^1^6^

1885-1958

THE STORY OF THE BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL

FISHERIES BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

WOODS HOLE . MASSACHUSETTS

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

STEWART L. UDALL, SECRETARY

Fish and Wildlife Service, Clarence P". Pautzke, Commissioner

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Donald L. McKernan, Director

THE STORY OF THE

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

WOODS HOLE, MASSACHUSETTS

By Paul S. Galtsoff

Circular 145

Washington, D. C.
May 25, 1962

Table of Contents

Illustrations

I. Early Years of Woods Hole » . . 1

IL The Next 64 Years (1887-1951) .53

III. Woods Hole Laboratory, Center for
International Fisheries Research .... o.. 97

IV. The Aquarium . .103

V. Outlook for the future 106

Acknowledgements . 109

Bibliography Ill

Illustrations

Figure Page

1 Portrait of Spencer F. Baird 2

2 Map of Woods Hole area 4

3 Early view of Woods Hole 5

4 Portrait of G. Brown Goode 10

5 Early laboratory buildings 12

6 Portrait of A. E. Verrill 14

7 Portrait of V. N. Edwards 15

8 U. S. S. Bluelight 18

9 Temporary laboratory at Little Harbor 20

10 Seining in Little Harbor 21

11 Collecting trip in Little Harbor 22

12 Residence of Spencer Baird in Woods Hole 23

13 Portrait of E. B. Wilson 25

14 Portrait of Joseph S. Fay 28

15 Portrait of Alexander Agassiz 30

16 Small boat refuge 33

17 Residence and laboratory buildings 34

18 Interior view of hatchery 37

19 Interior view of laboratory room 37

20 U. S. S. Fish Hawk 39

21 Beck 61 tE^lL S. S. Fish Hawk 41

22 U. S. S. AlSatross 42

23 Portrait of H. V. Wilson 56

24 Portrait of E. Linton 58

25 Portrait of C. B. Wilson 60

26 Portrait of F. B. Sumner 61

27 U. S. S. Phalarope 63

28 Water'Street, Woods Hole 65

29 Portrait of H. M. Smith 67

30 H. M. Smith and members of collecting trip 69

31 View down Water Street 72

32 Portrait of N. A. Cobb 76

33 Microscopical equipment of N. A. Cobb 77

34 Portrait of H. B. Bigelow 81

35 Portrait of O. E. Sette 82

36 O. E. Sette measuring mackerel 85

37 Damage from hurricane of September 1944 89

38 Portrait of A. M. Day 91

3 9 Interior view of old aquarium 93

40 U. S. S. Albatross HI 94

THE STORY OF THE BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL

FISHERIES BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

WOODS HOLE, MASSACHUSE nS

By Paul S. Galtsoff

I. Early Years of Woods Hole

On a June day in 1871, a large, well-dressed, distinguish-
ed man in his fifties stepped briskly from the coach that brought
the passengers of the Old Colony Railroad from Monument Beach
to Woods Hole. The face of the newcomer, with his well- trimmed,
slightly curly beard and shaved upper lip, was familiar to some of
the local residents gathered to watch the daily arrival of the coach.
They recognized him as an important person from Washington who,
in 1863, came here to spend part of the summer fishing and resting.
The visitor knew the location of the village's only inn; where most
of the tourists stopped and waited for the steamer to take them to
the islands. He walked rapidly carrying his briefcase and did not
appear, to be tired after the 20 mile ride on a dusty road. The train
service to Woods Hole was not expected to begin before the next
summer when the Old Colony Line promised to open the last section
that was now under construction. The event seemed to be trivial,
and the arrival of the newcomer was not reported in local news-
papers. It marked, however, the beginning of a new era for Woods
Hole; for his arrival initiated a long series of events which changed
the destiny of a small New England fishing settlement into an inter-
nationally famous center of research in marine sciences and oceanic
fisheries.

An observant person probably would have noticed on the face
of the man the signs of dynamic power, determination, and perse-
verance which distinguished him from ordinary summer tourists
who were coming to Cape Cod in ever increasing numbers. The new-
comer was the famous zoologist and naturalist, Spencer Fullerton
Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and newly
appointed, by President Ulysses Grant, first U.S. Commissioner
of Fisheries (fig. 1), He faced the enormous task and great respon-
sibility of organizing the new branch of government service deal-
ing with the conservation of natural aquatic resources which appear-
ed to decline under intensive exploitation.

Figure 1. — Spencer Fullerton Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution and first Commissioner of U. S. Commission
of Fish and Fisheries, from I87I to 1887. Photograph
of a painting in the Hegents Room of the Smithsonian
Institution. Courtesy of A. Remington Kellogg.

During the following 16 years, the activities of Spencer F.
Baird greatly influenced the course of biological research in the
United States and put studies of the conservation of marine resources
on a sound scientific basis. His achievements in zoological research
and its application to conservation greatly advanced the progress of
marine biology in the United States. In no other place in the country
have the results of his work been felt as deeply as in Woods Hole,
where a few years after his arrival the first marine laboratory in the
United States was established. The laboratory thrived, and the
community developed into one of the world's leading scientific
research centers.

To understand this profound change in the destiny of Woods Hole
it is necessary to visualize the local conditions as they existed at
the time of Baird' s arrival. The beginning of Woods Hole dates back
to the early 17th century. Five years before the settlement of
Jamestown, Virginia, and 18 years before the Pilgrims landed at
Provincetown and Plymouth, Bartholomew Gosnold coasted along
Cape Cod and Marthas Vineyard, and about May 31, 1602, he is
believed to have landed at what is now known as Woods Hole. The
Town of Falmouth, of which Woods Hole is presently a part, was
first settled in 1659-61 when several persons were granted permission
to purchase land. The date of the settlement of Woods Hole took
place 17 years later. The town (Falmouth) was incorporated on June 4,
1686, and called Succonessett, the name which later, probably in 1694,
was changed to Falmouth. On July 2 3, 1677, the land around Little
Harbor of Woods Hole (fig. 2) was divided among the 13 settlers in
"lots of 60 acres upland to a share" and an "Indian deed" confirming
the land title was signed by Job Notantico on July 15, 167 9 (Deyo, 1890).
Fishing, hunting, and sheep breeding were the principal occupations
of the early settlers and their descendents. Later on a grist mill
was built and salt was made by solar evaporation of sea water in pans
built along the banks of Little Harbor.

These quiet, rural conditions, devoid of adventure, persisted
until about 1815, when Woods Hole became an important whaling
station from which ships operated on the high seas. The whaling
industry in the United States became a very profitable business, and
Woods Hole was a part of it. In 1854, the total receipts for the
American whaling fleet amounted to $10.8 million, the largest part
of this amount resulted from whaling carried out by Massachusetts
captains. Woods Hole participated in these activities and prospered.
It is known that between 1815 and 1860, not less than nine whaling
ships were making port at the Bar Neck wharf, which was located
where the U. S. Navy building of the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution now stands. The place was busy processing oil and whale-
bone and outfitting ships. A bake house for making sea biscuits for
long voyages stood next to the present "Old Stone Building" built in
1829 as a candle factory. This conspicuous old landmark on Water
Street of Woods Hole, identified by an appropriate bronze plaque.

«j»..

Figure 3.— View of Woods Hole from Harbor Hill about I88O.

Buildings of the Pacific Guano Works at upper right j
candle house at left.

now serves as a warehouse for the Marine Biological Laboratory
for storing preserved zoological specimens. About 1860, whaling
became less profitable and Woods Hole entered into the second
phase of its economic life which was dominated by the establishment
and operation of a new commercial venture known as the Pacific
Guano Works.

During the years from 186 3 to 1889, when the Pacific Guano
Works was in operation, the life of Woods Hole centered around
the plant which was built at Long Neck near the entrance to what
is known now as Penzance Point (fig. 3). Many large sailing
vessels carrying sulphur from Italy, nitrate of soda from Chile,
potash from Germany, and many schooners under the American
flag loaded with guano and phosphorus from the Pacific Coast of
South America were anchored in Great Harbor waiting for their
turn to unload their cargoes. The number of laborers regularly
employed by the Guano Company varied from 150 to 200 men,
mostly Irishmen brought in under contract. Several local fishermen
found additional employment as pilots for guano ships. The company

maintained a store where various goods such as leather, lead
pipe, tin, coal, wood, and other items were bought and sold.
The store acted also as a labor housing agency. Through efforts
of the business manager of the Guano Company, the Old Colony
Railroad was persuaded to extend its branch from Monument
Beach to Woods Hole. The establishment of well-organized
and reliable transportation to Boston was an important factor
in the future life of the community.

The Pacific Guano Works was established by the shipping
merchants of Boston who were seeking cargo for the return
voyage of their ships (Pacific Guano Company, 1876). The guano
deposits of one of the Pacific islands seemed to furnish this
opportunity. As soon as the joint stock company was organized
in 185 9 with the capital of $1 million, arrangements were made
almost immediately by which the newly formed concern came
into possession and control of Rowland Island. This island is
located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean at longitude 177° W.,
a short distance north of the Equator, about 1, 500 miles true
south from Midway Island of the Hawaiian archipelago. At the
same time appropriate plant and docking facilities were built
at Woods Hole and 33 large sailing ships became available for
hauling guano. Unlike the well-known guano islands off the coast
of Peru, Howland Island is located in the zone of abundant rainfall.
Consequently, the guano deposits of the island were leached of
organic components and consisted of highly concentrated phosphate
of lime.

Fertilizer produced by the company was made by restoring
the lost organic matter of the phosphate rock by adding the right
proportion of organic constituents which were obtained from
menhaden, pogy, and other industrial fish which abound in Cape
Cod waters. The rock was pulverized and purified by washing;
fish brought in by local fishermen were first pressed to extract
oil, and the residue digested with sulphuric acid, washed, and
dried. Acid was produced locally from sulphur imported from
Sicily, and the digestion of fish flesh was carried out in large
lead-lined vats. The plant was well equipped with machinery
needed for the process and even had a chemical laboratory where
chemists made the necessary analyses. Various sheds for storage
and drying, barracks for laborers, and a business office completed
the facilities.

When the deposits of phosphate rock on Howland Island were
exliausted, the company acquired title to the Greater and Lesser
Swan Islands from the U. S. Government. These islands are
located in the Caribbean Sea at latitude 17° N. and longitude 83° W.
off the coast of Honduras. The islands are only 400 miles from
Key West, Florida, and 500 miles from New Orleans. They
contained good-quality phosphate rock and being much closer to
Woods Hole greatly reduced the voyage time and cost of delivery.

Further expansion of the company consisted in the acquisition
of Chisolm's Island near the coast of South Carolina, con-
struction of a plant for cracking and washing phosphate rock
on the Ball River side of the island, and establishment of a
processing plant in Charleston, S. C. From the initial pro-
duction (in 1865) of 7,540 sacks of fertilizer weighing 200
pounds each, the output reached 11,420 tons in 1871 (the
year of Baird's arrival) and continued to grow until the combined
annual production in 1879 of the works at Woods Hole and
Charleston reached from 40, 000 to 45, 000 tons of guano
fertilizer.

Baird was greatly impressed by the idea of utilizing
menhaden and other fishes for the production of guano fertilizer
and considered it a worthwhile project. In a letter dated
October 18, 187 5, to John M. Glidden, treasurer of the Pacific
Guano Works Company, Baird urged him "to make a display
of your wares at the centennial (in Philadelphia), as this is
one of the most important interests in the United States. " He
writes further that "there is no species (of fish) worked up
elsewhere comparable to the movement with the menhaden,
or pogy, as to numbers and the percentage of oil. The combi-
nation, too, of the pogy scrap with the South Carolina
phosphates and the guanos of the West Indies and of the Pacific,
are also quite novel, and as being especially an American
industry, are eminently worthy of full appreciation. "

While the scientists, agriculturalists, and stockholders
of the company thought very highly of the guano works, the
existence of a malodorous plant was not appreciated by the
residents of Woods Hole who suffered from a strongly offensive
odor whenever the wind was from the west. Woods Hole might
have continued to grow as one of the factory towns of Massachusetts
but, fortunately for the progress of science and good fortune of
its residents (except those who invested their savings in the
shares of Pacific Guano Works), the company began to decline
and became bankrupt in 1889.

Cessation of business and heavy monetary losses brought
financial disaster to many residents of W'oods Hole. The gloom
prevailing in the village after the closing of the guano works
began to dissipate, however, with the development of Woods Hole
as a place of scientific research and with the increasing tourist
trade. The factory buildings were torn down, the chimney which
dominated the Woods Hole landscape was dynamited, and over
100,000 pounds of lead lining the acid chambers were salvaged
(Crowell, 1961). Large cement vats and the remnants of the
old wharf remained; in the following years the latter became a
favored place for summer biologists to collect interesting marine
animals and plants.

The years from 1871 to the death of Baird in 1887 were the
formative period of the new era of Woods Hole as a scientific center.

In historical documents and in old books the present name
Woods Hole is spelled in a different way. The old name "Woods
Holl" is considered by some historians of Cape Cod (Conklin,
1944) to be a relic of the times prior to the 17th century when the
Norsemen visited the coast. The "Holl", supposed to be the Norse
word for "hill", is found in the old records. The early settlers
gave the name "Hole" to inlets or to passages between the islands,
such as "Robinson's Hole" between Naushon and Pasque Islands,
or "Quick's Hole" between Pasque and Nashawena Islands, and
Woods' Hole between the mainland and Nonamesset Island. In
1877 the Postmaster General ordered the restoration of the
original spelling "Wood's Holl", which remained in force until
1896 when the United States Post Office changed it back to Woods
Hole and eliminated the apostrophe in Wood's. The change was
regretted by the old timers and by C. O. Whitman who had given
the specific name "hollensis" to some local animals he described.

At the time of his arrival at Woods Hole in 1871, Baird was
well known to the scientific circles of this country and abroad as
a naturalist, student of classification and distribution of mammals
and birds, and as a tireless collector of zoological specimens. He
maintained voluminous correspondence with the scientists in the
United States and Europe, and was Permanent Secretary of the
recently organized American Association for the Advancement of
Science. To the general public he was known as a contributor to
a science column in the New York Herald and author of many
popular magazine articles. His newly acquired responsibilities
as Commissioner of Fisheries greatly added to his primary duties
as Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution which was
primarily responsible for the establishment of the National Museum
in Washington. As a scientist, Baird belonged to the time of Louis
Agassiz, Th. H. Huxley, and Charles Darwin. Like Agassiz he
attended medical college but never completed his studies, although
the degree of M. D. honoris causa was later conferred upon him by
the Philadelphia Medical College.

In the words of Charles F. Holder (Holder, 1910), "he was a
typical American of the heroic type. A m.an of many parts, virtues,
and intellectual graces, and of all the zoologists science has given
the world .... he was most prolific in works of practical value
to man and humanity. "

Commissioner Baird attended m.any Congressional hearings
and conferences with state officials and fishermen at which the
probable causes of the decline of fisheries were discussed and
various corrective measures suggested. Fronri the lengthy and
frequently heated discussions and evidence presented by the fishermen
and other persons familiar with the fisheries problem.s, he became
convinced that an alarmingly rapid decrease in the catches of fish
had continued for the last 15 or 20 years. Such a decline was
particularly noticeable in the case of scup, tautog, and sea bass in

the waters of Vineyard Sound. It was logical, therefore, that the
new Commissioner of Fisheries would select for his initial activities
the New England coastal area where the fishing industry was of
greatest importance as a politico- economical factor.

Woods Hole, however, was not a significant fishing center.
In the "Fisheries and Fishing Industry of the United States" prepared
and edited by Goode (1884-87) for the 1880 Census (fig. 4), the
fishing activity at Woods Hole is described in the following words:
"Of the male inhabitants only seven are regularly engaged in fishing,
the remainder being employed in the guano factory, in farming and
other minor pursuits .... There is one ship carpenter in Wood's
HoU, but he finds employment in his legitimate business only at long
intervals. Of sailmakers, riggers, caulkers, and other artisans
there are none. Four men are employed by Mr. Spindel, during
the height of the fishing season, in icing and boxing fish. The boat
fishery is carried on by seven men from April until September,
inclusive. Only three species of fish are usually taken, namely,
scup, tautog, and sea bass. The total catch of each fisherman is
about 15 barrels, or about 2400 pounds. In addition about 6,720
lobsters are annually taken. "

Before selecting a location for permanent headquarters for
the work on fishery management and conservation, Baird undertook
extensive explorations of the fishing grounds off the entire New
England Coast. Section 2 of the Joint Resolution Number 8 of
Congress gave the Commissioner full authority to carry out the
necessary research. In part it reads as follows: "and further
resolved. That it shall be the duty of the said Commissioner to
prosecute investigations and inquiries on the subject, with the view
of ascertaining whether any and what diminution in the number of
the food-fishes of the coast and the lakes of the United States has
taken place; and, if so, to what causes the same is due; and also,
whether any and what protective, prohibitory, or precautionary
measures should be adopted in the premises; and to report upon
the same to Congress. " Section 4 of the same Resolution contains
an important clause which authorizes the Commissioner of Fisheries
"to take or cause to be taken, at all times, in the waters of the sea-
coast of the United States, where the tide ebbs and flows, and also
in the waters of the lakes, such fish or specimens thereof as many
in his judgement, from time to time, be needful or proper for the
conduct of his duties as aforesaid, any law, custom, or useage of
any State to the contrary notwithstanding."

The significant words "where the tide ebbs and flows" were
interpreted by Baird in a very broad scientific sense which extended
the authority for his investigations to the offshore areas of the open
ocean.

Pounds and weirs were most frequently accused by the public
as destructive methods of fishing responsible for the decline in the
abundance of food fishes along the coast. Although Baird gave very

Figure h, — George Browii Goode, Director of the National Museum
and assistant to Baird in Woods Hole.

serious consideration to the possible destructiveness of fixed
nets, traps, pounds, pots, fish weirs, and other stationary
apparatus, he was fully aware of the complexity of the factors
which may cause the decline in fish populations. He discusses
this difficult problem in a paper entitled "Report on the condition
of the sea fisheries of the south coast of New England" and
published as the first section of the voluminous First Report
of the Connmissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1871. Of the
causes which may have contributed to the decrease of summer
shore fisheries of the south side of Massachusetts and Rhode
Island, a fact which he considered as well established by the
testimonies of competent persons, he lists the following: (1)
decrease or disappearance of the food of commercial fishes;
(2) migration of fishes to other localities; (3) epidemic diseases
and "peculiar atmospheric agencies, such as heat, cold, etc. ";
(4) destruction by other fishes; (5) man's activities resulting in
the pollution of water, in overfishing, and the use of improper
apparatus.

The biologist of today will recognize in this statement
Baird's broad philosophical approach to the major problem of
fishery biology. The outlined program combined oceanographical
and meteorological investigations with the studies of biology,
ecology, parasitology, and population dynamics of various fish
species. Baird's program of research is as comprehensive and
valid today as it was 90 years ago.

No time was lost in initiating this program. Woods Hole
was selected as the base of the sea coast operations during the
first summer. In spite of the insignificance of local fisheries,
this locality offered a number of advantages which were recognized
by Baird. Communication with Boston, New York, and Washington
was good and promised to be better with the expected opening of
the railroad branch in 1872. Being centrally located in relation
to principal fishing grounds of New England and having good dock
facilities and water of sufficient depth for sea going vessels. Woods
Hole was a suitable base for visiting the offshore grounds. Further-
more, it was believed that the alleged decrease in food fishes was
most clearly manifested in the region around Vineyard Sound. The
small yacht Mazeppa of the New Bedford Custom House and the
revenue- cutter Moccasin attached to the custom-house at Newport,
R.I. , were placed at the disposal of Baird; and the Light-House
Board granted permission to occupy some vacant buildings and the
wharf at the buoy- station on the west bank of Little Harbor (fig. 5).
The Secretary of the Navy came to Baird's assistance by placing
at his command a small steam launch which belonged to the Boston
Navy Yard and by giving many condemned powder tanks which could
be used for the preservation of specimens. Nets, dredges, tanks,
and other gear were provided by the Smithsonian Institution.
Cooperation of the various governmental agencies was authorized

11

Figure 5« — ^Buildings of the Light-House Board on the west bank

of Little Harbor used by Baird as temporal'" headquarters
and laboratory. Courtesy of Norman T. Allen.

by Congress which in Section 3 of the Resolution specified that
"the heads of the Executive Departments be, and they are hereby
directed to cause to be rendered all necessary and practicable
aid to the said Commissioner in the prosecution of the investi-
gations and inquiries aforesaid. "

This provision of the law was of great value. It is apparent,
however, that the success in obtaining cooperation authorized by
law depended a great deal on the personal characteristics of Baird,
his great ability of getting along with people, and his remarkable
power of persuasion. These qualifications played the major role
in his success in organizing the Commission's work and also in
obtaining the cooperation of scientists as well as that of fishermen
and businessmen.

The investigation during the first summer consisted primarily
in collecting large numbers of fishes and studying their spawning,
rate of growth, distribution, and food. In the course of this work
nearly all the fish pounds and traps, some 30 in number, in the

12

vicinity of Woods Hole, were visited and their location recorded.
There was no difficulty in obtaining the owners' permission to
examine these installations and to collect the needed specimens.
Altogether 106 species of fish were secured, photographed, and
preserved for the Nationsd Museum. Of this number 20 or more
species had not previously been known from Massachusetts waters
(Baird, 187 3). Information gained in this manner was supplemented
by the testimonies of various fishermen who presented their ideas
either for or against the use of traps and pounds. Among them
was Isaiah Spindel, who at the request of Baird, prepared a descrip-
tion of a pound net used at Woods Hole and explained its operation.
In the following years Spindel became an influential member of the
group of local citizens who supported Baird' s plan of establishing
a permanent marine station at Woods Hole.

The ship Moccasin under the command of J. G. Baker was
engaged in taking samples of plankton animals, in determining the
extent of beds of mussels, starfish, and other bottom invertebrates,
and in making temperature observations.

One of the principal collaborators in the studies conducted at
Woods Hole in 1871 was A. E. Verrill (fig. 6) of Yale University,
a professor "Whom Baird appointed as his assistant and placed in
charge of the investigations of marine invertebrates. Dredging for
bottom animals during the first summer was carried out on a
relatively small scale from a chartered sailing yacht MoUie and a
smaller vessel used in the immediate vicinity of Woods Hole.
Extensive collections were made by wading on tidal flats exposed
at low water.

Zoological work attracted considerable interest among the
biologists of this country. Many of them stopped at Woods Hole
for greater or lesser periods and were encouraged by Baird to
use the facilities of the Fish Commission. The group included
such well known men as L. Agassiz, A. Hyatt, W. G. Farlow,
Theodore Gill, Gruyure Jeffries of England, and many others.

The first year's work extended until the early part of October.
Before returning to Washington, Baird commissioned Vinal N.
Edwards (fig. 7) of Woods Hole to continue the investigation as far
as possible. By the end of the first year a general plan of study
of the natural histories of the fishes and the effect of fishing on
fish populations was prepared with the assistance of the well-known
ichthyologist, Theodore N. Gill. His old "Catalogue of the fishes
of the Eastern Coast of North America from Greenland to Georgia",
(Gill, 1861) was revised and the next text including the recently
collected data concerning the Massachusetts fishes, appeared in
the First Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries
(Gill, 187 3). The plan of investigation suggested by Gill was
adopted by Baird (Baird, 187 3) as a guide for the work of his
associates for the purpose of "securing greater precision in the
inquiries." The plan is composed of 15 sections, such as

13

M

-^.

Figure 6.-J^. E. Verrill, Professor at Yale University and
assistant to Baird at Woods Hole.

Figure 7. — Vinal N, Edwards, natiiralist and collector for the
U. S. Fisheries station at Woods Hole. About 19l8.

Geographical distribution. Abundance, Reproduction, etc. , with
detailed subdivisions under each one. A questionnaire containing
88 different items was included in order to facilitate the inquiries
conducted among the fishermen. The scope of the highly compre-
hensive program is complete enough to be useful today; marine
biologists of today would probably only rephrase it, using modern
terminology. During the first year of operations conducted at
Woods Hole, Baird and his associates laid down the foundation of
the new branch of science which we now call fishery biology or
fishery science.

