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The Rural Tert=Book Series
EpITeEp By L. H. BAILEY

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Che Wural Text-Book Serics

MANN, BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE.
WARREN, ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
WARREN, FARM MANAGEMENT.

LYON AND FIppin, Sor, MANAGEMENT.
J. F. DUGGAR, SOUTHERN FIELD CROPS,
B. M. DuGGAR, PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.
HARPER, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS.
MONTGOMERY, CORN CROPS.

WHEELER, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.
Livineston, FIELD Crop PRODUCTION,
Winptsor, [Irrigation PRACTICE.

Pirer, ForaGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE.
Others in preparation.

FORAGE PLANTS AND
THEIR CULTURE

BY.

CHARLES Vo" PIPER, M.S.

AGROSTOLOGIST IN CHARGE OF FORAGE CROP INVESTIGATIONS
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Nes Bork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1914

All rights reserved

Copyrient, 1914,

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,

Set up and electrotyped, Published August, rg14.

Norwood JPress
J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

AUG 27 1914
©cla4380120

IA? 4

PREFACE

Tue exceedingly diversified climatic conditions in North
America have led to the cultivation of an unusually large
number of plant species for forage production. Some of
these are successful or important over but a comparatively
small area, and not one is capable of profitable cultivation
over the whole region. The climatic conditions of some
parts of North America, especially the dry regions and the
southernmost states, are not closely duplicated in any part
of Europe. This fact has necessitated the introduction of
numerous grasses and legumes from other regions to secure
forage plants capable of profitable cultivation. The success
of these endeavors has resulted in the utilization of many
forage crops practically unknown in Europe, such as numer-
ous varieties of sorghum, cowpeas, soybeans, Japan clover,
Florida beggarweed, velvet bean, Bermuda-grass, Rhodes-
grass, and many others. In some sections, there is still
need of better adapted or more productive forage crops.
Extensive experimental investigations have been conducted
with only a few forage crops in America, so that there yet
remains much to be learned concerning most of the others.

The aim of the author has been to present as concisely
as practicable the present state of our knowledge with ref-
erence to each forage crop grown in America, and it is hoped
that no important contributions to the subject have been
omitted.

The illustrations are mostly those which have been used

in various publications of the United States Department of
V

vl PREFACE

Agriculture, the seed illustrations being reproductions of
the unequalled drawings of Professor F. H. Hillman.

The bringing together of the scattered results of Ameri-
can research with some references to those of Europe will,
it is hoped, reveal to students the phases of the subject
which need further investigation.

In preparing this volume the author wishes to acknowl-
edge the aid he has received from his colleagues, R. A.
Oakley, J. M. Westgate, H. N. Vinall, W. J. Morse, M. W.
Evans, H. L. Westover, and Katherine 8. Bort.

CHARLES V. PIPER.

WasuinetTon, D.C.,
January, 1914.

CONTENTS

PAGE
CHAPTER I. — INTRODUCTION : : : : : ; : 1

Definitions. —Knowledge of Forage Crops Compared with
Other Crops. — Forage Crops and Civilization. — Forage
Crops in Europe and America.— Perennial Hay Plants
in Europe and America. — Botany of Forage Crops. — Ag-
eressiveness Necessary in Perennial Forage Crops. — Char-
acteristics of Grasses, — Legumes. — Root Nodules. — The
Nodule Organism. — Forms of Root Nodules. — Natural
Inoculation. — Artificial Inoculation. — Dependence of Leg-
umes on Root Nodules.

CuHaPpTeR II. — PRESERVATION OF FORAGE. : ; : aoe) |

Preservation of Forage. — Time of Cutting. — Haymaking
in Dry Weather. — Curing of Hay. — Haymaking under
Humid Conditions.—Special Devices to Facilitate Hay
Curing. — Completion of Curing.— Shrinkage of Stored
Hay. — Loss of Hay or Fodder in the Field. — Relation of
Green Weight to Dry Weight.— Loss of Substance from
Growing Plants. — Hay Stacks. — Spontaneous Combustion.
— Statistics of Hay Yields.— Brown Hay. — Silage. — The
Nature of Silage Fermentation. — Advantages of Silage. —
Crops Adapted to Ensiling.— Soiling or Soilage. — Soiling
Systems.

CHAPTER III. —Cuoicre or ForaGe Crops ‘ . - ey: f

What Determines the Choice of a Forage Crop. — Special
Purposes for which Forage Crops are Grown. — Adaptation
to Conditions. — Yield. —Yields under Irrigation. —Cost of
Seeding. — Time of Harvesting. — Ease of Harvesting and
Curing. — Demands or Prejudices of the User. — Feeding
Values. — Feeding Experiments. — Chemical Analyses. —
Chemical Composition as Affected by Soil Fertility and by
Fertilizers. — Chemical Composition as Affected by Stage of
Maturity. — Variation in Chemical Composition from Un-
ascertained Causes. — Digestible Nutrients. — Net Energy
Values. — Starch Values. — Comparison of Feeding Values,

vii

Vill CONTENTS

PAGB
CHAPTER 1V.—SEEDS AND SEEDING . : é . ? «60

Quality. — Genuineness. — Purity. — Viability. — Actual
Value of Seed. — Superiority of Local Seed. — Standards of
Purity and Germination. — Adulteration and Misbranding.—
Color and Plumpness of Seeds. — Age of Seeds. — Source of
Seeds. — Seed Inspection. — Sampling. — Guaranteed Seeds.
— Fungous Diseases. — Hard Seeds. — Most Dangerous
Weed Seeds. — Weight of Seeds. — Number of Seeds in One
Pound. — Seed Production of Forage Crops, United States,
1909. — Seeding in Practice. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of
Seeding. — Depth of Planting. — Experimental Results, —
Nurse Crops.

CuarteR V.— MEADOWS AND PASTURES . F ; ; 292

Meadow Mixtures. — Composition of Meadow Mixtures.
— Treatment of Hay Meadows. — Scarifying Old Meadows.
— Reseeding Old Meadows. — Fertilizers for Hay Crops. —
Top-dressing for Aftermath or Rowen. — Acreage of Im-
proved Pasture in the United States. — Area of Wild Pasture
in the United States.— Most Important Tame Pasture
Plants. — Palatability of Pasture Grasses. — Pasture Yield
as Determined by Number of Cuttings. — Pasture Mixtures.
— Treatment of Permanent Pastures. — Pasturing Meadows.
— Carrying Capacity. —'Temporary Pastures. —'Temporary
Pasture Crop Systems for Hogs. — Bloating or Hoven.

CHAPTER VI. —TuHE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS . : eel

Classification of Crops in Statistical Returns. — Forage
Crops in General, United States, 1909. — Hay and Forage by
Classes, United States, 1909. — Forage Statistics for Canada.

CuHarprEeR VII. —Timotuny . : . E : : =. 22

Botany. — Agricultural History. — Agricultural Impor-
tance. — Climatic Adaptations. — Soil Adaptation. — Ad-
vantages of Timothy, — Rotations. — Seed. — Preparation
of Seed Bed.— Heavy Seeds or Light Seeds. — Rate of
Seeding. — Depth of Seeding. — Methods of Seeding. —
Seed Bed. — Fertilizers for Timothy. — Lime. — Irrigation.
— Time to Cut for Hay. — Yields. — Pasture. — Pollination.

CONTENTS 1x

PAGE

— Seed Production. — Life History. — Life Period. — Depth
of Root System. — Proportion of Roots to Tops. — Regional
Strains. — Feeding Value. —Injurious Insects. — Diseases.
— Variability. — Disease Resistance. — Breeding. — Methods
of Breeding. — Desirable Types of Improved Timothies. —
Comparison of Vegetative and Seed Progeny. — Field Trials
with Improved Strains.

CuaptTer VIII. — BLun-Grasses, MEADOW-GRASSES AND RED-
TO Poke ts : , ; : : , eA

Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) : Botany ; Adapta-
tions ; Importance ; Characteristics ; Culture; Fertilizers ;
Yields of Hay ; Seed Production ; Seed ; Hybrids. — Canada
Blue-grass (Poa compressa): Botany; Seed; Culture ;
Adaptations ; Importance. — Texas Blue-grass (Poa arach-
nifera).— Fowl Meadow-grass (Poa triflora). — Rough-
stalked Meadow-grass (Poa trivialis).— Wood Meadow-grass
(Poa nemoralis). —Redtop: Names; Botany ; Agricultural
History ; Adaptations ; Characteristics ; Importance ; Vari-
ability ; Regional Strains; Culture; Yield of Hay; Seed
Production ; Seed.

CHAPTER IX.— OrcHARD-GRASS, TALL OAT-GRASS AND BROME-
GRASSES . ; i ; : ; ; Ee LO

Orchard-grass: Description; Botany ; Agricultural His-
tory ; Climatic Adaptations ; Soil Preferences ; Adaptation
to Shade ; Variability ; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Im-
portance ; Seeding of Orchard-grass ; Life History ; Har-
vesting for Hay ; Yields of Hay ; Harvesting Orchard-grass
for Seed; Weeds; Seed; Sources of Seed; Utilization of
Stubble and Aftermath ; Mixtures; Pasturage Value; Feed
Value; Value as a Soil Binder; Improvement by Selec-
tion; Pests.— Tall Oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) :
Names; Botany; Agricultural History; Adaptations ; Im-
portance ; Characteristics ; Seeding; Hay ; Seed Production ;
Seed ; Mixtures. — Brome-grass : Names and Description ;
Botany ; Agricultural History; Adaptations; Depth of
Roots ; Method of Seeding ; Rate of Seeding Brome-grass ;
Time to Cut for Hay; Hay; Fertilizers; Treatment of
Meadows ; Seed Production; Seed; Pasture Value; Mix-
tures ; Variability.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER X.— OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE

Meadow Fescue (Festuca elatior) : Botany and History ;
Characteristics ; Adaptations ; Importance; Seeding; Hay ;
Seed Production ; Seed; Pasture Value ; Pests; Hybrids. —
Tall Fescue. — Reed Fescue ( Festuca arundinacea).— Peren-
nial or English Rye-grass (Loliwm perenne): Name; Ag-
ricultural History ; Botany ; Characteristics ; Adaptation ;
Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Culture; Hay Yields;
Seed Production ; Seed. —Italian Rye-grass: Character-
istics; Botany; Agricultural History ; Adaptations; Cul-
ture; Irrigation; Hay Yields; Seed Production ; Seed. —
Slender Wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerwm). — Western
Wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale).

CHAPTER XI. — PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE

Sheep’s Fescue and Closely Related Species: Importance
and Culture; Seed. — Red Fescue (Festuca rubra). —
Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) : Characteristics ;
Adaptations; Culture; Seed. —Sweet Vernal Grass (An-
thoxanthum odoratum): Botany ; Culture. — Reed Canary-
grass (Phalaris arundinacea): Botany and Agricultural
History ; Characteristics ; Culture.— Velvet-grass (Holcus
lanatus).— Erect Brome (Bromus erectus).— Yellow Oat-
grass ( Trisetum flavescens). — Crested Dogstail (Cynosurus
cristatus) . :

CHAPTER XII. —SoUTHERN GRASSES .

Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) : Botany ; Character-
istics ; Agricultural History ; Adaptations; Variability ; Im-
portance ; Culture; Yields of Hay; Rootstocks; Pasture
Value ; Feeding Value ; Seed Production. — Johnson-grass
(Andropogon halepensis): Botany; Agricultural History ;
Adaptation and Utilization ; Poisonous Qualities ; Seed. —
Japanese Sugar-cane (Saccharum offictnarum) : History and
Characteristics; Adaptations; Planting; Culture; Utiliza-
tion ; Yields; Seed Cane. —Carpet-grass (Axonopus com-
pressus).— Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum). — Para-grass

(Panicum barbinode). — Guinea-grass (Panicum maaxi-
mum). — Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides). — Crab-grass

(Digitaria sanguinalis). — Natal-grass ( Tricholena rosea).

PAGE

204

223

237

CONTENTS x1

PAGE
CHAPTER XIIT. —SorcGuHuMS : b : ; , ; . 260

Sorghum (Andropogon sorghum): Botany ; Agricultural
History ; Adaptations; Root System ; Agricultural Groups ;
Importance ; Culture; Time of Sowing; Seeding in Rows;
Seeding Broadcast; Number of Cuttings; Yields of For-
age ; Seed; Agricultural Varieties; Seed-production ; Utili-
zation; Soilage; Fodder; Hay; Silage; Sorghum and
Legume Mixtures; Pasture Value; Poisoning; Diseases ;
Insect Pests; Sorghum Improvement. —Sudan-grass (An-
dropogon sorghum var.) : Description; Adaptations ; Cul-
ture ; Utilization; Hay; Hay Mixtures ; Chemical Analysis ;
Seed-production.

CHAPTER XIV. — MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 28a

The Principal Millets. — Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica) :
Botany; Agricultural History ; Adaptations; Importance ;
Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding; Hay; Feeding Value; Si-
lage from Foxtail Millet; Injurious Effects ; Seed-produc-
tion; Seed; Diseases and Insects. — Japanese Barnyard
Millet (Echinochloa frumentacea). — Broom-corn Millet
(Panicum miliaceum).— Comparative Hay Yields in Pounds
to the Acre of Different Millets at Several Experiment Sta-
tions. — Shama Millet (£chinochloa colona or Panicum colo-
num). — Ragi, Finger-millet or Coracan (Hleusine coracana).
— Texas Millet (Panicum texanum).— Cereals for Hay. —
Chess or Cheat (Bromus secalinus).—Canary-grass (Pha-
laris canariensis). — Penicillaria (Pennisetum glaucum). —
Teosinte (Huchlena mexicana).

CHAPTER XV.— ALFALFA . ; : : : , : . 805

Agricultural History. — Origin of the Common Names. —
Heat Relations. — Cold Relations. — Humidity Relations. —
Soil Relations. — Distribution of the Alfalfa Crop. — Botan-
ical Varieties of Alfalfa. — Cultivated Varieties of Alfalfa. —
Importance of the Varieties. — Influence of Source of Seed.
— Comparison of Regional Strains. — Important Character-
istics of Alfalfa, — Life Period. — Roots. — Relations to Soil
Moisture. — Seedlings. — Rootstocks. — Shoots. — Relative
Proportion of Leaves, Stems and Roots. — Seed-bed. — In-
oculation. — Rate of Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Method
of Seeding. — Nurse-crops. — Clipping. — Winter-killing. —

xl CONTENTS

PAGE

Time to Cut for Hay. —Number of Cuttings. — Quality of
Different Cuttings. — Irrigation. —'Time to Apply Irrigating
Water. — Winter Irrigation. — Relation of Yield to Water
Supply. —Care of an Alfalfa Field. — Alfalfa in Cultivated
Rows. — Alfalfa in Mixtures. — Alfalfa in Rotations, — Pas-
turing Alfalfa. — Use as a Soiling Crop. — Alfalfa Silage. —
Alfalfa Meal. — Seed-production. — Pollination. — Seeds. —
Viability of Seed. — Alfalfa Improvement. — Breeding
Methods. — Weeds. — Dodder or Love-vine. — Diseases. —
Insects.

CHeiin XVI.— RED CLOVER . j : ; : p Teall

Botany of Red Clover. — Agricultural History. — Impor-
tance and Distribution. —Soil Relations. — Climatic Rela-
tions. — Effect of Shade. — Life Period. — Agricultural
Varieties. — Comparison of Regional Strains. — Time of
Seeding. — Rate of Seeding. — Seedlings. — Seeding with a
Nurse-crop. —Seeding without a Nurse-crop. — Depth of
Planting. — Winter-killing. — Treatment of Clover Fields. —
Fertilizers. — Gypsum. — Lime. — Irrigation. — Red Clover
in Mixtures. — Use in Rotations. — Effect of Clover in Rota-
tions when Only the Stubble is Turned Under. — Volunteer
Crops. — Stage to Cut. — Composition at Different Stages. —
Number of Cuttings. — Yields of Hay. — Relation of Green
Weight to Hay Weight. — Feeding Value. — Comparative
Feeding Value of the First and Second Crops of Hay. —
Soiling. — Pasturage. — Silage. — Number of Flowers and
Seeds to the Head. — Pollination and Fecundation. — Seed-
production. — Harvesting the Seed Crop. — Yields of Seed.
— Statistics of Seed Crop. — Value of the Straw. — Seed. —
Color of Seeds. — Roots. — Shoots. — Proportion of Roots
to Shoots.— Relative Proportions of Stems, Leaves and
Flower Heads. — Diseases, — Clover Sickness. — Reduction
of Acreage Probably Due Mainly to Clover Sickness. — In-
sects. — Improvement of Red Clover by Breeding. — Disease-
resistant Strains.

CuHaptER XVII. — OrHeR CLovers — ALSIKE, HUNGARIAN,
WHITE AND SWEET - ‘ : . 405

Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum) : Botany of Alsike ;
Agricultural History ; Adaptations; Characteristics of Al-

CONTENTS X1il

PAGE
sike Clover; Regional Strains; Importance ; Culture; Hay ;
Seed Production; Seed; Value for Pasturage. — Hungarian
Clover ( Trifolium pannonicum). — White Clover ( Trifolium
repens) : Botany ; Description ; Agricultural History ; Adap-
tations; Importance of White Clover; Seeding; Yields;
Pollination ; Seed-production ; Seed. — Ladino White Clover.
—Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba) : Botany and Description ;
Adaptations; Agricultural History; Seeding; Securing a
Stand; Relative Proportions of Tops and Roots of Sweet
Clover; Utilization; Advantages and Disadvantages ; Yield ;
Seed-production ; Seed; Related Species.

CHAPTER XVIII. —Crimson CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS. 426

Crimson Clover (Trifolium incarnatum) : Botany ; Agri-
cultural History ; Description ; Adaptations ; Importance ;
Variability and Agricultural Varieties; Seeding; Time of
Sowing ; Methods of Sowing; Time to Cut for Hay; Yields ;
Other Uses of Crimson Clover; Seed-production ; Seed. —
Shaftal or Persian Clover (Trifolium suaveolens). — Ber-
seem (Trifolium alexandrinum). — Yellow Trefoil (Medi-
cago lupulina).— Bur Clovers (Medicago spp.). — Dakota
Vetch (Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus).

CHAPTER XIX.— PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS. , ; . 441

Pea (Pisum sativum) : Botany and History ; Description ;
Adaptations ; Importance ; Agricultural Varieties ; Seeding ;
Development of the Plant; Hay ; Peas and Oats; Pasture
Value; Garden Pea Vines; Irrigation ; Seed-production ;
Seed. — Pea Weevil (Zaria pisorum or Bruchus pisorum).—
Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum). — Grass-pea, Vetchling or
Chickling Vetch (Lathyrus sativus).

CHAPTER XX. — VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS ; . 456

Kinds of Vetches. Common Vetch (Vicia sativa): De-
scription ; Botany and Agricultural History ; Adaptations;
Importance ; Agricultural Varieties; Culture; Time of Sow-
ing; Rate of Seeding; Harvesting for Hay; Pasturing;
Feeding Value; Rotations; Fertilizers; Lime; Silage;
Seed-production ; Seed.— Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa) :
Description ; Botany; Climatic Adaptations; Soil Prefer-
ences ; Rate of Seeding ; Time of Seeding ; Depth of Seeding ;

X1V

CONTENTS

Inoculation ; Uses of the Crop; Pollination; Harvesting for
Hay; Feeding Value; Use in Rotations; Advantages and
Disadvantages ; Growing Seed; Sources of Seed; Seeds. —
Narrow-leaved Vetch (Vicia angustifolia). — Purple Vetch
(Vicia atropurpurea). — Woolly-pod Vetch (Vicia dasy-
carpa).—Scarlet Vetch (Vicia fulgens).—Ervil or Black
Bitter Vetch (Vicia ervilia).— Narbonne Vetch (Vicia
narbonnensts). — Horse Bean ( Vicia faba). — Bird or Tufted
Vetch (Vicia cracca). — Tangier Pea (Lathyrus tingitanus).
— Flat-podded Vetchling (Lathyrus cicera).— Ochrus (Za-
thyrus ochrus).—Comparison of Vetch Species. — Fenu-
greek (Trigonella fenum-grecum). — Lupines (Lupinus
spp.). — Serradella (Ornithopus sativus). — Square-pod
Pea (Lotus tetragonolobus).

CHAPTER XXI.—CowPeEas

CHA

Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) : Botanical Origin; Agricultural
History ; Adaptations ; Importance ; Uses of the Crop ; Varie-
tal Distinctions ; Life Period ; Pods and Seeds; Correlations;
Important Varieties; Rate and Method of Seeding; Time of
Seeding; Inoculation; Number of Cuttings; Hay; Hay
Yields; Feeding Value; Cowpeas in Broadcast Mixtures;
Cowpea Mixtures not Broadcasted; Growing Cowpeas for
Seed; Pollination; Seed Yield; Proportion of Seed and
Hulls; Seeds; Viability ; Root System ; Disease Resistance ;
Insect Enemies.

PTER XXII. —SOYBEANS

Agricultural History. — Botany. — Description. — Soil
Adaptations. — Climatic Adaptations. — Importance. — De-
sirable Characters in Soybean Varieties. — Commercial Va-
rieties. — Preparation of Soil and Cultivation. — Rate of
Seeding. — Time of Seeding. — Method of Seeding. — Depth
of Planting. — Inoculation. — Life Period. — Time to Cut
for Hay.— Hay Yields. — Fertilizers. —Soybean Mixtures.
— Silage. — Rotations. — Feeding Value of Soybean Hay. —
Seed-production. — Pollination. — Seed Yield. — Seeds. —
Pests. — Breeding. — Soybeans and Cowpeas Compared.

CHAPTER XXIII. —Orner Hor-season ANNUAL LEGUMES

Lespedeza or Japan Clover: Description; Agricultural
History ; Adaptations; Culture; Pasturage Value; Hay ;

PAGE

491

513

539

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

Seed-production. — Florida Velvet Bean (Stizolobium deer-
ingianum) : Description and History; Utilization; Other
Species of Stizolobium. — Peanut (Arachis hypogewa).—
Florida Beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum or Meibonia
tortuosa). —The Jack Bean ( Canavalia ensiformis) .— Mung
Bean (Phaseolus aureus). — Urd (Phaseolus mungo). —
Moth Bean ( Phaseolus aconitifolius). — Adzuki Bean (Pha-
seolus angularis). — Bonavist or Hyacinth Bean (Dolichos
lablab). — Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba).

CuarPTeR XXIV. — MiscELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES . 509

Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciefolia) : Description; Agricul-

tural History; Culture; Seed; American Data. —Sulla or

Spanish Sainfoin (Hedysarum coronarium).— Kudzu (Pue-

raria thunbergiana).— Flat Pea (Lathyrus silvestris var.

wagneri).— Kidney Vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria).— Goat’s

Rue (Galega officinalis). — Bird’s-foot Trefoil (Lotus corni-

culatus). — Astragalus falcatus. — Furze ( Ulex europeus).

CHAPTER XXV.— MIscELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS ForRaGeE . 571

Mexican Clover (Richardsonia scabra). — Prickly Pear
(Opuntia spp.).— Sunflower (Helianthus annuus ).— Spurrey
(Spergula sativa). — Yarrow (Achillea millefolium). —
Sachaline ( Polygonum sachalinense).— Burnet (Sanguisorba
minor). — Buckhorn ( Plantago lanceolata). — Prickly Com-
frey (Symphytum asperrimum). — Australian Saltbush
(Atriplex semibaccata). :

CHartrerR XXVI. — Root Crops and OTHER COMPARABLE For-
AGES. > ‘ : . 5 waOSS

Root Crops: Importance of Root Crops; Kinds of Root
Crops; Comparison of Various Root Crops ; Roots Compared
with Corn and Sorghum. — Rape (Brassica napus): Impor-
tance ; Seeding; Place in Rotations; Sowing with Another
Crop; Utilization; Carrying Capacity of Rape Pastures ;
Yields; Insects. — Kale (Brassica oleracea): Diseases ;
Yields of Kale, Cabbage and Other Brassicaceous Plants. —
Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus).— Chufa (Cy-
perus esculentus). — Cassava (Manihot utilissima).

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

1. Distribution of hay and forage in the United States

2. Distribution of cattle in the United States—1 dot equals
1000 head. Compare distribution with that of forage
in Fig. 1

3. Ligule of a grass leaf

4. Spikelet of orchard-grass

5. A single floret of orchard-grass :

6. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 1): a, Sand

bur; b, wild oat; c, chess; d, darnel; e, quack-grass ;
f, dock; g, black bindweed; h, Russian thistle ; i, corn
cockle ; j, white campion; k, bladder campion ; 1, night-
flowering catchfly; m, cow cockle; n, pennycress: 0,
field peppergrass ; p, large-fruited false flax; q, small-
fruited false flax; r, ball mustard; s, black mustard;
t, English charlock

. Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 2) : a, Indian

mustard; b, hare’s ear mustard; c, tumbling mustard ;
d, wild carrot; e, field bindweed; f, flax dodder; g,
clover dodder ; h, small-seeded alfalfa dodder ; i, field
dodder ; j, large-seeded alfalfa dodder; k, corn grom-
well; 1, rat-tail plantain; m, buckhorn; n, ragweed ;
0, gumweed; p, wild sunflower; q, oxeye-daisy ; r, Can-
ada thistle ; s, bull thistle ; t, wild chicory

. Map showing percentage of cultivated land in forage crops

1909-1910

. Timothy (Phleum pratense): a, glumes; b, floret with

glumes removed

. Timothy. Florets showing the different parts
i,
12.

Distribution of timothy 1909-1910. Figures equal acres
Kentucky blue-grass ( Poa pratensis) : a, spikelet ; b, lemma,
showing attached tuft of hairs
Xvii

PAGE

14
14

17

XVlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

15.

14.

16.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.
22.

A spikelet and florets of Kentucky blue-grass: a, spikelet as
it appears at maturity; b, the same, having the florets
spread apart, showing jointed rachilla; c, back view of
a floret, showing the lemma (1); d, front view of the
floret, showing the edges of the lemma (1), the palet (2),
and the rachilla segment (38) ; e, the grain, or kernel

Mixture of seeds of Kentucky blue-grass (a) and Canada
blue-grass (b). The Kentucky blue-grass seeds are
broadest at the center, pointed, and have a distinct ridge
on each side. Canada blue-grass seed are mostly broad-
est near one end, blunt, and smooth on the sides .

Seeds of redtop representing the ‘‘fancy”’ grade of the
trade: a, different views of seeds having the white,
papery, inner chaff; b, two views of a grain, or kernel,
with the inner chaff removed; c, the same nearly natu-
ral size

Chaff of redtop seed: a, Whole spikelets, usually devoid of
seed in ‘‘chaffy’’? grades; b, separated scales of the
same; a and b represent the outer chaff of the seed.
(Enlarged. )

Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata) : a, spikelet ; b, floret ;
c, stamens and pistil; d, ligule; e, section of node

Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass
(b), and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds
are distincuished from the others by their slender, curved
form. The meadow fescue and rye-grass seeds are dis-
tinguished by the difference in the section of the seed-
cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (En-
larged.) .

Tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) : a, spikelet; b, the
two florets

Brome-grass (Bromus inermis) : a, spikelet ; b, floret, dor-
sal view ; c, floret, vertical view

Meadow fescue (Festuca elatior): a, spikelet

Italian rye-grass (Loliwm multiflorum) : a, spikelet ; b, c¢,
lemma; d, e, seed . ; ; : : ; ,

PAGE

156

162

174

175

177

185

189

196
205

214

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

23.

24.

25.

26.
27.

28.

29.

50.

dl.
32.

83.

54.
55.
36.

Slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum): a, glumes;
b, spikelet with glumes removed .

Sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina): a, glumes ; b, spikelet with
glumes removed ; ; : : :
Crested dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus): a, b, fertile spike-
lets; c, sterile spikelet ‘
Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dactylon) : a, spikelet ; b, floret .
Paspalum dilatatum - a, showing arrangement of spikelets ;
b, a single spikelet; c and d, floret
Rescue-grass (Bromus untoloides): a, glumes; b, lemma;
c;palea. .

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) : a and b, dorsal and ventral
views of a spikelet; c, lemma

Texas millet (Panicum texanum) : a and b, dorsal and ven-
tral views of a spikelet; c, lemma .

Canary grass (Phalaris canariensis)

Map of the United States, showing production of alfalfa hay
by tons in 1909. Each dot equals 2000 tons .

Map of the United States and Canada, showing acreage of
alfalfa. Figures equal acres .

An implement for harrowing fields of alfalfa
A well-set cluster of alfalfa pods

Alfalfa seeds: a, individual seeds, showing variation in
form; b, edge view of a seed, showing scar; c, natural
size of seeds

. Dodder or love-vine growing on alfalfa

Adult form of the alfalfa weevil (Phytonomus posticus) :
Adults clustering on and attacking a spray of alfalfa.
(Slightly enlarged)

. Red clover

. Map showing acreage of red clover in the United States,

1909, and Canada, 1910 .

. Stages in the development of red clover seed: a and c, flower

in prime and ripe; b and d, immature and mature seed
vessel; e, mature seed

363

388

p.@.6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE PAGE
42. A bunching attachment or swather on an ordinary mower . 390
43. Seeds of red clover: 1, side view and, 2, edge view of seeds ;
3, the triangular form indicated; 4, a seed cut length-
wise; 5, a seed cut crosswise, showing the embryo; a,
a seed scar; b, a stemlet (radicle) of the embryo ; c, seed
leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo; 6, a pod of red clo-
ver; 7, natural size of seeds . ; A ‘ : s oo2

44, Sketch showing the effect of the clover-seed chalcis fly:
calyx (a), seed capsule (b), and seeds (candd). Atc
the mature insect is shown in the act of emerging . . 402
45, Alsike clover seeds: a, seeds showing variation in form and
surface appearance, enlarged ; b, natural size of seeds . 409
46. Sweet clover . ; : ‘ ; : : : : . 417

47. Seeds of sweet clover: a, seeds showing variation in form
and size; b, natural size of seeds; c, a pod of sweet

clover . : ‘ : 3 : : : 2 . 424
48. Crimson clover. : 3 ; : 5 ; ‘ . 426
49. Seeds of crimson clover (enlarged and natural size). . 434

50. Seeds of yellow trefoil: a, seeds showing variation in form
and size; b, natural size of seeds ; c, oval form of tre-

foil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil . : : . 436
51. Field pea ; : : ; : 3 : : ‘ . 442
52. Seeds of common vetch (Vicia sativa). (Natural size) . 467
503. Seed scar of common vetch. (Enlarged) . : : . 467
54. Types of mottling of seeds of common vetch: a and b, from

light and dark seeds, respectively. (Enlarged) . s 1407
55. Hairy vetch . ; ; ; ; ; : ; 5 . 468
56. Seeds of hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). Natural size. . AIG
57. Seed scar of hairy vetch: a and b, forms showing the white,

central slit of some scars. (Enlarged) . : : . 476
58. Tangier pea . ; : : : : ; : : . 483
59. Cowpea : ‘ f ; ; ‘ ; : : . 492
60. Soybean ; : ; ‘ ; , : - ; . 612
61. Roots of soybean, showing nodules ‘ : , : . 525

62. Root crops. 1909-1910. Figures equal acres : : . 585

VIII.

LIST OF PLATES

FACING PAGE
Panicles of Canada Blue-grass and Kentucky Blue-grass 164 *

A Field of Gooseneck Sorgo in Texas. : : 4% 260."

Sudan-grass and Natural Hybrids. : ; : . 280°

A Field of Sudan-grass in Virginia . : ‘ ; . 282%

A Field of Sumac Sorgo in Texas --3go.
A Field of Red Clover in Washington State

Hairy Vetch and Rye : z : : , Z 5 ie

Groit Cowpeas in a Broadcasted Field in Virginia . . 496:

Seeds of Soybeans, Cowpeas, Velvet-beans, Pods of S
Florida Velvet-bean and Yokohama Bean . : s, «ol

5. .a|

ro

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

DoMeEsTIC animals are an indispensable part of a good
agriculture, even though they may have no place in the
business of some of the high-class specialty farmers. To
rear animals necessitates forage; and the more important
the animal production, the greater is the necessity that the
forage be grown as acrop and be made a part of the farm
scheme. The forage crops are now of many kinds, and
they are taking their places in the regular farm-manage-
ment plans of the forward farmer. These crops also have
their own value as marketable products, constituting one
of the important cash incomes of the farm.

1. Definitions. — Forage includes any vegetable mat-
ter, fresh or cured, eaten by herbivorous animals, such
as grain, hay, pasturage, green feed, roots and silage.
The term feed is synonymous with forage, although some-
times restricted to grain. Fodder and stover are also
identical in original meaning, but in the United States are
used with special significations.

Forage crops include only those plants grown primarily
for feed and of which animals consume all or much of the
vegetative parts; that is, herbage, or roots. Most cereal
crops are also grown for hay, pasturage or silage, and
when thus grown may be considered forage crops. Sev-
eral plants cultivated in other regions as cereals are in the

United States grown mainly or wholly for forage. Among
B il

2 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

these are the grain sorghums, penicillaria, foxtail millet
and proso or broom-corn millet. The distinction between
cereals and forage crops in such cases is arbitrary. Such
a plant is a cereal when grown primarily for the grain,
and a forage when grown primarily for the herbage.

Fodder (German futter) really means the same as feed.
In the United States the term is used mainly in reference
to corn cut before the plant is fully mature, and from
which the ears are not removed. The stems and leaves
when dried and after the ears are removed is called stover.
In the Southern States the term fodder is applied to the
dried leaves and tops of the corn plant, removed while
green, and before the ears are fully mature.

The terms fodder and stover are also used in connec-
tion with the sorghums and similar coarse grasses.

Hay consists of the entire dried herbage of compara-
tively fine-stemmed grasses or other forage plants. It is
commonly dried or cured in the sun, but artificial drying
apparatus has been used. The process of curing is not
merely one of drying, as grass dried quickly with artificial
heat is quite different from that cured with relative
slowness. Under the latter conditions fermentative
changes take place, due mainly to enzymes, which give
freshly cured hay a characteristic aroma varying with the
plant used. This odor is much less evident in plants
quickly dried.

Brown hay is prepared by stacking grass or clover when
only half cured, on account of which it undergoes fer-
mentation with heating. The product is brown and
compact. Brown hay is commonly prepared in regions
where on account of climatic conditions dry curing is
difficult. It is somewhat intermediate between hay and
silage in quality.

INTRODUCTION 35

Soiling is a term used to denote feeding with green
plants, when the plants are cut and carried to the animals.
Next to pasturing, this is the most primitive way of feed-
ing animals. It is practically the only way that cut
herbage is used in half-civilized countries.

Silage is prepared by compacting green herbage in an
air-tight receptacle in which it undergoes fermentation.
In America the principal crop used for silage is corn, and
this, after cutting in small pieces so that it will pack
closely, is placed in a specially constructed szlo to insure
fermentation under nearly anaérobic conditions. The
material is ensilaged in the silo.

Straw is a term applied to the dried remnants of a crop
from which the seed has been thrashed. The term is
used most commonly in reference to the small grains,
wheat, oats, rye and barley, but is properly applied also
to thrashed flax, cowpeas, millets, ete.

Root crops is applied to forage crops whose principal
value lies in the subterranean portion, whether true roots
or tubers. They are extensively grown for forage only in
countries where they can be produced more cheaply than
grain feeds. Their culture is therefore extensive in
northern Europe, but has thus far received very little
attention in America except in Canada, the Northeastern
States and in the humid belt along the Pacific coast, all
being regions not well adapted to the culture of corn.
Root crops require a considerable amount of hand labor
and, partly on this account and partly because of their
greater cost, are not popular where plants like corn, sor-
ghum or similar crops can be grown.

Feeds are conveniently distinguished according to
nutritive value into concentrates with high feeding value
and roughage, or roughness, with relatively low feeding

4 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

value. Concentrates include grains, or products thereof, oil
meal, and for hogs tankage and similar products. Rough-
age includes hay, fodder, straw, silage, roots, pasturage.

Roughages have been considered to be made up of
two or three general classes. Very commonly two such
classes are recognized, one composed of the grass hays,
roots, silage and stover, which are low in protein; the
other composed of the legumes and also grass in the form |
of pasturage and rowen, which differ in having a higher
protein content.

Another classification recognizes three groups; namely,
1. legumes; 2. mixed legumes and grasses; 3. grasses
(including corn). Perhaps a fourth group should be
added; namely, the straws, which, however, are very
variable in value.

A meadow on a farm is a field planted to grasses or
legumes or both for hay. Commonly the term implies
perennial meadows, but the phrase ‘annual meadows”
is occasionally used. In northern regions the word
meadow is also used for natural grass areas, especially if wet.

The second growth of most grasses, especially those
which bloom but once a season is called aftermath or rowen.

Grass. — Besides its use in a purely botanical sense,
the word grass is often used in agriculture to mean any
plant growing for hay or pasture. The crop in a rotation
is thus called grass even if it be clover or alfalfa.

A pasture is a field in which animals graze on herba-
ceous plants. Any crop thus utilized is spoken of as
a pasture crop. Permanent pastures are such as can be
grazed upon for several years and contain perennial plants
or a succession of annuals, or both.

Browsing is sometimes used as synonymous with graz-
ing, but usually the word browse is restricted to shrubs
of which animals eat the leaves or twigs.

INTRODUCTION 5

Wild pastures, whether wooded or prairie, are often
called ranges or range lands, especially in the West.

2. Knowledge of forage crops compared with other
crops. — A critical survey of the present state of agro-
nomic knowledge concerning forage crops as revealed both
in literature and in practice makes clear the fact that
there is not nearly as much accurate information about
these crops as there is concerning others such as cereals,
cotton, tobacco, etc. The reasons for this are not far to
seek. First, forage crops are only rarely grown as money
crops, and the farmer seldom knows with any degree of
accuracy what yields he obtains. His forage crops are,
therefore, not brought into yearly comparison with those
of his neighbors, so that no definite criterion becomes
established as to what are good and what poor yields.
Consequently, there is lacking the spur for better effort
brought about by the knowledge of the yields, and espe-
cially the money returns secured by neighboring farmers.
Second, there is a larger variety of plants grown for forage,
no one of which is cultivated over so wide an area as any
of the important cereal crops. There is, consequently,
a smaller amount of information about each of the many
forage crops than there is concerning any one of the few
cereal crops.

The purely agronomic knowledge available, — that is,
that relating to yield as affected by environmental,
cultural or other factors, namely, climate, soil, fertilizers,
culture, irrigation, variety, rate of seeding, rotation, —
is partly the result of definite experiments, but largely
the experience of farmers. Experimental results, where
available, are more enlightening than those based on farm
returns, but a vastly greater amount of experimental
data is necessary for a better understanding of the com-

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

6

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INTRODUCTION 7
plex factors which affect yield. To the critical student,
the relative paucity of accurate knowledge concerning
yield relations will be apparent as the data concerning
each crop is studied.

3. Forage crops and civilization. — The culture of crops
grown purely as feed for herbivorous animals is mainly
a product of European civilization. Even yet such crops
are seldom grown except in regions settled or governed
by Europeans. Less civilized peoples have depended for
the sustenance of their flocks wholly or mainly on natural
pasturage; or, where the population is dense, as in India
and China, have utilized as forage only the refuse or
surplus of crops grown for human food, supplemented by
any pasturage available. To a slight extent, it is true,
alfalfa was cultivated in ancient Persia, and perhaps red
clover also, but this exception only emphasizes the fact
that the culture of most forage crops originated and
developed in Europe.

In America the relative importance of forage to other
staple crops has been still more developed. This is easily
seen in a comparison of the forage crops with the total
value of all field crops in India, Europe and America : —

TABLE SHOWING THE ACREAGES OF ALL Crops, oF ForaGce
AND THE NUMBER OF CATTLE AND HoRSES IN THE UNITED
StaTEs, CANADA, EuROPE AND INDIA.

CATTLE AND

CouNTRY ALL Crops FORAGE Teneds YEAR
Acres Acres
United States | 301,325,598 | 72,280,776 | 85,952,446 | 1909
@anada =) 4) °33,047,783:)| 9.156.573 9,353,000 | 1911
Europe . . | 792,644,963 | 92,789,168 | 181,989,750 | 1906-11
mdi er sis 225.892 425:1 4881-742. 103'677.987| L910

8

APRIL 15, 1910

:
Sa
wd %
i

1 DOT =1,000

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Compare distribution with

1 dot equals 1000 head.

Fia. 2.— Distribution of cattle in the United States.

that of forage in Fig. 1.

INTRODUCTION )

The actual value of the forage grown is, of course, far
greater than the hay and forage of the census returns.
To these figures need to be added the value of pasturage
and of the straw of various crops. It is probable that each
one of the 103,000,000 of cattle in India consumes about
as much feed as does each of the 86,000,000 in the United
States, but in India practically all of the forage is either
straw or wild grass. While the growing of crops purely
to feed animals is partly based on sentimental grounds,
its justification lies in the fact that it is sound economy.

4. Forage crops in Europe and in America. — In com-
paring the forage crops grown in America and in Europe,
it must be borne in mind that there are great differences
in the climate and some in the soil which in large measure
account for the relative importance of particular forage
plants in the two continents. So far as climate is con-
cerned, only California corresponds closely with the
countries of southern Europe; only the northwest Pacific
coast region is at all comparable with England and northern
Germany; and the eastern portion of the Great Plains
is not very different from eastern Russia. On the other
hand, the northeastern portion of the United States and
adjacent Canada differs from any portion of Europe in
having hot humid summers, and the winters too are colder
than those of western Europe; the Southern States,
especially the cotton region, are still more different in
climate from any portion of Europe.

Almost without exception the plants of southern Europe
succeed well in California, those of middle western
Europe on the north Pacific coast, and those of eastern
Russia on the Great Plains.

In marked contrast, but very few European forage
plants are well adapted to the Southern States, the most

10 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

important being primarily winter crops; namely, vetch,
bur clover, white clover and redtop.

Likewise, in the Northern States and Canada, many
important European forages have found but little place,
but four of them have on account of their marked adap-
tation for the region attained relatively a much higher
importance than they have in Europe. These four are
timothy, red clover, Kentucky blue-grass and redtop.
The utilization of these over much of the eastern United
States to the practical exclusion of many of the other
perennial grasses and legumes much used in Europe is
striking. Over the area in question at least 50 per cent
of the hay crop is made up of timothy and red clover
alone, and probably 70 per cent of the improved pastures
of Kentucky blue-grass and redtop.

Some European plants, like sainfoin, are not grown in
America because there are no chalky soils; others, like
the lupines and serradella, seem poorly adapted to with-
stand summer heat; and many of the perennial grasses
do not hold their own in pastures and meadows in com-
petition with the more aggressive, better adapted species.

5. Perennial hay plants in Europe and America com-
pared.—In Europe eleven perennial grasses — namely,
perennial rye-grass, Italian rye-grass, orchard-grass,
meadow foxtail, meadow fescue, tall oat-grass, yellow
oat-grass, velvet-grass, timothy, redtop and sweet vernal
grass, —and five perennial legumes — namely, red, white
and alsike clovers, alfalfa and sainfoin, — may be con-
sidered as of prime importance.

In North America, if we except alfalfa, these European
grasses are well adapted only to the area north of latitude
36°, after excluding much of the semi-arid region. South
of this latitude few of them are worth cultivating.

INTRODUCTION ik:

The general practice in Europe is to sow both meadows
and pastures to complex mixtures of grasses. In marked
contrast the American practice is to sow pure cultures or
very simple mixtures.

Of the above list only seven can be said to be much
cultivated in America; namely, timothy, redtop and
orchard-grass, alfalfa, and red, white and alsike clovers.
The remainder are relatively much neglected, though most
of them have distinct value, at least in special areas.
Neglect of their greater use is perhaps due to the ascen-
danecy which timothy has in American favor and to an
actual lack of knowledge concerning their merits.

6. Botany of forage crops. — The greater numbers of
forage crops are either grasses (Graminee) or legumes
(Leguminose). There are definite reasons why this is
the case. On prairie or meadow lands in all parts of the
world, grasses make up a large percentage of the herbage.
This is particularly true in areas where wild herbivorous
animals existed in large numbers, as on our western
prairies and in south Africa. The two facts are corre-
lated. Without the grasses the abundant herds of animals
could not have existed, and with the abundant herds few
plants are so well adapted as the grasses to withstand
heavy grazing and trampling. The reason for this lies
in the fact that the growing part of a grass leaf is near its
base and so is not injured when the upper part is bitten
off, while with most other plants the growing point is
terminal and therefore easily destroyed by grazing animals.
Furthermore, many grasses are amply provided with
vegetative means of spreading and reproducing, so that
even if continuously cropped short, they nevertheless
survive. The other plants most like the grasses—namely,
the rushes and sedges — are, with a few exceptions, not

12 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

much relished by animals, as their leaves are either very
tough or very harsh. Among the characteristics a grass
must have to be valuable under cultivation are satis-
factory yielding capacity for the purpose employed, whether
pasture, soiling, silage or hay; good feeding quality, —
that is, palatable, not too woody, and without any in-
jurious physiological effects ; good reproductive characters,
such as abundant, easily gathered seed, or ready multi-
plication by vegetative methods; and aggressiveness, or
ability to maintain itself under the conditions of culture,
and yet not be too troublesome as a weed.

Many grasses otherwise satisfactory are but little used
because the seed cannot be grown cheaply; others are
distinctly unpalatable ; and most coarse perennial grasses
will not endure either mowing or close grazing.

Legumes are next in value to grasses, both as wild
natural pasture plants and under cultivation. They are
peculiar in having a higher content of protein than most
other plants. About 100 species have been utilized more
or less for forage. To be satisfactory for cultivation
as forage crops, the same general characteristics are re-
quired as for the grasses, but many legumes are poisonous
or have other deleterious qualities. The seed habits,
also, are frequently very unsatisfactory.

Apart from the grasses and legumes a medley of other
plants are more or less important as forage crops. Most
prominent is the mustard family (Crucifere), which in-
cludes rutabagas, rape, kale and turnips.

The other families of plants contribute very few and
mostly unimportant crops. The mangel belongs to the
Chenopodiacee; the carrot and parsnip to the Umbelli-
fere; spurrey to the Caryophyllacee; burnet to the
Rosacee ; yarrow and artichokes to the Composite ;

INTRODUCTION he

cassava to the Huphorbiacee; Mexican clover to the
Rubiaceew; and chufas to the Cyperacee.

7. Aggressiveness necessary in perennial forage crops.
— Aggressiveness, or ability to hold the soil against weeds
and other competitors, is an exceedingly important char-
acter in all perennial meadow or pasture crops, and often
important in annuals. Plants of Old World origin are
in this respect far superior to those of American origin,
at least for cultivation in the New World. With but a
single exception, every perennial hay plant cultivated in
America is of Old World origin, and among perennial
pasture plants there are but few exceptions. Many of
the native American grasses are equal to Old World
grasses in yield and nutritiousness, but with perhaps a
few exceptions they lack in ability to retain possession
of cultivated land against the competition of weeds.
The reasons for this are not apparent, but the fact scarcely
admits of doubt. Grasses are not alone peculiar in this
respect, as most of our troublesome weeds are also of
Old World origin. Some of these weedy grasses and other
plants furnish good forage, and are therefore welcome.
Among such are Japan clover, white clover, narrow-
leaved vetch, bur clover, alfilaria, sweet clover, crab-grass,
Bermuda-grass and blue-grass. A few temperate Ameri-
can plants have shown similar aggressive propensities
when transplanted to the Old World, such as water-weed,
Elodea canadensis, and horse-weed, Erigeron canadensis.
Many tropical American plants introduced into the Orient
have prospered amazingly, where they behave as weeds,
in a manner exactly analogous to European plants in-
troduced into the United States. All this points to aggres-
siveness as being in part at least a phenomenon of plants
transferred to a new but similar environment.

14 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

8. Characteristics of grasses. — Botanically the grasses
form a sharply defined family characterized by having
jointed, usually hollow, stems, with cross partitions at the
nodes; two-ranked, parallel-veined leaves, the basal
portion or sheath inclosing the stem, and bearing where it
joins the blade a peculiar appendage, the ligule (Fig. 3) ;
flowers very small, mostly perfect, but sometimes uni-
sexual, consisting of 3 stamens, rarely 1, 2 or 6; one
pistil with two papillate or plumose stigmas; and 2,

IG... 3:
— Ligule
of a grass |
leaf. Fic. 5. — A sin-

ae Senet gle floret of orchard-
of orchard-grass.
grass.

rarely 3, small perianth segments, the lodicules at the
base of the ovary; flowers always in spikelets, with 2-
ranked bracts or scales, arranged on an axis, the rachilla.
The two lower bracts are called glumes, and each suc-
ceeding one is a lemma. Above and opposite the lemma
is the 2-nerved palea, which incloses the floret. The
florets are usually as numerous as the lemmas, but
the upper ones are often sterile.

The fruit is a caryopsis or grain, with small lateral
embryo and relatively large starchy endosperm. For
the most part grass flowers are wind pollinated, but some
on which the stamens do not become exserted are self-
pollinated, as in the case of wheat.

INTRODUCTION 15

Agricultural grasses are either annuals or perennials.

The annuals are mostly grown as cereals in some part
of the world at least, but several are grown in America
primarily as forage, such as millets and sorghums.

The perennials may be distinguished as bunch grasses,
like orchard-grass and timothy, and creeping grasses,
like Kentucky blue-grass and Bermuda. In the former
the new shoots are intravaginal; that is, the new shoots
do not break through the lowest sheath but grow erect
within it; in the creeping grasses the shoots are eztra-
vaginal; that is, they pierce the lowest sheath and for
a longer or shorter distance develop as rhizomes below
ground, or stolons above ground. In a few grasses, like
various-leaved fescue, both types of shoots are formed.

The roots of all grasses are very slender and but little
branched. Even in perennial grasses the roots usually
live but one season and then new ones are formed.

