‘ ae - r ss 4 : on a a conan tee nneenpna ant epmmmenin nen mengntgente anny emmy enema meen ang pee te ee erm cy Seinnee meme mnerrmerenpnaninte nee emapimmanennreratinenaercctnteat tt any —eranineet amt mt mteuntemtantn 1 ten meetn Ren ir eth mt yt te IE . yt ape ceo ew yep orem marine inemernnepare pemiemmemeenenereensemsemenee mresapeipipeenae sn aymantaip presence mérarann eure, yrainean tone ypupansaorerninransneumenaygremeaterteeet in| hrenreneiny temas ae ee es ~ an ee S ns
aged. Futicvaper ort. 76
GUTTA CAVAT L&PIDEM NON VI SED SAPE CADENDO.--HORAT.
NOT BY FORCE, BY FREQUENT FALL ALONE A DROP IN TIME CARVES OUT A STONE.
THE FLORA OF TENNESSEE
AND
A PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
nO Ht. -CLEIZWNS.OF TENNESSEE
BY AUGUSTIN GATTINGER, M.D.
Published by Authority of the State through the Bureau of Agriculture
PRESS OF GOSPEL ADVOCATE PUBLISHING COMPANY NASHVILLE, TENN. 1901
APPROPRIATION FOR THIS VOLUME.
AN ACT to provide for the acceptance by the State of a work on botany, prepared by Dr. A. Gattinger, and to make an appropriation for its pub- lication and distribution.
Whereas Dr. A. Gattinger has offered to present to the State a work prepared by him, on the botany of the State of Tennessee; and
Whereas the dissemination of such information among the people of the State is of the highest importance and value, and eminently worthy of the aid of the State; therefore,
Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State oy Tennessee, That said work so presented by Dr. A. Gattinger be accepted by the State, and that the Commissioner of Agri- culture be, and is hereby, empowered and directed to have said work printed and distributed among the citizens of Tennessee,
Src. 2. Be it further enacted, That the sum of six hundred and fifty dollars, or so much thereof as may be required, is here- by appro}; riated for the purpose of printing, publishing, and dis- tributing said work.
Sec. 3. Be zt further enacted, That this Act take effect from and after its passage, the public welfare requiring it.
Passed April 17, 1901.
NEWTON H. WHITE, Speaker of the Senate. EH. B: WILSON, Speaker of the House.
Approved April 18, 1gor.
BENTON M’MILLIN, Governor.
ERRATA.
Page 3. Quotation should be credited to Virgil.
Page 27. For ‘‘Graborchard ”’ read ‘‘ Craborchard.’’
Page 27. Below ‘‘border”’ insert ‘‘O. S.’’ (Over the State) and ‘‘M.” (Medicinal).
Page 28, 1oth line. For ‘‘bulifera’’ read ‘“ bulbifera.”’
Page 28, 20th line. For ‘‘ Novzeboboracensis’’ read “‘ Noveeboracensis.”
Page 29, 13th line from below. For ‘‘thelypleroides’ read ‘‘thelypter- oides.”’
Page 39, middle. For ‘‘an8d’’ read ‘‘and.’’
Page 52, 14th line from below. For *‘uburnea”’ read ‘‘ eburnea.”’
Page 55, middle. For ‘‘ uniformis’’ read ‘‘ reniformis ”’
Page 64, 14th line from below. For ‘‘ Potty ’’ read ‘‘ Putty.”’
Page 76, 4th line from below and higher. For ‘ champion ‘*campion.’’
Page 78, 12th line from above. For ‘‘ dichtotoma’’ read ‘* dichotoma.’’
Page 84, 11th line. For ‘‘ Malapoena’’ read ‘‘ Malapcenna.”’
Page 86, 12th line from below. For ‘‘ Thelipadium ”’ read ‘‘ Thelipodium.”’
Page 97, 9th line from below. For ‘‘ Soheele”’ read ‘‘ scheele.’’
Page 100, 3d line. Before ‘‘ Gattingeri’’ insert ‘‘C.’’ “i
Page 105, 8th line. For ‘‘ Thephrosia ’’ read ‘‘ Tephrosia.’’
Page 115, 16th line. For ‘‘W. W. Ashe from” read ‘‘ W. W. Ashe. From, etc.’’
Page 118, gth line from below. For ‘‘ moshata’’ read ‘‘ moschata ”’
Page 120, 8th line from below. For ‘‘gymmanthum’’ read ‘“‘ gymnan- thum.”’
Page 120. After ‘‘ Hypericum Kalmianum ”’ insert ‘‘ H. aureum Bartram. Limestone cliffs of M. Tenn. Frequent. July.’’
Page 122, middle. For ‘‘ Criocarpa’’ read ‘‘ Eriocarpa.’’
Page 123, 8th line below. For ‘* Caney Fork ”’’ read ‘‘ Collins River.’’
99
read
”
a Leta. Lf OC ten
Page 135, 3d line and below. For ‘ pimpernell ” read ‘‘ pimpernel.”’
Page 138, 6th line. For ‘‘ Pleuresy ’’ read ‘‘ Pleurisy.”’
Page 142, 4th line and below. For ‘‘ gomfrey ’’ read ‘‘ comfrey.”’
Page 142, 12th line from below. For ‘‘ raccoon ’’ read ‘* puccoon.”’
Page 146, below. For ‘‘ majoran’’ read ‘‘ marjoram.
Page 151, below ‘‘ Leptandra.’’ ‘‘M."’ omitted.
Page 152, 6th line from below. For ‘‘ Lausewort’’ read ‘‘ Louseworth.”’
Page 154, below. For ‘‘ leptosyachya’’ read ‘‘ leptostachya.”’
Page 154, 3d line. For ‘‘ proboscoidea”’ read ‘* proboscidea.”’
Page 155, 3d line. For ‘‘ cocerulea’’ read ‘‘ coerulea.”’
Page 158, 17th line from below. For ‘‘ Cururbita’’ read ‘* Cucurbita.”’
Page 160, 12th line from below. For ‘‘ Leontedon ”’ read ‘‘ Leontodon.”
Page 162, middle. For ‘‘strumaricum ’’ read ‘‘ strumarium.’’
Page 163, 9th line. For ‘‘tencrifolium ’’ read “ teucrifolium.,”’
Page 163, 13th line. For ‘‘rotundifoium ”’ read ‘‘ rotundifolium.”’
Page 165, 2d line from below. For ‘‘ corybosus’’ read ‘‘ corymbosus.”’
Page 170, 1oth line. For ‘‘ Braunneria ’’ read ‘‘ Brauneria."’
Page 170, 4th line. For ‘‘Tapachys’’ read ‘‘ Lepachys.”’
Page 172, middle. For ‘‘ Helienium’’ ‘‘ Helenium.”’
Page 180. For ‘‘ Danthus”’ read ‘‘ Dianthus.”’
Page 187, below quotation. Read translation : ‘‘ Time obliterates opinions of men, but it confirms the decisions of nature.’’
Page 193, middle. For ‘‘Arbella’’ read ‘‘Arbela.”’
Page 204, 21st line; (or “creed” read “greed.”
Page 209, Latin quotation. For ‘“‘etque’’ read ‘‘atque.”’
Page 216, 11th line. For ‘‘Sarcen”’ read ‘* Saracen.”
Page 216, 7th line, “Kor °A7D: 33°" read “ALDii33 7"
Page 218, 17th line; For “"556’” read “350.”
Page 234, 12th line from below. For ‘‘ grassculum”’ read “‘ grassculm.”’
Page 241, 7th line. For ‘‘ him” read ‘‘ man.”’ ;
Page 243, middle. For “lappzegue’’ read ‘‘ lappzeque.’’
Page 244, German quotation. For ‘‘Such”’’ read ‘‘ Such’st.’’
Page 272, 11th line from below. For ‘‘nutriton’’ read “ nutrition.”
CONTENTS.
FLORA OF TENNESSEE.
BREE ACH jas ces
JE TEN TRS EXOT OT TCR ald AR OVALE An PER TALC a
SYNOPSIS OF THE FLORA ......
RENO M AMTEMEG. 21k 2 lousbs sah b NS aioe adatom
PDX TOGGHENER A... os aka ans
PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY.
EVOLUTION UO: sBOMANY: cco on days aihetossl cabo atteedonon PROPRIEG DIR e eis) s ne oka
INTRODUCTION OF A NATIONAL FORESTRY POLICY... MopERN ‘THOUGHTS ON ORIGIN, EVOLUTION, AND
SIGNERIGANEE, OF TIRES.) 2.
. *} ee toe i i ber bee +
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7
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iJ
PREPACE,
Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt.*
The fifth decade of the past century proved disastrous to the patriots of Germany who were seeking liberty and progress, and no hope was left for recovery from the defeat sustained or for better success in the near future by a renewal of the struggle for liberal government. For the first time in the history of the Bavarian capital of Munich, a meeting of discontented citizens was held, to deliberate upon joint action to secure better and safer means of emigration to the United States of North America. Artists, pro- fessional men, mechanics, and farmers, people of good standing in society and amply provided financially, to the number of nearly two hundred, composed the meeting.
At this time an association of students of the University of Mu- nich, of which I was a member, resolved to celebrate in a solemn féte Washington’s birthday, a proceeding never before heard of, but fully in accord with the sentiments of this party, which in these tur- bulent times represented the liberal movement in the university. The celebration was a great success, and speeches and eulogies on Washington and Jefferson, Franklin and other heroes were in- dulged in fervently and unreservedly.
The open avowal of republican institutions was immediately de- nounced as a provocation, too flagrant to be allowed to be passed by, and actions were instituted by the authorities. Several of the participants had to leave the city. Called before the university tribunal, I was released on my pledge to emigrate. I regret to say that I have never since found an opportunity to celebrate this national festivity with the same pathos and enthusiasm as on this memorable twenty-second of February, 1849.
Severance from beloved friends and the ancestral soil is a bitter and mournful task, and recollection of it even now clouds the se- renity of the moment. But the genius of love mitigated my dis-
* New stars, new sights the pilgrim meets; He stays the same in thoughts and deeds.
4 PREFACE.
tress, for the one whom I had chosen for my companion through the turmoils of life consented to go with me, and we joined hands at the American consulate at Havre before sailing.
These circumstances account for my appearance in Chattanooga, Tenn., in June, 1849, which place J reached by stage from Dalton, Ga., the terminus of the Georgia and South Carolina Railroad. I was fascinated by the magnificence of the scenery; but there were but few dwellings, and these of poor construction, as might be ex- pected in a recently-settled place. After a short delay, a small side- wheel steamer blew its whistle and brought me and my party after three days’ navigation up to Kingston, on the Clinch River. This little town looked clean and airy, and, pleased with the friendliness of the citizens, we made it the base of operations for exploring the vicinity. Weary of traveling and wishing to enter on the practice of my profession, I was easily fascinated by a romantic spot called “ Cave Spring,” eight miles to the west of Kingston, at the time oc- cupied by an older physician, who intended to go West. I purchased the place in partnership with my brother-in-law, the late George Dury, a Munich artist, whose exquisite paintings now adorn the State Library in the Capitol. Unfortunately, we did not take into consideration, in making this purchase, the possible—or, rather, impossible—revenues to be derived from this possession, a circum- stance which ultimately necessitated the abandonment of our farm- ing experiment at a great sacrifice.
The transfer from a buoyant German city to this silent retreat was to me a stimulus to concentrate my attention outside profes- sional duties and equestrian hardships to the study of the botany and geology of the country. At my alma mater, the University of Munich, it was obligatory to pass through a course of natural sci- ences—chemistry, mineralogy, and botany—before being admitted to the medical department. A two-years’ course in general and medicinal botany initiated me into the science. Moreover, I had from earlier school years been a botanical collector, and had given a great deal of time to these studies.
After the abandonment of Cave Spring I acquired some property in Charleston, Bradley County, where I remained until I accepted, in 1858, the charge of resident surgeon at the copper mines of Ducktown, situated in the high mountains of Hast Tennessee, ad- joining North Carolina and Georgia. The new situation was so- cially very agreeable, moderately remunerative, and possessed botan-
PREFACE. 5
ically and geologically so many and so diversified points of interest, that a whole lifetime of a competent investigator could not exhaust and unravel all the problems and collect the various plants, min- erals, and rocks. A prominent member of the United States Geo- logical Survey, who is intimately acquainted with this region, as- sured me in a recent correspondence that in the entire area of the United States he knows of no part which, in an equal territory, possesses so great a diversity and complication of structure. I en- . joyed and utilized industriously my opportunity, although with great diffidence, in the results of my analyses, for want of scientific botanical literature, especially of the American.
Having been fifteen years in the saddle, traversing more than one-half of East Tennessee, throughout the Cumberland Mountains and all the valleys between Walden’s Ridge and Smoky Mountain, J held in my mind a well-connected panorama of the natural vista at all seasons of the year.
Possessed, as I believed: myself to be, of a moderate and quiet enjoyment of intelligent and useful pursuits, it came suddenly to pass that I had to bear my share of the agonies and convulsions of the Civil War.
Opposed to the disruption of the Union, knowing from experi- ence the misery of a great nation split into petty principalities (as was the case with Germany for centuries), seeing in the growing greatness of this government the future liberation of all nationali- ties through its physical power and moral influence, I advocated the cause of the Union, and created such displeasure to my former friends that I found it advisable to leave my domicile and part with my family. On a cold, starry March night, afoot, no money, with a small satchel as traveling outfit, I wound my way through the Ocoee gorge and reached the town of Cleveland, forty miles distant, without an accident.
The government in which I had put my faith and trust took me under its care, sent me to Nashville, and put me into serv- ice as an assistant surgeon. After the expiration of my term and recovery from a severe malarial fever, which temporarily disabled me for army duties, I accepted from the military Gov- ernor, Andrew Johnson, the position of State Librarian, which T held during five years, whereby I greatly improved my acquaint- ance with scientific American literature. Moreover, I found such helps in pursuit of making collections as I never before or after-
6 PREFACE.
wards enjoyed. Through the kindness of the military superin- tendent of the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis. Railway, Gen. William T. Innes, I was favored with the privilege of using all trains, passenger and freight, at all points for travel. This permit continued four years, until the administration of the rail- road was changed, and when I also lost my office as State Librarian. From this time on I earried on an interesting correspondence with prominent botanists in all parts of the United States, and by sub- mission to the approval of our leading botanical authorities, I se- cured the correctness of specific determinations. J am under great obligations to the late Dr. Gray, of Cambridge, Mass.; the late Dr. Engelman, of St. Louis, Mo.; the late Dr. G. Vasey, of the United States Department of Agriculture; the late Dr. Chapman, of Apa- lachicola, Fla., for their assistance.
It is much to be regretted that Dr. Rugel, who, about fifty years ago, resided in the vicinity of Greeneville and made valuable collec- tions and discoveries in that vicinity and the mountains of East Tennessee and North Carolina, died without leaving a record of his work. His collections came in the possession of Mr. Shuttleworth, of England. Senecio Rugelia Gray, Plantago Rugelii Decaisne, Siphonychia Rugelii Chapm. commemorate his name.
My collections were in much request for exchange, as they contained many novelties and were well prepared. The area of Middle Tennesse was an unexplored region, botanically, and I claim the honor of being the pioneer in this field. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Nashville in 1877, the botanical division en- couraged me to prepare a catalogue of plants or flora of Tennes- see, which I was assured would be received favorably by all Ameri- can botanists. I consented to do so, and fulfilled my obligation in 1883 by publishing a small volume of one hundred and nine pages, a systematic enumeration of seventeen hundred and eight species. It was printed at my own expense, and distributed gratuitously among the schools of the State, and such patrons of botany as applied for it. This movement helped me very much in the furtherance of my enterprise, as it brought together all per- sons within the State who had an interest in botany, and had col- lected more or less. With this catalogue in hand, every collector in Tennessee was enabled to see whether or not it contained all the species which he had found himself, and he would then report
PREFACE. 7 to me his own discoveries. I soon received valuable contributions from my esteemed friend, the late Gen. E. Kirby-Smith, at Se- wanee; Prof. T. M. Bain, now of the Agricultural College, Knox- ville; Prof. A. Ruth, superintendent of public schools in Knox- ville; the late Mrs. Lydia Bennett, of Fisk University, Nash- ville; Dr. G. Egeling, pharmacist, Memphis; and Prof. Lamson F. Scribner and Mr. Kearney, both now of the Botanical Division of the Agricultural Department at Washington. Much valuable information I drew from the “ Memoirs” of the Torrey Botanical Club, in a report on the flora of Western North Carolina and con- tiguous territories, made by John K. Small and A. A. Heller in the season of 1891, and published in February, 1892, followed by a similar report made in the season of 1892 by John K. Hall and Anna Murray Vail, on the flora of Southwestern Virginia. Both areas extend to the geographical borders of 'Tennessee, along moun- tain ranges and water courses, which continue into the upper bor- der counties of Tennessee without any difference in the nature of the soil or elevation. The flora being necessarily identical, I took the privilege to add to my list all such species which yet had not been. collected within the adjoining boundaries of the State. Most recently I have been favored with valuable information and addi- tions from the botanists of the Biltmore Botanical Institute— Messrs. C. D. Beadle, F. E. and C. L. Boynton, and T. C. Harbi- son—published in “ Biltmore Botanical Studies,” Vol. I., No. 1; William Wesley & Son, London. From all these sources and my own continued collections, I can now add over four hundred species not contained in the first edition, and am, moreover, en- abled to amend and correct many errors occurring in the same.
For the census of 1880 I collected for Professor Sargent, the superintendent of the botanical division of the census, specimens of the timbers of Tennessee. I also collected for the mineral di- vision of the same census the building stones of the State, with the exclusion of the marbles. This collection consisted of forty pairs of cubes, all of different character, four by four inches. This, I think, was the first time the granites of Tennessee were brought to notice in beautiful specimens. The collection also contained the sandstones—the beautiful white one from the Hiwassee Valley —and the argillites, conglomerates, slates, and limestones, includ- ing the odlitic or Bowling Green stone, which is used in the con- struction of our customhouse.
8 PREFAOE.
In April, 1878, I assisted Hon. J. B. Killebrew, then Commis- sioner of A oe ee of the State, in the publication of his work on the Tennessee grasses and forage plants, by giving him the list of grasses actually collected by me, and revising the manuscript. In the same year I prepared a publication on the trees and shrubs suitable: to the soil and climate of Nashville for the Board of Health of the city of Nashville.
In 1883 I was engaged by Hon. A. J. McWhirter, then Commis- sioner of Agriculture for the State, as an assistant in his office and in collecting minerals, building stones, and plants for the Louis- ville Exhibition and other exhibitions; but after the close of these exhibitions I was again dismissed, to be followed in office by the commissioner’s own son, Mr. L. B. McWhirter.
In 1894 Hon. T. F. P. Allison, Commissioner of Agriculture, intrusted me with a publication on the medicinal plants of Ten- nessee. The work was carried out to mutual satisfaction.
In 1897, in connection with the Centennial Exposition, I was. a member of the Committee on Minerals and Mines of the State, of which Professor Safford was chairman. I procured a rich collec- tion of the copper ores and smelting products of the Ducktown Mines and Smelting Works, inclusive of a rich display of ingots. I also exhibited a large collection of Tennessee granites in blocks, with one side polished, from Wolf Creek, Carter County, and from near Elizabethton, on the line of the railroad which extends from Johnson City to the Granberry Mines, in North Carolina.
At the time of my publication of the medicinal plants, my bo- tanical collections had so far progressed that I felt satisfied that within a limited time not many more additions could be made, and that I had very nearly reached the limits of the record. In pre- paring the new edition I adopted the new nomenclature and made some other changes, for which I give an expnatey in the fol- lowing paragraphs.
One of ihe greatest burdens and causes for confusion in sys- tematic botany had been the constantly increasing synonyms for the same species. Much of it originated from the disjointed labors of distant botanical writers describing the same plants; often from imperfect specimens, while unacquainted with the past or contem- poraneous labors of others in the same field; and in not a few instances it resulted from the abuse of personal prominence and disregard of the merits of others. This disturbing condition would
PREFACE. 9
never have come to an end, if the great majority of naturalists had not recognized the necessity of accepting the name given by the discoverer of a plant, whenever the name is conformable to pre- established rules. Priority should be a fixed and positive limita- tion, which admits of nothing arbitrary or partial.
On the invitation of Alphonse De Candolle, an International Botanical Congress was held in Paris in 1867, to which botanists from all countries were invited, and the most important subject discussed was botanical nomenclature. Mr. A. De Candolle, author of the “ Prodromus,” presided. He had drawn up a most carefully considered code of rules to govern botanists in their writings, and this code was submitted to the assemblage of botanists, each rule being formulated and modified as the majority deemed wise. Fi- nally the whole was printed and circulated. The fundamental prin- ciple of these laws was priority of publication, with adequate de- scriptions. Unfortunately it was made retrospective, without any sufficiently defined statute of limitations. Among zodlogists the Stricklandian code governs—known as the “ Rules of the British Association.” It was signed by Charles Darwin and Professor Hensley. A revision was made in 1860 by Mr. A. R. Wallace, P. L. Clayton, Professor Balfour, Professor Huxley, Dr. J. D. Hooker, and Mr. George Bentham. A still further revision of the same occurred in 1865. In the preface to this code occurs this
sentence: “ No one person can subsequently claim an authority equal to that possessed by the person who is the first to define a
new genus or describe a new species.” The adoption of the Paris code did not meet an immediate
and universal acceptance. The conflict with the interests of
authors and publishers of works of great value, the issue of which
had been commenced and was still progressing, was a matter of some consideration. The nonattendance of English botanists at — the Paris Congress was perhaps due to this cause. The annoyance
created by such radical changes is a very great one, and a burden pressing heavily upon the older botanists, who are not so well fitted
to recast their memories as the younger generations, who will reap
the benefit of the movement. There was also some friction with
us, even after the meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, held in August, 1892. The botanical di- vision adopted at this meeting the Paris code of 1867, with some
modifications. At the following meeting, in Madison, Wis., in
10 PREFACE.
1893, an additional amendment was adopted, and a committee of the association was appointed to elaborate a list of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta, growing without cultivation in Northeast- ern North America. This work was subsequently published in 1894 as the fifth volume of the “ Memoirs” of the Torrey Botanical Club. The synonyms given under each species in this work in- clude the recent current names, and thus avoid any difficulty in identification.
The recently published volumes of “ The Illustrated Flora ” will, on account of the helpfulness of the illustrations, soon find their way to general favor as an indispensable guide for less expert col- lectors, for which the innovation therein adopted has no harassing inconvenience. In view of this prospect I have also, although re- luctantly, adopted the new nomenclature. I have, furthermore, given in this edition the English vernacular names and some derived from the Aborigines, where such are known, but did not think it proper to make, in their absence, English translations from the Latin names. A general botanical and geological chorography or natural aspect of the area precedes the systematic enumeration of the species.
In the year 1890 my entire collection, the second largest herba- rium in the South, came into the possession of the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville, and as I cannot, by my advanced years, expect to add much to its enlargement, I am happy to know it is in hands under whose care it will be well preserved and utilized. While the pursuit of botany never brought me any financial ad- vantages, I acknowledge that it was a mighty protector in keeping me out of the way of social corruption, and it gave me many hours of the purest enjoyment of life and brought me into friendly re- lations with many excellent men and women.
In order to gain a wider circle of readers and to give further in- ducement to the study of botany, I have added an “ Epitome of the History of Botany,” a “ Treatise on the Introduction of a For- estry Policy in the United States,” and a “ Treatise on Protoplasm and Origin of Life.”
A list of authors whose works have been consulted or literally quoted is given at the end of the work.
I am well aware that there is much scope for improvement of this work, and I turn to the younger generation of botanists, who can work under more favorable conditions, soliciting their cooperation in extending and perfecting it.
Very respectfully, A. GATTINGER, M.D.
Areal Botany or Regional Distribution of Plants.
Engaged with laurel, oak, and fir,
*Midst fern and sedge, the viler or the rare,
In dismal swamps, ’neath cypress grand and fair, Where snakes and tangles bring despair;
On lofty crags, in clouded sphere,
Where eagles built their artless lair,
And, whistling, swing in upper air;
Onward, though of waning strength aware, Seeking truth, with firm resolve 1 dare
To plead my right to reason, doubt, or err.
GENERAL ASPECT OF THE FLORA.
The boundaries of Tennessee are embraced within the great Atlantic forest region. The whole of this territory was in its virgin state, an immense expanse of varied woodlands, being in the lowlands of dense and massive growth, filled with pathless jungles of cane and shrub, or, away from the water courses, on the uplands, reduced to open and airy groves (with great diversity of timbers), the barrens. Here a dense sward covers the ground and herbaceous growth prevails. Mountain forests are always of greater uniform- ity in distribution of timbers.
Nearly one-third of the entire area is now reduced to fields or occupied by buildings or roads. Canebrakes have well-nigh disappeared, and the forest is in all accessible regions depleted of valuable timber.
Immigration of foreign and retirement of native species con- tinually modify the aboriginal flora and tend to weaken character- istics due to presence of peculiar plant forms, or collocation of species, by the intricacies of mutual predilection and adaptation to surroundings.
Such areas, which differ among themselves conspicuously in such properties, admit of the establishment of natural floral ar- rondissements.
Differences of elevation, diversity in elementary constitution
I have retained in this chapter the old nomenclature of Drs. Gray and Chapman, for the benefit of those using their manuals.
12 TENNESSEE FLORA.
of the soil, and inequality in distribution of atmospheric humidity are, in our territory, sufficiently potent to mark out four distinct regions :
I. The high crests of the Alleghany Mountains, formed of Grauwake slates, gneiss, or mica schists, with an elevation of from 4,000 to 6,600 feet. Subalpine region.
Il. The western slopes of the Alleghanies and their outlying spurs, and the Cumberland Mountains. Sandstones and_ slates. Mountain flora. Elevation, from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
III. Valley flora, the lower division of which is coextensive with the limestones (Silurian) of East and Middle Tennessee. Eleva- tion, from 350 to 500 feet. The upper division, or highlands, has siliceous and argillaceous soils, sometimes limestones of the sub- earboniferous formation. Elevation, about 1,000 or 1,200 feet. The former division is characterized through its cedar glades; the latter is the region of the oak barrens.
IV. West Tennessee, situated between two powerful rivers, with much level or only gently undulating surface, owes its pecul- iarities to the abundance of swampy lands and predominantly argillaceous soils, in connection with a more humid atmosphere.
SUBALPINE REGION.
The dividing line between the States of North Carolina and Tennessee passes over and along the crest of the highest ridges and peaks, known as the Unaka, Great Smoky, Bald, and Frog Mountains. Their average elevation is about 5,000 feet, but about twenty-two summits are 6,000 feet or more. The highest stretch lies between the French Broad River and the Little Tennessee River, with fifty-five high points, eighteen of which are over 6,000 feet. Clingman’s Dome, by a few feet the highest, rises to the very respectable altitude of 6,600 feet above tide water, according to the measurements of Prof. Arnold Guiot, of Princeton, N. J. (Vide American Journal of Science, September, 1857, and November, 1860.) Geologically they consist of Huronian schists and gneisses, and in some spots of Laurentian granites.
Not one of these high crests presents a bleak crag, bare of vegetation, nor is there a timber line. Some are evenly timbered throughout, others support only a scattered and stunted arboreal growth, and some bear only a low shrubby or herbaceous vegeta- tion. The absence of timber on the so-called “ Balds ” is perhaps
TENNESSEE FLORA. 13
due to waves of excessive cold; such, at least, seem the dead trunks, looming up here and there, to suggest.
VALLEY LANDS.
If you approach the mountains of East Tennessee from their western slope, taking a direct course eastward, traveling from Cleveland along the road which leads to the copper mines in Polk County, you are constantly uphill and downhill for nearly fifteen miles, intersecting a series of low parallel ridges. The soil is directly derived from the underlying rock, one of the lowest mem- bers of the Silurian formation, and only very small strips of allu- vium line the few streamlets which you have to cross. Along this line is also the watershed, between the Tennessee River system and the Coosa River. It belongs mainly to that class of land which, all over the State, is not very favorably known as gravelly hills, from a superficial covering of sharp cherty or dolomitic gravels of all sizes, generally small, but often also protruding in dykelike masses. Magnesian and siliceous rocks, no matter to which geological age they may belong, are, al! the world over, the most unavailing min- eral constituents of soil, and, for the lack of alkali and phosphates, are soon exhausted by crops which consume much of these elements. The generally thin covering of humus supports a meager herbage, and cattle have to be on their feet all the while in defense against starvation. Black-jack oaks, Spanish oak, black oak, sourwood, dogwood, slim chestnuts, loblolly pine, scrub pine, and here and there a yellow pine which has escaped the ax, make up the forest, which, throughout this, region, is stripped of the merchantable | timber. I have, myself, within thirty-five years, witnessed the rise and fall-of this empire. The short space of time which passed be- , tween the first harvest and hopeless abandonment had not yet prostrated all the dead timber girdled in the first clearing, when the returns became too small to pay for the expense of cultivation. Stunted sassafras and persimmon, here and there a loblolly pine, sumacs (Rhus glabra and copallina), are the growth by which regenerating nature tries to reclaim those ruined lands. The herb- age consists generally of very humble plants; the buttonweed (Diodia teres), Virginia plantain (Plantago Virginica), the flow- ering spurge (Huphorbia corollota), butterfly weed (Asclepias tube- rosa), two species of broom grass (Andropogon Virginicus and sco- parius), the foxtail grass (Setaria glauca), the poverty grass (Aris-
14 TENNESSEE FLORA.
tida dichotoma), the common evening primrose (@nothera bien- nis), the mullein (Verbascum thapsus), the never-failing ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiefolia), a few solidagos and asters (Aster ert- coides and dumosus), constitute the larger herbs. In places the ground is spread over by the prostrate low blackberry (Rubus trivi- alis), or cinquefoil (Potentilla Canadensis), while the high black- berry (Rubus villosus) replaces former fence rows. Cattle find an insufficient support from browsing on the Japan bush clover (Lespe- deza striata), white and yellow clover (Trifolium repens and pro- cumbens), and about two nutritious grasses, the crop grass (Pani- cum digitaria), and a species of paspalum. The botanist finds but few rarer species to compensate him for his exertions, and rejoices to find himself at last in full sight of the mountains, in descending the eastern slope of a ridge which borders the Ocoee River. This broad mountain stream, swiftly gliding over his pebbly bed, is skirted by a stately and diversified growth of timber—Herculean syecamores and massive cottonwoods, immense lindens and pop- lars, slippery and white elms, ashes, white walnut, and box elder of stately growth. The water oak and willow oak (Quercus aquat- ica and Quercus phellos), with elegant outline and glistening color of foliage, are contrasted by the chalk-white trunks of the gray birch (Betula lutea), with ever-tremulous foliage, on delicate sprigs. Now and then a holly (lex opaca), silver-bell tree (Ha- lesia tetraptera), and an umbrella tree (Magnolia umbrella) pre- sent themselves as outliers from the upper regions. Crossing the river, the romantic hamlet, Parksville, is soon reached, the gateway to the great mountains, opening between two mighty pillars, the Chilhowee Mountain to the left or north side, and the Round Moun- tain to the right or south side. Before reaching the milldam, the last ledges of chert and dolomite are passed, and quarzite and siliceo- argillaceous conglomerates are the country rocks. Narrow but rich bottoms, encompassed by high and steep mountain sides, the latter heavily timbered, give room for small and scattered farms, well cared for and successfully managed.
MOUNTAIN FLORA.
The lower mountain flora is spreading around on all sides, clothed in deeper green or gaudier colorings. As we ascend the river, which gushes with deafening roar from shoal to shoal, we discern how every submerged rock is densely coated with a rough,
TENNESSEE FLORA. 15
wool-like growth, an inch or two long, threadlike, the flowers the size of pin heads, the mountain river weed (Podostemon ab- rotanoides), pondweeds float in long streamers (Patamogeton hybridus, Potamogeton Clayton). An endless variety of shrub- bery constitutes the undergrowth. The Kalmia (Kalmia lati- folia), worthy companion to the great mountain laurel (Rhodo- dendron maximum), and four azaleas, equally beautiful (the fra- grant clammy azalea), merit the highest praise and are very abun- dant. Various other kinds of the heath family, with white and bell-shaped flowers and evergreen foliage, are characteristic features of the scenery. Foremost, the dense masses of Leucothoé Catesber, a tall shrub with wand-shaped, recurved branches and dense pen- dulous racemes, exhaling the odor of chestnut flowers; Leucothoé recurva, the Andromeda floribunda, and the white alder (Clethra acuminata), either as bush or small tree, all belong to this type.
A singular and unparalleled display is reserved for the untiring botanist if he climbs to the highest cliffs of the Chilhowee, from whence at one glance he can survey the whole valley of Hast Tennes- see until his eye meets, in the smoky distance, the rectilinear course of Walden’s Ridge. At an elevation of about 2,500 feet he descries along vertical cliffs of Potsdam sandstone, dense groves of the fringe tree (Chionanthus Virginica), in greater vigor and abun- dance of flowers than he had ever before witnessed. Several rare ferns grow in the crevices, such as the woolly-leafed Cheilanthes (Chil. tomentosa), grayish green on the upper surface and rusty colored underneath; the Cheilanthes vestita, of similar habit, but not quite so attractive; the neat little Asplenium Trichomanes and Asplenium montanum. Polpyodiam vulgare and incanum and some larger species of Phegopteris and Aspidium abound. Orchids of rare beauty nestle in the deep mold—Bletia aphylla, Goodyera, pubescens, Pogonia ophioglossoides and verticillata, Cypripedium spectabile, acaule and pubescens.
From the twelfth to the sixteenth mile above Parksville, the canon cuts through the highest part of the Big Frog Mountain and opens out into a rugged plateau or basin formed of micaceous, copper-bearing rocks. From Greasy Creek, three miles above Parksville, to the Mundie Bluff, which is within the heart of the great mountain chain, dark-colored, argillaceous or roofing slates, porphyritic from disseminated cubes of pyrites, and grayish mica- ceous slates build up the towering and grotesque masses and spurs
16 TENNESSEE FLORA.
which lead up to the ridgelike summit. An untouched virgin forest covers these slopes—principally splendid white pines, mixed with some yellow pine, and in low and sandy spots also scrub pine. In very moist places, immediately at the foot of ridges or vertical precipices, where deep beds of mold accumulate, the hemlock spruce (Abies Canadensis) reaches 160 feet, and probably over, and a diameter of six feet. Prostrate and decaying trunks are com- pletely wrapped up in mosses, liverworts, and lichens, for which this region is a selected homestead. Embedded in the soft pillows of moss, some delicate, shade-loving plants enjoy a well-protected and concealed existence—the mountain bluets (Houstonia serpylli- folia), the frail and subtle Circaea alpina, the Canada and downy yellow violet (Viola Canadensis and Viola pubescens), and the span- high Mitella diphylla, or miter wort, with a spike of white flowers, followed by miter-shaped seed capsules. The wood sorrel (Ozalis Acetosella), and the low-creeping partridge berry nestle close and snug in cushions of sphagnum, hypnum, and climacium. Above Mundic Bluff a granitoid, heavy bedded rock sets in. It is of gray- ish color, hard, and but little prone to weathering (Grauwake). A thin crust of soil which has formed upon it supports a grayish- green club moss (Selaginella torlipila), a low and diffusely- branched willow grass (Draba ramosissima), the shrubby St. John’swort (Hyperiewn Buckleyt). Where the débris has- accu- mulated, and water trickles down from the overhanging cliffs, there nod the golden panicles of the Lysimachia Fraseri, and the climb- ing shrub Decumaria barbara drapes the walls.
THE BIG FROG MOUNTAIN.
A short distance up the road, the river must again be forded to reach some secluded mountain homes called “ Beyers Settlement,” from whence the ascent of the mountain is most direct and easiest. I made the ascent in July, 1878, in company with some young friends and a guide. At an elevation of about 2,000 feet, with the Big Frog mountain right before us, we started at four o’clock in the evening, prepared to camp out at least one night. The entire party was on foot, a mule carrying the package. A somewhat level place, about two-thirds up the mountain, called the “Sugar Orchard,” from the sugar maples which cover this place, was chosen for the camping place, and early in the morning we accomplished the as- cent.
TENNESSEE FLORA. ley
At this altitude, from camp to summit, from 3,500 to near 5,000 feet, the reduction of mean temperature corresponds about with the mean temperature of the latitude of Northern Ohio, a difference of eight degrees of latitude. Various shrubs and herbaceous plants, which are indigenous to the latter region, and do not now inhabit the intervening territory, luxuriate in this cool and cloud-enveloped zone. The glory of the prairies has passed away in the Middle and Northern States, but their untainted splendor survives here in these untrodden mountain meadows, although very limited in extent. Trees become scarce and more scattered, with great bald spaces between, with very low trunks in proportion to size of limb and crown. ‘The chestnuts ramify so close to the ground that the lower limbs can be grasped with the hand. The varieties on the summit are chestnut, red oak, yellow birch, mountain maple (Acer spica- tum,) mountain ash (Pyrus Americana), white and red cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica), and chock cherry (Prunus Virginiana). Of shrubs, we find the round-leafed currant (Ribes rotundifolium), two or three species of blueberries (Vaccinium hirsutum and Penn- sylvanicum), the creeping wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), arborescent azalea (Azalea arborescens), Stuartia (Stuartia pen- tagyna), and two species of holly (Llex monticola and Ilex mollis), and a low, grayish willow (Salix humilis).
The gems of this great conservatory, however, are the herba- ceous plants, which thrive here with unusual vigor. The Carolina lily, with stems seven feet high, surrounded by a pyramidal raceme of deep orange and black-spotted blossoms, often as many as twenty-five, is very abundant; likewise the Melanthium Virginicum, five to six feet high, with hundreds of small, star-shaped, cream- colored flowers in an immense spreading panicle; the Stenanthiwm augustifolium, also a liliaceous plant, resembling the former, flow- ers greenish white, in a tall raceme; the purple flowering raspberry (Rubus odoratus), with simple five-lobed leaves and corymbs of large, showy, purple blossoms, the whole plant very fragrant and clammy. The cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum) spreads its large and woolly leaves broadly over the ground, and lifts its flat umbels above a man’s head. White and yellow Baptisias and the Oswego tea (Monarda didyma) contribute freely to this unsurpassable dis- play. The blue joint grass (Calamagrostis Canadensis) and the Muhlenbergia Willdenovii are the principal grasses, both tall and
18 TENNESSER FLORA.
slender. A pleasantly odorous fern (Dicksonia punctilobula) and Aspidium spinulosum cover moist depressions of the ground.
SMOKY MOUNTAINS.
A type of flora somewhat different from this from the admixture of truly Alpine or high Northern plant forms crowns the still loftier summits of the Smoky Mountains and the Roane Mountain. The mountain defiles and coves on Doe River and Watauga River are traversed by a narrow-gauge railroad, which presently terminates at the Cranberry Iron Works, and a stage road leads up to Cloud- land, a mountain resort on the summit of Roane Mountain, at an altitude of 6,600 feet. Yellow and white pine, and also the table- mountain pine (Pinus pungens) predominate on the mountain sides; but white oak, chestnut, cherry, sugar maple, and also walnut -and hickories, strong and densely grown, hold the lower grounds and river banks. In these moist and shady gorges abounds the Dicentra eximia, a beautiful plant: It is a variety of the bleeding heart, a well-known garden ornament. The Adlumia cirrhosa, or climbing fumitory, a very graceful plant, also frequently cultivated in gardens, yet common in Northern New York and the Western States, accompanies the former. A peculiar and very rare shrub, not known elsewhere, the Buckleya distichophylla, and the oilnut (Pyrularia oleifera), the beaked hazelnut (Corylus rostrata), the scrub oak (Quercus ilicifolia), and other shrubs which are also common in the Ocoee region form the undergrowth. The smooth- leaved Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia Sipho), the climbing bitter- sweet (Celastrus scandens), two species of Lonicera, and the bush honeysuckle (Diervilla sessilifolia) are lovely and odd-shaped climbers or bushes. Magnolia Fraseri abounds here. It is beyond the scope of this sketch to enumerate the species for which the high summits are famous among botanists. The discovery of the sand myrtle (Leiophyllum buxifolium), a native of the sandy pine bar- rens of New Jersey, on the summit of Roane Mountain, is a curious ‘incident in plant geography. Rhododendron Catawbiense, several Sazifragas and Solidago glommerta, monticola, spithamea, the Diphylleia cymosa, Chelone Lyoni, Cardamine Clematitis, Paro- nychia argyrocoma, Sedum Rhodiola, Geum radiatum, Geum ge- niculatum, Boykinia aconitifolia may serve as examples of rare ‘plants.
Another range of mountain flora we find in the Cumberland
TENNESSEE FLORA. 19
Mountains. Selecting the Lookout near Chattanooga for a type, we find its summit wooded with Quercus Prinus, Quercus rubra, Quercus alba, Quercus obtustloba, and Quercus mgra; Pinus inops, Pinus Teda, Pinus mitis; Betula lutea, Gleditschia, triacanthos, Robima Pseudacacia, several Caryas and C. microcarpa among them. Of-shrubs: Robinia hispida, Diervilla rivularts, Ilex mollis, Stuartia pentagyna, Hydrangea radiata, and again (but very rare) Buckleya distichophylla, Nemopanthes Canadensis, and in a swamp Dirca palustris. Of herbaceous plants: Utricularia gibba, Iuncus Canadensis, and Arundinaria tecta. On flat rocks: Diamorpha pusilla, Fimbristylis capillaris, Krigia Virginica, Arenaria glabra. On the cliffs of the crest : Stipaavenacea, Silene rotundifolia, Linaria Canadensis, Campanula divaricata, Thalictrum clavatum. Near the base of the mountain, on limestone ledges: Gatesia laetevirens, Cailicarpa Americana, Triosteum perfoliatum, Silphium brachi- atum. The Cumberlands excel the Alleghanies in a greater variety of ferns. Besides all species of the latter, we also find here As- plemum Bradleyi, Asplenium pinnatifidum, Lygodium palmatum, Scolopendrium vulgare, and Trichomanes radicans, Asplenium vi- ride, Adiantum capillus Veneris.
MIDDLE TENNESSEE.
The next division embraces the valley of East Tennessee and the entire area of Middle Tennessee. Contour of surface and ‘geological structure result in East Tennessee from the combined processes of folding and erosion, whereby heterogeneous strata are placed in juxtaposition, the whole valley being an often-repeated series of synclinals and anticlinals of calcareous and siliceous rocks, while in Middle Tennessee erosion alone had been at play.
A great fault connected with the upheaval of the Pine and Grab Orchard Mountains, and in a line south of it, an eroded an- ‘ticlinal, the Sequatchie Valley, designate in the Cumberland Moun- ‘tain region the western terminus of those convulsions which in- ‘volve the problem of the stratography of the Alleghanies in so great difficulties. West of this line spread out the horizontal strata of the Cumberland table-land, which terminates with an abrupt de- ‘scent of about 1,000 feet upon the highlands of Middle Tennessee. These in turn overreach and encircle the floor of the basin of Middle ‘Tennessee by from 500 to 600 feet, either in a bluff or through a gradual descent. :
20 TENNESSEE FORA.
The succession of strata is normal throughout: Uppermost sub- carboniferous limestone and chert, followed by the Devonian shale; lastly, the lower Silurian.
Irregular basins, crossed and intersected by ridges of from 400 to 600 feet elevation, and this lower terrace again girded by a plateau, is the outline of Middle Tennessee. ‘This shape of surface is the effect of unequal erosion through differently constituted strata. This agency has been in bygone epochs, probably during the Cham- plain, much more energetically at work than at the present day. Some superficial “gravel beds and the iron ores in the western part of Middle Tennessee have probably been deposited at this period. The floor of this denudation lies either in the Nashville (Hudson) or Trenton limestone, while the hilltops are Devonian or subecarbon- iferous shales or chert, sometimes sandstones. The limestones pro- duce the strongly calcareous, very productive soil of the lower grounds. The disintegration of the Devonian shales resulted into strata of heavy, impermeable beds of clay or loams, and the con-
comitant swampy lands and the cherty and siliceous beds have -
yielded the angular gravels of the poor hilltops. The difference of elevation is so slight that it cannot essentially affect vegetation, and the greater or less adaptation only of plants to certain soils causes their appearance or disappearance at the limits of particular geological areas. The phosphatic rocks belong to this group.
Alluvium is restricted to river and creek bottoms. The heavy and fertile clay soils of the uplands are the insoluble residuum of the fossiliferous, argillaceous limestones, with more or less com- plete lixiviation of the lime by atmospheric precipitations. In the midst of these is a third class of soil, of black color, full of bog iron ore in the shape of rounded grains. Sulphurated ferrugineous springs, decomposition of pyritical limestones, accompanied by perennial growth of cane, have, as it seems, generated it.
Increase in annual range of temperature and greater dryness of air, as compared with the former regions, cause the mountain flora to disappear and to yield to other designs in nature’s garb. A. close botanical inquiry into the array of species soon discloses the fact that different assemblies of species congregate in the lime- stone and argillaceo-siliceous region. The former includes the glades; the latter, the barrens, of Middle Tennessee.
Glades are thinly-wooded, unarable lands, with shallow soils, fit only for pastures. They ought to remain in their natural state,
TENNESSEE FLORA. 21
undisturbed by cultivation. To clear them is to convert them into deserts. In some parts they are exclusively occupied by the cedar, with a small percentage of deciduous trees intermingled.
Trees distinguishing this ground and region are the overcup oak (Quercus lyrata), bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), in moist soils; the water Spanish oak (Quercus Teaxana), in wet lands. The former two are the largest of our oaks. The yellow chestnut oak (Quercus Muhlenbergii) grows in wet and dry soil. The shin- gle oak (Quercus imbricaria), with undivided lanceolate leaves, like the willow, makes a large, well-shaped, and very ornamental tree. White oaks, post oaks, black oaks, and red oaks are equally dissemi- nated. Elms, very large and numerous, add four species. Twa va- rieties of shellbark hickory belong to rich bottoms, and mocker-nut and pignut hickory to the hills. The pecan nut’ (Carya oliveformis) occurs here and there in single old trees, probably planted by early settlers. Black walnut (Juglans nigra) has formerly been co- pious; white walnut is scattered along the river and creek banks and swamps. The Ohio buckeye abounds on the north side of Cumberland River. In Hadley’s Bend, near Edgefield Junction, are groves of holly with 20-inch diameter of trunk. Catalpas are rare, but the yellow wood (Virgilia lutea) and the coffee tree (Gym- nocladus Canadensis) are very numerous on the rich hillsides south of Nashville. Altogether, we have about one hundred different kinds of timber in the immediate vicinity of Nashville.
The climbing form of growth is an eminently Southern type, lov- ing rich soils and moisture, addicted to the forest which it is des- tined to embellish. Multiform ligneous and herbaceous climbers, stragglers, and creepers tangle and barricade the woodlands. Five different grapevines fill the air in May with the sweet fragrance of their flowers—the summer grape (Vitis estivalis) on dry or rocky ground; the winter grape (Vitis cordifolia) on rich and moist lands, especially river banks. A variety of this with lobed leaves (Vitis riparia) grows copiously on Mill Creek. The rock grape (Vitis rupestris), on rocky bluffs, is a Western species, not discov- ered before east of the Mississippi. All these bear edible fruit, and are serviceable for root grafting with imported varieties, such vines being more resistant to the aggression of the root phylloxera. Two species with inedible fruit (Vitis indivisa and Vitis bipinnata) may also be mentioned. The woolly-leaved Dutchman’s pipe (Aris- tolochia tomentosa), the wistaria, the bignonia, and the trumpet
9, TENNESSEE FLORA.
flower bear beautiful or curiously-shaped flowers, but the unsightly smilax threatens with his thorns the vexed explorer.
Several plants held for exclusively Western have lately been observed around Nashville. The Solanum rostratum—trom the tribe of the Irish potato—with golden flowers, foliage like the watermelon, elegant looking, but unapproachable from the prickles and thorns with which it is beset all over, is such an intruder, and’ a very undesirable one, being an inexterminable, all-spreading weed ; Oenothera triloba, a dwarfish evening primrose, not more than a span high, with large yellow flower, a common plant on the plains; and some other less conspicuous weeds. Where the soil thins out,. leaving here and there the rock exposed, or where from the collapse of subterranean cavities the strata are tumbled about in confusion and earth and humus irregularly distributed, there the heavier timber growth gives out, and the cedar is the predominant growth. Its far-searching roots descend into the crevices and cavities of the age-worn rock. The somber tint of the cedar delineates a cedar barren from its surroundings at a distance, and serves within its environs to bring out with dazzling vividness the beautiful greem of the glade grass, aglow with rose-colored petalestemons, sky-blue lobelias, golden Leavenworthias, Schoenoliriums and shrubby hy- pericums. The pink stonecrop, Sedum pulchellum, covers acres of surface, yielding again to equal profusion of the delicate white Arenaria (Arenaria patula), or a low, purple-flowered skullcap (Scutellaria nervosa). The Talinum teretifolium, span high, with fleshy leaves like a portulaca, the flower resembling the bloom of a phlox, but of the purest carmine, finds room for its tuberous root- lets in the smallest fissures. It will bear transplanting even while flowering, and grows well in the garden. Cream-colored and blue astragals (Astragalus Plattensis and Astragalus caryocarpus), and a purple, large-flowered, and prostrate psoralea (Psoralea suba- caulis), phacelias, the blue false indigo (Baptisia australis),. bluets, and the Carolina anemone (Houstonia patens, Anemone Caroliniana), verbenas, violets (especially the pansylike Viola pedata var, bicolor), the dwarf heliotrope (Heliotropium tenellum), - the pale purple Phlox Stellaria (which deserves a bed in every gar- den), and many, many more assemble—a natural conservatory that could fearlessly challenge any flower garden in the combined effect of gayety and luxuriance. For truth, my honored Tennessee friends, go and see, and learn to appreciate and to preserve such
TENNESSEE FLORA. 23
great ornaments of your native land. I cannot dwell longer om this point ; suffice it to say that the above are only a few of the most obyious spring flowers, and that every succeeding season has its own peculiar growth. The hop tree (Ptelea trifoliata), fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), Carolina buckthorn (Frangula Caro- liniana), Forestiera ligustrina, delightfully fragrant when flower- ing in July, the Callicarpa, with clusters of rosy flowers and violet berries, and several kinds of hawthorn, are the characteristic shrubs of these barrens. Hackberry, honey locust, winged elm, post oak and shingle oak intermingle in limited numbers with the cedar. The siliceous and argillaceous soils which surround the Silurian formation correspond to the cherty strata of the subcarboniferous and the blue or black shales of the Devonian formation. The for- mer is commonly called “ gravelly hills,’ and supports a meager and monotonous vegetation. Black-jack oak, Spanish oak, red oak, and black oak are prevailing, especially the former two. Post oak and white oak attain only medium size. Chestnut, sourwood, mock- er-nut and pignut hickory are the principal trees. The shrubbery is represented by the farkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), black huckleberry (Gaylussacia resi~ nosa), Kalmias, purple azalea, chinquapin chestnut (Castanea pumila), New Jersey tea (Ceanothus Americanus) and an im- mense amount of dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina), Lespedezas and Desmodimus, and later in the season several species of Coreopsis and Solidago. The common brake (Pteris aquilina) and the beech fern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera) grow aboundantly. The sandy, loamy, or argillaceous soils of the shale contain some valu- able farming lands, but a good deal of it is either too light or too wet. The underlying slate seems to form impermeable strata, and in winter and spring large tracts of land are covered with shallow ponds, which disappear only from evaporation in the summer and. autumn. ‘These strata underlie the Oak Barrens (Tullahoma). The vegetation is diversified and very interesting. The forest con- tains a good selection of hardwoods, and the trees attain a very good size. Water oak, willow oak, and white oak grow very large; sweet gum and black gum, in abundance; poplars and beeches, not as many as in the calcareous soils; cedars, only solitary and rare; pines and firs, none at all. There are neither pines nor firs the whole length of distance from Pulaski to Elizabethtown, near Louisville, Ky., nor are any found for a great distance east or west
24 TENNESSEE FLORA. of this line (Nashville and Decatur Railroad). The serub pine is the only species I ever observed in Middle Tennessee. I found it sparingly and ‘confined to a limited belt in the hills around the confluence of the Harpeth and Turnbull Rivers, in Dickson County. Shrubs which are especially addicted to the Oak Barrens are the large-flowering hydrangea (/Hydrangea radiata, at the Cataract, in Tullahoma), Itea, with small white flowers in drooping racemes ; ealyeanthus, or Carolina allspice; service berry (Amelanchier Can- adensis), the narrow-leaved crabapple (Pyrus angustifolia), hazel- nut (Corylus Americana), and in wet lands the button bush (Ceph- alanthus occidentalis), chockberry (Pyrus arbutifolia), arrow- wood (Viburnum nudum) ,Southern buckthorn (Bumelia lycioides), smooth alder (Alnus serrulata), dwarf gray willow (Salix tristis). The moist woodlands and swamps abound in showy orchids, llia- ceae, and aquatic plants. Three species of flags (Iris versicolor, Tris Virginica, Iris cristata), Turk’s cap lily (Lilium superbum), blackberry lily (Pardanthus chinensis), Zygadenus limanthoides, narrow-leaved false hellebore (Stenanthiuwm angustifolium), fly poison (Amianthium muscaetoxicum). Several species of or- chids: Habenaria, Pogonia, Corallorrhiza, Calopogon, and Cypri- pedium; various Sabbathias, a host of Pycnanthemums, Asters, Gerardias, Helianthus, button snake roots (Liatris squarrosa, Lia- tris gramimifolia), and some very elegant grasses, the woolly beard- gross (Hrianthus alopecuriodes, Erianthus brevibarbis, and Erian- thus strictus), Indian grass (Sorghum nutans), wood reedgrass (Cinna arundinacea). Among ferns we find a stately growth of Osmundas, especially the Osmunda regalis and Claytoniana, attain- ing three to five feet; the chain fern (Woodwardia angustifolia) , Aspidium Goldieanum, also becoming sometimes four feet high; sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis). Rushes, sages, and grasses pre- sent themselves in interminable succession to the well-trained bota- nist who understands how to distinguish them.
WEST TENNESSEE.
The Tennessee River very nearly indicates in its northern course a geological division, flowing, as it does, along an ancient Devonian and Silurian shore line. A few miles west and parallel with the river rises the eastern escarpment of an undulating plateau of from only 200 to 300 feet elevation above the waters of the Ten- nessee River. This irregular table-land slopes gradually toward
TENNESSEE FLORA. 25
the Mississippi River and terminates there in another bluff, which
rises about 200 feet over the floods of the Mississippi. The eastern portion of this area is composed of cretaceous deposits, and the western portion is composed of tertiary and post-tertiary deposits, either sands or soft cretaceous shale. Solid, often ferruginous, sandstones appear at the surface, scattered in incoherent masses.
We behold no longer limpid streams, rippling over rocky bot- toms, sided by cliffs and bluffs. Instead of them, we find lagoons and swampy borders, stretching along muddy-looking waters of sluggish streams.*
From distance already, before crossing the Tennessee River, we are in sight of towering cypresses. While a thousand miles east from here they yet occupy the shore line of the Atlantic, here the shore line has receded to the Gulf and left the cypress behind. Their dimensions are truly enormous. The far-spreading roots emerge like sharp-backed ridges from the brownish lagoon, gradually creep- ing up and girding with buttresslike projections the many-angled column. A perpendicular shaft ascends to a height of from 120 tu 150 feet and then spreads in a flat or hemispherical crown. Such I have seen, in 1864-70, near Johnsonville. Cypress swamps are along both big rivers, and many other extensive swamps and swampy lands are along every water course—the most, perhaps, along Big Sandy. It may, therefore, be expected that a great many more aquatic species and such as inhabit marshy lands exist in this region than in either East or Middle Tennessee. My own experi- ence is, however, limited and restricted to one point on the Missis- sippi River—the regions of Brownsville, Humboldt, McKenzie, Hollow Rock, and Johnsonville, in which places I have made inter- esting collections.
In the cypress swamps and boggy lowlands we find the planer tree, or water elm (Planera aquatica) ; the cypress (Taxodium dis- tichum), the stateliest of our timber trees; the swamp: locust (Gle- ditschia monosperma); the tupelo gums (Nyssa sylvatica and Nyssa aquatica) ; the mountain sweet pepper bush (Clethra acumi- nata), so frequent in the mountains of East Tennessee, but rare in Middle and West Tennessee; the swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor), the black alder (Ilex verticillata), the swamp holly (Llex decidua), intertwined with the climbing bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), and the supple-jack (Berchemia volubilis). Two buck- thorns (Rhamnus Carolimana and Rhamnus lanceolata) are also
26 TENNESSEE FLORA.
very frequent in the bottoms. One of the showiest shrubs of this region, the lately-discovered Hypericum lobocarpum, which would make a splendid adornment of every garden, grows copiously around Hollow Rock. It makes a flat-topped bush from six to eight feet high. In the swamps float the water shields (Brasenia peltata and Cabomba Caroliniana), while the water chinquapin (Nelumbo lutea) rears its big, peltate foliage and large, sulphur- yellow flowers high above the brownish waters of the lagoon.
Of other frequent aquatics I may only mention the Limnanthe- mum lacunosum, Ranunculus multifidus, Utriculatia biflora. Spe- cies of Lemna, Wolffia, and the neat Azolla cast a green veil over the quiet pools. The Indian rye (Zizania aquatica), a tall grass, which the Indians used to harvest, using the grains for meal, is here in its proper sphere, and its tall heads look down upon patches of sword lilies, Iris cuprea, and Iris hexagona; and all the swampy flats are filled with Scirpus debilis, Carices, and Rhynchosporas.
On higher grounds congregate Dalea alopecuroides, Galium Ar- kansanum, Eryngium prostratum, Marshallia lanceolata, Ambrosia bidentata, Helenium tenuifolium, Senecio lobatus, Hydrolea af- finis, Verbena stricta, Polypremum procumbens, Stillingia syl- vatica, Lithospermum angustifolium, Habenaria virescens, Juncus militaris, Spartina cynosuroides, Aristida ramosissima.
From the suburbs of Memphis I received the elegant Hrogrostis oxylepis. On the sandy shores of the Mississippi River abounds a species of horsetail, the Hquisetum robustum, and the invidious burgrass that sticks to clothing and spoils the vlieses of the sheep with its sticky spikes. (Cenchrus tribuloides.)
Synopsis of the Flora of Tennessee.
Arranged according to the system of Engler and Prantl, in their “ Naturliche Pflanzenfamilien,”
BOTANICAL TEXT-BOOKS AND LITERATURE CONSULTED.
‘‘Synoptical Flora of North America.’’ By Asa Gray. (As far as out.) New York. 1884.
“‘The Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada.”’ By Nathaniel Britton and Hon. Addison Brown. Three volumes. New York. 1896.
“The Grasses of Tennessee.’”’ By F. Lamson Scribner. Two parts. Knoxville. 1894.
‘*A Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States.’’ By Asa Gray. Fifth edition. 1886.
‘Flora of the Southern United States, with Supplement.’’ By A. W. Chapman. New York. 1870.
‘Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. III., No. 1.’’ Report on the ‘““Flora of Western North Carolina.’’ By John K. Small and A. A. Heller. New York. 1892. Report on the ‘‘ Botanical Expedition of Southwestern Virginia.’’ By John K. Small and Anna Murray Vail. New York. 1893.
‘‘ Biltmore Botanical Studies, Vol. I., No. 1.’’ By C. D. Beadle and C. L. Boynton. London. Igor.
*‘Studies on Cratzgus, Vols. I. and II.”’ By C. D. Beadle. Chicago.
1899.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 27
PIERIDOPHY TA."
OPHIOGLOSSACEZA Presl. OPHIOGLOSSUM L. 1. Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Adder’s-tongue. In moist
spots in the cedar giades at Lavergne, Williamson County. May, June.
BOTRYCHIUM Sw. Schrad.
1. Botrychium ternatum (Thunb) Sw. Moonwort, grape meme ©). Os) May, pune: - i.
2. B. Virginianum (L) Sw. Rich, moist woods. O. S. May.
3. B. dissectum Sprengel. With the former. May, June.
OSMUNDACEZ R. Br.
OSMUNDA L. 1. Osmunda regalis L. Royal fern. Bogs and swamps, mountains and lowlands. Frequent. O.S. May, June. WM. 2. O. cinnamomea L. Cinnamon fern. In marshes, high grounds or low grounds. O.S. May-July. 3. O. Claytoniana L. Cumberland and Alleghany Moun- tains. May, June.
HYMENOPHYLLACE Gaud. TRICHOMANES L. Trichomanes radicans Sw. Bristle fern. Underneath wet, shelving rocks. Sewanee. June, July. SCHIZAEACE Reichenb.
LYGODIUM Sw. Schrad. 1. Lygodium palmatum (Bernh.) Sw. Climbing fern. Cumberland Mts. Rockwood. Graborchard.. Piney Falls, Mrs. Bennett. Julv, August.
POL YPODTACE A. R.Br: ONOCLEA L. 1. Onoclea sensibilis L. Wet meadows and borders of pouds.« O; S- ~ June: 2. O. sensibilis obtusilobata Torr. Williamson County. July, August.
*Arranged after W. R. Maxon’s List of Ferns of North America in Smithsonian Publications, No. 1226, May, 1901.
28 TENNESSEE FLORA.
WOODSIA R. Br.
1. Woodsia Ilvenis R. Br. Knox County. A. Ruth. June, July. 2. W. obtusa “(Spreng.) Torr’ “Very “common,” “©7-7S: July, August. DENNSTAEDTIA Bernh.
Dennstaedtia punctilobula (Michx.) - Moore. Dicksonia punctilobula L’Her. Higher Cumberland and Alleghanies- Piney Falls. Mrs. Bennett. August.
FILIX Adans.
Filix bulbifera (L.) Underw. Cystopteris bulifera Bernh. Shady cliffs around Nashville, Cumberland Mts. July.
F. fragilis (L.) Underw. Cy stopteris fragilis Bernh. Moun- tains and lowlands. O.S. May-July.
POLYSTICHUM Roth.
Polystichum acrostichoides (Michx.) Kuntze. Dryopteris acrostichoides Kuntze. Christmas fern. Very common. O. S. June-August.
DRYOPTERIS Adans.
Dryopteris Novzboboracensis A. Gray. Moist grounds im the oak barrens of M. Tenn. Tullahama. July- September.
D. thelypteris (L.) Asa Gray. Knoxville, L. F. Scribner. June, July.
D. Goldieana (Hook.) A. Gray. Aspidium Goldieanum Hook. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Frequent. July, August.
D. marginalis (L.) A. Gray. Aspidium marginale Sw. Over the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Leaves evergreen. July, August. MM.
1; spinulosa (Retz.) Kuntze. Smoky Mts.
D. spinulosa intermedia (Miihl.) Underwood. Wolf Creek. Cocke County, Clingman’s Dome. July.
D. spinulosa dilatata (Hoffm.) Underw. With the former. July, August.
PHEGOPTERIS Feée.
Phegopteris Phegopteris (L.) Underw. Beech fern. Phe- gopteris polypodioides Fée. Mts. of East Tennessee. Ph. hexagonoptera (Michx.) Fée. Highlands of Middle
Tennessee. Frequent; leaves, fragrant. August. WOODWARDIA J. E. Smith.
Woodwardia areolata (L.) Moore. Woodwardia angusti- folia J. E. Smith. Chain fern. Bogs. O.S. July, August.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 29
PHYLLITIS Ludwig.
Phyllitis Scolopendrium (L.) Newm. Hart’s tongue. Sco- lopondrium vulgare J. E. Smith. Near South Pittsburg, Cumberland Mts. R. M. Middleton, Jr. June-August.
CAMPTOSORUS Link.
Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link. Walking fern; com- men. O.S. June-August.
ASPLENIUM L.
Asplenium pinnatifidun Nutt. Cumberland plateau and Lookout Mountain. May-July.
A. viride Huds. Bluffs near South Pittsburg. R. M. Middleton, Junior.
A. parvulum Mart and Gal. On limestone rocks. O. S. June-October.
A. platyneuron (L.) Oakes. Asplenium ebeneum Ait. On limestone rocks; common. O. S. July-September.
A. Trichomanes L. On schists and siliceous rocks. Chil- howee and Cumberland Mts. June-August.
A. angustifolium Michx. Rich, damp woodlands. O. S. July, August.
A. Ruta-muraria L. On limestone and siliceous rocks in the valleys and in the mountains. July, August.
A. montanum Willd. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. June-August.
A. Bradleyi DC. Eaton. On standstone rocks, summit of Lookout Mountain; also Sewanee, E. Kirby Smith; Sequat- chee Valley, Middleton. June-August.
ATHYRIUM Roth. O. C.
Athyrium acrostichoides Desv. Athyrium thelypleroides Michx. Highlands of Middle Tennessee.
A. Filix-foemina (L.) Bernh. Lady fern; common. O. S. M.
A. Filix-foemina angustum Willd. Bogs at Hollow Rock, West Tennessee.
ADIANTUM L.
Adiantum Capillus-Veneris L. Venus hair fern. Cumber- land Mts., near South Pittsburg, four miles from furnace, J. E. Wall, Jr.; also near South Pittsburg, with fronds two feet “in length, by R. M. Middleton, Jr. May, June. M.
A. pedatum L. Maiden hair fern. Rich, moist woods. “Oe. . May-July. —M-
‘
30 TENNESSEE FLORA.
PTERIDIUM Scop.
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Bracken fern. The larger form in rich, moist woods, Cumberland and Alleghany Mts.
Pt. aquilinum pseudocaudatum (L.) Clute. A form common in siliceous soils, and gravelly hill lands. O.S. July-Sep-
tember. PELLAEA Link.
Pellaea atropurpurea (L.) Link. Cliff brake. On exposed situations on limestone banks and cliffs. O.S. June-Sep-
tember. CHEILANTHES Sw.
Cheilanthes Alabamensis (Buckl.) Kuntze. Limestone rocks; frequent in E. and M. Tenn. July-September.
Ch. lanosa Michx. Ch. vestita (Sw.) Watt. Bluffs on Cumberland River, cedar glades under cedars, Mts. of East Tennessee. June-September.
Ch. tomentosa Link. Bluffs on Ocoee River. Fronds often 2 feet long. Also South Pittsburg. Cumberland Mts.
POLYPODIUM L.
Polypodium vulgare L. On rocks and on the ground, Cum- berland and Alleghany Mts. Summer. J.
P. polypodioides (L.) A. S. Hitchcock. P. incanum Sw. Covering trunks of trees, on rocks, and on the ground. O.S. June-October.
SALVINIACEA Reichenb.
AZOLLA Lam.
Azolla Caroliniana Willd. On a weir or millpond, near Riceville, McMinn County, and W. Tenn. cypress swamps. July.
EQUISETACEA Michx. EQUISETUM L.
Equisetum arvense L. Field horsetail. Moist fields, Cave Spring, E. Tenn.
E. robustum A. Br. -Sandy banks of Mississippi River, W. Tenn.
E. hyemale L. Common scouring rush. Along Holston River. J. K. Small.
LYCOPODIACEAE Michx. LYCOPODIUM L. Club Moss.
Lycopodium Selago L. Roane Mt. T. W. Chickering. L. lucidulum Michx. Sewanee. Rugbee. Mrs. M. S. Per- cival.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 31
L. obscurum L. Ground pine. Lycopodium dendroideum Michx. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. Cranberry, on Doe River. Cumberland Mts.
L. complanatum L. Trailing Christmas-green. Over the Cumberland Mts.
SELAGINELLACEZ Underw. SELAGINELLA Beauv.
Selaginella tortipila R. Br. Dry rocks in Ocoee Valley. July-October.
S. apus Sprengel. Moist, shaded grounds; often among the grass. O.S. June-September.
S. rupestris (L) Spreng. Dry rocks and gravelly hills.
aoe
ISOETACE Underw. ISOETES L.
*Isoétes Butleri immaculata Engelm. Cedar glades near La- vergne. West Nashville (“ New Town”), near Nashville, in miry grass plots.
SPERMATOPHYTA. GYMNOSPERME£. PINACE# Lindl. PINUS L.
Pinus Strobus L. White pine. Cumberland Mts. and prom- inently the Alleghanies along the slopes of the highest ridges, where it frequently constitutes two-thirds of the status of the forest over extensive areas, reaching an altitude of from 100 to 175 feet. Itis avery clean and graceful tree. May. WM.
P. Virginiana Miller. P. inops Ait. Scrub pine. Rocky, dry mountain slopes. O.S. April, May.
P. echinata Miller. Yellow pine. Spruce pine. P. mitis Michx. Formerly abundant, clading the lower ridges of the valley of East Tennessee; presently much reduced in num- bers. May, June.
' P. pungens Michx. f. Table mountain pine. Frequent in the Smoky Mt. range. Altitude from 40 to 80 feet. May.
P. rigida Mill. Pitch pine. With the former, and of about the same size. May.
*Dioecious, with a subglobose trunk, bright green, rather firm leaf, sometimes as many as 60, 6 to 9 inches long; sporangium, without spots; macrospores, 0.40-0.56 mm. diameter; microspores, 0.029-031 mm. long, spinulose.
32 TENNESSEE FLORA.
P. Taeda L. Loblolly pine. Old field pine. This pine is the most frequent in the southeast corner of the State, along Conasauga Creek, extending down into Georgia. A large tree reaches in favorable ground to a height of 150 feet. April, May.
PICEA Link.
Picea Mariana (Mill.) |B. S. T. Abies nigra Ait. Black spruce. Highest points of the Smokies. On White Top Mountain. Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small. May, June.
P. rubra Link. Red spruce. With the former. Both are Slender trees. May.
TSUGA Carr.
Tsuga Canadensis (L.) Carr. Hemlock. Along water courses Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. One of our largest forest trees, attaining a height of from 150 to 180 feet by from 6 to 7 feet diameter. April. WM.
T. Caroliniana Engelm. Abies Caroliniana Chapm. Does not-grow to the sublime height of the former, scarcely ex- ceeding 50 or 75 feet. High mountains on the border of North Carolina. April.
ABIES Juss.
Abies Fraseri (Pursh.) Lindl. Pinus Fraseri Balsame Fir. Smoky Mts. Summit of Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. May, June.
TAXODIUM (L.) C. Rich.
Taxodium distichum (L.) L. C. Rich. Cypress. The larg- est conifer in the Eastern United States. Along Tennessee River and Mississippi River in West Tennessee and their af- fluents, in the bayous and cypress swamps, it attains an alti- tude of perhaps 200 feet by 12 feet diameter near the ground. “The extensive railroad trussels and bridges in West Tennes- see have been built from it. The wood stands exposure to wet and atmosphere better than any other soft-wood timber. May, June.
THUJA L. Thuja occidentalis L. White cedar. Along Holston River in the mountains of E. Tenn. A. Ruth. JUNIPERUS L.
Juniperus Virginiana L. Red cedar. Scatteringly O. S. Forming forests of nearly exclusive cedar growth in the basin of M. Tenn. Cedar glades, with a diversified and peculiar flora. April, May. Fruit matures in September and October.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 33
TAXACEZ Lindl. PAS USa
Taxus minor (Michx.) Britton. American Yew. Taxus baccata var. minor Michx. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small.
CLASS 2. ANGIOSPERMAE SUBCLASS 1. MONOCOTYLEDONES.
TYPHACEZ J. St. Hil. TYPHA L.
Typha latifolia“: -Cat taily . In*marshess “OPS: > June; July.
T. angustifolia L. Apparently rare. Ducktown, Polk County, near Kingston Springs. In ponds and ditches. June, July.
SPARGANIACE Agardh. SPARGANIUM L.
Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Cleveland, E. Tenn.; Tullahoma; Nashville. May.
S. androcladum (Engelm.) Morong. S. simplex var. Nut- tallii A. Gray. O.S. One-mile pond, Nashville, July.
NAIADE4 Lindl. POTAMOGETON L.
Potamogeton natans L.. Floating pond weed. Wolf River, W. Tenn. Dr. Egeling.
P. perfoliatus L. Wolf River, Memphis. Dr. Egeling.
P. pusillus L. Wolf Creek. Cocke County.
P. Spirillus Tuckerm. Pond at new bridge, Nashville. August.
P. diversifolius Raf. P. hybridus Michx. Cumberland River, Nashville; Tullahoma Creek, Tullahoma. July-Sep- tember. i
P. foliosus Raf. P. pauciflorus Pursh. O. S. June-Au-
ust. oP. Nuttallii Cham. and Sch. P. Claytonii Tuckerm. Mountain streams of E: Tenn. June-August.