Edwards, whom Baird appointed as pilot and collector to
continue the work which started in June 1871 at Woods Hole, was
a most remarkable man. Without a formal scientific education
he was a born naturalist who possessed the essential characteristics
of a true scientist, with great ability for accurate observation,
correct recording of facts, and enthusiastic devotion to the study
of nature. Since the time of his appointment until his death on
April 5, 1919, Edwards remained in the continuous service of the
Fisheries Station at Woods Hole and became the person most
familiar to the biologists working there. Devoid of any vanity he
unselfishly assisted many scientists engaged on various research
problems. No wonder, therefore, that his name was frequently
mentioned in the many papers, especially those dealing with the
local marine fauna. For more than 30 years he kept daily records
of sea-water temperature and density at Woods Hole, recorded the
catches of fish from the pounds, noted the appearance of sea birds
and their nesting, and recorded the results of seining and dredging.
Shore seining seemed to be his favorite occupation in which he
engaged with an unquenchable enthusiasm. He frequently rowed his
heavy skiff, loaded with a 200-foot seine, five or six miles and
after seining for several hours returned home in darkness.

In a letter on file in the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Edwin
Linton writes that Edwards' ability to forecast the weather for many
hours ahead seemed uncanny to inlanders not familiar with the sea.
He adds that "l think of Vinal's mind, when dealing with nature, as
mirroring .... the region from Narragansett Bay to Monomoy,
and I do not know how much farther. The set of the tides seemed
to be in his mind as a moving picture which he could refer to on the
moment, so that it was much easier to ask Vinal when it would be
low water at Katuma Bay, on the coming Saturday, or when the tide
would begin to make to the eastward at Quick's Hole on the following
Monday .... than it would be to attempt to work it out from the
tide tables. "

Edwards' enthusiasm for observation and collecting was known
to Baird. This probably explains that in making his appointment he
stipulated that "Mr. Edwards was to do no regular work on Sunday. "
Edwards' services to the Fish Commission and to the biologists who
came later to work at Woods Hole were recognized by many prominent

16

scientists. Their feelings are well summarized by the words
of E. B. Wilson, who wrote on May 12, 1919 after the death
of Edwards, as follows: "It is hard to realize that the familiar
figure of Vinal N. Edwards will no longer be seen at Woods Hole,
and he will be greatly missed, especially by all the earlier
workers who had come to rely so often upon his advice and
judgment. No one could know Vinal Edwards without having
the kindliest feelings toward him personally and without coming
to realize that he was a man of rare character and attainments.
I always associated him with Spencer Baird who I know had a
very high regard for him and fully appreciated his important
services to the Fish Commission .... Woods Hole will not
seem the same without him. " A commemorative plaque for
Edwards was presented by friends of Edwards to the Fisheries
Laboratory at Woods Hole and was mounted on a wall at the
entrance to the old aquarium building. It can now be seen in
the lobby of the new laboratory.

In the years 1872-74 the operations of the Fish Commission
were shifted northward to the Bay of Fundy with the special
purpose to study the fisheries of Maine and the adjacent portion
of the British Provinces. In 1872 the headquarters was established
at Eastport, Maine, where Baird was permitted to use the U. S.
Revenue cutter Mosswood. The vessel was armed with a small
gun on the forward deck and carried a number of rifles and
cutlasses. The arrangement with the revenue office specified
that if a suspicious craft should be sighted the dredging must
be suspended while the suspect was overhauled and investigated.
The records fail to show that dredging and seining were
interferred with, since most of the smuggling was done at night.
As in the previous year, several scientists, including A. E.
Verrill, S. I. Smith, G. Brown Goode, Th. N. Gill and others,
assisted in the work and collaborated in the identification of
collected materials. The Commissioner of the D9minion Fisheries,
William F. Whitcher, and his staff showed great interest in the
fishery investigations and gave Baird valuable assistance and
cooperation. A biologically interesting conclusion was reached
by Baird regarding the probable cause of the reduction of cod and
river fishes, both of which have declined in equal ratio. He states
in his report for 1872-7 3 (Baird, 1874) that "the reduction in the
cod and other fisheries, so as to become practically a failure, is
due to the decrease off our coast in the quantity, primarily of
alewives; and secondarily, of shad and salmon, more than to any
other cause. "

Early in 1872, the American F^'sh Culturists Association
at the February meeting in Albany, New York, passed a resolution
urging the U. S. Government to take measures for the introduction
and artificial propagation of shad, salmon, and other valuable food
fishes throughout the country, especially in the waters common to
several states. An appropriation of $15, 000 for this purpose was

17

Figure 8. — Steain tug Bluelight assigned by U.S. Navy to Baird
for sea explorations along the coast of Maine.
Courtesy of Norman T. Allen.

given by the Congress and added new responsibilities to the
Commission of Fisheries. This action greatly influenced the
work at Woods Hole where a marine hatchery was established
as an integral part of the station.

In 187 3 the field operations were based at Peaks Island
in Casco Bay, Maine, about three miles from Portland. The
location was selected as the principal area of the herring and
cod fisheries. A Navy steam tug Bluelight (fig. 8) which weighed
about 100 tons and was 100 feet in length, was placed under the
jurisdiction of the Commissioner. This vessel was sufficiently
large to provide an opportunity of trying, for the first time, the
steam windlass for hoisting the dredges and trawls. This improve-
ment of technique attracted the attention of the Secretary of the
Navy who visited the headquarters and spent several days in
examining the operations at sea. The assignment of the U. S.
Coast Survey steamer Bachc to the Fisheries Commission gave

18

an opportunity to extend the operations farther offshore between
Mount Desert and Cape Cod.

As in previous years many visitors, including several
scientists who attended the Portland, Maine, meetings of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Maine
Commissioners of Fisheries, representative of the New York
Tribune, and others came to see Baird's explorations.

For marine investigations in 1874, Baird selected a
locality in the village of Noank, Conn, at the mouth of the Mystic
River on Fishers Island Sound. The place was sufficiently
remote from the previously explored areas of New England
waters to permit the notice of some important zoological
differences. In addition to the waters adjacent to Noank, the
Bluelight visited Montauk Point on the eastern tip of Long
Island^ Gardiners and Peconic Bays, Block Island Sound, and
the eastern part of Long Island Sound. Verrill and his associates
reported that over 100 species of invertebrates new to the fauna
of New England were found. They also reported that some of
the more southern species of animals were discovered in
localities which had a higher sea-water temperature than others.
In addition, the party conducted experiments in artificial
propagation of sea bass and attempted to introduce young shad
into salt-water rivers. Valuable background information
necessary for selecting a place for the permanent location of
the laboratory and hatchery was obtained through the four years
of studies of the abundance, habits, and distribution of the more
important species of fishes and invertebrates. The final
decision had to be postponed until later years.

Baird, with his assistants, returned to Woods Hole in 1875
with the idea that a second survey of local waters would provide
a means for determining the variation in the abundance of fishes
as compared with the conditions recorded four years previous,
in 1871. The need for a more permanent field accommodation
for the Commission became acute. It was solved by the authori-
zation of the Light-House Board to convert the large shed on the
banks of Little Harbor into a two-story laboratory (fig. 9) and to
construct a 5, 000-gallon reservoir and a windmill for pumping
sea water. The regular appropriation of the Commission provided
funds necessary to cover the cost of the alteration, but laboratory
equipment, including tables, shelves, tanks, aquaria, and
plumbing, for which Government funds were not available, was
purchased with the liberal contributions made by Mr. and Mrs.
John F. Forbes of Naushon Island and Robert L. Stuart of New York.
This laboratory greatly facilitated the work of sorting, identi-
fication, and preservation of the material collected at sea and
made it possible to observe the behavior of various animals, and
to study their spawning and the hatching of eggs. The opportunities

19

Figure 9» — Temporary laboratory at Little Harbor established by
Baird in 1875 on the grounds of the Light-House Board.
Sea-water tank to supply the aquaria and water tables
on the right. Courtesy of Norman T. Allen.

for research in marine biology offered by the new laboratory
attracted many outstanding biologists from New England colleges,
as well as State fisheries Connmissioners and the general public.
Baird realized the importance of public support of his venture
and encouraged the visitors to come and see the laboratory and
the collection of live fish and other animals kept in tanks. He
was pleased when popular accounts of the activity of the new
institution appeared in the New York Tribune under the signature
of William C. Wyckoff, the scientific editor, who on several
occasions was his guest at Woods Hole.

The year 1875 should be considered the year of the establish-
ment of the Woods Hole laboratory, although the construction of a
permanent building had to be postponed for several years. During
187 5 and in the following years the biological investigations continued
under the supervision of Baird and his principal collaborators,
George Brown Goode and A. E. Verrill. A number of students

20

:g -^^w^

vv

Figure 10. — Seining in Little Harbor. Baird with net at the stem,
G, B. Goode standing in the boat. Courtesy of Norniain
T. Allen.

were attracted to the new institution which offered an opportunity
to conduct scientific research under Baird, who liberally offered
his guidance and advice. At this time he actively participated in
dredging, seining, or in collecting material in shallow water.
Being an enthusiastic collector, he enjoyed going aboard the vessels
with his students and assistants. He was frequently seen wading
along the beaches of Woods Hole or seining from a small boat in
Little Harbor (figs. 10 and 11). The research work conducted in
the temporary laboratory buildings was well organized. The first
floor was utilized by those who worked with fishes; the second
floor was used by the biologists studying invertebrates. The
students employed by Baird spent the early morning hours collecting
materials in nearby waters. vSometimes the steam launch Cygnet
would take them to the "Hole". After several half-hour tows were
made the material was brought to the laboratory and examined
before the investigators left for the night. Edwin Linton in his
recollection of life at vVoods Hole in earlier days of the Fish

21

Figure 11. — Small boat ready for collecting trip in Little

Harbor. Baird leaning over the stern (left); G. B.
Goode rowing (right). Courtesy of Norman T. Allen.

Commission (Linton, 1927) remarks of the "total absence of
anything in the way of play, other than the daily swim. " However,
it is known that a small part of the laboratory shed was set aside
as a social hall used for discussions, conversation, reading, and
relaxation. It was unofficially known in the village as "Sharks
Parlor. " A photograph (fig. 9) taken during this period shows a
carriage standing near the shed entrance. The crate on the carriage
apparently contained a piano.

For his family, Baird rented the house facing Little Harbor
belonging to Miss J. Fish (fig. 12), but his associates were
scattered in different dwellings throughout the village. When the
number of Commission employees increased, a house was rented
to provide office space, living quarters, and mess facilities. It
burned in 1883, and the site is now occupied by the Woods Hole
Public Librcxry.

22

flfllllliSiiiSim

Figure 12. — Baird's residence at Woods Hole in the l880's before
the construction of government buildings. Formerly
Miss J. Fish's house facing Little Harbor, now
property of Paul J. Gulesian. Courtesy of Norman T.
Allen.

The purpose of scientific investigations was little understood
by the public. Their questions about what the biologists were doing
in the laboratory were sometimes difficult to answer. Linton
reported that on one occasion A. E. Verrill, who was in charge of
the laboratory, found it impossible to enlighten his interlocutors.
He had an inspiration and told them that he was paid for his work.
This seemed to be accepted as quite a satisfactory explanation. Of
course there were many laymen of better education and higher intel-
ligence who were able to grasp the significance of research. Since
Baird's time to the present, the problem of visitors and how to
satisfy their natural curiosity and at the same time avoid interference
with scientific work has been of great concern to all in charge of
scientific institutions at Woods Hole. Baird encouraged the people
to visit his laboratory because he was convinced that in a democratic
society the people are entitled to know about the activities of the
institutions which are maintained by expenditures of public funds.

23

He also thought that research and education should not be divorced.
As a practical person he believed that public support would be
effective in obtaining the necessary appropriations by Congress for
the construction of a good marine station.

The scientific work conducted at the station during the ensuing
years was carried out along the lines already established by explor-
atory studies of New England waters, with greater emphasis on
developing practical methods of artificial propagation of fishes and
in formulating a system for collecting statistical data. Zoological
research was in the hands of specialists, with Verrill as head of
the section of marine invertebrates and E. B. Wilson as his out-
standing assistant (fig. 13). The fact that this eminent American
embryologist and cytologist was associated with the laboratory
during the earliest years of its existence has remained a source of
pride to many biologists who during the past 80 years were employed
by the U. S. Fisheries Laboratory at Woods Hole. Studies of fish
and fisheries were continued under the supervision of Goode, while
Baird concentrated his efforts in obtaining land and necessary funds
for the laboratory.

In the scientific circles of his time Baird was recognized as
an organizer and administrator of the highest rank. He had a rare
faculty of adapting himself with unusual tact to subordinate positions,
as can be seen from his work for nearly 30 years when he devoted
his principal efforts to the organization of the National Museum.
Moreover, through his position as Assistant Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution he obtained cooperation of nearly every
branch of the Government. In spite of the well-known fact that his
chief, I. Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, a physicist,
had little or no fondness for zoology, the relationship between the two
men remained harmonious. Upon the death of Henry in 187 8, Baird
succeeded him as Secretary and assumed an even greater burden of
administrative work. In his discussions he displayed a remarkable
ability to convince his listeners and secure their assistance. This
was so well known in Congressional circles, where Baird was a
frequent witness at hearings of various committees, that one influential
Senator was quoted as saying: "l am willing to vote the money asked
for by Prof. Baird, for he will get two dollars worth for every dollar
we give him, one-half by direct purchase and one-half by gift. " This
reputation helped Baird in obtaining Congressional appropriation for
the construction of the Fisheries Station, since the increased scope
of activities of the Fish Commission required larger and more permanent
accommodations than those provided by the Light-House Board.

The power of persuasion of this remarkable man was so great
that he was equally successful in dealing with college professors,
students, local politicians. State Fish Commissioners, Senators,
Congressmen, and business officials. In his attitude to others he
was never condescending, vain, or "highbrow", but always tried to
explain the merits of his point in terms understandable to others.

24

Figure 13.-- -E. B. Wilson of Colujnbia University, Professor and
assistant to Verrill at Woods Hole. Photograph
taken in 192[t.

Since the Fish Commission became more and more involved
in fish culture, it was necessary to find an inexpensive and safe
method of transporting live fry to the place where they were to be
released. It was not difficult for Baird to obtain full cooperation
of the American railroads, who granted to the Fish Commission
special low rates for travel of personnel and for delivery of large
containers of water and young fishes. Later on, special railroad
cars were built for this purpose. One such car was frequently
seen at the railroad terminal at Woods Hole.

On July 18, 1872, the Old Colony Railroad opened its services
to Woods Hole. This improvement was a great benefit to the village
and of considerable convenience to the members of the Fish
Commission. The first train conductor, Augustus S. Messer,
remained in the service of the company for many years and became
highly respected and known and loved by the residents and commuters
for his friendliness and services which he was eager to extend. The
administration of the railroad encouraged friendly relations with the
travelling public; this policy was continued until the late 1950's when
due to the financial adversity of the owners, the New York, New
Haven, and Hartford Railroad, to which the Old Colony Railroad was
leased in 1893, stopped passenger service between Boston and Woods'
Hole. Good transportation facilities were an important factor in the
growth of Woods Hole as a scientific center. At first the fastest
train travelled from Boston to Woods Hole, a distance of about 80
miles, in 3 hours 10 minutes. Soon, however, the famous "Flying
Dude' train was inaugurated. It made its first trip early in the
spring of 1884 and cut the travel time to only 1 hour 47 minutes.
The Old Colony Railroad "was the equal to any road and inferior to
none." (Fisher, 1919).

At the request of Baird the Old Colony issued special tickets
which facilitated transportation of the officers and employees of the
Fish Commission to and from Woods Hole. An agreement with
various other railroad companies authorized the Fish Commission
to transport live fish in the baggage cars of passenger trains without
extra charge and allowed the Commission messengers to have free
access to them while en route.

During the formative years the final decision crystallized in
Baird's mind regarding the location and character of the permanent
laboratory of the Fish Commission. In 1882 he arrived at the
conclusion that the proposed station was to be used both for research
"and for propagation of the marine fishes and that the best conditions
for the latter purpose were found on the south coast of New England
because greater variety of fish can be found here and so far as the
winter hatching was concerned, the cold being much less severe, and
the other circumstances more favorable. " The choice was between
two locations: Newport, R. I. , and Woods Hole. The citizens of
Newport showed great desire to have the station and exerted their
influence on Government authorities to induce the Fish Commission

26

to choose their town. Necessary buildings and the use of a
suitable wharf were offered, and the Navy Department invited
the Commission to establish its laboratory and hatchery on
the northern end of Coasters Harbor Island, which was thought
not to be required for the Naval Training School.

Experiments with hatching marine fish eggs during 1880
showed that the water around Newport contained an excessive
amount of sediment which settled on the eggs and materially
impaired their development. Furthernnore, the water of this
part of Narragansett Bay was polluted by the drainage of a
number of large cities (Newport, Fall River, Bristol, Providence,
and others). The water around Gloucester was also found
unsuitable because of high turbidity caused by sediment. The
conditions at Woods Hole were totally different. Baird (1884)
describes them in the following words: "the water is exceptionally
pure and free from sediment, and where a strong tide, rushing
through the Woods Hole passage, keeps the water in a state of
healthy oxygenation especially favorable for biological research
of every kind and description. The entire absence of sewage,
owing to the remoteness of large towns, as well as the absence
of large rivers tending to reduce the salinity of the water,
constituted a strong argument in its favor, and the station was
finally fixed upon for the purpose in question. " From a biological
standpoint the decision was sound and, as further developments
have shown, the laboratories at Woods Hole have been supplied
with sea water of high purity. At the present time, however, due
to the greater population density, increase in the size of the
scientific institutions, and large numbers of pleasure boats
visiting the harbor during the summer months, the water has
become polluted to such an extent that the taking of shellfish from
Woods Hole Harbor is no longer permitted by sanitary regulations
and swimming in Great Harbor is discouraged.

Another biologically important characteristic of Woods Hole
water mentioned by Baird remains unchanged. Due to the absence
of large fresh-water streams, the salt concentration of Woods Hole
sea water is nearly constant throughout the year and does not vary
with the alternate changes of the tides. There are very few locations
along the eastern coast of the United States and in the Gulf of
Mexico where such a stability in the salinity of water can be found.
As Baird visualized it many years ago, this constitutes a great
advantage for "biological research of every kind and description. "

The decision regarding the character of the marine laboratory
to be established at vVoods Hole was influenced by the success of
the first laboratory of this type organized in 1870-74 by Anton Dohrn
in Naples, Italy. The latter laboratory, which up to the present day
remains a mecca for biologists working with marine material, was
established as a private enterprise, financed primarily through
subscriptions by different European colleges and universities for
the use of laboratory facilities. Baird thought that the first permanent

27

Figure ll^. — Joseph S. Fay, citizen of Woods Hole who donated land
for the U.S. Fisneries Station. Courtesy of the
Church of the Messiah, Woods Hole.

marine laboratory in the United States should also include a school
of marine biology. His plans had to be modified to conform with
the policies of Congress. He realized great difficulties in obtaining
Congressional appropriation for the purchase of land for the laboratory
and entered into negotiations with the owners of most desirable
tracts of land on the shore of Great Harbor in Woods Hole. At the
same time he persuaded a number of influential and wealthy persons
to give financial support to his project. Joseph S. Fay, a leading
citizen of Woods Hole (fig. 14) donated three acres of land along
North Street. The tract comprised a narrow strip between the
shores of Great Harbor and North Street (present Bar Neck Road);
it extended beyond the end of North Street in a northwesterly
direction for about 425 feet along the breakwater on the northern
shore of Buzzards Bay and ended at the boundary line of the Pacific
Guano Company. Two other parcels of land not contingent with Fay's
property, one along Water Street (known also as County Road) of
0. 9 acres in area, and the larger piece of 1. 5 acres along the east

28

shore of Great Harbor were acquired by purchase with the
money contributed by various parties. The annual report
of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1883, lists
the following parties who contributed the money:

Old Colony Railroad Company $2, 500

John M. Forbes 1,000

Alexander Agassiz 500

Johns Hopkins University 1,000

Princeton University 1,000

Williams College 500

Isaiah Spindel and Company 500

Mrs. Robert L. Stuart 250

The subscribed funds and the land donated by Fay were
available to the Fish Commission only in the event of an
appropriation by the U. S. Government for necessary improvements.
The titles of the tracts of land to be conveyed to the U. S. Government
were investigated by the U. S. District Attorney for Massachusetts
and pronounced valid. Full jurisdiction over the land in question was
ceded by the State of Massachusetts on March 30, 1882. The value
of the property which the U. S. Fish Commission received as a gift
from private citizens and organizations was estimated not less than
$15,000.

To facilitate the transaction, the deed to Fay's land in
consideration of one dollar and the funds contributed by others
were turned over to Charles F. Choate and J. Malcolm Forbes
as Trustees. They purchased the two smaller parcels from
individual owners and, on April 20, 1883, conveyed all the
acquired property, including the deed to Fay's land, to the United
States Government.

To obtain the contributions, Baird offered the universities
continuous use of research tables in the proposed laboratory. In
a letter of September 3, 1881, to Forbes, Baird wrote as follows:
" . . . .1 have written to Alexander Agassiz (fig. 15) asking him
if he would like to join in the enterprise and promising him a
perpetual right to a table in the laboratory and the facilities of the
station to be utilized by anyone he may designate. This is the
system adopted at the Naples Aquarium, where establishment by
this means has been successfully maintained."

Baird (1885, p. L.IV) states: "The colleges in question and
Mr. Agassiz made their contributions with the understanding that,
as far as possible, they were each to be allowed to send one
specialist to the station for the purpose of carrying on scientific
research. " This promise was continued to be honored by his
successors. On one occasion, in May, 1895, Commissioner
McDonald denied the privilege and stated "this agreement, as a
matter of contract, is not authorized by law; as a matter of courtesy,
it has been and will be carried out unless something intervenes to
make it impossible. " (Letter on file at the Bureau of Commercial

29

Figure 15« — ^Alexander Agassiz, Professor at Harvard University,
conducted several oceanographic expeditions on the
U. S. S. Albatross and one of the contributors to
the fund to purchase land for the U.S. Fisheries
Laboratory.

Fisheries Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole.) Conklin (1944)
w^rites that "when, on one occasion, this privilege was cancelled
by a Commissioner of Fisheries, Mr. Agassiz fought the order
with characteristic vigor, and it was rescinded. "

The grant of land belonging to Fay was made by him upon
the following conditions: " . . . . and they are conveyed subject
to the proviso in the deed to us that if hereafter they are not used
for the purpose of the United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries nor by the United States of America, they shall revert
to the said Joseph S. Fay, his heirs and assigns, and with the
reservation of a perpetual right of landing for the said Fay, his
heirs and assigns at any suitable landing place on the premises to
be provided by the United States. " The restriction remained in
force until October 28, 1914, when as a result of lengthy litigations
brought by the heirs of Joseph S. Fay, an agreement was reached

30

and a judgement of the Circuit Court of Appeals and a mandate
of said court was reached by which the Fays received all the
land west of the so-called "division line" near the corner of
North Street and Gosnold Drive. The agreement established a
40-foot strip immediately to the west of the line as a permanent
place of landing for all those people who had been conveyed such
a right in the preceding real estate transactions. The United
States was left with the remainder of the land deeded by J. S. Fay,
free of all restrictions set out in the original deed. The agreement
and judgement mentioned above were honored by the land court
(Land Court Case No. 5985) and the certificate No. 457 in favor
of the Fays was issued.

Considerable confusion in the title of the U. S. Fisheries
property at Woods Hole was caused by the lack of clarity in the
original title and by the informal agreements made by Baird with
the selectmen of the Town of Falmouth. These parties agreed to
exchange a portion of the western end of vVater Street, owned by
the town, for an equivalent area of Fisheries land, 40 feet wide,
extending from Center Street to the water. This arrangement
enabled the Town of Falmouth to construct a wharf which is used
now as a public landing. The private exchange made between
Commissioner Baird and the Town of Falmouth remained without
proper legal action until 1956 when the real estate holdings were
reviewed by the Branch of Lands of the Regional Office of the Fish
and Wildlife Service (Ennis Abbiati's report on file in the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries Regional Office in Gloucester) and the
necessary legal action was made to convey the title to a short
portion of Water Street owned by the Town of Falmouth to the U. S.
Government.

The western end of the Commission's property along North
Street, consisting of approximately 1.0 3 acres in area, was for
many years rented by the Government to the Woods Hole Yacht
Club. In 1958 the parcel was declared surplus property and in
accordance with Private Law 85-367 was transferred for $6,000
to the Woods Hole Yacht Club with the provision that the conveyed
property is to be used only by the Club and for the purposes "to
which it is now put, namely, the usual activities of a non- commercial
yacht club. " The property cannot be transferred or assigned in
any manner to other parties without the prior consent of the U. S.
Government and cannot be used for any activities that may be
detrimental, as determined by the Government, to the operation
of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory.
The conveyance was made for only as long as the Woods Hole Yacht
Club remains in existence, and in case of its dissolution the
property with all improvements shall revert to the United States.
The deed executed by the Administrator of General Services has been
recorded on February 1, 1961, in the land records of Barnstable
County, Mass. in Book 1104, page 129.