To possess high agricultural value, a grass must be
palatable and healthful; it must yield well; and above
all, it must have good seed habits, so that the seed can
be harvested cheaply. Even in the best of the perennial
grasses the seed is relatively inferior in viability, as com-
pared with other crop plants.

9. Legumes. — Legumes or pulses are distinguished
botanically by having the leaves alternate, with stipules
and mostly compound; flowers usually papilionaceous —
that is, like a pea flower; pistil simple, becoming in fruit
a legume; embryo usually completely filling the seed.

Biologically, most leguminous plants are remarkable
for their ability to use free atmospheric nitrogen, by the
aid of certain bacteria that form nodules on the roots.

Most of the cultivated legumes thrive best in soil con-
taining a high content of lime, but others, like trefoil and

16 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

white clover, are indifferent to lime. <A few, like lupines
and serradella, are injuriously affected if lime be added
to the soil. Perennial legumes have as a rule stout roots
which serve partly as storage organs for reserve food.
Partly on this account, they are cut for hay in early bloom,
as after this stage reserve stuff is deposited in the roots.

10. Root nodules. — On the roots of most legumes and
a few other plants occur nodules or tubercles. Woronin
in 1866 discovered that these contained bacteria-like
organisms, but their importance was not realized until
Hellriegel in 1887 demonstrated that leguminous plants
can utilize atmospheric nitrogen by the aid of these
nodule bacteria. When the root nodules are absent,
legumes, like most other plants, must depend on com-
bined nitrogen in the soil.

It was known to the Romans in Pliny’s time that
certain legumes helped succeeding crops, and indeed
legumes mixed or in rotation with other crops have been
used in India and China probably since prehistoric times.
The importance of leguminous crops is, however, more
clearly recognized since their réle as nitrogen conservors
has been discovered.

11. The nodule organism. — The organism causing the
nodules in legumes is now called Psewdomonas radicicola.
Apparently it is but one and the same species that causes
the nodules on legumes and on such, plants as Alnus,
Shepherdia, Podocarpus, Ceanothus and others. The
organism occurs in different physiological forms, for it is
not possible, except in a few cases, to inoculate a legume
of one genus directly with the nodule bacteria from another.
The only definitely proved case of this is Melilotus and
Medicago, alfalfa being readily inoculated by sweet clover.
It is probable, also, that the bacteria of garden peas in-

INTRODUCTION Ley,

oculate vetch and vice versa, but this lacks proof, as does
Nobbe’s contention that Pisum will inoculate Phaseolus.

12. Forms of root nodules. — The root nodules on
different legumes vary greatly in size, shape and abun-
dance. To a certain extent they are characteristic for
each genus. The nodule is morphologically a modified
rootlet. In many legumes it is always simple, but in
others is more or less branched, sometimes into a coral-
like mass. In the common cultivated clovers the nodules
on the younger roots are small and globose, becoming
club-shaped and often bilobed. On older roots they
become more branched or lobed.

Alfalfa produces nodules much like red clover, but
usually longer and more branched.

On Canada peas and the vetches the nodules are still
more branched and fan-shaped in form. Clusters of
these often form globose masses.

In the cowpea, peanut and most beans, the nodules
are irregularly globose and solid. These are frequently
as large as a pea seed. On the soybean, the nodules are
also globose but marked on the surface with raised ridges.

The velvet bean produces perhaps the largest nodules
of any legume. These are sometimes as large as a base-
ball. Such are really clusters of branched nodules but
packed together very densely.

13. Natural inoculation. — Any legumes may easily
be inoculated on new land by scattering soil from an old
field where the same legume has previously produced
nodules, as is nearly always the case when a legume crop
is successful. This method was used in Europe before
its significance was discovered. In thus inoculating new
land, from 100 to 500 pounds of old soil should be used

to the acre. It may be scattered in any convenient way,
Cc

18 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

but preferably with a drill or on a cloudy day. Sunlight
is destructive to the bacteria, so the inoculating soil
should be harrowed in unless sown with a drill.

The use of the naturally inoculated soil is open to the
objection that it may serve to spread weeds, insects and
plant diseases, especially if brought from a distance.

In some cases, the nodule bacteria are undoubtedly
carried on the surface of the seeds, especially where these
are trampled out by animals. Thus plots of guar (Cya-
mopsis tetragonoloba), an East Indian legume, were well
inoculated when grown for the first time at Chillicothe,
Texas, although no closely related legume occurs in North
America. In this case it seems practically certain that
the bacteria were carried on the seeds.

Inoculation of the soil for a new legume is sometimes
secured by sowing a little of the seed in mixtures, as alfalfa
with grass. Frequently some of the plants survive, and
when this happens generally to scattered plants through-
out a field, it is safe to conclude that the soil is sufficiently
well inoculated.

14. Artificial inoculation. — The first artificial cultures
of Pseudomonas radicicola were made by Beyerinck in -
1888. In 1896 Nobbe introduced commercial cultures
under the name of nitragin. Commercial cultures have
been prepared in various forms; namely, in liquids, upon
agar jelly, in dry powders and on cotton. Moore in 1904
prepared cultures grown on media poor in nitrogen under
the idea that this would select the strains most efficient
in fixing free nitrogen, and that these cultures would,
therefore, prove beneficial even on soils already inoculated
for any particular legume by providing a superior strain.
Attempts have also been made to prepare cultures adapted
to each soil by growing the bacteria in media prepared

INTRODUCTION 19

trom a solution of the particular soil to be inoculated.
Whatever method is employed, it is necessary to prepare
the cultures from nodules of the same species of plant for
which the culture is intended.

Beginning with the introduction of nitragin, many
hundreds of inoculation experiments have been performed.
There can be no question of the importance of nodules
to the plants, as the difference between inoculated and
uninoculated plants is often markedly apparent. Any
superiority of artificial cultures over natural inoculation
has thus far not been realized. Artificial inoculation for
reasons not ascertained is less certain than natural soil
inoculation. Artificial cultures have the advantage of
cheapness and convenience, but thus far the uncertainty
attending their use on uninoculated soil has more than
counterbalanced these advantages.

From theoretical considerations, there is abundant
reason to believe that methods will yet be perfected to
secure reliable inoculation by artificial cultures of espe-
cially efficient strains of the nodule bacteria.

15. Dependence of legumes on root nodules. — Many
legumes will grow normally in a fertile soil without root
nodules. In this case, however, the plant is less rich in
nitrogen. Thus, Hopkins analyzed cowpeas grown at the
Illinois Experiment Station, comparing plants with and
without nodules. The former were three times as large
and contained 3.9 per cent nitrogen and the latter but 2.2
per cent. At Amarillo, Texas, in 1908, plots of cowpeas
of several varieties planted in fertile virgin soil were
entirely devoid of nodules, although their growth was ap-
parently perfectly normal.

On the other hand, alfalfa seems to be dependent under
some conditions on root nodules for existence. In Mary-

20 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

land and Virginia, numerous experimental fields of alfalfa
planted in 1907 failed to survive where inoculation was
not secured. This was the case even in well-fertilized soils.
The plants grew to a height of about four inches and then
gradually turned yellow and died. Under the conditions
of these experiments alfalfa seems absolutely dependent
on root nodules for successful growth. In contrast to this,
alfalfa is said to have succeeded well in Kansas from its
first introduction in that state, but no observations are
recorded in regard to nodulation.

According to Kirchner, no nodules had been observed
on soybeans grown in Europe up to 1895, although this
plant had been successfully cultivated since 1877.

CHAPTER II

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE

Tue principles and methods of preserving forage are
quite different from those employed with other crops.
This is necessitated largely by the bulky nature of forage
crops and the comparatively low value of the product.
One method of preservation — silage—is perfected to a
degree which makes it comparable with a factory process.
The making of hay, however, is still dependent almost
wholly on favorable weather conditions, and in the ab-
sence of this condition the crop is often lost or greatly
damaged.

16. Preservation of forage crops. — Herbage may be
preserved as forage in one of three ways, hay, brown
hay and silage. The form in which it is preserved depends
partly on the particular crop, partly on climatic conditions
and partly on the special purpose for which it is required.
Grasses and legumes with fine stems are mostly harvested
as hay. Under adverse climatic conditions, however,
such crops are often saved as brown hay, but never if
bright hay can be cured. Coarse fodders, like corn and
sorghum, are more and more being preserved as silage, as
this avoids both the difficulties of curing and the loss from
leaching if left unprotected, and besides, furnishes a
succulent feed. The finer grasses and legumes may also
be preserved as silage, but this 1s seldom done, except when

weather conditions prevent drying, and a silo is available.
zal

DY), FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

17. Time of cutting. — There are five different criteria
which may be considered in determining the stage at
which to cut a crop of forage : —

1. When the plants can be most satisfactorily cured
either as hay or silage.

2. When there is the least injury to the succeeding
cutting. |

3. When the greatest total yield can be obtained.

4. When the degree of digestibility is greatest, especially
of the proteids.

5. When the greatest total amount of digestible nu-
trients is obtained.

The first criterion is of importance only in regions where
the climatic conditions can be predicted with some cer-
tainty. For example, in most of the Southern States
the weather in fall is quite likely to be more satisfactory
for curing hay than is midsummer. On this account the
cutting of some crops, like lespedeza and Bermuda grass,
is commonly postponed till then, while others, as cowpeas,
are planted so that they will mature at this time.

The second consideration has some bearing on crops
that yield two or more cuttings. As a rule, the later the
first cutting is made, the smaller the second one will be.

The third criterion would postpone the cutting of most
grasses until the seed is mature, and most legumes until
the leaves begin to fall off, as the total weight increases
until maturity except as there is loss from defoliation or
leaching. At this stage, however, most plants become
more woody and less palatable.

The fourth criterion is unimportant from the fact that in
nearly all forage crops the digestibility is greatest when the
plants are young, and cutting at this time is at the expense
of a greatly reduced yield and greater difficulty in curing.

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE Za

The fifth criterion would apparently, from a theoretical
consideration, be the most satisfactory basis to use. In
grasses the percentage of digestibility varies but slightly
from full bloom till when the seeds are nearly ripe, but in
clovers it begins to fall off even before blooming. From
this, it would appear that grasses may be cut at any time
from full bloom until nearly ripe, excepting where the
stems become decidedly woody; while perennial legumes
should be cut not later than full bloom.

18. Haymaking in dry weather. — Under favorable
climatic conditions, haymaking is a simple process. The
curing will then often take place in the windrows into
which it is raked when well wilted, so that it can be
stacked or housed the day following without further
handling, though it is usually desirable to turn the wind-
rows an hour or more before loading. This method is
often pursued in dry climates. The only objection to this
system is that more bleaching from the sun takes place
than if the hay is put into cocks or shocks as soon as dry
enough. With such rapid curing, however, the bleaching
is not sufficient to justify the additional labor required
in cocking. Some loss, however, will result, especially
in legumes, from the leaves becoming too dry and brittle
so that they break off in subsequent handling.

Even with perfect haying weather, the best hay is
secured by raking into windrows as soon as well wilted,
and afterwards piling into small cocks before any of the
leaves become brittle. At this stage the leaves are drier
than the stems, but in the cocks this is partly equalized
by the leaves absorbing moisture from the stems. When
thus cured, there is less bleaching from the sun, or sun
and dew combined, few leaves are lost by becoming
brittle and a higher degree of aroma is engendered. By

24 §$ FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

thoroughly curing in the cocks, any danger of subsequent
heating in the stack or mow is largely removed. Under
the best conditions hay may be stacked or housed the same
day that it is cut, but this is seldom done until the second
or third day.

19. Curing of hay. — In curing hay under ideal con-
ditions, three different processes take place; namely,
(1) a reduction in water content from about 70 per cent
(60 per cent to 85 per cent) in the green plant to about
15 per cent (7 per cent to 25 per cent) when dried; (2) en-
zymatic changes in the composition of the hay, usually
with the development of acharacteristic aroma; (8) bleach-
ing, due to destruction of the chlorophyll by the sunlight

which is increased by the action of the dew.
~The conditions sought in prime hay are bright color, that
is, as green as possible; good aroma; retention of leaves
(in legumes); and freedom from “ dust ’”’ or mold spores.

20. Haymaking under humid conditions. — While hay-
making in favorable weather is simple, it becomes greatly
complicated by cloudiness, rain and heavy dews. Rain
is injurious both because it delays drying and because it
leaches out soluble nutrients. If long continued, espe-
cially in warm weather, it’ induces the growth of various
molds and other fungi, and the hay becomes “ dusty.”

Two processes to facilitate curing of hay under un-
certain conditions are commonly employed. The first
of these is designed to hasten drying by turning the grass
over as soon as the top is dried, using pitchforks if done
by hand, or a tedder if by horse power. Where the crop
is very heavy, this is done while the hay is in the swath,
but usually it is first raked into windrows. The second
process is to pile into cocks after partially curing in wind-
rows. The object here is mainly to reduce the surface

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 25

exposed to moisture that may fall on the half-cured hay
either as dew or rain. Where the drying is long pro-
tracted, much additional labor is entailed by spreading
the cocks each favorable morning and recocking in the
evening until cured.

While the difficulty of thus curing grass hay is great,
it is far less than in the case of legumes. Grasses have
slender, usually hollow stems, and persistent leaves, while
most legumes have solid stalks that are relatively thicker,
and consequently dry much more slowly. Furthermore,
the leaflets of legumes dry first and fall off easily when
the hay is half cured, so that if much handled a large
portion of the leaves may be lost. In addition, legume
hays do not shed rain water as well as do grass hays, the
latter indeed often being put on the top of shocks of legume
hay to shed moisture.

Cut hay should never be handled while wet. If the
surface hay was best cured before the rain, as would be
the case in the swath, it is in the most favorable position
to dry promptly. If in the windrow, the stirring of the
hay while the surface is wet brings this moisture in con-
tact with the drier hay beneath, by which it is readily
absorbed.

Unfavorable weather greatly increases the cost of hay-
making, both in requiring more labor and in causing
greater loss of leaves from the more frequent handling
necessitated.

Continuous rains do but little more damage to freshly
cut hay plants than to the uncut plants, at least during
the first three or four days after cutting. Cured or
partially cured hay, however, loses by leaching. Headden,
at the Colorado Experiment Station, compared alfalfa
hay exposed to warm humid weather for fifteen days,

26 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

during which time 1.76 inches of rain fell in three showers,
with a sample cut at the same time and immediately
dried in an oven. The former contained but 11.01 per
cent of protein against 18.71 per cent for the latter.

Corn stover exposed two months to weather at the Wis-
consin Experiment Station lost from 12.76 per cent to
22.83 per cent of the total dry matter and 59.6 per cent
to 71.55 per cent of the total protein. At the Colorado
Experiment Station, corn stover spread on the ground
in small shocks and in large shocks lost, respectively,
55, 43 and 31 per cent of the dry matter. In these cases,
however, the loss is partly due to fermentation and to
molds.

Westgate sprinkled perfectly cured crimson clover hay
with water to imitate rain for one hour each on three
successive days. On analysis it was found in com-
parison with a sample unsprinkled to have lost about
three-fourths of its sugar, one-ninth of its protein and
three-fourths of its ash constituents.

Kellner in Germany analyzed two lots of alfalfa hay,
one very carefully dried, the other exposed during drying
to one heavy thunder storm and one light shower. ‘The
latter was poorer than the former in protein 2.1 per cent ;
in fiber, 2.2 per cent; in carbohydrate, .4 per cent and in
fat, .6 per cent.

21. Special devices to facilitate hay curing. — Where
weather injury is frequently experienced in curing hay,
certain devices are often used that are helpful.

Most common perhaps is the perch, which in its simplest
form is a stake about six feet long with cross arms two
to three feet long. This is driven into the ground and
the green or half-dried plants are hung upon it so as to
make a tall, slender cock. Perches are much used in

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 27

curing peanut vines and are also very useful for cowpeas
and similar viny plants.

A less simple, but more effective device is the pyramid,
which permits of making larger cocks with an open air
space in the interior. Numerous forms of pyramids have
been devised, even metal ones being used in Europe.
They consist essentially of three or four legs jointed at
the top and sometimes sharpened below so that they can
be pushed firmly into the ground. Cross pieces joining
the legs are also useful. The legs are commonly 6 to 8
feet long. A form devised at the Tennessee Experiment
Station is so joined at the top that the three legs come
together when the pyramid is not in use.

Still more elaborate frames are sometimes used for
cowpeas, combining the characteristics of a pyramid and
of a permanent, stack. It is a common practice in stack-
ing cowpea hay not completely cured to make alternate
layers of hay and of wooden rails. The rails prevent the
hay from matting and facilitate curing by permitting the
circulation of the air. Such a stack is greatly improved
by supporting the rails at each end, so that the air may
more easily circulate between the layers of hay.

Hay caps are also very desirable to protect cocks from
rain. The form most commonly used consists of a piece
of canvas about one yard square with a weight at each
corner. By the use of a hay cap the hay cock is protected
from the rain that falls directly upon it.

If hay be stacked on low, wet ground, the bottom por-
tion becomes ruined by the absorption of moisture. This
may be prevented by building the stack on a raised stage.
Where hay is annually cut on wet meadows which become
overflowed, permanent hay stages built on a level above
high water mark are often employed.

28 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In Europe, another method of curing hay which involves
much hand labor is employed. This consists in tying
the grass in sheaves after it has wilted one or two days.
The sheaves are bound near the top so that when the
cut ends are spread, they will stand alone. As these are
often blown down by the wind, it involves an excessive
amount of labor. Sometimes a number of sheaves are
tied together so as to form a hollow cone, or many may
thus be placed to form a rectangle with sloping sides and
openends. Such structures do not blow down so readily,
but require much labor to set up. The sheaves are dried
out principally by the circulation of the air.

In semi-arid regions immature wheat, barley and other
cereals are sometimes cut with a binder, and the bound
sheaves cure readily without further handling.

22. Completion of curing. — The stage at which curing
is complete enough to make it safe to stack or house the
hay is not easily determined. Where damage from
weather is feared, it is important to get the crop in as soon
as possible, especially in the case of legumes. A common
rule is to consider legumes safe to put in large cocks or
stacks when moisture can no longer be made to exude
from the stems by twisting them tightly. When hay is
stacked before thoroughly dry, it undergoes a process of
heating or sweating. Legumes heat much more than
grasses. [ven when put in the mow at the stage indicated,
alfalfa and crimson clover may become about as hot as
the hand can bear.

It is a common practice to sprinkle salt or lime over
each layer of hay which is thought to be insufficiently
cured. To what extent this may modify sweating and
subsequent moldiness is not well ascertained.

Hay is safe to place in the barn when the moisture

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 29

content is reduced to 20 per cent. It is rarely practicable,
however, to make moisture determinations. Among
empirical rules used to determine when curing is so far
completed to make housing safe are (1) when the hay
breaks if a wisp is tightly twisted in the hand; (2) when
it is dry enough to rattle if gently shaken; and (3) when
it no longer feels cool if pressed to the cheek.

23. Shrinkage of stored hay. — Hay when stored con-
tains a varying amount of water, depending on the thor-
oughness of the curing. Even in very dry climates it is
seldom less than 10 per cent and in moist climates or under
unfavorable conditions is commonly as high as 25 per
cent. Inthe West hay is often stacked when the moisture
~ content exceeds 25 per cent, and instances are reported
where it contained as high as 88 per cent and yet kept well.
The average moisture content of cured hay ranges from
15 to 20 per cent.

Shrinkage is mainly due to loss of water; in rare cases
where the hay is put in the mow when very dry, there may
be gain in water content. Shrinkage due to loss of moisture
varies according to the water content when stored and the
humidity of the air.

Besides the shrinkage due to evaporation of moisture,
there is a varying amount of loss due to oxidation. Even
in well cured hay the enzymatic changes which go on cause
a small loss by oxidation. In poorly cured hay the loss
may be much greater, not only from the high degree of
heat engendered by the preliminary fermentation, but
also by the growth of destructive molds and other
organisms.

The actual shrinkage which takes place in stored or
stacked hay has been determined at several experiment
stations.

30 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station, hay removed
from the barn in February, 1902, contained 12.21 per
cent of moisture. The shrinkage of hay from three plots
differently fertilized was determined as follows on this
basis of water content : —

Pror 19 Piotr 21
eee pk NITRATE NITRATE
Nipmocins oF Sopa, oF Sopa,
138 LB. 414 LB.
Percentage loss during barn
curing in 1901 Lie 2 ake 14.9 15.7 19.6
Percentage loss during barn
euring in 1902 2, os oes 4G 13.3 15.8 16.0

From these results it would appear that hay from land
fertilized with nitrogen shrinks more than that from
unfertilized.

The Maine Experiment Station reports that two lots of
timothy cut respectively July 9 and July 24 and put in
a barn when dry, showed a shrinkage on November 24
of 12.2 per cent for the early and 13.3 per cent for the
later cutting. In another test the loss in storing field-
cured hay for 10 months was 16.6 per cent in early-cut
hay and 18.1 per cent in late-cut hay.

The Pennsylvania Experiment Station reports that
timothy hay cut in bloom showed an average shrinkage
in weight in the barn after 5 or 6 months of 25.7 per cent,
while hay cut two weeks later shrunk in weight on the
average 18.8 per cent. Three mowings of red clover cut
respectively when in bloom, ‘‘some heads dead,” and
“heads all dead,” showed a shrinkage after several months’
storage in the barn of 42.4 per cent, 44.2 per cent and
25.7 per cent in the order named.

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 31

The Michigan Experiment Station reports that timothy
hay stored in a barn lost in one case 7 per cent in 6 months ;
in three other cases the losses were respectively 13.8,
15.0 and 21.7 per cent. Red clover hay lost 9 per cent
by November in one case and 3.6 per cent in another ;
the loss from July to February was 11.2 per cent.

At the Utah Experiment Station one ton of timothy
placed in the center of a mow July 15 contained 1790.8
pounds dry matter, the moisture content being 10.46
per cent. The following May it contained 1557.4 pounds
of dry matter and 14.61 per cent moisture. The loss in
dry matter was 14.9 per cent.

Twenty-nine pounds of timothy hay suspended in a
gunny bag for the same length of time increased in mois-
ture content from 12.3 to 14.52 per cent. There was no loss
in dry matter.

At the Kansas Experiment Station moisture determina-
tions were made for several kinds of hay when stored in
Summer and again December 15. The results indicate
that when curing is complete the moisture content of all
hays is much the same under the same conditions :—

MolIsturRE ConTENT oF Hays AT KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION

Per Cent

Z MotsTyHE aN PER Cent
“SUMMER

Orchard-grass, blue-grass and

GIOWVODMA ne Ge MeO vw 8 Gs 15.65 10.54 5.71 loss
Blue-grass . . te 19.59 10.60 10.05 loss
Orchard-grass and dlove (3) ae ee 19.75 11.80 9.01 loss
WlOverary, Ge ee OS ey 8 9.08 1 eye Sul/ gain
Pramriecenayogs «3. 4 5. is 14.00 10.61 3.39 loss
It es ess ke 21.86 8.89 14.25 loss

By) FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

24. Loss of hay or fodder in the field. — Hay in stacks
or fodder in shocks loses much more substance than when
stored in barns. This is especially true in humid regions.
The additional loss is largely due to leaching by rains,
but the bleaching effect of sunlight and the larger loss
by molds and other fungi is also important.

Short at the Wisconsin Experiment Station compared
the loss in corn fodder both when stored and when ex-
posed to the weather. His results are shown in the fol-
lowing table : —

FRESH pas Loss Loss
Ib. lb. lb. per cent
Sample I Weight 27.00 11.25 1Si75
Dry matter 7.84 6.84 1.00 12.76
Protein .663 22, .343 | 59.56
Date . .| Sept. 21 | Nov. 14 |
Sample II Weight 28.50 10.25 | 18.25 ——
Dry matter 8.45 6.52 1.93 22.83
Protein A85 Blo: 347 | 71.55
Date . .| Sept. 21 | Nov. 14

25. Relation of green weight to dry weight. — There is
no fixed ratio between the green weight and the dry
weight of any plant. This varies, obviously, with the
water content of the plant, which is never constant. It
also varies with the conditions under which the plant was
grown, a rapid succulent growth making a relatively
smaller amount of dry matter than a slow retarded growth.

For these reasons, as well as the variable amount of
moisture in hay, there is a wide variation in the ratio
of green weight and hay weight, not only for different hay
plants but even in different cuttings from the same plot.

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 35

The actual water content of a plant is easily determined
by laboratory methods, care being taken to weigh the
green plant under conditions that do not permit of loss
by evaporation before weighing. The hay yield can be
approximated from the water-free weight by arbitrarily
adding 20 per cent. Such estimates are more nearly
accurate than those obtained in the field by obtaining
first the green weight and later the hay weight, as the
moisture content of both vary greatly under field condi-
tions. The discrepancies that thus occur in field weights,
green and dry, are sometimes very large.

The relation between dry weights and green weights of
29 varieties of red clover grown at the Ontario Agri-
cultural College, show an average ratio of 1:6. The widest
ratio of any variety is 1: 8.1 and the narrowest, 1: 4.8.

Jordan at the Maine Experiment Station found that
timothy cut when the heads were beginning to appear
lost, on an average, 75 per cent of water in curing into hay ;
when beginning to bloom, the loss was 66 per cent; when
past bloom, 57 per cent.

At the same station the green and air-dried yield of
29 strains of clover in duplicate plots was weighed. The
shrinkage in drying ranged from 68 per cent in one plot
of Bohemian red clover to 82 per cent in a strain from
Denmark. The average shrinkage was 73 to 75 per cent.
Very leafy plants shrink more than those less leafy.

The following relations appear between green weight
and dry weight, in pounds per acre, of various crops
grown at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station. As
will be noticed, the water contents of the crops re-
ported upon differ greatly. The low water content of
spring vetch in contrast with that of sand vetch is es-
pecially surprising : —

D

34 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

GREEN Dry Ratio
Canada peas . . . . . .| 20,142 3,937 5
Sprinevetehe ae se ol oP es §,832 5,934 1 Pe Het
Sand Vevchi> . sc .se¥t at. Ole ee 6,756 2,492 1: 2.4
Red clover Be a Le Se 17,760 4,808 eee
White Glover -<.rab> «4 6s 20,250 4,133 1:4.9
Alsike clover . . ... . 15,960 3,956 1 aes
Crimson clover .... . 12,492 3,402 I bee 7
Timothy @2-"; 2%. .$6- = & 7,920 3,344 1:2.4

26. Loss of substance from growing plants. — Studies
of the chemistry of plants at different stages have in many
cases shown that the total amount of such substances as
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and soda was smaller
at maturity than some time previously. The same fact
has also been shown in field investigations where the total
weight of hay produced per unit of area was less at ma-
turity than at an earlier stage.

Three general explanations of the phenomenon have
been advanced, namely : —

1. The backward flow of the salts of the plant through
the stem and roots into the soil.

2. The mechanical loss of material from the leaves by
decay, drying, etc.

3. The leaching effects of rain and dew.

The subject has recently been studied by LeClere
and Brezeale. From their investigations it is demon-
strated that all growing plants exude salts upon the sur-
face of the leaves which are washed off by rains. No
evidence was found that salts ‘migrate downward, as the
lower part of the stem is always poorer in phosphorus,
potash and nitrogen than the upper part and leaves.
Wheat plants were grown in the greenhouse and watered

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 35

only at the roots so as not to wet the foliage. Some of
these plants blighted so that the whole plant slowly died,
or else the tips of the leaves were killed. Analyses of
the dead leaf tips showed that they were always poorer
in nitrogen and potash than the living basal portions.
Other analyses of these dying plants showed that the lower
nodes of the stem, whether dead or alive, were always poorer
in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash than the upper ones,
which would not be the case if the movement were down-
ward. From these observations, the conclusion is drawn
that on ripening the salts held in the sap of the plants have
a tendency to migrate from the dying to the living tissue ;
and that the migration is upward and not downward.

In another series of experiments, a whole barley plant
at the heading stage was soaked in a dish of distilled water
for several minutes and lost 1.6 per cent of its nitrogen
content, 36 per cent of its phosphoric acid and 65 per
cent of its potash. <A pot of rice plants before the heads
were mature was tilted over a dish and the tops sprayed
with about 24} quarts of water, imitating somewhat the
action of rain. Analyses made both of the ash of the plant
and of the leachings showed that the artificial rain had
removed salts from the plant.

Wheat plants in bloom and fully ripe were washed in
distilled water five to ten minutes, and both the plants
and the water analyzed. The percentage losses of mineral
substances were as follows :—

N PHos- d

_ A -
raed PHORIC |PoTasH| SODA LIME Lac CHLORIN
GEN Ags NESIA

In bloom 1.4 0 AARNE 2 27 0 10.3 46
Fully ripe 7.0 33.0 | 54.0 | 41.0 | 34.0| 46.0 | 60.0

36 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Similar losses were also found when wheat plants
- grown in the greenhouse to ripeness were exposed to
four rainfalls in such a way that the rain after falling on
the plant was caught in a tray. Oat plants were also
subjected to a test of this sort with comparable results.

From these experiments the conclusion is drawn that
plants exude salts upon their surfaces and the rain then
washes these salts back to the soil.

27. Hay stacks. — In the absence of barn room, hay
is frequently stacked in the field, especially in dry regions.
The shape of stacks varies greatly. If circular at base,
they may be conical or thimble-shaped in form, not in-
frequently being built so that they are largest above the
middle, as this will shed water from the base. In the
west, they are most commonly rectangular in outline,
higher than broad, and with the top ridge-like or less
commonly rounded.

Well-built stacks are compact and the hay so laid that
it sheds water both on the top and sides. This is difficult
to accomplish with legume hays, so that stacks of these
are frequently covered with grass hay or straw.

To build a good stack requires both knowledge and
experience.

28. Spontaneous combustion.— Under certain con-
ditions hay, especially of legumes, if put in a mow or stack
while still moist, engenders great heat, and in some cases
destructive fires have resulted. Several instances have
been recorded where the center of a mow or stack has
been found entirely charred when opened. Apparently the
only reason that prevented ignition was the absence of air.
There have, however, been a number of well-authenticated
cases where barns have been burned by spontaneous com-
bustion from alfalfa and from crimson clover hay.

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE on

Conditions which cause spontaneous combustion are
not sufficiently well known to warrant any definite state-
ment as to just when hay is sufficiently cured to be safe.
There is apparently always risk unless the hay is thor-
oughly cured.

The problem has been specifically studied by Hoffmann,
in Germany, who experimented especially with red clover
hay. He finds that the heat is generated through a
process of fermentation, probably enzymatic, in which
oxygen is taken from the air and the organic matter is
transformed into carbon dioxide and water. From this
additional moisture a secondary fermentation due to
bacteria takes place. If the hay has external moisture
when first stored, the fermentation is more rapid. The
preliminary fermentation causes a temperature of 56° C.
This temperature causes a second and more violent oxi-
dation to take place and the temperature rises to about
90° C. In further fermentation processes the heat slowly
rises to as high as 130° C., at which temperatures the hay
is charred. From theoretical consideration Hoffmann
figures that the temperature may rise to 190° C. In the
presence of oxygen ignition will take place at 150° C. or
higher. If, however, oxygen be excluded, ignition will not
occur, but the hay will be converted into a mass of charcoal.

29. Statistics of hay yields. — Yields of forage crops
per acre are much less accurately known than those of
grain crops. Reliable data of hay yields are available
mainly in connection with definite experiments. Esti-
mates of farmers upon which statistical and census
data are based are probably too large. It is a difficult
matter to estimate closely a yield of hay, and there is
little chance to become proficient, as hay yields are so
seldom weighed. On the other hand, the farmer sells his

38 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

wheat, barley, or other small grain crop, and puts his corn
into bins or cribs, so that he has every year an approxi-
mately accurate measure to compare with his estimates.

Another factor that leads to exaggeration is the large
unit of measurement employed; namely, the ton of 2000
pounds. The smallest fraction ever used in estimates
is + of a ton.

The farmers’ actual estimates are commonly based
on the wagon load, usually considered as being one ton,
but it is probable that the average wagon load is nearer
three-fourths of a ton.

Only where hay is baled can the yield figures be con-
sidered reliable. Even in this case some allowance for
moisture needs to be made. Well-cured timothy hay con-
tains about 14 per cent of moisture, but as baled in the
field, the water content is usually higher.

Experiment station yields are usually higher than those
obtained by farmers, as experimental plots are as a rule
small, and secure better treatment than farmers’ fields.

30. Brown hay. — When climatic conditions interfere
with the curing of bright hay, the crop may be preserved
as brown hay. In this process the hay is cured largely
by the aid of the heat engendered in fermentation. After
cutting, the grass is made into cocks, trampling each layer
to make it as dense as practicable. In these cocks, the
heat engendered by fermentation may reach the boiling
point of water. The second or third day after cocking,
the piles are opened so as to permit the escape of the vapor,
after which the product may be safely housed.

A more common process is to dry the hay as much as
possible in the air and then pile into compact stacks, where
it is permitted to remain until fed. The final product varies
in color from dark brown to nearly black.

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 39

31. Silage. — Silage is made by the natural fermen-
tation of green fodder in receptacles from which the
access of air is excluded. In some form this process has
been employed over a century. Originally pits in the
earth either lined or unlined were used, and such are
still employed, but in recent times specially constructed
buildings called silos have become common. These may
be built of wood, brick, tile, concrete, or steel. Most
commonly they are cylindrical in form, and much taller
than broad. (Silage is sometimes called ensilage; but this
word is properly a verb meaning to place material in the
silo, or to make silage, as to ensilage corn. The verb-is
sometimes shortened, in the vernacular, to ensile.)

The proper fermentation requires only the exclusion of
air, but practically this is best secured by close packing.
Usually this is promoted by cutting the fodder fine and
often by trampling and the use of weights. The cut
fodder also has the advantage of being more easily re-
moved from the silo when used. The volume decreases as
fermentation proceeds, so provision must be made for even
settling.

The fermentation results in the formation of various
acids and the loss of some substance as gas. While fer-
menting, a considerable degree of heat is engendered.
The fermentation is complete in from two to eight weeks,
but corn silage is as a rule ready for use in four weeks.
In contact with air silage decays, due to the attacks of
fungi and aérobic bacteria.

To provide the necessary conditions silos are con-
structed with air-tight walls smooth on the inside, and
the fodder is cut small so as to pack closely and settle
evenly. In filling a silo, the top should not be left ex-
posed more than a day or two, as decay then ensues.

40 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

When filled, the top should be covered to exclude air.
This was formerly done with a foot or so of earth, the
weight of which assisted the settling. Usually, however,
the top portion is allowed to decay, and it thus makes
a nearly air-tight layer, but sometimes a layer of straw,
chaff or green grass is used to exclude the air so as to
preserve all the silage.

This name “‘ summer silage’? has been given to silage
prepared in late spring or early summer to feed after the
corn silage of the previous season is exhausted. Among
crops that have been thus used are rye, wheat, oats and
red clover. The principal precaution to be taken 1s to
have the silo small enough so that at least 4 inches is
removed a day, as during hot weather silage spoils more
quickly. It is claimed that the use of summer silage is
far more economical than soiling and just as satisfactory,
but few data have as yet been published.

In using silage, the material is generally removed from
the top. About 2 inches per day should be removed,
as otherwise considerable loss occurs from mold.

Silage is sometimes made simply by piling the green
plants in large compact stacks. This method has been
used with sorghum and is sometimes employed by can-
neries to preserve green pea vines from which the peas
have been separated. Such silage stacks are not economi-
cal unless they are very large, as there is always consider-
able loss on the surface.

32. The nature of silage fermentation. — The investi-
gations at the Wisconsin Experiment Station by Babcock,
Russell and King lead to the conclusion that the fermenta-
tion of silage under proper conditions is not due to bacteria
or other organisms, as has generally been held. Among
the facts that are significant are the following : —

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 41

1. Silage may reach its maximum temperature within
twenty-four hours, a period much briefer than occurs
with bacterial fermentation.

2. When silage is fully cured, the further evolution of
gas is small and mainly stationary. If now the silage
be exposed to air, a new fermentation by bacteria and
molds will ensue and cause a rise in temperature far
above the previous anaérobic fermentation.

3. Freshly cut corn in air-tight receptacles treated with
chloroform, ether or benzol to suppress bacteria, never-
theless ferments into silage, though with lower acid content.

4. Freshly cut corn in air-tight receptacles filled with
an inert gas like hydrogen or nitrogen, ferments into
silage more slowly and the final product is more acid.

5. Corn killed by frost will not produce silage, but
untreated, decays into an ill-smelling mass, due to bacteria.
Treated with ether to destroy the bacteria, the frozen
corn retains all the characteristics of green corn.

6. The gas given off during silage fermentation is mainly
carbon dioxide, but in the case of clover silage, also con-
tains hydrogen. Nitrogen is apparently given off in
small quantities in all silage fermentation.

From the above facts, silage fermentation is ascribed
to respiration of the green tissues — probably of an en-
zymatic nature — and not at all due to bacteria or fungi.
In silage exposed to the air fermentation by the latter will
occur, but it is always undesirable and destructive.

33. Advantages of silage. — The preservation of
forage as silage possesses a number of advantages,
especially with coarse plants like corn and sorghum.
Among these advantages are : —

1. Silage preservation saves all of the forage in edible
form. The loss both in preserving and feeding is very small.

42 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

2. Silage is more palatable than dry fodder, and animals
will eat a larger quantity.

3. Silage preservation is not dependent on favorable
weather conditions.

4, Silage requires less space for storage than an equiva-
lent amount of hay or fodder.

5. When corn and especially grain sorghums are pre-
served as silage, the seeds are softened so that they are
thoroughly digested.

While silage is undoubtedly the best way to preserve
corn, sorghum and similar coarse plants, it has not
proven very satisfactory with legumes or hay grasses,
perhaps because proper methods of ensiling these plants
have not been developed. Legumes mixed with corn or
sorghum are very satisfactory, but when ensiled alone,
the product seems frequently to be ill-smelling and un-
palatable. A more satisfactory method of ensiling grasses
and clovers is a desideratum for regions where hay curing
is difficult.

34. Crops adapted to ensiling. — Corn is the principal
American crop preserved as silage, and constitutes
probably more than 90 per cent of the total amount.
The sorghums, both saccharine and non-saccharine, are
also very satisfactory, and apparently not inferior to
corn. Japanese sugar cane has given excellent results
at the Florida Experiment Station.

Meadow grasses and small grains are not much used
for silage in America. They are, however, thus preserved
in western Oregon and western Washington as well as in
Europe. Georgeson reports the successful ensiling of
beach lyme grass (Elymus mollis) at the Alaska Experi-
ment Station. The silage kept well and made satis-
factory feed for oxen. Millets have been preserved satis-
factorily as silage at several experiment stations.

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 43

Legumes alone have not proven altogether satisfactory
as silage. Red clover in some experiments has yielded
a palatable product, in others rank flavored and not
relished by cattle. At the Colorado Experiment Station
alfalfa yielded a silage that was readily eaten by dairy
cattle. Cowpeas made good silage at the Georgia
and Delaware Experiment Stations; while both hairy
vetch and soybeans produced well-flavored and aromatic
silage at the Vermont Experiment Station. Soybeans
alone made good silage at the New Jersey Experiment
Station. Lloyd reports that in Ohio sweet clover has been
used with good results. One reason for failures with
ensilaged legumes is probably their higher water content,
as pointed out by several investigators. On this account
such crops should be allowed to become as mature as
practicable before ensiling.

Mixtures of corn and legumes such as cowpeas or soy-
beans make excellent silage. In Ontario sunflower heads
are often mixed in corn silage. The Vermont Experi-
ment Station tested the Robertson silage mixture ; namely,
corn, horse beans and sunflower heads, but the cows did
not eat it quite as readily as pure corn silage.

Peas and oats and vetch and oats both proved very
satisfactory at the Vermont Experiment Station.

Sugar beet pulp, a refuse from beet sugar factories,
also makes a palatable silage.

35. Soiling or soilage. — Soiling is stall feeding with
green fodder. This method of feeding is far more common
in Europe than in America. It obviates the necessity
of curing much of the forage, and the loss that accompanies
the process. For dairy cows, at least, it gives better
returns than the feeding of an equivalent amount of dry
hay. On the other hand, it has certain disadvantages,

44 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

particularly the cutting and hauling of small areas of green
feed every day, regardless of weather conditions, —in this
way not being economicalin the use of labor and machinery.

Soiling is well adapted mainly to the feeding of dairy
cows, and is practically the only way to utilize certain
crops, such as thousand-headed kale and spineless cactus.
For short periods of time — especially in the absence or
scarcity of other feed — soiling is often utilized by dairy-
men.

In the tropics, soiling is the common method of feeding
roughage, not only to cattle, but to city horses. This is
especially the case where labor is cheap, and humid con-
ditions prevent the curing of hay. Grasses of various
kinds are cut green, tied into bundles and thus marketed
fresh each day. Among the grasses thus commonly used
for horses are Guinea-grass, Para-grass, and Bermuda-grass.
In the Philippine Islands, Bareet grass (Homalocenchrus
hexandrus) is extensively cultivated about the towns for
this purpose.

Soiling such crops as millet, kale, sorghum, etc., is
usually preferable to pasturing, at least for cattle. The
latter method occasions much loss by trampling, and
expense for temporary or permanent fences. On the
other hand, soiling involves the expense of cutting and
hauling green feed daily, and the planning of a succession
of crops so that each will be ready when needed in ample
quantity. On these accounts soiling is seldom used in
America except to tide over a temporary shortage of feed.
Instead of soiling, the practice is growing of feeding silage
the whole year, thus securing a succulent feed and avoid-
ing the difficulties involved in soiling.

36. Soiling systems. — A succession of crops to provide
green feed for a season or for a portion of a season is called

PRESERVATION OF FORAGE 45

a sotling system. To plan such a succession of crops
requires accurate knowledge of the time required for each
crop to reach its growth, the length of time it may be fed
and also the average yield to be expected, so that the
proper area to be planted can be accurately determined.

Annuals are more convenient to use in soiling systems
than perennials because plantings of the same crop can
be made at successive dates, and its feeding period thus
extended over several weeks’ time. Furthermore, the land
becomes at once available for other plantings. While
perennials are often utilized in soiling systems, such are
seldom planted for this purpose alone, as it is rarely econ-
omy to plant them in an area as small as would be required.

Soiling systems for the whole growing season have been
devised at several experiment stations, a few examples
of which are here given :—

SoILING SYSTEM RECOMMENDED BY PHELPS FOR CONNECTICUT

Crop TIME or SEEDING TIME OF FEEDING
eyes. ee a ar. fp Sept. 1 | May 10 —20
Wek a Sept. 5-10 May 20-June 5
ed clover . 3 i. « July 20-30 June 5- is)
Grass BERS Gon oe ee June 15— 25
Oats and peas... . April 10 | June 25—July 10
Oats and peas... . April 20 | July 10- 20
Oats and peas . .. . April 30 July 20-Aug. 1
Clover rowen . . =. °. . | Aug. 1- 10
Hungarian millet . .-. June 10 Aug. 10- 20
Cowpeas hy ee ol UNE. ao) Sept. 5- 20
Grass rowen os | Sept. 20— 30
Barley and peas... . Aug. 5-10 | Oct. 1- 30

At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the following
data were secured on the date of planting and yields of
various soiling crops :—

46 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

YIELD PER ACRE

DATE OF DATE OF Air-

Crop SOWING HARVESTING Green dried

A sub-
stance Siacie

Flat peas .. June 17—June 28] 10,004 | 1861

Peas and oats May 5 June 29-July 11] 27,671 | 3929
Peas and oats May 16 July 12-—July 22) 18,137 | 2938
Peas and oats May 21 July 22—July 25) 22,773 | 3120
Peas and barley | May 21 July 26-Aug. 2) 19,415 | 3436
Flat peas. . Aug. 3-Aug. 12} 11,782] 2344
Clover silage
Cowpeas and
milo maize June 11-29| Aug. 29-Sept. 6) 18,083 | 3707
Black cowpeas | June 25 Sept. 7—-Sept. 22) 18,251 | 3705

Red Ripper cow-
peas . . .|Jumne 25 Sept. 22-Sept. 25} 11,117 | 2590

The flat peas are, however, not recommended on account
of difficulty of establishing the crop, unpalatability and
possible danger of tainting the milk. Rape, too, is not
recommended because not very palatable and likely to
taint the milk.

On the basis of these and other data the station suggests
the following soiling system : —

So1Linc SysTEM FOR TEN Cows
Based on Data obtained at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station

Crop AREA WHEN TO BE FED

Rye. 1 acre | May 15-June 1
Alfalfa : 2 acres |June 1—June 12
Clover and timothy 2 acre | June 12—June 24
Peas and oats . 1 acre | June 24—July 15
Alfalfa (2d crop) .| 2 acres | July 15—Aug. 11
Sorghum and cowpeas (after rye) 2 acre | Aug. 1l—Aug. 28
Cowpeas (after peas and oats) 1 acre | Aug. 28-Sept. 30

CHAPTER III

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS

THE number of species of plants which the domesticated
animals or their wild ancestors devour for food is very
large. While comparatively few of these meet the needs
of profitable agriculture, yet over 100 species are more or
less utilized, while many others have been tested in an ex-
perimental way. There is thus presented to the agricul-
turist the problem of determining which of many possible
forage plants is the most satisfactory to grow under given
conditions.

37. What determines the choice of a forage crop. —
The extent to which a forage crop is grown in any par-
ticular region or for any particular purpose is correlated
with a number of considerations. Among these the follow-
ing are important : —

1. Purpose for which grown; namely, hay, fodder,
silage or soiling.

2. Adaptation to the conditions of climate, soil and
culture in rotations.

one vaeld.

Cost of seeding per acre.

Kase of harvesting and curing.
Time of harvesting.

Feeding value.

Demands or prejudices of the user.
47

Oe ae ae

48 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

If the forage is grown to sell, the last consideration is
often the controlling factor. It is usually easy to deter-
mine the characteristics of several forage crops as regards
each point compared. It is sometimes, however, difficult
to ascertain why, on the whole, one crop is preferred to
another closely comparable.

38. Special purposes for which forage crops are grown.
—- Forage crops may thus be classified, as regards the
purposes for which they are grown : —

1. Long-lived meadows, for hay; such as timothy,
alfalfa, brome-grass, redtop, etc.

2. Annual hay crops; such as crimson clover, millet,
cowpeas, rye, etc., often sown as “‘ catch ”’ crops.

3. Coarse grasses for silage or fodder; such as corn,
sorghum, pearl millet and Japanese sugar-cane.

4. Permanent pastures, for which are used Kentucky
blue-grass, white clover, Bermuda-grass and various more
or less complex mixtures.

5. Temporary pastures, using such plants as rye,
wheat, crimson clover, cowpeas, Italian rye-grass and
others.

6. Soiling crops, often planted in succession so as to give
green feeds during definite periods.

It is obvious that most forage crops utilized for one
of the above purposes are usually not well fitted for other
purposes.

39. Adaptation to conditions. — Different forage crops
are adapted to widely different conditions of climate,
and this factor usually closely limits the area in which
each can be profitably grown. Sometimes market con-
siderations lead to the growing of a crop under conditions
which are not very favorable, as timothy in the South
and alfalfa on unsuitable soil types in the Hast. While

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 49

alfalfa and red clover both do well in some places, the
latter is much better fitted for use in short rotations.

40. Yields per acre.— The yielding capacities of various
hay grasses and other closely comparable forage crops
have been tested at various experiment stations. In
comparatively few places, however, have such experi-
ments been adequate to reach clear conclusions. Some
of the experiment station results are shown in the accom-
panying table. Usually yield per acre is the most im-
portant single characteristic upon which the popularity
of a good forage crop depends. In some areas, and under
certain conditions, a particular forage crop will so far out-
yield all others that there is practically no choice. Thus
alfalfa is by far the heaviest yielding hay crop for the
irrigated lands of the West, and sorghum usually gives far
larger returns than any other comparable crop on much
of the dry land area.

Kuropean yields that.are commonly quoted are often
based on very small plots, necessitating multiplication by
a large factor to secure the acre yield. Thus the English
yields reported by Sinclair were usually based on weighing
the grass and hay from an area two feet square; and
those of Vianne in France on areas little if any larger.

Some yields reported by American experiment. sta-
tions are also based on very small plots. While these
as a rule give results that can hardly be secured on larger
plantings, yet they do give comparable values. In the
accompanying table, the hay grasses are arranged in the
approximate order of their importance. It will be noticed
that this order is in many cases not consistent with their
yielding capacities. It is questionable, however, if the
results at any one experiment station are sufficiently ex-

haustive to admit of a definite conclusion : —
E

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

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—— — == 611 LGLP GOT GPO =—= == OF
C6G OFSS = = —— aS ey == ‘OE
PLE FoS6 me ———— ——— =. —— ———- — = GG
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€0¢ OFS, SPT SIGG CGS IGSE 6L1 GS9G 9GG PPSs “CT
SS6 PSS6 —- OG6F LS6P CSG 6686 T&g GS6E OL
= = FIE LGES L6G OSPF —= = etd
—— ara games = oy COG 9GGG = os G
‘qT ‘qT ‘qT oo kal ola GGT. Poh nC Gh Oot ‘dT ‘uy
IOVEM ae 1948 MA Sy I9ZB AA at 1978 MA a 1078 MA
gue | rion | 2ST | revo | Se IUL | foo | SGI | fosor, | ISH | CL | senony wx
UaLVAA AO
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VATVATY SSVUD-FAY NVITVIT SSVUD-ANOU SSVUD-dUVHOUYD AHLOWNIYT,

uorye{G JUOTULIOdxXY FRI,

UaLVv AA sO SAILILNVO”Y) LINGYATHICG] HLIM SdOUl) LNAUNAMMIG dO AVA AO ATHIA

52 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

41. Yields under irrigation. — Under irrigation in the
Western States no other hay plant will produce such
high yields as alfalfa. The most extensive investigations
comparing different hay crops under irrigation have been
conducted at the Utah Experiment Station. Up to a
certain maximum, the yields tend to increase with the
amount of water applied, but the highest return per inch
of water is secured with the smallest applications. See
table, p. 51. .

