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FRONTISPIECE.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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Uys, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN No. 15.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

FORAGE CONDITIONS ON THE NORTHERN
: BORDER OF THE GREAT BASIN,

BEING A

REPORT UPON INVESTIGATIONS MADE DURING JULY AND AUGUST, 1903,
IN THE REGION BETWEEN WINNEMUCCA, NEVADA,
AND ONTARIO, OREGON.

BY

DAVID GRIFFITHS, Expert ry Cuarck oF FIELD MANAGEMENT,

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
LO 2.

ib Ie Oy Pe RIN S WEEE TE MIL,

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau oF Puant INpustrRyY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., December 1, 1901.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper on Forage Con-
ditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin, and respectfully
recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 15 of the Bureau series.
The paper was prepared by Mr. David Griffiths, expert in charge of
field management, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, and was
submitted by the Agrostologist.
Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.
2

Je JK 13h Je BC By.

In July, 1901, Dr. David Griffiths, expert in charge of field manage-
ment, accompanied by Mr. E. L. Morris, was commissioned to visit
northern Nevada and southern Oregon to investigate the range condi-
tions in that section, and the results of his observations are embodied
in this bulletin.

Comparatively little was previously known as to the existing condi-
tions in this region, and the present report shows the pressing need of
reform in range management—a matter which apples not only to this
section, but to all the open ranges in the West. Throughout the entire
West, as the better land has been taken up by settlers the cattle and
sheep ranges have become more restricted, and stock are now forced
back from the fertile river bottoms and other lands so situated as to
make irrigation possible, and the inevitable result has been overstock-
ing of these restricted and poorer ranges, with all the attendant evils.

In pursuing his investigations Dr. Griffiths visited the Pine Forest,
Bartlett Peak, Steins, White Horse, Blue, and Bendire mountains,
the valleys of the Humboldt, Quinn, Silvies, and Malheur rivers, and
the basins of the Alvord Desert and Malheur Lake, thereby traveling
about 700 miles between July 17 and August 30. In furtherance of
these investigations, Hon. J. P. Irish and Mr. John Gilcrest, superin-
tendent of the Miller and Lux and the Pacific Live Stock companies’
interests in Nevada and Oregon, furnished transportation, guides,
and living expenses for the party for practically the entire trip from
Winnemucca, Ney., to Ontario, Oreg.; and to both Mr. Irish and Mr.
Gilcrest we are greatly indebted for courtesies shown during the trip.
Acknowledgment is also here made to the Bureau of Soils of this
Department for the analysis of soil samples collected on the trip.

F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER,
Agrostologist.

Grass AND ForaGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS,
Washington, D. C., November 29, 1901.

CONTENTS,

Page
IEDM NOWRA NON NS Fs Cs i ee ee ele a ga A 9
DEScriIMMONEOnt Me MeClOMNe emt shee gency Mee eee Se ok 12
recitation mecordior 1900 ancdulOOi ss eee se i 3
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TELUS) ROU) SINE SIS) is cg Es MRP eee 42
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INNS GLOWS. Sas USE SES Aes pS a Se Rae Seo a cana cee 45
MneRseMecorAMCEMSINe Ss mei weenie aero eee a gee SS Uo ee 46
Miscellaneous eames ence ure en SU. tea Sa oe et ed 48
INOS) (AERIS) seh. Sie, EO Ts er a i ec a ee EL eee eg 49
SNOT AY 65 esl Gages tay eS ta cs TN 2 eg a ge ee Rg 55

USSR LON Ss

MAP.

Map of northern Nevada and southern Oregon, showing region traversed.
Frontispiece.

PLATES.
Page.

Pu. I. Fig. 1. Cattle range in Bendire Mountains, Oregon. Blue grass, fescue,
and black sage in foreground and a few junipers in the distance.
Fig. 2. Desert view near Denio, Oregon. Black sage, bud sage, spiny

saltbush, rayless goldenrod, and hop sage shown ................-- 12
II. Fig. 1. Mountain pasture in Blue Mountains along Calamity Creek,
Oregon. Fig. 2. Black sage on Malheur River near Vale, Oregon. . - 14

III. Fig. 1. Grazed Nuttall’s saltbush. No other vegetation shown in fore-
ground except one bunch of cactus. Fig. 2. Black sage (Artemisia
rigida) grazed. Common black sage (Artemisia tridentata) in back-

PSRTRONDUONO LANNE SCN a Ot SI a a ln le A SM a ea at 20

IV. Fig. 1. A depleted range in Steins Mountains, Oregon. Objects in fore-
ground are dead stools of sheep fescue. Fig. 2. Surface view of soil
in Pine Forest Mountains, Nevada, after close grazing by sheep ---.- 22

V. Fig. 1. Showing habits of sheep during the cool morning, Steins
Mountains, Oregon. Fig. 2. Showing habitsof sheep during the heat
onthe day iane Horest Mountains: Nevada se: 205 Wes ier So 26

VI. Fig. 1. Cattle range in Pine Forest Mountains, Nevada. Fig. 2.
Herder’s habitation during the summer grazing season in Steins
HAY (@ybuanmebaysl’ Oyckereray aly Mies ule ek tall UE Mal OAT ite A st ML Ua lek palo 28

VII. Fig. 1. Showing the habitat and a fair crop of prairie bulrush on
Manns Lake Ranch, 20 miles northeast of Andrews, Oregon. Fig. 2.
Tetradymia and Psoralea holding drifting sands 20 miles north of
VAIO ETN CCAM ENG WclClae rn yc G Heer a ely ARATE VNR SU i Nay i oat aL Sea 32

VIII. Fig. 1. Stacking hay with a Jackson fork and tripod. Thompson
Brothers’ ranch, near Beulah, Oregon. Fig. 2. Stacking hay with a
‘‘slide,’’ Island ranch, Malheur Lake bottoms, Oregon. A ton of
naa SROmMetMercliG empmmeiee umn oll LN iso ie lye Mes a UN) yeh a 34

IX. Fig. 1. Stacking alfalfa with a derrick, Harper ranch, near Westfall,
Oregon. Fig. 2. Stacking alfalfa with Jackson fork, Arcadia ranch,
near Ontario, Oreg. Stacks are 375 feet long, 75 feet over, and 28

VCEXERS ENCLOSE a GA aS eg an A a De 36
X. Fig. 1. A hay camp, Island ranch, Malheur Lake bottoms, Oregon.
igs zomloadedviour-norse DUCK ss 28 ha 2s LEI cn ily Sena 38

XIII.

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VA:

ILLUSTRATIONS.

. Fig. 1. A typical northern Nevada ranch, Quinn River Crossing.

Fig. 2. Divine’s ranch, eastern base of Steins Mountains, Oregon...

. Fig. 1. A part of a day’s round-up of beef, Silvies. Valley, Oregon.

Smoke from a forest fire shown along the horizon. Fig. 2. A well-
developed greasewood bush near Winnemucca, Nevada .....--- aes
Fig. 1. A moderately grazed native pasture in Steins Mountains, Oregon.
Stubble of sheep fescue constitutes nearly the entire vegetation in
foreground. Fig. 2. A giant rye-grass meadow, Quinn River Cross-
Ine; N@vadas. oo sees ac hrs Sere Sie ere a ag ee a ee
Fig. 1. Four weeks’ growth of second-crop alfalfa, near Ontario, Oregon.
Field said to have produced 10 tons of hay on three cuttings last year.
Fig. 2. Wild wheat near Winnemucca, Nevada. Closely pastured
meadow, OL Same Crass 1M Moree Oo uncle ee ee a ene
Fig. 1..Sprangle top (Scolochloa festucacea) on Malheur Lake bottoms,
Oregon. Fig. 2. A patch of tule on Malheur Lake bottoms, Oregon.
The team is standing in a patch of bur-reed (Sparganum) .....--.--
Fig. 1. A volunteer crop of barnyard grass, Harper ranch, near West-
fall, Oregon. Fig. 2. Beard grass, from photograph of plant grown
néar Tucson; Arizona... hos.022 6 cee oe ee eae ee eee eee

Page.

42

46

48

52

BePy P18 Agros.—96

FORAGE CONDITIONS ON THE NORTHERN BORDER
OF THE GREAT BASIN.

INTRODUCTION.

The area of our public grazing lands has decreased so steadily with
the tide of westward emigration that the stock industry, which once
flourished on the magnificent pastures of the public ranges, is now
driven into situations either too arid or too rugged for the husband-
man’s use. From a natural tendency to increase rather than to dimin-
ish the number of stock has resulted a condition of shortage of feed,
which was foretold years ago by those who were then studying the
treatment of the ranges. This condition has awakened great activity
in investigations of questions pertaining to the preservation of the
feed supply of the public pasture lands. So numerous are the requests
for information, advice, and suggestions for the improvement and
management of the ranges which are received in the office of the Agros-
tologist that it is very difficult to give all of them the attention which
they deserve.

In response to one of these requests the writer and Mr. E. L. Morris
were commissioned to make a tour of a portion of the ranges of
northern Nevada and southeastern Oregon for the purpose of determin-
ing the condition of the forage supply and ascertaining, if possible, some
method of treatment of the range and pasture lands which would tend
to increase the efficiency of the pastures and hay meadows.

A request from the secretary of the Eastern Wyoming Wool Growers’
Association, that a representative of the office visit the midsummer
meeting of that body for the purpose of addressing the members in
attendance on range and forage plant problems, was received prior to
our departure for the field. Arrangements were therefore made to
attend the meeting of this association, held at Douglas, Wyo., July 10,
11, and 12 to give such information and advice as seemed best calcu-
lated to be of service to those in attendance and to acquaint them with
the work of the office of the Agrostologist. The interest which nat-
urally exists in forage and range problems was abundantly exhibited
in the meetings and by the attitude of the members toward forage
problems as they came before them. The programme itself exhibited
this interest in no mistakable terms, for there were three places allotted

9

10 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

to addresses on the various phases of grass and forage problems and
range reclamation by as many persons. The problems of greatest
interest to the meeting appeared to be those relating to the most prom-
ising arid land species of forage plants, forage plants for alkali soils,
and methods of range management having for their object the greatest
permanent efficiency of the native pastures.

After the conclusion of the meeting at Douglas the party proceeded
directly to Winnemucca, Nev., and began its work along the Humboldt
River bottoms. ‘The lines of investigation covered every phase of for-
age plant and range questions in the region, and necessitated work
along about six lines, namely, studying the native ranges, securing
information from the ranchers in the region relative to former con-
ditions, collecting specimens, gathering seed of promising native
species of forage plants, digging soil samples, and taking photographs
illustrating the various features of the work.

After a few days’ work on the Humboldt River bottoms in the
vicinity of Winnemucca, the party started northward, making several
short stops before reaching Quinn River crossing, 75 miles to the
northwest. Here we made our headquarters until the 1st of August.
Being a representative and rather favorable locality, we found an
abundance of very interesting and profitable work. From here we
outfitted for a trip to the ranches surrounding the Pine Forest
Mountains, all of which are known locally as part of the ‘‘ Quinn River
outfit,” stopping en route at the ranches known as Big Creek, Alder
Creek, and Leonard Creek. From Alder Creek a trip was taken into
the Pine Forest Mountains, and from Leonard Creek into the moun-
tains in the vicinity of Summit Lake and Bartlett Peak, both under the
guidance of Mr. Robert Bowling.

On the Ist of August we crossed the Nevada-Oregon line at Denio
and the next day reached the White Horse Ranch, near the site of old
Fort Smith. Work was confined here to hay and pasture meadows
and to a two days’ trip into the White Horse Mountains, a low range
forming the watershed between the Quinn River and the Alvord drain-
ages. Our route was along the divide skirting the headwaters of Wil-
low, Cottonwood, and White Horse creeks. The next stop was made
at the Wild Horse Ranch, near Andrews. This property is but little
improved and therefore affords an excellent opportunity for studying
the condition of the native meadows of the region. Here we secured
a pack outfit, consisting of three saddle horses and two mules, for a trip
into Steins Mountains, under the guidance of Mr. Joe Bankofier. <A
special effort was made to traverse the region known as the summer
range, where the greatest number of stock is usually found at this
time of the year. The mountains were ascended from the Wild Horse
side by the trail leading to Ankle Camp, a round-up station in the

INTRODUCTION. 11

mountains. From here on until within a few miles of Manns Lake
there was practically no trail, except such as had been made here and
there by cattle and sheep traveling to and from water and feed. In
no case did we reach the highest elevation on the mountains, but skirted
them on the west and north along the broad broken table-lands where
so much pasturing is done. Our course led across and somewhat below
the sources of the Blitzen, Mud, Indian, and Cocoamongo creeks.
From Manns Lake we returned to Wild Horse along the traveled road
between the Alvord Desert and the base of the mountains, having in
this manner surrounded the main divide of Steins Mountains and
having traversed the main summer range of the region, accomplishing
in this mountain range a similar survey of the country as we did in the
Pine Forest and adjacent ranges in northern Nevada. Returning
from Wild Horse to Manns Lake, a couple of days were spent in the
vicinity of Divine’s ranch, which extends from the eastern slope of
Steins Mountains to the Alvord Desert. The next stop of any length
of time was made on the Island Ranch, between the forks of Silvies
River, 15 miles south of Burns. From here we traveled by rather
rapid stages to Ontario, passing en route Silvies, Calamity Settlement,
Drewsey, Beulah, Westfall, and Vail. Short stops of one to three days
were made near Silvies and Beulah, and at Indian Creek and Harper
ranches.

For some features of the work conditions were not at all favorable.
The region should have been visited about twenty days earlier for the
collection of specimens. Many important things on the desert were
so far gone when we arrived that good specimens could not be obtained;
but, while there was loss in this respect, we were able to secure a large
quantity of seed, especially of the valuable wild wheat (Alymus tri-
ticoides); and we were in just the right time for the study of the
native hay meadows and the summer mountain pastures under full
stocking.

The trip under the circumstances was very easily made, and was
devoid of the many hardships which are usually encountered, even in
regions much more easily traveled. This was due entirely to the
excellent provisions made for our accommodation. The traveling was
done by team, except when we took pack outfits on mountain trips.
(See Pls. I, fig. 2; 11, fig. 2; III, figs. 1 and 2, and IV, fig. 1.) During
nearly the entire six weeks we received accommodations at ranches
lying along the route. Sometimes the stops were made at a ranch;
at other times with the hay crews on the meadows, and in one instance
with a round-up outfit that was gathering beef for the market. A
total of about 700 miles was covered in this manner, through probably
the most sparsely populated and one of the largest areas in the country,
with no railroads or telegraphic communication.

12. FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION.

The greater portion of the area studied is situated in the Great Basin,
and may be briefly and tersely described as a series of basins along
the border of this large arid region, which receives less than 10 inches
of moisture during the entire twelve months. |

As would be expected, the transition from the Great Basin to the
headwaters of the Columbia River is a very slow and gradual one,
and the remarks which follow, while dealing especially with the por-
tion of the Great Basin visited, apply in general to that portion of the
Columbia River drainage which lies contiguous to it on the north.
The main basins visited were the Alvoid Desert and the basin of the
Malheur and Harney lakes. <A glance at the map will show that even
the river valleys are in effect basins, for they almost invariably empty
into *‘ sinks” (broad, level areas) over which their waters spread and
evaporate early in the summer, leaving a broad expanse of grayish
white soil with no vegetation and often deeply fissured, as shown in the
lower portion of Pl. VU, fig. 1. The Quinn River Valley is simply a
portion of the large Black Rock Desert basin, and a section of it in
the vicinity of Quinn River Crossing does not differ materially from
a similar section of the basin of the Alvord Desert.

These level desert bottoms receive considerable water in the spring
of the year from melting snows on surrounding mountains. The
Alvord Desert, it is said, is usually a lake varying from a few inches
to a foot or two in depth at this season, the depth varying greatly,
however, from day to day in the different portions of the bed, depend-
ing upon the direction and velocity of the wind. Surrounding these
areas, many of which are entirely devoid of vegetation during the
entire year, while others less pronounced have scattering growths of
iodine weed (Spirostachys occidentalis) and scattering bunches of
greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), is found a zone of greater or
less extent—a few feet to several rods or even a mile in some cases—
of salt grass (Distichlis spicata). Beyond this the greasewood again
_ predominates, but often gives place in certain localities to the rayless

goldenrod—the rabbit brush of the region (Chrysothamnus graveo-
lens). Beyond the greasewood belt the soil is less alkaline, as shown
by the presence of the black sage (Artemisia tridentata), which extends
from here through the ravines and other depressions up into the
mountains. On the lower foothills between the ravines, in which the
black sage is the characteristic plant, the spiny saltbush (Atriplex
confertifolia), hop sage (Grayia spinosa), and bud sage (Artemisca
spinescens) are usually the conspicuous plants, especially in northern
Nevada. The latter are less conspicuous to the northward. Indeed,
we saw but very little of the three last named after leaving the Alvoid
Desert until we reached the main stream of the Malheur River near
the Harper Ranch, 40 miles above Ontario, Oreg.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, Us S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |.

Fig. 1.—CATTLE RANGE IN BENDIRE MOUNTAINS, OREGON.

Blue grass, fescue, and black sage in foreground and a few junipers in the distance.

Fig. 2.—DESERT VIEW NEAR DENIO, OREGON.

Black sage, bud sage, spiny saltbush, rayless goldenrod, and hop sage shown.

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. te

PRECIPITATION RECORD FOR 1900 AND 1901.

In common with the entire Great Basin area the precipitation is
very meager and occurs mainly during the winter months. The fol-
lowing table, kindly furnished by the United States Weather Bureau,
shows for Winnemucca, Nev., and Burns, Oreg., a total precipitation
of less than 7} inches for the entire twelve months of the year 1900:

Precipitation for Nevada and Oregon.

Nevada. Oregon.
Winnemucca. eee Burns.
1900. 1901. 1900.2 1901. 1900. 1901.

JBI Saou oe ee seSUos Se LoeCeereh es aeaee 0. 71 Acie es Sen Sea |acoeecidoe Trace. 1.20
PERG WOISUT ANG Yee rere re rete eaten Me es ay ae! . 69 NON wleea eateries 2.68 1.80 167
INRROO, Roe Bb ooeo eae Se eye ee eae mee 47 SIGu eset ee ee . 26 04 . 30
INTOREHUIS CORRS SNA Pts MES So ate OD gp . 96 LOS WE eed int . 60 1.15 . 34
Sings i Sas Ie i ee 1.47 Vioplcece ae 19 34 12
JRDUINGY en wie ee ests al Staite a2 eae es aes a ee oily 05 | Ara Se cna a2, 34 +15
ARDUN S e aos ese eel seas Pia ea ne Meer eee 504i! MNCS We gaecasene . 00 . 00 . 00
PAU Sc SUR ares ses sofas onesuints SievcretskaSpolnerele Trace IAGO R ee etree 24 pale 22
Seplemilbeny eee sina eiae sevens cetaetclsei seca ODEN apts cleperstonl| smeene eects reece See AZAD ee Ses oe
(ONO OVE ys rs Sie rea te RN a a Sel Rene te | erate ell lager Sarees sODr Peres tats ares
INOViGIMD ER eee es cate tocise einici emrsteiane ee ae Le oAS) el ase eee peal aU a hed (a ea Re ae ae Vial gece
WD) CCEMIDE Raa eee eee eee eeciea teers (J ieacecauonlGeeeacnama baaamesess SO OY eee ete
acne eaten aM al Fa oe | Meeeeeteiil te cree MO Ng cai (al ee

2 No record prior to February, 1901.

It is to be understood, of course, that the observations on precipita-
tion are made on the lowlands. The higher levels receive much more
moisture, or else the region would be a desert indeed. Observations
taken on the summer range on Steins Mountains would be very instruct-
ive and show without doubt a greater precipitation for some months
than for the entire year at Winnemucca or Quinn River Crossing. It
is the low ranges of mountains surrounding the basins that enable the
country to support even a sparse population.

The mountains for the most part are low, under 9,000 feet in alti-
tude, and thinly wooded. <A very prominent characteristic of the
three ranges visited south of Burns—Pine Forest, White Horse, and
Steins Mountains—is the presence of numerous narrow, steep ravines
and gorges bordered by often impassable rim-rocks, and a slope to the
northwest much more gentle and prolonged than that to the southeast.
Indeed, the White Horse Mountains, especially, present the appearance
of a huge fault which has subsequently been cut out by the action of
water until there occurs a long, gentle slope, fissured by narrow
ravines with very precipitous sides and bordered by perpendicular
cliffs of rim-rocks.

