that are heavy in calf are nowhere so well treated as when on pasture. They gather their own feed, and even on scanty pasture manage to add flesh and to get in good shape for the fall and winter season of milk giving. Feeding Grain on Pasture-—Many things enter into dealing with the problem as to whether grain shall be fed on grass or not. Cows do give more milk if given grain on pasture, but the cost of pro- ducing the milk will thereby be increased and the pracHice: may not be economical. Certainly the cows that give but little milk should not be grained when on good pasture. The very heavy milkers may be given grain, anywhere from two to eight pounds, depending on the yield and the nature and condition Oretmer pasture, One pound Of etam to every 10 pounds of milk may be given to the lighter pro- ducers, and this may be increased to one of grain to six of milk when cows are yielding from 40 to 50 pounds daily. The kind of grain will depend on what is available. Corn is satisfactory if but two or three pounds are 180 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS given, but in case more is fed, gluten, cottonseed meal or bran should be used in a mixture with corn. Silage is a valuable summer feed and frequently is fed in summer. It is fed in the stable after milking and before the cows are turned out to pasture. One feed a day will be sufficient. When Pastures Are Short and Parched.—During the hot days of late summer the pastures often be- come parched, dry and scanty. At this time great MATRONS OF THE DAIRY HERD care is needed in managing the dairy herd. Unless supplementary food to the pastures is fed the cows are sure to drop off in their milk flow, and once down it is a difficult task to get them back to the point at which they were, and then only after feed- ing liberally with grain. The short-pasture problem may be overcome by providing soiling crops like green corn, millet, ‘alfalfa, and corn silage. Ii a pateh Jot jcommese FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 181 planted on warm land as early in the spring as the weather will permit and planted thickly, by July a great abundance of green forage will be available for green feed. This may be fed in the field in racks, or on the grass, or in the stable mangers. A very large amount of succulent food can be provided in this way at-no great expense. The barnyard millets make excellent green for- age. They are usually ready by late July or early August. If alfalfa is grown, a good soiling crop is at hand when needed. Corn silage is coming more and more to be depended upon for such critical peri- ods during the summer season and early fall. Where many cows are kept the silo 1s almost indispensable. Let the Feeding Standards Serve as Guides.—In the production of milk in winter the outlay neces- sary for food is much greater than in summer. Not only is much home-grown roughage consumed by cows, but large quantities of grain also. In sections where much corn and alfalfa are grown the feeding of dairy cows is simple; but in the more important eastern dairy sections, where corn, if grown at all, is grown largely for silage, and little if any alfalfa or clover is raised, the problem of feeding cows in winter economically calls for great skill, close study and correct use of the feed. The most accurate means of determining the ra- tion that any class of cows needs is by calculation based upon the feeding standards. There is more to the balanced ration than is usually credited. If an insufficiency of protein is contained in a given ra- tion, the cow, if she is possessed of a milk-yielding 182 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tendency, will be forced to rob her own body to ob- tain it. Hence, she will lose in flesh and her vital- ity will be lowered. On the other hand, if provided with all the protein she requires and at the same time if she is fed more carbohydrates and oils than are needed, she will lay on fat, and sooner or later will yield less milk. If fat is deposited in the mam- mary glands, milk secretion is certain to be dis- AN INEXPENSIVE COVERED BARNYARD The covered barnyard is valuable for preserving manure, and it affords shelter and protection during the winter season. The idea is fast becom- ing popular on dairy farms. turbed and a maximum production of milk, for that lactation period, at least, impossible to be obtained. Producing Milk Economically.—In a general way the production of milk economically will be depend- ent upon high-producing cows and cheap home- grown feeds. On most dairy farms the food raised is of a roughage nature, but just as much of this roughage material as the cows will eat up clean at all times should be put before them. If the legume FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 183 hays are grown, the demand for concentrates con- taining protein will be much lessened, and conse- quently the expense bills for grain will be much smaller than otherwise they would be. But even with an abundance of the legumes and silage some grain will be called for, and particularly in the case of heavy-yielding cows. Cows with 30 to 50 pounds of milk to their daily credit will not usually be able to manufacture these quantities from farm rough- ages, even though legumes and silage are included. The bulk is too considerable and the stomach capac- ity of the cow is unequal to the demand. This difficulty is met by the use of concentrates which contain only small amounts of fiber and other indigestible substances. Some practical dairymen introduce the grain concentrates freely into the ra- tions, basing the quantity on the amount of milk produced. To cows yielding 20 or more pounds of milk a day one pound of grain is added to the daily ration for each three pounds of milk or for each pound of butter fat produced a week. If much legume roughage is fed, these amounts may be les- sened to one pound of grain to every four or five pounds of milk or butter fat. Cows that give milk low in butter fat will need less grain in proportion to the milk yield, and those high in butter fat will need more. It is a delicate problem, each cow re- quiring individual attention. Protein Requirements.—Some authorities are of the opinion that the Wolff standards for dairy cows in milk call for more protein than is necessary. In the Kellner standards from a quarter to a half pound 184 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS less of digestible protein is recommended, and many American investigators hold to the same view. The suggested change in this respect is of no great con- sequence, even though the maximum amount of protein is generously supplied. If legumes and pas- tures enter into the rations, an oversupply of digesti- ble protein is easily possible, but it should be re- membered that when so nourished the cows give forth their best production. If protein has a stimu- lating effect on the mammary glands, as many hold, a generous supply is to be preferred to even a slight deficiency. FEEDING DAIRY COWS IN WINTER Nature of the Food.—The kind of food for feed- ing cows in milk will, of course, be much governed by the production in any given locality. The aim will be to feed approximately a balanced ration. On this point divergence of opinion is not great. Where fertility is in equilibrium the aim of the dairyman should be to grow, as far as may be practicable, the food needed on his own farm. He can, of course, grow his own carbohydrates and fat, and more and more the legumes will be introduced into the cropping system on dairy farms. In this way it will be possible to obtain much of the protein at home. The concentrates that will be used will be pur- chased largely because of their strength in protein, and will be bought as balancing materials and not as basic fundamentals of the ration. Foods That All May Grow.—A few foods may be looked upon as standard in feeding dairy cows. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 185 Nearly every dairyman can grow these, regardless of his location, and because they are standard foods Mevousht to try to grow them. DPhese include, as roughage, plants of the clover family, alfalfa, corn silage, soy beans, cowpeas, corn, peas and oats. On every dairy farm there should be a permanent pas- ture, and this should be intelligently handled, that it TURNED OUT FOR EXERCISE Dairy cows will be most healthy when given the run of a pasture during summer and fresh air and exercise during pleasant weather in winter. may improve steadily. If the pasture land is lim- ited, then some soiling crops should be introduced. These include rye, peas and oats, alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, soy beans, green corn, millet and other crops of local adaptation. A liberal supply of these feeds is indispensable for milk or butter. On too many farms there is frequently a shortage of hay, silage, or dry prov- 186 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS ender. When these are grown insufficiently, either the cows are denied full rations or else pur- chased feed must be resorted to: -Ordimanihygenwe high prices of these absorb the greater part of the profits of the dairy business. On farms where the normal supply of roughage is not equal to the re- quirement of the stock, it would be wiser, safer and better to dispose of the least productive cows, be- SILAGE ONE OF OUR BEST DAIRY FEEDS When feed is high, silage is practically indispensable in dairying. For winter feeding it is a fair substitute for summer pasture, for corn ensiled 1S more appetizing than if fed dry and in the rough. stowing on the remaining ones more care and feed- ing them more generously on the roughage material at hand. Next to the legumes no food is grown that pro- vides so large a proportion of desirable nutrients as corn preserved in the silo. The nutrients in silage are very appetizing for winter feeding. Moreover, FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 187 the succulence of silage is beneficial; it aids diges- tion, and, of course, favors milk production. It is undoubtedly true that wherever dairy cows are kept, the silo is indispensable, both for economical feed- ing and for the production of milk at a reasonable profit. Available Grain Feeds.—The list of concentrates for dairy cows is practically unlimited. The cost, however, must be considered. It is not enough that a concentrate be labeled a food for dairy cows; it must possess a relatively large amount of protein and a small amount of fiber. The less of fat and carbohydrates in proportion to the protein, the bet- ter, provided the supply of home-grown roughage feeds is sufficient to meet the demand. In the past too little attention has been paid to the chemical composition of the concentrates. The custom has too long prevailed of buying these by name, where- as the only thing that counts is merit. The only sensible rule to follow is to study the composition of each feeding stuff, and ascertain which kind or brand will give the largest quantity of digestive nutrients and the largest quantity of digestible pro- tein. This information will be of incalculable value in buying feeds and will be a means of saving money. Among the most useful and best liked concen- trates are cottonseed meal, linseed oil meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, bran, brewers’ grain and malt sprouts. The several by-products of starch and cereal food factories are extensively advertised, but they usually sell for more than they are worth. 188 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Cereal grains are often fed dairy cows, corn more so than other cereals. On farms where alfalfa and clover form the bulk ration, corn may be fed if its market value is on a level with better-class meals and other grains. If corn silage be fed in connection with timothy or mixed grasses and corn stover, corn will not be a desirable food. There will be wanted in this instance and in others like it, concentrates like oil meal, wheat bran, gluten, distillers’ grains or other concentrates of which protein is the predomi- nating factor. Grain and Quality of Butter.—The character of the food frequently influences the quality of the but- ter. The white, hard, tasteless character of winter butter results from the food given. Fresh pasture, bright legume hays, corn silage and soiling crops give color to the milk and to butter. Gluten or corn produces a soft butter. Wheat bran makes a harder butter than either. If much of gluten is introduced into a ration, the butter. will be soft, but its hardness may be improved by the use of cottonseed meal, a feed that makes a very hard butter. By mixing the two, a better grade of butter will be obtained than if either is used alone. A pound or two of cottonseed meal when the cows are on pasture helps to counter- act the objectionable softness of butter during the: pasture season. FEEDING YOUNG DAIRY STOCK During the First Winter.—Calves dropped in the spring and early summer will be growing nicely by the time they are put up in their winter quarters. A a eae FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 189 difference of opinion still obtains as to whether it is better to raise young calves intended for the dairy on skim milk or on whole milk during the first few months of their lives. The skim-milk ration is, of course, the less expensive and many of the best dairymen believe it develops the best calves. They PICKED OUT FOR THE DAIRY These young calves have been fed skim milk “in which has been placed a small quantity of oil meal. Ground oats is to be added to the ration. claim that the calves so fed are stronger and possess larger capacity for digesting rough feed subse- quently. Whichever claim is nearest to being cor- rect, it is a fact that most dairy calves are now raised on skim milk or milk substitutes. In either method, the calves should be early ac- customed to eating grain, grass, and later in the fall, 190 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS some kind of legume hay. They will then go into winter sturdy individuals able to render a good ac- count of the feed given them. The spring-born calves need no longer be given milk, though they may have it if it is plentiful. The fall calves, how- ever, should not have their supply cut off if this can be avoided. Let both classes have all the hay they will eat up clean. It is poor economy to limit their roughage supply. You want big stomachs, large frames, and vigorous individuals. There is nothing so good as a plentiful supply of good legume hay to get these results. Satisfactory Grain Mixture—Many young calves are wintered without grain, but such a method is not to be recommended. Some grain is necessary if steady growth is sought. A mixture of coarse corn meal three parts, wheat bran one part, and lin- seed oil meal one part will give very satisfactory returns. The grain is to be given iy twomtceas morning and evening. Hay may be put in the man- gers both morning and night, and at noon also if convenient. This plan of feeding may be followed throughout the winter, the amount of grain being gradually increased as the calves grow. In the spring the same precaution in accustoming the animals to pas- ture should be observed as for the milk cows. When safely settled on grass the grain ration should be gradually decreased until a small amount is fed, or none at all. The governing factors will be the kind and character of the pasture. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE IOI During the Second Winter.—The calves will now be far along, and some of them will have been bred. The roughage food will be of a character similar to what it was the first winter. The same liberality in feeding is to be followed and the grain supply is to be more than before. Ground oats, wheat bran and linseed oil meal will now be more largely fed, be- cause these are all good as building materials and stand high as carriers of mineral substances. If corn is expensive or limited in quantity, it can bes dropped trom, the erdin “mixture valtocether, Silage is excellent, so are roots, and if either is avail- able, a limited amount, say Io to 15 pounds, should be given daily. Fed in this manner dairy calves will enter their work stalls as well-equipped milk pro- ducers, possessed of strong constitutions, rugged physiques and vitality equal to long service and much profit to their owners. STABLE MANAGEMENT Salt and Water.