31

Through the efforts of various business firms in
Massachusetts, insurance companies, and masters of many
coastal vessels, a bill was introduced in the House requesting
an appropriation of $52, 000 for the construction of a refuge
in the Great Harbor of Woods Hole to permit vessels of
20-foot draft to come in and remain in perfect safety in
severe storms and to furnish the basins for keeping live
fish. The magnitude of the appropriation induced President
Chester A. Arthur to defer approval for one year. The
refuge was built in 1884 (fig. 16) and proved to be a valuable
asset to the station, not only as a safe shelter for small
boats, but also as a convenient place to keep live- cars
containing fish and invertebrates and conduct observations
and experiments.

Before commencing the construction of the necessary
buildings, Baird engaged the services of E. W. Bowditch,
a well-known landscape architect and engineer, to make a
careful survey of the land and prepare a map (scale of 20 feet
to one inch) including the contour lines at one-foot intervals
over the entire surface. Plans for the buildings were made
by Robert H. Slack, Boston archietct, and the contract for
the erection of the first building was given to W. R. Penniman
of South Braintree (Boston).

Drawings made under Baird' s guidance showed his full
understanding of the station's needs and his great ability to
visualize minute details in planning the laboratory and in
designing water tables, chemical benches, and other laboratory
furniture. He was assisted in this work by Verrill.

With the appropriation of $25, 000 by Congress for
construction purposes, the first building to be erected was the
"quarters" for the personnel. Upon completion the structure
became an outstanding landmark of Woods Hole and was always
called the "Residence. " Concurrently with the work on the
foundation of the residence building, the excavation and
dredging for the piers was carried out. In addition to the
residence building, the station plans included the laboratory
and hatchery building, the pump house with a sea-water
reservoir, a coalshed, and a storehouse.

Construction of the laboratory building, 120 x 40 feet,
began in 1884 and was partly finished that same year. Serious
difficulties were encountered in laying the foundation, which
had to be erected on unstable grounds regularly covered by
water at high tide. It was necessary to drive wooden pilings
upon which the structure rested. In February 1885, the
construction of the laboratory and hatchery was completed by
Brightman, a New Bedford contractor, and was accepted by
the Commission. For nearly three-quarters of a century the
building withstood the violence of Cape Cod storms and

32

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Figure 17» — Residence (right) and laboratory of the Woods Hole

Station shortly after their construction. Pumphouse,
inachine shop and sea-water tank (towerlike structure)
are in the middle. About I89O.

hurricanes. Although the ravages of old age were noticeable,
the structure remained strong. Old pilings pulled out of the
ground when the building was demolished in 1958 showed no
signs of deterioration.

The total amount of money appropriated from time to
time by Congress for the vVoods Hole Station buildings and
their equipment amounted to $70, 000. The completion of
the laboratory with auxiliary structures and wharf greatly
changed the face of Woods Hole. Photographs taken at this
time (fig. 17) show the imposing three-story brick and frame
structure of the residence, crowned with cupola and set on
the shores of Great Harbor at the end of vVater Street. Several
letters exchanged between Baird and town officials refer to
the grounds as "Refuge Point. " The name was not officially
recognized, it did not appear on any charts or documents and
was later abandoned.

34

In the summer of 1885, Baird with his staff of assistants
and several clerks moved into the new building. A. E. Verrill
was in charge of the laboratory and with other biologists con-
tinued investigations on the habits and development of fishes
and marine invertebrates. The following biologists not employed
by the Fish Commission used the facilities of the newly established
American marine laboratory: Richard Rathbun, Sidney I. Smith,
Sanderson Smith, E. Linton, B. F. Koons, Harrison Allen,
William Libbey, Jr. , and Walter Heape of Cambridge, England.

An interesting experiment of introducing marine species
into a new environment was carried out. For the first time, a
lot of young shad were transported in a railroad car to the Pacific
Coast and planted in the waters of Washington Territory and
Oregon. In return, G. H. H Moore who was entrusted with
the task, collected and brought back to Woods Hole a large
number of clams. Tapes staminea. A great many clams
perished enroute, but several hundred which survived and
appeared to be in good condition were planted in various
locations in the vicinity of the station. Shad transplanting
was continued in later years, and the Atlantic species is now
well established on the Pacific Coast, but Tapes staminea
apparently did not survive and was never found in Woods Hole
waters.

A series of oyster breeding experiments were made that
summer by John A. Ryder, using the ponds constructed on
private grounds near Eel Pond, Woods Hole, owned by J. H.
and Camilla J. Kidder.

Jerome H. Kidder, medical officer of the U. S. S.
Albatross, made a detailed chemical study of the fresh-water
supply to the new laboratory and found it to be "potable and of
good quality. " The source of fresh water available at that
time was a small spring or well located at Bar Neck. The
water level in the well ordinarily stood at a height of about four
feet above mean low water. To one analysis, Kidder attached
the following statement: "The sediment (of water from the
well) contains unicellular algae, rotifers, Paramecium, amoeba,
and woody fiber. No evidence of impurity injurious to health"
(Kidder, 1886). The reference to Paramecium and Amoeba
miake one suspicious about the quality of drinking water available
at that time.

Another interesting and comprehensive study, also by
Kidder, deals with the accuracy of the thermometers used by
the Fish Commission in marine exploration. Of particular
significance are the tests of Negretti-Zambra deep-sea
reversing thermometers and maximum and minimum thermometers
made by Miller-Casella. This type of thermometer is provided
with short steel rods which are pushed by a column of mercury
and can be reset by using a small magnet. The reversing and

35

maximum /minimum thermometers were not free from certain
defects and peculiarities which often lead to erroneous readings.
These difficulties are fully discussed in Kidder's paper (Kidder,
1887). Baird himself contributed to the technique of temperature
observations by designing, in 187 3, a protected thermometer,
enclosed in cylindrical copper cases with a hinged door in front.
This type was devised for reading water temperatures at light-
houses and at shore stations. The instrument is still being
used for observations in shallow waters when great accuracy is
not needed.

The thoroughness shown by Baird in every detail pertaining
to the operation of the station speaks for his versatility and
ingenuity. The equipment of the laboratory and hatchery was
designed by Baird with the assistance of Verrill. Both men had
considerable experience in that type of work. Verrill was
particularly skillful in designing aquaria tanks and tables. Baird
was well known by the designs of storage cabinets for the specimens
in the National Museum which were made to save valuable museum
space and fit exactly between the supporting wall columns. The
actual construction and materials used by the contractor for
laboratory benches, chemical and office tables, and of other
equipment were meticulously scrutinized and personally approved
by Baird.

The new laboratory building was three stories high. The
entrance hall on the first floor separated the hatchery, on the
south side of the building, from the public aquarium on the north.
Large sea-water tanks of the aquarium were mounted along the
outside walls, while the center was equipped with cabinets for
preserved specimens of fish, invertebrates, and birds. The
hatchery equipment consisted of a series of tanks containing
floating frames, each frame having the bottom covered with
cloth for holding fish eggs (fig. 18), and batteries of McDonald
hatching jars. The excellent supply of sea water and good equip-
ment insured successful hatching operations. A wide stairway led
to the second floor. The northern half of the second floor was
occupied by a large laboratory equipped with tables for biological
research (fig. 19). The tables were the last word in laboratory
furniture. They were covered with thick birch planks painted
black, with acid and alcohol-resistant paint. Each table contained
a stack of deep drawers on one side. The southern side of the
second floor contained three offices, a farily large chemical
room equipped with two chemical tables, accommodating eight
persons, and a fume hood. There was a small storage room for
stationery and office supplies. The third floor was occupied by
the library, two large stockrooms (one for chemicals and one for
glassware and scientific instruments) and several small rooms in
which the fish culturists and janitor lived. In later years these
rooms were converted into laboratories.

36

Figure l8, — Interior of the hatchery. Sea water is supplied to
each of the tanks individually and fills it from
the bottom and is drained from the top through an
overflow into a trough seen at right. A wooden
frame (standing in front) with cloth bottom for
holding eggs floats freely in each tank.

Kigttre 19» — Interior of the laboratory shortly after its
construction in 1885. Laboratory tables and
other furniture were designed by Baird and
Verrill#

The hatchery was a great asset to biological research.
Some of the hatching tanks, not needed for current hatching
operations, were at the disposal of the biologists for keeping
animals and for studying the development of marine eggs.
Outdoor tanks and live- cars anchored inside the protected
area of the boat refuge (fig. 16) were of great convenience.
An examination of old plans and photographs of the laboratory
will show how much of Baird's thinking, experience, and
imagination went into the implementation of his dream. At
the time of its opening in 1885 the Fisheries Station at Woods
Hole was an excellently equipped institution for marine
research, equal to or better than any laboratory of this type
in Europe.

Good docking facilities at the Fisheries Station made
possible the full use of the Fish Commission ships. Two
large vessels, the Fish Hawk and the Albatross, frequently
used Woods Hole as a base of their operation. The ships
were not permanently assigned to the station but from time
to time were ordered by the Commissioner of Fisheries to
proceed to the areas where in his opinion they were needed
for conducting sea explorations. It was Baird's plan, however,
to use Woods Hole as the home base for the ships, and both
the Albatross and Fish Hawk were frequently seen at the
Fisheries dock at Woods Hole.

U. S. S. Fish Hawk

The Fish Hawk (fig. 20) was a coal-burning steamer of
156-1/2 feet overall length. She was registered at 484 tons
displacement and had a rig of "a fore-and-aft schooner with
pole topmasts. " She was built according to specifications
and plans made by C. W. Copland, naval architect of the Light-
House Board. It was a special vessel to serve as a floating
hatchery for the production of shad, herring, striped bass,
etc. , and was capable of being moored almost anyplace where
breeding fish could be found in sufficient quantity (Tanner, 1884).

A considerable portion of the deck space and hull was
occupied by hatching equipment and laboratory. The laboratory
was 10 feet, 7 inches long, 9 feet wide and 7 feet 3 inches high.
It was provided with a laboratory table, specimen case, box
for microscope, and the necessary shelves and drawers. Sea
water was supplied by a steam pump capable of delivering
10, 000 gallons per hour. Hatching equipment consisted of
36-inch cone-shaped containers each capable of holding 7,200,000
shad eggs. These hatching cylinders were suspended from beams
outside of the vessel.

38

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The ship was equipped with the most up-to-date gear
for trawling and dredging. There was a drum or reel
holding 1,000 fathoms of steel- wire dredge rope 1/3-inch
in diameter (1-1/8 inch in circumference) with breaking
strain of 8,750 pounds; the wire rope weighed 1. 14 pounds
per fathom. The dredging boom was 36 feet long and 10
inches in diameter. It was used for operating beam trawls
of three different sizes (9 feet, 11 feet, and 17 feet long
beams), otter trawls, and various dredges (fig. 21).

Other types of collecting gear such as tangle bars,
rake dredges, and various sieves (so-called table sieve
and cradle sieve) were designed by Verrill. The sounding
machine consisted of a cast brass reel 11, 43 inches in
diameter and 600 fathonns of piano wire of 0. 0028 inch
diameter, having a tensile strength of 200 pounds.

Built primarily as a "hatchery ship" the Fish Hawk
was not suitable for offshore work but was intensively used
in dredging and trawling in Vineyard Sound, around Cape
Cod, in the Gulf of Maine, Long Island Sound, and other
coastal waters. The ship made her last two cruises in
October-December, 1925, and was decommissioned in
January 1926.

U. S. S. Albatross

The Albatross (fig. 22) was an iron-hull, twin-screw
vessel of 234 feet overall length and 1, 034 tons displacement
(registered net tonnage 384 tons). She was built by the Pasey
and Jones Company of Wilmington, Del. , according to the
plans drawn by Charles W. Copland of New York; aggregate
cost was $145, 000. She was launched in March 1882, and
made her first cruise in April 1883.

According to Lt. Com. Tanner, her first commanding
officer (Tanner, 1885), she was rigged "as a brigantine,
carrying sail to a foretop-gallant sail. " She had comfortable
cabins, had water distilling equipment for drinking water,
electric lights, and elaborate equipment for oceanographic
research. There were two laboratories. The upper one,
14 feet long and occupying the whole width of the house, had
a square work table for four persons centrally located. Each
working place was provided with a tier of drawers under the
table. Attached to the walls were two hinged side tables, a
sink, water and alcohol tanks, wall cabinets for instruments
and glassware, and books. A medical dispensary occupied a
corner of the room. The lower laboratory, immediately
below the upper one extended across the ship 20 feet fore and
aft. It was supplied with long working tables and a lead-lined
sink with running water. Part of the space was used as a

40

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photographic dark room and chemical laboratory. There was
plenty of storage cases and lockers for jars, bottles, and
various collecting gear. A supply of alcohol was stored
under the laboratory in an iron-walled room which could be
isolated from the rest of the ship. In case of fire, this room
could be quickly filled with steam.

The dredging engine was provided with additional "gypsy
heads" for hoisting boats, and was equipped with a friction
brake to regulate the paying out of the rope. The dredging
wire was 3/8-inch diameter galvanized steel. It was composed
of six strands wound around a tarred hemp heart; each strand
consisted of seven wires. The wire weight was 1. 32 pounds
per fathom in air, and 1. 2 pounds in water. The ship carried
4, 000 fathoms in one length and later on received additional
reels in 500-fathom lengths. A newly designed sounding reel,
various trawls, dredges, nets, and recording thermometers
were on board the Albatross for conducting oceanographic
research. Every technical detail of the laboratory arrangement
and equipment indicated good planning and understanding of
technical research problems by Baird and his principal
collaborators. Tanner incorporated many original ideas
into the design, construction, and operation of the ship and
its naval equipment; Verrill was primarily concerned with
the laboratories and their equipment.

In 188 3 the Albatross was prepared to undertake oceanog-
raphic investigations in any part of the world. Her explorations
made a glorious chapter of U.S. marine research, and the name
Albatross became famous in all civilized parts of the world. It
is interesting to read the comments about this ship written by
the famous American explorer, Alexander Agassiz, who in 1890
was asked by Marshall McDonald, at that time the U. S. Commissioner
of Fish and Fisheries, to take charge of deep-sea exploration off
Panama. The Albatross was offered under the conditions that
Agassiz should supply the coal, thoroughly re- equip the ship, and
pay part of the running expenses. In return, he was to get first
choice of the collections that were of special interest to him. Upon
reaching Panama late in February 1891, Agassiz boarded the
Albatross, and in his letter home described the ship in the following
words: ^The working accommodations are fine, an upper room
20 feet x 20 feet for rough work and general laboratory, and a
second floor below for storing the collection in racks. We ought

to do well My cabin opens out into a good-sized dining

room and sitting room of about 12 feet by the width of the ship,
where Tanner and I sit and take our meals. It has large portholes,
a fine skylight, and is very airy and comfortable. " Upon completing
a preliminary trip and returning to Panama after an absence of 20
days, Agassiz wrote: "The Albatross is an excellent sea boat and
she rides the sea wonderfully well, and really much better than many

43

large ocean steamers I have been on You can have

no idea how comfortable the trip has been The

accommodations for work and for taking care of the col-
lections are excellent The laboratory, with its

ingenious arrangements and its excellent accommodations
for work by day and night, was to me a revelation. " (Agassiz,
1913). Agassiz usually made three or four deep water
dredging or trawling hauls every day, and at the same time
the surface net was towed.

The seaworthy qualities of the Albatross and the comfort
of its laboratory facilities and living quarters were admired by
a number of other scientists who, in following years, took part
in her deep-sea explorations.

Occasionally the Albatross was detailed to Woods Hole,
but she never became an integral part of the station. Her life
ended here. The ship was decommissioned in October 1921,
and laid up at the Bureau's dock at Woods Hole. On June 5,
1924, she was sold at public auction. When the old and
friendly ship was being towed away a few older members of
the Bureau of Fisheries, who in previous years had been
associated with her, watched her final departure with their
hearts filled with sadness.

In issuing orders to the commanding officers of the
Commission's ships, it was Baird's policy to outline a precise
program of the proposed operations and explain their purpose.
The following document issued on April 10, 1883, to the
commanding officer of the Albatross is a good example of the
thoroughness of his planning (Tanner, 1885, p. 119-20).

' Sir: As soon as you can be ready for the service (of
which you will give me a week's notice), you will go to sea for
the purpose of investigating the conditions which govern the
movements of the mackerel, menhaden, bluefish, and other
migratory species along the coast of the United States in the
spring, commencing your investigations off Hatteras, or in
the region where these fish usually make their first appearance,
and following up the schools in their movements.

"The special work to be performed will be to determine
the rate of progress of the fish along the coast, their comparative
abundance and condition, the places where they first show them-
selves, the physical condition of their surroundings as to temp-
erature and currents of the water, its chemical and biological
peculiarities, etc.

"You will endeavor to ascertain whether the appearance of
the fish at or near the surface depends upon the condition of temp-
erature, wind or sky, and also, by the use of the apparatus at
your command, what character of food in the water seems to
determine their movements. You will cause examination to be
made of the stomachs of such of these fish as you can capture
and carefully preserve a portion at least of the contents of the
stomach for immediate or future examination.

44

"Should you deem it expedient you will cruise off the
coast a sufficient distance to determine the outward line of
m.otion of the fish, and you will communicate to such fishing
vessels as you may meet any information that may enable
them the more successfully to prosecute their labors. The
time of this work is left to your discretion. You will when-
ever you touch at any port of the United States send a tele-
gram to me and await instructions as to further operations,
if there be nothing to detain you.

"You will give to the naturalist of the expedition all
possible facilities for collecting and preserving such specimens
as you may meet during the cruise.

Very respectfully,
Spencer F. Baird, Commissioner
P. S. --The operations of dredging and trawling should be
carried on as frequently as opportunity offers; and if no
suitable bait can be had, the trawling line should be used
for the purpose of determining the currents of desirable
fishing grounds. "

Baird considered that explorations in the sea should be
conducted simultaneously with the laboratory studies on repro-
duction, development, behavior, and growth of commercially
important marine species. He was proud to explain the signifi-
cance of such research and to demonstrate its methods to other
scientists, government officials, and laymen. Being well known
and highly respected both in the Congressional and administrative
circles of Washington, he was in a position to invite the highest
officials to visit Woods Hole . The report of the commanding
officer of the Fish Hawk for 1882 (Tanner, 1884b, p. 9-10)
contains the following interesting references: "At 9:00 on the
morning of the 28th (of June, 1882) the U. S. Steamer Tallapoosa
arrived, having on board the Hon. W. E. Chandler, Secretary
of the Navy, and chiefs of bureaus. At meridian we left the
harbor with Prof. Baird, the Secretary, and the chiefs of bureaus,
for a short trip to show the manner of working the various apparatus
used on board. Three casts of the dredge and trawl were made in
Vineyard Sound, and at 4:30 p. m. we returned to Woods HoU. The
Tallapoosa left the harbor at 9:15 the next morning. "

On September 6 of the same year. Woods Hole was visited
by the President of the United States, Chester A. Arthur. The
official report of the Commanding Officer records this event in
the following words: "At 9:3 0 a. m. , September 6, The United
States Steamer Despatch, having on board the President of the
United States, and accompanied by the Fish Commission steamer
Lookout, arrived in the harbor. At meridian we left the harbor
with the President, Professor Baird, and others on board. To
show the former the manner of working the various apparatus,
three hauls of the trawl and dredge were made in Menemsha Bight.
We reached port at 5:55 p. m. , when the President returned to

45

the Despatch. At 5:00 the next morning the Despatch, with the
President on board, got under way and left the harbor. " Edwin
Linton (1927), at that time a beginner-biologist employed by the
Fish Commission, described this event in his reminiscences of
the Fish Commission: "l remember, on one occasion, the
President of the United States was there over night, was given
an exhibition trip on the Fish Hawk, and the process of operating
the beam trawl was shown him. Now we young assistants, coming
as we did from inland, knew nothing at first hand about Presidents
and their ways, or of the ways of those who were accustomed to
be about them. When we were told that there was to be a collecting
trip in the morning we reported for duty in our usual unconventional
attire. By the time the Fish Hawk was steaming out into Vineyard
Sound we made the discovery that officers and crew, and everybody
else on board, were each and all dressed in honor of the Chief
Executive, all bravely clad, and easy in their minds, except three
young men who were having all the disagreable sensation peculiar
to those who dream of like unpleasant experience. I remember
yet quite vividly, the appraising look which the Professor gave us
just before, as it seemed to us, he decided not to present us to
President Arthur. "

The work of the Fisheries Laboratory and the operations of
the Fish Hawk continued to arouse public curiosity excited by the
visits of high officials. Local papers faithfully reported the sailing
and returning of the ships and the successes of the collecting as
well as the arrivals and departures of Baird. Thus the Cape Cod
Item of July 15, 1881, contains the following note: "Our streets
present a very animated and business-like appearance with the
arrival of the U. S. Fish Commission under the supervision of Prof.
Spencer F. Baird of the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D. C. ,
who with his family and corps of attendants is quartered in the
Webster House, among which are the following: Dr. Tarlton H.
Bean, J. Paul Wilson, Herbert Gill, Prof. C. Deering, Capt.
Herbert Chester of U. S. F. C. , Prof. J. Emerton, Prof. A. E.
Verrill, Sydney L. Sm.ith, New Haven. The Commission have at
their command two steamers, one the Fish Hawk, Z. L. Tanner
U. S. N. , Commander, for the purpose of going to various points
to dredge for specimens, and the Lookout, a fine steam yacht for
the purpose of accommodating distinguished visitors. Various
lines of telephone will connect the depot, post office, hotel, wharves,
and buildings used by the Commission. "

In the following days of summer the paper reported (August 19,
1881) that "among important specimens obtained by the U. S.
Steamer 'Fish Hawk' on the last trip to Gulf Stream, was a fine
octopus or devil-fish, a number of tile fish weighing about 35 pounds
each, was also secured, the same being a very rare specimen. "
From miscellaneous news items in the paper we learn that
Assistant U.S. Fish Commissioner T. B. Ferguson arrived in port

46

on board the U. S. S. Lookout and brought "a large sunfish
weighing 300 pounds which was dissected by Dr. Bean who
also found many parasites attached to gills. " On the 14th
of July, we read that the steamer Fish Hawk went to No Mans
Island securing four ground fishes. During the trip a trawl
net was used collecting many fish, mollusks, crabs, etc.
The large number of specimens collected by biologists
apparently incited the imagination of the local reporter who
on July 2 9 wrote (Cape Cod Item) that "on last dredging
expedition of the U. S.F.C. Steamer Fish Hawk 172 barrels
of alcohol were used in preserving specimens. " In the next
issue of this weekly paper a correction was printed which
said "our correspondent wrote 1-1/2 but types read it 172--
quite a difference. "

News items appearing in the local press are indicative
of public interest in the new laboratory, which offered new
opportunities for employment and trade, attracted tourists,
and in this way became an important factor in the economy
of the small village. At the same time the press emphasized
the impuortance of the tourist trade and encouraged the owners
of "farm houses to make them attractive to summer visitors. "
The number of tourists was rapidly increasing as can be
judged, for instance, from the following lines in an August 19,
1881, issue of the Cape Cod Item: "Last week Saturday the
4:10 train started from Boston with 18 cars loaded with
passengers and about every train since has been filled.
Undoubtedly many of them took advantage of the opportunity
to visit the marine laboratory of the Fish Connmission. "

Probably the most significant achievements of marine
exploration in the vicinity of Cape Cod were the studies of the
invertebrate fauna conducted by Verrill, and described by him
in a large number of papers. He strongly believed it to be a
duty of a scientist to publish the results of his investigation for
the benefit of other scientists. Following this conviction, he
produced nearly a hundred scientific articles based on the
collections accumulated during his association with the U. S.
Fish Commission. The majority of the papers appeared in
reports attached to the annual reports of the Commissioner of
Fish and Fisheries; others were published in the American
Journal of Science, the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy
of Arts and Sciences, and other journals. The collection of
invertebrates made by the Fish Commission from 1871 to 1887
at over 3, 000 localities within New England waters comprised
several hundred thousands of specimens of more than 2, 000
species (Verrill, 1958). The huge collection was taken by
Verrill to Yale University in New Haven where he continued to
work on it during the winters. As a partial compensation for
his work he received the duplicates after the first set of specimens

47

containing all the type specimens and any unique forms had
been deposited with the National Museum in Washington, D. C.
The second set of duplicates was given to the Museum of
Comparative Zoology of Harvard University. Verrill completed
the study of the Fish Commission collection only in 1908 and,
according to the information given in his biography, he sold
his set of duplicates to the Peabody Museum of Yale University.