ZANNICHELIA L. Zannichelia palustris L. In ponds and springs. O. S. June-August. . ; 2
34 TENNESSEE FLORA.
ALISMACEZ D. C. ALISMA L.
Alisma Plantago-aquatica L. In shallow water. O. S. June-September.
ECHINODORUS Rich. Engelm.
Echinodorus radicans Engelm. Swamps along Cumber- land River. July.
SAGITTARIA L.
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Broad-leaved arrow head. Ponds and shallow waters. O.S. August-September.
S. latifolia pubescens Michl. East Tennessee.
S. latifolia angustifolia Engelm. Hollow Rock, West Ten- nessee.
S. graminea Michx. West Tennessee.
VALISNERIACE Dumort. PHILOTRIA Raf. Philotria Canadensis (Michx.) Britton. Elodea Canaden-
sis Michx. (Anacharis Canadensis Planch.). Stagnant wa- ters. O.S. May-August.
GRAMINE Juss. MAYIDE®. ZEA L.
Zea Mays L. Indian corn. Cultivated in many varieties, it constitutes the most important field crop in the State. Sometimes it is self-sown at the roadside, but it does not at- tain any growth without cultivation. J.
TRIPSACUM L.
Tripsacum dactyloides L. Gama grass. In moist pastures near Hickman. A large patch in the old graveyard in Nash- ville. June-September.
} ANDROPOGONACE. ERIANTHUS Michx.
Erianthus alopecuroides (L.) Ell. Plum grass. Old fields, Dickson County. Tullahoma. September, October.
E. strictus Baldw. Tullahoma. Swamps near Jackson. S. M. Bain.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 35
E. brevibarbis \lichx. Mitchellville, Sumner County.
E. contortus Ell. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. E. Smallii C. V. Nash.
E. Ravenne Beauv. Frequently cultivated, maturing seeds and spreading outside of cultivation. July.
ANDROPOGON L.
Andropogon scoparius Michx. Broom grass. Old fields. O.S. August-October.
A. scoparius multirameus Haekel. Banks of Cumberland River.
A. argyreus Schult. Ocoee Valley. Vicinity of Knoxville. Scribner.
A. furcatus Miihl. A. provincialis Lam. O. S. August, September.
A. Virginianus L. A. dissitiflorus Michx. O. S. August, September.
A. Virginicus vaginatus Chapm. With the former.
A. Elliottii Chapm. <A. clandestinus Hale. Occurs in two forms promiscuously near Tullahoma: var. genuina and var. gracilis Hack. September, October.
A. glomeratus (\Walt.) b. s. p. a. macrourus Michx. Sandy Soils, 2©). S. October:
CHRYSOPOGON Trin. Chrysopogon avenaceus Michx. Wild oat grass. O. S. Old fields. Ch. nutans (L.) Bentham. Old, sandy fields. Dickson County; Knoxville, on dry hills. Scribner.
SORGHUM Pers.
Sorghum Halepense (L.) Pers. Johnson grass. Old fields and waste grounds. O.S. July-September. Introduced for forage, but frequently abandoned as unsuitable for regular cultivation and inferior in nutritive qualities.
S. saccharatum Pers. Chinese sugar cane. Largely culti- vated for production of molasses.
S. saccharatum (var.) technicum Haeckl. Broom corn. Cultivated for the manufacture of brooms.
S. vulgare. Pers. Chicken corn. Occasionally cultivated for poultry feed.
PANICEA. PASPALUM L.
Paspalum mucronatum Miihl. P. fluitans Smith. Slow streams, floating. July-September. O. S.
36 TENNESSEE FLORA.
Paspalum membranaceum Walt. P. Walterianum Schult. Moist and miry soils, along Cumberland River, and in the barrens. September.
P. distichum L. Joint grass. Low grounds, margin of points. O.S. August, September. .
P. dilatatum Poir. Memphis. August, September.
P. platycaule Poir. P. compressum Nees. Cultivated at the Knoxville Experiment Station. Scribner.
P. pubiflorum glabrum Vasey. Vicinity of Nashville, Belle Meade. Scribner. Lake County, near Mississippi River. S. M. Bain. June-August.
P. Boscianum Flugge. P. purpurascens Ell. Knoxville. if. Scribner. Hiwassee Valley. “A. Rath. September
P. Floridanum Michx. Moist fields, West Tennessee. S. M. Bain. September.
P. laeve-pilosum Scrib. With the former.
P. ciliatifolium Michx. Common in grass plots. O. S. July-September.
P. longipedunculatum Le Conte. Frequent. O. S. July- September. :
P. longipedunculatum debile Michx. Damp, sandy soil, at the pond. Pond Station, Dickson County. July.
PANICUM L.
Panicum Crus-galli L. Barnyard grass. Barnyards, ponds, and ditches. O.S. August-October.
P. Crus-galli muticum Vasey. Streets of Nashville. Au- gust, September.
P. Walteri Pursh. P. Crus-galli hispidum Torr. Very common OQ. S. in water and in barnyards. September.
P. colonum L. Miry places along Cumberland River. La- vergne. September.
P. gibbum Ell. Madison County. S. M. Bain. FE. Tenn. A. Ruth.
P. hians Ell. P. melicarium Michx. Memphis. Dr. Ege- ling.
P. rostratum Miihl. P. anceps Michx. Moist places in the cedar glades, Lavergne. July.
P. agrostidiforme Lam. P. agrostoides Trin. Wet ground. ©. S. ‘September.
P. elongatum Pursh. P. agrostoides Miihl. Ditches and ponds. O.S. July-September.
P. virgatum L. Islands in Cumberland River. Sandy soil in the barrens at Tullahoma. July-September.
P. sphzerocarpum Ell. Cedar glades. The earliest of all our Panicums. May.
TENNESSEE FLORA, 37
P. microcarpon Miihl. P. multiflorum Ell. In moist and rich soils, Craggy Hope, Cheatham County. Ocoee Valley.
June, July. P. Porterianum Nash. PP. latifolium Walt. O. S. Ap-
pears early. May, June.
P. commutatum Schult. P. nervosum Miithl. Hills of M. Tenn. May-July.
P. Columbianum Scribn. Fide [lust. Flora. Appendix.
P. macrocarpon Le Conte. Dry hillsides on Mill Creek, Nashville. July.
P. clandestinum L. Rich soil along river banks. Nash- ville. July, August. ;
P. Scribnerianum Nash. P. pauciflorum. A. Gray. Dry, siliceous grounds. July, August.
P. laxiflorum Lam. Highlands, damp, rich woods. July, August.
P. nitidum Lam. Siliceous soils, vicinity of Nashville and Knoxville. Scribner.
P. dichotomum L. Thickets. O.S. May-July.
Pe barbulatum Michx. 2 With the former. ©. S.../ June August.
PP waseidum Eil..-©..S:" Madison County. S.°M. Bain: Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. June.
P. scoparium Lam. (var.) genuinum. W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. Cedar glades. July.
P. scoparium minus Scribner. Hilltops around Nashville.
P. depauperatum Miihl. Dry, siliceous soil. M. Tenn. July.
P. pubescens Lam. P. lanuginosum Ell. In the cedar glades. June-September.
P. angustifollum Ell. P. consanguineum S$. Watson. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. Knoxville. Scribner.
P. proliferum Lam. P. geniculatum Muhl. Ditches and ponds. O.S. July-September.
P. capillare L. Witch grass. Sandy, cultivated ground. O.S. July-September.
*P. capillare Gattingeri Nash. P. capillare var. compestre Gattinger (in “ Tennessee Flora,” first edition). Common in the cedar glades. September.
*Panicum capillare L., var. flexile Gattinger, is either one of the forms of P. capillare, or an annual variety of P. autumnale Rascoe, which it resembles greatly, especially in smoothness and form of spikelets. It is very smooth above, with some hairs on the lower part of culm and leaves; culm very slender, panicle rather small, and branches not spreading until the mature spikelets are ready to drop off; leaves linear, gradually attenuate, of a pale green color. It abounds in the cedar glades, and is rarely seen outside of them.
38 TENNESSEE FLORA,
P. flexile (Gattinger) Scribner. Cedar glades; very com- mon. July-September. Characteristic of the glades.
P. minus (Muhl.) Nash. P. capillare var. minimum En- gelm in litt. Loamy fields, near Rising Sun Bluff, below Nashville.
P. verrucosum Miihl. Bogs along Cumberland River. Mitchellville. July.
SYNTHERISMA Walt. (Digitaria Scop.)
Syntherisma sanguinalis (L.) Nash. Digitaria sanguinalis Scop. Crop grass. Yields a spontaneous crop of hay in corn- fields at the close of the growing season. September, Octo- ber.
S. linearis (Krock.) Nash. (Panicum glabrum Gaud.) Pastures and waste grounds. A very valuable pasture grass, maturing later than the former. Middle Tennessee. Sep- tember, October.
S. filiformis (L.) Nash. Digitaria filiformis Mtihl. Pan- icum filiforme L. In siliceous soil. O. S. July-September.
S. serotina Walter. P.serotinum Trin. Glades. Septem- ber.
IXOPHORUS Schlecht. (Setaria Beauv.)
Ixophorus verticillatus (L.) Nash. Setaria verticillata Beauv. Fox tail grass. Sparingly found in fields and gar- dens. Introduced. July-September.
I. glaucus (L.) Nash. Setaria glauca Beauv. Yellow fox tail. Pigeon grass. Introduced and now ubiquitous. July- September.
I. glaucus-levigatus Chapm. Cedar glades; very common. July-September. 7
I. viridis (L.) Nash. Setaria viridis Beauv. Introduced and now ubiquitous. July-September.
E> Italicus: (L:) “Nash... Setaria Italica, Ri o& Si fshiunea- rian grass; Italian millet. In cultivation and frequently es- caped into waste places. July-September.
I. Germanicus (Beauv.) Nash. Setaria Germanica Beauv. German millet. Both millets give important hay crops. July- September.
CENCHRUS L. Cenchrus tribuloides L. Burgass. On the sandy flats along Mississipppi River. Frequently intermixed with equis- etum robustum. August.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 39
PENNISETUM Pers.
Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. Pearl millet. Introduced from the Orient: it is sometimes cultivated.
ORYCEZ. ZIZANIA L.
Zizania aquatica L. Indian rice. Near Humboldt, W. Tenn. Guthrie, Ky.
ORYZA L.
_ Oryza sativa L. Rice. A variety called “upland rice” is here and there cultivated on a small scale in W. Tenn. WM.
HOMALOCENCHRUS Meig. (Leersia Swartz.)
Homalocenchrus Virginicus Britt. Leersia Virginica Willd. White grass; shady an&8d damp locations. O. S. July-Sep- tember.
H. oryzoides (L.) Poll. In swamps and along streams. OFS) July-September.
H. lenticularis (Michx.) Scribn. Catch-fly grass. W. Tenn. Ss. M. Bain.
PHALARIDEA. PHALARIS L.
Phalaris Canariensis L. Canary grass. Food for canary birds, whence it frequently escapes.
Ph. arundinacea L. Reed grass. Introduced, with the next.
Ph. arundinacea picta L. The ribbon grass is frequently found in gardens and survives in abandoned garden plots, but the genuine Ph. arundinacea I have never seen in Tennessee spontaneous.
: ANTHOXANTHUM L.
Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sweet vernal grass. Is fre- quently found in meadows in E. Tenn., in which part of the State it seems to thrive best. Introduced with grass seeds from Europe, it imparts the hay a sweet flavor.
AGROSTIDEA. ARISTIDA L. Aristida dichotoma Michx. Poverty grass. In poor, sandy Sous. ©. Ss. (September; October:
A. gracilis Ell. In glades and sterile soils, with the former. September, October.
40 TENNESSEE FLORA.
A. ramosissima Engelm. Sandy soil, Humboldt, W. Tenn. July-September.
A. purpurascens Poir. Paradise Ridge, Robertson County. July.
A. oligantha Michx. Dry, gravelly soils. O.S.
STIPA.L,
Stipa avenacea L. Black oat grass. Charleston, Bradley County; summit of Lookout Mountain. May, June.
MUHLENBERGIA Schr.
Mihlenbergia sobolifera (Miihl.) Trin. Rocky woodlands. O.S. August, September.
M. Mexicana (L.) Trin. Thickets along water courses. O.S. August, September.
M. sylvatica Torr. Damp woodlands. O. S. September, October.
M. tenuiflora (Willd.) M. Willdenovii Trin. Woodlands of Middle Tennessee to the summits of the Smoky Mountains. July-September.
M. diffusa Schreb. Nimble Will, Dropseed grass. Pas- tures and grass plots; very common, and not liked by cattle. September, October.
M. capillaris (Lam.) Trin. A very graceful grass, with light purple panicle. In a cedar glade at Lavergne. July, August.
BRACHYELYTRUM Beauv.
Brachyelytrum erectum (Schreb.) Beauv. B. aristatum R. Dry woodlands. O.S. July-September.
PHLEUM L.
Phleum pratense L. Timothy. Gives the best hay crop in the State. July, July.
ALOPECURUS L.
Alopecurus pratensis L. Meadow foxtail. In meadows; introduced with other grass seeds. Scarce. June, July.
A. geniculatus L. Wet places. May-July.
A. geniculatus aristulatus Torr. In _ similar localities. Charlotte Pike, near West Nashville (““ New Town”). June.
SPOROBOLUS R. Br.
Sporobolus asper (Michx.) Kunth. Cedar glades at La- vergne; Knoxville. Scribn. October.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 4}
S. vaginzflorus (Torr.) Wood. S. minor Vasey. Poverty grass. Sterile, rocky places; very common. August-October.
S. neglectus Nash. S. vagineflorus Vasey. With the for- mer. September, October. ;
S. Indicus (L.) R. Br. Sweet grass. Sandy soils in the Cumberland Mts. and in the oak barrens. June-September.
CINNA L.
Cinna arundinacea L. Indian reed grass. Wet, rich wood- lands. O.S. A form smaller throughout is found on Paradise Ridge. August, September.
C. pendula Trin. On Roane Mountain. L. F. Scribner.
AGROSTIS L.
Agrostis alba L. Redtop, herd’s grass. One of the princi- pal meadqw grasses. Sometimes extensively stoloniferous. July, August.
A. exarata Trin. O.S. July-September.
A. Elliotiana Schult. A. arachnoides Ell. Dry, siliceous ground. O.S. May-July.
A. canina L. White Cliff Springs, Monroe County. July.
A. rubra L. A. rupestris Chapm. Summit of Roane Moun- tain. July.
A. intermedia Scribn. Common in damp thickets. O. S.
A. perennans Tuckerm. Open woodlands. O.S. July- September.
A. Nove -Angliz Tuckerm. Along mountain streams, tenn. Scribn.
A. hyemalis (Walt.) B.S. P. A. scabra Willd. In dry or wet places. A noxious weed, but not frequent. July.
A. altissima Walt. A. elata Trin. Sandy soil, vicinity of Knoxville. A. Ruth.
CALAMAGROSTIS Adans.
Calamagrostis Canadensis Beauv. Blue joint. Roane Mt.
Chickering. C. cinnoides (Miihl.) Scribn. C. Nuttalliana Steudel. Frog Mts. and Cumberland Mts. July, August.
AVENACE. HOLCUS L.
Holcus lanatus L. Velvet grass. Naturalized in E. Tenn.; especially frequent in the mountains, in meadows as well as in open grounds. June, July.
42 TENNESSEE FLORA.
DESCHAMPSIA Beauv.
Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. Mts. of E. Tenn., Ocoee Valley, and Lookout Mt. July.
TRISETUM Pers.
Trisetum subspicatum (L.) Beauv. var. molle Gray. Sum- mit of Roane Mountain. F. L. Scribner. July.
T. Pennsylvanicum (L.) Beauv. T. palustre Torrey. Moist places throughout the Alleghanies. June, July.
AVENA L.
Avena sativa L. Oat. Cultivated; occurs frequently self- sown in fields and on roadsides. July.
Our common oats are, perhaps, derived from the wild oats of Europe. Avena fatua L. a variable species, through culti- vation. There are distinguished two classes—“ panicle oats,” with widely-spreading panicles, and “ banner oats,” with pan- icles contracted and one-sided. Both of them vary again in the envelopment of the grain, being either “ chaffy ” or naked fruited. Oats are also distinguished by the color of the grain, as “ white oats’ or “ black oats.” Its cultivation reaches back into prehistoric times.
ARRHENATHERUM Beauv.
Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. Oat grass. Old City Cemetery and in fence rows, vicinity of Nashville. June, July.
DANTHONIA D. C.
Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv. Wild oat grass. Hilltops around Nashville, in siliceous soils. June.
D. sericea Nutt. Cedar glades, Edgefield Junction; dry soils in the ridges of E. Tenn. May, June.
D. compressa Aust. Throughout the higher mountains of tena. piuly.
CHLORIDE. CAPRIOLA Adans.
Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze. Cynodon Dactylon Pers. Bermuda Grass. Does not mature seed and has to be prop- agated by cuttings. Along river banks and in grass plots, where it soon suppresses the other grasses. July-September.
SPARTINA Schreb.
Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd. Marsh grass. Browns- ville, W. Tenn. September, October.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 43
CHLORIS Sw.
Chloris verticillata Nutt. As a weed in the garden of J. Rath, in Cleveland. May-July.
GYMNOPOGON Beauv.
Gymnopogon racemosus Beauv. Barrens at Tullahoma. July.
BOUTELOUA Lag.
Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. B. racemosa Lag. Mesguite grass; Grama grass. Cedar glades, Lavergne. July.
ELEUSINE Gaert.
Eleusine Indica (L.) Gaertn. Crab grass. Introduced, and
now in every waste place. O.S. June-September.
LEPTOCHLOA Beauv.
Leptochloa mucronata (Michx.) Kunth. In cultivated grounds. O.S. July-September.
PES LUCE A:
GYNERIUM H. B. K.
Gynerium argenteum Nees. The Pampas grass is frequent- ly cultivated for ornament, but is too tender to survive the winter in open grounds.
ARUNDO L.
Arundo Donax L. Reed. Cultivated for ornament, espe- cially the white-banded var. A. Donax variegata. The com- mon variety grows very tall (fifteen feet high), and both ma- ture seed, but do not spread beyond cultivation. July-Sep- tember.
SIEGLINGIA Bernh. (Triodia R. Br.)
Sieglingia sessleroides (Michx.) Scribner. (Triodea cuprea jebejacd)= O..S. In allsoilsssSeptember,-October.
ERAGROSTIS Beauv.
Eragrostis capillaris (L.) Nees. Frequent in E. Tenn. Scribn.
Eragrostis major Host. FE. poaeoides var. megastrachya Gray.” ba cultivated. grounds: ‘OO: S.. ‘August, September. Introduced.
E. Brownei Kunth. Low and decumbent. Differs from
+4 TENNESSEE FLORA.
Eragrostis minor, and seems to be indigenous to the cedar barrens. July-September.
E. Frankii Steud. Abundant in the cedar glades; unpleas- ant smelling. July, August.
E. pilosa (L.) Beauv. Naturalized from Europe. Fre- quent around Knoxville. F. L. Scribn.
E. Purshii Schrad. Waste grounds, streets of Nashville. August, September.
E. pectinacea (Michx.) Steudel. FE. pectinacea var. specta- bilis A. Gray. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August, September.
E. refracta (Miihl.) Scribn. Dry uplands and cedar glades. M. Tenn. July-September.
E. secundiflora Presl. E. oxylepis Torr. Vicinity of Mem- phis. Dr. G. Egeling.
E: ‘hypnoides. (kam;)°B,1S) P= “Ho reptanst Nees. * Weer. sandy soils and river banks. O.S. August, September.
EATONIA Raf.
Eatonia obtusata (Michx.) A. Gray. Hills on Cumberland River, below Nashville. May.
E. Pennsylvanica Gray. Copses around Nashville; com- mon. May, June. E. filiformis Vasey. Dry hills, Chester County. S. M. Sain.
E. Dudleyi Vasey. Copses. O.S. April, May.
MELICA L.
Melica mutica Walt. Shaded hillsides and ravines. O. S. May, June.
KORYCARPUS Zea. (Diarrhena Beauv.)
Korycarpus diandrus (Michx.) Kuntze. Diarrhena Amer- icana Beauv. Rich soil; not very frequent. July-September.
UNIOLA L.
Uniota latifolia Michx. Creek and river bottoms. O. S. July-August.
U; laxa (:.) “B.S. Ba Usemcilis Micha sin thicketsmek: Tenn. F.L.Scribn. Nashville. July, August.
U. longifolia Scrib. Perhaps a variety of the former. Tul- lahoma, Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
DACTYLIS L. Dactylis glomerata L. Orchard grass. Growing in tus-
Bet
TENNESSEE FLORA. 45
socks, it is not adapted for meadow culture by itself; fully naturalized. June-October.
CYNOSURUS L.
Cynosurus cristatus L. Has been recently introduced to cultivation in this State, and is naturalized in Canada and the Eastern States.
POA. TE:
Poa annua L. Six weeks’ grass. Introduced, and now ev- erywhere abundant; annual. March-October.
P. Chapmanniana Scribn. P. cristata Chapm. Springy places, West Nashville (‘New Town”), near Nashville; Knoxville. A. Ruth.
P. compressa L. English blue grass. Introduced and thoroughly naturalized. May-July.
P. pratensis L. Kentucky blue grass. Makes the best meadows in calcareous soils. June-August.
PR. trivialis 1. — Occurs very rarely in this. State. —Intre- duced.
P. autumnalis Miihl. P. flexuosa Miihl. Moist thickets on Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. June, July.
P. sylvestris Gray. Woodlands. O.S. May.
P. alsodes Gray. Mts. of E. Tenn: ~F. L. Seribn.
P, Wolfii Scrib. Cedar glades at Lavergne. May, June.
P. brevifolia Mihl. Hillsides around Nashville. Knox- wiles A> Ruth. April, May.
P. debilis Torr. On White Top Mountain, West Virginia, jek. omall.- Smoky Mts., E. Tenn.
PANICULARIA Fabr. (Glyceria R. Br.)
Panicularia elongata (Willd.) Kuntze. Glyceria elongata Trin, Roane Mountain... F, L. Scribn.
P. nervata (Willd.) Kuntze. Gylceria nervata Trin. Wet meadows; common. ©O.S. June-September.
P. acutiflora (Torr.) Kuntze. Glyceria acutiflora Kuntze. One-mile Pond, near old waterworks, Nashville. June.
P. pallida (Torr.) Kuntze. Edge of a millpond in Duck-. town. July.
P. Americana (Torr.) McMillan. Glyceria aquatica Smith. Bell’s Bend, Davidson County; in low grounds near the Cum- berland River. June, July.
P. fluitans (L.) Kuntze. In swamps and muddy places.
FESTUCA L.
Festuca octoflora Walt. F. tenella Willd. Hilltops, sili- ceous ground, M. Tenn.;common. April, May.
46 TENNESSEE FLORA.
F. rubra L. var. glaucescens Haeck. Rocky banks of Cum- berland River, near Nashville. June, July.
F. Myuros L. Nashville, near lunatic asylum, introduced. Knoxville. Scribn.
F. ovina L. Sparingly occurring; introduced. Knoxville. i. J. Scribner:
F. elatior L. Tall Fescue grass; naturalized. The var. arundinarea Schreb. is found scatteringly in the vicinity of Nashville, the old Akin place. June, July.
F. Shortii Kunth. Collected in the barrens near Tullaho- ma. It greatly resembles F. elatior.
BROMUS L.
Bromus ciliatus L. B. purgans L. Woods and thickets. O. S. July, August. The variety purgans Gray differs but little in pubescence.
B. sterilis L. Old field on Granny White Pike, near Nash- ville. June.
B. hordaceus L. B. mollis L. Soft chess. In fields- and waste places. -O: S..ojune.
B. secalinus L. Cheat, chess. A weed in grain fields. O. S. June-August.
B. racemosus L. Fields and pastures. O.S. June, July.
B. unioloides H. B. K. Recently introduced in this State in cultivation, and a plot of it was planted in the Centennial grounds. July.
HORDEACE.
LOLIUM L.
L. temulentum L. Darnel. Waste grounds. O. S. June- August.
L. Italicum A. Br. Introduced and sparingly cultivated. A plot of it was cultivated at Centennial grounds.
AGROPYRUM J. Gaertner.
Agropyrum repens (L.) Beauv. Couch grass. An ex- tremely troublesome weed in fields and gardens, but not fre- quent in this latitude. Introduced. June-September. WM.
A. caninum L. Occasionally introduced with field and gar- den seeds. July, August.
SECALE L.
Secale cereale L. Rye. This State is in the southern limit of profitable culture of this cereal. Still found spontaneously growing in Southern Russia, its original home is apparently
TENNESSEE FLORA. ae i
in the Caucasus and adjoining territories. First vestiges of its culture are found in the Swiss lake dwellings. WM.
TRITICUM L. “
Triticum sativum L. Wheat. The origin of culture of the wheat in several varieties reaches back into prehistoric times. Grains are found embedded in Egyptian and Assyrian tiles. Indian and Hindoo myths relate its early use, as do likewise the sacred writings of the Hebrews. In our time we distin- guish the following varieties, some of which are extensively cultivated in this State:
T. sativum hibernum L. Winter wheat.
T. sativum estivum L. Summer wheat.
T. sativum nudum L. Unbearded wheat.
T. sativum album L. White wheat.
T. sativum rubrum L. Red or Mediterranean wheat.
The following species and varieties are less common in cul- tivation and have, perhaps, never been tried in Tennessee:
T. turgidum and T. compositum L. Turgid wheat. The latter is only a subvariety. The spikes of T. compositum are compound or ramified. It yields very heavy crops, and is best adapted to warm climates.
T. durum Desf. T. rubrum Kunth. Hard or horny wheat. Cultivated principally in Northern Africa and in Southern Spain.
T. Polonicum L. Grown mainly in Russia.
T. Spelta (L.) Spelt. This species is extensively culti- vated in Southern Germany, Hungaria, and Russia in the fer- tile heavy red clay soils of these countries. It forms very large and heavy grains which adhere to the chaff from which they have to be separated like the chaff of the rice.
T. dicoccum Schrank. Two-grained wheat; adapted to high altitudes, resisting severe cold.
T. monococcum L. Single-grained wheat, reserved for the poorest rocky soils which would not support other varieties.
HORDEUM L.
Hordeum nodosum L. H. pratense Huds. Wild barley. Dry, rocky places. O.S. May, June.
Hordeum pusillum Nutt. Similar localities like the former. ©..S.. -May, June.
H. distichum L. Two-rowed barley. Long-eared barley. Heads flattened and two-ranked, husk attached to the grain. Cult. :
H. distichum Zeocriton L. Battle-door barley, a variety of the former. Cult.
48 TENNESSEE FLORA.
H. vulgare L. Grains arranged in four rows. Cult.
H. hexastichum L. Grains arranged in six rows. Cult.
The latter four species are found in cultivation only. They have ceased’ to mature germinating seed outside of cultiva- tion in our latitude. Hordeum distichum is still found in a wild state in Western Asia and in Arabia Petraea; Hordeum hexastichum we know to have been cultivated in the remotest ages of which we possess records in Egypt and the Syro-Baby- lonian countries.
ELYMUS L.
Elymus striatus Willd. Wild rye. O.S. July, August.
E. striatus villosus Gray. In the barrens with the former. O.S. July, August.
E. Canadensis L. O.S. July.
E. Canadensis glaucifolius Gray. In the cedar glades. July-September.
E. Virginicus L. Very common. O.S. July.
HYSTRIX Meench.
Hystrix Hystrix (L.) Millsp. Bottle brush grass. As- prella Hystrix Willd.. In rocky ground. O. S. June, July.
BAMBUSE&. ARUNDINARIA Michx.
Arundinaria gigantea Chapm. Cane. Forming the cane- brakes of all the Southern water courses. May-July.
A. tecta Miih!l. Small cane. In low and high lands. Summit of Lookout Mt. O. S. The cain reaches maturity and dies off when the shoots attain 10°-15° height, and bears seeds from auxiliary branches. A. tecta is merely a young state throwing flowering shoots immediately from the roots.
CYPERACEZ J. St. Hill. CYPERUS L.
Cyperus flavescens L. In marshy ground. O.S. August- October.
C. diandrus Torr. With the former. July-September.
C. rivularis Kunth. C.castaneus Torr. In wet soil. O.S. August-October. 5
C. inflexus Miihl. C. aristatus Rottb. Glades and sandy iver banks: "O.S:. July:
C. pseudovegetus Steud. C. calcaratus Nees. Damp soils. Ors: july.
C. acuminatus Torr and Hook. Cedar glades. Lavergne.
July.
or)
TENNESSEE FLORA. 49
C. virens Michx. Brownsville. August.
C. rotundus L. C. Hydra Michx. Old horticultural gar- den in North Nashville. July.
C. esculentus L. C. phymatodes Mihl. Yellow nut grass. A pest in cultivated grounds. O.S. August, September.
C. esculentus angustispicatus Britt. A variety very com- mon about Nashville.
C. erythrorhizos Miihl. River swamps. O. S. August, September.
C. Hallei Torr. Reported from Tennessee in Illustrated Flora.
C. speciosus Wahl. C. Michauxianus Torr. River banks and pools. Nashville. September.
C. strigosus L. The most frequent species. O. S. August- October.
C. strigosus capitatus Bockl.
C. strigosus compositus Britt.
C. strigosus robustior Kunth.
C. strigosus elongatus Britt. All these varieties are found promiscuously in the same range.
C. refractus Engelm. On dry, rocky uplands. Nashville. August, September.
C. retrofractus (L.) Torr.: Hollow Rock, W. Tenn. Au- gust, September.
-C. Lancastriensis Port. Dry uplands. Old Cemetery, at Nashville. August, September.
C. ovularis Torr incl. var. robustus Boekl. and var. sphericus Beekl. Frequent in the glades of M. Tenn.
C. filiculmis Vahl. Dry uplands, vicinity of Nashville, and O. S. June-September.
C. echinatus (Ell.) Wood. C. Baldwinii Torr. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
KYLLINGIA Rottb. Kyllingia pumila Michx. Miry places. O. S. July, Au- gust. DULICHIUM L. C. Richard.
Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britton. Swamps along Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. August-October.
ELEOCHARIS R. Br.
Eleocharis mutata (L.) R. & S. E. quadrangulata R. & S. Bogs along Cumberland River. July-September.
E. ovata (Roth.) R.&S. Bogs. O.S. July-September.
E. Engelmanni Steud. FE. ovata var. Engelmanni Britt. Damp soil in the barrens. July.
50 TENNESSEE FLORA.
E. palustris (L.) R.& S. Ponds and swamps. O.S. July- September.
E. acicularis R. Br. Wet lands. O.S. July-September.
E. tenuis (Willd.) Schultes. Barrens and highlands. O. S. July, August.
E. acuminata (Miihl.) Nees. E. compressa Sull. Frequent along water courses. O.S. June-August.
DICHROMENA Michx.
Dichromena latifolia Baldw. Barrens at Tullahoma. June- August.
FIMBRISTYLIS Wahl.
Fimbristylis laxa Wahl. Cedar glades, Lavergne. July- September. F. autumnalis (L.) R.& S. Bogs and ditches. O. S. June- September. STENOPHYLLUS Raf.
Stenophyllus capillaris (L.) Britton. Fimbristylis capil- laris A. Gray. Sandy soil in the Cumberland Mts. June, July.
SCIRPUS L.
Scirpus debilis Pursh. Bogs, W. Tenn. August, Septem- ber.
S. lacustris L. Bulrush. In a marshy meadow near rail- road station, Cleveland, E. Tenn. June-September.
S. fluviatilis (Torr.) A. Gray. Bogs along Ocoee River, E. Tenn. June-September.
S. atrovirens Miihl. In bogs. O.S. June-August.
S. polyphyllus Vahl. O.S. June, July.
S. cespitosus L. Roane Mt., Chickering.
S. sylvaticus L. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small. June-August.
S. carinatus (H. & A.) Britton. Madison, W. Tenn. S. M.
Bain. June-August.
' _§. divaricatus Ell. Jackson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. June- August.
S. lineatus Michx. Eriophorum lineatum Benth. & Hooker. Wet places in the glades. June-September.
S. cyperinus (L.) Kunth. Eriophorum cyperinum L.~ In swamps. O.S. August, September.
ERIOPHORUM L.
Eriophorum polystachium L. Cotton grass. Mountain bogs. E. Tenn. July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 51
E. Virginicum L. In bogs of the Cumberland Mts. June- September.
HEMICARPHA Nees & Arn.
Hemicarpha micrantha (Vahl.) Britton. Bottom lands along Cumberland River, near Nashville. July, August.
RHYNCHOSPORA Vahl.
Rhynchospora alba Vahl. Bogs in the Cumberland Mts. and Alleghanies. July.
Rh. glomerata (L.) Vahl. Bon Air, Tullahoma, Lookout Mt. August.
Rh. fusca (L.) R.& S. Bogs inthe Cumberland Mts. July, August.
Rh. cymosa Ell. Bogs. O.S. July, August.
Rh corniculata (Lam:) “A. Gray. Swamps. . ©: 3. July: September.
SCLERIA Berg.
Scleria triglomerata Michx. Lookout Mt., Tullahoma. July. Sc. pauciflora Miihl. Dry glades, Lavergne. June-Septem- ber. CAREX Ruppius Sedge.
Carex follicularis L. Mts. of S. W.Va. J. K. Small.
C. intumescens Rudge. Swamps along Cumberland River, FE. Tenn. August, September.
C. Asa Grayi Bailey. Swamps in W. Tenn. September.
C. lupuliformis Sartw. C. lupulina var. polystachya Schw. & Torr. Swamps. O.S. August.
C. bullata Schku. Swamps. O.S. June-August.
C. lurida Wahl. C. tentaculata Miihl. Edgefield Junction, South Tunnel. August, September.
C. Baileyi Britt. C. tentaculata var. gracilis Booth. In Tennessee (fide) Illustrated Flora.
C. hystricina Miihl. Knoxville. A. Ruth. June-August.
C2brankit Kunth. .Cxstenolepislorr. . Swamps. OS. June-September.
C. squarrosa L. Bogs. O.S. June-September.
C. Shortiana Dewey. Tunnel Hill, Nashville, E. Tenn. May-July.
C. scabrata-Schwein. FE. Tenn. Curtiss. May, June. June.
C. vestita Willd. O.S. June, July.
Cortada baott, 15. WaVa. - jake Small Exfenn?: A. Ruth.
or to
TENNESSEE FLORA.
C. prasina Wahl. C. miliacea Miihl. Mts. of E. Tenn. May-July.
C. crinita Lam. Cumberland Mts., Whiteside. June, July.
C. virescens Miihl. Cumberland Mts., valley of E. Tenn. June, July.
C. Caroliniana Schwein. Hiwassee Valley. Kearney. May-July.
C. gracillima Schwein. Bogs. Jones’ Bend, Davidson County. May-July.
C. zstivalis M. A. Curtis. Clingman Dome, summit. Roane Mt., Chickering. June-August.
C. oxylepis Torr. & Hook. Illustrated Flora for Tennessee. May, June.
C. Davisii Schwein. & Torr. Bogs, near Nashville. May- July.
C. triceps Michx. Glades of M. Tenn. April-August.
C. tenuis Rudge. C. debilis Michx. Bogs. Summer County. June, July.
C. amphibola Steud. C. grisea var. angustifolia Boott. O.S. April-June.
C. glaucodea Tuckerm. C. grisea var. mutica Carey. Moist tickets: “OLS. June; July:
C. flaccosperma Dew. C-. laxiflora var. mutica Torr. Thick- ers) Oo. a) une,
C. granularis Miihl. Wet meadows. O.S. May-July.
C. Crawei Dew. Cedar glades, Lavergne. May, June.
C. oligocarpa Schk. Paradise Ridge, Jones’ Bend, David- son County. June.
C. Hitchcockiana Dew. Adjoining Tennessee, Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small. May-July.
C. laxiflora Lam. Wet woodlands. O.S. May-July.
C. plantaginea Lam. Ducktown, E. Tenn. Waters of Hol- ston River. J. K. Small. May, June.
C. setifolia (Dewey) Britton. C. uburnea Boott E. Tenn. A. Ruth. May-July.
C. Pennsylvanica Lam. Dry woodlands. O.S. May, June.
C. varia Miihl. C. Emmonsii Dewey. Nashville, Knox. ville. A. Ruth. May-July.
C. nigro-marginata Schwein. Dry copses, Nashville. May- July.
C. Jamesii Schwein. C. Steudelii Kunth. Highlands. O. Sees April May.
C. leptalea Wahl. C. polytrichoides Willd. Mountain bogs, E. Tenn. June-August.
C. Fraseri Andr. Southwest Virginia, adjoining Tennes- see. J. K. Small. May-July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 53
.juncea Willd. Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
. Stipata Miihl. White Top Mt. J. K. Small.
. teretiuscula Goodw. Mts. of E. Tenn. May-July.
. vulpinoidea Michx. .O.S. June-August.
. rosea Schk. E. Tenn. May-July.
. retroflexa Miihl. Nashville. May-July.
. radiata Dewey. C. rosea_var. radiata Britt. E. Tenn. emuthy,
C. sparganioides Miihl. Rich woods. O.S. June-August.
C. cephalophora Miihl. Nashville. Kingston Springs. May-July.
C. Miithlenbergii Schk. Nashville. May-July.
C. sterilis Willd. O.S. May-July.
C. canescens L. O.S. Nashville. May-July.
C. brunnescens Poir. C. canescens var. alpicola Wahl. Summit of White Top.
C. brunnescens gracilior Britt. With the former. Moun- tains of Southwest Virginia and perhaps in the Smokies. J. Ke Small. june; July:
C. cephaloidea Dewey. Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. May-July.
C. tribuloides Wahl. C. lagopodioides Schk. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
C. scoparia Schk. Mts. of E. Tenn. June, July.
C. cristatella Britt. C. cristata Schwein. Southwest Vir- eamiae- J. K. Small.
C. macrokolea Steud. C. verrucosa Ell. Madison, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. June-August.
C. straminea Willd. O.S. June, July.
C. Digitalis Willd. Low grounds. O.S. June, July.
C. Careyana Torr. Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small.
C. laxiculmis Schwein. White Top “Mt., Southwest Vir- Pinta Je i-Small.- May, June:
C. Atlantica Bailey. C. stellulata var. conferta Chapm. Jackson.~ S: Ma Bain.-. june:
C. Leavenworthii Dewey. E. Tenn.- A. Ruth.
C. Austro-Carolinensis Britton. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
ARACE Neck.
ARISAEMA Mart.
Arisema triphyllum (L.) Torrey. Indian Turnip. Jack- in-the-pulpit. Rich, moist woodlands. O. S. April, May. M.
A. Dracontium (L.) Schott. Dragon root. With the for- mer. .On5. ‘April; May.
PELTANDRA: Raf. Peltandra Virginica (L.) Kunth. O.S. Inswamps. July.
HAO CIAG QA
54 TENNESSEE FLORA.
SPATHYEMA Raf. Symplocarpus Salisb.
Spathyema fetida (L.) Salisb. Symplocarpus feetidus Nutt. Mountain bogs, E. Tenn.; Duck River, M. Tenn. Skunk cabbage. February-April. M.
ORONTIUM L. Orontium aquaticum L. Golden Club. Cleveland, E. Tenn. With Peltandra. April. ACORUS L.
Acorus Calamus L. Calamus root. FE. Tenn. Perhaps from imported stock. Cultivated here and there. WM.
LEMNACE® Dumort.
SPIRODELA Schleid. Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleiden. In all ponds. O.S.
LEMNA L.
Lemna trisulca L. Ponds and ditches. O. S.
i.gibba l. Duck weed! In all ponds: -©.S:
L. minor L. With the former.
L. perpusilla Torr. Shelby Pond, Nashville. June, July.
WOLFFIA Horkel.
Wolffia Columbiana Karst. Slightly submerged and fre- quently adhering to other aquatics. Stagnant ponds near Nashville. June, July.
W. Brasiliensis Weddel. Floating on the surface. In a pond on the grounds-of the Tennessee Hospital for the In- sane. June, July.
XYRIDACE Lindley. XYRIS. L.
Xyris flexuosa Miihl. Yellow-eyed grass. In a swamp in Hadley’s Bend, in Davidson County. Marshy regions in the oak barrens at Tullahoma. July-September.
X. montana H. Ries. X. flexuosa var. pusilla Gray. Moun- tain meadows and brooks. Mts. of E. Tenn. July, August.
ERIOCAULONACEA.
ERIOCAULON Lindl.
Eriocaulon decangulare L. Pipewort. Mountain mead- ows of E. Tenn. June-October.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 55.
COMMELINACE Reichenb. COMMELINA L.
Commelina nudiflora L. Day flower. Alluvial banks. O. S. July, August.
C. hirtella Vahl. Shaded bluffs, Nashville. August-Octo- ber.
C. Virginica: L. Copses. O.-S.
C. Virginica angustifolia Michx. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. July, August.
TRADESCANTIA L.
Tradescantia Virginiana L. Spiderwort. Rich woodlands. OrS.. May, ’
T. montana Schuttlw. Wolf Creek, Cocke County, E. Tenn. hohe wwearmey.. june, July:
T. brevicaulis Raf. Bluffs on Mill Creek, Nashville. June.
PONTEDERIACEZ Dumort. PONTEDERIA L.
Pontederia cordata L. Pickerel weed. Wild Goose Pond, near Mitchellville, Robertson County. June-October.
HETERANTHERA R. & P.
Heteranthera uniformis R. & P. Mud plantain. Ditches and ponds. O.S. August.
H. limosa (Sw.) Willd. With the former. O.S. Ponds near Nashville. August.
H. dubia (Jacq.) MacM. Schollera graminifolia A. Gray. Water star grass. E.and W. Tenn.
JUNCACEA Vent. JUNCUS L.
Juncus effusus L. Common rush. In swamps and moist places. O.S. June-September.
J. bufonius L. Toadrush. In clayey soil. July-October.
J. tenuis Willd. Roadsides in damp soil; very common. OFS. jane:
J. secundus Beauv. J. tenuis var. secundus Engelm. E. Tenn. Oakland Station, Robertson County.
J. setaceus Rostk. Along streams. O.S. June, July.
J. repens Michx. Miry places in the barrens of M. Tenn. Tullahoma. June-August.
J. marginatus Rostk. Mts. of E. Tenn. and in the oak bar- rens of M. Tenn. June.
56 TENNESSEE FLORA.
J. pelocarpus EF. Meyer. | Tullahoma. July. J. articulatus L. Cleveland, E. Tenn. July. J. Canadensis J. Gray. Mts. of E. Tenn. August, Septem- ber.
J. acuminatus Michx. O.S. Var. legitimus Engelm. Au- gust.
J. acuminatus debilis (A. Gray). Engelm.
J. robustus (Engelm.) Coville. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn. August, September.
J. diffusissimus Engelm. Ponds in the barrens at Tulla- homa.
J. leptocaulis Torr. & Gray. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. May, June.
JUNCOIDES Adans. (Luzula DC.)
Juncoides pilosum (L.) Kuntze. Wood rush. Luzula pi- dosa Willd -OxS: ‘April; May:
J. campestre (L.) Kuntze. Luzula campestris DC. Wood- lands. O.S. June, July.
MELANTHACEA R. Br.
XEROPHYLLUM Michx.
Xerophyllum asphodeloides Michx. Turkey beard. Dry woodlands, E. Tenn. A. Ruth. May-July.
CHAMZELIRIUM Willd.
Chamelirium luteum (L.) A. Gray. Blazing star. Ch. Carolinianum Willd. Dry woodlands. O.S. May-July. MM.
CHROSPERMA Raf. (Amianthium A Gray.) Chrosperma muscztoxicum (Walt.) Kuntze. Amianthium
muscetoxicum A. Gray. Fly poison. Boggy woodlands, E. Tenn. Cave Spring, Roane County. May, June.
STENANTHIUM Kunth.
Stenanthium gramineum (L.) Morong. St. angustifolium Kunth. Chilhowee and Cumberland Mts. July, August.
St. robustum S. Watson. Wet ground. Tullahoma, South Tunnel, and in the Frog Mts., E. Tenn. July.
ZYGADENUS Michx.
Zygadenus leimanthoides S. Watson. Frog Mts., E. Tenn.
July. Z. angustifolius S. Watson. Barrens at Tullahoma. June.
TENNESSEE FLORA. Wg
MELANTHIUM L.
Melanthium Virginicum L. Bush flower. High moun- tains of E. Tenn. July. M. parviflorum S. Watson. With the former. June, July.
VERATRUM L.
Veratrum viride Ait. American white hellebore. Indian poke. Wolf Creek and Bench Mt., Cocke County, E. Tenn. May-July. M.
UVULARIA L.
Uvularia perfoliata L. Bellworth. South Tunnel, Sumner County. Highlands of M. Tenn. May, June.
U. grandiflora J. E. Smith. Rich soil on the bluffs of Cum- _ berland River. Paradise Ridge. April-June.
U. sessilifolia L. Oakland Station, Robertson County. June, July.
U. puberula Michx. Oakesia puberula S. Watson. South- west Virginia, adjoining Tennessee. J. K. Small.
LILIACEA Adans.
HEMEROCALILIS L.
Hemerocallis fulva L. Day lily. Introduced and escaped from cultivation. Near old homesteads. June, July. H. flava L. Introduced and sometimes astray. June, July.
ALLIUM L.
Allium tricoccum Ait. Wildleek. Mts. of E. Tenn. June, July.
A. cernuum Roth. Wild onion. Frequent. O. S. July, August.
A. vineale L. Crow garlick. A weed in cultivated grounds. Old City Cemetery, Nashville. June, July .
A. Alleghanense John K. Small. Buffalo Park, Wolf Creek. frp Alen:
A. Canadense L. Moist thickets. O.S. May, June.
A. mutabile Michx. Cedar glades, Lavergne. May.
The following species are in general cultivation: . Cepa L. The onion, in several varieties. . sativum L. Garlic. =Porrun I. -Eeek. . Ascallonicum L. Shallot. . Scorodoprasum L. Rocambole or potato onion. Schoenoprasum L. Chive.
PP PP Pp
@ Ig TENNESSEE FLORA.
NOTHOSCORDIUN Kunth.
Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britton. Frequent... O. S.
March-June. LILIUM L.
Lilium Philadelphicum L. Red lily. Cumberland Mts. Mrs. J. Bennett.
L. Canadense L. Yellow lily. Moist woodlands. Para- dise Ridge. Mountains about Ducktown, E. Tenn. July.
L. Grayi S. Watson. Summit of Roane Mt. Prof. A. Gray. Chickering. July.
L. superbum L. Turk’s-cap lily. High peaks of the East Tennessee mountains. Frog Mt. July.
L. Carolinianum Mich. Mountain region of E. Tenn., ad- joining North Carolina. July.
ERYTHRONIUM L. Erythronium Americanum Ker. Yellow adder’s tongue. OS. 5 April.” ae: E. albidum Nutt. White adder’s tongue. White’s Bend, below Nashville. ‘Roane Mt., E. Tenn. Canby. QUAMASIA Rai. Quamasia hyacinthina (Raf.) Britton. Scilla Fraseri A. Gray. Wild hyacinth. Rich woodlands. O.S. April. SCHOENOLIRIUM Gray. Schoenolirium croceum Gray. Moist places in the cedar glades at Lavergne. May. ORNITHOGALUM L.
Ornithogalum umbellatum L. Star of Bethlehem. Natu- talized from Europe. Frequent in grass plots and fields. May-June.
MUSCARI Mill. Muscari botryoides L. Grape hyacinth. Adventive from Europe. Escaping in adjoining fields. April. ALETRIS L. Aletris farinosa L. Star grass. Colic root. Frequent in ahe.oak barrens. -©. 9. = june. pile YUCCA,L.
Yucca filamentosa L. Adam’s needle. Dry, rocky ground. Dios. May. .
TENNESSEE FLORA. 59
CONVALLARIACEA Lindl. ASPARAGUS L.
Asparagus officinalis L. Escaped from cultivation and nat- uralized. May, June.
CLINTONIA Raf.
Clintonia borealis Raf. Summits of the Smoky Mts., White Top Mt:, Pine Mt. S.W.Va. J. K. Small. C. umbellata Torr. Big Frog Mt., Smoky Mts. June.
VAGNERA Adans. (Smilacina Desf.)
Vagnera racemosa (L.) Morong. Wild spikenard. Rich woodlands. O.S. May-July.
V. stellata (L.) Morong. Solomon’s seal. Waters of Hol- ston River. J. K. Small. June.
UNIFOLIUM Adans.
Unifolium Canadense (Desf.) Greene. Smilacina bifolia var. Canadensis A. Gray. Summit of Big Thunderhead, Smoky Mts. May-July.
DISPORUM Salisb.
Disporum lanuginosum (Michx.) Nichols. Prosartes lanug- inosa Don. Rich woodlands. O.S. May, June.
D. maculatum Benth. & Hooker. Prosartes maculata Gray. Mes: of FE. Tenn.
STREPTOPUS Michx. Streptopus roseus Michx. Smoky Mts., Big Thunderhead. May-July. POLYGONATUM Adans. Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell: Hairy. Solomon’s seal. Woods and thickets. O.S. April-July. P. commutatum (R. & S.) Dietrich. P. giganteum Diet.
Solomon’s seal. In rich, moist woodlands. Along water courses. May-July.
CONVALLARIA L.
Convallaria majalis L. Lily of the valley. Frequent in cultivation, but native of the higher Alleghanies. Little and Big Frog Mt., E. Tenn. May, June. M.
MEDEOLA L.
Medeola Virginiana L. Indian cucumber root. Cumber- land and Alleghany Mts. May.
60 TENNESSEE FLORA.
TRILLIUM L.
Trillium sessile L. Wake robin. Moist woodlands. O. S. April.
T. recurvatum Beck. With the former. Nashville.
Eaglesville, Rutherford County. S.M. Bain. April-June.
T. grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. Hills west of Nashville, Cumberland Mts., Knoxville. A. Ruth. April.
7 ereetum 15.>--@>.s2) April. - <i.
T. cernuum L. Lookout Mt., Ducktown. April.
T. undulatum Willd. T. erythrocarpum Michx. Ocoee Val- ley, Polk County. White Top Mt., Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small.
T. Underwoodii n. sp. J. K. Small in Torr. Botanical Bul- letin, April, 1897. North Carolina and Tennessee mountains. April, May.
T. viride Beck. T. sessile var. NuttalliiS. Watson. Woods and glades. Tennessee to Missouri. April, May.
T. luteum Small. ined. Rich woods. Knox County. A. Ruth. May.
SMILACEAS Vent. SMILAX L.
Smilax herbacea L. Carion flower. Woods and thickets. Os. - April-June, oi,
S. tamnifolia Michx. In dry soil. O.S. May, June.
Smilax ecirrhata S. Watson. Southwest Virginia, adjoin- ing Tennessee. J. K. Small. May, June.
S. glauca Walter. Greenbrier. Dry, sandy soil. _O. S. May, June.
S. rotundifolia L. S. quadrangularis Willd. Greenbrier, Horsebrier. Very abtindant in M. Tenn.
S. rotundifolia crenulata Small & Heller. Waters of Hol- ston Riber. J. K: Small.” June.
S. hispida Miihl. Low, moist thickets. Nashville. O. S. June, July.
S. Pseudo-China L. Sarsaparilla. Tuberous rootstock, lo- cally known as sarsaparilla. Along river banks and up to the mountains. March-August. M.
S. Bona-nox L. S. tamnoides A. Gray. In thickets. O. S. April-June.
S. laurifolia L. Foot of Lookout Mt. Memphis. An ever- green, useful for decorations. March-September.
S. Walteri Pursh. In wet ground. Credited to Tennessee in Illustrated Flora.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 61
AMARYLLIDACE/® Lindl.
HYMENOCALILIS Salisb.
Hymenocallis occidentalis (Le Conte), Kunth. Pancra- tium Carolinianum L. Moist, meadow lands. O. S. July- September.
AGAVE L. Agave Virginica L. Indry soil. O.S. July, August.
HYPOXIS L.
Hypoxis erecta L. Star grass. In dry glades. O. S. May.
DIOSCOREACEZ: Lindl.
DIOSCOREA L. Dioscorea villosa L. Wild yam root. In moist thickets. 5, june, july. i. D. Batatas L. Is sometimes found as an ornamental vine in our gardens, but is not cultivated for its deeply-buried tu- bers.
IRIDACEA Lindl.
IRIS L.
Iris versicolor L. Larger Blue Flag. In marshes and thick- ets. O.S. May-July. W.
I. hexagona Walter. On the western side of Tennessee River at Johnsonville. Hollow Rock. April, May.
I. prismatica Pursh. I. Virginica Mihl. Abundant in the wet oak barrens east of Tullahoma. May, June.
I. Germanica L. Fleur-de-lis. On an abandoned garden plot on Charlotte Pike, near Nashville. May, June.
I. fulva Ker. I. cuprea Pursh. W. Tenn., near Humboldt. May, June.
I. cristata Ait. On hillsides and in open woodlands. O. 5S. April, May.
I. verna L. Cumberland Mts. Rugby. Mrs. Percival. April, May.
NEMASTYLIS Nutt.
Nemastylis acuta (Bart.) Herb. Ixia acuta Bart. Cred- ited to Tennessee in the Illustrated Flora.
GEMMINGIA Fabr. (Pardanthus Ker.)
Gemmingia Chinensis (L.) Kuntze. Pardanthus Chinen- sis Ker. Blackberry lily. O. S. Very abundant. I col- lected it already fifty years ago in the remotest mountain
62 TENNESSEE FLORA.
glens, and think it is really indigenous, not naturalized from Psia: 7s) une:
SISYRINCHIUM L.
Sisyrinchium graminoides Bicknell. Blue-eyed grass. Sisyrinchium anceps Wats. O.S. April-June.
S. angustifolium Mill. S. mucronatum Michx. O. S. May, June.
ORCHIDACEZ Lindl. CYPRIPEDIUM L.
- Cypripedium regine Walt. C. spectabile Salisb. Lady’s slipper. Ducktown. June-September.
C. hirsutum Mill. C. pubescens Willd. Paradise Ridge, near Nashville; Lookout Mt., and throughout the Cumberland Mts. May, June. M. -
C. parviflorum Salisb. Hills near Nashville. Mts. of E. Tenn. May-July.
C. acaule Ait. Moccasin flower. Alleghanies and Cum- berland Mts. May.
ORCHIS L.
Orchis spectabilis L. Rich woodlands around Nashville. April, May. HABENARIA Willd.
Habenaria orbiculata (Pursh.) Torrey. Slopes of White Top Mt., Southwest Virginia, adjoining Tennessee. J. K. Small. July.
H. integra (Nutt.) Sprengel. Tullahoma, Mitchellville. July.
H. bracteata (Willd.) R. Br. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small. May.
H. clavellata (Michx.) Spreng. H. tridentata Willd. Fre- auent in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. July, August.
H. flava (L.) A. Gray. H. virescens Spreng. Bogs, W. Tenn. June.
H. cristata (Michx.) R. Br. Sewanee, Cumberland Mts. July, August.
H. cilaris (L.) R. Br. Edgefield Junction. E.Tenn. July, August.
H. blephariglottis (Willd.) Torrey. Tullahoma. August.
H. psycodes (L.) A. Gray. White Top Mt., S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
H. perameena A. Gray. Cedar Hill; Mitchellville, Robert- son County. July.
H. Michauxii Nutt. Grassy Cove, in the Cumberland Mts. Mrs. L. Bennett. July,
TENNESSEE FLORA. 63
POGONIA Juss.
Pogonia ophioglossoides (L.) Ker. Snake-mouth. Hiwas- see, Polk County. June, July.
P. trianthophora (Sw.) B. & P. P. pendula Lindl. In leaf mold in the highlands of M. Tenn., Mitchellville, Wartrace. Frequent. August, September.
P, divaricata (L.) B. Br. Mts. of E. Tenn. July.
P. verticillata Nutt. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith. July.
GYROSTACHYS Pers. (Spiranthes L. C. Rich.)
Gyrostachys plantaginea (Raf.) Britton. Spiranthes lati- folia Torr. Lady’s tresses. Southwest Virginia, adjoining Menmessee. J. K. Smali.~ June-August.
G. cernua (L.) Kuntze. Spiranthes cernua L. Barrens around Tullahoma. August.
G. precox (Walt.) Kuntze. Spiranthes praecox S. Watson. Grassy places. O.S. July, August.
G. simplex (A. Gray) Kuntze. Harpeth hills, south of Nashville, in siliceous soil. Abundant. August, September.
G. gracilis (Bizel.) Kuntze. Grass plots around Nashville. Barrens. September.
LISTERA R. Br.
Listera convallarioides (Sw.) Torrey. Twai-blade. Slopes of White Top Mt., Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small. June- August.
L. australis Lindl. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
PERAMIUM Salisb. (Goodyera R. Br.)
Peramium repens (L.) Salisbury. Goodyera repens R. Br. Rattlesnake plantain. O. S. P. pubescens (Willd.) McM. Mts. of E. Tenn. July.
ACHROANTHES Raf. (Microstylis Nutt.)
Achroanthes unifolia (Michx.) Raf. Microstylis ophioglos- soides Nutt. Adder’s mouth. Cumberland Mts. Mrs. L. ipennett. “leemon’s Gap. “Ae Ruth.
LEPTORCHIS Thouars. (Liparis L. C. Richard.)
Leptorchis liliifolia (L.) Kuntze. Liparis liliifolia L. C. Riche, VW. “Penns. s52M.. Baines Seow. Va. <i]. keSmiall. May-July.
L. Loesellii (L..) McM. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small. May-July.
HA TENNESSEE FLORA.
CORALLORHIZA R. Br.
Corallorhiza Corallorhyza (L.) Karst. C. innata R. Br. Coral root. Highlands of Middle Tennessee. May, June.
C. odontorhiza (Willd.) Nutt. Harpeth hills, south of Nashville. July-September. M.
C. multiflora Nutt. In leaf mold in dry woodlands. O. 5S. June, July.
C. Wisteriana Conn. E. Tenn, Hiwassee Valley. R. Ruth.
TIPULARIA Nutt.
Tipularia unifolia (Mihl.) B. & P. T. discolor Nutt. Crane fly Orchis. Vicinity of Ducktown, in Fanning County, Ga. July, August.
LIMODORUM L. (Calopogon R. Br.)
Limodorum tuberosum L. Calopogon pulchellus R. Br. Grass pink. Mts. of E. Tenn. and oak barrens of M. Tenn. June, July.
HEXALECTRIS Raf. (Bletia Nutt.)
Hexalectris aphylla (Nutt.) Raf. Bletia aphylla Nutt. Parksville, Polk County. Dry hills east of Cleveland. Un- der pines (E. Tenn.), and also under oaks (hills of Davidson County). July, August.
APLECTRUM Nutt.
Aplectrum spicatum (Walt.) B.S. P. Aplectrum hyemale Nutt. Potty root. Mts. of E. Tenn. S.W.Va. J. K. Small. May-July.
SUBCLASS 2. DICOTYLEDONES. SAURURACEZ Lindl. SAURURUS L.
Saururus cernuus L. Lizard’s tail. In stagnant waters. O.S. June-August.
JUGLANDACE& Lindl. JUGLANS L.
Juglans nigra L. Black walnut. O.S. WM.
J. cinerea L. Butternut. White walnut. Creek and river bottom lands. O.S. April, May. Fruit ripe in October. M.
J. regia L. The English walnut is sparingly introduced, and seems to grow well,
TENNESSEE FLORA. 65
HICKORIA Raf. (Carya Nutt.)
Hickoria Pecan (Marsh.) Britton. Pecan. Tennessee and Mississippi bottoms in West Tennessee. Some large trees in the vicinity of Nashville have been planted by early settlers.
H. minima (Marsh.) Britton. Carya amara Nutt. Swamp hickory. Bitternut. Swampy grounds along Cumberland River below Nashville. May, June. Fruit in October.
H. ovata (Mill.) Britton. Carya alba Nutt. Shell-bark iekory. ~©:S. May. Fruit in September.
H. laciniosa (Michx. fil) Sargent. Big shag bark. King- mut. _Carya sulcata Nutt. In rich soil. O.S. May. Fruit in September, October.
H. alba (L.) Britton. Carya tomentosa Nutt. Mockernut. O25... May. Fruit in October.
H. microcarpa (Nutt.) Britton. Carya microcarpa Nutt. Lookout Mt. May. Fruit in October.
H. glabra (Mill.) Britton. Carya porcina Nutt. Pignut hickory. Very frequent on the Cumberland Plateau. May, June. Fruit in October, November.
*H. Carolinz-septentrionalis Ashe. Tennessee. (Vide II- lustrated Flora; Appendix, page 511.)
SALICACE At. Teindt: POPULUS-E.
Populus alba L. Abele. White or silver-leaf poplar. Na- tive from Europe. Roadsides and yards. Difficult to eradi- cate where it is undesirable. March.
P. balsamifera candicans (Ait.) A. Gray. Balm of Gilead. Transplanted from the Northern territories, it escaped cultiva-
*H. Caroline-septentrionalis Ashe. A small tree attaining a max- imum height of eighty feet and a diameter of two and one-half feet, with gray bark, hanging in long, loose strips; bud scales, from eight to ten, imbricate, the inner greatly enlarging in leafing, and tardily deciduous; terminal bud, ovate-lanceolate, truncate, the scales spread- ing. barely one-third inch long; lateral buds, oblong; twigs very slender, one-eighth inch thick, glaucous, smooth, purplish-brown; staminate aments in threes, glabrous on short peduncles at base of shoots of the season; stamens, glabrous; ovary, glabrous; young fo- liage blackening in drying, glabrous, ciliate, with few resinous glob- ules; leaflets, three to five; the two upper, three-fourths inch to one and one-fourth inches wide, four to six inches long, lanceolate; lower pair, often smaller; fruit, subglobose,three-fourths inch to one and one-fourth inch long; husk, soon falling into four pieces; nut, white or brownish, much compressed, angléd, cordate or subcordate at top, thin-shelled; seed, large and sweet.
J
66 TENNESSEE FLORA.
tion, and is scatteringly found in the woods in E. Tenn. April. WM.
P. heterophylla L. Swamp or downy poplar. In wet wood- lands. April, May.
P. grandidentata Michx. Credited to our State in Gray’s Manual.
P. deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood. P. monilifera Ait. Fre- quent in all parts of the State. April, May.
P. dilatata Ait. Lombardy poplar. Frequently planted, but short-lived in this State.
SALIX L.
Salix nigra Marsh. Black willow. Banks of streams. O. Sor Aprik May: * 3AM:
S. Wardii Bebb. Along Cumberland River, Nashville. April.
S. lucida Miihl. Mts. of E. Tenn. April, May.
S. Babylonica L. Weeping willow. Widely cultivated. OxS> Native orAsia. “April: i
S. purpurea L. Basket willow. Introduced and cultivated for wickerware. March, April.
S. humilis Marsh. Prairie willow. In the oak barrens in dry soil and on the high mountains. Summit of Big Frog Mt. April.
S. tristis Ait. Dwarf gray willow. In dry barrens. Tul- lahoma. March, April.
S. sericea Marsh. Banks of White Top Creek, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. - May.
S. petiolaris J. E. Smith. Frequent around Nashville. Grows to a tree thirty feet high. April.
S. longifolia Miihl. S. fluviatilis Nutt. W. Tenn. April, May. S. alba L. Introduced from Europe. In moist soil. April. MW.
BETULACE Agardh. CARPINUS L.
Carpinus Caroliniana Walt. American hornbeam. Water beech. In moist woods. O. S. April, May. Fruit ripe in August, September.
OSTRYA Scop.
Ostrya Virginiana (Mill.) Willd. Hop hornbeam. Iron- wood. Indry lands. O.S. April, May. Fruit ripe in July, August.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 67
CORYLUS L.
Corylus Americana Walt. Hazelnut. From the mountains to the Mississippi bottoms, in which it forms widespread thickets. March, April. Nuts ripe in July.
C. rostrata Ait. Dense undergrowth in the Alleghanies. April, May. Nuts ripe in August.
BETULA L.
Betula nigra L. Red birch. A slender tree lining water courses. Frequentin W. Tenn. April, May.
B. lenta L. Sweet birch. Black birch. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. April, May. WM.
B. lutea Mich. Gray birch. Summit of Thunderhead. May.
ALNUS Gertn.
Alnus Alnobetula (Ehrh.) K. Koch. Mountain alder. Al- nus viridis DC. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June.
A. rugosa (Du Roi.) K. Koch. Smooth alder. In wet soil om hillsides.. ©: S. -.March.-M.
FAGACEA! Drude. FAGUS L.
Fagus Americana Sweet. F. ferruginea Ait. American beech. O.S. Large forest tree, attaining from 50 to 120 feet in height. April, May. Fruiting in September, October.
CASTANEA Adans.
Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Barkl. C. vesca var. Ameri- cana Michx. American chestnut. A large forest tree pre- ferring siliceous soil, attaining from 80 to 100 feet. Most nu- merous in the Cumberland Mts. June, July. Nuts ripe in October.
C. pumila (L.) Mill. Chinquapin. A shrub or small tree. preferring siliceous soil. O.S. June. Nuts ripe in Septem- ber.
QUERCUS L.
Quercus rubra L. Red oak. A large tree, attaining in rich land a height of 140 feet by 7 feet diameter. O. 5S. May. Acorns ripe in October, November. JM.
Q. Texana Buckley. Texan red oak. A large tree when in suitable soil. O.S. April, May. Acorns ripe in Septem- ber, October. Q. palustris Du Roi of first edition.
Q. coccinea Wang. Scarlet Oak. Big tree from 80 to 100 feet high by from 4 to 5 feet diameter. O. S. May, June. Acorns ripe in September, October.
68 TENNESSEE [LORA.
Q. velutina Lam. Q. tinctoria Bartram. Q. coccinea var. tinctoria A. Gray. Black oak. Quercitron. Large forest tree. Maximum height, about 150 feet; trunk diameter, 5 feet. O.S. April, May. Fruit maturing the next season. WM.
Q. digitata (Marsh.) Ludw. Spanish oak. (Q. falcata Michx.) Maximum height, 90 feet by 5 feet diameter. In sili- ceous soil. May, June. Acorns ripe in October.
Q. nana (Marsh.) Sargent. Q. ilicifolia Wang. Bear or scrub oak.. Dry, gravelly places in the barrens. May. Acorns maturing in October.
Q. Marylandica Moench. Black-jack oak. Stony, gravelly ridges, siliceous formations. O.S. May, June. Acorns ma- ture in October.
Q. nigra L. Water oak. Maximum height, about 80 feet; diameter, 4 feet. In siliceous and argillaceous soils. M. and E. Tenn. Prefers the banks of streams. Ocoee Valley. April, May. Acorns in September, October. Fruiting the second year.
Q. Phellos L. Willow oak. Large tree, attaining from 80 to 100 feet by 3 feet diameter. Prefers moist situations in ar- gillaceous soils. O.S. April, May. Fruit maturing in Sep- tember. Fruiting the second year.
Q. imbricaria Michx. Shingle oak. Attaining too feet by 34 feet diameter. Especially frequent in the basin of M. Tenn. April, May. Fruit maturing the second year.
Q. alba L. White oak. Maximum height, 150 feet by 5 feet diameter. O.S. May, June. Acorns mature in Septem- ber, @ctober. i.
Q. minor (Marsh.) Sargent. Post oak. Biggest size, roo feet; diameter of trunk, 4 feet. . In dry soil. O..S.. May, June. Acorns mature same year in September, October.
Q. lyrata Walt. Overcup oak. In moist soil, mostly in M. Tenn. Height, 100 feet by 3 feet diameter. April, May. Fruit maturing the first season.
Q. macrocarpa Michx. Mossy cup or bur oak. A large tree ,attaining 160 feet by 8 feet diameter. Loves rich bot- tom lands. O. S. May, June. Acorns maturing the same season. ‘They are sometimes 2 inches high. :
Q. platanoides (Lam.) Ludw. OQ. bicolor Willd. Swamp white oak. <A large tree, attaining 110 feet by 9 feet diameter. Mississippi bottoms. May, June. Acorns mature in Septem- ber, October. ;
Q. Michauxii Nutt. Cow oak. Attaining 100 feet by 7 feet diameter. Rich bottom lands. O. S. April, May. Acorns ripe in September, October.
Q. Prinus L. Rock chestnut oak. Rocky, but rich, hill-
TENNESSEE FLORA. 69
sides. Slopes of the Cumberland Mts. Bark gathered for tanning. May, June. Acorns ripe in October, November.
Q. acuminata (Michx.) Sarg. Q. Miihlenbergii Engelm. Dry or damp limestone soil. Frequent in Davidson County. May, June. Acorns ripe in October, November. Edible.
*Q. Boyntoni C. D. Beadle. n. sp. Common on Lookout Mt., near Gadsden, Ala. It very probably extends also on the Tennessee extension of Lookout Mt.
ULMACE Mirbel. Pea ieee ULMUS L. ons
Ulmus Americana L. White elm. A robust tree, attain- mena height of 120 feet; and 11 feet diameter. In rich sand moist soil. O.S. March, April. Samaras maturing in May.
U. racemosa Thomas. Rock elm. Grows to a height of 100 feet by 4 feet diameter. Inrich soil. Nashville.
U. alata Michx. Winged elm. Wahoo. A small tree. Very frequent in the glades of M. Tenn. March. Samaras ripe in April.
U. fulva Michx. Slippery elm. Tree attaining 70 feet by 24 feet diameter. Hillsides and along streams. Bark mucil- aginous, fragrant in drying. March, April. Fruit matures in April, May. JA. 7
+U. serotina Sargent. Discovered in 1878 near grounds of Vanderbilt University. Flowering in October.
PLANERA J. F. Gmelin.
Planera aquatica (Walt.) J. T. Gmelin. Planer tree. A small tree 40 feet high. Along water courses and in swamps. W. Tenn. Bridgeport. April, May.
*Q. Boyntoni C. D. Beadie. Shrub 1[-5 m. tall, usually growing in large clumps, or a small tree, with short trunk less than 1 dm. in diameter; leaves, obovate in outline, 5-9 cm. long, 1.5-4 cm. broad, with from three to five small, obtuse lobes above the middle, cuneate from the lower lobes to the base, glabrous above, tomentose beneath; acorns, sessile or short pedunculate; nut, oval or obovoid, 12 mm. high, 9-10 wide; cup, turbinate, inclosing less than one-half of the nut.
+U. serotina Sargent. ‘Tree 40 to 50 feet high, 2 to 5 feet diame- ter of trunk, with close, pale-gray bark; leaves, oblong to oblong obo- vate, acuminate, variously oblique at the base, coarsely and doubly crenulate-serrate, membranaceous, glabrous and lustrous above, pub- erulous below on the prominent midribs and veins; flowers, perfect, autumnal, racemose, from buds in the axils of the leaves of the year, long-pedicellate; calyx, six-parted at the base, its divisions oblong- cbovate, rounded at the apex; ovary, sessile, narrowed below, hirsute; samaras stipitate, oblong elliptical, deeply two-parted at the apex, cil- iate on the margin; seeds, obovate, raphe conspicuous; young leaves, stipules and bracts unknown. (Botanical Gazette, February, 1899.)
70 TENNESSEE Frora.
CELTIS L.
Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry. Maximum height, 120 feet by 5 feet diameter. O.S. April, May. Fruit matures in September.
C. Mississippiensis Bosc. Shrubby, or a smaller tree, as the foregoing. In the dry glades of M. Tenn. April. A stunted form is Celtis pumila Pursh.
MORACE/S Lindl. MORUS L.
MorusrubraL. Redmulberry. Inrichsoil. O.S. April, May. Fruit ripe in June.
M. alba L. White mulberry. Formerly used for feeding silk worms, and, therefore, imported. Sparingly escaped. May. Fruit matures in July, August.
TOXILON Raf. (Maclura Nut.)
Toxilon pomiferum Raf. A small tree indigenous to the Transmississippi region. Here planted for hedges, and occa- sionally spontaneous. May, June. Fruit matures in October.
BROUSSONETIA L’Her.
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. A small dicecious tree, native of the South Sea Islands. Cultivated as a shade tree in Europe and America. All those in Nashville, with a single exception, are male. May, June. Fruit in September.
HUMULUS L.