42. Cost of seeding. — The cost of seeding per acre
is in some cases a reason for preference where choice is
possible, as is shown in the following table. The prices
given are New York wholesale prices in January, 1914 : —

Cost oF SEED PER ACRE, USING AVERAGE AMOUNT

Cost oF Cost oF
PLANT ee ee Bae eat
Pounds Cents $

Timothy -<st. %. & &@ =o." 15 64 975
Orchard-erass<5. =. s. %. x 20 15 3.00
Redtop.«° 4 «= <) . 2 #2] 10 10 1.00
Bromé-erass . .. 0 4 «3 20 10 2.00
Kentucky blue-grass . . . 25 14 3.90
Italian rye-grass . . . . | 30 5 1.50
Perennial rye-grass . . ... 30 i) 1.50
Talbioat-orass«. «4 t-4 30 14 4.20
Praliiesevicn. 5 « & "2% 20 18 3.60
Meadow fescue . ... . 20 11 2.20
Redivelovers, =. 205.92 Sa. 8 17, 1.36
Alsike clover... ... . 12 20 2.40
ANUP AES iets. oe, Bo Segue’ vei es 20 15 3.00
Sweet clover . .... . 25 20 5.00

The cost of some of these seeds would be much reduced
if the demand for them were greater.

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 53

In the case of many grasses the high cost of the seeds is
more due to small demand than to high cost of production.

43. Time of harvesting. — The time of harvesting some
hay plants is much earlier than that of others. Further-
more, some hay plants must be promptly harvested at
a certain stage, or otherwise the crop deteriorates, and
in some cases the subsequent growth is affected. It is
obviously unsatisfactory to have the haying season come
at a time when other farm work is pressing. It is even
more so if the crop is one that must be cut during a very
brief period, as both unfavorable weather and press of
other work may interfere. Timothy remains in good
condition to cut much longer than most grasses. Alfalfa
with its frequent cuttings often comes into conflict with
other farm operations.

44. Ease of harvesting and curing. — This factor is
important mainly in determining the choice between
forages of approximately equal yields. Corn is preferred
to sorghum partly because it deteriorates less easily,
partly because sorghums are considered ‘‘ hard on the land.”
Timothy is preferred over other similar grasses partly
because its mowing season extends over a period of two
or three weeks, thus permitting a better chance of good
curing weather. Alfalfa is handicapped in humid regions
by the necessity of prompt cutting when mature, and the
difficulty of curing. Cowpeas are notoriously difficult to
harvest and cure, and partly for this reason soybeans are
becoming more popular.

45. Demands or prejudices of the user. — Where hay
is grown to market, the demand or prejudice of the user
is frequently the principal factor that determines the crop
to be grown. Such market prejudices are the result of
long-established experience or custom, and even where
erroneous, are changed only with great difficulty.

54 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In most American cities, the market is strongly prej-
udiced in favor of timothy hay as horse feed, so that any
other sort of grass hay commands a smaller price. In
Europe, on the contrary, Italian rye-grass furnishes the
popular market hay, though timothy apparently grows
quite as well in Europe as in America.

Cattle feeders in the West favor alfalfa greatly, and
are willing to pay considerably more for alfalfa hay than
for any other.

In the region where Kentucky blue-grass does well it is
almost the only grass sown for permanent pastures.
European farmers do not regard it nearly so highly, and
in their practice usually plant more or less complex
mixtures of grass seeds for pasture.

46. Feeding values.— The problem of determining
the relative values of roughages for feeding purposes 1s
involved and difficult. Three general methods have been
employed, namely : —

1. Direct feeding experiments in which the value of
the compared feeds is determined by the results secured,
whether in milk, flesh, wool, labor, ete.

2. Determination by chemical analyses of the nutrient
substances contained in the feed, and the proportion di-
gested by the animal, the latter constituting the digestible
nutrients.

3. Determination of the net energy of a feed; namely,
that available to the production of milk, flesh and the
like.

47. Feeding experiments. — Simple feeding experi-
ments may be planned so that two single feeds may be
directly compared with each other or both may be com-
pared to a third taken as a standard. To secure reliable
results in feeding experiments, both care and skill are

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 55

required. Broadly speaking, the reliability of the results
will depend upon the uniformity of the animals as to size,
sex, age, used in the experiment; upon the number of
individuals used; and upon the length of time the ex-
periment continues.

But few experiments in which two roughages have been
compared fulfill the above requirements, but the results
secured in American experiments with grass or legume
hays are cited in connection with the feeding value of each
particular hay.

Perhaps the most extensive data from direct feeding
trials are those secured in Denmark and Sweden in con-
nection with the feeding of dairy cows. In these trials
the standard of value or feed unit is one pound of dry
matter in corn, wheat, barley, palm-nut meal or roots,
with which the value of other feeds as determined by
actual feeding is compared.

The results thus far reached lead to the conclusion
that for milk production there is required to equal 1 feed
unit 2 to 3 (average 2.5) pounds hay; 6 to 10 (average 8)
pounds silage, green clover or mixed green grasses; 8 to
12 (average 10) pounds mangels, rutabagas and carrots;
10 to 15 (average 12.5) pounds turnips; 12 to 18 (average
15) pounds beet leaves.

Woll has determined tentatively that the following
amounts of American feeds probably equal 1 feed unit;
namely, 1.5 to 3 (average 2) pounds alfalfa or mixed hay,
oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay or redtop
hay; 2.5 to 3.5 (average 3) pounds timothy hay, prairie
hay or sorghum hay; 3.5 to 6 (average 4.2) pounds corn
stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay or cut straw.

It by no means follows that the relative value of these
feeds for dairy cows represents their respective value for

56 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

other animals, for which separate feeding trials would
need to be conducted.

48. Chemical analyses. — Chemical analyses of feeds
usually consider the dry matter as made up of crude
protein, that is, the nitrogen multiplied by 6.25; ether
extract, sometimes called fat, the materials soluble in ether
and consisting of fats, resins, chlorophyll and other
substances; ash, the mineral matters that remain after
incineration of a sample; crude fiber, the portion that
remains undissolved after boiling successively in a weak
acid and a weak alkali under standard conditions; and
nitrogen-free extract, the remaining matter after the above
are subtracted, and consisting mainly of starches and
sugars. In recent years part of the nitrogen-free extract
has been determined as pentosans, while the remainder
has been called undetermined.

Chemical analyses of the same plant species may vary
greatly, depending on the soil in which the plant grew,
the stage when cut, the amount of irrigation water applied
or the presence of fungous disease. Indeed, any factor
which affects the growth of the plant also affects its
composition.

In different American analyses of timothy hay the
protein content varies from 3.75 to 9.69 per cent, and in
European analyses from 4.7 to 10.8 per cent; the ether
extract from .97 to 3.98 per cent in American and 1.1 to
3.8 per cent in European analyses.

Chemical analyses can in no sense replace feeding ex-
periments in determining feeding values. With a new
forage plant a chemical analysis can throw no light on
palatability, digestibility or physiological effect.

49. Chemical composition as affected by soil fertility
and by fertilizers. — Extensive experiments on the effect

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS at

of fertilizers on the protein content of grasses were con-
ducted at the Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station.
In every case the protein content of the grass was greater
when nitrogen was applied in fertilizers than when it was
not. In general, the protein content of the grass increased
with the amount of nitrogen applied as fertilizer. The
results of 73 experiments are summarized in the following
table : —

TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF PROTEIN IN TIMOTHY AND
OTHER GRASSES AS RELATED TO FERTILIZERS APPLIED

RESULTS OF ANALYSES SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN NITROGEN APPLIED IN
FERTILIZERS AND Protein (N. x 6.25) FOUND IN RESULTING CROPS

: Mixed Mixed Mixed
No, of ex- |and-potash | 2mpszalp | minerals | minerals
periments Piso ot nitrogen nitrogen nitrogen
per acre per acre per acre
J % %
Mixed grasses 5 (acm 8.8 9.8
Orchard-grass 2 8.9 — 12.6
Timothy 2 rere — 10.6
Redtop , 3 — 1 War
7 other pure
grasses vs 2.

At the New York Experiment Station in 1887, fertilizing
plots of timothy and Italian rye-grass did not indicate
any definite effect upon the protein composition, ap-
parently because there was already ample nitrogen in the
soll. The experiment was repeated in 1888, and in every
case where nitrogen fertilizers were added the proteid
content of the timothy was increased.

Similar work has been conducted at other experiment

1TIncluded more clover than other plots.

58 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

stations and much along the same line in Europe. There
remains no doubt that the chemical content of plants is
directly influenced by the soil, and that other things being
equal the richest feed, especially of grasses, is that grown
on the most fertile soil.

50. Chemical composition as affected by stage of
maturity. — The variation in chemical composition de-
pending on stage of development has been studied in many
plants by many investigators.

The results secured in 1890 by Stone at the New Hamp-
shire Experiment Station are here cited :—

TimotHy — CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AS AFFECTED BY TIME
oF HARVESTING

ee

Aan PRo- N.-FREE

WATE
LE TEIN FIBER EXTRACT

Average height of

plants 8 inches . ./| 4.33 | 5.16 | 11.54) 19.23) 54.64 | 5.10
Heads appearing -: ./| 5.85 | 6.19 | 9.14) 24.28) 50.71 | 3.83
Heads beginning to

bloom ; . | 5.35: | 5.47 | 7.00]. 26:09) 53:66) 22-43
Heads in full bloom =| Oya! Orel 6.81) 26.60) Si-S8a) 22:53
Seed forming. .| 7.37 |-5.03-| 5.81) 26.86) 52.2371 2570

5.03 | 6.25) 2610) S2:saueoeo

Seed becoming har d, oon

51. Variation in chemical composition from unascer-
tained causes. — In any series of chemical analyses of a
hay plant such as timothy there is a wide variation shown
in the amount of each constituent.

The following table shows the average and extremes
for each constituent in the 68 American analyses of timothy
compiled by Jenkins and Winton and 29 European analyses
compiled by Stebler and Volkart : —

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 59

ANALYSES OF TimoTHy Hay

} PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
No. oF ier, N.-free |

CHEMICAL ANALYSES NEN Water| Ash _ | Protein) Fiber | etraet Fat
American : — | |

Average . .| 68 | 13.18] 4.87 | 5.87} 29.03} 45.08 | 2.47

Minimum . 6.12).2350 |) 3.10) 22-20) 34:27 | 20.07

Maximum . 28.88] 6.34 9.69) 38.46) 58.52 | 3.98
Kuropean : —

Average . .| 29 | 14.3 | 5.0 6.9 | 26.2 | 45.0 2.6

Minimum. . Osa AS} t3s0 | 364s) SLA

Maximum. . | 1s 10:8 | 37.5. | 50.6 3.8

52. Digestible nutrients. — To determine the digestible
nutrients of a feed, it is fed to an animal under test con-
ditions and the voided matter in the feces is then analyzed.
The difference is tne digestible portion, which is usually
expressed as a percentage of the whole, and is called
the coefficient of digestibility. The coefficient of digestibil-
ity varies considerably. It is affected more or less —

1. By the kind of animal employed, especially the horse
as compared to ruminants ;

2. By the individuality of the animal ;

3. By the stage of development of the plant when cut,
young plants being more digestible ;

4. By the age of the feed, fresh being better than old;

5. By fine cutting of the feed in some cases ;

6. Sometimes by other feeds in the ration ;

Digestibility is not appreciably affected by drying,
moistening or cooking.

In thus comparing the different feeds it is assumed
that the digestible portions of the protein, carbohydrates,

60 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

fats, and fiber in different plants are each of equal nutritive
value, although they differ considerably in actual composi-
tion, and as is now known, in actual feeding value. The
method of digestible nutrients requires much less time and
expense than the direct method of actual feeding, but
the results are less reliable. In the absence of actual
feeding experiments, however, it furnishes an approxi-
mation of the feeding value of the substance in question.

The feeding value of a substance of which only a chemi-
cal analysis is available may be conjectured by assuming
that the coefficient of digestibility is the same as that of
some similar feed.

In the accompanying table is shown the amount of
digestible nutrients in four grass hays, four legume hays,
and two concentrates :—

TABLE SHOWING PouNDs oF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN
100 Pounps Dry Marrer. (HENRY)

KIND oF FEED PROTEIN pe eee Se
Johnson-orass <i: % = subs 2.9 45.6 0.8
MMGO GIy 4, se ee eek oe 42.4 i
Redtop L wi. ht 1 ate ee 4.8 46.9 1.0
Bermuda <« 206. % Cay Me 6.4 44.9 1.6
edsclover’ : o> 5° th. ee Gad Fel 37.8 1.8
Grimsoniclover <... sa. 4 LOS 34.9 eZ
Sweet clover. ..-. do. «ae £19 36.7 0.5
PNA Wig ge ol eB. i es 11.4 40.0 0.8
Bran : dae EO i ae 11:9 42.0 2.5
Shelledseorm 4 -. .. -*. 6) 7.8 66.8 4.3

Attempts have often been made to determine the rela-
tive value of a feed in a single term by assigning a defi-
nite value per pound to the protein, the fat, the carbo-

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 61

hydrates and the fiber digested. No matter what value
is assigned to each of these constituents, the results secured
vary considerably from the market prices. Nevertheless,
the price of protein feeds is based to some extent on their
protein content.

TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE Monty VALUE OF VARIOUS
FEEDS, DETERMINED BY ASSUMING VALUES TO EACH DIGEST-
IBLE NUTRIENT

PROTEIN $.037| - - - $.04|---$.04 |---$.025 --- $.03
Kind oF FEED Carpouy. .014/--- .O1/--- .0125|/--- .01. |--- 01
Far 032) --- .02|--- 02 /--- .0225/--- 02
Grass hay : —
Johnson-grass .| $15.04 ($11.76 | $14.04 $10.93 | $11.18
imothy . . —. 14.89 124. 13.36), 10.49 |) 10.70
Redtop. . . . aes | 13.42 15.76) 12:19) 12.66
Bermuda. 4 18.59 14.74| 16.98) 12.90] 13.46
Average value
per ton, = 16.53 12.79} 15.04; 11.63} 12.00
Legume hay : —
Red clover . .| 19.27 13.96 | 15.86| 11.92) 12.54
Crimson clover .| 18.31 15.86 | 17.66] 12.77| 13.76
Sweet clover . . | 19.88 17.06 | 18.90! 13.52] 14.68
pNP gi ay Se | 19.99 | 16.94] 18.90; 13.64| 14.72
Average value
perton ... 1936, |) 15.96.) 17,383) 12.7644 43.93
Concentrates : —
Bran ned 22.65 | 18.92| 21.02) 15.48| 16.54
Shelled corn . .| 27.54 | 21.32} 24.68) 19.35] 19.76

Gluten feed . .| 35.31 | 30.76] 33.40] 21.42] 26.50
Cottonseed meal | 41.46 | 35.74) 35:82| 27.54| 27.22
Average value
per tony V : 31.74. 26.641. 25.73'|,. 20,95) 22:51

In the above table the values of various feeds has
been figured in terms of money by determining the average

or

62 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

values of the digestible proteins, carbohydrates and fat
a pound in timothy taken at $15 a ton, bran at $27.60
a ton, gluten feed at $80 a ton, cottonseed meal
at $32 a ton, and alfalfa at $20 a ton. By comparing
timothy with each of the others in order the value of
the carbohydrates is determined respectively as $.012,
$.015, $.014 and $.014 a pound, an average of $.014.
The respective values for the protein are $.066, $.025, $.025
and $.041 a pound,—an average of $.039. The average
value of the fat similarly determined is $.032 a pound.

In the other four columns of the table arbitrary values
are given to the nutrients for comparison.

In a general way the figures show correspondence to
market value. How nearly they may represent the true
relative values of the feeds does not appear in the light of
present knowledge.

53. Net energy values. — The energy value of a feed is
determined by an instrument called a calorimeter, and
is measured in therms of 1000 calories. A calorie is the
amount of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1
degree Centigrade.

The net energy value of a feed is that which remains
after deducting from its total energy value that lost in the
feces, in the urine, in gases and in the work of mastication,
digestion and assimilation. The loss in gases and in the
labor of assimilating the feed is measured by keeping the
animal in a special apparatus — the respiration calorim-
eter.

From investigations conducted at the Pennsylvania
Experiment Station, Dr. H. P. Armsby has determined
the net energy values for a number of roughages as well
as concentrates. The energy values of the roughage
feeds are shown in the following table : —

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS 63

ENERGY VALUE OF ROUGHAGE IN 100 Pounps

Tose Dae DIGESTIBLE NET
FEEDING STUFF TRUE ENERGY
MATTER PROTEIN VALUE
Pounds Pounds Therms
Green fodder and silage : —
Jt hh a nn 28.2 2.50 12.45
Clover, crimson ... . 19.1 219 11.30
Clover, red 4 eee} ry 29.2 Zeal Tony
Corn fodder, ereen ee 20.0 Al 12.44
Corn silage a ee eee 20-6" - 88 16.56
Hungarian grass . . ... 28.9 1.33 14.76
TRAC ee ak ow 6k 7S 14.3 2.16 11.43
UNC T Oia 5%. 5 ey wey & 8 23.4 1.44 11.63
Mmothy . : 38.4 1.04 _ 19.08
Hay and dry coarse fodders : —
Alfalfa hay S 4 4: eee 91.6 6.93 34.41
Clover hay,red . . ; 84.7 5.41 34.74
Corn forage, field cur ed : bY Pe, 2.13 30.53
Corn stover . .. . . 59.5 1.80 26.53
Cowpea hay .... . 89.3 8.0% 40.76
Hungarian hay... . 92.3 3.00 44.03
Oat hay ae eer ae eee 84.0 2.59 26.97
Soybean hay .... . 88.7 7.68 38.65
mimotuy Hay .<4 <. <A « 86.8 2.05 33.56
Straws :—
Oatistraw 3 .« <« «6 4 90.8 1.09 21.21
yestraw... . . + «9. 92.9 .63 20.87
Wheat-straw .... . 90.4 wot 16.56
Roots and tubers :—
Carrots . . ‘a ae 11.4 so, 7.82
Mangel-wur zels er ee 9.1 14 4.62
Potatoes an ae we PA AD5 18.05
Ritabagas . os %e Ss 11.4 88 8.00
PUENDOSs es Be eG eG 9.4 22, 5.74

These values have been secured wholly from experi-
ments on fattening cattle.

‘Even for this purpose many of them are confessedly approxi-
mate estimates, and still less can they be regarded as strictly

64 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

accurate for other kinds of animals and other purposes of feeding.
Nevertheless, there seems to be reason for believing that they also
represent fairly well the relative values of feeding stuffs for sheep
at least, and probably for horses, and for growth and milk pro-
duction as well as for fattening. At any rate, there can be little
doubt that they are decidedly more accurate than the figures
which have been commonly used, and we are quite justified in
using them tentatively and subject to correction by the results

of later experiments.

‘“As regards swine, the matter is far less certain, and it may
perhaps be questioned whether the values given in the table are
any more satisfactory for this animal than the older ones.”’

54. Starch values. — The unit of this system proposed
by Kellner is one pound of digestible starch for beef pro-
duction. Kellner found that one pound of digestible
starch in excess to a maintenance ration would form ap-
proximately one-fourth pound ‘of fat. On this basis
1 pound of digestible protein is equal to .94 pound of
digestible starch, and 1 pound of oil in seeds equals 2.41
pounds of digestible starch in fattening value.

These values are in excess of what the animal actually
gets from the feed, so that arbitrary deductions have to be
made to compensate for the work of mastication and
digestion.

55. Comparison of feeding values. — Woll has en-
deavored to reduce to a common basis the relative values
of various feeds as determined by the feed unit system, by
Kellner’s starch values and by Armsby’s therms. The
average of the net energy values of corn, wheat, rye, barley
and wheat middlings is approximately 80 therms, which is
considered equal to 1 feed unit. By the same method
83 starch values is equivalent to 1 feed unit. In general,
the corresponding values by the three methods are close,
but there are some marked exceptions : —

CHOICE OF FORAGE CROPS

65

TABLE SHOWING COMPARISON OF THERMS, STARCH VALUES
AND FEED UNITS

Corn

Wheat .

Rye ;

Barley .

Wheat middlings

Cottonseed meal .

Oil meal

Distillers’ grains

Gluten feed

Dried _ brewers’
grains

Peas bh lank

Malt sprouts

Oats ;

Wheat bran :

Sugar beet Eup:
dried :

Alfalfa hay

Timothy hay .

Corn stover

Oat straw

Green alfalfa .

Green corn

Corn silage

Potatoes

Carrot

Turnips

Rutabagas

THERMS (ARMSBY)

88.8
82.6
81.7
80.8
hd
84.2
13.9
79.2
79.3

60.0

| Ratio

lie

= 1.00

ee en aa
— OF

PRWwWwW NNNeEW coos

tN

FEED UNITS

STARCH

VALUES
(KELLNER) Abe Range

74

SO

85 7 831) 1.0 | ——

89

83

83 8 | —

84 9); —

9 Ig | —

9 I); —
i 1.0 | ——

9 1.0 | ——
1.6 1.1 | ——
10 1.1 | ——
1.25 1.1 | ——
1.2 1.1 | ——
1.9 2.0 | 1.5-3.0
2.6 3.0 | 2.5-3.5
3.0 4.0 | 3.0-6.0
3.6 4.0 | 4.0-5.0
Tie ras) 6-8
8.3 8.0 6-10
Git 6.0 o-7
o.2 6.0 4—6
0 8.0 | ——

126 12.5 | 11-15
10.4 9.0 9-10

In figuring the values of the feeds according to the
digestible nutrients, redtop, johnson-grass and Bermuda

1 Assumed average figures.

66 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

are apparently all more valuable than timothy ; and sweet
clover fully as valuable as alfalfa.

If measured by therms, cowpea hay is superior to alfalfa,
and Hungarian-grass to either; while corn stover is
practically as valuable as oat hay.

It may be that the relative values assigned to roughage
based on experience and reflected in market values are as
erroneous as the above data would indicate. It is apparent
that much further work is necessary before there can be
agreement as to the comparative feeding values of rough-
age for different purposes.

CHAPTER IV
SEEDS AND SEEDING

NOTHING is more important than the seeds, as to quality
and name, in the growing of a crop.. The best of land and
preparation and the best effort in tillage may bring small
return if the seed is not good, clean and true to name.

56. Quality. — The quality of seeds depends on various
characteristics, especially genuineness, purity and via-
bility. Other points of more or less importance are age,
size, plumpness, color, weight per bushel, source of
seed and in some cases freedom from insects and such
diseases as smut. Among the legumes the percentage of
hard seeds is also to be considered.

The determination of the actual quality of the seed
requires special knowledge and experience. In the first
place the sample must be representative of the bulk. The
other seeds present either as impurities or adulterants
should be identified to prevent fraud and to avoid intro-
ducing noxious weeds. Finally, many forage seeds —
especially grasses—require much care and _ special
apparatus to secure a fair test of germination.

For these reasons, most forage crop seeds should be
purchased under guarantee, or a sample secured first,
to be referred to a seed laboratory.

57. Genuineness. — By this term is meant the trueness
of the seed to name. As most forage crops do not contain

special varieties, this is readily determined by comparison
67

68 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

with authentic samples. In other crops, however, special
varieties are often indistinguishable by their seeds, so that
one must depend upon the reliability or the guarantee
of the seedsmen. Among forage crops, mammoth and
medium red clover, and Grimm and ordinary alfalfa are
examples of varieties indistinguishable by their seeds.

58. Purity. — By the purity of seed is meant its freedom
from foreign matter, whether trash, chaff, weed seeds
or adulterants. With the exception of perhaps the last-
mentioned, impurities are far more common in forage
crop seeds than in any others. This is due partly to the
fact that most grasses and many legumes are grown
broadcasted, and it is rarely possible to keep the fields
free from weeds. Furthermore, grass seeds as a rule are
light in weight, so that it is difficult to remove chaff, small
pieces of straw and the like.

The impurities that usually occur in each region where
seed is largely grown are well known, so that if any others
are present, it is strong evidence of adulteration.

59. Viability. — The viability of seed or capacity for
germination depends upon many factors, among which
are the conditions of the season when grown, the care
exercised in harvesting and curing, the manner in which
it has been stored, and the age of the seed.

Viability is tested in laboratories by means of special
germinators in which the temperature, moisture, ventila-
tion and light can be controlled. The best temperature
varies somewhat for the different species. For most
grasses the temperatures between 68 degrees and 86
degrees Fahrenheit are considered best, and it is found
advantageous to use the higher temperature 6 hours and
the lower 18 hours each day.

Most kinds of farm seeds may, however, be tested in

SEEDS AND SEEDING 69

very simple germinators, such as in a box of sand, or be-
tween two moist cloths in a covered dish. Grass seeds
are, however, more exacting in the conditions they require
than most other farm seeds, so that misleading results
may easily be secured.

The length of time required by different seeds to ger-
minate also varies widely. With most sorts ten days is
sufficient time to allow, but many grasses require twice
this amount of time.

60. Actual value of seed. — The real or actual value
of seed for sowing can be determined only when its purity
and viability are known. It is the product of the purity
multiplied by the viability, both expressed as percentages.
Thus, if the purity be 90 per cent and the viability 80
per cent, the actual value or percentage of good germinable
seeds is 90 times 80, or 72 per cent. One reason why rates
of seeding recommended by different authorities vary
so widely is due to the difference in the actual value of
the seeds used.

61. Superiority of local seed. — Numerous European
experiments with grasses and clovers show as a rule that
locally grown seeds give superior yields to those brought
from a distance. In the United States this phenomenon
is well known in the case of highly bred crops like corn,
but has obtained little recognition in the case of grasses
and clovers. Results with these crops are particularly
instructive, as they have not been subject to artificial
breeding, and hence the differences they show may fairly
be considered due to natural selection or local adaptation.
With most other crops, the factor of difference in variety
enters the problem.

The amount of evidence on this subject is insufficient
for final conclusions, but it tends to uphold the generaliza-

70 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

tion that seeds grown locally produce superior crops to
those brought from a distance. Theoretically this has
been ascribed to adaptation or acclimatization, usually
with the idea that superiority is attained by the elimina-
tion more or less gradually of the inferior individuals.
Much more experimental data are needed on this subject,
which indeed has been but little investigated in the United
States.

62. Standards of purity and germination. — Attempts
have been made to establish standards of purity and
germination for all farm seeds. There is, however, a con-
siderable variation in the purity of many forage crop
seeds, depending on the place grown, the season and the
care exercised. Furthermore, it is not so much the amount
of the impurity as the character of it which is most im-
portant. Thus, alfalfa seed containing 1 per cent of
dodder seed is less desirable than that containing no
dodder but a larger percentage of other weed seeds. A
few seeds of dangerous weeds like Canada thistle are far
more serious than many seeds of ordinary weeds.

The viability of seed varies not only with its age, but
with the care in handling, and with the season, especially
at harvest time. In some seeds, indeed, the viability
is less when fresh than when one year old. On the whole
there is little choice between 100 pounds of forage seed
germinating 90 per cent and 120 pounds germinating 75
per cent.

While fixed standards of purity and germination are
scarcely practicable, it is well to know what degrees of
purity and germination are found in high grade com-
mercial seed. The average purity and germination found
in the trade is of less consequence, as this is influenced by
the efficiency of legislation and inspection :—

SEEDS AND SEEDING rel

TABLE SHOWING PuRITY AND GERMINATION OF FORAGE SEEDS
oF HicH QUALITY

NAME OF SEED PURITY | GERMINATION
Per cent | Per cent
Kentucky blue-grass . . . . . 75-85 | 70-85
OURy-= 2 ks ew ee ewe 95-99 | 95-99
Orchard-grass . . . .. . . .| 90-98 90-95
Meadow fescue ee 95-99 95-98
Perennial rye-grass . . . . . .) 95 85-90
Italian rye-grass ...... .| 95 80-85
Brome-grass 2 oe ew ew ew ew we |) 98-99 90-95
RedtOp 5. «\« <i .«-» « «| °95-98 95-98
aAEOa=OTASS) Mee Ge ke Sa e 4 2 SO 80
Velvet-grass vee be oe ea 70
Meadow foxtail . . .... .| 47 70
Mallets. a=. es gos Pine. hs fs 4 | 1°99 95
ved GlOVED Sho “ess- Sod ws : 96-99 90-99
White clover... .. . . . 95-99 90-99
Pisike-elover <2 sa es S06 | | 96-99 90-99
Alfalfa Ae MEA A! OR at 2 OU 8=09 90-99
SAMO. ty. Gel eiulse a: & esi ey a 98 75-80
Crimson clover ED Ge on ee oe 99 95-99
lainy: VeUcllh <5 «0 «> 0 a) SS we 2 | 98-99 95-98
Common vetch ae eed 98-99 95-98

63. Adulteration and misbranding.— Seeds are not
infrequently adulterated by the admixture of similar-
looking cheaper seeds. Whenever such inferior seeds are
found present in considerable quantities, it may reasonably
be considered to be due to adulteration. Sometimes one
kind of seed is sold for another which it closely re-
sembles, as trefoil for alfalfa, or Canada blue-grass for
Kentucky blue-grass. Such are usually willful cases of
misbranding.

Adulteration and misbranding of seeds was formerly
much more common, but the practice is by no means

T2 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

obsolete. At one time in Europe particles of quartz
were prepared and colored especially to adulterate
clover seed. In England there was a regular business in
the collecting and killing of weed seeds to be used as
adulterants.

Among the seeds that are still often adulterated are red
clover, alfalfa, alsike, Kentucky blue-grass, orchard-grass,
redtop, meadow fescue and brome-grass.

64. Color and plumpness of seeds. — Depending on
the conditions under which it was grown, there is much
difference in seeds as to brightness of color and degree of
plumpness.

Shriveled seeds make weak seedlings, but no fiz'd experi-
ments where shriveled were compared with plump seeds
seem to be recorded.

Discolored seed is evidence that the seed is old, or has
been badly stored, or more usually that it was harvested
under unfavorable conditions.

65. Age of seed. — Seeds vary greatly in the length
of time they will retain their germinating power. In gen-
eral, the seeds of legumes are much longer lived than those
of grasses. Old seeds make weaker seedlings than fresh
seeds, and this probably has its effect on the resultant yield.

In red clover and other legumes the germination of
fresh seeds is usually less than that of seeds one year old,
owing to the presence of ‘‘ hard ”’ seeds. (§ 71.)

Cowpea seeds, at least some varieties, also refuse to
germinate when fresh unless the testa is broken or scratched
with sand. Apparently there is a waterproof coating
that for a time prevents the absorption of water.

The results obtained during many years at the Ziirich,
Switzerland, Seed Control Station, show that few forage
seeds are worth planting when three years old.

SEEDS AND SEEDING 73

If, however, seeds be stored in small quantities under
very favorable conditions, the viability is retained much
longer than in seed warehouses. Thus Samek secured
the following results :—

VIABILITY OF VARIOUS FORAGE SEEDS STORED IN PAPER Baas
IN A Dry Atry Room puriInG 11 YEars.—J. SAMEK

PERCENTAGE OF VITALITY

KIND oF SEED

Leos aes le |? us 10 | 11

Vie | yas | VE. ovr | YRe| yrs | yr. | ovreeyre |) ate yrs
Red clover . .|90|90| 88 | 84| 74/68 | 44/16/10) 3) 2
White clover . . | 74 |72 | 63 | 52 | 50 | 50 | 35 | 31 | 26 | 23 | 22
masikelelover ; «| 75 \64)51)37\15)| 7| 6).5! 383i 3) 3
Sainfoin 2 3 , (921924 78 | 61 | 54) 5211918 | 13) °9) *
semadeila . . .|36)32)| 33 | 22) 14/11). 9): 6).2).07.0
Alfalfa . . . .|94/911)87/| 75) 72| 71 | 68 | 66 | 63 | 59 | 54
Tall oat-grass . . | 70 | 66 | 59 | 43 | 24;12|)10}) 2) 1/ 0; O
Italian rye-grass_ . | 67 | 62 | 61 | 55 |43|39)29/15/ 8; 4) 1
English rye-grass_ | 72 | 70 | 66 | 60 | 42) 28 | 22; 9) 5] 1) O
Tall fescue . | 83 | 80 | 72 | 68 | 48 | 42) 35/18) 9; 1) O
Sweet vernal-grass | 70 | 62 | 57 | 46 | 48 | 37/31/13] 9); 8| 4
iWeadow toxtal’ .|/T3 tlt | Or 7) 7) o&): Sy Fi <1 iy OU
Timothy . . ./|95|90/|90/88| 86/79 /|66/39|)15/ 1)| O
Orchard-grass ._ . | 46 | 47 | 44 44 | 39 | 29|21|}12/ 8| 5) *
Blie-erass . .. .| 2817/17) 17/16) 11) 8) S| 2) 0] 0
Crested dogstail . | 46 | 39 | 33 |29|20/;12|) 6; 3} 2| 1] O
Fiorin . . . .|66/61 | 46 | 43 | 37 | 35 | 34] 31 | 22 | 20) *
Sheep fescue . ./|68/|67|68|42/21/)18/10] 4] 3 | 0| 0
hMaireordss.. es 2/o0)2¢ | 21) 17) 2310) O10 OO
Spurry . . . .|85| 70/68 | 59 | 46 | 42 | 37 | 25) 21 | 8} 2

* No seeds for examination, all having been used up in previous years.

66. Source of seeds. — The place in which seed is
grown may have an important effect upon the resulting
plant. This is particularly true in the case of highly
bred plants like corn, but it is also true of crops which

74 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

have never been improved by artificial selection. As a
general rule, locally grown seed is likely to be most satis-
factory, but this is by no means always the case. The
reasons for this phenomenon are not clear, but it is com-
monly believed that all plants become better adapted to
the conditions of culture, or the climate and soil of the
region in which they are grown a long time, by the gradual
elimination of such individuals as do not thrive. |

In North America the seeds of most forage crops are
grown in the same general region in which they are cul-
tivated, but the exceptions occur to this in case of alfalfa,
vetches and many grasses of minor importance. In
Europe, on the contrary, there is a relatively much greater
importation of grass and legume seeds from foreign sources,
so that much experimentation has been devoted to deter-
mining their relative crop-bearing capacities.

It is usually possible to determine the origin of any lot
of forage crop seed by the presence of characteristic weed
seeds. Thus, if orchard-grass is found to contain seeds
of Lepidium virginicum, Panicum dichotomum or Carex
cephalophora, it certainly was grown in North America;
if it contains Danthonia pilosa, Danthonia semiannularis,
Sporobolus indicus, Hypocheris radicata and others, it in-
dicates New Zealand origin. If alfalfa seed contains that
of Grindelia squarrosa, it is probably from the western
United States; while Argemone alba indicates an Argen-
tine origin, and Centaurea picris that it is from Turkestan.

67. Seed inspection. — In recent times the adulteration
and misbranding of seeds is becoming less common, mainly
due to legislation and the official examination of seeds at
special central stations or laboratories. The first of
these was established in 1867 at Tharand, Saxony, by
Nobbe. At the present time such stations are supported

SEEDS AND SEEDING ie

by nearly all of the countries of Europe, there being over
40 in Germany alone.

The first work of this sort in America was inaugurated
by Jenkins at the Connecticut Experiment Station
in 1877. The Seed Laboratory of the United States
Department of Agriculture was established in 1894,
and similar work has been carried on by the Canada
Department of Agriculture since 1903.

At the present time there are legislative provisions in
many states for preventing the adulteration and mis-
branding of seeds.

68. Sampling. — To secure a fair sample from a bag
of seed a small amount should be taken from different
parts of the bag, including the top and the bottom. There
is a tendency for the smaller and heavier seeds to rattle
to the bottom in handling, and for the lighter and larger
seeds to rise toward the top. By mixing the smaller
samples thus contained, a fair sample of the contents of
the bag is obtained.

69. Guaranteed seeds. — The practice of guaranteeing
the purity and germination of seeds has been adopted
by several firms, and is likely to become more general.
This is the fairest and most satisfactory method for the
buyer. In lieu of guarantees, large users of field seeds
frequently purchase on the basis that the delivery shall
be equal in quality to a sample previously submitted.
No matter how stringent future control laws may become,
seeds will continue to vary in quality. In a perfectly
fair transaction both the buyer and the seller should know
the quality of the goods.

70. Fungous diseases. — A few grasses are more or less
subject to the attacks of smut fungi that infect the ovary,
which, when ripe, is converted into a mass of black spores.

76 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In thrashing, these spores are scattered over the seeds,
and thus the young plants become infected. Among the
forage grasses thus subject to smut are the sorghums and
tall oat-grass. Treating the seeds by various different
methods will destroy the spores or prevent them from
germinating in time to infect the young seedlings. Such
methods are commonly used to prevent smut in such
grain crops as wheat, oats and sorghum, and_ probably
would be found efficient in such forage grasses as may be
similarly affected.

71. Hard seeds. — In many legumes some of the seeds
will not absorb water and germinate but remain hard.
The percentage of hard seeds varies with the seasonal or
other conditions under which it was grown. In the same
lot of seed the percentage of hard seed will gradually
diminish with age. Owing to the presence of such seeds,
red clover often shows a higher percentage of viability
when one year old than when fresh.

American seed laboratories usually state the percentage
of hard seeds present in a sample. In Europe the practice
has been to consider a certain per cent of the hard seed
to be viable; namely, that which it is believed will ger-
minate in the soil under favorable conditions.

The actual value of hard seed when sown in the field
needs to be determined for each species. It is certain
that some of it remains unsprouted in the ground at least
a year.

Duvel buried ‘‘ hard” seeds of red clover in porous
earthenware pots at depths of 6-8, 18-22 and 36-42
inches. At the end of 11 months the seeds germinated
respectively 10.5, 15.5 and 14.5 per cent. The hard seed
was selected by soaking seeds one year old in water for
18 hours and then for 20 hours, saving only those that

SEEDS AND SEEDING or

Fic. 6. — Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 1): a, Sand
bur; b, wild oat; c, chess; d, darnel; e, quack-grass; f, dock; g, black
bindweed ; h, Russian thistle; i, corn cockle; j, white campion ; k, blad-
der campion; 1, night-flowering catchfly ; m, cow cockle; n, pennycress ;
o, field peppergrass; p, large-fruited false flax; q, small-fruited false flax ;
r, ball mustard; s, black mustard; t, English charlock.

78 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

remained hard, which was 51.5 per cent of the whole.
In another series of samples from this lot, the percentages
which germinated after 11 months were respectively 4.5,
5 and 6 per cent for the different depths.

If hard seed be scratched so that water can be absorbed
by the embryo, prompt germination results. Recently
machines have been devised for this purpose, but as their
capacity is small, they have been used only in experimental
work.

Another method of making hard seed viable is to soak
the seed in commercial sulfuric acid! for thirty minutes,
and then wash with water to remove the acid. Run-
ning water should be used, if possible, as the mixing of the
acid with water engenders much heat, and if only a small
proportion of water is used, the seeds may be injured by
the heat. The seed, after washing, should be spread out
to dry. The acid corrodes the seed coat sufficiently so
that it no longer is impervious to water.

72. Most dangerous weed seeds. — The percentage of
weed seeds present as impurities, unless very large, is of
less concern than the presence of really dangerous weeds,
even if in very small amount. Among the most dan-
gerous weed seeds are the dodders, which occur in red
clover, alfalfa, lespedeza and rarely in other forage seeds ;
Canada thistle, which is not infrequent in many sorts of
seeds; and quack-grass, which may be present in other
grass seeds. In cases where these weeds cannot be re-
moved by recleaning, it is usually not advisable to plant
the seeds.

73. Weight of seeds. — The weight of seeds to the
bushel varies considerably with the same species, depending

1Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. No. 312.

SEEDS AND SEEDING 79

Fic. 7.— Noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds (No. 2): a, Indian
mustard; b, hare’s-ear mustard; c, tumbling mustard; d, wild carrot;
e, field bindweed; f, flax dodder; g, clover dodder; h, small-seeded
alfalfa dodder; i, field dodder; j, large-seeded alfalfa dodder; k, corn
gromwell; 1, rat-tail plantain; m, buckhorn; n, ragweed; 0, gumweed ;
p, wild sunflower; gq, oxeye-daisy; r, Canada thistle; s, bull thistle ;
t, wild chicory.

80 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

on the conditions of the season or of the locality in which
the seed was grown, and with the amount of chaff or other
impurities which it may contain. In most states a legal
weight to the bushel has been established for each im-
portant kind of seed.

The influence of weight of seed upon resultant yields
is still an open question. With cereals where the same
volume of heavy, light and unseparated seeds have been
sown, the resulting differences obtained have usually been
too small to be significant.

Few experiments of this sort have been carried out with
grasses or clovers. Hunt secured better yields of timothy
at the Cornell Experiment Station with heavy seed, both
when the same weight and the same number of seeds were
sown. At the Utah Experiment Station heavy and light
timothy seeds were separated by means of a salt solution,
but no difference was obtained in the yield of plots
planted to each.

74. Number of seeds in one pound. — The number of
seeds in one pound of different kinds of field seeds has been
determined by several investigators. The figures of dif-
ferent authorities often show wide variation for the same
kind of seed. This may be due in part to the quality of
the seed used, as the weight of a bushel from different
sources or in different seasons may vary greatly. The
subject is not one of much agronomic value, and mainly
on this account has received but little attention. In some
crops like the cowpea, soybean and field pea, the size of
the seeds and the number in a pound vary greatly accord-
ing to variety. In this case it is often preferable to use
the small-seeded varieties for forage production, as less
seed is required to the acre, and the price of the small-
seeded sorts is usually just as cheap.

SEEDS AND SEEDING

81

TABLE SHOWING WEIGHTS OF SEED IN A BUSHEL

LEGAL
WEIGHT
NAME OF SEED MOST
|COMMONLY
| ADOPTED
Pounds
Alfalfa 60
Red clover 60
Alsike clover 60
White clover 60
Crimson clover 60
Kidney vetch
Hairy vetch 60
Common vetch 60
Yellow trefoil :
Bird’s foot trefoil .
Field peas 60
Cowpeas 60
Soybeans 60
Velvet beans
Timothy 45
Orchard-grass 14
Redtop: . . . . . 14
Kentucky blue-grass . 14
Canada blue-grass .
Meadow fescue .
Smooth brome .
Bermuda
Tall oat-grass
Perennial rye-grass
Italian rye-grass 20
Creeping bent
Foxtail 48-50
Millet
Sorghum 56
Johnson-grass 28
Yellow oat-grass
Meadow foxtail
Velvet-grass <

Reed canary-grass .
Sheep’s fescue

Red fescue

Erect brome
Crested dogstail
Sweet vernal

EXTREMES

IN LEGAL
WEIGHTS
ADOPTED

Pounds

48-50

30-57

AVERAGE
WEIGHT
OF ONE
BusHEL

Pounds

EXTREME
WEIGHTS
OF ONE
BUSHEL

Pounds
63
64
66
63

60-64

—E

82 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF SEEDS IN ONE PoUND OF VARIOUS
ForAGE CRops

AUTHORITY
NAME OF PLANT
ee Werner | Hunter Hunt Misc.
182,000 { 200,000
Alfalfa ore 178,000} 224,000 \2 pa
Red clover 279,000} 258,000] 232,000 { 380,000
Alsike clover 707,000} 643,000} 718,000} 700,000
White clover 740,000} 682,000} 732,000} 800,000
Crimson clover 121,000} 118,000 { 32°000
Kidney vetch { 126,000 176,000| 193,000
Yellow trefoil 270,000} 319,000} 325,000
Sainfoin . . . 22,500 22,300 22,500
Bird’s foot trefoil 375,000} 313,000} 412,000
Come (88
Burnet 54,000
Chicory 325,000
Yarrow 3,510,000
Goat’s rue 62,000
Timothy . 1,170,500} 948,000} 1,320,000
Redtop 603,000] 4,000,000 7,800,000 4,135,900
Ill. Exp. Sta.
6,400,000
N.C. Exp. Sta.
Creeping bent 8,000,000
. { 400,000
Orchard-grass 579,500) 400,000} 426,000 1 480,000
Kentucky blue-grass 2,400,000} 2,400,000) 1,860,000} 3,888,000 2,185,000
: Ill. Exp. Sta.
Meadow foxtail 907,000} 465,000} 490,000} 1,216,000
Italian rye-grass 285,000] 260,000} 270,000} 285,000
Perennial rye-grass 336,800) 223,000} 223,000 336,000
Meadow fescue oon 2, 240,000] 236,000] 300,000
Tall fescue 246,000
Sheep’s fescue 680,000} 923,000
Hard fescue . 578,000
Fine-leaved fescue 1,056,000] 1,561,000
Tall oat-grass 159,000} 147,000) 138,000) 159,000
Wood pee ueencass 2,000,000} 2,325,000
Rough-stalke { 2,500,000
meadow-grass | 4,000,000 2,000,000) 2,235,000
Sweet vernal 924,000} 760,000} 738,000) 924,000
Yellow oat-grass 2,045,000} 1,175,000} 1,400,000
Crested dogstail 1,127,000} 678,000} 886,000
Velvet-grass 1,304,000] 1,195,000 1,304,000
Reed canary 660,000} 577,000 660,000
Various-leaved { 350,000
fescue \ 545,000
Red fescue 1 Sea 400,000
Erect brome 114,000} 127,000
Brome is. 137,000
Bermuda-grass . 1,800,000
Foxtail millet 240,000 SeaiaaD

‘

SEEDS AND SEEDING 83

75. Seed production of forage crops, United States,
1909. — The census statistics for the production of grass
seeds including grasses, clovers, millet and alfalfa are
given only in production, as the acreage is wholly or mainly
included under hay and forage. In the case of peas and
beans, however, the acreage and production are both given,
though much of the field peas, cowpeas and sorghums are
cut for hay.

“Grass seed,” including timothy, clovers, millet and
alfalfa, is most largely produced by the following states,
the numbers referring to acres harvested: Illinois, 1,289,-
996; Iowa, 1,118,044; Minnesota, 945,666; Kentucky,
612,406; South Dakota, 424,623; Kansas, 324,321;
Ohio, 288,605; Missouri, 257,872; Indiana, 165,488;
Michigan, 151,567; Oregon, 151,016.

Field pea seed is mostly produced in Michigan and
Wisconsin, but much more is grown in Canada.

Cowpea seed is produced in all the Southern States,
especially Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina.

Sorghum seed is produced most largely by Kansas,
followed by Nebraska, Texas and Oklahoma.

76. Seeding in practice.—In actual practice three
systems of sowing grass seeds may be distinguished ;
namely : (1) seeding on especially prepared land ; (2) seed-
ing with another broadcasted or drilled crop, usually
a small grain either simultaneously or in some cases in
spring on fall-sown grain; and (3) seeding in the rows of
a cultivated crop. In some regions, all three of these
systems prevail. The first system unquestionably gives
the best results as regards the grass crop, but requires
additional labor in preparing the land. Where difficulty
is experienced in securing a good stand of grass, or where
perennial weeds are troublesome, this method should

84. FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

always be employed. The second system is the common
one employed in the sowing of timothy and clover, as well
as other mixtures, the ‘‘ nurse’”’ crop being some small
grain. Most commonly the timothy is sown with fall
wheat and the clover is broadcasted over the field in early
spring as soon as the frost is out of the ground. In the
northernmost states and in Canada, the grass seeds are
sown with a spring crop of small grain.

The ‘‘ nurse crop ”’ system has the advantage of economy
of labor. In fertile farm lands, especially in the north,
it is as a rule very satisfactory. It needs to be clearly
recognized that the grasses succeed not by the help of,
but in spite of, the “‘ nurse crop.” After the grain is
harvested, the slender grass plants which have developed
in the shade of the cereal are then subjected to the heat
of midsummer, and sometimes to drought as well. This
often results in damage to the grass, more serious as a rule
to spring-sown than to fall-sown.

The third system, — namely, sowing the grass seed in
between the rows of a cultivated crop, —4is not widely
employed. Crimson clover is, however, very commonly
sown in corn at the time of the last cultivation, and this
same method has been used successfully with red clover,
alfalfa and with mixed grasses. It has all the advantages
of a small cereal nurse crop without certain disadvantages.
The young grass thrives better because it is less crowded
and less shaded, and practically no injury can accrue from
lodging. In rotation systems, however, it is desirable to
follow grass with a cultivated crop, and this is usually
corn. For this reason, small grain crops necessarily
follow corn, if employed in the rotation, as is usually the
case. It is mainly due to the requirements of rotation
systems that grasses are so seldom sown in cultivated
crops.

SEEDS AND SEEDING 85

77. Rate of seeding. — In the accompanying table is
given the ordinary rate of seeding broadcasted forage
crops, with calculations showing the number of seeds
sown on each square foot. It will be noticed that the
number is large and that it varies greatly with different
plants. Were such plants allowed to develop undis-
turbed by weeds, only a small portion of the seed would
be required to give a satisfactory stand. It is difficult
to determine what constitutes a perfect stand, but the
numbers given are based on the room necessary for the
full development of a young plant.

The rates of seeding ordinarily used are purely empirical
— the result of experience or of experimental field trials.
The effect of the heavy seeding is to secure a dense stand
of young plants, which in a measure restrains weeds,
and which further insures that in competition with the
weeds a majority of the survivors will be the plant desired.
This dense stand is especially necessary in perennial
grasses where the seedlings are slender and in their early
stages grow but slowly, and thus are relatively inefficient
against broad-leaved, vigorous weeds.

It is scarcely possible to seed perennial grasses and
clovers so heavily that the resultant yield is seriously
affected. With annuals, however, too dense seeding
reduces the size of the individuals so much that the yield
to the acre is also diminished.

In general the rate of seeding is least in regions where
the crop is best adapted; that is, where the individual
plants are most vigorous and the natural mortality there-
fore least. The weediness of the soil is also an important
factor.