Verrill' s work provided a basis for our knowledge of
bottom invertebrates in the immediate vicinity of Woods Hole
and the adjacent areas extending to the 100-fathom line or
farther offshore to some extent. His report upon the invertebrate
animals of Vineyard Sound and the adjacent waters with an account
of the phj^sical characters of the region, published in 1871, has
not lost its scientific value to the present day, and remains a
major source of information about bottom communities of this
area. Likewise, are his "Report on the Cephalopoda of the
Northeastern Coast of America" (Verrill, 1882), "Results of
the E. colorations made by the Steamer 'Albatross' off the Northern
Coast of the United States" (Verrill, 1885), and "Notice of a
Remarkable Marine Fauna Occupying the Outer Banks off the
Southern Coast of New England, and of some Additions to the
Fauna of Vineyard Sound" (Verrill, 1884). In the latter paper
he describes the rich fauna in the region about 105 miles along
the 100 fathom line between latitudes 35° 40' and 40° 22' N. and
longitudes 69° 15' and 71° 32' W. According to his conclusion,
the number of species and the abundance of individuals in this
area "is due very largely to the annual uniformity of the temp-
erature enjoyed at all seasons of the year, at all those depths
that are below the immediate effects of the atmospheric changes.
The region .... is subject to the combined effects of the Gulf
Stream on one side and the cold northern current of the other,
together with the gradual decrease in temperature in proportion
to the depth. "

He describes also the effects of the Gulf Stream in bringing
"vast quantities of free- swimming animals which furnish an
inexhaustable supply of food for many bottom animals". After
Verrill' s time, the study of bottom invertebrate communities
on the offshore areas along the New England Coast was discontinued
and was resumed only in 1954, in connection with recent investi-
gations of groundfishes of Georges Bank. Verrill' s conclusion
about the condition responsible for the abundance of life along the
100-fathom line in an area south of Woods Hole shows a highly
developed power of observation and the ability of the author to
visualize a general ecological picture from the multitude of
detached observations. Verrill never lost sight of the forest
because of the trees.

His work on cephalopods contains the descriptions of
gigantic squids, Architeuthis and their allies. Their existence

48

in the waters not far from Woods Hole is rarely suspected
by summer tourists and boatmen. The efficiency of Verrill's
field explorations was facilitated by his skill in devising or
modifying collecting instruments and perfecting methods of
dredging and trawling. He remarks (Verrill, 1883, p. 65)
that the adoption of steel-wire rope for dredging from the
Fish Hawk greatly expedited the work. He was fully acquainted
with the latest improvements, in sounding, dredging, and
trawling techniques made in Europe. He immediately adopted
the new methods for the operations of the Fish Hawk. He must
be credited for designing new forms of traps for capturing
bottom animals, the "trawl wings'' for catching free-swimming
forms close to the bottom, and many other devices. The mop-
tangles that Verrill devised for catching spiny animals were
later adopted by the oyster growers in Long Island Sound for
removing starfish; this device is still used at the present time.

Other important contributions of the Woods Hole Laboratory
made during the first years of its existence are the three papers
by Edwin Linton (1889, 1891, 1892) on entozoa of marine fishes.
These publications were the first in a long series of papers on
parasitic worms which Linton produced during more than 50 years
as a voluntary collaborator at the laboratory.

The works of Harger (1880) on marine Isopoda and of
Farlow (187 3, 1882) on marine algae were the result of careful
taxonomic studies of the material collected by the station's
vessels.

The work on fishes dealt primarily with the occurrence,
distribution, and development of the more important species.
Among the valuable contributions originated at the Woods Hole
Laboratory between the years 1871-87 were: "List of Fishes
Collected at Wood's Hole" (Baird, 187 3), "The Scup, The Blue-
Fish" (Baird, 187 3), "The Sea Fisheries of Eastern North
America" (Baird 1889); "Catalogue of the Fishes of the East
Coast of North America" (GUI, 187 3); "The Natural and Economical
History of the American Menhaden" (Goode, 187 9), "Materials
for a History of the Sword-Fish" (Goode, 1883); "Materials for
a History of the Mackerel Fishery" (Goode, Collins, Earll, and
Clark, 1884); "Embryography of Osseous Fisheries, with Special
Reference to the Development of the Cod" (Ryder, 1884). The
principal question regarding the causes of the decline in
commercial fish catches and fluctuations in their abundance,
could not be answered by these investigations and with the methods
available at Baird' s time. Even at the present time, in spite of
the outstanding progress made in fishery biology and the development
of statistical methods of studying fish populations, the causes
responsible for the wide fluctuations in the abundance of fish
remain undiscovered.

49

The experience of many European biologists in artificial
propagation of fresh-water fish showed that the populations of
fish in streams and ponds could be maintained by restocking
with artificially raised young fish. Various organizations in
the United States and state officials urged the U. S. Commissioner
of Fisheries to initiate artificial cultivation of marine species
and to introduce foreign species of fish into American waters.
The construction of a marine hatchery at Woods Hole was made
in response to these requests. The problem of maintaining a
fish population at a desired level of abundance appeared to be a
simple one. In general, the fecundity of oceanic food fishes is
very high, the adult female (depending on species) producing
every year from several hundred thousand to several million
eggs. Inference was made that by means of artificial propagation
it would be possible to increase the supply of such fish as cod,
flounder, shad, mackerel, halibut, and other species, and also
to transport them to other localities where they were not present.
Baird, in accord with the opinion of other biologists of his time,
believed that artificial propagation might be effective, and put
his full energy in establishing new hatcheries along the coast and
over the mainland of the United States. Technical progress in
the design of various hatching jars, boxes, and other equipment
made in the United States was so rapid that as early as 1881 the
U. S. Fish Commission participated with great success in the
Berlin Fishery Exhibition, showing the progress of fish culture
in the United States. A considerable part of this exhibit was
prepared at Woods Hole.

D. Haack (1882, p. 57) summarizes a German appraisal
of the American section in the Exhibition in the following words:
"Everything which America had sent was on a magnificent scale.
The American exhibit was distinguished by the neat workmanship
of all the objects. But best in astonishment we stand before the
large model of the Fish Hawk, a large steamship especially
constructed by the American Government for the purpose of
pisciculture. The steamship contains, both in its interior and
its sides, hundreds of large pieces of apparatus for hatching fish
eggs. The steam engine partly serves for pumping of water and
partly for moving to and fro in the water the apparatus attached
to the sides of the vessel, thus vivifying the germs of the eggs. . .
. . With all our piscicultural efforts we must confess that we felt
very small when viewing this grand American exhibit; and the
magnificent results obtained in America are sufficient guarantee
that this is no American humbug. For the present we can
certainly do no better than to strain every nerve and imitate the
example set us by the Americans. " In recognition of his achieve-
ments at the Berlin Exhibition, Baird received from the Emperor
of Germany the "Erster Ehrenpreiz" of the International Fisherei-
Ausstellung at Berlin. Previously he had received the silver medal

50

of the Acclimatization Society of Melbourne in 1878, and the
gold medal of the Society of Acclimatization in France in 187 9.
The honors bestowed by these European organizations clearly
show that artificial propagation of fish, including oceanic fishes,
was considered to be practical and should be encouraged. These
ideas greatly influenced the work of the Woods Hole station and
its laboratory.

Numerous papers in the annual reports of the Comnoissioner
of Fisheries describe many technical improvements in the method
of hatching eggs. One of the earlier papers on oyster culture by
Ryder (1887) summarizes the results of practical experiments,
made at Woods Hole and in other parts of the Eastern Coast, in
obtaining oyster spat.

Since 1873, Baird had suffered from irregular heart action.
This did not prevent him from leading an extraordinarily active
life and personally conducting many sea explorations around Woods
Hole. The increased burden of work overtaxed his strength during
the period of the station construction. His periods of sickness
became more frequent, and in the summer of 1886 his doctors
recommended that he reduce his work as much as possible. In
July 1886, the Bairds, as usual, went to Woods Hole and here
held the last four informal receptions in the Residence for the
members of his staff. During the following winter his condition
became worse and he was advised to take a complete rest for at
least a year. Retirement to the Adirondack region in the State of
New York somewhat improved his health, and in July 1887, he
returned to the Woods Hole Laboratory.

The last days of Baird are described by Mayor J. W. Powell
in his address at the memorial meeting of Scientific Societies of
Washington in January 1888 (Dall, 1915). Three days before his
death, Baird asked to be placed in a wheelchair and moved around
the pier past the vessels and through the laboratory. For everyone
he had a word of good cheer, though he knew it was the last. He
died on August 19, 1887, and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in
Washington, D. C. A granite boulder with a bronze tablet, in
honor of the first United States Commissioner of Fisheries and
founder of the Woods Hole Station, was placed at the station in
1902 by the American Fisheries Society; it remains in its original
location.

At the time of Baird's death the scientific work of the Woods
Hole Laboratory was already on a sound foundation. Research was
conducted along several principal lines which can be grouped under
the following general headings: taxonomy and distribution of fishes;
composition of communities of bottom organisms; reproduction,
embryology, and movements of principal food animals of the sea;
fish culture as a means of maintaining the abundance of fish
populations; parasites and diseases of fishes. The work was balanced

51

as far as possible with the available funds and personnel. The
major part of the general program was carried out by independent
investigators. Many distinguished scholars were attracted by the
facilities of the laboratory, but even more by the scientific
standing and dynamic personality of its director.

Baird's guiding spirit in the study of fisheries problems was
not lost with his death. With modifications and changes his spirit
has continued to the present time. He undoubtedly was the first
fishery biologist in this country. His understanding of fishery
problems is clearly expressed in the following excerpts from his
paper read at the International Commission held at Halifax in 1877
(Baird, 1889).

"While it is probable that the supply of fish on the outer banks
and in the deep sea, away from the immediate coast, is as great as
that of former years, a lamentable falling off is to be appreciated
in the capture of anadromous fish, such as the shad, salmon, and
the alewife, as well as of many species belonging immediately to
the coast, such as the striped bass, the scup, and other fish.

"Fortunately, it is believed they are capable of remedy by
proper legislation and protection, artificial propagation, etc. ,
and that we may look forward in the distant future to a very
considerable return to the former very desirable state and con-
dition of the fisheries The status of fish in the sea is

very largely determined by the question of temperature.

'^he human race is more concerned in the movements and
migrations of fish than in the question of their permanent abode.
It is when they are aggregated in large bodies, and moving from
place to place, either under the stimulus of search for food or
other causes, that they furnish the best opportunity to man for
their capture and utilization.

"That fish of many varieties have decreased greatly in
abundance within the historic period in all parts of the world is
well established, the reduction in some cases being truly enormous.
This, however, applied only to certain varieties, especially of
the anadromous fish, or those running up the rivers from the sea
to spawn, and to the more inshore forms. The most indubitable
cases of diminution are those of the shad, fresh-water herring,
salmon,, and striped bass. On the other hand, there is no reason
to suppose that the cod, mackerel, bluefish, and the sea herring
have been reduced essentially, if at all, in numbers, the stock of
these fishes being from year to year about the same, and an
apparent diminution in one region being balanced by a greater supply
in another.

"The causes of this variation in abundance, so far as they
can be detected, may be considered under two heads: first, the
natural, or uncontrollable; and, second, the artificial, or those
connected with the interference of man. Where the former alone
are responsible there may be a hope of a return to original abundance;
man's influence acts persistently and with increasing effect through-
out long continued years. "

52

II. The Next 64 Years (1887 to 1951)

In March 1888 a new institution was incorporated in Woods
Hole under the name of the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL.).
On July 17 of that same year, a modest shingled building was
erected on a piece of land in close proximity to the U. S. Fisher-
ies grounds. The new institution was established at Woods Hole
by a group of university professors with very meagre financial
assets. They nnet with cordial support from, the Fisheries Lab-
oratory. For many years the sea water for the new laboratory
was supplied from the Fisheries pumping house and practical
assistance was given in the use of wharves, floating equipment,
and interchange of other services. Many of the MBL scientists
who became leaders of American biology spent several sum-
mers working at the Fisheries Laboratory. The MBL rapidly
outgrew the Fisheries Laboratory and became the leading marine
research institute of the country, but the spirit of cooperation
which prevailed throughout the history of Woods Hole has per-
sisted and greatly contributed to its growth as the scientific cen-
ter of marine research.

Shortly after the death of its first Commissioner, the U. S.
Fish Commission was reorganized. As stated in the enabling act
of Congress, passed and approved in 1871, "the Commissioner
should be a civil officer of the Government, of proved scientific
and practical acquaintance with the fishes of the coast, who
should serve without additional compensation. " The text was
drawn jointly by Senator G. F, Edmunds and Baird, who insist-
ed on the inclusion of the noncompensation clause with the idea
that the phraseology of the bill would preclude the appointment
of a mere political candidate and eliminate any suggestion that
recommending the passage of the resolution was not voted by
selfish consideration of the first Commissioner (Dall, 1915).
The responsibilities of the Commissioner and the increased du-
ties of organizing the laboratory and research program impos-
ed a heavy financial burden on Baird. His request for an appro-
priation for furnishing adequate office space and living quarters
for his personnel at Woods Hole was denied, and before the
Government quarters were built he had to pay, out of his own
money, the rentals for an office building and for housing facili-
ties for his assistants. Shortly after his death. Congress cor-
rected the oversight by an appropriation of $25, 000 for the sup-
port of Baird's invalid widow and his daughter.

Baird was succeeded as Commissioner of Fisheries by
George Brown Goode, his most competent assistant, an outstand-
ing ichthyologist and Director of the National Museum. The appoint-
ment was a tennporary one. In six months Goode (fig. 3) voluntar-
ily resigned his Commissionership in order to devote all his time
to the duties in the Museum.. In January 1888, an act of Congress

53

established the U. S. Fish Commission as a separate bureau of
the government and terminated its formal relationship with the
Smithsonian Institution. The bill also authorized the President
to appoint the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries and also es-
tablished the salary at $5, 000 per year. The bill was approved
on January 20, 1880, and Marshall McDonald was appointed Com-
missioner. He was a practical fish-culturist and inventor of im-
portant mechanical appliances for hatching fish eggs which were
widely used in this country and in Europe. McDonald served as
Commissioner until his death on September 1, 1895. The Fish
Commission continued as an independent, government institution
that was responsible directly to Congress until 1903, when it
was included in the new Department of Conamerce and Labor.

Baird's administration of the Fish Commission and of the
Woods Hole station was essentially paternal. With the increased
activity and greater complexity of administrative responsibility
more formal organization became imperative. The duties were
divided among several divisions each headed by an "Assistant in
charge of the division". During the first year of McDonald's ad-
ministration, Hugh M, Smith was appointed an Assistant in charge
of the Division of Fisheries. The scope of work of this division
covered "all matters specially pertaining to commercial fishing,
including statistics". Smith also directed the work of the Washing-
ton office and supervised correspondence and preparation of spe-
cial records. In 1885, R. Edward Earll directed the preparation
of statistics. The fish culture activities remained under the direct
supervision of McDonald until 1895. After his death, the Division
of Propagation and Distribution of Food Fishes was established,
with W. deRavenal as Assistant in charge.

In the years following Baird's death the major emphasis in
the work of the Woods Hole Station was placed on fish culture and
routine administration rather than on scientific investigations.
Because of this trend the Woods Hole Station became the principal
hatchery for artificial propagation of marine fish species. Ad-
ministratively, the Station was under the Division of Propagation
and Distribution of Fishes, and the Superintendent of the Station
became responsible for the operation of the hatchery, maintenance
of buildings and grounds, and expenditures of funds allocated to the
institution. The Report of the Fish Commission shows that in the
year of 1887, C. G. Atkins was Superintendent and William P. Seal
was in charge of the aquaria. The scientific work was divided be-
tween J. N. Kidder, in charge of the physical and chemical labora-
tory, and A. E. Verrill, --assisted by Richard Rathbun--who was
in charge of the biological laboratory. Among the 16 persons at-
tending the summer session, 10 were engaged in research work,
4 can be listed as assistants to the investigators, 1 was an artist,
and Vinal N. Edwards was the collector. The division of responsi-
bilities as well as the titles of the positions occupied by various

54

persons was not definitely established. In 1888 John A. Ryder was
in charge of the laboratory with 23 biologists in attendance. In the
spring of the following year, H. V. Wilson was appointed "resident
naturalist" and remained in this position until the summer of 1892.
The number of investigators in this period varied between 12 and 16.
Henry Van Peters Wilson (fig. 23) was a man of dynamic per-
sonality. In a biographical sketch published by D. P. Costello
(1961) Wilson is described as a small man, 5 feet 6-1/2 inches tall
and never weighing more than 120 pounds, with piercing blue eyes.
"He was not a man lightly to tolerate fools among his colleagues,
assistants or students. He expected efficiency approaching perfec-
tionin others as well as in himself, and worked with tireless energy
to attempt to achieve this end. " Unfortunately, the records of the
Bureau of Fisheries contain no personal notes, letters, or other
materials which would indicate his attitude toward his assistants
and personnel of the Woods Hole Laboratory. During the first year
at Woods Hole he devoted himself to the study of embryology of the
sea bass. He described the development of the sea bass egg from
fertilization to the free -swimming larva, about 160 hours old
(Wilson, 1889). It is a classic contribution to fish embryology
which has not lost its usefulness to the present day, and remains
one of the* chief reference books for students and researchers en-
gaged in embryological investigations. Another valuable contri-
bution by Wilson was the important discovery of regeneration of
sponges from dissociated tissue cells. Wilson's interest in the
structure, development, and taxonomy of sponges began in 1890.
In 1891 he resigned from the Bureau of Fisheries and joined the
faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, N. C. ,
but he continued to work on the sponges collected during the
Albatross expedition off the west coast of Mexico and those coUect-
ed by the Fish Hawk in the vicinity of Puerto Rico. He induced the
Bureau of Fisheries to establish a biological laboratory at Beaufort,
N. C. , where he completed his detailed study of the development of
sponges from dissociated tissue cells. Wilson's report on sponges
(Wilson, 1912) opened a new approach to the problem of regenera-
tion and initiated many investigations conducted in American labora-
tories and abroad. Interest in the problem was revived in 1921-24
by experimental work conducted by P. S. Galtsoff, first at the
Marine Biological Laboratory and later at the Bureau of Fisheries
Laboratory at Woods Hole (Galtsoff, 1925).

At the time of H. V. Wilson's separation from the Bureau
of Fisheries in 1891, the work of the Fishery Laboratory at Woods
Hole assumed a distinct pattern. One of the biologists of the Bureau
was assigned to Woods Hole "in charge of the Laboratory", or some
outstanding zoologist outside of the Government service received a
temporary appointment as "summer director". From time to
time one or several biologists of the Bureau used the facilities of
the Woods Hole Station for work on special problems related to

55

Figure 23.— H. V. Wilson, Professor at North Carolina University
and Director of the U, S. Fisheries Laboratory at
Woods Hole.

commercial fisheries. At the same timie the facilities of the
laboratory were made available without charge to professors of
various colleges and their students or to other qualified investi-
gators. With a few exceptions the Laboratory was open only dur-
ing the summer and the major part of the Station's activities
were concerned with hatching eggs of marine fishes. Vinal N.
Edwards was employed as "permanent collector", helping the
investigators by his knowledge of local fauna and assisting
them in obtaining the needed material. During the years of 1893
to 1896, inclusive, the following persons, listed in chronologi-
cal order, were in charge of the laboratory: James L. Kellogg,
J. Percy Moore, serving two years, and James L. Peck. In
1898 H. C. Bumpus was appointed as "Director of the Laboratory",
and remained in charge until 1901. The number of biologists

56

engaged in independent research work varied from year to year
and attained the largest number of 61 in 1901. Also, that year,
six laboratory assistants were employed to help the Director,

After the death of McDonald, the position of the Commis-
sioner was occupied for two years (1896-97) by John J. Brice,
retired Naval officer. The next Commissioner was George
Meade Bowers, During the 13 years of his administration, from
1899 to 1912 inclusive, the activity of the Bureau of Fisheries
greatly expanded in all branches, including the services render-
ed by the Woods Hole Laboratory. The policies with regard to
the operation of the laboratory and its availability to independent
investigators have not been formally established. Continuing
the tradition initiated by Spencer F, Baird the Bureau of Fisher-
ies allowed a number of investigators to work in the laboratories
on various problems of their own choice. Sometimes this creat-
ed difficulties for the Commissioner in justifying the request for
funds made to the Appropriation Committee of Congress. To over-
come this complication. Commissioner Bowers defined the Bureau's
policy regarding this matter. In his report for the year 1909 he
wrote (Bowers, 1911, p. 16-17): "The marine biological stations
of the Bureau at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and Beaufort, North
Carolina, primarily established and maintained for study and ex-
perimentation in the interests of the fisheries and fish culture,
have as usual been resorted to by competent investigators from
all parts of the country. While the Bureau provides ample facili-
ties for qualified students and does not attempt to dictate the scope
and character of their researches, it is noteworthy that a large
percentage of the men of science who avail themselves of the lab-
oratory privileges are engaged in work having more or less direct
relation to practical questions, and in the past year an unusual
amount of attention was given on the commercial fisheries and the
cultivation of marine creatures. " As a matter of interdepartment-
al courtesy the facilities of the laboratory were available to the
government scientists of the Department of Agriculture, Public
Health Service, and other agencies.

Scientific accomplishments of the Woods Hole Laboratory
made by its staff and by independent investigators have been
published in many volumes of Government reports and scientific
journals. A comprehensive review of these investigations is
beyond the scope of the present historical sketch. It is sufficient,
for the purposes of this report, to give a general outline of the
research projects carried out in the laboratory and mention the
more important contributions during the period.

Scientific problems of a general biological nature were
studied by a number of eminent zoologists who were either guests
of the Fishery Laboratory or were temporarily appointed by the
Bureau to investigate a special research problem. The long list
of scientists mentioned in the annual reports of the Commissioner

57

Figure 2k» — ^Edwin Linton, Professor at Pennsylvania University.
Was associated with the Fisheries Laboratory as an
independent investigator from 1882 to 19iil»

of Fisheries from. 1884 to 1920 contains the names of persons who
later attained great pronninance and became leaders of American
biology. For some of them the work at the Fisheries Laboratory
was a starting point of their career. The following names^ selected
from the annual reports of the Bureau, are associated with the
development of marine sciences at Woods Hole. The years after
the names indicate the time they worked at the Fisheries Laboratory.
W. K. Brooks (1888-90) biology of the oyster; Gary N. Calkins
(1902) protozoologist, investigation of marine protozoa of Woods
Hole region; Wesley R. Coe (1899, 1901) structure, biology,
taxonomy of nemertines; Edwin G. Conklin (1890-94) embryologist,
cell lineage and development of molluscan eggs; Charles B. Hargitt
(1902-03) taxonomy and structure of coelenterates; Francis H.
Herrick (1889-1895) biology of the American lobster; Edwin Linton
(fig. 24) (1882-1941) parasitic worms in fishes; Jacques Loeb (1895)
physiology of fertilization of marine eggs; T. H. Morgan (188 9)

58

embryology of marine invertebrates and regeneration; Raymond
Osburn (1904) taxonomy and distribution of Bryozoa; George H,
Parker (1888-1903) fish behavior and physiology of hearing and
lateral line; William A. Patten (1893-99) morphology of Limulus,
ancestry of vertebrates; William M. Wheeler (1900-02) free-
swimming copepods of the Woods Hole region; E. B. Wilson (1877-
1886) embryology of moUusks, cell lineage; and many others.

The work of a few zoologists on the staff of the Woods Hole
Station was concerned with practical fishery problems and various
scientific pursuits. The authority of the biologist in charge, who
sometinnes was called "Director" or "Summer Director" of the
Laboratory, was somewhat lim.ited. Administrative responsibility
for maintenance of the buildings, grounds, and small boats, as
well as hatchery operations, were the duties of the Superintendent,
who took orders directly from the Washington office.

From 1898 to 1901 the Laboratory was under the directorship
of H. C. Bumpus. In addition to his other researches, Bumpus
made observations on the reappearance of the tilefish, Lopholatilus
chamaeleonticeps. In 187 9, large schools of tilefish were
discovered in the waters south of Nantucket Shoals. Three years
later, multitudes of dead fish of this species were found on the
surface throughout its entire area of its distribution north of
Delaware Bay. This mass mortality attracted a great deal of
public attention and was studied by the Fish Commission every
year from 1882 to 1887. Not a single tilefish was found during
this period. In 1898, however, the tilefish had become numerous
again, and the Fish Commission schooner Grampus on three short
trips caught several hundred fishes each weighing from 1/2 to 29
pounds. The mortality in 1879-80 was attributed to the influx of
abnormally cold water, but this explanation has not been definitely
substantiated.