Another very striking peculiarity which one used to Rocky Moun-
tain areas notices immediately is the abundance of small springs which

14 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

furnish but little water. This, however, is to be expected in such
small and low mountain ranges. Not only does the water of Nevada
not reach the ocean, but the rivers do not reach the sinks, and the
small tributaries from the mountains often do not reach the main
channel, for all of the water that succeeds in getting down to the fer-
tile sage-brush areas near the river bottoms is used at the present
time in irrigation. The rivers reach the sinks in the spring; the
brooks, the rivers in early summer; but even the rivulets close to the
base of the mountains are dry in summer or early autumn. On the
advent of cool weather in the fall the waters are said to ** rise” whether
it rains or not. Even the diurnal fluctuation in the mountain brooks
is often remarkable. One may find a brook carrying a considerable
volume of water in the morning but have none whatever at 5 o’clock
in the afternoon. By the next morning it will have regained its usual
volume. This was unusually conspicuous on the eastern side of Steins
Mountains at the Divine and Manns Lake ranches, where observations
were conducted for several days. .

The only range containing pine timber south of the spur of the Blue
Mountains, north of Burns, Oreg., was the Pine Forest Range near
Quinn River Crossing. Here on the highest elevations is a scanty
growth of pine (Pinus albicaulis). It is rather astonishing that we
should find this isolated range having pine timber upon it, while
neighboring ones, such as Steins Mountains, have no pineat all. The
latter, however, have a much larger quantity of Juniper (Juniperus
virginiana) than the former. The latter are also said to contain some
balsam in one or two of the canyons, but we found none upon our route.
The principal pine in the spur of the Blue Mountains which we crossed
north of Burns is the bull pine (Pinus scopulorum). The best growth
of juniper seen on the whole trip was in Steins Mountains. Even
here, however, there is seldom what one may terma forest, but on the
contrary, scattering trees, 16 to 18 inches in diameter are found at
long intervals. Aside from the pines and juniper, the only trees of
the region south of Burns are two species of poplar (Populus tremu-
loides and P. trichocarpa). The latter is quite abundant in canyons and
deep ravines in Steins Mountains, but the former species is the impor-
tant one in the other ranges visited, both in the gulches and on the
high shaded slopes. Among other shrubby plants which form dense
thickets, often over areas of considerable extent, may be mentioned:
Mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), service-berry (Amelanchier alni-
Folia), snow brush ( Ceanothus velutinus), spirea (Holodiscus dumosus),
Indian currant (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasz-
phora fruticosa), and choke-cherry (Prunus emarginatus and Prunus
demissa). Along the moister areas in gulches one always finds a pro-
fuse growth of willows which are also sometimes found forming
thickets on high, moist. shady slopes. In the same localities extensive
growths of alder are also to be found. The willows of the entire

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

FiG. 1.—MOUNTAIN PASTURE IN BLUE MOUNTAINS ALONG CALAMITY CREEK, OREGON.

Fic. 2.—BLAcK SAGE ON MALHEUR RIVER NEAR VALE, OREGON.

THE SOILS. 15

region are nearly all small and shrubby. They are seldom large
enough for posts but are often used as stays and to a large extent in
building corrals. |

To casual observation the desert regions are very different from
those of southern Arizona. There is a very noticeable absence of the
creosote bush and the various species of Cactacew, their place being
taken by the spiny salt bush (Atriplex confertifolia), bud sage (Arte-
misia spinescens), and black sage (Artemisia tridentata). Ciose exami-
nation, however, reveals many striking similarities. The preponder-
ance of small animals belonging to the reptilian type, as well as the
remains of an ephemeral spring vegetation, remind one of the southern
deserts. This spring vegetation, which was recognizable at the time
of our visit, belongs largely to the phlox, mustard, and borage fami-
lies and apparently to the botanical genera Gilia, Sisymbrium, Amsin-
kia, and Hritrichiwm, a list which corresponds very closely, as far as
it goes, with the conspicuous fugacious spring plants of the Arizona
deserts.

THE SOILS.

An effort was made to learn as much as possible concerning the
relation of the soluble salts in the soil to the development of forage
crops both native and cultivated. Fifty soil samples were gathered,
but owing to lack of time for their study only twenty-four were
selected for analysis. A comparison of the description of the samples
with the table of analyses will show that the selection was made with
special reference to certain forage crops. The analyses are of value,
therefore, in indicating the kind of soil upon which the best native
forage plants grow, and suggest what may be expected of such areas
when an attempt is made to bring them under cultivation. Ina few
instances analyses of soils which have bafHled attempts at seeding with
cultivated crops, especially alfalfa, are given. Some of the failures
reported and observed are evidently due to too much soluble salts in
the soil, while others are directly traceable to improper application of
irrigation water.

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL SAMPLES.

No. 1.—July 16, on Humboldt River, 3 miles below Winnemucca, Nev. Deep,
productive river-bottom soil, which bakes very hard when dry. It is this soil which
produces fine crops of wild wheat or blue stem (Elymus triticoides). It is evidently
very fertile, and when properly irrigated yields immense crops of hay. The sample
was wet when collected, and was taken from a typical locality from which was being
cut 2 tons ot hay per acre.

No. 3.—July 19, near ‘‘Dutch John ranch,’’ Quinn River Valley, Nev. (Grease-
wood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) soil which bakes very hard when dry. Probably very
alkaline, but this had no crust. Large areas in this vicinity are covered with water
during a portion of the winter and early spring.

No. 4.—July 21, Quinn River Crossing, Ney. Salt grass land, crusty and exceed-
ingly hard. The crust is easily broken, rather thin and seldom white. Below this
isa layer of rather mellow soil subtended by a hardpan. The crust is about one-
eighth of an inch in thickness, mellow soil one-half inch and hardpan indefinite.

16 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

No. 8.—July 21, 1901, Quinn River Crossing, Nev. Giant rye-grass (Elymus con-
densatus) soil, so hard at this time of the year that it is almost impossible to penetrate
it with a trowel. This sample is from the typical open areas on the Quinn River
bottoms near the Miller and Lux ranch, and differs very materially from the soil
which produces equally large quantities of this grass in sage-brush areas. The meadow
from which this sample was taken is heavily pastured during the winter months.

No. 11.—July, 1901, near Leonard Creek ranch, about 85 miles northwest of Win-
nemucca, Nev. There was practically nothing growing where this sample was taken
except Nuttall’s saltbush (Atriplex nuttallii) and white sage (Eurotia lanata). The
sample was taken from a small basin-shaped depression about 20 rods in diameter.
It has a yery different appearance from the typical white sage soil of the region,
the latter usually growing on well-drained slopes with the spiny saltbush ( Atriplea
confertifolia).

No. 13.—July, 1901, Alder Creek ranch, about 100 miles northwest of Winnemucca,
Ney., and at the western base of the Pine Forest Mountains. Meadow soil in which
Nebraska sedge (Carex nebraskensis) grew to the exclusion of all other vegetation.
This sedge invariably grows in low depressions which are flooded for a large part of
the year.

No. 16.—August 1, 1901, in Nevada, near Denio, Oreg. This is considered to be
the typical soil upon which this rayless goldenrod (Chrysothamnus graveolens) is
usually found. There were but very few other shrubs or other vegetation of any
kind growing where the sample was taken.

No. 17.—August 2, 1901, near Denio, Oreg. Sample taken from what appeared
to be a very alkaline situation covered with a good stand of alkali saccaton (Sporo-
bolus airoides) .

No. 18.—August 2, 1901, near Denio, Oreg. Sample from one of the rather sandy
areas surrounding and situated above the bottom of the valley. The vegetation
consists of black sage (Artemisia tridentata), bud sage (Artemisia spinescens), spiny
saltbush (Atriplex confertifolia), hop sage (Grayia spinosa); and rayless goldenrod
(Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus). It is unusual to find these plants growing in this
way. They are usually more or less separated and grow on different soils. It is
common to find two or three of them together, but the writer has never seen them
growing so intimately mixed anywhere else.

No. 22.—August 6, 1901, Alvord Desert, Oregon. This is what is known in the
region as ‘‘self-raising ground.”’ It presents a peculiar appearance, inasmuch as the
soil blisters and is mellow on top, while the subsoil may be moist, as was the case
where this sample was taken, or it may be exceedingly hard when it becomes dried
out. No salt was visible where this sample was taken, neither was there any vegeta-
tion of any kind. The soil is covered in late winter and early spring with about 6
inches of water. This evaporates early in the season, when the ground becomes dry,
hard, and fissured. |

No. 23.—August 6, 1901, on the Wild Horse Ranch, near Andrews, Oreg. The
sample was taken from the center of a large area of salt grass (Distichlis spicata) .
The soil is very hard but has no salt visible upon it. The grass in this locality was
covered with a gummy, acid secretion. This does not appear on the base of the
culms near the ground, but on the upper, green, and vegetative portion of the plant.
It isa very peculiar characteristic of salt grass over large areas in eastern Oregon. It
was met with first in small areas at Quinn River Crossing, Nev., and was subse-
quently observed at Divine’s ranch on the edge of the Alvord Desert, and also on
the Malheur Lake bottom south of Burns. The secretion has a gummy, sticky con-
sistency under ordinary temperatures, but during hot weather, when the samples
were collected, it deliquesced very readily when carried in avasculum. The presence
of the secretion is very noticeable the moment one attempts to walk through an
area of grass covered with it, on account of the impediment which it offers. One’s
clothing soon becomes covered with the gummy substance. The areas upon which it

THE SOILS. Le

appears, while often very large, have quite definite boundaries, and one area may be
entirely free from this secretion while another in close proximity may contain large
quantities of it. No difference was observed between soil characteristics of the
affected and unaffected areas. The largest quantity of deposit and the largest extent
of grass affected was on the meadows near Andrews, Oreg.

No. 24.—August 7, 1901, Wild Horse Ranch, near Andrews, Oreg. Garden soil
irrigated from a spring of pure water, * located on an alkali knoll, which produced
nothing but salt grass. The garden was located about 10 feet lower than the spring.
A black crust is often seen on the ground and along the ditches, but in spite of this
strongly alkaline appearance good vegetables, potatoes, onions, and beets were
raised on the soil.

No. 25.—August 7, 1901, Wild Horse Ranch, near Andrews, Oreg. This is asample
of a black deposit from the edges of the irrigating ditch carrying water spoken of
in sample 24. <A black crusty deposit appears all along the ditches. *

No. 26.—August 7, 1901, Wild Horse Ranch, near Andrews, Oreg. Soil from
which this sample was taken contained a very conspicuous growth of rayless golden-
rod (Chrysothamnus graveolens) with alkali grass ( Puccinellia airoides) and salt grass
(Distichlis spicata) covering from two-thirds to three-fourths of the ground between
the bushes.

No. 29.—August 138, 1901, Divine’s ranch, 15 miles northeast of Andrews, Oreg.
Sample is from the lowlands, some distance from the Alvord Desert. Vegetation
where sampie was taken consists of small cord grass (Spartina gracilis) and some salt
grass (Distichlis spicata). There was a sheht crust of salt on the surface.

No. 32.—August 13, 1901, near Divine’s ranch, on swamp meadow belonging to
Manns Lake Ranch, about 20 miles northeast of Andrews, Oreg. There was no veg-
etation where the sample was taken. There was a thick (one-fourth of an inch)
blistery crust of white or sometimes yellowish salt on the surface. The soil below
this was black or brown-black, pasty and moist. It was of the consistency of putty
and situated some distance from a small greasewood area on aswamp meadow. <A
small packet of surface salt is included.

No. 33.—August 13, 1901, near Divine’s ranch, about 20 miles northeast of
Andrews, Oreg., on aswamp meadow belonging to Manns Lake Ranch. This soil
produced ‘from 2 to 23 tons of hay per acre of prairie bulrush (Scirpus campestris).
It was very hard, dry, and badly cracked (Pl. VII, fig. 1). This sample was taken
within 15 yards of sample No. 32. There was a narrow strip, 4 or 5 feet wide, of
salt grass intervening between the bare area where No. 32 was taken and this fine
growth of the bulrush.

No. 34.—August 14, 1901, Juniper Ranch, about 20 miles north of Manns Lake,
Oreg. Boggy, sedgy, meadow soil, very characteristic over large areas in this
region. Two or three species of sedges, a little clover, and moss constitute the prin-
cipal vegetation.

No. 38.—August 15, 1901, Malheur Lake bottoms, near Windy Point, Oreg. The
sample is from one of the large squirrel tail grass (Hordeum jubatum) areas so
characteristic on the open range to the east and north of the lake. The soilis porous,
dark in color, and has the appearance of being rich and productive. It is usually
slightly lower than the surrounding salt grass areas and is often spotted or even
covered with a dense growth of rayless golden rod, with which the squirrel tail grass
is mixed. Where the sample was taken there was no vegetation but squirrel tail
grass.

* Analysis of a sample of the water subsequently furnished by Foreman Arthur
Barnes verifies this statement, there being but 19.3 parts solids per 100,000. The
alkali along the ditches was evidently from the soil between the spring and the
cultivated area.

16370—No. 15—02——-2

18 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

No. 40.—August 17, 1901, Malheur Lake bottoms, Island Ranch, about 15 miles
south of Burns, Oreg. Soil where awned sedge (Carex aristata) grew to the exclusion
of all other vegetation. This appears to be rich soil, and certainly produces magnifi-
cent crops of this important forage plant.

No. 41.—August 17, 1901, Malheur Lake bottoms, Island Ranch, about 15 miles
south of Burns, Oreg. The soil from which this sample was taken produced in
restricted areas a ton to a ton and a half per acre of yellow top (Calamagrostis hyper-
borea americana). The localities in which this grows are usually well drained, and
occur on slight elevations immediately surrounding the depressions where water
remains until about the middle of July.

No. 43.—August 22, 1901, Agency Ranch, on North Fork of Malheur River, near
Beulah, Oreg. Meadow soil, where alfalfa, timothy, and redtop sown last spring have
made a fine growth. (See next sample.)

No. 44.—August 22, 1901, Agency Ranch, on North Fork of Malheur River, near
Beulah, Oreg. The soil where this sample was taken differed but little in appear-
ance from the previous one, but it contained no forage plants, and the seeds sown
last spring failed to grow. This meadow is the most spotted one seen, although sim-
ilar conditions on less extensive areas are frequent. Small areas with good stands of
timothy, redtop, and alfalfa are common, while a few feet away there is nothing to
be found but a weedy development of a couple of the annual saltbushes, mainly
Atriplex truncata, and one of the western blights (Dondia depressa erecta). In some
places there is a little salt visible on the surface of the bare or weedy areas, but the
subsoil, to all appearances at least, is precisely the same as that which a few feet
away produces a good stand of the forage plants sown.

No. 50.—August 23, 1901, Harper Ranch, on Malheur River, 40 miles above Ontario,
Oreg. The field from which this sample was taken was sown last spring to alfalfa.
Over the greater portion of it a fine stand was secured, but in one corner, which was
considerably lower than the remainder of the field, water collected from the two
irrigations which it received. There was no alfalfa whatever here, but a fine vol-
unteer crop of barnyard grass (Panicum crus-galli) appeared instead. (Pl. XVI,
fig. 1.) This volunteer crop would yield about 2 tons of dry feed per acre.

PARTIAL ANALYSES OF SOIL SAMPLES.

The following table of analyses of the samples of soils collected on
the trip and the remarks thereon were kindly furnished by the Bureau
ot Soils of this Department:

Partial analyses of soil samples.

Sef ele. e le | ea boe |
o a 2 ow aS ES ao 5 3 | 4 3 & 3S %-—~ | Carbonate of | Remarks
Fl SA ss Eg Soy |) SB aay az BO lime in soil. | Ps
So altel 2 - | 4 3S re of So
Aig ean tee |S mA 0 mn | Ay Z ea
AD in tO iS Alois aie es Eas ea ik at pea ye | een {ieee ee | Smallamount.} Not harmful amount of
| | | salts.
3 | 4.00 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.31 | 2.41 |Trace.| 0.00 | 0.00 |...-- Nestewaendods | Sulphates (white alkali).
AG Se OO |e iL Osler 26 HAO elo On Oi LSS OO. se OOM ER eereem as nace me Carbonates and chlorides
| | | (black alkali).
8 BA OY Wel rani eS at ai Alb ert sin .00 | .00] None .....-..-.| Not harmful amount of
| salts.
11 OCs iste ae Ae are ae eetee | taretecee | sures niare .00 | .00 | Small amount . Do.
134 16.085] Cee aera a AM Ne eee a aes Hey OM age OO | INNS onese anger Do.
A Giclts UAsO Sine sas CRA Fee een | eae Pe eo eadaae .00 |} .00 |} Small amount. Do.
UE ERO GOO: sO. | Biz) St, 2s Trace.!Trace.! .00 | None ........-- ' Sulphates (white alkali).

THE SOILS. 19

Partial analyses of soil samples—Continued.

POE eUiiee eos fs 5 |e
Ba ae ae | SS HS ae Bs as at Carbonate of R fe
E A Sas 3s ES 2S) aa ag iat, ZO lime in soil. CaaS
BLE elie A Sie gel ely eles tS
Za oy eS) jaa) oO NM = A aa)
DUS | bc COSCO Ue FS i) Ue gag Ey OZOOMOROON NOME ree sey erie Not harmful amount of
salts.
18} py Ea [sk ek RG eC a | aoe fa a . 00 SOOn eee Owe Do.
TSH ca O)S yi leas eee | eben BPs Oe a a SOO aire OO | evsiere Choy sae ee Do.
22! 4.00] 0.20! 0.50] 1.62) 0.19] 0.07 .00 | .00! Large amount.} Carbonates and chlorids
(black alkali).
23 OO Glee i gale -03 | .02 . 04 SOO BOO) Ness as done us Carbonates (black alkali).
24 5 AUS Y aS Ses lh eas | aap eral We Sede le .00 | .00 | Small amount .}| Not harmful amounts of
salts.
25 | 1.60] .36) .46|Trace. .01 03 OOM) OO alerts or do weiss Carbonates (black alkali).
26 SOD Nit dla Pee oe - 03: |. 2.04 04 .00 |} .00 |} Large amount Do.
29 OO pared fesse: 02] .04 00 OO meet OM emer: Ose se sia Do.
BY | PRO eka GPA) SOF | 623 08 SOO S00 a seeee GOWeee che Carbonates and sulphates.
322) Crust. |16.19 |28.46 | 1.05 |12.75 .18 700) |@race|es222 CLOW a ee Do.
33 SMO Wg BY 03s Paeoly irace OOo OO err: Coe ae Do.
34 SIO GOO = al .02 | .01 | Trace OOH Me OOM NOM eee etre Not harmful amounts of
salts.
38 .35) | .00] .27|Trace.| .02 |Trace.|Trace.| .00 |-Large amount Do.
40 se eS Seah SS oaalleepe eel aeeciel icreihcra erect tesel|lsbceenye ts beats dO fee. Do.
1 BSD EON 25) we Oh) 02 -04'|Trace.| :00|....- GO ME, Do.
43 2D ea OOM ee 19 -00 | .01 00 .00 | .00 | Small amount Do.
44 .00] .03 | .36 03) 4 102 nOMe braces lia OO ese 2 GOK ee Seine Carbonates(black alkali).
50 .25| .00] .18|Trace.| .03 | Trace. OOS OOM eee dors sek: Not harmful amount of
salts.

Only partial analyses are given, since they are sufficient to determine the kind and nature of the
soluble salts. |

The analyses of the water soluble component were made according to the conventional formula
adopted by the Bureau of Soils: that is, to analyze the portion taken out of a soil by water, when
the soil is kept in contact with twenty times its weight of water until equilibrium has been reached.

It has been found in the experience of the field parties of the Bureau of Soils that 0.6 per cent of solu-
ble salts is a dangerous amount in a soil if there be no carbonates present. When soluble carbonates
are present, 0.4 per cent may be regarded as the limit of endurance for cultivable crops. These limits
have been established by the use of the bridge or field method for determining soluble material in
the soil. The method of leaching, such as has been used in the accompanying analyses, will fre-
quently give higher figures than those stated above as the limiting values for cultivable plants.

It appears from Mr. Griffiths’ notes, together with these analyses, that salt grass (Distichlis spicata)
is a black alkali plant. This bears out former observations and work of the staff of the Bureau of
Soils.

The analyses show that several very important native forage plants
grow on soil which is decidedly alkaline and which would in all proba-
bility not be easily brought under cultivation. The use of native
species of plants as indicators of fertility of soil is recognized by all
ranchers in a general way. This, however, is more especially true of
the black sage than of any other plant. It is universally recognized that
soils which produce luxuriant growths of this shrub are fertile and are
especially well adapted for the cultivation of alfalfa, the main crop of
the region. On the contrary, grease-wood soil is seldom cleared up
and cultivated. When, however, it is desirable to bring the latter
under cultivation, it is said that timothy is the most certain crop, and

20 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

that it thrives best on such soil with frequent light irrigations rather
than with large amounts of water at infrequent intervals, as is usually
applied to alfalfa.