Humulus Lupulus L. Hop. Sometimes found escaped from cultivation. July, August. Our climate is not congenial to hop culture. WM.
CANNABIS L.
Cannabis sativa L. Hemp. In waste places, escaped from cultivation or scattered from bird cages. Native of Europe and Asia. July-September. JM.
URTICACE Reichenb. URLICAN:
Urtica dioica L. Stinging nettle. Frequently introduced, but not naturalized in Tennessee. June, July.
U. gracilis Ait. Along fence rows in the mountains of E. Tenn. May, June.
U.urens L. The burning nettle. In waste places in towns
TENNESSEE FLORA. 71
where imported goods are unpacked. Does not get natural- iged- April. . . U. chemeedryoides Pursh. In thickets. Frequent around Nashville. April.
URTICASTRUM Fabr. (Laportea Gaud.)
Urticastrum divaricatum (L.) Kuntze. Wood nettle. - In rich woods. O.S. July, August.
ADICEA Raf. (Pilea Lindl.)
Adicea pumila (L.) Raf. Pilea pumila A. Gray. Rich weed. In moist situations, on rotton wood. O.S. July-Sep- tember.
BCEHMERIA Jacq.
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Willd. False nettle. In moist ral O.S.. July.
B. nivea Hooker & Arnott. Introduced from Eastern Asia, and, as reported, growing well in W. Tenn.
PARIETARIA L.
Parietaria Pennsylvanica Miihl. Pellitory. In waste ground, edge of woodlands. O.S. June, July.
LORANEHACE AL DE: PHORADENDRON Nutt.
Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh.) Nutt. American mistle- toe. Parasitic on all deciduous-leaved trees. May-July. Fruit matures in December.
SANTAE ACE ARs Br: COMANDRA Nutt. Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Bastard toad flax. Par-
asitic on roots of various plants. In the oak barrens of Tulla- homa. April-June.
PYRULARIA Michx.
Pyrularia pubera Mich. P. oleifera A. Gray. Oil nut. Buffalo nut. Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. May. Fruit ripe in August.
BUCKLEYA Torr. Buckleya distichophylla Torr. Along the road from Wolf
Creek to Hot Springs, N. C. Along French Broad River. May.
72 TENNESSEE FLORA.
ARISTOLOCHIACEA Blume. - ASARUM L.
Asarum Canadense L. Wild ginger. Woodlands. O. S. Banks of Cumberland River at Nashville. April, May. M. ] A. Virginicum L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. May,
une.
A. macranthum (Shuttlw.) Small. Valley of Ocoee River at Parksville. May.
A. arifolium Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. April-June.
A. Ruthii Ash. n.sp. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
ARISTOLOCHIA L.
Aristolochia Serpentaria L. Virginia snake root. Bluffs along Cumberland River, Nashville. E.and M. Tenn. June, July. Fruit in September. M.
A. macrophylla Lam. A. Sipho. L’Her. Dutchman‘s pipe. Mts. of E. Tenn. Along -Doe River. May, June. Fruit ripe in September.
A. tomentosa Sims. Valley of Cumberland River. May, June. Fruit in August.
POLYGONACE/ Lindl. RUMEX L.
Rumex Acetosella L. Sheep sorrel. In dry fields. O. S. May-September. WM.
R. verticillatus L. Swamp dock. Swamps along Cumber- land River. July, August.
R. altissimus Wood. R. Britannica Meisson. Moist ground praditches!: O2S: April) May.
R. crispus L. Curled dock. Native from Europe. O. S. June-August. WM.
R. conglomeratus Mun. Waste places. Nashville. May- July.
R. obtusifolius L. Bitter dock. O. S. Naturalized from Europe. June-August.
FAGOPYRUM Gatt.
Fagopyrum Fagopyrum (L.) Karst. F. esculentum Moench. Buckwheat., Frequently cultivated on the Cumberland Pla- teau, and persistent in fields after cultivation. June, July.
RHEUM L.
Rheum palmatum L. Rhubarb. Rh. compactum L., with their varieties, are important prod- ucts of the market gardens.
TENNESSEE Fora. 73
POLYGONUM L.
Polygonum emersum (Michx.) Britton. P. Miihlenbergii S. Watson. River swamps. Wild-goose pond near Mitchell- ville. July-September.
P. incarnatum Ell. In wet soil. O.S. June-September. e P. lapathifolium L. Waste places. O. S. June-Septem-
et
P. Pennsylvanicum L. In moist soil. O.S. July-Septem- ber.
P. Persicaria L. Lady’s thumb. Waste and wet ground. O. S. June-October.
P. hydropiperoides Michx. Mild water pepper. Inundated ground. O.S. June-September.
P. Hydropiper L. Smart weed. In moist waste places. O. S. July-September.
PP punctatum Ell; P. acre H.-B. K.--Water smart weed: Ponds and ditches. O.S. June-October. WM.
P. orientale L. Prince’s feather. Escaped from gardens. nS, August, September.
P. Virginianum L. Virginia knot weed. Thickets. O. S. July-November.
P. aviculare L. Knot-door weed. In all yards and road- sides. O.S. June-October.
P.erectum L. Frequently in company with P. aviculare L. O.S. July-September.
P. tenue Mich. Cumberland Plateau. Sewanee. July-
September. P. Convolvulus L. Black bind weed. Waste and culti- vated grounds. Nashville. July-September. ‘
P. dumetorum L. Hedge buckwheat. Vicinity of Knox- ville. July-September.
P. scandens L. Thickets. O.S. August, September.
P. cristatum Engelm. Climbing high. Harpeth hills, south of Nashville. August-October.
P. sagittatum L. Arrow-leaved tear thumb. Swampy lands. O.S. July-September.
P. arifolium L. Cumberland Plateau. September. BRUNNICHIA Banks.
Brunnichia cirrhosa Bank. Grounds of the Tennessee Hos- pital for the Insane, near Nashville, around the fountain. Also W.Tenn. May, June.
CHENOPODIACE Dumort. CHENOPODIUM L. Chenopodium album L. Lamb’s quarters. Pig weed. Cul-
74 TENNESSEE FLORA.
tivated grounds. O. S. June-September. Naturalized from Europe.
Ch. glaucum L. Goosefoot. W. Tenn. June-September. Naturalized.
Ch. polyspermum L. Knoxville. July-September.
Ch. Boscianum Mag. Fields and woods. O.S. July-Sep- tember.
Ch. urbicum L. Streets of Chattanooga. Adventive from ~ Europe. June-September.
Ch. murale L. Naturalized from Europe. In towns and settlements. O.S. June-September.
Ch. Botrys L. Jerusalem oak. Cultivated in gardens for its fragrancy, and naturalized from Europe. O.S. July-Sep- tember. M.
Ch. ambrosioides L. Mexican tea. Naturalized from trop- ical America. In waste grounds. Brownsville, W. Tenn. August-October.
Ch. anthelminticum L. Wormseed. Naturalized from Eu- rope. Abundant. O.S. WM.
BETA L.
Beta vulgaris L. Beet. Cultivated in numerous varieties, including the sugar beet. A native of Southern Europe, and already cultivated by the Romans.
B. Cicla L. White or Sicilian beet, native of Sicily, includ- ing a variety called Swiss chard beet, are favorite vegetables, and the blanched and sliced leaves and midribs are served as salads.
B. maritima L. The sea beet or mangold wurzel, a native of Britain and Southern Europe, are excellent food material for cattle; and, moreover, from the brilliant tints of their leaves, very decorative plants.
SPINACIA L.
Spinacia oleracea L.. Of unknown nativity; is an esteemed, much-cultivated pot herb; only found in cultivation, although cultivated over three hundred years.
AMARANTHACEA J. St. Hil.
AMARANTHUS L.
Amaranthus retroflexus L. Common weed, naturalized from Europe. August-October.
A. hybridus L. Naturalized from weenie America, Os: August-October.
A. spinosus L. Naturalized from Poel America. Very
TENNESSEE FLORA. 75
copious in the streets and vacant town lots in Nashville. June-September.
A. hybridus paniculatus L. and A. hypochondriacus L. Fre- quent in gardens, known as “ princess feather; ” often escapes into waste grounds.
ACNIDA L.
Acnida tamariscina (Nutt.) Wood. Western water hemp. Var. tuberculata Mag. Abounds as a troublesome weed in fields near Nashville. July-September.
FRCHLICHIA Meench.
Freehlichia Floridana (Nutt.) Mag. According to Illus- trated Flora, belongs to Tennessee. June-September.
IRESINE P. Br.
Iresine paniculata (L.) Kuntze. I. celosioides L. River banks and adjoining fields near Nashville. August, Septem- ber.
PHY bOLACCA CE AL Lindl. PHYTOLACCA L.
Phytolacca decandra L. Poke root. Frequent in wood- lands and cultivated grounds. O.S. July-October. Berries ripe in October. Also called “ inkberry.”
NYCTAGINACEZA Lindl.
ALLIONIA Lefl. (Oxybaphus L’Her.)
Allionia albida Watt. Umbrella wort. Oxybaphus albidus Chaisy. Cliffs along Cumberland River at Nashville. May- August.
A. nyctaginea Michx. Oxybaphus nyctagineus Sweet. W. Tenn. Guthrie. May-August.
ALZOANCE AN AL bit. MULLUGO L.
Mollugo verticillata L. Carpet weed. In waste and culti-
vated grounds, a weed. O.S. May-September. PORTULACACEZA Reichenb. TALINUM Adans.
Talinum teretifolium Pursh. Crevices in the limestone rocks, in the cedar glades. Frequent. July, August.
76 TENNESSEE FLORA.
CLAYTONIA L.
Claytonia Virginica L. Spring beauty. Woods and pas- tures. O.S. March-May.
C. Virginica graminifolia. Leaves narrowly linear. elon- gated. Hills around Nashville. March, April.
C. Caroliniana Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June.
PORTULACA L.
Portulaca oleracea L. Purslane. Common garden weed. Os. june, July.
P. retusa Engelm. Among the former and in the cedar glades. June.
P. pilosa L. Now and then in E. Tenn., Meigs County.
P. grandiflora Hook. Garden portulaca. Escaped from cultivation. Native of South America. July.
TETRAGONIA DC.
Tetragonia expansa Fenzel. New Holland spinach. Culti- vated only for the table. A native of Tasmania.
CARYOPHYLLACEZ Reichenb. AGROSTEMMA L.
Agrostemma Githago L. Corn cockle. In grain fields and waste places. O.S. July-September.
SILENE L.
Silene stellata (L.) Aiton. Starry champion. Open wood- lands. O.S. June, July.
S. Caroliniana Walt. S. Pennsylvanica Michx. Cumber- land and Alleghany Mts. April-June.
S. Virginica J.ink. Fire pink. Sunny hillsides. O. S. May, June.
S. rotundifolia Nutt. Catchfly. High cliffs of Cumberland Mts. Lookout Mt. June, July.
S. regia Sims. Lake Ottose, near Knoxville. A. Ruth. July.
S. antirrhina L. Waste places, rocky soil. O. S. April- June.
S. ovata Pursh. Lemon’s Gap, Cocke County. T. H. Kear- Hey. jane:
S. alba Miihl. White champion. Near Wartburg, Morgan County. June.
SAPONARIA L.
Saponaria officinalis L. Soap wort. O. S. Naturalized from Europe. July, August. WM.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 1h
DIANTHUS L.
Dianthus Armeria L. Pink. River banks at Marion, S. W. Va. Advantitious from Europe. J. K. Small.
ALSINE L. (Stellaria L.)
Alsine media L. Stellaria media Cyr. Common chick weed. Waste places. O. S. Naturalized from Europe. Jan- uary-December. J.
A. pubera (Michx.) Britton. Stellaria pubera Michx. Great chick weed. Rich woodlands. O.S. April, May.
A. longifolia (Miihl.) Britton. Stellaria longifolia Miihl. Stickwood. Low grounds, Kingston Springs. May.
A. fontinalis (Short & Peter) Britton. In wet places, in the glades. Frequent in the vicinity-of Nashville. April, May.
A. prostrata. Stellaria prostrata Baldw. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
CERASTIUM L.
Cerastium viscosum L. Mouse-ear chick weed. Meadows and waste places. O.S. ‘April.
C. vulgatum JL. Pastures and roadsides. O. S. March- May. C. longipedunculatum Miihl. C. nutans Raf. Moist grounds and hillsides. O.S. May, June.
C. arvense L. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
C. oblongifolium Torr. C. arvense oblongifolium Holt. & Britton. Moist, shady banks, growing in tufts. Nashville. April, May.
SAGINA L.
Sagina decumbens (Ell.) Torrey & Gray. Pearl wort. Damp and dry soil. On pavements. Nashville, Knoxville. March-May.
ARENARIAL. (Alsine Wahl.)
Arenaria serpyllifolia L. Sandwood. Dry, rocky ground. es. March; April:
*A. patula Michx. A. Pitcheri Nutt. Limestone regions of M. Tenn. Nashville, Knoxville. April, May.
A. Groenlandica (Retz.) Spreng. A. glabra Michx. High-
*A. patula Michx. Type, as I understand it, has corolla expanded to 15 mm. and ripe capsule exceeding calyx lobes by one-third. There is a variety occurring in the same region with expanded flowers only 5-7 mm., other proportions equal to former, and the testa marked with the same beautiful design like the former A. patula tenella.
78 TENNESSEE FLORA.
est points of Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. June-Septem- ber.
A. diffusa Ell. Bluffs on Mill Creek. Copses near Pu- laski. June.
PARONYCHIA Adans.
Paronychia argyrocoma (Michx.) Nutt. Whitlow wort. Higher Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Black Mts., above Piney. Mrs. J: Bennett. July.
P. dichotoma (L..) Nutt. Mts. of E. Tenn., near Ducktown. July-October.
ANYCHIA Michx.
Anychia dichtotoma Michx. Chick weed. Dry woods and thickets O.S. May-September.
A. Canadensis (L.) B.S. P. Anychia capillacea DC. With the former, and often on the same square foot of ground. Hills south of Nashville. O.S. June-September.
SCLERANTHUS L. Scleranthus annuus L. Knewel. Waste grounds. Nash- ville. March-September. NYMPHAEACE DC. CABOMBA Aubl. Cabomba Caroliniana A. Gray. Carolina water shield. |. Cy- press swamps, W. Tenn. May-August. BRASENIA Schreb.
Brasenia purpurea (Michx.)-Casp. B. peltata Pursh. Wa- ter shield. Lagoons along Tennessee River. Ponds in Sum- ner County. May-August.
NYMPHAEA. L.
Nymphea advena Soland. Nuphar advena R. Br. Yellow pond lily. In ponds and slow streams. O.S. April-Septem- per iM.
CASTALIA Salisb.
Castalia odorata (Dryand.) Woodf. & Wood. White water lily. In ponds and lagoons along rivers. O. S. Pond in lunatic asylum near Nashville. June-September. WM.
NELUMBO Adans. Nelumbo lutea (Willd.) Pers. American Nelumbo. Wa-
TENNESSEE FLORA. 79
ter chinquapin. Lagoons and ponds, M. and W. Tenn. Nash- ville. Very frequent. June-September.
CERATOPHYLLACES A. Gray.
Ceratophyllum demersum L. Hornwort. In ponds and stagnant water. O.S. June, July.
MAGNOLIACES J. St. Hil.
MAGNOLIA L.
Magnolia Fraseri Walt. Slopes of the Smoky Mts. June, July.
M. macrophylla Michx. Large-leaved umbrella tree. Alle- ghanies. Cumberland Mts., near Rugby. J. F. James.
M. tripetala L. Umbrella tree. Cumberland and Alle- ghany Mts. June.
M. Virginiana L. M. glauca L. Sweet bay. Madison County, W. Tenn. S.M. Bain. May, June.
M. acuminata L. Cucumbertree. Rich soil, river bottoms. ao. May, June.
M. grandiflora L. In cultivation only.
LIRIODENDRON L.
Liriodendron Tulipifera L. Yellow poplar. O. S. At- taining to a height of from 100 to Igo feet by from 4 to 12 feet diameter. Most frequent in the Mississippi bottoms, where it grows to greatest size. May, June. M.
ANONACE DC. ASIMINA Adans.
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Papaw. A shrub or tree Teaching from 20 to 4o feet in the river bottoms. Flowering in March; fruit maturing in October.
RANUNCULACESZS Juss. HYDRASTIS Ellis.
Hydrastis Canadensis L. Golden seal. Yellow puccoon. Open woodlands and rich soil. O.S. Various places around Nashville. April, May. M.
CALTHA L.
Caltha palustris L. Marsh marigold. Boggy mountain meadows. Ducktown. April-June.
80 ‘TENNESSEE FLORA.
GOPTIS<Salisb:
Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb. Gold thread. Higher Allegha- nies. Summit of Thunderhead. At the edge of laurel thick- ets. Very abundant. Piney Creek, in Rhea County. Mrs. Lydia A. Bennett. May-July. WW.
XANTHORRHIZA L’Her.
Xanthorrhiza aplifolia L’Her. Yellow root. Shady banks. of mountain streams in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. April, May. IM.
ACT ZEA. L.
Actza rubra (Ait.) Willd. Red baneberry. Moist woods. Ors: April-June ae:
A. alba (L.) Mill. White baneberry. Same range with the- former... O:°S: ~April-june.oM-
CIMICIFUGA L.
Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. Black snake root. Woods. O. S. June-August. M.
C. cordifolia Pursh. Bluffs along Tennessee River at Knox- ville “A- Ruth... TH ikearney. «C tubiiolia Kearney n“sp: seems to be identical with cordifolia Pursh.
C. Americana Michx. American bugbane. Big Frog Mts. Roane Mt. Chickering. August, September.
AQUILEGIA L.
Aquilegia Canadensis L. Columbine. Rocky woods. O. S. April-June. A. coccinea Small. ined. Rich soil. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
DELPHINIUM L.
Delphinium urceolatum Jacq. D.exaltatum Ait. Tall lark- spur. Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. July, August.
D. Consolida L.. Knight’s spur. Larkspur. Waste grounds, old fields. O.S. Naturalized from Europe. July.
D. Carolinianum Walter. D. azureum Michx. Rocky places. Frequent about Nashville. May, June.
D. tricorne Michx. Edge of woodlands in rich soil. O. S. April, May.
ACONITUM L.
Aconitum uncinatum L. Monk’s hood. Lake Otosee, near Knoxville. A. Ruth. June.
A. reclinatum A. Gray. Wolf’s bane. Mts. of E. Tenn.
July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 81
ANEMONE L.
Anemone Caroliniana Walt. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. La- vergne. April, May.
A. cylindrica A. Gray. Alleghanies, near Ducktown. June- August.
A. Virginiana 1.. Woods. O.S. June-August.
A. trifolia L. Little Frog Mt., with Convallaria majalis. April.
A. quinquefolia L. A. nemorosa var. quinquefolia A. Gray. A. nemorosa of eleventh edition of Tennessee Flora. _Wind flower. Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. April, May.
HEPATICA L.
Hepatica Hepatica (L.) Karst. Liverwort. In the Big Frog Mts., E. Tenn., it occurs with obtuse and acute leaves from the same root. March. M.
H. acuta (Pursh.) Britton. Hills and woodlands of M. Tenn. March, April.
SYNDESMON Hoffmg.
Syndesmon thalictroides (L.) Hoffmg. Rue Anemone Anemonella thalictroides Spach. O.S. March, April.
CLEMATIS L. (Anemonella Spach.)
Clematis Virginiana L. Virgin’s bower. O.S. July, Au- gust.
C. Addisonii Britton. Cliffs on Cumberland River above Nashville. Sequatchie Valley. Mrs. Lydia S. Bennett.
C. ochroleuca Ait. Mts. of E. Tenn. Roanoke, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June.
C. Viorna L. Leather flower.. O. S.. May-July.
C. Gattingeri J. Kk. Small. .n. sp. Bluffs on Cumberland River above Nashville. June.
C. reticulata Walter. Bluffs of Cumberland River at Nash- ville. May, June.
ATRAGENE L.
Atragene Viticella L. Since many years cultivated in gar- dens in Nashville, and hence escaped into hedges. May. C. Viticella L.
MYOSURUS L.
Myosurus minimus L. Mouse tail. In moist places, old race track, Nashville. April.
TRAUTVETTERIA F. & M. Trautvetteria Carolinensis Walt. T. palmata F. & M.
82 TENNESSEE FLORA.
Throughout the Alleghanies and at the Piney Falls, in the Cumberland Mts. Mrs. L. F. Bennett. June, July.
RANUNCULUS L.
Ranunculus hispidus Michx. Water crowfoot. Low grounds, five miles from Knoxville. A. Ruth.
R. pusillus Poir. Ditches and waste grounds. O.S. April, May.
R. oblongifolius Ell. Damp ground. Tullahoma. Para- dise Ridge, Davidson County. April.
R. obtusiusculus Raf. R. alismefolius A. Gray. Ponds along Cumberland River. June-August.
R. abortivus L. O.S. April-June. ;
R. sceleratus L. In ditches, E. Tenn. April-August.
R. recurvatus Poir. Hooked crowfoot. In woods. O. S. April-June.
R. bulbosus L. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May-July.
R. septentrionalis Poir. Marsh buttercup. O. S. April- July.
R. fascicularis Mihl. Fields and pastures. O.S. March- May.
R. parviflorus L. Naturalized from Europe. O.S. April- July.
BATRACHIUM S. F. Gray. (Ranunculus L.)
Batrachium trichophyllum (Chaix.) Bossh. Ranunculus aquatilis var. trichophyllus DC. Ponds along Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. June-September.
B. divaricatum (Schrank.) Wimmer. Ranunculus divari- catus Schrank. In pools and on the mud on river banks. O. S. June, July.
THALICTRUM L.
Thalictrum clavatum DC. Meadow rue. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts., in irrigated places. May, June.
T. dioicum L. In woods in the mountains and on the high lands, “O:!S2; April, May:
T. caulophylloides J. K. Small. Cove Mt. Prof. Ruth. July.
T. coriaceum (Britt.) Small. Mts. of E. Tenn. Ducktown. White Rock Mt.,S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June.
T. purpurascens L. T. purpurascens var. ceriferum Aust. eS; July:
T. polygamum Miihl. T. Cornuti T. & G. Tall meadow rue. Moist woodlands. O. S. John Overton’s farm, Nash- ville. June-August.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 83
BERBERIDACEZ T. & G. BERBERIS L.
Berberis Canadensis Mill. Barberry. Waters of Holston iver. J.-K. Small* May, June.
B. Aquifolium Pursh. Mahonia repens Don. Frequently cultivated in gardens. Native of Rocky Mts. April, May. Escaped.
CAULOPHYLLUM Michx. Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. Blue cohosh. Papoose root. Rich woodlands. O.S. April, May. WM. DIPHYLLEIA Michx. Diphylleia cymosa Michx. Umbrella leaf. Smoky Mts. Roane Mt. Chickering. May, June. JEFFERSONIA Bart. Jeffersonia diphylla (L.) Pers. Twin leaf. Rocky wood- lands. O.S. Also called “rheumatism root.” April, May. PODOPHYLLUM L. Podophyllum peltatum L. May apple. Wild mandrake. Low woods. O.S. May. M. MENISPERMACES DC. CALICOCARPUM Nutt. Calicocarpum Lyoni (Pursh.) Nutt. Cupseed. River bot- toms, climbing high. May, June. Fruit ripe in August. CEBATHA Forsk. (Cocculus DC.)
Cebatha Carolina (L.) Britton. Cocculus Carolinus DC. Dry uplands, as well as river bottoms. O.S. June. Berries ripe in September.
MENISPERMUM L.
Menispermum Canadense L. Moon seed. Bottom lands. Oese, june july. M-
CALYCANTHACEZ Lindl, BUTTNERIA Duham. (Calycanthus L.) Buttneria florida (L.) Kearney. Calycanthus floridus L. Strawberry shrub. Harpeth hills, south of Nashville. King-
ston Springs. Also frequently cultivated in gardens. April- August.
84 TENNESSEE FLORA. 5 _B. fertilis (Walt.) Kearney. Calycanthus levigatus Willd. Calycanthus glaucus Willd. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Fruit poisonous to sheep. August, September.
LAURACE/ Lindl. SASSAFRAS Nees & Eberm.
Sassafras Sassafras (L.) Karst. Sassafras officinale Nees. Sassafras. A small to a large tree. On the‘islands of Hi- wassee and Tennessee Rivers, it reaches an altitude of from 100 to 120 feet by 5 feet diameter. April, May. Fruit ma- tures in July, August. WM.
MALAPCENA Adans. (Tetranthera Nees.)
Malapoenna geniculata (Walt.) Coulter. Tetranthera gen- iculata Nees. Pond spice. In swamps on Cumberland Mts. East of Ducktown, in North Carolina. March, April.
~BENZOIN Fabr. (Laurus L.)
Benzoin Benzoin (L.) Coulter. Spice bush. O.S. Banks of Cumberland River at Nashville. March, April. Fruit ma- tures in August, September. WM.
B. melisszefolium (Walt.) Nees. Not so frequent like the former. Cumberland Plateau. March.
PAPAVERACES® B. Juss. PAPAVER L.
Papaver somniferum L. -Occasionally on waste grounds, es- caped from gardens. June-August. Source of opium.
P.dubium L. Waste grounds. Unfrequent. Adventitious from Europe. Summer.
ARGEMONE L.
Argemone Mexicana L. Prickly poppy. In some streets of Nashville. June-September.
A. alba Lestib. Is perhaps only a variety of the former, and grows promiscuously in same locality. June, July.
SANGUINARIA L. Sanguinaria Canadensis L. Blood root. In rich wood- lands. O.S: April, May. WM. “ STYLOPHORUM Nutt.
Stylophorum diphyllum (Michx.) Nutt. Celandine poppy. Woods, vicinity of Nashville. March-May.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 85
CHELIDONIUM L.
Chelidonium majus L. Celandine. Adventitious from Eu- fope. -Knoxville. “A. Ruth. WM.
BICUCULLA Adans. (Dicentra Bernh.)
Bicuculla Cucullaria (L.) Millsp. Dicentra Cucullaria Torr. Dutchman’s breeches. In leaf mold. Shady ravines. Har- peth hills, near Nashville. April, May.
B. Canadensis (Goldie.) Millsp. Dicentra Canadensis Walp. Squirrel corn. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. WM.
B. eximia (Kerr.) Millsp. Dicentra eximia Torr. Doe River, Carter County. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. May- October.
ADLUMIA Rat.
Adlumia fungosa (Ait.) Greene. A. cirrhosa Raf. Climb- ing fumitory. Mts. of E. Tenn. Cranberry. June-October.
CAPNOIDES Adans. (Corydalis Vent.)
Capnoides sempervirens (L.) Bork. Corydalis glauca Pursh. Ravines on Doe River, Carter County. April-Sep- tember.
C. flavulum (Raf.) Kuntze. Corydalis flavula Raf. Rocky woods. O.S. May, June.
C. micranthum Engelm. Corydalis micrantha A. Gray. Woods. O.S. May, June.
FUMARIA L.
Fumaria officinalis L. Fumitory. An abundant weed in fields in Europe, sometimes appearing here in vegetable gar- dens. June-August.
CRUCIFERA Bernh. Juss. LEPIDIUM L.
Lepidium sativum L. Garden pepper grass. Escaped from gardens. May-August.
L. Virginicum L. Wild pepper grass. In fields and along roadsides. O. S. May-November.
L. apetalum Willd. Naturalized from Europe. Here and there. O.S. May-July.
CORONOPUS Gaertn.
Coronopus Coronopus (L.) Karst. Senebiera Coronopus Poir. Vacant town lots, Memphis. Dr. Egeling. Natural- ized from Europe. Summer.
86 TENNESSEE FLORA.
THLASPI L.
Thlaspi arvense L. Field penny cress. In the grounds of market gardens, introduced with seeds. Summer.
SISYMBRIUM L.
Sisymbrium officinale L. Hedge mustard. Waste places. O.S. Introduced from Europe. May-November.
SINAPIS L.
Sinapis alba L. White mustard. Escaped from cultiva- tion. Native of Europe. Summer.
BRASSICA L.
Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Black mustard. In cultivation and escaped.
B. arvensis (L.) B. S. P. Sinapis arvensis L. Charlock. Wild mustard.
B. campestris L. Turnip. Cultivated in many varieties. Summer.
B. Rapa L. var. depressa. Flat-top turnip. In cultivation.
B. Napus L. Rape. Formerly cultivated for the oil of the seeds, but now abandoned.
B. oleracea L. Cabbage. Cultivated in many varieties. Summer.
RAPHANUS L.
Raphanus sativus L. Garden radish. Cultivated in many varieties, and sometimes spontaneous. Native of Asia. June- October.
R. Raphanistrum L. Appears sometimes as a garden weed, introduced with other seeds. “Jointed charlock.” Summer.
IODANTHUS Torr. & Gray.
Iodanthus pinnatifidus (Michx.) Steudal. Thelipadium pinnatifidum S. Watson. Damp woodlands. O. S. May, June. RORIPA Scop. (Nasturtium R. Br.)
Roripa palustris (L.) Bess. Nasturtium palustre DC. March water cress. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May-August.
R. sessiliflora (Nutt.) A. S. Hitchcock. Nasturtium sessili- florum Nutt. Wet meadows and ditches. O.S. April-June.
R. Nasturtium (L.) Rusby. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Water cress. In brooks and streams. O.S. Also sometimes cultivated. Naturalized from Europe. April-November. WM.
R. Armoracia (L.) A. S. Hitchcock. Nasturtium Armora-
TENNESSEE FLORA. ‘87
cia Fries. Horse-radish. Escaped from gardens into low grounds. Adventive from Europe. Summer.
R. Americana (A. Gray) Britton. Nasturtium lacustre A. Gray. Swamps along Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. Summer.
CARDAMINE L.
Cardamine Pennsylvanica Miihl. Bitter cress. On wet fands. ~ ©.-S.° April-June:
C. arenicola Britt. Moist, sandy soil. In Tennessee, ac- cording to Illustrated Flora. March, April.
C. parviflora L. C. hirsuta var. parviflora A. Gray. Dry woodlands. O. S.~ April, May.
*C. Clematitis Shuttlw. Summits of Smoky Mts. May- July.
C. purpurea (‘orr.) Britton. Arabis rhomboidea var. pur- purea Torr. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. April, May.
C. bulbosa (Schreb.) B. S. P. C. rhomboidea DC. Low, wet ground. O.S. April.
C. rotundifolia Michx. Near Marion, S. W. Va. J. K- Small. May, June.
DENTARIA L.
Dentaria laciniata Miihl. Pepper root. In moist, rich woods. O.S. March-May.
D. diphylla Michx. Shady ravines. O. S. Nashville. Banks of Cumberland River. April.
D. heterophylla Nutt. Woodlands. O.S. April.
D. multifida Miihl. E. Tenn. Cave Spring. March, April.
LEAVENWORTHIA Torr.
Leavenworthia uniflora (Michx.) Britton. L. Michauxii Torr. Open, moist grounds. Nashville. Cedar glades. April, May.
L. torulosa A. Gray. Cedar glades, with the former. April, May.
+L. stylosa A. Gray. Cedar glades at Lavergne. All three often in close proximity. April, May.
*C. Clematitis Shuttlw. Smooth; earliest leaves reniform, nearly entire: lower stem leaves broadly trilobed, the middle lobe larger, reni- form-cordate, or angularly-trilobed; upper ones, oblong, three-lobed; petioles with an arrow-shaped appendage at the base; racemes, short, loose; petals, white, spatulate-obovate, twice as long as the calyx; silique, narrow-linear, compressed, tipped with the long style.
+L. stylosa Gray. Slender, stemless; silique, eval or broadly oblong (2 inches long), plain, surmounted by a slender style fully two inches in length; only from three to six seeds, orbicular, distinctly winged; embryo as in the preceding; petals, pure golden-yellow.
88 TENNESSEE FLORA.
LESQUERELLA 5S. Watson.
Lesquerella globosa (Dew.) S. Watson. Vesicaria Shortii Torr. & Gray. Rising Sun Bluff, fourteen miles below Nash- ville, on Cumberland River. April, May.
L. Lescurii A. Gray. Covering whole fields and glades in the vicinity of Nashville. April, May.
BURSA Weber. (Capsella Med.)
Bursa Bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton. Thlaspi Bursa-pastoris L. Shepherd’s purse. A common weed in fields and waste places. O.S. March-November. M.
CAMELINA Crantz.
Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz. False flax. Naturalized from Europe, where it is cultivated for the fine oil yielded by its seed. Scatteringly O. S.
DRABA L.
Draba verna L. Whitlaw grass. In fields and pastures. O.S. February-May.
D. Caroliniana Walt. Glades of M. Tenn. February-April.
D. ramosissima Desy. Cliffs on Ocoee River, Polk County. With Saxifraga Tennessiensis. April, May.
D. brachycarpa Nutt. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. March, April.
SOPHIA Adans.
Sophia Sophia (L.) Britton. Sisymbrium Sophia L. In fields and gardens. Naturalized from Europe. June, July.
S. pinnata (Walt.) Britton. Sisymbrium canescens Nutt. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
STENOPHRAGMA Celak. (Sisymbrium Gray.)
Stenophragma Thaliana (L.) Celak. Sisymbrium Thaliana Gay. Fields. O.S. Frequent in vicinity of Nashville. In- troduced from Europe. April.
ARABIS L.
Arabis Virginica (L.) Trelease. A. Ludoviciana Meyer. Rock cress. Fields and pastures. O.S. March-May.
A. lyrata L. Rocky lands. O. S. Nashville. Banks of Cumberland River. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
A. dentata Torr. & Gray. Woodlands. O.S. April-June.
A. patens Sulliv. Bluffs on Ocoee River. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 89:
A. hirsuta (L.) Scop. Cumberland Mts. May-September.
A. levigata (Miihl.) Poir. On limestone cliffs along Cum- berland River. April, May.
A. Canadensis L. Sickle pod. Rocky woodlands. O. S. April, May.
ERYSIMUM L.
Erysimum cheiranthoides L. Treakle mustard. Knoxville.
A. Ruth. June-August.
KONIGA Adans. (Alyssum L.)
Koniga maritima (L.) R. Br.. Alyssum maritimum Lam.. Sweet alyssum. Escaped from gardens along fences. Nash- ville. Summer.
BERTEROA DC. (Alyssum L.)
Berteroa incana (L.) DC. Alyssum incanum L._ Intro- duced and first observed in my garden in Nashville in June, Loo7. June:
HESPERIS L.
Hesperis matronalis L. Dame’s gilliflower. Introduced along a garden fence on Belmont Park, Nashville. May-June.
CAPPARIDACE Lindl. CLEOME L.
Cleome spinosa DC. C.pungens Willd. Spider flower. In waste places, river banks. O. S. Adventive from tropical America. Summer.
POLANISIA Raf.
Polanisia graveolens Raf. Along the track of the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway, in Dickson and Benton Counties. Foot of Fort Negley, South Nashville. Summer.
Capparis spinosa L. The caper ought to be introduced in cultivation, as it grows well under slight protection. Cult.
SARACENIACEZ La Pyl.
Saracenia purpurea L. Pitcher plant. Low grounds along Mississippi, Tennessee, and Duck Rivers. April.
PODOSTEMACES Lindl.
Podostemon abrotanoides Nutt. In all mountain streams. of the Alleghany Mts. Submerged and on rocks. July-Sep- tember.
P. ceratophyllum Michx. River weed. Streams in the Cumberland Mts. July-September.
90 TENNESSEE FLORA.
CRASSULACH ADE:
SEDUM L.
Sedum roseum (L.) Scop. S. Rhodiola DC. Rose root. Roane Mt. Chickering.
S. Telephium L. Orpine. Ina field near Bellvidere, Frank- lin County. Escaped from cultivation. June.
S. telephioides Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. Chickering. June.
S.acre L. Wall pepper. Fountain Head, Sumner County, near a cabin. Adventitious, or escaped from cultivation. Na- tive of Europe. June.
S. pulchellum Michx. Rocky and moist places, growing gregariously in patches, covering many acres. Prominently in the cedar glades. May.
S. ternatum Michx. Wild stone crop. Shady, rocky places, and among the grass. O.S. April, May.
S. Nevii A. Gray. On rocks throughout the Alleghany Mts. May, June.
DIAMORPHA Nutt.
Diamorpha pusilla Nutt. On sandy flats, and on rocks in the Cumberland Mts. Abundant in Sewanee and on Lookout Mt.; covering the surface in “ Rock City.” May.
PENTHORUM L.
Penthorum sedoides L. Virginia stone crop. Pools and ditches. ©. S.— July-September:
SAXIFRAGACEA Dumort. ASTILBE Hamilt.
Astilbe biternata (Vent.) Britton. As. decandra D. Don. False goat’s beard. Near water courses in the mountains of Renn. June
SAXIFRAGA L.
Saxifraga micranthidifolia (Haw.) B. S. P. S. erosa Pursh. Rocks on Wolf Creek. Roane Mt. Chickering. May, June.
S. Virginiensis Michx. Rocky places. O.S. March-June.
S. Tennessiensis J. K. Small. Rocky bluffs on Tennessee iver; above Knoxville; «A. Ruth. a> He Kinney.™ In, the gorge of the Ocoee River, above Parksville. April, May.
S. Michauxii Britton. S. leucanthemifolia Michx. Roane Mt. Chickering. Big Frog Mt. June.
S. Grayana Britton. S. Caroliniana A. Gray. Walker Mt., Sa WaVa. J. kK Smalls June, July. ;
TENNESSEE FLORA. 91
S. Careyana A. Gray. Roane Mt. Chickering. William Canby. July, August.
THEROFON Raf. (Boykinia Nutt.)
Therofon aconitifolium (Nutt.) Millsp. Boykinia aconiti- folia Nutt. Throughout the Alleghanies, Ocoee and Doe Riv- ers, and in the Cumberland Mts. Piney Falls. Mrs. Lydia Bennett. July.
TIARELLA L.
Tiarella cordifolia L. False mitrewort. E. Tenn. April,
May. ° HEUCHERA L.
Heuchera Rugelii Shuttlw. Piney Falls. Cumberland Mts. Mrs. Lydia Bennett. July-September.
H. villosa Michx. Limestone rocks. M. Tenn. Frequent. June-September.
H. Americana L. Alumroot. Vicinity of Nashville. May.
H. pubescens Pursh. Sewanee. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June.
H. macrorhiza Small. n.sp. Frequent on limestone bluffs along Cumberland River and all the way along Louisville and Nashville Railroad to Pulaski. June, July.
MITELLA L.
Mitella diphylla L. Mitrewort. Cumberland and Alle- ghany Mts. April, May.
CHRYSOSPLENIUM L.
Chrysosplenium Americanum Schwein. Irrigated places in the Frog Mts. March-June.
PARNASSIA L.
Parnassia Caroliniana Michx. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. June-August. P. asarifolia Vent. Big Frog Mts., E. Tenn. July-Septem- ber: HYDRANGEA L.
Hydrangea arborescens L. Wild hydrangea. Highlands of M. Tenn. and river bluffs. June, July.
H. arborescens Kanawhana Millsp. H. arborescens var. cordata Gray. H.cinera J. K. Small. Bluffs on Ocoee River, above Parksville. June-September.
H. radiata Walt. Cataract near Tullahoma, and from there on up and through the Cumberland Mts.
H. quercifolia Bartram. Tullahoma. Barnes.
92 TENNESSEE FLORA.
DECUMARIA L.
Decumaria barbara L. Damp situations throughout the Al- leghanies, clinging to rocks and bark of trees. May, June.
PHILADELPHUS L.
Philadelphus coronarius L. Mock orange. Frequently cul- tivated in gardens, and hence found in deserted homesteads. May, June.
Ph. hirsutus Nutt. Bluffs on Cumberland River. Mts. of FE. Tenn., Cocke County. Kearney. May.
Ph. inodorus L. Baker’s Station to Ridgetop, Davidso> County. May.
Ph. grandiflorus Willd. Knox County. A. Ruth. Ap-~ May.
ITEA L.
Itea Virginica L. Mts. of E. Tenn. and cypress swamps of W. Tenn. May, June.
GROSSULARIACEA Dumort. RIBES L.
Ribes Cynosbati L. Dogberry. At the edge of a cedar glade near Posterville. Marion, SS: W.Va. J. K. Small> April June.
R. gracile Michx. Missouri gooseberry. Dry, rocky soil. Fide Illustrated Flora. May.
R. rotundifolium Michx. Summit of Roane and Thunder- head Mts. May-July.
R. prostratum L’Her. Fetid currant. Summit of White Top Mts.,S. W.Va. J. K.Small. May, June.
R. rubrum L. Red currant. Cultivated, and sometimes es- caped and seemingly spontaneous. Marion, S. W. Va. }. Small. April.
R. aureum Pursh. Buffalo currant. Has been for a long time in cultivation, and sometimes indicates old garden plots. May.
R. Uva-crispa L. R. Grossularia L. Garden gooseberry. Cultivated in gardens and temporarily existing in fence rows. Red currants and gooseberries do not prosper in Tennessee.
HAMAMELIDACEZ Lindl.
HAMAMELIS L.
Hamamelis Virginiana L. Witch-hazel. A shrub, or some- times a small tree. On the summit of Thunderhead (altitude,
TENNESSEE FLORA. 93
6,000 feet) I found a regular grown tree, 25 feet high by 10 inches diameter of trunk. Flowers, Christmas time. Fruit in October.
LIQUIDAMBAR L.
Liquidambar Styraciflua L. Sweetgum. Red gum. Large forest tree growing in wet or swampy lands. Very large, and frequent in the Tennessee and Mississippi bottoms. April, May.
PLATANACEA# Lindl. PLATANUS L.
Platanus occidentalis L. Buttonwood. Plane tree. Syca-. more. Attains the widest spread of crown of any of our tim- ber trees. Reaches an altitude of 150 feet and diameter of trunk of 15 feet in our river bottoms. May.
ROSACE B. Juss. OPULASTER Kuntze. (Neillia Brew.)
Opulaster opulifolius Kuntze. Neillia opulifolia. Brewer & Watson. Nine bark. Rocky places along Cumberland River. June.
SPIRAEA L.
Spiraea salicifolia L. Meadow sweet. Grand View, Rhea ‘County. Miller’s Cove, E. Tenn. June-August.
S. tomentosa L. WHardhack. Highlands of M. Tenn., in boggy localities. Fountain Head, Sumner County. July.
S. corymbosa L. S.W.Va. J. K. Small. July.
S. Virginiana Britton. Little River, E. Tenn. A. Ruth. June.
ARUNCUS Adans.
Aruncus Aruncus (L.) Karst. Spiraea Aruncus L. Goat’s beard. Moist woodlands. O.:S. Nashville, above water- works. May-July.
PORTERANTHUS Britt. (Gillenia Moench.)
Porteranthus trifoliatus (L.) Britton. Gillenia trifoliata Meench. Indian physic. Commonin FE. Tenn. May, June.
P. stipulatus (Miihl.) Britton. Prevailing in M. Tenn. woods. June, July.
RUBUS L.
Rubus odoratus L. High mountains of E. Tenn. Big Frog Mt. Valley of Ocoee River, above Parksville. June.
94 TENNESSEE FLORA.
R. strigosus Michx. Wild red raspberry. Woods and copses. O.S. May, June.
R. occidentalis L. Black raspberry. O.S.
R. villosus Ait. Common blackberry. Bush blackberry. A white-fruited variety is found near Cleveland, E. Tenn.
R. Alleghanensis Port. R. villosus var. montanus Port. Mountains around Ducktown, E. Tenn.
R. cuneifolius Pursh. Gravelly hills. O.S. July, August.
R. hispidus L. Swamp blackberry. Lookout Mt. June.
R. trivialis Michx. Sandy soils. O.S. March-May.
R. Baileyanus Britt. R. villosus var. humifusus. Torr. & Gray. R. Britt... Hills around Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
he eCanadensis Les Dewberry. Dry, soils =*O. Si April May. Fruit ripe in July.
FRAGARIA L.
Fragaria Virginiana Duchesne. Scarlet strawberry. Dry uplands: ©. S.°- April, May.
F. vesca L. European wood strawberry. Naturalized from Europe. Dry woodlands. O.S. April, May.
DUCHESNEA J. E. Smith. (Fragaria Andr.)
Duchesnea Indica (And.) Focke. Waste places. Intro- duced from India. Old graveyard in Nashville. June, July.
POTENTILLA L.
Potentilla arguta Pursh. Banks of Cumberland River, above waterworks, at Nashville. June.
P. Monspelliensis L. P. Norvegica L. Mts. of E. Tenn. Knoxville. ‘A. Ruth. Foot of hills on White’s Creek, David- son County. July, August.
P. paradoxa Nutt. P.supina Michx. W. Tenn. Johnson- ville and Hickman. June-September.
P. fruticosa L. Shrubbby cinquefoil. Near Ducktown, in Turtletown, Cherokee County, N. C. June-September.
P. tridentalis Ait. Big Frog Mts., E. Tenn. June-August.
P. Canadensis L. Five finger. O.S. July-September.
WALDSTEINIA Willd.
Waldsteinia fragarioides (Willd.) Tratt. Mts. of E. Tenn. Ocoee Valley. May, June.
*W. parviflora Small. Fide Illustrated Flora, Appendix. Ocoee Valley. June, July.
*“W. parvifiora Small. Perennial by horizontal rootstocks; villose hirsute or glabrous in age; leaves, basal, from 5 to 12 inches high;
TENNESSEE FLORA. 95
GEUM L.
Geum radiatum Michx. Avens. Roane Mt. Chickering. July, August.
G. vernum (Raf.) Torr. & Gray. Shaded ground. O. S. March, April.
G. Canadense Jacq. G. Album Gmel. White Avens. Shaded places. O.S. June-August.
G. Virginianum L. Mountains and highlands. O.S. May- uly. : G. flavum (Port.) Bicknell. G.Canadense Jacq. Var. fla- vum Britt. Woods along Wolf Creek, Cocke County. T. H. Kearney. Waters of Holston River, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. une. d ULMARIA Hill.
Ulmaria rubra Hill. Spiraea lobata Gronov. Queen of the prairie. In a moist meadow, Cave Spring, Roane County. June, July.
UW. Ulmaria “(L.) Bernhart. Spiraea, Ulmaria-L. _Escaped from gardens. Seen but one time near Nashville.
ALCHEMILLA L.
Alchemilla arvensis (L.) Scop. Argentill. Fields near Knoxville. A. Ruth.
AGRIMONIA L.
Agrimonia hirsuta (Miihl.) Bicknell. Mts. of E. Tenn. Tall agrimony.
A. striata Michx. A. parviflora DC. Glades of M. Tenn. July.
Agrimonia mollis (T. & G.) Britton. Mts. of E. Tenn. Slopes of White Top Mt.,S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
A. parviflora Soland. O.S. July, August.
SANGUISORBA L.
Sanguisorba Canadensis L. Poterium Canadense A. Gray. American burnet. Along Doe River, E. Tenn. Hiwassee Walley. A. Ruth.
petioles, much longer than the blades, usually much less densely pub- escent than the scapes; leaflets, cuneate, ovate, or broadly rhomboidal, from 1 to 3 inches long, coarsely and irregularly crenate or lobed; scapes, erect, solitary, or several together, commonly shorter than the leaves, corymbose at top; calyx, usually hairy, the tube broadly tur- binate, from 114, to 14 lines long, the segments triangular lanceolate or lanceolate-acuminate, often shorter than the tube; petals, linear- cblong or narrowly elliptical, shorter than the calyx segments or barely longer; achenes, obovoid, 11% lines long.
96 TENNESSEE FLORA.
ROSA L.
Rosa setigera Michx. Prairie rose. Abundant in the glades of M. Tenn.
R. setigera tomentosa Gray. With the former. O.S. May-
uly.
R. Carolina L. Swamp rose. Low grounds and river swamps. O.S. June-August.
R. humilis Marsh. Pasture rose. Rocky slopes and glades. On. May-July:
R. humilis lucida Ehrh. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
R. canina L. Dog rose. E. Tenn. Vicinity of Marion, S. We Wa. sk. Small: | Jiue:
R. rubiginosa L. Sweet brier. Roadsides and old fields. O.S. Naturalized from Europe. June, July.
R. bracteata Wendel. Old homesteads and hedges. No- lensville Pike, six miles south of Nashville. June.
R. pimpinellifolia L. Old homestead, Davidson County, Colonel Prosser’s farm. Introduced by early settlers. June, July.
SORBUS L.
Sorbus Americana Marsh. American mountain ash. Sum-
mit of Thunderhead. Smoky Mts. Smalltree. May, June.
PYRUS IL.
Pyrus communis L. Pear. In cultivation only. In many varieties. Native of Eurasia. April.
MALUS Juss.
Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx. Pyrus angustifolia Ait. Narrow-leaved crab apple. Small tree, from 15 to 20 feet high. O.S. In limestone regions. March-May.
M. coronaria L.. Pyrus coronaria L. American crab apple. Upper E. Tenn. South fork of Holston River. J. K. Small. Cultivated in some gardens. March. Fruit matures in Sep- tember.
Malus Malus (L.) Britton. Pyrus Malus L. Apple. Na- tive of Europe and Asia. Sometimes spontaneous, and culti- vated in many varieties.
ARONIA Pers.
Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Ell. Pyrus arbutifolia L. Red coke- berry. Mountain bogs in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. March-May.
A. nigra (Willd.) Britton. Black cokeberry. Laurel thick- te in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Sewanee. March-
une.
TENNESSEE FLORA. a
CYDONIA L.
Cydonia vulgaris Pers. Quince. Native of E. Europe and the Levante. In cultivation only. April.
C. Japonica Pers. Pyrus Japonica L. Frequently cultivated as an ornamental shrub. Sometimes found as a straggler. Fruit very fragrant.. February, March. Fruit in September, October.
AMELANCHIER Med.
Amelanchier Canadensis (L.) Med. Service berry. Ex- tending from the high mountains to the valleys of E. Tenn. March-May. Fruit in June, July.
A. Botryapium (L.f.) DE. A. Canadensis var. oblongifolia. T.&G. Same range with the former. April, May.
CRATZEGUS.*
Crategus Crus Galli L. Cockspur thorn. O.S. May.
C. punctata Jacq. C. tomentosa var. punctata A. Gray. Summit of Roane Mt. :
C. cordata Ait. Washington thorn. Rocky glades around Nashville. May.
©. viridis LL. C.' arborescens Ell.’ April. Jackson. Hol- low Rock.
C. rotundifolia Bork. C. glandulosa Willd. Marion, S. W. War Ke Small) April-fiune.
C. mollis (T. & G.) Soheele. C. tomentosa var. mollis. (Gray. From 15 to 20 feet high. Nashville. April, May. .
C. tomentosa L. Nashville. Tree from 12 to 15 feet high. May, June.
C. tomentosa Chapmani Beadle. M. Tenn.
C. uniflora Moench. Dwarf thorn. Wolf Creek. T. H. Kearney. Lookout Mt.. Knoxville. A. Ruth. April.
+C. Biltmoreana Beadle. E. Tenn. Shrub from 1 to 5 feet high. Legit Beadle.
*The genus Cratzgus has been revised from notes received from C. D. Beadle, curator of the Biltmore Herbarium, as represented in said collection.
+C. Biltmoreana Beadle. Flowers appearing when the leaves are nearly fully grown in 3-7 flowered corymbs, with lanceolate, pecti- nately glandular caducous bracts on strict, pubescent pedicels; calyx, pubescent, obconic; petals, broadly obovate or orbicular; stamens, 10, shorter than the petals; styles, 3-5; fruit maturing in September, October; depressed globose, bluntly angled, 10-15 mm. broad, 10-12 mm. high, containing 3-5 nutlets; leaves, 2-5 cm. wide, 3-10 cm. long, includ- ing the petioles; ovate, acute at the apex, wedge-shaped at the base, and prolonged into a winged or margined petiole; border acutely in- cised or slightly 5-9 lobed and sharply and irregularly serrate to near the base; spines, stout, 2-5 cm. long, slightly curved. (Vide Bot. Gazette, No. 6, December, 1899.)
4
98 TENNESSEE FLORA.
*C, Sargenti Beadle. S. E. Tenn. Shrub from 2 to 6 feet high. April.
+C. Boyntoni Beadle. Tree or shrub. C. rotundifolia. Bork: = 22henn. .) Marion! S: FW. Vas» Jou jimall, eSaralt [FCC CNET:
tC. Austro-Montana Beadle. Cumberland Mts. E. and M. Tenn. May.
$C. Harbisoni Beadle. Discovered by T. G. Harbison on the hills near Nashville, 1899. May. Charlotte Pike, 1886, collected by the author.
***C, Mohri Beadle. Tree, 6-10 m. tall. Southern part of M. Tenn. « May.
*C. Sargenti Beadle. Shrub or small tree, branches spreading armed with straight or curved spines, 2-7 cm. long, flowers appearing when the leaves are almost fully grown, in generally three-flowered corvmbs; calyx. obconic, pubescent; segments, glandular-serrate; di- visions of corolla nearly round; stamens, normally 20; pistils, 3-5; fruit mature at middle September; globose, 10-12 mm. high, orange yel- low; nutlets, 3-5; leaves, thin, glabrous, with 5-7 pairs prominent veins; ovate, acute at apex, rounded or abruptly contracted at base, in a margined or winged petiole, irregularly and doubly serrate, and incisely lobed; stipules, linear or linear-lanceolate.
+C. Boyntoni Beadle. Shrub or small tree. flowering with the expanded leaves, produced in short glandular-bracteate 4-10 flowered corymbs; calyx, obconic, smooth; divisions, acute, glandular, serrate; petals, nearly orbicular, 9-12 mm. diameter; stamens, 10; pistils, 3-5; fruit, dull, yellowish green, depressed globose, angled, 10-14 mm. high, ripening in October; nutlets, 3-5; leaves, subcoriaceous with age, glabrous, with 4-7 pairs of veins, broadly ovate, acute at apex, rounded at the base, sharply serrate, serratures minutely gland-tipped; stipules, linear.
+C. Austro-Montana Beadle. A straggling shrub, 1-4 m. in height; branches, unarmed; branchlets, pilose-pubescent or tomentose; flow- ers, large in 3-5 flowered corymbs; calyx, broad, obconic, pubescent; divisions, lanceolate; stamens, 10; pistils, 3-5; fruit (which ripens at end of September), large; globose, 12-15 mm. in diameter, bright red, containing 3-5 nutlets; leaves, orbicular, 3.5-12 mm. long, including the pubescent petioles, pubescent on both surfaces, with 5-7 pairs of veins.
2C. Harbisoni Beadle. Tree, 5-8 m. high; leaves, obovate or oval, 3-12 cm. long, including the petiole; acute at apex, roughly pubescent on the upper side, densely coated on the lower surface, dark green and lustrous above, pale below; borders, doubly and irregularly ser- rate; calyx, obconic, pubescent; stamens, normally 20; pistils, 3-5; fruit, large, red; globose, 10-13 mm. diameter; nutlets, 3-5; spines of the branches, 3-6 cm. long.
**C. Mohri Beadle. Leaves, cuneate-obovate, 2-7 cm. long. includ- ing the petioles; acute or rounded at the apex and contracted below into a winged petiole; sharply serrate to the middle; entire, or nearly so, at the base; stipules, linear, caducous; flowers in many-flowered corymbs, which are pubescent at flowering time; calyx, narrow, ob conic; divisions of corolla, round, ovate, with undulate or erose bor- ders; stamens, 20; fruit globose, 8-9 mm. diameter; nutlets, 3-5.
TSNNESSEE FLORA. 99
*C, Aprica Beadle. Large shrub. Sunny hillsides. M. Tenn. April.
+C. rubella Beadle. Shrub, 1-4 meter high. Flowers in April. Lookout Mt.
tC. sinistra Beadle. Ined. West Nashville. Dry hills.
$C. straminea Beadle. Shrub 1m. high. Lookout Mt. and adjacent valley of E. Tenn. April, May.
**C_tetrica Beadle. Hills about Nashville. May.
ttC. Buckleyi Beadle. Tree 8 m. high, 1-2 dm. diameter. E. Tenn. May.
*C. Aprica Beadle. Leaves, thin, obovate-orbicular, 1.5-7 cm. long, including petiole, dentate or crenate-dentate and conspicuously gland- ular, more or less lobed near the acute apex; flowers, borne in 3-6 flowered, pubescent, bracteate corymbs; calyx, obconic, pubescent; pet- als, broader than long; stamens, 10; styles, 3-5; fruit, globose, 9-14 mm. diameter; nutlets, 3-5.
+C. rubella Beadle. Branchlets numerous, armed with slender, straight, or slightly curved spines, 1.5-4 cm. long; leaves, oval or obo- vate, 3-9 cm. long, including the petiole; sharply and doubly serrate to near the base; prolonged into a margined, sparsely-glandular petiole; flowers in simple 3-6 flowered glandular bracteate corymbs; calyx, obconic; petals, rather broader than long, 8-12 mm. wide; stamens, normally 10; styles. 2-4, rarely 5; fruit, red, pyriform, or oval, 12-15. mm. long, ripening middle of September; nutlets, 2-3, rarely 4-5.
tC. sinistra Beadle. Small tree; leaves, obovate, scarcely, if at all.. glandular; stipules. linear, not exceeding 1 cm. in length; flowers, in 7-15 flowered corymbs; calyx, obconic, pilose; petals, nearly orbicular; the claw at the base, short; stamens, 10; styles, 1-2; fruit, oval, 6-8 mm.. wide, reddish, ripening in November; nutlets, 1-2; flowers, May.
2C. straminea Beadle. Branchlets armed with slender spines; leaves, oval, round-ovate, acute at the apex, acutely contracted or rounded at the base, acutely incised or slightly 5-9 lobed, sharply and irregularly serrate except at the extreme base: serratures, glandular’ apiculate, 2.5-10 cm. long, including the petiole, with 3-5 pairs of veins; flowers, in glandular-bracteate 3-6 flowered corymbs; calyx, obconic; petals, nearly orbicular, 6-10 mm. diameter; stamens, normally 10; fruit, subglobose or pyriform, 10-13 mm. high, yellow or greenish yel-
low, ripening middle of September; nutlets, 3-5. a
**C. tetrica Beadle. A tree 5-7 m. tall, with short trunk; spines, very stout, 1-5.5 cm. long, curved or straight; stipules, linear, or on the longer shoot lineate; leaves, broadly oval, 3-7 cm. long, with petiole, rounded at the apex, sharply and irregularly serrate; corymbs, 10-20 flowered; calyx, obconic; petals, orbicular; stamens, 10; styles, 2; fruit, globose, 7 mm. by 1 cm. diameter.
++C. Buckleyi Beadle. Leaves, glabrous at maturity, ultimately sub- coriaceous, ovate or round-ovate, and incisely lobed, acute at the apex, narrowed at the base, and prolonged into a margined petiole; flowers, in 3-7 flowreed corymbs; calyx, obconic; petals, orbicular; stamens, 10; styles, 3-5; fruit, subglobose, angled, red, 8-12 mm. diameter, with 3-5 nutlets. (Biltmore Bot. Studies, Vol. I., No. 1.)
100 TENNESSEE FLORA.
*C, Margaretta Ashe. Nashville, Charlotte Pike. April, May.
+C. macrosperma Ashe. Frequent on Lookout Mt.
tGattingeri Ashe. Nashville.
C. collina Chapm. Banks of Cumberland River, near wa- terworks.
CG Vaile “Britton. «Wolf Creek; (Cocke County... -]. Ee Kearney.
C. populifolia Elliott. Lebanon Pike, Nashville. Cowan.
COTONEASTER Med.
Cotoneaster Pyracantha (L.) Spach. Evergreen thorn. Thickets near Hyde’s Ferry, Nashville. Introduced. May.
DRUPACEA DC. PRUNUS L.
Prunus Americana Marsh. Wild yellow or red plum. O. S.. April, May. Fruit ripe in July, August.
P. hortulana Bailey. Wild goose plum. O.S. Formerly believed to be a hybrid between P. Americana and Chickasa. April, May.
*©O. Margaretta Ashe. Small tree, 4-5 m. high, sometimes a shrub; branches, flexuous geniculate, thornless, or only sparingly beset with short, slender thorns; leaves, glandless membranaceous, bright green both sides, broadly rhombic to broader than long, with 3-6 prominent, straight veins, obtusely serrate, with 3-5 pairs shallow lobes; flowers, in 7-12 flowered corymbs; petals ,orbicular; stamens. 15-20; styles, 2-3: fruit, 1 cm. diameter, nearly round, reddish or orange.
7C. macrosperma Ashe. (Journal Elisha Mitchell Soc., Decem- ber, 1900.) Small tree 5-7 m. in height, with wide-spreading branches, armed with numerous short, very stout, 1-2 em. long, red brown to black thorns; leaves, membranaceous, but firm, dark green above, paler and sparingly glaucous or whitish beneath, deltoid or broadly oval at the apex, rounded or subcordate, with a narrow sinus at base, 3-6 cm. long, 2-5 wide, sharply serrate to the base; flowers, in 4-9 flowered sim- ple corymbs on slender petioles; divisions of calyx, lanceolate, short, 3-5 mm. long, persistent and coloring with the fruit; styles, 3-4; sta- mens, 5-10; fruit, 12-18 mm. diameter; flesh, thick and mealy, falling in September; nutlets, 3-5.
t{Gattingeri Ashe. (Journal Elisha Mitchell Soc., December, 1900.) Twigs, glabrous, dark purple brown, sparingly glaucous, armed with numerous thorns, 3-4 cm. long; leaves, glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath, the blades oblong, ovate, or deltoid in outline, 2-7 cm. long, 2-5 cm. wide, rounded, truncate, or subcordate at base, attenuate at the apex, finely but acuminately serrate, generally with 3-5 prominent lobes; petioles, slender, roughened above, with 1-2 pairs of glands; corymbs, few-flowered, the pedicels slender and glabrous, 1-1.5 ecm. long; calyx lobes, short, triangular, glabrous; stamens, 20; fruit, dark red, sparingly pruinose, globular, 8-11 mm. thick, generally capped by the stalked calyx lobes, persistent until after the foliage has fallen.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 101
P. angustifolia Marsh. P. Chickasa Michx. Chickasa plum. Very frequent in the limestone basin of M. Tenn. April. Fruit ripe in May, June.
P. gracilis Engelm & Gray. In Tennessee, according to Gray’s Manual.
P. spinosa L. Sloe blackthorn. Hillsboro Pike, twelve miles from Nashville. Escaped into the woods from an or- chard. Adventitious from Europe. April.
P. Cerasus L. Sour cherry. In cultivation, and sometimes escaping into open grounds. Native of Europe. April, May. Fruit in June, July.
Pe-avium .' Sweet, cherry. Also ‘cultivated’ like’ the former in several varieties, and wandering into open grounds. Tennessee is at the Southern limit of the natural zone of both species ; and, therefore, the fruit is inferior.
P. domestica L. Damson. Cultivated only.
P. Pennsylvanica L. fil. Pin or pigeon cherry. FE. Tenn. Principally in the higher mountains. On Clingman Dome a form is found with narrow, lanceolate leaves. April-June. The latter is perhaps P. serotina montana Small.
P. Armeniaca Willd. Apricot. Native of Persia. In cul- tivation only.
P. Virginiana L. Chock cherry. Cumberland and Alle- ghany Mts. April, May.
P. serotina Ehrh. Wild black cherry. Large tree, often from 50 to 70 feet high. Wood used in cabinetmaking. May. Fruit ripe in August. M.
AMYGDALUS L.
Amygdalus Persica L. Peach. Frequently escaped from cultivation. To be considered naturalized. April. Fruit in August-October.
A. communis 1. Almond. Rarely found in cultivation.
MIMOSACE® Reichenb. ACACIA Adans.
Acacia Julibrissin L. Native of Persia. In gardens. A.lophantha L. Appears here and there in gardens, and en- dures hard winters.
ACUAN Med. (Desmanthus Willd.)
Acuan Illinoensis (Michx.) Kuntze. Desmanthus brachy- lobus Benth. Frequent in the glades of M. Tenn. May-Sep- tember.
102 TENNESSEE FLORA.
MORONGIA Britton. (Schrankia Willd.)
Morongia uncinata (Willd.) Britton. Schrankia uncinata Willd. Sensitive brier. Dry soil. W. Tenn., Brownsville. May-July.
M. angustata (Torr. & Gray) Britton. Schrankia angustata P.& I. Dry soil. In the glades of M. Tenn., extending into the Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. May-July.
CAESALPINACEA Kl. & Garke. CERCIS L.
Gercis Canadensis” Ic’) Red bud’ -in. rich soil: “Oss: March, April. M.
CASSIA L.
Cassia nictitans IL. Sensitive pea. Siliceous soils. O. S. July-October.
C. Chamecrista L. Partridge pea. Sunny hillsides in sili- ceous formations.
C. Torra L. C. obtusifolia L. Low senna. In damp, rich clay soils. River banks. O.S. July-October.
C. Marylandica L. Wild senna. Bottom lands and waste sround: “OLS. July, Aucust..
C. occidentalis L. Coffee senna. Jasper, E. Tenn. R. M. Middleton. June, July.
GLEDITCHIA L.
Gleditchia triacanthos L. Honey locust. Large tree, at- taining 100 feet by 4 feet diameter. Limestone regions. O. S. May-July. MM.
G. aquatica Marsh. G. monosperma Walt. Water locust. WW: Tenn.) July.
GYMNOCLADUS Lam.
Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch. -G. Canadensis Lam. Large forest tree, attaining 100 feet high by 3 feet diameter. Scatteringly O. S. Kentucky coffee tree. May.
PAPIEIO NANG ae, CLADRASTIS Raf.
Cladrastis lutea (Michx.) Koch. C. tinctoria Raf. Yellow wood. Hills south of Nashville. E. Tenn. Attaining 50 feet high by 4 feet diameter. Trunk liable to early decay. June.
BAPTISIA Vent.
Baptisia australis (L.) R. Br. Blue false Indigo. Cedar glades at Lavergne. June-August.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 103
B. tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Abundant in Cumberland and AI- leghany Mts. June. WM.
B. alba (L.) R. Br. White wild Indigo. Mts. of E. Tenn. Ducktown. June.
CROTALARIA L.
Crotalaria sagittalis L. Rattlebox. Dry, sandy soil. O. S. June, July. LUPINUS L.
Lupinus perennis L. Wild lupine. Woods near Hiwassee, Polk County. Also S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June.
L. albus L. Field lupine. Sometimes found in gardens. Makes heavy crops in S. Europe.
MEDICAGO L.
Medicago sativa L. Alfalfa Luzerne. Cultivated for for- age. Introduced from Europe. Frequent in cultivated grounds. Summer.
M. lupulina L. Black medic. Waste places. Capitol hill. Native from Europe. March-May.
MELILOTUS Juss.
Melilotus alba Desv. White melilot. Bokhara clover. Waste places. O. S. Adventitious from Europe. Fragrant in drying and good for fodder. June-September.
M. officinalis (L.) Lam. Yellow melilot. Introduced and spread like the former. Both species ought to be cultivated for forage. June-August.
TRIFOLIUM L.
Trifolium agrarium L. Yellow or hop clover. Along road- sides and waste places, but only locally. Naturalized from Europe. May-September.
T. procumbens L. Hop trefoil. Abundant in old fields and pastures. ©. S. Naturalized from Europe. May-Sep- tember.
T. dubium Sibthorp. T. procumbens var. minus Koch. Occasional. O. S. Nashville. Naturalized from Europe. May-September.
T. incarnatum L. Crimson clover. Cultivated for fodder. Introduced from Europe. Summer.
T.arvense L. Rabbit foot. In sterile waste ground. Fre- quent. O.S. Naturalized from Europe. May-September.
T. pratense L. Red clover. Best fodder plant. Native of
104 TENNESSEE FLORA.
S. Europe and W. Asia. Fully naturalized, it sustains itself in fields and meadows. April-November.
T. relexum L. Buffalo clover. Banks of Cumberland River, below Nashville. April-July.
T. stoloniferum Michx. Running Buffalo clover. Very common in rocky limestone glades in M. Tenn. May-August.
T. hybridum L. Alsike or Alsatian clover. Sometimes cultivated for fodder and spontaneous, but infrequent in pas- tures and meadows. Naturalized from Europe. O.S. May- October.
T. repens L. White clover. In fields and open places. O. S. May-December.
PSORALEA L.
Psoralea pedunculata (Mill.) Vail. P. melilotoides Michx.. Samson’s snakeroot. Hills and highlands of M. Tenn.
P. Onobrychis Nutt. Sainfoin Psoralea. Banks of Ten- nessee and Cumberland Rivers. June, July.
P. subacaulis T. & G. Cedar glades and rocky lands of M. Tenn. Tuber highly farinaceous. March-June.
AMORPHA L.
Amorpha fruticosa L. False Indigo. Along streams. O. Sawvlay,»|une:
A. canescens Pursh. Lead plant. Grainger County. A. Ruth.
A. Tennessiensis Shutthw. Alleghany Mts. Wolf Creek and Ocoee River, above Parksville. April-June.
A. virgata Britt. Mts. of E. Tenn. C. L. Boynton.
PAROSELA Cav. (Dalea Willd.)
Parosela Dalea (L.) Britton. Dalea alopecuroides Willd. Frequent in W. Tenn. August, September.
PETALOSTEMON Michx.
Petalostemon candidus (Willd.) Kuntze. P. candidus Michx. White prairie clover. Cowan, near tunnel. Para- dise Ridge, Davidson County. July, August.
P. purpureus (Vent.) McM. P. Violaceous Michx. Ce- dar glades of M. Tenn. July, August.
P. foliosus (A. Gray) Kuntze. Frequent in vicinity of Nashville and the cedar glades. June, July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. , 105
*P, Gattingeri Heller. Petalostemon decumbens Nutt. Frequent in the cedar glades of M. Tenn. A white variety is found at Lavergne, Rutherford County. June, July.
INDIGOFERA L.
Indigofera tinctoria L. Indigo. Formerly cultivated for home use by country people for dyeing homespun goods. E. Tenn. July, August.
CRACCAL. (Thephrosia Pers.)
Cracca Virginiana L. Thephrosia Virginiana Pers. Cat- gut. Dry, siliceous soils. Common in the oak barrens. O.S.
June, July. C. spicata (Walt.) Kuntze. Same range with the former.
O.S. June-August.
KRAUNHIA Raf. (Wistaria Nutt.)
Kraunhia frutescens (L.) Greene. Wistaria frutescens Poir. Mts. at Cowan. May, June.
*+K. macrostachys Small. Banks of Cumberland River, be- low Nashville. May.
ROBINIA L.
Robinia Pseudacacia L. Yellow or black locust. Tree at- taining a height of 80 feet. O.S. May, June.
R. viscosa Vent. Clammy locust. Grand View, E. Tenn. Miss Hattie R. Stratton. Knoxville. A. Ruth. June.
*P. Gattingeri Heller n. sp. vide Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. XXIII., No. 4, p. 121; April 11, 1896. Perennial; stems, a foot in length or more, usually branching from the base, sometimes decumbent, spar- ingly glandular and pubescent, sometimes villous on the peduncles; leaflets, 2 or 3 pairs, narrowly linear or oblong, from 1% to % of an inch long, one line in width or less, dull and glandular on the upper side, light green beneath, the midvein prominent; spikes on rather short peduncles, cylindrical, loose, especially when old, from 1 to 21% inches long; bracts, slightly longer than the calyx, oval-lanceolate, slender- pointed, glandular, pubescent; calyx, pubescent, with spreading hairs, the lanceolate lobes slightly shorter than the tube and more pubescent; petals, deep rose purple; ovary and base of style, pubescent.
+K. macrostachys Small. Wistaria frutescens var. macrostachys T. C. Gray. A vine sometimes from 20 to 25 feet long, stem becoming 2 inches thick, branching; leaves, 4-8 inches long; leaflets, usually 9, ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, 134 inches long, acuminate or acute, rounded or cordate at the base; racemes, 8-12 inches long, loosely flowered, drooping; rachis and pedicels, densely hirsute and glandular; calyx, pubescent, like the pedicels; the tube, companulate; the segments, lanceolate, lateral ones about as long as the tube, lower ones longer; corolla lilac, purple or light blue; standard, with blade 7 lines broad, decurrent on the claw; pods, 2-4 inches long, constricted between the black, lustrous seeds. (Illustrated Flora; Appendix, page 517.)
106 TENNESSEE FLORA.
R. hispida L. Rose Acacia. Lookout Mt., Chattanooga. Young plants bear flowers when only a span high. Var. nana Ell. Very ornamental in cultivation. May.