—Cows should have salt, either added to their rations or furnished in lump form mere iecan be taken at will In the latter way they may take too much. If added to the feed, from a half ounce to an ounce and a half should be fur- nished daily to each cow. Cows do not need to have water kept before them continuously, summer or winter. They need a liberal supply at all seasons, however ; and ice water is not good, since they often will drink really less than they need. If comforta- bly stabled in the winter, natural water, even if cold, will be satisfactory. 192 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The Practice of Dishorning is to be encouraged, as cows seem to give more milk and are more safely handled. The Tuberculin Test, consistently employed, will eradicate tuberculosis from a herd. It has no effect on the yield of milk and butter fat. WATER AVAILABLE ALL THE TIME Dairy cows require an abundance of water, and they want it fresh and clean. In the winter they should not be required to drink ice water. The Herd Bull should not be permitted to run in the pastures with the cows, as is the custom on many farms. Much exercise is advisable and may be provided for by run lots, moderate work in special instances, and in the use of chain and ring attached to cable. The bull may be stabled in stall or box stall in the same building with the cows, or kept in a small outside building where shelter is available. — FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 193 In a small run connected with the building freedom and exercise may be had. Food, similar in character and amount to that given the cows, usually is fed. Nutritious roughage and succulent food should be supplied generously, and may form the bulk of the ration. During the period of greatest service, rich food of a protein character should be fed liberally. The Order of Supplying the Food will vary as cir- cumstances arise. Certain foods, like cabbage, sil- age and turnips, will be less likely to taint the milk if fed after milking. Grain may be given just before or some time previous to milking. In the case of hay less trouble will follow from dust and odors if fed after milking. The following order is followed on many up-to-date dairy farms: Milking, first; then the grain feeding; then silage or roots; stable clean- ing while the cows are watering; following this work come hay feeding and grooming. If the weather is pleasant, the cows are turned out for ex- ercise and morning air. Towards evening the cows are watered, fed grain, milked, fed the silage or roots, and then are given their final supply of hay. SOME SAMPLE RATIONS For Dairy Calves. Provide a grain mixture consisting of ground oats and corn meal, each three parts, and oil meal and bran, each one part. In summer: Keep on pasture and give about 2 pounds of the mixture to six-month calves, 3 pounds to yearlings and 4 pounds to those 18 months old if pasture is short. IQ4 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS In winter: Continue the grain mixture, giving the yearlings 4 pounds and those 18 months old 6 pounds. Let them have all the alfalfa, clover or cowpea hay they will eat up clean. Dry Cows in Summer: 1. Give run of pasture. 2. If pasture is very short, as calving time ap- proaches feed from I to 3 pounds of bran daily. Dry Cows in Winter: 1. Clover, alfalfa or mixed hay, 15 pounds; corn silage, 20 pounds. . All hay and stover cows will eat. As parturi- tion approaches use up to 3 or 4 pounds of wheat bran, beginning at 1 pound daily at first. to For Cows Yielding From 16 to 25 Pounds of Milk Daily: e Corn silage, 40 pounds; clover hay, 15 pounds; ground corn, 3 pounds; cottonseed meal, 1 pound. . Cowpea hay, 15 pounds; corn) Stoyveruae pounds; corn silage, 30 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. . Alfalfa hay, 18 pounds; corn silage, 35 pounds. Corn stover, 15 pounds; corn meal, I pound; linseed meal, 2 pounds; wheat bran, 5 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. is) WwW ©: FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 195 . Sorghum fodder, 50 pounds; hay, 7 pounds; bran, 4 pounds; corn meal, 3 pounds; oil meal, 2 pounds. . Corn fodder, 8 pounds; clover and timothy hay, 7 pounds; sheaf oats, 5 pounds; rutabagas, 3 pounds ; bran, 2 pounds; oats, 3 pounds; corn meal, 3 pounds; oil cake, 2 pounds. Piuiaine; shay, 20) pounds. comm. todder = 10 pounds; corn meal, 6 pounds; bran, 3 pounds; oil meal, 1.5 pounds. . Clover hay, 10 pounds; corn stalks, 20 pounds; corn and cob meal, 10 pounds; bran, I pound; roots, 8 pounds. . Alfalfa, 35 pounds; bran, 7 pounds; barley, 3.5 pounds. Hay, 10 pounds; silage, 35 pounds; bran, 3 pounds; corn and cob meal, 3 pounds; gluten meal, 2 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. For Cows Yielding from 25 to 40 Pounds of Milk Daily: . Corn silage, 40 pounds; clover hay, 15 pounds; ground corn, 3 pounds; cottonseed meal, 4 pounds ; wheat bran or gluten meal, 3 pounds. . Corn silage, 35 pounds; corn stover, 6 pounds; wheat bran, 4 pounds; dried brewers’ grain, 4 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. moOOVebeal silage, 35) pounds.) alialtay hay, S pounds; corn meal, 6 pounds. . Crimson clover hay, 10 pounds; cowpea silage, 35 pounds; dried brewers’ grain, 5 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 to 4 pounds. “AbY JSAO[O poyeyo pue ‘[eour [Io “[eou Uejn]{s “;eour qoo pue uso. pas EXCYN AQUL LANYVW AHL GaddOL LVHL HONNY V 196 ce Js FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 197 Corn silage, 40 pounds; corn stover, 7 pounds; wheat bran, 5 pounds; dried brewers’ grain, 5 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. Alfalfa hay, 20 pounds; corn meal, 8 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. . Alfalfa hay or clover hay, 15 pounds; corn sil- age, 20 pounds; bran, 3 pounds; linseed oil meal, 2 pounds; ground oats, 2.5 pounds; hominy feed, 2.5 pounds; gluten feed, 5 pounds. Clover, alfalfa or cowpea hay, 10 pounds; green cut corn, 40 pounds; hominy feed, 5 pounds; cottonseed meal, 1 pound; distillers’ grain, 8 pounds. Corn silage, 35 pounds; clover hay, 9 pounds; corn, 5 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds; bran, 2 pounds. Mixed hay, 15 pounds; dried beet pulp, 4 pounds; gluten feed, 2 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds; corn meal, 2 pounds. CEVA Ay ev eliialt FEEDING BEEF CATTLE Food Requirements for Beef.—The Wolff-Leh- mann standards for feeding the various classes of cat- tle are shown in the table below. They indicate the amount of food required per 1,000 pounds live weight and are for both growing and fattening beef animals. WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARDS FOR FEEDING BEEF CATTLE Digestible nutrients Dry Carbo- Nutritive Kind of cattle matter | Protein] hydrates} Fat ratio Growing cattle Agein months Weight AU@ & 160 23 4.2 13.0 2.0 12472 Biu@ © 330 24 3.5 12.8 15 ie 6 to 12 550 25 2e5) UB. 0.7 1:6.0 12 to 18 750 24 2.0 1B 0.5 1:6.8 18 to 24 950 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 ee Fattening cattle First period 30 Bie 15.0 0.5 US Second period 30 3.0 14.5 0.7 IS 64: Third period 26 BT 15.0 0.7 1622 Wild Cattle Are Seldom Fat.—Animals in a wild state are not easily fattened. It has taken many cen- turies of careful selection and breeding to bring the cattle of the plains or the lowlands or the mountains up to a point at which they will lay on gains rapidly and at a reasonable cost. It has been the work of 198 a FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 199 the breeder to select out of the whole those individ- uals that were most disposed to fatten easily and naturally, and use them as foundation stock for an ever-improving race of meat animals. In time breeds have been developed that repre- sent in a high degree this tendency or disposition to give rapid increase and to fatten readily. With all the care, however, there is a large proportion of the cattle stock that is still inferior for any purpose for which it might be selected. THE SAME Cow, SIDE AND REAR Here is a typical beef type. Observe how she differs from the typical dairy cows previously shown. Success in the feed lot will depend on the class and the inheritance of the animals selected. Hence, in fattening cattle, the first task is to select the right kind of animals—those that have been bred to fat- ten, that possess hidden quality and that are of the conformation which practical experience has shown to be associated with rapid increase and tender, juicy meat. Younger Stock Now Being Fattened.—In the old days cattle were carried along for four or five years 200 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS and then fattened. The new idea is to grow beet. Young animals are now brought to maturity and finish at as early an age as possible. If steers can be brought by liberal treatment to marketable weight at 12 or 18 months old, the amount of food consumed will be smaller than if two, three or more years are spent in attaining the same weight. Thus the food that would have been consumed for animal heat and energy during the longer period can be saved. Of course only a good class of cattle can be chosen if this style of beef making is to be followed. There will be no place in it for scrub animals. Only highly bred individuals possessing good quality, good health, and right type can be used to win in this race of quick finish. But it is obvious that when steers can be brought to market condition at an early age the profit can be greatly increased. This method of beef raising means more than the selection of animals having a disposition to fatten. It requires more on the part of the feeder, and also better feeds, prepared in appetizing forms and so compounded as to meet the food requirements at every stage of growth. GOOD AND BAD BEEF STOCK Character of a Good Steer.—The steer that will fatten readily is low-set, deep, broad and compact, rather than long-legged, gaunt, narrow and loosely put together. The broad, compact form indi- cates good constitution. Low-set animals are usu- FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 201 ally good feeders. The top and the under lines should be nearly parallel. Prominent hips, tail, head and shoulders should be avoided, as smoothness of outline is essential. Good quality is indicated in a smooth, refined head, fine bones, and thin skin, with a covering of silk-like hair. The skin should be loose and mellow. A BEEF STEER OF HIGH QUALITY This animal is Black Rock, the grand champion steer of the 1905 Inter- national live stock show. He was a good feeder and rendered a splendid account of all the feed he consumed. Strong constitution is indicated by a wide, deep chest, long and well-sprung ribs, compactness of form and fineness of bone. Two Classes of Beef Animals.—lIt is obvious that lean feeding animals that have depended on scant pastures require a different ration when put in the feed lot than those in moderate condition. In the thin stock the fibers of the flesh need development 202 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS in order that fat may be stored in between and among them. Such animals require a feeding period of three or four weeks, in which a greater quantity of protein will be given than later on. After this preliminary feeding the proportion of carbohydrates and fats may be increased. A limit as to the amount of fat, however, is to be observed. When more than a couple of pounds of digestible ROUGH FEEDERS Poor stock and poor feed, without exception, mean poor farming. fat are taken into the system, the appetite and the digestion are disturbed. A ration containing from a pyound to a pound and a half is to be preferred to one containing two pounds of fat or more. Nature of the Ration—During the period of growth and approach of fattening the amount of roughage food may be considerable. This will de- crease as the fattening period advances, and more of the concentrates will be introduced to meet the changing needs of the fattening ration. For inten- sive feeding the coarse fodders, like stover and straw, must give way to the legume hays and grain. I ———— ee FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 203 Pasture is a splendid food, but high finish is sel- dom possible with it as the exclusive feed. A short period in the feed lot with corn and oil meal or cot- tonseed meal is necessary. Pasture feeding is neces- sary for profitable money returns covering the greater part of the life of the steers. The better the condition when taken from pasture the quicker the steers can be finished, and consequently the greater the profit. Even at best, finishing cattle is a risky business and needs to be watched with sharp eyes. But heavy feeding is desirable. To stretch out the fat- tening period is to increase the risk and to lessen the profit unless favored by a rising market. Quick work in the feed lot is usually cheap fattening. FROM CALF TO STEER Feeding Calves Intended for Beef.—Two methods of feeding are open for young calves. One is to al- low the calf to remain with and take its milk from its mother, the other is to remove the calf, substi- tuting skim milk for the whole milk. The latter plan is extending for the reason that butter fat is important, commercially. The skim milk fed calf, while at a disadvantage, can be profitably developed. Excellent substitutes for the fat in the milk are available in the grains and can be secured at a small cost compared with butter fat. A calf raised at its mother’s side makes rapid growth and at weaning time is in excellent flesh. The skim milk calf is usually not so plump but is 204 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS of larger frame than the whole milk fed calf. Which- ever method is followed, in either case the calves should be grained in accordance with their needs while on the milk diet. They should be fed grain just as soon as they will take it. The Skim Milk Calf should have oil meal added SELECTED FOR BABY BEEF These calves are ready to fatten for baby beef. Well-bred individuals of good form and quality are necessary for success in this kind of feeding. to its milk diet while the change from whole to skim milk is under way. At first a very small amount, as little as a tablespoonful, may be given. This quantity will be increased when whole milk is no longer given, and still further increased as the calf grows older and larger. ~ FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 205 These calves should be on pasture, be fed oil meal and skim milk twice each day, have clean water available for drink, and have placed before them a Miike Ol other crains like cracked corn, wheat bran and ground oats. If encouraged they will at Pcp olchuMiss imytime they willtecat itsoreedily, Goop VEAL Veal calves sell at good prices, but they withdraw vast numbers from the supply of available cattle stock. But so fed they will show steady growth and carry good flesh. Calves on Whole Milk will show fine flesh at weaning time. If allowed to run with their dams on good pasture, but little additional food than the milk will be necessary. It is an excellent practice, how- ever, to encourage whole milk calves to eat grain 206 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS as soon as they will take to it. Ground oats, bran and corn comprise a mixture that always fetches good results. Whole milk calves when separated from their mothers should have the run of a good pasture, and the grain mixture should be fed in in- creased quantities right up to weaning time. Ordi- narily no mishaps will occur, and after being weaned the calves will hold their flesh and keep on gaining steadily. Making Veal.