The analyses of samples 43, 44, and 50 are especially instructive.
It will be seen that sample 43, taken where seed germinated well, and
sample 44, where it failed entirely, although only 15 feet apart, differ
considerably in the amount of soluble salts which they contain. This
difference, although only 0.25 per cent, is sufficient to place sample 44
in the class of soils containing dangerous amounts of alkali. This
analysis also shows, as far as the analysis of a single sample ean, that
there is no appreciable difference between the resistant powers of
alfalfa and timothy, although, as stated above, there is a popular belief
that such is the case. Further investigations along this line would be
profitable. Sample 50, on the contrary, does not appear to contain
soluble salts in harmful amounts, although a stand of alfalfa was not
secured on the land last spring. The failure here appeared to be due,
as was suspected, to improper drainage.

FORAGE PLANTS GROWING ON ALKALINE SOILS.

The following table contains a condensed list of those forage plants
which were found growing in soils containing soluble salts in quantities
sufficient to be deleterious or dangerous to cultivated crops:

Forage plants growing in alkaline soils.

Per cent of Ramcios

Number of soil sample. Name of plant. saluble eleaai
Deiees sts yaad ewe see ase ae Grease wood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) ....--- 4.00 | White.
7 Ee ee eR oe Se SCR ais 2 Saltierass, (Distichlisispicata)esss-- = eee eee eee | 3.00 | Black.
U7 el epee ne ey Seana ee Soe Alkali saccaton (Sporobolus airoides) ....--.-- 4.50 | White.
DR ey toot See Sr tea Saltjerass(Diswchlisispicaita) a= ese eee eee .60 | Black.
DG as Rosa ee ee ey :...| Alkali grass (Puccinellia airoides)............- Spo Do.
DOE Ts Sees ee ae ey ee Small cord grass (Spartina gracilis)..-.-....--- | 5504 Do.
SRNR Cowes see weddveceeasHee Prairie bulrush (Scirpus campestris) -.......--- | sy) Do.
QA DS ss SSE eee eee Utah saltbush (Atriplex truneata).-....----.--- | .50 | Do.

HANDLING OF STOCK.

As is inevitably the case in all open-range stock raising, the methods
of operation are rapidly changing. Where a few years ago cattle
were almost unprovided for during the entire winter and were taken
from the range directly to the eastern markets, they are now fed from
two to four months of the year and are almost invariably fattened
before being slaughtered. This change is being brought about by
two causes which are very intimately related to each other. The per-
sistent home seeker has explored these vast areas and taken up land
under his rights as a citizen wherever a favorable spot appeared. At
the present time the tillable areas where water is convenient and,
therefore, under conditions of nature the most productive in the unim-

f
Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

FIG. 1.—GRAZED NUTTALL’S SALTBUSH, WESTFALL, OREGON.

No other vegetation shown in foreground except one bunch of cactus.

= .

FiG. 2.—BLACK SAGE (ARTEMISIA RIGIDA) GRAZED, WESTFALL, OREGON.

Common black sage (Artemisia tridentata) in background.

HANDLING OF STOCK. 21

proved condition, have been made the bases for ranches. These fay-
orable areas have consequently been cut out of the general range
source of supply. The second cause is dependent upon the first and
results from the overstocking of the range, giving the cattle but little
to feed upon during the winter. They therefore must have provision
made for them. In portions of Montana, Wyoming, and western
South Dakota it is customary to fence large areas of land on the gen-
eral mesa or prairie in order to protect the range until winter sets in.
No hay is cut in these fenced fields. The grass simply dries up in the
fall and the cattle graze it during the winter. In northern Nevada and
southeastern Oregon, however, the fenced areas occur on the bottom
lands, and they are made to serve the double purpose of furnishing a
crop of hay during the summer and pasturage during the winter.
Indeed, many of these fields were being pastured while we were in the
region in August. But more will be said concerning this later. The
reason for this difference in the use of the pastures in the two regions
is a simple one and results from local and natural conditions. The
mountain regions as a whole are unsuitable to winter pasturing, and
the desert mesa in this region furnishes so little feed that it scarcely
pays to fence and protect it during the summer. The only available
sources of pasturage during the winter, therefore, are the bottom
lands. They are also the only available native hay lands, and are
therefore forced to furnish both winter pasturage and hay. The
result of this double drain upon the land is too well known to need
any extensive comments. The result is just what one would expect—
both the pasture and the hay crop are rendered inferior by such treat-
ment. |

According to information received from ranchers scattered all the
way from Winnemucca to Ontario, the feeding season begins about the
1st of December and continues until the last of March. During the
remainder of the season the cattle ‘‘rustle” their living. Full feed-
ing, however, does not begin until after Christmas. From this time
on about two-thirds of the cattle receive a full ration of hay, the
remaining third finding their own living in the lowland pastures among
the tule (Scirpus lacustris) and willows and in other localities where it
was impossible or unprofitable to run a mower during the previous
summer. Of course, there is some growth of grass on the meadows
which were cut, and this also is pastured down closely. In this way
all cattle are provided for during the winter. They are either pastured
in the fields or fed hay, as their condition appears to demand. Usually
the steers and dry cows ‘‘rustle” for themselves in these pastures; but
the majority of the cows and all the calves are fed, the pasture herd
being continually worked over during the winter, for the purpose of
selecting those that need more feed than they are able to secure in the
meadows.

22 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

Sheep are usually wintered on the desert. They feed at this season
to a very large extent on desert shrubbery. Being able to subsist on
this kind of a ration better than cattle, renders them much more
easily provided for. Indeed, as near as we were able to learn from
the herders and ranchers, sheep receive hay for from only two to four
weeks through the entire winter in the southern portion of the area
traversed. Being able to subsist on even the black sage (Artemisia
tridentata) for a few days, they are much less subject to loss during a
season of severe weather, especially as they have a herder with them
constantly, who is able to move them from place to place and thus
secure the best feed available. One man usually takes care of from
2,000 to 3,000 sheep. One herder in the White Horse Mountains
informed us that his flock was never fed over two weeks during the
winter; others placed the feeding period at four weeks, while we were
informed at Ontario that in that vicinity they were often fed some hay
for two months.

The summer feed of both cattle and sheep is obtained from the open
range on the foothills and mountains. The sheep wintered on the
deserts begin to move upward as soon as the vegetation appears In the
spring. They followthe development of the green feed from the foot-
hills up to the snowdrifts, and finally work their way down again by
easy stages when autumnal storms begin to threaten. The sheep,
being close-herded, clear the ground over which they pass of vegetation
much more closely than the cattle which run at large with practically
no care, and consequently scatter in small herds of six to twelve ani-
mals. This, together with the fact that sheep eat plants that cattle
will not, constitutes the main distinction between the effect of cattle
and sheep on range pastures. If allowed to run at large as cattle
do, and consequently scatter in small flocks, as they naturally would,
the evil effect of absolutely cleaning off large areas by close grazing,
and the pulverizing of extensive tracts of ground in the region where
they tramp in closely packed herds during the heat of the day, and
still more effectively in the bedding-down places at night, would be
largely overcome. But this method of handling sheep could not of
course be practiced because of the presence of dogs and wild animals
which would in a short time exterminate the flocks.

The cattle, although allowed to run at large, are looked after to
some extent during thesummer. They also are kept in the mountains
as much as possible. When they return to the lowlands, where they
' were fed during the previous winter, either on account of short feed or
the sheep herder’s dog, they are forced up again as soon as their num-
bers on the lower areas become at all conspicuous.

The feeling between the ‘‘cattleman” and ‘‘sheepman” is here, as
in the majority of the open range regions, often a very bitter one.
The ‘‘sheepman” having a herder to look after the interests of the
flock has a decided advantage over the ‘‘cattleman,” whose interests

PLATE IV.

Iture,

cu

S. Dept. of Agri

f

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U

OREGON.

)

—A DEPLETED RANGE IN STEINS MOUNTAINS

Ob

1

FIG

dead stools of sheep fescue

are

eground

in for

m

ects

J

Fic. 2.—SURFACE VIEW OF SOIL IN PINE FOREST MOUNTAINS, NEVADA, AFTER CLOSE

GRAZING BY SHEEP.

/ THE RANGE. De

have but little care during the summer. The sheep herder claim-
ing as good a right to the free grass of the range as anyone, naturally
drives his flocks where the best feed is found; and, on account of
the necessity of securing green fodder for the lambs, he travels up the
mountains in the spring as fast as the feed and weather conditions
permit and returns to the desert areas again during the winter, often
close to the possessions of the ‘‘cattleman.” The latter claims that
on account of his owning property and paying taxes for the support
of thetlocal government, which the sheep owner often does not, he has
a right to the free range in his vicinity.

The greatest difficulty and hardest feelings relate to the migratory
sheep bands which come, not only from neighboring counties, but
occasionally from neighboring States, and deprive the settlers of the
good mountain pastures which they consider belong to them on account
of their residence, their holdings, and.their support of township and
county governments. The sheep industry, in the southern portion of
the region especially, is in a peculiar condition. All of the water on
the fertile lowlands was taken up in early days by cattle interests, and
the cattlemen looked upon the use of the mountains for grazing pur-
poses as a natural right. In recent years sheep have been driven from
great distances both east and west into the mountains to take advan-
tage of the luxuriant pastures of blue grasses and fescues. Another
element entering largely into the controversy is what is denominated
the alien sheep interests. It is said that a very large proportion of
the sheep in the region belong to Basques, who own no land, and who
in many cases are not citizens.

THE RANGE.

It would be very difficult indeed to find a range in which the pasture
zones as well as the general floral areas were better marked than they
are in the southern portion of the territory covered. The vast barren
tracts in the basins are bordered by the alkali-inhabiting vegetation,
such as salt grass, greasewood, and others of similar habits. These
give place beyond to shrubby plants, such as the black sage and the
salt sages, described elsewhere. The former occupy the lower por-
tions of the general mesa regions and extend into the foothills and
mountains. The prevailing characteristic of the foothills and moun-
tain regions, however, is the presence of the nutritious grasses which
furnish the summer feed for the numerous herds of cattle and sheep.
' While the species of grasses in this region are numerous, there are
about four which furnish the largest quantity of feed. The most
important of these is Buckley’s blue grass (Poa buckleyiana), which
grows at the lowest altitude in the foothills and extends into the
mountains. On the steeper embankments, rocky slopes, and canyon
sides are usually found large quantities of Wheeler’s blue grass (Poa

24 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

wheelerc) and. bunch wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum). Beyond the
blue-grass zone of the foothills and lower mountain areas occur the
finest pasture lands of the region. These, while in all probability
furnishing no more nutritious grass than the foothills, are much more
attractive and in some respects much more important than the former,
owing to the fact that they are more often free from shrubbery and
other plants with little or no forage value, and consequently furnish
a larger quantity of feed per acre. This is the sheep fescue area,
and this important grass in one of its two principal varieties grows
often to the exclusion of all other forms of vegetation.

The first of these zones, that including and immediately surround-
ing the barren basin bottoms, is greatly modified in certain localities.
Wherever there is a small valley contributing water to the basin or
river bottom, the general alkalinity of the region has been neutralized
by the beneficial action of the rich sediment brought down from the
mountains, or otherwise counteracted to such an extent that the soil
has been made very rich and productive. By these methods delta-like
areas have been built up in the lower valleys or ravines or in borders
of greater or less width along the river courses. It is in these areas
that the ranches of the region are built, and it is upon them that the
region is dependent for its winter feed, consisting sometimes of excel-
lent but often very ordinary crops of native hay and forage plants.
On the more elevated portions of the lower valleys where the drainage ~
is good and where, under natural conditions, the black sage (Artemisia
tridentata) predominates, is located the best soil, as experience has
demonstrated, for the culture of alfalfa, the main cultivated hay crop,
and, indeed, about the only crop of any kind upon which much depend-
ence is placed.

One may therefore recognize three typical forage zones or areas,
namely: Lowlands, including river bottoms, and low areas in basin-
shaped depressions furnishing winter feed in the shape of pasture and
hay, but more especially the latter at the present time; the mesa,
including the intermediate zone between the lowlands and the next
named, furnishing but little feed except browse, its main resources
consisting of shrubby plants, such as true sages, salt sages, white sage,
and red sage; and the highlands, including the foothills and mountain
region, which furnishes practically the entire summer pasture. The
general appearance of some of the lowland areas, with their character-
istic vegetation, are shown in Pls. II, fig. 2; XIII, fig. 2; XIV, fig. 2,
and XV, figs. 1 and 2. The surface soil on the mesa region is for the
most part uncovered, the shrubby vegetation usually being much scat-
tered and only from 2 to 3 feet high. Some idea of this region can be
gained from Pls. I, fig. 2, and II], figs. 1 and 2. It may be a broad,
gentle, sloping plain, as shown in the first figure, or exceedingly broken
and fissured by deep ravines. The highland, including, as stated above,
both foothills and mountains, while producing a much larger amount -

/ THE RANGE. 95

of feed than the mesa, has by no means its entire surface covered with
vegetation. The shrubbery has been spoken of elsewhere. The black
sage (Artemisia tridentata and A. arbuscula) growing in scattered
bunches, have here, unlike the mesa region, a considerable growth of
scattering bunches of grass between them. The grasses are nearly all
of the perennial varieties, and consist mainly of blue grasses, sheep
fescue, and wheat grass, all of which grow in bunches and form but
littlest anv. Gui eis tho: bo sie. ITV fis. d; V, fies.” land 2;
VI, fig. 1, and XIII, fig. 1, give fairly typical representations of the
grazing areas on the uplands.

A careful study of the forage plants of one of the basins of this
region, with an equally exhaustive soil study covering a period of nine
or ten months and extending from the bottom of the basin to the top
of the mountains, would prove not only of great scientific interest,
but would undoubtedly throw very important light upon many
features of the forage problems as they exist throughout this general
region. Asasuitable locality we might mention the Alvord Desert
basin, where the distance from the desert lake bed in the bottom of the
basin to the line of perpetual snow in Steins Mountains is not too
great to be covered on foot in a single day, while extensive deposits
of borax are located in the same depression about 20 miles away. A
thorough correlation of soil conditions with the development of forage
plants could be easily made here and would doubtless apply to large
areas of country. <A study of the conditions best suited to the devel-
opment of the characteristic forage plants could easily be made, and
the role of the shrubby vegetation in the economy of stock raising
could be accurately determined, a point upon which there is altogether
too little accurate information at the present time. A comparative
study of the native clovers upon newly irrigated sagebrush soil and
their native habitats in the lower, boggy, and almost peaty areas, and
the rapidity of their spread into newly irrigated areas contiguous to
their natural habitats, would be very instructive. A comprehensive
study of the condition under which these valuable forage plants develop
to the best advantage would be of great economic importance.
Whether they develop best when growing alone or in combination
with more rigid plants, which assist in their support, and the quantity
of feed which they produce could be determined here by observation
of their habits under natural conditions. No better locality could be
selected for the study of the specific distinction of two of the valuable
groups of range grasses, namely, the sheep fescues and that group of
blue grasses closely related to Buckley’s blue grass. A question of
much economic interest to this region, as well as to all that grazing
area to the south and southeast, relates to the value of the early weedy
plants as cattle food. A knowledge of these is necessary—what they
are and to what extent they are eaten by cattle and sheep. But little
investigation has been made of the desert ranges in spring and early

26 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN,

summer, when they yield much feed consisting of short-lived annual
plants differing very materially both in kind and quality from the
grasses which grow at this season in regions of more copious and
equable rainfall. It is well known that Indian wheat (Plantago fasti-
gata), Nuttall’s vetch (Astragalus nuttallic), and similar weedy plants
play a very important part in the economy of stock raising in the
deserts of the Southwest. Here also we have a desert range which
produces a large and comparatively abundant crop in early spring,
forming at least much sheep pasture, concerning which but little is
known aside from the information derived from an occasional state-
ment and description by observing ranchers. These are some of the
economic questions that might be studied on local representative areas
like this one. The purely scientific questions, whose bearing upon
practical ones seldom can be properly appreciated, are altogether too
numerous to be considered. ae

RANGE CONDITIONS.

The condition of the lowland pastures and meadows has been briefly
spoken of elsewhere. These areas are at the present time almost invari-
ably the property of private individuals, and consequently under their
direct control and management. The bottom lands which still remain
open to settlement are so situated that no water is available for their
irrigation, the control of water in the streams being in the hands of the
owners of the first ranches settled. Inasmuch as the supply is scarcely
sufficient for the use of these first comers, there is no inducement to
the prospective settler to take up the other open-range bottom land,
although it may be equally as productive. If convenient to water
holes, these areas are always closely grazed and present a very unprom-
ising appearance. No open-range lowland was seen on the whole trip
which had much feed upon it excepting that consisting of the tough and
persistent salt grass. Everything else had been cropped closely. In
many localities cattle were apparently subsisting on this grass,

The more favored and protected areas under private control, although
altogether too closely pastured, fare much better than the open range.
As stated before, these furnish the native hay of the region during the
summer and the pasturage of the strong cattle during the winter. The
principal feed is found, not on the areas actually cut, but among the
willows, along ditches, and in low swampy areas which remain uncut.
These, although usually small, amount to many acres in the aggregate
on seven or eight square miles of meadow. The shrubbery and tule
(Scirpus lacustris) also furnish shelter during severe weather. It is
needless to say that these areas are taxed to their full capacity. A
piece of ground from which a crop of hay 1s removed during the sum-
mer will not usually maintain its productiveness in any region if every
particle of vegetation remaining is pastured off during the fall and
winter seasons. It is only under conditions of the most favorable

PLATE V.

STEINS MOUNTAINS

d

Bu. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

—SHOWING HABITS OF SHEEP DURING THE COOL MORNING

1

Fia.

OREGON.

FiG. 2.—SHOWING HABITS OF SHEEP DURING THE HEAT OF THE DAY, PINE FOREST

MOUNTAINS, NEVADA.

THE RANGE. 27

supply of moisture that the continued yield can be maintained. No
more convincing evidence of the deterioration of these meadows in
recent years was found on the whole trip than that furnished on the
Alder Creek ranch, at the base of Pine Forest Mountains. Here the
native hay meadow consists of an elongated, comparatively narrow
basin extending toward the desert from the mouth of a canyon leading
into the mountains. The remains of old stackyards were found for 5
or 6 miles down this meadow from the ranch. They were scattered at
short intervals. At one time these were built to surround stacks of
hay cut on these meadows, but they were all unused this year, except
those nearest the source of water supply from the canyon.

The shortage of the native hay crop here is influenced largely by the
fact that the water has been used up in late years in the irrigation of
alfalfa, as well as by overstocking. This is an important factor in the
modification of the conditions on all of the native hay lands. The
water has been turned from its natural course, and, instead of irrigat-
ing the meadows as it once did, it is used to a large extent in the irri-
gation of the land which is situated just above and which naturally
produces nothing but black sage (Artemdsta tridentata). The pack-
ing of the soil by the trampling of large numbers of cattle during
the fall and winter also has a very marked influence on the hay crop.
The soils are as a rule unusually hard and stiff, and this condition is
aggravated by the constant trampling of the cattle. One practice
decidedly beneficial is the feeding of the hay on the ground which
produces it. This results in returning the manure to the land and
compensates In a measure for the crop taken off. The fact that the
meadows have poor drainage serves to keep the refuse upon the land
where it will soak into the soil during the spring-flood season.

The injury to the mesa from overstocking is largely local. The
shrubbery is usually not relished as much, and consequently is not
grazed as closely as the grasses. The most conspicuous desert shrub
is the black sage brush, which is not eaten except in extreme cases,
even by sheep. The spiny saltbush (Atriplex confertifolia) and hop
sage (Grayia spinosa) usually bear evidence of browsing, but not to
any injurious extent. The greasewood which in localities is even
more conspicuous than the black sage is, as far as observed, never
injuriously grazed, the main use that stock make of it being that of ©
licking up the fallen leaves. This is true to some degree of the spiny
saltbush and the hop sage, but these are also browsed. The shrubby
mesa plants which have suffered most from overstocking are three in
number. The red sage (Aochia americana) appears to be always
closely cropped during the winter, although not eaten to any extent
during thesummer. Bud sage (Artemisia spinescens) almost invariably
bears evidence of cropping, but it is probably eaten much more exten-
sively by sheep than by cattle. The value of white sage as food for
both cattle and sheep is well known and, as would be expected in a

28 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

region of such short pasturage, it is very much injured by overgrazing.
According to the best information we were able to get, this plant fur-
nished a very large amount of feed on the mesa region at one time,
especially to the south of the Alvord Desert. The only place where
we found it in sufficient quantity to be of any great value was in the
vicinity of the upper end of the Black Rock Desert, between Leonard
and Bartlett creeks. It is common enough in the vicinity of Quinn
River Crossing, but either on account of close grazing or drought it
made but little growth this year. As seen on this trip the plants con-
sist of only a stump and a few shoots 6 to 10 inches long. Last year’s
growth was invariably completely grazed off.