During Bumpus' directorship, a new investigation of
parasitic copepods infesting connmon food fishes was undertaken.
Little was known at that tinae about this important group of Crustacea,
Charles B. Wilson (fig. 25) was invited to undertake the study. He
resolved to make it his life's work, and began a painstaking
determination and description of parasitic species. Since the year
18 99, his first summer at Woods Hole, C. B, Wilson continued his
association with the Bureau of Fisheries working on copepod
collections he made himself or those which were assembled for
nearly 25 years by the U, S. S. Albatross. The importance of his
undertaking was such tHatTn r901 the entire collection of parasitic
copepods in the National Museum in Washington, D. C. , was turned
over to him, also the various stations and hatcheries of the Bureau
of Fisheries were instructed to collect this material and forward
it to him for identification. Being a man of broad scientific back-
ground, he was placed in charge of the economic survey of Lake
Maxinkuckee, Indiana, Here he obtained the material for his monographic

59

Figure 25. — Charles B. Wilson, Professor at State Teacher's College
in Westfield, Mass. For many years studied parasitic
and free-living copepods of the Woods Hole area suid
other parts of the United States* About 1930.

studies published as his doctoral thesis under the title "North
American Parasitic Copepods. Part 9, The Lerneopodidae. "
He participated in economic surveys of Lake Maxinkuckee; the
Mississippi River; and the Maumee, Kankakee, and Cumberland
Rivers. Between 1913 and 1923 he was economic investigator
for the Bureau of Fisheries at Fairport, Iowa, and in the summers
of 1924-27 and 1931 he again worked at Woods Hole. Those who
saw him every day in the laboratory remember him as very
industrious, patient, and at the same time a cheerful man.
During one summer he concentrated his efforts on the study of
fresh- water copepods of nunaerous fresh-water ponds and lakes
on Cape Cod, and was frequently seen rowing a small skiff
towing a plankton net. Playing golf was liis principal recreation,
and he was a familiar figure on the Woods Hole golf course. He
also liked bowling and watching baseball, but most of the time he
was seen sitting at his laboratory desk patiently dissecting and
mounting copepods with the aid of a binocular microscope. Among

60

Figure 26, — Francis B. Sujnner, Director of the Laboratory, 190ii-
1910. Photograph made in 1937.

his many contributions "The Copepods of the Woods Hole Region
Massachusetts" (Wilson, 1932) is the most valuable book for
students of marine copepods. His large library of copepod
literature, probably the most complete in existence, he bequeathed
to the National Museum.. Until his retirement in 193 2, C. B.
Wilson was Professor of Biology at the State Normal School
(later State Teacher's College), Westfield, Mass.

In 1902, H. M. Smith was the Director of the Laboratory.
The following year he was appointed to the newly created
administrative position of Deputy Commissioner of the Bureau.
One of his actions was the appointment of Francis B. Sum^ner
(fig. 26) as the Laboratory Director, who held this sum.mer
position until 1910. Sumner's reports (Sum^ner, 1904, 1905)
indicate that in addition to the large laboratory room with nine
tables, the Woods Hole station had 14 private rooms equipped
for research. Certain parts of the hatchery plant and the
aquarium were also available to the investigators. The permanent

61

collection of the library at that time comprised 16, 000 titles;
mostly reports of the U. S. and foreign governments and
reprints donated by the authors. A large number of books
were loaned by Brown University (650 volum.es) and 100
volumes by the College of the City of New York for use during
the summer. An author catalog of the library books was
supplemented by a subject catalog that was commenced by
Miss R. MacDonald, the librarian.

From 25 to 30 investigators worked at the Laboratory
each summer. Sumner gives an interesting tabulation of the
subjects of research which he more or less arbitrarily
classified as follows:

Relations to stimuli, animal behavior, etc. 9
Faunal and floral distribution 7

Taxonomy 6

Embryology 3

Ecology (exclusive of distribution) 2

General physiology (exclusive of behavior) 2
Regeneration 2

Miscellaneous 6

Biological material for research was regularly supplied by
dredgings of the Fish Hawk and Phalarope (fig. 27) and by
selecting needed fish from several traps at Menem.sha Bight,
and Marthas Vineyard. Besides two steam launches, a catboat,
an abundance of rowboats were available for short trips. A
daily record was kept by Vinal N. Edwards of the species taken.
One of the investigators for the Bureau was George Parker of
Harvard University, who conducted a study of the lateral line
physiology. He used for this purpose dogfishes, skates,
killifish, scup, toadfish, and winter flounder. One of the
conclusions reached was that the lateral line organs are stimulated
by water vibrations of low frequency (six per second). Interesting
observations were made by Lynds Jones on the food of marine birds.
He counted the number of terns. Sterna hirundo and S. dougallii,
nesting at Weepecket, Penikese, and Muskeget Island's near Woods
Hole and calculated the number of fish they consumed. His results
showed that in the course of one day 92, 000 terns ate 736, 000
small fish, Amnnodytes americanus, and 184, 000 fish of other
species. The consumption of food fishes by terns appeared to be
insignificant, and the birds were exonerated as an important
destructive agency.

The principal feature of the work of the Woods Hole Laboratory
undertaken by Sumner was the biological survey of the bottom animals
and plants of Buzzards Bay and Vineyard Sound. The incentive for
this project was Sunriner's desire to use the Fish Hawk which, as he
states, was customarily "parked" at Woods Hole during the summer.
Having started on the project, he and his associates found themselves
deeply involved in the work in which dredging was made at several

62

Figure 27. — Steamer Phalarope at the Fisheries dock, Woods Hole.
The small vessel was used for daily collection of
biological material in 1930' s.

hundred stations. The distribution of about 25 0 species of
animals and plants is shown on nnany maps accompanying
the report of this survey. Osburn and Cole collaborated
with Sumner in the study of animal populations; Bradley M.
Davis, Professor of Botany at the University of Chicago
and later at the University of Pennsylvania, studied the
distribution of marine algae. Temperature and salinity
of the water were recorded, and all collected material was
carefully catalogued. The completed report on this monumental
undertaking was published in two volumes of the Bulletin of
the Bureau of Fisheries (Sumner, Osburn, and Cole, 1913a,
1913b; Davis, 1913a, 1913b). The survey contains valuable
information on the distribution of various animals, and to
this day remains the main source of information about marine
life on the bottom of the principal bodies of water near Woods
Hole.

63

Sumner introduced weekly meetings of a "research club"
for general discussion of scientific problems of mutual interest.
This practice has been continued by all his successors.

On Sunday, August 25, 1907, the Laboratory was visited
by the members of the Seventh International Zoological Congress
held in Washington. The group that accepted the Bureau of Fisher-
ies invitation included 13 scientists from Russia, who were given
overnight accommodations in the residence building of the Lab-
oratory. The party was carried next day by the Fish Hawk to
New Bedford, and one dredging was made en route as a demon-
stration of the American technique of oceanic research.

One of the Russian delegates was G. A. Koshewnikow,
professor and Director of the Zoological Museum and Laboratory
of the Imperial Moscow University. Upon his return he told the
group of advanced students, which included the author of this
paper, a glorifying account of the work of the Fisheries Labora-
tory. His talk about the research conducted at Woods Hole and
the photographs of the Fisheries Laboratory made a deep impres-
sion on the minds of the young zoologists.

Sumner's acquaintance with Woods Hole covered a period
of 14 years. His first visit was in 1897 when he was a graduate
student at Columbia University. In his autobiography Sumner
(1945a) refers to that period as the "Golden Age" of the Woods
Hole colony, when the most insignificant beginner in biology
came into intimate contact with men whom he had long heard cited
as authorities by his professors at college. He describes the days
when the MBL was housed in a few small buildings, when almost
every point on the beach could be reached without "violating the
'trespass' warnings; the automobiles were scarce even in 1911
(fig. 28) the pleasure boats and yachts were seldom seen". In
1903 he received the summer appointment as Director of the Lab-
oratory at the maximum salary of $100 per month. The Labora-
tory of the Bureau of Fisheries had at that time much better basic
equipment, larger collecting boats, and more attractive living
quarters than those available at the MBL. Although the MBL lack-
ed funds for equipment and facilities, it already enjoyed a high
scientific reputation for basic research. In addition to the survey
of Buzzards Bay and Vineyard Sound, Sumner carried on a num-
ber of investigations, some of which were the continuation of the
experimental embryology of fishes he started at Naples, Italy.
One of them was an experimental study of selection in fishes, in
which he attempted to demonstrate measurable differences between
the survivors and nonsurvivors of killifish, Fundulus, that were
transferred to fresh water. During his spare time he initiated the
study of the differences induced in a population of white mice by
low temperature, and their possible transmission by heredity.
This work was a stepping stone to his fundamental research in
genetics, distribution, and evolution of the subspecies of deer
mice Peromyscus carried on in later years at Scripps Institution
at La JoUa, Calif.

64

'■****»t^

Figure 28. — ^Water Street of Woods Hole at the beginning of the

20th century. Former Candle House at right. Fisheries
Residence at upper left.

In the fall of 1911 he accepted the position of "Naturalist of
the Albatross". For the next two years he was engaged in a survey
of San Francisco Bay, which was a cooperative study supported by
the Bureau of Fisheries and the University of California. Upon
completion of this work he joined the staff of Scripps Institution for
Biological Research, as that institution was then known (later re-
named Scripps Institution of Oceanography).

Sumner's contribution to the biology of fishes includes a
valuable study of adaptive color changes in flatfishes. In later years,
this work was continued and expanded by Mast who was a guest
investigator at the Woods Hole and Beaufort Laboratories of the
Bureau, Sumner's work on oxygen consumption and acclimatization
of fishes greatly advanced our knowledge of the oxygen demand by
various species and provided background information for devising
bioassay tests that are now used to determine the toxicity of polluted

65

waters. The technique of maintaining living organisms in aquaria
was benefited by his recomnnendation to de -aerate sea water, which
sometimes becomes oversaturated with oxygen during pumping.

Sumner was deeply interested in the philosophy of science,
particularly the relationship between religion and science and in
the social responsibility of scientists (Sumner, 1937, 193 9, 1940),
One of his last papers entitled "A biologist reflects upon old age
and death" (Sumner, 1945b) written when he reached "the biblical
milestone of three-score years and ten", shows that the years did
not diminish his reasoning power or his ability to present his ideas
in a lucid and emphatic manner.

One of Sumner's remarks about the scientific method is of
particular significance to those biologists who fail to recognize the
true meaning of the so-called statistical probability. He states
that'ktatistically speaking 'certainty of some differences' and a
'statistical significance too high to attribute to chance' creates
no presumption in favor of the particular interpretation which the
author gives to that difference". This pertinent remark by Sumner
refers to his own experiments with white mice, made at the time
when the application of statistical analyses to experimental data
was at the early stages of development.

In 1913, H. M. Smith (fig. 29) was appointed Commis-
sioner of the Bureau of Fisheries. During his administration,
which terminated with his resignation in 1922, he retained his
interest in the Woods Hole Laboratory. He spent many summers
at the Laboratory, escaping from administrative burdens of the
Washington office and continuing to work on fishes. He never
ceased to be active in ichthyological and fisheries research, and
his personal contact with the field employees frequently was help-
ful to them. In many respects Smith was a remarkable person.
He began his work in the fishery service in 1886 under Spencer
F. Baird, whom he always held in highest respect as a man and
scientist. Upon graduation from medical school in 1888 he was
appointed to the staff of the Medical School of Georgetown Univer-
sity, teaching anatomy, histology, pathology, and medicine. In-
creasing interest in ichthyology and fisheries work compelled
him to stay in the fishery service. His medical training, how-
ever, remained very useful, especially after his resignation
from the Government service in 1922, At that time he began a
12-year residence in Siam as Expert Advisor in Fisheries to the
King of Siam, In his many trips to the interior of the country he
came in close contact with the people in the dense jungles, and
treated many of them suffering from various tropical diseases, A
born naturalist, with a deep love for study of animal life, Sm.ith
loved to come to Woods Hole where he enjoyed informal meetings
with many biologists, saw many old friends, and was visited by
many zoologists coming to see him from Europe, Siam, Japan,
and India.

66

Figure 29. — Hugh M. Smith, ichthyologist. Commissioner of
Fisheries, 1913-22. Courtesy of his daughter,
Mrs. J. E. Ciaudy. About 1935.

Dr. and Mrs. Smith occupied a five -room apartmient, the
so-called Commissioner's quarters, on the second floor of the
residence building and frequently held receptions for the scientists
in the large sitting and dining rooms of the first floor. This prac-
tice, established by Baird and continued by Commissioner
McDonald, became a regular feature during the ensuing years. It
gave a chance to beginners in science to meet and talk to the men
who had already achieved success and occupied positions of im-
portance and influence. The affairs, as I remember them, were
informal, simple, gay, but at the same time dignified. Of small
stature, always neatly dressed and speaking with a soft voice.
Smith at Woods Hole seemed to us a different man from the per-
son we saw occasionally in his imposing office in Washington. He
received visitors and employees sitting in a large black leather
chair behind a highly polished mahogany desk. As an official of
high rank, he seemed polite but reserved, almost to the point of
being cold and forbidding. At Woods Hole he was a different man--
a fellow zoologist, with an inner drive to see nature with his own
eyes; a person who loved to go in a small boat to seine for fishes
or to observe the birds, which he knew as well as fishes and
snakes. It was an inspiring experience to accompany Smith on a
collecting trip to Menemsha Bight at Marthas Vineyard Island. He
loved to go collecting there, particularly in August when south-
eastern winds brought in a number of southern fishes not found
around Woods Hole at the other times of the year. Dressed in an
old blue sweater, weather-beaten hat, and in long rubber boots,
and a notebook with pencil stuck into the right boot leg, he was
ready for action (fig. 30). He showed us how to use the small
hand seine most effectively. The material was sorted on the
beach right after each haul. The needed specimens were preserv-
ed, and the rest thrown back into the water while they were still
alive. Upon returning to the Laboratory, the entire afternoon
was spent in studying, measuring, sometimes in dissecting, the
morning's catch. Fine points of taxonomy or structural peculi-
arities of fish were often explained. All his associates in the
Laboratory of Woods Hole soon recognized the high mental and
spiritual qualities that inspired respect and admiration. This feel-
ing is well expressed in a letter sent to Smith by one of his subordin-
ates (the Superintendent of the Woods Hole Station) on the occasion
of his resignation. One sentence of the message reads as follows:
"Here your visits have been looked forward to with pleasure, I
think, because the MAN was so much larger than the boss, this
notwithstanding the fact that the boss is one of the greatest in his
class".

As a Commissioner of Fisheries from 1913 to 1922, Smith
on several occasions defined the role of the Woods Hole Labora-
tory as a research institution for the Bureau. In the annual report

68

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of the Commissioner for 1916 (Smith, 1917, p. 45) he wrote:
"The Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Laboratory is intended to
serve as a nucleus for investigations of more direct reference
to the New England and Middle Atlantic fisheries as well as for
more technical investigations of general application. In some
respects this establishment is better adapted for technical stud-
ies than any other laboratory of the Bureau, and it is hoped to
improve the facilities for biophysical and biochemical studies
that form essential phases of certain fishery investigations.
The lack of a perraanent scientific staff for this station causes
its scientific operations to be confined largely to the summer
season, when temporary professional services are most readily
available. " Consequently, the months of June to the first half
of September were the period of greatest scientific activities.
Inasmuch as the new fiscal year in the Government service be-
gins on July 1 and the passage of the appropriation bill is fre-
quently delayed, it is impossible to operate the laboratories on
the prorated allowance made by Congress until the passage of
the regular appropriation. On several occasions the situation
became acute; for instance, at the beginning of the fiscal year
1913 the difficulty is described as follows: "A number of in-
vestigators had already reached the laboratories before it
became apparent that the appropriations would not be available.
Some of these were employed at reduced salaries and others
elected to carry on work under the authority possessed by the
Bureau to afford facilities to properly qualified investigators. "
(Smith, 1914, p. 31). The policy with respect to permanent
scientific personnel remained unchanged until the reorganiza-
tion of the Bureau after World War II.

Smith's association with the Woods Hole scientific com-
munity was resumed upon his return from Siam in 1935, when
he became Associate Curator in Zoology in the Smithsonian
Institution. He acquired property at the corner of Millfield and
Gardiner Streets in Woods Hole and established a summer home
there. Even while working on his monumental monograph of the
fresh-water fishes of Siam, he had not lost interest in the Woods
Hole fauna, and he was frequently seen in the laboratory of the
Bureau of Fisheries. The descriptions of Leiostomus xanthurus
and Alectis crinitus, both species new to Massachusetts Bay, were
his last contributions to the ichthyology of the Cape Cod area.

Biologists working at Woods Hole during the summer of
1935 recall the interesting evening lecture delivered by Smith at
the MBL auditorium. He described the aquatic life of Siam he
had observed during the 12 years of his explorations. He gave
vivid accounts of his close encounters with many poisonous snakes
and of the biology of the Siamese fighting fish. Snakes frequently
invaded his bedroom at night and found shelter in the sleeves of
his coat. He told about the 12 -foot python that lived under the

70

house but for more than two months could not be seen, although
its presence was known by the tracks left on the sand and by
the continuous disappearance of chickens.

Smith's friends throughout the world were saddened by
his sudden death on September 29, 1941, from an attack of cor-
onary thrombosis. The appraisal of Smith as a scientist and
man given after his death in 1941 by L.. Stejneger, Chief Curator
of the National Museum, is shared by many zoologists who were
privileged to know him personally. "As U. S. Commissioner of
Fisheries", writes Stejneger (1941) "Dr. Smith was Baird's
worthiest successor .... In my heart two pictures stand side
by side, Spencer Fullerton Baird and Hugh McCormick Smith;
higher tribute I cannot conceive!"

Extensive repairs to the buildings and renovation of equip-
ment were necessary by 1915. This need is reported in the
following excerpt from the annual Report of the Commissioner
(Smith, 1917, p. 34) which states: "The Woods Hole Laboratory
is the oldest station of the Bureau. Its history and its public
service are closely linked with that of the Bureau and the ear-
lier Fish Commission for which it once served as temporary
quarters. After more than 30 years of usefulness the laboratory
building and equipment are not in a commendable state of repair.
It is desirable that suitable provision be made for its renovation. "

In 1916, R. E. Coker was appointed "Assistant in charge
of inquiry respecting food fishes", and later on served as tem.porary
summer Director of the Laboratory. The effects of World War I
and the impending participation of the United States in the conflict
began to exert their influence on scientific activities. Various
investigations at the Woods Hole Laboratory that were in progress
in June 1917, were continued only during part of the year. Before
the end of the fiscal year a new policy was adopted with regard to
the operation of the Bureau's laboratories because "of the neces-
sity of concentrating all efforts, as far as possible, upon the imme-
diate increase of aquatic food supply." In the following two years,
1918 and 1919, the Laboratory was not opened for general investi-
gations, but concentrated its effort on improvement of methods
of preserving fish and on a study of nematode infestation, a ques-
tion which had a direct bearing on the marketing of fish.

The laboratory was largely occupied by the Navy in 1917-18,
and the investigations normally conducted at the station were dis-
continued or transferred to other points. In 1919, the Navy Depart-
ment withdrew from the Woods Hole Laboratory and it was reopened
under the directorship of P. H. Mitchell. Research activities of
this year were concerned primarily with the physiology of oysters,
reddening of salt fish caused by bacterial contamination, Edwin
Linton was engaged in the studies of fish parasites, and F. E.
Chidester carried on laboratory experiments on the behavior of
fishes and their migrations.

71

Figure 31. — Corner of Water and Albatross Streets before the fire
of 1920. Old machine shop of the Bureau of Fisheries
on the left, MBL mess at right corner.

In March 1920, a wooden building (fig. 31 ) containing the
steam boiler, engineroom, and machine shop burned down. The
fire spread accross the street and destroyed the dining hall of the
Marine Biological Laboratory. Plans for a new brick building
were made, and the contract for the construction of a fireproof
structure to house the boiler, nmachine shop, and sea-water pump
--at the cost of $51, 000--was signed on January 6, 1921. The
building, with equipment, was completed during the fiscal year
of 1921. Because of the lack of funds for research activities,
however, the laboratory was not opened.

In that year Henry O'Malley became the new Commissioner
of Fisheries and appointed R, E. Coker Director of the Labora-
tory for the summer of 1922. Administrative responsibility of
the Washington office necessitated Coker' s presence at the head-
quarters, and he spent only the month of July at Woods Hole. The

72

laboratory record for the summer 1922 contains the names of 19
guest investigators working on a great variety of biological prob-
lems. Subjects of their inquiry ranged from the studies of diatoms,
regeneration of sponges, fish histology, physiology of vision in
lobster, parasites of fishes, and haematology of fishes, to the
study of the anatomy and genetics of the fruit fly. The Bureau
biologists were engaged in two research projects: hydrographic
and biological survey of Long Island Sound conducted by P. S.
Galtsoff (recently appointed Naturalist of the Albatross) and sea-
sonal variations in the composition of plankton of Woods Hole
waters by Charles J. Fish (instructor in embryology at Brown
University and aquatic biologist of the Bureau). The Woods Hole
station was used as a base for the operation of the U. S. S. Fish
Hawk in Long Island Sound.

One of the guest investigators. Miss Marie Dennis Poland,
began a study of the methods of identifying fish eggs and larvae.
In 1923 she continued the work as field assistant of the Bureau.
And in 1924, while still working with Charles J, Fish on the iden-
tification of larval fishes found in plankton, joined him in matri-
mony. The team of Charles and Marie Fish became well known
to the biological community of Woods Hole as a couple deeply de-
voted to marine research. The paper describing the seasonal
distribution of plankton of Woods Hole region (Fish, 1925), sum-
marizes the observations made from samples collected through-
out the years by the simple device of suspending a large plankton
net from the corner of the wharf where the tides kept it in a hori-
zontal position for several hours.

R. E. Coker resigned his Bureau position in 1923 to be-
come Professor of Zoology in the University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill. He continued, however, as a summer Director
of the Laboratory from June 22 to September 8. Among the tem.-
porary appointees of the Bureau were Charles B. Wilson, work-
ing on the collection of copepods of Chesapeake Bay; Paul Visscher
of Johns Hopkins University, studying the nature and extent of
ship's fouling with special reference to biological aspects (Visscher,
1928); James I. Penney, working on the biology of the wood des-
troying crustacean Limnoria. The scope of research, as in
previous years, covered a very wide range of problems; from the
diatom flora of Woods Hole, by Paul S. Conger of the Carnegie
Institution in Washington, to structural development of oral glands
of snakes by Albert M. Reese, Professor of Zoology of West
Virginia University. A considerable part of the Laboratory space
on the second floor was occupied by N. A. Cobb, nematologist
of the Department of Agriculture in Washington, and his assistants.

The laboratory and living accommodations of the Woods
Hole Station were used to their full capacity in 1923. Every work-
ing table and every room in the residence were occupied. It was
a policy of the Bureau of Fisheries to encourage biological research

73

at the Laboratory, not only by offering laboratory tables free of
charge, but also in providing living accommodations for guest
investigators that were not needed by the government employees.
Because of the increasing scarcity of housing facilities in the
village, the privilege of having a room in the residence was high-
ly attractive and the number of summer applicants always ex-
ceeded the space available in the laboratory and in the residence.
It was a difficult duty for the Director to assign the residence
rooms. Some of them being large and facing the sea were ea-
gerly sought for, while others- -small and facing the street were
much less desirable. Somehow the Director was able to distri-
bute the guest investigators in accordance with their scientific
status and age. Dissatisfaction and hard feeling were avoided,
since the task was performed skillfully and with great tact. As
I remember, there was a remarkable spirit of cooperation and
friendship among the biologists gathered for a summer session.
A great deal of that attitude originated from the summer Director
of the Laboratory who, with his family, usually occupied an
apartment on the second floor of the residence and used the three
large living rooms on the first floor for social gatherings, sci-
entific meetings, and card or chess games enjoyed by the staff
and their guests. Meals were taken at the MBL dining hall
across the street, where the Fisheries investigators enjoyed the
same privileges as those the MBL offered to its research sci-
entists and students. Relationships between the two institutions
were friendly, and the spirit of cooperation prevailed in the en-
tire scientific community.

The MBL meals were inexpensive, $7. 00 a week in the
1920's, and adequate. They were served three times a day,
according to a timetable which was strictly observed. It was a
serious matter to be late for breakfast, since the village had no
restaurants or lunch counters. The doors were promptly closed,
and late comers were not admitted. The arrangement was neces-
sary because many of the waiters and waitresses were students
of the MBL courses and could not be late for their classes.
Meals were served in a family style, each person occupying his
assigned place at a table set for 12. Seating arrangements were
the responsibility of Miss Isobelle Downing, affectionately known
to everybody as Miss Belle, who for several decades supervised
the messhall, directed the serving, and maintained strict disci-
pline. The allocation to different tables required tact and a re-
markable memory which helped Miss Belle to arrange her cus-
tomers in congenial groups. The MBL messhall was an impor-
tant social factor in the life of Woods Hole, since there was no
other place where the people could meet and chat. By 7:00 p.m.,
when the doors were closed and only a few persons remained
inside finishing their dinner, several groups were formed on the
porch to spend about an hour in conversation and relaxation.