ASTRAGALUS L.
Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt. A.caryocarpus Ker. Ground plum. Cedar glades near Lavergne Station.
A. Tennessiensis A. Gray. Milk vetch. Very frequent in the rocky glades of M. Tenn. March-May.
A. Carolinianus L. A.Canadensis L. O.S. July, August.
STYLOSANTHES Sw.
stylosanthes ‘biflora’ (.)B. -S.2P-— St. -latior Swi Pencil flower. Siliceous soils. O.S. June-September.
S. riparia T. H. Kearney. At Sewanee both species occur in close proximity. O.S. June-September.
MEIBOMIA Adans. (Desmodium Desv.)
Meibomia nudiflora (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium nudiflorum DC. Woods. O.S. July, August.
M. grandiflora (Walt.) Kuntze. Desmodium acuminatum DC. Dry, rocky woods. O.S. June-September.
M. pauciflora (Nutt.) Kuntze. Desmodium pauciflorum DC. In leafmold.. O.S. “Jay.
M. Michauxii Vail. Desmodium rotundifolium DC. Woods. O.S. July-September.
M. ochroleuca (M. A. Curtis) Kuntze. Desmodium ochro- leucum M. A. Curtis. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
M. glabella (Michx.) Kuntze. Desmodium humifusum Beck. Highlands of M. Tenn. Ridge Top, Baker’s Station.
M. sessilifolia (Torr.) Kuntze. Desmodium sessilifolium T.& 1. Along railroad, Mitchellville, Sumner County. July- September.
M. canescens (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium canescens DC. Highlands of M. Tenn. July-September.
M. bracteosa (Michx.) Kuntze. Desmodium cuspidatum Hook. Ridge Top, Sumner County. In siliceous soil. July, August.
M. paniculata (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium paniculatum DC. The most common species in calcareous and siliceous soils. July-September.
M. levigata (Nutt.) Kuntze. Desmodium levigatum DC. Ors:
M. viridiflora (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium viridiflorum Beck. Siliceous soils. O.S. August-October.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 107
M. Dillenii (Darl.) Kuntze. Desmodium Dilleni Darl, Ors. . july.
M. Canadensis (L.) Kunize. Desmodium Canadense DC. Cumberland Mts., Cowan. July-September.
M. rigida (Ell.) Kuntze. Desmodium rigidum DC. Ce- dar glades. Lavergne. July-October.
M. Marylandica (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium Marylandicum Boott. Cedar and oak barrens. M. Tenn. July-September.
M. obtusa (Miih!.) Vahl. Desmodium ciliare DC. Bar- rens. July-October.
LESPEDEZA Michx.
Lespedeza repens (L.) Bart. Creeping bush clover. Sili- ceous soils. O.S. August, September.
L. procumbens Michx. L. repens var. procumbens. Gray’s Minne ©. S: “August, September.
i violacea, (l..) Pers. Dry copses. ©: S.. August, Sep- tember.
L. Stuvei Nutt. Highlands of M. Tenn. August. Var. intermedia S. Watson. With preceding.
L. frutescens (L.) Britton. L. reticulata S. Watson. Har- peth hills. August, September.
Mmebirta (i:) Ell) LC) polystachya Michx- Dry, ‘siliceous soils, ©.S. ‘August-October.
L. capitata Michx. Harpeth hills. Tullahoma.
L. leptostachya Engelm. Dry hill lands. W. Tenn. Au- gust, September.
L. striata (Thunb.) H.& A. Japan clover. Widely spread over the whole State, carpeting the ground with a beautiful sod. Has been in the remotest mountain settlements since fifty years, and is probably indigenous. Also found in Japan, from whence it is believed to have been imported. July, Au- gust. It is an annual.
VICIA L.
Vicia Americana Miihl. Thickets, vicinity of Nashville. May-July.
V. Caroliniana Walt. Valleys of E. Tenn. May-July.
V. micrantha Nutt. Copses and edge of woods. M. Tenn. Nashville. April, May.
V. sativa L. Common vetch or tare. Sometimes sown with rye and cut for fodder. Native of Europe. May-August.
V. Faba L. Common field pea. Small patches are occa- sionally found in gardens.
108 TENNESSEE FLORA.
ERVUM L.
Ervum Lens L. The lentil is sparingly cultivated for culi- nary use. May-July.
PISUM L.
Pisum sativum L. Garden pea. Cultivated as field and garden crops in many varieties. Pisum arvense L. preferred for field culture.
CICER L.
Cicer arietinum L. Sugar pea. Already known to the lake dwellers. Cultivated by all truck farmers.
LATHYRUS L.
Lathyrus venosus Mihl. Mts. of E. Tenn. A. tlh Kate’s Mt., S..W. Va. J.K. Small. May-July.
L. myrtifolius Mihl. L. palustris var. myrtifolius vane Ga According to Illustrated Flora, in E. Tenn. May-July.
BRADBURYA Raf. (Centrosema Benth.)
Bradburya Virginiana (L.) Kuntze. Spurred butterfly. Centrosema Virginianum Benth. Siliceous soils. O. S. Piney Creek; Rhea County. Mrs. L. Bennett.” July, August.
CLITORIA L.
Clitoria Mariana L. Dry, sunny places in siliceous ground. Ors? pa sume hitihys
FALCATA Gmel. (Amphicarpaea EII.)
Falcata comosa (L.) Kuntze. Amphicarpaea monoica EIl. Hog peanut. Damp woodlands. O.S. August, September.
F:Pitcheri (I? & G.)| Kuntze.. Amphicarpaea:, Prtcheniy ls & G. Fide Illustrated Flora.
APIOS Meench.
Apios Apios (L.) McM. Apios tuberosa Moench. Ground- nut. Moist thickets. O.S. Climbing or trailing over shrubs. O. S. July-September.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 109
*A. Priceana B. L. Robinson. Similar localities with the former. Nashville. May, June.
GALACTIA P. Br.
Galactia regularis (L.) B.S. P. G. glabella Michx. Milk pea. Open grounds. ©.%S.° July, August.
G. volubilis (L.) Britton. G. pilosa Ell. G. mollis Nutt. White Bluff, Dickson County. June, July.
G. mollis Michx. G. pilosa Nutt. Common in open, dry ground. O.S. July, August.
RHYNCHOSIA Laur.
Rhynchosia tomentosa (L.) H. & A. Dry, siliceous soil. OSS. May-July.
PHASEOLUS L.
Phaseolus polystachys (L.) B. S. P. P. perennis Walt. Wild bean. Brownsville Cumberland Mts. Mrs. Lydia Bennett. July-September.
P. vulgaris Savi. Common harricot.. Pole bean. Var. nanus bush bean. Cultivated since the dawn of culture to the present day in many varieties. Believed to have come from W. Asia.
P. lunatus L. The lima bean is claimed for the intertropical
*A, Priceana B. L. Robinson. (Torr. Bot. Bull. 1898.) Vizorous herbaceous twiner; stem, terate, slightly striate, at first covered with a fine reflexed pubescence, but soon nearly glabrate, arising from a large oblate spheroidal root (18 cm. diameter); leaves, 3-9 foliate, those of the main stem 24 cm. long, the ovate or ovate-lanceolate acuminate leaflets sparingly pubescent upon both surfaces, green and scarcely paler beneath, thin and rather veiny, obtuse or rounded at the base, 4-10 em. long, half as broad; petiolules, hirsutulous; leaves and leaflets of the branches, considerably smaller; stipules, subulate, pubescent, 6 mm. long; racemes, dense, borne mostly by twos and threes in the axils, those of the main stem often 12-15 cm. long, 50-70 flowered, and mostly bearing a single short branch; rameal inflorescences, smaller and simple; floral axes, thickish; pedicels, slender, 5 mm. long, com- monly borne by twos and threes in the axils of ovate caudate-acuminate bracts at somewhat greater length; calyx, hemispherical roseate; the limb, obliquely subtruncate, except for the linear-attenuate anterior tooth; petals, greenish white, tinged especially toward the end with rose purple or magenta; the vexillum suborbicular 25 mm. long, biau- riculate at the base and bluntly cornute at the apex; wings, somewhat shorter, narrowly oblong, a little broadened and rounded at the apex; essential organs of the genus; pods, clustered, 12-15 cm. long, 1 cm. broad, acuminate at the apex, attenuate at the base, about 10 seeded; seeds, oblong, olive green, 8 mm. long, separated in the pod by biconcave sections of the silvery-white pithy endocarp. First collected and dis- tinguished by Miss Sady F. Price, of Bowling Green, Ky.
110 TENNESSEE FLORA.
parts of both hemispheres, and cultivated with us as a runner and a bush bean.
P. multiflorus L. The scarlet runner. It succeeds only on the higher mountains, but sets no pods in the lowlands of this | State.
ARACHIS Willd.
Arachis hypogea Willd. Peanut. Goober pea. Native of tropical S. America. Largely cultivated in the western part of the State for its seeds and the oil which is obtained from them. August-October. MW.
STROPHOSTYLES Ell. (Phaseolus L.)
Strophostyles Helvola (L.) Britton. Phaseolus Helvolus L. Strophostyles angulosa Ell. Sandy soil. O. S. July- October. .
S. umbellata (Miihl.) Britton. Ph. Helvolus T. & G. P. peduncularis Ell. Abundant in the barrens. July-September.
S. pauciflora (Benth.) S. Watson. In rich, moist grounds. O.S. July-September.
VIGNA Savi.
*Vigna Sinensis (L.) Endl. and var. V. melanocarpa. Cow pea. Planted between corn rows. In cultivation only. O.S. July-September.
GER ANINCEAn je si-abilaire: : GERANIUM L.
Geranium maculatum L. Spotted crane’s bill. Woods. OMS Apral-july.< af.
G. Carolinianun L. Carolina crane’s bill. Waste grounds. O.S. April-August.
G. pusillum L. Slopes of White Rock Mts.,S. W. Va. Ad- ventive from Europe. May.
te OXALIDACES Lindl.
OXALIS L.
Oxalis Acetosella L. White wood sorrel. Summits of the high mountains of E. Tenn. May-July.
O. violacea L. Rocky woods. O.S. May, June.
O. macrantha Trelease. Rocky glades. M. Tenn. Appril- September. ;
*Two allied species have been recently introduced from the tropics, the soja bean (Glycine hispida) and the velvet bean (Mucuna utilis Wall.). It has been found that the seasons of Tennessee are not al- ways long enough to perfect their growth.
TENNESSEE FLORA. Wii
O. filipes Small n.sp. In Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora. May-August.
O. stricta L1 Woods.’ ©. S.. April-October.
O: grandis Small. O.recurva Trelease. Rich soils. O.S. May-August.
O. corniculata L. In fields and gardens. Introduced. February-November.
O. hirsuticaulis J. K. Small. Nashville. Open woods. With O. macrantha. April, May.
LINACE.® Dumort. LINUM L.
Linum usitatissimum L. Flax. Linseed. Along road- sides. Adventitious from Europe or fugitive from cultivation, which has recently greatly declined in this State. Summer. WV.
L. Virginianum L. Yellow flax. Dry, open woodlands. O.S. June-August.
L. Floridanum (Planch.) Trelease. Near Dickson, Dickson County.
L. striatum Walt. Cedar and oak barrens. O.S. June.
L. sulcatum Riddel. Hickman, W. Tenn. Summer.
RUTACEZ Juss. XANTHOXYLUM L. Xanthoxylum Americanum Mill. Prickly ash. Hills vicin- ity of Nashville. April, May. WM. PTELEA L.
Ptelea trifoliata L. Three-leaved hop tree. Common shrub in the limestone regions of Tennessee. June. WM.
RUTA ST.
Ruta graveolens L. Common garden rue. Found in an open field at Belvidere, Franklin County. Introduced. June. M.
SIMARUBACEA DC. AILANTHUS Desf.
Ailanthus glandulosa Desv. Tree of heaven. Ailanthus. Fully naturalized, and spreading. The male tree is objec- tionable for planting in streets on account of the disagreeable odor of its flower. Native of China. June-September.. M.
112 TENNESSEE FLORA.
MELIACE A DC. MELIA L.
Melia Azedarach L. [Tormerly frequently seen in yards, but apparently dying out. Pride of India China tree.
KC@ZAHLREUTERA DC.
Kcehlreutera paniculata DC. Recently introduced, but seemingly not bearing rigorous winters.
POLYGALACE ZS. POLYGALA L.
Polygala cruciata L. Marsh milkwort. Oak barrens. O. Sry a tly.
P. verticillata L.-' Mts; of E. Tenn. Tuckaleehee’ Cove June.
P. ambigua Nutt. Dry soils. O. S. Nashville. May- July.
P. incarnata L. Barrens, siliceous and rather moist soils. Summer.
P. viridescens L. P. sanguinea L. Cumberland Mts. J. F.. James.
P. Curtissii A. Gray. Barrens and mountains of E. Tenn. August, September.
P. Mariana Mill. P. fastigiata Nutt. Sewanee. July, Au- gust.
P. Nuttallii T. & G. P. sanguinea Nutt. Siliceous soils. OS.) july, Aucust.
P. Senega L. Seneca snakeroot. O.S. May, June.
P. Senega latifolia T. & G. E. Tenn. and vicinity of Nash- ville. May, June.
P. polygama Walt. Valley of E. Tenn. Frequent. June, July.
P. paucifolia Willd. Flowering wintergreen. Cumberland Mts. Rugby. Mrs. Percival. Alleghany Mts.
BUPHORBIACE A je. St, saat PHYLLANTHUS L. Phyllanthus Carolinensis Walt. Pastures and glades. O. S. May-October. CROTON E. Croton glandulosus L. ©.S. Not as common as the fol- lowing. July-September.
C. capitatus Michx. Dry soils, especially M. Tenn. June- September.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 118
C. monanthogynus Michx. Dry pastures. O. S. June- October. WM. CROTONOPSIS Michx. Crotonopsis linearis Michx. Cedar barrens. Summit of Lookout Mt. July-September.
ACALYPHA L.
Acalypha ostryzfolia Ridd. A. Caroliniana Ell. Gardens andifields. ©. S.. June: A. Virginica L. Fields and thickets. O.S. June-October. A. gracilens A. Gray. Dry, rocky grounds. ©. S. June- September. TRAGIA L.
Tragia nepetefolia Cav. East of Cleveland, Bradley County. May-October.
T. macrocarpa Willd. Severely stinging. Abundant in the cedar barrens of M. Tenn. Nashville. June-September.
RICINUS L.
Ricinus communis L. Castor-oil plant. Cultivated as an ornamental plant, and escaping into waste places. July-Sep- tember. MM.
STILLINGIA L.
Stillingia sylvatica L. Queen root. Vicinity of Memphis. Dr. G. Egeling. March-October. M.
EUPHORBIA L.
Euphorbia serpens H. B. K. Abundant in glades and culti- vated grounds. Nashville. July-September.
E. maculata L. Spotted spurge. O.S. June-November.
E. humistrata Engelm. River banks and moist grounds. Nashville. July, August.
E. nutans Lag. E. hypericifolia A. Gray. A troublesome weed in cornfields. O.S. May-October. M.
E. corollata L. Flowering spurge. Open woodlands. O. S. April-October. WM.
E. marginata Pursh. Along lines of railroads. An immi- grant from the West. May-October.
E. dentata Michx. Glades of M. Tenn. Nashville. June- September.
E. Ipecacuanhe L. W. Tenn. May.
E. heterophylla L. Harpeth hills, near Nashville. April- November.
E. Lathyris L. Vicinity of Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. May, June.
114 TENNESSEE FLORA.
E. obtusata Pursh. Frequent in glades around Nashville. March-June.
E. commutata Engelm. Cedar barrens of M. Tenn. April.
E. mercurialina Michx. Stoner’s Creek, Wilson County. Tunnel Hill, Sumner County. Lookout Mt. May-July.
CALLITRICHACE Lindl. CALLITRICHE L.
Callitriche Austini Engelm. Water starwort. On mud banks along streams. Nashville. July.
C. heterophylla Pursh. Ponds near Nashville. July-Sep- tember. .
BUXACEA Dumirt.
PACHYSANDRA Michx.
Pachysandra procumbens Michx. Dr. Hampton’s farm, Da- vidson County. White Bluff, Dickson County. Beersheba Springs, Grundy County. Col. Wilkins. April, May.
ANACARDIACE# Lindl. RHUS L.
Rhus copallina L. Darf sumac. Poor, siliceous soils. O. S. June-August. °
R. hirta (L.) Ludw. R.tyhina L. Staghorn sumac. Hill- sides:.4 GS.» june.
R: glabra, “Scarlet sumac; @ldshelds. - O.S> sume- August. J.
R. aromatica Ait. R. Canadensis Marsh. Limestone re- gions of sM. Tenn. March, April. M.
R. trilobata Nutt. Rh. aromatica var. trilobata Gray. Oc- curs over the same range. JW.
Ro Vernix bo .R. venenata’, DC: Poison: sumac> boson ash. Boggy lands in the Cumberland Mts. Sewanee. June. M.
R. radicans L. R. Toxicodendron Michx. Poison oak. E. Tenn. May, June. M.
R. Toxicodendron L. With crenately-lobed, very-pubescent leaves. Nashville. M.
COTINUS Adans.
Cotinus cotinoides (Nutt.) Britton. R. cotinoides Nutt. Southern border of the State. Limestone County, Ala. Dr. Charles Mohr. April, May.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 115
ILICINEA Lowe.
ILEX L.
Ilex opaca Ait. American holly. A slim tree in the Cum- berland and Alleghany Mts.. Attains a height of 50 feet by 18 to 20 inches diameter in the Cumberland and Hiwassee River bottoms. April. Fruit matures in November, Decem- per. Uf.
I. decidua Walt. Swamp holly. Brownsville, W. Tenn. May.
I. monticola A. Gray. I.montanaT.&G. Mts. of E. Tenn.
I. monticola mollis A. Gray. Lookout Mt. June, July.
I. verticillata (.L) A. Gray. Black alder. Swamps at Hol- fow Rock. VV. Tenn.» BK Ténn.: A. Ruth,
I. ambigua Chapm. Foot of mountains near tunnel at Cowan. July, August. .
I. Bidleyi W. W. Ashe from the mountains of E. Tenn. Is perhaps identical with the foregoing.
GEEASURACE Aiakindk EVONYMUS L.
Evonymus Americanus L. Strawberry bush. O.S. June. M.
E. atropurpureus Jacq. Burning bush. Wahoo. Along Streams, -©.-S.~ June: MM:
CELASTRUS L.
Celastrus scandens L. Climbing bittersweet. Brownsville, Weelenn>: Also Bushy Mts7,s. W. Va... J.KoSmall, a.
SAP VEE ACH ALDC: STAPHYLEA L.
Staphylea trifolia L. American bladdernut. Moist woods. O.S. Nashville. April, May.
AGENCE An St til: ACER L.
Acer saccharinum L. A. dasycarpum Ehrh. Silver maple. Melacee tree reaching 100 feet by, 3 feet diameter. Bottom lands and river banks. Flowers in February, March, and ma- tures its seeds the earliest of all our plants.
A. rubrum L. Red or swamp maple. Wet or swampy lands. . ©. S.)..March, April.
A. saccharum Marsh. A. saccharinum Wanger. A. bar-
116 TENNESSEE FLORA.
batum Michx. Sugar maple. Large tree. O. S. Frequent around Nashville. April, May. ;
A. nigrum Michx. <A. saccharinum var. nigrum T. & G. Black sugar maple. Large tree. O.S. April, May.
A. leucoderme J. K. Small. Banks of Ocoee River above Parksville. C. L. Boynton.
A. Pennsylvanicum L. Moose wood. Striped maple. Smoky Mts. Slopes of White Top Mt.,S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
A. spicatum Lam. Mountain maple. Small tree. Summit of Thunderhead. May, June.
A. Negundo L. Negundo aceroides Meench. Box elder. Large, irregularly-branching tree, growing alongside water sameses: OLS. April:
HIPPOCASTANACEA T. & G. ZESCULUS L.
fEsculus Hippocastanum L. A large tree. Native of Asia. Frequently planted in cities, but not enduring high tempera- tures. Horse chestnut.. May.
#E. glabra Willd. Ohio buckeye. Frequent in the barrens of M. Tenn. April, May.
#é. octandra Marsh. AN. flava Ait. Yellow buckeye. O. Ss April, May.
fE. octandra hybrida Sargt. ©. flava var. purpurascens A. Gray. A decumbent shrub. Frequent at the foot of the Cumberland Mts. and ravines in E. Tenn. Ought to be ranked as a species. April, May.
FE. Pavia L. Red buckeye. Prospect Station, Giles County. A small tree. It is also flowering when only a span high, April, May.
ZZ. parviflora Walt. A shrub. Very ornamental and planted in gardens. Native of N. Alabama, and perhaps also occurring on the southern borders of this State. April, May.
SAPINDACEA R. Br. CARDIOSPERMUM L.
Cardiospermum Halicacabum L. Balloon vine. Native of tropical America. Frequently in cultivation and escaped. May-July.
BALSAMINACEZ Lindl. IMPATIENS L.
Impatiens biflora Walt. I. fulva Nutt. Spotted touch-me- not. Moist grounds. O.S. July-October.
I. aurea Miihl. TI. pallida Nutt. Pale touch-me-not. Sim- ilar localities. O.S. July-September. M.
TENNESSEE FLORA. WF
RHAMNACEX Dumort. BERCHEMIA Neck.
Berchemia scandens (Hill.) Trel. B. volubilis DC. Supple jack. Lookout Mt. Very luxuriantly in low grounds in Brownsville, W. Tenn. March-June.
RHAMNUS L.
Rhamnus lanceolata Pursh. Buckthorn. River banks and copses. Nashville. May. WM. :
Rh. Caroliniana Walt. Carolina buckthorn. Low grounds. Ors.) May, June. iM.
ZIZYPHUS Lam.
Zizyphus vulgaris Lam. Jujuba. Cultivated in a few gar- dens. Fosterville. Small tree. Perfectly hardy. Abundant bearer. The fruit, a small plum of agreeable flavor, is com- monly eaten in both fresh and dry state. Ought to be more largely cultivated. May.
CEANOTHUS L.
Ceanothus Americanus L. New Jersey tea. Red root. In siliceous soils. O.S. May, June.
VITACE Lindl. VITIS: fe.
Vitis Labrusca L.- Northern fox grape. Along the Alle- ghany Mts. Cultivated in Bayer’s settlement, in the Frog Mts., as early as 1848 by French and German immigrants, and improved in size and flavor. It made very good wine. May. Fruit ripens in August, September.
V. xstivalis Michx. Summer grape. Uplands, cedar glades, and mountains. May. Fruit ripe in September, October.
V. cinerea Engelm. Downy grape. Along banks of Cum- berland River, Nashville, and over M. Tenn. May. Fruit ripe in September.
V. cordifolia Michx. Frost grape.. O. ‘S. May. Fruit ripe in October, November.
V. rupestris Scheele. Sand grape. Islands of Cumberland River. Bluffs on Mill Creek and Stoner’s Creek. Fruit ripe in July, August.
V. rotundifolia Michx. V. vulpina T. & G. Southern fox grape. Muscadine grape. In siliceous soil. Cumberland Mts. May. Fruit ripe in August, September.
V. palmata Vahl. River banks of Tennessee River. Fruit maturing in September.
118 TENNESSEE FLORA.
AMPELOPSIS Michx.
Ampelopsis cordata Michx. Vitis indivisa Willd. River banks and moist woodlands, M. Tenn. Nashville. May, June.
A. arborea (L.) Rusby. Vitis bipinnata T. & G. Damp Sot Ver henn:: junes july,
PARTHENOCISSUS Planchon. (Ampelopsis Michx.)
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Ampelopsis quinquefolia Michx. Virginia creeper. O.S. June-August. M.
P. tricuspidata: (Sieb. & Zucc.) Planch. Ampelopsis Veitchii. Frequently cultivated. Closely clinging to walls. Is a Japanese vine.
TILTAGCE Ae juss:
TELA: L:
Tilia Americana L. Basswood. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, ine. i.
T. heterophylla Vent. White basswood. River banks and bottom lands. Nashville. June, July.
T. Europaea L. The European linden. Frequently planted as an ornamental tree. The exquisite fragrancy of the flowers and its freedom from disease and insect pests recommend it for more frequent planting. May. WM.
MALVACEAI Neck. MALVA L.
Malva sylvestris L. Mallow. Waters of Holston River, Sewer a. 1). K. Small:
M. rotundifolia L. Cheeses. Naturalized from Europe. Waste places. ©. S. Summer.
M. verticillata L. M. crispa L. Waste grounds. Adven- mious. OS. /Sumimen
M. moshata L. Musk mallow. S. W. Va. J. K. Small. Adventitious.
CALLIRRHOE Nutt.
Callirrhoé alczoides (Michx.) A. Gray. Copses along Brown’s Creek, Nashville. In a glade near Edgefield Junc- tion, Davidson County. T.S. Imborden.
MALVASTRUM A. Gray.
Malvastrum angustum A. Gray. Glades of M. Tenn. Very frequent around Nashville. July, August.
TENNESSEE FLORA. Lg)
SIDA L.
Sida spinosa L. A bad weed, covering acres. O.S. Sum- mer.
S. Elliottii T. & G. Frequent in the cedar glades. July, August.
S. hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby. In a fence row near Knox- ville. June-August.
ABUTILON Gertn.
Abutilon Abutilon (L.) Rusby. Indian mallow. Abutilon Avicennz Gertn. Adventive from S. Asia. O. 5S. August- October.
HIBISCUS L.
Hibiscus Moscheutos L. Swamp rose mallow. River banks and swamps. O.S. July, August.
H. lasiocarpus Cav. Swamps, Hickman County. August.
H. militaris Cav. H. Virginicus Walt. Along water courses. O. S. A white-flowered variety near Nashville. June, July.
H. Trionum L. Flower-of-an-hour. Adventive from 5S. Europe. July-September.
H. Syriacus L. Shrubby althea. Rose of Sharon. Intro- duced from W. Asia. Sometimes escaped from cultivation. OFS July-September.
H. esculentus L. Okra. Two varieties are in cultivation imeardens. June, July.
GOSSYPIUM L.
Gossypium Barbadense L. The cotton plant. The short staple or upland cotton is largely cultivated in the State. M.
THEACE® DC,
STUARTIA L.
Stuartia Malachodendron L. Stuartia Virginica Cav. WihiteClitk-Springs. Coal) Creek. ~ Aj Ruth:
S. pentagyna L’Her. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. June.
HY PERICACE Lindl.
ASCYRUM L.
Ascyrum stans Michx. St. Peter’s wort. Moist thickets in the mountains. Siliceous soil. July, August.
A. hypericoides L. A. Crux-Andrew L. St. Andrew’s Cross. Dry, siliceous soil. O.S. June-August.
120 TENNESSEE FLORA,
HYPERICUM L.
Hypericum Kalmianum L. St. John’s wort. Typical low form. Cumberland Mts. Mrs. Lydia Bennett.
H. Kalmianum Majus. Stout shrubs, 5 to 7 feet high. Oak barrens at Tullahoma, Coffee County. July.
H. prolificum L. Cleveland, E. Tenn. Craggie Hope, Cheatham County. July-September.
H. densiflorum Pursh. Post Oak Springs, Roane County. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. July-September.
H. galioides L. Along water courses in siliceous ground. Frequent in E. Tenn. June, July.
H. adpressum Bart. Wiaild-goose pond near Mitchellville, Sumner County. July-September.
H. spherocarpum Michx. Frequent in the barrens of M. Tenn. Also in E. Tenn. July-September.
H. dolabriforme Vent. Chilhowee Mt., Parksville. Dry, gravelly hills, east of Cleveland, E. Tenn. July, August.
H. virgatum Lam. H.angulosum Michx. Damp places in the oak barrens at Tullahoma. Var. acutifolium Coult. With the former.
H. perforatum L. Common St. John’s wort. Waste places. Uncommon. Introduced. June.
H. maculatum Walt. H. corymbosum Michx. An abun- dant weed in fields. O.S. July-September.
H. graveolens Buckl. Summit of Thunderhead. White top, Wits Ss W.Va fy. Ke Small” june. july:
Ho mutilum L;\;Fdse/oi pools. O:S: June; July:
H. gymmanthum Engelm. & Gray. Barrens of M. Tenn. July.
H. Canadense L. Cumberland Mts. July-September.
H. Drummondii T. & G. Belvedere, Franklin County. July-September.
*H. lobocarpum Gattinger. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn. July, August.
H. glomeratum J. K. Small. I suppose to be the same as
“H. lobocarpum Gattinger. n. sp. Sepals, linear-lanceolate, small, unequal, 114-3 lines long; petals, unequal, unsymmetric, 3-6 lines long, refiected, early deciduous; capsule, five-celled, deeply five-lobed, lance- olate, tapering into a long beak; carpels, almost distinct, and at full maturity falling away from a central axis; seeds, 1 mm. long, incurved, apiculate, striate lengthwise, transversely grooved; leaves, linear, ob- tuse, slightly mucronate, attenuate downward, pale underneath. Shrub 5-7 feet high, with upright branches. Low, swampy lands in the Orange Sand formation at Hollow Rock, Carroll County, W. Tenn. First col- lected in fruit in 1867, and again in July, 1886, in flower, in very swampy ground. I have since received specimens of a Hypericum la- beled H. prolificum, ‘‘ collected by D. H. E. Hasse, of Little Rock, Ark., in wet pine barrens,” which proved to be the same speaies. M.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 121
I enumerated in the first edition as H. prolificum var. mon- tanum, collected in the Frog Mts. about 1870.
SAROTHRA L.
Sarothra gentianoides L. Hypericum nudicaule Walt. Pine weed. Orange grass. In sandy soil. O.S. July, Au- gust.
TRIADENUM Raf.
Triadenum Virginicum (L.) Raf. Elodea Virginica Nutt. River swamps. Scatteringly O.S. July-September.
T. petiolatum (Walt.) Britton. Cypress swamps. July, August.
CISTACE Ai Lindl.
HELIANTHEMUM Pers.
Helianthemum Canadense (L.) Michx. Frost weed. Com- mon in dry, siliceous soil. E. Tenn. April, May. WM.
LECHEA L.
Lechea villosa Ell. L. Major Michx. Dry, open grounds. @.S. July, August.
L. minor L. L. thymifolia Michx. Pinweed. Barrens of M. Tenn. and mountains of E. Tenn. July, August.
L. racemulosa Michx. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. T. H. Kearney. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small.
L. tenuifolia Michx. Cumberland Mts., M. Tenn. June- August.
VIOEACE Atl. VIOLA.
Viola palmata L. Early blue violet. V. cucullata var. pal- mata A..Gray, -OwS, “April.
V. pedatifida Don. V. delphinifolia Nutt. Prairie violet. Sewanee. Gén. E. Kirby-Smith. March-May.
V. obliqua Hill. V.cucullata Ait. O.S. April-June.
*V. domestica Bicknell. Yard violet. Nashville.
V. villosa Walt. Pond Mt.,S.W.Va. J.K.Small. Knox- ville A. Ruth.
V. sagittata Ait. Highlands of M. Tenn. and mountains of FE. Tenn. April, May.
V. ovata Nutt. V. sagittata var. ovata T.& G. Summit of White Top Mts.,S. W.Va. J. K. Small.
*V. domestica Bicknell. Yard violet. Nashville, in 4 cultivated grounds. Resembles closely V. obliqua, but differs in the short-pedun- cled subterranean peduncles and broadly-reniform blades.
122 TENNESSEE FLORA.
V. pedata L. Bird’s-foot violet, and var. bicolor Pursh. Siliceous soils. Highlands. Harpeth hills, near Nashville. April. MM.
V. odorata L. Sweet violet. Native of Europe. Fre- quently escaping from cultivation. March-May.
V. rotundifolia Michx. Cumberland Mts. March-May.
V.blanda Willd. Dry, rocky grounds. Hills around Nash- ville. April, May.
V. blanda amcena Le Conte. V. blanda var. palustriformis metGtays iron,Mts).S: (W.Va. ed. KoSmall.
V. renifolia A. Gray. V. blanda renifolia A. Gray. Sum- mit of Thunderhead. Smoky Mts. April-June.
V. primulefolia L. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith. Grand- view. Mrs. H. R. Stratton. May.
V.emarginata «(Nutt Le>Conte- + -Wolt, Greek. at ee Kearney.
V. lanceolata L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Knox- ville. March-May.
V. hastata Michx.. Mts. of E. Tenn.
V. hastata var. tripartita Gray. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith. May.
V. pubescens Ait. Woods. O.S. Nashville. Var. Crio- carpa Nutt. Highlands of M. Tenn. March-May.
V. Canadensis L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. May- July.
VostriatavAit.., Nashville, 2O0S>- Aprils May.
V. multicaulis (T. & G.) Britton. V. Miihlenbergii var. multicaulis T.& G. Mts. of E. Tenn. March-June.
V. rostrata Pursh. Sewanee. FE. Kirby-Smith. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
V. tenella Miihl. V. tricolor var. arvensis Hook. Field pansy. Dry pastures. O.S. March-May.
CUBELIUM Raf. (Solea Spreng.)
Cubelium concolor (Forst.) Raf. Solea concolor Ging. Damp woods. O.S. April, May.
PASSIFLORACEZ Dumort. PASSIFLORA L.
Passiflora incarnata L. Passion flower. Dry soil. O. S. A troublesome weed when entering gardens and fields. FI. May. Fruit in August. Called “ May pops.”
TENNESSEE FLORA. 123
P. lutea IL. Yellow passion flower. Thickets. O. S. May- July. CACTACE Lindl. OPUNTIA Mill.
Opuntia Opuntia (L.) Coulter. O. vulgaris Mill. Eastern prickly pear. A waif near a railroad station. Lavergne. Common on the Atlantic Coast. June, July.
O. humifusa Raf. O. Rafinesquii Engelm. Western prickly pear. Abundant in rocky glades. O. S. Varying with or- ‘bicular and obovate joints. June, July.
THY MELEACE4# Reichenb. DIRCA L.
Dirca palustris L. Leatherwood. Moosewood. Swampy or moist thickets in the Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. April, May.
EYTHRACE AY Pind, AMMANIA L. Ammania coccinea Rottb. Swamps or ditches. O. S. July-
September. A. latifolia L. Wet places. Tullahoma, etc. July, August.
DIDIPLIS Raf.
Didiplis diandra Wood. D. linearis Raf. O.S. June-Au- gust.
ROTALA L.
Rotala ramosior (L.) Keehne. Ammania humilis Michx. Pools and ditches. O.S. July-September.
DECODON J. T. Gmelin.
Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell. Nesaea verticillata H. B. K. Loosestrife. Waters of Barren Fork of Caney Fork, near Nicholson Springs. September.
LYTHRUM L. Lythrum alatum Pursh. Angled loosestrife. Borders of springs and rivulets. Cleveland, E. Tenn. July.
PARSONIA P. Br. (Cuphaea Jacq.)
Parsonia petiolata (L.) Rusby. Cuphaea viscosissima Jacq. Clammy cuphaea. Tar weed. Dry woods. O. S. August, September.
124 TENNESSEE FLORA.
MELASTOMACE ZA R. Br. RHEXIA L.
Rhexia Mariana L. Maryland meadow beauty. Wet lands. Oasis] RET ieee Rh. Virginica L. Meadow beauty. Low grounds. O. S. July-September. LAGERSTROEMIA L.
Lagerstroemia Indica L. ‘The crepe myrtle. Frequently cultivated. Ornamental shrub. From E. India.
PUNICA L.
Punica Granatum L. From S. Europe and N. Africa. Cul- tivated, but frequently killed by hard frosts; belongs to this family.
ONAGRACE4 Dumort. ISNARDA L.
Isnarda palustris L. Ludwigia palustris Ell. Marsh purs- lane. Ponds and ditches. O.S. June-November.
LUDWIGIA L.
Ludwigia linearis Walt. Bogsand pools. O.S. July-Sep- tember.
L. hirtella Raf. Tullahoma. Paradise Ridge. June-Sep- tember.
i alternifolia I) “Rattle box. «.Ponds:,'O;)S.~ June-sep; tember. :
L. glandulosa Walt. L. cylindrita Ell. Oak barrens. O. S. August.
L. polycarpa Short & Peter. Swamps. O.S. July-Octo- ber.
L. natans Ell. Ponds. O:S. July-September.
JUSSIAEA L.
Jussiaea diffusa Forskl. J. repens Sw. Swamps near Nash- ville. June-August.
J. decurrens (Walt.) DC. In swamps. O. S. July-Sep- tember.
EPILOBIUM L.
Epilobium coloratum Miih!. Purple-leaved willow herb. Burnt grounds. ©O.S. July-September.
ONAGRA Adans. Onagra biennis (I..) Scop. (#nothera biennis L. Evening
TENNESSEE FLORA. 125
primrose. .O.S. Dry soil. Naturalized from Europe. June- October.
O. biennis grandiflora (Ait.) Small. Scatteringly over the ‘same range with the former.
CENOTHERA L.
C£nothera laciniata Ell. (E.sinuata LL. Near Hyde’s Ferry. Nashville. May, June. Gee tnrearis Michx, E.. Venn Marion, S. W.Va.) wf. 1K
Small. KNEIFFIA Spach. (nothera L.)
Kneiffa linearis (Michx.) Spach. (#nothera linearis Michx. Pewkenn. “Marion, S. W; Var‘). Ke Small:
K. pumila (L.) Spach. C#nothera pumila L. Mts. of E: Tenn. Ocoee Valley. Tullahoma. June-August.
K. fruticosa (L.) Raimann. (Hnothera fruticosa L. Com- mon sundrops.
K. fruticosa var. hirsuta Nutt. Cleveland, Bradley County.
K.' glauca (Michx.) Spach. (Enothera glauca Michx. Lookout Mt. Frog Mts., E. Tenn. May-September.
HARTMANNIA Spach. ((nothera L.)
Hartmannia speciosa (Nutt.) Small. Qinothera speciosa Nutt. Showy primrose. Unoccupied town lots. Escaped from gardens. Nashville. May-July.
LAVAUXIA Spach. ((nothera L.) Lavauxia triloba (Nutt.) Spach. (#£nothera triloba Nutt. Open grounds around Nashville. Frequent. May-July. GAURA L.
Gaura biennis-l.. Cumberland Mts. E. Tenn. July-Sep- tember.
G. Michauxii Spach. G. filipes Spach. Chattanooga. Dr. G. Engelmann. July, August. }
CIRCAEA L.
Circaea Lutetiana L. Bind weed. Night shade. Woods. 2S. june-August. C. alpina L. High summits of the Alleghanies, FE. Tenn. July-September. HALLORAGIDACE As. PROSERPINACA L.
-Proserpinaca palustris L. Mermaid weed. Swamps. O. Siig
126 TENNESSEE FLORA.
P. pectinacea Lam. Ditches along the railroad at Tulla- homa. Summer.
MYRIOPHYLLUM L.
Myriophyllum verticillatum L. Water milfoil. Tullahoma Creek, Tullahoma. May.
M. pinnatum (Walt.) B.S. P, M.scabratum Michx. Hay- wood County. 5S. M. Baine.
ARALIACE Vent. ARALIA L.
Aralia spinosa L. Angelica tree. Frequent in rocky hills anduolades, “©: 'S..+Jiune-Ausust: Mi:
A. racemosa L. American spikenard. E. Tenn. and high- lands of M. Tenn. Charlotte Pike, two miles from Nashville. July, August. &M.
A. hispida Vent. Bristly sarsaparilla. Throughout the mountains of E. Tenn. Frog Mts. June, July. M.
A. nudicaulis L. Sewanee. June, July. WM.
PANAX L.
Panax quinquefolium L. Ginseng. Rich woodlands. O. S., but scarce. In the Harpeth hills, south of Nashville. July, August. df.
UMBELLIFERZ B. Juss.
DAUCUS L.
Daucus Carota L. Wild carrot. The mother plant of the garden carrot. Introduced, naturalized, and growing more robust here than in its native home in Germany. June-Sep- tember. WM.
ANGELICA L. (Archangelica Hoffm.)
Angelica Curtisii Buckl. Roane Mt. Chickering.
A. villosa (Walt.) B.S. P. Angelica hirsuta Miihl. Angel- ica. Ory batrens. ©) -S). “july;-Aueust:
OXYPOLIS Raf. (Archemora DC.)
Oxypolis rigidus (L.) Britton. Archemora rigida DC.
Cowbane. Woodlands. ©.S. August, September. HERACLEUM L. ,
Heracleum lanatum Michx. Cow parsnip. High moun- tams-or. Lenn, June: ei.
~T
TENNESSEE FLORA. 12
PASTINACA L.
Pastinaca sativa L. Parsnips. Native of Britain and Ger- many. Cultivated and naturalized. In moist woodlands. O. 5S. June-September. M.
POLYTAENIA DC.
Polytznia Nuttallii DC. Baker’s Station, Paradise Ridge, Robertson County. April, May.
THASPIUM Nutt.
Thaspium trifoliatum (L.) Britton. Th. atropurpureum Nutt. Purple meadow parsnip. In woods. O.S.
Th. trifoliatum aureum Britton. Th. aureum Nutt. O.S. June; July. 1.
Th. barbinode (Michx.) Nutt. Woods. O. S. July, Au- gust.
Th. barbinode angustifolium Coult. & Rose. Barrens of M. Renn: Brequent; May.
Th. pinnatiidum (Buckl.) A. Gray. In similar localities like the former. May, June.
LIGUSTICUM L.
Ligusticum Canadense (L.) Britton. L. acteifolium Michx. Lookout Mt. Roane Mt. June-August.
ERYNGIUM L.
Eryngium aquaticum L. E. yuccefolium Michx. Rattle- snakemaster. Dry uplands. O.S. June-September. JM.
E. Virginicum Lam. Near Mt. Mitchell. A. Ruth.
E. prostratum Nutt. Low grounds. Brownsville, W. Tenn.
E. virgatum Lam. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
SANICULA L.
Sanicula Marylandica L. Black snakeroot. Moist woods. Oe Se May-Julys 1
S. Canadensis L. S. Marylandica var. Canadensis Torr. Woods. O.S. June-August. Jf.
S. gregaria Bicknell and
S. trifoliata Bicknell are likely to occur within the State.
FCGENICULUM Adans.
Foeniculum Foeniculum (L.) Karst. F. vulgare Gert. Fen- nel. In waste places. Escaped from gardens. O.S. July- September. JI.
128 TENNESSEE FLORA.
F. dulce Gert. Sweet fennel. Sometimes cultivated. Yields.- Oleum Feeniculi. July. WM.
PIMPINELLA L.
Pimpinella integerrima (L.) Asa Gray. Zizia integerrima DC. Yellow pimpernell. From the high mountains to the rocky banks of the rivers. O.S. May,-June.
P. Anisum L. Anis. Sometimes cultivated. The seeds yield the Ol. Anisi. June. M&M,
APIASTRUM Nutt. (Leptocaulis Nutt.)
Apiastrum patens ( Nutt.) Coulter & Rose. Leptocaulis pat- ens Nutt.) Knoxville) “Aw Ruth? “June:
EULOPHUS Nutt.
Eulophus Americanus Nutt. Thickets along Charlotte and Murfreesboro Pikes, Nashville. May, June.
ANTHRISCUS Hoffm.
Anthriscus Cerefolium (1..) Hoffm. Cherophyllum sativum Lam. Garden chervil. Cultivated’ as a pot herb, and some- times escaped. May, June.
BUPLEURUM L.
Bupleurum rotundifolium L. Thorough wort. Fort Neg- ley, Nashville. Cedar glades. Naturalized from Europe. June, July.
CHZEROPHYLLUM L.
Cherophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz. Wild chervill. Moist, rock woodlands. Nashville. April-June.
Ch. Teinturieri Hook. Characteristic of the cedar glades of M. Tenn. March-May.
WASHINGTONIA Raf. (Osmorrhiza Raf.)
Washingtonia Claytoni (Michx.) Britt. Osmorrhiza brev- istylis DC. Sweet cicely. Along Holston River, S. W. Va. JpKeroiiall:
W. longistylis (Torr.) Britton. Smooth sweet cicely. Os- morrhiza longistylis DC. Rich woods. O. S. Nashville. April, May. M.
SIUM L.
Sium cicutefolium Gmel. Hemlock. Water parsnip. Marion, W. Va. J. K. Small. July, August.
TENNESSTE FLORA. 129
APIUM L.
Apium Petroselinum L. Common or garden parsley. Cul- tivated in kitchen gardens, and sometimes escaped. July, Au- gust.
A. graveolens L. Celery. Cultivated, escaping into waste places. May-July. M.
ZIZIA Koch.
Zizia aurea (L.) Koch. Thaspium aureum var. apterum A. Gray. Golden meadow parsnip. Rocky glens and hillsides. Ons, May.
Z. Bebbii (Coult. & Rose) Britton. Mts. of E. Tenn. May.
Z. cordata (Walt.) DC. Thaspium trifoliatum var. apte- gam. Gray. ©O.S. May, June.
CARUM L.
Carum Carvi L. Caraway. Adventive from Europe, some- times appearing in fields, near dwellings. May-July. M.
CICUTA L.
Cicuta maculata L. Water hemlock. Musquash root. Plone streams. ©O.S. July. ©:
DERINGA Adans. (Cryptotenia DC.)
Deringa Canadensis (L.) Kuntze. Cryptotenia Canadensis DC. Housewort. Low, damp woods. O.S. June, July.
SPERMOLEPIS Raf. (Leptocaulis Nutt.)
Spermolepis divaricatus (Walt.) Britton. Leptocaulis div- aricatus DC. Occasionally found in pastures. Nashville. April, May.
PTILIMNIUM Raf. (Discopleura DC.)
Ptilimnium capillatceum (Michx.) Hollick. Mock bishop weed. A single plant found in Nashville. July.
P. Nuttallii (DC.) Britton. Discopleura Nuttallii DC. Damp woods east of Cleveland, Bradley County. July.
HYDROCOTYLE L.
Hydrocotyle umbellata L. Marsh pennywort. Ditches near Hyde’s Ferry, Nashville. June-September.
H. Americana L. Polk County, E. Tenn. June-September.
H. ranunculoides L. fil. Tullahoma Creek, Coffee County. June.
-
D)
130 TENNESSEE FLORA.
ERIGENIA Nutt.
Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt. Harbinger of spring. O. 5: (March, April:
CORIANDRUM Hoffm.
Coriandrum sativum L. Cumin. Used asa condiment, and hence escaping into garden plots. MM.
CUMINUM L.
Cuminum sativum L. Cumin. A condiment. Sparsely es- caping into open grounds.
CORNACE Link. CORNUS L.
Cornus florida L. Flowering dogwood. O. S. March, April.
C. Amonum Mill. C. sericea L. Kinnikiniks. Moist grounds. O.S. May-July.
C. asperifolia Michx. Along streams. O.S. May, June.
C. stolonifera Michx. Red osier dogwood. Banks of streams. O.S. May, June.
C. alternifolia L. fil. Copses and hillsides. E. Tenn. May, June.
NYSSA L.
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. N. multiflora Wang. Sour gum. Low, moist grounds. Medium-sized tree, 30 to 35 feet high. O. S. April-June.
N. biflora Walt. N. sylvatica var. biflora Sargt. N. Caro-
liniana Poir. Along mountain streams, E. Tenn., and in swamps in W. Tenn. Hollow Rock. April, May. ‘ N. aquatica L. N. uniflora Wang. Large tupelo gum. Large tree, frequently 80 to 100 feet high in the lowlands of W. Tenn. Also on uplands on Paradise Ridge, near Nashville. April, May. '
CLETHRACE Klotsch. CLETHRA L. Clethra acuminata Michx. Mountain sweet pepper bush. Throughout the Alleghanies. July, August. PYROLACEA® Agardh. PYROLA L. Pyrola rotundifolia L. Round-leaved wintergreen. Mts.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 131
of E. Tenn. South fork of Holston River. J. K.Small. June, July. P. elliptica Nutt. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. June, July.
CHIMAPHILA Pursh.
Chimaphia macu'ata (J..) Pursh. Pipsissawa. Dry woods, especially under pines. O.S. June-August. Ch. umbellata (L.) Nutt. Prince’s pine. Tracy. City. July.
MONOTROPACE2 Lindl.
MONOTROPSIS Schwein. (Schweinitzia Nutt.) Monotropsis odorata Ell. Schweinitzia odorata DC. Sweet pine sap. Rugby. Mrs. M. L. Percival. February-May.
MONOTROPA L.
Monotropa uniflora L. Indian pipe. In leaf-mold. O. S. Nashville. Harpeth hills. June-August.
HYPOPITIS Adans.
Hypopitis Hypopitis (L.) Small. Monotropa Hypopitis L- False beechdrops. Cumberland Mts. Oakdale Station. June- October.
ERICACEA DC. AZALEA L.
Azalea nudiflora L. Wild honeysuckle. Siliceous soils. @y>. April, May:
A. lutea L. A. calendulacea Michx. Azalea. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. .Ravines in the valleys. In argillaceous or siliceous soils.
A. arborescens Pursh. Tree-Azalea. Sometimes a small tree 20 feet high. Big Frog Mts. Head of Piney Creek, in the Cumberland Mts.’ Mrs. L. Bennett. June.
A. viscosa L. Rhododendron viscosum Torr. Swamp honeysuckle. Along mountain streams in the Alleghanies. Parksville, Polk County. June, July. "
RHODODENDRON L. baat
Rhododendron maximum L. Great laurel. Attaining sometimes the size of a tree 25 to 30 feet high by 1 m. diam- eter. Big Frog Mts. Over the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. June, July.
Rh. Catawbiense Michx. Mountain rose bay. Summit of Smoky Mts. Roane Mt. Wolf Creek. July, August.
Rh. punctatum Andr. Along Little River, E. Tenn. Chs. Hill. Wolf Creek. A. Ruth.
132 TENNESSEE FLORA.
MENZIESIA J. E. Smith.
Menziesia pilosa (Michx.) Pers. M. globularis Salisb. High mountains of E. Tenn. Clingman Dome. Roane Mt. May, June.
DENDRIUM Desy. (Leiophyllum Pers.)
Dendrium buxifolium (Berg.) Desv. Sand myrtle. Leio- phyllum buxifolium Ell. Summit of Roane Mt. Chickering. April-June.
KALMIA L.
Kalmia latifolia L. Calico bush. Mts. of E. Tenn. and highlands of M. Tenn. Always in siliceous soils. May, June.
LEUCOTHOE D. Don.
Leucothoe Catesbaei (Walt.) A. Gray. Common along streams in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. April, May.
L. recurva (Buckl.) A. Gray. Withthe former. May, June.
L. racemosa (L.) A. Gray. Along Emory River, Roane County. T.H.Kearney. Along French Broad River. April- June.
PIERIS D. Don. (Andromeda Pursh.)
Pieris floribunda (Pursh.) Benth. & Hooker. Andromeda floribunda Pursh. Mountain fetter bush. High mountains of Henn. May.
P. Mariana (L.) Benth. & Hook. Cumberland and Alle- ghany Mts. May-July.
XOLISMA Raf. (Lyoni#Nutt.)
Xolisma ligustrina (L.) Britton. Andromeda ligustrina Mihl. Lyonia ligustrina DC. Privet Andromeda. Big Frog Mts., E. Tenn. July.
OXYDENDRUM DC.
Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sour wood. Tree reach- ing 50 to 60 feet. Frequent in siliceous soils. O. S. June, July.
EPIGAA L.
Epigea repens L. Trailing arbutus. Ground laurel. Cum-
berland and Alleghany Mts. March-May.
GAULTHERIA L.
Gaultheria procumbens L. Wintergreen. Mts. of E. Tenn. Abundant. June-September.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 133
VACCINIACE Lindl.
GAYLUSSACIA H. B. K.
Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T. & G. Vaccinium frondosum Pew Dancleberry:..|Mts./of E. Penn... May, June. - Fruit an July, August.
G. resinosa (Ait.) T.& G. Vaccinium resinosum Ait. Black or high-bush huckleberry. Siliceous soils. O.S. May, June. Fruit in July, August.
G. brachycera (Michx.) A. Gray. Vaccinium brachycerum Michx. Box huckleberry. Slopes of the Alleghanies. Parks- ville, on Ocoee River. May.
G. ursina (M.A. Curtis) T.&G. Bear huckleberry. A few miles southeast from Ducktown, in Georgia.
VACCINIUM L.
Vaccinium virgatum tenellum (Ait.) A. Gray. Southern black huckleberry. Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. April, May. Fruit in July.
V. corymbosum L. High-bush blueberry. Gravelly hills. O.S. May, June. Fruit in July.
V. vacillans Kalm. S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June. Fruit in July, August.
V. pallidum Ait. V.Constablei A. Gray. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June. Fruit in July :
V. melanocarpum Chas. Mohr. n. sp. Bluff Mt., Cocke County. T. H. Kearney. May.
V. stamineum L. Deerberry. Dry woods and thickets. Ors; April-June.
V.arboreum Marsh. Farkleberry. Siliceous soils. O. S. May, June.
V. hirsutum Buckl. Frog Mts. Sugar Loaf Mt. at Parks- ville, Polk County, with Gaylussacia brachycera. May, June.
OXYCOCCUS Hill.
Oxycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Pers. Vaccinium macrocar- pum Ait. American cranberry. Swamp at Cranberry Mines, on Tennessee and North Carolina State line. June-August. Fruit in October.
O. erythrocarpus (Michx.) Pers. Vaccinium erythrocarpum Michx. Southern mountain cranberry. High mountains of FE. Tenn. June, July. Fruit in September.
DIAPENSIACE4# Link.
GALAX L.
Galax aphylla L. Colt’s foot. Throughout the Allegha- nies. May-July. P
134 TENNESSEE FLORA.
PRIMULACE Vent. SAMOLUS L.
Samolus floribundus H. B. K. S. Valerandi var. America- nus A. Gray. Water pimpernell. Wet places. O.S. May- September.
LYSIMACHIA L.
Lysimachia Fraseri Duby. Golden Loosestrife. Lookout Mt. Cliffs along Ocoee River. June, July.
L. quadrifolia L. Crosswort. Woodlands. O. S. June- August.
L. Nummularia L. Moneywort. Naturalized from Europe. Escaped from gardens. May, June.
STEIRONEMA Raf.
Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf. Moist thickets. O.S. June- August.
S. tonsum (Wood) Bicknell. S. intermedium Kearney. Mis) ofl yjaenn: | a... Meagney;
S. tonsum simplex Kearney. Wolf Creek. T. H. Kearney. June, July. :
S. radicans (Hook.) A. Gray. Henderson, W. Tenn. S: M. Bain. June-August.
S.lanceolatum A. Gray. O.S. June, July.
S. quadriflorum (Sims) Hitche. S. lanceolatum var. angus- tifolium A. Gray. Bradley County, E. Tenn. Cumberland Mts. June, July.
ANAGALILIS L. Anagallis arvensis L. Pimpernell. Naturalized from Eu- rope. Scatteringly O.S. May, June. WM.
A. coerulea L. Grass plots in Nashville (Blind School). May, June.
CENTUNCULUS L.
Centunculus minimus L. Chaff weed. Hilltops along Harding Pike, twelve miles west of Nashville. Abundant. April, May.
DODECATHEON L.
Dodecatheon Meadia L. Shooting star. The purple flow- ering variety in E. Tenn. The white exclusively in vicinity of
Nashville. April, May. SAPOTACEZ Reichenb. BUMELIA Sw. Bumelia lycioides (L.) Pers. Southern buckthorn. Shrub
TENNESSEE FLORA. 135
or small tree. M. Tenn. and southern part of E. Tenn. In moist, rich soil. June-August.
EBENACE Vent. DIOSPYROS L.
Diospyros Virginiana L. Persimmon. Sometimes reach- ing 80 to 100 feet in height by 2 to 4 feet diameter. O. S. May, June. Fruit in September, November.
SYMPLOCACEZ Miers. SYMPLOCOS L.
Symplocos tinctoria (L.) L’Her. Sweet-leaf horse sugar. Near Ducktown, Polk County, in North Carolina. March, Zapril.
STYRACEA A. DC. SEY RAX L:
Styrax Americana Lam. Smooth storax. Jackson, W. Tenn. S.M. Bain. March, April.
MOHRODENDRON Britt. (Halesia Ellis.)
Mohrodendron Carolinum (L.) Britton. Halesia tetraptera L. Snowdrop tree. O. S. Along streams. Ocoee Valley. March, April.
M. dipterum (L.) Britton. Halesia diptera. Grounds of St. Cecilia Academy, Nashville. Cultivated. April.
OLEACE Lindl. SYRINGA L.
Syringa vulgaris L. Lilac. Frequently cultivated, and sometimes remaining on deserted garden plots. Native of Eu- rope. April, May.
FRAXINUS L.
Fraxinus Americana L. White ash. O.S. Attaining over 100 feet by 3 to 5 feet diameter.
F. lanceolata Borck. F. viridis Michx. Green ash. Grow- ing to 65 feet by 3 feet diameter. Low, moist grounds. Fre- quent about Nashville. April, May.
F. Pennsylvanica Marsh. F. pubescens Law. Swamps and low grounds. O.S. April, May.
F. quadrangulata Michx. Blue ash. Large tree, attaining sometimes I10 feet by 3 feet diameter. O.S. March, April.
F. Americana var. microcarpa A. Gray. Frequent in the
136 TENNESSEE FLORA.
Harpeth hills, near Nashville. Is a hybrid between F. Amer- icana and viridis. Its copious seeds are sterile. March, April.
ADELIA P. Br. (Forestiera Poir.)
Adelia acuminata Michx. Forestiera acuminata Poir. At the water’s edge of Cumberland River and its tributaries. March, April.
A. ligustrina Michx. Forestiera ligustrina Poir. A shrub characteristic of the cedar glades of M. Tenn. July. Fruit in October.
LIGUSTRUM L.
Ligustrum vulgare L. Privet. Used for hedges. Native of Europe, but well naturalized and producing perfect fruits. June, July.
LOGANIACE Dumort.
GELSEMIUM Juss.
Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait. f. Yellow jessamine. Lookout Mt. Frequent in the southern part of M. Tenn. March-October.
SPIGELIA L. Spigelia Marylandica L. Pink root. O.S. May, June.
CYNOCTONUM J.G. Gmelin. (Mitreola R. Br.)
Cynoctonum Mitreola (L.) Britton. Mitreola petiolata T. & Gray. Mitrewood. Near Kingston Springs. J. M. Bain. June-September.
POLYPREMUM L.
Polypremum procumbens L. Sandy soil. Scatteringly O. S. May-September. .
GENTIANACE-4#% Dumort. SABBATIA Adans.
Sabbatia lanceolata (Walt.) Torr. & Gray. Elizabethtown, E. Tenn. May-September.
S. angustifolia (Michx.) Britton. S. brachiata Ell. Cen- tury. Barrens. O.S. June, July. WM.
S. angularis (L..) Pursh. Rose pink. Pastures in rich soil. OS! July, August: 1.
S. campanulata (L.) Torr. S. gracilis Pursh. Slender marsh pink. Barrens at Tullahoma. July. J.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 137
GENTIANA L.
Gentiana quinquefolia L. Stiff gentian. Frog Mts., Polk County. Hills around the copper mines. August, September.
G. Saponaria L. Soapwort gentian. Moist thickets in the highlands. September, October. M.
G. Andrewsii Griesebach. Closed gentian. Highlands. South Tunnel. August, September.
G. villosa L. G. ochroleuca Freehl. Stringed gentian. Bar- fens. ©.S. September, October. MU.
FRASERA Walt.
Frasera Carolinensis Walt. American Columbo. Barrens. O.S. June-August. WM.
OBOLARIA L. _ Obolaria Virginica L. Pennywort. Moist, rich woodlands. O.S. Paradise Ridge. -Sequatchie Valley. BARTONIA Miihlb. Bartonia Virginica (L.) B.S. P. B. tenella Willd. Moun- tain bogs. Sewanee. July-September. MENYANTHACE. G. Don. LIMNANTHEMUM 5S. G. Gmelin. Limnanthemum lacunosum Griesb. Floating heart. Cy- pressswamps. W.Tenn. July, August. APOCGY NACE ANtandl:
. AMSONIA Walt.
Amsonia Amsonia (L.) Britton. A. Tabernzmontana Walt. Including A. latifolia Michx. and A. salicifolia Pursh. OFS. In moist-soil.', May,,June:
VINCA L.
Vinca minor [.. Periwinkle. On all old graveyards. Ma- tures and propagates from seed. Introduced from Europe. March-May.
APOCYNUM L.
Apocynum androsemifolium L. Spreading dogbane. O.S. July, August. M. . A.cannabinum L. Indian hemp. O.S. June-August. WM.
138 TENNESSEE FLORA.
TRACHELOSPERMUM Lemaire.
Trachelospermum difforme (\Walt.) A. Gray. Forsteronia difformis A. DC. Haywood County, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
ASCLEPIADACES Lindl. ASCLEPIAS L.
Asclepias tuberosa L. Butterfly weed. Pleuresy root. Fields and pastures. O.S.. June, July. WU.
A. purpurascens L. Purple milk weed. Edges of woods and fields. O.S. June, July.
A. inearnata J... :-Swamip walk) weed... Swamps... ‘O)4S: June, July.
A.incarnata L. Var. longifolia Gray. Swamps along Cum- berland River. WM.
A. obtusifolia Michx. Ocoee District. Rugby. Mrs. Per- cival. June, July.
A. exaltata (L.) Miihl. A. phytolaccoidea Pursh. Mts. of Eedienn’, july.
A. variegata L. White milk weed. Dry uplands, Nash- wille.. Ei Denn. June, Luly,
A. quadrifolia Jacq. Oak barrens of M.Tenn. June, July.
A: Synriaca lL. Silk weed. “A; ‘Cornutt “Decaisne. "OS: July. M.
A. perennis Walt. Bottoms, W. Tenn., at Henderson. S. M. Bain. May-August.
A. verticillata L. Whorled milk weed. Frequent in the cedar glades. July.
ASCLEPIODORA A. Gray.
Asclepiodora viridis (Walt.) A. Gray. Cedar glades. In dry, open places. May-July.
ACERATES Ell.
Acerates viridiflora (Raf.) Eaton. Cedar glades, Lavergne. June, July.
A. longifolia Ell. A. Floridana Hitch. Barrens at Tulla- homa. July, August.
AMPELANUS Raf. (Britton Enslenia Nutt.) Ampelanus albidus Nutt. Britton Enslenia albida Nutt. Sand vine. Thickets and along river banks. O.S. July. VINCETOXICUM Walter. (Gonolobus Michx.) Vincetoxicum gonocarpon Walt. Gonolobus levis var. mac- rophyllus A. Gray. G.macrophyllus Michx. O.S. July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 139
V. hirsutum (Michx.) Britton. G. hirsutus Michx. Thick- ets along Cumberland River and Stoner’s Creek. June, July.
V. obliquum (Jacq.) Britton. Gonolobus obliquus R. Br. Copses around Nashville.
V. Carclinense (Jacq.) Britton. Gonolobus Carolinensis R. Br. Vicinity of Nashville. May, June.
V. Shortii (A. Gray) Britton. Gonolobus Shortii A. Gray. Mebenn, July:
CONVOLVULACE Vent. EVOLVULUS L.
Evolvulvus pilosus Nutt. E. argenteus Pursh. Cedar glades, Lavergne. May-July.
QUAMOCLIT Mench.
Quamoclit Quamoclit (L.) Britton. Ipomaea Quamoclit. L. Cypress vine. Immigrant from S. America. Frequent in cornfields and in gardens. July-October.
IPOMGA L.
Ipomeea pandurata (L.) Meyer. Wild potato vine. Man of the earth. Drysoil. Along hedges. May-September. WM.
I. lacunosa L. Small-tlowered white morning-glory. Moist soil, ©. S._..july-September.
I. purpurea (L.) Roth. Morning-glory. .Adventive from tropical S. America. Frequent in cultivation, and naturalized. O.S. July-October.
I. hederacea Jacq. Ivy-leaved morning-glory. Fields and waste places. ©.S. June-October.
I. Batatas Lam. [Patatas edulis Chois. Sweet potato. Na- tive of S. America. In cultivation only.
CONVOLVULUS L.
Convolvulus sepium L. Great bind weed. Fields and thick- ets. O.S. June-August.
C. repens L. C. sepium var. repens Gray. Old fields. South fork of Holston River. J. K. Small. July, August.
C. spithameus L. Calystegia spithamea Pursh. Dry, rocky woods. Frequent in the Alleghanies. July-September.
C. arvensis L. Small bind weed. Grass plots in the city of Nashville, Normal College grounds. June-August.
CUSCUTACEA Dumort. CUSCUTA L.
Cuscuta arvensis Beyrich. Field dodder. Near Nashville, on ambrosia. July, August.
140 TENNESSEE FLORA.
C. chlorocarpa Engelm. A. Gray. On polygonums and other herbs. O.S. July-September.
C. indecora Choisy. C. decora Engelm. On solidago and asters. Nashville. Knoxville.
C. tenuiflora Engelm. Big Frog Mt. E. Tenn. July.
C. Gronovii Willd. On shrubs and herbs. O.S. August, September.
C. rostrata Shuttlew. Summit of Thunderhead, on solidago glomerata. July.
C. compacta Juss. On eupatorium and other herbaceous plants. Paradise Ridge. Sumner County. August, Septem- ber.
C. paradoxa Raf. C. glomerata Choisy. Low bushes, high- Jands, Sumner County. July.
C. obtusiflora H. B. K. Var. glandulosa Engelm. On bushes and herbaceous plants. Frequent about Nashville. July, August.
POLEMONTIACEA® DC. PHLOX L.
Phlox paniculata [.. Garden phlox. Rich, moist wood- lands. O.S. July-September. :
P. maculata L. Wild sweet William. With the former. Very common in the Alleghanies. July-September.
P. glaberrima L. Mts. of E. Venn. Highlands of M. Tenn.
P. glaberrima L. Var. suffruticosa Gray. Banks of Cum- berland River at Rising Sun Bluff. July.
P. pilosa L. Var. detonsa Gray. Cliffs on Cumberland River above Nashville. June. .
P.ameena Sims. Mts. of E. Tenn. and highlands of M. Tenn. Mitchellville, Sumner County. April-June.
P.divaricata L. ©.S5),Apml, May,
P) reptans Michx, “Marion; S: W.Va. 7J. K: Small. Duck town, Polk County. April, May.
P. bifida Beck. Dry ground. Indiana-Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora.
P. Stellaria A. Gray. Cedar glades, Lavergne. April.
P. ovata L. P. Carolina L. South Tunnel, Robertson County. June.
P. subulata L. Moss pink. Kate’s Mt., S. W. Va., near Tennessee border. J. K. Small. June. °
GILIA*R, & T:
Gilia coronopifolia Pers. ‘Standing cypress. Red knobs. McMinn County, E. Tenn. Perhaps strayed from cultivation. July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 141
POLEMONIUM L.
Polemonium reptans L. Greek valerian. Moist woods. Os: April, May.
BY DROPHY LLACE AS) Lindi:
HYDROPHYLLUM L.
Hydrophyllum Virginicum L. Virginia water leaf. Duck- town, Polk County. June.
H. macrophyllum Nutt. Damp woods. South Tunnel, Sumner County. June.
H. appendiculatum Michx. Frequent in vicinity of Nash- ville. June.
H.Canadense L. Mts. of E. Tenn. June, July.
NEMOPHILA Nutt.
Nemophila microcalyx (Nutt.) T.& M. Copses and ravines. M. Tenn. Frequent around Nashville. Grounds of Vander- bilt University. March, April. ek
PHACELIA Juss.
Phacelia bipinnatifida Michx. Moist thickets. O.S. April, May.
P. dubia (L.) Small. P. parviflora Pursh. Rocky glades. Vicinity of Nashville. April-June.
P. hirsuta Nutt. On dry ground. Frequent around Nash- ville. March, April.
P. Purshii Buckl. Very frequent in the glades of M. Tenn. April, May.
P. fimbriata Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. White Top Mt., S. NVM Ke Smaialli'” May) Pune.’
P. Bicknellii J. K. Small. Collected by Mr. Bicknell near city of Nashville; 1894. Is perhaps same as I have taken to be P. hirsuta Nutt.
. NAMA L. (Hyrolea L.)
Nama affinis (A. Gray). Kuntze. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn. Augtest.
BORAGINACEA® Lindl.
HELIOTROPIUM L.
Heliotropium tenelium (Nutt.) Torr. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. Verycopious. July.
H.Indicum L. Low, wet grounds. O.S. May-July.
H. anchusefolium Poir. Introduced and spreading in the grounds of Dr. Cheatham, now Belmont. June.
142 TENNESSEE FLORA.
CYNOGLOSSUM L.
Cynoglossum officinale L. Hound’s tongue. Waste grounds. ~O.S. April, May.
C. Virginicum L. Wild gomfrey. Woods. O. S. April, May.
LAPPULA Meench. (Echinospermum Sw.)
Lappula Lappula (L.) Karst. Echinospermum Lappula Lehm. Burseed. Naturalized from Europe. Waste places. Johnsonville. May-September.
L. Virginiana (L.) Greene. Echinospermum Virginianum Lehm. Beggar’s ticks. Woods. O.S. June, July.
MERTENSIA Roth.
Mertensia Virginica (L.) DC. Pulmonaria Virginica L. Lungwort. Rich woodlands. O.S. March, April.
MYOSOTIS L.
Myosotis palustris (L.) Lam. Forget-me-not. Hampton, E. Tenn. May.
M. laxa Lehm. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May, June.
M. Virginica (L.) B.S. P. M. Verna Nutt. Early scorpion grass. Dry hills.. O.S. March, April.
LITHOSPERMUM L.
Lithospermum arvense L. Corn gromwell. Waste places. Ose Apsil:
L. officinale L. Gromwell. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May.
L. latifolium Michx. American gromwell. Highlands. In damp woods. South Tunnel, Sumner County. May, June.
L. canescens Lehm. Hoary raccoon. Glades of M. Tenn. June, July.
L. angustifolium Michx. W.Tenn., near Hickman. June.
L. tuberosum Rugel. Dry ridges near Knoxville.
ONOSMODIUM Michx.
Onosmodium Carolinianum DC. False gromwell. Banks of Holston River, below the Falls. J. K. Small. May-July. O. molle Michx. Abundant in the glades of M.Tenn. April, May. SYMPHYTUM L.
Symphytum officinale L. Gomfrey. Old settlements in the mountains of E. Tenn. May, June.
TENNESSEE FLORA. « 143
BORAGO L.
Borago officinalis L. Borage. Escaped from gardens. E.
Penn. June. ECHIUM L.
Echium vulgare L. Vipers Bugloss. Upper E. Tenn. May, June. VERBENACE4 J. St. Hil.
VERBENA L.
Verbena officinalis L. Vervain. Roadsides and old fields. Naturalized from Europe. E. Tenn. June-September.
V. urticaefolia L. Pastures and roadsides. O.S. August, September.
V.hastataL. Waste ground. O.S. July-September.
V. angustifolia Michx. Dry limestone soils. O. S. July- September.
V. stricta Vent. W.Tenn. June-September.
V. bracteosa Michx. Roadsides, around dwellings. O. S. June, July.
iveeCanadensis (lk.). Britton. .V..Aubletia Jacq..Cedar elades. May-July.
V. riparia Raf. Small & Heller. V-. urticaefolia var. riparia. Britton. Banks of Staley Creek, at Marion; banks of Cedar Greek,S. W.Va... J..K: Small.
LIPPIA 1.
Lippia lanceolata Michx. Fog fruit. Moist soil. O. S. August, September.
CALLICARPA L. Callicarpa Americana L. French mulberry. Limestone re- gions of M. Tenn. June, July. _LABIATAS B. Juss. TEUCRIUM L. Teucrium Canadense L. American Germander. Moist thickets. August, September. WM. ISANTHUS Michx.
Isanthus brachiatus (L.) B. S. P.. I. coeruleus Michx. Rocky slopes of limestone regions of M. Tenn. July-Septem- ber.
TRICHOSTEMA L.
Trichostema dichotomum L. Bluecurls. Sandy fields. O.
S. July, August.
144 7 TENNESSEE FLORA.
SCUTELLARIA L.
Scutellaria lateriflora L. Mad-dog scullcap. Moist wood- lands. O.S. July-September. WM.