Inasmuch as the best grazing areas are on the highlands, the princi-
pal interest pertains to these. Representative areas of six ranges of
mountains were carefully studied at the important transitional stage in
the history of all ranges, when the grasses were ripening. This proc-
ess occurred much earlier than usual this year according to the most
reliable information obtainable. Special trips were taken into the
Pine Forest, Bartlett Peak, White Horse, and Steins mountains, and a
spur of the Blue and Bendire were crossed on the regular stage route.

With the curtailing of the range and consequent driving of the open-
range business into the more inaccessible and rocky areas, over-
stocking must inevitably follow. This condition has been reached in
practically all the open ranges of the country, but more interest is
attached to this condition in those regions where the grasses do not
form a sod,as is the case with the one in question, because trampling
and close grazing result in more speedy and permanent injury than in
the sodded regions. To say that the southern portion of the region is
overstocked would be putting the matter very mildly. The more
northern portion over which we traveled was in better shape. The
Bendire Mountain region especially had exceptionally good feed, and
was, as a whole, the best range which we saw on the whole trip.
Portions of the Blue Mountains were also in very good condition. In
all the other highlands overstocking was very conspicuous. The
White Horse Mountains were being pastured by sheep the second time
this season. They were grazed earlier in the summer, and flocks were
being driven into them again from the Disaster Peak country when
we were there early in August. One herder reported that the latter
place was all eaten out and that he moved his flock in order to avoid
trouble with other herders who were quarreling and disputing over
the little grass left. The first pasturing had left the range short
enough; what the second will do can be easily imagined.

The most closely pastured region visited was Steins Mountains.
On the whole trip of three days we found no good feed, except in very
steep ravines, until we reached the vicinity of Teger Gorge. On a
portion of the trip from here to Manns Lake there was a good stand

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

FiG. 2.—HERDER’S HABITATION DURING THE SUMMER GRAZING SEASON IN STEINS
MOUNTAINS, OREGON.

ale fe wets e

* 5

THE RANGE. 29

of grass, the side of the gorge and the area immediately to the east
being exceptionally fine. There were a good many cattle in the
locality, but no sheep had been pastured there this season. In places
from Ankle Camp to Nuttersville, a sheep supply camp, there was
practically no more feed than on the floor of a corral. We passed
two areas at least 2 miles in extent in which even the surface of the
ground was reduced to an impalpable powder. PI. IV, fig. 2, taken
in the Pine Forest Mountains, shows the condition of the surface of
the ground after close pasturing by sheep. This evil effect is most
likely to occur in the sagebrush and other shrubby areas, mainly on
account of the habits of the sheep. PI. V, figs. 1 and 2, illustrates the
point in question. During the morning the animals feed, spreading
out over more territory and move about, while during the heat of the
day they get as much shelter as possible, hanging their heads in the
shade of the shrubbery, if such is available. If not, they bunch up
together and use the shade furnished by the bodies of the other animals.
They feed and move around but little; on the contrary, remain in nearly
the same place, although they keep their feet in almost constant motion.
This movement of their feet on the surface of the ground for hours at
a time reduces it to a fine powder. ‘The illustration, Pl. IV, fig. 2, is
from a photograph taken with the camera pointing downward, and
covers a space of about 28 by 40 inches. An analysis of this figure,
which is typical of the effect of close sheep grazing in all of the
shrubby areas, will show two species of plants upon the soil—one is a
lupine on the extreme left, the other is sheep fescue (Festuca ovina),
two bunches of which are shown, one on the extreme right and the
other a little to the left of the upper central portion of the figure.
The leaves of the lupine, a plant seldom eaten, are seen scattered over
the surface of the ground. The other objects shown are sticks and
pebbles.

The injury to the open grassy areas from overstocking results
mainly from too close cropping, which exposes the bunches of roots to
the direct rays of the sun, and deprives them of the beneficial action
of the accumulation of débris from previous years, both in protection
from excessive heat and in holding moisture. On this trip we crossed
three areas of this grass, varying in extent from 3 to 60 acres, upon
which the beautiful pure growths of sheep fescue were completely
ruined. The bunches of great size were completely killed. Pl. IV,
fig. 1, shows one of these localities. The objects in the foreground
are mainly closely cropped bunches of this beautiful grass which under
natural conditions stands at a height of from 13 to 2 feet, and, although
in bunches 4 to 10 inches apart, the abundant and graceful culms cover
the entire surface. Under ruinous pasturing the bunches appear to
die usually from the center. One may often find in these mountains
a narrow green ring fringing a dead center. It is a very striking

30 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

characteristic, and is found in many places. In the figure referred to
above the grass is completely killed.

Sheep fescue produces an abundance of seed and is easily grown in
the cooler regions of the United States, but whether it will reseed
itself readily on the open range when thoroughly killed out over a cer-
tain area does not appear clear. As far as we know there are no definite
observations on this point, but judging from the habits of the grass,
the general appearance of the bunches, and observation of the denuded
areas visited, the process will be exceedingly slow. One small ruined
area visited had the appearance of having been used as a bedding-down
place about two years ago, and evidently had not been pastured since.
Here the old bunches of roots needed nothing more than a kick to
remove them from the ground. There appeared to be no evidence
that the area was being reseeded, nor that other permanent vegetation
was taking the place of this one. It appears from these observations
that the process of recuperation when once the grass is killed will be
exceedingly slow.

Some statistics obtained from Mr. J. M. McKissik, who runs a camp
in the mountains to supply the needs of the herders, show the enor-
mous drain that is made upon these mountains for summer pasture.
According to his statement a rough census was taken at the camp a few
days previous to our arrival, in which it was ascertained that there
were 73 flocks of sheep on the top of Steins Mountains at that time,
each flock averaging about 2,500 animals. Conservative estimates of
the area in which this pasturing was being done, furnished by the range
riders and ranchers familiar with the region, give the length of the
area as 50 miles by an average width of 8 miles, or 400 square miles.
Accepting the rather low average of 2,500 animals to the flock, the
figures indicate that there are 182,500 sheep, or over 450 animals to
the square mile. According to Mr. McKissik’s estimate of the area,
there were over 1,000 sheep to the square mile. It is believed that
the other estimate is more nearly accurate. The season of pasturage
extends over fully four months, and at times from four and a half to
five, depending upon the advent of the autumnal storms. Nor is this
all. It must be remembered that there are cattle ranches located
around the base of the mountains. Among these are ranches belong-
ing to the French-Glenn estate and the Pacific Live Stock Company.
These and about a half dozen smaller ranchers run their cattle into
the same region as much as possible during the summer season. With
these figures before us it is needless to say that feed was short, and
that already in August some flocks were being driven onto what is
known as winter pasture on the lower levels, which are not usually
pastured until the middle of October.

The shrubbery plays a very important part in the forage supply of
the mountainsalso. The extensive areas of cinquefoil (Vaszphora fruit-
ocosa) and Indian currant (Symphoricorpos oreophilus) are invariably

THE RANGE. 31

defoliated by the sheep. It was difficult to find a twig of the former
large enough to make a good herbarium specimen. Really the only
shrubs not eaten here appear to be mahogany (Cercocarpus tedifolius)
and snowbush (Ceanothus velutinus). Willows are always trimmed
up as far as the sheep can reach, and the poplar (Populus tremuloides)
is not only browsed, but the young trees are often completely girdled.
There are two other plants which might be classed with those not eaten
by sheep, namely, the sages (Artemisia tridentata) and A. arbuscula,
to which should be added the long-leaved sage (A. cana), which is
abundant in some localities in Steins Mountains. Even the wild choke-
cherry (Prunus emarginatus) is often browsed. ‘The poplar thickets
are trimmed up, however, by both cattle and sheep. While the sheep
actually eat leaves, twigs, and bark of the young trees, the cattle tramp
through the groves a great deal, especially in fly time.

Being familiar with the destruction of the surface of the country
in the deserts of southern Arizona as a result of the removal of the
vegetation and the packing of the surface by the trampling of large
herds of cattle, a constant effort was made to ascertain the effect of
the same agencies here. The conditions in this region, however, with
reference to soil characteristics, character and amount of precipi-
tation, and configuration of the surface are very different from those
of southern Arizona; and the effect of flood waters are consequently
by no means identical in the two localities. A comparison of the rain-
fall of the two regions will show that the precipitation at Winnemucca,
Ney., is less by about 4 inches per annum than at Tucson, Ariz.
This, coupled with the fact that the summer showers are much less
frequent as well as less violent in the former than the latter place,
would lead one naturally to infer that the waters would be much less
destructive. The real mollifying influence, however, is not to be
found in either the character or the quantity of the precipitation, but
in the soil of the mesa, where the destructive action is the most pro-
nounced. It is the impervious soil that always washes badly. The
surface of the mesa in northern Nevada and southeastern Oregon, as
far as observed, never bakes nor otherwise becomes hard and imper-
vious to water, as do those lying over the caliche hardpans of southern
Arizona. Here the hard impervious soils are found on the bottoms
in the basin-like depressions and sinks and along poorly drained river
banks. It will be readily seen that the effect of erosion would be to
build up and level rather than to cut gorges. It is not meant that
there are not notable incidents of recent erosive action here, but an
attempt is made to show that the conditions are not as favorable for it
and that it is insignificant compared with the same phenomenon on the
southern deserts.

Fire has a direct influence upon the condition of the feed. Burning
is as destructive to the grass of the range as to the trees of the forest.
Indeed, it had sometimes been thought in more extended observations

32 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

on the prairies of the Dakotas that fire is really more injurious than
close grazing. This region is too far removed from railroads to have
the numerous conflagrations attributed to that source. It can be
attributed to no other agency than that of criminal negligence. In
traveling from Burns to Drewsey, via Silvies, we passed over areas
where six separate fires had raged during the past two or three months.
Two or three of these were in progress when we passed through.
In every mountain range visited evidences of fire were found. Even
the snowbush (Ceanothus velutinus) was burned off in places in the
vicinity of Bartlett Peak and in the White Horse Mountains. There
appeared to be good evidence that the one in the former area was
wilfully set for the purpose of facilitating the movements of bands
of sheep from one pasture to another. This evidence was cor-
roborated by at least six individuals. The site of an old fire in the
White Horse Mountains, set by Indians about three years ago, was
very interesting from both scientific and economic points of view.
The shrubbery was of course all burned off and a little of it was
growing again from the stumps. The grasses showed a very marked
difference in the degree to which they succumbed to the effects of the
fire. The fescues appeared to be all killed, while the Nevada blue
grass was growing nicely. Buckley’s blue grass withstood the fire
better than the fescues, but not nearly so well as the other blue grass.

It is strange that more care should not be taken of the little shrub-
bery and timber that exists in the region. It is with the greatest
difficulty that the ranchers from Winnemucca to Burns are able to get
sufficient wood for posts and fires. On many ranches poplar and
juniper is about the only available timker for fence posts, and these
must be hauled from 30 to 50 miles. Where brush and wood are so
scarce and mean so much when considered from either standpoint
of immediate use or that of conservation of moisture and protection of
soil, more care should certainly be exercised to prevent fires. As an
example of negligence we might mention one which came under our
direct observation while en route between Silvies and the Calamity
settlement. On reaching the headwaters of the Calamity drainage
we met two parties, one evidently campers, the other a round-up out-
fit. Farther down the valley we discovered a locality where some
party had camped the previous night. They had built two fires, one
of which was kindled at the base of a large pine, which, at the time we
passed it at 9 o’clock in the morning, was burning vigorously up to a
distance of 10 feet above the ground. It is true that the whole region
had been burned off a short time before. There was consequently no
danger of further destruction excepting to this one tree, but the same
negligence would doubtless obtain under other circumstances. It
is needless to say that the winter feed was completely destroyed,
and that it will take both grass and timber many years to recover

PLATE VII.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

FiG. 1.—SHOWING THE HABITAT AND A FAIR CROP OF PRAIRIE BULRUSH ON MANNS

LAKE RANCH, 20 MILES NORTHEAST OF ANDREWS, OREGON.

FiG. 2.—TETRADYMIA AND PSORALEA HOLDING DRIFTING SANDS, 20 MILES NORTH OF

WINNEMUCCA, NEVADA.

HAY CROPS. 33

from the effects of this one fire. It appears that much less vigilance
is exercised in the control of fires in this region than in the pasture
and forest lands of Montana and Wyoming, due, no doubt, to there
being on the whole less combustible material, and consequently less
probability of fire spreading, as well as to the fact that the country is
more sparsely settled, and, therefore, the interests at stake are less
carefully guarded. .
HAY CROPS.

A general description of the lowland hay meadows has already been
given. It remains simply to give a brief account of the principal hay
crops, their quality and something relative to the methods of handling.
Nothing is more evident than the fact that the yield is in direct pro-
portion to the amount of care and the amount and distribution of
water which the native meadows receive. The quantity of hay raised
on the different ranches is enormous. Its quality, however, is rather
low, for there is mixed with it oftentimes large quantities of wire
erass (Juncus balticus)s squirrel tail (Hordeum jubatum), tule (Scirpus
lacustris), various species of sedges (Carex sp.), creeping spike rush
(Hleochris palustris), and other plants having a smaller feeding value
than the majority of the true grasses and clovers. Many sedges,
however, produce hay of very fair quality.

The methods of irrigation of the native meadows are very primitive
indeed. The waters during the flood season are held on the land as
much as possible by the aid of low rough dams constructed of earth,
brush, or refuse material. This plaia floods the hay areas for periods
varying from one to three or four weeks. After these spring floods
pass by there is practically no more water for the native hay meadows
until the advent of cold weather, when the lower areas again become
flooded, and remain so, in some cases, until early summer. It will be
readily recognized that this condition is not conducive to the develop-
ment of the grasses, but furnishes, on the contrary, the exact environ-
ment suited to the growth of the poorer qualities of forage plants
mentioned above.

In spite, however, of the natural disadvantages of poor drainage
and heavy stocking, large and magnificent crops of hay are raised on
some areas on all the ranches. The best hay, when both quality and
quantity are considered, is probably furnished by the wild wheat or
blue stem (/lymus triticoides), which furnishes oftentimes as high as
25 tons to the acre. Especially fine meadows of this were seen
on the Humboldt River bottoms at Winnemucca and in the Quinn
River Valley at Quinn River Crossing. (See Pl. XIV, fig. 2.) The
best quality of native hay is doubtless furnished by the bunch blue
grass (Loa levigata), which in favorable years and localities makes an

16370—No. 15—02——3

34 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

excellent stand and furnishes from 13 to 2 tons of hay peracre. Nextin
importance to these two grasses should be mentioned the native clovers,
several species of which are to be found in the region, but the most
important one is Z77zfoliwm involucratum in some of its various forms.
Both the quality and quantity of the hay furnished by these plants
are excellent. They grow very profusely in the low boggy sedgy
meadows, and very naturally improve the quality of the native hay in
these situations, which, were it not for these leguminous crops, would
produce little aside from the sedges and rushes. Very often, as was
the case on the Divine Ranch, these furnish one-half of the hay on
these areas, the remainder being furnished by the sedges and rushes.
Occasionally giant rye grass (/lymus condensatus) is cut for hay on the
drier bottoms. It makes a coarse quality of forage, and its main use is
winter pasturage. (See Pl. XIII, fig. 2.) The following list of forage
plants from the meadows of Quinn River Crossing are representa-
tive and give a good idea of the character of the vegetation on these
areas: Sedges (Carex lanuginosa, C. douglasiz, and C. nebraskensis) ;
salt grass (Destichlis spicata), red top (Agrostis alba), alkali saccaton
(Sporobolus avroides), squirrel tail (/lordewm jubatum), wild barley
(Hordeum nodosum), orchard barley (Sttanion longifolium), wild
wheat (Llymus triticoides), giant rye grass (Hlymus condensatus).
slender wheat grass (Agropyron tenerum), bunch blue grass (Poa levi-
gata), steel grass (Sporobolus depauperatus), slough grass (Beckmannia
eruceformis), beard grass (Polypogon monspeliensis), creeping spike-
rush (Hleocharis palustris), rush (Juncus balticus), prairie bulrush
(Scirpus campestris), tule (Scirpus lacustris), clover (Zrifoliwm involu-
cratum), seaside arrow grass (Zriglochin maritima), cat-tail (Typha
latifolia).

The native meadows of the Malheur Lake bottoms deserve special
mention. The principal study of these was made cn the Island Ranch
between the forks of Silvies River. The quantity of water with which
these areas are flooded is enormous and remains upon the ground for
a long period. Consequently, the sedges and rushes develop to an
astonishing extent. There are here grasses also which make an excel-
lent growth. (See Pl. XV, figs. 1 and 2.) The one characteristic above
all others which impresses one is the exceedingly patchy character
of the vegetation on the low, level, poorly drained bottoms. The most
valuable forage plants appear to be the wild wheat or blue stem
(Elymus triticoides), prairie bulrush (Scirpus campestris), sprangle top
(Scolochloa festucacea), awned sedge (Carex aristata), and yellow top
(Calamagrostis hyperbora americana). These forage plants, together
with the less valuable tule (Se7rpus lacustris), rush (Juncus balticus),
ceat-tail (Typha latifolia), creeping club rush (/leocharis paulstris),
and bur-reed (Sparganum eurycarpum), are scattered around over the
bottoms in areas of variable extent, but usually in patches of but few

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. §. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

Ce
Z
Wipes

FiG. 1.—STACKING HAY WITH A JACKSON FORK AND TRIPOD, THOMPSON BROTHERS’
RANCH, NEAR BEULAH, OREGON.

FiG. 2.—STACKING HAY WITH A “SLIDE,” ISLAND RANCH, MALHEUR LAKE BOTTOMS,
OREGON.

A ton of hay is on the slide.

Sign Oh baye

‘ HAY CROPS. 35

rods in diameter, or, as 1s usually the case with the yellow top, in nar-
row fringes along the lowerareas. Large quantities of hay consisting
of almost pure sprangle top and prairie bulrush were being harvested
on the ranch when we were there.

The cultivated forage plants are few in number. As in all the arid
West where irrigation is practiced, alfalfa is found to be by far the
most profitable crop, and it seems especially well adapted to the only
tillable soils of the region, namely, the lower sagebrush areas. When-
ever water is available for irrigation the sagebrush lands invariably
raise good crops of this important forage plant. It is in the northern
portion of the region covered that it is raised most extensively and
profitably. One field near Ontario, Oreg., was pointed out to us as
having raised last year 10 tons per acre in three cuttings. It was an
unusually fine field, and care had been taken to get a good even stand.
(See Pl. XIV, fig. 1.) Judging from the comparative appearance of
other fields in the vicinity, 6 tons per acre would be a fair average
for the region. Farther south, where water is less abundant and only
two cuttings are made, 3 or 4 tons would be a good average. Here con-
siderable growth occurs in the fall after the second cutting is made,
but this is usually pastured off by cattle which are turned into the
fields during the winter. In this way the alfalfa fields, as well as the
native hay meadows, furnish both hay and winter pasture.

Redtop (Agrostis alba) is widely introduced in the basins of Nevada
and Oregon and often furnishes large quantities of hay and pasture on
the low, moist bottoms. It is of more importance from the Alvord
Desert region north than it is farther south. The first place where we
saw a good stand of it was on the Divine ranch.

Timothy is being more widely introduced in recent years and is said
to withstand the alkalinity of the soil better than any other forage
plant known to the ranchers of the region. Instances were cited to us
of successful stands having been obtained on soil which produced
nothing but greasewood. In some places on the Divine ranch there
were fine crops of it. In one field the hay consisted of about equal
quantities of timothy, redtop, and native clover, a most excellent com-
bination for a good quality of hay. Mr. Divine reported that the
clover had ‘*‘come in” of its own accord, and that the redtop in this
particular field was the result of having fed redtop hay which was
hauled in from a small ranch established in early days farther down
the valley.

METHODS OF HANDLING HAY.

The methods of. handling hay crops are certainly unique and in
thorough keeping with the extensiveness of all the operations con-
nected with stock raising in the region. The many appliances used
permit of handling the crop to the best advantage and with the least

36 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

possible expense. On the majority of the ranches practically all of
the work is done by machinery. There are some, however, who pur-
posely sacrifice speed and manual effort in the handling of alfalfa,
especially, to enable them to gather the crop with less loss than by the
use of machinery, but more will be said regarding this feature later.