Where seed can be drilled the amount necessary to
secure a good stand is about 25 per cent less than when

86

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

broadcasted. The reasons are evident ; namely, the cover-
ing of the seed uniformly to the most favorable depths as
well as its more even distribution : —

TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN NUMBER
oF SEEDS Sown AND FINAL STAND

AVERAGE AVERAGE
= | RATE OF NUMBER OF| NUMBER OF
SEEDING | NUMBER OF SEEDS PLANTS TO
NAME OF PLANT TO THE SEEDS TO TO THE |THE SQUARE
ACRE THE POUND SquaRE |FooT FOR A
Foor PERFECT
Pounps STAND
Red clover 8 250,000 47 15
Crimson clover 15 130,000
Alsike clover 8 700,000
Alfalfa . 20 200,000
Sweet clover . 25 235,000
Timothy 2 . %. = iS 1,100,000
Kentucky blue-grass 25 2,400,000
Orchard-grass 20 4,500,000
Brome-grass 20 137,000
Redtop : 10 4,000,000
Meadow fescue 20 250,000
Italian rye-grass 30 270,000
Perennial rye-grass . 30 270,000
Tall oat-grass . 40 150,000

78. Time of seeding. — There are certain general
principles involved in determining the best time to seed
any particular forage crop. These principles refer partly
to the climate, but more to the inherent habits of the crop
in question, since these determine almost absolutely the
time when the seed must be sown. The principles in-
volved will be more clear by classifying forage crops into
summer annuals, winter annuals, biennials and perennials.

Summer annuals include such forage crop as millets,

SEEDS AND SEEDING 87

sorghums and cowpeas, which like maize require a con-
tinuous, rather high temperature for their best develop-
ment. They are all plants of tropical origin carried by
agriculture into temperate regions. All are characterized
by rather rapid and uniform growth from germination
to maturity. At their northern limits they succeed best
if planting is delayed until the latest time which safely
permits of their maturing, as their growth is seriously
checked by cool weather. Where the season is longer
plantings may be timed according to weather and soil
conditions; or better, late varieties which can utilize
the longer season may be grown. <A few summer annuals
like the soybean will withstand cool weather, even light
frosts, both in spring and fall, but most of them are in-
tolerant of cold.

Winter annuals include wheat, rye, oats, barley, Canada
peas, common vetch, crimson clover and others. Natu-
rally, they are plants which germinate in the fall and
mature in spring or summer in regions of mild, often
frostless, winters. They differ from summer annuals in
being intolerant of high temperatures during growth,
and in undergoing more or less dormancy during winter.
Where the winters are too severe they must be planted in
spring, but in such cases often suffer from summer heat,
as commonly occurs with Canada peas and common
vetch. Where both fall and spring sowings are possible,
as wheat in some regions, the former usually produce
better crops, owing partly to better root development,
and partly to the longer growing season in spring which
fall planting insures. To a slight degree winter annuals
show a dual period of development like biennials.

Biennial plants like the carrot, beet and rutabagas
are especially instructive, in that their development

88 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

during the two seasons is in sharp contrast. Ordinarily
they are planted in spring. The first season they produce
above ground only a rosette of leaves, but below ground
a great root development. During the second season
there is a large growth of flowering stems, in part due to
the stored food in the roots. The growth of the first
season constitutes the crop, unless seed is the object,
but the amount of herbage above ground is far greater
the second season. This sharp contrast between the growth
of the two seasons occurs regardless of whether the seed is
sown in the spring or in the fall so long as the plants survive
the winter.

Herbaceous perennials are much like biennials in that
the first season is devoted mainly to root development.
The rosette habit is not so conspicuous, and with many
species a few flowering shoots are produced if the seed is
sown in spring. The second season, abundant top growth
is produced, and this is regardless of whether the seed was
sown in the spring or fall, as it is only during the first
season that the rosette habit predominates. There is
seldom any gain by sowing a perennial grass or legume in
spring, as the yield during that season is usually negligible
and the crop must compete with numerous summer weeds
during the period when it produces but little top growth.
It is a safe general rule, therefore, that perennials should
be sown in the fall, but early enough that good root growth
be established by winter. Spring seeding of such crops
is desirable only where moisture conditions compel it
or winter injury by cold is likely to be excessive.

79. Depth of planting. — The depth to which seeds of
a particular species should be planted cannot be stated
arbitrarily nor based on any definite theory. Under
natural conditions seeds fall on the surface of the ground

SEEDS AND SEEDING 89

and most of them germinate on or very near the surface.
The percentage of mortality of such seeds is, however,
very high, much greater than it is necessary to provide
against in agriculture.

The principal objects desired are to plant the seed
deeply enough to germinate under average climatic con-
ditions at the place, and not too deeply, to prevent the
seedlings from reaching the surface.

In general, small seeds must be planted shallow and
large seeds may be planted deep. Some large seeds, like
peas, may be planted as deep as 8 inches, but this is due
to the fact that the young shoot does not carry the cotyle-
dons with it. In the case of equally large bean seeds,
where the cotyledons are raised out of the ground, such
deep planting would be fatal.

In sandy soils planting may be twice as deep as in
clay soils, both to secure the necessary moisture, and
because such soils offer less resistance to the developing
seedling.

80. Experimental results. — The best method of sowing
any hay crop in any particular place can be determined
only by direct trials. This involves experiments in rate
of seeding, depth of planting, time of sowing, use of nurse
crop, etc. The best method depends quite as much on
the adaptations of the plant itself as upon local con-
ditions. Thus, some grasses and legumes do not well
endure shade, consequently the seeding of these with a
nurse crop is inadvisable. |

The following experiments conducted at the Ontario
Agricultural College illustrate how greatly different
methods of seeding may affect the yield of the same and
of different species of grasses and clovers.

Two distinct experiments were performed, one from the

90 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

autumn of 1896 and the spring of 1897 to the autumn of
1898; the other from the autumn of 1899 and the spring
of 1900 to the autumn of 1901.

The table shows the average of the two experiments, of
the yields obtained at one cutting, the second summer after
seeding :—

Tons or Hay To THE ACRE

Fall Sowing Spring Sowing
Crops

Winters |, Nome | Wathen
Wheat Crop Oats Crop
Tons Tons Tons Tons
Orchard-grass . . . . 3.49 4.20 4.44 3.73
Meadow fescue .. . Zee 2.86 3.66 3.64
Timothy A ee 2.94 3.44 S20 4.28
Common red clover . . 3.07 1.09 3.61 4.18
Alsike clover . .. . 2.66 91 DAG, 2.79
Tnuiecerne: os) ss ee 3.65 1.42 4.03 4.17
Average 3 grasses .. 2.85 3.50 3.79 3.89
Average 3 clovers 3.13 1.14 3.37 3.71

81. Nurse crops. —In sowing grass or clover seeds,
it is a very common practice to sow them with a crop of
small grain or, as is usually the case, with red clover, to
sow the seed in spring on a field of fall-sown grain. When
grass seed is thus sown with a grain crop, the latter is
spoken of as a nurse crop.

The advantages of a nurse crop are : —

1. Tosecure a greater return from the land the first year.

2. To economize labor by making one seed bed answer
for two crops.

3. To check weeds from developing.

4. To hold snow to prevent washing of the land.

SEEDS AND SEEDING 91

The disadvantages of a nurse crop, as far as the grass
is concerned, are :—

1. Weakening the grass by shading.

2. Injuring the young grass when soil moisture is not
sufficient for both.

3. Requiring a higher rate of seeding of the grass.

Wheat, rye, barley and oats are desirable as nurse
crops, probably in the order named, but there are few
comparative experimental data available. Oats shade
the ground more than barley, and barley more than wheat
or rye. The time of harvesting the nurse crop is also of
some importance to the grass crop, as sudden exposure
of the latter to heat and drought is very harmful. The
water requirement of each of the four nurse crops is least
for wheat, followed in order by barley, oats and rye.

CHAPTER V

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

Success in the profitable rearing of herbivorous animals
is nearly always conditioned on good grass. This applies
almost as truly to the most specialized forms of animal
husbandry as to the primitive wandering herdsman. The
highest type of agriculture is in those regions where grass
culture is most developed. Meadows usually supply the
most economical feed that can be preserved. Pastures,
whether temporary or permanent, furnish the cheapest
means for maintaining farm animals that can be grown,
and permit the utilization of land too poor or too rough to
use for other farm crops.

82. Meadow mixtures.— The practice of growing
mixtures of grasses or legumes or both, is an old one
antedating in agriculture the sowing of pure cultures.
Originally grass seeds were gathered from mixed meadows,
and hence pure sowings could not be made. In oriental
countries, especially India, where labor is very cheap,

all sorts of crops are still grown in mixtures, and the belief
" prevails generally that a larger total return is thus secured.
The cost of harvesting each separately is so great that such
mixed plantings are seldom made in Europe or America,
and only where all of the plants in the mixture can be
harvested at the same time, or where the harvesting of
the one does not interfere with the further development
of the other.

92

e

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 93

So far as hay plants are concerned, experience and
experiments both show that as a rule larger yields are
secured from mixtures than from pure cultures. Ex-
ceptions are, however, found in such crops as alfalfa and
sometimes Italian rye-grass, mainly because no other
plants will coincide with either of these in producing
several cuttings.

Among the reasons why mixtures yield better as a rule
than pure cultures are the following : —

1. The diverse root habits of the different crops make
their distribution through the soil more thorough.

2. Their differing requirements do not make them
direct competitors, but enable them more thoroughly
to utilize the soluble substances of the soil.

3. The average annual return can be made more nearly
even over a longer period by including both short-lived,
quick-growing plants, and long-lived plants.

4. The loss by insects or disease is lessened, as most of
these attack but a single plant species. Thus, pure cul-
tures furnish far better opportunities for their increase
and spread than do mixed cultures. In mixtures, such
losses are often confined to but a single species in the mix-
ture; and as this leaves more room for the others to de-
velop, there is at least a partial compensation for the
damage. Practically the same facts hold true if any of
the species in the mixture are destroyed or injured by
drought or other adverse weather conditions.

5. The leaves and shoots of different grasses and legumes
vary greatly in habit and in light requirement. Some
low-growing species do well in the shade of taller species,
and thus the total quantity of herbage is increased.
Low-growing plants form the so-called ‘‘ bottom grass ”’
in contrast to the ‘“‘ top grass ”’ of tall species. A mixture

94 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

of the two is good practice and apparently good theory.
Among the common “‘ bottom ”’ hay plants are blue-grass,
redtop, sheep’s fescue and the clovers; typical “ top
grasses ”’ are orchard-grass, tall oat-grass and timothy.

6. Legumes probably aid the growth and increase the
protein content of the non-legumes in the mixture.

Besides the reasons which apparently affect the yield,
mixtures afford a more varied and usually better feed,
and mixtures of grasses and legumes are more easily cured
than legumes alone.

Data from various experiment stations showing the
relative returns from mixtures and pure sowings are given

in the accompanying table : —

TABLE SHOWING Hay YIELDS IN PoUNDS TO THE ACRE OF
MIxEep GRASSES COMPARED TO THE BEsT SINGLE GRASS

ILLINOIS ONTARIO KANSAS Ce
Grass OR MixTuRE | EXPERIMENT] AGRICULTU- | EXPERIMENT)" ~O
STATION RAL COLLEGE| STATION Rael

Timothy . |4400 — 2 yr. 16940 — 7 yr. |4779 — 4 yr. |4840 — 1 yr.
Red clover . . |4200 — 2 yr. 16620 — 6 yr. |5490 — 4 yr. |8000 — 1 yr.
Tall oat-grass . . |5480 — 1 yr. [5520 — 7 yr. {1707 — 4 yr.
Alfalfa d 7345 — 4 yr.
Redtop . . . . |8600 —1 yr. |38580 — 7 yr. 13399 — 2 yr. |5260 — 1 yr.
Timothy and mammoth

clover . . . | 5400 — 2 yr. —_———.
Timothy and medium

red clover. . 5200 — 2 yr. 5490 — 4 yr. | 7820 — 1 yr.
Tall oat and alfalfa 8820 — 2 yr.
Timothy and alfalfa 8000 — 2 yr.
Tall oat and mammoth

clover ne Steg es 7160 — 2 yr.
Timothy and mammoth

clover Rae 7140 — 2 yr.
Brome and red clover 4133 — 4 yr.
Brome and alfalfa 5473 — 4 yr.
Brome, orchard-grass

and red clover . 3825 — 4 yr.
Brome-grass, timothy

and red clover . 3560 — 4 yr. | 8480 — 1 yr.
Brome and timothy 5160 — 1 yr.
Timothy and redtop 8740 — 1 yr.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 95

83. Composition of meadow mixtures. — Innumerable
meadow mixtures have been recommended by writers,
based partly on observation and partly on theoretical
considerations. European authorities advise as a rule
complex mixtures. They also advise a heavier rate of
seeding where several or many grasses are mixed. Such
complex mixtures have not found much favor in America
as yet, either at the hands of experimenters or farmers.

The principal objects desired in mixtures are to secure
plants of varying habit adapted to the conditions under
which they are to be grown, and to have them mature at
about the same time.

Important mixtures which are based both on sound
experiment and abundant observations include the fol-
lowing :—

1. Timothy and red clover, the standard mixture for
the timothy region on well-drained soils. Where red
clover fails, it may be replaced with alsike, or both clovers
may be used. Frequently redtop is added to the mixture.

2. Redtop and alsike clover for low wet lands in the
timothy region. If the land is not too wet, timothy may
be added. Fowl meadow-grass is also well adapted to
such soils.

3. Orchard-grass, tall oat-grass and alsike clover. This
mixture is especially desirable where timothy and red
clover do not succeed well. Italian rye-grass may be
added to this mixture to increase the yield of the first crop.

4. For semi-humid regions brome and timothy or brome-
and orchard-grass.

5. Where alfalfa thrives, it makes good mixtures with
timothy, tall oat, slender wheat or brome-grass.

A complex mixture that has been recommended at the
Ontario Agricultural College, particularly for pasturage,

96 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

but also for hay, contains the following seeds in the
amounts needed to the acre : —

Alfalfa 5p
Alsike clover 2p
White clover ss % = «. alee 3 = 57
Trefoil ree 0700000
Orchard-grass 4p

4p

3p

Meadow fescue ounds
Tall oat-grass 2 & =. = & Pe foe ounds
Timothy .- « . « « « « » * & © %.#°% - 2 @2apoumds
Meadow foxtail oe a wm ee a Se ewe emis

Total «. . .« «*« « «© « # « «© « « 8 s. 24 pounds

84. Treatment of hay meadows. — Hay meadows may
be distinguished as temporary meadows where the lay
is for 1 or 2 years and permanent meadows where the lay
is for 3 years or an indefinite longer period.

The yield on permanent meadows may usually be in-
creased (1) by plowing or harrowing; (2) by occasional
reseedings ; and (3) by the use of fertilizers.

85. Scarifying old meadows. —- The scarifying of an
old meadow by harrowing in early spring with a disk or
other harrow usually encourages a larger growth of grass.
In some sections it must be done with judgment as other-
wise the increased growth may be largely weeds.

In the case of certain grasses with rootstocks like
Bermuda- and Johnson-grass the field may be plowed and
harrowed, the effect being a greatly increased crop of
grass. The same method can be used with brome-grass,
but more care must be used, as brome is more easily
destroyed than the other two grasses. ‘

86. Reseeding old meadows. — It is rarely good practice
to keep meadows for a long period of years even if fer-
tilized annually. In time the proportion of weeds in-
creases and often mosses and lichens become abundant.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 97

The latter are supposed to indicate a lack of lime, but
they often remain in spite of liming.

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it was found
that the yield on certain plots was greatly increased by
replowing and reseeding without changing the amount
of fertilizer applied. Thus on a plot fertilized annually
with 5805 pounds of wood ashes to the acre the portion
plowed and reseeded yielded 8546 pounds hay to the acre
while that portion not replowed nor reseeded yielded but
6243 pounds. On a plot fertilized annually with 8 tons of
barnyard manure the part plowed and reseeded produced
10,002 pounds hay to the acre in comparison with 5642
pounds on the portion not reseeded. The only difference
in the fertilizer application was that the manure was har-
rowed in the plowed portion and top-dressed in the undis-
turbed part.

Another method is sometimes used by farmers, especially
on land difficult to plow; namely, that of scattering a
little new seed over the meadow each year, especially
of such grasses and clovers which tend to disappear.

87. Fertilizers for hay crops. — Most of the hay grown
in the northeastern fourth of the United States and
adjacent Canada is timothy and red clover, with a much
smaller proportion of redtop, alsike and other plants.
At least three-fourths of the total yield in this region is
produced from a two years’ lay grown in the five-course
rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy or some
essentially similar rotation. In this rotation fertilizer is
rarely applied to the hay crop, which can therefore obtain
only the residues of fertilizers applied to the grain crops.
With this system of agriculture the average yield of hay
an acre for the region mentioned is according to census

figures about 1.3 tons an acre. In this area a yield to be
H

98 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

considered good should reach at least 1.5 tons an acre
and to be large 2 to 2.5 tons an acre. With heavy fer-
tilizing yields of 5 to 6 tons an acre or even more have
been secured. As a rule, the timothy region has ample
rainfall; so that the principal factor in limiting the hay
yield is the fertility of the land.

While larger hay yields can be obtained by the use of
heavy applications of fertilizers, the practice of selling
hay as a money crop has almost universally been con-
demned by agricultural writers because a bulky crop con-
tains so much nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, which
is usually considered as selling that much of the fertility
of the land. This conclusion is, however, based more on
theoretical considerations than on any adequate basis
of empirical data.

The results of the long-continued rotation experiments
at the Ohio Experiment Station show that the residues
of fertilizers from the cereal crops will give as a rule a
good increase in the crops of both clover and timothy, as
compared to unfertilized plots.

From the results secured with fertilizers applied to
grasses it is an open question whether it would not be
more profitable to apply the fertilizers to this crop than
to the hoed or small grain crops. Lyon and Morgan in
discussing this problem advance the following reasons
why it would apparently be better to apply the fertilizers
to the hay crop in New York: —

‘““(1) Fertilizers applied to grass increase not only the
erowth of that part of the crop cut for hay, but also the
roots and sod which are plowed under the soil and in de-
composing add to the soil productiveness. It seems, there-
fore, that anything that aids the growth of timothy would
help the grain, while the reverse is not true in the same sense.

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 99

‘“‘ (2) The hay crop is generally the crop which in a rota-
tion with grain brings the largest financial returns in
New York State. If a certain application of manures
increases in the same ratio the yields of hay and grain,
the value of the increase in the former crop would be
greater than that of the latter. It should pay best to
increase the crop that is worth the most, provided the
cost of the increase is the same in both cases.

(3) Grass is peculiarly sensitive to readily available
nitrogen in fertilizers. Grain crops are not benefited
to the same extent by this form of nutrient. As most
commercial fertilizers contain some more or less readily
available nitrogen, much of which may be carried off in
the drainage water and thus be lost to crops after the year
it is applied, it would seem to be advisable to add this to
the crop that it will benefit most. On the other hand,
the phosphorus and potassium contained in the fertilizer
are not removed in large amounts by the drainage water
and the unused parts remain in the soil to benefit the
succeeding grain crops.”’

Whether or not it is best to apply the fertilizers to the
hay crop or elsewhere in the rotation, there can be no
doubt that the judicious fertilizing of hay crops is often
very profitable, especially where fertilizers can be obtained
cheaply and where the good city markets for the hay are
convenient.

Well-rotted barnyard manure invariably increases the
crop of hay greatly, but in the absence of this material com-
parable results may be secured with commercial fertilizers.

The results of many fertilizer trials on mixed grasses
and legumes, both in Europe and in America, lead to the
general conclusion that nitrogenous fertilizers tend to
increase the proportion of grass herbage, while phosphate

100 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and potash fertilizers stimulate the growth of legumes
particularly. Lime is far more pronounced in its effect
on legumes than on non-legumes.

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it has been
observed that a top dressing of muriate of potash to a
mixed plot of timothy, redtop and clover caused a re-
markable increase in the proportion of clover. The
further work at this station showed that sulfate of potash
was far more efficient in this respect than the muriate.

For very heavy yields of grass a larger application an-
nually of a complete fertilizer is necessary. Thus Wheeler
at the Rhode Island Experiment Station was able to se-
cure yields of hay averaging over 4 tons per acre for 3 years
by using the following amount of fertilizers to the acre :—

350 pounds nitrate of soda.

500 pounds acid phosphate.

200 pounds muriate of potash.

It is questionable whether such heavy applications are
most profitable in the long run, especially as in seasons
of insufficient moisture the full benefit of the fertilizer
cannot be secured.

On the basis of the Rhode Island work Wheeler recom-
mends an annual application to each acre of :—

400 to 500 pounds acid phosphate.

300 to 350 pounds muriate of potash.

300 to 350 pounds nitrate of soda.

From the results secured at the Massachusetts Experi-
ment Station, Brooks suggests that the hay crop in rota-
tions be top-dressed about May 1 with the following
mixture of fertilizer to the acre :—

Nitrate of soda . . . . . . .. . +. +. 4175 to 200 pounds
Acid phosphate ee . . . . . 50 to 100 pounds
High grade sulfate of potash ~ « « « » 60 to 100 pounds

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 101

If a high percentage of clover is desired in the hay the
nitrate of soda should be omitted, and the following
applied to the acre :—

Ncid: phosphate :.°. 1.5 «= «.. «<=+ » 100 pounds
Basic slag meal .. oo kuae..« » 400°%pounds
High grade sulfate of potash. >. « ~ «. 150 to 200 pounds

For permanent meadows producing market hay com-
posed largely of grass, Brooks recommends with much
confidence the use to the acre of the following amounts of
fertilizer : —

INitrateco: soda... « <2. « «+ « «= » 150 to 250 pounds
Basie slag meal .. . . . . . 3800 to 400 pounds
High grade sulfate of potash. - « s,«.s #85 to 100 pounds

Top-dressings of nitrate of soda alone are not considered
desirable for a longer period than two years.

On peat marsh soils in Wisconsin the yield of hay from
a mixture of timothy and alsike yielded without treatment
2727 pounds hay an acre. An application of 275 pounds
acid phosphate an acre increased the yields on two plots
to 5015 and 5158 pounds respectively. Sulfate of potash,
100 pounds to the acre, increased the yields on two plots
to 4588 and 4781 pounds respectively. When both ferti-
lizers were used together in the amounts above indicated
the results were not as good as the phosphate alone.

At the West Virginia Experiment Station the applica-
tion of both barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers
greatly increased the yields of timothy. On the larger
part of a 4-acre field that yielded 1 ton hay or less a year
the average application for 6 years of 17 loads of manure
brought up the yield to the acre from 3775 pounds the
first year to 11,315 pounds the sixth year, or an average

102 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

of 8044 pounds annually for the 6 years. Commercial
fertilizer composed of nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and
sulfate of potash gave an average yield of 6380 pounds
hay per acre, the average annual cost of the fertilizer per
acre being $11.76. In both cases the increased yield gave
a large profit.

88. Top-dressing for aftermath or rowen. — Fertilizing
meadows to secure a larger aftermath or rowen is seldom
practiced. From experiments at the Massachusetts
Experiment Station Brooks considers that fertilizing
grass meadows with 150 to 200 pounds nitrate of
soda immediately after the first crop is removed is
profitable.

89. Acreage of improved pasture in the United States.
— Statistics and other data relative to American pasture
crops are very unsatisfactory. According to the thirteenth
United States census, the crops where acreage was reported
occupied 68.3 per cent of the improved land. The im-
proved land not occupied by crops included pasture land,
fallow land, land in orchards whose acreage was not re-
ported and land in house yards and barnyards.

As both fallow lands and the stubble and aftermath of
various crops furnishes considerable temporary pasturage,
it is conservative to consider 30 per cent of the improved
land as pasture, but probably not much over 20 per cent of
the improved land is permanent or long lay pasture. If this
be true, the acreage of permanent improved pastures is
one-third greater than that devoted to “‘ hay and forage ”
and one-half as great as that of corn.

90. Area of wild pasture in the United States. — From
the census figures of 1909 the following table is compiled,
assuming that 20 per cent of the improved farm land area
is pasture and that half of the unimproved land is pastur-

MEADOWS AND. PASTURES 103

able. According to these estimates the area of unim-
proved pasture lands is about 4 times as large as the
improved pastures :—

PER CENT OF
ToTaL AREA

Ciass or LAnpD

Farm land ' = ee ee 46.2

improved warn, land 9-16 .& «6% ew 25.1
imaprGVvedspastures 4. 4° 4%. 6 4c ee BPS we 9.2
INOnsrarmianGs: 2 9o2 “4 «60 % » + 2° ox 53.8
Unimproved pasture land ee Site fan ee 37.4

91. Most important tame pasture plants. — The most
important grazing plants on improved American pastures
are Kentucky blue-grass, redtop, white clover and Ber-
muda. Of less importance are timothy, orchard-grass,
Canada blue-grass, red clover, alfalfa, alsike, lespedeza
and crab-grass.

As to the relative value of these, there are no data
available to make accurate estimates. Kentucky blue-
grass is byfar the most valuable pasture grass in the North
and Bermuda-grass in the South. White clover and red-
top are of importance over most of North America except
the semi-arid regions and the extreme South.

Scaling the principal tame permanent pasture grasses
on a basis of 100, the following estimate is made of their
relative importance in America :—

Kentucky blue-grass . . 40 Alsike clover 3
Redtop - - « « . 10 Canada blue-grass 3
White clover . « «, « Wo Orehard-crass . Zz,
Bermuda-grass . . . . 8 Johnson-grass . 2
Timothy , 8 Lespedeza 2
Red clover 4 Crab-grass . 2
Alfalfa . 4 All others 4

104 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

These are but rough estimates, and probably minimize
rather than exaggerate the relative importance of the first
five.

92. Palatability of pasture grasses. — One method by
which the relative palatability of pasture grasses may be
ascertained is to permit animals to have free access to
plots of different grasses and then to note their preferences.

At the Washington Experiment Station horses pre-
ferred brome-grass to orchard and red clover mixed, to
tall oat-grass and to a mixture of 11 standard grasses.

At the Idaho Experiment Station sheep showed the
following order of choice: 1. orchard-grass; 2. meadow
fescue; 3. brome; 4. perennial rye-grass; 5. tall oat-
grass.

In tests at Cornell Experiment Station cattle exhibited
the following order of preference: brome, Kentucky
blue-grass, meadow fescue, timothy, orchard-grass, red-
top.

The marked preference of cattle for brome was also
shown at the Ottawa, Canada, Experimental Farm, where
cattle grazed brome close to the ground, while scarcely
touching mixed timothy and red clover.

93. Pasture yield as determined by number of cuttings.
— At the Michigan Experiment Station a plot of orchard-
grass cut 7 times with a lawn mower yielded 29 pounds
of dry hay and a similar plot cut 4 times 60.9 pounds.
A third plot not cut until in bloom gives 112 pounds of
hay.

In a similar experiment with timothy the yield for
8 cuttings was 15.76 pounds, and for a single cutting where
in bloom, 172 pounds.

Extensive investigations of this sort have been con-
ducted by Zavitz at the Ontario Agricultural College from

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 105

whose data the following table is compiled. The signifi-
cance of figures thus obtained is not very clear. The
total yield is invariably less than if the crop be cut 1 to
3 times. This can only be interpreted as indicating that
the yield of pastures is less than that of meadows, but
what relation the yield from 6 or more clippings is to
that eaten by animals on pasture continuously is not
evident :—

Tons oF GREEN HERBAGE TO THE ACRE AT EAcH oF SIx
CuTtTincs PER ANNUM. AVERAGE OF Four YEARS FOR
GRASSES, THREE YEARS FOR LEGUMES

SIxTH
Cut- PER
TING | ANNUM

Firtu
Curt- Cur-
TING

SECOND
UT- Cur- Cut-
TING

Crop

Tons

5.93| .83 | 1.59
4.34) 1.71 92
4.60/ 1.72 | .69
4.87| 1.71 08
4.10; 1.49 | .61
3.76, 1.04] .73
2.71) 1.03 | .62
8.73 | 3.06 | 2.70
10:33: E10) 12.37
7.35 | 2.35 | 1.95
8.22} .28 | 3.06

Tons Tons

1.23 | 1.33 | .87 | 11.8
1.30 | 1.05 | 1.40 | 10.7
1.09 | 84) 61) 9.6
Lt 62 | 49] 9.4

sO 1 29071, ESOs ie Sas,

08 | .08 | .08 | 7.5

67 | 44] 84) 58
3.62 | 1.56 | 1.27 | 20.9
3.39 | 1.52 | 1.15 | 20.4
LOD Z.0S¢l.05: |. LiLo
1.41 | 2.56 | .93 | 16.5

Tall oat-grass
Orchard-grass
Meadow fescue
Timothy
Perennial rye
Kentucky blue .
Redtop

Alfalfa

Red clover
White clover
Alsike .

94. Pasture mixtures. — There is only one safe rule
to follow in regard to grasses and clovers to be planted
for permanent pastures ; namely, use those which experi-
ence has shown hold the ground most tenaciously. It is
desirable to use in addition, however, one or more quick
growing grasses to furnish pasturage while the slower
growing ones are developing.

106 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In England excellent results have been obtained by
planting complex mixtures containing long and _ short-
lived, and shallow and deep-rooted plants. No such
mixtures have, as yet, proved profitable in America.

For the humid portions of America the best permanent
pasture grasses come in, for the most part, spontaneously.
These are, in the timothy region: 1. Kentucky blue-grass
and white clover for fertile, moist soils ; 2. redtop for low,
wet soils; 3. Canada blue-grass, redtop and white clover
for upland soils; in the cotton region: 4. Bermuda-grass,
lespedeza and bur clover for clayey lands; 5. carpet-
grass for sandy coastal lands.

The lines of division indicated are by no means absolute,
but the pasture mixtures proposed by various investigators
generally recognize the fundamental importance of most
of the ten species named. As more or less temporary
elements, other seeds should be included in seeding new
pasture, as follows :—

Where the soil and the region are adapted to Kentucky
blue-grass, add white clover, timothy and either Italian
or perennial rye-grass. Meadow fescue is also desirable
in many places.

Where the soil is wet and the region adapted to redtop,
add white clover and alsike clover.

Where the soil is poor upland in the north, use redtop,
Canada blue-grass and white clover.

Where Bermuda-grass thrives, add lespedeza, white
clover, bur clover and Italian rye-grass.

Where carpet-grass predominates, Italian rye-grass may
prove valuable for temporary pasture in winter.

In addition to the grasses mentioned, orchard-grass
is always desirable because it furnishes the earliest pas-
turage, and southward tall oat-grass is very useful. On

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 107

the sandy lands along the coast northward, sheep’s fescue
will often grow to the practical exclusion of other grasses.

Attempts to establish permanent pastures of other
grasses in places where one or more of those mentioned
above are aggressive have rarely been successful.

95. Treatment of permanent pastures. — The treat-
ment of pastures to secure the maximum return is a subject
upon which much writing has been done, but in America
at least but little experimentation.

The first comprehensive experiment of this kind is that
being carried on at the Virginia Experiment Station, but
no results of which have yet been published. The object
of these experiments is to determine the relative merits
of different treatments : —

1. Continuous light grazing.

2. Continuous heavy grazing.

3. Alternate light grazing, without harrowing.

4. Alternate light grazing, with harrowing.

5. Alternate heavy grazing, without harrowing.

6. Alternate heavy grazing, with harrowing.

It is only by such experiments that quantitative results
ean be obtained that will definitely determine the best
methods of treating permanent pastures.

From observations there is strong reason to believe
that heavy grazing, but not overgrazing, is preferable to
light grazing. In any pasture, unless overgrazed, it may
be observed that the animals keep the grass closely grazed
in definite areas and neglect the remainder. The animals
prefer the short, fresh growth and avoid the older leaves
and stems, unless driven by hunger. Farmers usually
prefer to graze their pastures lightly so as to have a sur-
plus in case of emergency — such as periods of drought —
but it would seem wiser to utilize the pastures more fully

108 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and provide against emergencies by having a reserve of
other feed.

Among methods that have been recommended to im-
prove pastures are :—

1. Sowing a little seed each year.

2. Light harrowing, especially with a chain drag.

3. Mowing the weeds in time to prevent their seeding.

4. Top-dressing with manure or other fertilizers.

On account of the relatively small return from pastures,
the amount that can be spent profitably in improving them
is small, often not more than one dollar an acre a year.
With this limitation in mind, the first three methods of
improvement are with little doubt sound, but fertilizers
can usually be applied more profitably elsewhere than in
pastures. Seeding on pastures where the turf is dense
and the weeds few is not advisable. As may easily be
observed, the sod in early spring on most pastures does
not make a complete cover, but the vacant spaces often
occupy one-fourth to one-half the ground. Where this
is the case, it is probable that a light scattering of seed in
very early spring is desirable.

96. Pasturing meadows. — The aftermath or rowen of
grass meadows is very commonly used for pasturage in
the fall. If the grazing be light, the probabilities are
that the succeeding year’s crop is not injuriously affected,
but no critical experiments on this subject have been
reported.

Pasturing meadows in early spring is, however, generally
considered to be harmful to the succeeding hay crop.

97. Carrying capacity. — The carrying capacity of a
pasture is the number of animals of a particular kind that
a unit of area will support for a definite period. On per-
manent pastures and on range lands this is usually stated

MEADOWS AND PASTURES 109

in terms of animals to the acre for the grazing season.
Thus, the carrying capacity of much of the western range
lands is 1 steer to 100 acres. The carrying capacity of the
best blue-grass pasture is 1 steer to about 2.5 acres, and for
the best Bermuda and lespedeza pasture in the South 2
steers to 1 acre. In the last two examples the period
is understood to be that of the growing season, but on
range lands the period is sometimes meant to cover the
whole year.

98. Temporary pastures. — A temporary pasture is
one designed to carry stock for only a short period. Tem-
porary pastures are usually sown to annual plants.
Sometimes such sowings are arranged so as to have a
succession of temporary pastures. This is often desirable
in raising hogs, but is also used with sheep and dairy
COWS.

In pasturing such crops, there is less waste by trampling
if the area to be grazed each day is inclosed by hurdles
or other temporary fencing. This also insures that the
animals secure about the same feed each day, as otherwise
they will eat the more palatable portions of the plants
first,

A system of temporary pastures requires accurate knowl-
edge in regard to the date a crop must be sown to be
pastured at a particular time, the approximate amount
of feed an acre will provide and the length of time
during which the crop may be grazed.

Such a system is essentially identical with a soiling sys-
tem (Par. 36), but it permits the use of some crops not
adapted to the latter, such as chufas, peanuts and sweet
potatoes.

99. Temporary pasture crop systems for hogs. — Pas-
ture crop systems for feeding hogs continuously have been

110 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

devised by various investigators. Annuals are best suited
to this purpose not only because the period during which
they can be used and the feed they will produce may be
quite accurately predicted, but because the planting of
perennials in small patches is often objectionable. If fields
of perennials like clover or alfalfa are available they may
well be utilized, however, in some systems. Two systems
of temporary pastures are here given as examples, one
adapted to the North and the other to the South.

Duggar, at the Alabama Experiment Station, on the
basis of extensive experiments suggests the following suc-
cession of pasture crops for pigs in that state : —

SysteM OF PasturRE Crops For Pics. ALABAMA

Crops WHEN Sown WHEN PASTURED

Riaipepece so ) eetcaneerely paul January and February
Chufas . . . ... .| Spring | January and Pebruary,
Ua Oo ad ene Seeded, stan et em March to April 15
Vetch and oat ga ite 234) ate March to April 15
Vetch and oats Po dl ecal) ae April

Crimson clover a se? | een April

Oats and wheat. . .| Fall April and May

Rape = «,. ah. « «) Spring! | May and dune

TMurt oats aoa dy ee) Apres 7 June

Sorghum. .. . . .| Spring | July and August
Cowpeas os « « « »-e| Spring |) July and August
Spanish peanuts . . .| Spring | September to November
Cowpeas . . . . .| Spring | September to November
Sweet potatoes . . .| Spring | September to November
Sorghum . . . . . .| Spring | September to November
Chutas ., . . «i. | sSpring | December

Reapers ees), “ve waren esta December

Fisher at the Indiana Experiment Station has arranged
the following data, from which a system of temporary
pastures for hogs in that state may be selected : —

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

PASTURE FOR Hocs By MontTHs.

MontTH TO
PASTURE

April
May

June

July

August

September

October .

INDIANA

aa

NAME OF CROP

Rye

Oats

Oats and rape
Oats and field peas
Rape

Rape and oats
Field peas and oats
Rape

Rape

Rape
Clover, red or mam-
moth

Sorghum

Clover, red or mam-
moth

Rape

Rape

Sorghum

Soybeans or cowpeas

Clover, red or mam-
moth

Soy beans or cow-
peas

Rape

Rape

Pumpkins

Sorghum

Clover, red or mam-
moth

Rape

Rye

Soybeans or
peas

cow-

DATE OF SOWING

August or September

March 20 to April 10

March 20 to April 10

March 20 to April 10

April 1-10

April 10-30

April 10-30

April 10-30

April 1-10 and
grazed down in
May

May 1-20

March 25 to April
10 without nurse
crop

May 10-20

Spring sown

April 10-30 and
grazed down in
June

June 1-15

May 20-30

May 20 to June 1

Spring sown

May 20 to June 15

Second or third
growth

June 20 to July 10'

May 15 to June 15

May 20 to June 15

Spring sown

Same as September
August 1-30

June 1 to July 15

APPROXI-

MATE LENGTH

or TIME
Crop

AFFORDS

PASTURE

Six weeks

Six weeks

Four weeks
Four weeks
Four weeks
Four weeks
Four weeks
Four weeks

Four weeks
Four weeks
Remainder

of season

Four weeks
Remainder

of season
Four weeks

Four weeks
Four weeks
Six weeks
Remainder
of season
Six weeks

Four weeks

Four weeks
Fed in lots
Fed in lots
Remainder

of season
Four weeks
Remainder

of season
Four weeks

g (0b FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

100. Bloating or hoven. — Ruminant animals are often
subject to bloating when pastured on such crops as alfalfa,
red clover or rape. Sainfoin and lespedeza are said
never to cause bloating, but most succulent legumes will
probably cause the trouble.

Among the prevention measures that have been sug-
gested are the following :—

1. Do not turn the cattle into the pasture when it is
wet with dew or rain, or the cattle very hungry.

2. In pasturing rape have an abundance of salt avail-
able to the animals.

3. Have a supply of hay or straw or a grass pasture
available to the animals. It is said they will instinctively
turn to the grass or hay when bloat threatens.

Should bloating occur, several remedies are usually
at hand which will afford material relief. A large bit,
the diameter of a pitchfork handle, may be tied in the
mouth; a piece of rubber tubing may be passed through
the mouth to the first stomach; or, as a last resort, the
animal may be tapped to allow the escape of gas. For
this purpose a trocar, such as is used by veteriary sur-
geons, is best; but in the absence of this, a small-bladed
knife may be used to make the incision about 6 inches
in front of and slightly below the left hip bone. A straw
or quill may be used to permit the escape of gas. Care
should be taken not to allow the straw or quill to work
down out of sight into the incision.

CHAPTER VI
THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS

STATISTICS regarding forage crops are instructive to the
agronomist in showing the relative importance and geograph-
ical distribution of each crop reported upon. The data
from successive censuses also disclose the progress or re-
gression which a crop may have made. Unfortunately
only the principal crops are included in the returns. The
relative importance of the various forage in different coun-
tries varies so greatly that the statistical returns are not
directly comparable, as a rule.

101. Classification of crops in statistical returns. —
In the Thirteenth United States Census, 1909, the cereal,
seed and forage crops are thus classified: cereals in-
clude corn, oats, wheat, barley, buckwheat, rye, rice,
emmer and spelt, kafir and milo. “ Other grains and
seeds ”’ include beans, peas, peanuts, flaxseed, grass seeds,
flower seeds and vegetable seeds. ‘‘ Hay and forage ”’
include all crops cut for hay and fodder, excluding the
cereals, — except such as are cut for hay,— and also ex-
cluding improved pastures.

In considering this classification of crops, it needs to
be pointed out that under ‘‘ cereals’ is included a vast
amount of produce other than grain utilized as forage.
Thus, the herbage of the corn crop, whether preserved as

stover, silas;e or pulled fodder, is used purely as forage,
I 118

114 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and indeed forms an important percentage of the food of
farm animals. Itis safe to estimate the value of the herbage
of the corn plant at about 50 per cent of the grain, assuming
that all the corn is allowed to mature. As a matter of
fact, a considerable and increasing amount is preserved as
silage. A small part of the corn crop is reported under
the item “ Coarse Forage.”

Of kafir corn and other grain sorghums, probably 75 per
cent is harvested entire and thus used as forage.

On the Pacific Coast much wheat and barley is harvested
as hay, and throughout the country more or less rye is
similarly used, but all this is included under forage as
“Grains Cut Green.” The straw of small grains, espe-
cially that of oats, has considerable value as forage.

In the same way the straw of cowpeas, Canada and
garden peas, soybeans and other leguminous seed crops
has also a considerable value as forage.

The bearing of these facts is that the relative importance
of grain production to forage production is necessarily
somewhat inaccurate on account of the classification, the
statistics exaggerating the importance of the first, and
diminishing that of the latter.

In the Census of Canada, forage crops are included
under 8 items; namely, Hay and clover; Alfalfa; Corn
and forage; Other forage crops; Mangolds; Sugar Beets ;
Turnips; Other field roots. The item of ‘‘ Other forage
crops ’’ includes mainly the small grains, either alone or in
mixture, cut for hay or for green feed.

102. Forage crops in general, United States, 1909. —
In the accompanying table appear the statistics of the
Thirteenth United States Census showing the relative
importance of forage crops in the different sections of the
United States, and in the eleven states whch lead in

THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS Tt

forage production. (Compare Fig. 8.) The data are
tabulated to show percentage of total and of improved
land occupied by forage crops, and average yield and value
to the acre : —

Sratistics oF ForacGE Crops, Unitep States, 1909

PER CENT | PER CENT AVERAGE AVERAGE
Divisioy ee es ee ee
STATES LAND ACRE 1909 1909
Tons

United States. ...°. «| 100.0 esa 1.35 $11.40

New England .. . 5.6 a2 12 15:57

Middle Atlantic . . 11.8 29.1 1.32 ies Feil

East North Central . 20.4 16.6 13s ie P ay

West North Central . BRYA!) 16.7 1.33 "sii

South Atlantic . ... 4.0 5.9 1.02 lee

East South Central. 3.4 ad, £03 11.92

West South Central . 4.5 BG O35 9.09
Mountain. . . 6.9 Sli lave 1338

Pacific ee ee 5.8 19.1 vo 17.69

Town eines a! pv? 2 7.0 1 gee | 155 11.76

eM Onk. Ge-~4-s. is fae 34.0 1.40 15.34
Nebraska ey ee ee 6.3 L235 1.28 7.02

Kansas .. 4. <9. aes 13.2 1550 8.09

| Minnesota . .. . oo 20.1 153 624%
| IMASSOULT ~4i.> sos A YS 5.0 14.8 1.13 9.33
. South Dakota . . . 4.8 Zlew 1.06 4.44
MOIS 4 0. al 4% 4.6 11.9 1,30 T2141

OintOes @ 25> ys alesse. 4.6 Wwe? L377 12.81
Pennsylvania. . . 4.3 24.4 1ea9 14.77
Wisconsin ... . a3 25.9 1562 La.20

These figures for hay and forage crops, not including
pastures, are also compared with other important crops.
The acreage of 72,280,776 acres was 37.8 per cent of that of
all cereal crops. It was 73.5 per cent of the acreage

116 TFORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

devoted to corn, but much larger than that of any other
cereal crop. It was 15.1 per cent of all the improved
land in the country, but this includes a considerable area
of land, especially west of the Mississippi River, on which
hay is cut, but which has never been plowed. It will
also be noted that over one-third of the hay crop was in
the West North Central Division; namely, Minnesota,

LAA /0 70 20
M20 +
NX

Fic. 8.— Map showing percentage of cultivated land in forage crops,
1909-1910.

Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska
and Kansas. Over one-fifth of the crop was in the East
North Central Division; namely, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan and Wisconsin. These two groups of states
produce nearly three-fifths of the hay crop of the country.
The Middle Atlantic States — New York, Pennsylvania
and New Jersey — produce nearly 12 per cent of the crop.
The three groups of states together have 70 per cent of

THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS hig

the total United States acreage, and nearly as great a
percentage of total production of forage crops.

The states with largest acreage are Iowa and New
York, each with over 5,000,000 acres; Nebraska, with
over 4,000,000 acres; Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, South
Dakota, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin,
each with over 3,000,000 acres.

103. Hay and forage by classes, United States, 1909. —
In the accompanying table is shown the acreage of the
different classes of forage crops grown in the United States
in 1909, as determined by the Thirteenth Census. The
acreage of corn, the principal American crop, and largely
used as forage both as roughage and as grain, is added for
comparison. Corn roughage is economically comparable
to hay made from small grains, but it should be borne in
mind that much small grain straw — especially of oats —
is also fed as roughage. In the census table several of the
categories include more than one crop as regards the plant
actually grown. Thus, “Grains Cut Green” include
oats, rye, wheat, barley and emmer; ‘“ Coarse Forage ”’
covers corn and sorghums and similar plants cut for fod-
der or silage; ‘‘ Other tame or cultivated grasses ”’ include
all hay grasses and legumes except timothy, red clover,
alfalfa and millet.

Timothy and clover. — Perhaps the most striking thing
about this table is the preponderating importance of
timothy and clover, alone or mixed. The two plants
constitute one-half of the total acreage of American forage
crops, even if the 17,000,000 acres of wild hay meadows
are included. Excluding these wild meadows timothy and
clover constitute over three-fourths of the acreage of hay
and forage crops. No figures are available for the relative
importance of timothy and clover each considered alone,

118 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

but from various sources of information it is probable
that there is about 3 times as much timothy as clover.

Corn. — Notwithstanding the high importance of
timothy and clover the fact must not be overlooked that
the greatest amount of roughage is produced by corn. In
the forms of stover, silage and pulled fodder, the herbage
of probably 90 per cent of the corn crop is utilized as
feed. On the whole, it is conservative to place the
average yleld of dry edible fodder from corn at about
one ton per acre.

Alfalfa.— The area of this crop approximates five
million acres. Due to the fact that this crop can be cut
two or more times in a season the average yield is con-
siderably higher than other hay plants. Ninety-five per
cent of the acreage is west of the Mississippi.

Grains cut green. — In semi-arid regions and on poor soils
in humid regions, small grains are often cut for hay, the
total acreage of these harvested in the United States in
1909 being nearly equal to that of alfalfa. In the humid
regions oats and rye are most often utilized in this way ;
in California, and to a less extent in other Pacific States,
barley is a common hay crop; in wheat regions it is a
frequent practice to get the fields ready for harvesting
the grain by cutting the marginal portion for hay. Three-
fourths of the grain hay is cut west of the Mississippi.

Coarse forage. —- This term includes mainly corn and
sorghum cut green for fodder or silage.

Millet.— The different varieties of foxtail millet are
much grown in the northern portion of the great plains,
over half of the acreage being from this area. Elsewhere,
especially in the South, it is sown to obtain a quick crop of
hay.

Wild, salt or prairie grasses. —'The states in which

THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS

119

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PRODUCTION AND RELATIVE ImMpPoR-
TANCE oF Hay ForaGce Crops, UNITED States, 1909

YIELD
NAME OF CRoP ee dy
Acres Tons
Corn . 98,382,665 | 1.
Oat straw 35,159,441 6
Wheat straw 44 262,592
Barley straw 7,698,706
Rye straw 2.195,001
Total hay and for-
age : 72,280,776 | 1.35
Timothy ! 24,457,584 | 1.22
Red clover ! 12,274,454 | 1.29
Alfalfa 4,704,146 | 2.52
Wheat
9)
Aue for hay 4,324,878 | 1.24
Barley
Other tame grasses} 4,218,957 | 0.99
Sorghums 2,079,242 | 1.5
Millet 117,769) | 1358
Cowpea 1,100,000 | 1
Redtop 2 800,000 | 1
Kentucky blue- -STASS 800,000 | 1
Alsike 2 500,000 | 1
Bermuda-grass 2 2 400,000 | 1
Johnson-grass 2 400,000 | 1
Orchard-grass ? 300,000 | 1
Crab-grass 2 300,000 | 1
Canada peas 250,000 | 1
Brome 100,000 | 1
All others 600,000 | 1
Wild grasses 17,186,522 | 1.07

TOTAL
PRODUCTION

Tons
98,382,665
21,095,665

97,453,735
30,359,698
15,532,602
11,859,881

5,367,292

4,166,772
3,118,863
1,546,533
1,100,000
800,000
800,000
500,000
400,000
400,000
300,000
300,000
250,000
100,000
600,000
18,383,574

| PERCENTAGE
or Tota Hay

AND FORAGE
PRODUCTION

CSE eer eee ee SR a ee ar ak Sa gc
OARWWWRRADDOHOANW

—"
00

1—In the production figures for timothy and for clover, half of the
production of timothy and clover mixed has been credited to each plant.
2 This acreage has been estimated from that of ‘‘ Other Tame Grasses.”

120 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

natural or wild hay is most largely harvested are the follow-
ing: Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota
and Kansas. It is a surprising fact that the total acreage
is over one-half of that of timothy and clover combined,
and nearly one-fourth of the total hay and forage
acreage.

Other tame or cultivated grasses. — The relatively small
importance of all other hay grasses to timothy is striking,
their total acreage being less than one-fourth that of
timothy. These figures must, however, be considered
with due allowance, as some of these grasses are often
mixed with timothy, either being sown or appearing spon-
taneously. The most important of the “other tame
grasses’ are redtop, orchard-grass, brome, Kentucky
blue-grass, Johnson-grass, Bermuda-grass and crab-grass.

Root forage. — Root crops for forage primarily are
relatively very unimportant in the United States. They
are seldom grown where field corn or sorghum thrive well.
For this reason they are utilized mainly in the Mountain
and Pacific States. Besides the roots grown for forage
a large amount of feed results from the refuse of sugar
beets after the sugar is extracted. This is fed fresh, or
preserved by drying or by ensiling.