S. serrata And. Wood. M. Tenn. Cumberland Mts. R. M. Middleton. May, June.
S. incana Miihl. S. canescens Nutt. Hills near Nashville. Craggy Hope, Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway. June-August.
S. cordifolia Miihl. S. versicolor Nutt. Hills near Nash- ville. June, July.
S. cordifolia var. bracteata Benth. Bluffs on Mill Creek, near Nashville. July.
S. pilosa Michx. Hills near Nashville. E. Tenn. July, August.
S. pilosa hirsuta (Short) A. Gray. South Tunnel, Sumner County. July.
S. integrifolia L. Highlands. Cumberland Mts. May, June.
S. integrifolia var. major Chap. Parksville, E. Tenn.
S. parvula Michx. Cedar glades. May.
S. campestris Britton. S. parvula var. mollis A. Gray. Glades. Baine.
S. saxatilis Riddel. Chilhowee Mts., E. Tenn. May-July.
S. galericulata L. Mts.of E. Tenn. Ducktown. June-Sep- tember.
S. nervosa Pursh. Swampy woodlands. Sumner County. July.
S. venosa T. H. Kearney. Bull. September, 1897. Bluff Mi. Penn:
MARRUBIUM L. Marrubium vulgare L. White hoarhound. Waste places. Naturalized from Europe. July. WM.
AGASTACHE Clayt. (Lophanthus Benth.)
Agastache nepetoides (L.) Kuntze. Lophanthus nepetoides Benth. Catnip. Giant hysop. Woods and thickets. M. Tenn. July-September.
A. scrophulariefolia (Willd.) Kuntze. Lophanthus scroph- ularizfolia Benth. High mountains of E. Tenn. July.
MEEHANIA Britt. (Cedronella Benth.)
Meehania cordata (Nutt.) Britton. Cedronella_ cordata Zenth. Highlands of M. Tenn. May-July.
TENNESSEE? FLORA. 145
NEPETA L.
Nepeta Cataria L. Catnip. Waste places. Naturalized from Europe. July-November. WM.
GLECHOMA L.
Glechoma hederacea L. Ground ivy. Shaded, moist grounds. O.S.March-May. WM.
PRUNELLA L.
Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal. Fields and roadsides. O. S. July-September. WM.
PHYSOSTEGIA Benth.
Physostegia Virginiana (L.) Benth. False dragon head. Barrens. ©. 5S. July,
SYNANDRA Nutt.
Synandra hispidula (Michx.) Britton. Moist woods. John Overton’s place, near Nashville. March, April.
GALEOPSIS L.
Galeopsis Tetrahit L. Hemp nettle. Lemon’s Gap, E. enney A. Ruth. j LEONURUS L.
Leonurus Cardiaca L. Motherwort. Waste places. O. S. June-September. M. LAMIUM L.
Lamium amplexicaule L. Henbit. Weed in fields and gar- dens. ©O.S. February, March. L. purpureum L. Red dead nettle. Knoxville. A. Ruth. L. maculatum L. Spotted dead nettle. Troutdale, W. Va. J. K. Small. STACHYS L.
Stachys aspera Michx. Hedge nettle. Moist woodlands. O25.) jive, Ta
S. tenuifolia Willd. S. aspera xar. glabra Gray. Banks of Cumberland River, above Nashville. May, June.
S. cordata Riddel. Rich hillsides in the Harpeth hills, near Nashville. July.
BETONICA L. Betonica officinalis L. Stachys Betonica Benth. Betony.
Adventitious in cultivated grounds in Nashville. July-Sep- tember. M.
146 TENNESSEE FLORA.
SALVIA L.
Salvia lyrata L. Lyre-leaved sage. Copses. O.S. April, May.
S. urticefolia L. Woods. O.S. April-June.
S. officinalis L. Sage. Cultivatedonly. WM.
MONARDA L.
Monarda didyma L. Oswegotea. Wet places in the higher mountains of E. Tenn. July.
M. Clinopodia L. Mts. of E. Tenn. June-August.
M. fistulosa L. Wild bergamot. O.S. June-September.
M. fistulosa var. mollis Benth. Nashville. June-August. M.
M. Bradburiana Bick. Highlands of M. Tenn. June, July.
M. punctata L. Horse mint. Memphis. Dr. Egeling. M.
M. citriodora Cero. Lemon horse mint. Montgomery Bell Academy grounds, Nashville. June, July.
BLEPHILIA Raf. Blephilia ciliata (L.) Raf. Dry soil. O.S. July.
B. hirsuta (Pursh.) Torr. Shady grounds along Cumber land River, near Nashville. June-September.
HEDEOMA Pers.
Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. American pennyroyal. O.S. June-September. JW.
MELISSA L.
Melissa officinalis L. Balm. Cultivated, and escaped from gardens. June. M.
CLINOPODIUM L. (Calamintha Mench.)
Clinopodium vulgare L. Calamintha Clinopodium Benth. Wild Basil. Knoxville. A. Ruth. WM.
C. Nepeta (L.) Kuntze. Calamintha Nepeta Link. Basil Thyme. Dry, rocky grounds. Frequent around Nashville. E. Tenn. July-September.
C. glabrum (Nutt.) Kuntze. Calamintha glabella var. Nut- tallii A. Gray. Abounds in the cedar glades. May, June.
C. glabellum (Michx.) Kuntze. Calamintha glabella Benth. River banks of Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora.
ORIGANUM L. Origanum Majorana L. Cultivated majoran. June, July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 147
KQ@LLIA Mench. (Pycnanthemum Michx.)
Keellia flexuosa (Walt.) MacM. Pycnanth. linifolium Pursh. Mountain mint. Siliceous and argillaceous soils. O. S. June, July. M.
K. Virginica MacM. P. lanceolatum Pursh. O. S. Au- gust, September.
K. pilosa (Nutt.) Britton. P. muticum var. pilosum Gray. Dickson County. July.
K. verticillata (Michx.) Kuntze. P. Torreyi Benth. 5S. W. Va., near Tennessee line. July-September.
K. clinopodioides (T. & G.) Kuntze. P. clinopodioides T. eG Tenn. Fide’A. Gray:
K. incana (L.) Kuntze. Pycnanthemum incanum Michx. O.S. August-October.
K. pycnanthemoides (Leavenw.) Kuntze. P. Tullia Benth. Hills west of Nashville. June, July.
K. albescens (T. & G.) Kuntze. P. albescens T. & G. Parksville, E. Tenn. Also hilltops near Nashville. July-Sep- tember.
K. mutica (Michx.) Britton. P. muticum Pers. Oak bar- rens of Tullahoma. Very abundant. July, August.
K. montana (Michx.) Kuntze. P.montanum Michx. Big Frog Mt. Clingman Dome.
THYMUS L. Thymus vulgaris L. Sweet thyme. Cultivated only. WM.
SATUREIA L. Satureia hortensis L. Summer savory. Cultivated. WM.
LYCOPUS L.
Lycopus Virginicus L. Bugle weed. Ponds and ditches. O. S. August, September.
L. rubellus Meench. Stalked water hoarhound. Swamps. O. S. July-October.
L. Americanus Miihl. Cut-leaved water hoarhound. Wet soil. O.S. July-October.
MENTHA L.
Mentha spicata L. M. viridis L. Spearmint. Introduced. Wet grounds. O.S. July. WM.
M. Piperita L. Peppermint. Introduced. July-Septem- ber. WM.
M. rotundifolia L. Round-leaved mint. South fork of Hol- ston Riversn-j: K.Smatll) July.
148 TENNESSEE FLORA.
M. aquatica L. Water mint. Knoxville. A. Ruth. Au- gust-October.
M. arvensis L. Field mint. Waste places. Introduced. July-September.
M. sativa L. Whorled mint. Knoxville. A. Ruth. Sep- tember, October.
M. Canadensis L. American wild mint. Margin of ponds. O.S. July-October.
COLLINSONIA L.
Collinsonia Canadensis L. Horse balm. Rich woodlands. Frequent in E. Tenn. July-October. WM.
C. punctata Ell. Cumberland Mts. Harpeth hills, along Hillsboro Pike. July.
C. verticillata Baldw. Lookout Mt. W.M. Canby. Knox and Loudon Counties. A. Ruth. M.
PERILLA Ard.
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton. P. ocymoides L. Native of India. Spreading in M. Tenn. Growing in old farm lands in big patches. July-October.
SOLANACE Pers.
PHYSALODES Behm. (Nicandra Adans.)
Physalodes Physalodes (L.) Britton. Nicandra Physa- lodes Geertn. Apple of Peru. In clearings, or a weed in gar- dens or fields. O.S. July-September.
PHYSALIS L.
Physalis pubescens L. Sandy soil. Ground cherry. O.S. July-September.
P. angulata L. Copses, in rich soil. O.S. July-Septem- ber.
P. Philadelphica Lam. Fields and gardens. O.S. July.
P. lanceolata Michx. Prairie ground cherry. Uplands. Cumberland Mts. July, Atugust.
P. Virginiana Mill. Cedar glades and woods. O.S. July- September.
SOLANUM L.
Solanum nigrum L. Black nightshade. Waste ground. ©. S. July-October. M.
S. Carolinense L. Horse nettle. Fields and waste grounds. ©.S. May-September. M.
S. rostratum Dunal. Sand bur. Adventive from the West.
TENNESSEE F'LORA. 149
The original food of the potato bug. Nashville and vicinity. July-August.
S. Dulcamara L. Nightshade. Bittersweet. Rare as a spontaneous growth. Near dwellings. O. S. June-Septem- ber 1.
S. tuberosum L. Potato. In cultivation only. It grows to perfection on the high mountains of E. Tenn. (Big Frog Mt.), where it also matures its seeds.
S. Melongena L. Eggplant. In cultivation only.
LYCOPERSICON Mill.
Lycopersicon Lycopersicon. Solanum Lycopersicon L. Tomato. Sometimes escaped. Largely cultivated.
LYCIUM L.
Lycium vulgare Dunal. Matrimony vine. Roadsides and waste grounds. ©O.S. Introduced from Europe. May, June.
DATURA L.
Datura Stramonium L. Thorn apple. Jamestown weed. Was. june-September. ‘1.
D. Tatula L. Purplethornapple. Withthe former. O. S. June-September. WM.
NICOTIANA L.
Nicotiana Tabacum L. Tobacco. Universally cultivated in several varieties. The finest qualities are grown in the moun- tain plateaus of E. Tenn. and North Carolina.
PETUNIA Juss.
Petunia violacea Lindl. Escaped from gardens into waste places. July. CAPSICUM L.
Capsicum annuum L. Red pepper. Spanish pepper. Chile pepper. WV.
C. fastigiatum L. Bird pepper. Fruit in shape of a cock’s spur. Used in pickles.
C. frutescens L. Cayenne pepper. Pods shaped like the last, but larger. Preferred for medicinal purposes. M.
C. grossum W.. Bell pepper. Pods large and less pungent. All these varieties occur under cultivation only.
SCROPHULARIACE At, Lindl. VERBASCUM L.
Verbascum Thapsus L. Great mullen. O. S. June-Sep- tember. M.
150 TENNESSEE FLORA.
V. Blattaria L. Moth mullen. Waste places. O. S. June-November.
LINARIA Juss.
Linaria Linaria (L.) Karst. lLinaria vulgaris Mill. But- ter and eggs. Fields and fence rows. O.S. June, July. M.
L. Canadensis (L.) Dumort. Wild toad flax. Lookout Mt. On summit. May-September.
SCROPHULARIA L.
Scrophuiaria Marylandica L. Figwort. Wood and thick- ese (OSS: June; July.~ oat
CHELONE L.
Chelone glabra L. Turtle head. Swamps. O. S. July- August. MW.
C. Lyoni Pursh. Mountain bogs in the Alleghanies. July- September.
PENTSTEMON Soland.
Pentstemon hirsutus (L.) Willd. Hairy beard tongue. Dry woods and thickets. O.S. May-July.
P. Digitalis (Sweet) Nutt. Glades. July, August.
P. Pentstemon (L.) Britton. P. levigatus Solander. Woods and thickets. M. Tenn. June, July.
P. canescens Britton. Slope of Kate’s Mt., S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June.
P. Smallii Heller. Frequent in the glades around Nash- ville) Knoxville. - F. LicSeribner:
P. calycosus J. K. Small. Bluffs. Tennessee. Bulletin Bot. Club. September, 1808.
PAULOWNIA Sieb. & Zucc. Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Baill. P. imperialis Sieb. & Zuce. Ornamental tree from Japan. Matures its seeds, and is sometimes found in the open country. May-July.
MIMULUS L.
Mimulus ringens L. Monkey flower. Wet ground. O. S. June-September.
M. alatus Soland. Ponds and ditches. O. S. June-Sep- tember.
CONOBEA Aubl.
Conobea multifida (Michx.) Benth. Sandy soil, along streams. Common in M. Tenn. June-September.
TENNESSEE F'LORA. 151
MONNIERA P. Br. (Herpestis Geert.)
Monniera acuminata (Walt.) Kuntze. Herpestis nigres- cens Benth. Moist places in the barrens of M. Tenn. June- September.
M. rotundifolia Michx. Hedge hyssop. Ponds along Cum- berland River. June-September.
GRATIOLA. L.
Gratiola Virginiana L. Clammy hedge hyssop. Miry places. O. S. May-August.
G. sphezrocarpa Ell. White Cliff Springs, E. Tenn. L. Scribner.
G. Floridana Nutt. E. Tenn. Nashville, on the site of the old waterworks. April, May.
G. ramosa Walt. Wet lands in the oak barrens at Tulla- homa. June, July.
ILYSANTHES Raf.
Ilysanthes gratioloides (L.) Benth. Wet ground. False pimpernel. O.S.
I. attenuata Small. Same range with the former. April, May.
I. refracta Benth. Ducktown, E. Tenn. May, June.
VERONICA L.
Veronica Americana Schwein. American brooklime. Along water courses. ©. S. April-September.
V. officinalis L. Common speedwell. Jonesboro, E. Tenn. A. Ruth. May.
V. serpyllifolia L. Weed in fields and gardens. O. S. April, May.
V. peregrina L. Weed in cultivated ground. O.S. April, May.
V. arvensis L. Weed among the grass in pastures. Nat- uralized from Europe. March-May.
LEPTANDRA Nutt.
Leptandra Virginica (L.) Nutt. Veronica Virginica L. Culvers root. Mountains and highlands. O. S. June-Sep- tember.
BUCHNERA L.
Buchnera Americana L. Blue hearts. Oak barrens, M. Tenn. June-September.
152 TENNESSEE FLORA.
AFZELIA J. G. Gmel. (Seymeria Pursh.)
Afzelia macrophylla (Nutt.) Kuntze. Mullen fox glove. Rich, alluvial soil. Nashville. July.
A. tenuifolia (Pursh.) Kuntze. Copses near Cleveland, E. Tenn.
DASYSTOMA Raf. (Gerardia L.)
Dasystoma Pedicularia (L.) Benth. False fox glove. Sili- ceous soil. ©O.S.
D. Pedicularia var. pectinata Nutt. Harpeth hills, near Nashville. July, August.
D. flava (L.) Wood. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. and barrens of M, Tenn... July.
D. grandiflora (Benth.) Wood. Dry woods. E. Tenn. July, August.
Dp levigata Rat. (PhicketS. (O%S.”” July-August
D. Virginica (L.) Britton. D. quercifolia Benth. Harpeth hills, Davidson County. July, August.
D. patula Chapm. Bluffs of Cumberland River at Nashville. July, August.
GERARDIA L.
Gerardia purpurea L. In siliceous soils. O.S. July-Sep- tember.
G. tenuifolia Vahl. Harpeth hills. July-September.
G. tenuifolia asperula A. Gray. Greenbrier, Robertson County. July-September.
CASTILLEJA Mutis.
Castilleja coccinea (S.) Sprengel. Painted cup. Bradley
County, east of Cleveland. Dickson County. April, May. SCHWALBEA L.
Schwalbea Americana L. Chaff seed. Tullahoma. June.
PEDICULARIS L.
Pedicularis Canadensis L. Lausewort. Dry woodlands. OS” April-june,
MELAMPYRUM L.
Melampyrum lineare Lam. M. Americanum Michx. Cow wheat. Wolf Creek, E. Tenn. T. H. Kearney. May-July. M. latifolium Miihl. Thunderhead Mt., near summit. July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 153
LENTIBULARIACE® Lindl. UTRICULARIA L.
Utricularia inflata Walt. Bladderwort. Jackson. S. M. Bain. U. gibba L. Bogson summit of Lookout Mt. U. biflora Lam. Swamps near Hollow Rock. July. OROBANCHACE2® Lindl. THALESIA Raf. (Aphyllon A. Gray.)
Thalesia uniflora (L.) Britton. Aphyllon uniflorum T. & G. One-flowered broomrape. In leaf mold. Parasitic on herbs. April-June.
OROBANCHE L. Orobanche Ludoviciana Nutt. Aphyllon Ludovicianum A. Gray, Knoxville. Fy L. Scribner. June-August. CONOPHOLIS Walt. Conopholis Americana (L. f.) Wallr. Squaw root. Damp woads! ’-©.'S. June: LEPTAMNIUM Raf. (Epiphegus Karst.) Leptamnium Virginicum (L.) Raf. Epiphegus Virginianus Bart. Parasitic on the roots of beech trees. August-October. M. BIGNONIACE Pers. BIGNONIA L.
Bignonia crucigera L. B. capreolata L. Cross vine. Climbing high, fastening itself on the bark of trees. April- June.
TECOMA Juss. Tecoma radicans (L.) DC. Trumpet flower. Climbing or spreading over the fields. July-September. WM. CATALPA Scop.
Catalpa Catalpa (L.) Karst. Catalpa bignonioides Walt. Frequent in M. Tenn. June, July. WM. C. speciosa Warder. Frequent in E. Tenn. June, July.
154 TENNESSEE FLORA.
MARTYNIACEA Link. MARTYNIA L. ,
Martynia Louisiana Will. \‘’artynia proboscoidea Glox.. Waste places. O.S. July-September.
ACANTHACEZ J. St. Hil. RUELLIA L.
Ruellia strepens L. Dry soil. O.S. May-July. R. ciliosa Pursh. Barrens. O.S. May-July.
DIANTHERA L.
Dianthera Americana L. Water and wet grounds. May- August. D. humilis Engelm & Gray. Madison County. S. M. Bain.
GZETESIA Gray. Geetesia lete-virens Gray. Lookout Mt., E. Tenn. July.
DIAPEDIUM Konig. (Dicliptera Juss.)
Diapedium brachiatum (Pursh.) Kuntze. Dicliptera brach- iata Sprengel. Damp woodlands. Nashville. July-October.
PHRYMACE Schauer. PHRYMA L.
Phryma leptosyachya L. Lopseed. Woods and thickets. O.S. June-August.
PLANTAGINACE/A Lindl. PLANTAGO L.
Plantago major L. Common plantain. Waste grounds. In cities. Not frequent, like the next. May-September.
P. Rugelii DC. Very common, and easily distinguished by its very slender spikes. O.S. June-September.
P. lanceolata L. Rib grass. Obnoxious intruder into mead- ows. O.S. April-June.
P. cordata Lam. Water plantain. Swamps, W. Tenn. Falls of Holston River, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
P. aristata Michx. P. Patagonica aristata Gray. Dry, sandy soils. Tullahoma. Dickson County. May-October.
P. Virginica L. O.S. March-May.
P. elongata Pursh. P. pusilla Nutt. Mitchellville. April, May.
P. heterophylla Nutt. Barrens. O.S. April-July.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 155
RUBIACE B. Juss.
HOUSTONIA L.
Houstonia cocerulea L. Bluet. Moist, open ground. O.S. April-June.
H. serpyllifolia Michx. Covering the ground on the high summits of the Alleghanies. May.
H. minor (Michx.) J‘ritton. H. patens Ell. Cedar glades. March, April.
H. minima Beck. 1|.noxville. Fort Saunders. A. Ruth. March, April.
H. purpurea L. Oldenlandia purpurea A. Gray. O.S.
H. purpurea var. pubescens Britton. With the former.
H. purpurea var. calycosa. Similar localities with the for- mer. May-September.
H. tenuifolia Nutt. Throughout the mountains of E. Tenn. Wolf Creek. August, September.
H. angustifolia \Michx. Copiously in the cedar glades. Bluffs of Cumberland River, at Nashville. May-July.
OLDENLANDIA L. Oldenlandia Boscii Chapm. Ditches along railroad at Tul- lahoma. CEPHALANTHUS L.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Button bush. Swamps and wet ground. O.S. June-September. WM.
MITCHELLA L. Mitchella repens J. Partridge berry. Woods. O. S. April-June. JM. SPERMACOCE L.
Spermacoce glabra L. Smooth button weed. Wet soil. O.S. June-September.
DIODIA L.
Diodia teres Walt. Old fields’ O.S. July-September. D. Virginiana L. Wet lands, covering fields. June-Au- gust. GALIUM L.
Galium Aparine L. Cleavers. Fence rows and- shady grounds. O.S. April, May. WM.
G. virgatum Nutt. Dry ground in the cedar glades at La- vergne. Knoxville. A. Ruth. April-June.
G. Parisiense L. G.anglicum Huds. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
156 TENNESSEE FLORA.
Along north fork of Holston River, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. June-August.
G. pilosum Ait. Hairy bedstraw. Common. O.S. June- August.
G. pilosum puncticulosum T. & G. Near Lynchburg, S. W. Nas. jo KeSmall:
G. lanceolatum Torr. E.Fenn. “Siw Va: “js kt Sunrall:
G. circezans Michx. Wild liquorice. Dry woods. O. S. May-July.
G. triflorum Michx. Fragrant bedstraw. Cedar glades and dry wocds. O.S. June.
G. latifolium Michx. High mountains of E. Tenn. July, August.
G. latifolium var. hispidulum Small. Spurs of Iron Mt.
G. Arkansanum Gray. Johnsonville, W. Tenn. June, July.
G. tinctorium L. Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora.
G. trifidum L. Swampy meadows. O.S. June-August.
CAPRIFOLIACEA Vent. SAMBUCUS L.
Sambucus Canadensis L. American elder. O. S. June, July. S. pubens L. Mountain elder. Alleghanies. April, May.
VIBURNUM L.
Viburnum alnifolium Marsh. V. lantanoides Michx. Hob- ble bush. Mts. of E. Tenn. Summit of Thunderhead, Blount County. May, June.
V. Opulus L. Cranberry tree. The variety floridum only, with all flowers sterile. Frequently planted shrub in gardens. Sometimes found in derelicted places.
V.acerifolium L. Maple-leaved arrow wood. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. May, June.
V. dentatum L. Arrow wood. Peak Mt., S. W. Va. J. K. Small. s
V. cassinoides L. Beersheba Springs, Cumberland Mts. M. B. Howell. May, June.
V. nudum L. White rod. Swampy lands in the oak bar- rens, Cumberland Plateau. May, June.
V. prunifolium L. Black haw. Cumberland Mts. E. Tenn. April-June.
V. rufo-tomentosum Small. V. prunifolium var. ferugineum T.&G. Frequent in the vicinity of Nashville. April, May.
TRIOSTEUM L. Triosteum perfoliatum L. Horse gentian. Foot of Cum-
TENNESSEE FLORA. 157
berland Mts., at Cowan. Bluffs of Cumberland River. May- July.
T. angustifolium L. Parksville, E. Tenn. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May-July.
SYMPHORICARPUS Juss.
Symphoricarpus racemosus Michx. Snowberry. Along Holston River. J. K. Small. June-September.
S. Symphoricarpus (L.) Michx. S. vulgaris Michx. Coral berry. Indian currant. Abundant in M. Tenn.
LONICERA L.
Henicera dioica, LL. L. glauca Hill, L. parviflora dLam. Glaucous honeysuckle. Cliffs, north of Bristol. J. K. Sntall. Bits, of E.. Tenn.
L. Sullivantii Gray. Woodlands. O.S. May, June.
fi ilava Sims: ,,E. Tenn, April, May.
L. sempervirens L. Trumpet honeysuckle. Frequent in the cedar glades of M. Tenn. June, July.
L. Japonica Thunb. Japanese honeysuckle. Naturalized from E. Asia. Banks of Cumberland River, above and below Nashville. June-August.
DIERVILLA Mench.
Diervilla trifida Moench. D. Diervilla McM. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. May, June.
*D. rivularis Gattinger. Lula Falls, eight miles south of summit of Lookout Mt. July. Vide Bot. Gazette, July, 1888.
VALERIANACE Batsch. VALERIANA L.
Valeriana pauciflora Michx. American wild valerian. Moist soil. Fide Gray’s Synopt. Flora. May, June.
VALERIANELLA Poll.
Valerianella Locusta (L.) Bettke. V. olitoria L. Euro- pean corn salad. Cultivated and the young plants eaten as salad under the name oi “ fetticus.””. March, April.
*Branchlets, nearly terate; leaves, subsessite, ovate, or oblong-lance- olate, acuminate, whitish underneath, all parts hirsutely pubescent; cymes, numerous, 3-6 flowered; corolla, slightly bilabiate, the upper three divisions in close contact, middle lobe longest, the lower lobes more spreading; calyx lobes, slender, lance-subulate; flower, larger and brighter than in susilifolia; shrub 3 to 5 feet high, near the edge of a stream.
&
158 TENNESSEE FLORA.
V. radiata (L.) Dufr. Lamb’s lettuce. Glades and copses. M. Tenn. March, Apri). .
V. Woodsiana (T. & G.) Walpers. Moist ground. O. S. March, April.
V. Woodsiana var. umbilicata Gray, and
V. Woodsiana var. patellaria Gray. Moist places in the bar- rens. March, April.
DIPSACE A Lindl. DIPSACUS L.
Dipsacus sylvestris Huds. Wald teasel. Waste places. O. S. July-September.
CUCURBITACE Bernh. Juss. CUCURBITA L.
Cucurbita Melopepo L. Flat squash. Cult.
C. verrucosa L. Warty squash. Cult.
C. maxima DC. Winter squash. Cult.
C. ovifera Gray. Orange gourd squash, including the Hob- bard and the var. medullosa A. Gray. Vegetable marrow. Cult.
C. Pepo and Melopepo L. Common and sugar pumpkins. All these varieties are well known to cultivators.
LAGENARIA Seringe.
Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe. Cururbita Lagenaria L. Bot- tle gourd. Occurs sometimes self-sown. Summers.
CITRULLUS Schrad.
Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. Watermelon. The citron is a variety with firm flesh, used for preserving.
CUCUMIS L.
Cucumis Melo L. Mushmelon, cantaloupe. Var. flexuosus is the serpent melon; var. Dudaim, vegetable pomegranate, also named C. odoratissimus, var. Chito, size of goose egg, also called “ vine peach.”
C. sativus L. Cucumber. Cultivated in several varieties. Cult: ;
C. Anguria L. Gherkin. Small, spiny, used for pickling. Cult.
LUFFA Roem.
Luffa cylindrica Roem. and L. angularis R. Towel gourds, dishrag. Useful as a bathing sponge. Cult.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 159
MELOTHRIA L.
Melothria pendula L. Creeping cucumber. Cedar glades and hillsides. O.S. July, August.
MICRAMPELIS Raf. (Echinocystis T. & G.)
Micrampelis lobata (Michx.) Greene. Echinocystis lobata T.&G. Wild balsam apple. Tullahoma. July.
SICYOS L.
Sicyos angulatus L. Star cucumber. Hedges and thickets and river banks. O.S. June-September.
TRIANOSPERMUM Roem.
Trianospermum Boykinii. Roem. Banks of Cumberland River above Nashville. Lester F. Ward. August, September.
CAMPANULACE Juss. CAMPANULA L.
Campanula aparinoides Pursh. Boggy laurel thickets, in sphagnum, Cumberland Mts. Sewanee. June-August.
C. divaricata Michx. Bell flower. Cumberland and Alle- ghany Mts. June-September.
C. Americana L. Tall bellflower. Moist thickets. July- September.
LEGOUZIA Durand. (Specularia Heist.)
Legouzia biflora (R. & P.) Britton. Specularia biflora A. Gray. Pastures around Nashville. Jackson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. April-June.
L. perfoliata (L.) Britton. Spectwlaria perfoliata A. DC. Venus’ looking-glass. Waste grounds. O.S. May-Septem- ber.
LOBELIA L.
Lobelia cardinalis L. Cardinal flower. Moist soil. O. S. July-September.
L. syphilitica L. Great lobelia. Moist soil. O.S. July- October. WM.
L. puberula Michx. Highlands. O.S. August-October.
L. spicata Lam. Cedar glades. E. Tenn. June-August.
L. leptostachys A. DC. Moist places in the barrens. July, August.
L. inflata L. Indian tobacco. Dry, argillaceous soils. O. S. August, September. WM.
160 TENNESSEE FLORA.
L. Nuttallii R. & P. Mountain bogs. Sewanee. July. *L. Gattingeri Gray. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. April, May. , CICHORIACEZ Reichenb. CICHORIUM L.
Cichorium Intybus L. Chicory. Roadsides. Waste ground. Sparingly O. S. Root substitute of coffee, shoots blanched forsalad. June, July. J.
C. Endivia L. Endive. Cultivated for salad. Cult.
ADOPOGON Neck. (Krigia Schreb.)
Adopogon Virginicum (L.) Kuntze. Krigia amplexicaulis Nutt. Rich woods. ©O.S. April, May.
A. Dandelion (L.) Kuntze. Krigia Dandelion Nutt. Moist woodlands. O.S. April.
A. Carolinianum Walt. Krigia Virginica Willd. Cumber- land Mts. Prospect Station, Giles County. June.
A. montanum (Nutt.) Krigia montana Nutt. High moun- tains of E. Tenn. Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
TRAGOPOGON L.
Tragopogon pratensis L. Meadow salsify. Introduced. Waste grounds near Nashville. Scarce. May, June.
T. porrifolius L. Salsify. Introduced. Cultivated in truck gardens and running wild. June. Cult.
TARAXACUM Hall.
Taraxacum Taraxacum (L.) Karst. Dandelion . Leonte- don Taraxacon L. Fields and waste places. O. S. April- September. WM.
T. erytrospermum Andrz. With the former. In grass plots. Plant looks more delicate than the former. It is nearly as common as the former. Nashville.
SONCHUS L.
Sonchus oleraceus L. Sow thistle, and S. asper (L.) Allen. Waste grounds. O.S. May-Novem- ber.
LACTUCA L. Lactuca Ludoviciana (Nutt.) DC. Western lettuce. Re-
*N. sp.; flowers. 4 to 5 inches long, deep blue; lobes of the calyx, at- tenuate, subulate, not at all ciliate, obscurely appendaged at base only by a minute callus on each side, in fruit equaling or longer than the mature capsule (not “ shorter”), pedicels often practeolate (next to Lobelia appendiculata).
TENNESSEE FLORA. 161
cently introduced in Nashville, and spreading rapidly. June, uly. ; E. Scariola L. Prickly lettuce. Waste places. Nashville, Knoxville. Naturalized from Europe.
L. sativa L. Garden lettuce, descending from the former, Cultivated in many varieties.
L. Canadensis L. Wild lettuce. Clearings and woodlands. 25. june. M.
L. villosa Jacq. L. acuminata Gray. Blue lettuce. Thick- ets. O.S. July-September.
L. Floridana (L.) Gertn. Rich woods. Q S. July-Sep- tember.
L. spicata (Lam.). Hitchc. L. leucophea A. Gray. River bottoms. O.S. June-September.
L. spicata integrifolia A. Gray. Highlands. June, July.
L. hirsuta Miihl. Knoxville. L. T. Scribner.
NOTHOCALAIS Greene. (Troximon Nutt.)
Nothocalais cuspidata (Pursh.) Greene. Knoxville. Ruth. ‘Troximon cuspidatum Nutt.
SITILIAS Raf. (Pyrrhopappus DC.)
Sitilias Caroliniana (Walt.) Raf. Pyrrhopappus Carolin- ianus DC. East of Cleveland. Ducktown Road. April-July.
HIERACIUM L.
Hieracium venosum L. Rattlesnake weed. Dry woods. O. S. May-October.
H. Marianum Willd. Maryland hawk weed. Farmer Mt., S.W.Va. J.K.Small: May-July. < H. paniculatum L. Dry 2 dtd O. S. July-Septem-
er.
H. scabrum Michx. Dry woods. O.S. June-September.
H. longipilum Torr. W. Tenn. July.
H. Gronovii L. Dry soil. Nashville. June, July.
H. Scribneri. Small. Lookout Mt. Legit F. L. Scribner. Is perhaps H. Greenii.
NABALUS Cass. (Prenanthes L.)
Nabalus altissimus Hook. Prenanthesaltissimus L. High- lands. July-September.
N. albus Hook. P. alba L. Rattlesnake root. Jackson, MWestenn: S..M: Bain: July: i:
N. serpentarius (Pursh.) Hook. P. serpentaria Pursh. Lion’s foot. Barrens of Dickson County. August. WM.
6
162 TENNESSEE FLORA.
N. serpentarius var. barbatus Gray. Roane Mt. Chicker- ing. Big Thunderhead. July, August.
N. asper (Michx.) T..& G. Barrens. O.S.! July; Augtist.
N. crepidineus (Michx.) DC. Bottoms. O.S. August.
AMBROSIACE Reichb. AMBROSIA L.
Ambrosia bidentata Micx. \Vaste grounds at Brownsville, W.Tenn. August.
A. trifida L. . Horse weed. Along water courses. O. S.
A. trifida int@grifolia T. & G. With the former.
A. artemisiefolia L. Rag weed. ‘The most abundant weed in the State. August.
A. psilostachya DC. Knoxville. A. Ruth. July-October.
XANTHIUM L.
Xanthium spinosum L. Burr weed. In towns, along rail- roadtracks, .,O85., September... 0:
X. Canadense Mill. American cockleburr. O. 5S. July- October.
X.strumaricum L. Waste places. Withtheformer. July- September.
COMPOSIT4 Adans. VERNONIA Schreb.
Vernonia Noveboracensis (L.) Willd.ffilron weed. Dry soil. O.S. July-October.
V. Baldwinii Torr. W. Tenn. August.
V. gigantea (Walt.) Britton. V. altissima Nutt. Tall iron weed. Moist soil. O.S.
V. fasciculata Michx. With the former. O.S. July-Sep- tember. WM.
ELEPHANTOPUS L.
Elephantopus Carolinianus Willd. Elephant’s foot. Dry woods. M. Tenn. August-September. M.
E. tomentosus L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Au- gust-September. VV.
EUPATORIUM L.
Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Smal. E. foeniculaceum Willd. Dog fennel. Lawrenceburg. E. Tenn.
E. purpureum L. Gravel root. Moist soils. O. S. Au- gust, September. M.
E. serotinum Michx. Thoroughwort. Streets of Nashville. O. S. September-November.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 163
E. album L. Paradise Ridge. Robertson County. E. Tenn. August, September.
E. hyssopifolium L. Knoxville. F. L. Scribner. August, September.
E. semiserratum DC. Barrens at Tulahoma. Knoxville. August, September.
E. altissimum L. Dry copses around Nashville. August- October.
E. verbenzfolium Michx. E. tencrifolium Michx. Hamp- tom: Tenn.. A. Ruth.
E. rotundifolium L. Mitchellville. Tullahoma. July, Au- ust. 3 E. pubescens Miihl. FE. roturdifoium var. ovatum Torr. Cumberland Gap. J. K. Small. July-September.
E. perfoliatum L. Boneset. Low grounds. O. S. July- September. WM.
E. sessilifolium L. E. Tenn. A. Ruth. Middle fork of Holston River. J. K. Small. July, August.
E. ageratoides L. White snake root. O.S. WM.
E. aromaticum L. Barrens of Tullahoma. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August-October.
E. coelestinum [.. Conoclinium coelestinum DC. Mist flower. Moist soil. Edge of ponds. O.S. August-October.
KUHNIA L.
Kuhnia eupatorioides L. False boneset. O. S. August- October.
K. glutinosa Ell. K. eupatorioides var. corymbulosa T. & G. Glades around Nashville. September, October.
LACINIARIA Hill. (Liatris Schreb.)
Laciniaria squarrosa (L.) Hill. Liatris squarrosa Willd. Scaly blazing star. Greenbrier, Robertson County. June, July. M.
L. scariosa squarrulosa Small. Mts.of E. Tenn. July. J.
L. spicata L. Kuntze. Liatris spicata Willd. Botton snake moot ) MM: and FE. Tenn. ,.- July. uM,
L. graminifolia (Pursh.) Barrens of M. Tenn. and moun- tains of E. Tenn. July, August.
L. microcephala J. K. Small. Tullahoma. With the for- mer. Vide Bull. Torr. Bot. Club., September, 1808.
GRINDELIA Willd.
Grindelia lanceolata Nutt. Cedar glades of Lavergne. July-September. J. ,
164 TENNESSEE FLORA.
CHRYSOPSIS Nutt.
Chrysopsis graminifolia (Michx.) Nutt. Golden aster. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts.
Ch. Mariana (L.) Nutt. Sandy soil. O.S. June, July.
Ch. Ruthii Small. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
SOLIDAGO L.
Solidago cesia L. Blue-stemmed golden-rod. O.S. Sep- tember.
S. czsia var. paniculata Gray. With the former.
S. flexicaulis L. S. latifolia L. Cliffs on Richland Creek, near Nashville. Highlands.. August, September.
S. Curtisii T.& G. Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. July.
S. bicolor L. White golden-rod. Dry soil. August, Sep- tember.
S. hispida Miihl. S. bicolor var. concolor T. & G. Siliceous soils. O.S. July, August.
S. erecta Pursh. S. speciosa var. angustata. Greenbrier. Glades at Lavergne. August.
S. monticola T. & G. Clingman Dome of the Smokies. Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
S. puberula Nutt. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
S. speciosa Nutt. Highlands of M. Tenn. Greenbier. . Au- gust-October.
S. odora Ait. Barrens and highlands. O. S. July. WM.
S. rugosa Willd. Along Mill Creek, Nashville. Highlands. July-October.
S. ulmifolia Miihl. With the former. July.
S. Boottii Hook. Smoky Mts. July.
S. juncea Ait. Oak barrens and woodlands. M. Tenn. July.
S. arguta Ait. Lookout Mt. Ocoee region. August, Sep- tember.
S. rupestris Raf. Cliffs along Cumberland River. July, August.
S. serotina Ait. S. gigantea Willd. Fields and fence rows. O.S. September, October. :
S. serotina var. gigantea Gray. With the former.
*S. Gattingeri Chapm. Cedar glades at Lavergne. Abun- dant around Tulahoma. August, September.
*Solidago.Gattingeri Chapm. Slender, upright, 2 to 4 feet high; branches and inflorescence, perfectly smooth and glabrous; leaves, ciliolate; lower cauline and radical lanceolate-spatulate, appressed ser- rulate, obviously tripli-nerved; upper cauline mainly entire and with- out lateral ribs, oblong lanceolate and an inch or so long, and the up- per reduced to half or quarter inch, but near the inflorescence very small and bractlike; racemiform clusters of small heads open and
TENNESSEE FIORA. 165
S. Canadensis L. ©O.S. Abundant. September, October.
S. Canadensis procera T. & G. With the former.
S. Canadensis scabriuscula T. & G. Low, wet ground. Nashville. October.
S. rigida L. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
S. corymbosa Ell. Bon Aqua, Dickson County. Tullahoma. July, August.
S. mollis Bart. S. nemoralis A. Gray. Abundant in all glades and barrens. July-September.
S. spithamea M. A. Curtis. Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. iy) 5 } S. stricta Ait. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
EUTHAMIA Nutt.
Euthamia graminifolia (L.) Nutt. Solidago lanceolata L. Fragrant golden-rod. Fountain Head, Robertson County. July. BRACHYCHATA T. & G.
Brachycheta sphacelata Raf. B. cordata Gray. O. S. September, October.
BELLIS L. Bellis integrifolia Michx. Western daisy. Copses. O. S. April, May. BOLTONIA L’Her.
Boltonia diffusa Fll. Damp, sandy soil. Tullahoma. Paradise Ridge. August-October.
SERICOCARPUS Nees.
Sericocarpus linifolius (L.) B.S. P. S. solidagineus Nees. Dry, argillaceous soils. O.S. June-September.
S. asteroides (L.) B.S. P. S. conyzoides Nees. With the former. June-September.
ASTER L.:
Aster divaricatus L. <A. corybosus Ait. White wood aster. Mountain districts. Sewanee. July.
spreading, not recurving, disposed to forming a corymbiform very naked panicle; involucral bracts, oblong, very obtuse, yellowish in the dried plant; flowers, 15-20 in the head; rays, 4-6; akenes, appressed- puberulent or the lower part glabrous. (S. Missouriensis, var. pumila Chapm. Fl. Suppl., 627.) Between Missouriensis and Shortii Gray. It occurs in numerous individuals over a couple of acres, and is not likely to be a hybrid. The associated species are S. nemorosa (very abundant), S. speciosa, var. angustata, S. speciosa, S. Canadensis. First collected, September, 1869.
166 TENNESSEE FLORA.
.macrophyllus L. Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. azureus Lindl. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August-October. cordifolius L. Rocky glens. O.S. September.
. Sagittefolius Willd. Wild goose pond near Mitchell- September.
. undulatus L. O.S. September.
. patens Ait. Highlands. September.
. phlogifolius Miihl. With the former. September.
A. oblongifolius Nutt. Cliffs on Cumberland River near Nashville. September.
A. Drummondii Lindl. Nashville. September.
A. levis L. Nashville. September.
A. concolor L. Oak barrens of M.Tenn. July-September.
A. Shortii Hook. Rich woodlands. M. Tenn. August, September.
A. gracilis Nutt. Tuberous-rooted aster. Blount County. A. Ruth.
A. surculosus Michx. Creeping aster. E. Tenn. A. Ruth. September, Octcber.
A. puniceus L. Vicinity of Nashville. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
A. paludosus Ait. Moist ground in the barrens. August- October.
A. Curtisii Torr & Gray. Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. July.
A. dumosus L. Sandy soil, covering acres of ground. Au- gust, September.
A. Tradescanti L. Sandy soil. As abundant as the former. August, September.
A. multiflorus Ait. Old fields. Siliceous soils. Abundant. August-November.
A. acuminatus Michx. Roane Mt. A. Ruth.
A. lateriflorus (L.) Britton. A. diffusus Ait. A. miser Nutt. In dry or damp soil. O.S. Very variable. August- October.
A. lateriflorus thyrsoideus. A. Gray. River banks.
A. lateriflorus grandis Port. A. diffusus var. bifrons. Gray. Moist, shady places.
A. lateriflorus horizontalis (Desf.) Burgess. Thickets along Cumberland River. September, October.
A. ericoides L. Frost weed. Covering large tracts in cal- careous soils. O.S. September, October.
A. ericoides pilosus (Willd.) Porter. A. villosus Michx. With the former.
A. ericoides var. Rivesii A. Gray. Dry river banks near Nashville and cedar glades in M. Tenn. September, October.
=P PDP
> D> p!
TENNESSEE FLORA. 167
ERIGERON L.
Erigeron pulchellus Michx. E. bellidifolius Miihl. Robin’s plantain. Siliceous or argillaceous soils. O.S. April, May.
E. Philadelphicus L. Philadelphia fleabane. Troublesome weed in meadows. April-June. J.
E. annuus (L:). Pers: Sweet scabious. Dry glades. O. 5S. May, June.
E. ramosus (Walt.) B.S. P. Daisy fleabane. E. Strigosus Michl. Fields and pastures. ©. S.
E. ramosus Beyrichii Smith & Pamel. W. Tenn.
LEPTILON Raf.
Leptilon Canadense (L.) Britton. Erigeron Canadense L. Canada fleabane. Some plants reach Io feet high; some are minute, only 1 inch high. O.S. June-November. JM.
L. divaricatum (Michx.) Raf. Erigeron divaricatus Michx. Sandy soil. M. Tenn. June-October.
DC@LLINGERIA Nees.
Deellingeria umbellata (Mill.) Nees. Dipiopappus umbel- latus Hlook. OS wliiba
D. infirma (Michx.) Greene. Diplopoppus cornifolius Less. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. August, September. Roane hie A Ruth. July:
IONACTIS Greene. ,
Ionactis linariifolius (1L..) Greene. Dry, siliceous, or argil- laceous soils. OS. «July.
PLUCHEA Cass.
Pluchea feetida L. Marsh. Fleabane. Swampy ground. O.S. July-September.
ANTENNARIA Gert.
Antennaria plantaginifolia L. Richards. Everlasting. Dry woods. O.S. April. A. monocephala Kearney. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
GNAPHALIUM L.
Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. G. polycephalum Michx. Sweet everlasting. Dry, open places. O. S. August, Sep- tember. WM.
G. Helleri Britt. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. September.
G. decurrens Ives. Clammy everlasting. Highlands. June-August.
e
168 TENNESSEE FLORA.
G. uliginosum L. Bogs on Cumberland Mts. July-Sep- tember. G. purpureum L. Sandy soils. O.S. May-September.
INULA L.
Inula Helenium L. Elecampane. Naturalized from Eu- rope. Sweetwater, Loudon County, E. Tenn. July. M.
POLYMNIA L.
Polymnia Uvedalia L. Leaf cup. Yellow bear’s foot. O. SH lye ast. 6 at:
P. Canadensis L. Ravines in the Cumberland and Alle- ghany Mts. June-September.
P. Canadensis radiata A. Gray. With large three-dentate, shining white hgules. Plant not over 2 feet high. Ought to rank as a species. Fosterville, in the cedar glades. June, July.
SILPHIUM L.
Silphium perfoliatum L. Cup plant. Brown’s Creek, near Nashville. July-September. .
S. integrifolium Michx. Rosin weed. Charlotte Pike, near Nashville. July.
S. trifoliatum L. Whorled rosin weed. O. S. July, Au- gust.
S. Asteriscus L. Craggie Hope. Cheatham County. Par- adise Ridge. Knoxville.
S. Asteriscus var. lwvicaulis DC. Tullahoma. June, July.
S. laciniatum L. Compass plant. E. Tenn. July-Septem- ber. WM.
*S. brachiatum Gattinger. Foot of mountains at Cowan.
S. scaberrimum FIll. Barrens at Tullahoma. July.
S. terebinthinaceum Jacq. Prairie dock. Lavergne. June, July.
S. terebinthinaceum var. pinnatifidum Gray. Same range.
S. compositum Michx. Western slopes of Chilhowee Mts. and in the hills on Chestua Creek. E. Tenn. July, August.
S. rumicifolium J. K. Small. Knoxville. Prof. Ruth. July- September.
*S. brachiatum Gattinger. Stem, 3 to 5 feet high and very slen- der; brachiate branches, smooth, glabrous, glaucous; leaves, somewhat hispidulous-scabrous, thin; cauline, hastate or deltoid-lanceolate, 4 to 8 lines long, slightly dentate on rarely long and barely margined or naked petioles; those of the branches, small and very distant, sessile, ovate- lanceolate, entire; uppermost reduced to small bracts, heads small, half inch or so high, on long and slender peduncles; involucral bracts, ovate; rays, 6-8; akenes, ovate-orbicular, narrowly winged, with barely emarginate summit. (Bot. Gazette, IX., 192; coll., 1867.)
TENNESSEE FORA. 169
CHRYSOGONUM L.
Chrysogonum Virginianum L. Ducktown, Polk County. April-July.
PARTHENIUM L.
Parthenium integrifolium L. American fever few. Dry erounds, —©,S. July.
HELIOPSIS L.
Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) B. S. P. H. lwvis Pers. Ox eye. Highlands of M. Tenn. and mountains of E. Tenn. Au- gust, September.
H. scabra Dunal. Paradise Ridge. Knoxville. July.
ZINNIA L. Zinnia pauciflora L. Escaped. Nashville.
ECLIPTA L.
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. FE. procumbens Michx. Moist ground ,along streams, and a weed in fields and gardens. Nat- uralized from tropical America: July-October.
TETRAGONOTHECA L.
Tetragonotheca helianthoides L. Cave Spring, Roane County.
RUDBECKIA L.
Rudbeckia triloba L. Cone flower. O. S. July-Septem- ber.
R. subtomentosa Pursh. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
R. hitta L.. Black-eyed Susan. Barrens. O..$. August, September.
R. Brittoni Small. Mts. of E. Tenn. Fide Illustrated Flora. May-July.
R. fulgida Ait. Dry woods and barrens. O. S. August- October.
R. spathulata Michx. Chilhowee Mts., E. Tenn. A. H. Curtiss. September.
R. speciosa Wenderoth. Lavergne. Hollow Rock. Au- gust-October.
R. laciniata L. Paradise Ridge. Mts. of E. Tenn. Wolf Creek. Var. humilis Gray. Is a mountain form. July-Sep- tember. J.
R. bicolor Nutt. Open, dry barrens. Nashville. Bon Air. September.
170 TENNESSEE FLORA.
_*R.. umbrosa n. sp. ‘CLO Boynton land C: D. Beadle, Sparta, White County. August.
RATIBIDA Raf. (Lepachys Raf.)
Ratibida pinnata (Vent.) Bernhart. Lapachys pinnata Torr & Gray. Dry copses. O.S. June-September.
R. columnaris (Sims) D. Don. Prairie cone flower, var pul- cherrima. Found near cotton compress, S. Nashville. A wail.
BRAUNERIA Neck. (Echinacea Meench.)
Braunneria purpurea L. Britton. Echinacea Meench. Black Sampson. M.and E. Tenn. In moist, rich soil.
B. pallida (Nutt.) Britton. Echinacea angustifolia Nutt. Hills near Nashville. Flowers differ from deep purple to pure white. July-October.
HELIANTHUS L.
Helianthus angustifolius L. Swamp sunflower. Craggy Hope, Cheatham County, and in W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
H. annuus L. Common sunflower. Frequently escaping cultivation. July-September.
H. verticillatus Small. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
H. atrorubens Nutt. Dry woods. O.S. August-October.
H. levigatus Torr & Gray. Mts. of E. Tenn. August-Oc- tober.
-H. microcephalus T. & G. H. parviflérus Bernh. O. S. July-August.
H. giganteus L. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August-October.
H. divaricatus L. Highlands of M. Tenn. E. Tenn. July, August.
H. mollis Lam. Barrens of M. Tenn. Abundant. Au- gust, September.
H. decapetalus L. Highlands of M. Tenn. Mts. of, E. Tenn. August, September. .
H. tracheliifolius Michx. Big Frog Mts., Polk County. July, August.
H. hirsutus Raf. Barrens of M. Tenn. Abundant. July, August.
H., letiflorus Pers. Brownsville, W. Tenn. August, Sep- tember.
H. tomentosus Michx. Lake Otase, near* Knoxville. A. Ruth.
*R. umbrosa C. L. Boynton. Related to R. speciosa Wender., dif- fering from the latter species in the broad and hairy-lipped chaff, size of flower heads, shorter and fewer rays, and in the outline of the leaves. (Biltmore Botanical Studies, Vol. I., No. 1.)
TENNESSEE FLORA. 171
H. tuberosus L. Jerusalem artichoke. Rich soil. River banks. Also sometimes in cultivation. Deserves more at- tention as a foodstuff for hogs. Hard to eradicate from fields where it once has been planted. September, October.
VERBESINA L. (Actinomeris Nutt.)
Verbesina Virginica L. Virginia crownbeard. Limestone soils. M. Tenn. August, September.
V. occidentalis (L.) Walt. Western declivities of Smoky Mis. In abundance. September.
V. helianthoides Michx. Actinomeris helianthoides Nutt. Moist woods. ©.S. June, July.
V. alternifolia (L.) Britton. Actinomeris squarrosa Nutt. Moist woods. O.S. August, September.
HELIANTHELLA T. & G.
Helianthella tenuifolia T. & G. In big patches, two miles east of Tulahoma. July.
COREOPSIS L.
Coreopsis rosea Nutt. In a swamp in Ducktown, Polk County. July.
C. tinctoria Nutt. (Garden tick seed. Frequently escaping cultivation. July, September.
C.major Walt. C? senifolia‘Michx. Siliceous soils. -O.{S: July, August.
C. major Oemleri (Ell.) Britton. C. senifolia var. stellata T.&G. Withthe former. July, August.
C. delphinifolia Lam. FE. Tenn. June-September.
C. verticillata L. Upper E. Tenn. June-September.
C. pubescens Ell. Cumberland Mts. June-August.
C. crassifolia Ait. C. lanceolata var. villosa Michx. Banks of Cumberland River at Nashville. May-September.
C. auriculata L. Greenbrier, Robertson County. June. .
C. grandiflora Nutt. Harpeth hills, south of Nashville. July-September.
C. tripteris L. Common tick seed. Low lands and thick- gamO, 5. August, September:
BIDENS L.
Bidens levis (L.) B. S. P. B. chrysanthemoides Michx. Smooth marigold. Wet lands and ditches. O. S. August- November.
B. cernua L. Nodding burr marigold. In water and wet lands. O.S. July-October.
172 TENNESSEE FLORA.
B. connata Miihl. Swamp beggar ticks. Swamps and ditches. O.S. August-October.
B. discoidea (T. & G.) Britton. Riverswamps. O.S. Au- gust, September.
B. frondosa L. Beggar ticks. Moist soil. O. S. July- October.
B. bipinnata L. Spanish needles. Bad weed. O.S. July- October.
B. trichosperma (Michx.) Britton. Coreopsis trichosperma Michx. Tick-seed sunflower. River swamps. Nashville. August, September.
B. aristosa (Michx.) Britton. Var. mutica A. Gray. Jack- son, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
GALINSOGA R. & P.
Galinsoga parviflora Cay. Introduced from S$. America. Gardens near Nashville. September.
MARSHALLIA Schreb.
Marshallia trinervia (Walt.) Porter. M. latifolia Pursh. Fountain Head. Eggert. Tullahoma. May, June. M. lanceolata Pursh. Vicinity of Memphis. Dr. G. Ege- ling. May, June. ; HELIENIUM L.
Helenium autumnale L. Sneeze weed. River banks and low grounds. O.S. August-October.
H. nudiflorum Nutt. Leptopoda brachypoda T. & G. Sandy, damp soils. O.S. Tullahoma. July, August.
H. tenuifolium Nutt. Scatteringly O.S. August-October.
H. parviflorum Nutt. Cedar glades at Lavergne. July- September.
DYSODIA Cav. - Dysodia papposa (Vent.) A. S. Hitchcock. Fetid marigold.
D. chrysanthemoides Lag. Mitchellville. Abundant across State line in Kentucky. July-October. ACHILLEA L.
Achillea Millefolium L. Millfoil. Yarrow. Roadsides and pastures. O.S. June-November. ANTHEMIS L.
Anthemis Cotula L. May weed. Fetid chamomile. Waste eround.’ ‘QO: SS; May, June.
TENNESSEE FLORA. 173
CHRYSANTHEMUM L.
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L. Ox-eye daisy. O. 5S. May-July. MATRICARIA L. Matricaria Chamomilla L. German chamomile. Formerly cultivated by early settlers as a medicinal herb, and now occa- sionally in fields. June, July.
TANACETUM L.
Tanacetum vulgare L. Tansy. Cultivated and in waste grounds. July, August.
ARTEMISIA L.
Artemisia Absinthium L. Common wormwood. Rarely on waste grounds near gardens. Adventive from Europe, and frequently in gardens. July, September.
A.annua L. Adventive from Asia, but widely disseminated and abundant near Nashville. September, October.
A. biennis Willd. W. Tenn. Copiously on the banks of the Ohio River at Louisville. September, October.
A. Mexicana Willd. W. Nashville, on open grounds. Sep- tember, October.
ERECHTITES Raf. Erechtites hieracifolia R. In clearings. O.S. June, July.
MESADENIA Raf. (Cacalia Nutt.)
Mesadenia reniformis (Miihl.) Raf. Cacalia reniformis Mihl. Great Indian plantain. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. July, August.
M. atriplicifolia (L.) Raf. Rich woodlands. O.S. July.
M. tuberosa (Nutt.) Britton. Wet places in the cedar glades. July, August.
SYNOSMA Raf.
Synosma suaveolens (L.) Raf. Cacalia suaveolens L. Banks of Turnbull Creek, near Kingston Springs. July, Au- gust.
SENECIO L.
Senecio obovatus Miihl. Squaw weed. S. Aurens var. ob- ovatus T.& G. Moist soil. M. Tenn. April-June.
S. Balsamite Miihl. S. aurens var. Balsamite T. & G. Ducktown. E. Tenn. May-July.
S. Smallii Britt. Banks of Wolf Creek. E. Tenn.
S. aureus L. Golden ragwort. Swamps and wet meadows. O. S. May-July.
174 TENNESSEE FLORA.
S. lobatus Pers. Butter weed. Wet places. Brownsville. Lavergne. April, May. S. vulgaris L. -Knoxville. Erratic. S. Rugelia Gray. Smoky Mts. Legit Dr. Rugel. S. Earlei J. K. Small. Knoxville. Professor Ruth. May- July. ARCTIUM L.
Arctium Lappa L. Burdock. Waste grounds. O. S. July, August. A. minus Sehk. Cumberland Gap. J. K. Small.
‘ CARDUUS L.
Carduus lanceolatus IL... Crisium lanceolatum Scop. Com- mon thistle. O.S. July, August.
C. altissimus L. Cnicus altissimus Willd. Fence rows. O.S. Not as frequent as the former. July-November.
C. discolor (Miihl.) Nutt. Cnicus altissimus var. discolor. A. Gray. Banks of Cumberland River below Nashville. July-November.
C. muticus (Michx.) Pers. Lookout Mt. Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
MARIANA Hill. (Silybum Geert.)
Mariana Mariana (L.) Hill. Silybum Marianum Geert. Milk thistle. Near Tracy City. Mrs. Turner. Nashville, near Chattanooga shops. June-August.
ONOPORDON L. Onopordon Acanthium L. Cotton thistle. Dry pastures and roadsides around Nashville. July-September. CENTAUREA L. Centaurea Cyanus L. Blue bottle. Corn flower. Waste places. Escaped from cultivation. CNICUS L.
Cnicus benedictus L. Blessed thistle. Centaurea benedicta L. Waste ground around Livingston Hall, Nashville. Mrs. Lydia Bennett. May-August.
r TENNESSER Fora. 175
ADDENDA TO SYNOPSIS OF THE FLORA OF TENNESSEE:
Crategus apiifolia Michx. Collected by T. G. Harbison at Memphis.
*Juncoides bulbosum Wood. Lookout Mt. S. M. Bain.
Rudbeckia monticola J. K. Small. White Cliff Springs. T. H. Kearney. Lookout Mt. H. Eggert.
7+Cornus Priceze J. K. Small. Bluffs on Cumberland River at Nashville.
*Juncoides bulbosum Wood. Base of plant accompanied by bulb- lets; foliage, almost glabrous, or somewhat webby on the leaf margins and at the top of the sheaths; stems, 1-4 dm. tall; spikes, shorter than those of J. echinatum; sepals and petals, ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, 2-2.5 mm. long, brownish, acuminate, neither manifestly soft nor hya- line at the apex; capsule, broadly obovoid or globose-obovoid, surpass- ing the sepals or sometimes about equaling them.
+Cornus Pricee. A branching shrub 1-2.5 m. tall, with red and finely-pubescent twigs; leaves, numerous; blades, elliptic to ovate-ellip- tic or ovate, 5-12 cm. long, rather leathery, usually acuminate, deep green and roughly pubescent above, pale and more copiously, but rather softly pubescent and prominently veined beneath; petioles, 1-2 cm. long, pubescent like the twigs; corymbs, 2-3 cm. broad during anthesis, 4-6 cm. broad at maturity; peduncles and pedicels, closely and harshly pubescent; sepals, triangular; corolla, white, about 7 mm. broad; petals, 4, oblong-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; filaments, slightly shorter than the petals; drupes, about 3 mm. in diameter, subglobose, white; stone, :about 2 mm. in diameter, scarcely longer than broad, faintly pitted.
176
TENNESSEE FLORA.
LIST OF ORDERS—With the Number of Genera and Species, the Cultivated and Officinal.
iS} a Oo | Pteridophyta Ophioglossacez..........-- 2)| 4 OSsMmiunGdacewe i... we. case 1 3 Hymenophyllacee ........ 1 1 SCHIZACACEIE cnena cess <enee 1 1 Roly podia Ces wn ts /actatsc ob ais 15 | 41 SalvinlaG@zec. i.e sccisece vise < 1 1 ESCIMSCLA CECE a aeeicneiais nolcieee Teas TAY COPOGIACE RE sec ee inisie sine 24) '6 Uo Fe eRe eenoed oc, OUe 1 1 Spermatophyta. Gymnosperme. PUM ACEH as Onieisrertercistesetslereiate 7 | 14 Sara COce eitenincs in cionieenetcess 1 1 Angiospermae. Monocotyledones. BSP ACE CS ie stetls steieietetclehalel l= 1 2 Spar eaniacese ts. ckvics cs tice | 82, INIA OLE Saree aieie's wwe icici bus 2 8 PAIS IN ACESS otiinrals che cistoes Taictels 3 6 Walisneriaces..3......... 2. 1 1 Gramineae. Naw AGE cee Rom esse ah otoveee PA AP. Andropogonacee.......... 1 | 16 PPA COE ie atelfuiclanetasleietes 9 | 59 OmVes Ss ndonoduocusduang cess 3] 5 PHalawdedsweactetwen ccc De INS LOSTIGECS teyycalaiale sels hele cies 10 | 35 INWACCRCESE Spbdc poaneoe Hosoe 6 9 Citloridewe tin. cs. cte cee wet 7 7 RESENCE EL Ske i hahte idee hemieiaes 14 | 54 FTO LGCACEEY. islale,-'hal tes clotelelkt 7 | 3l AIM SE anieic.cie sierci\ergeielis 1 2 @yperaceceececcie cee sees 13 {124 PASTA COEDS I. icletale) Noinis e's sla’ee aie 5 6 1G, Sryreeees | Baca pesude bodGCn 3 ia XRIGA CEC aot holies ctincew ences 1 2 Ei rlOCaulonacee) 2 sen. c nas 2 7 Pontederiacee............. 2 4 [ESCH Ae Sone adansnenoos 2 17 Melanthacez 8 | 14 Biber Ss Se Sep ee sancaceaee 11 | 18 Convallariaces ............ 10 | 22 Stl Cece Wesie niichere lelolsiee sisie)nic {feat Amaryllidacee ............ 3] é Dioscoreacee ....%...- eeeaes 1 2 Terra CORE le sitayeloreveieetreteroicievente 4] 11 Ore dae Be veeiereiciercieieleielere re 14 | 40 Dicotyledones. SAMTUTACCH af. < siel 05s 90.010 cise 1 i Mire landacewe oa... a1. clcloels 2] 11 Chile Se pauadcoadsadacs 2 | LZ, Metwlacewe criccnsssctee cltaae 5 } 10 INEVERN ESD 3 da ogadceogd cs00e 3 | 21 Marae eee ces cc ciorsiorsisieisicie 3 8 Wy oye edad BadoEe donoddd 5 | 61 A TETCACEE eerie atele va latave ais) ele ce(einve 5] 9
Cultivated.
| Officinal.
spicunrurenacen ss
Cel eel el tl ell cel od
me Te
Dicotyledones— Coniin'd
Loranthacer Santalacex
POlygeOnace Pike clei ies eee Chenopodiacee ............ Amaranthaceeiscssas cece PHytolaccace wren .jeitrein)ie/efusiai= Nyctaginace® ............. A1zoacew Portulacace@ a... <<< «nes Carvophyllaceeik s. 5%... Nymphaeace®............
Magnoliacer Anonacex
Berberidacexe 50.2.) esr Menispermace® ........... Calicanthace2 san. 32.6 isj0 MGA PACE Ge Earetelese) ctarclaiiehave clea Papaveracex Cruciferae. 5 ee Pasnte ih late Capparidaced ia. «(046-005 SaraceniaCe® .sc.s..s..s.s Podostemace® ............: @rassilaceset erteperee bie oetels SAmiirasacew oi... saan - Grosulariacewe Hamamelidacee........... Platanacer Oreste sc neds Dadaan qacsee POT PACE eerie) eels ptatelslal= Mimosaces <25 c/s dss) ate Caesalpinace <2. si. esmaci Papilionacexw (Sorebove Wee Agno Uo sancacion Oxalidacewyin-cceh eases Linacez Rutacewe Simarubace Meliacex Polygalacew ........ Sonecae Huphorbiacewe cece scree Callitrichacer®)..--/sereceee AIK ACEE kjceidiaicle es om teeninnets AN aACATCIACE.)c/<.- scree cle cele Ilicinee Celastraceeicccsscteciidectecos Staphyleacee.............. Aceracew Hippocastanacew®.......... Sapin dace). selects eer i= BalSaminacew) </.s\<14 fertile Rhamnacexe Wita cee rccncicm aaeieeecn ste Tiliacer Gertie Wal vaces <ocerowic isis rstere/ai-tre AM aA ASG G5oc sooo sb aad 13h folsyole:te-f2\5 4605 555000 duaG Cistaceatfekeutiotioseies ser Wa olacese ie sessieiciciscieres non tnie Passiflorace® .............. (CACTACE RE ciejrrsinicctoieincinieikereieretsie ‘Thymeleaces <5. -.)s.c\.--- == Lythraceze
Genera.
Species.
| : 2/5 3/8 Oo|°oO 1
eiell|. dee | eee eal aL aol 2
6
1
ll
3
1
2
2
a Re 9 2 oisteey| lata 3 ee A 1 sen) 2 mill tararete ’ 2 5} 1 taeell| ae 1
eS altes Pe 1
1
1
3
= fayetel | ete : 2
2 Bacal hac a. 1
1
os oa eae] ae 83 2
RSA lnc # 1
1
2
1
i ——__
TENNESSEE FLORA.
LIST OF ORDERS — Continued.
Dicotyledones—Contin'd
Melastomace®............. Ouagrace2 Halloragidacee............ PARE ATA CERO Sw laf )a.e'e vle e che civ ve Umbellifere | COARACECE! aedowosobonronenud GIGENTACER lee eee ci cease Pyrolacewe WIONOLTOPaACe®. . <6. ew cece PTCA CEG iar vicisisies cicls ecto teihenels WWAICCINITA CEI syeisicjeteie'sieaict sis IDIAPECNSIAGER:.2.0.6. 222 0+: SA TTATILA CEL oiciore'e evar is'erei cis s/s DAPOLACE) <fas.csiec.sfoe ctee-dsl = ID GHACC Dec hans sieve cise os 5 Syiplocace® ............. SNA o ne bo ooduodood ues
ee eeee ce eeee ne
ME OMANIA CEs oasis, c/ej0ls jose e/sucie Gentianacer NEM AT ENAGCE lisse cresisis< AOCVTMACEE Fok iecieis lotwsicle « Asclepiadacee............. Convolvulacexe
Total:
SAUTTUTITE SAA catals ciate cneclo slaceteretereiet ote a meceviaty 8 arele fete cuattohatarniatal ala Rk. aVars avers i aleca of ch ofestavere ofale cy steiner RETVOT A Sots asshole the 5 cunts wststera ahs esctarte etete leret ave al abe io ce iace SerarctayG rei ere itolaVe ate" Gh ole ate de, dateicverereratint te Geral SECIS ocbogmodubgdoboo-gaccdcvoud diaaamuso000 coge obdC00 10 dG08 Jab SOM ONeO SAC one ake bad DL BEVALO RF Nek oP Sik 2. otek ce tretete Ruataare eee phaislalais (ciate Solel ote a icheibie fare etole chete'e cree leblaeteretere Ofhemal 5... A aeaIe ect ai atau hapa Mate caret term aie often oc ctala at che lane ek eketkt Ja a ak latte ayencleashare caycaseeMte ome
Genera,
Species.
Cnltivated.
12
Officinal.
Hewhorence:
Le} 2 Pee een [fees eig|s|s =|/3/3/3 vo)/a|]s | & Onto One Dicotyledones—Contin’d CHSCHEACE re cece cinisisials siete 1 al Sense boc Polemoniace® 5.2.2... 000. 7 | 26 1 BOra Pita Ce we vee oie sine we ai 10 | 22 5 Wer Dena ceri cc tenciveliclchecits 3 | 10 5 WA Diataes ih anan vines ccclee ee 31 | 81 5 | 20 Solanaceses 2 hc6 tok acy irs. 9 | 32 6 5 Scrophulariacew........... 20 | 50 5 Lentibulariacee ........... 1 Be [leietoe|| (eects Orobanchaceage snc + sco sie 4 4 1 BISMOMIA CCB onities e ciele clei © 3] 4 2 Marty nia Cee) csle cee ec ss Wr al 2 INCATIEWA CED asitaieletcislelaicleleiais 4 Osihas crea otras JP ebagierSek 2) 5bqno aduedaoacd lh td tocen||doc5 Plantaginaceey ere jee eee UT eli ege.e|| ere RU DIACC Bye cicicescete « olbvstet ate 65), 28) |eci| Caprifoliacesyncccecescesie UNE SScol) B Valerianace’ .....55...5.% : 2 6 MaKe DipsaGewyer aes sods oeeies il Dili e tells ces Cucurbitacemis.7...jacece oe 9 | 14 Pa eee Gamipanilaces) <2...) 3 | 138 3 Cichoracess? 4 -factesc-etcens 10 | 35 | 44] 12 AMID TEOSIAGCEEH) «nis ccis ser erin 2) 8 2 Contpositwaaaieniceieseocsic 57 (224 | 1 | 36 151 755 2218 84 326
YAN) CUS: $9 oa RS PATDILGLLON |<) 5/08 's INGACIAS EK acs > Acalypha ..... LOT Sas Acerates ..... ANeheas . o<%
Achroanthes
UNC UG 2 ees Aconitum >... IA COTUS’ fe isic,0 c.00 INGAAS fe brsis es=i0 NOs Sakae JNO KE Gs agi Adiantum .... PAUINCOA fa ciciers oc Adiumia ....).. PHISCUIUS cf... PET OMIA. ts ole ie,s INAV Coo. cdeieis, sire Agrimonia....
Agropyrum
_Agrostema.... INSTOSEIUS :cs.0 sete ATlanthus ~ ... Alchemilla ..... PANGULIUS) iocjess eiere PAM TSTNV) cc ete sone 'o' AliOnia = 2a). wc PAMTANIMN: % ciseie PARTS ae crete tte
Alopecurus
PAM SINIG: Scrcte.ssece
Amaranthus
AM DrOSia foc...
Amelanchier
Ammania..... Amorpha ;...%
Ampelanus Ampelopsis
Amsonia’ 2...
Amyegdalus
Anagallis’ .</....
Andropogon
Anemone ..... ANPZECLICA . 2:5 «10-6 Antennaria ...
eee
see
TENNESSEE FLORA.
Index of the Genera.