In harvesting a crop of hay a crew of from sixteen to thirty men is
employed to attend to the various operations of mowing, stacking,
bucking, net tending, hoisting, sickle grinding, and blacksmithing
during the entire haying season, which lasts from two to three months.
Pls. VIII, figs. 1 and 2, LX, figs. 1 and 2, and X, fig. 2, show some of
the machinery used in stacking or piling up the hay, as the process is
often very appropriately called, in actual operation on the ranches in
eastern Oregon. Probably the most rapid method of any in vogue is
that known as the ** slide” method, which is employed only on the largest
ranches where native hay is the predominating crop. <A ‘‘slide” consists
essentially of a huge, strongly built inclined plane. The hay is brought
up to the base of the plane, usually by a four-horse buck, and deposited
in a net, to which is fastened a cable stretched over the top of the plane
and the entire stack. The other end of the cable is attached to the
fore truck of a wagon, to which is hitched a four-horse team. - When
the load has been drawn up and discharged in the proper place on the
stack, the net is drawn back to the base of the plane again by a single
horse, readjusted, and reloaded. The four-horse buckload will average
about one ton of hay, and a load will be run onto the stack once in six
to eight minutes when the machinery is in good working order. PI.
VIII, fig. 1, shows the process of stacking by the use of this machine
in actual operation on the Island Ranch, near Burns, Oreg. Another
method more extensively employed than the ‘‘ slide” is represented in
Pl. IX, fig. 1. This is very similar to the former, differing from it
only in the substitution of a derrick for the slide. The bucks and net
are used in both cases, but their capacity is usually smaller than those
operated by four horses instead of two. Where the ground is very
rough a drag buck is substituted for the wheeled one in ordinary use.
Pl. X, fig. 2, illustrates one of the large four-horse bucks—the smaller
ones differ but little except in size. |

Both of these processes are best adapted to the handling of native
hay, which is not much injured by rough treatment. The bucks are
especially hard on alfalfa, one of the most difficult hay crops to cure
and handle properly. With rough treatment, such as it is certain to
receive when bucked to the stack, the friable leaves, the most valuable
part of the plant, are almost certain to be largely broken off. To obvi-
ate this very decided objection many of the ranchers discard the bucks
entirely in handling the alfalfa crop and haul the hay to the stack in
wagons. It is then unloaded by means of a derrick or tripod arrange-
ment and a Jackson fork, as shown in Pls. VIII, fig. 1, and LX, fig. 2.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE |X.

FIG. 1.—STACKING ALFALFA WITH A DERRICK, HARPER RANCH, NEAR WESTFALL, OREGON.

FiG. 2.—STACKING ALFALFA WITH JACKSON FORK, ARCADIA RANCH, NEAR ONTARIO,
OREGON.

Stacks are 375 feet long, 75 feet over, and 28 feet across.

4

SAND BINDERS. 37

In this way the leaves are saved and the most difficult part of the
manual labor, the transfer of the hay from the load to the stack,
is still accomplished by the use of machinery. Another very decided
disadvantage of the ‘‘slide” method results from the difficulty of
making the stacks waterproof. Of course this can be accomplished,
but when a ton of hay is dropped in one place on the stack and similar
quantities are put up at such short intervals, the stackers do not usually
work itover so as to make the mass of uniform density. Theconsequence
is that there are places in the stack that are not well packed. When the
hay settles *‘ holes” occur, allowing the rain water to drain into the stack.
This would not be of so much importance if all of the crop were fed
the year it is cut, but this is often not the case. Much hay is some-
times held over to be fed the subsequent year. It is needless to say
that if not properly stacked it deteriorates very much in value. Some
of the last year’s stacks of native hay put up by this method which we
examined were at least one-half rotten or moldy, while alfalfa stacks
carefully put up by the derrick method had deteriorated but little,
although native hay can be made to shed water much easier than alfalfa.
All of the hay raised is for home consumption and, in practically all
cases, is fed in the same fields where harvested. This is due not
only to the good price of beef, mutton, and wool, but also to the pro-
hibitive transportation tariffs and long distances from market.

SAND BINDERS.

All plants growing on sandy lands which are shifted by winds act
as sand binders and prevent, to a greater or less extent, the movement
of the sands. Ifa plant grows on such areas, therefore, it is to some
degree a soil or sand binder, and whether valuable as forage or not, it
serves a useful purpose in preserving the surface of the land intact
until it shall have become stable enough to support other and less per-
sistent vegetation. The appellation, sand binder, is therefore one of
degree rather than of kind, although usually applied to those plants
which have a means of efficient propagation enabling them to develop
rapidly and furnish a protective soil cover in regions where the con-
figuration of the surface is easily disturbed. The two first named
plants may be classed as true sand binders. The others perform some
service in this respect, but they have no special means of propagation
which enables them to draw upon the moisture and fertility of the
deep-lying strata and at the same time extend the area over which
they grow rapidly during dry weather.

Psoralea (Psoralea purshii).—This plant, although it does not grow on soils which
change their positions as rapidly as the next, is still, on account of its abundance in
very sandy soil and under very adverse conditions, the most important soil binder

of the region. Many large areas are to be found in northern Nevada, especially in
the vicinity of Winnemucca and on the narrow strips of sandy land which are usu-

/

38 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

ally found in the vicinity of the basin-shaped depressions described elsewhere, which
have very little vegetation aside from this plant.

DeEteEaA (Delea kingii).—On the sand hills about 20 miles north of Winnemucca,
this is the only plant which is able to sustain itself in rapidly shifting sands. It
usually grows sparingly but evenly over large areas, propagating rapidly by its long
slender reddish rootstocks, which may be easily pulled up out of the loose sand
through which they ramify. Thespinescent branches, the yellowish-green coloration
of the leaves, the reddish rootstocks, and the purple flowers give this plant a very
characteristic and striking appearance as it spreads over freshly formed hillocks and
mounds oi sand.

TeTrRADYMIA ( Tetradymia comosa).—Large bushes of this were found in abundance in
the same vicinity as Dalea kingii. Almost invariably they were situated upon
mounds or half buried in the sand, indicating that the soil had been removed from
the surrounding areas or had been piled on top of the plants. Pl. VU, fig. 2, illus-
trates the effectiveness of this plant in preventing the sands from drifting.

Moss ( Yortula ruralis?).*—It is with considerable hesitancy that a mossis recorded
as a sand binder, but that this species serves this useful purpose over quite extensive
areas in northern Nevada and eastern Oregon is periectly apparent to anyone visiting
the region between June and October. This small plant does not grow over the
entire mesa, but, on the contrary, is confined to circumscribed areas immediately
beneath and immediately surrounding shrubby plants, such as black sage, spiny
saltbush, tetradymia, and the shad scale. Its period of growth is evidently late
winter and early spring, at which time it forms a complete covering for the ground.
When conditions of drought appear it dries up completely, and, while easily removed
from its position, it forms mats which catch the sand that blows into it, and serves
in this way to enlarge the small mounds which appear surrounding the desert shrub-
bery. Every area of this plant examined was almost completely imbedded in sand.
That it grows in this way is not at all likely, because an abundance of leaves were
always found below the surface of the sand, indicating that the plant had been cov-
ered after the advent of dry weather in late spring and early summer.

Besides the plants mentioned above, many others might be named
in this connection. The sandy area on the south and east of the
Alvord Desert in southern Oregon showed a very marked influence of
some of the common desert shrubs upon shifting sands. -Among
plants which acted as sand binders in this locality and were almost
invariably found in hillocks of sand may be mentioned the spiny salt-
bush, shad scale, and the black sage.

WEEDS.

It will be noticed that this short account gives special prominence
to native plants which occur to such an extent as to be classed weeds.
This is not at all to be wondered at in a region so little improved as
the one in question, and, in a region where the preponderance of the
crops on both pasture and hay lands are harvested on the untilled
ground, and consist of native plants which receive no other care than
that of harvesting. Under conditions where the pasture and hay
lands are taxed to their full capacity. the fact that some plants which
are not relished by cattle increase to an unsightly or even alarming

aDetermined by Mrs. E. G. Britton.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, Us S. Dept. of Agriculture. PEAT EDS

Fic. 1.—A Hay CAmpP, ISLAND RANCH, MALHEUR LAKE BOTTOMS, OREGON.

FIG. 2.—LOADED FOUR-HORSE BUCK, MALHEUR LAKE BOTTOMS, OREGON.

WEEDS. 39

extent is not at all surprising. No attempt is made to give a complete
weed list for the region, but, on the contrary, only those are enumer-
ated which interfere with the growth of forage crops. Even some of
these are valuable forage plants in themselves, but they are listed here
because of their persistency or their frequent occurrence in ground
sown to other forage crops or in localities which, were it not for their
presence, would yield more valuable feed.

The number of plants recorded in this connection might be gr eatly
extended by accepting a more liberal interpretation of the meaning of
weed and by an enumeration of the less harmful ones. Such plants
as wire grass (Juncus balticus), which produces a very poor quality of
hay, mint (Mentha canadensis), and heliotrope (Llelcotropium curas-
savicum) grow in great profusion, but they develop only in places and
under circumstances where nothing else will grow. They therefore
serve the useful purpose of furnishing a soil cover after the flood
water disappears, and some of them even furnish a poor quality of
feed. The plants which interfere in native meadows are few compared
with those which are troublesome in alfalfa meadows. Here under
the stimulus of too superficial cultivation they receive a great impetus,
and, under unfavorable conditions for the development of the culti-
vated crop they interfere with its growth and very materially reduce
the value of the hay and the pasture.

DEATH WEED (Iva azxillaris).—This is undoubtedly one of the most persistent
weeds in northern Nevada and southern Oregon. It grows very profusely in low
alkaline meadows and pastures. In many places where pasturing has been carried
to excess it forms a complete covering for the ground, and often, as was the case on
large areas in the Quinn River Valley, no other plants grew with it. It is also at
times a very bad weed in cultivated lands, and in such cases interferes very materi-
ally with the crop. Its habit of propagation by creeping rootstocks renders it a
very difficult plant to eradicate. With thorough cultivation, however, no serious
apprehension need be had concerningit, as in ground thoroughly plowed and cultivated
each year it soon disappears. It gives the greatest amount of trouble in land which
is only partially subdued, such as the lower sage-brush areas. In this region of
scanty rainfall, where alfalfa is about the only cultivated crop raised, and where it
is by far the best paying crop, the rancher is liable not to thoroughly prepare the
ground for its reception. Very often a sage-brush area is cleared up and sown to
alfalfa with no other crop preceding it. In such cases, as will readily be seen, the
ground is not thoroughly prepared, and this weed as well as many others will persist
in the soil to the detriment of the crop for several years.

SuNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus).—This widely distributed weed frequently inter-
feres very materially with the development of the forage crops, especially in the
newly broken bottom lands or rebroken pastures and meadows. Its development
was especially abundant on the ranch of J.S. Divine, also in certain localities on the
Malheur Lake bottoms. On Mr. Divine’s ranch it, together with the horsetail
spoken of below, formed about one-third of the crop of grain hay.

Horserai (Equisetum robustum).—This is often pointed out as a vile weed, but it
seldom does much damage where land is properly treated. In localities where it
was noticed this year the land had been overirrigated and poorly cultivated.

BuvueE FLAG (Iris missouriensis).—Large areas of this are found in the mountain

40) KORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

meadows and especially in depressions and ‘‘ draws,’’ which furnish large quantities
of feed, consisting of native clovers and sedges. It seems never to be eaten by either
cattle or sheep, and forms a very conspicuous weed in the localities mentioned.

Mustarp (Sophia pinnata).—In southern Oregon this appeared to be the worst
weed in alfalfa meadows. At Denio the alfalfa hay with which our horses were fed
at the livery stable consisted of at least one-half of this plant. While this was the
worst case seen, it was very commonly found in large quantities in the alfalfa hay
throughout the region. To the north and south of this place, however, less of it was
observed. :

Lertuce ( Lactuca scariola).—This was not prominent enough to attract any atten-
tion until we reached the headwaters of the Malheur River. From here on to
Ontario it steadily increased in quantity. It was especially abundant in alfalfa
meadows in the lower course of the Malheur River. Several fields were seen in the
vicinity of Vail, in which this plant grew about as thick as it could well stand and as
nigh as one’s head.

WILD oats (Avena fatua).—This, like the previous species, attracted no attention
until we reached the headwaters of the Malheur River. It was common, however,
all along the trip, but not of so much consequence in this region as where small grains
are grown. There may be large quantities of it in alfalfa fields, but it is usually cut
at such a time as to make very good feed, and thus every cutting tends to clear
the land of it. Inas much as alialfa is cut often the oat does not have time to mature
its seed.

SQUIRREL TAIL (Hordeum jubatum).—This is probably the most persistent and
troublesome weed which inhabits native meadows. When it occurs, as is often the
case, in hay land, the quality of the feed is very decidedly reduced by its presence.
In this condition it is not relished by stock, and when forced to eat it they often
become emaciated and their mouths become sore on account of the accumulation of
the beards between the teeth. However, asstated elsewhere, it isnot wholly a weed,
for it often forms, with proper management, a very palatable and nutritious pasture
or hay ration.

BARNYARD-GRASS (Panicum crus-galli).—In but one locality was this found in any
quantity which attracted attention. Here there was a phenomenal growth of it.
On the Harper ranch, on the Malheur River about 40 miles above Ontario, a large
field of alfalfa, seeded last spring, contained a remarkable volunteer crop of this grass
mixed with it. It was very noticeable, however, that it developed in the lower por-
tions of the meadow in which the water from the two irrigations applied accu-
mulated and remained for sometime before soaking into the ground. In this area,
particularly, there was a growth of at least two tons of hay per acre. As would be
expected, the alfalfa was completely killed out, due, in all probability, not to the
presence of the weed, but to overirrigation and improper drainage. (See Pl. XVI,
fig. 1.)

UtaH sALtBusH (Atriplex truncata).—This, like the two following species, often
grows in great quantities in low, poorly drained, alkaline, alfalfa meadows. It was
especially abundant in such localities near Beulah, on the north fork of the Malheur
River.

HALBERT-LEAVED SALTBUSH (Atriplex hastata).—Much of this species is often cut
with alfalfa and also with native forage plants. It is questionable whether it ever
interferes very materially in alfalfa meadows, although large patches of it frequently
occur. It usually develops in situations which are either too alkaline or too poorly
drained for the former.

PAHUTE WEED (Dondia depressa erecta).—This plant, which is said to receive its
name from the fact that the Pahute Indians used the seed for food, is a weed in the
same sense as are the two previous ones, and the notes under those species apply
equally well here.

POISONOUS PLANTS. 41

WHITE SWEET CLOVER ( Melilotus alba).—This weed, so common in nearly all irri-
gated regions, is very abundant northward. It does not appear to find congenial
conditions in the southern portion of the Territory, but is especially unsightly along
irrigation ditches in the drainage of the Malheur River.

POISONOUS PLANTS.

There is in this region as in all other grazing areas a very vague and
indefinite idea regarding this class of plants. One will often find
valuable forage plants pointed out as injurious to stock and passing
under the vague term of ‘‘loco weeds.” The prejudice against a
certain plant often arises from some circumstance connected with the
behavior of cattle in the vicinities where it grows in abundance.
Cattle die for an unknown reason and the most natural thing to attrib-
ute the malady to is the poisonous effect of some plant. It has
appeared, on this trip as well as on others in range States, that there
is much popular misconception in reference to the matter. Usually it
is difficult to obtain definite information concerning authentic cases of
injury to stock from eating the plants in question. When one takes
cognizance of the numerous species which are considered poisonous
and then follows up the sheep camps or studies closely pastured
meadows for a few days, he is sure to lose confidence in much of the
popular belief concerning the poisonous effect of plants. There are
two species, however, in this region which are universally condemned,
and there is strong evidence that they do much injury at certain sea-
sons of the year. As far as we were able to learn there was no injury
from either except in the early spring.

Larkspur (Delphinum scopulorum).—According to the account given by Mr. F. C.
Lusk, superintendent of the French-Glenn estate, this plant is one of the first to put
forth a vigorous growth in the spring. When the ground is still moist, the cattle
pull up the tuberous roots and eat them along with the succulent tops. He reports
that there are no prominent symptoms following the feeding on this plant, and that
the cattle simply ‘‘lay down and die.’”’ This account has been repeated substantially
by other observers in the region, so that it appears to be well authenticated.
While the plant appeared to be common enough in the mountains where we traveled,
it was only in two or three localities that it was conspicuous. It is said to be more
noticeable in the spring on account of its early appearance when there is less vege-
tation on the ground. The stock at this time of the year, after having been confined
todry, dead, and very short pasture grasses of the lowland meadows during the winter,
are, of course, very eager for green feed and consequently eat many things which
they would not touch later in the season when feed becomes more plentiful.

Attention is called here to the fact that injury from this plant, as well as the next
one mentioned, occurs when cattle are first turned onto the range from short pas-
tures or short hay rations during a long and often hard winter. They often go out
in spring in a condition of very low vitality. It is suggested that the large death
rate at this season may to a large extent be due to the radical change of ration ata
time when the general tone of the system, owing to impoverishment and change of
season, is least able to withstand such changes. The fact that at times cattle die in
large numbers at this season of the year, when the system is least able to withstand
the effect of noxious weeds or other injurious agencies, would tend strongly to create

42 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

a suspicion that the condition of the animals acts as a very potent factor in causing
the numerous losses:

Wixp parsnip.—At least two plants designated by this common name are univer-
sally condemned. They are both very common in the lowland meadows and pas-
tures in both northern Nevada and southeastern Oregon. These are known to botan-
ists as Sium cicutifolum and Cicuta vagans. Large quantities were cut with hay at
Winnemucca and Quinn River Crossing, Nev., and on the White Horse Ranch, near
old Fort Smith, Oreg. No complaints are expressed against them in this condition.
Like the larkspur, they appear to be injurious in the spring when the ground is
moist and the cattle are able to pull up and eat the roots. In this instance again the
injury occurs at the time when the cattle are in an impoverished condition and
therefore least able to withstand the effects of any deleterious agents. Mr. Lusk
reports that his company has paid out considerable money in attempting to eradi-
cate this weed. It hires Indians or other cheap labor to dig up the plants in much
the same way that the dandelion and the thistle are removed from lawns in the East.

FORAGE PLANTS.

No attempt is made to give a complete list of the forage plants of
the region, even so far as observed on the trip. This would evidently
include all of the grasses, sedges, and rushes, and would unduly extend
the appended list to no purpose. Indeed, many of the plants collected
which are known to be eaten by stock are purposely omitted from the
list, either because they grow in quantities too small to be taken into
account, or because they are not considered of sufficient importance
to be noted.

THE TRUE SAGES.

The sages as popularly recognized constitute a very heterogeneous
group of plants. A rough classification is frequently made, however,
by the rancher into black sage and salt sage. The group included
under the above head constitutes those shrubby plants belonging to
the genus Artemisia, which bloom late in autumn and produce very
inconspicuous flowers and seeds which are very seldom seen by the
ordinary observer. They differ from the next group—the salt sages—
in having a very bitter taste and a very penetrating odor, like the
common wormwood to which they are closely related. They grow in
those situations which although arid are seldom alkaline. The abode
of the conspicuous and most valuable ones is therefore above the basins
and river bottoms, on the mesas and in the foothills. The different
species differ greatly in their forage value, depending presumably
upon the quantity of the bitter principle present in the leaves and
twigs. ,

BLACK SAGE (Artemisia arbuscula).—This sagebrush is the typical mountain form
and differs mainly from the common black sage of the mesas (A. tridentata) in hay-
ing larger flowers and more spreading scraggly branches. What is said concerning

the feeding value of A. tridentata will apply with equal force to thisspecies. Another
species, which is closely related to the above and which is very common on the mesas

f

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE XI].

Gee

pe
euntee

Fic. 2.—DIViNE’S RANCH, EASTERN BASE OF STEINS MOUNTAINS, OREGON.

‘FORAGE PLANTS. 43

of the western Dakotas, portions of Wyoming, Montana, and Colorado, was found
in one locality in Steins Mountains, where it covered quite extensive areas. This
species, known to botanists as A. cana, differs from the preceding in having a more
erect habit of growth and longer entire leaves. Its feeding qualities differ in no wise
from those of the next species. (See Pl. VI, fig. 1.)

BLACK SAGE (Artemisia tridentata) .—This is the common sage of the mesas and foot-
hills. It takes the place of the Cactaceze and the creosote bush (Larrea mexicana) of
the deserts to the southward. Its feeding qualities are very inferior. It is some-
times said to be used for feed to a considerable extent, but its value is probably
overestimated. According to the best information we are able to obtain, it is seldom
browsed, even by sheep, excepting in extreme cases, and then it is claimed by the
sheepmen of the region that the animals can not live upon it for more than a couple
of daysatatime. (See Pl. II, fig. 2.)