—While much veal is made from feeding skim milk and milk substitute grains, un- doubtedly the highest quality of veal is obtained by exclusive whole milk feeding. The calf is either left with its dam or is early taught to drink milk from the pail. If the latter method is followed, it may be given all the milk it will consume. If for any reason additional food is given, let it be of an easily digestible nature, and reasonably high in pro- tein. In other words, the nearer it resembles milk the better. Veal calves should be comfortably housed and re- stricted in their freedom of running about. Much exercise calls for much food, hence makes more diffi- cult the work of fitting for the market. An increase of 11%4 to 2% pounds in live weight should be ex- pected daily. Ordinarily a gain of one pound will be made from each gallon of milk consumed. Strong, sturdy calves will take from a gallon to a gallon and a half of milk soon after birth. This amount should be increased steadily until a couple of gallons or more are daily consumed. FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 207 Feed During the First Winter.—The aim of feed- ing during the first winter should be to supply in ‘liberal quantities digestible protein and mineral mat- ter. Comfortable quarters must be provided for protection against inclement weather. Shelter is of more importance during the first winter than at any subsequent age. Cattle men are giving less atten- tion in these days to inclosed stables and barns than BaABy BEEF These are ready for market and will be sold for baby beef. Note the high quality and finish. formerly. Open sheds, facing the sun and protected from rains and storms, will satisfy all the demands for comfort and shelter that full-grown steers Require. | The kind of food set before these calves will de- pend somewhat upon the age at which they are to be marketed. If they are to be finished during late spring or early summer on grass, they should have a very liberal supply of food, with steadily increasing 208 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS amounts of grain. The protein supply will be kept up because of the rapid growth which calls for this nutrient. Towards the close of winter the protein require- ments decrease markedly in proportion to the live weight. Hence, the albuminoid ratio of the ration of growing beeves may be steadily widened to the limiting value, which is in the neighborhood of one part protein to eight to ten of the carbohydrate equivalent. Let the food be ample, so as to secure growth, but not of such a character as to encourage too rapid fattening. The best results will be secured during the calves’ first winter if alfalfa, clover, cowpea or soy bean hay is made the basis of the ration. Let the calves have about all they will eat. If corn silage is available, from 10 to 15 pounds may be fed daily: Wt there iam a tendency to scour under this feeding, limit the legume hay and silage and introduce a few pounds of timothy, prairie hay or corn stover. Calves fed in this manner should consume from Io to 13 pounds of roughage daily. ‘As for grain, nothing is better than corn, and par- ticularly so if a legume hay is fed. From two to four pounds may be fed each day. In case grass hays, corn stover and corn silage must be used for roughage, some protein concentrate will be neces- sary in addition to corn. For this purpose linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal or soy bean meal. may be used. A pound or two of either, mixed with the corn, will meet the requirements. Oats are good, but the price usually is against them. FEEDING BEEF CATTLE . 209 Finishing Beeves Under 18 Months.—When calves are to be finished as baby beeves, their ration will take on more and more grain concentrates as mwanter passes. ‘Cor should be fed. im ‘liberal amounts, from one-half to three-quarters of the grain portion consisting of it. In case legumes are PRIME STEERS On many farms it is more profitable to carry the steers to greater age than to market as baby beef. This is a bunch of prime steers. largely fed, the grain portion may consist largely of corn, with enough oil meal or bran to give a safe supply of protein. In the absence of alfalfa, clover or other legume hay, one of the oil meals should be Hced to) the extent.of 20 per cent,of the grain. The ration should be steadily increased to meet the steady growth and weight taken on during the 210 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS several weeks of feeding. By spring these calves, now yearlings, should weigh from 800 to 1,000 pounds and be in such good flesh that they may be marketed in a very short time after being put on a finishing ration. If finished at once, the roughage will be decreased and concentrates proportionally HERD OF ANGUS IN MIDDLE WEST Beef raising has long been popular in the middle west, where corn, alfalfa, clover and other beef-growing crops flourish so abundantly. increased, but consisting of the same or similar feed- ing stuffs as previously fed. Baby Beeves Finished on Grass.—In case pasture is abundant the grain can be fed less heavily dur- ing winter and the finishing of the calves ended a few weeks later on grass. Less grain will be re- quired under this plan during the winter. On grass, BREEDENG BEBE CAD TEE 211 however, an ample supply of grain will be called for. The grain ration should contain 15 to 20 per cent of oil meal or cottonseed meal if the calves are pastured on timothy, prairie, Bermuda or blue grass. If the pasture consists of mixed grasses, clover and alfalfa, not more than Io per cent of the concen- trates need to be of a protein nature. Calves fed in this manner should weigh from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds and be ready for market before tormenting insects and hot weather come to annoy them. BEEVES FINISHED AT TWO YEARS OF AGE Objections Against Baby Beef.—For animals brought up to marketable stage as baby beef, con- tinuous grain feeding from birth to the end is neces- sary. Whether this ts best is still an unsettled prob- lem, even though many men are able to secure good profits by following the plan. The method has its limitations. While adaptable to the lines of farm- ing operated on certain farms, the practice of car- rying cattle along until in the range at two years of age is still the more popular practice. Most likely it meets the conditions of the average farm on which beef cattle are grown. In the first place the steer is, by nature, a good instrument for converting large amounts of coarse or bulk food into meat. The pig is not able to do this. Compared with the pig, the baby beef steer renders a less satisfactory account of the grain it consumes. For this reason doubtless this pig com- 212 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS petitor will limit the extent to which baby beef will be produced. When calves are fed that they may be ready for market at or around two years of age, their first winter's food should be of such a nature as to secure favorable growth and to keep them steadily on the gain. The manner of feeding will depend on the nature of the roughage foods, as has been discussed heretofore. In the spring these calves will go on grass, and if the pasture is good, grain will ordina- rily not be fed. If hot, dry weather cuts short the pasture, light grain feeding will be advisable. The skillful farmer will watch these matters as they arise and meet them in accordance with his best judgment, which will be influenced very largely by the amount, kind, and market value of the grain on hand, and the cost incidental to obtaining a supply of commercial feeds. During the second winter the steers will be fed on hay, stover, and silage if available, and grain. The steers should be allowed to eat all the rough- age food they want. If alfalfa, clover or other legume hay is fed, more corn in the grain mixture may be used. In the absence of a legume hay then protein concentrates will be necessary. From two to five pounds may be fed daily at first. The nature of the hay, the character of the cattle, and the mar- ket price of feed, must all be considered in deciding the kind and amount of each. Finishing Two-Year-Olds on Grass.—In feeding out steers that have passed through two winters and are in good flesh pastures are a great help. During FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 213 the second winter grain will be fed rather liberally. By May or June such animals ought to be of a mar- ketable finish if turned on good pasture and fed heavily on grain. Corn is sufficient on alfalfa; but, pastured on mixed grasses, at least 10 per cent of the grain should consist of oil meal, cottonseed meal or gluten meal. Steers fed in this way should gain two pounds on the grain mixture. CATTLE ON ALFALFA With corn and alfalfa in abundance there is always profit in cattle raising. Summer Feeding on Grass—On many farms early spring pasturing is delayed until grass has at- tained a fine growth, and the sod has become dry enough after the spring rains to prevent injury from tramping. During this period the steers are con- tinued in the feed lot and fed silage, hay and grain in amounts liberal enough to give a fair rate of in- crease at a reasonable cost. The steers are then put on pasture, the grain increased and a market finish obtained as early in the summer as possible. 214 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Care will need to be exercised in changing from dry feed to grass; otherwise shrinkage will be cer- tain to follow. The steers should be turned on the pasture for a short time at first, gradually lengthen- ing the grazing period day by day. In this manner they will become accustomed to grass and the risk FAMILIAR SCENE ON THE STOCK FARM Cattle take their grain from the feed box and the pigs gather up what falls to the ground. Usually no additional food is given the pigs other than what they gather from the waste and the droppings. of scours will be minimized. An attack of scours will do much harm; often it will cause a loss of a month or more in the steer’s growth. Fall Feeding on Grass.—On many farms the older beeves are pastured through the summer, with little or considerable grain, as the case may be, and fin- ished on new corn. The corn is hauled direct from FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 215 the cornfield to the pasture and is fed on the stalk. If little or any grain has been given previously, only a small feed at first is hauled out to them. As rapidly as may be done safely the corn may be in- creased, until in a month or six weeks the steers are on full feed. From now on they may refuse much of the forage. Where this forage is of value, snapped corn should be substituted for half of the ration. hieeeier pasture 1s) short, at the besiuming. of winter, shocked corn may be used for roughage. When the pasture is no longer available, protein feeds must be used, and some shelled or ground corn used in connection with them. Under this system of feeding, pigs should be permitted to follow the steers, else much valuable grain will be wasted. Not only will this method admit of steady growth of the pigs, but these animals will practically grow up to marketable finish, thus giving a double chance of profit from the use of the grain. FEEDING FULL-GROWN CATTLE Older Steers Are Still Marketed.—In some sec- tions cheap lands are yet the rule and more pasture is available than could be used economically under the tillage system utilized. Under these circum- stances older steers are preferred. They are bought of neighboring farmers at all ages and at small cost and turned on pasture where they are forced to shift for themselves. So placed they grow slowly, may or may not keep steadily on a gain, but in time at- tain size and foundation for fattening. 216 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The initial cost is, of course, inconsiderable, and the outlay for feed is practically nothing. During favorable seasons pastures may be good. Then rapid increase will follow as a certainty. Steers raised in this manner mature slowly, but they will not have cost much. Even if they are three years old or more, the total cost will be at such a low FEEDING BEEF CATTLE IN THE OPEN It used to be thought that steers were most profitably fattened when stall fed. It has been found that they do even better if cared for in the open. Many feeders prefer open sheds for feeding during inclement weather. figure that some profit is bound to result. The fin- ishing period, preliminary to getting ready for slaughtering, may be short or long. It will depend somewhat on the condition of the animals and the state of the market. Given the run of a good pas- ture, and supplied corn and other concentrates for a short period, a reasonable finish and often highly satisfactory money results are to be expected. FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 217 Often steers of this nature are carefully and pains- takingly fattened, and when sold bring the highest prices that the market pays. Fatten the Heifers Early.—Heifer calves are very good for baby beef. They naturally take on fat and flesh, and if brought up to a marketable condition by the time they are a year or a year and a half old they will fetch as good prices as steers of the same age. By turning heifers off as baby beeves annoyance from the period of heat is lessened. Otherwise, unless spayed, heifers will fret and dis- turb the rest of the herd periodically, and not attain best development themselves. It follows that if many such heifers are in a herd there will be con- tinuous excitement and disturbance, which is bad for the entire bunch. It means that the heifers must be separated as they come in heat if the trouble is to be squarely faced; but it is a fact that few cattle men do this. Ridding the herd of these open heifers at an early age as baby beeves seems to be a sensi- ble and wise settlement of an annoying problem. PROMINENT FEEDING STUFFS Many Kinds of Roughage Foods.—Local condi- tions will have much to do in the choice of rough- age foods. The various hay crops, corn stover, fod- der corn, and silage are all valuable at certain periods of the steer’s growth. They will be used in scant or liberal quantities, in accordance with the supply and the general style of farming. Pastures either of a temporary or a permanent nature will go 218 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS hand in hand with the forage crops grown on the farm. The aim of the future should be to include the legumes more and more, although the grass hays and the products of the corn plant will always oc- cupy an important place in the food supply for grow- ing and fattening cattle. CHAMPION STEERS This carload of steers was awarded champion honors at a recent live stock show. It is not so much what kind of roughage is to be used as it is that there be an abundance. With even inferior roughage it is possible to develop cattle economically if good pastures are available and pro- tein concentrates in reasonable amount are fed. It should be remembered that if there is much corn stover there is also much ear corn. This corn can be fed or exchanged for other concentrates that carry large quantities of protein, to assist in balanc- FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 219 ing the stover or the silage. In addition to this some of the legumes should be fed. It is a poor sys- tem of farming that will not admit clover, cowpeas and soy beans, even though alfalfa has not been successfully grown ; The roughage materials successfully grown in a community are satisfactory basic foods for growing beef. The art will rest with their employment in feeding rations in connection with other balancing foods to give the right balance. Cattle should not simply have thrown before them such foods as are at hand. These foods should be so prepared and balanced as to provide the necessary food nutrients in the proper proportion that cattle of the specific age shall demand. 