PAGE
Se iote ea ISRO S21.) SANE Omis: #43522). coe ceia eer Re i oy SdckcrehCrc 15:4) SAnthoxanthim:) - es cmeseecer Eee Gin eee TOL di eAmthriscus::. cn sccer een enee Fee cee eS iis? PTY CHUA he Ss) ach 5. cinerea Oraa eee Seite te cle wiles € 1150 2ADIASETUM 4 ciclo se ilocos ae oo oe 138 IA DION Rae ois E Rance es Ciel eee Siete too Gratmalete ye 172 PASTIUULINURS. cteicviee ice where eieicne Te Oy, Seiden tee G37 CAPlECURUIM 5 oc). c ereteisucietetoeere Se TOT ed oc 5) AA PO CYANIMN Co eke invest clots se ese oi apie A ib it btete seem eee SOs VADOLON: 5 oie tars os crererculeheetee Morecaeghe Rate uctoe Bash) PAC UTLO Ta es aie veis arensia che es chet Lexa is a haloes 80 INTAUDIS Bh oie wiseiwiaieie cic loteuotiene SP aS Att Sines 101 ATACHIS oc bc eic.eutc
eleven jodie e Bie tasers PSG i) cAMP AR craekio.a a cnorcte clecerete: stave eee aj Rlene ela edePera eee 29H VATCCINIMN' 1.5.5. 2,2 se soe c.c oe SOE RY AL (A || PATCHATIAT 4. ¢ vig/oxsiccretereeneee a ha tale vege roteens terete Sh MArTSenIONe 2 ccccce cles «este eters Le ERS Ts ROY UNG) ARISACMA Te ets ae soa eee cee a rong crew aiehe wie Biers 152 TPE ATUSTIGA nin .c70 ois isi! oes! she loehour ae Lista etohero nce ee G15 PATISCOLOCHTA | veloc cs nie ever tnteneieye Tae uis enter ei 95 PATON, verte ws hic aro close «fe wwyotetretue eyare Was 46) Arrhenatenwm <1... 2c cei bieie omeiwistew shee 76), ||| PAPEOMISIA cn icrers s/s ve seem pete ati iekeieites eitexeye tome AO sl CA PUTING oie cfors se ee one so we ee serene shal cievateteve sate wines ialal HATUNCWS:, ioe e/s:by5,%.0, bis alow erate she here's, sicher kettle 95) | Arundinaria £20. .c eee sla alee tele love Sistetere 58 ATU GO Foss ansve cus oye: atenereveteveie ers pies re pies late oeeane 34 IASATUNG oe ote cierstetassis eiete hee SiN Hise 6elerete trele 75 IANSCIODIAS eo 5c crewrele cons eters a ioieletoreatemuctots ce BT eA SCH LUM os a5 chee scores c eve cree enol atc esos Bote orete isis GOTO) HABTINIM A: osc ei etavase laters esate ete toe Sie letere erste Sete sale 40 ANISPALALUS A. oa sicreiere wieeie tenons AS Sol ere rae 1% |, Aspleniwm sés:.0 <5 a eestor: whee SiG etereeetele eee AS | SENSCOT Wao ois Cine wieyesetereicioleto erent et Sain kvevane ete Totals 162) Astilbie: 2162. aeceem onions eke eieretexaneesioe ie: Mage OF | AStragalus’ 2 .cheis abate oe bev sistas. © cterete estes 235s | PAG yar eereyetomietetowesieveceieteto os nie ious jot lo ahscetorerets 104 IAETA LOMO: c oie wieyereiers ole rere iele tote SAR ea A 198 Awana cs: veh eater oetan ee sue erevaie © ters aheee Se PALO vet catyeieiate eioleletal ove eieterorsinte AE Sibie ie tieweo toe ST | Amollaly. 2 Sicieyeve hele cic se ouslereciorere deme nice sate ee 101
bis Sats Ces Ries 1345 |Baptisia onsale o< oleic steeete = SS\e leis s loveis eine SB? | PBATCONTA hose: ccc crcvereis wu etotetate one cbukeiee cee 81° | sBatrachivm 2. ssae sec Solstemtere eee ae 126 Bellismesiiteisice ss ines reece ick eb eeaseienes 167 IBONZOIN” cic cc siete eso clateis aiehe etetorets
TENNESSEE FLORA. 9
PAGE PAGE.
I3 (are o(eTaie) ds ciate eromiotniolaic, aGis Gaul OE A OOlLASED US acc ulehaeey eh oney ov ccate eink 115 TROT CNEMLAL Sacks eerste TEU 7e PRO OLELS§) & cay cc ers 0 cree Aelsletoenecetens 70 TEXAS) 6) clot Saints TiGtolea ceonauchayomne HA CEnCh TUS 4 ac5.00 aera seemed 38 TBIGNIE, co eetuloinibto olson ooicnic Ook 67 @entawreasaooc das soo. eet 174 TENCUICOLITEY, Biteanieoe cis cinta oom 85 Centunculusiss and nace cl oetrete 134 IBIGENS Vase Sake > SUR eaa et Pas iia WephalanehuUSiyaa-res-botere beleive sares 155 SUSMOMIAN ans ci lee savers eiete ns © TS) WN CER MAb oe, Sieinice-o bic cud.c ooo 77 TEV SUNIINE), dotolonaiginisio ciple ino pic 146 Ceratophy Mums ase. a ere 79 HIGCHIM ETI A sei5 of vaice sedate eats Zeal CeTreise ys sags oc ead de rhclets ete 102 SOOM Aas cha aaa ae oteletrciers 165" | Cherophyllum a5.5-).toe oe 128 SOAS ON eo aer cheschssey avs) cietaseroretste « 148 Chamelinions css accede 56 FOWMEOIIOUAY Sand tj dca See ete ous ote ASS I @heillanthesy so a.) 4 ee tae aes sters 30 mMrachychaeta ..j..36c000586 UGS. | ehelidoniumey ss 4.4.00 cles) tare 85 mrachyelytrum: sace.css ee AM MOHEIONGS ciao aeteic = cuereustoieicvokenone 150 SEONG UT Lar coy tk chetcueud cheter cree ons 108) (MChenopodinims 45-41-19) aero 73 SET ASCMU | cele) s\eve.ors vere) ersten <= 7} |) (Chester OMEN Sooke pooobbotlouor 131 PIRASSICA Had Vaercicise ykciaele.s sess 86 @HIOTISE cata de hoe aeneeroener « 43 FESTPANTING Tall o seei ore evo sie satle! =! ot eilaxcyote'se 170 WhPOSPERM Ay as iaielsi ors eral 56 SESROTINUISU S sysctl istchidcs cote Seueceear 46 Chrysanthemums. 406-4. 173 SEIFOUSSONELLIA ca ccc sees oe sls + HOw © hry SOs On UM wes aod nerve seencterte 169 PIUTNELT CHLaey a cls a auchets sd hersicrerecet 73) 1) CloiaKoj oon gobo oronocooacot 35 BESIT@MUTNCT ANA Soon cuere ck eheieh eel tiererstere 151 @HEYSOPSIS! a aac tet.) terete rere 164 TSNCIEM ES Se risen one poe oon len OHEySOSPlenLUMs seas eet lee 91 TBArmened NE) paste ey alain aerate eh Gone neont 34 NMGicert ssa ad sodas dadaciae ee 108 EGONGA OT ome tn igeloaGes pmo HPS | MOrChori wiles sepic) ese hectare era 160 FESINN SAGE ona cece okes thas veya Mer cess RQ OUCUEAM A. a a cccvaretl sl ol ch ott cnarehelenetete 129 SEUECMOT As ck ferecteh aie tiles eae S57 lCiMiCihWsa, yaa dao dt idee cette 80 UTA yetos ace ot onet of of oh hark hake eats 40
A OTU DA cic: i cl cketdisuct eis: cusl eles. « TS || CUP Gasay Sa. nt vier ot at shovel ot tiene tolerant 125 CWATAMTACTOSUIS) acat.rterel ela stereo AL GACH UULUUS! Fy yes ovek hel ccd o's ote chore on 158 Site) G 0: ee nee ee oe 149° | Gladwrastis “525 os: sh aber See 102 Rei OPMNOGE cia tevcictels che thats cael s ELS ere Olay COMM aed yoke seb netel shereh or okcn cers 76 (CHYUITUSS (One iain oie Gimeno sce G Ag || = Clematis) sere a so ccoyet lelel obey rsane tere 81 MOM IV ee each estat araterstictalicncnetavens FG) al lenin seen ouoeebocedajcod oe 89 CalycOCarpum® 2.)-).)-) <1. 201s ol = Oe ONG UING AN ere Vetta cist chekatetch el evenatche 130 Canna hires Bis ee beeuecn beta ctens RRs Cling podiums «4 prt 1 else loner ore 146 Chie, Goeesepeobocedoon TERCy a Colrmahtermtiey Beeson hon oUDUUGUcCO 59 CAMPcOSOGUS cart.) cere Opals GGT Ay aoa ey chet cust ch ucl aver oNeticd chet date 108 METUTLD OLS peetseencter ect atic’ ShclielShaver el enone "(|| gl OTM CUS) crop ctetercvokeck a chek tckew aes oPateyotens 174 (CHONG oie mooie y mae oso Qe || COUMIMSONTA) sohcry sh ckshetaaetenena eh aete 148 WA DALIShsatchlersbetster seven ests ole AG) Wl oppmehnwohe. sonpacooucecooos 71 Wapriolacss costs stlatsis tes ADs es @OmmN Chimay cient <h hater eles thes oer 55 SOAP SICH acter cseyctelelel ciciereteye! seh ADE COnObGamactacteiclsctvekel-y-rorcr ave tere 150 (Chink tbs Gomecou oma Gon ec Qe CON OPHOLIUSH ss -tcketorat sh -tatereletsreretate 153 Gardiospermum ............. Ge | @On Vall ari aie archer cieto) tet hohner oes 59 AOU UALS) tekatere acct heloke oroleret onions IGS) |) (OtorenyOlhnsuhhes Kaceocoggocccudda 139 HO AMONG Ter PASE cry cctehet at chersishatsthelare 51 COGS ae ceel choot chokeke! chelaket etohal pater 80 GAL UMU Shs ci tetstaratcr sistas elstetes GEar ll SOLallOnNaZaysicycrareret lave hetet ener 64 TUITE ett lato teietslatctsfelsisierels'e cre DOM |e COLCODSISH «.5.)etelchehelereletetatedeoientere Wal WASST Dey delet Sclatetctelclavarciove cfs ets (0 W OimehoGbhbevebonsnooeonbeoades 130 WAS Galiale a cielesaletelatetstakcicl stern svete Qual AOOLMUS! V7 -schclaeaatalatahevehakelsvereretereh 130 WASTAMCA opal heletstelel stole tstate sates Cie PL COLONOPUS veered eteletot ole ct rere ctes 85 (CE EGISIE Bo aeseneno ocmctoos AEP OOLVLUISE ai steteholecelcvetonsh tek ot ovetortete 67 (CATENIN, 165 ob SO bpe.pto cidib bids mic TS 2\7 |) Comes oaeooaooocunocGduc 104 LODUI Lop as ihe Sees amend oo SS | MOOCOMCASTER) ceialeic sels) atopetetebol oy cone 100 WEANOENIIS er cterotelclcfslelede: sieves AZ| PEO C CAs vopcrerctercnere leteterelareta eveuol dere 105 Se Datla seiaisicisls ciese «: shetele) ene el= Rohn MO EACH LUIS ic acreletevetetteietel cleleteessohe 97
180 TENNESSEE FLORA.
PAGE. | PAGE. Grotalaria 2.8. ccecke oc. LHe OSS || ET AS RO SUIS secteicate)sveres 7s ee aoe 43 WTOtONe Ts. eboteie is cee 12 rechtites ~otiestcs cic nc tooo 173 @rotOnOpsiS if-saetetarclersisieret el taste LS. | birianthis cp eee. -c.os eee 34 Cubeliunm ) eis. cee eee 22) 4) Hpbeenii a: Pe ecm ewer ns ccc tss ee 130 CUCU TS 8c cto late cde hat ert te 158 MTiSeronn. tee cee ACRE 167 CMuTCur biter: 0.5... a. Meek ole ts 1S EELOCAULONG en weie tree ielee seis «casi 54 (uM MiNUM Ae oes. wr tee L30.| Bxfophorwm o.oo io i..:. steve 50 IS CULA pins caicts. cc \o rere siete ak 139 EDTAVAULTIN se oes. cere esoteric ie Ave. enh eat 108 VAL OUD Batra. Pe. jah staherstejes pete ceueeht Oe A EAC YASMIN So" roe ciegeret oc DRE: 127 G@ynorlossum: .. s..... satiwioes AD ey) OY SPMWIMN os oscit ce eyeelec cet Aaver 89 WYMOSUTUS =) <-<,-cseye <so.0 Molar 45 idicvgdobrajbheae a Saou accen ao eeee 58 CYPOLUS! ooo e)s oie ie ee she CARER OF 48 IBY OPH WS oe 3 wreteve tenors telotes arsed eae 128 Cypripedium’ s.<)4<. ccm leee: 62 WUPAtOriM \.. oh orien eee 162 ENIPHOrDlass 2c. ca ee ee Lie 113 MAGHVITS so cee akic.citan seers Daas AAS NAR AID aim. tee, cetera eer 165 DamtHont a) cis teyew os i's ole eee AD | SEAN OLVAUUS © 6) versa 'sorstorore Fetes Ko ots 139 MASVStOMA sprees sicieee ie 12) 1) SENOS ANUS! ie ors -¥o.c (ones hey sie eases 115 (AUUT Ay Age ieieks 6.0 fogs exe tous teres 149 DENTON eR ORM Ss aos mee UATiy Nello enanihony yee deo og socaes o- 72 Deecodoniye.o<te25 ss AS I TALUS) si cehe jo cts losieis 3 spate olen 67 WE CIM ANIA Se sik occas erage 92 WMalCata ses secre torn oe 108 Helphiniwie:., 22.61. ce eee SOy ly MESbUGAM Seer ae chess eit aimieeioe 45 DSnarinm: <....60.. ee tee eee 132 RUE Rate exch iiee Gee er ee 28 DWennsterdtiayn cose 28} Hambristy lis. . 1.5 ojos ss toe 50 WMeschampsia’ s-<:2 <,..cww = See AD: i) Hoenteulm cone. «0. oterswvene 127 MAAMOrHN A, wows See Lee SO) i wh ASET Ag. Noe octaves acas ae eae ils if/ Man tHe ra «f5 occu Ba EPs WAS WP PAL ATTA, 7 cc-3i0 falc sions 2s oye tes kere 94 TDR alist ee eee ee ae ed pe vy GAINS trae ewe ietee axes Ge eee 135 IDE chi aera acts a ae ce al Walaa ites! WiKe dU ey aes ooame ee coos 75 Dichromena 2.0.22. 50 LMM Aorta as s Bee ee eee 8d Didiplisnsc 2 ecco ence ese 123 ‘ Dienvilla eh - = cciss wie ows bie a LSM cPEUCSID Neyeuciess ole ovals) 2 ister shemepereneas 154 PHO Agee oer wore le eee HLEHER | peau LLC 1s 27. (2 Sov cnoy ls io ome au aorta 109 TOSCOTEA Aen ee eweerucuene Gils Gala, ee cee ei cs coe te cae 133 DiOSPYTOS). &o.cieadete eek ae ASHE \GAleOpSis <<. icticlssrels ayers tool 145 MiphiyAletay se on ccs vee owe SSH | Galimso Gain! sic iste ate ouste-cosrorontene 2 DIPSACUIS: ee eces cee er Lk ee 158 Gaim sg oss cis cee 155 WITCA PE oad ceca eee oe 9S) ot GAUTIER ETIA, acs miata. clan el sharers us PISPOLUM Ao 2 ows cee s cei 59) | Gara te. icties ce woot reas 125 Wodeeatheon ..855.% 2.0 42 ater 134 Gaylussacia sc: ct. ioc eee 11235? DoelinPeriay cn tes .sbere Gane 1167 4) Gelseminum'’ S22 > ee oe eee 136 Mrapareee woe cuk eos ook eee 88a Gemmingia a. esisieoaneeiee 61 IDINCHESNIA icc ween eee 94 Gentianaiy.c« ooo ec eee iby ID LID el ob hihi pepeeeepee Sea Nao & a AQ) | Geranium cecac ccc se eee 110 DV SOCTA: Biawscc cee ce. aetes 172 Gerardia...c ec eo s.siemhictneeeae 152 Genmy Aone sce eee 95 HIALONIA tas eck coe ws oe ci AAS (GLa otoy ai Bice lion evereseten ae heroine 140 Mehinodorus). - 2. oe eos 34 @lechomas.. cmc. ene . 145 ehivmes. 22 Cpe see cee 1490) (Gieditschiay jcsocce ee cee hee 102 Mcliptar suk. os soecoe. Laces 169 Gnaphalivmiys oe ieee Soe cre 167 Mlcocharis.s oe ace ee ree 40) || (GOSSyDiIMinn chee sie ehlee cee 119 Exephantopus) in... 5 sm oy. cearektchs GOS <Gratiolaseerc .ciscies cco okan aeeereee 151 BNCUSINGs > oes Sou etc Bet 43 Grindeliat.ca 3s 3 os6 wie ene 163 BNVINUISEc cs cee cece Coole enor AR’ | (GYMNOCIAGIES: selene cs ieie wiereleieye 102 EPUS Pais cs oe ow ep ck nue BORER 132: | Gympopozon’ ..\.\. .....esisiven ee 43 Bpilopillim ca nbecesecesscee ks LIAS «| GRMeriim 223.) cece ae 43
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TENNESSEE FLORA.
PAGE. iabenariae sets hae Seccist selec cn 62 RLAMAMELIS® 5 Asn 506 Ss cee aes. 92 Hartmannia; O55 s50 0% oe vse tere 125 WICMECOMAs ora eet os ab elie 146 VCTENTUIM B252 5 Se See ce See eer 172 Elelianthemum? 3 <6 2654626638 121 telianthellay <2scec563 03 CNS. 171 PTOIAMERIISy, 3.623 S e's cc lee Cotes 170 MACMODSIS: tc .aa25 si bses oceees 169 MIEeHOLFOpIUM (32623686205 coe: 141 Hemerocallis ssisesscsdecs.: 57 ifemicarpha 222s sece62.0 5. 51 FRC DATICR PSe Okc ds oe the ss os 81 TACTACICUM Miao eas hata eset ee 126 IEVESMETUS * Secs ced Scans deletes 98 FACLCTANENETA (occ dade tees 55 MOUGNeral is 2s a scan soak cee 91 Hexalectris ..... PDE occas 64 EMNDISCUS, 32 ac deed Oat eels 119 MICOTYVA Aled sh hoes So ece enon 65 FACT AGHUIMNF tke vase ules e eters 161 TAOICUS 6s Aas le Vac Adotomerene 41 Homalocenchrus: ssoc.0.46> eee 39 IELOLGEWMY 3 ah42c0 sce heec cones 47 PIOUStONTAL 5 focec cock tok ees 155 FUIMMNUSS 4 as oo ke ae cde he ee 70 WAVGrANSEA 22 obese eke ete ees 91 EGVATAStIS Pe cascade eo ke ae 79 ERVGnOCOUVIG) 222.2 sa 5as.omoee 129 leloliroy olan llisacy Ree ieicia aceite 141 Eivymenocalliss:ssecss0e3 Sea: 61 IEDYAIET CIM os 5 tcc okas ee 120 MAYA ODIUCIS ee a ne cues sie nk eae i831 EPYVMORIS! SS 552 scc8e05.50008 61 DEMVSUMEX PA ss de 2 4 asc oes A eeee 48 NON bey osc ‘oe hals sai Bish scaushavecee\e 115 MUVSATNUN CS eR eo ois os 151 LITO OF EES ONS ae 110 MGT OLETA). csc eS eels cc oexeier aa 105 TUTTE ee cs eS neers ee 168 MO VINGINIIS) 65, ome Saeeth « esol cie 86 MONMALCELS, 25.5 Seu cise Se rechsaeiaceetens 167 Mpomea, . es.’ Go o 139 MESIIMNClya a ciovso.c a ose clone ocnerslekets 75 TITCLIS)' ty. Ss, SSR MCP ha Abe Spas 48 61 USANTIE NTIS) SSeS ere ean eMart re lene 143 HSE Cy Ss eee ene 124 BSOCEOS Mp ines cis so lcsecais aus Meta 30 WG CAMPIBE TA Seley cere. ciacs ono oaceventuacane 92 XO TUOTAUS 2 chee sie ly 6 she caves oh one 38 EMEUSOMIAes os eda ek anceeee 83 PLES LATUS As cise ees ook eee aes 64 ATONCONG ESS Sete SIO ee 56 ITEC U SW ee SS sia s 5 hile RUIN: 55 NENT ETUS Bene cer oa oe oN es 32 ATUSISIRSE hE 3-s Se eee a aR ee ears pe 124
PAGE. COMIN a Waeeok ch cece chase OE 132 GET TNal Pcredoeiclete Succ ete omeeere 125 Kecehniimemteray pais cclccee eee 112 T<Galliigiss Emenee perctinad bbe Oc 147 TNOMUSA, Weteioke totes te WG a als aretee 89 NWOrYGARDIIS Gaietee ele cis hott onttae 44 LeSrez hbo OUI Yong ene acia OND SsbB ec 105 LSCUI SHORE aS pS Seed ae a eo oid 163 Keylineianeec.cc ccc adeeos 49 WACiniariay a Row his es steal verses 163 WHACTUICHs kick a cete eee eo bers thats 160 MaPerstvoemMia sk ces we cle eet 124 WAS CMATI ay ee. esctotere le aieteiere ete eke 158 AWAINUUIN eros oasis soe crete 145 ILA OWE parca ora poco Gab. 142 HEATLY TUS) ie cit Siem oe Ss ieee 108 VGA VAUXHALL cry jotere, sore tele oehe ota 125 MeavenwOrthianecmis seine eels 87 WC CHCA ec eretorsecexs ce em boRveets 121 WCLOUZIA TA ond chan ete eteeae crete 159 HBC Ae crea ec varccorehe wierd cree 54 WCOMMURUS is ror cere caus hie ronerethiee 145 LD ONOH ROG Wa oe Scena Gc ee 85 WeptamnitimM) cmc. eee 153 THE PLANTA sete ok sie we ieee 151 WEDEN OMG the, soe eeieicis iis ee eoe 167 WeptOcwlOd te... i mite Paeener 43 WeEpPlLOTehHisie- ck va soso 63 WCSPECEZ Ai. Vo ie. ciels eke enor 107 Wesquerellay Nocxtas ss wtem wrasse 88 TEEUCOEDOC) siissisrchetesaciels rebated cinta 132 WPSUSTUCUIIE ea ele crore tes 127 WS USETUIMS aces os ole & eo 136 TSU UTAS Orton te eel eke a eRe ee 58 bilan hoysoVsrnoheal Cho snapoboces 137 MIMOGORUM Eee ee eee 64 TEIMATVA hes icetoteves wis ciel See 150 ETT oie ic aks ets ecetcioetwae toi 111 IDO yess oe Aron tikes Soot 143 - Ibilfequiks enone So. aoeoonn oo eeeac 93 URIOGENGRONMe =. = vacerec = clean 19 WOTSCCTAY ccs Soak Maes ae eee 63 PATH OSPDECLIMUM pe ae iedaleee 142 MWR OWEIIUAT saycrieee sol koe Gcecst aeeeoieee 159 OVI He aS. eee ekais: dis ate Sore 46 NGONUCOT ANE sc oe e Dieta cores Ala 7/ ILDAUOMGIESER Boipom cece. OC oe ook 124 MOAUTE A> ayar sic. os aek ae eee on uk 158 MELUPDATNU Siticrs.s a are cto Monee eee 103 ILPAGIDD INE oeiC olaGoono Ose oO: 149 WVGOPeTSIGUMY seniscr nt ere eerie 149 ILACKOOOUUNONY Sasasasooeoucoue 30 EV COPUS: .icacive woe a awe 147 TEV SO CIUM Rae Recs eee ee 20 NEY SUMVA CHITA pateninroe ety te hee 134 IDNA NGI aa ee a ea cosets 123
182 TENNESSEE FLORA.
PAGE. | PAGE.
IMASNIOTAN. os. ci prac ec eee To) Gnoperdony <2 ots s nk eee 174 NaTAIEN a LaF oie aes oe iain ee Say PMOnOsSmMogium cee ene cee 142 NI QIUIS 250.) sroleraerels ae Ses SOR OGh | POphioeZlossumees- <a eee ene 27 MialVABLTUMN ci Aisne cee Calo HSE | AOpulastery ec cleats «fore omieie 93 INSU IGP Se Sl teeereye er oler cia cies LAN SOUT ace ferent cielo ere cle ionehe 120 ETA THOR DRS BS 5 Sate ig ue ee 144 | Oncohisecyr cre ciee cee len eb 62 VA SIAM Rie tite, clea carsis wos Mette ele | Orreanml jane + cee cecetnt oie 146 VIA E VTL ose Rluve tes Gin ts eiloscles ware by! | (OimebhaaXoy-~Nhbhel 65.5 boooabaoddse 58 RUE T MCA ABI. 5 nce eins wintciniainie ayo || OEBDANCHES Wisc \ enemas sei & ie 153 Wie KE) EE eh ey iA ee aie FO POnontitims- eit teen oe 54 IMCTUNGCA LO 5 oct sicice ccin sinie Sloe OS ye OTYZA) wbseve, 0.2 ovstere ete rehab hntea ike 39 IMICCH AIG jcacrdooceveretere.< tealereiekors 144 | MOSMUNGA << cice incon eerie 27 IMGT OMT: ci ie-0 core ela oteheetede cere NOGH | HOStIV AS cere cele oe iar eis 66 Melampyrims one ooecac: aoe TOM | ROmaliis: Geer fonts bate erate 110 Melanthium)).s.cnone « ctonienie Diy | MORVCOCCUB! 0c. fess.» cle wless einai 133 IVICIT A ac sase.Cuc Shs rormycucioieeis ous hieee MOS | Oxyd enaron wc. ccniceie eerie 132 IMGTICA Sa cokicichi chan id ce cs Ree AAR WORYGOLIS sc cece one knee 126 MGNIIOCNIUS 53 acces asc eee 103 INTENTS alge cet Save te foie toe eo ne AAGMieachysandral cer cc mee cee 114 IW Koy 9) Th Bits eS eae eee Bek Aner Of) Ghia | NR ee Sete fe sons toe puskesatete tele 126 Meni SDErMUM!)... cl. cetee HEE Soe |) aC WAT A ec pacieus.s ates hei oe 45 Memmi haa isto she ee ee HAT Pani Ui je cic ccs s Bieje chee ae ole 35 Mem ZICSI atin ccct cnc cock oe MSD | RRADAVICDS cy. ciere.e eve croton eykoeiee: 84 METECN Sia 2 vorcros fe, «bre era 14M PParietariag ....aht ice eic eee (fl AVETATITESS). oaks see's Gas cis a Poneto TEX ap slee na eeists thas piotgelaed atc Gio bom 6 91 MVCN al. + sc ce ae oa ee 1S hy | ME ATOSEIT A) cnc et c.s oe cus cose ene 104 INTRVE TES ae re a oee ae cy | Ott |DRaronyenia 2.3.06.) cee 78 Mohrodendroni...... see eek AS Hy ea SONA Way. ei nele sesh </< eevee 123 MOIS Oli wine coiecc Soko. 5 ete ib? | Ramthenium \.623,. 2. i it cane 169 IMOM ATG a: o5.ccveiece cs cee WAGs | Pe aArtMenOClSSUS 22). seeieeee ee 118 IMOnnIeTraies. 6% cis face ocean Se AS DALI cect ite Beare chepsyecd 35 Monotropal i. .- ees osc bones TOA CRASSIM OAs c ie vole ous aio. 3 6. terse res 122 MOnOLTODSIS! <./) Nc. ns csc eee Udy MRAStINAGA) etc eee sie levene comers 127 MOON SIA ees noc eine iO DAn SEU OWA eee day ec eiel ierersieiate eietete 150 IMIOTUIS zee ey Men beh use ete HOM ECA LCUIanis urs cei us eteie tend: 152 Miihilenhberciae.s.. sea ae A Peli ccee Meu dicta secerscs tiene eeeaes 30 IMISCATIM: ci tcthens Soccernet oe IOe BSH Me SlLaANG rate tanto stotel eae wn sre eenate 53 NIV OSOLUS) serie ool )s.c a icvances Se eee 14s) | SPenmisetunmiy zane eee ae ee 39 INGYOSUTUIS Fetes) siete castes ue ersueeceee Sie) | Pentstemon tees... eee ere 150 Miyriophiyllumyces eae ecient 126) | Renthorumess. cose ee eee 90 - Peramillmaee eee eee 63 ee eo ee eee mane | Bendis thie Mahia os ate 148 Moianibe bei Pic 8 poeae ie at 78 Petalostemon Oh RAG ee eet 104 INEMASTVALS oe aecce eh ieens oko 61 ue Acs thes a aks gy nee 149 Memoplilia:).. 2 esi, aoie he 141 BG SHINS) BOS 9S a3 aS aS 216) teu z Phalanisny. yee ose 39 INepeta’ ter pace eee kee 145 aN é Bs ; Phaseolus eee eee eae eee 109 INT COtIAN AN een ein Hin eee 149 : INOTHOGAIAIS seat ole eee 161 Phegopteris ies Ae 28 NOLtnoOscordiumiu-nee enero 58 Eniladelphus SURE CE ae ae oa 92
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121 n Kod. dos cio CHRO ARR S Oos Lc 140 OPOATIA Hoe :6 tc cts avers ol REE 13s) Bhoradendronh cc. occ cco cee ral GHITOUNECTAY, *. siavevsts oo ceie ss oe ee PAS alld cd TEN ZS a1), Cotaeic: eo CCN IO Bes oc ac 154 Oldeniandia +. ..2+.. 55s ee UES. WP aeiaAllennd able Geos gonoe do0n oo 6 las ONAST Ay, oye tess oioisle ooo Re eae LZ4 ey tisiey <nis oecke ccs eee 29 Onocled (cise even een 2 or ENV Sallis! terevaciele Sreceisiece ae ene 148
TENNESSEE FLORA. 183.
PAGE, PAGE PMY SALOG ES Ns sieiiat as sucks cchohalessts 148 FUUD ES Rss cratela ss coho Geese thea ceae 2 IPMVSOSTCEIA: iss 5.002 els TENS WAGE RUGINMS As os a's saa) a cares cise 113 Py tOlAGGCA .5 3 5 .ccre 51s steasieseehels Ses P EVOMINT A seicha 5 ois sins rane dispar eto 105 BUCO Anre ar ateveyahor erat avcl'a oar crmeaterekerets 3374" || IROVat OE), "G aMion Gomioicoeniooos sé 86 MBVETT Si hers cc Ae) oe wiesaves ose aistodtceke SP is ROSA ater arse a'e cog aie. o 4 see ee 96 SUN ITMS VTA Ss 3 de aihy ssc er evens ene ltlels 128 FROUA LAM eee crt a woe Ore eer ae 123 UMURS rs a) oyisy ct io FS eh aks) ci ol ow ovtuorbave Silt ESUDUSi aera a serosa sea sits tae 93 SUS UITIM ehh) st ok ohio wf ohas ous gd eeeroks MOST iP RMD Rais eon have ca eke screen 169° TAINO TAN a cat sera) shor os ak vue sire at toate eke 69 RUE May a5 Sos sas a fae no ceo 154 EAT GAL O) vey 3) ck ct ot shay el sa resale 154 FUMIE XS, eso Sayed cease ote soreness 73 FMA ENTE S on 5 ot cy a's a) oh ch ntiovettvaere afer stich 93 RUG pais hse iarseg) acy teal aah aes eas nalaL FEET OI@ AN ayes taal cae at cpehonenacaneusrcetiote 167 AGRI ho fava craiavotel sei Qiovs ailerons 45, Sabbathias .aciteas cae sco toes 136 OCOD MVM fo siete iret tene) evened acon 83 Saeina 2. srccd's sa wialei by dalattabrens 77 IBOGOStEMON fF... cles ce cee 89 Sadie hs Sos 4 os} clas Se 66 ESOT ea a <a cleat co sien shaders caacchiers GSy IL Sa@LVAaN shoe cs 5-0-4 aren Sete Rees 146 TPO ONES ETS BAe Naren beni eee SOL eSamibucus!: cco dae eee 156 PA OUEMOMTWIM, % odie 6 cic. 010.0 9:2 one TGs i Sem ONl Sie scar teave scree teraearnere 134 olivicallawes. seals cere vintemnoeees Waly Saneuinarial aaa es os eee 84 Poly ZOnatumy 2.66 ccishs see esse 59 San Swisonbains ss cccite ence 95. OW; LONUM i.e bss s ee eee ec 73 Saniculaway se5.26 detoa ooee eee 127 IRONY IMMA sax d a ae sia o's ha la 168 Saponarias o oic.<.c Sai 6 eee 76 Oly POGIUIMI ass na oes oa chee 30 Sa@roth Ta ws esis eta eee AIPA Poly premum. 2.4.02 6%66. os e. 3 GleleoalaCeMiart co aoa ae acta sieht 86 BOW StICHUM. .> sianc.c once 28 Sassatraste: ... clone ae oa 84 BOWEN Mecho dace o < Mette U/ SaAuwTejares sah a sva-ce so Sa 147 IBOMUCOCTIAY . + 2.0.0 ac nd oa eeu 55 DAWU Sy aradelaterarenaecconst ee 64 OMNIS hos ort de ooo ac. catches GOf We SARDLEAL AY coca aiclaatoret she 90° HOLULCTATNCIUIS) 5 cles +. 6 o worakenle 93 Schenolinium jo eae 58 OMG CAR a nevetn eo 0 ae eersihedors 76 Schiwalbeay fo... 3s cece oo oattie 152 OtaAMOPetON! 2.252 clas bas See SF ||) (SCIPPUS. Ase neontoe eo end oars 50: IROteM GIN ay A cea cies.s13 saleld © stones GAP SCLeramthyuisi a. a eeccta cetetereene clare 78 ENOSCEDIMNACAL acs, 06 4 cess eee as ZG IS CIOTTAT oi sisi siete cc akena okey ated arenas Evil ESTAUDITCUL AN rat see sea aig a saie is ees a silend 145 SeCLOPMWUlAr ay a cccrenciay : oehe ease 150 FEATAUOIANT Sireraiers stele scavelo.s\coaehettonane 100 Serutellariavens os secctcc spent 144 SSON a Cetra, dig ace odavayeicisie- a eae. #86 104 BOCA] Cie de: cissaytatcccevsiale obaeutaieraceeene 46 1EKSIKER, Sa eaoioReee a ae OR Se CR SA SS OG UTI ser sia.c crochet ons cho. otc om iacaees 90 tenidinmm: a2 Joc. se reed 30 Selacinelilaw asnmcctsecte ition 30 xT TTAMT UTI ss «cs ei<ayste ceotenci ete 129 SemeciOsckos ae tents tie eee iT SURED CAS ecco tevene © arora ua aot eusiaerisaid 124 Sericocarpusieyaan son clase. 165 FERN OL Be ears stale cease Sine ave Os saat 130 SICVOS* ra Na cee ae ale sales wlan 159 PEUUIAT EA os ware sco 2 olaja chore they’ 7% PERSO AES er oom mat onme Seconon 119 BVA Sea GAS: de) tas dunce cee Ae ea IO) MUGS MES CAPE apoE pen ae be 43 : f WE STLGTI Gta mitarceie ste.cre cre ckcrs ree 76 ere renee eee ecee eens EOS Suiphianir ok uu ee 168 LIMO CULE acces scotana cha eestareioae 139 Si é QE CUS Haters. 4) Sal srercaaiey Moai 67 BREUER ORR ECS meric ot calcitic: 86 SHEA shih wee Se eonborawiaas 86 VATAUEITCUWS: fo be 6 hbk je bane wee 82 Sisyrinehivm’, joecass eee 62 VEO ANUS) rete es fk sod heise 86 SUID ASE ses revert oterarcrer venees ora cealions 161 JRIDHET| OHNE). Solg SiS GREGOIRE TE ac eee 170 SUNN AS RL as. a dale wh aveversrereeateeis 128 EMEVATINTNIUS Mayo ce) cva ate aisle 'e ane mata, aL SMA os teers seca ere pare 60 PREVI nsesrens) astra tarde gy oisieisics cel S ss OLAMUIMN fates elecerenetane oe ie chesoae 148 ERM) actor chcho evelig se tiee au HES ST CORE BRM o orn oben ClehaC 164 mhododendrony sac oe 6 + 10 c.-ie 131 SONGHUS) . scatciacveve amsucheneale ore crete 160 EVENT Srrapct ie cee ater alata cs oaatine 86 114 SOplaawery a cetera ach otelevevaieraray ears 88 IRIPVANCNORIEY Balan Goetioeone ea oe TO Srp ASOT DUSit os sail oleyeter sl cieterciceaiele cucke 96 uly CHOSPOTAy seraiere sic). a.cle cust 51 ORME UMI 1d arcosre aerate aiskerse < ako. 35.
184
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TENNESSEE FLORA.
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PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY.
“ Naturae vero rertum vis atque majestas omni nimirum mo- mento fide caret, si quis modo partes ejus ac non totam con- templatur animo.” (Plin. Hist. Nat.)
The power and greatness of the works of nature lose of their true comprehension in nearly every instance when the mind seizes on particulars and does not embrace the whole.
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An Epitome of the History and Philosophy of Botany.
“QOpinionum commenta delet dies, naturae judicia confir- mia. —~(Cicero,)
In the history of mankind we observe three consecutive stages of culture. In the first we find men ceaselessly en- gaged in the dire struggle for the daily wants of maintenance and in self-defense until they acquire the faculty of providing for regular sustenance and enter into the social state. They arrive now at a state of mental composure, inducing a spirit of inquiry inte the nearer or remoter relation of things around them,and their applicability to their benefit or pleasure. Thus engaged, they collect the material for the third state of their education, in which they acquire a comprehension of morai law, an interpretation of the physical forces, and ultimately attain to the ability to control them and make them subserv- ient to their will.
Likewise we may arrange the history of botany in three pe- riods—of, however, very unequal duration, and, like the former, disturbed, especially in the earlier states, by periodic fluctu- ations.
The first period embraces the whole time from the incip- iency of human culture to the late periods of medizval his- tory, from Dioscorides and Theophrastus to the Bauhins (1600), in which plants were nearly exclusively attended to in relation to their applicability to the healing art, to agriculture and horticulture, and as material for wood-work.
The second period, beginning with Rajus and Turnefort, reaches its acme in the Linnean school, and is strictly con- fined to technical botany; that is, the exact description and artificial systematizing.
The beginning of the third and really scientific period lies within the recollection of botanists yet living, who surveyed and codperated in the rapid ascendency of this discipline.
In this instance plants are treated from the biologic stand-
188 Puitosopny or Borany.
point, as living organisnis developing in definite phases of growth and reproduction with regard to their affinities among themselves, their analogies to animal and human life, their dependencies from the elements in which they are placed, the mutual dependencies among themselves, as also upon animal life, and ultimately the human race itself. Even the function of the human intellect is shown to be intertwined with the phenomena of their sensitiveness resembling volition. With the scrutiny of the origin and meaning of life they help to transport us in the sphere of philosophy, the sublime terminus of science.
The earlier phases of the development of any particular sci- ence cannot be followed up otherwise than along the line of general intellectual progress, following the plan of gradual specializations. How this process evolved in the struggles with the floods and eddies of history I wish to depict within the smallest possible compass, with the special aim to point out the interferences which even at this day have not ceased to make themselves felt. I intend to proceed like a navigator who sails around a continent, directing his course from prom- ontory to promontory. To follow the coast line and explor- ingly to ascend the rivers would be the work of an historian. ”
The birthplace of all ideal creations of the human mind and also of the natural sciences 1s ancient Athens, and the origin of scientific botany is one of the latest fruits which matured from the flowery epoch of Greece. Great statesmen, heroes, genial artists, poets, and philosophers had in unbroken suc- cession followed each other in the interval of one hundred and fifty years between the battles of Salamis and Arbela, and the Hellenic genius appeared to exhaust itself in the luxuriance ot its productions. The first school of philosophy was a natural philosophy, known under the name of the Ionian school. It originated with Thales, the Milesian, who first calculated the length of the year to be three hundred and sixty-five days, and was the first who predicted a solar eclipse and called water the passive principle in nature. His friend and disciple was An- aximander, also born in Miletus. He taught that the universe, though variable in its parts, as one whole is immutable. The invention of the sundial is ascribed to him. Anaximenes, also
Puiuosoryy or Borany. 189
a Milesian, born B.C. 556, conceived the air or ether endowed with a divine principle and the celestial bodies of fiery nature. Anaxagoras, of Clazomene, taught philosophy in Athens B.C. 500, and among his pupils were Euripides, the tragedian; the orator and statesman, Pericles; Socrates, and Themistocles. He originated the idea of the dualism of mind and matter. For his assertion that the so-called divine miracles of the times were nothing more than common natural effects he was ac- cused of impiety toward the gods, thrown into prison, con- demned to death, and barely escaped through the influence of Pericles. He fled to Lampsacus, where he ended his days in exile.
The antagonism between learning and Polytheism had com- menced, and became from day to day more apparent. The natural result of such a state of things was to force the philos- ophers to practice concealment and mystification, as is strik- ingly shown in the history of the Pythagoreans.
This school was started by Pythagoras in Croton, in Lower Italia, a province called Grecia Magna. Pythagoras had lived a long time in Egypt among the priests of Thebes, by whom he was intraduced into their religious secrets. All wisdom and learning was held there by the sacerdotal class, and their ten- ets were kept concealed from the common populace, which was taught to receive with submission and obedience the doc- trines and tenets of the order. The independent Hellenic char- acter would, however, not bend to such rulings, and they could only practice their tenets within their own fraternity.
Pythagoras was born in Samos in the time of Tarquinius Superbus. He was the first to use the term “ philosophus.” Out of esteem for his sublime wisdom the people would cal! him “Sophos” (the wise one). He declined this honor, say- ing that he was cnly a philosophus, a friend of wisdom. The most important dogma of his school is the assertion that the divinity is the soul of the world, of which the human soul is an emanation, and that it will revert again into the former aiter its migrations through many bodies. He laid a firm foundation for the science of mathematics among the Greeks.
Besides the Pythagorean flourished also the Eleatic school of philosophers, of which Xenophanes, of Kolophon, is the
190 Puttosopuy oF Borany.
founder. ‘The basis of their doctrine was Pantheism, the un- ion of all things into one indivisible whole; that God and the world are one and the same.
From these schools, which were engaged in speculating about the nature and origin of things, we turn now to the So- cratic school, of which Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus (B.C. 469), was the founder. His father was a statuary, and his mother, Phaenarete, a midwife. In his youth he followed the trade of his father, and became a successful artist. Later, and under the protection of Crito, a wealthy Athenian, to whom he served as an instructor of his children, he gave up his occu- pation and attached himself to the school of Anaxagoras, Archelaus, and others, and became master of every kind of learning which the age in which he lived could afford. For three times in succession he also served his country in military capacity with great distinction. After he had reached an age of nearly fifty-six years, he, for a while, served in a civil office in the Senate of the Five Hundred. From his wide experience in public life he had regretfully observed how much the opin- ions of the Athenian youth were misled and their principles and taste corrupted by philosophers, who spent all their time in refined speculations upon the nature and origin of things, and by sophists, who taught in their schools the arts of false eloguence and deceitful reasoning. ‘to amend this evil he conceived the wise and generous design of instituting a new and more useful method of instruction. He justly concluded the true end of philosophy to be, not to make an ostentatious display of learning and oratory, but to free mankind from the dominion of pernicious prejudices, to correct their vices, to in- spire them with the love of virtue, and thus conduct them over the path of wisdom to true felicity. His method of instruc- tion was in the form of dialogue, in which he endeavored with- out persuasion to deduce the truths of which he wished to con- vince a person as a necessary consequence of his own conces- sions. His favorite maxim was: “ Whatever is above us does not concern us.” He estimated the value of knowledge by its utility, and recommended the study of geometry, astronomy, and other sciences only so far as they admit of practical appli- cation to the purposes of human life.
Puinosoruy or Borany. 191
Cicero said of him that he was the first who called down Philosophy from heaven to earth and introduced her into the public walks and domestic retirements of men, that she might instruct them concerning life and manners.
His continuous, severe arraignment of the horde of sophists, hypocritical priests, and selfish politicians gave rise to a party of dangerous and unscrupulous enemies. His endeavor to en- graft upon the mind of the youth the idea of the existence of one supreme Being threatened the interests of the priesthood, who stirred up the fanaticism of the common people by de- nouncing him as a contemptor of the gods. Although he was in the seventieth year of his age, they could not await his nat- ural demise. ‘The accusation was delivered to the Senate in the name of Melitus, and read thus: “ Melitus, son of Melitus, of the tribe of Pythos, accuseth Socrates, son of Sophroniscus, of the tribe of Alopeces. Socrates violates the law in not ac- knowledging the gods, which the State acknowledges, and by introducing new divinities. He also violates the laws by cor- rupting the youth. Be his punishment death.” After a mock trial, he was condemned to be put to death by the poison of hemlock. Thus died one of the most virtuous men, a victim to priestcraft and unscrupulous politicians.
With truth Socrates said at the close of his speech in self- defense to the judges who had condemned him: “ It is now time that we depart—lI to die, you to live; but which has the better destiny is unknown to all except God.” His memory was honored and his name immortalized by two of his disci- ples, who became his biographers, Xenophon and Plato. It was also a blessed termination of an advanced period of life to die in behalf of virtue and morality.
After the passing away of Socrates, other schools arose pro- fessing to be founded upon his principles—the Megaric, headed by Euclid; the Cyrenaic, founded by Aristippus; and the Cyn- ical school, originated by Antisthenes. It is a melancholy as- pect to contemplate the sudden upset of sublime thought into moral mire of those sophistical extremists. The name of Diogenes, of Sinope, has come down to us as an inimitable ex- ample of a humorous pessimist. “This temporary eclipse oi the Hellenic genius soon passed over, recognized as a discred-
192 Puiosopuy oF Borany.
itable delusion. Like a metempsychosis of the soul of Soc- rates, his chief disciple, Plato, continued and embellished the work of his master. To the bent of mind attained in the so- ciety of Socrates within eight or ten years he added all that could be obtained from the philosophers of Egypt, Cyrene, Persia, and Tarentum. Of noble and illustrious parentage, he numbered Solon among his ancestors; also possessing the advantage of wealth, he concluded to establish a school in the grove of Hecademus. There he devoted himself to science, and spent the last years of a long life in the instruction of youth, and, arriving at the eighty-first vear of his age, died from gradual decay of nature. His portrait is preserved to this day in antique gems, but the most lasting monuments of his genius are his writings, which have been transmitted without material injury to the present time.
The powerful effect of the writings of Plato is equally pro- duced by their external form as by their internal value. The elegant world of letters which so readily sacrifices the essence of a literary production to the form in which it is presented would never have paid such homage to Plato had it not been for the art of presentation and introduction of his ideas, which he knew how to handle in a masterly way. Even when he chastises his sophistic adversaries with pungent ridicule, he never passes beyond the limits of decency and dignity.
All his works are rendered in dialectic form, displaying an equally philosophical and poetical style. Various as were the * models of literary style which he had before him, to none, how- ever, was he more indebted than to Aristophanes, the come- dian, in depicting the life and actions of men. He also made much use of Indian and Egyptian myths and mysteries, and handled with great caution in those discussions questions which penetrated into the field of the religious faith of his coun- trymen. Many sentences are obscure and ambiguous to avoid conflict. He knew of the dismal fate which shortly before his ‘day had overtaken Anaxagoras; Diagoras, of Melos; Prota- goras, of Abdera; and Prodicus, of Keos—all of whom were prosecuted for alleged irreverence against the gods. The lat- ter was first banished, his writings publicly burned and their possession and sale interdicted, and he himself condemned ul-
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timately and executed. This is the first instance in the annals of history of the procedure of public combustion of condemned writings.
While at this epoch several speculative, philosophical schools flourished; the arts, dramatic poetry, and oratory had reached the climax of perfection; and peace reigned on the western side of the Hellespont, the Macedonian campaign in Asia, the culminating point in the strategy of ancient history, swept over the Persian Empire, crushing the hereditary foes of Greece. The daring and gifted son of the shrewd Philip of Macedon, had in rapid strides subdued all the eastern nations from the oasis of Jupiter Ammon to the distant Bactria. In the short space of time between the battle on the Granicus (June, B.C. 334) to the battle at Arbella and Gaugamela (Oc- tober, B.C. 331) the whole of the Persian Empire, with all its . outlving appendages, had, by right of conquest, become the property of the victor. With the death of Darius (July, B.C. 330), Alexander became also the legitimate heir to Darius, the king, in accordance with Oriental custom and traditions.
The unrestrained and ambitious Alexander came to a halt only through the irrepressible objection of his entire army after crossing the Indus in its upper course. He met and de- feated there Porus, an independent ruler, in the populous and rich Pendschab. Here the Macedonians for the first time faced the peculiar Indian armament, a train of armed ele- phants, who, though fierce and valiant fighters, could not with- stand the undaunted valor of Alexander’s warriors. The shores of the Hyphasis, an eastern tributary of the Indus, on the foot of the Himalayas, became the terminus of his advance. The reduction of Persia was an act of policy and retribution. Fur- ther extension.of dominion would only glorify personal am- bition, would be an impious frenzy. In a general council of war the return was insisted upon, and the order for return met the greatest gratification of the soldiers, whose homesick hearts grieved for Hellas and the Olympian games. At the end of the summer (B.C. 326) the home march was com- menced, and continued into Persia under many difficulties and exposures. Engaged with plans for the consolidation of his empire, he ¢esigned to make Babylon his future residence.
7
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There his premature death ended his career, and the ungovern- able expanse of territory became divided among his generals.
Great as were the political results of the Macedonian expedi- tion, they were equaled by the intellectual. A longing had taken hold of the minds to descend to the roots from which sprung the fascinating Platonic ideas.
Penetrating into the tropical climate of India, with its di- versified fauna of big or fierce species, gigantic vegetation dis- plaved in impenetrable bamboo jungles, and entering into the ancient seats of culture older than the one of the pyramid builders, with a national character disposed to quiet contem- plation, the conquerors were yet more amazed by the contrast of life and manners of the conservative Indian people with their own progressive, stormy, vacillating national life. Their experiences—political, geographical, ethical—were destined to prepare a reaction upon Grecian life and thought. The inter- mixture of Greek elements among the immense throngs ot the Oriental nationalities sufficed only for a transient stir, after which they relapsed again into their hereditary quietism. The Greek character, on the contrary, took in much of the novel and foreign element.
In the resulting new empires governed by Grecian rulers, Grecian ideas were soon universally felt, but nowhere with such lasting effect as in the domain of the Ptolemeans and in the city founded by Alexander, Alexandria, the cardinal point around which in the near future ruled the intellectual progress of Europe for several centuries. It is an unparalleled incident in history that the same period could produce a genius competent to understand the existing philosophical systems and to remodel and enlarge all sciences (Aristotle), and also a hero of cultivated mind, attentive to progress, and unlimited ability for execution (Alexander).
Aristotle was born in Stagyra, a town in Thracia, belong- ing to the dominion of Philip, king of Macedon, B.C. 384. He was the favored disciple of Plato, and remained in the acad- emy to the time of the death of his master, when he was thirty- seven years of age. Philip, having heard of his extraordinary abilities, invited him to his court, and put him in charge of his son, Alexander, who was then (B.C. 343) fifteen years of age.
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Honored with the esteem and confidence of the king, he en- joyed a true filial attachment of the juvenile Alexander, with whom he remained until he opened his Asiatic campaign. After Aristotle had thus left his pupil, they carried on a friendly correspondence, in which the philosopher prevailed upon Alexander to employ his increasing power and wealth in the service of philosophy by furnishing him in his retirement with the means of enlarging his acquaintance with nature. Alexander responded to this request with an abundant supply of specimens of objects of natural history from both animal and vegetable kingdoms, and which were either maintained in zoological gardens or preserved in a museum. Upon this col- lection he composed a work of fifty volumes on the history of animated nature, only ten of which are now extant. He also wrote on the nature of plants, and collected notes and obser- vations from scattering writings on natural history for centu- ties before him. He arranged his objects in systematic dispo- sition, created a scientific language for exact definition, and taught the graduations into classes, genera, species, and indi- _ viduals. ‘This made him the creator and founder of natural history.
He was an exceedingly productive writer, and his utterances were the illuminating beacon of philosophy and science for all nations for twenty centuries. The writings generally received under his name may be classed under the heads of logic, physics, metaphysics, mathematics, ethics, rhetoric, and poetry.
After his departure from Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens and resolved to acquire the fame of a leader in philos- ophy by founding a new sect, in opposition to the academy, and teaching a system of doctrines different from that of Plato. He chose a place in the suburbs of Athens, a grove, called the Lyceum. From his habit of walking while he delivered his discourses his followers were called Peripatetics. He con- tinued his school for twelve years.
The philosophical method of Aristotle is the inverse of that of Plato, whose starting point was universals, the very exist- ence of which was a matter of faith, and from there he de- scended upon particulars or details. Aristotle, on the con- trary, rose from particulars to universals, advancing to them
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by inductions; and his system, thus an inductive philosophy, was in reality the true beginning of science.
Here it must be observed that, notwithstanding his correct and scientific method, his time was not in possession of the sufficient knowledge needed to support such a vast edifice as he aimed to construct, and many of his statements are asser- tions deficient in proof. The superiority of his abilities and the novelty of his doctrines created him many rivals and enemies, against whose assaults he was well shielded through the influence of his friend, Alexander; but after the death of Alexander the fire of jealousy burst into a flame of per- secution. [Furymedon, a priest, was instigated to accuse him of holding and promulgating impious tenets. Opinions of his, pointing to the denial of the necessity of prayers and sacrifices, were to be resented as inimical to existing religious institutions. Aristotle became zpprehensive of meeting the fate of Socrates, and concluded to retire and leave Athens. “I am not willing,” says he, “to give the Athenians an opportu- nity of committing a second offense against philosophy.” He departed for Chalcis, where he died in the sixty-third year of his age.
When Aristotle withdrew from the charge of the Peripa- tetic school in the Lyceum, his disciples importuned him to nominate a successor. In compiiance with their request, he appointed to the chair one of his favorite pupils, Theophrastus. B.C. 323. This philosopher was a native of Eresus, in Lesbos. He had studied under Alcippus, Plato, and Aristotle. When he undertook the charge of the Peripatetic school, he con- ducted it with such high reputation that he had about two thousand scholars, among whom were Nicomachus, the son of Aristotle, whom his father intrusted, by will, to his charge. He lived to the advanced age of cighty-five. His last advice to his disciples was that “since it is the lot of man to die as soon as he begins to live, they would take more pains to enjoy life as it passes than to acquire posthumous fame.” He wrote many valuable works, of which all that remain are two books, “On the Natural History of Plants ” and treatises “ On Fossils and Metaphysical Fragments.” With this work he laid the foundation of the scientific botany.
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‘That some plants were known by specific names long before Aristotle and ‘Theophrastus is quite evident. Of many their real or alleged wholesome or noxious qualities were known to pharmacopolists, others to gardeners for adornments in use by religious ceremonies or for sorcery. Vintagers and agricul- turists had made and collected observations and experiments with the cultivated plants, and much empyrical knowledge in aid of success and profit in culture had accumulated and was in general circulation. But efforts directed toward lucre and increase of wealth only do not possess the elevating moral character of science. This term signifies the operation of such an intellectual energy which is spent in the discovery of truth or the elimination from our judgments of that which is false, impure, or confused.
Science begins as soon as the student commences to ana- lyze critically observations made by himself or others, to asso- ciate their relations, and to bring to light the remote or occult sources of externally visible phenomena.
With this motive in his mind Aristotle founded the science of nature in general, and Theophrastus became the father of scientific botany. Not only that, but he collected a surpris- ing array of trite and simple observations upon native and exotic species gathered from the columns of Hercules to the plains of the Euphrates and the waters of the Indus, from the cataracts of the Nile to the shores of the Pontus; he did not confine his attention to vegetables of common utility only, but he inquired with equal zeal into the nature of the humblest plants when they appeared to him to confer to the solution of general problems, which was the main object of his studies. He queried: Wherein consists the difference between plant and animal? Which are the organs of the plant? What is the function of root, stem, leaves, and fruit? To what age do plants attain? What causes them to take on disease? How can their diseases be prevented or be remedied? What influ- ence on their thrift exert heat or cold, moisture or dryness, external injuries or excessive fruit bearing, care or neglect of cultivation, soil or climate? Can a plant originate sponta- neously? Can one species transform itself into another one? How do plants grown from seed differ from those grown from
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cuttings? With such and similar inquiries dealt Theophras- tus. ‘They were in the main the same ones which yet in our day occupy the attention of the botanist.
It is in the proposition of these questions, rather than in the answers to them, wherein the scientific maturity of the school of Aristotle manifests itself. The preparatory studies: which ought to have preceded were as yet entirely insufficient. Very pointedly remarks Goethe: “If one takes a view of the prob- lems of Aristotle, one is seized with surprise at the ingenuity of observation and universality of attention by the Greeks. Yet they fall into error from presumption, as they do, with too much haste, jump from the phenomenon to the explanation of its cause, whereby they construct incomplete and untenable theories.” Could any one of the two thousand attendants as- sembled in the arcades of the Lyceum at Athens, listening to the discourses of Theophrastus, have been brought to think that the rearing of the scientific structure so auspiciously in- itiated would soon experience a subsidence of nearly two thou- sand years before the work could be continued and ultimately carried to perfection as planned by its inventor? But the up- heaval, political as well as intellectual, of that age was so 1m- mense that also the stability of philosophical principles be- came affected. Greece and Macedonia were involved in con- tinual rebellion and wars, reducing the population, laying waste the land, destroying the industries. Last the Romans found an opportunity to settle their quarrels. A Roman army under the command of Cecilius Metellus occupied Macedonia after the defeat of the strategus Andronicus (B.C. 148), and two years afterwards, in a renewed campaign, the whole of Attica fell into the hands of the rude and ignorant Lucius Mummius, who wantonly ruined and despoiled Corinth. The whole of Greece was now annexed to the Roman Empire under the administration of a Roman prvtor.
The policy of Alexander the Great to amalgamate, as it were, Oriental and Greek culture utterly failed in the Asiatic States by absorption of the Greek character into the Oriental. The reverse occurred in the city of Alexandria, the capital of the Ptolemeans.
I am glad to record here an act of Alexander which embel-
Puritosorpny or Borany. 199
lished his philosophical and Jiberal character as much as his heroism and victories immortalized his name as a strategist and statesman. When he built the city of Alexandria and peopled it with immigrants from various countries, opening a new seat for philosophy, he granted a general indulgence to the promiscuous crowd assembled in this rising city, whether Egyptians, Grecians, Jews, or others, to profess their respec- tive systems of philosophy and religion without molestation. The consequence was that Egypt was soon filled with religious and philosophical sectaries of every kind, and particularly that almost every Grecian sect found an advocate and professor in Alexandria.
The tamily of the Ptolemies, who, after Alexander obtained the government of Egypt, from motives of policy and nersonat enlightenment, encouraged this new establishment. Ptolemy Lagus removed the schools of Athens to Alexandria. In or- der to provide in Alexandria a permanent residence for learn- ing and philosophy. he laid the foundation of a library, which after his time became exceedingly famous; granted philoso- phers of every class immunity from public offices; and encour- aged science and literature with royal munificence. His suc- cessor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, added to the library, and in- stituted a college of learned men, who, that they might have leisure to prosecute their studies, were maintained at the pub- itCheEX pense.
The ethical character of this period displayed a marked in- clination to utilitarianism, and, with the development of wealth and luxury, a desire to adorn refined sensualism with meta- physical speculations. In such times may only such learning and such sciences flourish which are applicable to external wants, as are mathematics, mechanics, physics, and medi- cine.
In the natural sciences the Alexandrian school continued to build upon the foundation laid by Aristotle and Theo- phrastus, but unfortunately assumed again much of the spec- ulative way of Plato. Physiology and anatomy, chemistry and botany profited by it. Herophilus and Frasistratus founded two opposing medical schools. The former annexed botany to the medical curriculum.
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Under the last of the Ptolemies appeared the celebrated bot- anist, Dioscorides, whose writings stood out as the guide and groundwork in botany for the Arabs as well as the Occidental nations to medieval times.
Alexandria can also boast of having produced or supported Eratosthenes, Euclid, and Archimedes in mathematics, and Hipparchus, the greatest astronomer of ancient time.
Of the many writings of Dioscorides have been preserved his work, “ De Materia Medica,” and the “Alexipharmaca;; or, About Poisons and Antidotes.” His death occurred toward the end of the first century of the Christian era, while the fame of the Alexandrian school was yet at its climax.
Philosophy during this period suffered a grievous corruption from the attempt which was made by philosophers of different sects and countries—Grecian, Egyptian, Oriental—who were assembled in Alexandria to frame from their different tenets one general system of opinions. Herein originated Neo-Pla- tonism, a religious philosophy, distinguished for the conflict it maintained with the rising power of Christianity. Its author was Plotinus, an Egyptian, born about A.D. 204.
Another outcrop of this connubium is the Cabbala, a Jewish sect. This system contains some profound tenets, polluted with many erratic superstitions. One of these asserts that God inad imprinted upon all plants certain marks, from which the initiated and gifted could read their manifold qualities. Adam, in paradise, is said to have been instructed by God him: self, but to have lost the secret when he was expelled from paradise. It was revealed again unto Solomon. The name of one of our liliaceous plants, “ Solomon’s seal” (Polygonatum officinale), points to this myth. (Doctrine of signatures.)
The poetical, romantic, and inquisitive spirit of the Aris- totelian time had died out. One part of humanity was de- pressed by intellectual inertia produced from absolute realism or sensual debauchery: the other lay chained by remorseless oppressors, with no hope to free themselves by their own valor. The hearts of men ached with a desire for a new order in the affairs of humanity, grieved with a desire for some source of delivery.
Not one of the countries subject to the Roman rule had suf-
Putwosopry or Borany. 201
fered a greater degradation than Judea, at that time governed by the vicious tyrant, Antipater. More vivid than ever before in the hardest trials grew the expectancy of the pious Jews of the advent.of the deliverer, the messenger of Jehovah, who should, as promised by the prophets, deliver them from their oppressors and be the God-appointed King over the chosen people, to reside in Jerusalem. The learned classes of Syria and Palestine were habitually disposed to disputations upon the meaning of their own ancient religious literature. The Hebrew language was already a dead language and the holy writings in the hands of the Levites and the scribes as inter- preters. The ancient creed divided in three opposing sects. one of which, the sect of the Esseniens, distinguished them- selves by their religious devotion and purity of life. Among the Esseniens formed a separate society, who endeavored to perfect themselves by acts of penitence and self-inflicted tor- ments, the Nasireans. John the Baptist was a member of this sect. He was a cousin of Jesus, taught the doctrines of the Fsseniens, urging his hearers to repentance and good conduct, and immersed in water, as an emblem of purification, all those who promised to follow his exhortations. When Jesus (the son of Joseph and Mary, of poor, but noble, lineage) came to him, he also submitted to this symbol, and was then de- clared by John as the expected Messiah. Without doubting the correctness of the statement as given by the evangelists, there is, however, a large scope for comment by the student of the comparative history of religions. The Essenien doctrines were very much the same as those of the Buddhists. They also used ablutions in water as a symbol of purification of the heart. In like manner did the Buddhists, on command of their master, send out missionaries in all lands to spread their doc- trines.
In this simple and unpretending language of Christ exhort- ing to justice, love, and forbearance; in the exalted example of his pure and noble life, the fidelity of his mission sealed by his death, humanity received the guide to the accomplishment of the heavenly promise of peace to man upon earth, to the only one possible happiness in a necessarily imperfect world. But he. was ill understood during his own life even by those
202 Puruosopuy or Borany.
nearest to him, and humanity proved itself unworthy of his promise at his ultimate departure that he would send that Holy Spirit that would teach them every truth; for truth nearly two thousand years had to pass before this Holy Spirit could as- sert his influence in the revelations of science. Christianity, however, is not a reform of Judaism, a mere advance beyond Philo, but a synthesis of the Semitic and Aryan thought, and its strength lies in its power to calm the cravings of the heart and satisfy the postulates of reason. On these premises will stand the Christianity of the future.
lar removed as the essence of the divinity is in the ancient Jewish faith, even as close are both the natures drawn together through the idea of the Logos, a concept of thoroughly Greek origin, explained already by Heraclitus, Zeno, and Athenag- oras. Christianity, confined to Jerusalem, would never have advanced beyond the Talmud. Its inffience on the world at large began with the conversion of men who then represented the world, who stood in the front rank of philosophical thought, who had been educated in the schools of Greek phi- losophy, and who, in adopting Christianity as their religion, showed to the world that they were able honestly to reconcile their own philosophical convictions with the religious and moral teaching of Jesus of Nazareth. ‘Those who are truly called the fathers aud founders of the Christian church were not the simple-minded fishermen of Galilee, but men who had received the highest education which could be obtained at that time; that is, Greek education. In Alexandria, at that time the very center of the world, it had to either vanquish the world or to vanish. In the Catechetical school in Alexandria it took a definite form. St. Paul had made a beginning as a philosophical apologete, but St. Clements was a far superior champion to the new faith.
It is unmistakably true that in the early days the Christian mind was inclined to demonstrate in the order of this universe and from the beauty of nature the greatness and benevolence of its author. Such a bent of the mind to glorify the divinity through the description of its works created a taste for descrip~- tions of natural scenery. Some beautiful versions are found in the homilies of ecclesiastical writers in the time of Ter-
Puitosorpny or Borany. 203
tullian. This disposition of a purely emotional character might have in time of social quietude assumed a proneness to the inquiry into the intellectual causation of natural phe- nomena and reéstablished the Aristotelian methods.
To the great detriment of Christianity, ultimately to the fate of humanity, the Christian teachings were interwoven with accounts of miracles, quite unessential as to the validity of the precepts, even incompatible with the dignity of the Mas- ter in the consideration of the enlightened and philosophically inclined. More than any other weakness of human nature did the forcible burdening of the consciences with unprovable tenets extinguish in the hearts of men the divine love and for- bearance kindled by the Master. When the light of reason is put out, error becomes incorrigible and faith turns into fa- naticism.
The fateful disposition of the human mind to anticipate events before the law of causation is comprehended or appre- ciated, invites premature speculation, credulity, superstition. Preferment of the decisions of authority in the presence of contradictory, established physicai laws and dictates of plain reasoning is a vicious or perverted constitution of the will, the eternal enemy of truth and science, the Pandora box of his- tory, the object of active and unrelenting warfare, and will find its overthrow through the improved arms and methods of the natural sciences.
Should a continuous progress of the sciences only be de- picted., one should stop with the era of the Ptolemeans and the names of Dioscorides, Archimedes, Manetho, and Hip- parchus, or Euclid, and resume again the thread of history with the close of the thirty-vears’ war, the last religious war, with the treaty of peace at Schmalkalden in the year A.D. 1648. This was the first international pledge for parity of religious confessions.
Such a psychological condition hovered over the mystery- brooding minds of mankind at all times, with ever less control by reason and experience, the farther back we reach in the annals of history; fate and destinies of mortals a play ball! thrown about in the heavenly courts for the amusement of the gods. Deeper minds only recognized the “ irrevocable fa-
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tum ” to which even the gods had to bow. ‘That all events in space and times are subject to unimpeachable laws was not understood at all or very imperfectly comprehended. Men had an estimate of the ordinary course of things from a limited experience. ‘To interrupt or to set aside the rules of govern- ment in the physical and ethical world was held to be an undis- puted privilege of the gods. A fear of this power invited ven- eration and worship. <A breach in the laws of nature was with them an incontrovertible evidence of divine power. When the silent and undesigned beginnings of the new creed in sal- vation by faith crystallized itself around the person of the great teacher, Jesus of Nazareth, the Redeemer, the legendary Orientalic persuasion was largely called in aid for the accred- iting of his person, and was accepted as an essential part of the first apostolic creed and catechism as composed in the Cathechetical school in Alexandria, where also the first ecclesi- astic or episcopal establishments were organized.
The study of the historical development of Christianity confirms the sad experience that men will convert into disas- ter what God had bestowed upon them for a blessing, and that ambition and creed will seize upon religion the same as they do likewise upon patriotism and every other noble in- spiration.
‘The simple teaching of pure truth had been estranged from its original designs long before Constantine the Great had raised it to the dignity of the religion of the empire through the organization of the hierarchy, the establishment of dog- matic systems, and the parade of a pompous service, mak- ing it subservient to the wants of government, the enter- tainment of the masses, and the pride of the nobility. By these methods became Christianity completely adapted to step into the place of the old pagan religion, and Constantine acted fully in conformity with the spirit of his age when he accepted the new faith.
‘These events were absolutely fatal to the maintenance of a spirit of inquiry. Wisdom and learning degenerated, espe- cially in sequel of a totally changed system of education and instruction by conferring the care and supervision over the schools upon the Christian clergy, in opposition to the rhetors
Ou
Purosoruy or Borany. 20
of Athens, Antiochia, and Ephesus, who still maintained the old doctrines.
The plan of the new system intended to discourage individ- ual, independent thought. The youth was to be brought up in humility, faithfulness, and “laissez-faire”? manners. Men of strength of character and self-reliance were considered dan- gerous to the hierarchy and its dictates. In place of the poets, philosophers, orators, and historians of the old time, which had formerly served as manuals of instruction to the students, the holy writs of the Old Vestament were supplanted. A re- ligion which was originally intended for the awakening of pi- ous emotion, love, and justice, and which was well preached by the untaught apostles and their followers, was converted into a collection of sophistical subtleties, and attendance to dispu- tations and partaking in ecclesiastic ceremonies formed the prominent entertainments of the society of those days.
I had to interrupt the chronologic order to forestall the events under whose influence the Christian clergy acquired control of the education of the youth in the Eastern Empire to bring it in closer connection with the same events in the West- ern Empire.
The great civil war, the contest for supremacy between Cesar and Pompejus, had ended with the defeat of the latter in the battle of Pharsalus, which sealed the downfall of the Roman republic, the occupation of Egypt by Cwsar, the as- sassination of the dictator. Then followed the tragic death of Cleopatra, the last heir to the Ptolemean throne; the in- corporation of Egypt into the Roman Empire under a Romain pretor. All these revolutions exerted but little influence upon the Alexandrian schools. At the time of the destruc- tion of Jerusaiem the Sceptics and Gnostics shared equal au- thority. Within a short period Christianity had made a great many conversions, and came into ascendency, and Alexandria became one of the three rivaling bishoprics, the other two be- ing Constantinople and Rome.
The Christian church had been divided in regard to admin- istration and tenets from the very beginning. For a while tolerance and even liberality prevailed toward difference of opinion. Not until the council of Niczwea appeared the name
206 Puitosorpny or Borany.
of “ heretic ” in a vindictive sense, and an equality of rights of membership was observed solely upon the confession of the apostolic creed. The first act of grave violence was com- initted by Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, in the destruction of the Serapium, the most magnificent structure in the East, the relic of the statesmanship of Alexander's captains, the con- necting link between the ancient cult of Egypt and free-think- ing Greece.
From this period on there was no longer any thought of sci- ence. The sects became numerous, their contests violent ; the- ological discussions ended in bloody riots and wholesale mur- ders. The religious sermons delivered in the churches were accompanied by clapping of the hands and shouting of the audience, like theatrical performances.
In the midst of raving and wrangling of sects between Aryans, Nestorians, Monophysites, Eutychians, and the mu- tual anathematizing of rioting powers appeared the Khalifa Omar, with his invincible army, who entered the gates of the city, burned the museum and great library, and the dark cloud of Moslem fanaticism henceforth overshadowed the realm of the Pharaohs.
The appearance of Mohammed and the promulgation of his religion was adverse to progress in science and philosophy dur- ing the first ages of Islam. This impostor thought it neces- sary to keep his followers as ignorant as himself. That he might at ence cut off impertinent contradiction, he issued an edict which made the study of liberal sciences and arts a cap- ital offense. At the same time to captivate the imaginations of his ignorant followers, and thereby establish his authority, he sent forth in separate portions a sacred book, to which he gave the name of the Koran, containing the doctrines and pre- cepts of his religion. This book, which was chiefly a compila- tion, sufficiently injudicious and incoherent, from the books of the Nestorians, the Jews, and ancient Arabic superstitions, long continued the only object of study among the Mohamme- dans. Their reverence for this holy book, the leaves of which, they were taught to believe, were communicated to the prophet by an angel from heaven, long superseded every philosophical and literary pursuit. Imagining that the Koran contained
Puitosopyy or Borany. 207
everything necessary or useful to be known, whatever was con- trary to its dogmas was immediately condemned as erroneous, and whatever was not found in this sacred volume was dis- missed as superfluous.
After the extinction of the Ommiades, who trod into the footsteps of Mohammed, the accession of the family of Abba- sides to the Khalifat opened again the dawning of philosophy in the East.
Of all the ancient peoples, none perhaps were less inclined to materialistic conceptions than the Romans. With a reli- gion deeply rooted in superstition was their public life wrapped up in fanatical bigotry. Dominion they rated above wealth, fame above welfare, conquest above all. A _ philo- sophical schoo! was attempted in Rome in the time of Cato, the censor; but he, fearing that philosophical studies would effeminate the spirit of the young men, sternly dismissed it. Cato himself was not illiterate, for he wrote a celebrated trea- tise upon agriculture, and was acquainted with the Pythago- rean tenets.
Lucullus, while he was questor in Macedonia, and after- wards, when he had the conduct of the Mithridatic war, had frequent opportunities to converse with Grecian philosophers, whence he acquired such a relish for philosophical studies that afterwards, returned to Rome, he made a large collection of valuable books and erected a library, with galleries and schools adjoining. This place became the daily resort for men of letters, where every one enjoyed the benefit of read- ing or conversation, as best suited to his taste. At a little later period M. Terrentius Varro wrote a work touching upon natural history, “ De Re Rustica” on agriculture.