BLack SAGE (Artemisia rigida).—This was met with in but two situations, the first
near the Calamity settlement and the next near Westfall, Oreg. In both instances
it was cropped very closely and it was with the greatest difficulty that we were able
to secure specimens enough to identify the plant, inasmuch as we were unfamiliar
with it, having never seen it growing before.. Pl. III, fig. 2, shows this plant as it
appeared near Westfall. The bunches in the foreground constitute what remains of
the plant after being fed off during the winter months. In the background, both in
front of and behind the wagon, will be seen a typical growth of the common black
sage (A. tridentata).

Muvewort (Artemisia ludoviciana).—A very common species of sage growing in gen-
eral in higher nonalkaline lowland meadows. It is said to be pastured to a large
extent in the winter, and very much of it is cut with other forage plants for hay. In
this way it forms quite an important factor in the winter rations. It is probably rel-
ished much more by sheep than by cattle.

Bup saGE (Artemisia spinescens).—A spiny, straggly shrub which blooms early in
the spring and drops its seeds and leaves in midsummer, becoming almost, if not
quite, naked by the middle of August. Of all the species of true sages that grow in
the region this is undoubtedly the most important. It.is said to be browsed by cat-
tle as well as by sheep. As we saw it between Winnemucca, Nev., and the Alvord
desert in Oregon, where it was exceedingly abundant on the foothills and high mesas,
it invariably bore evidences of having been browsed during the past season. It is to
be understood, of course, that this as well as the other species of the true sages are
not eaten during the summer.

THE SALT SAGES AND THEIR ALLIES.

This group of usually salt-loving plants is of great economic impor-
tance in all the plains and basin region. Some of them form the main ~
winter feed in many situations, while others, like the true sages, may.
be considered plants which form a subsistence ration. They vary
greatly in the character of soil upon which they thrive, some, such as
the common greasewood, being seldom found except on soils which are
too alkaline for almost all other kinds of vegetation, while others, such
as white sage and the spiny salt bush, probably never grow on what
may be termed alkaline soil. All these plants belong to the goosefoot
family, although they differ widely in their general appearance. ‘They
may be readily distinguished from the true sages by their more promi-
nent fruits, winged seeds (fruiting bracts), and salty rather than bitter

44 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

taste. Some species are annuals, but the majority tof those which are
most valued as forage are shr oie perennials.

SILVERY SALT BUSH (Atriplex argentea).—A bushy, branched, triangular leaved
annual which develops in unsodded areas in native meadows and often in poorly
cultivated fields on the lower elevations. In the latter situation it receives a stimu-
lus from artificial cultivation and often makes a good stand. Much of it is cut with
hay and is readily eaten by both sheep and cattle.

SHAD SCALE ( Atriplex canescens).—A bushy, branching shrub, 3 to 10 feet high. It
is most abundant in northern Nevada, where it grows commonly in the sandy
stretches bordering low areas. It is less abundant and therefore of less consequence
in this region than the next species mentioned, but it is probably relished more by
stock.

SPINY SALT BUSH (Atriplex confertifolia).—A diffusely branched spiny shrub, 1
to 3 feet high, growing in nonalkaline situations on the mesas and foothills. Its
habits are about the same as the bud sage, with which it often forms the only vege-
tation on large areas of the lower foothills between the draws where the black sage
predominates. It is undoubtedly one of the most important winter feeds for sheep
in the entire region, since the white and red sages have become so much reduced by
overstocking.

HALBERT-LEAVED SALT BUSH (Atriplex hastata).—This is a branched, erect annual,
growing in rather alkaline situations and haying about the same value and habit as
A. truncata and A.argentea. Like these two species, it sometimes develops tremen-
dously in cultivated fields, in spots where the soil is too salty for the development of
alfalfa and other cultivated crops. It often forms an almost pure crop in local areas
in native meadows. In either case it is often gathered with the hay in considerable
quantities and eaten by stock in winter. On the range it and the two species men-
tioned above are pastured to a large extent. These three species were especially
abundant on the north fork of the Malheur River above Beulah, Oreg., and were ~
common in hay meadows all the way from Winnemucca north.

NUTTALL’S SALT BUSH (Atriplex nuttallii).—A low spreading, sparingly branched
shrub. This species was not seen until we reached the Malheur Lake basin, where
it was found over large areas. It was again encountered in great abundance in the
valley of the Malheur River, about 40 miles above Ontario. Wherever it was found
it was invariably closely grazed on the open range. PI. III, fig. 1, shows an area of
this plant on the open'range near the Harper ranch. All of the vegetation in the fore-
ground, excepting the bunch of cactus, consists of stumps of this shrub. On the
Harper Ranch there was one field which contained large areas which were protected
during the summer. These areas invariably contained nothing but this season’s
growth of a few branches 6 to 12 inches long, showing how greedily the plant is
eaten by cattle during the winter.

ToRREY’S SALTBUSH (Atriplex torreyi).—A tall, diffusely, and rigidly branched
shrub, 4 to 8 feet high, with triangular leaves, angular branches, and long, tapering
spines. It was met with only in a few localities in northern Nevada, as far north as
Quinn River Crossing. In the vicinity of Winnemucca it was browsed to about the
same extent as the shad scale.

UTAH SALTBUSH (Atriplex truncata).—An erect, sparingly-branched annual, resem-
bling silvery saltbush in general appearance and habit. Like the halbert-leaved
saltbush, it often forms a large part of the hay cut on the native meadows, and
develops to almost an alarming extent in cultivated fields which are inclined to be
too salty for ordinary crops.

PAHUTE WEEDS (Dondia depressa erectia and D. duffusa).—Both of these plants are
much branched, narrow-leaved annuals, or, at most, biennials. The common name by
which they are designated in this region is said to be derived from the fact that the

‘KORAGE PLANTS. 45

Pahute Indians were in the habit of collecting the seed and using it for food. The
plants are of rather questionable forage utility, although said by some to be relished
by cattle after the late autumn frosts. Like the last species of saltbush, these often
grow very vigorously in cultivated fields which are slightly too alkaline for culti-
vated crops.

Hop saGe (Grayia spinosa).—A well branched shrub, | to 3 feet high, with long,
slender spines, thick, rather succulent leaves, and a spike of winged fruits which
bear some resemblance to the cultivated hop from which is derived the common name.
This is seldom eaten in summer, but in the winter the leaves and fruit which fall in
late summer are picked up by stock in much the same manner as they eat the leaves
of the mesquite further south on the Arizona deserts. It grows in situations similar
to the spiny saltbush, and is of value as autumn and winter feed.

WHITE SAGE (Hurotia lanata).—As it grows in this region at the present time this
is a low shrub, one-half to 2 feet high, consisting of a few straight unbranched
shoots from a woody stump. It was formerly of much importance as a winter feed
for both cattle and sheep, but the quantity is so reduced at the present time that it
can not be considered of much economic importance.

Rep sAGE (Kochia americana).—A sparingly branched plant, one-half to 2 feet
high, with straight, slender, leafy twigs. Next to the white sage this is said to be the
shrub most relished by cattle of any in the region. It is quite abundant in places
from the higher bottoms to the foothills. After the advent of frosts in the fall the
whole plant turns red—a characteristic which has given rise to the common name.
The previous year’s wood always bears evidence of having been eaten.

GREASEWOOD (Sarcobatus vermiculatus).—A tall, brittle, wooded shrub with spread-
ing branches and narrow, thick, succulent leaves. It always inhabits strongly alka-
line ground and often grows where nothing else but the iodine weed (Spirostachys
occidentalis) is able to thrive. Very large areas of this are found between Winne-
mucca and Quinn River Crossing. It is really the prominent lowland shrub in
places and does not often bear evidence of browsing, but the leaves are cleaned up off
the ground where they have fallen, and it is said to furnish much feed in this way.
It can, however, be considered only an emergency ration at best. The feed it furnishes
is both small in quantity and poor in quality. (See Pl. XII, fig. 2).

THE CLOVERS.

One of the main differences between the meadows and river banks
of this region and corresponding situations in the Dakotas, eastern
Montana, and Wyoming is the presence of numerous species of clovers
of great importance in the economy of the stock industry. They fur-
nish much valuable pasture and hay of excellent quality. The most
important species are discussed below, although no attempt is made
to give a comple list.

SEASIDE CLOVER ( Trifolium involucratum).—This is the most abundant and impor-
tant of any of the native species of the region. In the low, swampy, nonalkaline areas
on the native meadows it often yields from one-half to 14 tons of hay per acre. On
the Divine Ranch it had spread, under the influence of irrigation, to sagebrush soil,
and there, with timothy and redtop, made a fine crop. It is a promising species for
cultivation and under proper treatment it would probably make feed about equal in
quantity and quality to alsike clover.

SMALL-HEADED CLOVER (Trifolium microcephalum).—Although not of as much
importance as the previous species, this furnishes much pasture in places and it
stands close grazing very well indeed. It is commonly found with the preceding
species in low, wet meadows.

46 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

BECKWITH CLOVER ( Trifolium beckwithii).—This is a larger, more rigid, and coarser
plant in every way than either of the two previously mentioned. We found ,it at
higher elevations than the others, usually in mountain valleys and meadows, along
streams, and near springs. It was most abundant in portions of Silvies Valley. It
is valuable mainly as a native pasture plant.

OREGON CLOVER (Trifolium oreganum, No. 601).—A valuable mountain pasture
plant. It is very common in mountains, where it often forms, with tufted hair grass
(Deschampsia caespitosa) and Sandberg’s blue grass (Poa sandbergii), a very respecta-
ble covering over the ground in small depressions and along banks of streams, and is
always closely cropped in such situations.

SHIELD CLOVER (Trifolium cyathiferum).—A common and occasionally abundant
species forming much pasture along streams and moist localities. It is easily recog-
nized by the large shield-like bracts below the heads of flowers.

THE SEDGES AND RUSHES.

When quantity alone is considered this group of plants is the most
important of any in the region. ‘Two or three species of sedges or
rushes often take possession of large areas of the low, poorly drained,
swampy basins and river bottoms. Although the quantity of feed
from this source is large, the quality is ordinarily much inferior to
that derived from the true grasses and clovers, and in some cases it
is questionable whether the forage furnished by many of these plants is
worth the cutting. Usually, however, the feed derived from the sedges
(Carex sp.) is of very good quality, but on the whole rather light in
weight. ;

WIRE Grass (Juncus balticus).—Every rancher knows this tough, wiry, leafless
plant, which is almost invariably found in greater or less quantity in the lowland
hay meadows. It is therefore very extensively cut for hay along with other forage
plants, but it furnishes a very poor quality of feed.

NEVADA RUSH (Juncus nevadensis).—This species often furnishes some pasture and
a little hay along the edges of moist bottoms.

ToaD RusH (Juncus bufonius).—A low-spreading, much-branched plant growing in
edges of ponds and very wet places. It is often pastured where better feed is scarce.

CREEPING SPIKE RUSH (Hleocharis palustris).—This is also often referred to as wire
erass. Itis very abundant on all of the lower meadows, and, like the wire grass, is
often cut for hay. It is neither so harsh nor so rigid as the latter. Nowhere on the
trip were such areas of it encountered as on the Malheur Lake bottoms, where much
of it was cut along with other crops.

AWNED CYPERUS ( Cyperus aristatus).—This is quite abundant on sandy banks of the
tributaries of the Malheur River, where it furnishes some pasture, but never any hay.

RED-ROOTED CYPERUS (Cyperus erythrorhizos).—This is often found in hay in con-
siderable quantities on the low, wet, nonalkaline meadows along streams in south-
eastern Oregon.

TuLE (Scirpus lacustris).—This is the most conspicuous plant on the bottoms.
It often grows to a height of 15 feet, and the culms are often three-fourths of an
inch in diameter. Pl. XV, -fig. 2; shows this plant as it grows over very exten-
sive areas on the Malheur Lake bottoms. In the more moist areas it is used
simply as a browse and shelter for cattle during storms, but in the edges of the
lower areas, where it grows to a height of 1 to 4 feet, much of it is cut with other hay,
crops, with which it is mixed. The quantity of feed from this source is probably

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIl.

Fic. 1.—A PART OF A DAY’S ROUND-UP OF BEEF, SILVIES VALLEY, OREGON.

Smoke from a forest fire shown along the horizon.

FIG. 2.—A WELL-DEVELOPED GREASEWOOD BUSH NEAR WINNEMUCCA, NEV.

FORAGE PLANTS. , 47

considerable, but the quality is very poor. The seeds are nutritious, and one may
often see horses in the tule patches in late summer picking off the heads.

PRAIRIE BULRUSH (Scirpus campestris).—A brown-headed, triangular-stemmed,
large, coarse, grass-like plant, growing in low, wet, and often alkaline meadows.
The quantity of forage yielded by it is very large, and the quality, while not as
good as that furnished by the grasses, is still very fair. Closely related species furnish
large quantities of hay in many localities on lake and river bottoms in the Dakotas.
In the vicinity of Divine’s ranch, at the edge of the. Alvord Desert, there was a very
fine growth of thisrush. Pl. VII, fig. 1, shows a very ordinary development of it,
and also something regarding the character of the soil on which it grows. This par-
ticular spot would cut one and three-fourths to two tons per acre. In some places
in this vicinity hay consisting of about two-thirds of this rush and one-third tule
was cut in large quantities. The yield was often three tons per acre of very bulky
forage.

SMALL-SEEDED BULRUSH (Scirpus microcarpus).—This is frequently found in large
quantities in low, wet, nonalkaline areas. It is never in such quantities nor in such
situations that it can be cut for hay, but it forms much of both winter and summer
pasturage. It was first met with in the vicinity of Pine Forest Mountains, and fre-
quently from there north.

THREE-SQUARE (Scirpus pungens).—A triangular stemmed plant, with a small lateral
head and few leaves, growing thinly, and propagating by creeping root stocks in wet
and often alkaline localities. The same species is very commonly found in consid-
erable quantities in the hay meadows in Wyoming, Montana, and the Dakotas. It
is cut and pastured, but it makes a quality of feed but little better than the tule.

, AWNED SEDGE (Carex aristata).—This sedge furnished a great deal of pasturage and
feed on the Malheur Lake bottoms. It grows in rich, moist, nonalkaline areas to the
extent of one and a half to two tons per acre. Where we saw it the individual areas
in which it grew were not large, but frequent, and measured from one-fourth to three
or four acres. It furnishes by far the best and largest quantity of hay of any of the
sedges in this region.

DovuGLas SEDGE (Carex douglasii).—This conspicuous, yellow-headed, wiry plant
is probably the most common of all the species of the sedge family. It is invariably
found on the drier bottoms, where it grows oftentimes to a height of 8inches. Much
of it, therefore, gets into the haystack, where it is readily eaten in winter, although
it is very tough and wiry. On the open range it is always closely grazed. Its main
value is for pasture.

GAY’S SEDGE (Carex gayana).—This often forms from one-fourth to one-third of
the hay in some localities. It was decidedly abundant in the vicinity of the Alvoid
Desert, where, together with the Nebraska sedge and seaside clover, it yielded about
one and a half tons per acre. Nowhere else was it found in such abundance.

WOOLLY SEDGE ( Carex lanuginosa).—Commonly found mixed with the tule, but it
thrives best in soils immediately surrounding the latter. It very often grows in
situations too wet to be cut, but even here it furnishes feed for winter pasture. On
the lower wet meadows on the Divine Ranch it formed about two-thirds of the crop
over very large areas, the remainder being furnished by the Nebraska sedge and the
seaside clover. It is also an important factor in the hay supply on both the Quinn
River Crossing and White Horse ranches.

CLUSTERED FIELD SEDGE (Carex marcida).—Two varieties of this species are com-
mon in northern Nevada and southern Oregon. They are never abundant enough
to form any great amount of hay in any one place, but in the aggregate, over large
areas of the drier meadows, they amount to a great deal. When the drier meadows
are too short to cut it is pastured in the winter with other sedges and grasses.

NEBRASKA SEDGE ( Carex nebraskensis).—A very valuable pale-green species growing

48 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

in low situations which are covered with water until late in the season. The hay
which it furnishes is rather light, but usually considered of fair quality for this class
‘of plants. It may grow alone over considerable areas which dry in midsummer and
bake very hard, or it may be found with other closely related species and some
clovers. The latter, of course, very materially improve the quality of the hay.
(See also under Gay’s sedge and Woolly sedge).

SOFT-LEAVED SEDGE (Carex tenella).—This slender-culmed species furnishes a great
deal of pasture in shady places in the mountains.

BorrLE SEDGE (Carex utriculata).—Common in moist meadows, where it is both
pastured and cut for hay. It was not collected in Nevada but was of considerable
importance on the meadows of Silvies Valley and the north fork of the Malheur
River, near Beulah, Oreg.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Horkelia fusca. —This glandular, strong-scented plant with numerous compound root
leaves is an important sheep plant. It is very abundant in Steins Mountains and
almost invariably bears evidence of being grazed. Cattle, however, in all probability
never touch it.

PRAIRIE VETCHLINGS (Lathyrus decaphyllus and L. Oregonensis).—Grow very pro-
fusely in-some localities and are to some extent found in hay in the Alvord Desert
basin. We saw no evidences of their being pastured, however.

Daxota Lotus (Lotus americana).—This plant, so abundant on all the river bot-
toms and low prairies in the Plains region, was not encountered until we reached the
Snake River at Ontario, Oreg. Here it was very abundant and bore evidence of
being grazed in many of the poorer pastures. It is very seldom indeed that the
writer has seen this condition. Usually it, ike the lupines, remains untouched in
pastures, although readily eaten in hay.

Lupines.—These conspicuous blue-flowered plants, belonging to the pea family, are
very numerous and characteristic of the western plains, mountains, and even deserts.
They are usually considered of some value, and are therefore included here. It has
not been the writer’s experience, however, that they are eaten much by cattle.
Sheep occasionally do eat them in poor pastures, but their destruction by the sheep
is due more to trampling than to actual eating. About ten species were collected,
two or three of which are very common, and might be mentioned in a list of forage
plants. The most important are Lupinus lepedus and Lupinus laxiflorus.

BUR-REED (Sparganum eurycarpum).—A broad-leaved grass-like plant with promi-
nent globular masses of fruit produced in late summer. This very common plant in
all the wet meadows of the regions is of more economic value here than in any locality
the writer has ever visited. It is often cut with the tule, sedges, and rushes for hay,
and is commonly pastured where stock can get at it during the summer. It was
especially abundant on the Malheur Lake bottoms where pure growths of it were
often found. The team in Pl. XV, fig. 2, is standing in an area of this plant.

SEASIDE ARROW GRASS ( Triglochin maritima).—This salt-loving plant, with rush-like
leaves and stout, erect, naked flower stalks, furnishes much pasture and occasionally
a little hay along with the more valuable rushes and sedges. It is found only in
very moist alkaline regions, and is an invariable occupant of the saline regions in the
vicinity of hot springs.

Cart-TatL (Typhia latifolia).—This conspicuous and universally recognized swamp-
land plant furnishes much winter feed, and occasionally some of it is cut for hay. A
little of it is shown in the extreme foreground in Pl. XV, fig. 1.

AMERICAN VETCH ( Vicia americana and V. truncata).—Are common and of some
value on portions of the drier, rich, lowland meadows. Like the vetchlings discussed
above, they are not pastured except where the sedges, grasses, and clovers fail.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

Fic. 1.—A MODERATELY GRAZED NATIVE PASTURE IN STEINS MOUNTAINS, OREGON.

Stubble of sheep fescue constitutes nearly the entire vegetation in foreground.

Fic. 2.—A GIANT RYEGRASS MEADOW, QUINN RIVER CROSSING, NEVADA.

FORAGE PLANTS. 49

. ALFILARIA (Hrodium cicutarium).—This forage plant, which is of so much impor-
tance on many of the Arizona and California arid pastures, was seen in considerable
quantity along the western base of the Pine Forest Mountains in Nevada and at Denio,
Oreg., but it is very doubtful whether it is abundant enough to be of much value.

THE GRASSES.

:

SHORT-LEAVED WHEAT GRASS (Agropyron brevifolium).—Occasional in Steins Moun-
tains.

AWNED WHEAT GRASS (Agropyron caninum pubescens ).—A common species in the
mountains. It forms some pasture at moderate elevations, especially in the Pine
Forest Mountains.

WESTERN WHEAT GRASS (Agropyron occidentale).—This forms a scattering growth
in the lower sage-brush areas. It seldom, if ever, grows on the lower alkaline soils.
It is of very little importance here compared with the plains region. The variety
molle grows in similar localities.

WESTERN COUCH GRASS (Agropyron pseudorepens).—Common in the rich, drier
meadows, but never forming the quantity of feed that it does east of the Rocky
Mountains.

BUNCH WHEAT GRASS (Agropyron spicatum).—This is the most important wheat
grass of the region. It is an awned grass, and grows almost invariably in rocky but
fertile soils in the upper foothills and mountains. Although rather harsh and wiry,
it furnishes much valuable feed for summer and autumn pasture.