74

The working day at the Fisheries Laboratory usually
started with a collecting trip to fish traps, or for dredging or
taking plankton samples. The small coal-burning steamer
Phalarope (fig. 27), under the command of Capt. R. N. Veeder,
was used for this purpose. Fisheries biologists and MBL in-
vestigators interested in making a trip were welcome. A group
desiring to get aboard usually gathered by 9:00 a.m. at the
Fisheries dock. Many persons wanted to watch the dredging
or seining and were not concerned with obtaining the material.
Robert A, Goffin, collector for the Fisheries Laboratory, and
two fish culturists formed the collecting crew.

With the exception of long trips, which sometimes lasted
the whole day, the Phalarope would return about noontime; early
enough for the participants to change and be ready for their
luncheon, which was served by the MBL messhall sharply at
1:30 p.m. The collecting trip became so popular, especially
when the weather was good, that the number of passengers on
board had to be restricted to conform to safety regulations en-
forced by the Coast Guard. If something exciting happened dur-
ing the trip, for instance the catch of a big shark or large moon-
fish, everybody would dash to one side of the vessel and cause
a dangerous list. In later years, Capt. Veeder refused to take
more than 20 persons aboard.

In addition to the material needed for research at the
Fisheries and collected by the scientists themselves or under
their supervision, the Phalarope brought live fishes for the
aquarium, which was open to the public every day of the week.
The aquarium was operated by the Superintendent of the Station
with the assistance of R. A. Goffin.

Among the most spectacular persons occupying labora-
tory space during this period was Nathan Augustus Cobb (fig. 32),
acting Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Plant Nutrition of the
Department of Agriculture and later principal nematologist of
the Bureau. His outstanding contributions to the taxonomy,
anatomy, and microscopic structure of nematodes made him
known to a wide circle of scientists in the world. From 1924
to the last year of his life in 1932, he worked every summer
at Woods Hole, spending long hours at the microscope and
often quitting only late at night. He is remembered by his
friends and acquaintances as a tall, slender man with thick
moustaches, always clad in a khaki laboratory coat. His sci-
entific interests centered around the nematodes, a group of
animals which he probably knew better than any other nemato-
logist of his time. To those in the Laboratory who were inter-
ested in his work, he revealed his ideas of the tremendous
importance of this group of worms. The highly specialized
nature of his work did not narrow his point of view as a sci-
entist but permitted him to use nematodes for attacking major
biological problems such as heredity, phylogeny, adaptation.

75

Figure 32. — N. A. Cobb, nematologist of the U.S. Department of
Agriciilture and summer investigator at Woods Hole
Laboratory.

and parasitism. A scientific discussion with Cobb revealed
his broad philosophical approach to science. Nemas to him were
not the goal but only the means and tools for seeking solutions
to broad scientific problems.

Every summer toward the end of June the arrival of
Cobb at Woods Hole was preceded by the appearance of two men
from the Department of Agriculture, one of them a carpenter,
the other a mechanic. Their duty was to set up equipment con-
sisting of specially constructed rotating tables divided into sev-
eral sectors for microscopes with lamps, and open compartments
for notebooks and pencils. An elaborate system of black curtains
having certain parts that opened and closed by pulling a rope,
placed within easy reach of the microscopist, was set in a corner
of the room. This section of the room was reinforced with paired
steel girders driven through the first floor and foundation of the
laboratory and into the ground. Vibrations of the building caused

76

Figure 33* — Sketch of Cobb's equipment for microscopic work on
nematodes at Woods Hole.

by passing automobiles were completely eliminated by this
arrangement. The columns supported a heavy board for the
microscope and camera lucida. One of the unique features
of the equipment was a specially designed head rest, molded
individually to support the head in a fixed position while mak-
ing camera lucida drawings. Cobb's equipment, assembled
every summer in the Fisheries Laboratory, looked exactly
like that shown in the drawing that accompanied the publica-
tion (fig. 33) describing this technique (Cobb, 1916). By the
time the complex installation was finished, Cobb appeared,
accompanied by his assistants (junior nematologists) Edna
M. Buhrer, Charlotte E. Sprennel, Josephine F. Danforth
and others. Since no living accommodations were available
for girls in the government quarters, the charming ladies
rented rooms in the village but participated in the social
gatherings which were held about once a week at the residence

77

Cobb's laboratory work was extraordinarily well organ-
ized, and various operations were divided among his assistants.
He developed special techniques for examining live or unstained
material, and for making whole mounts of worms made trans-
parent by glycerin or other media. One of the assistants was
busy in making such preparations and placing them on stages of
the microscopes set on the round table. When this was done,
Cobb began examining them one after another and pushing the
table around. The notes referring to each slide were placed
in a compartment under each microscope. They were immedi-
ately collected by one of the girls, typed, and placed in the
same order on another round table. Cobb developed great
skill in the use of camera lucida for illustrating the minute
details of structure, which are usually destroyed by ordinary
reagents. The artist assisting him worked on drawings which
later appeared in his papers. One of these illustrations attrac-
ted attention of all the members of the Laboratory. It was an
anatomical drawing of a free -living marine nematode, Metoncholaimus
pristiurus, common in the muddy bottom of Woods Hole harbor
a little below low tide level. This nema is particularly suitable
for use in laboratory courses in zoology because it can be ex-
amined alive or in temporary mounts in lactophenol and five
percent potassium hydrate. The original drawing consisted of
a number of sheets, each about two feet long. By the end of the
summer they were all pasted together making a composite more
than 12 feet long in which structural details of highly complex
systems of organs were depicted in various colors. The black
and white reproduction of this illustration can be found in the
Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences (Cobb, 1932).
It is hoped that the original masterpiece has not been lost.
The anatomical description of this nema, accompanied by
drawings, is used at the summer course of Invertebrate zool-
ogy given by the MBL, and several bound copies of this paper
are kept in the library as an aid to the students.

Daily contact with this remarkable man showed other
facets of his personality- -unshaken dignity, frankness combined
with courtesy, and a keen sense of humor. He frequently com-
posed delightful verses which, to the extreme joy of his audience,
he read at the end of his scientific addresses.

In 1924 and 1925, Willis H. Rich, in charge of the Divi-
sion of Inquiry, was the summer Director. He remained at
Woods Hole for the entire summer season, from June 22 to
September 12. Among the new persons who availed themselves
of the use of the Fisheries Laboratory were F. G. Hall of
Milton College, Wise, who, with his collaborators Samuel
Lepkofsky and I. E. Gray, started a long-continued program of
studies of fish respiration. Gray's work was primarily concerned
with the chemical composition of fish blood. Baldwin Lucke,
Professor of Pathology, School of Medicine of the University of

78

Pennsylvania, an outstanding student of fish tumours, worked
on the mechanism of vital staining and cellular degeneration.

Investigations for the Bureau of Fisheries were carried
on by P. S. Galtsoff, who studied the effect of external factors
on survival of oyster larvae and continued to work with the as-
sistance of Eugenia Galtsoff on regeneration and dedifferentia-
ton in sponges. The work on oyster larvae was the result of
observations made during the survey of Long Island, which
showed that industrial pollution may be a factor in the failure
of setting of oysters in the waters along the northwestern shores
of the Sound. Dr. and Mrs. Charles J. Fish remained in resi-
dence the year around and continued their studies of seasonal
distribution of plankton and the identification of young fishes.
During the month of July (1925), O. E. Sette, Assistant in
charge of Fishery Industries of the Bureau of Fisheries, car-
ried on laboratory and field investigations of mackerel.
Francis Staff, Director of Fisheries in Warsaw, Poland,
visited the Laboratory and spent 10 days acquainting himself
with American fishes and methods of fishing.

In the summer of 1926, the position of the Director of
the Laboratory was occupied by J. O. Snyder, Professor of
the Department of Zoology of Stanford University. Research
on mackerel was conducted by Sette; C, J. Fish started a
study of the life history of young cod fish. Galtsoff, with the
assistance of Henry Federighi and H. Richard Seiwell, initiated
experimental studies on the physiology of oyster feeding. They
gave special attention to the effect of temperature on the ciliary
motion of the gill epithelium (Galtsoff, 1928) and made obser-
vations on oyster culture in Wellfleet Harbor, Mass. Labora-
tory facilities were again made available to Cobb, Wilson and
Linton for their respective work. W. C. Schroeder, aquatic
biologist of the Bureau, stationed at the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoolog;)^ in Cambridge, worked on the life histories of the
Gadidae and migrations of the cod (Schroeder, 1930).

In 1927-28, the newly appointed Assistant in charge of
the Division of Scientific Inquiry, Elmer Higgins, served as
Director of the Laboratory. He worked on the material pre-
viously collected by him on the life histories of shore fishes
of the South Atlantic states. The new fishery project initiated
in this period was the study of life histories of Sciaenidae, by
John C. Pearson. The mackerel investigation by Sette was
conducted with the assistance of Edward W. Bailey, Lee G.
Kendall, Samuel L. Leonard, James A. Halstead, and Elizabeth
Deichmann of Radcliffe College.

Oyster research under Galtsoff was expanded in 1927 to
include observations on the effect of free chlorine on water
propulsion, and on sensory stimulation by chemicals. The
latter part was conducted by A. E. Hopkins, who continued
this work through the winter. Oyster cultural investigation

79

in the field was carried on by Earle B. Perkins.

Studies of oyster physiology conducted in 1928 were
concerned primarily with the metabolism of normal and green
colored oysters. Dorothy V. Whipple of Johns Hopkins Med-
ical School and H. B. Pease, student at Harvard University,
assisted Galtsoff with the laboratory work.

Numerous repairs and improvements were made during
the season. A new laboratory room for biochemistry was
equipped on the third floor of the building; an oceanographical
laboratory was refinished and the storeroom entirely rebuilt
and re-equipped. All these alterations materially increased
the usefulness and efficiency of the Laboratory.

The summer season of 1928 was marked by a series
of special lectures given in the living room of the residence and
attended by a large and appreciative audience of Woods Hole
biologists. The lectures were by Galtsoff on "The Chemistry
of the Sea"; F. G. Hall on "Respiration of Fishes"; A. G.
Huntsman, Director of the Atlantic Biological Station at St.
Andrews, New Brunswick, on "Limiting Factors in the Sea";
and H. B. Bigelow on "Oceanography and Fisheries. " This
very successful season ended with the Annual Convention of the
National Association of Fishery Commissioners, held on Sep-
tember 7 and 8. The sessions were attended by 7 5 persons
from various Atlantic states. Hon. Charles W. Gifford, con-
gressman of the Cape Cod district and a good friend of the
Laboratory, addressed the opening session. Exhibits arranged
for the occasion by the Laboratory comprised 29 different items
showing the method of studying the physiology of feeding and
reproduction of the oyster; oyster culture; anatomy of the
oyster; and depredation caused by oyster drills.

In the years between 1912 and 1928, a great deal of
research in oceanic fisheries was conducted for the Bureau
of Fisheries by Henry B. Bigelow of Harvard University (fig.
34). Although not employed by the Bureau, he was a frequent
visitor to the Fisheries Station and exerted a great deal of in-
fluence on the type of research conducted by the Bureau. To
the members of the Laboratory he was known as a witty person
and devoted scientist, determined to conduct observations in
the open ocean in spite of the great personal discomfort of work-
ing on small vessels in bad winter storms. He was a pioneer
explorer of physical oceanography, plankton, and fishes of the
Gulf of Maine. The results of his explorations published by the
Bureau (Bigelow, 1926, 1927, 1931) and fundamental work on
fishes of the Gulf of Maine made jointly with Schroeder (Bigelow
and Schroeder, 1953) remain a source of most valuable infor-
mation. From 1931 to 1940 he was the first Director of the
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI).

80

Figure 3h. — Henry B. Bigelow, Professor at Harvard University
on the deck of the U. S. S. Grampus during the
explorations in the Gulf of Maine (1912-lU)
conducted for the Bxireau of Fisheries.

Figure 35 • — 0» E. Sette, Director of the Laboratory in 1929,
examining larval mackerel.

In 1929, Sette (fig. 35), in charge of the North Atlantic
Fishery Investigations, became Director of the Laboratory
and served in this capacity until 1931. His laboratory studies
on young mackerel and experimental tagging and schooling of
mackerel comprised a part of a comprehensive investigation
which later on was summarized in two large papers (Sette,
1943, 1950). The permanent office of the North Atlantic Fish-
eries Investigation was located at Cambridge, Mass. and Woods
Hole was used as temporary headquarters for the mackerel
investigations, which Sette conducted with the assistance of
E. W. Bailey and George L. Clarke.

Studies on the physiology of oyster and oyster culture
by Galtsoff and experiments on respiration in fishes by Hall
and his group were continued. As usual, Cobb with a large
staff occupied part of the laboratory, and Paul S. Conger pur-
sued taxonomic studies of local diatoms. The laboratory

82

accommodations were extended gratis to several independent
investigators not connected with the government institutions:
A. J. Dalton-- development of pelagic fish eggs; K. W, P^oster
--adaptation of Fundulus to a blue background; R. Macdonald,
Mary Sears, and Alice Beale- -coastal plankton; W. E. Bullington
--spiral movements of the ciliate Frontonia; E. Linton--para-
sites of fishes; J. C. Hemmeter- -histology of pancreas in
Lophius; and C. E. Cummings with two assistants used the Lab-
oratory for making wax models of local fishes.

In 1931, an unusually large number of fishery biologists
of the Bureau were detailed for summer work at the Station.
Among them were R. O. Smith (oyster investigation); Louella
E. Cable (larval fishes); William C. Herrington (haddock investi-
gation); L. Worley, Ernestine Jaffe, and H. J. Kumin (mackerel
investigation under Sette). A. E. Parr, curator of Bingham
Oceanographic collection of Yale University, spent several days
gathering material for studies of the biology of young fish.

In the summer of 1931 the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution, a new research organization, sponsored by the
National Academy of Sciences, began its worldwide exploration
of the sea.

The Act of Incorporation and the recommendation of the
Committee on Oceanography of the Academy of Sciences state
the following purposes of the institution: "Research and in-
struction in all branches of oceanography and allied subjects;
coordination of the activities of governmental and private organi-
zations in oceanography; and providing facilities for visiting
investigators. " From the very beginning there was close coop-
eration between the new organization and the Bureau of Fisher-
ies, and many research projects were carried out jointly.

A steady decrease in the research activities of the Fish-
eries Laboratory began in 1932 and continued for many years.
The Laboratory still served the needs of the Bureau's investi-
gators, but lack of funds prevented the extension of its facilities
to guest investigators. The long-established policy of the Bureau
in supporting basic research in marine sciences established by
Baird began to decline and no clear-cut policy with regard to the
use of the station was formulated. As a result of the new atti-
tude toward the oldest marine station, no summer Director was
appointed. The Station was used by the section of Shellfisheries,
Galtsoff in charge; North Atlantic Fishery Investigations, under
Sette; and Middle Atlantic Fisheries Investigation, R. A. Nesbit
in charge. Since no appropriations were available for running
the Laboratory as an independent unit, the current expenses were
absorbed by the three investigations. The oyster investigations,
conducted by Galtsoff, were concerned primarily with the effect
of the time of day on oyster activity, and with the control of star-
fishes. Sette used the Albatross II for a study of survival of

83

mackerel larvae on the offshore grounds; Nesbit conducted investi-
gation of the year-mark formation on fish scales. L. G. Worley
used hatchery equipment for an experimental study of the effect of
temperature on the incubation of mackerel eggs. Experiments in
rearing fish larvae were conducted jointly by Cable and Galtsoff.
Parr used the Bureau's vessels in a study of the abundance and
growth of young scup, sea bass, and squeteague.

The Albatross II was the reconditioned ocean tug Patuxent .
It was obtained from the" Navy Department shortly after the Bureau
of Fisheries steamer Fish Hawk was relinquished on January 30,
1926. The first Albatross was decommissioned several years be-
fore, on October 29, 1921. The Patuxent, renamed Albatross II,
was a two-masted steel steamer weighing 521 gross tons; her over-
all length was 150 feet; and her header was 2 9 feet 6 inches. She
had a mean draft of 12 feet 3 inches.

In the summer of 1933 the activities of the Laboratory were
even more restricted than before. Galtsoff with the assistance of
R. O. Smith, conducted laboratory experiments on the growth and
fattening of oysters, and Sette studied various methods of marking
mackerel (fig. 36). Large schools of tagged mackerel were kept
under observation in the outdoor pool of the Laboratory and in the
aquarium, where the injuries caused by tagging could be easily
watched.

Lack of funds for the operation of the Laboratory prevented
the Bureau from providing facilities for independent investigators.
At the same time the deterioration of the laboratory buildings and
equipment steadily progressed. At this time, large research proj-
ects conducted by the Bureau in the North Atlantic were concerned
primarily with the populations of oceanic fishes. The major empha-
sis was devoted to the statistical aspects, such as the analysis of
catches, determination of the abundance of year classes, rates of
growth and mortality, and movements or migrations of fishes. Lab-
oratory work played a minor role in these investigations and, con-
sequently, the demand for laboratory space by the Bureau's biolo-
gists diminished.

Fish hatching was still the major year-round operation
while the Laboratory, having no permanent personnel, functioned
principally during the summer. The division of administrative
responsibility added to the difficulty, since the hatchery operation
and maintenance of all buildings and grounds at Woods Hole were
the duties of the Division of Propagation and Distribution of Fishes,
while the operation of the summer Laboratory was under the Divi-
sion of Inquiry. As a result, the Laboratory could not develop its
own program of research and acquire solidarity as a scientific
research unit.

Some of the members of the Bureau of Fisheries even sug-
gested that the Woods Hole Station be declared "surplus property".
This view was strongly opposed by Galtsoff, who on many occasions

84

Figure 36. — 0. E. Sette measures and marks small mackerel (not

seen \inder his gloved hands) assisted by R. A. Goffin
(at left). Sujnmer of 1933*

pointed out the unique advantages of a place having sea water with
uniform salinity, absence of wide daily fluctuations in temperature,
safe anchorage for small boats and live-cars, and good docking
facilities for sea-going vessels. The scientific climate of Woods
Hole, the access to the best biological library in the country, lec-
tures, discussions, conferences, and the presence of many outstand-
ing scientists are conditions highly conducive to research. Futher-
more, friendly cooperation with the MBL and the newly established
Oceanographic Institution makes it possible, in emergencies, to
borrow equipment and use the facilities of these institutions. For-
tunately, the arguments were effective and the Shellfisheries Sec-
tion was permitted to use the Laboratory for rapidly expanding work
on oysters, but very little money was made available for repairs
and rehabilitation purposes.

85

From 1935 to 1938 the Laboratory was without a formal
Director, and administrative responsibility for the work of the
Laboratory was assumed by Galtsoff. Experimental oyster
investigations at this time dealt with the physiology of spawning,
accumulation and storage of heavy metals in the oyster, season-
al fluctuations in the concentration of glycogen and heavy metals,
oxygen consumption of oysters, and sex change. The latter study
was continued for five consecutive years before its completion. In
1935-36, in connection with a special appropriation for oyster
pest control, a survey was made of the distribution of starfish and
drills in Buzzards Bay and Narragansett Bay. Under the supervi-
sion of Galtsoff, the survey was carried on by K. S. Rice and
temporary assistants C. F. Reppun, G. Mishtowt, B. Boving, and
C. D. Weber, who also assisted in the experimental study of
metabolism and storage of metals in oyster tissues. Rice and
Weber remained in the residence for the entire year in order to
extend their observations throughout all seasons. Independent
investigators were: H. M. Smith, F. G. Hall, F. H. McCutchin,
J. W. Wilson, and E. Linton. In the summer of 1938 the follow-
ing investigations indirectly related to fishery problems were con-
ducted: R. Maluf--osmoregulative mechanism in crayfish; R. B.
Root and H. Brown- -effect of carbon dioxide on the respiratory
function of blood of marine fishes; and J. M. Odiorne- -behavior
of melanophores of Fundulus,

The 1938 Hurricane

On September 21, 1938, the Station suffered a severe blow
from a tropical hurricane and the storm wave which accompanied it.
In the report to the Commissioner the damages caused by the hurri-
cane are described by Galtsoff, acting Director, as follows: "Fisher-
ies grounds littered with debris, boats, cars and silt present prob-
ably the most convincing picture of the ferocity of the tidal waves
and wind that struck Woods Hole. The most serious destruction was
done to the pier, three-quarters of which was carried away and de-
posited on the grounds nearby. Not only the wooden upper struc-
tures and planks were demolished, but the heavy stones forming the
wall were lifted, and tossed away. . . . Water filled the basements
of the Laboratory and residence buildings and undermined the founda-
tion, smashed the windows and considerably damaged materials and
equipment stored there. Tile roofs of both buildings were ripped
leaving several large holes, some of them about 10 feet square. . . .
Fortunately the Laboratory boats and scientific equipment were not
damaged". A rough estimate indicated that about $100, 000 would be
required to rehabilitate the Station. Such funds were not available,
and in view of the uncertain future of the Station no efforts were m.ade
to request the necessary Congressional appropriation for rehabilita-
tion. A sum of about $5, 000 for the immediate and most urgent

86

repairs was allocated. It was sufficient to repair the roof, replace
broken windows, and do other minor jobs. The seawall and wharf
remained badly damaged.

In the summer season of 1940, two interesting projects were
carried out at the Laboratory. Arthur Shlaifer of the New York
Aquarium studied the social and respiratory behavior of young
tarpon, and P. F. Scholander of the University of Oslo, Norway,
jointly with L. Irving and S. W. Grinell conducted research on
the respiratory adjustment to diving and asphyxia in harbor seals
(Scholander, Irving, and Grinell, 1942). Half of the hatchery floor
was set aside for bulky equipment, which included respirometers,
electrocardiograph, and instruments for the automatic recording
of pulse and respiration rates in seals. The animals were strap-
ped to a special holder and were kept in air first, then they were
automatically submerged into water. From 10 to 16 seals were
kept in a fenced enclosure along the beach and boat slip. The ex-
periments provided valuable information for understanding the
physiology of diving, but the problem of maintaining and feeding a
large number of seals presented many unexpected headaches to
the Station personnel.

In the summer of 1941 the study on the deposition rate of
shell material in oysters was undertaken by Galtsoff and Dorothy
H. Algire. At the invitation of the Bureau, Chester I. Bliss con-
ducted a seminar on statistical methods in biology and worked on
the problem of standardization of toxicity experiments.

Shortly after the beginning of hostilities in December 1941,
the Station was closed and the buildings were occupied by the U.S.
Navy until the spring of 1944. The library, large stock of labora-
tory equipment, and chemicals were transferred for storage to the
basement of the MBL. During the ensuing years shellfishery re-
search, mostly dealing with the study of life history of the mud
worm, Polydora ligni, and with physiology of the feeding of oysters,
was conducted by Galtsoff and Edith Morrison in a laboratory room
rented in the main building of the MBL.

During the war years Woods Hole presented an unfamiliar
picture. The Fisheries grounds and the adjacent buildings of the
MBL were surrounded by high fence, and became inaccessible to
civilians. The gay crowd that used to assemble near the aquarium
and around the seal pool was no longer there. Less than half of the
MBL laboratory rooms were occupied. Bright -looking pleasure
boats were gone, and very few fishing vessels were seen in the
harbor. Even the New Bedford-Nantucket steamer lost its smart
appearance under a coat of gray paint. At night everything was
pitch dark and the streets were deserted.