In the year B.C. 106 was born Marcus Tullius Cicero at Arpinum. This illustrious Roman, who eclipsed all his con- temporaries in eloquence, has also acquired no small share of reputation as a philosopher. His eventful and meritorious life has been as much praised and admired as his tragic end has been deplored and lamented. He addicted himself to the principles of the middle academy, a branch of tfte old academy, or strictly Platonic school. In his treatise, ““ De Natura Deo- rum ”—on the nature of the gods—and “ Questiones Tuscu-
208 Puriosorny or Borany.
lane ’’—Tusculan researches—he effected a complete over- throw of the Olympian gods, exposing the unworthiness of such conceptions of divine nature. Of his philosophic works, “ Hortensius,’ which did not come down to us, the celebrated ecclesiastic writer, Augustine, confesses that the study of this work was to him a powerful stimulus to the pursuit of wisdom. Equally aggressive against the ancient faith is the didactic poem, “De Rerum Natura’’—on the nature of things—by Titus Lucretius Carus. He was born in the year B.C. 99. Very little is known about his private life, which he seems to have passed remote from the tumults of the civil war. He was an Epicurean, and his great poem, which he dedicated to his friend, the poet Memmius, conferred, more than any other writing, at the restoration of the sciences and toward the re- vival, illustration, and rehabilitation of the doctrines of Epi- curus. By this time all the old schools of Greek philosophy were well represented in Rome, and we see that, as Alex- andria had sapped Athens, thus Rome was now sapping Alex- andria. Public patronage was divided between the Stoic and Epicurean tenets, the latter becoming prevalent under the rule of Augustus. All the gay and mirthful intellects of the poetical circle attached to the person of Meecenas, and as- sembling at the jovial Court of Augustus, were followers of Epicurus. According to Epicurus’ doctrine, happiness is the highest object and good of life. This happiness was referred to the soul as an inseparable element of the body. As a natu- ral consequence of this opinion, exploration and observation were held to be the main object of philosophy. The vitality of the scientific germ was thus preserved, although it remained dormant for ages to come.
The Stoics held purity of morals, self-control, and contempt of sensual pleasure for the main object of life. In the times of adversities the Stoics proved themselves true to their prin- ciples. When under the reign of Tiberius and Nero, every kind of abomination was practiced openly, and every enjoy- ment of life became poisoned with fear and shame, the Epi- cureans retired. The Stoics alone fought the battle against vice and oppression, and fell victims with unshaken fortitude, like Seneca and hundreds of Christians.
Primosorry or Borany. 209
Augustus himself was a patron of literature and science. Many persons of the highest distinction in Rome were the Same way inclined, and during his reign so generally preva- lent was the study of philosophy that almost every statesman, lawyer, and man of letters was conversant with the writings of philosophers. The period of his reign, and of several of his successors, was distinguished in cultivated taste and elegant manners, going down to posterity as the Augustan age. That taste continued, even under those emperors who were more addicted to pleasure than to wisdom. Ultimately, in the proc- ess of time, in the Christian era it went under through the interminable theological strifes, and that monstrous produc- tion of monkish ignorance, the Scholastic philosophy.
The poetic and philosophic works issuing under the Augustan palladium, entirely lost sight of the progressive, because inductive procedure of Aristotelian investigation, reverting to Platonic and Epicurean sublimities, groping after the ideal, obscure, and unknowable, treating with con- temptuous neglect those obvious realities out of which later generations were destined to construe a higher civilization. Many sublime but fruitless conjectures are avowed in the classics of that time. Thus Virgil, in the fourth Georgic, de- rives the origin of things, after the Stoics, from a divine prin- ciple pervading the whole mass of matter:
His quidam signis etyue haec exempla secuti, Esse apibus partem divinae mentis, et haustus Aethereos dixere: Deum namaue ire per omnes Terresgque, tractusaue maris, coelumque profundum. Hine pecudes, armenta, viros, genus omne ferarum, Quemque sibi tenues nascentem arcessere vitas. Scilicet hue reddi deinde, ac resoluta, referri Omnia, nec merti esse locum, sed viva volare. Sideris in numerum atoaue alto succedere coelo. a —TIV. Georgica (Virgil).
Led by such wonders, sages have opined
That bees have a portion of a heavenly mind;
That God pervades, and, like one common soul, Fills, feeds, and animates the world’s great whole; f That flocks, herds, beasts. and men from him receive Their vital breath; in him ali move and live;
210 Purtosorny or Borany.
That souls discerpt from him shall never die, But back resolved to God and heaven shall fly, And live forever in the starry sky. —I. Warton.
In another place the poet introduces Anchyses philosophiz- ing upon the same principles:
Principio coelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes Lucentemque globum lunae, Titaniaque astra, Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet. Aen. VI., V. 724.
Know first a snirit with an active flame
Pervades and animates the mighty frame,
Runs through the watery worlds, the fields of air,
The pondrous earth, the depths of heaven, and there
Glows in the sun and moon, and burns in every star.
Thus mingling with the mass, the general soul
Lives in the parts and agitates the whole. —Pitt.
In another beautiful verse he gives utterance to the Stoical mood, in honor of Lucretius:
Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas Atque metus omnes et irrevocabile fatum Subjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari! —Georg. II., v. v. 490.
Happy the man whose vigorous soul can pierce
Through the formation of this universe,
Who nobly dares despise, with a soul sedate,
The din of Acheron and vulgar fears and fate. —I. Warton.
Of the three greatest poets of this era, Virgil alone, in his “Georgica,’” occupies himself with the processes of organic nature. Ovid, in his ‘“ Metamorphoses,” in the touching idyl, “Philemon and Baucis,’” expresses the belief of the ancients about the divine government of the world, as subject to the unrestrained discretion or pleasure of the gods in exact oppo- sition to the modern idea of causation:
Immense est finemaue potentia coeli Non habet, et quidquid superi voluere peract est.
Immense and unlimited is the power of the gods; And whatever be their wishes, perfected it is.
Puitosorpny or Borany. 211
Agriculture was the only one of the exact sciences which the Romans cultivated with fondness and success. Since ancient times it had been well attended to in Italy and Sicily. Cato the Older had excelled as an agricultural author. Columella, who lived in the time of Nero, spent his literary talent for the revival of love of husbandry; Terentius Varro laid down the rules for pruning grapevines; Cornelius Celsus RUNS NE asa celebrated physician and botanist.
The influence of nature upon the intellectual life of man ‘seems to have been first conceived by Plinius the Older, who, stimulated by this idea, resolved to compose a work which should give an account of all objects of nature which had here- tofore become known. This remarkable man enjoyed the es- teem and friendship of Trajan, to whom he was an advisor in affairs of State. He gave his work the title: “ Historia Naturalis.” As it is not strictly systematic it should be called an Encyclopedia. Such works issue now from asso- ciations only of scientists, but Plinius undertook the gigantic task upon his personal erudition and resources, extracted from the works of not less than 2,500 publications of preceding or contemporaneous authors. In style and depth of research, it is vastly inferior to the Aristotelian work, which it was in- tended to supersede. The Grecian being equally great in in- venting and observing, comparing all things critically, thoughtfully penetrating, giving new forms; the Roman, collecting with indefatigable zeal and industry, but void of individual judgment and personal observation, neither a critic nor a specialist. The botanical part of the book is the best conducted because he took Dioscorides for his guide.
The work happily escaped the ravages of the times, and be- caine for the Middle Ages the foundation for the study of the natural sciences. In behalf of the service it rendered to the contemporaries it is entitled to the credit to have, by methodic exposition, raised natural science to the dignity of philosophy.
Taking up again the thread of history in Africa, we are trans- lated to a period when the Christian religion had made great progress. A thorough ecclesiastic organization with seven bishoprics represented the secular power and dignity of the church.
212 Purmosorny or Borany.
Here we meet the ever memorable personage of Augustinus, the Bishop of Hippo. He was born at Tagaste, in Africa, A.D. 354; studied philosophy at Carthage and afterwards -in Rome. Inclined to dissipation in his youth, he took on an ac- tive change of his mind after he had become conversant with the writings of Cicero. They had improved his taste and in- spired him with an ardent love for wisdom. Not meeting with the satisfaction he expected fram the Greek and Roman writers, he applied himself to the study of the holy Scriptures. While in Rome he undertook the: profession of rhetoric. From this engagement and his skeptical turn he became in- volved in irksome controversies, to evade which he moved to Milan. While there, and before his return to his native land, to accept the Bishopric of Hippo, he gained the friendship of Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan, a Christian teacher of great elo- quence and probity. In his works he shows great attach- ment to the Platonic system, and in one chapter of the book, “ De Civitate Dei,’ (The City of God), he treats natural the- ology in the manner of Plato. He is inclined to think that all objects, besides animals, are in some way endowed with souls, and advances the idea of a possible spontaneous gener- ation, as he could not otherwise explain the existence of ani- mal life upon oceanic islands, far removed from the continents. He proposed that from the beginning of the world two kinds of seeds of the living beings had existed: one, the visible, which the Creator had implanted in animals and plants; that each, after his own manner, should propagate itself; the other, an invisible one, which lies latent in all elements, and becomes active only by particular proportions of mixture of matter and degrees of temperature. This seed, lying latent in the ele- ments, since primordial times, he thought would produce plants and animals in great multitudes without the coopera- tion of preéxisting organisms. He did not controvert the privilege of explaining a natural process in an intelligible way. The orthodoxy of the present day would not allow him to raise such a conflict with the Mosaic narration. He is the most learned, and permanently, the most influential of the an- cient fathers of the church. His firm belief in the reality of miracles, his definite declaration that he would prefer a mira-
Purosoruy or Borany. 213
cle to logical proof in an argument, has been, on account of his authority with the faithful, a serious obstacle to the scientific investigations of the truth. His writings mark the turning point in the transformation of the classical philosophical style into the mystic theologic dogmas and hierarchic aspirations of the fifth century. The minds of the people in the Western Empire, as well as in the Eastern Empire, had become so gen- erally and so profoundly occupied with metaphysical mys- ticism, and depraved through the fearful social corruption re- sulting from it, that the love of knowledge fell into disregard and repudiation, and was declared nefarious.
Augustinus died during the siege, and only two days before the storming of Hippo by the Vandals, in the year 430.
The Vandals, a half-breed of Germanic and Sarmatic blood, had, during the migration of the nations, overrun Spain, and invaded from there the Roman province of Africa. Of all the Germanic tribes they were the most cruel and savage, and their character had been little, or not at all, improved with their adoption of the Christian faith. In 429 they had crossed the straits of Gibraltar under their leader, Geiserich. After a fearful despoliation, lasting about one hundred years, their dominion came to an end through an annihilating defeat, which they sustained at the hand of Belizarius, whom Em- peror Justinian had intrusted with the command of a large army. Africa was now annexed to the Byzantine empire, un- til fate soon again delivered it into other hands.
In the preceding chapters we left Alexandria silenced by the scymetar, and dismantled, and thus the patriarchate of that city ceased to have any further political influence in the Chris- tian system. In little more than one generation the whole of Northern Africa was converted and speaking Arabic.
With the rapidity of a storm advanced the forces of Omar. After Syria, Jerusalem, and Egypt had fallen into his hands he determined to advance upon the Roman province of Africa. His successor, Khalifa Abd-Almalik, completed the conquest, intrusting ‘his tried general, Emir Musa, with the conduct of the campaign. Musa completely subjugated the Barbers and retired to the capital of his own province, Kairawan, trans-
214 Puimosorpny or Borany.
ferring the command in the extreme west upon the trusted general, Tarik.
Having completed the conquest of the entire East, from the Ganges to the Nile, and now of Africa, the Moslems, now known under the name of Saracens, bethought themselves to invade and convert to the Islam the reign of the Visigoths in Spain.
The Khalifs had abandoned, ere this, the evil policy of opposing science. They very soon became distinguished patrons of learning. It became customary for the first digni- taries of State to be held by men distinguished for their erudi- tion. Under the Khalifs of Bagdad this principle was thor- oughly carried out. The cultivators of mathematics, astron- omy, medicine, and general literature abounded in the court of Almansor, who invited all philosophers, offering them his protection, whatever their religious opinion might be. His successor, Al-Rashid, issued an edict that no mosque should be built unless there was a school attached to it. The schools of Alexandria flourished again under complete religious equality.
After the fall of Ceuta, the Visigothic outpost in Africa, Tarik crossed the straits and took a fortified position with his army on a mountain, afterwards named after him, Gabel al Tarik, Gibraltar.
After the decisive victory in the battle of Xerres de la Fontera, won by Musa, over the king of Goths, Roderic, who in this calamity lost his life, the conquerors lost no time in occupying the entire peninsula.
Only the northern mountainous provinces of Gallicia. Asturia, and Biscaya, maintained their independence. The Gothic princely: families had'y+-7r-a*de nto “imaceessible mountain fastnesses. Unapproachable in front, they were se- cure in their rear, as they stood in friendly relations to the neighboring Franks. From this asylum grew forth, at a later period, a new Christian Spanish empire. Spain was now a part of the great Moslem empire, whose Khalifs resided in Bagdad, and later in Damascus. The provinces were gov- erned by Satraps, appointed by the Khalifs, with the title of Emirs.
The absolute freedom granted to all professions brought
Put tosorpny or Borany. 215
about in a very short time a conflux of enterprising people and rapid growth of industries, trade, and science. After the lapse of two hundred years, during the reign of Abd-Errahman III. (912-961), Spain had become the most prosperous empire, with a population of 30,000,000, emulating Rome in the Au- gustan time. Abd-Errahman was the first Spanish Omajade who declared himself independent from the Oriental Khalifat. From authentic documents we are informed that there existed seventy large libraries and seventeen great schools, provided with liberal endowments, elegantly furnished in palatial build- ings. Students from distant Anglia, Germany, and France flocked to the celebrated universities of Cordova, which num- bered one million inhabitants; to Toledo, Granada, and Sevilla to listen to the lectures of Averrhoes, of Cordova, the chief commentator of Aristotle; Albucasis, the surgeon; Alhazen, the astronomer, who discovered the refraction of the atmos- phere; Almaimon, who determined with nearly complete ac- curacy the obliquity of the ecliptic; Ben Musa, who intro- duced the Indian numerals and invented the common method of solving the quadratic equations. The works of Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Dioscorides were translated and taught in the schools.
Alhazen was the first to correct the Greek misconception as. to the nature of vision; determined the retina as the seat of sight, and showed that the impression was carried by the optic nerve to the brains. Many instances in physics are not better explained nowadays than they were by him. The materia medica was expounded in well-arranged pharmacopmias. No branch of art or science known at this period was neglected, and advancement loomed up in the theoretical field as well as the practical. This effulgent radiancy, however, found its counterpoint in the dark shadow of extravagant luxury, effem- inating sensuality weakening the national valor. Wisdom and mental acumen sunk to scholastic flippery ; fatuous spec- ulations and that trifling witticism to which the Arab, by national propensity and a spirit of language, is much addicted, and which found abundant fuel in the now prevailing religious discussions.
The eastern Khalifat had already fallen into a tottering atti-
216 Puinosorny or Botany.
tude through the division into the sects of Sonnites and Shiites, which had been formed into violent political factions. The Spanish Khalifs had been repeatedly overtaken by serious disasters by their attempt to spread the Islam across the Pyrenees. Their defeat at Tour by the united forces of the Franks, under Karl Martell, terminated forever their advance northward (October, 732).
The Goths, who had preserved their ancient valor, now de- scended from their mountain fastnesses, harassing the heredi- tary foe with unceasing raids, taking advantage of the internal feuds in the disorganized and weakened Sarcen dominions One by one fell the open or fortified cities into the hands of the kings of Castile and Aragone, who gave the defeated the choice to either submit to forced conversion or to be burned at the stake, by order of the Holy Inquisition.
In place of the toleration and equal rights before the law for all nationalities and confessions granted three hundred years ago by the conquering Saracens, the Spaniard now in- stitutes the Inquisition, and as we will hereafter see, becomes, at a later day, the merciless despoiler and executioner of two other civilizations in the newly discovered Western Hem- isphere. It is meet here to speak of this hellish institution, which more than any other wickedness obstructed progress and overwhelmed the best of men for their devotion to reason and truth with ruin or cruel death. The device originated in the plan to increase to an unlimited extent the power and wealth of the church and its adherents. A papal bull, issued under papal seal by Pope Innocence III., Anno 1193, gives to Peter of Castelnan instructions to summon before a tribunal, called “ The Holy Inquisition,” all persons accused of hold- ing or divulging heretical doctrines or opinions not in con- formity with the doctrines of the orthodox Roman Catholic Church, with unrestricted jurisdiction.
This mandate of the Holy Father was so successfully car- ried into effect that in Madrid alone
other places also desig- nated for the execution not included—within three hundred years, as attested by documentary history, 300,000 persons were cremated at the stake for religious opinion’s sake. These
Puinosopuy or Borany. 217
public executions were great festivals for this noble nation and were called “Auto da fe ’—act of faith.
Under the pressure of this fearful hierarchical demoraliza- tion originated the frantic efforts for the conquest of the holy land. With the sacrifice of millions of lives a momentary success had been purchased, to end directly in a complete ia 1- ure. ‘The progress of the fourth crusade gives a vivid picture of the state of barbarism in the Western States, and the char- acter of the Roman Church at that time. The campaign was ostensibly planned by Pope Innocence IV., but afterwards in- sidiously diverted through the connivance of the Venetian Republic, and the Roman curia against Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Church, and the rival Byzantine Bishop or Patriarch.
The superior physical strength of only 20,000 attacking Franks overwhelmed a city which at that time had yet 400,000 inhabitants. Few lives only were lost by the combatants, but the greatest part of the city was laid in ashes, and many of the inhabitants afterwards slain or brutally mistreated, and the devastation and ruin from the treatment of their Christian combatants (1204) was m no degree less severe than what happened two hundred and fifty years later, after the ultimate downfall of the Byzantine empire and sack of Constantinople by the Turks.
Rome had accomplished its design. The Bishops of Rome at last appointed the Bishop of Constantinople. The acknowl- edgment of papal supremacy was complete. The holy relics were carried away to raise to greater holiness the cathedrals of the Western barbarians.
An inventory of the spoils carried away by Abbott Martin for his monastery in Elsace illustrates the low moral character and superstition of the Christian world at that period. It enu- merates the following priceless articles: (1) A spot of the blood of our Savior, (2) a piece of the true cross, (3) the arm of the apostle James, (4) part of the skeleton of John the Baptist, and (5) a bottle of the milk of the mother of God. Works of art in precious metals or bronze were melted into coin and thousands of manuscripts were burned. From that time the works of many ancient authors disappeared forever.
218 Pritosopny or Borany.
Before brimging to a conclusion the history of the gradual collapse of the Byzantine empire, and its extinction through the second conquest of Constantinople by Asiatic barbarians, it will be well to recall the principal data of the fate of the Western empire, and what little there can be said about the intellectual state in that time.
Constantine the Great had on his deathbed, A.D. 33, divid- ed the empire into two halves between his sons. Byzantium had already put on the name of New Rome, City of Constan- tine; finally, Constantinople; and had taken on customs and manners of Oriental character, having little semblance to Roman habits; Oriental servility and sycophancy the tone of court life.
After Emperor Justinian had reconquered Africa from the Vandals he turned his forces against the Goths, who held Italy, where his general, Belizarius, captured Rome, December, 556. The operation closed with the surrender of Ravenna, 493. Under the reign of the Ostro-Gothic king, Theodoric, two remarkable men were his ministers, Boetius, the philoso- pher, and Cassiodorus, the theologian. The latter, being completely imbued with the doctrines and principles of Augustinus, the Bishop of Hippo, introduced an educational system which totally ignored the classical philosophical style of teaching. Heaven, he says, is to be the terminus of man’s earthly wanderings; abandonment of worldly interests, and the surrender of personal convictions to the doctrines and commandments of the church, the sure path to his supreme blessing. The schools were graded into two courses: the Trivium, or lower class, instructed in grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic; the upper course, or Quadrivium, was occupied with the teaching of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. He pays some tribute to the natural sciences only in aid to agriculture and horticulture, but omits them altogether in the course of education.
This system remained in vogue under the monastic rule throughout the Middle Ages. Unremitting scholastic and sophistic strife about theological whims and trifles, bloody contests, and cruel persecutions for opinion’s sake, fill hence- forth, under the unbroken dominion of the church, the annals
Puttosorny or Borany.
of the Western church, until the violent struggles of the refor- mation admitted some rays of spiritual freedom, breaking asunder the dark clouds of intellectual subjugation, brighten- ing once more and bringing to life the blasted fields.
In a period when religious systems had lost all ethical sanc- tioning, when all sciences and civil order had been drowned in blood, when fratricide, poisoning, and assassination were the regular methods and instruments of governments, hier- archy and a faith without intellect must necessarily super- vene, can even be beneficial to maintain some kind of cohesion of society, until unforeseen events codperate to bring about a new era; but if the hierarchical state becomes permanent, such a system is sure to fall into degeneracy.
The student of history turns over many a page with a shud- der and a sigh. None are more painful and distressing than the ones now passing before him, when darkness is so com- plete and general without the glimmer of one single star to point out an opening or rent in the overcast clouds.
History becomes then only interesting, instructing, and fas- cinating when there is progress. To give a pleasing account of the Byzantine, Turkish, or Chinese history would baffle or distract the ingenuity of a Thucydides.
A wandering tribe of Asiatic nomads had adopted the faith of Mohammed. A branch of them, the Seldshuk Turks, had, a century ago, overthrown the Persian Empire. After this they defeated the Greeks and drove them out of Asia Minor. After those successes they designed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire. Their Sultan, Soliman, had crossed the Hellespont, captured and fortified Gallipoli, thus securing a foothold in Europe, and a base for future operations. From this time on the tottering empire lay in an agony. Its doom was apparent.
The emperor, John Paleologus, went to Rome, prostrated himself at the feet of Urban V., the Roman pontiff, renounced his heresy respecting the supremacy of the Roman pontiff and the double procession of the Holy Ghost, and kissing the feet of the Holy Father, besieged him for help. "The successor of Constantine the Great had given up his religion, but he re- ceived no equivalent reward. The pontificate had no power
220) PurtLosopiy or Borany. of his own, and could not or would not influence the western or northern powers to take up the defense of a sinking empire.
At last the inevitable asserted itself. On May 29, 1453, the assault was delivered. Constantine Paleologus, the last of the Roman emperors, fell, as it became a Roman emperor, in the ditch. With his death resistance ceased, and the victori- ous Turk rushed into the city, whose citizens to the last mo- ment expected that an angel of the Lord, with a sword in his hand, would descend from heaven and save the city of the Lord.
There was no longer any need for reconciliation between Latin and Greek Christianity—the sword of Mohammed had settled their dispute.
Soliman the Magnificent was ruler over all Macedonia, took Belgerad in 1520, and beleaguered Vienna in 1529, but the German valor stayed his advance.
These events may be considered as the tragic end of an age bound in its conception on false logic, and ill conceived faith in wonders and ecclesiastic infallibility.
Encouraged by the success of three commercial enterprises, the revival of art and letters in Italy, a spirit of critical thought emerges.
Within a short space of time the true configuration of the earth was definitely demonstrated by the three great voyages, the discovery of America by Columbus, the doubling of the cape by Vasco de Gamma, and the Magellan circummaviga- tion of the earth. Progress came again, gradual, but assured of continuance, when the spirit of a new era first dawned in Italy in the fourteenth century. To Dante, Petrarca, and Bocaccio, Europe not only owes the creation of a new modern national literature, but also the revival of classical studies, of Greek and Roman letters.
During the fifteenth century arise again from their lethargy arts and sciences in Italy, one by one, and toward the end of it botany too attains a resurrection. John Argyropolus, a noble Byzantine, who arrived in Italy a refugee, after the destruc- tion of his home by the Turks, and having lost all but his lib- erty and learning, by papal order translated the writings of Theophrastus from the Greek into Latin. The works of
bo bo _—
Puitosopny or Borany.
Dioscorides and Plinius were brought up from the dust of ob- livion and put in circulation among the literary world by the aid of the recently discovered art of printing.
Soon it becomes evident that to understand the botanical books the knowledge of the ancient languages alone was not sufficient, and that one had to be conversant with the objects themselves which were treated of in these writings. Now, at last, turned the scholars of Italy (which in every science and art was far in advance of the rest of Europe) with great fervor to the observation of nature, that they might find the plants with which the ancients were occupied.
Reuchlin and Erasmus had, meantime, north of the Alps, kindled the torch of classical learning, which was soon to blaze up into the purifying flame of the reformation. The movement soon extended to the Netherlands, and over Ger- many. The most prominent, indeed, of the fathers of botany in the sixteenth century, who, in careful observation and de- scription of the native plants, rank foremost, had their homes in that memorable corner, the southwestern plain, through which flows the upper-.course of the Rhine, where also stands the cradle of the art of printing, and where a lively intercourse was cultivated between the ancient towns of Frankfurt, Mainz, and Strassburg.
Botany, however, as cultivated by these men was not the free and independent science of Aristotle. It was once for all the helpmate of philosophy and medicine, for the only problem which they tried to solve was to find again the plants of which Theophrastus, Plinius, and Dioscorides had spoken, and to discover the virtues which, according to ancient superstitions, are thought to be inherent in every plant, either beneficial or injurious to man. Nevertheless the morning had dawned, the day grew lighter, and the scientific thought, which had been captive in the gloomy monasteries during medieval times, moved about again amongst thinking people, in the open day- light.
Since that time botany continued, uninterruptedly, to de- velop, although the solution of the problems with which she was occupied were, at different times, diversely attempted,
222 Puinosoruy or Borany.
for, as Goethe remarks: “ The further that knowledge extends, the more questions come in evidence.”
The fathers of the modern botany held the naive opinion that the plants of Greece and Anatolia could all be found in their northern fields and forests. Yet, a closer search of their re- gions soon cleared up this mistake, and when in that period of the great geographical discoveries the newly acquired terri- tories were explored, it became manifest “ how unequally 1s woven the carpet with which vegetation clothes the naked earth,” and that there were vastly more plants than what were known to Plinius and Dioscorides. The number of plants rec- ognized as distinguished kinds increased so rapidly that even the most favored memory could not encompass all. The old names were not sufficient, and new ones had to be invented. Authors strove to make the descriptions as plain as possible, and the illustrations were, after the early example of the Greeks, inserted into the text, as true to nature as the newly invented art of wood engraving could accomplish. Soon the necessity of an orderly arrangement to facilitate identification became imperative. Such a repertory is called a system, and from that time it appeared to be the principa! problem of botany to find a system by the aid of which a sur- vey of the vegetable kingdom would be rendered easy, and the proper name of an unknown plant be found with the least effort.
Not before the middle of the last century appeared that analytic mind who would teach men to find the way through the immeasurable plenitude of plants, and likewise animals— Linné, who, far ahead of his time, gifted with eminent power of conception, grasped and perfected a perspicuous plan of arranging all terrestrial objects into classes, orders, genera, and species. He carried botanists through a severe but wholesome schooling, training them to fix their eyes upon plants attentively, to dissect and compare them. He is like- wise the author of an admirable scientific language (terminol- ogy), which provides for every difference of plant form an ex- act and intelligible term.
In that way more than in any other, Linné excelled his predecessors, when he perceived that the utility of a system
Pintosopny oF Borany. 223
of plants would reach bevond its practical usefulness. He desired to establish still another system, which would group together those plants which resemble another the mosi, or which are, as he explained himself, the nearest related. Such a system he declared to be the natural system, and the con- struction of such a one the highest and ultimate problem of botany. But the time and means for its accomplishment were not at Linné’s disposition. It was reserved for a more genial clime, and a people endowed with taste in horticulture, to de- velop this idea.
Bernard Jussieu, then director of the Jardine des Plantes in Paris, had designed a system arranged on affinity, according to the natural relationships, based upon investigations made in the garden of Trianone, near Versailles, which belonged to Madam Pompadour, a friend and patron of science.
His nephew, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, a man of very im- pressible and imaginative mind, and profound learning, soon after became the author of the natural system. This sys- tematic tendency which seeks its principal object in the de- scription and ‘arrangement of plants, while it increased immensely our knowledge of the forms of plants, yet while thus occupied with the external differences, lost sight of those qualities which constitute her a living organism. There is surely a fascinating charm in the aspect of the thousandfold mixture in the crowded mass of flowers, which is so well ex- pressed in the confession of Jean Jacques Rousseau, ‘‘ Tant que j’herborise, je ne suis pas malheureux;” and this attraction is not even absent in the dried plants of the herbaria. It is attributable to this fact, that such a one-sided tendency as the one followed so long a time by the old Linnzean school was kept up for many decades by a great number of practical bot- anists. Up to this day thrives, especially in England, the tribe of root diggers and herbalists over which already Theophras- tus, two thousand years ago, made merry.
While thus amongst the followers of Linné the study of botany had become somehow encrusted, and apparently temporarily arrested, a rise had taken place long ago in En- gland. The experimentative method had revived and ani-_ mated the other natural sciences. Frances Bacon, the Lord
224 Prriosopiry or Borany.
Chancellor of King Tames I., of England, presented to philoso- phers a new method of inquiry—-‘ a new instrument,” as he called it—the “ Novum Organum,” a philosophical treatise, an idea which Aristotle had not yet conceived, which led the way from discovery to discovery, and served to rejuvenate culture and progress. Bacon taught: “The natural philosopher ought not to confine himself to the observations of nature in just that state in which it happens to present itself to the ob- server. Results from such inquiries are ambiguous and con- fused. The inquirer must understand to put nature in such a condition that by rationally conducted examination no other but just, definite, and plain answers could be possible: he must combine experiment with observation.” Like a seed dropped on congenial and well-prepared soil, Bacon’s advice brought a eratifying harvest, and ever since experiment and observation go hand in hand by every scientific investigation.
The students of olden times often had to console themselves with the poor consolation:
Geheimnissvoll am lichten Tag ad
Last sich Natur des Schleiers nicht berauben,
Und was sie deinem Geist nicht offenbaren mag
Das zwingst du ihr nicht ab mit Hebeln nud mit Schrauben. ; —Goethe (Faust).
Mysterious, even in the open day
Nature retains her veil, despite our clamors.
That which she doth not willingly display
Cannot be wrenched from her with levers, screws, and hammers. —Faust.
The modern investigators have refuted this maxim; with the levers and the screws of their physical and chemical ap- paratus, the telescope, microscope, and spectroscope, they forced Nature to surrender her recondite secrets, one by one. which spontaneously she never would have revealed.
The new experimentative method came to be applied in the course of the seventeenth century for the investigation of
the actions of inanimate nature, and for the laws of atmos- pheric and hydrostatic pressure, gravity, and light, and for the purpose of submitting them to mathematical calculations.
Parosopuy or Borany. 225
Toward the end of the century the same method was also re- sorted to for the investigation of animal life, and the discovery of the circulation of the blood was the first important result. In the eighteenth century, lastly, plants also undergo the trial of experiment, and the Englishman, Hales, was the first one to consider the vital action of plants as the result of the action of physical forces, and to determine them with weights and meas- ure. He compares the force which propels the sap of the bleeding grapevine upward in the spring, to a column of mer- cury of a definite height, or with the pressure of the crural artery of the horse. He weighs the quantity of water which a pear tree or a sunflower absorbs from the soil in twenty-tour hours; he sets forth in the year 1727 a static of vegetation which resolves the whole of vegetable life into a physical problem.
The Frenchman, Duhamel, published in 1758 a physical treatise on trees, wherein he investigates the laws by which the sap circulates in the wood and bark; and in the same year appeared a book on the functions of the leaves, by Bonnet, of Geneva, wherein he attempts to define the cause of the move- ment of leaves toward the light, and their transpiration.
In this way enters the physiology of plants, based upon physical science, into the rank of the exact sciences.
As soon as, toward the end of the eighteenth century, Chemistry awakes out of the obscure hallucinations of al- chemistic dreams, we find her at once engaged in the service of botany. The Belgian, Ingenhauss, and the Englishman, Priestley, discovered the wonderful interaction between sun- light and terrestric atmosphere, vegetable and animal life, demonstrating how the carbonic oxide, exhaled by animals, is inhaled by the plants, and inversely, that the oxygen which the plants emit under the iniluence of light is indispensable for the life of animals. Toward the end of the century Theo- dore Saussure, of Geneva, shows how, by the nutrition of plants, the moving force is supplied by the light and heat of the sun, carbonic oxide by the air, and water and ammonia by the soil; further, that the ashes of the plant are not accidental impurities, but indispensable elements, which the plants take up from the soil with their roots, and thereby lies the founda-
8
226 Puitosopuy or Borany.
tion of our knowledge of the chemical nutrition of plants, which Justus Liebig has recently elaborated and made the basis of rational agriculture. |
To the edifice of scientific botany, as far as we have followed it, contributed successfully all nations of Europe—lItalians, Englishmen, Netherlanders, Swedes, and Frenchmen; the latter, since the time of Louis XIV., conspicuously so through works of great originality and importance. Germany, though, had to some degree since the reformation ceased to take part in the progressive development; not for deficiency of opera- tors, but for want of individual creative ideas, they ranked second and third, treading in the footsteps of their foreign neighbors.
Last, during the reign of Frederick the Great, a turning point is reached. The national spirit announces itself in a vigorous onward push in novel paths. In science the flood begins to swell; higher and higher rises the wave of youthful vigor, and like in a seasonable spring, all trees, one after the other, become bedecked with flowers, thus likewise Germany experiences a rapid development in all sciences, in literature, music, and philosophy.
About the time of the seven-years’ war, Casper Fredéric Wolff originated biology, or the science of life, by his micro- scopic researches, examining the development of animals from the egg, and of leaves and flowers in the bud. Koehl- reuter, Hedwig, and Conrad Sprengel disclosed, by clever ex- periments and observations, the secret of the fertilization of plants. In the nineteenth century scientific botany flourishes in Germany as it never did before, and it is especially by the agency of German students that botany now stands on an equal footing with the other sciences which formerly ex- celled it.
Should the new departure in modern botany be brought in connection with the name of any single man, no better one can be chosen than Goethe. He does not rank with scientists professionally considered, but nevertheless he was well versed in those disciplines. Although an accurate observer, reflec- tion overreached observation and poetry the thought, until from the lovely flower of poetry matured the natural philoso-
Puitosopuy or Borany. 227
phy. The reformatory idea which Goethe conceived in the view of living nature, is the idea of evolution. When in fact C. F. Wolff did prepare the way for the study of development, by the method of microscopic examinations, so likewise Goethe did initiate morphology, the exposition of the forms of plants and animals. Goethe sees the essence of life not in the perfected form, no matter how complicated the structure, nor in the mechanical efforts or fruition, which ever anew re- curring, represent the play of life. He conceives every or- ganism to be a process of development, beginning with the moment of the birth, and passing through a series of condi- tions to its final termination. The universe and the individ- ual obey the same law, as Goethe gives it:
Es muss such regen, schaffend handeln, Nur sheinbar stehts Momente still; Das Ewige regt sich fort in Allem, Denn Alles muss in Nichts zerfallen, Wenn es im Sein beharren will.
Even systematic botany has profited from morphological comparisons, which permitted it to draw its ideas from pro- founder sources, and to adduce a rational interpretation of the genesis of the organs to the mere description of external forms.
Since Alexander Von Humboldt, animated by the charm and grandeur of the impressions which he had received on his journeys, had raised the geography of plants to the dignity of a science, it has become clear that there exists an intimate con- nection of species, genera, and families of plants, with the conformation of the surface of the planet, and the conditions of soil and climate.
Let it begin to stir, give birth,
Take shape first, then convert. Seemingly for moments stands it still; Eternal motion is eternal’s zeal.
Be sure it will dissolve to naught
If to stand still it be brought.
More fruit bearing than any are the ideas connected with the evolutionary doctrines of Darwin, which explain how the in-
bo bo (@ 9)
Puitosorny or Borany.
numerable forms of plants ought to be considered as one un- interrupted series of development, which begins with the first dawn of life, and remodels form and structure of plants in ever- increasing perfection, and not as accidental and isolated in- dividuals.
Unger, and others have even conclusively proven that the history of their ancestors, which lie buried in the rocks of past epochs, has to be considered, if the present distribution of plants would be comprehended. .
Goethe had followed up the development of the plants to the germ, but the starting point at which his examinations begin, the radicle descends into the soil and presents its cotyledons the moment when the germ breaks through its envelopes and to the light, this is not the real beginning of vegetable de- velopment. The question remains: How comes the germ into existence?
The unaided eye does not suffice, nor the simple magnify- ing glass, which alone was at the disposal of the botanists of the Linnzean time. The compound microscope had to come to the aid of the botanist.
The invention of the microscope gave the same impulse to the study of objects of the smallest dimensions, as ‘did the telescope for the view of the infinite expanse of the firmament. Without knowledge of each other, and fully independent, two scientists, Marcello Malphighi, of Bologne, and Nehemias Grew, of London, put before themselves the task to examine microscopically the internal structure of plants. On Decem- ber 29, 1671, happened the memorable incident that both these men presented simultaneously to the Royal Society of Arts in London the results of their researches. This day, therefore, must be called the birthday of microscopical anatomy of plants.
From this date we know that plants are not made up of flesh and blood, nerves and veins, as Theophrastus had fancied, but throughout from small, vesicle-like particles, which, on account of their resemblance to cells of the honey- comb, received the name “ Vegetable Cell.’ The importance of this discovery failed at this time to be duly appreciated and utilized, and had a century afterwards nearly fallen into oblivion.
Puitosopuy oF Botany. 229
Again, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, a new impulse takes hold in this direction, and the microscope was now applied with more painstaking and circumspection. The instrument, too, had been, about 1830, greatly improved and made available for the solution of problems of structure and growth.
The origin of the germ or embryo was the first object of in- quiry which found its solution in the discovery that every plant, be it palm or oak, or a humble grass, is originally a simple microscopical cell, which comes into existence in the interior of the germ, through the agency of a generative act. That was a highly important discovery, for the origin of a new living being must be considered a new creation. Now it was apparent that the secret of that creation consists in the forma- tion of acell. After this followed the second problem: How develops out of this first cell the complicated plant, with the manifold organs, each again composed of innumerable cells? The microscope again served to illustrate the process: the contact of the fertilizing pollen causes this cell to form a par- tition through its middle, dividing it into two chambers. Each chamber represents an independent cell, and each of these soon subdivides itself again, and by this same process, continually repeated, comes about the many-chambered and many-celled structures, which we call the plant.
Analogous to the rearing of a house in accordance with the design which prescribes the position of the stones and walls, follows the process of cell after cell in obedience to an innate plan which differs in every species, and descends by inher- itance from generation to generation.
The larger flowering plants were naturally the first objects submitted to these investigations, but it was soon found out that the less conspicuous and simpler plants, commonly com- prised under the name “ Cryptogames ’—i. e., mosses, sea- weeds, lichens, and fungi—afford a far richer field to the ob- server. The simpler the plant, the more incomplete its organs ; the less is also the number of cells composing it, and the better the chance to survey the structure and development. Many surprising processes accompany the growth of the lowest. Here only we meet with those curious germ cells, which, like
230 Purtosopuy or Botany.
infusories, swarm about in the water with rapid motions. Here we find invisible corpuscles, or threads endowed with distinct sexual properties, and an incredible variety of propa- gation, and such astonishing metamorphoses, as to make the same individual at different periods of his life appear totally different.
It is hardly possible for those who are not connected with such investigations to conceive the charm by which an in- conspicuous little plant fastens the observer for hours, days, nay, even weeks, to the microscope, until he succeeds to close up a break in the process of development. No wonder that since half a century nearly all eminent botanists have been en- gaged in the study of the evolution of plants, and that the most important discoveries in plant physiology have been made, especially by German botanists, who conducted the most thoroughgoing microscopical investigations. Not the less in esteem are held abroad contributions from German biological laboratories, and it is very pleasurable to recount the foremost workers whose works are amongst the greatest creations of German science.
Foremost Schleiden initiated the profounder research by his analysis of the origin of cells in general, and of the germs in particular, in the year 1838. He was followed by Hugo Mohl, of Tiibingen; Alexander Braun, of Berlin; Wilhelm Hoffmeister, of Heidelberg; Hanstein, of Bonn; De Bary in Strassburg, and Sachs in Wiirzburg, all of them now defunct. Among the living are Negeli in Munich, and Pringsheim in Berlin. Under the direction of these eminent men have, within the last forty years, nearly all German universi- ties established public botanical laboratories and physiolog- ical institutes, whereby a school of younger scientists was brought up, who elaborated thus continuously and success- fully, that there is presently hardly any one important plant on which not the chain of development had link for link been joined together to a closed ring.
Furthermore had, during the same time, with equal and un- abated zeal, the investigation of:the development of the ani- mal world been carried on, and we are now in a manner en- abled to trace the evolution of the whole animated world, from
Purtosopuy or Botany. 231
the simple plant upward, to the highest being, man himself, and to fathom the great plan of life by comparison of rela- tions and differentiations.
But the services which the microscope had rendered to scientific botany are not ended in detailing the development of plants; for the cells, whose form and growth the micro- scope had revealed, are not merely the building stones by whose superposition the body of the plant had been built up; each cell is also an individual living being. Yes, it is the main living principle in the plant. As far as the tree takes up its nutriment it is the cells of its roots which are saturated with the water, which, concealed, circulates in the soil; while the tops and branches exhale oxygen at the exposure of the sun- light, for it is the green cells of the leaves which absorb car- bonic acid out of the atmosphere and through the stimulus of light waves convert it into chlorophyll, starch, and other substances, and again emit the oxygen into the air.
Pending their growth, it is the cells which, stretching and swelling in consequence of the absorption of nutritive fluid, give rise to their multiplication in definite directions for the formation of new organs.
Should disease attack the plant, the cause lies in the cells, which were disturbed in their normal functions; and if ulti- mately the plant dies, the extinction of life starts from the cells.
After all the improvements of the methods with which the experimentative physiology had been advanced, and the rela- tion of plant life to light, heat, gravitation, electricity, and chemical affinities had been so much clearer defined, as it was possible to do a hundred years ago, there never was left out of sight the importance of referring it to the life of the cell.
Moreover, it has been Sehwann who, in the year 1838, clear- ly demonstrated that also the course of evolution of every an- imal, and even of man, begins with a simple cell; that all or- gans of animals are composed of cells, and proceeding from the division of the first cell. Further, that the animal cell is of the same structure with the vegetable cell; there is but one cell and one life.
The same way that the mathematician uses to find the value of an unknown quantity by the way of a simple equation, on
232 Puitosopuy or Borany.
the same method investigates the scientist the occult laws of life by comparison of the simplest functions of the cells. Thus succeeded the genial Virchow to construct a system of pathol- egy upon the presence of diseased cells.
A very great interest attaches to the recent investigations about fungi. Problems of surpassing importance, the solu- tion of which the whole civilized world is eagerly awaiting, are thereby involved. Rust, blight, and mildews have from time immemorial ruined the crops. During the last quarter of a century nearly all cultivated plants have been visited by epidemics, which commenced locally, here and there, and were unheeded, and then spread themselves at once over whole countries, leaving failure of crops and famine in their train. A terrible plague has been the potato disease since 1845, and the diseases of the grapevines since 1848. Even the insects, from the common fly to the silkworm and the forest-devouring caterpillars, are infected by plagues. The pebrine, or silk- worm disease, worked great injury to the silk industry and threatened thereby to seriously affect the wealth of a nation.
We now know that all these epidemics are caused by micro- scopic fungi, and spread by the dispersion of their spores, which communicate from plant to plant, and from insect to in- sect, the germ of a fatal disease.
After these facts had been satisfactorily established the question necessarily came up, whether or not these insidious plagues which, traveling from land to land, to remain here and there for a while, and then to disappear, to return again probably after a short interval, such as cholera, typhus, small- pox, scarlatina, and epidemic diseases of domestic animals, were also brought about by the presence of microscopic fungi?
Up to this day we have actually learned that such is the case in diphtheria, scarlatina, Oriental plague, cholera, intermit- tent and relapsing fever, yellow fever, and tuberculosis, and in hospital gangrene, smallpox, septicemia, and even some other non-epidemic diseases.
Knowing now the nature of the invisible enemy, we may hope to devise means to keep off the enemy, or to avert its ravages. —
In former times there had been an intimate connection be-
Puitosorny or Borany. 233
tween botany and the healing art. The former was expected to provide the most potent drugs, and received in return en- couragement of its scientific endeavors. This kind of rela- tionship is presently very unimportant since most of the me- dicinal plants have been eliminated from the materia medica, or are merely obscurely known as domestic remedies.
Investigation of the disease creating fungi makes up the tie, hereafter setting up new problems for both sciences which cannot be solved advantageously to the benefit of mankind except with mutual aid and codperation. Modern agricul- ture and forestry are likewise intimately connected with botany. The former seeks to understand the conditions in which plants have to be placed in order to produce the largest returns; the other depends on information of a sanatory na- ture, or questions concerning the health of forest trees, and the means of averting noxious influences which threaten them with disease and premature decay.
In this way it has come about that botany is no longer con- fined within the narrow limits of its former territory. Ap- plied to the highest problems of the natural sciences, it is an important element of national culture. We have received and still further expect from it explanations relative to the profound questions concerning life: What is life? What is death? Is there a specific vital power which ever remains the same, immutably indestructible, although the individual may perish? Is life possibly merely a phenomenon of the motion of matter ,and equivalent of other forces—light, heat, gravity, chemical affinity—and, under the law of correlation of energy, transmutable into other modes of motion, and pro- ceeding from them? By which process and in what manner has life taken its origin upon earth? How did it receive shape and expression in the innumerable forms of animals and plants? How did the long intervals of the different geological periods affect it? Finally, are the highest expressions and functions of life—consciousness, sensation, volition, imagina- tion, reflection—operations of a separate cause, or only mod- ifications of life itself, phenomena traceable down to their obscure beginnings, nay, even to the cells of the plants?
Space does not allow to dilate on this subject, but I may
234 Puiosorny or Borany.
mention in the line of physiological researches the discoveries of Bohumel Nomec and G. Haberlandt in respect to geotro- pism—that is, the faculty of directing the growth of the roots in the direction of the earth’s axis.
This phenomenon had always been accepted as a simple fact of nature, without any inquiry into the directing cause of this movement.
Physiologists had some time ago established the nature of the function of the delicate hairs and the otoliths in the semi- circular canals and ampulle of the vertebrates, including man, to be organs of equilibration and localization; they had also found that the so-called auditory cells on the extremities of insects and of crustacea, which are of a similar structure, sub- serve the same purpose. It is the act of pressure by gravity of these otoliths, now called statoliths, upon those fine hairs, which excites the living protoplasm in these cells to effect functions, resulting in motions by which animals become sensitive of disturbances in their normal position in relation to normal or desired direction of their bodies, in relation to gravity, and try to correct them. By a chain of observations have the above observers determined that an analogous appa- ratus also subserves the geotropical and heliotropical move- ments of plants.
Specialized amylaceous granules in the tips of the roots, suspended in the protoplasm, and obeying the call of gravity, secure the centripetal movement. Likewise is it a statolithic pressure in the internodes of the grassculum, which causes a swelling on one side of such a blade, and thereby a flexion or erection of the culm, when, for instance, the culm of wheat or stalk of corn had been prostrated by wind or rain.
Thus we have a very interesting elucidation of correlation of physical phenomena between plant and animal in the or- ganic world.
It has been my intention to give a short review of the prob- lems toward which botanists have been aiming, and at which they have, notwithstanding the changing demands of suc- cessive periods, sedulously working, closer and closer ap- proached, ever since the time when twenty-two centuries ago
Puitosopuy or Botany. 235
the genius of Aristotle and Theophrastus assigned to botany a special place in the domain of philosophy.
Last, but not least, it behooves us to devote a few lines to our own immediate interests. On our side of the Atlantic the science of botany developed on the same line of evolution as we observed it on the old continent. All energy was, as a matter of necessity, even in colonial times, directed to the dif- ferentiation and collection of species. Learned emigrants and scientific explorers from France, England, and Germany issued at home the first notices about American plants. Na- tive-born citizens, otherwise employed in various vocations, as clergymen or physicians, soon followed, devoting their leisure time to collecting and describing the rich harvests gathered in their unexplored fields. These men were all either self-taught or had visited universities in Europe. Bo- tanical training in public schools or colleges has been taken up only recently, and even within the memory of botanists yet living the courses in this science were limited, and broader inquiry considered not long ago as an object merely of recre- ation and relaxation. I know of reputable educational insti- tutions of to-day which consider the instruction in natural sciences as a matter of polite accomplishment only, or fear a conflict with their religious sentiments. Fortunately for the progress of science men who, in the great strides of commerce and manufactures, have acquired great wealth, have seen that all the advances in their great enterprises have grown out of a succession of obscure discoveries, made by the devotees to pure science, which the discoverer himself estimated only as one step in unraveling the great mysteries of nature. Sooner or later the great business men adopted and applied their discoveries for the benefit of all men in the shrewd art of money-making. To these men, successful in business, we owe it to-day that institutions have been endowed for the propagation of knowledge, and, supplied with ample means, that some men are able to devote their entire time under most favorable conditions to scientific research.
All the greater universities in this country are now equipped with botanical or biological laboratories, in which much in- dependent research is carried on and published in botanical
236 Puiiosopuy or Borany.
or scientific journals. Botanical gardens, arboreta, and green- houses are annexed to several, to serve the purposes of the demonstrator or investigator.
St. Louis may be justly proud of its magnificent Shaw Botanical Institute, which, under the direction of a distin- guished botanist, is destined to be a model school for scientific botanists, agriculturists, and horticulturists.
In our own State the Agricultural Experiment Station has, since several years, done excellent work, and issued valuable instructive publications for the farmers of the State. This in- stitute ought to be enlarged so that it could also embrace for- estry, and should have two auxiliary experimental stations, one in Middle Tennessee and one in West Tennessee, added to the field of its activity.
Bacteriology, formerly a branch of botany, but now enrolled with biology on account of its far-reaching efficiency, has lately found a representative in connection with the Vander- bilt Medical College, and through the munificence of Mr. George Vanderbilt, and under the care of an eminent bac- teriologist, who for several years had attended the bacteriolog- ical laboratories of France and Germany. It offers ample op- portunities to the student who enjoys the use of an equipment which is provided with all modern appliances.
Tam confident that the time is not far off when we will have institutions endowed with the fullest outfits in libraries, in- struments, greenhouses, and botanical gardens, for original work conducted by the heads of the departments, or by stu- dents under their direction. The newly acquired colonies offer the most inviting locations in the tropics for biological stations.
I undertook the wearisome and painful task to delineate in outlines the period from the downfall of the Alexandrian school to the revival of letters in Italy; to remind the read- er to what fearful depravity mankind will sink when, for sake of hegemony in religion or politics, for hierarchy or imperial- ism, the light of reason is put out and intellectual darkness is spread over the land to shield the despoilers from responsi- bility; no longer by fire and sword, yet by supple and con-
Puitosoruy or Botany. 237
cealed ways is presently waged the assault against freedom of conscience and diffusion of knowledge.
That the important results which followed the recent in- vestigations, that discoveries which so irresistibly fascinate botanical students, that such intellectual commotions excite but little attention in wider circles of society, for that we need not accuse the specific or abstruse character of the problem, but rather hold the deplorable inadvertency of our educational system responsible for it.
Continually treading in the steps of antiquated methods, the schools neglect to stimulate and encourage a love of nature and its works, and withhold the necessary elementary in- structions, without the aid of which a lively interest and intel- ligent comprehension of scientific questions is not possible.
Conditions and wants of society are changing, and methods and maxims which formerly suited the political state have lost their meaning. Modern thought leads to the conviction that the interactions of conditions upon which depends the status of society are governed by physical laws, definite and unalterable, like those which control the development of plants. How governments should direct those movements is not a matter of sentiment and feeling, but a purely scientific question,
In the present educational system memory gets loaded with a heavy charge of book learning, consisting of disconnected doctrines, all of them necessary for the practical wants of our times—the ideal demand of general culture. The want of correlation between this heterogeneity, now divested of intel- ligent means to bridge over the mental chasm, is a funda- mental deficiency of our higher education.
A philosophical method of thinking, the essential of which is the endeavor to comprehend the interrelations of actions and phenomena in the physical and ethical world, through which the individual feels himself inseparably allied in harmonious concert with Infinity, is needed. The reverse tendency, which now pregnantly characterizes society, is a declared particular- ism, a premature application to specialty vocations, controlling a narrow intellectual horizon. Hence originate the fluctua- tions of opinions, and the diverse monomanias in religious,
=
238 Puinosopuy or Borany.
social, and other spheres; hence the thriving of spiritualism, Christian society, single tax folly, silver swindle, and other fads. Would this deportment be restricted to the class of the half educated, then the danger would not be so threatening as it really is, when we see that college graduates, educational leaders, and university professors are likewise destitute of the necessary philosophical training.
May, therefore, instruction in the natural sciences become more general and thorough; may the spread of scientific cul- ture strengthen the scientific spirit and make it a world-con- quering power!
Unbiased by authority, loving the truth for its own sake, may it secure the happiness of the Commonwealth!
FORESTRY.
Tho’ floods, with time, some roots have bared, Blasts the limbs have bent and gnarred,
The bark by birds is pecked and scarred, Green stayed the crown and unimpaired; Sweet songsters’ quiet nesting berth,
It shelters now the timid herd.
a 5 5
mS { *,
Pear
. ey pe ee a Se ay ' A few tu xe m4 rah a ee) AS ee oi Ae !
The Forest.
Of the many obstacles the human race has had to contend with to maintain its existence, increase in number of individ- uals and ultimately gain mastery, not the least one was the woods, where they in overwhelming expanse spread over con- tinental regions. They offered more adequate shelter, and more copious and better adapted food to the mightier animals than to him, hemmed in his steps, and prevented his gathering into larger groups. This circumstance governed for long periods the fate of our ancestors in the northern latitudes of the Eastern Continent. After the retreat of the Glacial period we find him following the shore lines from the Baltic to the Biscayan Gulf as a shell and fish devouring savage, or cave- inhabiting troglodyte.
In the highlands of Central Asia he first multiplied in such numbers that he commenced to direct his migrations west- ward into the deep forests, upon paths which, perhaps, the woolly rhinoceros and herds of woolly elephants had broken and tramped out for him. The extension southward found a barrier in the ice-glittering ranges of the Himalayas and Hindu Kooh. At this time, when thousands of years before eur era this first westward movement began into the Sar- matian plains, into the regions of the Danube and Wolga, em- pires had commenced to form in the deltas of the Nile, Eu- phrates, and Tigris, and all around the great Mediterranean Gulf. With a benign and generous smile nature invited him to groves where ihe date palm bore weighty clusters of its lus- cious fruit, offering a delicious meal; fruit-laden carob trees, with spreading limb, gave nutritious food for him and his herds; groves of olives, chestnuts, and walnuts alternated in the scenery in the wide territory from the banks of the Ganges to the shores of Lusitania, where the rosemary mingles with the noble grape and the granate apple; Ceres had thought to strew the nutritious barley on the overflowed waters of the Nile and Euphrates, and the rich harvests were
242 Provosopny or Borany.
easily and safely garnered; plenty spreading all around, even the animal world came to the aid of their nobler brother; the proud Apis had bent his nervy neck under the yoke, sheep flocked around him, and camel and elephant lifted him on their backs.
Thus did the Southland empires flourish and decay, while the Northland barbarian made little headway in clearing openings, and prepared with the meanest tools the virgin soil for the production of a little oat and rye and flax, until the Scandinavian had discovered the art of making iron from the rich and easily reducible ores buried in his mountains. Swinging the iron ax, no tree could stand before him; the hammer opened the treasure vaults of the mountains, the plowshare laid out broader fields, and with the sword in his fist he overwhelmed the Roman intruders in the Herzynian forest.
With the spread of civilization the demand for wood grew from year to year, and after the lapse of centuries fields and meadows overreached in expanse the woods, for whose pres- ervation little thought was given. They were no longer com- mon property, but were divided out amongst communities, or held as private property by princes and noblemen. They were principally valued as resorts and retreats of all kinds of game, the chase being the principal sport and amusement of the nobility.
The continued despoliation of the woods wrought at last in the mountainous as well as seashore regions of Central Europe severe injury by denudation of the mountain slopes, and con- sequent inundations, such that enlightened individuals, and the governments themselves, realized the necessity of pro- tective legislation enactments against unlimited felling of Erees.
Restorative efforts on scientific plans, with a view of per- manence in supervision have been carried on in France, Ger- many ,and Italy at enormous expense and with great success for more than one hundred vears.
History is now repeating its lessons in the vast realm of the Union, where, by the unparalleled development of the country, the demand for timber has grown out of all propor-
Puitosopuy or Botany. 2438
tion for a continued supply under the unchecked inroads of the lumber trade, and the unparalleled facilities for internal trans- portation by navigation. ‘The importance of the forestry in- terests have induced me to devote some pages to this depart- ment of our national economy, and to notice the emotional and esthetic impressions upon the human mind evoked by the forest in the aspect of nature.
It is interesting to observe the difference in the sentiment and association of thought as it ever existed between the southern and northern inhabitants of the old continent.
The aspect of, or sojourn in, the woods filled the Greek as well as the Roman with fear and dismay; he avoided them as habitations of robbers and wiid beasts. From Homer to Tacitus poets and historians paint it in the darkest colors, as the dark abode of demons and monsters, filled with entangling thorns. “Subit aspera silva lappzegue tribulique ”—* Here is the dismal wood with thistles and tangles uncouth.” (Virgil.)
The German mythical folklore spins the finest threads of its poetical mood under the deep shadows of beech and oak.
Over the Rhine into the tanwood, where fir and pine thickly crowd, storms the baneful chase of King Gunther; on the spring underneath the linden sinks the dying Siegfried into a bed of flowers, pierced by the spear of Hagen; Genofeva hides from the ire of her husband in the depth of the forest; Hildebrand and Hugobrand, the greatest swordsmen of their day, cross their swords in furious combat, until Hildebrand recognizes from the weight of his strokes that his combatant must be his son; here gathers Cinderella blueberries, and fra- grant woodruit for spicy May wine, and loiters the bard, spin- ning the yarn for his songs with which he cheers the daunt- less hearts of the champions when the mead-filled horn makes. the rounds.
The poetically inspired naturalist covets a response from his dear favorites, Flora’s children, to his own love of them, and is sore at heart and loath to believe that the graces of their forms, splendor of coloring, and the sweet breath of their ex- halations should delight and benefit creatures only far remote : in the scale of life from themselves, without any gratification to their own selves; that they should be without any partici-
244 Puinosopuy oF Borany.
pation in the endearment with which they fill the human hearts. It appears contrary to the demands of human reason- ing that so much individuality should exist without some kind of consciousness or subjective individuality.
Especially in their higher and enduring arborescent forms plants are typical of the attainment of the ideal endeavors of man, to accomplish in the historical evolution of the race that well-balanced social state in which the single citizen, in ac- cordance with his abilities, may contribute to the general wel- fare, and partake of the emoluments equally accessible to all. Within their bodies the component cells and structures may change, be altered, die, and be regenerated, the whole remain- ing a personal perpetuity lasting for ages. This is beautifully expressed in the Xenia of Goethe, when he says:
Such du das Schoenste, das Hoechste ? Die Pflanze kann es dich lehren!
Was sie willenlos ist, sei Du es willend, Das ists.
Do you ask what in beauty and goodness Ranks high beyond measure ?
Be taught by the plant; what she does without choice You do it freely with pleasure.
The Introduction of a National Forestry Policy in the United States.
It is about twenty years since for the first time in an official way the attention of the Federal Government had been called to the importance of providing means of protection for the forests within the national domain, against excessive and improvident despoliation.
It was ex-Senator Carl Schurz who discussed, as Secretary of the Interior, the necessary evil consequences of the present practice of forest devastation, and the responsibility of the present generation in permitting and perpetuating practices of public policy which would soon lead to irreparable injuries to the future welfare of this great republic.
Mr. Schurz’s world-wide experience was in this instance based upon his personal observations of the forestry manage- ment in Germany and France, and the disastrous consequences that in the latter country had followed the reckless treatment of the forests in the last century, and which ultimately, by stringent legislation, and at enormous expenditures, had to be brought to an end, and restoration secured by a well-devised forestry administration.
The remarks of Mr. Schurz were, for a time, treated with some merriment; and even Mr. Blaine, as wise a man as he was, would join in the ridicule, and call Mr. Schurz a German idealist—to which, however, the latter did not let Mr. Blaine wait a long while before giving him a sharp rejoinder.
There was then scarcely a man amongst the native citizens who was not fully persuaded that the wealth of our woods was imperishable, and that the benignant hand of nature would fully replenish the deficiency without calling upon the aid of man for minding and nursing.
It was only within a few German circles, scientists, and practical foresters, who had seen in their old homes forestry management, or even functioned as forestry officials, where
246 Puttosopny or Borany.
the immensity of the threatened danger was fully appreciated, and who knew that the coming generations would sorely suf- fer for the faults of the fathers.
The census reports had meantime given indisputable facts relative to the great losses within the forest region of the ever- recurring conflagrations and the actual amount of lumber culled in successive years.
A generally better comprehension of the period of time which nature requires, even under the most favorable condi- tions, to effect a restoration, and the understanding of the obvious disturbances in such a process in territories unguarded by effective protection against any kind of abuse, soon cre- ated a reaction in public opinion. An agitation which had been started in behalf of an establishment of forest reserva- tions, with national grants, and through provisions enacted by State legislation, soon grew in public favor, and the crea- tion of a National Forestry Association was the first impor- tant result of this movement.
The National Forestry Association is mainly composed of the membership of the different State Forestry Associations, and holds annual migratory meetings. Nearly every State in the Union now has such a forest association.
This work was started and guided along through the un- ceasing labors and invincible energy of two citizens. The one, Professor B. E. Fernow, the former Chief of the Forestry Division of the Agricultural Department in Washington, is a native of the Prussian Province of Pommern, a graduate of the Forestry Academy of Munden, who, after having served as a volunteer in the Franco-Prussian War, entered the forestry service (as an aspirant to the higher forestry service). He resigned this position to emigrate to this country. Soon after- wards he was married to an American lady, a woman of great talents and high culture, who, with the fullest apprehension of the worthiness of his intentions, was a devoted and skillful aid to the advancement of his well-conceived plans. Undis- taurbed by the change of the different administrations has he. until recently, presided over the Forestry Division of the Agri- cultural Department; but recently (in 1899) he accepted the
Puinosopuy or Botany. 247
charge of Director of the Forestry College of Cornell Univer- versity, Ithaca, N. Y.
The other gentleman is G. Pinchot, a private citizen, a de- scendant of an old, distinguished New England family. In his travels through Germany he had made the observation of the agricultural and economic condition of the latter country an object of close and extensive study. The still preserved productiveness of its soils, and the marvelous preservation of its forests impressed him so profoundly that he concluded, after his return, to bring to public benefit the conclusions which he had drawn from his observations. Assisted by his friends, he succeeded in the foundation of several forestry associations in the New England States, and holds now the position of Consulting Forester to the National Forestry Asso- ciation, with offices in New York and Boston. He speaks German very fluently, and most cordially receives any visitor who wishes to call on him to either receive or impart infor- mation.
These societies initiated their movements with petitions to Congress, as well as to the State Legislatures, for the enact- ment of laws for the protection and preservation of the forests in general, and the national domain in particular.
It had also been noticed that the frequent conflagrations had not only reduced the extent of the timbered area, but also fear- fully depleted every kind of game. Thus repeats itself in the new continent the ancient experience of the necessary and nat- ural correlation of the existence of the game with thie protec- tion of the forests. Numerous associations of sportsmen and hunters joined in with petitions for protective hunting laws and restriction of the chase within limited periods. Individ- uals convicted of willfully setting fire to the woods were made liable to severe punishments.
This was all very good theoretically, but practically the laws were dead letters only, there being no provisions made for their execution by persons specially appointed and in- trusted with the execution of the same. There was but little sympathy as yet among the masses for absence of comprehen- sion of the subject. In various States, foremost in Wisconsin. where the numerous German population had considerable po-
248 Puinosopuy or Borany.
litical influence, likewise in Minnesota and Michigan, forest guards were appointed to look after forest fires; while in Maine, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New York the pro- tection of the game was principally thought of. Both these functions do necessarily coincide to effect that kind of serv- ice which in Germany is comprehended under game and for- est keeping.
It is interesting to notice how the same events which in all European countries led to the introduction of a regulated for- est administration give also here again the impulse for the like provisions. There, like here, wood was cut for the local needs in building and firewood, without any reflection or care for the welfare of posterity, and would perhaps permanently have sufficed with the natural aftergrowth for all the time to come; but with the increase of the industries, mining, and shipbuilding the deficit in heavy timbers made itself felt, and preventative measures against excessive depletion had to be instituted.
Thus it came that toward the end of the Middle Ages, first Venice, the “ Queen of the Seas,” enacted laws in which she reserved certain forests exclusively for use in her shipyards, and also laid restrictions for the cutting of timbers in private estates, and placed the management of all under a regularly officered administration. Holland, Belgium, France, and En- gland took similar measures.
Relations of a different character ruled in Germany, where the passion for the chase indulged in by princes and nobility drew their attention to the preservation of the forest.
The right of hunting big or small game was a royal preroga- tive or privilege of the landed nobility. Their numerous reti- nue of huntsmen constantly on the lookout for poachers, ex- pert in all things in connection with’woods and their inhab- itants, formed a sort of clannish organization, and formed an excellent contingent for the gradually developing intelligent supervision of forests, and by and by became converted into a professionally and scientifically educated corps of public service with military organization. Care for the protection of eame is in Germany inseparably connected with the economic management. Ina similar manner must we also begin to start
Puinosopuy or Botany. 249
a crew of foresters until regular schools of forestry will have been established.
After the first steps had been made with the appointment of wardens and gamekeepers in various States, it was necessary, in order to secure rational proceedings, to procure ample sta- tistical data, to give exact information about the extent, situa- tion, and condition of the still unoccupied and timber-clad pub- lic domain. This work had been carried on by the forestry division with great success, and the annual reports of its chief kept Congress so well informed and interested that on March 3, 1891, the President was empowered to issue a proclama- tion that such suitable parts of the public lands as had not yet become private property should be reserved as forest res- ervations. In addition to the Yellowstone National Park, which is indeed but a great forest and game reservation, there were next such reservations selected as are interesting in historic, scientific, or economic respects. Thus the Yosemite Reservation in California, where are the last remainders of the once extensive stands of the giant sequoia, should be preserved and rescued from total extermination.
It was furthermore considered as a matter of great impor- tance to preserve extensive bodies of wooded territories at the head waters of the great streams, to maintain the water supply, and regulate it to prevent excessive inundation.
In this way had taken place the foundation of a great many reservations in the West and Northwest, when, in the begin- ning of the year 1897, President Cleveland issued another proc- lamation which secured at once seventeen more reservations, with a total area of more than 21,000,000 acres. This famous act of prudent statesmanship was prompted through a report of the National Academy of Science, made on request of the Secretary of the Interior, Hoke Smith. This committee was composed of the most distinguished scientists and experts of this country, and they had for their investigations a fund of $100,000 at their disposition. Divided into several divisions, they explored carefully the limits, nature, and conditions of such regions as they thought best suitable for permanent res- ervations. The commission in the final report also earnestly recommended to introduce and establish a regular forestry
250 Putmosoriry or Borany.
administration, after the methods of the European, especially the German, forestry.
Here it was for the first time that recognition was given to the necessity of regular forestry administration, having in view not only the preservation, but-also the exploitation, man- agement, and rejuvenating of the forests, after the example of the German forestry system, through educated professional forest officers.
One would think that the readiness with which the energetic President Cleveland responded to the proposition of the com- mission would have been received with the greatest satisfac- tion and immediate acceptance in the halls of Congress. On the contrary, it raised a storm of indignation amongst Repre- sentatives as well as in the Senate. Especially the latter suf- fered itself to be influenced by those great combines which drew enormous revenues from the despoliation of the woods, selling the lands afterwards again to actual settlers. Gov- ernment supervision would have put an end to their specula- tions. A bill passed the House setting aside the proclamation. It was returned with the President’s veto. The matter was laid over until March 1, 1898, and a resolution passed that the new reservations should be again surveyed, and remain as such, provided that not before the expiration of said time they should have been otherwise disposed of. It is evident that no change will occur from Mr. Cleveland’s policy.
An actual beginning of a national forest administration has furthermore taken place through the issue of regulations of the General Land Commissioner in Washington, who is 1n- trusted with the supervision of the forest reservations con- cerning the sale at public auction of all timbers allowed to be cut on the public lands. The felling and transporting of the logs is also governed by specific regulations.
The first methodic and scientifc:forest administration is, since a few years, engaged in active work upon the extensive possessions of Mr. George Vanderbilt in Biltmore, N.C. The forest administration is under the direction of Dr. C. A. Schenck, a graduate of the University of Giessen, Germany. A forestry school has been opened in the same place.
Mr. Vanderbilt has furthermore made a proposition to the
Puimosorpuy or Borany. 251
trustees of the University of the South, at Sewanee, to place there, at his expense, a forester and a forest school for the reg- ular management of the extensive area (10,000 acres), owned by the University of the South on the Cumberland plateau around Sewanee.
The course of instruction prescribed in German forest schools, or academies, embraces the following lectures: (1) A: Fundamental Instruction: General and agricultural chem- istry; (2) mineralogy and geognosy, with special instruc- tions in soil analysis; (3) botany as general botany, or plant physiology and forest botany; (4) general zoology and forest zoology ; (5) physic, meteorology and climatology; (6) general mathematics, with surveying and drawing; (7) theory of me- chanics; (8) national economy; B: Specialties: (1) Forest planting and maintaining; (2) forest protection; (3) utiliza- tion; (4) forest mathematics; (5) designing and locating plots ; (6) bookkeeping and forest police; (7) gamekeeping; (8) history of science of forestry.
In answer to the question raised about the financial results of a regular forest administration as a branch of State or national government, I copy from the Forester of March, 1898, the following abstract on the forest management of the king- dom of Bavaria:
Financial Results of Forest Administration in Bavaria.
In this small kingdom, with over 5,000,000 people on an area of about 29,000 geographical square miles, or about half as great as that of the State of Wisconsin, and with about 4o per cent mountain district, the forest has long been recognized as an indispensable part of a well-to-do Commonwealth. Even during the Middle Ages the cities and religious bodies, such as monasteries and churches of this region, accumulated forest properties. The “ Nueremberger Reichswald” had become famous in the sixteenth century, and as early as the year 1616 definite forestry regulations helped to develop a judicious use of the woods and their maintenance on all exposed mountain lands.
For over forty years the forests of Bavaria have covered in the neighborhood of 6,000,000 acres, or about 34 per cent of the
252 Puitosopyy or Borany.
total area, and they have been owned all this time in about the same proportions—namely, about one-third by the State, one- half by private owners, the rest by villages and corporations.
The policy of the State has been during all this time to in- crease its holdings wherever practicable, and more than $&,000,000 have been spent in the way of land purchases since i830. But even with private owners a similar disposition exists, and though the right to clear land is given wherever this may be shown to be fit for agricultural purposes, there has been almost as much land restocked with woods by private owners and villages as has been cleared, so that the total hold- ings of private owners have not been reduced through clearing by more than one-third pro mille. Of the 6.2 millions* acres of forest, about 46 per cent is stocked with spruce and fir, usually harvested at an age of about one hundred and twenty years; 30 per cent is pine (nearly all Scotch pine—a hard pine resem- bling our red or Norway pine), largely used as a firewood, and generally cut at an age of eighty years and less. The rest is stocked with hardwoods, mostly beech, which is allowed to grow to an age of about one hundred and twenty years; some white oak (Quercus pedunculata), part of which is managed as tanbark coppice, being cut down every fifteen or twenty- five years, and part is allowed to grow into larger timber, for which about one hundred and eighty years are necessary in this region. The yield of cut per acre is generally large. Groves one hundred years old, cutting 10,000 cubic feet of tim- ber per acre, are by no means rare in the forests of the foot- hills, and even the poor rocky Alpine ranges are made to yield during the same length of time from 3,000 to 4,000 cubic feet. In the State forests about 61 cubic feet per acre grows, on an average, every year over the entire area, so that they furnish an annual cut of about 126,000,000 cubic feet of timber and firewood.