SLENDER WHEAT GRASS (Agropyron tenerum).—Although common on the richer,
well-drained lowland areas throughout the region and of some importance as a pas-
ture and hay grass, it amounts to but little compared with the plains region, where
it furnishes such magnificent pasturage and hay.

WaTER FOXTAIL (Alopecurus geniculatus).—A low, smooth, tender grass with weak
stems, which often root at the joints. It is found abundantly throughout the
region, along streams, and in wet meadows which are not completely sodded over
with the sedges. It furnishes good pasturage, but the quantity of hay is of little
consequence.

Reptop (Agrostis alba).—Doubtless some forms of this widely distributed and
valuable forage plant are indigenous, but it is so widely distributed in all meadows
that the introduced form often appears native. It is well adapted to the poorly
drained, boggy areas, and it is believed that it could be more extensively introduced
with great profit. H

RouGH HAIR GRASS (Agrostis hyemalis).—A slender, smooth grass with delicate
panicle, furnishing some pasture in moist mountain meadows, as well as upon the
lowlands. The quantity of its hay is small, but the quality good. On the low
meadows of the White Horse Ranch much of it was found in the hay. Probably as
high as a fifteenth of the entire bulk consisted of this grass in limited localities.

WuirteE Top (Agrostis exarata grandis).—An erect, smooth, rather tall grass, growing
usually in loose bunches. It is of much value for both pasturage and hay and is
relished by all stock. It is never abundant enough to make a crop itself, but it often
forms an eighth or tenth of the bulk of the forage on the low meadows.

SLENDER BENT GRASS (Agrostis variabilis).—A tufted, slender mountain species
which furnishes much pasture in moist meadows. It was especially abundant in
Steins Mountains, where it often furnished good feed in rather dry localities. It is
always more or less abundant in all the depressions and along streams.

PURPLE BENT-GRASS (Agrostis humilis).—A slender, purple-topped, tufted species,
growing in moist places in mountains. It furnishes some feed in the vicinity of
streams and lakes in the Pine Forest Mountains.

16370—No. 15—02——4

50 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

HALL’s REDTOP (Agrostis hallii).—An erect grass, resembling closely the common
redtop, but with a more open and delicate panicle. It is a valuable hay grass in the
Alvord Desert region, especially on the White Horse and Divine ranches. In some
meadows on the former it replaces to a very large extent the common species of red-
top, and forms, in limited areas, a fourth of the crop of hay, the remainder being
made up of seaside clover and several sedges.

Witp oats (Avena fatua).—This grass, which is such a pest in many small grain-
growing regions, has been mentioned under weeds. Several fields of first and second
crop alfalfa were seen in which this formed a third to a fourth of the forage. One or
two years of alfalfa cropping will usually rid the land of it, however.

SLouGH GRAsSs (Beckmannia eruceformis).—A common species all through the
region, but never abundant enough to be of any importance as a hay plant, as it is
oftentimes in western Montana, especially in the Flat Head Valley. Here it forms
simply a scattering growth in moist places along ditches and streams, and is of value
only as a pasture grass.

KEELED BROME ( Bromus carinatus).—A stout, erect, tufted, perennial grass, abun-
dant in all the mountain regions. It usually grows in steep, rocky places with bunch
wheat grass, Buckley’s blue grass, and sheep fescue, and forms large quantities of
feed in such localities. It is especially abundant in Steins Mountains on the side of
Teger and Blitzen gorges. :

SHORT AWNED BROME (Bromus marginatus ).—This species, although extending into
the mountains, makes its best growth in partially cultivated ground on the lower
levels. At Big Creek and about 10 miles south of Burns there were exceptionally
fine growths of it in many fields. Itis the most promising of the native species of
this genus for cultivation. :

Harry BROME (Bromus subvelutinus No. 617).—This strikingly hairy species was
found in only one locality, but there it formed about a sixth of the entire pasture
growth, the remainder being Buckley’s blue grass and bunch wheat grass. The
locality was a southern, rocky exposure in Steins Mountains, about one-half mile
below the gorge on the Blitzen.

INTRODUCED SPECIES OF BROMES.—Four species not native to this country are intro-
duced in this region in considerable quantity. In limited localities these vie in
importance with the native grasses, and wherever found they are valuable forage
either as hay or pasture. Usually, however, they assume the character of weeds.
The most common of these forms is, of course, the common cheat (Bromus secalinus).
The appearance of threespecies of this genus along Bartlett Creek in northern Nevada
was very interesting. There had been some prospecting in the valley and seeds of
Bromus rubens, Bromus hordeaceous, and cheat (Bromus secalinus) had evidently been
introduced with feed from California points. These species had literally taken pos-
session in some portions of the valley. Being annual species, however, they dry up
early in the summer and are then not relished by stock.

YELLOW FOX TAIL (Chetochloa glauca) and GREEN FOX TAIL ( Chetochloa viridis) .—
Are sparingly introduced. Nowhere did we see them thriving with any degree of
vigor.

BLvE Jornt ( Calamagrostis canadensis acuminata ).—Occasional on low, moist mead-
ows. It is never very abundant, but makes good feed wherever found.

YELLow TOP (Calamagrostis hyperborea americana ).—A very important, erect, rather
wiry grass. Yellow top grows well on low, moist meadows. The best growth of it
the writer has ever seen was on the Malheur Lake bottoms, where there were areas
of an acre or more in places almost pure. It was always found along the edges of
the lower bottoms and, according to soil tests, in nonalkaline soil. A large quantity
of seed was secured from the Island Ranch, south of Burns, Oreg.

TUFTED HAIR GRASS (Deschampsia cxspitosa).—This is an important forage in the
moister localities in all the mountain ranges. It stands close pasturing very well,

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, Us S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.

FIG. 1.—FOUR WEEKS’ GROWTH OF SECOND-CROP ALFALFA, NEAR ONTARIO, OREGON.

Field said to have produced 10 tons of hay on three cuttings last year.

Fig. 2.—WILD WHEAT NEAR WINNEMUCCA, NEVADA.

Closely pastured meadow of same grass in foreground.

FORAGE PLANTS. 51

and when kept cropped it makes a good quality of pasturage. It is also often present
on the lower meadows.

OAK-LIKE HAIR GRASS ( Deschampsia calycina).—Like the last species, this has a wide
habitat, ranging from the lower bottoms to the higher mountains. It was found in
abundance on the White Horse Ranch, where there were acres of it. Although
rather short, it had been cut for hay in places. It furnishes pasture early in the
summer, but being a rapidly growing annual, it dies and dries up early in the season,
and is then not relished by stock. It had all died and dried up some time before we
visited the region on the ist of August.

SLENDER HAIR GRAss (Deschampsia elongata).—Decidedly a mountain grass. While
not of nearly as much importance as the tufted hair grass, it furnishes a great deal of
feed in low, wet meadows, and especially in the vicinity of mountains, brooks, and
springs.

Sar eRAss (Distichlis spicata).—This familiar grass on all the Western plains and
basin region, while very rigid and wiry, is one of great importance. Its persistent
habits of growth, its power to resist close grazing and drought, its very ordinary
feeding qualities and its ability to thrive in strongly alkaline soils are qualities which
make it a very valuable emergency feed. Were it not for this persistent grass many
more cattle would die of starvation than do. It makes a very ordinary feed, but it
is this very characteristic that makes it valuable. Were it more highly relished by
stock it would probably have been exterminated long ago. It was a common thing
to find it closely cropped all the way from Winnemucca to Ontario. Large herds of
cattle were apparently subsisting on this and squirrel tail (Hordeum jubatum) on the
open range on the Malheur Lake bottoms in August.

GIANT RYE GRASS (Elymus condensatas).—This mammoth, erect, usually more or
less tufted species is one of the most important grasses of the drier basin bottoms.
There are thousands of acres of it fringing the bottom lands and often extending out-
ward into the sagebrush areas. Pl. XIII, fig. 2, shows a characteristic growth of it
in the Quinn River Valley, almost hiding a wire fence. It grows on the drier and,
according to soil tests, nonalkaline areas. It is very often cut for hay, but more
often it is left for winter pasture. It is very valuable in stormy weather, for its
habit of growth prevents its being covered with snow. It is claimed by ranchers
that it does not stand cutting and close pasturing well. Under these treatments it
gets thinner and thinner and eventually disappears. The areas of it are said to have
greatly diminished in recent years. Horses fare especially well on it from the middle
of July to the middle of September. When allowed to pasture in the fields at this
time of the year they live almost entirely on the rich seed supply, roaming over the
fields and picking off the heads. Although it is often very badly ergoted, no evil
effect is reported on this account.

MounTAIn RYE GRASS (Elymus glaucus).—This abundant species of the Rocky
Mountain region is common here. It grows scatteringly among the shrubbery in
the mountains.

WILD WHEAT (Elymus triticoides).—This is the blue stem of this region, a name by
which it is universally recognized by the ranchers. In many respects it is the most
important grass of the entire region, and is a very promising species for cultivation.
The seed is produced in abundance and is invariably well filled and easily gathered.
Its habit of growth is very similar to that of the western wheat grass of the plains
region and the quality of the hay produced by the two are probably about equal.
There were magnificent crops of it along the Humboldt and Quinn rivers, in the
Alvord Desert basin, and on the Malheur Lake bottoms. It grows in rich, non-
alkaline, heavy soils, and where properly watered it often yields 2 to 24 tons
per acre. It appears to be well adapted to the damming and flooding system of
irrigation in vogue here, for it stands submerging to a greater degree than the majority
of the native grasses. Large quantities of seed were secured along the Humboldt

52 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

and Quinn River bottoms. Pl. XIV, fig. 2, shows a characteristic growth of it on the
Humboldt bottoms near Winnemucca. The picture was taken from a closely cropped
pasture of the same grass.

CANADIAN RYE GRASS (Elymus canadensis).—Common and furnishing a great deal
of pasture in the edges of thickets and along streams, especially to the northward.

EARLY BUNCH GRASS (Hatonia obtusata).—A valuable species wherever found, but
its quantity is rather limited on these bottoms.

INDIAN MILLET (Hriocoma cuspidata).—A low bunch grass with white, woolly
spikelets and very divergent and usually crooked, irregular panicle branches. It
inhabits sandy areas skirting the river bottoms and requires a loose, porous soil for
its best development. It was much more abundant in former times than it is now.
The readiness with which it is eaten and the loose soil in which it grows render it
very susceptible to injury from overstocking. It was pointed out to us on several
occasions as having been a very valuable grass at one time, but now it is of little
importance.

CREEPING ERAGROSTIS (Eragrostis hypnoides).—A prostrate, creeping annual which
furnishes some pasture in low, wet places.

SLENDER FESCUE (Festuca octoflora).—A small, short-leaved, annual grass which
grows early in the spring, and, after maturing a large crop of seed, dies with the
approach of dry weather. The species is to this region what the six weeks grass
( Bouteloua aristidoides) is to the Arizona deserts. The latter, however, grows in July
and August instead of in the spring. It iscommon all over the mesa region between
the lowland and. the higher foothills and doubtless furnishes much feed early in the
season. It is usually considered of practically no value. We found it especially
abundant in the lower foothills in southern Oregon.

SHEEP FESCUE ( Festuca ovina).—Reference has been made to this valuable moun-
tain species in several places on previous pages. As a pasture grass it is one of the
most important of the native species. It is certainly surpassed by none in either
the quality or quantity of feed produced, unless it be Buckley’s blue grass. It
has, in this region, two well-marked and distinct forms which are as different in
their habits as in their general appearance in the field. One, which is entirely
smooth, occupies the areas of the mountains situated between the upper foothills and
the higher elevations. In the lower portion of this area it is mixed with Buckley’s
blue grass, but higher up there are large areas upon which practically no other
grasses grow. The other, growing on the highest elevations, is the typical glaucus
form of the Rocky Mountain region. Magnificent areas of this form were seen in the
vicinity of Bartlett Peak and in the Pine Forest Mountains. In the former locality
there were stretches on the top of the mountains above the snowdrifts a mile in
extent where there was practically no other grass. Only two small areas were found
which had not been pastured.

Cut Grass (Homalocenchrus oryzoides).—This is common on ditch banks and along
streams from the Malheur Lake region north. It was not collected south of this
point. It is pastured somewhat, but can not be considered of much value.

SQUIRREL TAIL GRASS (Hordeum jubatum).—Usually this species is considered a vile
weed and is a great detriment to many native hay meadows of this region. But
while this is true, it also furnishes a large quantity of excellent pasture in many
regions. On the Malheur Lake bottoms there are thousands of acres where almost
no other grass grows. On the open range it was invariably cropped close to the
ground. An occasional fenced area showed wonderful stands of it. One field seen
would certainly have cut a ton of this grass to the acre. The analysis of the soil
samples taken from this region shows that it develops to the best advantage on soils
which do not contain alkali in quantities injurious to cultivated crops; it is certainly
neither so hard nor so compact as the soil in the surrounding and contiguous areas
where salt grass abounds.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, UHI Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV.

Fic. 1.—SPRANGLE TOP (SCOLOCHLOA FESTUCACEA) ON MALHEUR LAKE BOTTOMS,
OREGON.

Fig. 2.—A PATCH OF TULE ON MALHEUR LAKE BOTTOMS, OREGON.

The team is standing in a patch of bur-reed (Sparganum).

FORAGE PLANTS. 58

Mrapow BARLEY (Hordewm nodosum).—The bearded fruits of this are probably
not injurious to stock which eat it; at least no positive records are at hand of its
doing any injury in this way. Itenters into the composition of the hay very largely
in many native meadows. Among shrubbery on the bottom it makes a very tall
growth, and in such localities, where the mower can not be used, it enters largely into
the composition of the winter pastures.

SEASIDE BARLEY (Hordeum maritimum) and WALL BARLEY (Hordeum murinuimn)
are shorter lived than the other two species and are therefore of less value. They
furnish some pasture early in the season, but usually are as little prized as the slender
fescue.

PRAIRIE JUNE GRass ( Koleria cristata).—This is distinctly a mountain grass in this
region. It usually grows to best advantage in the rich soils of rocky gulch sides,
where it often forms from one-eighth to one-sixth of the pasturage.

Buupous MELIC GRASS (Melica bella). —A very common species with a bulbous base
resembling that of the common cultivated timothy. It is never very abundant, but
grows rather sparingly among mountain shrubbery, where it furnishes good, although
limited, pasturage.

MuHLENBERGIAS (Muhlenbergia comata and M. sylvatica).—Common along streams
in protected places and along irrigating ditches, and furnish a limited quantity of

pasturage.
REED MEADOW GRASS ( Panicularia americana).—A swamp-land species which occa-

sionally furnishes a little hay, but which is of most value as a pasture grass. It is
abundant along the Malheur River and its tributaries.

Manna arass ( Panicularia pauciflora).—More of a mountain form than the former
species. It is always present in wet, rich soil, along streams. In the White Horse
and Pine Forest mountains it was especially abundant.

BARNYARD GRASS (Panicum crus-galli and the variety muticum).—While common
in wet and waste places all through the region, it was nowhere so abundant as on the
Harper ranch, 40 miles above Ontario, Oreg., on the Malheur River. It was con-
sidered a bad weed here because-it had taken possession of a first-year field of alfalfa.
Pl. XVI, fig. 1, shows a volunteer crop of it in this vicinity. The failure was evi-
dently not caused by the development of this grass, but was due in the largest
measure to overirrigation, water having stood on a portion of the field for from two to
five days, according to reports. This furnished just the condition necessary for the
growth of this grass, and at the same time one which was fatal to the alfalfa. The
lower areas in this field yielded at least 2 tons of dry hay per acre of this grass.

REED CANARY GRASS (Phalaris arundinacea).—A tall, handsome, lowland species,
often called wild timothy. It is frequent all through the region, but apparently of
little importance as a hay grass. It furnishes some pasture among the tule patches
and sedges and rushes on the lower bottoms.

Mountain tTimotuy (Phleum alpinum) .—This 1s a very valuable grass, differing but
little in ordinary appearance from the common cultivated species, except in size. It
furnishes a great deal of pasture in the moist mountain meadows all through the
region.

REED Grass (Phragmites vulgaris).—This was found in but one locality, and that
along Bartlett Creek, some distance up the mountains from the upper end of the
Black Rock Desert.

BUCKLEY’S BLUE GRASS ( Poa buckleyana) .—This common ‘‘bunch”’’ grass is one of
the most important native pasture species. It grows from the lower foot hills to the
mountains and furnishes pasture much earlier than the fescues of the higher elevations.
No distinction appears to be made here between these two grasses, both the blue
grasses and the fescues being designated by the term ‘‘bunch grass.’’ It grows
almost pure on the lower elevations, but higher up it is mixed with the smooth form
of sheep fescue.

D4 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

BuNncH BLUE GRass (Poa laevigata).—A smooth, erect, light-colored grass, related
to the Kentucky blue grass. It inhabits the drier, nonalkaline bottoms, and is a very
excellent species for both hay and pasture. The meadows of it which were seen were
very uneven, due no doubt, in a large measure, to overpasturage. Many small areas on
the bottoms, however, would cut one to one and a half tons per acre. The species is
a very promising one for cultivation and the seed is easily gathered. The quality of
both the hay and the pasturage furnished by it is excellent. The hay is much
superior to that furnished by wild wheat (Hlymus triticoides), but the yield is much
smaller.

NEVADA BLUE GRASS (Poa nevadensis).—This handsome, bunch, glaucus blue grass
is confined mainly to the mountains in this region. Occasionally a little of it may
be found on the lowlands, but the quantity here is very small. It furnishes much
pasture on the broad, gentle slopes in Steins Mountains, as well as on the rocky,
steep canyon sides.

Woop MEADOW GRAss (Poa nemoralis).—A common species in some mountains, but
of little importance compared with the Rocky Mountain region.

KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS (Poa pratensis).—Forms of this valuable pasture and hay
grass are common throughout the region from the lowlands to the high mountains.
It was of greatest importance in the spur of the Blue Mountains, north of Burns,
Oreg., where with Prairie June grass (Koleria cristata) and Nevada blue grass (Poa
nevadensis) it formed in pine clearings in many places the entire grass forage. These
three species were found here in about equal quantities.

WHEELER’S BLUE GRASS (Poa wheeleri).—This species is often found with Buck-
ley’s blue grass in the lower mountain canyons and ravines. It furnishes excellent
feed for both cattle and sheep. It was especially abundant in Steins Mountains on
the sides of Teger and Blitzen gorges.

Brarp Grass ( Polypogon monspeliensis) .—Although an annual, this is a very impor-
tant species on all lowlands. It furnishes a large amount of pasture and enters into
the composition of the hay to a considerable extent. In some meadows examined it
formed a fourth of the crop. The green feed is relished by stock and the hay when
cut early is of good quality, though rather light. Pl. XVI, fig. 2, shows Arizona-
grown plants of this species..

ALKALI GRASSES (Puccinellia airoides and P. lemmoni).—These species are not so
abundant and important in this region as one would expect. They were found all
through the region, but never in such quantities as along the Yellowstone River or in
the Flathead Valley in Montana. The best growth seen was near Andrews, Oreg.

SPRANGLE TOP (Scolochloa festucacea).—This tall, bushy-topped, broad-leaved grass
was not seen except on the Malheur Lake bottoms, where it forms tremendous quan-
tities of hay. It isa common species in low, wet meadows from Iowa to Nebraska
northward, but it is not usually considered of much value as a hay grass. In certain
places, however, in the general depression of the low, swampy ground in eastern
South Dakota, especially in the vicinity of Clark, large quantities of hay are yielded
by it in dry seasons. It is rather astonishing that it should be found again in this
place in such large quantities. Quite extensive areas of it were seen which would
yield three tons of hay per acre. Pl. XV, fig. 1, showsa typical area fully headed
out. In the foreground it is lodged and mixed with bur-reed (Sparganum eury-
carpum). Its habits of growth are similar to many of the valuable grasses of this and
the Plains region, inasmuch as it develops by creeping rootstocks, and very often
does not head out at all. This occurs in dry years and in the drier portions of the
meadows in wet years. We drove through a half-mile stretch of it in one place on
the Island ranch where the stand was fairly thick, 2 to 3 feet high and yielding 2 or
3 tons of hay per acre of very fair quality, although rather coarse and light. The
hay being harvested as shown in Pl. VIII, fig. 2, is composed almost entirely of
this grass and prairie bulrush (Scirpus campestris) .

PLATE XVI.

Bul. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

, NEAR WESTFALL,

HARPER RANCH

Fic. 1.—A VOLUNTEER CROP OF BARNYARD GRASS,

OREGON.

FiG. 2.—BEARD GRASS, FROM PHOTOGRAPH OF PLANT GROWING NEAR TUCSON,

ARIZONA.