87

The 1944 Hurricane

The Station was released by the Navy in 1944, and shortly
after that (September 14) it was struck by a vicious hurricane.
This storm did more serious damage to the buildings and grounds
than those inflicted in 19 38. Large sections of the roofs of the
residence and Laboratory buildings were carried away; all chim-
neys were demolished; about 160 windows were broken in the resi-
dence. Damages caused by high water and storm waves were even
greater. Sea water filled up the basement of the residence to the
depth of about 7 feet, destroying the oil furnace, supplies, and
equipment which were stored there. The seawall at the eastern
side of the Fishery grounds was demolished and a deep gulley ex-
tended from the beach to the sidewalk, undermining the Spencer
F. Baird monument. Porches, railings, and outside stairways
were demolished, and the entire grounds were covered with slimy
debris. At the height of the hurricane, which struck Woods Hole
after darkness, the water at the southern end of the Laboratory
stood about 6 feet above street level and a strong current was
sweeping the grounds. All employees of the station and their
families assembled in the corridor of the second floor of the resi-
dence, which was considered to be the safest place, and were
strictly forbidden to go outside. Soon the chimneys began to col-
lapse with a roaring noise, the roof was blown off, and all the win-
dows facing the sea were smashed either by wind or by flotsam
thrown by waves; it seemed that the old residence was going to
collapse at any moment. Fortunately, the old, well-built structure
withstood the onslaught of water and wind. Panic which threatened
to develop among the children and some hysterical women, who
wanted to run away from the building, was prevented and all were
persuaded to remain indoors. Those of us who had previous ex-
perience knew that flying pieces of tile and strong currents run-
ning over the fishery grounds constituted the greatest danger.
The next day many pieces of broken tiles were found embedded
about one -half inch deep in the wooden buildings across the street,
several hundred feet away from the residence. Fortunately no lives
were lost and nobody sustained any injury.

The violence of the wind subsided about 5:00 a.m. and it
was possible to step outside and examine the wreckage (fig. 37).
For nearly a week Woods Hole was without electric power and gas.
The highways were blocked by fallen trees, and the railroad tracks
between Woods Hole and Falmouth had been washed away. The
basement of the MBL buildings, whci-e laboratory equipment was
stored, was flooded but fortunately only the glassware placed on the
floor and on the two lower shelves was under water. Optical equip-
ment, analytical balances, and other more expensive apparatus
were stored away in the cupboards and were undamaged. There

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were a multitude of problems to be solved right away. The most
urgent ones were the general cleaning of the grounds, temporary
patching of the destroyed portions of the roofs, and the boarding
of broken windows.

Some of the alterations made by the Navy were very use-
ful to the Station. For a long time the U. S. Coast Guard main-
tained a structure along the northern part of the Fishery grounds
which was used as a messhall for the sailors on the Coast Guard
ships, when the latter were in port. The Navy transformed this
structure into a small hospital and dispensary and along side of
it constructed an adjoining wooden barrack as quarters for WAVES.
The barrack was not occupied, however, when the Navy returned the
property to the Fish and Wildlife Service. The hospital building
and WAVES quarters were rebuilt as apartments, which in the fol-
lowing years were occupied by the Superintendent, the Director,
and the Administrative Officer of the Station To alleviate the
acute shortage of housing facilities at Woods Hole, the residence
building was turned over to the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-
tion as a dormitory for its wartime employees.

Operation of the hatchery, which was interrupted at the
beginning of World War II, was now permanently discontinued.
The personnel were retired or transferred, and the responsibility
for maintaining the buildings and grounds was turned over to the
Branch of Fishery Biology (formerly Division of Scientific Inquiry).
The disaster at Woods Hole again raised the acute question of
whether or not the Bureau should close the Station and dispose of
the land. With the exception of the Shellfisheries Section, no
other section of the Bureau at this time was interested in Woods
Hole or considered that the Station was needed for their work.
The great potential usefulness of the Station in connection with
the rapidly increasing scope of scientific research in fishery bio-
logy and oceanography was again emphasized by Galtsoff in several
memoranda submitted to the Director of the Service. Fortunately
the Station had a good friend in Albert M. Day (fig. 38), who from
1945 to 1952 was Director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S.
Department of the Interior. The Fish and Wildlife Service was an
agency formed by combining the Bureau of Fisheries and the Biolo-
gical Survey. Thanks to his wisdom and foresight the Station was
saved from approaching doom. Careful survey of the buildings
indicated that in spite of old age and inroads of several severe
storms and two hurricanes, the old structures were still sound and
could be reconditioned and re- equipped at the estimated cost of
about $17 5, 000 to $200, 000. The Director considered, however,
that it was unwise to ask for such a large sum of money to be put
in the old and inflammable buildings, and thought that eventually
they should be replaced by modern structures. Small amounts
of money were made available for the reconstruction of the sea-
wall, new roofs, repairs to a portion of the Fishery dock, etc.

90

Figure 38.— Albert M. Day, Director of the Fish and WilcQife
Service, 19hS to 1952.

A great deal of the work inside the building was made by the
Superintendent and Station carpenter.

By the summer of 1947, the Station was sufficiently re-
stored as a laboratory to be used by a small number of investi-
gators. During that year Galtsoff, acting Director of the Labora-
tory, assisted by J. Griggs, made observations on the density of
oyster blood under various environmental conditions, and made
toxicity tests of the water and plankton associated with the bloom.-
ing of Gymnodinium brevis, a microorganism which causes "red
tide" along the west coast of Florida (Galtsoff, 1948). Develop-
ment of the nervous system and the reactions of fishes were stud-
ied by H. C. Tracy and a group of his students, supported by a
grant from the U. S. Navy. For brief periods the Laboratory
space was used by two visitors from South America: Horacio
Rosa, Jr. , of the Division of Protection of Fishes in Sao Paulo,
Brazil, and Antonio Landa, of the Guano Company in Lima, Peru.
Landa was a Peruvian fishery trainee, studying the problems and
methods of investigation in fishery problems in the United States.
Other visitors to the Laboratory were: Jacques Monod of the
Pasteur Institute, Paris, France; George Teissier, Director of
the Biological Station at Roscoff; Paul Tchernia, Major General
of the French Navy in charge of fishery investigations; and G. N.
Mitra, Assistant Director of Fisheries, Cutack (orissa), India.

The major investigation carried on in the Laboratory in
1948 was an experimental study of the toxicity of crude oil absorbed
by carbonized sand. This investigation was undertaken at the
request of the U. S. Navy. The technique of using carbonized
sand in combatting fire of oil spilled from naval ships was de-
veloped during the war and proved to be effective as a fire preven-
tion measure. A heavy slick of crude oil on the water's surface
can be eliminated in a few minutes by sprinkling it with carbonized
sand. Granules of this specially prepared sand readily absorb oil;
they form large lumps and sink to the bottom carrying with them
oil globules. The experimental work conducted for the Navy by
Galtsoff and Walter Chipman showed that the oil absorbed by sand
remains toxic and that water soluble materials which are grad-
ually extracted from oil affect bottom animals in varying degrees
(Chipman and Galtsoff, 1949). This work lead to the development
of the method of bioassay which later on was employed in the tox-
icity tests of all pipes and naaterials used for the construction of
the new Fisheries Laboratory. Study of the respiration and sex
change in oysters was continued by Galtsoff, and the exhibits of
the Public Aquarium were prepared by him with the assistance
of A. R. DeMetriff (fig. 39).

Intensified interest on the part of the New England fishing
industry on the depletion of groundfish resources and renewed
interest on the part of the Fish and Wildlife Service on the value
of oceanographic studies on fishery resources resulted in a re-
birth of the Laboratory. A new era started with the transfer of

92

Figure 39. — Old aquarium of the Fisheries Station restored ai'ter
the hurricane of 19hh»

the office of the New England Banks Fishery Investigations (pre-
viously called North Atlantic Fishery Investigations) from Cam-
bridge to Woods Hole. A new vessel. Albatross III (fig. 40), was
available for the explorations of offshore fishing grounds. The
vessel was commissioned at ceremonies held at Boston Fish Pier
on March 19, 1948. Formerly named Harvard she was built in
1926 as a steam trawler and before being "sold" to the Fish and
Wildlife Service for $1 she was credited with catching and landing
about 35 million pounds of groundfish. When World War II broke
out, the Harvard was in a shipyard being converted into a research
vessel. She was immediately requisitioned by the U.S. Navy for
the Coast Guard, renamed Be lie font e, and returned to the Service
in 1944. The Bellefonte was laid up at Woods Hole in semi-opera-
tive condition until plans were made and funds allocated to recon-
vert her back to a fishery research vessel under the name Albatross
111. Due to insufficient funds she was operated only intermittently

93

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during the period 1948-54. In 1955 the Saltonstall-Kennedy
funds made possible the full-time operation that lasted until 1959,
when she was decommissioned. During that period of service
she made 128 cruises, most of them to Georges Bank and adja-
cent waters. In 1951 -52 the Albatross III was loaned to "WHOI
for trans -Atlantic hydrographic cruisesT'

The principal activities of the Albatross 111 that were
started in 1948 were concerned with a census of groundfish on
the New England banks. The results of these surveys provided
a basis upon which prediction of abundancy are now being made
to the fishing industry.

The determination of natural mortality and growth rates,
essential in all population studies, formed an essential part of
this research. Prev^ious investigations conducted by the Bureau
showed the necessity of protecting small haddock (two years old
or less) from destruction, which during the war years reached
enormous proportions. It was estimated that at least 17 million
baby haddock were killed during this period and discarded on the
New England banks by the otter trawl fleet using small (three-
inch) mesh nets.

William F. Royce, Chief of North Atlantic Fisheries In-
vestigations, became Director of the Laboratory in 1948. Part
of the Laboratory was set aside for shellfish investigations under
Galtsoff. The number of investigators working at Woods Hole
year-round was materially increased. The following principal
projects were carried out: effect of otter trawling on producti-
vity of the bottom by Royce; study of the population of haddock
by H. Schuck; and abundance and yield of groundfish by A,
Perlm utter. Seven other investigators and fishery aids were
engaged in various phases of fishery research. A small number
of independent investigators used the facilities of the Laboratory:
H. C. Tracy and his associates continued a study of the develop-
ment of nervous system and behavior in larval and young toad-
fish; Dr. and Mrs. J. Lein of Syracuse University studied the
clotting mechanism of lobster blood; A. Goldstein and Dora
Goldstein of Harvard University Medical School investigated
the cholinesterase in marine bacteria and invertebrates. Eugenia
Galtsoff of George Washington University, in cooperation with
P. S. Galtsoff, made experiments in transplantation of toadfish
embryos (Galtsoff and Galtsoff, 1959).

In 1949 Albatross III completed 23 cruises before being
laid up from January to May because of the shortage of funds.
The main research project for which the ship's operations were
required concerned the haddock fishery and movements of had-
dock on Georges and Browns Bank. The effect of the commer-
cial catch on changes in the size and composition of the stock

95

of New England haddock was demonstrated by the analysis of the
data accumulated in previous years (Schuck, 1949). Other in-
vestigations were concerned with the flounder fishery, census
of all fish populations over the entire New England banks area,
and hydrography of fishing areas.

Shellfish investigations were conducted by Galtsoff only
during the summer. These studies pertained to the physiology
of feeding of the oyster and with the fertilization and cleavage
of oyster eggs. All cytological work was performed by Eugenia
Galtsoff. The Laboratory was also used for the study of the
material collected by Galtsoff during his expedition to the Gulf
of Panama and Gulf of Chiriqui to determine the cause of the
precipitous decline in the pearl fishery. Tissues of the pearl
oyster, preserved during the expedition, were microscopically
examined, and the mollusks and other invertebrates found in
association with the pearl oyster were identified. Only four
independent investigators used the facilities of the laboratory.

Pending the proposed transfer to Boothbay Harbor, the
administrative headquarters of the Clam Investigations were
located at the Woods Hole Station. Observations on the feed-
ing of the soft- shell clam were made jointly by John Barlow
and personnel at WHOI.

The headquarters of the shellfishery investigation at
College Park, Md., were closed in 1950 and Galtsoff, former
chief of the section, was permanently assigned to the Woods
Hole Laboratory to conduct research necessary for the pre-
paration of a comprehensive treatise on oyster biology. The
Woods Hole Laboratory was also used in the preparation of a
comprehensive book about the origin, waters and marine life
of the Gulf of Mexico. In connection with this undertaking, a
large bibliography comprising several thousand cards was pre-
pared and is now kept in the library of the Fisheries Biological
Laboratory and in the library of the MBL at Woods Hole. Addi-
tional copies were distributed among the participating institu-
tions of the Gulf area.

96

III. Woods Hole Laboratory, Center for International Fisheries Research

In 1951, Herbert W. Graham replaced Royce as Chief of
North Atlantic Fishery Investigations and Director of the Laboratory.
This year marks the beginning of new work for the Fisheries
Laboratory at Woods Hole. In addition to its function as a fishery
research center for the North Atlantic area, it became the center
of American research activities in relation to the International
Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF). The
International Commission originated with the convention of 11
countries in Washington, D. C. , in January 1949. They entered
into an agreement which was ratified on July 3, 1950, by four
signatory governments, namely, Canada, Iceland, the United
Kingdom, and the United States of America. At present (1962)
12 participating governments comprise the Commission.

The activities of ICNAF extend over a huge area, nearly
two million square miles, of the ocean west of longitude 42' W.
and north of latitude 39° N. Along the west coast of Greenland
the area covers about one-half of the width of Davis Strait and
extends in a northwesterly direction into Baffin Bay where it
terminates at the point of latitude 78° 10" N. and longitude 73° 30" W.
The entire area is subdivided into five subareas. In order to
carry out the Commission's objectives for the investigation,
protection and conservation of fisheries, a panel has been estab-
lished for each subarea. The representation of governments on
each panel is reviewed annually by the Commission on the basis
of "current substantial exploitation in the sub-area concerned
with fishes of the cod group (Gadiformes), of flat fishes (Pleuro-
nectiformes), and of rosefish (genus Sebastes) except that each
contracting government with coast line adjacent to a sub-area
shall have the right of representation of the panel of sub-area"
(Article IV, International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic
Fisheries, Report No. 1, 1951). The United States is primarily
concerned with sub-areas four and five, and has membership in
panels three, four, and five. Subarea five, in which the U.S.
Government conducts extensive studies on haddock and sea scallop,
covers the entire area of Georges Bank. Since the organization
of ICNAF, the Fisheries Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole
entered into a new phase of activities as research agency for the
international organization concerned with the management of
oceanic food resources.

The Commission is a voluntary international organization,
and no government is compelled to join or to abide by its regulations.
The participating governments are honor-bound to respect the
conservation measures that may be designed by the Commission,
to provide the statistical data requested, and to participate in the
program of research activities agreed upon at the annual meetings

97

of the convention. It is understood that the participating
governments share substantial interest in the conservation
and in maintenance of a sustained catch from these fisheries.
Its success is an outstanding example of the benefits derived
from international cooperation.

As the work of ICNAF was organized, additional
projects were added to the program outlined during the
first ICNAF meeting. Correspondingly, the staff of the
Laboratory was increased. In 1952, 19 service biologists
(including the Director) and laboratory or fishery aids
were on the Federal payroll at the Station. By 1962 the
number of biologists and aids increased to 37.

After the first meeting of ICNAF in Washington, the
Canadian and American advisers met at Woods Hole in 1952
to formulate a program of research which included the study
of: the quantity of small haddock destroyed at sea; mortality
rates (fishing, natural and total) of fish before and after
regulation; total contributions (in pounds) of year classes of
groundfish species of known abundance before and after
regulation; growth rates of young fish before and after
regulation. It was decided also to undertake the following
studies: determination of a mesh size which would permit
escapement of small fish which are destroyed by small mesh
nets; and preparation of regulatory measures for the con-
sideration of the Commissioner.

The use of Albatross III made it feasible to resume
the observations necessary for various research projects.
Since March 3, 195 3, cruises have been devoted to the
collection of redfish, surveying the distribution of haddock
and cod eggs and larvae, taking groundfish censuses, and
conducting experiments in mesh selectivity.

Haddock research reached the stage at which it was
possible to predict the relative abundance of each year class
of fish with a high degree of accuracy, although the causes
of the fluctuations in the abundance of fish of each year class
are still unknown (Taylor, 1953). On the basis of the analysis
of research data, an international mesh regulation was adopted.
After it became effective in this country on June 1, 195 3, the
fishing for haddock on Georges Bank or in the Gulf of Maine
with a net having meshes less than 4-1/2 inches (inside
diameter) was illegal (Graham, 1952).

A new project concerned with the whiting fishery was
initiated with the view of determining the species involved and
developing the technique of age determination.

In 1950-53 the Station's chemical laboratory and part
of the general laboratory on the second floor were occupied by
the Public Health unit for the study of bacteriological aspects
of shellfish sanitation. Also, an office was provided for the use
of George A. Hounsefell, in charge of the editorial services of
the Branch.

98

In the shellfish laboratory, studies were made of the
movements of drills and conchs in search of food; and the
spawning and setting of oysters in Onset and Chatham Bays.
A survey of tidal waters of Cape Cod was made with reference
to determining the extent of setting of oysters in the estuaries;
results showed that oysters set prolifically in almost all
protected bays and ponds. Because of the lack of interest and
jurisdictional policies exercised by local communities over
shellfish grounds, this latent oyster resource is not utilized.

During the summer of 1952, 10 independent investi-
gators spent several weeks each in special studies of various
physiological problems. The aquarium and other exhibits,
prepared in cooperation with WHOI, were opened to the public
during the summer months. The research vessel Albatross III
was loaned to WHOI for the year.

The Laboratory continued to attract scientists from
foreign countries. The list of visitors includes marine biologists
from Canada, England, Scotland, Thailand, Peru, Norway,
Iceland, and India. Nine independent investigators used the
facilities of the Laboratory to conduct research on problems
of physiology of marine organisms. Six of these received
accommodations through an agreement with the MBL for the
exchange of facilities of the two institutions.

On August 31, 1954, hurricane "Carol", the third since
1938, struck Woods Hole and caused extensive damages to the
Fisheries grounds and buildings. Albatross III, which was moored
to the dock when the hurricane struck, was fortunately saved by
determined members of the Laboratory staff. The salt-water
system, already deteriorated by previous hurricanes, was badly
damaged again. No funds were available for a complete re-
habilitation of the salt-water pipes and pumps. The aquarium
was closed and not reopened until the new one was constructed
a few years later.

The new project undertaken in connection with the study
of oceanic fisheries was the investigation of sea scallop, supported
by Saltonstall-Kennedy funds. The rapidly expanding scallop
fishery reached such proportions that it is now one of the major
fish industries in New England. Extensive population studies of
sea scallop were instituted under the direction of J. A. Posgay.

Plankton surveys of the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank
were continued by J. Colton and R. Marak with the view of
determining the drift of eggs and larvae in the area studied
(Colton and Temple, 1961). These observations were supplemented
by the release of drift bottles and their returns. To learn about
the food habits of haddock, the contents of stomachs of 2, 000
fishes taken from 41 locations were studied.

The haddock investigation was particularly concerned with
determining the type of tag most suitable for marking fish and

99

with determining the percent escapement of each size through
the net. To improve the observation technique, an underwater
camera of special design was constructed and tested. Also
several biologists of the Laboratory took training in sustained
underwater swimming with the aqualung.

In the shellfish program, studies were made of the
structure and elastic properties of shell ligament and on the
rate of deposition of shell materials during different seasons.
The electron microscope available at the MBL was used for
these studies.

In the following years, 1955-57, the program of groundfish
investigations was continued for the purpose of suggesting to
ICNAF further regulations. The following research projects
were conducted: mesh regulation for haddock fishery; population
biology of haddock (Taylor, 1958); redfish (Kelly, et al. , 1959,
1961a, 1961b), whiting, yellowtail flounder, industrial fish,
and sea scallop; fisheries of Delaware Bay; and plankton ecology
with reference to the abundance and dispersal of haddock eggs
and larvae. Study of bottom organisms over the Georges Bank
was undertaken in order to determine the relationship between
the distribution of fish to the availability of the food supply.
Various types of gear, such as scoops, dredges, and a ring net
mounted on a sled were used to collect animals attached to, or
burrowing in the bottom and those which live in water close to
the bottom. Tools of research were augmented by the use of
an underwater television camera, the specifications for which
were drawn up by the electronics equipment specialist who was
added to the Laboratory staff.

For the preparation of a treatise on oyster biology,
several physiological and histological studies were made
regarding the structure and function of the mantle, labial
palps, and gills. On the basis of physiological and ecological
investigations, a method was advanced for a quantitative
evaluation of oyster bottoms. With the cooperation of the Vv'est
Chatham, Mass. oystermen, an experimental study of raft
culture of oysters was undertaken in Oyster Pond River near
Chatham, Mass. This project demonstrated that oysters
suspended from a raft may reach marketable size in 2-1/2
years instead of the usual 4 or 5 years, and that their mortality
due to drills and other enemies may be reduced to a minimum.
The method is particularly suitable to the inshore waters of
Cape Cod which are well protected from storms and surf.

Efforts for complete rehabilitation of the Station initiated
after the hurricane of 1944 by the Director of the Fish and Wildlife
Service, A. M. Day, and continued by his successor John L,
Farley brought results in 1955 when Congress voted $930, 000 for
the replacement of the old buildings with a modern laboratory and
aquarium. The reconstruction of the breakwater and rebuilding

100

of docks had been made possible by a separate appropriation of
$160, 000; the Dane Construction Company of Sommerville, Mass.
was awarded the contract for this work. In 1957 the Director's
residence (former Coast Guard bungalow) was moved to a new
site and the barrack -type frame building (former WAVES quarters)
was given to the MBL and moved away. On December 27, 1957,
the Government entered into a contract with Mishara Construction
Company, Inc. , of Brighton, Mass. for the razing of the old
laboratory, residence building, and maintenance shop and for the
construction of a three -story 44 feet x 190 feet masonry building.
The old buildings were vacated, and the Laboratory personnel
occupied temporary quarters in a private estate midway between
Falmouth and Woods Hole. The shellfish investigations were
conducted in a laboratory at the MBL..

Early in 1958 the old buildings were demolished. The
staff of the Laboratory consisted at this time of Director, Herbert
W. Graham, Assistant Director, the late Clyde C. Taylor, 21
fishery research biologists, 21 fishery aids, 6 technical assistants,
and 16 persons employed in adnainistration and maintenance. The
Albatross III, with a crew of 24 officers and men, was attached to
the Laboratory.

New and important changes in the research program and
administrative functions of the Laboratory, which became effective
since 1950, resulted from the reorganization of the Fish and Wildlife
Service. As previously mentioned, under the authority of the
President's Reorganization Plan III, the Bureau of Fisheries was
merged with the Bureau of Biological Survey to form the Fish and
Wildlife Service under the U. S. Department of the Interior. A new
Fish and Wildlife Act was passed during the second session of the
84th Congress and on August 8, 1956, was approved by President
Eisenhower. The "Declaration of Policy" of the Act states that
"Congress hereby declares that the fish, shellfish, and wildlife
resources of the Nation make a material contribution to our natural
economy and food supply, as well as a material contribution to the
health, recreation, and well-being of our citizens" (Safer, 1960).
The law established the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and the
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife as two independent components
of the new Service. The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries under a
Director (the position at present is occupied by Donald L. McKernan)
consists of four divisions: Biological Research, Industrial Research,
Resource Development, and Administration. At the same time the
Bureau's field activities, formerly under the direct supervision of
the central office in Washington, have been decentralized by
establishing five regional offices, and two area offices, each headed
by a Regional Director and assisted by an administrative staff. In
accordance with the new plan, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole and other Bureau laboratories
in the area, are under the administrative supervision of the Director
of Region 3, with headquarters at Gloucester, Mass. John Gharrett

101

is Regional Director of Region 3 which extends over the New
England area and southward including the states of New York,
New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.

Under the new administrative scheme, the general
term "field station" applies to any field office of the Bureau
other than Regional or area offices, and the term "Biological
Laboratory" is used to designate a major research center
engaged in biological investigations. The official full title
of the Woods Hole Laboratory according to Amendment Two
of Reorganization Memorandum No. 10 of November 18, 1958,
is as follows: Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological
Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The major activities
of a laboratory are called program.s each headed by a program
leader. The Laboratory Director has supervision of all the
functions of the Laboratory.

On March 1, 1960, when Laboratory personnel moved
back to Woods Hole and occupied the new laboratory building,
the staff comprised H. W. Grahana, Director; Robert L.
Edwards, acting Assistant Laboratory Director (now Assistant
Director); and the following program leaders: Cod- -J. P. Wise;
Flounder--F. E. Lux; Haddock--J. R.Clark; Hake--R. L.
Fritz; Industrial Fishery- -R. L. Edwards; Redfish (formerly
called rosefish)--G. F. Kelly; Sea Scallops- -J. A. Posgay;
Benthic Ecology- -R. L. Wigley; Fish Behavior- -R. Livingstone;
Plankton Ecology- -R. R. Marak; Aquarium and Experinnental
Studies- -C. L. Wheeler; Instrumentation and Underwater
Television- -J. M. Crossen; Port Samples Pool (to obtain data
on the commercial landing of fish)--L. H. Couture. The work
on estuarine ecology conducted in the past years has been
discontinued, and the activities of the Laboratory focused on
oceanic fisheries and development of practical measures of
m.anagement in relation to the U. S. responsibilities to ICNAF.