7 Leading Grain Foods.—Corn is first in the list of grain products. It is fed in many forms—ground, shelled onthe ear, crushed with the cob, 1m the shuck, and green on the stalk. So universally is it grown and so readily adapted is it to practically all sections that it will continue to be the chief grain provided in most rations for feeding steers for beef. Tt carries much starch and oil, and is therefore largely a fattening food. It stands high nevertheless as a growing or developing food, but being some- what lacking in protein, it is not and should not be considered an exclusive grain for growing ani- mals. Fortunately there is a wide choice of supplemen- tary concentrates to use in connection with corn. Chief among these for steers are, cottonseed meal, linseed oil meal, soy bean meal, wheat bran, the 220 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS glutens, and various by-products of starch and cereal factories. It is unnecessary here to record the long list of grain products that enter into the production of beef. Some are local feeds; some are prohibitive because of their value for other purposes; and some, while good and available, are ordinarily outclassed as fattening foods because of the better qualities and larger supply of such grains and concentrates, as previously mentioned. TRACK CONTRIVANCE FOR FEEDING CATTLE The grain is prepared and mixed in the barn and later delivered by means of the track and cars to the feeding pens. In this way much labor is saved. Whether grains shall be ground, crushed or fed whole, or whether they shall be fed on pasture or in the feed lot, in outside racks or in closed stalls, will depend upon circumstances, the management of the farm and the nature of the man. What is most important of all is to grow as much corn as can be profitably grown; to grow as much roughage as the method of farming will admit, and to have as much of this of a legume nature as possible; to FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 221 use home-grown corn to feed in connection with this roughage ; and, finally, to supplement roughage and corn with other concentrates purchased outright or secured in exchange for corn and fed in such ways as will give balanced rations to meet the ever- changing needs of the steers under feed. SOME SAMPLE RATIONS Maintenance Ration for Breeding Cows. The following rations are for cows during the win- ter and without calves: 1. Corn silage, 20 pounds; clover hay, 3 pounds; oat straw, 10 pounds. 2. Shock corn, 8 pounds; clover hay, 3 pounds; oat straw, IO pounds. Be ounedded Stover, 10) pounds; clover hay, = 5 pounds. Winter Yearlings With and Without Grain. 1. Corn silage, 15 pounds; clover hay, 15 pounds. 2. Clover hay, 10 pounds; corn stover, 10 pounds; corn, 3 pounds. 3. Timothy hay, 8 pounds; clover hay, 8 pounds; corn, 3 pounds. . Alfalfa hay, 10 pounds; corn, 5 pounds. . Cowpea hay, 10 pounds; corn, 5 pounds. . Clover hay, 14 pounds; corn, 3 pounds. . Alfalfa, 7 pounds; corn stover, 6 pounds; corn, 3 pounds. N OS U1 222 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Rations for Fattening Steers. ile Io. it: Shelled corn, 21 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds; clover hay, 4 pounds; corn silage, 15 pounds. . Corn, 22 pounds; alfalfa hay, 5 pounds; corn stover, 5 pounds. . Corn, 14 pounds; alfalfa hay, 10 pounds; corn stover, 7 pounds. . Ear corn, 20 pounds; gluten Of Jorma pounds; clover hay, 8 pounds. . Ear corn, 13 pounds; oil meal, 2 pounds; shock corn, 15 pounds; clover hay, 7 pounds. . Kafir corn, 15 pounds; ‘cottonseed synrealuure pounds; cottonseed hulls, 13 pounds. . Corn, 15 pounds; cottonseed meal, 3 pounds; mixed hay, 10 pounds. . Cottonseed hulls, 25 pounds; cottonseed meal, 61% pounds. . Alfalfa hay, 9 pounds; corn, 18 pounds. Corn silage, 24 pounds; mixed hay, 5 pounds; shelled corn, 15 pounds; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds. Corn. silage, 30 pounds; shelled coraymae pounds; cottonseed meal, 3 pounds. . Cassava, 35 pounds; peavine hay, 10 pounds; cottonseed meal, 4 pounds. (CISUAIP IDRIS DIX FEEDING SHEEP Food Requirements for Sheep.—The Wolff-Leh- mann standards for feeding the various classes of sheep are shown in the table below. They indicate the amount of food required per 1,000 pounds live weight for both wool and mutton, and for growing, mature and fattening sheep. WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARDS FOR FEEDING SHEEP Digestible nutrients Dry Carbo- Nutritive Kind of sheep | matter| Protein! hydrates| Fat ratio Growing sheep Wool breeds Agein months Weight 4to 6 60 25 3.4 15.4 0.7 1:5.0 6to 8 75 25 2.8 13.8 0.6 1:5.4 3) 1) Ihil 80 7433 rel al 5) 0.5 1:6.0 11 to15 90 22 1.8 le 0.4 S70) 15 to 20 100 22 16H) 10.8 0.3 nln reen(t Growing sheep Mutton breeds 4to 6 60 26 4.4 115) 55 0.9 1:4.0 6to 8 80 26 3.5 15.0 0.7 AES 8 toll 100 24 3.0 14.3 0.5 1 35)4) 11 to15 120 23 BD 12.6 0.5 186.33 15 to 20 150 BY 2.0 12.0 0.4 1:6.5 Mature sheep Coarse wool .. 20 132 10.5 OR ite 13Q)1 Fine wool ... 23 155) 12.0 0.3 Leo Breeding ewes With lambs .. 25 2.9 15.0 0.5 1:5.6 Fattening sheep First period .. 30 3.0 15.0 0.5 1:5.4 Second period 28 3.5 AS 0.6 1:4.5 FEEDING SHEEP 225 + Wool and Mutton.—The food consumed by sheep is used for both flesh and wool. Hence, these ani- mals have a double requirement to meet. Wool con- tains much nitrogen, and a slightly more liberal supply of protein is demanded than for either swine or beeves. Sheep, too, are very active creatures; their body surface is proportionately greater than that of beeves. Because of this they require more food, proportionately. The larger breeds of sheep require about. one pound of digestible protein to eight pounds of starch equivalent, the smaller breeds slightly more. The wool growth becomes less active as the food supply is reduced, but if more food is given than the ami- mal has use for, the rate of wool Ee will not be increased. 3 Relative Economy of Sheep, Steers and Pigs.— Compared with swine, the sheep does not render quite as good an account of its food as does the pig; in fact, it requires nearly twice as much digestible Organic matter to produce 100 pounds of gain. While this is true, it is not to be forgotten that much @r the sheepis provender is in the torm of hay or other roughage and of a nature that the pig could not use. Pigs demand easily digested food, and that largely in the form of grain. From the point of profit, therefore, the sheep is not at a disadvantage at all. Compared with steers, sheep have slightly the better of it. Nearly 50 years ago Lawes and Gil- bert determined that, covering a whole fattening period, a steer, to produce 100 pounds of increase, 226 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS requires 3,500 pounds of swedes, 600 pounds of clover hay and 250 pounds of oil meal. To produce the same increase these investigators found that sheep require 4,000 pounds of swedes, 300 pounds of clover hay and 250 pounds of oil meal. The ad- vantage as between steers and sheep was slightly with the latter. Wide Variety of Feed for Sheep.—The variety of SHEEP RANGE IN THE NORTHWEST foods suitable for feeding sheep is extensive. Hay, straw, corn stover, roots of various kinds, corn, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat, cottonseed meal, linseed oil meal, and bran furnish a variety from which a proper choice can readily be made. The relative feeding values of these various substances used as food will determine the relative money values, and as these differ and fluctuate from time to time, it is FEEDING SHEEP 227 often necessary, in order to secure the most profit on) the feeding, to choose the food that is most economical to use, although it may be the highest in price. Cottonseed meal, while one of the highest priced concentrates on the market, is at the same time a heavy carrier of protein, and when a rough- age material like corn stover or timothy hay is fed, cottonseed meal is really a cheaper food than corn at a much less cost. It is not only advisable, but very profitable, to pay a higher price for this grain than for other less heavy protein carriers, even at prices considerably less. The two most valuable feeds for winter use are clover and alialfa. Cut when in blossom, cured so as to preserve all good qualities and kept from damp and mold, each of these is a good basic food for all feeding purposes, and where a maintenance diet is desired each will practically meet the requirements without any additional supply. Well-cured pea straw comes third in the list, and is hked by sheep better than either timothy or any other grass or cereal hay. @at hay, if cut when the grains are in the milk stage, is much liked and is an admirable feed for sheep. Fodder corn is greedily eaten, blades, husks and ears, the hard stalks only being rejected. When fodder corn is fed, some protein food like oil meal, bran, pea meal, or a mixture should be fed in addi- tion. Choosing the Feed.—While there is wide choice as to the variety of food, those foods that furnish abundant flesh should be chosen for the grow- 228 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS ing classes, and those rich in starch and oil selected for fattening. The protein supply should be suffi- cient, else the body will not be properly supported, wool growth will be checked, and the readiest digestion of the carbohydrates and fats will not be secured. This last point must always be kept.in mind in feed- ing any class of live stock. 7 Much may be gained by varying or mixing the food so as to stimulate the appetite. A healthy sheep will increase in weight in proportion to the food consumed only as long as digestion and assimilation are of a high order. If a sheep can be made to in- crease its diet by the addition of roots or appetizing concentrates, a manifest advantage is gained. Roots Always Fine for Sheep.—Roots, a staple food, are of the greatest value in winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper quantities, their laxa- tive effect healthfully opposes. the tendency of dry straw or hay to produce costiveness. If fed in ex- cess, the quantity of water they contain and their large bulk, especially when used in winter, reduce the temperature of the animal considerably and gradually act unfavorably on the health. Watery foods are not good for sheep. Sheep need succu- lence, but roots and green crops should be consid- ered as supplements only, and not as the basic por- tions of the ration. The roots most commonly fed are sugar beets, mangels, rutabagas and turnips. Each kirid is fav- orable in effect upon the quality of the wool. The - quantity of roots to be given will depend on the kind of sheep.. As a safe guide, it may be stated FEEDING SHEEP 229 that one bushel of roots will be sufficient as a daily allowance for 10 sheep weighing 150 pounds each, if along with. the roots 1%4 pounds of hay and % pound of meal or bran are given daily to each animal. Sheep Require Water.—During the summer sheep frequently are put on pastures where water is not available. While they may be able to subsist under TEMPORARY PASTURES BEST FOR SHEEP If grazed over the same land year after year the pastures become infested with parasites. On permanent pastures sheep should be changed frequently. Temporary pastures of timothy and clover provide rich forage and the constant turning of the land by the plow keeps the parasites in check. these conditions they often suffer, and even perish, from lack of water. So long as heavy dews gather on the grass considerable water is taken into the system and its demand is in this way met, but in the hot summer, when dews are infrequent or totally lacking and pastures are dry, there is a decided need for water. This must be provided if satisfactory 230 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS growth is to be secured. It is an old fallacy that sheep do not need water. When Turning to Pasture—-Change from dry forage to fresh pasture gradually. An afternoon is best when no moisture is on the grass. After feed- ing on this pasture for a short time return the flock to the yard. Repeat in this manner for a few days, and little if any digestive disturbances will arise. After four or five days the sheep will become accus- tcmed to green feed. Proportion of Grain to Roughage.—Practical feeders have found no definite rule to use in this matter. If grain is abundant and hay scarce, more grain is fed than when the opposite condition ob- tains. For economical gains the roughage material will be fed in as large quantities as the animals may be induced to eat. Some grain, however, is neces- sary. The amount will vary from 1% to 2 pounds cf roughage to one pound of grain. Under average feeding conditions about 300 pounds of grain and 500 pounds of roughage will be required to give too pounds of increase. If on blue grass or rape pasture, about 175 pounds of corn should secure 100 pounds of gain. How Often to Feed Sheep.—Usually sheep, when being fattened, are fed twice each day. Slightly bet- ter returns have been observed when three feeds are provided. The gain is not large, but it is frequently sufficient to meet more than the cost in labor and trouble. Feeding Corn in the Field—When sheep are at pasture ear corn may be scattered about, two or FEEDING SHEEP 231 three bushels each day to each 100 sheep in the flock. The corn should be thinly scattered, and fed half in the morning and half at night. This practice may be followed during any season of the year. Rape an Excellent Sheep Feed.—This splendid forage crop combines well with corn. Where corn in the field is fed off, it is desirable that rape be seeded in the field at the last cultivation. Ordina- rily, the sheep will blend the two feeds, consuming SHEEP ON RAPE PASTURE both corn and rape. If rape is seeded separately and sheep turned on it to graze, the addition of one to two bushels of corn a head during the fattening period of 100 days is to be commended. Roughage Feeds.—Pasture is entitled to the first place of good roughage feeds. It may consist of alfalfa, clover, mixed grasses, or blue grass. After these come the roots and rape. Each has its place. Cured as hay, naturally alfalfa and clover fall in the 232 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS first rank, and are always to be preferred for lamb feeding, fattening ewes or wethers, or during the lambing season. In their absence the mixed hays may be used, but heavier grain feeding vat be neces- sary, particularly at lambing time. Temporary Fences by Means of Hurdles.—In grazing forage crops like peas and rape, temporary fences in the form of hurdles may be used. These hurdles are moved forward every few days, provid- ing in this way a strip of fresh pasture. Otherwise, if given the run of a field, much forage will be de- stroyed and soiled by tramping. Move the hurdles before the eaten-over portion has been cleaned up. Putting Sheep on Full Grain Rations.—lf grain has been. fed while sheep are at paStute a sean easy matter to change from pasture to yard and put on fattening rations. Beginning with a fourth of a pound of grain daily, the amount may gradually be increased by a fourth of a pound the second week, and so on. At the end of the fourth week the ani- mals should be cleaning up a pound or more of grain each day. By the end of two months a daily allow- ance of 1%4 or 2 pounds may be fed. It is seldom advisable to feed more than two pounds of grain a head daily. The good shepherd watches his sheep and observes the first indication of bad appetite. When noticed, he corrects the trouble at once. Green Crops for Roughage.