SUMMARY. 55

ORCHARD BARLEY (Sitanion longifolium, S. cinerum, and S. hystrix).—The first
named is the most important. It is abundant all through the mountains and extends
down to the upper bottoms. In regions frequented by sheep it was invariably
cropped the same as other grasses. Cattle, however, do not. appear to feed upon it
somuch. WS. cinerum is a common species which furnishes some feed in the open
clearings in the Blue Mountains, and S. hystrix is a mountain species which was col-
lected only in the Pine Forest Mountains. Here, however, it appeared to be grazed
fully as much as S. longifolium.

SMALL corD-GRAss (Spartina gracilis).—An erect, rigid, wiry species common on
all low alkaline meadows. It is commonly found with salt grass and alkali saccaton.
The little pasture which it furnishes is probably but slightly superior to the salt grass
itself. We found the greatest quantity of it in the Alvord Desert basin.

“ALKALI SACCATON (Sporobolus airvides).—A very characteristic and often abundant
species on the low, alkaline areas. According to soil sample taken north of Denio,
Oreg., it grows on the white rather than the black alkaline soil. This corresponds
with observations made in Arizona. Its habit of growth in this region is very
similar to the appearance it presents in the Yellowstone Valley in Montana. In the
Sulphur Spring Valley in Arizona, however, it grows very often to twice the height
that it does here. For a rigid, tufted grass it appears to be relished by cattle, and
is always closely cropped here on the open range. In places along the Humboldt
River it enters into the composition of the hay to some extent, but its habits of
growth render it of more value for pasture than for hay.

RoUGH-LEAVED DROPSEED (Sporobolus asperifolius).—A short, bright green species,
with long, creeping-root stocks and a delicate, divaricate panicle, which is easily
broken, both in the green and ripe stages. It never forms hay, but is an important
pasture grass on many of the drier meadows.

DropsEED (Sporobolus depauperatus).—An abundant, rather wiry, species on all of
the drier bottoms. It often grows large enough to be cut for hay in favorable years,
but its main value is for pasture, of which it furnishes a large amount.

NEEDLE GRASS (Stipa comata).—This species, so abundant and important in all
the plains region, grows here most commonly on the lower mesas among the sage-
brush. It is never abundant enough to form even a tenth of the soil cover, but the
stray, luxuriant bunches of it form feed that is highly relished by stock.

SMALL NEEDLE GRASS (Stipa minor).—An abundant species.among shrubbery and
on shady slopes, especially in Steins Mountains. It forms here much valuable pas-
ture. It never grows thick, but, like other species which inhabit bushy localities, it
grows in scattered bunches among the other vegetation.

NELSON’S NEEDLE GRASS (Stipa nelsoni).—A common species in the White Horse
Mountains, but never abundant enough to be of very much importance. The feed
which it does produce is of good quality.

WESTERN NEEDLE GRASS (Stipa occidentalis)—Common and conspicuous in the
mountains. It grows in large bunches much like the feather bunch grass of the
plains region, and the quality of its feed is very similar to the latter.

Downy oat Grass (Trisetum subspicatum).—This furnishes a limited quantity of
good pasture in the edges of thickets in Steins Mountains.

SUMMARY.

(1) The public ranges of the region are in many places badly depleted,
and furnish at the present time not over one-third of the feed which they
once did. This is directly traceable to overstocking, and it does not
appear clear how matters will improve in this respect in the near
future as long as there is no inducement for anyone to do aught but

56 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

get all he can out of the little that the country does produce. The
areas of absolutely depleted range on the mountains, the most pro-
ductive of any in the region and really the only grazing grounds, are
rapidly increasing. The large stretches of country, especially in
Steins Mountains, cleared of all semblance of forage during the past
summer, will not produce as much feed next year as they did this with
the same climatic conditions; and, with the present practices, which
bid fair to continue, will become less and less productive each succeed-
ing year.

In such rough mountains and stony regions no method of improve-
ment having as its basis cultural operations are practicable. The only
process of renovation and improvement of any kind that can be of
utility is one that aims to control the pasturing in such a way as not
to injure the stand of grass. The whole question of preservation and

maintenance of native pasturage, therefore, is an administrative one. |

In regions which have suffered most from a lack of such administra-
tion, such as the grazing areas of the Southwest, the native grasses
and other more valuable forage plants have been almost exterminated
and their places supplied by weedy growths of much less value. For-
tunately such transformations are slow to occur, but they are very
dificultly remedied when once established.

(2) Clearing the ground of grass is not the only evil effect, as is well
known. The destruction of the shrubbery, all too scanty in this
region, has a potent influence on the lowland meadows and the moun-
tains themselves, both in relation to the conservation of moisture and
the protection of the surface soil from the erosive action of water.
The destruction of the vegetation means vastly more than simply
depriving cattle of food in the particular locality where close pas-
turing is practiced. |

(3) The lowland meadows which yield crops of wild wheat or J!ue
stem would, without doubt, be greatly benefited by simple cultural
operations, even though no seed were sown. ‘This grass, propagating
as it does like the wheat grasses of the plains region, by means of
creeping root stocks, would receive a great stimulus by having these
underground stems cut at intervals, and by stirring up the ground,
which becomes very hard during the summer, and is still more effectu-
ally packed by the trampling of cattle during early winter and spring.
The seed of this grass, very easily collected, probably grows only to
a very limited extent under present conditions, but, with light disking
or harrowing, it might be used with profit to strengthen areas
which have become weakened by repeated cutting and overstocking.
There is no doubt that shallow disking, with a little scattering of seed of
this grass, would very materially improve many of the native meadows.
The areas which receive treatment would have to be very carefully
selected, however. There would in al! probability be very little use in

ee a

SUMMARY. 57

attempting to secure a stand of this grass all over the native meadows,
but the areas which now produce some of this species, and formerly
produced much more feed than they do now, might be greatly improved
in this way. The same would apply with equal force to areas which
produce bunch blue grass (Poa levigata) and giant rye grass (Hlymus
condensatus), although the habits of growth of these grasses are very
different. The seed of the giant rye grass is easily gathered, and,
when not too badly affected by ergot, grows well. In an ordinary
locality one man can gather a hundred pounds of clean seed of this
orass in a day, using no other implement than an ordinary grass hook
for the purpose. A vigorous man would have little difficulty in gather-
ing fifty pounds of the seed of wild wheat in a day in at least three
localities which we visited. It will be seen that this makes very cheap
grass seed compared with the ordinary commercial species.

(4) Redtop (Agrostis alba), already established in places, could
without doubt be more extensively introduced in many of the moister
bottom lands. Instances have been cited where it was making a good
crop, and it will without doubt grow well on the lowlands wherever
the native clovers abound. It is one of the most promising plants for
the improvement of portions of the bottom lands. No finer quality
of hay could be desired than that which is furnished in localities at
the present time by this grass and the native clovers.

(5) Mention has been made several times of the peculiar ‘* patchy”
condition of the native meadows and of the fact that the largest yield
of forage is from plants which make hay of an inferior quality, such
as the rushes, sedges, and wire grasses. The cause of this condition
is In many cases absolutely beyond economical control at the present
time. It is due largely to the effect of a too abundant supply of water
in the early spring with practically none during early summer. Being
located in the lower depressions in the basins, these lands can not be
drained except at prohibitive prices to the majority of the holders.
Where these lands can be drained without too much expense they
could without doubt be made to yield more forage of a better quality
than they do now. Either storing the spring flood waters and apply-
ing them later in the season or draining the low, swampy areas would
produce beneficial results. Several instances of drainage on a small
scale with beneficial results were called to our attention. The French-
Glenn Company was installing a large dredging machine to be used in
the Malheur basin when we were in the region.

(6) There are several conditions which interfere with the culture of
alfalfa in this region, the first and foremost being too little water and
improper methods of applying it. Other difficulties, however, are
more under the control of the rancher and can usually be either avoided
or obviated, namely, poor drainage and too much alkali in the soil.
Usually there is an abundant supply of water in early spring, and

16370—No. 15—02——_5

58 FORAGE CONDITIONS ON NORTHERN BORDER OF GREAT BASIN.

of course there is a temptation to use it too freely at this season,
often resulting in allowing the fields or portions of them to remain
flooded for three days or more ata time. Ina number of instances
attempts were being made to secure a stand of alfalfa on land
which evidently contained considerable quantities of salt. While it
has been demonstrated that, when once established, this crop will thrive
in more alkali than will serve to effectually prevent germination, or at
least to destroy the young seedlings, it is doubtful whether the effort
to secure a stand in such land without treatment for the purpose of
neutralizing the effect of the salt is warranted. The sowing of
alfalfa on poorly drained land often results in disappointment. This,
however, is usually of no consequence on black sage lands, for the
drainage here is usually good, and whatever failures occur on such
soils are due more often to improper preparation of the land, resulting
in inability to properly distribute the water. In such cases some por-
tions receive too little water, while in others it is allowed to remain
long enough to destroy the crop. The latter is especially likely to
occur in the spring of the year, when the flood waters are abundant
and there is a liability to desire to use them as muchas possible. It is
doubtful whether alfalfa can be grown to the best advantage on the
lower bottoms, mainly on account of poor drainage. One or two fields
planted in such localities were carefully studied, and from information
received concerning them it was learned that the land needed reseeding
much oftener than better-drained areas. The lower bottoms are much
better adapted to growing redtop and timothy.

INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES.

Agropyron brevifolium, 49.
caninum pubescens, 49.
occidentale, 49.
pseudorepens, 49.
spicatum, 23, 49.
tenerum, 34, 49.

Agrostis alba, 34, 35, 49, 57.

exarata grandis, 49.
hallii, 50.

humilis, 49.
hyemalis, 49.
variabilis, 49.

Alder, 14.

Alfalfa, 18, 19, 20, 35-87, 39, 57, 58.

Alfilaria, 49.

Alkali grass, 17, 54.

saccaton, 16, 20, 34, 55.

Alopecurus geniculatus, 49.

Amelanchier alnifolia, 14.

Amsinckia, 15.

Annual saltbushes, 18.

Artemisia arbuscula, 24, 31, 42
cana, 31, 43.
ludoviciana, 43.
rigida, 43.
spinescens, 12, 15, 16, 43.
tridentata, 12, 15, 16, 21, 24, 27, 31, 42, 43.

Astragalus nuttallii, 25, 44.

Atriplex confertifolia, 12, 15, 16, 27, 44.

hastata, 40, 44.
nuttallii, 16.
truncata, 18, 20, 40, 44.

Avena fatua, 40, 50.

Awned cyperus, 46.

Awned sedge, 18, 34, 47.

Awned wheat grass, 49.

Barnyard grass, 18, 40, 53.

Balsam, 14.

Beard grass, 34, 54.

Beckmannia eruceeformis, 34, 50.

Beckwith clover, 46. —

Black sage, 12, 16, 19, 21, 24, 27, 38, 42, 43.

Blue flag, 39.

Blue stem, 11, 15, 33, 56.

Borage, 15.

Bottle sedge, 48.

Bromus carinatus, 50.
hordeaceus, 50.
marginatus, 50.
rubens, 50.
secalinus, 50.
subvelutinus, 50.

Buckley’s blue grass, 23, 25, 32, 53.

Bud sage, 12, 15, 16, 27, 48.

Bulbous melic grass, 53.

Bunch blue grass, 33, 34, 54, 57.

Bunch wheat grass, 23, 49.

Bur-reed, 34, 48, 54.

Cactacee, 15.

Calamagrostis hyperborea americana, 18, 34, 50.

Canadian rye grass, 52.

Carex aristata, 18, 34, 47.

douglasii, 34, 47.
gayana, 47.
lanuginosa, 34, 47.
marcida, 47.
nebraskensis, 16, 34, 47.
tenella, 48.

utriculata, 48.

Cat-tail, 34, 48.

Ceanothus velutinus, 14, 31, 32.

Cercocarpus ledifolius, 14, 31.

Chetochloa glauca, 50.

viridis, 50.

Choke cherry, 14, 31.
Chrysothamnus graveolens, 12, 16, 17.
viscidiflorus, 16.

Cicuta vagans, 46.

Clover, 17, 34.

Clustered field sedge, 47.

Creeping spike rush, 33, 34, 46.

Creosote bush, 15.

Cyperus aristatus, 46:

erythrorhizos, 46.

Dakota lotus, 48.

Dalea kingii, 35.

Dasiphora fruticosa, 14, 30.

Death weed, 89.

Delphinum scopulorum, 41.

Deschampsia ceespitosa, 46, 50.

calycina, 51.
elongata, 51.

Distichlis spicata, 12, 16, 17,19, 20, 34,51.

Dondia depressa erecta, 18, 40, 44.
diffusa, 44.

Douglas sedge, 47.

Downy oat grass, 55.

Dropseed, 55.

Early bunch grass, 52.

Eatonia obtusata, 52.

Eleocharis palustris, 33, 34, 46.

Elymus canadensis, 52.

condensatus, 15, 34, 51, 57.
glaucus, 51.
triticoides, 11, 15, 33,34; C...

Equisetum robustum, 39.

Eragrostis hypnoides, 52.

Eriocoma cuspidata, 52.

Eritrichium, 15.

Erodium cicutarium, 48.

Eurotia lanata, 16, 45.

Festuca octoflora, 52.

ovina, 29, 30, 52.

Gay’s sedge, 47.

Giant rvegrass, 15, 34, 51,57.

Gilia, 15.

Grayla spinosa, 12, 27, 45.

Greasewood, 12, 15,17, 19, 20, 45.

Green foxtail, 50.

Hairy brome, 50.

Halberd-leaved saltbush, 40, 44.

Hall’s redtop, 50.

Helianthus annuus, 39.

Heliotrope, 39.

Heliotropium curasavicum, 39.

Holodiscus dumosus, 14.

Homalocenchrus oryzoides, 52.

Hop sage, 12, 27, 45.

Hordeum jubatum, 17, 33, 34, 40, 52.
maritimum, 53.
murinum, 53.
nodosum, 34, 53.

Horkelia fusea, 48.

Horsetail, 39.

Indian currant, 14,30.

Indian millet, 52.

Indian wheat, 25.

Iodine weed, 12, 45.

Iris missouriensis, 39.

Iva axillaris, 39.

Juncus balticus, 33, 34, 39, 46.
bufonius, 46.
nevadensis, 46.

Juniper, 14.

Juniperus virginiana, 14.

Keeled brome, 50.

Kentucky blue grass, 54.

Kochia americana, 27, 45.

59

60 INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES.

Koeleria cristata, 53.
Lactuea seariola, 40.
Larkspur, 41.

Larrea mexicana, 43.

Lathyrus decaphyllus, 48.

oregonensis, 48.

Lettuce, 40.

Long-leaved sage, 31.

Lupine, 29, 48.

Lupinus laxifiorus, 48.

lepedus, 48.

Lotus americana, 48.

Mahogany, 14, 31.

Manna grass, 53.

Meadow barley, 53.

Meliea bella, 53.

Mentha canadensis, 39.

Mint, 39.

Moss, 17, 38.

Mountain rye grass, 51.

timothy, 53.
Mugwort, 48.
Muhlenbergia comata, 53.

sylvatica, 53.

Mustard, 15, 40.

Nebraska sedge, 16, 47.

Needle grass, 55.

N elson’s needle grass, 5d.

Nevada blue grass, 32, 54.

rush, 46.

Nuttall’s saltbush, 16, 44.

vetch, 26.

Oat-like hair grass, 51.

Orchard barley, 34, 5d.

Oregon clover, 46. -

Pahute weed, 40, 44.

Panicularia americana, 53.

paucifiora, 53.

Panicum crus-galli, 18, 40, 53.

Phalaris arundinacea, 53.

Phleum alpinum, d3.

Phlox, 15.

Phragmites vulgaris, 53.

Pine, 14, 32.

Pinus albicaulis, 14.

scopulorum, 14.

Plantago fastigata, 25.

Poa buckleyana, 23, 53.
laevigata, 33, 34, 54, 57.
nemoralis, 54.
nevadensis, 54.
pratensis, 54.
sandbergil, 46.
wheeleri, 23, 54.

Polypogon monspeliensis, 34, 54.

Poplar, 14, 31.

‘Populus tremuloides, 14, 31.

trichoearpa, 14.

Prairie bulrush, 17, 20, 34, 47, 54

June grass, 53.
vetchlings, 48.
Prunus demissa, 14.
emarginatus, 14, 31.
Psoralea purshii, 37.
Puccinellia airoides, 17, 54.
lemmoni, 54.

Purple bent grass, 49.

Rabbit brush, 12.

Rayless goldenrod, 12, 16, 17.

Red-rooted cyperus, 46.

Red sage, 24, 27, 45.

Redtop, 18, 34, 35, 49, 57.

Reed canary grass, 53.

Reed grass, 53.

meadow grass, 53.

Rough hair grass, 49.

Rough-leaved dropseed, 55.

Salt ¢ grass, 12, 16,17, 20, 34, 51.

Salt sage, 04.

Sandberg’s blue grass, 46.

Sarcobatus vermiculatus, 12, 20, 45.

Scirpus campestris, 17, 20, 34, 47, 54.

lacustris, 21, 26, 33, 34, 46.

Scirpus microcarpus, 47.
pungens, 47.

Scolochloa festucacea, 34, 54.

Seaside arrow-grass, 34, 48.
barley, 53.
clover, 45.

Sedges, 17, 33, 34.

Service-berry, 14.

Shad scale, 38, 44.

Sheep fescue, 29, 30, 32, 52.

Shield clover, 46.

Short-awned brome, 50.

Short-leaved wheat grass, 49.

Shrubby cinquefoil, 14, 30.

Sisymbrium, 15.

Sitanion cinereum, ay.
hystrix, 55.
longifolium, 34, 55.

Slender bent-grass, 49.

hair-grass, 51.
fescue, 52.
wheat grass, 34, 49.

Slough grass, 34,0.

Small cord grass, 17, 20, 55

Small-headed clover, 45.

Small needle grass, 55.

Small-seeded bulrush, 47.

Snow brush, 14, 31, 32.

Soft-leaved sedge, 48.

Sophia pinnata, 40.

Sparganum eurycarpum, 34, 48, 54.

Spartina gracilis, 17, 20, 55.

Spiny saltbush, 12, 15, 16, 27, 38, 44.

Spirea, 14.

Spirostachys occidentalis, 12, 45.

Sporobolus airoides, 16, 20, 34, 55.

asperifolius, Dd.
cepauperetas, 34, 55.

Sprangle top, 34,

Squirrel tail, 17, 33, 84, 40, 52.

Steel grass, 34.

Stipa comata, 5d.

minor, 4d.
nelsoni, 59.
occidentalis, 5d.

Sunflower, 39.

Symphoricarpos oreophilos, 14, 30.

Tetradymia comosa, 38.

Three-square, 47.

Timothy, 18, 19, 35, 58.

Toad rush, 46.

Torrey’s saltbush, 44.

Torula ruralis, 38.

Trifolium beckwithii, 46.
cyathiferum, 46.
involucratum, 34, 45.
microcephalum, 45.
oreganum, 46.

Triglochin maritima, 34, 48.

Trisetum subspicatum, 5d.

True sage, 24, 26.

Tuited hair grass, 46, 50.

Tule, 21, 33, 34, 46.

Typha latifolia, 34, 48.

Utah saltbush, 20, 40, 44,

Vicia americana, 48.

truneata, 48.

Wall barley, 53.

Water foxtail, 49.

Western couch grass, 49.
needle grass, 55.
wheat grass, 49.

Wild barley, 34.

oats, 40, 50.
parsnip, 42.
wheat, 11, 15, 33, 34, 51, 56.

Willows, 14, 21, 31.

White sage, 16, 24, 27, 28, 45.

Wire grass, 33,39, 46.

Wood meadow grass, 54.

Woolly sedge, 47.

Yellow foxtail, 50.

Yellow top, 18, 34, 50.

BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

: sak

The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege-
table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Bee a estigations and
Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and
Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly separate divisions, and also Seed
and. Plant Introduction, the Arlington Experimental Farm, Tea Investigations and
Experiments, and the Congressional Seed Distribution. Beginning with the date
of organization of the Bureau, the independent series of bulletins of the Division of
Agrostology, the last number of which was 25, and also of the other divisions were
discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau.

The bulletins published in this series are:

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901.

2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901.
3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901.
4. Range Improvements in Arizona. 1901.
o. Seeds and Plants Imported through the Section of Seed and Plant Intro-
duction, Inventory No. 9, 4851-5500. 1902.
6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902.
7,-The Algerian Durum Wheats: A Classification List, with descriptions. 1902.
_ 8. A Collection of Economic and Other Fungi Prepared for Dion a 1902.
9. North American Species of Spartina. 1902.
0. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Sen 1902.
1. Johnson Grass: Reports of Investigations made during the Season of 1901.
1902. |
12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902.
13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902.
14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902.

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