102

IV. The Aquarium

The aquarium has always been a vital part of Woods
Hole as a scientific and educational center. It was organized
by Baird, who strongly believed in the necessity of popularizing
marine biology and explaining to the general public the aims
and achievements of government research in conservation. No
appropriations were made, however, for the operation of the
aquarium. It was assumed that this work would be performed
voluntarily and jointly by the Director and Superintendent of
the Station. For many years R. A. Goffin, collector for the
Laboratory and later its Superintendent until 1941, took care
of the aquarium to the best of his ability and with limited funds.
In arranging the aquarium material, emphasis was placed on
New England food fishes and on invertebrates commonly found
along the shores and used in the MBL classes and for research.
The aquarium doors were open every day from 8:00 a. m. to
8:00 p. m. in order to give the MBL investigators a chance to
visit the exhibits between breakfast time and the beginning of
morning classes at 9:00 a.m. Another favored time was
between 7:00 and 8:00 p. m. The tourists and other visitors
usually came between 10:00 a. m. and 5:00 p. m. The aquarium
was frequently crowded on holidays, especially when bad
weather kept the tourists from the beaches. The visitors were
invited to register and write their impressions. Spot checks
conducted at various times of the day showed that in the morning
and late afternoon hours the ratio of those who signed their names
and those who disregarded the request was 1 to 10. During
other hours it varied from 1 to 3 to 1 to 5. From these and other
checks it was possible to estimate that the number of visitors
exceeded 1, 000 per day on rainy days and holidays. In 1945-50
the average number of aquarium visitors for the entire 90-day
period it was open was about 250 per day.

With the organization of the School of Science for the boys
and girls of the parents doing research work at Woods Hole,
arrangements were made for the children to have their own tanks
for keeping and watching the animals they collected in the sea.
The old hatchery provided plenty of room for this purpose. By
this policy many acts of juvenile delinquency were prevented
since the participants of the "aquarium projects" acted as voluntary
guards.

It was my practice to mingle with the crowd and learn
directly their reactions to our display. It was a surprise to find
out how many college instructors in biology had never seen live
dogfish, squid, or other common animals. Some of them admired
the graceful movements of the fish, the continuous color change
of the squid, the sliding motion of starfish, and the brilliance of
our common red sponge. Their previous acquaintance with these

103

forms of life was only through the unattractive specimens
preserved in formalin and used for dissection

On many occasions the aquarium supplied the MBL
classes with material for experimentation and dissection.
The demonstration of electric discharges by the large
electric ray was the most spectacular event carried out
for several consecutive seasons on Fisheries grounds by
William R. Amberson for the students of his physiology
class. The ray was placed on a wide copper plate to which
an electrode was attached. The second electrode was
placed on the ray's dorsal side, over its electric organ.
A chain was formed of 40 to 50 volunteers holding hands
and two at the ends touching the poles. The fish was then
disturbed, and at the discharge of an electric shock all the
hands jerked up simultaneously with loud screams of the
participants. The event always attracted numerous
spectators.

Many curious remarks were heard and comic
incidents happened around the outdoor pool. By long-established
tradition, two young harbor seals were kept every summer in
a large sea-water pool behind the sea wall. The lovable
animals, adored by the public, spent most of their time on
a small raft anchored in the pool. They became tame within
a short time of their capture and camie close to the wall to
accept mackerel or other fish offered to them. At feeding
time a large crowd would always be standing on the walls of
the pool. Besides the seals, sea turtles and large sharks
occasionally were placed in the pool. There was always a
discussion about the dangers of sharks, their attacks on
humans and questions why the seals were not afraid of them.
1 noticed late one afternoon, a large group of men loudly
arguing some question and refreshing themselves with
frequent excursions to hip-pocket flasks. To prevent possible
unpleasantries I moved close to the group and heard how one
rather fat and vociferous fellow proposed a bet of $5 to $25
that he would enter the water where sharks were swimming
and remain there immobile for 10 minutes. The bet was
accepted, and the man stripped to his bathing trunks, stepped
into the water while his companions anxiously looked at their
watches. When he successfully emerged from the pool and
collected his bet, I quietly remarked that the large sand sharks
in the pool are sluggish animals which subsist on small fish
and never attack humans. Since the explanation was not
appreciated by the winner, I hastily retreated to my quarters.

The seals were the darlings of Woods Hole. People
loved them, and used thousands of films photographing them
and asked endless questions about their habits. There were
many visitors to the aquarium, including some local fishermen

104

who with great regularity came to see the exhibits and always
commented on the condition or rarity of the specimens they
saw. Who knows how many of them became naturalists and
conservationists as a result of these first impressions of life
in the sea?

The aquarium serves educational purposes by emphasizing
to the public the value and necessity of conservation of aquatic
resources. In designing the new aquarium the Bureau attempted
to carry on the tradition of Spencer F. Baird. It is housed in a
modern building and uses modern techniques for exhibiting fish
and telling the story of conservation of marine resources. There
are 16 tanks for display of local marine animals and plants, and
no attempt is made to entertain the visitors with trained animals
or to show exotic species. As in the past, the aquarium is open
only during the summer. Shortly after Labor Day its facilities
are used for experimental research.

In spite of the very modest character of the aquarium
it attracted over 200,000 visitors in the summer of 1961. This
tremendous interest in marine science on the part of the American
public points up the need for more marine museums and aquaria
in accessible places to satisfy the desire to learn about the sea.
The Bureau's aquarium is designed to tell the story of marine
conservation and to give to the public an idea of the research
being conducted at Woods Hole. It cannot do more than this.
The usefulness of the public exhibits of the Fisheries Biological
Laboratory and their educational value cannot be denied.

105

V. Outlook for the Future

Effective management of fisheries resources of the
open ocean presents a great challenge that can be met by
well-planned, year-round observations conducted without
interruption for a number of years. The m.ost important
scientific phase of this research is concerned with the causes
of the great fluctuations in the abundance of fish stocks. For
the past hundred or more years these fluctuations have
greatly affected the fishing industries of this country and in
Europe. Frequently the cause was attributed to one or another
factor--such as overfishing, changes in ocean currents, or
temperature deviations from the expected average--without
actually ascertaining all the complicated interrelationships
between the welfare of a fish population, environmental
changes, and the effects of man's activities. The intricate
picture of life in the open ocean cannot be elucidated by a
single short-term observation in a restricted area. The
census of fish populations should be taken from year to year
together with measurements of changes that may occur in
the oceanic environment, particularly in climate and weather,
observing the pattern of currents, and determining the
abundance of the food supply for different species. Life in
the ocean does not remain stable. Contrarily, it is in a state
of unstable equilibrium in which the struggle for existence
gives temporary predominance to one group which in turn
may be replaced by another. For an understanding of such
interactions, long- continued and well-planned observations
are needed.

An evaluation of the events that take place among
free-living and rapidly moving marine populations cannot
be made by studying a single species of commercially
important fish. All species of fish compete for space and
food and are directly or indirectly dependent on the abundance
of zooplankton and bottom organisms which in turn are controlled
by the abundance of microscopic plants and bacteria. In final
analysis the entire food chain in the ocean from mineral salts,
necessary for microscopic plants, to the abundance of the giants
of the sea--sharks, tunas, and whales- -depends on sun energy
absorbed by the surface of the ocean. Therefore, it is clear
that biological observations on a marine population must be
based on detailed oceanographic studies. The needs and tolerances
of various species for temperature, salinity, oxygen, and food
must be known in order to interpret possible effects of slight
changes in the environment. To this long array of particulars
must be added the study of the behavior of fish, and diseases
which sometimes decimate the entire population. This type of
work requires the facilities of a modern laboratory and

106

availability of a sea-going research vessel. Continued and
uninterrupted observations in the open ocean are essential
for the success of this work. It is apparent that the work
of such magnitude can not be carried on by a single institution.
Together with a number of organizations and agencies
concerned with marine sciences, the Fisheries Biological
Laboratory at Woods Hole is ready to contribute its share
in oceanographic research and to assume a leading role in
the studies of fisheries, their conservation and utilization,
the goal which was formulated 90 years ago by Baird. It is
remarkable that the present day ideas of oceanic research
are essentially those which the great founder of this Laboratory
so eloquently expressed in his reports, in his statements to
Congress, and in his remarkable instructions to the men he
sent to explore the secrets of the ocean.

Let us hope that the ideals of Spencer F. Baird shall
remain alive and will continue to stimulate the young generation
of scientists who have now at their disposal the wonderful tools
of research that could not have been imagined at the time the
first marine biological station in the United States was founded.

107

Acknowledgements

The author expresses his gratitude for the cooperation
of various organizations and persons listed below in supplying
photographs and information concerning the history of the
Fisheries Laboratory at Woods Hole: Woods Hole Library;
Sturgis Memorial Library at Barnstable, Mass. ; Library of
the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole; Library of
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La JoUa, Calif. ; Church
of the Messiah, Woods Hole; Norman T. Allen, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution; Bent B^ving, Embryological
Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Baltimore,
Maryland; Mrs. J. E. Claudy, Washington, D. C. ; Mrs. E.
W. Clark, Woods Hole; D. P. Costello, University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill; Mrs. E. R. Cowdry, Woods Hole;
Mrs. A. E. P. Davis, Portland, Oreg. ; Charles J. Fish,
Narragansett Marine Laboratory, University of Rhode Island;
Edward W. Forbes, Naushon Island, Mass. ; George A. Griffin,
Woods Hole; G. A. Hough and John T. Hough, Falmouth
Enterprise; A. Remington Kellogg, Director, U. S. National
Museum, Washington, D. C. ; Theresa J. Lammers, State
College, Westfield, Mass.; Giles W. Mead, Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard University; Mrs. E, B. Wilson,
Woods Hole, Mass.

109

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Conklin, Edwin Grant.

1927. The story of Woods Hole. II. The beginning of biology
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1944. The geography and early history of Woods Hole. In
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Costello, Donald P.

1961. Henry Van Peters Wilson, 1863-1939. Biographical

Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, vol. 35, p. 351-383.
Crowell, Prince.

1961. Pacific Guano Company's Works, Woods Hole, Mass.
Falmouth Enterprise, May 19, 1961, p. 2.
Dall, William Healey.

1915. Spencer Fullerton Baird, a biography including sections
from his correspondence with Audubon, Agassiz, Dana, and
others. J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 462 p.
Davis, Bradley Moore.

1913. A biological survey of the waters of Woods Hole and
vicinity. Parti. Section H. --Botanical. General
characteristics of the algal vegetation of Buzzards Bay
and Vineyard Sound in the vicinity of Woods Hole. Part H.
Section IV. --A catalogue of the marine flora. Bulletin of
the /U. S.7 Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 31, 1911(1913),
Parti, p. 443-544; Part H, p. 795-833.
Deyo, Simeon L. (editor).

1890. History of Barnstable County, Massachusetts. H. W.
Blake and Company, New York, 1,010 p.

112

Farlow, W. G.

1873. List of the sea-weeds or marine algae of the south coast
of New England. U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries.
Part I. In Report on the condition of the sea fisheries of
the south~coast of New England in 1871 and 1872, by Spencer
F. Baird, Commissioner, (1873), p. 281-294.

1882. The marine algae of New England. U. S. Com.mission
of P'ish and Fisheries, Part VII, Appendix A. In Report
of the Commissioner for 1879 (1882), p. 1-210."~
Fish, Charles J.

1925. Seasonal distribution of the plankton of the Woods Hole
region. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 41, 1925
(1926), p. 91-179. (Issued as Document 975 in 1925)
Fisher, Charles E.

1919. The story of the Old Colony Railraod. Taunton,
Massachusetts, 196 p.
Galtsoff, Paul S.

1925. Regeneration after dissociation (an experimental study
on sponges). 1. Behavior of dissociated cells of Microciona
prolifera under normal and altered conditions. 2. Histogenesis
of Microciona prolifera, Verr. Journal of Experimental
Zoology, vol. 42, no. 1, p. 183-221, 223-255.

1928. Experimental study of the function of the oyster gills
and its bearing on the problems of oyster culture and
sanitary control of the oyster industry. Bulletin of the
U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 44, 1928(1929), p. 1-39.
(Issued as Docum.ent 1, 035 in 1928)

1938a. Physiology of reproduction of Ostrea virginica.

1. Spawning reactions of the fem.ale and male. Biological
Bulletin, vol. 74, p. 461-486.

1938b. Physiology of reproduction of Ostrea virginica.

H. Stimulation of spawning in the female oyster. Hiological
Bulletin, vol. 75, p. 286-307.

1939. Damages caused by the hurricane to the U. S. Fisheries
Laboratory. Collecting Net, Hurricane Number, March 193 9,
p. 19-21.

1940. Physiology of reproduction of Ostrea virginica.

in. Stimulation of spawning in the male oyster. Biological
Bulletin, vol. 78, p. 117-135.

1948. Red tide. Progress report on the investigations of the
cause of the mortality of fish along the west coast of Florida
conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
cooperating organizations. U. S. Department of the Interior,
Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report No. 46,
44 p.
Galtsoff, Paul S. , and Eugenia Galtsoff.

195 9. Homoplastic implantation of toadfish (Ops anus tau) embryos
in the peritoneal cavity of an adult fish. Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, vol. 80, p. 44-53.

113

Gill, Theodore N.

187 3. Catalogue of the fishes of the east coast of North
America. U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries,
Part I. In Report on the condition of the sea fisheries

of the south coast of New England in 1871 and 1872 (187 3),
p. 779-822.
Goode, G. Brown.

1879. The natural and economical history of the American
menhaden. U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries,
Part V, In Report of the Commissioner for 1877 (187 9),
p. 1-529.

188 3. Materials for a history of the sword-fish. U.S.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part VIII. In Report
of the Commissioner for 1880 (1883), p. 289-39"?:

Goode, George Brown, and associates.

1884, 1887. The fisheries and fishery industries of the United
States. Section I, Natural history of useful aquatic animals
(895 p.) (1884); Section 11, A geographical review of the
fisheries industries and fishing communities for the year
1880 (787 p. ) (1887); Section III, The fishing grounds of
North America (238 p.) (1887); Section IV, The fishermen
of the United States (178 p. ) (1887); Section V, History and
methods of the fisheries, vol. 1 (808 p.) (1887), vol. 2
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Goode, G. Brown, Joseph W. Collins, R. E. Earll, and A. Howard
Clark.

1884. Materials for a history of the mackerel fishery. U.S.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part IX, In Report of
of the Commissioner for 1881 (1884), p. 91-53r.

Graham, Herbert W.

1952. Mesh regulation to increase the yield of the Georges

Bank haddock fishery. Report of the International Commission
for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries for the year 1951-52,
Part 3, p. 23-33.

Haack, Director.

1882. A German view of the American section in the Berlin
fishery exhibition. Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission,
vol. 1 for 1881 (1882), p. 57-58.

Harger, Oscar.

1880. Report on the marine Isopoda of New England waters.
U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part VI. In
Report of the Commissioner for 187 8, Appendix E, The
natural history of marine animals (1880), p. 297-462.

Holder, Charles Frederick.

1910. Spencer Fullerton Baird, Zoologist (1823-1887). In
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114

International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries.
1951. Report of the first annual meeting, with appendices.
Department of State, United States of America,
International Organization and Conference Series 1,
15, Department of State Publication 4244, Division of
Publications, Office of Public Affairs, 52 p.

Kelly, George F. , and Allan M. Barker.

1961a. Vertical distribution of young redfish in the Gulf
of Maine. Rapports et Proces-Verbaux Conseil
Permanent International pour 1' Exploration de la Mer,
vol. 150, p. 220-233.
1961b. Observations on the behaviour, growth, and

migration of redfish at Eastport, Maine. Rapports et
Proces-Verbaux Conseil Permanent International pour
I'Exploration de la Mer, vol. 150, p. 263-275.

Kelly, George F., and Robert S. Wolf.

1959. Age and growth of the redfish (Sebastes marinus)
in the Gulf of Maine. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Fishery Bulletin 156, Fishery Bulletin of the Fish and
Wildlife Service, vol. 60, p. 1-31.

Kidder, Jerome H.

1886. Report upon the water supply of the Fish Commission
Station at Wood's HoU, Massachusetts. U.S.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part XII, Report

of the Commissioner for 1884 (1886), p. 215-221.

1887. Report on the thermometers of the U.S. Commission
of Fish and Fisheries. U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries, Part XIII, Report of the Commissioner for
1885 (1887), p. 185-214.

Lillie, Frank R.

1944. The Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 284 p.
Linton, Edwin.

1889. Notes on Entozoa of marine fishes of New England,
with descriptions of several new species. U.S.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part XIV. In
Report of the Commissioner for 1886 (1889), p.~?53-511.

1891. Notes on Entozoa of marine fishes of New England,
with descriptions of several new species. Part II. U.S.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part XV, In Report
of the Commissioner for 1887 (1891), p. 719-899.

1892. Notes on Entozoa of marine fishes, with descriptions
of new species. Part III. U.S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries, Part XVI, In Report of the Commissioner for
1888 (1892), p. 523-54T.

1927. Reminiscences of the Fish Commission Laboratory
at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Collecting Net, vol. 2,
no. 3, p. 1, 4.

115

Pacific Guano Company.

187 6. The Pacific Guano Company: its history; its products
and trade; its relation to agriculture. The Riverside Press,
Cambridge, 63 p.
Parker, G. H.

1904. Hearing and allied senses in fishes. Bulletin of the
United States Fish Commission, vol. 22, for 1902 (1904),
p. 45-64.
Ryder, John A.

1884. A contribution to the embryography of osseous fishes,
with special reference to the development of the cod (Gadus
morrhua). U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part X,
Report of the Commissioner for 1882 (1884), p. 455-605.
1887. An exposition of the principles of a rational system of
oyster culture, together with an account of a new and
practical method of obtaining oyster spat on a scale of
commercial importance. U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries, Part XIII, Report of the Commissioner for
1885(1887), Appendix C, Oyster Culture, p. 381-423.
Sater, Edna N.

1960. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service, its
responsibilities and functions. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Circular 97, 44 p.
Scholander, P. F. , L. Irving, and S. W. Grinnell.

1942. On the temperature and metabolism of the seal during
diving. Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology,
vol. 19, p. 67-78.

Schroeder, William C.

1930. Migrations and other phases in the life history of the
cod off southern New England. Bulletin of the U.S. Bureau
of Fisheries, vol. 46, 1930(1931), p. 1-136. (Issued in
1930 as Document 1081.)

Schuck, Howard A.

1949. Relationship of catch to changes in population size of
New England haddock. Biometrics, vol. 5, no. 3,

p. 213-231.
Schultz, Leonard P.

1941. Hugh McCormick Smith. Copeia, 1941, no. 4, p. 194-209.
Sette, Oscar Elton.

1943. Biology of the Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus)
of North America. Part I. Early life history. Fishery
Bulletin of the Fish and Wildlife Service, 1950, vol. 50,
(1950), p. 149-237. (Issued in 1 943 as Fishery Bulletin
No. 38.)

1950. Biology of the Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus)
of North America. Part II- Migrations and habits. Fishery
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p. 251-358. (Issued in 1950 as Fishery Bulletin No. 49. )

116

Smith, Hugh M.

1910. The United States Bureau of Fisheries, its establishment,
functions, organization, resources, operations, and
achievements. Paper presented before the Fourth
International Fishery Congress held at Washington,
U.S.A., September 22 to 26, 1908. Bulletin of the /U.S."/
Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 28, Part 2, 1908(1910),
p. 1, 365-1, 411.

1914. Report of the Commissioner of Ji'isheries for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1913. /U. S.7 Bureau of
Fisheries. Report of the United States "Commissioner
of Fisheries for the fiscal year 1913 with appendixes,
(1914), p. 1-78.

1915. Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1915. /IJ. S.7 Bureau of
Fisheries. Report of the United States "Commissioner
of Fisheries for the fiscal year 1915 with appendixes,
(1917), p. 5-83. (Issued in 1915 as Document 827.)

1916. Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1916. /U. S.7 Bureau of
Fisheries. Report of the United States "Commissioner
of Fisheries for the fiscal year 1916 with appendixes,
(1917), p. 1-114. (Issued in 1916 as Document 836.)

Stejneger, Leonhard.

1941. To Hugh McCormick Smith. Copeia, 1941, no. 4,
p. 193.
Sumner, Francis B.

1904. The summer's work at the Woods Hole Laboratory

of the Bureau of Fisheries (former U.S. Fish Commission).
Science, vol. 19, p. 241-253.

1905. The Biological Laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries
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of 1905. Science, vol. 22, p. 855-859.

1937. The new dogmatism. Scientific Monthly, vol. 45,
p. 343-348.

1939. Human psychology and some things that fishes do.
Scientific Montlily, vol. 49, p. 245-255.

1940. The naturalist as a social phenomenon. American
Naturalist, vol. 74, p. 398-408.

1945a. The life history of an American Naturalist. The
Jacques Cattell Press, Lancaster, Penn. , 298 p.

1945b. A biologist reflects upon old age and death. Scientific
Monthly, vol. 61, p. 143-149.
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1913. A biological survey of the waters of Woods Hole and
vicinity. Part I, Section I. --Physical and zoological.
Part II, Section III. --A catalogue of the marine fauna.
Bulletin of the /U. S.7 Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 31, for
the year 1911 (f91 3)7 Part I, p. 11-442; Part H, p. 547-794.

117

Tanner, Zera L.

1884a. Report on the construction and work in 1880 of the
Fish Commission steamer Fish- Hawk. U.S. Commission
of Fish and Fisheries, Part IX. Report of the
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1884b. Report on the work of the United States Fish
Commission steamer Fish-Hawk for the year ending
December 31, 1882, and on the construction of the
steamer Albatross. U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries, Part X. Report of the Commissioner for
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1885a. Report on the construction and outfit of the United
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the Commissioner for 1883 (1885), p. 3-116.

1885b. Report on the work of the United States Fish
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December 31, 1883, U.S. Commission of Fish and
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1883 (1885), p. 117-236.
Taylor, Clyde C.

1953. Nature of variability in trawl catches. U.S. Fish
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Bulletin of the Fish and Wildlife Service, vol. 54,
p. 145-166.

1958. Natural mortality rate of Georges Bank haddock.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Bulletin 126,
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Verrill, A. E.

1882. Report on the cephalopods of the northeastern coast
of America. U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries,
Part VII. Report of the Commissioner for 1879 (1882),
p. 211-455.

1883. Description of some of the apparatus used by the
United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries in
dredging off the New England coast. U. S. Commission
of Fish and Fisheries, Part VIII. Report of the
Commissioner for 1880 (1883), p. 65-74.

1884. Notice of the remarkable marine fauna occupying
the outer banks off the southern coast of New England,
and of some additions to the fauna of Vineyard Sound.
U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part X.
Report of the Commissioner for 1882 (1884), p. 641-669.

1885. Results of the explorations made by the steamer
"Albatross", off the northern coast of the United States

in 1883. U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Part XI.
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history and biological research (1885), p. 503-699.

118

Verrill, George E.

1958. The ancestry, life, and work of Addison E. Verrill
of Yale University. Pacific Coast Publishing Company,
Santa Barbara, California, 99 p.
Visscher, J. Paul.

1929. Nature and extent of fouling of ships' bottoms.
Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 43,
Part 2, 1927 (1929), p. 193-252.
Von Arx, William S.

1962. Historical Paintings of Woods Hole by Franklin Lewis
Gifford. Published by the Woods Hole Public Library,
Leyden Press, Inc. , Plymouth, Massachusetts. 12 p. ,
17 plates.
Wilson, Charles B.

1932. The copepods of the Woods Hole region Massachusetts.
Smithsonian Institution, U. S. National Museum, Bulletin
158, 635 p.
Wilson, Henry V.

1891. The embryology of the sea bass (Serranus atrarius).
Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, vol. 5, for 1889
(1891), p. 209-277.
1912, Development of sponges from dissociated tissue cells.
Bulletin of the /U.S."/ Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 30, 1910
(1912), p. 1-307

119

Commissioners of the Bureau of Fisheries and Directors of the
U. S. Fish and WUdlife Service

1871-1887 Spencer Fullerton Baird

1887-1888 G. Brown Goode

1888-1895 Marshall McDonald

1895-1896 Herbert A. Gill (acting)

1896-1898 John J. Brice

1898-1913 George M. Bowers

1913-1922 Hugh M. Smith

1922-1933 Henry O'Malley

1933-1939 Frank T. Bell

1939-1941 Charles E. Jackson (acting)

1941-1945 Ira N. Gabrielson, Director, Fish and Wildlife Service

1945-1952 Albert M. Day, Director, Fish and Wildlife Service

1953-1956 John L. Farley, Director, Fish and Wildlife Service

1956-1960 Arnie L. Suomela, Commissioner, Fish and Wildlife Service

1960- Donald L. McKernan, Director, Bureau of Commercial

Fisheries

121

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