—Sheep are most at home in pasture fields. They feed not only on the tender grass blades, but they strip weeds and other foul plants of their leaves and branches. They are in truth the plant scavengers of the farm. But kept FEEDING SHEEP 233 on the same land in the same field year after year without change the pastures become foul, disease lurks in the soil and dangerous parasites accumu- late. For these reasons sheep should be changed frequently from field to field, from year to year, and except in the case of well-established permanent pastures, crop rotation should be followed so the fields may be clean of disease or parasites and may be ever fresh with new-growing grass crops. Over a good part of the country timothy and clover, with red top and alsike or white clover occa- sionally mixed, comprise much of the pasture land. The prairie grasses of the west and Bermuda grass of the south take care of the local needs in these parts of the country. Blue grass is the stand-by of the old grazing sections; in addition to it other crops may find place and may be profitably grown. Rye seeded in August makes a fairly good pasture for lambs and old sheep in the fall. It will furnish excellent grazing in the spring before the clovers, alfalfa and blue grass are available. Some of the Best Grains.——Corn stands first be- cause it is so universally grown. It is well liked by sheep and makes profitable gains. It may be fed in the husk, on the stalk, in the feed rack, in the field, crushed, ground or shelled. Some feeders dislike to use corn when finely ground, because sheep eat it too greedily. Ear corn is satisfactory for winter yearlings and ewes. Oats are fed to some extent, but they should be ground or crushed. They make excellent feed for either lambs, or ewes in milk. Compared with many 234 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS other feeding stuffs oats are rather expensive, and for this reason they often give way to linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal, soy beans, and wheat bran. Wheat bran, being bulky, is splendid to use in a mixture with the oil meals. Wheat screenings, where available, give good re- turns. Not many years back screenings were a principal part of fattening rations. This food prod- uct has been very largely taken over by stock food and commercial food factories, thus leaving only a small amount for sheep feeding. Screenings are OUT AT PASTURE The sheep have been kept thrifty by wise feeding and careful attention. Both ewes and lambs are together. ground and mixed with various weed seeds and other by-products of the cereal food factories... The price at which these foods are sold is high and usu- ally out of proportion to the price that sheep bring in the market. With the breaking up of large flocks, sheep will be raised more and more in small flocks on small farms of 50 to 100 acres. On such farms they will have the run of the temporary pastures, will be fed FEEDING SHEEP 235 the hay crops ordinarily raised on the farm, will be supplied to some extent with silage, and fattened on rape, cowpeas, soy beans, corn, oil meal and cotton- seed meal and the ordinary roughage materials cus- tomarily grown on each farm. Feeding Lambs for Market.—For most markets the feeding process begins late in the fall or the early winter. In addition to late fall pasture, such as rye, rape, new growth of blue grass, young clover or al- READY FOR MARKET Their ration consisted of clover hay, oil meal, ground oats, and corn. falfa, lambs will have been using in many instances leguminous hays or other dry fodder, so that by the time they are actually confined in close feeding pens and placed upon a fattening ration their digestive systems will have become accustomed to dry feed. So handled they will be in condition to use econom- ically large amounts of forage and grain, and should gain from the first week after being placed in con- finement. 230 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Roots and succulent feeds are not essential in successful lamb feeding. Experiments indicate that under some conditions these feeds may be detrimen- tal to the most economical gains. It is a mooted question and will have to be worked out by every feeder. A well-balanced ration consisting of hay and grain, plenty of water, regular feeding and com- fortable quarters are the factors that produce nearly all the fat lambs. Alfalfa is beyond question the best forage, but in its absence clover, cowpeas or other leguminous forage is a good substitute and practically indispensable. If such forage is not at hand, then sugar cane, kafir corn, millet or mixed hay, cut at the proper period and carefully cured, will give good gains, although more grain will be necessary. The grain ration will consist largely of corn. Cracked corn is usually preferred to whole corn. Small amounts of oil meal, ground oats, or both, may be introduced into the ration with good effect; if a leguminous hay is not used, one of them should certainly be added. Lambs should weigh about 60 pounds when placed in the feed lot. After a feed- ing period of 60 to go days they should weigh from go to 95 pounds. Often heavier weights than these are obtained, but when a lamb weighs more than 100 pounds he is likely to be discriminated against by buyers and may possibly have to be sold for a sheep instead of a lamb, at a lower price. Fattening Grown Sheep.—The feeding of wethers or grown ewes for market does not differ much from the method einployed in fattening lambs. On some FEEDING SHEEP 237 farms lambs are held over a season to utilize plentiful pasture and to secure one or two wool clips. Such sheep also weigh more at market time, although they bring a smaller price per pound. These older sheep, kept on good pasture throughout the summer and placed in the feed lot in winter, usually make excellent use of grain and hay. They may be marketed during late winter or early spring. Poor WAY TO FEED SHEEP On many farms corn is fed to sheep on the ear and stalk. This is a disappearing custom. When so fed a clean pasture is the best place to scatter the feed. Even then a large amount of fodder is wasted, for sheep will not eat what has once been run over. Concentrated feeds are essential. They should be used in connection with bright, clean leguminous hays and so mixed with the hay as to give a well- balanced ration. Corn, bran, ground oats, oil meal and cottonseed meal, are all excellent. During early winter, corn silage and alfalfa or clover hay may be fed, exclusively. In other cases fodder cor and 238 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS mixed hay may be used for roughage, with wheat bran and corn for grain, about % pound of a mixture of corn and bran being given daily to each animal. As they plump up, the grain may be increased grad- ually, until it reaches as much as two or even three pounds a day. Where alfalfa or clover is used, a pound of corn daily will be satisfactory. If alfalfa or clover is freely used and corn is relatively low in price and hay high, then cut down the allotment of hay and feed one or two pounds of corn daily. Where some grass hay or corn stover, shredded or unshredded, is the only source of roughage, bran and one of the oil meals should be used in addition to the corn. If fed throughout the winter in this manner, a heavy wool clip may be secured the following spring before the animals are marketed. Thus satisfactory profits will ordinarily be secured. SOME SAMPLE RATIONS For Lambs Weighing 50 to 60 Pounds. The following rations, in common use, secure sat- isfactory gains. The amount of feed here sug- gested is for flocks of 50 and the daily allow- ance forralile: 1. Mixed hay, 50 pounds; roots, 50 pounds; corn, 45 pounds; oats, 6 pounds. 2. Mixed hay, 50 pounds; roots, 50 pounds; bran, 25 pounds; linseed meal, 20 pounds; cotton- seed meal, 15 pounds. 3. Cottonseed hulls, 60 pounds; cottonseed meal, 40 pounds. FEEDING SHEEP 239 For Lambs Weighing 60 to 80 Pounds. In flocks of 50 and daily allowance. 1. Corn, 75 pounds shelled ; clover hay, 50 pounds. 2. Corn, 40 pounds, shelled; bran, 40 pounds; clover hay, 50 pounds. 3. Oil meal, 15 pounds; corn, 65 pounds; clover hay, 50 pounds. 4. Alfalfa hay, 125 pounds; corn, 35 pounds. For Lambs Weighing 80 to 100 Pounds. In flocks of 50 and daily allowance. I. Pasture and 40 pounds of corn. 2. Pasture and 35 pounds of oats. 3. Clover hay, 85 pounds; corn, 45 pounds; gluten, 20 pounds; bran, 10 pounds. 4. Clover hay, 85 pounds; bran, 10 pounds; Soy beans, 65 pounds. For Sheep in Winter. I. Corn silage and alfalfa or clover hay. 2. Roots, 5 bushels; hay, 75 pounds; meal or bran—use 25 pounds for a flock of 50 sheep. 3. Fodder corn, mixed hay and wheat bran and corn, with not more than a half pound of grain per animal. Sheep on Full Feed. 1. From a quarter to a half pound of clover hay and from 2% to 3% pounds of grain each daily. 2. Alfalfa, 2 pounds, and 34 of a pound of corn each daily. 240 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 3. Hay, 1%4 pounds, and corn I to 3 pounds each daily. 4. Free use of alfalfa or clover and 1 pound of corn daily when grain is costly and hay rela- tively cheap. If the reverse, jamitaivemmean, and feed from I to 2 pounds of corn daily. For Ewes with Lambs at Side. 1. Corn silage, 4 pounds; mangels or other roots, I pound; and 1% pounds of mixed grain, con- sisting of a mixture of 100 pounds of bran, 30 pounds of ground oats, 45 pounds of cracked oil cake, and 25 pounds of corn. 2. Alfalfa or clover hay, 2 pounds; corn, I pound; hay or oil meal, 0.5 pound. CHA Paew Re xox FEEDING SWINE Food Requirements for Swine.—The Wolff-Leh- mann standards for feeding the various classes of swine are shown in the table below. They indicate the amount of food required per 1,000 pounds live weight and are for growing pigs, brood sows and fattening hogs. WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARDS FOR FEEDING SWINE Growing swine Breeding Dry Carbo- Weight| matter | Protein] hydrates Digestible nutrients Nutritive Fat ratio SS ee ee 2to 3 50 Bi® 100 5to 6 120 6to 8 200 8 to 12 250 Growing swine Fattening 2to 3 ) 50 3to 5 100 5 to 6 150 6to 8 200 8 to 12 309 Brood sows .... Fattening swine First period .. Second period Third period.. me bo bo bobo OV coSroce co Oo wolwHo pen oooor nwo el el ld eh eR ; ANS oR oococoe Po ARATE [=r) PONSS ooo mod fob fad J IDM owe Hogs Consume Much and Give Generous Returns. The hog is at home with poor and rich; he works 241 242 FEEDING SWINE 243 energetically for both. Whether inclosed in muddy pens or given the range of wide acres, he neither frets nor pines. He grows the best he can, increases his size as rapidly as his food supply admits, and in- variably pays his way. As a consumer of food he eats greedily and heartily, but the account he fur- nishes is honest. He is waste- ful of what he eats only when he is denied what he wants and in generous quantities; but, fed abundantly, he grows fat, ma- tures rapidly, and manufac- tures meat and lard economi- cally. The fact is, when compared with other meat producers, the hog consumes less food for what he gives than any other meat-making animal. He works faster. It is due in part to his digestive appa- ratus, to the kind of food he relishes, and to the fact that he uses less food than the other animals for work and body heat. On the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight the hog uses about 275 pounds of dry food to 160 for the sheep and 125 for steers a week. Of this he will digest 230 pounds, while the sheep will digest but 120 pounds and the steer but 88 pounds. To produce 100 pounds of increase the steer will consume 1,100 pounds of dry food, the sheep 910 and the hog 420. The increase in live weight for food consumed, on the basis of one point for steers, will be 1.5 for sheep and 5.8 for hogs. From this it is 244 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS clear that in proportion to its weight the sheep eats more food than the steer and yields a greater in- crease in consequence; but the pig, by eating more heartily, consumes more food and yields more meat or increase than either. Fastest Gains Are Made During Early Growth.— It used to be that hogs were kept as stockers on grass until they had reached a year or two in age, and then be fed until they weighed from 300 to 500 pounds. When slaughtered or sold they, of course, THEY ATE MUCH AND DEVELOPED RAPIDLY The hog consumes less dry food to produce a given increase than either the sheep or the steer. He is therefore our best meat maker. showed great returns, but the cost of bringing up to such weights was not considered. When put to the test it was soon realized that while such hogs in the feed lot would take on a large increase, the cost of the increase was far above the returns in money. In other words, large hogs will steadily take on in- crease, but they do so only with great consumption ~ of food. FEEDING SWINE 245 A pig of proper age and weighing under 100 pounds will require less than 300 pounds of feed to yield 100 pounds of increase, while a mature hog weighing 300 pounds wil demand over 500 pounds om teed to yield 100 pounds of increase.” Phere. is, therefore, a decided economy in feeding hogs only Mpetona certain point. Bhis poimt ranges) irom! 175 to 250 pounds, depending on circumstances—the market price of hogs, and the sale value of feed. In these days few hogs are fattened by feeders until they attain a weight of 400 or 500 pounds. If they were, every pound of gain would cost twice as much as it would fetch in the market. Rations Are Narrow at First.—The first food of the pig is milk; and milk is a narrow ration. Soon after birth additional food is demanded that will ad- mit the gradual introduction of the carbohydrate ingredients. Middlings, shelled corn, or corn meal may each be profitably used. If skim milk is avail- able, it will supply abundant protein, but corn meal, middlings or shorts should be added also. ‘This combination is easily furnished as a slop, which may be continued even until the beginning of the fattening period. The young pigs, during their suckling days, will do best if fed additional slop in a separate pen and away from the mother and the larger pigs. Runs in which are grown green grasses, the clovers and other forage crops are indispensable if pork is to be made at profitable returns. Provided for in this manner, the pigs will widen their ration in accord- ance with their needs. 246 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The ration, which at first was very narrow, will now widen until spread to one part of protein to five or six parts of carbohydrates and fat. When the finish of the fattening period has been reached the ration will be near one of protein to eight or nine of the heat and fat-producing ingredients. The great fattening food is corn: its nutritive ratio is one to nine plus. Thus the food changes in VERY SANITARY AND VERY COSTLY A hog barn of this order is the exception and not the rule. It is sanitary throughout, admits of easy feeding, and is easily cleaned. character from milk to corn or other similar foods, and the ration is gradually widened to meet the in- creasing requirements for fat production. Mineral Matter and Charcoal.—If the ration con- sists largely of corn, young hogs on pasture are not denied the necessary mineral elements to the extent that young pigs in the dry feed lot are. Pigs grow FEEDING SWINE 247 rapidly if fed well; but if the food supply is deficient in the mineral elements, the lack is told in the ulti- mate results. Ground bone or bone meal can be introduced ad- vantageously into the ration either when the hogs are in the feed lot or on pasture. Soft coal, char- coal, and salt, either in mixture or given separately, should be kept before the animals at all times. LEGUME PASTURES IDEAL FOR PIGS For young growing pigs alfalfa, clover, or cowpeas are excellent forage crops. If one of these is not available, tender mixed grasses will serve. Corn or slop or both is advisable in addition to the green forage. Making a Slop.