104. Forage statistics for Canada. — The census statis-
tics of forage crops for Canada are compiled under different
headings from those used in the United States Census, but
in the main they are comparable. The item “ Hay and
Clover” in the former comprises both the “ timothy and
clover” and ‘other cultivated grasses” in the latter.
‘Other forage crops” includes the same crops as “ grains
cut green.” It will be noted that corn is relatively unim-
portant in Canada except in Ontario, and that root crops
are far more largely grown than in the United States.

THE STATISTICS OF FORAGE CROPS 11

ACREAGE OF ForAGE Crops, Canapba, 1910

eel ALFALFA CORNED Ronse Roots
Acres Acres Acres Acres Acres
Ontario. . . .|3,216,514] 45,625 | 245,048 | 26,256 | 148,493
Quebec. . . .|3,224,122| 4,046) 41,082] 19,483] 13,964
New Brunswick .| 625,911 83 239 2,098 8,611
Nova Scotia . .| 542,007 10 561 BPA Rs 9,635 |
Prince Edward .| 215,083 2 191 917 6,537
Manitoba. . . 137,671 539 4,603| 73,205 2,099
Alberta Bei vc 149,973} 2,592 1,259 | 67,304 1,039
Saskatchewan . 37,694 182 675 | 53,863 2,412

British Columbia 133,217] 3,741 395 | 15,164 2,312
Canada, total . | 8,280,192 | 56,820 | 294,009 | 260,563 | 195,102

CHAPTER. Vil
TIMOR

TimotTuy is by far the most important hay grass in
America. <A peculiar interest attaches to this crop because
its first cultivation was on this continent, though the plant
is of Old World origin. Its American given name has be-
come adopted in all languages.

105. Botany.— Timothy (Phleum pratense) belongs
to a genus in which botanists recognize 10 species. All
of these are confined to the Old World with the exception
of Mountain Timothy (Phleum alpinum), which also
extends to North America, occurring generally through
the western mountains, and south as far as the White
Mountains of New England. The botanical evidence is
strongly against common timothy being native to the
New World. It was early introduced, but has never been
found in localities where its introduction was improbable.
Most northern plants common to the Old and the New
World range in North America either from Alaska south-
ward through the western mountains, or southeastward to
New England, or else range from Greenland south to New
England. It has been thought by some that timothy was
native in New England, but as the plant is not native
to the northward of New England, nor in Alaska and the
Rocky Mountains, it is quite certain that the plant is not

endemic to North America.
122

TIMOTHY 123

Fic. 10. — Timothy. Florets
showing the different parts.

In the Old World
timothy is native to most
of Europe north to lati-
tude 70 degrees, and east-
ward through Siberia.
It also occurs in the
Caucasus region and in
Algeria. Through this
area occur about 10 dif-
ferent botanical varieties,
none of which have ever

Fic. 9. — Timothy (Phlewm pratense). been cultivated.

a, glumes; b, floret with glumes re- 106. Agricultural his-
moved: tory. — Timothy was
first brought into cultivation in the United States. It
was first propagated, according to Jared Eliot, by one
Herd, who found the grass growing along the Piscataqua
River near Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Ehot in 1747
recommends it for Massachusetts under the name Herd-
grass. He also cites Ellis to the effect that Herd-grass
had even that early been introduced into England from
America. The culture of timothy is thus older than that
of any other hay grass excepting perennial rye-grass. A

124 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

letter to Eliot from Benjamin Franklin under date of July
16, 1747, states that the Herd-grass seed received proved
to be ‘‘ mere timothy.’’ This is the earliest record of the
name timothy. This designation is supposed to be derived
from Timothy Hansen, who apparently brought the grass
from New England into Maryland. Later its culture”
spread to Virginia, and from there was sent to England
about 1760 under the name timothy. In England the
grass has been known also as meadow cat’s-tail, but
the name timothy is now used in nearly all languages.
Timothy was the most important hay grass in the United
States as early as 1807, and its supremacy has never been
seriously threatened.

107. Agricultural importance. — Practically all of the
hay grass grown in the northeastern fourth of the United
States and in southern Canada is timothy, either alone or
in mixtures. An increasing quantity is also being grown in

foe)

© {o
S)

Ble

Fig. 11. — Distribution of timothy, 1909-1910. Figures equal acres.

TIMOTHY 125

the irrigated valleys of the northwest and in the mountain
states. The total value of the timothy crop, either alone
or in mixtures, was, according to the last United States
Census, about $300,000,000, which was 4 of the value of
the corn crop, 2 of the value of the wheat crop and 3 of
the value of the cotton crop for the same year.

The total acreage devoted to timothy was as much as
that of all other cultivated hay plants combined, includ-
ing clover and alfalfa. All of the other perennial hay
grasses combined occupied but one-fourth the acreage of
timothy.

In Europe timothy has never been of the highest im-
portance among grasses, but its use there in recent years
seems to be steadily increasing. In other countries it is
but little grown.

108. Climatic adaptations. — Timothy is a northern
grass, and does not succeed well in the United States
south of latitude 36° excepting at higher elevations. It
thrives fairly well on the Alaskan coast, but in the interior
suffers both from winter cold and summer drought. No
definite data regarding the minimum cold that timothy
will withstand have been recorded, but it is more cold
resistant than most cultivated grasses. At Copper Center,
Alaska, a considerable proportion of the timothy plants
survived a winter when redtop, tall oat-grass, orchard-
grass and velvet-grass were completely destroyed. It has
also matured seeds at this place.

It does not well withstand hot, humid summers, and
successful fields are rarely found in the area adapted to
cotton. Crab-grass and other summer weeds are also
destructive competitors. When planted in the cotton
belt usually but one cutting of timothy can be obtained,
and the plants then disappear. Even this degree of success

126 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

ean be obtained in the Gulf States only in the richest lands.
Tracy suggests that the growth stimulated by warm
winter weather weakens the bulbs so that the plants are
less able to withstand summer heat and drought.

109. Soil adaptation.— Timothy is best adapted to
clay or loam soils. It does not possess much drought
resistance, but on the other hand thrives best where
moisture is abundant. In moist meadows it is sometimes
the practice to sow timothy seed directly without any
preparation of the soil, and timothy often makes a splendid
stand, largely replacing the native plants. While timothy
is mainly grown in humid regions, it is being more and
more grown in irrigated regions, as large yields of readily
marketable hay can be obtained, particularly in valleys
too cool for the most successful growing of alfalfa.

110. Advantages of timothy.— The importance of
timothy in America is due to its rather remarkable com-
bination of qualities, as well as to its splendid adaptation
to the same area as red clover. Its advantages may thus
be summarized : —

1. It produces good yields.

2. A stand is usually secured easily.

3. The seed is usually high in purity, germinates well
and the cost per acre is less than that of any other grass.

4. It seldom lodges.

5. It is easily cut and cured.

6. The period during which it may be harvested is
longer than that of most grasses.

7. It is the favorite hay for city horses, and the demand
and price is therefore greater than that of other hays.

Among the objections that have been urged against
timothy are: first, its lateness; second, the fact that it
becomes somewhat woody; third, its comparatively low

TIMOTHY 120

nutritive value; and fourth, the small amount of after-
math. The last objection affects its value as a pasture
plant ; the others are not important.

111. Rotations. —- Timothy is used in the most common
of all rotations in the North; namely, corn, oats, wheat,
clover, timothy. The corn may be replaced by potatoes
or other cultivated crop, the wheat by rye and the oats
sometimes by cowpeas or soybeans, but there is no equally
good substitute for the clover and timothy.

In places where timothy is grown for market, or where
the land is poor, timothy is often allowed to stand for five
years or even more. On such fields the yields may be kept
up by top-dressing with barnyard manure or other nitrog-
enous fertilizers.

Old timothy sod is apt to harbor insects, and therefore
it is best to plow in winter, if possible.

112. Seed. — Timothy seed is nearly always very pure,
and is never adulterated except with old seed. The small

-size and characteristic appearance of timothy seed, as well
as its low price, make adulteration with other seeds prac-
tically impossible. Some of the grains are free.

The purity of good seed should be 99 per cent or more,
and the viability 98-99 per cent. Germination ensues in
5-6 days.

The legal weight of the seed is commonly 45 pounds per
bushel. It actually varies, however, from 42 to 50 pounds.
One pound contains 1,170,500 to 1,320,000 seeds.

The viability of timothy seed is retained better than
that of most grasses. Stebler and Volkart state that it
loses very little during the first year in viability, about
10 per cent the second year, and 15 to 25 per cent the third
year. At the Vienna Seed Testing Station seed 4 years
old had lost but 9.4 per cent of its viability. At the

128 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Wisconsin Experiment Station seed retained its viability
well for 5 years, and then rapidly deteriorated.

The free grains present in timothy seed show a somewhat
lower viability than the grains in the hulls, according to
tests at both the Wisconsin and Delaware Experiment
Stations.

113. Preparation of seed bed. — At the Utah Experi-
ment Station three methods of preparing the ground for
seeding were compared, the plats being one-eighth acre
in size : —

‘Plat 37 was harrowed twice with a disk harrow,
once with a square-tooth harrow, then dragged with a
clod crusher, followed by a square-tooth harrow, after
which it was sown and again dragged.

‘Plat 38 was harrowed once with a disk harrow, again
with square-tooth harrow, and the seed was dragged in
with a clod crusher.

‘“ Plat 39 was dragged level to receive the seed, passing
over the ground but once with the drag or clod crusher,
and then the seed was sown and covered by the drag or
clod crusher.

* * * * * * *

‘““ Plat 37, it will be observed, was given a large amount
of tillage. Plat 38 had a moderate amount of tillage.
Plat 39 had none at all. The drag was used on Plats
38 and 39, in order to place the seed in the same relative
condition on the surface as the others, that the question
of amount of cultivation might have no disturbing factors
in the determination of results. Plat 39, as will be seen,
was entirely untilled, the dragging was simply for the pur-
pose of leveling the ground before and after covering the
seed.”

TIMOTHY 129

TABLE SHOWING EFFEcT OF DIFFERENT MetuHops oF Soin
PREPARATION ON YIELDS OF TimotHy. UtTan Exp. STATION

Crop or 1892 Crop or 1893
TOTAL TOTAL

Pat — a ——— - -| WEIGHT Dry

Yield an Dry | Yield an | Dry 1892-3 | MatTTrEeR

Acre, lbs. Matter |Acre,lbs.; Matter
37 1920 | 1448.98 | 1680 | 1529.81 | 3600 | 2978.79
38 2680 | Lost 2a20. | 2029.07 | 5000 ———
39 3080 | 2191.72 | 2200 | 2080.16 | 5280 | 4221.88

114. Heavy seeds or light seeds. — Heavy seeds and
light seeds separated by means of a brine solution were
compared at the Utah Experiment Station in 1898. The
first season crop from the heavy seed was larger by 28
per cent, but in the second season the two were alike.

Clark at the New York (Geneva) Experiment Station
separated timothy seed by using salt solutions of differ-
ent specific gravities from 1 to 1.26. The percentage
of germination was smallest in the lightest seeds and great-
est in the heavy seeds.

Hunt mentions a test at the Cornell Experiment Station
in which three sizes of timothy seed, containing respectively
600,000, 1,200,000 and 2,000,000 seeds to the pound were
grown in similar plots. The result of a two years’ trial
was slightly in favor of the large seeds, both when the same
number and the same weight per acre were planted.

115. Rate of seeding. — The usual rate of seeding
timothy is 12 to 15 pounds to the acre if seeded alone, and
about 9 pounds if red clover is to be added. Few rate of
seeding experiments have been reported. Hunt at the
Cornell Experiment Station tested various rates at from
© to 35 pounds, and concluded that 15 pounds is a desirable

rate.
K

130 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

At the Utah Experiment Station seed was sown on poor
soil at four different rates; namely, 8, 16, 24 and 32 quarts
an acre. The largest hay yield was from the 24-quart
seeding the first season and from the 16-quart seeding the
second season. The total yield for the two seasons was
in favor of the 24-quart seeding, but this was but slightly
greater than the 16-quart seeding. In both seasons the
o2-quart plot yielded least.

Stebler and Volkart in Switzerland, and Werner in
Germany, advise 19 kg. a hectare, which equals 17 pounds
an acre.

116. Depth of seeding. — Timothy seed, when sown
with a hand seeder or with a grass seeder attachment
behind a grain drill, is left on or very near the surface. If
the seeder attachment permits the seed to drop in front
of the grain drill, the timothy seeds will lie at various
depths from the surface to that of the grain. There is
reason to believe that timothy seed is ordinarily not
covered deeply enough.

Two tests at the Utah Experiment Station in broadcast-
ing as compared with drilling gave contradictory results.
In one experiment the drilled plots outyielded the broad-
casted by 50 per cent the first year and 32 per cent the
second year; in the other, the broadcasted plots gave
greater yields by 35 per cent the first year and 53 per cent
the second season.

117. Methods of seeding. — Four methods of seeding
timothy are in use in America: (1) Seeding in fall with
wheat or other grain; (2) Seeding in fall alone on pre-
pared land; (3) Seeding in spring with grain; (4) Seeding
in the spring without a nurse crop.

The first method of seeding timothy — namely, with
wheat or other grain in the fall—is the most common,

TIMOTHY 131

probably 60 per cent or more of the timothy being thus
sown. In this case a grass-seeding attachment is used on
the grain drill, and the seed is allowed to fall either behind
or in front of the wheat drill. In the latter case, it is
somewhat covered. When thus seeded, timothy makes
but little growth the succeeding year and no crop can be
harvested. Partly on this account, medium red clover is
sown in the wheat early in the spring. As a result a
small crop of red clover may sometimes be harvested the
same season, or at least some pasturage be secured. The
next season the crop is mainly clover, and thereafter
practically all timothy. This method of seeding involves
a minimum amount of labor, and as a rule gives entirely
satisfactory results. In many places it is unsatisfactory be-
cause the timothy fields become increasingly foul year after
year. The most troublesome weeds are the oxeye daisy
(Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum) and the white fleabane
(Erigeron ramosus and Erigeron annuus). Both of these
weeds ripen all or much of their seed before timothy is cut
for hay, and as these seeds live over in the ground for
several years and are returned to the land in the manure,
timothy fields frequently become badly infested.

The second method — namely, of sowing alone in fall
—is best where weeds are troublesome, and in general
southward of the principal timothy area. The seed bed
should be well prepared after plowing wheat or other grain
stubble, and sown to timothy in late summer or early fall.
An excellent crop, practically free from weeds, will ordinarily
be secured the next season. Southward of the parallel of
36 degrees red clover can quite safely be sown with the
timothy, especially if it be seeded rather early. This
method should be more generally used. It involves more
labor, but produces cleaner and usually larger crops.

132 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The third method — that of sowing in spring with a
grain nurse crop — is used quite largely, especially near
the northern limits of timothy culture, both in the East
and on irrigated lands in the West. Clover may be and
usually is seeded with the timothy. As a rule, it is best to
sow very early on land that has been plowed the previous
fall. A firm seed bed is better than a loose one. With
this method practically no timothy is secured the first
season.

The fourth method — seeding without a nurse crop in
spring —is used on irrigated lands in the Northwest,
often with clover or alfalfa, and a fair cutting obtained
the same season. It is also used on unirrigated lands in
the West, where soil moisture conditions do not permit of
fall seeding. In the latter case, the land is sometimes
plowed in the fall or winter to conserve soil moisture, and
to avoid delay in spring seeding.

Spring seeding, either with or without a nurse crop, is
not satisfactory southward, as crab-grass and other
summer weeds injure the timothy greatly.

At the Iowa Experiment Station timothy was sown alone
March 23 and 30, April 6, 13, 20 and 27 and May 3 and 10.
The two May sowings were complete failures, and the
April 27 one nearly so. The March 23 sowing gave a very
good stand, but the later ones were inferior.

118. Seed bed. — A fine, well-firmed seed bed is prob-
ably the most favorable for timothy, as for most grasses.
Where fall seeding alone is practiced, a cultivated crop
like potatoes or tobacco leaves the land in excellent shape
for timothy.

If the ground 1s loose, rolling is probably advantageous.
Rolling the ground after seeding was tested at the Utah
Experiment Station, with the result of increasing the yield

TIMOTHY Ie

of hay both where the seed was drilled and where it was
broadcasted.

At the same experiment station the effect of different
methods of preparing the seed bed was also tested, with
the results shown in the following table :—

TABLE SHOWING YIELDS OF TIMOTHY WITH DIFFERENT DeEpTuHs
or Pirowina. Uran EXPERIMENT STATION

Crop or 1892 | Crop or 1893 | Toran 1892-3

DeptH PLOWED Dry : Dry Dry
Hay Matter Hay Matter Hay Matter
to the so thie to the tathio to the £5 the
Acre Acre Acre Acre pte Acre

Pounds | Pounds |Pounds | Pounds | Pounds |Pounds

4inches .. . .. .| 2973 | 2473 | 2373 | 2161 | 5346 | 4634
tOinches . . . . .| 3227 | 2748 | 2507 | 2845 | 5734 | 5093
7ineches . . . .. .| 3240 | 2787 | 2827 | 2627 | 6067 | 5364
Not plowed, surface har-
rowed .. .... .| 4133 | 3582 | 4027 | —— | 8160 | ——

In this series of experiments the yields are in inverse
relation to the depth of plowing.

119. Fertilizers for timothy. — Timothy, as ordinarily
grown in the corn-oats-wheat-clover-timothy rotation,
usually secures only the residues of the fertilizers that are
applied to the cereal crops. Where timothy meadows are
allowed to stand three years or more, the yield can be main-
tained by top-dressings of fertilizer, especially barnyard
manure. The experiments that have been conducted at
a number of experiment stations have uniformly shown
markedly increased yields from the use either of barnyard
manure or of commercial nitrogenous fertilizers. In most
cases, complete fertilizers have also given good results, but
the return from phosphorus and potash is rarely so strik-
ing as that from nitrogenous fertilizers.

184 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The data in Par. 88 also refer largely to timothy or
timothy mixtures.

At Cornell Experiment Station extensive fertilizer trials
with timothy have been conducted. The largest yields
were obtained by using 20 tons of barnyard manure and
very good results by using 10 tons an acre. In all cases,
the influence of nitrate of soda was very marked. The
most satisfactory commercial fertilizer was found to be 320
pounds nitrate of soda, 320 pounds acid phosphate and 80
pounds muriate of potash an acre. The results indicate
that a still smaller proportion of acid phosphate would
have been economical.

120. Lime. — On Dunkirk clay loam at the Cornell
Experiment Station, applications of lime did not increase
the hay yield.

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station top-dressings
of lime exercised but little influence, but it was well marked
when the lime was harrowed into the soil.

In the rotations at the Pennsylvania Experiment
Station burned lime alone actually reduced the yields of
grass (timothy and clover), but ground limestone and
gypsum each increased the yield slightly.

121. Irrigation. — Timothy is grown with marked
success on irrigated lands in the West. An abundance of
water is necessary, as timothy is quickly injured, by an
insufficiency. Extensive experiments on timothy under
irrigation have been conducted at the Utah Experiment
Station, where it was found better to apply water at fre-
quent intervals. On plots irrigated at intervals of 3, 6, 9,
12, 15 and 18 days, the total amount of water being the
same, the total yields of hay to the acre for the three years
were respectively 3640, 4880, 4860, 4340, 4080, 3555 and
2100 pounds.

TIMOTHY 135

An oversufficiency of water is less injurious than too
little. Where the soil was saturated respectively 4, 34, 23,
2 and 14 feet, the total acre yields for three years were
respectively 6040, 3900, 7020, 3580 and 4750 pounds of
hay.

In another experiment the ground was_ saturated
respectively 31, 27, 33, 12 and 17 inches deep, and the
corresponding yields per acre were 3576, 6496, 6096, 1070
and 2260 pounds.

In a different series of experiments the results are thus
tabulated :—

Irrigation water applied in
inches to the acre. . . .| 7.50 15 30 60 | 100
Total yield to the acre in pounds | 3982 | 3844 | 6054 | 8406 | 2214
Yield to inch of irrigation
Wor. 6 « ww bc) sone} Dole 256) 202) 140 22

It will be noted that 15 inches of water reduced the yield
somewhat, a result also secured with orchard-grass, brome
and Italian rye-grass. According to the above figures 30
inches of water on one acre will yield but 6054 pounds
of hay; spread over two acres 7688 pounds; and over
four acres 11,928 pounds.

Irrigation by means of a network of lateral ditches gave
higher yields than by any other method of applying the
water.

Irrigating in the day time, 10 A.M., proved better than
irrigating in the evening. The average yields for three
years were respectively 3033 and 2033 pounds.

Irrigating timothy fields both in the fall and in the
spring increased the yield over spring irrigation alone an
average of about 25 per cent during four seasons,

186 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

122. Time to cut for hay. — The usual time recom-
mended for cutting timothy hay is shortly after the anthers
have fallen and not later than when the seed is in the dough
stage.

The problem of the best time to cut timothy for hay is a
many-sided one, and has been attacked from several stand-
points. The stage at which the grass is cut will affect :—

1. The total yield.

The palatability.

The digestibility.

The ease of curing.

The convenience of harvesting.

The amount of the next season’s crop.

The most extensive studies on this problem have been
those of Waters and Schweitzer at the Missouri Experi-
ment Station, who conducted their investigations during
twelve seasons. In these investigations the timothy was
cut at five stages; namely, coming into blossom, full
bloom, seed formed, seed in dough and seed ripe. Their
findings may be thus summarized : —

The total yield of dry matter is on the average greatest
in the hay at the time the seed is just formed. This was
the case three seasons out of four, the yield being greatest
at full bloom the second season.

The total amount each of protein, ether extract and
ash per acre was greatest in the hay cut at full bloom;
of nitrogen-free extract when the seed was in the dough
stage; of crude fiber when the seed was just formed.

The loss of dry matter and perhaps of other substances
as the plants approach maturity is due partly to the storage
of material by the bulbs, partly to loss of leaves by drying
and breaking off, especially the lower ones, and partly
by the solvent action of rain.

O oR oo

TIMOTHY tl

The total amount each of digestible protein, nitrogen-
free extract, crude fiber and ash is greatest at time of
full bloom; of ether extract when the seed is in the dough.

The digestibility of the hay is greatest in the youngest
stages and gradually decreases in the later cuttings. This
is also true of the protein and the crude fiber, but is less
marked in the nitrogen-free extract.

Yearling steers fed only on timothy showed a marked
preference to the hays cut at the younger stages, eating
the first three cuttings before they, would touch the others.
Other cattle fed liberally on grain and silage did not show
a decided preference, as was also the case with well-fed
sheep.

Timothy cut young is more difficult to cure and more
easily damaged by weather.

At the time when timothy is in full bloom, other farm
operations, especially the cultivation of corn, are impera-
tive.

Early cutting is thought to weaken the bulbs and to
lessen the next year’s crop.

Morse at the New Hampshire Experiment Station
studied timothy cut every five days from June 4 to July 31.
The conclusions were as follows :—

“Timothy grass grows very rapidly until the blossoms appear.
Its fastest growth is between the appearance of the head and the
beginning of the bloom.

“The amount of grass per acre increases until the time of
blossoming. It then decreases. The decrease is due to loss of
water.

‘“Dry substance steadily increases until the plant forms seed.

““The young grass is richest in fat and protein. The mature
grass is richest in carbohydrates or fiber and nitrogen-free extract.

““Timothy yields the largest amount of digestible protein when
cut at the beginning of bloom. |

138 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

“The total amount of digestible matter is largest when the
grass has passed out of blossom, or gone to seed.”

TABLE SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN TIME OF CUTTING AND
YIELD IN Pounpbs or TIMOTHY

;—-

2
Iuurinots! “Ave, oF Sonne ca PENNS “| Marne5’
STAGE WHEN CuT i
mee | Mae ae

Well headed. . . .| —— | —— 2749 ——— | —
Coming into bloom . 3411 — | —
Halitplooms 279) ea leoco7 3964 3301 2586 4225
Anthers half fallen .| 3423 a a ——
Out of bloom . . .| —— —- oly
Seed formed ah 4089 ae
Seed in dough . . .| 4012 | 4088 | ——
Late cut ee te oe so
Seed nearly ripe . .| 4064 3616
Seed ripe 2 oe. ee | —— | 8747 | —

123. Yields. — The average yield of timothy hay per
acre, according to the Thirteenth United States Census,
was in tons per acre for the various divisions as follows:
New England, 1.12; Middle Atlantic, 1.09; East North
Central, 1.26; West North Central, 0.97; Mountain,
1.48; Pacific, 1.62; and for the whole United States, 1.22
tons. In the Canadian Census special data for timothy
are not reported.

Different experiment stations have reported yields
of timothy in pounds to the acre, as follows: Ohio, 3497 ;

1 Tlinois Exp. Sta. Bul. 5.
2 Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci. 1910, p. 75.
3Conn. State Board Agr., 12th An. Rep. 1878-9.

4Penn. State College, An. Rep. 1886, p. 273.
5 Maine Exp. Sta., An. Rep. 1890, p. 65.

TIMOTHY 139

Pennsylvania, 3344; Kansas, 5528; Illinois, 4400;
Michigan, 3466; Minnesota, 4840; Utah, 2045; North
Carolina, 2136; North Dakota, 2470; Cornell, without
fertilizers, 2000 to 3600, with fertilizers, up to a maximum
of 8940.

Good yields of timothy average about 2 tons to the
acre; maximum yields may reach 43 tons an acre, but
such are secured only by heavy fertilizing or on rich
irrigated lands in the Northwest.

European yields for the acre are recorded as follows:
Vianne in France, 5280 to 13,200 pounds; Sinclair in
England, 17,356 to 19,398 pounds; Werner in Germany,
5280 to 6160 pounds; Pinckert in Germany, 4050 pounds ;
Sprengel in Germany, 3520 to 4400 pounds. The yields
of Sinclair are based on very small plots and cannot be
realized on a field scale.

124. Pasture. — Timothy alone is not well adapted
to permanent pastures, but is a useful element in most
mixtures. Most of it will disappear in about three years.
For temporary pastures, however, it forms an important
element.

The pasturing of timothy meadows in fall and even in
spring is a very general practice, both in the East and on
irrigated lands in the West. It is very doubtful, however,
if the practice is a wise one. The bulbs of timothy are
easily injured by the close pasturing of sheep and by the
trampling of larger animals.

At the Utah Experiment Station some data were se-
cured to show this effect. On three plots of 2? acre each
the yields in 1892 were respectively 6633, 6960 and 7333
pounds per acre. The first plot was grazed by 18 head
of cattle May 16, 1893; the second was left ungrazed ;
while the third was grazed by two heifers for two weeks,

140 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

November 8-22, 1892. The 1893 yields to the acre were
respectively 2933, 5107 and 4800 pounds. Spring grazing
thus proved markedly injurious, while light fall grazing
was much less so.

125. Pollination. — The pollen of timothy is very light,
and with a scarcely perceptible air movement will float —
12 feet or more. The grass is normally anemophilous —
that is, pollinated by wind — as indicated by the large
feathery stigmas and light pollen.

According to Hopkins’s observations in West Virginia,
timothy flowers begin to bloom 10 to 15 days after the
tip of the spike is visible. On each spike the blooming
period extends from 7 to 12 days. The flowers open as
a rule early in the morning and the stigma is exserted at
the time the anthers open, so that self-pollination may
easily occur.

No observations are recorded as to whether an in-
dividual flower is self-fertile or not. Some seed may be
produced, however, by bagging a single head or all the
heads of a single plant.

126. Seed-production. — Timothy is one of the most
reliable grasses for seed-production. The grass is usually
cut with a grain binder and the bundles put in small
shocks and allowed to cure for a week or more. Thrash-
ing is done by a grain separator, but special sieves are
necessary. The average yield of seed is stated to be
about 7 bushels an acre and the maximum 12 bushels.

Some loss from shattering will occur if the seed be
allowed to become overripe. Showery weather causes
the glumes, by opening and closing, to become looser, so
that in thrashing a considerable proportion of the seed
becomes freed from the glumes.

The principal seed-producing states in the order of total

TIMOTHY 141

yield are Illinois, lowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas,
Ohio.

In Europe some surplus seed is grown in Germany and
in Austria. Werner gives the German yield at 500 to
800 kg. to the hectare. Michalowski at Hohenheim from
fall sowings obtained 244 kg. the first year and 554 kg.
the second year to the hectare. From a spring sowing the
seed yield the second year was 567 kg. the hectare.

The date of harvesting influences the weight of seed
obtained. Thus Dorph-Petersen in Denmark harvested
from plots at intervals of 3 days, the yields being at the
rate respectively of 303, 346, 360 and 414 kg. the hectare.

127. Life history.—If a seedling of timothy is care-
fully examined, a small bud, the beginning of a corm or
bulb, will be found in the axil at the base of each of the
leaves. The basal internodes are very short until the one
is reached which becomes the primary corm. The smaller
axillary corms below develop later and give the false
appearance of having arisen from the base of the pri-
mary bulb. A _ single seedling may have during the
first year 8 to 18 corms and shoots, each with a more or
less well-developed corm, from the base of which roots are
produced. Under field conditions all of these shoots do
not survive, as crowding and other conditions prevent
the weaker ones from securing enough nourishment.
Where the plants are isolated, most of the shoots will
head at approximately the same height, but if the plants
are crowded and the nourishment is insufficient, the weaker
shoots head when much smaller than the others. A
timothy shoot heads but once, and then dies, including
the corm. Before the latter dies, however, a new lateral
bulb is usually developed from its base, or if the corm is
double from the base of each joint. Normally the shoot

144 . FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

strains in plots of 50 square meters was as follows: Pom-
erania, 116.6 kg.; Saxony, 112.6 kge.; America, 11128
kg.; and Mahren (Moravia), 107.4 kg. The differences
are not significant.

The trials of the Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft in Ger-
many gave the following yields a hectare in kilograms:
Finland I, 4528; Canada, 4500; United States, 4895;
Saxony, 4022; Finland II, 3974; Galicia, 3878; East
Prussia, 3767; Moravia, 3700.

Definite conclusions can scarcely be drawn from the
above limited data.

132. Feeding value.— There are comparatively few
feeding experiments reported by which the feeding value
of timothy can be compared with other hays.

Experiments at the Mississippi Experiment Station in-
dicate that its feeding value for working mules and for
dairy cows is practically identical with that of Bermuda-
grass hay.

At the Utah Experiment Station the conclusion was
reached that wild hay was more valuable pound for pound
in feeding both sheep and cattle than was timothy hay.

Haecker in two series of experiments at the Minnesota
Experiment Station finds that prairie hay and timothy
have equal feeding value for dairy cows.

At the Illinois Experiment Station alfalfa was compared
to timothy in a ration fed to dairy cows. Each of the 16
cows produced considerably more milk when on the alfalfa
ration than when on the timothy ration, the increase on
the average being 17.7 per cent.

At the same experiment station, timothy and alfalfa
were compared for work horses, and the conclusion was
reached that with alfalfa less grain is required to prevent
them from losing weight than where timothy is fed. In

‘TIMOTHY 145

this experiment the saving in grain was 22 per cent in
favor of the alfalfa.

At the Indiana Experiment Station red clover hay was
found much more efficient than timothy hay in fattening
steers when both were fed with grain corn. The ad-
vantages that the use of clover hay has over the timothy
in fattening steers are that it improves the appetite, keeps
the digestive system in good condition, improves the
appearance of the coat, causes the steers to make more
rapid gains, produces a pound of gain at less expense,
and results in a higher finish and a corresponding increase
in the value per hundred of the finished steer.

At the same station timothy hay was compared with
red clover hay for fattening lambs. As a result of one
direct comparison, timothy was found far inferior. When
fed with corn alone, the effect of the timothy on the thrift
of the lambs was harmful.

Two feeding tests of timothy in comparison with red
clover hay for horses have been conducted at the Illinois
Experiment Station. From the first test the conclusion
was reached that clover hay when fed with a mixed grain
ration is more efficient for producing gains than timothy
hay. In this test clover hay produced 58 per cent more
gain in weight than did timothy.

In the second experiment both hays were compared on
work horses. The data indicate that there is but little
difference in the value of the two when fed in conjunction
with mixed grains consisting of corn, oats, oil meal and
bran. The horses fed the clover hay had, however,
glossier coats of hair. The laxative effect of the clover
was evident, but not to an objectionable degree.

In a feeding experiment with 6 steers at the Maine
Experiment Station the animals were fed for 28 days with

U

146 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

timothy hay cut when in bloom and for 41 days with
timothy hay cut 17 days after bloom. In the first period
the steers gained 1.47 pounds per diem and in the second
period 1.49 pounds per diem.

133. Injurious insects. — Timothy is not much subject
to insect injury, but a few species may at times do con-
siderable damage.

Bill-bug (Sphenophorus zee). — The larva of this weevil
burrows into the bulbs of timothy and feeds on the in-
terior, thus weakening the culm. In Illinois Forbes found
50 to 75 per cent of the bulbs infested or injured in fields
three or four years old, and 10 to 20 per cent in fields two
years old. Hopkins expresses the opinion that the bill-
bug is one of the prime causes of early failure of timothy
meadows in West Virginia, and suggests as a remedy that
the stubble be fertilized with stable manure, tobacco dust
or lime immediately after hay harvest. As the same
insect attacks corn, the timothy sod should, if possible,
be plowed in winter to destroy as many of the insects as
possible.

Joint-worm (Isosoma sp.).—The larva of this insect
infests the stems of timothy, never more than a single
larva in a culm. As a result of the injury it causes the
head and upper portion of the stem to die prematurely.
The dead spikes conspicuously reveal the work of this
insect. Where abundant it may reduce the hay yielded
10 to 20 per cent.

134. Diseases. — Timothy is affected by but few
fungous diseases that cause damage worthy of notice.

Timothy rust (Puccinia phlei-pratensis) occurs in
nearly all states east of the Mississippi, and in Minnesota
and Iowa. It caused serious injury in timothy breeding
plots at Arlington Farm, Virginia, in 1906, where someselec-

TIMOTHY DE We

tions were totally destroyed. It closely resembles wheat
rust and attacks both the leaves and culms. The fungus
lives over winter on timothy in Virginia. Farther north-
ward teleutospores are abundantly produced. The rust
has been artificially transferred to oats, rye, tall fescue,
orchard-grass and Canada blue-grass, but wheat and barley
seem immune.

In fields of timothy the rust seems never to be abundant,
and no injury worth while has been reported. On the
other hand, wayside isolated plants are often covered with
pustules, and apparently more so southward. The cup-
fungus (cidial) stage of this rust is not known. Experi-
ments in inoculating barberry plants, the ecidial host of
the wheat rust, have been ineffective.

Another disease which sometimes attacks timothy as
well as other grasses is a leaf smut ( Ustilago strieformis).
It causes dark thickened lines on the leaf blades and
sheaths, which later burst open and become dusty from
the spores. This fungus is rather widespread, and has
been reported as damaging timothy in Wisconsin and in
Illinois. Severely attacked plants do not form heads.

135. Variability. — Timothy is a very variable grass,
as may easily be seen by examining individual plants where
they are growing scattered so as to permit the full develop-
ment of each. Some of the more marked varieties have
received names at the hands of botanists. Hays at the
Minnesota Experiment Station referred to a number of
the commoner variations in 1889, and Hopkins at the
West Virginia Experiment Station published more com-
plete studies in 1894.

Clark has made a very full study of the variations ob-
served in 3505 isolated plants in the breeding nursery at
Cornell University Experiment Station. Some of the

148 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

variations observed by him may be thus briefly sum-
marized : — |

The leaves vary from 4 to 15 inches in length, and are
from .25 to .75 inch broad. They may be flat or con-
cave or loosely twisted; spreading, drooping, or nearly
erect. The number to the culm ranges from 3 to 8.

The stems are usually green, rarely reddish or bluish,
18 to 55 inches tall, .05 to .15 inch in diameter, erect
to decumbent. The nodes are usually brown, but vary to
green.

The heads are normally cylindrical, with a rounded
or abruptly pointed tip, but on some plants they have
a long tapering apex or a tapering base, or both. They
vary in length from 1 to 12 inches; in diameter, from .2 to
4inch; in color they are usually green, sometimes purple.

The blooming period of the earliest individuals was
18 days earlier than the latest ones in 1907. This differ-
ence doubtless fluctuates according to the season, being
lengthened by cool weather and shortened by warm
weather.

The life period probably varies greatly. Some in-
dividuals are apparently annual, and others survived only
two years. Most of the plants were still vigorous at the
end of nearly six years.

The vigor of individuals varies greatly.

The number of culms per plant ranges from a few up to
280.

The yield of hay to the plant ranges from .01 pound to
1.35 pounds.

The only positive correlation found was that between
weight and height.

136. Disease resistance. — The most serious disease
that has affected timothy in America isrust. At Arlington

TIMOTHY 149

Farm, Virginia, in 1906, this disease completely destroyed
some of the selected strains, while others were but slightly
affected. None were wholly immune. The relative re-
sistance of these plants was much the same in 1908 and
in 1909, but in the latter year the rust was far more
abundant. Inoculation experiments in the greenhouse
showed that all plants could be inoculated, but that there
was great difference in the degree to which the fungus
developed in different individuals.

Clark at the Cornell Experiment Station has also
recorded the marked variability in the susceptibility of
different timothy plants to rust.

137. Breeding. — The first serious attempt made to
select the superior individuals from timothy and thus
to secure improved strains was by Hopkins, of the West
Virginia Experiment Station, in 1893. Among the best
of the strains selected by Hopkins were the Stewart,
a tall leafy form especially adapted to hay production;
the Pasture, the progeny of a plant found surviving in an
old, much overgrazed pasture, and conspicuous for the
amount of aftermath which it produced; and the Early
or Hopkins variety, which matured two weeks earlier than
any other. At the West Virginia station, where these
varieties were selected, they were found to be distinctly
superior to ordinary mixed timothy. These varieties were
secured by the United States Department of Agriculture
in 1902, and large quantities of seed of these three varieties
were grown. The Early remained nearly pure, as it came
to maturity before other varieties of timothy were in
bloom. The other two varieties, however, became some-
what mixed, but their main characteristics remained
evident. These three varieties were tried out on a farm
scale in various parts of the United States, but the results

150 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

were on the whole disappointing, as when taken to new
localities these timothies were little, if any, superior to
ordinary mixed timothy. In Virginia, they were all
found severely subject to timothy rust, a disease which
had become prevalent about this time, and which in-
troduced a new factor into timothy breeding. The
breeding work inaugurated by Hopkins has been con-
tinued by the Department of Agriculture, first in Virginia,
and now on a special station in Ohio. In 1903, breeding
work was undertaken at the Cornell Experiment Station,
and about the same time at the Minnesota Experiment
Station. Some of the best of the Cornell selections proved
decidedly inferior in comparison with the Hopkins timothies
in Virginia, and the reverse of this was the case when they
were planted side by side at the Cornell Station. On the
whole, the evidence indicates that the bred varieties of
timothy will have a comparatively narrow adaptation.
The best results are to be expected in breeding timothy
for each locality. Beginning in 1905, the breeding of
timothy has also been undertaken at Svalof, Sweden and
other places in Europe.

There can be little doubt that the breeding of timothy
will be advantageous. Such breeding, however, will
necessarily have to be continuous, as timothy, like corn,
is almost impossible to keep pure. Similar methods to
those used in corn breeding can very well be used in
connection with timothy breeding.

138. Methods of breeding. — Webber recommends
on the basis of the experience at the Cornell Experiment
Station the following plan of conducting timothy breeding,
beginning with the selected individual plant. These
methods differ but little from those which were employed
by Hopkins.

TIMOTHY for

1. The selected plant is propagated vegetatively by
digging up and separating the bulbs that are formed in the
stooling of the plant. These are taken in early September
and a row of sixteen to twenty-four plants grown. These
plants, it will be understood, are only transplanted parts
of the same individual. From such propagation the
character of the individual can be judged better and a
more nearly correct idea can be obtained of the yielding
capacity of the plant as well as of other characters.

2. Inbred seed is sown carefully in sterilized soil and
the seedlings transplanted in rows in field plats as above
described, in order to test the transmission of the char-
acters for which the plants were selected.

3. As soon as sufficient seed can be obtained, plats are
sown broadcast in the usual way in order to test the yield
under ordinary field conditions.

4. As soon as a variety is known or believed to be valu-
able, isolated plats are planted from inbred seed in order
to obtain seed for planting larger areas that will finally
give sufficient quantities of seed for distribution.

139. Desirable types of improved timothies. — The
main object sought in breeding timothy is to secure
varieties that will give increased hay yield. Hopkins
also developed an early strain that could be harvested ten
days earlier than the ordinary, and which on account of
its earliness did not cross much with other strains. He
also endeavored to secure a variety that would withstand
heavy pasturing, using as the basis a plant that had sur-
vived several years in a closely grazed field. Another
type was distinguished by the fact that its stems remained
green when the seed was ripe, producing presumably a
straw with greater feeding value.

Webber at the Cornell Experiment Station has sought

152 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

to select early, medium and late varieties, each with the
following combination of characters : —

1. Highest yield; 2. tall growth; 3. good stooling
capacity; 4. culms numerous and dense; 5. erect,
without tendency to lodge; 6. numerous large leaves;
7. culms leafy to near the top; 8. tendency to remain
green late; 9. rust resistance in high degree; 10. heads
medium sized and bearing abundant good seed.

140. Comparison of vegetative and seed progeny.—
When timothy is propagated vegetatively, the progeny
are identical, at least in the great majority of cases. When,
however, the seed of a single plant is sown, the offspring
show considerable diversity. Webber has compared
the average yield of selected plants with that of their
descendants grown both clonally or vegetatively and from
seed. In the latter case some of the plants were grown
from open-fertilized and others from self-fertilized seed.
The average yield to the plant for all types tested was as
follows: original plants, 9.307 ounces; clons or vegeta-
tive offspring, 8.769 ounces; open-fertilized seed 6.963
ounces; self-fertilized seed, 5.243 ounces. These data
seem to indicate that. self-fertilization tends to reduce
vigor.

In another series of investigations the yield of clonal
individuals was compared to that of seedlings from the
same parent. In all cases the seed-propagated plant
yielded less than the corresponding clon. A comparison
of the average yields, however, shows that as the yield
of the clons of an individual was high or low, so was its
corresponding progeny produced from inbred seed. The
increase in yield, however, from the lowest to the highest
was relatively much less in the seed-propagated plants
than in the clons.

TIMOTHY 150

141. Field trials with improved strains. — At the Cor-
nell Experiment Station 17 improved strains were com-
| pared in field plots with commercial timothy. In the
first season, 1910, all but three of the selected strains out-
yielded the check plots grown from commercial seed ;
the second season, 1911, all of the selected strains out-
yielded the checks. The data secured were thus sum-
marizéd : —

Average yield (17 new

sorts). . . .|7451 Ib. an acre | 7153 Ib. an acre
Average yield (commer-
cial seed) . . . . .{|66001b. anacre | 4091 lb. an acre

Average increase . . .{| 851 1b. anacre | 3062 lb. an acre

CHAPTER VIII

BLUE-GRASSES, MEADOW-GRASSES AND
REDTOP

Au the different species called blue-grass, and most of
those called meadow-grass, belong to the genus Poa, for
which some early writers used the English equivalent poe,
now practically obsolete. All of the cultivated poas are
much alike agriculturally, being especially useful for
pastures.

Redtop and related species of bent-grass (Agrostis) are
botanically quite remote from the Poas, but agriculturally
very similar. Redtop itself is perhaps equally valuable
for pasturage and for hay.

THE BLUE-GRASSES

142. Kentucky blue-grass (Poa pratensis). — Ken-
tucky blue-grass is also known as June-grass, or simply
as blue-grass. It has been called smooth-stalked meadow-
grass to distinguish it from rough-stalked meadow-grass
(Poa trivialis). In Virginia it was formerly known as
greensward. The name of Kentucky is used as a prefix
partly because of the famous blue-grass lands of that
state, and partly to distinguish it from Canada blue-
grass. The narrow-leaved variety of blue-grass was
formerly known as “‘ bird grass.”

143. Botany. — Poa pratensis, in its ordinary cultivated |
form, is quite certainly not native to North America.

Endemic varieties do occur, however, from Alaska south-
154

BLUE-GRASSES 155

ward to British Columbia, in Labrador, and probably on
the coast of New England. The Alaska and Labrador forms
are apparently distinct from any Old World varieties, but
have not received dis-
tinctive names. A dwarf
form on the New Eng-
land seacoast is appar-
ently identical with var.
costata Hartm. found on
European seacoasts.

European botanists
have described many
varieties, as the species
group is highly variable.
Even the cultivated
forms occurring in
America, which consist
wholly or mainly of the
typical form and of the
-narrow-leaved variety
angustifolia, give by se-
lection a long series of
distinguishable strains.
There are possibilities
in some of these forms
of Kentucky blue-grass
that may in the future las
warrant their selection ae ied gare or es
and culture for special ing attached tuft of hairs.
purposes.

In the Old World, Poa pratensis is native over practi-
cally all of Europe, the northern half of Asia and in the
mountains of Algeria and Morocco.

156 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

144. Adaptations. — Kentucky blue-grass is adapted
primarily to temperate regions of relatively high humidity,
but in the arid regions succeeds well under irrigation. It
is markedly resistant to cold, never freezing out in the
most severe winter weather. During summer heat,
however, its growth languishes and, even with abundant
moisture, shows little vigor
during the hot weather
of July and August. Its
area of usefulness extends
farther south than that of
timothy, as it survives hot
summer weather and makes
good pasturage in the fall

Fig. 13.—A spikelet and florets and spring. It begins
of Kentucky blue-grass. a, spikelet erowth in the spring earlier
as it appears at maturity; b, the same hk d
having the florets spread apart, show- than most grasses, and Con-
ing jointed rachilla; c, back view of tinues to eTrow as late into
a floret, showing the Jemma (1); d, he fall h
front view of the floret, showing the the tall as any other grass.
edges of the lemma (1), the palet (2) Blue-grass prefers well-
and the rachilla segment (3); e, the | : 1
Prion lemme): drained loams or clay

loams, particularly such as
are rich in humus. Southward it is especially abundant
on limestone soils, where it often grows to the exclusion
of other species. The famous blue-grass regions of Ken-
tucky and Virginia are of limestone origin. On poor soils
it is never abundant, giving way to other grasses like red-
top and Canada blue-grass.

Spillman has pointed out that the distribution of blue-
grass in the East closely corresponds with that of the
glaciated soils and that southward of this area it is con-
fined almost wholly to limestone soils.

Blue-grass will endure fairly wet soils but not so well

__ —

BLUE-GRASSES 157

as redtop. It has but little endurance to drought, but
even in semi-arid regions, where it is normally burnt brown
for two months or more, it promptly recovers with the fall
rains.

It is only fairly well adapted to growing in shade, not
being nearly equal in this respect to orchard-grass or
red fescue.

145. Importance. — Kentucky blue-grass is of rela-
tively small importance in Europe, but in North America
it is by far the most important pasture grass and second
among grasses in total value only to timothy. In the
timothy region, all of the best pastures are wholly or
primarily blue-grass, and it is likewise the commonest
lawn grass in the same area.

It is difficult to find a satisfactory explanation for
the great importance of this grass and of timothy in
America. About all that can be said is that these two
grasses are much better adapted to the climatic con-
ditions of cold winters and hot, rather dry summers
than are any other European grasses used for the same
purposes.

Kentucky blue-grass differs from most humid region
grasses in that the old dried or half-dried herbage is readily
eaten by animals, in this respect resembling some of the
grasses native to arid regions. Late fall or winter pas-
turage may thus be secured by permitting the grass to
make considerable growth in the fall.

146. Characteristics. — Kentucky blue-grass grows but
slowly at first, and even on lawns where it is planted
thickly, a good sod is not formed until the second year.
It produces abundant short rootstocks, which finally de-
velop into upright shoots. The blossoms appear earlier
than most other grasses, and blue-grass is peculiar in that

158 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

it blooms but once a year, no matter how favorable the
conditions may be after cutting. The plants are very
long-lived and under favorable conditions there seems to
be no limit to the time endurance of a blue-grass pasture.
In the humid region west of the Cascade Mountains in
Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, blue-grass
is rather troublesome as a weed, especially in berry patches
and similar places that cannot be plowed.

The grass is very palatable to all classes of live stock,
much more so than any other grass so capable of main-
taining itself. It is distinctly exceeded in palatability
only by smooth brome-grass.

At the Kansas Experiment Station the roots of blue-
grass on an old sod were found to penetrate to a depth of
four feet, but there were comparatively few below 18
inches. ‘They are densest in the top six inches.

147. Culture. — Probably 90 per cent of the blue-
grass pastures in America have developed spontaneously.
On most farms the untillable land is left for pasture, and
in the timothy region this is eventually composed mainly
of blue-grass with more or less white clover and redtop.
On the best blue-grass soils, however, the returns are
profitable enough so that large areas of tillable land
are kept permanently in pasture.

No definite systems have yet become established for
using blue-grass in rotations, primarily because blue-
grass pastures improve with age, at least for several
years.

Where sown, the seed is best planted in fall. A com-
mon method is to sow it with timothy and clover, sowing
the seed in fall with the timothy. After two years in
clover and timothy for hay, the land is then pastured and
the blue-grass finally occupies the land as the timothy

BLUE-GRASSES 159

disappears. Blue-grass sown in this way adds a little
bottom grass to the hay crop of timothy and clover.

The amount of seed to use per acre, if sown alone, is
not very definite, due partly to the small extent to which
this grass is sown and partly to its very uncertain quality.
Werner recommends 20 pounds per acre; Stebler and
Schroter 173 pounds; Spillman 25 to 30 pounds. Hunt
says 40 pounds is the usual rate, but that half this amount
of good seed would probably suffice. On lawns much
greater quantities are desirable, four bushels being the
rate commonly advised.

148. Fertilizers. — Blue-grass yields so little, even at its
maximum, that but few fertilizer experiments have been
conducted on pastures or meadows. Where it is grown
on lawns, however, abundant experience shows that
blue-grass responds markedly to lime and to nitrogen
fertilizers.