In the private forests the growth and consequent yield is generally smaller, since less care is had and less skill displayed. Nevertheless, according to a thorough examination made about 1860, the growth even in this private and village woods amounted to about 54 cubic feet per acre and year.
* State and private ownership.
Purtosopuy or Botany. 253
With increased care the State forests, of which not over 5 per cent is unproductive as rocky wastes, roads, etc., have been made to yield more wood and a greater money return. Thus:
In 1829 the cut was 35 cubic feet of wood (from all growth measuring over five inches in diameter) ; in 1850 the cut was 44 cubic feet ; in 1860 the cut was 48 cubic feet; and in 1866 the cut per acre had increased to 60 cubic feet.
While in 1850 fully 84 per cent of the cut was still firewood, this inferior class formed only 67 per cent in 1880, and this proportion is still changing in favor of bole-size material, as the average age and size of the timber increases, being nearly half and half in 1896.
The money returns of Bavarian State forests have not been so great as those of the forests of Saxony and Wiirttemberg. This is partly due to a prevalence of mountain lands, which reduce the yield, increase the cost of all operations, and partly also to a less intensive management. Nevertheless, improve- ments in methods have led to fully as great an advance in the net revenue here as in the neighboring States, so that the net income, which was only $1 per acre and year in 1850, is now $1.92, or nearly double that amount.
In this way the little State of Bavaria has a net income from its forest property alone—2,091,930 acres—oi nearly four mil- lion dollars per year, after paying out in wages for supervision, logging, planting, etc., a like amount, the net revenue present- ing in 1896 just 50 per cent of the gross income.
Considering the many difficulties of stocking rough Alpine and other mountain lands with forests, it is noteworthy that of the total expenses only 8 per cent, or about 10 cents per acre and vear, is devoted to that sylvicultural part of the work—i. e., to planting, sowing, gathering seed, nursery work, etc.; while 50 per cent is paid out for supervision, and 50 per cent for cutting and logging.
It is also of interest in this connection to note that it was not by a shortsighted, stingy policy of retrenchment in ex- penses, but by a liberal policy that the forests have been made to furnish a steady and cheap supply of timber to hundreds of mills, cheap firewood to the whole people, and a net income which, if regarded as an interest on the value of the forest
254 PurtosopHy or Botany.
property, makes this, at the prevailing 3 per cent rate, worth $1 30,000,000, or $65 per acre, for land which without the forest cover would hardly bring $10, even in these densely settled countries.
Instead of expending only 80 cents per acre and year, as was done as late as the year 1860, Bavaria now expends more than double this amount, pays higher salaries, and maintains a larger force of steady workers; it spends about a quarter of a million per year on roads and other permanent improvements, and at the same time improves its woods, has more standing timber of larger average size, has more wood growing, and re- ceives more money from this resource than ever before.
Preservation of forests must come about largely by the abso- lute ownership of lands, either by the nation, State, or associ- ated capital. The management must be controlled by national or State supervisors, amenable to definite forest laws. Pres- ervation of the forest does not mean to keep the ax out of the woods, but to use it rationally. In all natural woodlands must a constant culling be practiced, in order to insure the greatest possible thriftiness in timber growth. ‘This selective thinning out by felling the mature or diseased individuals or undesirable species is for the present the only one practicable form of management.
If in any region certain kinds are particularly wanted in aid of certain industries, such would, without delay, be planted or sown, especially when younger growth is preferred, like in the pulp industry. The paper mulberry makes a very rapid growth, thrives in any soil, and is well suited for the South.
Large areas in the State of Tennessee are unfit for profit- able agriculture from poverty of the soil. The spare popula- tion wears out a toilsome life without hope for improvement. Schools of the lowest grade and inadequate to effect intel- lectual improvement give no encouragement in some kind of home industry, and they are ultimately forced to seek employ- ment in the mines. The legitimate remedy would be to put such districts under forest culture. The timber question is a vital point in the life of the coal-mining industry in the Cum- berland Mountains, and not less so to the iron, copper, and other industries in East Tennessee, and a promising field is
Puitosoruy or Botany. 255
open here to capital in buying up such tracts for forest culture. Many tracts of land in East and Middle Tennessee are so ex- cessively rugged that only here and there may small patches admit of plowing. The surface, although in the main level, is full of rocks of all sizes, like a mighty convulsion had stirred up the surface of the earth. The cause of this phenomenon is the geological structure, consisting of alternating thin strata of fossil limestone and shale, which, unequally corroded, and the latter partly washed out, causes displacements under all degrees of angles, and this rough-and-tumble aspect. The surface is so deeply rifted that the far-reaching cedar roots find moisture in the depth when the surface is parched. This region is naturally reserved for the cedar, especially so as it is also unfavorable for the growth of other conifers on account of the great dryness of the air in the summer season in the middle division of the State. Cedar and hackberry would be the forest composition. Very recently an enterprise has been planned which, if successfully carried into execution, would immensely benefit our State. An association composed of citizens of several States, known under the name of the National Park Association, has addressed a petition to Con- gress explaining the desirability of establishing a national park in the Southern Appalachian region. Petitioners state that upon unquestionable authority of our foremost botanists, like Prof. A. Gray, Professor Sargent, and others, no more suit- able reservation could be selected anywhere within the bounda- ries of the United States than the one to be described here- after. There is a greater diversity of hardwoods and conifers within limited areas in the Southern Appalachian Mountain chain in the grandest development of growth than could be gathered over the whole of Europe, or in the latitude of Phil- adelphia, from the Atlantic Coast to the mountains of Col- orado.
This area is also blessed with the embellishment of the most gorgeous and peculiar species of herbaceous plants, and an ex- ploration of those high summits will always leave in the mind of the lover of nature’s scenic grandeur emotions of enchant- ment and fascination.
The forests of this region are all of a “ mixed stand,” to give
256 Puitosopuy or Borany.
the English version of the German term “bestand.” They are in no part made up of but one single kind, but of conifers and hardwoods intermingled in very diverse proportions.
Now, betore the extension into this region of extensive rail- road lines and intersections, and the intrusion of numerous forest-destroying mining operations, would yet be an oppor- tunity to secure large and coherent tracts of mountain lands in the virgin state of nature.
The forest, once destroyed, will within the borders of culture not spontaneously restore itself, as we have learned from ex- perience on the old continent. We also know that artificial reafforestation is a slow process, calling for lifetime energy and expenditure of succeeding generations. Government aid and direction has to be depended on in such operations, which do not yield an immediate compensation. Moreover, the gov- ernment alone can clothe its officials with such authority as will be necessary to protect such territories against destruc- tive inroads. The areas as presently planned, cover the heads of all the water courses flowing west into the valley of East Tennessee. These in their descent, cutting narrow gulches through the rugged mountain masses in grades of several hundred feet from their heads to the flood level of the valley rivers, represent an available amount of energy representing millions of horse power. The continuance of this energy de- pends entirely on the preservation of the forests at their sources. They are the guardians of the industrial life of East Tennessee. Yet another quality peculiar to this region is its unexcelled suitableness for health resorts. The abundant springs draw their cool and limpid waters from silicated or granitic rocks; are free from calcareous, magnesian, or alumi- nous impurities. Ferrugineous springs, on the contrary, are not infrequent. Other blessings are the absence of the mos- quito plague and freedom from malaria.
As the forests are nearly half and half composed of conifers, the air is charged with balsamic fragrance and richly ozonized. The obnoxious Northwestern gales do not reach over that far East, although they are yet felt on the Cumberland plateau. On the contrary, warm and moist breezes are frequently wafted up from the Caribbean.
~T
Puinosoruy or Borany. 25
The mildness of the climate makes this region accessible at all seasons of the year, and even the highest summits remain but a month or six weeks snow covered. The Western national parks are, from the rigor of their prolonged winter period, accessible for only about five months.
Duly central to the Northern seacoast, Toledo, Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans, could this region be readily reached by millions of people within one day’s travel.
The tracts, as now proposed for a reservation, lie between 32 to 35 degrees north latitude, and 82 to 85 western longi- tude. The central or highest crests of the Balsam and Smoky Mountains traverse it from southwest to northeast, with the greatest expanse of surface to the east. The present survey takes in a strip of McMinn, Blount, Sevier, Cocke, and Greene Counties, in Tennessee; nearly the whole of Graham, part of Swain (and the Cherokee reservation), part of Hay- wood and. Madison, and nearly the whole of Yancey, in North Carolina; or probably 2,000,000 acres of mountain lands.
The State of Tennessee ought to make a strenuous effort that all the headwaters of the Hiwassee and Ocoe Rivers, to their ultimate sources in North Carolina and Georgia, should also be included in this reservation. The greatest opportuni- ties for mining enterprises are open in this region for building stones, granites, and slate quarrying, besides gold, copper, iron, asbestos, and gems, not to speak of the natural and last- ing products of a national forest management.
The success of this enterprise lies within the power of, and depends upon, the appreciation of its merits by the present Congress. Since the writing of these lines the present Fifty- second General Assembly of the State passed a joint resolu- tion by both houses memorializing Congress through our Rep- resentatives, and petitioning for a national grant. The Gen- eral Assembly declared its readiness to cede all State rights against compensation to present owners to the Government of the United States, recognizing its absolute domain.
The State of Georgia has also sent a similar petition and in- struction to its Representatives in Congress, effecting thereby a joint action of the three States of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia.
2
-
bo or (9 0)
Puitosoeny or Borany.
I have adjoined below the message of the President to Con- gress, January 16, 1901, in relation to the Appalachian Moun- tain Reservation, Secretary Wilson’s report on the contem- plated National Park, and Senator Pritchard’s bill for the ap-
propriation of $5,000,000 for the execution of the Appalachian Park bill:
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
I transmit herewith, for the members of the Congress, a letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, in which he presents a preliminary report of investigations upon the forests of the Southern Appalachian Moun- tain region. Upon the basis of facts established by this investigation the Secretary of Agriculture recommends the purchase of land for a national forest reserve in Western North Carolina, Eastern Tennessee, and adjacent States. I recommend to the favorable consideration of Congress the reasons upon which this recommendation rests.
WILLIAM M’KINLEY.
Washington, D. C., January 3, 1901. The President:
The bill making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending on June 30, 1901, provides that a “‘sum not to exceed five thousand dollars may, in the discretion of the Secretary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region of Western North Carolina and adjacent States.”’ In accordance with this provision, I have made a thorough in- \estigation of the forests in a portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, as directed above, including an estimate of the amount and condition of the standing timber, an inquiry as to the suitability of this region for a national park as proposed by the Appalachian Nationa] Park Association, and an examination of the validity of the reasons advanced by its advocates for the creation of such a park. In this task I have received gensrous and effective codperation and assistance. through the United States Geological Survey, from the Department of the Interior, which recognized in this way the deep and widely-diffused public interest in the plan.
The forest inve&tigation was made to include a study of the charac- ter and distribution of the species of timber trees, the density and value of forest growth, the extent to which the timber has been cut or dam- aged by fire, the size and nature of the present holdings, the prices at which these forest lands can now be purchased, and the general and special conditions that affect the prosecution or conservative forestry on a large scale.
The hydrographic survey of the region ‘conducted by the United States Geological Survey includes a general study of its topographic features; of the relation of the soils, forest cover, and rainfall; of the
Puintosoppy or Borany. 259
cuantity of water flowing out of it through the various streams during different seasons; and of the influence exerted on the regularity of this flow by forest clearings. More than 750 stream measurements have already been made, and much additional data of special value has been secured.
In addition to these investigations, I have given thorough attention to the arguments advanced by the movers for the proposed park and to those of their opponents, and as a result I am strongly of opinion that this matter is worthy of careful consideration.
I have the honor to transmit herewith a mounted original copy of a large map, which shows in detail the mapping of forests accomplished during the past Summer Over an area of nearly 8,000 square miles. A full report of the work and of its results is now in preparation and will be submitted for your consideration at an early date. The following preliminary statement is made to bring before you without delay a summary of the facts sufficient to set forth clearly the principal features of the region and the plan:
The movement for the purcliase and*control of a large area of for- est land in the East by the government has chietly contemplated a na- tional park. The idea of a national park is conservation, not use: that of a forest reserve, conservation by use. I have, therefore, to recom- mend a forest reserve instead of a park. It is fully shown by the in- vestigation that such a reserve would be self-supporting from the sale otf timber under wisely-directed ccnservative forestry.
Extensive areas of hardwood forests within the region colored on the accompanying map are still in their primitive condition, and these are among the very best and richest hardwood forests of the United States. The region in general is better adapted for forestry than for agricultural purposes. It is located about the head waters of numer- ous streams—such as the Ohio, Tennessee, Savannah, Yadkin, and Roanoke—which are important buth for water power and for naviga- tion. The general conditions within the region are exceptionally fa- vorable for the carrying .on of large operations in practical forestry, and the weather is suitable for lumbering operations at all seasons of. the year. It contains a greater variety of hardwood trees than any ether region of the United States, since the Northern and the Southern species here meet. It is a region of exceptional beauty and picturesque- ness; and although it would not be easily accessible to visitors in all parts at all seasons of the vear, by far the greater portion of its area would be easily reached and climaticaily pleasant throughout the vear. It contains within the forest-covered areas no large settlements or large laining operations which would interfere with the management of such a forest reserve, and yet there is a sufficient population for the work- ing and protection of the forests. Juarge lumber companies are rapidly invading the region, and the early destruction of the more valuable timber is imminent. Lands in this regior suitable tor such a forest
260 Puimosoruy or Borany.
reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 5C,000 to 100,000 acres, and they can be purchased at prices ranging from $2 to $5 per acre. Jt is probable that the average price would nat exceed $3 per acre. In explanation of the widespread and urgent demand for the es- tablishment in this Southern Appalachian region of a national park, or forest reserves, it may be added that it contains the highest and largest mountain masses and perhaps the wildest and most picturesque scenery east of the Mississippi River; that it is a region of perfect healthfulness, already largely used as a health resort both summer ani winter; and that it lies within liltle more than a day’s travel of the larger portion of the population of this country.
The rapid consumption of our timber supplies, the extensive destruc- tion of our forests by fire, and the resulting increase in the irregularity of the flow of water in important streams have served to develop among the veople of this country an interest in forest problems which is one of the marked features of the close of the century. In response to this growing interest the government has set aside in the Western forest reserves an area of more than 70,000 sauare miles. There is not a sin- gle government forest reserve in the Hast.
I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, JAMES WILSON, Secretary.
APPALACHIAN PARK BILL FOR THE APPROPRIATION OF FIVE MILLION DOLLARS. ;
Section 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Secre- tary of Agriculture is hereby empowered and directed to purchase land, suited to the purposes of a national forest reserve, in the Appalachian Mountains, within the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, in total extent not to exceed two million acres, and to care for, protect, use, and make accessible the said forest reserve or any part of it when so purchased.
Sec. 2. That the Secretary of Agriculture is hereby empowered and directed to make such rules and regulations and establish such service as he may deem necessary for the care, protection, and use of such for- est reserve, and to sell such wood and timber as may be removed with- out injury to the forest; provided, that no wood or timber shall be sold otherwise than by public auction, except to actual settlers, and in no case at less than the appraised value thereof; and provided, further, that the proceeds cf such sale shall be covered into the treasury of the United States. )
See. 2. That the sum of five million dollars, or as much thereof as may be required, is hereby appropriated for the purchase of lands for a national forest reserve, as hereinbefore specified, said reserve to be known as the Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve; and said five mil-
Putmosorny or Borany. 261
lion dollars shalt be available until the expiration of the fiscal year 1910- 1911, unless sooner exnended.
Corresponding to the above followed the joint enactment of the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee:
AN ACT to give consent by the State of Tennessee to the acquisition by the United States of such lands as may be needed for the estab- lishment of a national forest reserve in said State.
Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the high mountain region of Hastern Tennessee and adjacent States a na- tional forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the head waters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; ang
Whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress provid- ing for the purchase of such lands for such purposes; therefore,
Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennssee, That the consent of the State of Tennessee be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, gift, or con- demnation, according to law, of such lands in this State as in the opin- ion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest reserve in that region; provided, that the State shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil processes in all cases and such criminal processes 4S may issue under the authority of the State against any person charged with the commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction may be executed thereon in like manner as if this Act had not been passed; provided, further, that this Act shall apply only to lands in Tennessee lying within twenty miles of the North Carolina State line; that all condemnation proceedings herein provided shall be limited to lands now forest covered; and that in all such condemnation proceedings the right of the Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth in this Act and in the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves.
Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore provided for incorporation in said national forest re- serve such forest-covered lands lying in the State as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for this purpose.
Sec. 3. Be it further enacted, That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature and provide punishment for violation thereof as in its judgment may be necessary for the management, cortrol, and protection. of such lands as may be
262 Purosornuy or Borany.
from time to time acquired by the United States under the provisions of this Act. Sec. 4. Be it further enacted, That this Act take effect from and after its passage, the public welfare requiring it. i" Passed April 16, 1901. E. B. WILSON, Speaker of the House of Representatives. NEWTON H. WHITE, Speaker of the Senate. Approved April 22, 1901. BENTON M’MILLIN, Governor.
These are the initiatory steps by which this priceless gift of nature, the hitherto undefiled retreat of the virgin forest, sacred to bird and beast, still the same as it was before the encroachment of the white man, will be preserved for the com- ing generations.
Subject to the greed, ignorance, or carelessness of individual owners, the stately groves would soon be rendered unsightly and worthless as dens and covers for bird and beast, which could not escape their utter extinction.
Torrid knobs and blackened stumps would remain only, a witness of human impiety. Under present auspices we will soon see a noble corps of custodians, trained for scientific management in the forestry department of our universities, employing and directing squads of laborers in the utilization, preservation, and embellishment of the reservation.
Modern Thoughts on the Origin, Evolu- tion, and Significance of Life.
Ihr Alle fuhlt geheimes Wirken Der ewig waltenden Natur, Und aus den untersten Bezirken Schmiegt sich herauf lebend’ge Spur. —Faust II., Theil. All the secret working feel Of Nature’s ever-guiding will, And from the abyss deep and dark Floats gleaming up a living spark.
RECENT VIEWS ON PROTOPLASM AND ORIGIN OP EIN:
By the dissection of living plants and the exposure of their interior structure under the micrcscope by a moderate enlarge- ment a chambered, or so-called cellular, structure is visible. These chambers appear to be filled with a transparent, aqueous .- fluid, ascending from the root, and carrying along with it un- assimilated nutritive elements. It is called cell sap. Grains of chlorophyll are frequently floating in it. This element of the plant body had been observed and described before 18 40.
A close observation, however, of any living cell will reveal another substance, mostly in the form of a slimy, viscid, or subsolid mass, either filling the whole cavity, or only clothing the inner wall with a thin layer, or traversing in thin strings the cavity of the cell. The distinct character of this substance was first announced by Hugo Mohl in 1846, and called by him protoplasm.
This is, in its general bearing, a very well-known, but in its innermost nature a yet totally unexplained, substance. We know about it to a certainty, that it is the basis of life, not alone of plants, but likewise of animals. The protoplasma of each cell also contains a formative differentiation, the nucleus.
From a chemical standpoint it is composed of not less than
bo (or) pe
Puitosopny or Borany.
four, but generally five, elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur—forming the albuminoids, the most cam- plex, variable, and unstable chemical compounds. Here we see how, within the cell, from the circulating nutritive fluid the plastic mass, protoplasm, gradually develops.
The progress of growth proceeds in animals nearly uni- formly, in plants from the terminal vegetative points—buds— and in the cambium or peripheral region (green bark). Thence begins the differentiation of tissues, and of the whole series of vegetable and animal bodies, and that mutual interaction by which from the root or stomach nutritive elements are con- veyed and elaborated. The production of protoplasm termi- nates in the maturing and storage ot such albuminoids as make up the body of seeds, and fill the cells of tubers, bulbs,. roots, and cambium, and provide for the renewal of individual life and nutrition in its infant state. None of the secondary elements or products possess an inherent vitality. The pro- teins, which are the most complex in composition, are exceed- ingly prone to decomposition. The simpler hydrocarbons, like lignin, cellulose, starch, the resins, only, are enduring. The most obvious of the protoplasmic forms is the chlorophyll, whose principal function is the separation of the carbon in the process of plant respiration.
Respecting the comparative quantities in the composition of the individual bodies—of proteinic, nitrogenated constitu- ents, and the nonnitrogenated simpler ones—we observe re- verse relation. While in plants the amount of albuminoids is comparatively insignificant, we find the bodies of animals nearly exclusively proteinic. Plants increase constantly, dur- ing the vegetative period, their supply in albumen, until they enter the resting period. Animals have, without interruption, to renew it, lest they perish.
It is meet to remember that all protoplasmic bodies are sub- ject to a constant process of elimination and renewal, and that the suspension of either effects their immediate death, which under all circumstances is their ultimate fate.
Very different is the problem of the origin of the primitive protoplasm when it takes its rise without the medium of pre- existing protoplasmic bodies. This process is called the“ gen-
Puintosopuy or Borany. 265
eratio equivoca or spontanea” by the older authors; by the moderns, “ archegonia.”
The term “archegony ” comprises, in a strictly scientific sense, two essentially different processes, “ autogony” and “plasmogony.” Under the term “ autogony ” we conceive the origin of the most simple plasma body in an inorganic fluid— i. e., in such a fluid in which those elements which are needed for the composition of the organic body are contained in simple and constant solutions; for instance, carbonic acid, hydrate of ammonia, binary salts. Contrariwise, the process would be called “ plasmogony,” ii the organic individual takes its rise in an organic vegetative fluid—i. e., in a fluid which contains these essential elements in form of complicated and unstable carbon compounds, in solution (albumen, carbon- hydrates, etc.).
The processes of autogony as well as of plasmogony have, as yet. not been demonstrated. Attempts at the solution of the problem of archegony in earlier as well as recent times nearly all refer not to autogony, but to plasmogony, which latter process is of little avail in reference to primordial organic orig- ination. The temporary failure to verify by experiment the possibility of autogony cannot have more than a negative bear- ing, and does not absolutely prove that under no circumstances such an event ever could have occurred.
The ripened judgment of contemporaneous investigators tends to make it clear that the impossibility as well as the pos- sibility, can never be brought to a tangible demonstration in its ultimate inchoative state. More about this hereafter.
Hypotheses about a natural spontaneous generation were advanced already in the seventh century before our era by the leaders of the Ionian school, the three Milesians Thales, Anaximenes, and Anaximander. The latter especially asserted important fundamental tenets of our modern monism. They pointed out that a natural uniform law is the source of the manifold manifestations, recognized the unity of the whole nature, and the constant transmutations of forms. Anaximan- der allows that the living creatures have originated in the water, under the influence of solar heat, and that man has de- veloped out of fishlike creatures. Later on we read in the
266 Puiosopny or Borany.
natural philosophy of Heraclitus and Empedocles, and in the scientific writings of Democritus and Aristotle, allusions to ideas, in which we recognize fundamental principles of our modern theory of evolution.
Two great and weighty fundamental ideas of the theory of evolution are also presented in Genesis, conceived by Moses, in surprising clearness and simplicity—the conception of sepa- ration and differentiation, and the conception of progressive evolution or improvement.
All these views hitherto proposed in favor of a specific, mutually unconnected production by creation, lead, upon log- ical inferences, to that manner of reasoning which is under- stood as anthropomorphism. Under this term the Creator is conceived as an organism, conjecturing after the manner of man, meditating and altering his plans, ultimately carrying out his designs like a human architect would rear his structure. The miraculous aspect has always been unsatisfactory to those of speculative mind, and was too closely affiliated to other ancient mythological narratives as not to invite modified inter- pretations. The incenceivable was prominently proposed, which is merely a sophistic evasion, and means to affirm that one entertains no opinion at all and declines to have one.
In contrast with this complete scientific inadequacy of the creative hypotheses, we are compelled to seek refuge in the opposite theory of evolution, if we intend to form a conception serving the purpose of rationally acceptable exposition. We are forced and morally bound to make such an attempt, even if these evolutionary doctrines should cast merely a glimmer of probability upon a mechanical and natural origination of the different species of plants and animals, but the more so if they are able equally as plainly and simply, as also Seen Nee ie and comprehensively to explain all related facts.
These evolutionary theories are by no means what is often, yet falsely, pleaded against them, arbitrary notions or products of the imagination, applicable only to one or the other single organism ; they are indeed strictly scientifically supported the- ories, resting upon a firm and lucid basis, whence the totality of natural phenomena and especially the origin of the organ-
Puriosopry or Borany. 267 «
isms may be explained in the plainest manner, as the neces- sary consequences of mechanical natural processes.
This theory is known as the monistic or mechanical, or also causal, because it applies only mechanical causes, operating with necessity (cause efficientes) in the interpretation of natural phenomena.
On the other hand, the supernatural hypotheses of creation coincide with that totally opposite view of the universe, which, in contradistinction to the former, is called the dualistic, often also teleologic or vital, because of its alleged govern- ment of conditions after a design planned upon usefulness and efficiency (cause finales).
The manner in which science attempts to vindicate the mo- nistic theory leads to the following considerations:
Chemistry shows us that all known bodies may, by analysis, be resolved into a limited number of elements or primary sub- stances; such not furthermore resolvable bodies are, e. g., car- bon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, or the divers metals, like potassium, natrium, iron, gould, etc. At present we know of about seventy-five such elements. The majority of them are rather unimportant, and of unfrequent occurrence; only the lesser number is generally distributed, and forms not only most inorganic objects, but also all organic bodies.
If we compare those elements which compose the bodies of organisms with those elements which are found in the inor- ganic substances, we are impressed with the fact that there appears no element in the bodies of animals and plants, which could not also be found outside of them in lifeless nature. There is absolutely no organic element.
Be it here incidentally reinarked that all these so-called ele- ments are (most probably) only different combination forms of homologous atoms of one absolutely simple primitive sub- stance, “the Mass.” The differences between elements recog- nized at the present day, originate probably in the circum- stance that these mass-atoms are arranged in different num- bers and positions: and their atom-groups or molecules stand in different relations to the universal ether which fills space. The group-wise arranged mutual affinity of the elements speaks for this hypothesis, which, however, has not yet been
268 Puinosorny or Botany.
experimentally demonstrated. It is furthermore supposed that these chemical elements formed prior to the formation of planetary systems, in the evolution of star systems, under con- ditions of heat, higher than now artificially producible.
The chemical and physical differences existing between organic and inorganic bodies have therefore their material origin not in the distinct nature of the component elements, but in the ditferent way and manner in which they are aggre- gated into chemical combinations.
This distinct way of composition conditions, consecutively certain physical peculiarities, especially in reference to their density, which at once appear to open a wide chasm between these two groups of bodies. The formed inorganic or lifeless natural objects, the crystals and the amorphous rocks are of a degree of density which we call solid in contradistinction to the fluid state of the water or the gaseous state of the atmos- phere.
It will be remembered that these different states of aggrega- tion of the inorganic bodies are not at all due to their ele- mentary nature, but are depending upon certain degrees of their temperature. Every one of the inorganic solid elements may be converted by raising its temperature into the fluid or molten, and by further increase to the gaseous or elastic fluid state. Likewise every gaseous body—e. g., carbonic acid—by sufficient reduction of temperature or increased pressure can be condensed ic the fluid, and furthermore to the solid, state.
In distinction from these three conditions of density of the inorganic substances, we find the living bodies of all organ- isms, of plants as well as animals, in a quite peculiar fourth state of aggregation. This one is neither solid like a stone, nor liquid like water, but keeping the middle between these two conditions, of what may be called a firmly liquid or tumid consistency. In all living bodies, with no exception, is a cer- tain quantity of water bound up in a peculiar way with solid substance, and just by this characteristic combination of water with solid substance comes about the soft, neither hard nor fluid, consistency which, for the coming into existence and the mechanical interpretation of the phenomena of life, is of great- est importance.
PuttosorpHy oF Borany. 269
The cause of this is principally attributable to the chemical and physical properties of one single element, the carbon.
Carbon is, from our point of view, of all elements by far the trnost efficient and interesting, because the function of this ele- ment plays the most important réle in the life history of all plants and animals of which we have any knowledge. It is the element which, by virtue of its peculiar inclination to the formation of complicated combinations with the other ele- ments, effects the greatest possible diversity of chemical com- positions, and thereby also of the forms and qualities of the bodies of animals and plants. In combining with the other elements it forms an infinite series of formulas through diverse proportions in number and weight.
Foremost in the combination of carbon with these other ele- ments oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen (with which also sul- phur and phosphorus are frequently associated) arise those extreniely important compositions in which we recognize the first and indispensable basis of vital phenomena, the albumi- nates (proteids).
Proteinic substances have as yet not been found otherwise than in single or aggregate bodies of detinite forms, which, subject to the laws of organic evolution, differ, in an ascending series, in complexity of molecular structure, mass and shape of external form, and degree of development of organs for veg- etative and physical functions.
Within the recollection of our older botanists or biologists it was firmly believed that the cell was the ultimate autogonic element of bodies, and that the cells took their origin directly from inorganic matter, under the infiuence of light and heat. Virchow and Schleiden were the first to make clear the errone- ousness of this presumption, showing that no cell originates spontaneously, but directly out of another cell. “Omnis cel- lula ex cellula ” became the biological maxim.
With the rapid advance in biologic studies and the greatly improved methods in microscopy it was recognized that the cell is a too complicated, too highly organized, and too mutable formation for us, to accredit it with the power to bridge over at once the chasm between the organic and the inorganic.
To remedy the discrepancy, the attention was drawn to the
270 Puttosorpny or Borany.
function of the nucleus, the formative element of the cell, and the formula was changed to “ Every nucleus from another nucleus.”
The above-given term, “autogony,’ proposed by Haeckel, could merely serve to circumscribe the genetic act within the nearest possible compass, until his discovery of the “ moners,” the simplest living organisms, strengthened our hopes to trace up the thread of life to the present.
The first complete observations upon the nature of a moner (Protogenes primordialis) had been. made by him at Nizza in 1864. Other remarkable moners have been found by him later on the Canaries and Lanzarote, and in 1867 in the Straits of Gibraltar. (The complete life history of one of these Cana- rian moners, the orange-colored Protomyxa aurantiaca, with illustration, is given in the “ Natiirliche Schopfungs- Geschichte,’ of Ernst Haeckel, ninth edition, Vol. IL, page 168.) Also in the German Ocean. on the Norwegian coast, near Bergen, he found some peculiar moners. An interest- ing sweetwater species Cienkowski found, and described it under the name “ Vampyreila.””. Another one Sorakin found and named it “ Gloidiam.” Very recently the number of these organisms has been greatly augmented through the efforts of other investigators.
All of them are exceedingly small corpuscles, who, indeed, do not merit the name of organisms, a term based upon the assumption that all living beings are made up of organs, which, like the component parts of a machine, harmoniously codper- ate to effect the activity of the whole. These moners, how- ever, are absolutely without structure or nucleus, consisting of a homogeneous plasma. The entire body during their life- time is nothing more than a mobile particle of jelly, without a permanent form, a minute living speck of an albuminous carbon compound. We assume this homogeneous mass to possess a very complicated molecular structure, which is, of course, neither anatomically nor microscopically demonstrable. The largest moners are of the size of a small pin head; the smallest are the bacteria, which in all probability belong to this order of beings. More simple and imperfect beings could not be conceived.
Putiosorpuy or Borany. 271
We have here arrived at the limits of our physical investiga- tion. The nature’ of light, the properties of the refracting media, and the structure of the human eye will hardly permit us to penetrate deeper into this special investigation.
Of the bacteria we know little more than their external form, their reaction ugon certain coloring substances which render their hyaline bodies visible under the high magnifying powers which we have to use to make them visible. They be- come distinguishable under culture in certain nutritive liquids, through peculiar forms of aggregation, through rapid multiph- cation by division, and through the products of their growth. This growth is due to the absorption of the nutritive fluid, and to the subsequent elimination of waste material.
In a state of rest the moners appear as minute globular cor- puscles, either undiscernable to the naked eye, or merely the size of a small pin head, as before stated. Their faculty of exe- cuting movements takes place through the protrusion of irreg- ular fingerlike protuberances from the slimy surface, or of fine radiating filanients or pseudopodia. The pseudopodia are simple, immediate continuations of the structureless albumi- nous mass which constitutes the entire body. We are not able to find in it differentiated parts. and we can make the direct proof for the absolute homogeneity of the semiliquid albumunous substance by observing them under the micro- scope in the act of taking food. If minute bodies, acceptable to their tastes, such as comminuted organic substances or in- fusory animals, come into actuai contact, they adhere to the sticky surface and create an irritation. In response to this an increased flow of the slimy substance toward that particle takes place, which ultimately incloses it. Sometimes a fun- nel-shaped depression forming in the moner serves the same purpose. The nutriment is thereafter digested by diffusion (endosmosis) and what is left unabsorbed brought to the surface again in a corresponding way. Equally simple is their mode of propagation, which is asexual or by monogamy, and consists simply in self-division. Whenever such a minute body acquires a certain size from sufficient nutrition, it parts into two pieces; an annular constriction forms first, and the division is soon complete.
272 Purovosorny or Borany.
In other species, like Vampyrella and Gloidium, the body divides into four equal parts; in Protomonas and Protomyxa the body at once resolves into a great number of globular spherules.
Here, like elsewhere, when science transcends the limits of the perceptible and the domain of experience, venturing into the dark held of the unknown, the investigator must ulti- imately be guided by an ingenious use of the imagination; of that wondrous faculty which, left to ramble uncontrolled, leads us astray into a wilderness of perplexities and errors, a land of mists and shadows; but which, properly controlled by experi- ence and reflection, becomes the noblest attribute of man, the source of poetic genius, the instrument of discovery in sciences, without the aid of which Newton would never have invented the fluxions, or Davy have discovered the earths and alkalis, nor Roentgen the X rays, nor Columbus have found another continent.
The clearest and best elaborated hypothesis about organic states preceding the moners is given by Karl von Niageli in lis great work, “ The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evo-. lution” (‘‘ Mechanish-physiologische Theorie der Abstam- mungslehre ”), Munich and Leipzig, 1884.
Before entering upon the micellar* hypothesis of Nageli, it may be well to state that Haeckel had made distinction be- tween those “ Beginnitigs of Life’ based upon the mode of nutriton, as phytomoners and zodmoners. The first are built up from protoplasma, possessing the faculty to prepare plasson synthetically from inorganic matter, converting the living force of sunlight into latent chemical energy of organic combi- nations.
The other class, or zoOmoners, are plasma eaters, consist of zodplasma and cannot transmute inorganic matter into plasma. They live upon the plasma of the preformed phyto- moners, and convert the therein contained energy again into heat and motion. To the phytomoners belong the Chromacee, and also the hypothetical, oldest originators of all organisms,
*Micella, diminutive of mica, a grain, crumb, a cell, or assumed in- termediate state between a molecule and a cell.
Puriosorny or Borany. 273
the Protobiens. He defines them as very minute, living plas- ma-granules proceeding from micellar organization. Nigeli thinks that these bodies are too minute to become distinguish- able even under the highest powers. To be more explicit I quote three paragraphs from Niageli’s work, referring the reader to the original work:
“ Certain organic compounds, among them albumen, are nei- ther soluble, despite their great affinity for water, nor are they fusible, and hence are produced in the micellar form. These compounds are formed in water where the molecules that arise immediately adjoining each other arrange themselves into incipient crystals, or micelle. Only such of the molecules as are formed subsequently and come into contact with the micella, contribute to its increase in size, while the others, on account of their insolubility, produce new micelle. For this reason the micelle remain so small that they are invisible, even with the microscope.
“On account of their great affinity for water the micelle surround themselves with a thick film of it. The attraction of these micelle for matter of their own kind is felt outside of this film. Hence the micelle with their films unite themselves into solid masses permeated with water, unless other forces overcome attraction. The internal and external constitution of micellar bodies depends essentially upon the size, form, and dynamic nature of their micelle, since on these factors depends the original arrangement of the micellaw, and the insertion in proper order of those formed later.
“The micelles of albumen or plasma are susceptible of the greatest diversity of form, size, and chemical composition, since they originate from unlike mixtures of various albumen compounds, and besides are mixed with various organic and inorganic substances. For this reason the plasma behaves, both chemically and physically, in many unlike ways, and in consequence of the variable relation of the micelle to water, the plasma shows all degrees of micellar solution up to quite solid masses. Within the plasma masses the production of albumen goes on more easily under the influence of their molec- ular forces than in the liquid without. Hence the compounds present in the organic substratum and capable of forming
274 Puivosorny or Borany.
albumen enter preferably into the masses of plasma, and by intussusception of micelle of albumen cause growth. Here life exists in its simplest form.” .
Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin of plasma- micellee from molecules, hence cannot be brought about by solutions from albumens or peptones, since these are micellar solutions. Life presupposes the intussusception of plasma- micelle; hence it ceases as soon as the arrangement of micel- le is so far disordered by injurious influences as to render that process of growth impossible. The resulting organism must be perfectly simple, a mass of plasma with micelle as yet unarranged, because any organization without a preceding organizing activity is inconceivable. For this reason known organisms cannot have originated spontaneously; a kingdom of simpler things must have preceded them. *(Probiensthe suborganic kingdom.)
Haeckel (“ Natiirliche Schépfungs-Geschichte,’ Vol. II., pages 430-431) says: “I believe, with Nageli, it is very prob- able that the like acts of spontaneous generation have repeated themselves very often, invariably when the necessary condi- tions emerged in the inorganic nature. They may even occur now, daily, without our being able to observe them directly with our inadequate methods of research. We are entirely unacquainted with those conditions; and the spontaneous orig- ination of minute probionts, of minute plasson-granules, which elude discovery even with the highest magnifying powers, may fail to be demonstrable even amid the best chances. In refer- ence to the contemporary moners we have the choice between the following conclusions: Either they descend, indeed, directly from the first originated (or created) oldest moners, and then they must have propagated and preserved them- selves, since many millions of years in the original form of minute, simple, plasma corpuscles, or the moners of the pres- ent day have come into existence in the course of the organic evolution of the earth, by repeated acts of spontaneous gener- ation, and then there is no physical obstacle imaginable, why it should not be repeated infinitely often.”
Pending this question the reflection is forced upon us that in those immemorial preeval times, terrestrial conditions ex-
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isted, quite different from those of the present day, which may have facilitated autogony.
The organic history of this globe must have had its begin- ning in an age when the oceans were united, forming an unin- terrupted surface, and the temperature of the waters suff- ciently decreased to allow the formation of albuminous com- pounds. This may have been not far from the boiling point, as we even now find living organisms in natural springs of high temperature. I picture in my fantasy the incumbent at- mosphere charged with irrespirable gases, filled with immense masses of vapors inclosing the ocean in impenetrable dark- ness, which was relieved only by the diffuse phosphorescence of floating luminous corpuscles; the waters charged with mineral solutions, ready for precipitation with progressing refrigeration; the sky luminous from uninterrupted electric flashes; and the atmosphere trembling from incessant pealings of thunder, and whirled about by furious cyclones.
Then already may possibly the hot waters of the primordial! oceans have been peopled by living beings. Their high tem- peratures may even have been favorable to their coming into existence, as we even nowadays find oscillatories and algae in hot springs at 140°. In the geysers of Yellowstone Park live Conferva major and Phormidium laminosum, flourishing by 162° to 176°, while the albumen of the higher organism coagulates at 162° Fahr. As there is reason to believe, as above stated, that the surface of the globe was shrouded in darkness, or only illuminated by diffused light, until the sun broke through the clouds, we must take into account that the gelatinous bodies of the schizomycetes and algw of this time contained a bluish green substance; the phycocyanin in dif- fusion through their bodies, whose carbon-absorbing function was not confined to any granular or cellular formation, like the chlorophyll, which came into existence afterwards with the higher vegetable forms and for whose action a weaker illumi- nation sufficed.
It is a permissible speculation that the enzymes or form- less ferments may have played an important part in the genesis of life. We have long known of a number of albuminous, soluble substances which chemists called ‘‘ enzymes,” or
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shapeless and formless ferments, which, like yeast—a well- known organized ferment—excite fermentation in organic solutions and cause the splitting up of their molecular struc- ture, without experiencing an increase of their own volume. By this they imitate or replace the vital action of the formed fermenters.
Judging from the ordinary standard those shapeless bodies would be considered as lifeless; yet it is very doubtful if they should as such be held, for they develop properties in common with those of the living ferments. Whenever the solutions of these enzymes are exposed to temperatures of 160° to 210° they become inefficient just as well as the organ- ized ferments: “hey are also killed by alcohol, corrosive sub- limate, and all the substances which destroy the vitality of the bacteria. Thus is established a difference between living and dead enzymes.
Recently an experiment was made by Buchner, to obtain under high pressure a juice from living ferment-organisms, with subsequent filtration. The fluid prepared in this way has had the same effect, like the living structural ferments.
Thus we are led to conjecture a still lower grade of vital processes, some kind of chemical life which eludes our micro- scopical investigations.
The immense quantities of carbon now deposited in the devonian and carboniferous strata and the oil-soaked lime- stones and sandstones of the silurian, circulated as carbonic dioxide, mixed with sulphureted hydrogen gas.” Immense periods may have passed before the rays of the sun broke through the clouds, before chlorophyll-bearing tissues could proceed to depurate the air of the carbon. The geometric reg- ularity of the organic forms of that era, the protophytae (diatomacew and cosmariacew), and of the protozoa (radi- olarie) and the large percentage of mineral matter, silica, and carbonate of lime, contained in their texture, give them a great resemblance to certain systems of crystallization—snow- flakes or augitic forms of crystals.
The doctrine of protoplasm as advanced by Huxley and the recent success in synthetic chemistry in the production of some organic compounds, like urea or indigo, hold out the
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promise of the manufacture of living matter by artificial means. Yet none of these numerous laboratory products has reached the quality of protoplasm— a substance endowed with the self- evolving power of continuous change.
All the artificially produced proteids are definite and homo- geneous chemical compounds, without that fundamental organic characteristic of a definite external limitation.
Bacteria and moners are without recognizable internal structure, but greatly specialized in size and shape. Even they show functions of psychical force, be it only the selection of food.
From these lowest forms onward we observe with increas- ing clearness the organic progress—irritability and growing diversity of structure, sexuality, sensibility, more and more specialization in digestive, reproductive, and nervous systems, and ultimately the intellectual or psychical faculties.
The continuity of evolution represented in the succession of species is rerepresented in the genesis of individual lives by embryonic development, when during fetal life the ances- tral stages are gradually passed through, a process proving the validity of the laws of inheritance and adaptation—on-. togeny.
At this point we are brought in contact with the highest problems not only of biology, but also of philosophy, the psychical question.
The individual existence of organisms takes its beginning in the moment of fertilization of the ovum, through the micro- scopically small spermatic cell. An important discovery made recently by Pfeffer demonstrated that the mutual attrac- tion between the spermatozoa and ovum is effected by chem- ical affinity. No other act in organic life demonstrates more convincingly the importance and efficiency of matter, when we contemplate how the physical and intellectual development not only of the newly generated being, but also of his de- scendants, for indefinite time is thereby predetermined. The minuteness and simplicity of the external structure of this cell demand an indeterminable complicity of its molecular composition.
Indications of a psychical energy are noticeable at a very low
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stage of organization. MM]. Romanes, in his zodlogical scale, assigns the first manifestations of surprise and fear to thr larvee of insects and annelids; but according to A. Binet thi; emotion is proper also to infusories. If a drop of acetic acid be introduced beneath the glass slide in a preparation contai i- ing quantities of infusories, the latter will at once be seen o flee in all directions like a flock of frightened sheep.
\obius thinks that memory is one of the most elementat y and primitive psychological facts, already observable in tlie ciliated infusories. He properly remarks that every time <n animal repeats the same action under influence of the same excitation that fact proves that the animal is possessed of memory. According to Verworn even rhizopods are endowcd with primary instincts, as he demonstrates in the conduct of the Difflugia urceolata, which constructs an envelope out of sand particles for its offspring, before it passes out of its boay by division.
To find such complete psychical activity in the history of these low organisms hecomes less surprising when we call to mind that, agreeable to the idea of evolution now accepted, a. higher animal is nothing more than a colony of protozoans. Every one of the cells composing such an animal has retained its primitive properties, giving them a higher degree of perfec- tion by division of labor and by selection. The epithelial cells that secrete the nails and the hair are organisms perfected with reference to the secretion oi protective parts. Similarly, the cells of the brain are organisms that have been perfected with reference to psychical attributes.
I wish to close this sketch of protoplasm with some remarks on the mechanism oi the cerebral functions and ultimate infer- ences in reference to the psychical problem.
Considering that the human cerebral mass, weighing 3 4 pounds, consists of material of the most impressible and vers.a- tile molecular composition, with the supra-addition of an ira- mensely complicated structure, with a supply of blood for its nutrition and repair, amounting to one-third of the supply for the whole body, it is evident that a motor center is provided, able to evolve great effects.
Microscopical cerebral anatomy and_ psycho-physioloyy
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have within the last twenty-five years reached important re- sults. The differentiation and localization of the motory, sensitive, and intellectual functions has been determined. It is estimated that the gray or cortical substance contains frcm 500 to 1,000 millions of ganglia or cells, each of which emits from 5 to 10 nerve fibers to receive external impressions and to intercommunicate them. Thus we see a field of action which the most vivid fantasy could not survey.
I venture, with some diffidence in my ability to essay ir. a short sketch the mechanism which combined with the physico- chemical processes effects those cerebral functions which we comprehend as psychical activities, consciousness and reason.
The speculative or metaphysical procedure has from the re- motest days to this time always been attempted in two totally different and opposite ways. The dualistic, accepting two elements, body and soul, whereby the body presides over the vegetative and animal functions and the soul exercises the hegemony over all the intellectual faculties, retaining its self- consciousness and permanence after its separation from the body by death.
The other, or monistic, view declares for the inseparable unity of both, and, repudiating the intrusion of dogmatic ele- ments as parts of argumentation, defends its position by means of the exact natural sciences, facts sustained by anatomical dissection, the microscope, and psychological experiment.
From this source we know that the faculty to think and to move depends upon the intact state of nervous cells and fibers, and that the entire psychology is identical with the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system.
We know now with considerable detail how the contact of the sensual organs with the outer world produces specific sense activities, to be conducted along linear paths, the nerves and nerve fibers and fibrils to the brain, in whose different depart- ments the peripheral perceptions are elaborated into intel- lectual concepts.
But few years ago it was believed that nerve fibers emitted from the great hemispheres would, in uninterrupted continuity, extend to the outmost limits of the body, comparing the mind apparatus with an immense central station of a telephone sys-
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tem, with millions of connections. The excitation of a pe- ripheral terminal thus to be reported in the central station, whence again the elaborated volition would be sent out to a subordinate organ for execution.
This comparison is, however, not fully correct. The exact anatomy of the brain, as has been developed by the researches of Waldeyer, Flechsig and Ramony Cayal, proves that the for- mer view, accepting a division oi the function of nerve fibers and nerve cells, was incorrect, and that neither does anywhere exist by itself; that there is no fiber without a cell, and re- versely. ‘The fiber is only the long-drawn-out end of the cell. The uninterrupted continuance is also a misconception. We observe how a decapitated frog executes movements of his legs to counteract the pricking of the skin of his back. From this it is evident that there are intermediate stations which in part, at least, supplant the cerebral action. Such sta- tions or organs are called * ganglia.” They are the governing seat of action by all animals not possessed of a cephalic cere- bralsystem. Their actions are excited by irritation of sensitive fibers, and are purely emotional and sensational, and but little specialized functions. From such a ganglionic point the con- duct is carried forward by other cells and fibers until the ulti- mate destination ends in the gray matter of the hemispheres of the vertebrates in a specially designated sphere. In sleep or in a state of rest the ends of fibrils float freely in the sur- rounding plasma, until a moment of excitation arrives, when the ends immediately approach each other, forming connec- tion. Those links, serving as the transport of the excitations, are called “ neurons” and the transmitting force is commonly called “animal electricity.” The velocity of transportation has been experimentally tested, never to exceed from twenty- five to thirty meters per second, not exceeding the velocity ot a rapidly moving express train. In the same space of time which elapses between the prick of a needle at the point of the index finger and its appearance in consciousness a telegram would cross the Atlantic. Neural and physical electricity must be forces of different kinds. Many of the nervous func- tions of the highest organizations are confined to the gan- glionic systems, and fulfill within this circuit their activities
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concerned in nutrition, circulation, respiration, and reproduc- tion, and communicate only indirectly with the hemispheres, but directly with the spinal cord, medulla elongata, cerebel- lum, and corpora quadrigemina, which are the centers of the organic functions.
These divisions are fully developed in the newborn hu- man infant and in perfect functional activity. Very different is at the same time the state of development of the hemi- spheres, which are the seat of the sense perception in intel- lectual activity. While an infant shows the liveliest inter- est in the means employed to gratify his physical wants, he re- mains in a state of intellectual imbecility for months, and years pass before he reaches maturity. The cause of this lies in the circumstance that in the gray substance of the newborn in- fant are, as yet, comparatively but few cells with extended con- necting fibril ends. Not before the lapse of some time do also the corresponding nerve ends of the sense organs advance sufficiently to approach and come in contact with the cerebral fibers. First to develop are the olfactory, and at last the au- ditory nerves, to proceed from the base of the brain upward into the cortical sphere.
Although thus the psychical activities, with the awakening of consciousness, are herewith initiated, the sphere of volition is as yet very limited; for, as only one-third of the hemi- spheres are assigned to the reception of sense perception, in which the other two-thirds are not at all concerned, these latter remain yet for one whole month completely undeveloped, and are yetrin no way connected with the other cerebral centers and conductive structures. Not before the regions of the spe- cial sense organs have completely finished their development, commences the evolution in those belated parts. It is now that millions of fibers extend from the sensual sphere into the other two regions to intercross with one another, to evoke all the muscular action, to combine with stored-up percepts and concepts, to execute all the manifestations of the intellect, to emit their command to every division of the body under the control of volition. These parts are called the association centers—the workshop of the mind.
The herewith presented theory of mind is based upon the
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anatomical structure of the brain, and has been fully attested in the clinical practice as a satisfactory explanation of the cause of intellectual disturbances. It is the immense pre- ponderance of the association centers over all the other cere- bral divisions which secures the intellectual superiority of man over the highest intelligences of all other animals, in neither one of which a like relation occurs. Lesions, mechanical or pathological, in the association centers are the source of mental disturbances. Should conducting channels in any other part of the body happen to take place, anesthesia or paralysis re- sults in the affected parts, consciousness and intelligence re- maining intact. Injury to the sensitive spheres produces loss of the respective sensual perceptions of sight, hearing, etc., but disturbances in the associated regions means intellectual
aberration. In respect to the evolution of the human brain and mind,
the lower animals seemingly are at some advantage in achiev- ing so soon after birth the faculty of taking care of themselves, -and perfecting the cerebral integration in an incomparably shorter period than man does.
This apparent tardiness is, however, nothing more or less than a prolonged plasticity and long-continued receptivity for cell production and extension of association tissue and storage of sense and reflective impressions.
Other conditions being equal, it is the prevalence of this quality which conditions the differentiation not only between individuals, but also between the races. The dark-colored tribes attain to sexual and intellectual fullness much earlier, greatly to a disadvantage in regard to docility and training. Under this aspect I accept the view of Alexander von Hum- boldt on the differentiation of man: “ Mankind presents a graduation into more docile, higher cultivated, through intel- lectual culture more ennobled, but not unconditionally nobler races. All are in the same measure destined to enjoy liberty, which in the more barbarous conditions consists in personal independence and in the civilized state, under the protection of political institutions, secures for all equal rights.” Diver- sity of adaptation, conditions of climate accelerate or retard the social progress, but all have to struggle for its achieve- ment under the slow and severe process of social evolution.
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This is the physico-mechanical provision for the accom- plishment of cerebral functions, as far as our present anatom- ical studies have made clear. The act itself of the conver- sion of molecular motion into consciousness, as well of things outside of us—objective consciousness—as also of the internal processes of self-consciousness in gradations of every degree, is yet an unsolved problem, tempting the inventiveness of the speculative mind.
The modern monism accords the origin of the whole uni- verse to an absolute Unity and Fssence whose quality the hu- man mind has no means of investigating, which we aim to ex- press as the union of matter, motion, and mind, three essential realities which never and nowhere exist separately, or as mere functions of one or the other, but are coexistent and universal.
Matter is the extended, space-filling, indestructible reality, subject to gravitation, appearing in three different aggrega- tions—the solid, liquid, and gaseous—and in about seventy-six elementary forms. We recognize in the atom the ultimate divisibility of the chemyal elements; in the molecule the limit of divisibility, without change of its chemical properties: in the advance of the combination of those molecules, first, the stable elements of the mineral kingdom; progressing in the scale of evolution, we advance to the multifarious and mutable hydrocarbon compounds, which are the substratum of the or- ganic creation, the most complex of which are the proteids and albuminoids, which, while some of them may be arti- ficially produced by synthesis, by still further recompounding appear as protoplasma, a living, organized substance, whose continuance depends on an uninterrupted exchange of its con- stituent molecules by the process of nutrition and elimination, and is subiect to death and decay whenever this metabolism is suspended while it is in an active state of growth. It has been suggested by Lester Ward that the ultimate accretions of albuminoids to perfect the constitutionality of protoplasm is no longer dependent on chemical affinity, but follows the law of molar attraction or gravitation, and constitutes mo- tility. This may serve to account for their extreme instability. Contractile tissue and muscular fiber follow.
The second reality is motion, or function of the ether, con-
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sidered by physicists an “imponderable matter,” of which we cannot form any sensual conception, and whose existence we deduce from its functions—light, electricity, magnetism, and radiant heat—which are mutually convertible energies and indestructible. We can only give it the attribute “ ethereal,”
since it is not comparable with any of the qualities of ponder- able matter. Ether is the supporter and transmitter of all modes of motion, the harmonizer of cosmical processes. Po- tential and actual energy, heat and electricity, are in the same constant play- of alternations as the molecular chemism of the elements, and controlled by the laws of the preservation of energy and matter, and are always the same quantitatively.
As a third reality we conceive mind as a cosmic energy. In its action upon the psychic organs of organisms it effects con- sciousness, the idea of the ego, which, with its percepts, sensa- tions, concepts, memories, desires, and volitions, we, by traditional acceptance, know as the soul, a metaphysical en- tity, and which we have been taught to consider as different from the body, although with widely differing opinions as re- eards their mutual relations.
This cosmic mind can possibly have no semblance to the highest intelligence we know of, the human mind.
The human mind lives, so to speak, within a triple environ- ment of its expansiveness.
We are aware of the outer world by sensual perceptions, out of which, in another cerebral department, the percepts are transformed into concepts, construed into thoughts and ideas, processes, which ultimately enable our reflective ca- pacity to understand that what we think we know of the world outside of us is only a reflected image of the reality of things; but what all things may be by themselves, beyond the inter- pretations of our senses, we are utterly in the dark, without a ray of hope or probability of ever passing this limitation.
It appears to me that the cosmic mind, unlimited as we as- sume it to be in its expanse, must also be beyond all estima- tion, penetrating, knowing the inside of things as well as their outer appearances. ‘The only revelation from the sacred Looks of the East we are assured to have been given concern- ing it, was given but once—to Moses on Sinai—in the words -
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* Tam that Iam.” (The translation from the Hebrew as “ I mamas not correct... [tas meant: “ The essence I any?" am the true essence of things.”) The oldest of the Brahmanic sacred books, “ The Upanishads,” records a similar short sen- tence, which expresses the deepest meaning of their religious ‘ideas: “Vat tuam asi ’—“ Thy own self is the divinity.” The philosophies, both of Greece and of India, started before the days of Homer or Solomon from a common point—namely, from the conviction that our ordinary knowledge, depending upon the report of the senses. is uncertain and deceitful. Our knowledge according to Hindoo philosophers depends on two authorities—namely, sensual perception and deduction.
An infinite intelligence does not depend on our mind proc- esses, on induction and deduction; it is the power of intui- tion, and its effect is causation.
I think it is not an illegitimate analogy to compare the func- tions of the brain with the respiratory process of the lungs. It calls for an uninterrupted vital process to maintain the blood corpuscles in a state of receptivity for the process of oxidation, on which depends the whole process of renewal and elimination. We know, on the other hand, that electric currents of measurable intensities are constantly generated in the whole nervous system, perhaps thereby producing the con- dition of maturity for the intussusception of the cosmic mind force manifesting itself as consciousness. The limitation of all individualized substances and the delineation of all forms in the organic and inorganic world and the persistence of inherit- ance of specific properties or qualities belong in the category of this mind force.
It pictures the flowery congelation of the watery vapor on the freezing window pane, prescribes the angles and corners of the forming crystal.
It may affect protoplasm in inconceivable paths to some kind of sensation in the plant, to emotion in the lower animals, and ultimately guide the intricate process of reasoning and light up to the highest spheres of our ideal aspirations. It stands in the same relation to the whole of the cosmos as self- consciousness does to plain consciousness, representing divine ommniscience.
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“Ob wohl Natur sich selbst erkennt? ”’ —Goethe, Faust.
May not Nature be self-conscious?
In rhythmic swells like ocean waves flows by the current of history. The past fifty years presented a period of unparal- leled material progress in all civilized countries. The advance in mechanical and technical operations in transportation and production was so immense that they would nec- essarily imply a new valuation of human life. It is the out- come of the progress of the natural sciences. The measure of its value can only be taken by a parallelization with moral progress, on which rest the security, peace, and happiness of society. The evident disproportion in these two kinds of ad- vances is due to the different nature of motor forces, the real- istic or materialistic on the one side, and the idealistic on the other. Neither one is, of itself, either good or bad, and their efficiency depends upon the direction of the impetus with which they are started.
The materialist subjugates the forces of nature for material purposes, without definite reference to their bearing on thé character and moral standing of the individual or the commu- nity... The character’ of this, force; is, purely,,intellectual:) it has an egoistic tendency.
The idealist is moved by sympathetic impulses. The psychical impulse originates in the sympathetic and allied nervous system; the intellectual sphere is a mere consulting —often a reluctant—aid. Sympathetic feeling is preéxistent: in the course of evolution it is very likely active before the de- velopment of nervous systems, and inherent to the unspecial- ized nerve matter. Its ultimate judgments and aspirations turn to the realization of the highest truth, goodness, beauty, and justice. :
The realist finds the anchorage of his judgments in condi- tions as they are actually presented; the idealist forms trans- cendental estimates—how things ought to be—and judges them by this standard. The realist finds security in direct observation; the idealist is swayed by sentiment. The one operates with the intellect; the other, with emotion. Realism
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consequently advances the sciences; idealism, philosophy, re- ligion, history. In the logical procedure realism proceeds in- ductively ; idealism, deductively.
Never was, in a short interval of time, this division of psychic energy more clearly defined than in the teachings of Plato and Aristotle—men of such eminent wisdom that their axioms remained as guiding stars for these two factions of philosophy for twenty centuries.
It seems to fit the occasion to explain the principal atti- tudes of mind, instinct and intelligence.
In his work on “ Origin of Species,’ Darwin gives the fol- lowing definition of instinct: “An action which we ourselves should require experience to enable us to perform, when per- formed by an animal, more especially very young ones, without any experience, and when performed by many individuals in the same way, without knowing for what purpose it is per- formed, is usually said to be instinctive. As all instincts show a trace of selective qualities, a trace of reasoning power has also to be conceded, even to the lowest ones.” He further qualified this tenet by the following doctrines:
1. The instincts of the species differ with individuals, and are in the same way subject:to variation as are the morpho- logical marks of bodily formation.
2. These variations are by inheritance in part transferred to the descendants, and in the succession of generations accumu- lated and confirmed.
3. Selection (artificial as well as natural) exercises amongst these hereditary variations of vital activities a preference in continuing the most useful and abandoning the less suitable modifications. ;
4. The divergence of physical characters, thus originated, leads to the continuity of succession in the same manner to the origin of new instincts as does the divergence of morpholog- ical characters produce new species.
The scholastic medieval psychologic views—which even yet have adherents—made an absolute distinction between the psychical activity of animals and man, calling the former “ in- stinct ” (implanted) and the latter “ reason,” judging that, ac- cording to the Mosaic history of creation, every species of ani-
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inal received a certain measure of intelligence, just sufficient for its protection and maintenance. The latter opinion we find plainest expressed in the works of Thomas ab Aquina, a medizeval saint and celebrated doctor of theology, and inter- preter of the works of Aristotle.
It is generally believed that instincts are infallible guides of action. This is, however, far from being true to its full ex- tent. They often lead to great injury to the individual, and even destruction of large masses. They are sufficient only for the maintenance of the species in the lower orders, who dis- pose of an immense reproductivity. A phase of selective ac- tion, the germ of reason, is, as above mooted, traceable very early in the course of evolution. A similar relation is manifest also in the unconscious (not instinctive) actions of man. The execution of, for instance, a sonata may pass on in a dormant state of reason, as far as memory of melody, but the expression of pathos or affection must be rendered in full consciousness or the performance will be a failure.
Of instincts there are innumerable varieties—as many, in- deed, as there are species of animals. All may be distinguished on two fundamental principles, as primary and secondary. ~
Primary instincts are the general lower impulses, which from the beginning of organic life existed in the unconscious state of the “ psychoplasma”"’ as inherent qualities—self-pres- ervation (protection and nutrition), and propagation (coitus and rearing of the young). These two fundamental motors of organic life, hunger and love, have originated uncon- sciously, without the access of reason or intelligence, but have afterwards, in the course of evolution, by man and the higher animals become objects of consciousness.
A reverse relation governs the secondary instincts. These have primarily come about by intelligent adaptation, by rational thinking and reflection, and by appropriate conscious action. Gradually they became habitual and unconsciously effective, and appear now in the descendants through inher- itance as congenital qualities.
The first authorities in physiology and animal psychology have now arrived at the nearly uniform agreement that there is no qualitative, but only a quantitative, difference be-
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tween the souls of men and animals. The movements, desires, and actions, from the lowest to the highest, are determined by antecedent physiological states. The changes which at each moment take place in consciousness are produced by an in- finitude of previous experiences, registered in the nervous structure, codperating with the immediate impressions on the senses; the effects of these combined factors being in every case qualified by the physical state, general or local, of the or- ganism.
The current tenet respecting the freedom of the will is “ that every one is at liberty to do what he desires to do.” All admit this; however, the real proposition involved in the dogma of free will is, whether every one is at liberty to desire or not to desire. The mainspring of desires, the physiological state, has to respond to the solution of this question.
Feber mopencer “expresses, himseli, thus: «~ Psychical changes either conform to law or they do not. If they do not conform to law, any work on psychical inquiry is sheer non- sense; no science of psychology is possible. If they do con- form to law, there cannot be any such thing as free will.”
The intellectual expression of the will we find in its influ- ence on consciousness. The normal state of consciousness supposes diffusion, with the work of the brain diffused. The will can localize the work of the brain to special regions, or it may affect different elements, spread through the mass of en- cephalon, to a working in harmony, to the exclusion of the others. This attitude of the mind constitutes attention. Consumption of stored-up energy is called in aid for the per- fection of this etfort, which is only transient and soon brings about relaxation. ‘This is the culmination of mind energy.
As the greatest multitude of vital actions are ever-return- ing repetitions of actions of the same quality, they become habitual, instinctive, unconscious. The combination of the mind elements subserving these unconscious actions consti- tutes the instinct mechanisms of the brains. That such in- stinct mechanisms direct not only the actions of the lower animals, but also the higher organisms, including man, we daily experience in the process of training, through which we convert intellectually-conceived actions into unconsciously-
10
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transpiring ones. Such actions are walking, riding, singing, speaking, piano playing, and almost all intellectual actions. These acquired unconscious faculties are not transmissible to descendants by inheritance, although this had been the process by which instincts had originally been built up.
The inherited mechanisms of instinct have, in the course of evolution, been superseded by an organ of educability, the evolution of the organs of the mind, the great hemispheres of the brain. The annexed diagrams give a graphic illustration of the gradual expansion and preponderance of the intellectual over the vegetative, purely instinctive, reflex, and emotional organs and functions.
Comparative sketch of cerebral structure of Fish, Reptile, Bird, Mammal, and Man, viewed laterally (A) and from above (B); of, olfactory ; er, hemispheres ; 0/, corpus callosum ; cb, cerebellum ; #, medulla oblongata. —After Le Conte.
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Schematic illustration of the cerebral increase by the different classes of vertebrates, projected in supraposition : o/, olfactory lobe ; cr, cerebrum ; op, corpus callosum or median sphere ; mensch, man; saiigethier, mam- mal; vogel, bird. (The median sphere progresses in evolution in com- plexity of structure and increasing number of component elements.
Satiated (as we now are, almost) by the daily recurrent gifts of inventive genius, and influx of material riches, we stand listening on the shore of time, and watching, for ear and eye perceive a new swell and the distant rumble of another wave, the first ripples of which indicate its idealistic nature, and in- dicate the demands of the era of the twentieth century.
The peace conference at’ The Hague, the parliaments of re- ligion, the societies for ethical culture, have initiated these movements: Universality and unity of religious sentiment, that cannot be dismembered by commanding dogmas; pacifi- cation of the conflict between capital and labor by legally limiting the aggressiveness of either; defining on statistical estimates the share of labor in the net profits; a stronger gov- ernment with relinquishment of the policy of leniency and hes- itation which only serves to embolden violent and obstreper- ous characters, and encourages them to deeds such as have now cast the whole nation in grief and distress; the remotest of the Aleutian Islands to be chosen as a place of exile for dan- gerous criminals; deliverance of the educational system from ecclesiastic supervision, and the organization of its administra- tion intrusted to a commission, selected from the professors and lecturers in the universities, technical schools, and art schools, with authority to make appointments and designate
292 Puttosorpny or Borany.
the courses of instruction. In view of the fact that all doc- trines, including theology, have to incorporate into their teach- ing the results of the natural sciences, as under their discipline alone correct thinking can be acquired, science teaching should on an appropriate scale be attempted in all grades. Abandon- ment of the missionary invasion commends itself on pleas of equity and prudence. Bold persistence in the traditional prac- tice would provoke a permanent and irreconcilable conflict. Should the Eastern nations be considered amenable to the practices of the international code, they must be met on terms of complete political equality, as the disquieting introduction of dogmas alien to their national character, religious and polit- ical institutions born of the most ancient lineage in the world, must naturally appear to them as an unbearable imposition.
The comparative study of religions—Brahmanism, Bud- dhism, Parseeism, Mohammedanism—has proven that the ele- ments of pure ethics are the same in all, and like in Christian- ity, and that errors and abuses have, from human depravity, equally corrupted all, and that in the progress of time with a strictly scientific theosophy a harmony could be effected. _
Our own grievous sectarian ebullitions are sorry witnesses oi the intellectual neglect and stifling influences of dogmatic superstitions. Those movements. are also idealistic waves, but—alas !—of the briny flood that ruins fertile fields by its overflows.
Creeds, brought down from hoary antiquity as symbols of pristine religious sentiment, do no longer express the more ex- alted attitude of present generations toward the eternal and infinite, and reasonable and honest theologians are acknowl- edging the right of pure reason to subject to criticism the fountains of those creeds, and the so-called higher criticism is the result.
Epochs of history do not follow now in such tardy succes- sion as they did in ancient time and still do in uncivilized re- gions, and the coming generation will not have gone into its grave when the portentous commotions produced by the pres- ent idealistic wave will have subsided in compromises and new financial and economic methods.
‘ad
Puitosopuy or Borany. 293
Thus the floods of ideas will swell and sink as long as the deeds of men make history.
At the Tennessee Centennial in 1897 I attended the Liberal Congress of Religions and joined in the Lord’s Prayer with the Hindoo, Parsee, Mohammedan, and Jew. I felt deeply im- pressed by the simple service, but from the absence of the ministry I became aware that the morning star of the union of religions, was, for this latitude, yet below the horizon of sec- tarian strife.
Constitutions of minds and ways of life differ amongst men immensely. The increasing acceptance of demonstrable facts may gradually effect a better understanding, and ultimately reconcile the still invincible adherents to tradition. The frame of mind which prompted my philosophy has come to me by way of my professional calling, and my early acquired habit of pursuing botanical studies, by which I learned to look, not only to the flowery side of things, but also to their roots and fruits, and which removed me more or less from the fictitious aspirations and pretensions of society.
My travels had no semblance with the rambles of the roam- ing nomad, who prostrated himself before the phantom of the burning bush and received a mission for conquest.
My path was lighted by a milder sun; it led over humming and blooming meadows to the silent forest, where a friendly Drvad received me into her shade, inviting to musing repose. She interpreted to me the sounds of the rustling leaves, the chirping of the cicada, the melody of the sweet songsters, and enjoined me to search and reason.
Was kann der Mensch im Leben mehr gewinnen Als dass sich Gott Natur ihm offenbare? —Goethe.
Life’s greatest glory is that mind In Nature God revealed may find.
As in a dream it came to my thoughts that the charming picture spread before me was the effect of the alternation of light and color, and that no object could be visible unless it cast a shadow; that all evils that oppress earthly life are the necessary consequences of individualization and differentia- tion in the organic world; imperfection to be the condition
294 Puitosorny or Borany.
under which alone individuality is granted; perfection to be alone the attribute of that infinite reality who, divesting him- self of his all-embracing personality, assumed the garb of the cosmos and endowed it with intelligence and love, beauty and justice, to adjust its inequalities in the process of evolution.
As the dewdrop reposing on the grass blade, glittering in the morning sun, reflects the splendor of the heavens and the image of the horizon, until with the rising day it disappears, dissolving in the air, thus the light of philosophy pictures the image of ideas on a film of protoplasm.
Authors Consulted or Referred to in the Philosophy of Botany.
Schleiden, M. I., Ph.D., “ Grundziige der Wisscnschaftlichen 3otanik.” Leipzig, 1889.
Sachs, Julius, “ Vorlesungen itiber Pflanzenphysiologic.” Leipzig, 1882.
Strassburger, Dr., Eduard, “Das Botanische Practicum.” Jena, 1884.
Cohn, Dr., Ferdinand, “ Die Pflanze, Vortrege aus dem Ge- biete der Botanik.” Breslau, 1882.
De Candolle, Alph, “ Origine des Plantes Cultivees.” Paris, 1883.
Haeckel, Ernst, “ Natiirlicne Schépfungs-Geschichte.” Two volumes. Berlin, 1898.
Haeckel, Ernst, “ Die Weltraethsel.” Ninth edition. Bonn, 1899.
Sterne, Carus, Werden und Vergehen, “ Eine Entwickelungs- Geschichte des Naturganzen.”” Twovolumes. Berlin, 1go1.
Buchner Dr., Ludwig, “ Kraft and Stoff.” Leipzig, 1894.
Fechner, Gustav Theodore, “ Nanna oder tiber das Seelenle- ben der Pflanzen.” Second edition. Hamburg, 1899.
Wundt, Dr., Wilhelm, “ Vorlesungen tiber die Menschen und Thicrseele.” Hamburg and Leipzig, 1892
Schopenhauer, Arthur, “Samntliche Werke.” Six volumes. Leipzig, 1891.
Brucker’s “ History of Philosophy.” Edited by William En- field. One volume. London, 1837.
Lange, Fried., Albert, “ Geschichte des Materialismus.” Iser- lohn, 1881.
Waitz, Dr., Theodor, “Anthropology.” Six volumes. Leip- zig, 1872.
Strauss, D. F., “ Der Alte and der Neue Glaube.” Bonn, 1877.
Humboldt, Alex., von, “ Kosmos.” Five volumes. Stuttgart, 1850.
Humboldt, Alex., von, “Ansichten der Natur.” Stuttgart, 1859.
296 Puitosopuy or Borany.
Lyell, Sir Charles, “Antiquity of Man.” London, 1863.
Darwin, Charles, “ Collected Works.” London, 1866.
Draper, John William, “ History of the Intellectual Develop- ment of Europe.” Two volumes. New York, 1876.
Marsh, George T., “ Man and Nature.” New York, 1864.
Vogt, Carl, “ Vorlesungen iiber den Menschen.” Giessen, TRGO.ab s
Schlosser, F. C.; “ Weltgeschichte.” .Nineteen~ volumes: Frankfurst, 1855.
Peschel, Oscar, ‘‘ The Races of Man.” New York, 1876.
Miiller, Max., “ Lectures on Science of Religion.”’ London. 1872,
Miiller, Max., “ Theosophy; or, Psychological Religion.” London, 1893.
Nageli, Carl, von, “ Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstammungs-Lehre.” Miinchen und Leipzig, 1884.
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