—When pigs are young, food in the form of a slop is most easily and safely fed. At first it should be quite thin. The nearer it ap- proaches the consistency of buttermilk the better for the pigs. As the pigs grow, it is a mistake to continue to feed a very thin slop. An oversupply of water in slop is harmful; fat production is thereby retarded. Consequently, if the food is given in this 248 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS way, the water is to be lessened as the animals in- crease in Size. When a weight of Ioo pounds or so has been attained, the pigs now being five or six months old, the slop should be so made as to have a consistency somewhat like mush. If the pigs demand more wa- ter than this food gives, let it be available as drink. Pasture for Pigs.—The great opportunity for making a profit out of pigs, especially when prices are low and grain products high, is to depend on the use of clover, cowpeas, soy beans, alfalfa and rape pastures. As the subject of pig feeding is studied, more conclusive becomes the evidence that pasture crops go hand in hand with pork production. It should be the swine raiser’s aim as much to grow these forage crops as it is to grow the hog itself. Particularly is this true of the legume crops. Alfalfa naturally comes first because of its highly digestible nutrients, its vigorous growth and consequent heavy yields, its long cycle of life and its land-im- proving benefits. In time alfalfa will be commonly grown in all sections. Hogs may be turned into an alfalfa or a clover field early in the spring and kept there through the season until frost, provided the acreage is large in proportion to the number of animals. The tramping will not hurt the crop, and the grazing of the swine will not impair the feeding quality of the alfalfa when made into hay. When a large field is pastured a portion can be cut, to be followed a week or so later by another portion, and so until the field has been cut over. In FEEDING SWINE 249 this way there will be a new growth of alfalfa at all times, giving the pigs just the sort of pasture they desire. Alfalfa is rich in protein; hence the addition of corn to the ration while the animals are running on the pasture is advisable, especially if early matu- rity is sought. Young pigs on alfalfa, supplied with a light feeding of corn daily, within seven or eight months will weigh 250 pounds. Grazing Runs for Hogs.—Where large fields are not available, small runs may be resorted to. These PLAN OF GRAZING RUNS FOR Hocs The hogs are shifted each month to a fresh pasture in which one of the best crops of the season is available as food. solve the problem very satisfactorily on many farms. The small run lots may be of any size from a half Jeren-o time acres. lhe number of hogs tobe kept will govern both size and number of runs. An aver- age size is about an acre. One or two of these lots may be permanent pasture of either clover or blue grass, a temporary pasture of timothy and clover, 250 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS or a permanent pasture of alfalfa. The other lots may be used in rotation. Several of them may be seeded to rye in the fall and as they are pastured off in turn during the winter and spring, they may be seeded with other forage plants. The one first grazed down may be plowed and seeded early to peas and oats, the next one to corn or sorghum or a mixture of the two, a third to cowpeas, and the others to soy beans, rape, peanuts and sweet potatoes. As each crop is pastured off, other summer crops may follow, thus giving a constant rotation of for- age, and all as preparatory to the final finishing period. Hogs that have been brought near to the finishing period with cowpeas, soy beans, peanuts and sweet potatoes, should be finished off with corn, since the flavor of the meat will be improved and the fat will be less soft than it otherwise might be. Forage for Cheap Gain.—Any growing crop is helpful in raising cheap pork. In sections where a temporary pasture like timothy and clover is the rule, spring pigs may be given the range of the fields. Thus they will gather a considerable portion of their food. They should not be denied, however, additional food in the way of slops or of dry grain. Corn, or corn and oil meal, or corn and tankage, may be used in combination to insure steady growth. Spring pigs thus raised by July will be of fair growth. From this time they should be pushed somewhat in order that they may be fat by late fall or early winter. The feeding of green corn on pasture is a com- mon practice and has much in its favor. Practically FEEDING SWINE 251 all of the plant but the coarse stalk is consumed. The kinds of forage cover a wide range. The fact is, anything green that is appetizing is good for hogs. | Fattening Hogs.—The aim should be to get flesh growth rather than an overburden of fat. At the be- ginning of the fattening period hogs will eat 4o to’ ENJOYING THE CHARCOAL Box One reason why thrift is frequently wanting is due to an insufficient supply of protein and the mineral elements in the hog ration. A charcoal box, in which may be placed charcoal, soft coal, ground bone, salt and oil meal, meets the situation. 50 pounds of dry matter per 100 pounds of live weight. This diminishes to 25 or 30 pounds as the fattening period advances. Hogs will Scie tarron corn. Their best development is obtained only when other feeds containing more protein are given. Tankage, peas, or beans are excellent. Use one part of either to eight or ten parts of corn at the begin- ning of the finishing period. 252 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The most intensive fattening is secured when easily digestible material is given. Corn is the uni- versal food and enters most largely into the grain combination. All other grain feeds are to be used as supplements and as balancing foods to corn. During the beginning period of fattening, when clover, alfalfa or other pasture is available, corm as GETTING THEIR RATIONS IN A PORTABLE PEN The portable pen makes it possible to finish heavy hogs on clean feeding grounds. It is for outside feeding and should take the place of the sta- tionary, filthy feeding lot. the only grain necessary. Fattening hogs can be kept on such pastures almost up to the finish. Hogs Very Heavy with Fat should not be re- quired to roam about for food. Hence, during the final stage of fattening, the smaller the pasture or feed lot the less the loss because of this needless expenditure of energy. A great many of the most successful feeders take the fattening hogs from pas- FEEDING SWINE 253 ture to the feed lot. In most cases corn is the ex- clusive feed. Water should be at hand at all times or available at frequent intervals. Rations contain- ing one part of tankage or meat meal or soy bean meal to eight or ten parts of corn, unless corn is low in value, will produce a more rapid growth than corn alone. Making Good Bacon.—Feeding stuffs greatly in- fluence the quality of bacon. Oily grains have the SMmOmzestpemect. Do get good bacon, these: oily grains should be reduced to a half or a third of the whole ration. Since corn is the principal food for both lard and bacon hogs, it may compose as much as 75 or 80 per cent of the ration. Middlings and tankage may be used for the balance. In Canada, where bacon is in much favor, barley is a common food: for hogs. It is fed both ground and soaked. Other foods used in combination with it are skim milk, peas, oats and middlings. If oats are used they should be crushed. The most profit from bacon is secured when clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, or rape are provided as forage. HOGGING OFF CORN Hogs as Harvesters.—The practice of getting fall hogs ready for market by turning them into the cornfield while the corn is still green is not new, but is a method not generally followed. There is a feeling that hogging off is wasteful and poor economy of labor and effort. The facts clearly indi- cate that the custom economizes labor and expense 254 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS and the hogs do better than by some other methods. That is the point: you get the most pork at the least expenditure of money. Not only do hogs produce more with less grain in hogging off, but they actually mature in less time than when pen fed. It is not unusual to save at least a quarter of the fattening period where this method is followed. It is just as easy to prepare HoccING OFF THE CORN Hogs are here harvesting the corn crop. They not only eat all of the ears, but consume the greater part of the stalks. When the fat hogs are removed brood sows and pigs should be turned into the field to clean up. land for a subsequent crop after a corn crop has been harvested by hogs as when the corn has been re- moved in the ordinary way. The hogs waste no more grain by hogging off than is lost by ordinary husking. Hogs pick just about as clean as huskers. The labor item is not inconsiderable, either. A five to ten-acre field of good corn will carry 50 to 75 hogs from the shote to the finished period. Of course FEEDING SWINE 255 the nature of the corn—whether the crop is heavy or light—will govern the number of hogs that can be fed in this way, but the total quantity of pork pro- duced from a given acreage when hogged off will be greater than when husked ears or snapped corn is fed in pens. Young Hogs, Weighing 80 to 125 Pounds, will do best in the green cornfield. At this size they possess good frames, are mature enough, and carry enough flesh to fatten in a few weeks and be ready for market. Of course, brood sows will make good use of green corn also. When thin from suckling pigs, or for any cause they are unthrifty, they will quickly flesh up and improve and be ready for mar- ket in from 30 to 50 days. While corn may be hogged off at any period, it is best to let it mature somewhat. Then you get all there is in the crop. If the ordinary summer pas- ture is short, give some additional feed like shorts and middlings in slop to tide along until the corn is fairly well developed. When it has passed the milk stage, and is somewhat dented, the hogs may be turned into the field. The entire field is usually given over to the hogs, when labor is high, the soil not wet, and the herd and the field not large in size. Use old hogs, stock hogs and brood sows for cleaning up after the fat- tening bunch has been taken away. Not much will be left, of course, but still some; if this were not so, the fattening hogs would have been fed rather unwisely for the last week or two. 256 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS SOME SAMPLE RATIONS For Young Pigs. When weaned and eight to ten weeks old: 1. Skim milk, crushed corn and middlings in equal parts by weight. 2. Thin slop of about the consistency of butter- milk, consisting of such ground grain feeds as are available. Use corn meal, ground oats, middlings, oil meal, etc. As the pigs grow older, gradually thicken the slop. When they are six or eight months old the slop should be like a thick mush. 3. Pigs in Dry Lot.—lf milk is available, give 1 part of corn to 3 parts skim milk; if not, then 6 parts corn, 3 parts middlings and I part tankage. For Pigs Three to Six Months of Age. Daily feed on basis of 100 pounds of live weight : At three months: 3 pounds of corn meal; 1 pound of soy bean meal or 2 pounds of middlings; 5 pounds of skim milk; 7 pounds of water. At four months: 4 pounds of corn meal; 08 pound of soy bean meal or 1 pound of mid- dlings; 5 pounds of skim milk; 6 pounds of water. At five months: 5 pounds of corn meal; 0.5 pound of soy bean meal or 0.75 pound of middlings; 5 pounds of skim milk; 3 pounds of water. FEEDING SWINE 257 At six months: 4 pounds of corn meal; 0.4 pound of soy bean meal or 0.5 pound of middlings; 5 pounds of skim milk; 2 pounds of water. Pigs on Pasture.—When pigs are allowed the run of a clover, cowpea or alfalfa pasture and weigh from 100 to 150 pounds, rapid gains will follow if a mix- ture consisting of Io parts corn, 5 parts middlings adsiepant tankage be fed. lf corm is low in price use 15 parts of corn to I part tankage or 2 parts oil meal. | Fattening Hogs in Dry Lot.—At the beginning of the fattening period give 6 parts corn and 3 parts middlings or I part tankage. When hogs have reached a weight of 180 to 200 pounds, give 8 parts corn, and 1 part tankage or other food of a protein nature. CHAPTER Om FEEDING FARM POULTRY Farm poultry is now a home necessity in every community. A few years ago the domestic hen was compelled to shift about and to get her food as best she could. Times have brought a change in this respect. The demand for eggs and poultry meat has been so great and so insistent as to make poultry raising one of the most profitable adjuncts to farm- ing. On many farms, farm poultry now is exclu- sively the source of income, and all labor and crop production are directed to that end. All fowls are greedy feeders. While they use food substances similar in form to what other classes of farm stock require, their food should be intro- duced in somewhat different ways. Rapid growth calls for much concentrated food; and where egg production is the aim, concentrated grain is de- manded at all times. There is a need of much min- eral matter for both growth and eggs. In a compar- ative way poultry calls for more of this than other kinds of live stock. There is less fat and more pro- tein in poultry than in other meat-producing ani- mals. In composition, eggs are similar to lean meat; hence, in feeding for eggs, a comparatively large amount of nitrogenous material should be available as food. Eggs Chemically Analyzed—The egg that the fowl produces is, next to milk, man’s best food, the 258: FEEDING FARM POULTRY 259 most strengthening, the purest, the most unadulter- able, the most healthful for young and old. An- alyzed chemically, the white of an egg contains 85 per cent of water, the yolk 51 per cent of water and 31 per cent of fat. The shell is composed of phos- phoric acid, lime, iron, sulphur and gluten. BUSINESS FLOCK OF LIGHT BRAHMA These fowls, while the heavyweights of poultry varieties, require extra food because they are rather poor foragers. Hoppers of food should always be within reach. Various Rations Required.