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station Kentucky
blue-grass top-dressed annually for 5 years with nitrate of
soda was found to be much subject to rust and otherwise
unsatisfactory. Another plot top-dressed with potash
salts and basic slag meal in addition to nitrate of soda
produced far heavier and more satisfactory crops.

As shown in the accompanying table, the largest in-
creases were secured by the use of heavy applications of
manure, or practically the same by using a complete ferti-
lizer. Nitrate of soda alone had but little effect, and this
also true of muriate of potash. Acid phosphate alone gave
the best results of any single fertilizing element. The
results of the three combined apparently increased the
effectiveness of each. Apparently the most far-reaching
tests of fertilizers to determine the effect on yield of hay
are those of Morrow and Hunt.

160 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS SECURED FROM FERTILIZING
Kentucky BLUE-GRASS AT THE ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT
StaTion. (Morrow anv Hunt)

mH y yo
eo “. < <A 1 '
Ra mA mm ce a
Ss a] Qa a a re] ag fea} [oe] 4
are aos aS go A Ay.
Ae More) (e-Tax as = oe Q
is) De DOO pm on O90
3 a irs Om > 8 ae ES
& | KIND OF FERTILIZER ey Ag Ag Ad a Al
S Boru SEASONS 6 z a a a Bs a = 3 fs lanl
a bs et |ed | we aN a a
HO i 53 fe A go ors a8
Pale Om Om om = aN
a8 ad AH aa a ef
Sn q ro ep:: 5) s)
<a) fy O Be fH a A
Ce es oe mo HH =
val a AE
1 Horse manure! . .| 12 loads
2 None Ae ae ea oe
3 Cattle tankage . .{| 500 lb.
4 Superphosphate . .| 500 lb.
5 None Bt Agr Poon Oy oe a
6 Horse manure? . .| 13 loads
Superphosphate . .| 500 lb.
7 Muriate of potash * . | 200 lb.
Nitrate of soda . .| 200 lb.
8 None Ss Bere ie
9 Muriate of potash? . | 200 lb.
10 Nitrate of soda . .| 200 lb.
11 Gypsum oe es eh bO00 Mb:

149. Yields of hay. — Blue-grass is too small to give
large yields of hay and is seldom employed for such pur-
pose, excepting where it comes in naturally. The hay is
considered to be of good quality, but not equal to timothy.

Yields in pounds to the acre have been reported by ex-
periment stations as follows: Ohio, 2187, 6-year average ;
Kansas, 1830, 2-year average; Michigan (Upper Penin-
sula), 3280; Guelph, Ontario, 3160, 7-year average;
Utah, 1060; Lacombe, Alberta, 1724, 2-year average.

At the Illinois Experiment Station Kentucky blue-grass
gave a yield of 2508 pounds dry matter to the acre when

124,320 lb. in 1890. 2 21,880 lb. in 1890. 3 Sulfate of potash in 1890.

BLUE-GRASSES 161

the seeds were in the milk stage, and 2907 pounds when
the seeds were ripe.

In Europe yields ranging from 3500 to 6250 pounds
an acre are reported, but most of these are based on very
small plots.

Irrigated blue-grass at the Iowa Experiment Station
yielded 15,160 pounds green matter, and non-irrigated
10,360, the water contents of the grass being, respectively,
67 and 60 per cent.

150. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of Kentucky
blue-grass is gathered mainly in the blue-grass region of
Kentucky, especially the counties of Bourbon, Fayette
and Clark. In recent years increasing quantities are
harvested in northern Missouri and southern Iowa.

The seed is harvested from about the 10th to the 15th
of June, as soon as the panicle has become yellow and
the grain firm. Where a large acreage is to be cut, how-
ever, the harvesting is begun sooner. Some of the seed
is gathered by means of hand strippers, but most of it
by stripping machines, of which various forms have been
devised. The most efficient machines are rotary strippers
in which a revolving cylinder studded with rows of nails
brushes the heads against a platform and into a receptacle
behind.

- The stripped heads must be carefully cured in order
to secure the best seed. This is commonly done in the
open, preferably where the ground has a hard smooth
surface. The seed is piled in long, narrow ricks, pref-
erably not over 18 inches high, which must be frequently
turned to accelerate curing and to prevent heating.
During the first few days each rick should be turned at
least three times a day. The viability of the seed is

greatly affected by the care used in curing, and lack of
M

162 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

care in this process more than anything else injures the
quality of the seed. Pieters and Brown found that freshly
gvathered seed when put in ricks would heat to a tempera-
ture of 130 to 140 degrees in less than 16 hours, and that
this temperature would entirely destroy the vitality in
16 hours or less.

The seed is mostly cleaned at warehouses with special
cleaning machinery. The yield averages about 15 bushels
per acre, and 25 bush-
els is the maximum.

At the Kentucky Ex-
periment Station, seeds
were gathered every
day or two in June
from the time the first
ripened. Germination
tests gave poorer re-
sults for those gathered
very early and very
: late, the best being
Fic. 14.—- Mixture of seeds of Ken- those harvested be-

tucky blue-grass (a) and Canada blue- tween June 14 and
grass (b). The Kentucky blue-grass seeds =
are broadest at the center, pointed and June 25.

have a distinct ridge on each side. Canada 151. Seed. — Ken-
blue-grass seed are mostly broadest near
one end, blunt and smooth on the sides.

tucky blue-grass seed
is frequently adulter-
ated with the cheaper Canada blue-grass (Fig. 14). This
is always an adulteration, as the former matures several
weeks before the latter. Pure Kentucky blue-grass is
brownish-straw in color, in the bulk considerably darker
than Canada blue-grass seed. The percentage of chaff
varies greatly, according to the methods of cleaning used,
but the best seed has 10 to 20 per cent of chaff.

BLUE-GRASSES 163

The purity of commercial seed is commonly 70-80 and
rarely 85 per cent. The viability may reach 80-90,
but usually is only 65-80 per cent. In some cases very
fresh seeds refuse to germinate. The seeds begin to
sprout under favorable conditions in 9 or 10 days, but
many require a longer time, up to 28 days. Light has no
effect on germination, but rapid alternation of tempera-
tures is necessary for the best results.

The legal weight of a bushel is 14 pounds, but the
weight varies from 14 to 28 pounds. One pound contains,
according to different authorities, 2,400,000 seeds (Ste-
bler) ; 1,860,000 (Hunter); 2,185,000 (Hunt); 3,888,000
(Lawson).

Among the objectionable weed seeds that may occur
in Kentucky blue-grass are buckhorn, yellow dock, and if
adulterated with Canada blue-grass, it may contain
Canada thistle.

152. Hybrids. — aie hybrids of Poa pratensis with
P. trivialis and with P. compressa have been described in
Europe, but both are very rare. Their parentage has not
been proven by breeding, but is surmised from structural
characters and the association with their supposed parents.

G. W. Oliver of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture
has successfully hybridized Poa pratensis with P. arachni-
fera, Texas blue-grass, using the pistillate plants of the
latter. The hybrids show much diversity and produce
but little seed due to defective stamens.

153. Canada blue-grass (Poa compressa). Botany. —
Canada blue-grass, also known as Virginia blue-grass,
flatstem bluegrass and wire-grass, is native to the Old
World, ranging throughout temperate Europe and Asia
Minor. It was found near Quebec as early as 1792 by
Michaux and in 1823 by Richardson on the upper Saskatch-

164 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

ewan. Its wide distribution at so early a date is re-
markable, but it is quite certain that the grass is not
native.

Typical Poa compressa bears 2 to 3 leaves on a culm,
a panicle about 2 inches long with the spikelets 5- to 8-
flowered. It produces abundant rootstocks, and forms
a tough sod. The compressed culms are evenly scattered
and are remarkable for remaining green long after the
seeds have matured. The whole herbage is pale and
glaucous.

154. Seed. — Canada blue-grass seed closely resembles
that of Kentucky blue-grass, and as it is cheaper, it has
been much used to adulterate the latter. As Canada
thistles are often present in fields of Canada blue-grass,
the presence of the prickles of the thistles is sometimes
used to identify the seed, but neither this nor the paler
color of the seed is wholly reliable. The best character
to distinguish the two seeds is the less prominent veins
of the lemma in the Canada blue-grass (Fig. 14). The seed
weighs 14 to 24 pounds to the bushel.

The seed is much cheaper than Kentucky blue-grass
seed and much more viable as a rule, the average germina-
tion being about 85 per cent. The seed is produced mainly
in Ontario and about 650,000 pounds a year were imported
into the United States up to 1909.

155. Culture. — In Ontario, where Canada _ blue-grass
is most abundant, this grass is seldom sown as it usually
appears spontaneously. It is often plentiful enough in
wheat stubble so that good fall pasturage is afforded.
Such stands are often left either to be cut for hay or for
seed.

The yield of hay is not heavy, usually about 1 ton and
never more than 11 tons, but it bears an excellent reputa-

ye

a
Ve
S oe é
Figg) Niles
oe adi jf ges
2 oe fas : fe
we? re

3

ks" *
. @ Ms
or. § ‘ %
ee A
#\ oe

t fp i

a

OF CANADA Buivun-crass (LEFT) ANp

ENTUCKy B

PAR — Panicies

GRASS (RIGHT),

LUE-

K

oad

BLUE-GRASSES 165

tion as horse feed, and commands nearly as good a price
as timothy. It is said, however, to have a tendency to
produce colic if fed in large quantities.

There is no particular difficulty in harvesting the seed
of Canada blue-grass, strippers not being required as in
the case of Kentucky blue-grass. The grass is cut when
the heads appear golden, and handled much like hay,
but it should be put into small shocks promptly, as other-
wise much seed may be lost by shattering. The seed is
thrashed in an ordinary grain separator, but special screens
are necessary. Canada blue-grass is ripe when wheat is
harvested and some seed is secured when the wheat is
thrashed by using a special screen to separate it from the
chaff and trash. The average yield of seed an acre is
about 200 pounds and the maximum about 500 pounds.

Canada blue-grass is seldom sown pure, but when thus
planted about 15 pounds of seed per acre is required. On
poor rocky or clay soils Canada blue-grass will probably
give as great a return in pasturage as any single grass,
and its planting under such conditions is desirable.

156. Adaptations. — Canada blue-grass is adapted to
quite the same range of climatic conditions as Kentucky
blue-grass, but is more resistant to summer heat and to
drought. It is most abundant in eastern Canada and the
northeastern United States, but it occurs south as far as
South Carolina and central Alabama, and west to the
Pacific Coast.

Unlike Kentucky blue-grass, it is most abundant in
poor soils, whether gravels, thin soil over rock or clay.
This is probably not so much preference as inability to
cope with other grasses on good soils. It is often abundant
on the sides of cuts where the subsoil is exposed, while on
the good surface soil other grasses occur.

166 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

It is more drought resistant than Kentucky blue-grass
but less well adapted to growing in moist or wet soils.
It is primarily a grass of the open and does not succeed
well in shade.

157. Importance. — Canada blue-grass is important
from its ability to grow on poor soils and produce small
crops of hay or good pasturage under conditions where
other grasses will scarcely thrive. Under such conditions
it is valuable and its good points are being more generally
recognized. It has suffered in reputation somewhat,
because its seed was used to adulterate Kentucky blue-
grass and because it has generally been compared to that
grass. Its main usefulness, however, is under conditions
which Kentucky blue-grass will not endure.

It is primarily a pasture grass and is grazed upon by
all herbivorous animals. It not only will withstand very
close grazing but, on account of the stems remaining green,
can be used as reserve pasturage late in the season. Cattle
raisers who are familiar with Canada blue-grass consider
it excellent for fattening.

At the present time Canada blue-grass is most important
in Ontario and New York, but it is abundant in Penn-
sylvania, Virginia, Maryland and West Virginia, and is
spreading on the so-called scab lands of the Columbia
River Basin. In other countries, Canada blue-grass is
of very little importance.

158. Texas blue-grass (Poa arachnifera). — Texas
blue-grass is a native perennial species in southern Texas
and adjacent Oklahoma. In a general way its habits are
similar to Kentucky blue-grass, but the plants are larger
and coarser. Unlike any other cultivated species of Poa,
the plants are unisexual, that is, some are pistillate and
some are staminate. The base of each lemma has a tuft

MEADOW-GRASSES tr

of long hairs and so the seed must be gathered by stripping
after the manner of Kentucky blue-grass.

Texas blue-grass has been tested at many of the ex-
periment stations, especially in the South and as far north
as Maryland. It makes rather more growth than Ken-
tucky blue-grass, and being more bunchy in habit it does
not make as satisfactory a lawn. Furthermore, the grass
is not aggressive and in time is crowded out by other
grasses. This peculiarity as well as the high cost of the
seed has prevented any large use of Texas blue-grass, and
commercial seed can be found only in small quantities.

Oliver has endeavored to combine the good qualities
of Texas blue-grass and Kentucky blue-grass by hybridiz-
ing. Hybrids were easily secured by placing pollen of
Kentucky blue-grass on the flowers of the female plant
of Texas blue-grass. The hybrids were very diverse in
appearance, most of them having rootstocks like their
parents, but some were entirely without rhizomes. The
variability in the leaf was also very marked, some of the
forms having much broader leaves than either parent.
Unfortunately, none of the numerous hybrids secured
showed any better seed habits than those of Texas blue-
grass, and most of them were inferior in this respect.

THE MEADOW-GRASSES

159. Fowl meadow-grass (Poa triflora). — This grass is
also known botanically as Poa serotina and Poa flava and
agriculturally as late meadow-grass and fertile meadow-
grass. It is native to both Eurasia and North America,
and on this continent ranges from Alaska to California,
Colorado, Iowa and Pennsylvania.

Unlike the other cultivated Poas, this species is adapted
to wet meadows, but does not grow in standing water.

168 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

It is intolerant to high summer heat and, therefore, does
not thrive southwards. In the area to which it is adapted
it has much the same requirements as redtop and is equally
late in blooming.

Fowl meadow-grass was one of the early grasses to
receive agricultural attention in America, being considered
by Jared Eliot in 1747 as the best grass hay in eastern
Massachusetts and decidedly superior to timothy. It
first attracted attention on the wet meadows along the
Charles River, where it appeared spontaneously and
covered extensive low meadows. It was supposed to have
been introduced there by water fowl, whence its common
name. On suitable land old American reports give the
yield as 1 to 3 tons of hay an acre, and. state that it can
be cut at any time from June till October.

This grass has recently been investigated at the Ver-
mont Experiment Station. It occurs abundantly along
Otter Creek on natural meadows which have never been
plowed and which yield 1 to 2 tons an acre. These
meadows are overflowed each year, a condition adverse
to timothy and red clover, which are absent, but some
redtop and Glyceria americana are mixed with the fowl
meadow-erass.

In plot experiments on bottom land, fowl meadow-grass
was found slow to start, like Kentucky blue-grass, and the
grass was not fully established until the third season. In
1899 a yield of 4400 pounds hay and 136 pounds seed
an acre was obtained. Late cuttings when the seed is
ripe give a considerably larger yield than if cut when in
bloom. The yields of timothy under the same conditions
have been about 25 per cent smaller.

On account of the slow growth of fowl meadow-grass,
it is advised that it be sown in mixture with other grasses,

MEADOW-—-GRASSES 169

as follows: timothy, 10 pounds; alsike, 6 pounds; redtop,
recleaned, 4 pounds; fowl meadow-grass, 10 pounds.
The experimental plots that were sown to redtop and to
timothy were nearly pure fowl meadow-grass after 3
years.

It is probable that results comparable to those secured
in Vermont could be obtained in any similar lands in the
northern tier of states and in Canada.

Commercial seed is grown in Europe and is generally
of very poor quality. In the Vermont experiments a yield
of 6 bushels an acre, weighing 114 pounds, was secured,
and in one instance a small plot yielded at the rate of
7 bushels an acre.

160. Rough-stalked meadow-grass (Poa trivialis). —
This European grass is very similar to Kentucky blue-
grass, but may be distinguished by the roughness of the
stalk near the panicle, rough leaves and absence of root-
stocks. In Europe it is of more importance than Ken-
tucky blue-grass, but in America has scarcely ever been
cultivated and, though sparingly naturalized, has no-
where become abundant.

It is adapted to moist soils and moist climates. In
England it was one of the first grasses to be cultivated.
In moist mountain regions, it is often the common pasture
grass. If cut for hay, a very good yield is often obtained,
but the aftermath is very scant.

There is little likelihood that this grass will be found
valuable in America, except perhaps in the Pacific North-
west. European authorities advise sowing 26 pounds
of seed to the acre.

The commercial seed is harvested mainly in the neigh-
borhood of Hamburg, Germany, and in Denmark. Yields
as high as 400 pounds to the acre are reported.

170 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

161. Wood meadow-grass (Poa nemoralis). — This
grass is native both to Eurasia and North America,
but immensely variable. In North America, it is native
from Alaska to Colorado in the mountains, and south-
eastward to Minnesota and Pennsylvania. The agri-
cultural seed is, however, gathered almost wholly in
Germany, and mainly from wild growing grass in wood-
lands. Wood meadow-grass is remarkably adapted to
erowing in shade and, being fine in texture, is much em-
ployed for shady lawns. It is, however, far more averse
to heat than Kentucky blue-grass and rarely succeeds
south of its natural range.

REDTOP

162. Names. — Redtop is so called in most of the
United States, but in Pennsylvania and the South is also
known as herd’s-grass, which same name in the New
England States is applied to timothy. In Europe it is
commonly called fiorin, and in England is also known as
bent-grass. Its scientific name is usually given by seeds-
men as Agrostis alba, but sometimes A. vulgaris, A. dispar
or A. capillaris.

163. Botany. — The botanical relationship of redtop
and the numerous closely related forms is a most complex
problem. Many botanists consider Agrostis alba and
A. vulgaris a single species, but others hold them distinct.
The character most relied upon is the ligule, this being
very small in vulgaris, but well developed in alba. Nu-
merous varieties of each have been described by European
botanists. The ordinary cultivated forms of redtop are
referable to A. alba, which is native to the Old World,
occurring over most of Europe and Asia; and in Africa is
found in the northern parts and in Abyssinia. It is very

REDTOP at

doubtful if it is endemic in North America. Agrostis
vulgaris is, however, certainly native to North America,
one form being abundant in the coastal lands of New
England and known as “‘ Rhode Island Bent.’’

Other native American varieties are aristata which
occurs from Maine to Virginia and differs by having an
awn rising from near the base of the lemma; and maritima
which has long, decumbent, rooting stems, occurring along
the coast from Newfoundland to Delaware.

The cultivated varieties are only three; namely, com-
mon redtep, which is typical Agrostis alba L.; Rhode
Island Bent, which is the native American form of Agros-
tis vulgaris Withering; and Creeping Bent of Europe,
commonly sold as Agrostis stolonifera, but it is not the
plant so named by Linnzeus.

164. Agricultural history. — Redtop was first brought
into prominence by Dr. William Richardson in Ireland in
1807, though apparently this was not its first cultivation,
as Vianne states that it was grown in France in 1761. It
was early introduced into the United States, but no record
before 1807 has been found.

165. Adaptations. — Redtop has probably a _ wider
range of adaptation to climatic and soil conditions than
any other cultivated grass. It succeeds well over most
of the United States except the drier regions and the ex-
treme South. In resistance to cold it is at least equal to
timothy, and it withstands summer heat much better.
At Copper Center, Alaska, it matures seed.

It thrives best on moist or wet soils, and will even grow
vigorously in the bottom of shallow ponds, which later
become dry. When thus growing aquatically, the leaf
blades float on the surface and the grass is not readily
recognized. Provided moisture is abundant, it does not

172 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

show marked preference for soil types, but does best in
clay loams and loams. Notwithstanding its marked
adaptation to wet land, it will withstand considerable
drought and on poor uplands, even if somewhat sandy, will
thrive better than most other grasses.

It is not well adapted to shade, and is rarely found in
such situations.

166. Characteristics. — Redtop, if grown _ isolated,
makes tufts 1 to 3 feet in diameter, usually about 30
inches high, but sometimes 33 feet. The vigorous root-
stocks are shallow and mostly 2 to 6 inches long. These
enable redtop to make a dense turf even in pure cultures.
If kept closely mown the leaves become much finer, and
a very satisfactory lawn results. Wherever the grass 1s
thin, the rootstocks promptly become more vigorous and
bear broader leaves.

The grass blooms somewhat later than timothy, so
that mixtures of the two cut when timothy is in bloom,
rarely show any panicles of redtop.

On account of its characteristics, redtop is perhaps better
adapted to pasturing than for hay. It is a common ele-
ment of all northern pastures, but most abundant where
the ground is wet or poor. In pasturing experiments,
cattle usually show preference to all other cultivated
grasses over redtop.

167. Importance. — Redtop is probably the third or
fourth most important perennial grass in America, being
exceeded by timothy, Kentucky blue-grass and perhaps
Bermuda. It makes up more or less of the pasturage
over the whole area to which it is adapted, especially on
wet and on non-caleareous soils. As a hay crop it is
most important in New England, where it comprises most
of the 1,100,999 acres of ‘‘ other tame or cultivated grasses.”’

REDTOP aes:

On the poor clayey soils in southern Illinois it succeeds
better than any other similar grass.

168. Variability. — Cultivated redtop is very variable
and many strikingly different individuals can readily be
selected. The leaves may be very narrow or broad, dark
bluish green or pale green in color; the panicles large or
small, purple or green; the rootstocks very abundant and
vigorous, or few, or even wanting. In recent times some
attention has been given to the selection of improved
strains, but none of these have yet become agriculturally
established.

169. Regional strains. — Commercial seed is produced
only in the United States and in Germany. Stebler and
Volkart report experiments in Switzerland, in which the
German strain showed far greater ability than the Ameri-
can to maintain itself. The American strain almost dis-
appeared after 7 years, while the German strain increased
markedly and still held its own after 9 years.

170. Culture. — Redtop, like Kentucky blue-grass, is
such an aggressive grass that it usually comes in naturally
where once established. It is rarely sown alone and
usually but a small proportion of seed is included in mix-
tures. There is little accurate information available as
to rates of seeding when sown alone, different writers rec-
ommending from 6 to 50 pounds, but not always specify-
ing the quality. Of good “ recleaned ”’ seed 10 pounds
per acre should be ample, and a correspondingly larger
amount if of inferior grades. It may be sown in the same
manner as timothy. Stebler and Volkart recommend for
Switzerland 14 pounds per acre, germinating 72 per cent.

Redtop is also an exceedingly good grass for lawns
if sown thickly and kept closely mowed, under which
conditions the leaves are fine and the turf dense.

174 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

171. Yield of hay. — The yields of redtop hay on wet
lands are usually better than those of any other hay grass.
It is, however, much better used in mixture, especially
with timothy and alsike. If grown alone the return is as
a rule less than that of timothy. American experiment
stations have reported yields in pounds to the acre as
follows: Ohio, 5634; Kansas, 3399; Illinois, 3600;
Virginia (Arlington Farm), 3200; Michigan (Upper
Peninsula), 3493; Ontario (Guelph), 5580; North Caro-
lina, 2940.

Vianne in France records hay yields of 6290 pounds
to the acre; Sinclair in England of 7600 pounds from the
first cutting and 2640 pounds from the second; Nielsen
and Lindhard in Denmark secured as the average of 7 plot
trials 3000 pounds the first
year, 2980 pounds the sec-
ond year, 2200 pounds the
third year.

172. Seed-production.
— Commercial redtop seed
is grown mainly in south-
ern Illinois. The seed was
formerly harvested by
cutting the crop with a

ae mowing machine, curing

Fic. 15.—Seeds of redtop repre-
senting the ‘‘fancy’’ grade of the thoroughly and then
trade. . a, different views of seeds hav- thrashing. In recent years

ing the white, papery, inner chaff; ‘
b, two views of a grain, or kernel, with rotary strippers, such as

the inner chaff removed ; c, the same, gre used for Kentucky
nearly natural size.

blue-grass, have been em-
ployed. After the seed is thus stripped, the crop is cut for
hay and sometimes is thrashed to secure the seed left by
the strippers.

REDTOP LG)

The recleaning of the seed and its separation into
grades is done by factories with special cleaning ma-
chines.

The annual yield in Illinois has been estimated as
700,000 pounds from 50,000 acres.

173. Seed. — Commercial seed of redtop occurs in
three grades: 1. ‘‘ Fancy,” ‘‘ choice” or “ recleaned ”’;
2. ‘“ Unhulled’’; and 3. “ Chaff’? seed. ‘ Recleaned ”’
seed consists of free grains
and those covered with the
inner silvery chaff. ‘ Un-
hulled ” seed is that which
is still inclosed in the outer
glumes. ‘ Chaff ”’ is mainly
the empty scales and fine
rubbish, with but a small
percentage of good seed.

Recleaned or fancy seed
should have a purity of 95-

O8 per cent, and a similar Hie: 16. — Chaff of redtop seed.
Peat a, whole spikelets usually devoid of
percentage of vianulity. seed in ‘“‘chaffy”’ grades; b, sepa-

The germination remains rated scales of the same; a and b
represent the outer chaff of the seed.

good for several years. It (gplarged.)

is sometimes adulterated

with timothy seed. Among the common weed seeds pres-

ent as impurities are oxeye daisy and buckhorn.

The legal weight to the bushel is 14 pounds, but the
actual weight ranges from 12 to 40 pounds. The number
of seeds to one pound varies with the quality. Thus, it is
given as 4,135,900 by the Illinois Experiment Station ;
6,400,000 by the North Carolina Experiment Station;
and 7,800,000 by Hunt, quoting from Lawson. Stebler
gives the number as 603,000, evidently an error.

CHAPTER IX

ORCHARD-GRASS, TALL OAT-GRASS AND
BROM E-GRASSES

Trmotuy is to such preponderating extent the most im-
portant hay grass in America that other valuable sorts
have been relatively much neglected. The species dis-
cussed here have somewhat different adaptations than
timothy, and hence are potentially important in regions
where timothy does not thrive well. Orchard-grass and
tall oat-grass are well adapted to a broad belt south of the
area in which timothy succeeds best. Brome-grass is es-
pecially valuable in temperate regions of small rainfall.

ORCHARD-GRASS

174. Description. — Orchard-grass, in England com-
monly called cock’s-foot or rough cock’s-foot, is a long-
lived, perennial grass forming dense circular tufts which
may become a foot or more in diameter. It is a typical
bunch grass, producing no stolons, and hence never forms
a complete sod. The peculiar inflorescence is characteris-
tic and cannot be mistaken for any other cultivated grass.

175. Botany. — Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata) is
native throughout Europe excepting the northernmost
portions, much of the northern half of Asia, and in Africa
in the mountains of Algeria and in Madeira and the
Canaries. Botanists have distinguished a considerable
number of varieties. Among the more noteworthy are

hispanica, which has the branches of the panicle not
176

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 177

stalked but flower-bearing to the base; maritima, with
the panicle dark violet; pendula, with a looser, somewhat
drooping panicle ; abbreviata, with a short compact panicle ;
and ciliata, which
differs from all the
above in having hairy
sheaths and lemmas.

Very closely related
species are Dactylis
aschersoniana, which
has creeping root-
stocks and mostly
6-flowered _ spikelets,
and Dactylis altaica.

None of these have
become agricultural
grasses, but variety
pendula was at one
time supplied by Vil-
morin in France.

176. Agricultural
history. — Orchard-
grass was cultivated
in Virginia before
1760, in which year
seed was sent to Eng-

land. Its culture in Fia. 17. — Orchard-grass (Dactylis

continental Europe be- glomerata). a, spikelet ; b, floret ; Cc, sta-
; mens and pistil; d, ligule; e, section of

gan about the begin- jode.

ning of the nine-

teenth century and became important by 1850. At

the present time it is cultivated in nearly all temper-

ate regions.
N

7S FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

177. Climatic adaptations. — While orchard-grass is
strictly a temperate grass, it will withstand a greater
quantity of heat than timothy, and is also more easily
injured by winter cold. In the United States, it is culti-
vated more abundantly southward than northward. This
distribution is due partly to competition with timothy and
partly from the fact that fall-sown stands of orchard-
grass are uncertain. This uncertainty has been ascribed
to late frosts rather than winter cold, but the evidence
is not satisfactory. Orchard-grass begins its growth in
spring much earlier than most grasses, which is one reason
why the late spring frosts are injurious.

At Copper Center, Alaska, it was entirely winter-killed,
while a considerable percentage of timothy survived.

At Fort Vermilion, Alberta, orchard-grass planted in
spring was completely killed the succeeding winter when
the minimum reached was 23° below zero Fahrenheit.

178. Soil preferences. — While orchard-grass will grow
in all types of soils, it ordinarily does not succeed well in
sands or muck. It is best adapted to clays or clay loams.
It is not averse to wet soils, but prefers a moderate amount
of moisture. Fair success can be had when the rainfall
is rather scanty, as 1t is somewhat more resistant to drought
than is timothy.

179. Adaptation to shade. — Orchard-grass succeeds so
well in shady places that this peculiarity has given rise
to one of its common names. Its adaptation to shade has
been ascribed as due partly to its great leafiness and partly
to its early growth before the trees become leafy. How-
ever, it succeeds apparently as well in the shade of ever-
greens as of deciduous trees.

Stebler in Switzerland shaded artificially one portion of
a field sown to a mixture of grasses and determined each

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 179

year the percentage of each grass. The percentage of
orchard-grass each year was as follows : —

1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908

5 6.65)/17.6) 21,8 | 2323. | 10.0
7 | 21.1 | 34.4 | 46.3 | 40.9 | 37.8

INotzshaded " -.. *.7 48-10.
Shaded . Ey esl all:

The percentage increase of the orchard-grass due to
the gradual disappearance of the other grasses was more
marked in the shaded than in the unshaded area.

180. Variability. — Orchard-grass is exceedingly vari-
able, not less so than timothy. Numerous varieties can
easily be selected anywhere from thin fields and from the
roadsides. Cross-pollination is the rule so that such
individual plants usually give rise to diverse progeny.
There can be no question that pure strains much superior
to the ordinary mixed progeny can easily be isolated. It
is doubtful, however, if the importance of this grass in the
United States is sufficient to justify selection and the care
necessary to keep strains pure.

181. Advantages and disadvantages. — To illustrate
the strong and weak points of orchard-grass it may be
compared with timothy. Orchard-grass is better adapted
to conditions southward and less so to those northward ;
it is less well suited to being grown in pure cultures, owing
to its bunchy habit; it can be cut for hay much earlier ;
it becomes woody after full bloom much more rapidly and
markedly ; the cost of seed per acre is about five times as
large; the spring growth is more abundant and much
earlier; the aftermath is much greater, often producing
a second crop of hay; the plants are more persistent both
in meadows and pastures.

180 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In average yield of hay and in feeding value, there
probably is but little difference, but the market pref-
erence in America is strongly in favor of timothy.

182. Importance. — Orchard-grass is probably fourth
or fifth in importance among cultivated perennial hay
grasses in America. As a hay grass it should be second
or third in importance, as southward it is much better
adapted than timothy, and should be more generally
employed, especially in mixtures.

At present, orchard-grass is most important in Kentucky,
southern Indiana, Iowa, North Carolina, Virginia, West
Virginia, Maryland and western Oregon.

The relative importance of orchard-grass is much higher
in Europe than in America.

183. Seeding of orchard-grass.—Sced may be sown
both in the fall and in very early spring. If sown in the
fall, early seedings are preferable as this much lessens the
danger of winter-killing. In the seed-growing sections, it is
the common practice to sow the grass in February in
fall-sown wheat, and it is often sown at the same time on
ground which has been in corn during the previous season.
It may also be sown with spring oats. Whether sown in
fall or in spring, the first year’s growth rarely yields a
crop of hay, but can be utilized only as pasturage. On
this account, as well as the danger of winter-killing,
spring seedings are in general to be preferred.

When planting for a seed crop, thin seeding is desirable,
and for this purpose one bushel of seed, which weighs
about 14 pounds, is commonly used. If planted for hay,
double this quantity is very satisfactory as the plants are
thicker and the hay less coarse. The seed does not feed
well through a drill and so is sown by hand or with a
wheelbarrow or other type of seeder. Very shallow cover-

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 181

ing of the seed apparently gives the best results, and some-
times it is broadcasted with subsequent harrowing. «©

For Ohio Williams recommends 20 pounds per acre for
hay, and 12 to 20 pounds if for seed production.

Werner recommends 35 pounds in Germany, and Stebler
the same amount in Switzerland.

184. Life history. — If sown in spring orchard-grass
does not come to bloom the first season. Its development
is very slow as compared to other grasses. In mixtures
it may not bloom till the third season.

Orchard-grass is very long-lived and persists indefi-
nitely when once planted. Individual plants are known
to live eight years and they will probably live much longer.

Where orchard-grass seed-production is carried on,
fields are usually allowed to lay five to seven years.

185. Harvesting for hay. — Orchard-grass should be
cut for hay as soon as it reaches full bloom. If permitted
to stand longer, the stems become much more woody.
Its period of maturity is usually three weeks to a month
earlier than that of timothy. This earlier date of harvest-
ing is advantageous in the case of land badly infested with
oxeye daisy and fleabane, as these weeds have not ripened
their seed at the time orchard-grass hay is cut, and con-
sequently the use of orchard-grass tends to free the land
of these weeds.

After the first crop of hay has been harvested orchard-
grass produces a rapid and abundant second growth,
which consists largely of leaves, the culms being com-
paratively few. This second growth is much greater than
that of any other hay grass adapted to temperate condi-
tions. The yield of hay from the second crop is usually
smaller than the first.

Even when the first crop is cut for seed, the second

182 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

growth often makes a fair crop of hay by the end of
August or early September.

186. Yields of hay.— While orchard-grass is_ best
suited for sowing in mixture, it will when seeded alone
usually yield about as well as timothy.

The yield of dry matter at the Illinois Experiment
Station was found to be 2642 pounds an acre when in full
bloom and 3232 when the seeds were in the milk.

Yields in pounds per acre have been reported by Ameri-
can experiment stations as follows: Ohio, 2197; Kansas,
2809; Illinois, 2800; Michigan, 2080; Idaho, 5280;
Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2880; North Carolina, 1554;
Arkansas, 3188.

In Europe yields have been reported as follows : Sinclair
in England, 11,685 pounds; Pinckert in Germany, 3520
pounds; Vianne in France, 15,570 pounds.

Orchard-grass was grown continuously on two plots at
the Michigan Experiment Station from 1897 to 1905. The
yield by acre in pounds on the two plots was as follows : —

YEAR 1897 |1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905

3000] 258} 1750/2760|2150/1500)2230)/2250/1640
3000} 183} 2250)3620)2900/2150|2970)2330)/2620

¥ields .° . *

After plowing up the sod in 1906, the plots were cropped
to corn in 1906, oats in 1907 and wheat in 1908. Heavier
yields were secured on these plots than on plots that had
been in fallow continuously or on others which had been
planted to regular rotations mostly including clover.
The yield of the orchard-grass for the last seven years was
quite uniform.

For yields under irrigation see Par. 41.

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 183

187. Harvesting orchard-grass for seed.—In the
United States most of the seed is grown in the counties of
Jefferson, Oldham and Shelby in Kentucky, Clark County,
Indiana, Clinton and Highland Counties, Ohio, and in
northern Virginia. The average yield an acre, as reported
by the better farmers, is ten to twelve bushels. Har-
vesting usually begins about the middle of June, the crop
being ready for cutting as soon as the seeds become straw-
colored. This is easily detected by bending the heads
in the palm of the hand, and if some of the seeds shatter
out, it is ready to cut. The grass is practically always
harvested with an ordinary grain binder, care being taken
to make small bundles so as to facilitate rapid curing.
The bundles are commonly placed three in a shock, which
is tied with two bands of straw so as to hold the bundles
firmly and prevent the seed from shattering. Depending
on the weather, the shocks are left in the field up to four
weeks before they are cured thoroughly. Thrashing
usually takes place directly from the field. As a rule the
grass is cut high so as to avoid low-growing weeds, and
also because the undergrowth is thus left for subsequent
pasturing or to be cut as hay. The thrashing is done with
an ordinary grain thrasher, but using special riddles and
but little wind.

188. Weeds.— The most troublesome weeds in orchard-
grass fields in the states where the seed is mainly grown
are whiteweed (Erigeron strigosus and E. annuus) ; sorrel
(Rumex acetosella) ; oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucan-
themum); milfoil (Achillea Millefolium); and buckhorn
(Plantago lanceolata).

Some seed growers cut out these weeds with a hoe
before the crop of orchard-grass is harvested, but this
method is expensive. Spraying with weed-killing chem-

184 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

icals has been used to a small extent, but is not very
satisfactory.

A much better method is to use sheep to keep the weeds
down. ‘These animals may be turned in the field as soon
as the grass begins to grow in spring, and allowed to remain
until harvest time, but many growers remove them in
early May. As the orchard-grass matures, the sheep eat
but little of it, but graze principally on the weeds, especially
whiteweed. They do very little damage to the grass
when it is dry but should be removed during wet weather.
Even when sheep stampede through a field nearly ripe
but few culms are broken. This is due to the bunching
habit of the orchard-grass which leaves room between
the plants for the feet of the sheep, and the stout
stems are seldom injured. Cattle are not nearly as
satisfactory as sheep, for they trample down too much
of the grass.

189. Seed. — Orchard-grass seed is often adulterated
with that of meadow fescue and perennial rye-grass, both
of which resemble it rather closely, and both of which are
much cheaper. Orchard-grass seed, however, may be
readily distinguished from these two by the slightly
smaller size and the awn-pointed apex of the lemma,
which in both of the others is merely acute (Fig. 18).

The best quality of seed reaches a purity of 95-98 per
cent and a viability of 98-99 per cent. Germination is
complete in 14 days. The seed deteriorates but little
the first year, but thereafter more rapidly, so that when
four years old it 1s worthless.

A bushel weighs from 12 to 22 pounds, the usual legal
weight being 14 pounds. One pound contains, according
to different authorities, 579,500 seeds (Stebler), 426,000
seeds (Hunter), 400,000 to 480,000 seeds (Hunt).

ORCHARD—-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 185

190. Sources of seed. — Commercial seed of orchard-
grass is most largely grown in the United States and in
New Zealand, but some seed is produced in Europe
(southern France, Germany, Hungary, Holland, etce.).
New Zealand seed is sometimes imported into the United
States in considerable quantity. No American ‘ experi-
ments, however, have been reported as to the relative

Ak bbl dD, Loh,
— - =o

4
Ny

- Fia. 18.— Mixture of seeds of orchard-grass (a), meadow fescue grass
(b) and English rye-grass (c). The orchard-grass seeds are distinguished
from the others by their slender, curved form. The meadow fescue and
rye-grass seeds are distinguished by the difference in the section of the
seed-cluster axis (rachilla segment) which each bears. (Enlarged.)

yield obtained from seed from different sources. In plots
grown side by side in Virginia the New Zealand strain was
distinctly shorter and apparently inferior by about 20
per cent.

Under Swiss conditions, Stebler reports that French
seed gives the most satisfactory results, but American is
scarcely inferior, though a little later; in two out of five
trials the American outyielded the French strain. Seed

186 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

from Switzerland, Holland and Germany gave in each
case practically as good results as that from France.
The New Zealand strain proved inferior to the French in
six trials. It proved to be slower in growth and somewhat
less winter hardy.

At three experiment stations in Denmark, tests were
conducted for three years to determine the amount of hay
produced from seed from different sources; namely,
United States, Denmark, Germany, France, Sweden,
Australia and New Zealand. The American strain was
slightly superior to the European at two of the stations.
The Australian and New Zealand strains showed a smaller
yield by about 20 per cent.

191. Utilization of stubble and aftermath. — Among
orchard-grass seed growers, there is much difference of
opinion as to the utilization of the stubble and aftermath,
especially as to its effect upon the next year’s seed crop.
A common practice is to cut the stubble and aftermath
in the latter part of August and to utilize it for hay, but
some farmers allow it to lie on the field as a mulch. Some
farmers cut the stubble as soon as possible after seed har-
vest, while others believe it is best to leave both the stubble
and aftermath uncut.

Pasturing the stubble and aftermath is a very common
practice and if done judiciously, especially with sheep, is
believed not only not to lessen the next season’s crop but
even to cause an increase.

192. Mixtures. — Orchard-grass, excepting for seed
production, is seldom sown alone as the bunchy nature
of the grass does not fully utilize the ground. One of the
most satisfactory mixtures is orchard-grass, tall meadow
oat-grass and alsike clover, in the following proportions:
10 pounds of orchard-grass, 20 pounds of tall meadow oat-

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 187

grass, 4 pounds of alsike clover. The tall meadow oat-
grass matures with the orchard-grass, and at this time a
satisfactory growth of the alsike clover has also been made.
On much of the area south of the Potomac and Ohio
rivers, this mixture yields much more satisfactory crops
than timothy and red clover.

Another mixture commonly used is orchard-grass and
red clover, which is very satisfactory wherever red clover
succeeds well. In this mixture, orchard-grass is sown at
the usual rate and about 10 pounds of red clover used to
the acre. This mixture is often used where the orchard-
grass 1s grown mainly for seed, as the clover interferes but
little with the harvesting of the seed crop, and adds greatly
to the subsequent crop of hay or pasturage.

193. Pasturage value. — Orchard-grass should be a
constituent of pastures wherever this grass will grow.
Especially is this true on account of its ability to grow in
cool weather, as it will furnish the earliest and latest
pasturage in the season. Furthermore, it succeeds best
under heavy grazing, and produces a continuous succession
of young leaves. The most serious objection to it as a
pasture grass is that, during unfavorable soil conditions,
the plants are apt to be pulled out of the ground by pastur-
ing animals. Where it forms only a portion of the pasture
mixture, however, there is but little difficulty from this
source.

Cattle graze upon it quite as readily as upon timothy,
but prefer Kentucky blue-grass to both.

194. Feed value. — No American feeding experiments
with orchard-grass hay have becn reported. Judged
wholly by its chemical analysis and digestibility, orchard-
grass should be considerably more nutritious than timothy
hay, and many farmers consider that this is the case

188 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

both for horses and cows. There is considerable market
prejudice against it, however, on account of its relative
coarseness.

195. Value as a soil binder. — Orchard-grass is com-
monly recognized as exceedingly valuable to plant in
places where the soil is likely to wash. Thus, planted in
rills with rye as a nurse crop, it has proven very effective
in preventing further washing. Its effectiveness is ap-
parently more due to the large tussocks that it makes than
to any other one character.

Orchard-grass has deeper roots than most grasses.
Ten Eyck at the Kansas Experiment Station found that
the root system of a large plant extended to a depth of 33
feet. Theroot mass was very dense in the top 6 inches,
but below 10 inches rapidly became thinner.

At the Arkansas Experiment Station the total weight
of the roots was found to be equal to the tops. Fifty
per cent of the roots were in the top 12 inches and 90 per
cent in the top 30 inches.

196. Improvement by selection. — Orchard-grass is
decidedly variable, apparently more so than timothy.
The contrasting characters are easily seen when vegeta-
tively propagated rows are grown in a nursery. Marked
differences are apparent in height, coarseness, leafiness,
color, earliness, number of culms, length of leaves, ete.

In recent years the study of these variations with the
object of developing improved strains has received at-
tention both in America and in Europe.

197. Pests. — Orchard-grass is but little troubled by
insects or diseases. Occasionally rust is found in small
quantity. A very common trouble, however, is the tip
burn of the leaves, a characteristic trouble of the grass,
which seems not to have been scientifically investigated.

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 189

TALL OAT-GRASS

198. Names.— Tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius)
is known also as tall meadow oat-grass, tall oat-grass,
false oat-grass, French
rye-grass and, in the
South, evergreen grass.
The French name, fro-
mental, has become
much used in Germany
and Switzerland, and is
advocated by Stebler
as a convenient and
distinctive name _ for
general adoption.
Synonyms of the sci-
entific name are Ar-
rhenatherum avenaceum
and Avena elatior.

199. Botany. — Tall
oat-grass is native to
southern Europe and
northern Africa, but
ranges eastward into
Persia. It is quite
variable, eight varie-
ties being considered Fie. 19.— Tall oat-grass (Arrhena-
distinguishable by Eu- therum elatius). a, spikelet; b, the two
ropean botanists. goo

The most noteworthy variety is tuberosa which bears
a number of bulbs at base like a string of small onions and ~
is therefore called Onion Couch. This is sparingly intro-
duced in the United States. In Europe it occurs mainly

190 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

on poor pasture lands and not in fields of tall oat-grass.
Under some conditions it has been found in Great Britain
troublesome as a weed. Some botanists have considered
that the bulbs are abnormal and produced by a parasite,
but the variety breeds true to seed. Stebler and Volkart
report that in small plots it yielded less than half as much
hay as tall oat-grass.

Other varieties are subhirsuta with sparsely hairy
sheaths; biaristata with both florets of each spikelet bear-
ing awns; flavescens with the spikelets yellow instead of
pale green; and hermaphrodita with the spikelets some-
times 3-flowered, and all the florets perfect.

200. Agricultural history. — Tall oat-grass was ad-
vocated for culture by Kalm in Sweden in 1747. Accord-
ing to Schreber, however, it was first cultivated by Abbe
Miroudet in France, in 1760, but Stebler and Volkart state
that it was probably cultivated in southern France before
that time and it was commended by Stapfer for cultivation
in Switzerland in 1762. It was cultivated in Massachu-
setts as early as 1807 and in South Carolina in 1824.

201. Adaptations.— Tall oat-grass is adapted to
about the same climatic conditions as orchard-grass ;
that is, it will not endure as much cold as timothy, but
will withstand greater summer heat.

It is one of the most drought resistant of all cultivated
grasses, being excelled in this respect only by brome-grass
and western wheat-grass. Wet soils are distinctly in-
jurious and tall oat-grass will not endure on such land.
It does well under irrigation, provided the subsoil be well
drained.

It thrives best on loose, deep loams and calcareous
soils, but succeeds also on sandy and gravelly soils. Per-
haps no other perennial grass will yield as well on very

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 191

poor land. Nevertheless its yields are greatly increased
by the use of fertilizers.

It does not grow well in shade, but rapidly disappears.
For this reason, it should never be sown with a nurse crop,
as both the thickness and the vigor of the stand is much
lessened thereby. For the same reason it is injured in
mixtures by any grass which shades the ground too much.

Tall oat-grass is primarily a hay grass. Frequent
cuttings reduce the total yield greatly, and under pasturing
the return is comparatively small.

In the Southern States tall oat-grass remains green the
whole year, whence it has been called evergreen grass.
It languishes, however, in midsummer in the moist region
near the Gulf of Mexico.

202. Importance. — Tall oat-grass is not an important
grass in America. In continental Europe it is considered
one of the best grasses and is commonly grown, especially
in France. In England it has never been much used.
To some extent the grass is cultivated in Australia. In
the United States it is mostly employed on poor or gravelly
land and near the southern limit of timothy production.
In experiments continued over several years at Arlington
Farm, Virginia, a mixture of this grass with orchard-grass
and alsike clover was found to be far more productive on
relatively poor land than any other perennial grass or
grass mixture. This mixture has recently been received
with much favor in South Carolina, and for much of the
area south of the timothy region is probably the best
combination of perennial grasses for hay meadows. For
this reason the grass seems destined to increase in im-
portance.

203. Characteristics. — Tall oat-grass is a long-lived,
deep-rooted perennial. It is strictly a bunch grass, all

192 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the new shoots being produced intravaginally and grow-
ing perfectly erect. The lowermost joint may, however,
be elbowed, due to resistance encountered by the young
shoot when developing through the old tuft. The stems
grow to a height of about 4 feet, rarely 6 feet. The
panicle is pyramidal, loose and pale green, more nearly
resembling that of the oat than any other cultivated per-
ennial grass. The spikelets bear two florets, the lower
bearing a long, twisted and elbowed awn from its base.

In mixtures where tall oat is not shaded by other grasses,
it maintains itself well for five years or even more. The
hay is somewhat bitter in taste and on this and other
accounts it is better grown in mixtures. At Arlington
Farm, Virginia, however, horses ate pure hay of tall oat-
grass readily, and most American experiment stations
have reported that animals eat it well. Its supposed un-
palatability is probably exaggerated and, as in similar cases,
it is presumably easy to accustom animals to its taste.

204. Seeding. — Tall oat-grass, whether sown alone
or in mixtures, is best sown in the spring in the North,
but in the South early fall seeding is preferable. In Ten-
nessee the best time is the latter half of September or else
March and April. A well-prepared firm seed bed is most
desirable. The seed is rather large and deep seeding is
important, about 1 inch in moist soil and 15 inches when
dry.

European authorities recommend for one acre, if sown
alone, 80 pounds of seed germinating 50 per cent; that is,
about 40 pounds of viable seed.

205. Hay.— Tall oat-grass should be cut for hay
promptly when it blooms, as thereafter the stems rapidly
become more woody. It cures into hay more readily
than most other grasses.

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 198

On rich soils it may be cut as many as three or four times
in a season, but on poor soils but once or twice. The first
cutting is nearly always the largest. The yield the second
year is nearly always the heaviest.

European authorities have recorded the following hay
yields to the acre: Pinckert, 6340 pounds secured from two
cuttings; Sprengel, 8800 pounds. Karmrodt in Germany
secured from the same plot in four successive years yields
at the rate respectively of 6468, 15,268, 10,384 and 7524
pounds to the acre.

Yields to the acre in pounds have been reported from
American experiment stations as follows: North Carolina,
2994; Louisiana, 3400; Kentucky, 8160; North Dakota,
3220; South Dakota, 2083; Ohio, 2247, 6-year average ;
Kansas, 2453, 4-year average; Illinois, 5480; Arlington ~
Farm, Virginia, 3720; Michigan (Upper ~ Peninsula),
5680; Utah, 2691; Idaho, 5760; Ontario (Guelph), 5520,
7-year average.

In general about 3 pounds of the green grass make
1 pound of hay.