—A variety of food- stuffs is to be preferred in feeding poultry, young or old. In many instances, single foods are given, but these cases usually apply to free range condi- tions when grass, seeds, insects and worms are picked up. If the entire country is taken into con- sideration, no doubt more farm fowls are fed on corn than on any other single foodstuff. On most farms there are certain by-products and damaged food, 260 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS like shrunken wheat grains and wheat screenings, that are set aside for the poultry, but as a general rule corn is the principal food, especially in the winter. Often wheat bran is given as a wet mash. Perhaps the grain that comes nearest meeting the requirement of a single food is wheat. On account of its commercial value, however, it is used spar- ingly, in combination with other food materials, or ‘ ‘ LS A " NY N \ an t N x AN COSCO Sos PSLSSe2SLESLS SSeS oF4 RSSeSeSESS SES 22 i \Y \ : N \ i \) x) i ) \\ xn RAY ya Wy OXY AY 000, SS ‘ awe i ys ve ws RY x ) A Ni ) X) Ay (ee REEN FED Rape, cabbage, mangels, etc., are necessary for fowls confined, and during winter. Fastening up as here shown is the best way to feed green stuff. not at all. By means of variety a bet- ter balanced ration can be had than otherwise. Both poultry flesh and eggs are to be ranked with the lean meat products. While excel- lent results often come from the use of corn or from rations largely containing corn and other carbonaceous feeds, generally speaking, other products like wheat, bran, meat, oats, skim milk and green food are now accepted as poultry feeds, of the first class and are always desirable, especially for egg production in the winter season. . Feed for Little Chicks——Perhaps there is no best way of feeding little chicks just out of the shell and for some time thereafter. Many plans are followed and all bring success, other conditions being satis- factory. Cooked and uncooked feed, baked and raw feed, wet and dry mashes are all used. So, too, are FEEDING FARM POULTRY 261 many kinds and classes of food products selected. It largely depends on the conveniences available, the equipment and on the taste and peculiarities of the attendant. It is more risky to feed moist or wet products than dry or crumbly dry ones to young chicks, because of possible digestive disturbances. For this reason dry COMBINATION HOPPER FOR FIELD OR YARD USE Beneath the hinged roof are compartments for various grains, grit, shell, charcoal, etc. Enough feed is put in these bins to last for several days. cracked grain is generally preferred, even though wet mashes are introduced into the feeding plan at a later period. ©ne method is to feed corn bread finely crumbed, five times a day, for the first few days. The bread is made of four parts of coarse corn meal to two parts of wheat bran, mixed with water, or milk, and baked brown. Aiter the use of this for a week, a mixture of finely cracked and small grains is kept 262 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS in shallow troughs where the chicks can help them- selves. In addition to this ration sweet milk is fed every day when available. Green food should be furnished fresh. Lettuce leaves are excellent for young chicks. If allowed a grass run the lettuce is not needed, but skim milk is desirable. Another plan is this: When the young chicks are 48 to 60 hours old they are fed hard-boiled eggs. They should be fed frequently in very small amounts. The eggs may be some of those tested out from the incubator or eggs otherwise unfit for use in the kitchen. Following this ration, place before the chicks in shallow pans a dry mash consisting of two pounds of corn meal, two pounds of shorts, two pounds of bran, two pounds of beef scrap and a half pound of charcoal. This ration may be fed un- til the chicks are of considerable size. The ration is now changed to two pounds each of millet, sifted cracked corn, cracked sorghum seed and cracked wheat. Ofcourse, fresh water and clean grit should be before the chicks at all times. When they are large enough to eat whole grain, the cracked ma- terials should be withdrawn. Chicks that are very early hatched, and those that have grown rapidly till midsummer should not have much beef scrap. If the young chicks are hatched very early, or if they mature unusually early, they may molt the first sea- son. Both should be prevented, the Vatter ming cautious feeding. Commercial feeds for young chicks consist of various mixtures containing small grain, cracked corn, wheat, oats, millet, hemp, etc. They are not FEEDING FARM POULTRY 263 different from what any poultry raiser himself can prepare at a cost considerably under what the retail merchant sells them for. Weaned Chicks on Good Range may be fed a mash in the morning, with cracked corn, or other grain, or mixture of grains, scattered broadcast over the range, and the mash again in the evening. The mixture scattered over the range should be a day’s allowance. Young chickens on good range are often LEGHORN FLOCK AT RANGE Nothing is better for poultry, especially layers, than free range on clover or alfalfa. The fowls not only get exercise, but gather a large quantity of protein in highly available form. fed the table scraps mixed with corn meal, shorts and bran. ‘These are served in equal parts, once a day. Cracked corn is kept in troughs or hoppers at all times. A ration recommended by the Maine station for young chickens in brooders is as follows: Boil the infertile eggs for a half hour; grind, shell and all, in a meat chopper, and mix with rolled oats, six times the bulk of the eggs; feed with chick grit on 264 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the ‘brooder floor. If eges are mot avallablesspees scrap may be substituted anda ration consisting of the following given: Rolled oats, bran, corn meal, lin- seed meal, two parts each, and beef scrap, one part. After three days the following mixture is substituted : Cracked wheat, 15 parts; pin head oatmeal, Io parts; cracked corn, 15 parts; cracked peas) threcupanese broken rice, two parts; chicken grit, five parts; fine charcoal, two parts. No wet mash is given these chicks until three weeks old. After that age they are given wheat grain, two parts; corn meal, four parts; middlings, two parts; linseed meal, one part; beef scrap two parts. This mixture is slightly mois- tened with water and fed in troughs. When chicks are five or six weeks old cracked grain may be omitted and wheat and fine cracked corn scattered in the litter. Feeding Larger Chicks.—After chicks are five or six weeks old, the period of greatest danger is past, so far as the feed is concerned. They may now be fed less frequently and a greater variety of food may be given. A good mash is provided in ground corn, oats and bran, with a little salt. This should be fed once a day. Twice a week meat scraps or blood meal should be introduced into this mash. A _ small amount of bone meal or bone dust will not be out of place if fed daily. Animal protein and bone material are both fre- quently denied on the farm; but this is due more to a lack of these materials as feed and knowledge of their need than either to carelessness or deliber- ate refusal. As the requirements of poultry feed- FEEDING FARM POULTRY 265 ing are better understood this apparent neglect will be rectified. Young chicks, like other young ani- mals, require much protein for muscles and feathers and much mineral matter for bone. Lime, while not necessary in such large quantities as for laying hens, should nevertheless be included in the ration. !) Tie CRATE FEEDING FOR FANCY MARKET A rather sloppy mash of milk and mixed meal, principally oats, is given the fowls two to four times daily for ten days or two weeks before killing. As the fowls have no exercise during this time they increase in weight and their flesh improves in quality. Ground oyster shell is all that is needed. Charcoal should be kept before the young fowls. It is an inexpensive corrective, even if purchased, but usu- ally it is available on the farm. Fattening the Cockerels—On most farms the cockerels are given the range of the field and are not 266 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS disposed of until late in the fall. Circumstances will govern as to what is best to do with them. Ordina- rily it is less profitable to allow them to run at large than to confine them. On many farms the cockerels are separated) ironuerie rest of the flock when they have reached an age of five or six weeks and fed so as to reach an early PROTECTED FEED TROUGH Found useful where young market. and old fowls must run together. The openings between slats are Range chickens will eat too narrow for full-grown fowls oe pacer thiGuaHi oe a great deal of food, more than is generally sup- posed; and they use up a good deal of their muscle and flesh as they wander about. Where but few chickens are raised and these only for home use, this is a matter of small consequence; but if the cock- erels are to be sold it 1s best to get them ready for market as early as possi- ble and snot to permit them to “run their flesh off” in seeking their food. A good fattening ration Congres Oi Comm 10% | grain and corn meal, bran ‘ Feep Hoppers FILLED FROM ALLEY and ground oats for mash, fi" omens ag Tn preparing the mash, gi te tscpeeaia ts make it moist with skim milk if available. In case skim milk is not to be had, use meat scraps two or three times a week. Give at a feed about all the fowls will eat up clean, three times FEEDING FARM POULTRY 267 daily. Grit and water are both indispensable, and some green food for variety will not be out of place. Grain Feed for Fowls.—For growing chicks and fattening fowls the grain should be ground. Opin- ions differ as to the necessity of grinding grains for eee production. Corn is the standard “grain itor chickens. The eggs resulting when it is largely used in the ration are of good quality, and the yolk is rich and of a strong yellow. Corn is also usually the cheapest grain. On account of its carbonaceous nature it is not a good food as an exclusive grain, either in fattening or in egg production. Buckwheat is very highly prized as a ‘food for layers. It may be fed whole or ground. Kafir corn has been most satisfactory when fed whole. It ranks about with corn, which it resembles in composition. - For young chicks good poultrymen approve of rolled oats, but whole oats are not greatly relished by any class of poultry stock. If ground, they give good results in mashes wet or dry. Barley is liked by hens, and is superior to oats because of the smaller quantity of hull, Whole wheat or wheat screenings make an ideal ration for hens. 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"7+ 190}9A PUB S}BO 107UIM ee ee 6 © © © © © © © © 8 ew ew ee 8 ° YOOA pues VAY sdolp NOLONIHSVM NYaLsaM GNV NODHYO YOd NW Id S MAINO CHUA AN exe aI RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE Quality of Manure-—On many farms manure is measured by its quantity rather than by its quality. In open barnyards it is left to accumulate, often for EITHER Too MucH or Too LITTLE When manure is put in small piles it is generally unevenly distributed. If not immediately spread the soluble parts sink into the ground under the piles, thus over-enriching these spots. The greater part of the soil area gets only the manure debris. a year or more; and exposed to rain and weather it decomposes, and wastes away, or is lost in rich streams of colored liquid to brooks and creeks. When so handled the cream of its value escapes from 306 RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE 307 the farm, leaving only the debris and coarser parts for the fields and vegetation. The evil of this way of preserving manure more and more is becoming apparent and a change in this respect ought to be more commonly set in motion in the future. But there is still too little attention given the production of mgnure from the standpoint of qual- ity. Many ee give little thought to food in relation to the resulting manure. They seem to think that manure is just manure, and that one kind of food is about as good as another for producing it. When purchasing a feeding stuff its fertilizing value is usually ignored when, in fact, this matter should be weighed as carefully as are the food nutrients contained in it. Take two feeds like corn and cot- tonseed meal. Both may be and are used exten- sively in the feeding of cattle. In many tests the latter has shown its superiority both for beef and the dairy. The comparison is incomplete, however, if the fertilizing values are not compared also. This has been done in the following table: CORN AND COTTONSEED MEAL COMPARED In 1 ton of product Feed : Nitrogen | Phosphoric Potash Value WOME eicende eo then: 33.0 14.2 11.4 $ 6.56 Cottonseed meal 145.0 60.8 31.6 27.82 From this we see that, allowing 16 cents a pound for nitrogen and 5 cents each for phosphoric acid and potash, the fertilizing value of the cottonseed 308 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS meal is $27.82, while of corn it is but $6.56, or one- fourth as much. To the man who is obliged to buy either corn or cottonseed meal this should be con- clusive that it is in his interest, both from the stand- . point of feed and of manure, to purchase the cotton- seed meal. | Value of Farm Manures.—The character of the food determines the value of manure. The animal can add nothing. In the undigested portions the fertilizing materials are voided, while of that ab- sorbed into the system, such amounts are appropri- ated as are needed. In case of animals neither gain- ing nor losing in weight—for instance, farm horses that just hold their own—as much fertilizer mate- rials are returned in solid and liquid excrement as are taken in the food from day to day. In this case, if the manure is wholly returned to the land, the entire food supply serves as fertilizing material. Young and growing animals and those furnishing wool or milk, retain considerable amounts of the nitrogen and the ash constituents. Fattening ani- mals that are nearly mature retain but small amounts of nitrogen and ash. These facts are in- dicated in the table by Warrington given on the next page. The amount of ash constituents of the food stored up in the body is very small. As seen in the table, fattening oxen retain but 2.3 per cent, fattening sheep 3.8 per cent, and fattening pigs 4 percveeme Milk cows retain more; this is to be found in the milk. The young calf puts into bone and muscles over one-half of the ash of its food. As for nitro- RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE 309 gen, the work horse, either at rest or at work, gives back all, fattening oxen and sheep retain a small amount, fattening hogs a larger amount, milk cows keep one-fourth, and the young calf two-thirds. Nitrogen is voided largely as urine. Double Value in Feeds.—All feeding stuffs have two values—feed and fertility. The commercial NITROGEN AND ASH IN ANIMAL PRODUCE, AND VOIDED, FOR IO0O0 POUNDS OF FOOD CONSUMED Nitrogen Ash constituents ro} q f E Se 2 4 ae 5 qd » rs » a eed Kind of animal cI i) is = | a mae Be SaaS eg /2S ase Sox| sof | og | Se Sou] cla ece(ece | se | Me |ese| ees OSEl>as | bs ao Oo8] Poa Horse at rest .... | None| 43.0 | 57.0 | 100.0 | None] 100.0 Horse at work ... | None| 29.4 70.6 100.0 — — Fattening oxen .. 3.9 22.6 73.5 96.1 BoB OW ot Fattening sheep.. 4.3 16.7 79.0 95.7 3.8 96.2 Fattening pigs .. 14.7 21.0 64.3 85.3 4.0 96.0 Milk cows ...... 24.5 18.1 57.41 75.5 10.3 89.7 Calf on milk ..... 69.3 5.1 25.6 30.7 54.3 45.7 value in most instances is based on the feeding value as compared with other feeding stuffs. But even so, the fertilizing value of manure resulting must be ignored no longer. To illustrate the meaning of the double value of a feed, it is here assumed that cot- tonseed meal has a commercial value of $27.82. This is the first or fertilizing value; and since by feeding it valuable food products are made, a second value is possessed by it. 310 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS It has been observed that milk cows retain 24.5 per cent of the nitrogen of the food. Deducting, therefore, one-fourth of this to meet the cost of the fertilizing materials extracted, there is left $20.87. In other words, as a feed the cost was only $6.95 a ton. When so used a double profit is secured as follows: Value: agra, LeErtilizer” riicic ore crevereleiel etcleloveccveloiereleretorelererenoiens $27.82 ViAUEL ALLELE DEIN Sate mctetelolelelelelelololeleleke) clolotelel loleleleleleteroletele 20.87 TPO GAG 5 sy horse tenance site BAOIOLO.0 0000 6.000010 OOO Ob. $48.69 Selling Fertility—The man who buys cottonseed meal and other similar feeding stuffs as feed gains by the enterprise, but the men who produce and sell them, lose. By disposing of these valuable food products farmers sell the plant food of their lands. When sent to Europe or to other sections there is transferred fertility from the lands producing these crops to the dairy and beef farms where they are consumed. When animal products are sold the drain on the land is not large, but if grain crops are sold much plant food is withdrawn from the soil. This will be seen in the table on the next page. This table shows that grain products make con- siderable demands on the plant food supply of the soil, and that when such are sold much more fer- tility is disposed of than when animal products are sold. The farmer who sells a ton of clover hay with- draws from his soil $8.72 worth of fertility. This is halfas much as he receives. If, on the other hand, he sells a ton of pork, he sends from his farm but $6.35 worth of fertility, but receives 20 times as RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE GE much for it as the value of the fertility contained in it. If he sells milk he receives 40 times as much as the fertility contained in it, and if he sells butter his returns are I,000 times as much as is the value of the fertility sold in the butter product. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN CERTAIN PLANT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS In one ton of substance Phos- Material phorie Value Nitrogen acid Potash Timothy hay 18.8 6.6 28.4 $ 4.75 Clowermhayn see. 39.4 EO) 37.4 8.72 CORTE aot. 33.0 14.2 11.4 6.56 AWARE - eee ereinaseea ee 38.0 11.0 17.4 7.50 Cottonseed meal.. 145.0 60.8 31.6 27.82 TENBWE | \GOD:CE, Sots nse a ener 46.6 31.0 3.8 9.19 Aim OM te ye abe ee ot ake 35.4 13.0 2.8 6.35 TTT OES erg geet a LULL 3.8 Bosh < Bei'Y IB Wee wes lowes aeons 2.4 0.8 0.4 0.44 Loss of Fertility Contained in Feed.— Due to care- less methods of handling manure, there is a tremen- dous loss of fertility in the aggregate each year. Much of the nitrogen is lost through fermentation and leaching as fast as the manure is made. Much of the potash is lost in drainage waters from the stable and the barnyards. This loss can be greatly lessened by the use of litter in the stables, by cov- ered barnyards, and through the addition from day to day of some preservative like acid phosphate to the excrement as made. There is loss through leaching, not only in barn- yards, but wherever manure is exposed to the influ- 312 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS ence of the weather. In loose, open piles fully one- half of the fertilizing value may disappear ina half- year period. If manure is not hauled direct to the field and scattered, it may be fairly well preserved in large piles, which should be kept moist; or in covered barnyards, where it should be thoroughly compacted, with enough litter provided to absorb the liquid and keep the animals clean. Fresh manures that undergo fermentation rapidly, such as horse and sheep manures, should be mixed with lit- sp RRR ss SAW POTASH MEK BUmmiEI REMOVAL OF FERTILITY WHEAT In the sketch are shown the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash removed from the soil when 1,000 pounds each of beef, milk, butter and wheat are sold. ter immediately, else the nitrogen will be lost. Gyp- sum sprinkled on fresh manure has long been a popular preservative. Poor Manure.—That it pays to give the preserva- tion of manure close attention is shown by the tests conducted by the Ohio station. Here poorly pre- served and well-preserved manure was used in field tests. In both cases the rate of application was eight tons to the acre on clover sod plowed under for corn, and then followed in a three-year rotation RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE 313 with wheat and clover without further manuring or fertilizing. The tabie following shows the average increase of each crop for both kinds of manure: YARD AND FRESH MANURE COMPARED Bushels of Bushels of Pounds of Kind of manure corn wheat hay Yard manure ..... 16.03 8.21 698 Fresh manure .... 22.24 9.73 1,280 In discussing these tests, Director Thorne says that not only was the manure greatly reduced in quantity, but the quality likewise was impaired by exposure, the rain leaching out the most soluble and therefore the most valuable portion. At current prices the average increase from a ton of open yard manure, including the straw and stover, was worth about $2, while that from the fresh manure reached an average value of nearly $3, and this value was in- creased to $4.50 when the manure was reinforced with acid phosphate. That manure materially decreases in bulk and plant food value is shown in an experiment recorded by Professor Roberts. Starting with 4,000 pounds of manure the amount decreased to 1,730 pounds; because of poor preservation 60 per cent of the nitro- gen escaped into the air; and 75 per cent of the potassium and 40 per cent of the phosphorus leached away in rain water. When this pile of manure is considered from the standpoint of money value, it is found that at the beginning it was worth $5.48; but 314 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS after being exposed for five months the plant food value was only $2.03—scarcely one-third its original value. Why Full Value of Fertility of Feeds Is Not Secured to Lands.— Many farmers fail to get results in the field from the use of manure, considered from How Farm MANuRE Is WASTED Handled in this manner, the nitrogen and soluble fertilizing materials leach out and waste away. This explains why much farm manure is of little value when placed on the land. the standpoint of actual fertilizing value, not be- cause the plant food is not in the manure made from the feed given the animals, but because of neglect after the manure has been made. Farmers often fail also to get a full response from the use of feeds, just as they fail to get maximum returns from the manure made from the feeds. RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE 315 From actual feeding tests it has been shown that a ton of alfalfa or of cowpea hay is almost equal in feeding value to a ton of wheat bran. This is not only evident from the digestible composition of these feeds, but from feeding tests. If, therefore, when put to the test a ton of alfalfa proves far in- ferior to wheat bran, or if when this alfalfa is fed to beef or dairy cattle the full fertilizing value is not secured; or if gluten, cottonseed meal, or other con- centrates, when fed, do not fetch the results in the field when the resulting manure is applied, it should not be concluded that the practical side of the feed and the fertilizing questions do not correspond with the theoretical facts. Ordinarily, the explanation will be found else- where. A ton of inferior alfalfa hay is not equal in feeding value to a ton of wheat bran if weather- beaten, much rained upon, or weedy and unappetiz- ing. A ton of cottonseed meal is not worth its esti- mated value for feeding and fertilizing if it contains so many hulls that its protein and fat constituents are far below its normal composition. The fact is, the plant food contained in a ton of cottonseed meal is worth $27.82 according to the prices of commer- cial fertilizers, but the farmer will fail to get results in line with this fact if the liquid manure is lost or if the manure is leached by rains or burned up through fermentation. This same cottonseed meal will not be worth its commercial price as a feeding stuff when fed to a poor cow or steer as compared with other feeds of good quality consumed by a good cow or steer. 316 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The Full Value of a Feeding Stuff for feed and fertilizer is secured only when the feed has been properly prepared in the first place, then fed in the proper combination with other feeds to farm ani- mals of good breeding and selected for the purpose to which they are best adapted, and finally so handled as manure that the fertilizing materials are not lost through fermentation, decomposition and leaching. Such practice is good farming and is fundamental for success in feed lot or open field. APPENDIX 317 APPENDIX 318 | N cee ee ee ee Inoy pew eee eee ee ewe wwe ww eee 8 Inoy opeis-YUstH ee i i, ce er er iy JEOUM ee eee eee ee oo ueIqg uULOO seeeees Teo [IO Wdd0+) eevee ere ee eee doyo pI e@eeeeeee poo usINny[y eeeeeree [vou ueINnLy for) . IGigiptsoH SSHNSHI6 O19 me boa HMO nMDCMOM, MHOHOWOH BHOmMm8sWSes D DARMHODINOH NN N SON~SOHHHGS a . 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(@) panifSH 5 a on poszy Jo 9VWeN ns =I spunod goo‘T Ut spunod got ut & $]U9Nz1}SU0) Suzie | sJuetnu 9[qI}s9sIq > 3F7, oo grain feed) forse errs 267 Reedmealambsmeriety teieeeieleieiel 5 UBS Fowls, grit necessary for ....... 271 Feeding lambs for market ..... 235 Grain, feeding on pasture ...... 179 Feeding little chicks ............ 260 Grain feeds for cows.......... 187 Reedin@ miles gs -yetoeierreieiieteieneiete 170 OP (EINES SA0accodnanS 5500500 190 Feeding of breeding animals.... 145 fOr NOrsesi ean. see eee GS Feeding period extended ...... 59 Green” feeds 7-1-1. seinen - 263 RESCH? JES Soosoccéon ooo aoO nS 141 GUMS) 262 idan ae receeveteeietoienene 6 aly Feeding, regularity in .......... 162 Haecker’s investigation ......... 77 Feeding sheep ................ 223 Haecker’s standard ............ 79 Feeding standard as guide....62, 181 ays sctaren eles otenatorers Sin pono 0.6 32 Feeding standards ........... 58, 61 Hay) Cunning. 9e co eeieeeretenenoe eS Feeding standards on the basis oi Heat’ ye. 205s Soca eneeeeopereietetertenne 5 RE HEN WNIES congécoodesooerc 88 Heavy milkers, feeding for...... 70 Remini GIS Sécccocoocccobdc 45 Heifers fatten early ..........0. 217 COTO Ci S5000005000000 47 Hens in) summer eee eteeerelererer 4 Ay! Oe GAM soooocaosccoDdoo00N 217 Herd bulls care ote *. 192 WwihatatheyaCOntalniceyersieletelele rere 12 Hogrzine soft COrierrecieieteiiterre 253 Feeding stuffs, full value of.... 316 Hos* house) -acencm aceite ier 150 Feeding stuffs possess energy... 93 WEIAY IN JHBIGD 5 oob0d000005000¢ 113 ReeGinPaSwineieicrereislercietelelolele) +) oles 241 Feeding the beef calf........... 135 Feeding the dairy calf ......... 132 Feeding the foal ............-.- 143 Feeding the stallion ........... 167 Feeding young animals ........ 125 Feeding young dairy stock....... 188 Ineaals, @ailt ssogocoad0nd0oDSCoC 132 Feeds, double value in SOG OOO0S 309 Feeds, easy to Swap ..-.----e-- 113 energy value of ........-..+. 95 judgment in purchasing ....... 114 roughage for horses ......----. 163 Feeds, grain, for horses......-- 165 Fertility@in’ feeds) jee oie) 1016 314 OSS “Ol th HEE) coool bobbe> A Bil selling of ..... Belicia Goras acto 310 Fertilizers, buying ..........-.-- 10 Fertilizing elements, their value. . 9 Foal, feeding of .............- 143 Food and manure ........... eOUG Eood, character Of jojc.- ile 157 VPaveel, MEIKD Or oadcocaccs00000 157 Food@nutrientsanmeree cect 44 Food requirements for beef..... 198 yp CEI? COWS ooocooccdcGGdS 172 fOr INOMSES coosco00c00c0000000 156 for Sheep ..eeeeeeee eee eeeee 223 hOTSWAN Curcheneyeraleraei nner eooensre 241 Food requirements of the young 125 Hogs, best gains made early.... 244 fattenina: Uo - «me seinen est) forage for cheap gain....... 5) ZR) mayne Wal EYES oooaco FaO00C 5 ay grazing. rations: LOT sere . 249 heavy, (eaters “Sec oie iertre - 243 mineral matter for <)-...-1c6 - 246 Horses, fattening for market.... 169 feedina: farm seer eerie 5 UES food requirements for ...... - 156 two rations for, compared.... 111 JBLAShGYHON GooddosocoscoIcddoS 4 3 Incombustible matter ..........- 5 Sl Intestinal digestion ...........- 25 Intestines) fe): = -ocieresitoteleinterotare 5 AE FTOMN! +s cis\c cus «sols etekersre rene eereen Moker 3 Kellner feeding standards ...... 328 Vambinios time ierrer- =r Sia Sree vouene 155 ILEMINS BabecacocoacsoC ciateee ctehiwe 5, aks} Lambs, feeding of, for market. 235 Laxative’ foods) anise cries cl-laieirerene 147 Laying hens ........-..--«---- 276 Leak ‘cells 22s cis roe seer etotetetetetere 16 Weeafs anOmthse cy-celetetoretotenetel totais t= S 4 Leaf, underside of ...........-- 14 JUSTE “Sosoncccoogsoceccces 8,115 Life, cycle of .........-.--<-- 4,41 eymphy eee eleieielsielteiee te 27 Maintenance requirements for en- Atay eoocodcono0d0sb0 4000 s- (97 Maintenance standard ......... 59 Manure, relation to food....... 306 what makes poor .........-«« 312 INDEX PAGE Manures, natural, and fertilizers... 9 Rape fORUSHEE Pe ver eretois Sie stensione Mare, feeding brood....... ete ele Measuring heat ..c.c.ce6002e.+s 94 WMIGAE KEES “GooguoouoboGoocddco. AiO HVMUI I Karras Us vautsliaysieie! ssa ele exoreieeteroreceitas . 130 Milk, fertilizing WAI GF -sodsoc0 BY how often to ..... 0 noo bo. Jue: producing, economically _ sdon5 NEA quality, “of <2. 525 see coaooce Ue) requirements for ............ 100 what influences quality ...... 176 Milk formation, what influences.. 174 INGA SKIT si a\leue alias c/e\cehol Bpeeishercelen OO) Milk-yielding function ......... 172 Mineral material .......... 17, 40, 46 Muxtuness tow calvies™ see sc cls eres 190 MONK? INES eipigooocudoc soc0oc00 Ss) Molt of fowls ..... ANceeE IaH sstcvoxs 5 28 IMI CITeee sant.) oro, ieev ete Sb oou ado CGS 24 Mules; feeding) of ...5....-60.. SZ) Nature is balanced ..... Bioko teers 1 INatunes of fOOd ire cyeias cies wie. ests WS\7/ Nature, three divisions ........ 1 INitroeen se ealocs cece eos skonews 4,38 Nitrogen-free compounds Byakousieie 19 Nutrients, cost of ......... 5 iil7, WA defined BMevevawre iaiesoue tals Bono oe oD 44 dizestibles sss. c sce aietsvencustore 50 Nutritive ratio ....... senensienetelene 55 determination of ............ 56 WAS OP MAOROWY Boccoccgdcgce5 Od WN Gere vetet take o.c cv ayer-ar aves /evsvas sade akee 15 Omasum ......... H oid Uigre o oan) Osmosis ........ AeA tsseverotovoucneve 13 Opxey Pema esis cishaig. cis oale a lavelaee aie 3 Pastures are ideal basic rations.. 177 | PENTA: it so geecr Soe Bron OreG GEID CEO 6 BB IRE PSI corey ic isisiese els SiC ren stele t chekonshe 24 Pn@gpoinane EG! sé5qq00000n0000 38 PINGS NOAHS ~“Gooooodca0 GS GO0K c 3 Pigging time ...... eye eustalleh arora Oke 151 Pigs, feeding of ....... Serejeksnersie tad DASE HOR? Boocahopcoupeooo5 248 Plant building, its meaning .... 16 Plant cells Plant constituents grouped .... 19 Plant food, supply of ......... 6 ealamiteatiSSUG ici sre ice e\ei's) <) 5) ey eves ele) eirere 13 Plants, how they grow ......... 12 Portable house for hogs....... 150 IPGASIN ddooocouplooople sos oo on 38 Potassium ..... Rea aOR 3 PenitveweStCerSimas) cysye. actherevevenciciie sarerere 209 POSN Sooodead 15, 40, 41, 42, 43, Ve not solely purchased Mata ay Stas oversupply of ..... 500000008 5 "98 purchase Of Weisea:s BucRenayWeRerenetosone 119 requirements for cows Map anaie 183 EOWA sascccocdcaceocccgo Is) Ptyalinis Gitersreic sles seecxene Sodio Ail Quality of butter ............. 188 (Qeevhine @r wl) Goooaodg0ac00, 7G in pork making to supplement pasture Ration and starch values .. Ration, balanced changes with age compared on basis of cost.... COMMIT Oi S5555550000K0K making a Mahe selection of, for horses...... the cost of widening of Rations, three kinds of Raw materials clause by ani- mals : howaconvertediemiecelie er trciere Rennet Requirements for work Respiration ae Reticulum Root hair, cross section Roots fine for sheep..... Seapets Roughage for horses Roughage materials Rumen Saliva Salt for cows Sap currents Scrub animals Sheep, fattening grown feeding of how often to feed on full rations NESE ws relative economy of ......... roots fine for a steroiaremevens roughage feeds for .......... ecescecer see ec eee ee ee ee oe Ce CY temporary fences for ........ variety of food for........ O.6 Wit rm hOry \clereictateyerekersieretere aor Silagenimeracr: eerena lente sie icrsdenerene COR? OF MHEIIINE S 6060500000000 crops for ....... o00000000000 OCMigine COM WO Sodcnccouc000 COMO iN So0000b0500000000 feeding SHON Sooo boeoabccus ui Sage sieve Silo building the calculating size of .... capacity of essentials of good .......... filling the Re various types of Skim milk calves ...........00. SWOo wOR WOES ooocd0000000000 0 Sodium 00 Soiling, advantages of objections to 50 suggestions for scheme. eter cuonte Soiling crops in favor ......... Soiling system, the ..........6. 330 PAGE Sow, at pigging time ......e.++. 151 exercise for brood ........-- 152 food for brood ..... 500000 -- 149 Soy beans, double good from... 8 Stable management oI cows ..... 191 Stallion, feeding the ........... 167 Standardsi@e oer n0.bI0000 58, 61, 328 for farm animals ...... 60, 61, 328 in practical work ..... Se etayasersiede (Ie Stanchemete eiierroerctetioleleriererere 13 as the standard nutrient..... 82 how plants use .....+..+.- ear LE Starch cells 211.1 «iene re Odo bot 15 Starch, relative value of ....... 83 Stanchwsvalttemerrsieys iets oteleielotonel Y, \ ¥ i x 4 My ‘ RL HA ; on ae ta D Yi i ‘ } i sig H , ¥ ie? \ SD ANE PUNY ‘ ray no i 4 \ ) ! i ; ) Wil ; qi ‘ ’ i PEO) PSS : B / i ay sae i it ' Winn Af Vu 4 " \ hau LIBRARY OF CONGRES iii gives Fi Tss ei S32 OO0089470e8 bike septs hs