206. Seed-production. — The seed of tall oat-grass is
mostly grown in Europe (France, Tyrol, Switzerland,
Bohemia) but some is produced ‘in Virginia. Spillman
states that at the Washington Experiment Station it
shattered very readily within 24 hours after it began to
ripen. On the contrary, Stebler says the growing of seed
in Europe is very profitable because it yields well, is
easily harvested and commands a good price. It is ready
to cut for seed when the panicles turn yellowish and the
grain can be broken by the finger nail. It is better,
however, to cut too early than too late to avoid loss by
shattering. Ifa binder is used in harvesting, early cutting

is necessary.
O

194 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The yield of seed to the acre in Europe is given by Pinck-
ert as 880 pounds; by Walker, as 88 to 132 pounds;
by Michalowski as the average of 4 years, 328 pounds;
by Jung, 880 pounds, when grown on a large scale; and
by Werner as 724 to 880 pounds.

Tall oat-grass is frequently infested with a smut (Ust?-
lago perennans) which destroys the attacked seeds.

207. Seed. — The seed of tall oat-grass weighs 10 to 16
pounds per bushel. It loses viability quite rapidly after
the first year, and by the fourth year is practically
worthless. In common with other grass seeds for which
there is small demand in America, seed is quite likely to be
old or else mixed with old seeds.

The percentage of impurities in tall oat-grass seed is
rather large, on the average 20 per cent, but the other
seeds are commonly those of other grasses which occur
in fields, such as orchard-grass and meadow fescue, but
there is often considerable cockle (Agrostemma githago)
present. One pound contains about 150,000 (138,000 to
159,000) seeds.

208. Mixtures. — Tall oat-grass should rarely be sown
alone unless for the purpose of seed production. Among
the reasons for growing it in mixtures are its bunch habit,
its relative lack of palatability, the cost of the seed and
the fact that it is primarily a top grass. It must not,
however, be sown in mixtures containing much Italian
rye-grass or other grasses which grow more rapidly and
thus injure the tall oat seedlings by shading; nor should
it be sown with grasses that mature distinctly earlier
or later, as tall oat-grass should be cut when in bloom.
It is early and blooms about 10 days sooner than red
clover. European authorities recommend that only 10-
20 per cent of tall oat-grass should be used in mixtures,

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 195

but a larger percentage has not been found disadvantageous
in America.

The best grasses and clovers for mixing with tall oat-
grass are orchard-grass, meadow fescue, alsike and red
clover. In the region south of the best area for timothy
and red clover the so-called Arlington mixture has been
found especially good, the amount indicated to be sown
on one acre: —

Orehard-orass —. «4 2 « « 6. <, «0 « #s/, 20 pounds
Malloateerass: <.. « « «© »« « © « » «6 «6 »« av pounds
Wisike clover “se << + « &% « «<8 « s % 4 pourids

BROME-GRASS

209. Names and description. — Brome-grass (Bromus
inermis) is also called smooth brome awnless brome,
Hungarian brome, Russian brome and Austrian brome.

It is a long-lived perennial grass, enduring according
to Werner 12 to 13 years. Each plant produces many
underground rootstocks and thus mats a foot or more in
diameter are formed. Single plants under favorable
conditions grow to a height of about 4 feet, and each one
may possess 100 to 200 culms. The basal leaves are
numerous, and the lower half of each culm may bear 5 or
6 leaves.

After two or three years it forms a dense sod and there-
after without special treatment the plants form but few
culms. This characteristic makes it better suited for
permanent pastures than for hay production.

210. Botany. — Bromus inermis is native to much of
Europe and extends through Siberia to China. Botani-
eally it is not very variable, though five or six varieties
have been deemed worthy of botanical designations.
Among these varieties are pellitus with lower leaves and

196 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

sheaths hairy; divaricatus with triangular pyramidal
panicles and small spikelets; pauciflorus with small 3-4-
flowered spikelets; and aristatus with the lemma short-
awned. Very closely
related but perhaps
distinct is Bromus
Reimanna with short
leaves and small

panicles.
211. Agricultural
history. — Brome-

grass was first culti-
vated, according to
Schreber, in 1769 as
a pasture grass. It
is not, however, an
important grass in
Europe, being grown
mainly in Hungary
and Russia.

It was introduced
into the United States
prior to 1884 by the
California Experi-
; ment Station. It

Fra. 20.— Brome-grass (Bromus inermis). has met with most
a, spikelet ; b, floret, dorsal view; c, floret, favor in the region
vertical view.

west of the 95th
meridian and north of latitude 36°, especially as a grass
for unirrigated lands. In North and South Dakota
and in the Columbia Basin brome-grass attained con-
siderable prominence, but in recent years its cultiva-
tion has slowly diminished. More of it has been

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 197

grown in the Dakotas and in Manitoba than in any
other region.

212. Adaptations. — Brome-grass is especially adapted
to regions of rather low rainfall and moderate summer
temperatures. High summer temperatures and humidity
are both adverse. In trial plots the grass has sueceeded
well enough in the region of timothy and red clover, but
has not attained popularity.

It prefers rich loams and clay loams, but has succeeded
well in sandy soils. No other cultivated perennial grass
has shown a higher degree of drought resistance.

Brome endures winter cold remarkably well and no
instances of winter injury have been reported even in
North Dakota. At Kenai, Alaska, it succeeds fairly well
except in very moist summers.

213. Depth of roots. — Shepperd at the North Dakota
Experiment Station found that one-year-old plants had
roots 4 feet deep, and two-year-old plants 53 feet. At the
same station brome roots were found to be 5 to 6 feet
deep when timothy roots reached only 34 feet.

Ten Eyck at the Kansas Experiment Station found roots
to a depth of 4% feet, at which depth solid rock prevented
further penetration, but the roots had spread over the rock
in a large mass.

214. Method of seeding. — In the regions where it is
most grown, brome-grass is nearly always seeded in early
spring on a well-prepared seed bed. Fall plowing in some
places is preferable as it insures a better supply of moisture.
The surface of the seed bed should be well firmed by harrow-
ing, and rolling is also desirable.

Where the rainfall is sufficient the grass is often sown
with a nurse crop — wheat, oats, barley or spelt. The
grass seed does not feed well through a drill, so it is usually

198 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

broadcasted after the grain has been drilled, and then
covered by harrowing crosswise to the drill rows.

In regions where fall-sown timothy will succeed, brome-
grass may be sown in fall either with or without wheat,
or the brome-grass may be sown alone in late summer.

At the Nebraska Experiment Station in 1902 brome-
grass was sown March 24, April 8 and 21, May 7 and 19,
August 7 and 19, September 15, October 1 and 21. All
produced good stands except the last seeding which was
winter-kailled.

215. Rate of seeding brome-grass. — The usual rate
of seeding is 1 bushel (14 pounds) to the acre, but under
favorable conditions 10 pounds is sufficient. Where only
pasture is desired a double quantity of seed is often used,
as a dense stand will permit of grazing sooner. At the
Wisconsin Experiment Station 32 pounds to the acre gave
much better results than 16 or 24 pounds, but in all cases
the yield was small. The North Dakota and Nebraska
Experiment Stations recommend 20 pounds to the acre.

According to Werner, brome is sown in Europe at the
rate of 55 kg. to the hectare ; that is, 48 pounds to the acre.

216. Time to cut for hay. — Brome-grass is usually
cut for hay just after full bloom at the stage called “‘ the
purple.” There is a considerable period, however, in
which it may be cut with apparently little effect on the hay.

Under favorable conditions of moisture two cuttings
can be obtained, the first in June or July, the second in
September. The second crop produces but few culms,
and the yield is much smaller.

The hay cures less readily than timothy and is more
easily injured by unfavorable weather.

At the North Dakota Experiment Station brome-
grass cut at three different dates, June 21, June 25 and

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 199

July 9, gave respectively 5637, 6456 and 7632 pounds
to the acre green substance, or 2290, 2462 and 2802 pounds
dry substance. At the first date the grass was in bloom ;
at the second in the milk stage; and at the third fully
mature.

217. Hay.— The yield of hay from brome-grass is
usually small the first year, good the second year and best
the third year. Thereafter it falls off rapidly unless given
special treatment. The average yield of hay is about
15 tons to the acre, the maximum about 33 tons. Yields to
the acre have been reported from many experiment sta-
tions, as follows: Ohio, 2900 pounds in 1905, 5960 pounds
in 1910; Wisconsin, 4200 pounds; Michigan (Upper
Peninsula), 4295 and 3285 pounds ; Nebraska, 4640 pounds
in 1900, 2640 in 1903; Kansas, 6016 pounds, average for
4 years ; Colorado (San Luis Valley), 3718 pounds; Idaho,
5600 pounds; Wyoming, 4400 pounds; South Dakota,
third, fourth and fifth seasons, 3720, 3632 and 7680 pounds
respectively ; North Dakota, Fargo, 2520 pounds, and
Dickinson, 2520 pounds, average for 2 years; Indian
Head, Saskatchewan, average of 18 yields in 10 years,
2622 pounds; Brandon, Manitoba, average of 6 yields
in 4 years, 4100 pounds.

For yield under irrigation see Par. 41.

218. Fertilizers. — But few fertilizer experiments have
been made on brome-grass. Barnyard manure is nearly
always helpful, if available. Manured and unmanured
plots yielded respectively 2012 and 1242 pounds per acre
at Dickinson, N.D., and 5500 and 3920 pounds per acre
at Fargo, N.D.

At the Nebraska Experiment Station a small plot fer-
tilized at the rate of about 6 tons of rotted horse manure
and 320 pounds nitrate of soda in spring yielded the fol-

200 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE _

lowing year at the rate of 5666 pounds to the acre against
2166 for a check plot.

At the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada,
400 pounds superphosphate to the acre gave a greatly in-
creased yield.

219. Treatment of meadows. —In the Dakotas and
adjacent Canada, brome-grass fields as a rule yield the
first season nothing but a small amount of pasturage;
the second year, a good crop of hay; the third year, a
maximum crop; the fourth year, a decidedly diminished
yield; and thereafter, but little unless special treatment
is given.

In the Columbia Basin a good amount of pasture is
secured the first year, the second year the grass yields
but moderately if cut for hay, but bears a heavy crop of
seed. The third year the hay crop is at a maximum.

Brome-grass, after the third or fourth year, falls off
in yield rapidly on account of what is called a “ sod-
bound ”’ condition, apparently due in part to the spread-
ing of the grass, and in part to the increasing compactness
of the soil. Loosening the soil thoroughly will renew the
vigor of the grass. On loose or sandy soil harrowing with
disk or spike-tooth harrow is fairly effective. On heavier
soils plowing is necessary, the time depending largely on
the soil moisture conditions. But little of the grass is
killed by plowing. Several methods have been used : —

1. Plowing about 2 inches deep in spring, a method
advocated by the Saskatchewan Experiment Farm.

2. Plowing after the hay crop is harvested, advocated
by the Brandon, Manitoba, Experiment Farm.

3. Plowing in spring and seeding to oats or other grain,
to which some brome seed may be added. In this way a
crop of grain is secured and a full grass crop the next year.

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 201

4. Breaking the sod in fall, and sowing oats or other
small grain in spring. The next season a full crop of
erass is obtained.

220. Seed-production. — The seed of brome-grass is
mainly grown in North and South Dakota, and in Mani-
toba and Saskatchewan. It is cut at the stage called
‘brown’ when the seed is fully formed and nearly ripe.
It is usually harvested with a binder, more rarely with
a header and oceasionally with a mowing machine.
When a binder is used, the grass is cut as high as possible
and the bundles then shocked for curing. The tall stubble
is then cut for hay and yields about one ton per acre.
Harvesting the seed with a header leaves a larger amount
of the grass for hay.

The seed is thrashed with an ordinary thrashing machine,
using special riddles, and with the wind shut off to prevent
the seed from blowing over. The seed usually contains
fragments of straw which cannot all be separated even
with a fanning mill. .

Seed yields average from about 250 to 350 pounds to the
acre. At the Saskatchewan Experimental Farm as high |
as 600 pounds to the acre were secured. At the lowa Ex-
periment Station 300 pounds were obtained. At North
Platte, Nebraska, three plots yielded respectively 157,
200 and 700 pounds to the acre, the first plot being on land
previously in alfalfa.

221. Seed. — Although brome-grass seed is_ easily
distinguished, it is sometimes adulterated with meadow
fescue, perennial rye-grass and cheat. European seed
sometimes contains quack-grass as an impurity, and the
seeds of this are very similar to western wheat-grass,
which may occur in American seed.

The best commercial brome-grass seed attains a purity

202 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

of 98-99 per cent, and a viability of 90-95 per cent.
Germination tests should continue 14 days.

The seed weighs 12 to 20 pounds to the bushel. One
pound contains 137,000 seeds, according to Stebler.

222. Pasture value. — Brome-grass is better adapted
for pasture purposes than for hay. Under semi-arid con-
ditions in the Northwest, brome-grass is without question
the best pasture grass for cultivated lands yet discovered.
Its ability to withstand drought is as great as that of
alfalfa. Other characters that emphasize its pasture
value, especially on sandy lands, are its sod producing
habit, which enables it to withstand trampling and pre-
vents uprooting.

Comparative tests have shown that it is one of the most
palatable of all grasses, cattle grazing upon it in preference
even to blue-grass. It begins to grow very early in the
spring and continues growth into late fall. After frost
the leaves become purplish, but the grass does not seem to
lose in palatability.

At the North Dakota Experiment Station brome-grass
cut five times during the season yielded 5538 pounds of
green grass against 4682 pounds for timothy.

223. Mixtures. — Several mixtures with brome-grass
have been employed and are especially satisfactory in
that they tend to delay the sod-bound condition. Timothy
has been most used in mixtures, but alfalfa, red clover,
orchard-grass, slender wheat-grass and meadow fescue
have also been found desirable. At the Indian Head,
Saskatchewan, Experimental Farm, a mixture of brome-
grass and slender wheat-grass has proven particularly
desirable.

224. Variability. — Brome-grass, like most other grasses,
shows a wide range of variability in desirable character-

ORCHARD-GRASS, OAT-GRASS, BROME-GRASSES 208

istics. Numerous strains have been selected by Leckenby,
by Evans and by Dillman of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, by Keyser of the Colorado Experiment
Station and others. As yet no pure strains have become
established.

The progeny of some individuals is quite uniform;
in others, very diverse. Keyser has selected 121 distinct
strains, and has recently published illustrations and notes
on the most striking. The individual plants vary in
vigor, height, number of culms, amount of stooling,
coarseness of stems, color of leaves and panicles, length and
breadth of leaves and earliness. For pasture purposes
the most desirable type is apparently one that stools
vigorously and produces an abundance of leaves. For
hay purposes, one that is relatively bunchy with tall,
leafy culms is probably best.

CHAPTER X

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPOR-
TANCE

THE grasses discussed in this chapter are all important
in limited areas in America. Most of them thrive well
over wide regions in which they are little or not at all
used. With the increasing value and importance of grass
lands in general agriculture, their greater utilization in the
future scarcely admits of doubt.

MEADOW FESCUE (Festuca elatior)

225. Botany and history. — Meadow fescue occurs
naturally over all of Europe and in much of temperate
Asia. The species is not very variable, but eight or more
varieties based on slight characters have been described
and named by botanists. From a botanical point of
view Festuca pratensis Hudson is considered identical
with F. elatior Linnzus, but seedsmen use these names as
the equivalents, respectively, of two cultural varieties;
namely, meadow fescue or English blue-grass, and tall —
fescue. The former has also been known as Randall
grass in the South, but this name has sometimes been
applied to tall oat-grass, perhaps erroneously.

Meadow fescue was first recommended for cultivation

by Kalm in Sweden in 1747.
204

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 205

226. Characteristics. — Meadow fescue is a_ tufted,
deep-rooted, long-lived perennial. It produces an abun-
dance of dark green leaves on sterile shoots, and

comparatively few
culms or fertile
shoots. The ster-
ile shoots are
about 4 times as
numerous as the
fertile ones. The
culms are not very
leafy, and grow
commonly to a
height of 18 to 24
inches or rarely
3 feet. Although
the grass possesses
no rootstocks it is
not bunchy, but
makes a fairly
good sod. If cut
either for hay or
for seed, it pro-
duces a good
amount of after-
mathe: LE cut
early, the second
crop will produce
culms, but other-

wise mostly leaves.

Fic. 21.— Meadow fescue (festuca elatior).
a, spikelet.

It withstands pasturing very well.

Old fields of meadow fescue are plowed without diffi-
culty, and the grass is as readily destroyed as timothy.
227. Adaptations. — Meadow fescue is adapted to

206 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

practically the same area as timothy. It prefers rich,
moist or even wet soils, but does not succeed well in sandy
land. In shady places it thrives quite as well as orchard-
grass. It is better adapted for pastures than for meadows,
but may be used for both purposes. The grass was early
introduced in the United States and occurs spontaneously
over the whole region to which it is adapted, but it seems
never to be abundant under natural conditions. The
grass is probably just as hardy as timothy and has suc-
ceeded as far north as Kenai, Alaska.

228. Importance. — Meadow fescue is a grass of small
importance in American agriculture, except in eastern
Kansas, where much seed is grown principally for export
to Europe. This industry began in 1877 and has developed
greatly since 1885. In 1903 the yield of seed was estimated
at about 400,000 pounds. Both the yield and the prices
fluctuate greatly, which has led to a larger utilization of
the grass crop for hay and pasture.

In Europe the grass is much employed both in meadow
and in pasture mixtures.

229. Seeding. — Meadow fescue should be sown on a
well-prepared and thoroughly firmed seed bed. It may
be seeded either in fall or in spring, but early fall is the
usual time. Nurse crops are seldom used, as if fall sown
a full crop ensues the first year. The usual rate of seeding
is 10 to 15 pounds to the acre where a seed crop is desired.
Heavier seedings are better for hay or for pasture, but
probably reduce the seed crop. Red clover is some-
times mixed to improve the subsequent crop of hay or
pasture.

In Europe the rate of seeding when sown alone is given
at 40 pounds per acre by most authorities, but the grass
is usually sown in mixtures.

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 207

230. Hay. — Meadow fescue should be cut for hay
just as it comes into bloom, if the best quality is desired.
The hay is somewhat stemmy and rather laxative. No
American feeding experiments are reported, but the hay
is as palatable as timothy, and stockmen consider it more
fattening for cattle. It is probably too laxative to use
exclusively as horse feed.

In favorable moist seasons a crop of hay can be cut
after one of seed is harvested, but this second crop is
mainly leaves and but few culms.

Meadows fertilized with barnyard manure remain
productive a long time, in some instances as high as 17
years. It is considered better practice, however, to allow
the fields to he but 5 or 6 years.

The average yield of hay in Kansas is given at 1 to 1.5
tons to the acre, but on fields fertilized with barnyard
manure, these yields may be doubled.

Acre yields have been reported from various experiment
stations as follows: Ohio, 2100 pounds, average of 6
years; Kansas, 2155 pounds, average of 4 years; Illinois,
3775 pounds; Michigan (Upper Peninsula), 6070 pounds ;
Utah, 2200 pounds; Idaho, 5280 pounds; Arlington
Farm, Virginia, 3080 pounds; Nebraska, 2400 to 3450
pounds.

At the Illinois Experiment Station the yield of dry
substance was found to be 1424 pounds to the acre when
in full bloom, and 1954 pounds when the blooming was
completed.

European authorities give the yield of hay as ranging
from 3500 pounds to 10,000 pounds to the acre.

231. Seed-production. — Meadow fescue should be cut
for seed as soon as the fields assume a characteristic
yellowish-brown color and the heads begin to droop from

208 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the weight of grain. This is early in July in Kansas. The
grass is commonly cut with a binder and cured in small
shocks. Thrashing is done with an ordinary grain
thrasher, but preferably using a special screen.

Where a seed crop is the object, it is probably best not
to pasture in spring. The opinions, as well as the practices,
of seed growers, however, differ on this point. A moderate
amount of fall pasturing is probably not injurious to the
next seed crop.

The average yield of seed is 8 to 12 bushels, and maxi-
mum yields about 25 bushels to the acre. First-class seed
weighs 25 pounds to the bushel.

The commonest weeds that occur with meadow fescue
in Kansas are flea bane (Hrigeron ramosus), cheat
(Bromus secalinus) and Japanese cheat (Bromus japoni-
cus). The last two are particularly objectionable because
of the difficulty of separating their seeds from the fescue
seeds.

Some seed is grown in Europe. Werner states that the
yields in Germany range from 350 to 700 pounds to the
acre.

232. Seed. — Meadow fescue seed often contains a
small percentage of cheat as an impurity, usually less
than 5 per cent, but sometimes much more. Perennial
rye-grass has in some cases been used as an adulterant,
but this may be distinguished by the joints of the rachilla
being flattened, slightly wedge shaped and not expanded
at the apex. |

The best commercial seed attains a purity of 99 per
cent and a viability of 95-98 per cent. It loses about
5 per cent viability the first year, but thereafter falls off
more rapidly, three-year-old seed being nearly value-
less.

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 209

The weight of a bushel ranges from 15 to 30 pounds.
One pound contains about 250,000 seeds.

233. Pasture value. — Meadow fescue is better adapted
for pasturing than for hay. It begins its growth early
in the spring, and continues late in the fall. It is quite
as palatable as Kentucky blue-grass, and stockmen in
Kansas and Nebraska consider it especially valuable for
fattening cattle.

Meadow fescue is well adapted to growing in mixture
with other grasses, especially in moist lands. It should
probably be included in such mixtures throughout the
timothy region. When grown alone, it endures in Kansas
and Nebraska for 6 to 8 years, or, if manured and well
cared for, 12 to 15 years. In mixtures it usually maintains
itself for about five years, but is at its best the second and
third years.

234. Pests. — The only serious enemy that has attacked
meadow fescue in America is a rust (Puccinia loliz).
This fungus greatly injures the leaves of the aftermath,
practically ruining the fall pastures. It also weakens
the plants so that but few culms are produced the following
season.

Tall fescue, when growing adjacent to infected meadow
fescue, remains almost wholly free from the fungus, but
is not entirely immune.

Strebel states that in Germany meadow fescue from
American seed is far more subject to rust than that from
German seed.

235. Hybrids. — Festuca elatior is a remarkable grass
because of its ability to make hybrids. Natural hybrids
with Festuca arundinacea, F. gigantea, Lolium perenne
and L. multiflorwm have been described. None of these

has been utilized agriculturally.
Ve

210 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

OTHER FESCUES

236. Tall fescue. — Tall fescue differs from meadow
fescue, mainly in being 6 to 12 inches taller, in its some-
what looser panicles and in its resistance to rust. The
seeds of the two are quite indistinguishable, but those of
tall fescue command a much higher price. From limited
experiments in Kansas and in Washington, tall fescue
appears to yield only half as much seed as meadow fescue.
The culms are comparatively few and the seeds ripen
unevenly. Owing to its rust resistance, it may replace
meadow fescue, especially as it yields larger crops of hay
and the seed commands a higher price.

At the Ohio Experiment Station tall fescue produced
in four years on one-twentieth acre plots an average yield
of 4870 pounds of hay per acre. |

237. Reed fescue (Mestuca arundinacea). — Reed fescue
is native to Europe, North Africa and western Siberia.
It is more variable than its close relative, F. elatior, about
twelve varieties being botanically distinguished in Europe.

By some botanists it is considered a variety of meadow
fescue. It is, however, a larger and coarser plant in every
way. It is perhaps most easily distinguished from tall
fescue by the upper part of the culm, the lower sheaths
and upper surface of the stiffer leaves being very scabrous.

The seed is indistinguishable from tall fescue and it is
sometimes sold for that by unscrupulous dealers.

Reed fescue has from time to time been extravagantly
praised, but has nowhere attained any definite agricultural
status.

It produces large yields of hay, which is said to be readily
eaten by horses and cows. Sheep, however, refuse it,
both as pasturage and as hay. So far as growth and seed

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 211

production are concerned, it is far superior to both meadow
fescue and tall fescue, but its lack of palatability has kept
it from being much used.

PERENNIAL OR ENGLISH RYE-GRASS (Lolium perenne)

238. Name.—- The name “rye-grass” or “ ray-
grass,’ as applied to species of Loliwm, did not originate
from any fancied resemblance to rye. The name is
probably derived from the French appellation for darnel
(Lolium temulentum), ‘‘fausse ivraye”’ or “ivrai.’? From
this the English designation was easily derived by abridg-
ment into ray or rai=rye. In distinction to Italian
rye-grass, it is known either as perennial or English rye-
grass.

239. Agricultural history. — Perennial rye-grass was
the first of all perennial grasses to be grown in pure cul-
tures for forage. According to Sutton it was first mentioned
in agricultural literature in England in 1611. Werner
states that it was first cultivated by Eustace, who lived
in Oxford about 1681.

Sinclair refers to a mention of its cultivation in Wor-
lidge’s ‘‘ Husbandry,” published in 1669, but it is not clear
that Worlidge really referred to perennial rye-grass.

240. Botany. — Perennial rye-grass occurs naturally
in all of temperate Asia and in North Africa. Botanists
have distinguished and named about 10 varieties. Hybrids
are known with Festuca elatior, Festuca gigantea and
Lolium multiflorum.

241. Characteristics. — This rye-grass is a short-lived,
rapid-growing perennial, living only two years on poor
lands, but persisting much longer under favorable con-
ditions, especiaily in lawns and pastures. If grown in
hay mixtures, it is apt to disappear after the first year, as

212 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

it does not withstand shading by taller grasses. It
closely resembles Italian rye-grass, but can nearly always
be distinguished by the awnless lemmas. The young
leaves are folded and not convolute, as in Italian rye-
grass.

242. Adaptations. — This grass is primarily adapted
to moist regions with mild winter climate. It continues
to grow at low temperatures and partly on this account
does not well withstand severe winter cold. In winter
hardiness it is about equal to orchard-grass. It thrives
best on rich, moist, well-drained soils, and does not do well
on sandy soils, nor will it endure standing water near the
surface.

243. Importance.— In America, perennial rye-grass
is of small importance, being seldom employed except as
an admixture in lawn grasses. It succeeds well enough
wherever red clover thrives, but has not won for itself
a place in American agriculture.

In Europe it is the principal pasture grass, being much
employed on rich bottom or moor lands, usually in mixture
with white clover, but it is also used as an element in
practically all pasture land mixtures. In Europe it holds
much the position which Kentucky blue-grass does in
America. As a hay grass it is much inferior in yield to
Italian rye and other grasses. It is also much cultivated
in New Zealand.

244. Agricultural varieties. — Besides being the oldest
cultivated meadow-grass, perennial rye-grass was also
the first in which cultural varieties were developed.
Apparently this grass is little subject to cross-pollina- —
tion and hence varieties are not difficult to maintain.
Sinclair in 1825 mentions six different named varieties
in England, and intimates that others were known to him.

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 213

At the present time English seedsmen advertise several
varieties of this grass, but in some instances these
‘“‘ varieties ”’ are merely seeds of different yoene or sizes
separated by machinery.

245. Culture. — Perennial rye-grass may be sown
either in the fall or in the spring, the former being pref-
erable, as but little return can be obtained the first season
if spring sown. The young plants grow more rapidly
than most perennial grasses, so that some winter and early
spring pasturage is afforded, in regions of mild winters.
If used for pasturage the European practice is to pasture
heavily enough to keep the culms from developing, as
animals will not eat these. If grown for hay, one good
cutting and a second smaller one may be secured. In
common with most grasses, it should be cut when in full
bloom.

In pure cultures perennial rye-grass lasts three or four
years when cut as hay, and somewhat longer if kept
closely pastured. In mixed hay meadows it soon dis-
appears.

When sown alone, 25 to 35 pounds to the acre is used.

246. Hay yields. — The hay yield of perennial rye-
grass is not as large as most hay grasses. In Europe
Werner gives the average yield to the acre as 3800 pounds,
but as high as 7400 pounds has been recorded. Karmrodt
in four successive years on the same plot secured yields
to the hectare of 6791, 10,432, 9407 and 6653 kilograms,
the yield being decidedly best in the second and third
years.

American experiment station yields to the acre in pounds
are reported as follows: North Carolina, 5229; Kentucky,
4640; Ohio, 1822, 6-year average; Kansas, 1050, 2-year
average; Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2800; Utah, 1410

214 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and 1560; Idaho, 4000; Ontario (Guelph), 2500, 7-year

average.

247. Seed-production. — The seed habits of the grass
are excellent and under very favorable conditions two
crops may be harvested in the same season. More usually

Fic. 22. — Italian rye-grass (Lolium mul-
tiflorum). a, spikelet; b, c, lemma; d, e,
seed.

the first is cut for
hay and the second
for seed. The grass
should be cut before
the seed is fully ripe ;
otherwise, there is
some loss by shatter-
ing. Practically no
seed 1s grown in
America, the com-
mercial supplies com-
ing from Europe and
New Zealand.

248. Seed.—Seed
of perennial rye-grass
is grown mainly in
Scotland and Ire-
land. None is grown
in America. On ac-
count of shattering,
the crop is cut before
the seeds are fully
ripe. Care is neces-
sary in curing, as,
if the hay becomes

heated in drying, the germination of the seed is injured.
‘The yield per acre varies from 250 to 500 pounds per
acre and maximums of 1050 pounds are reported.

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 215

The seed is recleaned and graded according to weight
and size. The small seeds are sold as short-seeded rye-
grass, and sometimes as Pacey’s rye-grass.

ITALIAN RYE-GRASS

249. Characteristics. — Italian rye-grass (Loliwm multi-
florum) is readily distinguished from perennial rye-grass
by the lemma being awned, except in one variety, but in
all forms the young leaves are convolute, not folded as
in perennial rye-grass. Agriculturally it is distinguished
by its short life, — seldom over two years, unless heavily
manured, — its very rapid growth and prompt recovery
after cutting.

250. Botany. — Italian rye-grass is native in the region
about the Mediterranean; namely, southern Europe,
northern Africa and Asia Minor. Varieties have been
distinguished by the awns; namely, longiaristatum, the
ordinary long-awned form; submuticum, with the oc-
casional awns short; and muticwm, which is awnless.

On the length of life are differentiated Gaudini, the
annual forms, and perennans, which lives 3-4 years.
Stebler and Volkart state that the former includes a
summer annual form, to which belongs Argentine rye-
grass; a winter annual form, which includes Rieffel’s
rye-grass, cultivated in Brittany; and Bailly’s rye-grass,
which differs only in being awnless. The forms which
endure more than one year are Westernwolth rye-grass,
which blooms the first season if spring sown, and ordinary
Italian rye-grass, which does not bloom the first season.

251. Agricultural history. — Italian rye-grass seems to
have been first cultivated in northern Italy. It was
known in Switzerland in 1820 and in France in 1818.
It was introduced into England in 1831. In France and

216 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

England especially, it is largely cultivated and furnishes
the largest proportion of the market hay. Elsewhere in
Europe it has not become of much importance.

252. Adaptations. — This rye-grass is primarily adapted
to moist regions with mild winter temperatures. It
succeeds well in most of western and southern Europe,
Argentina and New Zealand. In North America the
best results have been secured in the Atlantic States, ©
practically in the same area as that adapted to crimson
clover, and on the Pacific Coast. When seeded in fall it
is not injured by a temperature of — 10° Fahrenheit and
probably will withstand more severe cold.

It prefers loam or sandy loam soils, but does fairly well
on clay.loams. It does not endure standing water, but
on well-drained land is well adapted to irrigation
farming.

253. Culture. — Italian rye-grass is mostly sown alone
at the rate of 35-40 pounds to the acre. It may be sown
either in fall or in spring, with or without a nurse crop.
In the south Atlantic States and on the Pacific Coast, fall
seeding gives the most satisfactory results. The grass is
not well adapted to sowing in permanent meadows, as it
disappears after the second year, and sometimes after
the first. Furthermore, the rye-grass by its rapid early
growth injures the other grasses so that in some experi-
ments it has actually reduced the yield.

In Europe it 1s sometimes mixed with crimson clover,
which requires much the same conditions, and the two
are ready to cut for hay at the same time. A test of this
mixture at the Delaware Experiment Station gave a good
yield, and enough of the seed of the Italian rye-grass
shattered to produce a volunteer crop.

254. Irrigation. — Italian rye-grass succeeds well under

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 217

irrigation, and this method of culture has long been
pursued in northern Italy.

At the Utah Experiment Station the following results
were secured with irrigation : —

Irrigation water applied, inches} 7.50 15.00 | 45.00 | 102.00
Total yield of Italian rye-grass,

pounds. Zoot \-2218"| 3201 2357
Yield to the inch of irrigation |
water .. : 314 148 rae 2

255. Hay yields. — Italian rye-grass is remarkable
for the number of cuttings that can be made in a season
and the large total yield under the most favorable con-
ditions. No other temperate grass grows so rapidly or
recovers so promptly after cutting. Ordinarily but two
cuttings can be obtained in a season, the second smaller
than the first. With abundant moisture and fertilizer,
however, the grass has yielded 5 cuttings at Christiana,
Norway; 5 or 6 in Germany; and as many as 7 to 9 in
England and Switzerland, in 9 single season. It is possible
that these results might be duplicated west of the Cascade
Mountains in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia ;
but in the East, Italian rye-grass languishes under mid-
summer heat. Werner thinks that the very rapid growth
of Italian rye-grass when irrigated with liquid manure is
partly due to the fact that it produces numerous fine roots
from the lower nodes. The growth is so rapid that a growth
of 30 inches has been recorded in three weeks.

Some of the yields recorded for Italian rye-grass in
Hurope border on the marvelous. In England on land

- watered with liquid manure, annual yields of 60 to 120

tons of grass, or 12 to 20 tons of hay, to the acre are said

2918 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

to have been secured. Werner records yields of 52,040
pounds of grass, or 10,560 pounds of hay to the acre near
Milan, Italy, in 6 cuttings during a season. Karmrodt
in four successive years secured on the same piece of ground
hay yields respectively of 8077, 8100, 7058 and 7196
pounds to the acre.

Yields reported by American experiment stations are
very moderate, being in pounds to the acre: Kentucky,
4480; Missouri, 6800; Ohio, 5120, 6-year average;
Kansas, 2341, 2-year average; Virginia (Arlington Farm),
3200; North Carolina, 5557 and 5500. At the Western
Washington Experiment Station 3 cuttings were secured
in one season. The Westernwolth variety gave a yield of
3432 pounds an acre in Prince Edward Island.

256. Seed-production. — The seeding habits of Italian
rye-grass are essentially the same as those of perennial rye-
grass, and the seed is just as easily harvested. It shat-
ters, however, somewhat more readily and so needs to be
cut promptly when the seeds are in the late dough stage.
Commercial seed is grown in Europe, Argentina and New
Zealand. The average yield in Europe is given at about
500 pounds an acre, the maximum at double the quantity.

Seed from various sources gave very much the same
hay yields according to experiments in Switzerland.

257. Seed. — The seed of Italian rye-grass is usually
quite free from weed seeds, and of good viability. At the
Zurich, Switzerland, Seed Control Station, the average
purity of 7000 samples has been 95.4 per cent and the
average germination 82 per cent. Very good seed will
reach 98 per cent purity and 95 per cent germination.
Two-year-old seed loses about 25 per cent in viability,
and three-year-old seed is nearly worthless. Owing to the
cheapness of the seed it is rarely adulterated.

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 219

Ordinarily it is easily told from perennial rye-grass by
the awns. If these are absent, the two may be distinguished
by the palea, this being far more abundantly toothed on
the margin and more deeply notched in Italian rye-grass.

The seed weighs 12 to 24 pounds to the bushel, and the
quality varies accordingly. One pound contains 270,000
to 285,000 seeds.

SLENDER WHEAT-GRASS (Agropyron tenerum)

258. Slender wheat-grass, known in Canada as western
rye-grass or Melvor’s rye-grass, is the only example of
a native North American grass that has proven valuable
under cultivation. It is widespread, but variable, occur-
ring abundantly from British Columbia to Manitoba,
southward to Arizona and Oklahoma and _ sparingly
eastward to Pennsylvania and Newfoundland. It is
strictly a bunch grass with numerous slender erect stems,
2 to 4 feet high and narrow, flat, rather stiff leaves.
The spikelets are crowded, scattered in a spike 4 to 6
inches long. Its root system was found at the North
Dakota Experiment Station to be quite as deep as that of
brome-grass, but with fewer roots.

Slender wheat-grass was first brought into cultivation
about 1895. It is now grown to a considerable extent in
Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and the Dakotas, and
has given good results in Ontario and Washington.

Slender wheat-grass is usually seeded in spring. A firm,
well-prepared seed bed is desirable. The seed may be
sown broadcast and then harrowed, but is better sown
with a drill. Good stands have been secured with 10 to
15 pounds per acre in Saskatchewan, the heavier seeding
being best. Elsewhere as high as 30 pounds an acre have
been used without the stand being too thick.

220 =6©FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The grass is somewhat subject to a rust (Puccinia
rubigo-vera), but otherwise is free from diseases.
At Indian Head (Saskatchewan) Experimental Farm,

Fic. 23.— Slender wheat-grass (Agropy-
ron tenerum). a, glumes; b, spikelet with
glumes removed.

yields of hay in large
plots have been re-
ported since 1901.
The yields have va-
ried from 2000 to
9000 pounds an acre,
the average of 14
fields during 9 years
being 4800 pounds.
The best yields were
nearly always secured
the second season
after seeding, unless
the field was reno-
vated by manuring.

At Brandon, Man-
itoba, the average
yields for7 years have
been 4694 pounds an
acre.

A plot of one-fourth
acre at the South
Dakota Experiment
Station was not cut
during the first two
years. The hay
yields during the

three following years were respectively 980, 908 and 1920

pounds an acre.

At Guelph, Ontario, it has yielded the most heavily

OTHER GRASSES OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 221

of 15 grasses during trials of 7 years, the average yield
for the period being on small plots at the rate of 8720 pounds
an acre. In other trials where the plots were cut 6 times
each season during 4 years, slender wheat-grass was ex-
ceeded only by tall oat-grass and orchard-grass.

Acre yields have been reported from other experiment
stations as follows: Minnesota, 4700 pounds; Michigan
(Upper Peninsula), 5440 pounds; North Dakota (Dick-
inson), 2950 pounds, 2-year average; Wyoming, 2065
pounds ; South Dakota “‘ nearly as large yields as brome-
grass.”

Slender wheat-grass has also given good results in
mixtures, especially with brome-grass; with red clover ;
with red clover and timothy; and with alfalfa.

At Brandon, Manitoba, in a feeding experiment com-
paring slender wheat-grass with brome-grass, 4 steers
fed brome-grass gained 675 pounds and 4 fed slender
wheat-grass gained 660 pounds. At Indian Head, Sas-
katchewan, in a similar trial 5 steers gained 910 pounds
on brome and 5 others 8380 pounds on slender wheat dur-
ing the same period.

WESTERN WHEAT-GRASS (Agropyron occidentale)

259. Western wheat-grass is also known as blue-stem,
blue-joint and Colorado blue-stem in various parts of the
West. It is native over practically the whole region west
of the 98th meridian from Saskatchewan to Mexico. Ina
general way it resembles slender wheat-grass, but the
whole herbage is glaucous and the grass spreads by numer-
ous creeping rootstocks.

Western wheat-grass is quite resistant both to drought
and to alkali, but it is seldom abundant except where
the ground is naturally or artificially irrigated. Under

2 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

such conditions excellent crops of hay are cut and where
the grass is well known it has long borne a reputation for
horse feed equal to that of timothy. In Texas the bottoms
of shallow desiccated ponds are often covered with a pure
growth of this grass. In parts of Montana it is only
necessary to irrigate the land in order to secure a good
stand of western wheat-grass. After several mowings
the grass seems to become sod bound, so that rejuvenation
by disking is necessary.

Attempts to domesticate this grass have thus far not
resulted satisfactorily, mainly because the seed is poor in
quality even when gathered with the utmost care. While
this grass possesses creeping rootstocks, it has never been
reported troublesome as a weed. Its excellent qualities
make it worthy of further efforts at domestication.

CHAPTER - XI

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPOR-
TANCE

Ir has already been pointed out that a number of
grasses agriculturally utilized in Europe are scarcely at all
used in America. From the fact that commercial seed is
abundant, and from their European reputations, their
exact status as regards America is important to the
student. Some of them are not at all well adapted to
American conditions, while others are useful only in very
restricted areas, or on peculiar soils.

SHEEP’S FESCUE AND CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES

260. Sheep’s fescue and its close relatives form in all
probability the most puzzling group of forms of all the
grasses. About 70 varieties have been described from
Europe alone, and these are variously regarded as forms
of one species or of several. All are densely tufted per-
ennials with numerous fine, stiff leaves, and slender erect
culms usually 12 to 18 inches high, but under very favor-
able conditions taller. The following four varieties are
used in agriculture : —

Sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina) with folded leaves not
broader than thick, .8 to .6 millimeter wide.

Hard fescue (Festuca ovina duriuscula or Festuca
duriuscula) differing from the preceding mainly in

223

224 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

having the leaves broader than thick, .7 to 1 millimeter

wide.

Various-leaved fescue (Festuca ovina heterophylla or F.

Fig. 24, — Sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina).
a, glumes; b, spikelet with glumes re-
moved.

heterophylla) is some-
times considered a va-
riety of Festuca rubra.
Some of the shoots are
extravaginal. The
radical leaf blades are
long, soft and folded,
while the culm leaves
are flat and expanded,
whence its name.

Fine-leaved fescue
(Festuca ovina tenuifo-
lia or F. tenwfolia of
the seedsmen ; Festuca
ovina capillata) has
very fine leaves and
awnless lemmas.

The forms of Festuca
ovina native to North
America are much
fewer than in Europe.
Typical Festuca ovina
occurs rather sparingly
as a native in the
Rocky Mountains from
Alberta to New Mex-

ico, in the Black Hills and about the Great Lakes. Fes-
tuca ovina ingrata, the “ Blue bunchgrass”’ of the stock-
men, is an important range plant from British Columbia
and Alberta to Colorado and Utah, especially in the Co-

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 225

lumbia Basin. Farther south it is replaced by the larger
Arizona fescue (Festuca ovina arizonica) which extends
into Mexico. The few other native American forms are
of no economic importance.

261. Importance and culture. — None of these fescues
has as yet attained any considerable importance under
cultivation in America. Fine-leaved fescue is used
sparingly in lawn grass mixtures. Various-leaved fescue
has apparently been tested only in grass gardens. Hard
fescue also seems to have been grown only in trial grounds,
as most of the commercial seed is the indistinguishable
sheep’s fescue. Sheep’s fescue has become widely in-
troduced, and on poor stony or sandy land is a valuable
pasture plant for sheep and deserves more attention for
such purpose than it has yet received in America.

Sheep’s fescue should be sown only for pasturage and
only on land that will not produce better grasses, such
as stony or gravelly hills, and poor sandy soils. It is
too small to make it worth while to sow for hay on good
land, even in mixture with other grasses. It possesses
abundant deep, strong roots, and is never injured by up-
rooting, nor does it suffer under trampling and close
grazing. Sheep eat it quite readily, but cattle avoid
it if other grasses are present. The animals should have
access to the pastures early in the spring, as the grass is
more palatable if kept closely grazed. European au-
thorities state that the grass yields most during the second
and third years, and should be plowed under after four
or five years, where possible.

Sheep’s fescue is a northern grass, and not well adapted
to conditions south of about latitude 40 degrees, except
in the mountains. Northward its limit is that of any
possible agriculture. On very poor land it will thrive

Q

226 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

where no other cultivated grass will grow, but on some-
what better pasture land should be grown in mixtures
with redtop, Kentucky blue-grass, Canada blue-grass and
white clover. In pure cultures, European writers recom-
mend sowing 28 pounds an acre.

262. Seed. —Seed of all these fescues is grown in
Europe. That of sheep’s fescue is easily gathered and is
low in price.

A bushel weighs ordinarily 10 to 15 pounds, but the
best quality reaches 30 pounds. One pound contains
680,000 seeds, according to Stebler. The purity should be
90 per cent and the viability at least 50 per cent.

RED FESCUE

263. Red fescue (Festuca rubra) is best distinguished
from Festuca ovina by having creeping extravaginal shoots
or rootstocks. Festuca heterophylla with some extravaginal
non-creeping shoots is intermediate between the species.
Red fescue occurs naturally in Europe, Asia and North
America. It is very variable and numerous varieties have
been described. In North America it ranges from Green-
land southward near the seacoast to Virginia, and from
Alaska to California and New Mexico. One form occurs
rarely in Tennessee and North Carolina.

It has never been used under cultivation in North
America, except as a lawn plant, for which it is well
adapted in the Northern States and Canada, especially
on sandy soil near the seacoast. In some of its forms it is
probably the most beautiful of all lawn grasses.

Red fescue is a long-lived perennial. In Europe it is
somewhat used as a pasture plant, especially on moist,
sandy soils. Under favorable conditions it makes a dense
growth and may reach a height of two feet or more. In

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 227

such dense growths the lower leaves turn brown readily.
Hay yields of 13 and 2 tons to the acre are recorded, but
this is exceptional. It should not be planted where better
hay grasses can be grown.

At present the commercial seed supply of red fescue
comes from Europe. It is often mixed with or adulterated
with other fescues, where seeds can scarcely be distin-
guished. In recent years a variety known as Chewing’s
fescue has been exported from New Zealand. It is identical
with the European, at least for all practical purposes.
The variety sold as Festuca dumetorum is apparently
Festuca rubra grandiflora, which is somewhat larger than
the typical form.

MEADOW FOXTAIL (Alopecurus pratensis)

264. Meadow foxtail is native to the temperate portions
of Europe and Asia. It is quite variable, 6 or 8 varieties
having been botanically named, but none of these have
come into agricultural use.

The culture of meadow foxtail dates from about the
middle of the eighteenth century, when it was recommended
by Kalm in Sweden and especially by Schreber in Germany.

265. Characteristics. — Meadow foxtail is a long-lived
perennial grass producing loose tufts with numerous
basal leaves. The rootstocks are comparatively few and
but 2 to 4 inches long as arule. The culms grow usually
to a height of 3 feet, but rarely reach 6 feet. Under very
favorable conditions three cuttings may be secured in one
season, but usually only two cuttings.

It begins its growth very early in spring, more so even
than sweet vernal-grass. The grass should be cut for
hay when in full bloom, but it is said to retain its feeding
value for a considerable time thereafter.

228 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

266. Adaptations. — Meadow foxtail is adapted primarily
to moist cool regions. Its culture is prominent in northern
Europe, but elsewhere it is but little grown. It has no
particular soil preference so long as.the water supply is
abundant. This peculiarity makes it well suited to grow-
ing under irrigation, but it will not withstand drought.
Though primarily adapted to open meadows it endures
shade fairly well. Better than any other grass, it with-
stands cold weather in early spring after its growth has
begun, and it is perhaps the most winter hardy of any
cultivated perennial grass.

267. Culture. — Meadow foxtail is but very little
grown in North America, most of the data concerning it
being those obtained at experiment stations.

In northern Europe it is a favorite hay grass, especially
for wet meadows. European authorities recommend the
sowing at the rate of 22 pounds an acre. It is seldom
sown alone, however, but usually in mixtures with such
grasses as meadow fescue, timothy and _ orchard-grass.
In recent years its improvement by breeding has been
undertaken at Svaléf, Sweden.

Sinclair in England reports a yield of 8844 pounds an
acre; Vianne in France, 8932 pounds. ~

Few yields have been reported by American experiment
stations. At the Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Station it
gave a yield of 2906 pounds of hay to the acre; at the
Utah Experiment Station, 1500 pounds; and the 7-year
average at Guelph, Ontario, was 3100 pounds an acre.

268. Seed.—Sceed of meadow foxtail is grown in Finland,
Sweden, Denmark and Holland, but most of the com-
mercial supply is from the first-named country. A small
amount is also exported from New Zealand. ‘The average
yield in Europe is said to be about 170 pounds to the acre.

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 229

The results of tests at the Zurich Seed Control Station
indicate an average purity of 75 per cent and viability
of 69 per cent. A bushel weighs 6 to 14 pounds. One
pound contains 907,000 seeds (Stebler); 490,000 (Hun-
ter) ; 1,216,000 (Hunt).

SWEET VERNAL-GRASS (Anthoxanthum odoratum)

269. Botany. — Sweet vernal-grass is native to tem-
perate Europe and Asia and Northwest Africa. It is
wholly an introduced plant in North America, except
perhaps in South Greenland.

Sweet vernal-grass receives its name from the fact that
the whole plant contains cumarin, giving it a vanilla-like
odor but also a bitter taste. This is present even in the
very young seedlings, which may thus be recognized. On
account of its agreeable odor, sweet vernal-grass has long
been recommended as a desirable addition in mixed grass
meadows. It is not clear, however, that the grass with
its pleasant odor really makes the hay more palatable to
animals.

The grass is a long-lived perennial, growing in small,
dense tufts, the culms reaching a height of 18 to 20 inches
asarule. Itis one of the earliest grasses to appear in spring,
but is not much liked by cattle as a pasture grass. It is
quite resistant to both cold and drought. The best growth
is made on fertile soil, but sweet vernal-grass will thrive
on almost any type of soil if not too wet. Near Washing-
ton, D.C., old neglected pastures on hard clay soils are
sometimes covered with nearly pure growths of this grass.

270. Culture. — Sweet vernal-grass has never been
utilized in America except as it may be a spontaneous
element in pastures and meadows. Its small growth,
however, does not commend it. In Europe it is used in

230 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

small quantities in mixtures with other grasses because
of the sweet odor it imparts to hay. It is never sown alone
except in experimental work. Vianne in France records
hay yields of 1760 to 2640 pounds an acre, but this must
be far above what can ordinarily be expected. The seed
is gathered mainly in Germany. At the Zurich Seed
Control Station, the average purity.of numerous samples
was found to be about 92 per cent and the average viability
52 per cent. If sown pure, about 20 pounds of such seed
are needed to the acre.

REED CANARY-GRASS (Phalaris arundinacea)

271. Botany and agricultural history. — Reed canary-
grass is native to the temperate portions of Europe, Asia
and North America. It grows naturally in wet soils,
especially river bottoms and lake shores, where it is subject
to periods of inundation. No botanical varieties have
been named except the variegated ‘ribbon grass” of
the gardens (P. arundinacea picta). The grass is, how-
ever, decidedly variable, about ten strains having been
grown for several years at Arlington Farm, Virginia. The
strains differ in size, coarseness, earliness, breadth of leaves
and other characters, but all shatter their seeds readily.

It was first cultivated in England before 1824 and in
Germany about 1850. It has never been much used in
America, but is cut for hay where it occurs naturally.

272. Characteristics. — Reed canary-grass is a long-
lived, rather coarse perennial grass. It produces numer-
ous short extravaginal stolons, which at the tip develop
into upright culms. Each plant finally forms a rather
dense tussock, one to two feet in diameter. The culms
are perfectly erect, usually about four to six feet high but
often taller, and so stout that they never lodge.

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 231

Reed-canary is adapted mostly to cool climates, but
the ribbon grass form, at least, succeeds well in the Southern
States. It is never injured by severe winter weather.
Though naturally a wet land grass, it succeeds well in
ordinary cultivated land, especially in clays and clay
loams. It also succeeds well in sand if there be an ade-
quate moisture supply, but is said not to thrive in peaty
solis. Owing to its moisture-loving proclivities, it is
well adapted to irrigation.

Growth begins early in spring and continues late into
the fall. Seed is produced in abundance, but shatters

easily. This, perhaps more than anything else, has
militated against its general use.
273. Culture. — Reed canary-grass is sparingly culti-

vated in Europe. If cut before bloom, three cuttings
may be secured, but only two if allowed to bloom. At
Arlington Farm, Virginia, the second crop of plants in
rows is about two-thirds as large as the first. The hay is
palatable if cut young, and yields of 12,000 to 17,000
pounds an acre are recorded in Europe. These yields,
however, are based on very small plots.

Seed is gathered by cutting off the panicles before they
are ripe, and the yield is stated to be about 180 pounds
an acre. It weighs 44 to 48 pounds to the bushel.

It is best adapted to pure cultures, as its habits do not
coincide with other grasses. Commercial seed germinates
as a rule but 60 per cent, and 20 to 25 pounds to the acre
should be sown.

This grass would be worthy of serious attention if its
seeding habits could be improved. It is possible that
a strain may be found or developed which will not seriously
shatter its seed.

a

D0, FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

VELVET-GRASS (Holcus lanatus)

274. Velvet-grass is also known in England as York-
shire Fog, and meadow soft-grass. On the North Pacific
Coast, where it is extraordinarily abundant, it has acquired
the name ‘“‘ mesquite.’

It is native to temperate Europe, and Asia, and extends
southward into Algeria and the Canary Islands. It is
adapted primarily to moist, cool climates, and under such
conditions is not particular as to soil. In hardiness it 1s
much like orchard-grass, but is more injured by late spring
frosts. It does not endure shade.

Velvet-grass forms thick, rather high tussocks, which
make mowing somewhat difficult. The culms are usually
about 30 inches high. The whole plant is very hairy and
probably on this account is not readily eaten by animals
either as hay or pasturage. It possesses very little sub-
stance, the hay being probably the most bulky of all
grasses. Under favorable climatic conditions two cuttings
of hay may be obtained. European authorities state that
the hay yield is best in the third year. Sinclair in Eng-
land records a yield of 6160 pounds an acre, and Vianne
in France, 6950 pounds.

In America the grass is utilized to a slight extent in
western Virginia, and to a great extent on the North
Pacific Coast. In all the region west of the Cascade
Mountains — in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia
— it is very aggressive, and in the very moist region near
the ocean occupies the land practically to the exclusion
of other grasses. Under such circumstances its use is a
matter of necessity rather than choice, but the returns
are not unsatisfactory. The grass is best cut when in
full bloom, at which time the rays of the panicle are
spreading, but after blooming they become erect.

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 233

Velvet-grass should perhaps never be intentionally sown,
and at any rate merely as an admixture with other grasses.

Commercial seed is produced mainly in Denmark, and
this averages about 63 per cent in purity and 84 per cent
in germination. New Zealand seed is somewhat better.
The yield in Germany is given by Werner as about 90
pounds to the acre, and as the price is very low, the
financial return is small. European writers recommend
20 pounds of seed per acre, if sown pure.

It is sometimes desirable to eradicate velvet-grass so as
to plant the land to more valuable grasses. To do this
the grass must be cut before the seed is ripe, generally
June 10 to 20. About July 1 give the field a thorough
but shallow disking. Repeat the shallow disking every
week until August 1, and then treat with a spring-tooth
harrow and disk again. The shallow cultivation during
the driest weather will kill the roots and leave the ground
with a very fine mulch on top and plenty of moisture in
the subsoil. The land may then be reseeded to clover
or planted to any other crop desired.

ERECT BROME (Bromus erectus)

275. Erect brome, upright brome or meadow brome is
a perennial species that has long been cultivated in southern
France and in recent years in other countries. The grass
is native to much of temperate Europe and Asia and
Algeria. It is especially adapted to dry calcareous soils
that are too shallow for sainfoin, and on such soils is said
to give better results than any other grass, either for
pasture or for hay. It bears the same relation to poor,
dry, chalky soils that sheep’s fescue does to poor sandy
soils. On good land it has no place, as other grasses
produce larger and better crops.

9384 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Both the hay and the pasturage are of mediocre quality,
but the fields last many years on suitable calcareous soils.
The yield is best the second year and the plants bloom
but once each season. It is rarely sown alone, but usually
mixed with sainfoin if the land is good enough.

The seed weighs about 15 pounds to the bushel, and
50 pounds to the acre is sown. It is often adulterated
with the screenings of tall oat-grass.

Erect brome has been but little tried in America. At
the Kansas Experiment Station yields of 1844 and 1720
pounds per acre were obtained in 1904 and 1905 respec-
tively. At the Michigan Upper Peninsula Substation a
small plot yielded at the rate of 3706 pounds an acre.

YELLOW OAT-GRASS (T'risetum flavescens)

276. Yellow oat-grass, also known as golden oat-grass,
is native over much of temperate Europe and Asia and in
North Africa, and several botanical varieties are described.
It is of only secondary importance in European agriculture,
but is practically unknown in America. It is a loosely
tufted, long-lived perennial. It is used almost wholly as
an admixture with other grasses. It was apparently first
brought into cultivation in England before 1785. The
seed, which is mainly grown in the south of France and in
Tyrol, is scarce and expensive, and this has probably pre-
vented the greater use of the grass.

Yellow oat-grass is decidedly drought resistant and
adapted only to well-drained soil. It is said to prefer cal-
careous soils rich in humus. It is seldom grown in pure
cultures except for purposes of seed-production. Vianne re-
cords a yield of 5020 pounds hay an acre in France, and Sin-
clair in England records that he obtained 2859 pounds hay
cut in bloom, and 4900 pounds cut when the seed was ripe.

PERENNIAL GRASSES OF MINOR IMPORTANCE 2385

The aftermath is only moderate. When sown alone, about
30 pounds of ordinary quality of seed is needed to the acre.

The seed weighs 5 to
quality. The average
purity is about 70 per
eent and the viability
63 per cent, but the
best heavy seed is
guaranteed by some
seedsmen to germinate
70, or even 80 per cent.
One pound of seed con-
tains 1,400,000 seeds
according to Hunter,
and 2,045,000 accord-
ing to Stebler. Yellow
oat-grass is sometimes
used for lawns and, if
kept closely cut, makes
a good fine turf, but
rather pale in color.

CRESTED DOGSTAIL
(Cynosurus cristatus)

277. Crested dogs-
tail is a highly appre-
ciated grass in Europe
as an admixture both

14 pounds a bushel, depending on

ey

Le EE
5 ae

EB
=

wt ts
+ Ss;
eee Se

Fic. 25.— Crested dogstail (Cynosurus
cristatus). a, b, fertile spikelets; c, sterile
spikelet.

for pastures and for meadows. It makes up a portion of

the grass upon the best

pastures of England, Holland and

Switzerland. It is considered very nutritious, but the

yield is only moderate.
moist regions.

It is adapted primarily to cool,

Zao FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Crested dogstail is another example of a European grass
that fails to thrive under American conditions, probably
on account of summer heat. It has often been planted,
but has become only very sparingly introduced and has
nowhere shown any ability to increase and spread.

It may prove of some value on the North Pacific Coast,
but elsewhere it has shown no promise.

CHAPTER XII

SOUTHERN GRASSES

THE climate of the cotton region is not closely paralleled
by that of any portion of Europe, and European grasses
are therefore ill adapted to the conditions in the South.
Most of the grasses useful in the Southern States have
originated in countries having humid subtropical climates.
Several of the most valuable have poor seeding habits, but
are easily propagated vegetatively.

BERMUDA-GRASS (Cynodon dactylon)

278. Botany. — Bermuda-grass is native to India and
perhaps other parts of the Old World in tropical and sub-
tropical localities. In India it is a most valued pasture
grass and called doob or hariali. In Virginia, where its
growth is not sufficient to make it valuable, but only
troublesome, it is generally known as wire-grass. It is
also known locally as dogs’-tooth grass, Bahama-grass
and Scotch-grass.

Several varieties have been named by botanists, some
as distinct species. The interrelation of the numerous
forms is not, however, clear.

279. Characteristics. — Bermuda-grass is a long-lived
perennial with numerous branched leafy stems 4 to 6
inches high, or under very favorable conditions 12 to 18

237

238 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

inches high. Where the aérial stems are supported by
shrubs, they may reach a height of 3 feet. The leaves are

2u9 Ol

Fic. 26. — Bermuda-grass (Cynodon dac-
tylon). a, spikelet; b, floret.

flat and spreading, and
differentiated from all
similar grasses by the
ligule which consists of
a circle of white hairs.
The flowers are in slen-
der, spreading spikes
one-half to one inch
long, arranged in um-
bels of 4 to 6.

In the ordinary form
of Bermuda-grass,
numerous stout root-
stocks as large as a lead
pencil are produced,
and by the growth of
these a single plant
may cover an area of
several square yards.
In very hard soil the
rootstocks become
stout runners 1 to 3 feet
long, with much longer
nodes and shorter
leaves than the aérial

stems. St. Lucie-grass and other forms have no under-
ground rootstocks, but are much less hardy.

280. Agricultural history. — The date of the introduc-
tion of Bermuda-grass into the United States is not defi-
nitely ascertained. Spillman gives a circumstantial ac-
count of its introduction in 1812 at Greensboro, Georgia.

SOUTHERN GRASSES 239

However, a definite and unmistakable account of Ber-
muda-grass in the United States 1s given by Mease,
‘““ Geological Account of the United States,” p. 227, pub-
lished in 1807.

281. Adaptations. — Bermuda-grass occurs in_ the
United States generally from Pennsylvania west to cen-
tral Kansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico; also in
Arizona, New Mexico and California.

It extends somewhat farther northward, being found in
Massachusetts and Washington, but its continued exist-
ence in the Northern States is precarious. Much of it
survived the cold of January, 1912, in the District of
Columbia, when the temperature fell to — 18° F. The
spread and growth of the grass about Washington,
D.C., in the past ten years seem to be more vigorous than
formerly, which may be due to gradual acclimatization.
That Bermuda-grass does become more hardy seems to
be demonstrated by investigations at the Oklahoma
Experiment Station, where the local established strain
was able to withstand — 18° F. while plots grown from
Australian seed usually become winter-killed.

In general, however, Bermuda-grass is best adapted
in the United States to the same general area as cotton,
and in this region is relatively as important as is Kentucky
blue-grass in the North. It has also become abundant in
California and Arizona, but in these states it is looked
upon as a pest because of the difficulty it causes in
alfalfa as a weed, whence it is sometimes called ‘‘ devil-
grass.”

Bermuda will grow in all types of soil, but makes its
best growth on rich, moist bottom lands, but the soil must
be well drained. It has marked ability to withstand close
grazing or close clipping, and on this account is much used

240 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

as a lawn grass. The slightest touch of frost, however,
causes the leaves to turn brown.

On account of its ability to grow on any type of soil, and
its creeping character, Bermuda is an excellent soil binder
on sandy soil, on eroding slopes of clay and in gullies. It
is very abundant and useful for this purpose on the levees of
the Mississippi River.

Bermuda is not well adapted to shade and perhaps for
this reason tends to disappear in fields where it is densely
shaded by other crops.

282. Variability. — Bermuda is a very variable grass,
and many forms have been considered distinct species by
botanists. Even the common form introduced into the
United States is very diverse, and Moorhouse at the Okla-
homa Experiment Station has secured numerous differing
forms by selection. Some of the forms are very distinct
and may become important. One of these recently in-
troduced from Brazil produces superficial runners 15 feet
or more long in a single season.

In Florida occurs a form known as St. Lucie-grass, which
differs from ordinary Bermuda in never having under-
ground rootstocks.

As Bermuda is easily propagated by cuttings, any
selected form is easily maintained.

283. Importance. — Bermuda-grass is the most impor-
tant perennial grass in the Southern States, filling much the
same position in respect to pasturage as Kentucky blue-
grass in the North. Bermuda is also a hay grass and large
quantities are thus harvested, especially in rich or alluvial
soils. Its area of marked value is mainly south of latitude
36° — that is, the north line of Tennessee —— west to cen-
tral Oklahoma. In this area it is even more aggressive
than Kentucky blue-grass in the North, and, like the latter

SOUTHERN GRASSES aa

grass, is seldom sown. The fact that both of these grasses
volunteer so readily is probably the reason why so few
definite experiments have been conducted with either.

284. Culture. — Bermuda-grass is planted either by
sowing the seed or by planting “‘ roots.’”? The seed is very
fine and rather expensive ; therefore the seed bed should be
well prepared and firm. The seed is best sown in spring,
using about 5 pounds to the acre. To scatter it evenly, it
is advisable to mix with meal or soil so as to make a larger
bulk. After sowing the ground should be rolled or lightly
harrowed.

The more common method is to cut or tear the sod into
small pieces and then drop them in furrows on plowed
ground or merely press them in with the foot. The pieces
should be scattered about 2 or 3 feet apart each way.
Planting in this way is best done when the weather is
likely to be moist, at any time from spring till midsummer.
Under such conditions the pieces of sod are very sure to
grow.

To save the loss of the land while the Bermuda is start-
ing, it may be planted in the rows of any intertilled crop
after the last cultivation.

Bermuda-grass meadows or pastures tend to become sod
bound and fall off in yield. When this is the case, the
field should be disked or plowed and harrowed, after which
the growth will be much more vigorous.

Where conditions are not such that Bermuda will grow
in spite of bad treatment, care is necessary to insure a good
stand. At the Oklahoma Experiment Station pieces of
sod were planted in well-prepared land in 4 ways: 1. By
placing in furrows three feet apart and covering each root ;
2. By scattering pieces of sod evenly and then working
them into the soil with a smoothing harrow; 3. Seeding

R

242 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

followed by light harrowing; 4. Treated the same as in
2, and then planted to kafir corn which was cultivated in
the usual way. A good stand was secured by the first
method, a partial stand by the second, but the other two
were failures. ,

285. Yields of hay. — But few reliable yields of Ber-
muda-grass hay have been recorded, but statements have
been published to the effect that 3 to 4 tons an acre are
secured at times. Probably the average yield does not
exceed 1 ton an acre.

At the Oklahoma Experiment Station a field of 24 acres
planted in June, 1905, yielded 2584 pounds hay an acre
at the end of September, and in 1906 three cuttings gave a
yield of 10,160 pounds an acre. Another plot yielded
during three years to the acre respectively, 5850, 1635 and
1667 pounds of hay.

Newman states that a field on bottom land in Georgia
yielded in three cuttings 13,000 pounds of cured hay to
the acre.

286. Rootstocks. — According to Duggar, the stout
rootstocks when plowed up are readily eaten by hogs.
In the tropics where Bermuda-grass is sold green in bundles
for horse feed, the rootstocks are often pulled up when the
top growth is scanty. The same use of the rootstocks is
made in Naples, Italy, where they are fed to cab horses.

287. Pasture value. — Bermuda alone or in mixtures
makes excellent pasturage, but it is best when closely
grazed. The stems become rather tough and wiry with
age, and where there are not enough animals to keep it
closely grazed they feed only in spots.

Bermuda is so aggressive that few other plants will
grow with it during summer. Lespedeza will hold its own
in spots and the combination of the two is excellent.

SOUTHERN GRASSES 243

Bermuda does not grow in winter, but if bur clover be
sown it will make good winter pasturage and reseed itself
from year to year. Hairy vetch is also useful for the same
reason, but does not reseed itself so well. Another excel-
lent plan is to seed Bermuda pastures in the fall to Italian
rye-grass, which grows rapidly and furnishes pasturage
until the following summer. This grass is also often sown
in Bermuda lawns to make a green lawn in the winter.
White clover is also an excellent plant to grow with Ber-
muda for pasturage.

Good Bermuda pastures will carry one cow to the acre
during the summer and the best Bermuda and lespedeza
mixed pastures will support two cattle to the acre during
the summer.

288. Feeding value. — The only feeding experiments
reported are by the Mississippi Experiment Station. In
one experiment Bermuda was compared with timothy as a
hay feed for work mules, and the conclusion reached that
they were of equal value.

In experiments with dairy cows during three years the
results indicate that Bermuda hay has practically the same
value as timothy hay for the production of milk and butter.

289. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of Bermuda-
grass has heretofore been obtained wholly from Australia,
but recently it has been gathered in Arizona and southern
California. The culms are often only four or five inches
high, but the seed is held firmly long after it becomes ripe.
No data concerning the yields of seed seem to have been
recorded.

In humid regions Bermuda sets seed sparingly or only
in periods of unusually dry weather. Seed has been found
in Louisiana, Florida and North Carolina, while at Wash-
ington, D.C., it is quite freely formed.

944 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The viability of Australian seed ranges from 56 to 84
per cent. According to Hunt, one pound contains 1,800,000
seeds.

JOHNSON-GRASS (Andropogon halepensis)

290. Botany. — Johnson-grass is native to South Asia
and about the borders of the Mediterranean in Africa and
southernmost Europe. The specific name comes from the
city Aleppo, whence it first became known to European
botanists. )

Two varieties occur in Europe; namely, the ordinary
form with awned spikelets, and the awnless variety sub-
muticus. Both of these also occur in the United States.
In India there is another variety distinguished by having
a loose drooping panicle.

Andropogon halepensis is distinguished from all forms of
Andropogon sorghum by possessing underground rootstocks
and thus being truly perennial.

291. Agricultural history. — Johnson-grass was intro-
duced into South Carolina from Turkey about 1830. It
derives its common name from Col. William Johnson, who
grew it extensively near Selma, Alabama, beginning about
1840. In South Carolina it is still known as Means grass.
Governor Means of that state had sent a planter to Turkey
to instruct the Turks in cotton culture, and this planter on his
return brought back many seeds, including Johnson-grass.

Numerous other local names have been attached to
Johnson-grass, among them Aleppo-grass, false guinea-
grass, evergreen millet, racehorse-grass, etc.

In its wide spread since 1840, Johnson-grass has usually
been considered more as a weed than a cultivated plant,
but as late as 1884 and 1885 it was distributed by the
California Experiment Station as a desirable new forage
plant.

SOUTHERN GRASSES P45

292. Adaptation and _ utilization. — Johnson-grass is
adapted to the whole region in which cotton culture is
carried on, and also New Mexico, Arizona and California.
It grows well during the summer north of latitude 37°,
but in cold winters is usually destroyed. In favorable
years it lives over winter in Iowa and the District of
Columbia. It grows in all types of soil, but prefers rich
land and an abundant supply of moisture.

This plant can scarcely be called a cultivated grass, as
when once planted it is difficult to eradicate, and therefore
it is rarely sown intentionally. Indeed in regions where it
does not occur, great care is taken to keep it out. Where,
however, it is established, it is abundantly utilized both
for hay and for pasture. On good soil two crops and some-
times three may be cut in one season. Johnson-grass
quickly becomes ‘‘ sod bound,’ and unless plowed up
every year, or at least every two years, the yield becomes
very small. Just why the grass becomes ‘‘ sod bound ”’ is
not clear, but perhaps it is connected with the great devel-
opment of rootstocks.

Where Johnson-grass is very abundant, a common plan
is to plow in fall and plant to oats or oats and vetch.
After this crop is removed, two good crops of Johnson-grass
hay are usually obtained the same season.

North of the south line of Virginia and Kentucky there
is no good reason why Johnson-grass should not be utilized
as an annual crop. Sown in the spring, it produces a
large crop of hay and nearly always is killed in the winter.
At Arlington Farm, Virginia, it has several times been
planted in mixtures with cowpeas, for which purpose it
is well adapted. It is rare that any of the grass survives
the winter.

Johnson-grass probably produces more of the hay grown

a
246 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

in the South than any other perennial grass, unless it be
Bermuda-grass. In sections where Johnson-grass has
become very abundant, more attention is now being given
to its profitable utilization rather than to undertake the
expense of eradicating it.

On rich black soils three cuttings are sometimes secured
in one season, the total yield reaching a maximum of
about 6 tons. Probably about 14 tons is an average cut-
ting, and 2 the usual number saved. At the Mississippi
Experiment Station the yield to the acre on unfertilized
plots was 3.75 and 4.83 tons, an average of 4.29 tons in
two cuttings. The use of 187 pounds cottonseed meal an
acre increased the yield of hay to 5.54 tons, and 460 pounds
to 5.82 tons ; 94 pounds of nitrate soda an acre increased
the yield to 5.54 tons, and 189 pounds to 5.92 tons. Mixed
with cowpeas two cuttings were obtained, aggregating 3.85
tons to the acre. At the North Carolina Experiment Sta-
tion a thin stand yielded 5139 pounds of hay to the acre.

The rootstocks of Johnson-grass are also readily eaten
by farm animals, especially hogs. In Texas fields are
sometimes plowed up in winter to furnish feed in this
manner.

293. Poisonous qualities. — Under some _ conditions
Johnson-grass may cause the death of cattle in the same
manner as do the sorghums; namely, by the formation of
hydrocyanic acid. Cases of this kind were reported from
Miles City, Montana, in 1885, and from California in 1905.
It has also been reported by Duthie that Johnson-grass in
India often causes the death of cattle, especially in dry
seasons when the grass is stunted. No case of this kind
has ever been reported from the Southern States where
Johnson-grass is most abundant.

294. Seed. — Seed of Johnson-grass is mainly grown in

SOUTHERN GRASSES ys

Texas, but to some extent in Mississippi, Louisiana and
Alabama. ‘The demand for it is not large. The grass is
commonly cut with a binder, cured in the shock and
thrashed with a grain separator. The yields are said to be
8 or 10 bushels per acre, but a crop of hay can be harvested
after the seed crop. The commercial seed is often low in -
viability, seldom testing as high as 70 per cent.

JAPANESE SUGAR-CANE (Saccharum officinarum)

295. History and characteristics. — The Japanese or
Zwinga sugar-cane was introduced in the United States
Department of Agriculture, in 1878, from Japan. At first
it was used mainly for sirup, but in recent years it has
been employed largely as forage.

Japanese sugar-cane differs from the varieties grown
for sugar in having more numerous, more slender stems ;
firmly attached leaf sheaths which make it difficult to
strip the canes; narrower, smoother leaves than the varie-
ties grown primarily for sugar; and especially in its long
period of productivity, new canes growing from the old
roots for 12 years or more, apparently without any tend-
ency for the yield to lessen on account of age of the plants.
According to Scott, a new system of roots is developed
each season.

296. Adaptations. — Japanese sugar-cane in the United
States is adapted only to the region south of latitude 33°,
except in California, where it has succeeded fairly well in
the Sacramento Valley. A temperature of about 15°
F. is about the minimum the roots will withstand. It is
apparently more resistant to cold than any other variety.

Sugar-cane will grow in any type of soil if fairly well
drained, but large yields are secured only on fertile
soils.

248 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

297. Planting. — Japanese sugar-cane, like other varie-
ties, has never been known to bloom in the United States.
It is propagated by laying the mature canes in shallow
furrows 6 to 8 inches deep and then covering. To insure a
full stand it is best to lay two canes side by side for the
whole length of the furrow, breaking joints in laying, as
the basal nodes are most sure to sprout. The canes may
be cut into pieces of 3 or 4 joints, and this is necessary if
the canes are crooked. In the tropics the tops of the canes
are often used for immediate planting.

The rows are usually planted about 8 feet apart, as the
individual plants stool greatly with age, and narrower
rows do not leave room to cultivate.

The canes are sometimes planted in November, which
is satisfactory in central and south Florida, but farther
north spring planting is advisable, as otherwise there is
danger of winter-killing.

298. Culture. — Japanese cane is cultivated much like
corn. Deep cultivation is desirable in early spring as
soon as growth begins. Later cultivations should be
shallower.

The use of fertilizers increases the yield greatly, and the
yield promptly falls off if fertilizers are not used, at least
on ordinary Florida soils. The experiments thus far
reported do not show clearly what fertilizers are best to
use.

299. Utilization. — Japanese cane may be utilized as
dry fodder, silage or pasture. The crop should be allowed
to become as mature as possible without danger of frost
injury. If cut early, the plants are much weakened or
even killed.

The experience of the Florida Experiment Station is
that the silage keeps well and is relished by all live-stock.

SOUTHERN GRASSES 249

Under Florida conditions Japanese cane silage is about one-
third cheaper than corn or sorghum silage on account of
the larger yields.

The dried fodder also makes excellent feed, but on
account of the hard stems is best shredded. When stored
in a barn it keeps well for six months or more, but there
is considerable loss if left in the field in shocks.

The cheapest way to utilize the crop is by pasturing
to cattle and hogs, which may be done from November till
March. The animals eat the leaves and tops first, but
finally leave nothing but the hardest stubble.

At the Louisiana Experiment Station the experience has
been less favorable, the hard canes making the mouths of
cattle sore, and even when preserved as silage being but
little better.

300. Yields. — There are no definite figures as to the
yield of Japanese sugar-cane, but in the region to which it
is adapted, it far outyields any similar plant. Good yields
probably amount to about 30 tons green matter an acre,
and maximum yields to double this or even more.

301. Seed cane. — Canes for propagation should be
fully mature if possible, but in any event should be har-
vested before frost. To preserve them for spring planting,
they must be protected from frost in a well-drained place.
The usual method is to dig a trench where the ground is
well drained and to cover the stripped and topped canes
with enough soil or trash to protect them from freezing.
It is considered safer to bank the canes in several small
trenches rather than in one large one. Sometimes the
canes are simply piled on the surface and then covered
with soil, manure or straw.

To plant an acre in rows 8 feet wide requires about
3000 whole canes.

250 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

OTHER SOUTHERN GRASSES

302. Carpet-grass (Axonopus compressus). — Carpet-
grass or Louisiana-grass, called by the Creoles in Louisiana
‘petit gazon,” is now widespread in the tropics and sub-
tropics of both hemispheres, but it is probably native to
America. It was first described from Jamaica in 1788,
next from Porto Rico in 1804. It may be native to
Florida.

Carpet-grass is a perennial with creeping rootstocks and
numerous short, rather broad, flat leaves. The slender
culms rarely reach a height of two feet. This grass has
been known in the Southern States for many years and is
now widespread from about latitude 32° to the Gulf
of Mexico and west to central Texas. It thrives best in
sandy land, especially where moist, and in such situations
makes a fine dense sward.

On sandy lands in Florida and near the Gulf Coast car-
pet-grass is very aggressive, and wherever the land is
closely pastured, it is the principal grass. It stands
trampling and heavy pasturing without injury and seems
to thrive best under such conditions.

Carpet-grass can scarcely be considered a cultivated
grass, and commercial seed is seldom obtainable. This
grass now occurs in nearly all the area to which it is
adapted so that it is rarely necessary to plant it especially.
Where this is desirable, however, carpet-grass may be
planted by scattering small pieces of sod, as in the case of
Bermuda-grass. Or better, the grass may be permitted
to seed, mowed when mature and the straw with the
attached seed scattered over the field where it is desired.

Carpet-grass requires both abundant heat and moisture
for its best development, and under such conditions may

SOUTHERN GRASSES D5:

be pastured from May until November. During the cool
weather of winter it makes practically no growth.

PASPALUM

303. Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) is a native of
Argentina and perhaps also of the Gulf States. At any
rate it occurs apparently native from North Carolina to
Florida and west to Texas. The probabilities are, how-
ever, that it was introduced into the Southern States where
it has been known at least 50 years. It is readily dis-
tinguished from related native species by having the
glumes and sterile lemma ciliate with long hairs.

This grass is known also under the names of large water-
grass, golden crown-grass and hairy-flowered paspalum.
It is a smooth perennial, with a deep, strong root system,
and grows in clumps or bunches 2 to 4 feet high. The
leaves are numerous near the ground, but few on the
stems. The stems are weak and spreading, seldom erect
unless supported by other grasses. Its habit makes it
much better adapted to pastures than for meadows, but
where abundant it is cut for hay.

Paspalum can scarcely be called a cultivated grass in
the United States, as it is seldom sown, but is welcomed
in pastures where it appears spontaneously. Some
farmers collect seed and scatter in pastures to induce its
spread. The best seeds are produced late in the season.
As a pasture grass it is desirable from the abundance of
leaves it produces, and the fact that it remains green and
grows in all but the very coldest part of the year. It is
quite tussocky in habit, however, and so is best in mix-
tures.

In New South Wales, paspalum has proven valuable as
a hay and pasture grass and has there been greatly praised

952 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

by agriculturists. It is said to remain green when all
other grasses are dried up, and several successive cuttings,
aggregating 13 tons (green feed) an acre, were obtained

at the Wollongar
\s fi Experiment Station

the season following
the seeding. In the
Tweed district pas-
palum pasture is said
to support one dairy
cow to the acre the
year round.

In the United States
paspalum is adapted
to practically the same
area as the cotton
plant, excepting that
it does not spread
west of the humid
eastern portion of
Texas. While it oc-
curs on all types of
soil it is most abun-
dant on rich black soils
and bottom lands.

Fia. 27.— Paspalum dilatatum. ae show- Paspalum has given
ing arrangement of spikelets; b, a single ; eos
spikelet ; c and d, floret. fair results under iri-

gation in the San

Joaquin Valley, California, but does not yield heavily
enough to warrant cultivation.

It produces seed freely, but it ripens unevenly and

shatters easily. In the Southern States the flowers are

nearly always affected by a black fungus and apparently

SOUTHERN GRASSES 253

only a small percentage of the seed is good. Commercial
seed comes wholly from Australia, but it rarely germinates
over 50 per cent and is high priced.

PARA-GRASS

304. Para-grass (Panicum barbinode). — Para-grass is
probably native to South America and first became known
to botanists from Brazil. It is a coarse growing species,
differing from most other grasses by producing stout
runners as thick as a lead pencil which reach a length of
15 to 40 feet. These runners take root at the nodes and
thus give rise to independent plants. Where there is
shrubbery to support them they may reach a height of
15 feet. The leaves are rather short, rarely longer than
one foot and about one-half inch wide. The sheaths are
quite pubescent as are the nodes also. When growing
thickly para-grass will under favorable conditions make a
dense mass of herbage 3 or 4 feet high.

Para-grass is a tropical species and adapted to wet or
moist land. In Brazil, Ceylon and elsewhere it is much
grown and fed green to animals. It is sometimes difficult
to eradicate in the tropics and is especially troublesome in
sugar-cane fields. In the United States it is adapted only
to Florida and the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. In
Arizona and California it has been tried under irrigation,
but has not done very well, apparently requiring a humid
climate. Para-grass has survived the winter at Charleston,
S.C., and can probably be grown wherever the winter
temperature does not fall below 18° F. It often grows
along stream banks where it is covered with water for a
month or more at a time, conditions which do not harm it
in the least. On the margins of ponds it is frequently seen
growing in shallow water,

254 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

On account of its coarseness and rapid growth, para-
grass makes an enormous yield. In Florida it is often cut
three and four times during a season, and yields as high
as 4 tons may be harvested in a single cutting. There is
no particular time to cut para-grass, but it is usually done
when the grass is 2 to 3 feet high. The hay is coarse but
readily eaten by both horses and cattle.

To secure the best yields, it is desirable to plow the field
each spring, which stimulates the growth of the grass.
Some planters sow the plowed land to cowpeas and then
get a mixed crop of cowpeas and grass at the first
cutting.

Para-grass is coming into larger use in southern Texas
and some extensive fields are now grown under irrigation.
Where the climate is warm and moist no other grass
produces equally large yields on wet lands.

This grass is easily propagated by cuttings of the long
prostrate runners. These are cut into lengths of 2 or 3
joints, and then merely pushed into the ground at intervals
of 5 to 10 feet or even more. This may be done on spe-
cially prepared land or in between the rows of cultivated
crops. During the first season para-grass usually pro-
duces only prostrate runners unless the cuttings are
planted thickly. After the ground has become well cov-
ered with the runners, upright branches are produced,
and when growing thickly all the shoots become ascending.

The seed of para-grass is not very satisfactory, and, as
it shatters very readily, is seldom gathered. It is pro-
duced most abundantly during dry weather when the
growth becomes reduced.

305. Guinea-grass (Panicum maximum). — Guinea-
grass is native to Africa and has been considered native in
Brazil, but first became known to botanists from the West

SOUTHERN GRASSES 255

Indies. It was known in Jamaica before 1756 as guinea-
grass; in Guadeloupe before 1786; in Dominica before
1791, and in Cuba in 1804. According to Trimen it was
introduced into Jamaica in 1774 from west tropical Africa
by John Ellis as food for some birds he had imported.
From Jamaica it was introduced into India in 1808. It is
now quite generally grown in the tropics and cut green as
feed for horses and cattle. In Cuba large areas are now
covered with a spontaneous growth of the grass. It was
introduced into the United States as early as 1813 when it
was grown at Natchez, Mississippi. It is well adapted
only to Florida and a narrow strip along the Gulf Coast to
southern Texas. In Arizona and California it does fairly
well under irrigation, but has not come into agricultural
use in these states.

Guinea-grass is a long-lived perennial, with short creep-
ing rootstocks, single plants often making tufts 4 feet
in diameter. The culms are about as large as a lead pencil
and in the ordinary form strictly erect, reaching a height
of 6 to 10 feet. The leaves are 1 to 3 feet long, flat and
about one-fourth to one and one-half inches wide. The
panicles are erect, pyramidal, loose and open, a foot
or more long. The spikelets shed promptly as they
mature.

Guinea-grass from different sources shows considerable
variation. One form from South Africa is smaller, 4 to 6
feet tall, and the culms are decumbent at the base, and
rooting at the nodes. Another, too late even to bloom at
the Florida Experiment Station, has leaves as broad as
those of corn.

In the tropics guinea-grass is used wholly for soiling,
and on uplands no other grass will yield as well. In
Florida and along the Gulf Coast, it may be cut from 4 to 6

256 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

times, if cut when it is two feet high or less. It should not
be allowed to bloom, as the stems are rather hard and
woody.

Guinea-grass is not well adapted for hay on account of
its bunch habit, but this is much less pronounced when it is
grown thickly. The seeds shatter promptly as they
mature, but can be secured by cutting off the panicles
before they are fully mature and curing in the shade.

This grass may be propagated by root divisions, or
seedlings may be grown and then transplanted. The best
results are secured when the grass is planted in rows 5 or 6
feet wide and 3 feet apart in the row, so that it can be
cultivated. Thus planted it will yield an enormous
amount of green matter, probably more than any other
similar grass. Guinea-grass is killed when the tempera-
ture reaches about 18° F.

306. Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides), also known as
Schrader’s brome-grass, Arctic-grass, Australian brome
and Australian oats, is native to Argentina, but was early
introduced in the Southern States, where 1t now appears
spontaneously in many places. The first definite record
of its introduction is 1853, in which year it was advertised
and highly praised by B. V. Iverson of Columbus, Georgia,
who apparently first used the name rescue-grass.

Rescue-grass is a short-lived perennial, but under cul-
tivation behaves practically as an annual. It commonly
grows to a height of 25 or 4 feet, the culms terminated by a
large, open, somewhat drooping panicle.

It is naturally adapted to humid regions of mild winters,
springing up in the fall, growing through the winter and
maturing in early summer. It does not make much
growth on poor land, but on rich soils is probably the best
grass for temporary winter pastures in the South. Onsuch

SOUTHERN GRASSES Zot

soils it also grows large enough to cut for hay, and under
favorable conditions two cuttings may be obtained.

In the North rescue-grass survives the winter at Arling-
ton Farm, Virginia,
and in the grass gar-
den survives 4 or 5
years, but it cannot
compete with the bet-
ter northern grasses
in yield.

In Australia rescue-
grass has become quite
important and practi-
cally all of the com-
mercial seed is grown
there. The seeding
habits are excellent
and the seed moder-
ate in price.

Rescue-grass is
probably deserving of
more attention in the
South than it has re-
ceived, especially for
winter pasturage on
good land. It should
be sown in early fall,
and may often be
pastured by December but usually not till February.
The seeding rate generally recommended is 30 to 40
pounds per acre. It is always a desirable constituent of
mixed pastures with such winter-growing plants as bur

clover, vetches, orchard-grass and Italian rye-grass.
)

Fia. 28. — Rescue-grass (Bromus wni-
oloides). a, glumes; b, lemma; c, palea.

258 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

307. Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis) is a native of
the Old World, early introduced into the United States as
a weed. The older agricultural writers mostly speak of it
as ‘‘ crop-grass,’’ of which the more modern term seems to
be a corruption. It is an annual weedy grass that appears
with the advent of hot weather and is promptly killed by
the first frost in fall. It makes an abundant growth in
cultivated ground from which winter crops have been
harvested, or even after early summer crops, such as oats
and potatoes. Perhaps more crab-grass is cut for hay in
the South than any other one grass. The hay is consid-
ered fair in quality if cut about the time the first heads
mature.

Crab-grass is always a spontaneous crop and is never
sown, nor is the seed handled commercially. In lawns it
becomes a destructive weed, as it makes dense mats which
smother out other grasses.

308. Natal-grass (Tricholena rosea) is an annual,
native of Natal, South Africa, now grown commonly in
India, Australia, the Hawaiian Islands and other warm
regions. Sometimes it is called Australian redtop or
Hawaiian redtop, but it has no relation to true redtop.
It is a summer annual and in America is adapted only to
Florida and the Gulf Coast region. The dark rose-colored,
loose panicles are very attractive. It is similar to com-
mon crab-grass in its habit of growth, but is larger, more
leafy and bears moderate frosts with less injury. The
best growth is made on rather sandy soils, and in Florida
after the ground is once seeded it makes an abundant
volunteer growth after Irish potatoes, melons, oats and
other early crops have been gathered. It was introduced
into Florida about twenty years ago and is now very abun-
dant in scattered areas through that state. For fall

SOUTHERN GRASSES 259

and winter grazing it is excellent and the hay is of good
quality, especially when mixed with cowpeas. It begins
its growth so early in the season that it is usually killed
by any summer cultivation which may be given the field,
so that it is rarely seen in cotton or corn fields. The
glumes are very hairy and light, so the seed must be gath-
ered by stripping. Seed may be sown broadcast at any
time from November to April and needs no special atten-
tion.

Natal-grass is valuable wherever it will continue to
volunteer from year to year, but its seed habits and small
yield do not commend it for growing in rotations. Some
commercial seed is grown in Australia.

Seeds from different sources show that the plant is quite
variable, and some forms are decidedly more valuable
than others. A related species, T. teneriffe, is perennial
and may prove valuable for permanent pastures in Florida.

CHAPTER XIII

SORGHUMS
sorcHuUM (Andropogon sorghum)

Tue numerous varieties of sorghum are cultivated in the
Old World for three distinct purposes ; namely, grain, sirup
and brooms, and but incidentally for forage. In the
United States the utilization of the crop for forage far
exceeds its other uses at present, though the culture of
broom-corn is important, and the harvesting of the crop
as grain is increasing. Sorghum is potentially of enormous
importance in America because of its adaptation to regions
too dry for Indian corn.

309. Botany. — The botanical origin of the cultivated
sorghums is a complex problem. Hackel on the basis of
extensive studies reached the conclusion that all the
cultivated forms as well as the different forms of Johnson-
grass represent but one botanical species. However,
the wild forms easily separate into two groups; namely,
the perennials with rootstocks like Johnson-grass and its
3 or 4 varieties; and the annuals which lack rootstocks,
like Sudan-grass, Tunis-grass and others. As the latter
cross spontaneously and abundantly with the cultivated
sorghums while the former can be crossed only with diff-
culty, it seems more logical to admit two species, Johnson-
erass and its varieties (Andropogon halepensis) and the
annual sorghums (Andropogon sorghum) including Sudan-

grass.
260

SORGHUMS 261

The wild annuals so far as known are confined to Africa,
~ but one occurs perhaps introduced in Tahiti and Samoa.
From this fact the cultivated sorghums probably originated
in Africa, a conclusion also supported by the fact that the
diversity of the African varieties both wild and cultivated
is far greater than that of all other regions. Tunis-grass
may be considered very near the wild original form and
Sudan-grass a variety somewhat improved by cultivation.
There are several other wild forms in different parts of
Africa concerning which but little is known.

310. Agricultural history. —- The culture of the sor-
ghums is doubtless very ancient, far antedating history.
The first definite records are illustrations on ancient
Egyptian ruins dating from about 2200 B.c. of what is,
with scarcely a doubt, some variety of sorghum. Bret-
scheider finds evidence in Chinese writings that sorghums
were cultivated in China as early as the third century of
the Christian Era. Old Sanskrit writings, dating back
1900 years, mention what is quite surely a grain sorghum
grown in India at that time. In ancient Greek writings
there are no clear references to sorghum, but the plant was
known to Pliny, who states that it was introduced into
Italy from India about 60 a.p.

More potent than the brief records of ancient history is
the mute testimony that the plant itself affords by its
early wide distribution and the astonishing diversity of its
cultivated forms. Its culture probably extended through-
out Africa in prehistoric times and early spread to the
southern half of Asia as far northeast as Manchuria. In
the latter country an entirely distinct group of forms has
been developed, the kowliangs ; and the East Indian forms
also are very different from those of Africa.

In America, the first sorghum to be introduced was

262 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

doubtless the Guinea corn, brought from Africa to the
West Indies before 1707, at which date it was much cul-
tivated in Jamaica. In the United States broom-corn
sorghums were grown in colonial times, but the first definite
record of a sweet sorghum was that introduced in 1853
from France, the variety then called Chinese sorghum and
much like that now called Amber. In 1857 it was widely
distributed by the United States Patent Office.

Since 1857 numerous varieties have been introduced
into the United States, mainly by the Department of
Agriculture, from all parts of the world where the crop is
grown, as with the agricultural development of the semi-
arid region the sorghums have become increasingly 1mpor-
tant.

311. Adaptations. — Sorghums are adapted to regions
having a warm summer climate. The earliest known
varieties will mature with three months of warm weather,
but some of the tropical African varieties barely come into
bloom in Florida in 7 months. In regions of long, cool
summers like northern Europe, sorghums are of but little
value.

No degree of summer heat seems too intense for the
sorghums, but they are injured both in spring and in fall
by light frosts.

Sorghum has no marked preference for soil except that
it be well drained. On account of its deep roots a permea-
ble subsoil is desirable.

In general the climatic and soil adaptations of sorghums
are nearly identical with those of corn. Sorghum, how-
ever, suffers less than corn from intense heat, lack of
humidity or insufficient soil moisture, often remaining
fresh and green when corn is completely destroyed, or
remaining semi-dormant during short periods of extreme

SORGHUMS 263

drought and again growing with the advent of favorable
weather. On these accounts it is especially well adapted
to agriculture in semi-arid regions.

312. Root system. — In Ten Eyck’s studies at the Kan-
sas Experiment Station, the roots of kafir and of Folger
sorgo were found to extend to a depth of 33 feet, but at
that depth were less abundant than those of corn. Both
varieties, especially the kafir corn, produced an enormous
amount of roots in the upper 18 inches. The sorghums
therefore have a root system especially well adapted to use
shallow moisture promptly.

In Russian investigations the roots of two varieties
of sorghum penetrated respectively 106 and 110 centi-
meters, while corn roots went to a depth of 113 centi-
meters and spread laterally to a greater extent than the
sorghum.

The drought resistance of sorghums would therefore
seem not to be especially associated with the development
of the root system.

313. Agricultural groups. — No other cultivated crop
exhibits as great a diversity as does sorghum. Varieties
have been developed for three distinct purposes; namely,
grain, sugar and broom-straw. All three of the groups
also produce forage as a by-product. <A satisfactory
classification of the very numerous forms of tropical Africa
is not at present possible, but very many of them have
been named by botanists. So far as the forms cultivated
in America are concerned, the classification into groups as
proposed by Ball is here adopted, adding another group,
however, to include Sudan-grass and Tunis-grass.

* Stems slender, rarely exceeding 6 mm. in diameter; leaves
relatively narrow, 12 to 30 mm. broad; panicles loose; spikelets

964 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

lanceolate, 2 to 3 mm. broad, readily shattering (Tunis-grass)
or persisting (Sudan-grass). I Grass sorghums.

** Stems stout, usually 18 to 30 mm. in diameter; leaves
broader, 45 to 75 mm. broad; panicles various.
I. Pith juicy.

A. Juice abundant and very sweet.

1. Internodes elongated; sheaths scarcely overlap-
ping; leaves 12-15 (except in Amber varieties) ;
spikelets elliptic-oval to obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm.
wide; grains reddish brown. II Sorgo.

B. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid.

1. Internodes short; sheaths strongly overlapping ;
leaves 12-15; peduncles erect; panicles ecylin-
drical; spikelets obovate, 3-4 mm. wide; lem-
mas awnless. Ill Kafir.

2. Internodes medium; sheaths scarcely overlapping ;
leaves 8-11; peduncles mostly inclined, often
recurved; panicles ovate; spikelets broadly
ovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide; lemmas awned.

VIII Milo.

ii. Pith dry.

A. Panicle lax, 2.5-7 dm. long; peduncles erect; spike-
lets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide;
lemmas awned.

1. Panicle 4-7 dm. long; rhachis less than one-fifth
as long as the panicle.

a. Panicle umbelliform, the branches greatly
elongated, the tips drooping; grains reddish,
included. IV Broom-corn.

2. Panicle 2.5—-4 dm. long; rhachis more than two-
thirds as long as the panicle.

a. Panicle conical, the branches strongly drooping ;
glumes at maturity spreading and involute;
grains white or somewhat buff. V_ Shallu.

SORGHUMS 265

b. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches spread-
ing; glumes at maturity appressed, not invo-
lute; grains white, brown or reddish.

VI Kowliang.

B. Panicle compact, 1-2.5 dm. long; peduncles erect or
recurved ; rhachis more than two-thirds as long as the
panicle.

1. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm.
wide; lemmas awned. VI Kowliang.
2. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide.

a. Glumes gray or greenish, not wrinkled; densely
pubescent ; lemmas awned or awnless; grains
strongly flattened. VII Durra.

b. Glumes deep brown or black, transversely
wrinkled; thinly pubescent; lemmas awned ;
erains slightly flattened. VIII Milo.

Of the above eight groups, Durra, Milo, Shallu, Kowli-
ang and Kafir were primarily developed as grain crops,
though the last also contains sugar; Sorgo was developed
for its sugar; Broom-corn for its stiff fascicled straws;
and the grass sorghums are useful primarily for fodder.
The waste herbage of each group is, however, used as fodder
wherever cultivated. In America probably three-fourths
of the total herbage produced by all the sorghums is con-
sumed as coarse forage. Indeed, the only portions not
thus harvested are the brooms of broom-corn; the stalks
from which sirup is extracted; and the increasing propor-
tion of milo, kafir and durra which is headed for grain, at
the present time not over one-half the acreage.

Sorghums are sometimes classified into saccharine and
non-saccharine, depending on whether they contain sugar
in the stalks. The discussion of forage sorghums is here
limited to the varieties and methods used where the whole
plant is usually harvested and thus utilized.

266 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

314. Importance. — The relative importance of the
sorghum as forage in America is difficult to estimate,
mainly on account of the four purposes — grain, forage,
sirup and brooms — for which the crop is grown. The
importance of the crop for much of the semi-arid region,
especially the unirrigated lands. between longitude 98° W.
and the Rocky Mountains, is so great that over much of
the region it forms the basis of possible agriculture. In
more humid areas it comes into competition with corn.
Other competitive crops like teosinte and penicillaria have
practically been driven from American agriculture by
sorghum, but in Florida and the Gulf Coast region Japan-
ese sugar-cane will give larger forage returns than sorghum,
but the latter is grown on account of its usefulness in
rotations.

The statistics of sorghums, at least the sweet sorghums,
are not very satisfactory. According to the Thirteenth
United States Census the total acreage of sorghum was as
follows :—

SoLchule sor Sirp. d.qtis ane ere ee ee 444,089 acres

(BrOOM-COLDS. See 9. oe eee ee ee 326,102 acres
Kafirand milo . . 9.5 2. ss . . . . G35eSataeres

2,405,344 acres

Some of the sorghum is also reported under the heading
“Coarse forage,’ but it is impossible to estimate how
much.

According to the Kansas State Board of Agriculture,
there was grown in that state in 1910 acreage as follows:
sorgo, 512,621; milo, 100,700; kafir, 636,201. Of the
sorgo the product of only 12,879 acres was pressed for
sirup.

315. Culture. — Sorghum is grown for forage either in

“SVX T, NI ODUOS MOUANAHSOOL) TO ATHY Vece De hivild

SORGHUMS 267

rows sufficiently wide to cultivate with horses, or less com-
monly, broadcasted or drilled thickly for hay. Sometimes
it is planted in a mixture with cowpeas, soybeans or other
legumes.

Good preparation of the seed bed is desirable, especially
to secure a firm seed bed and freedom from weeds. Sor-
ghum seedlings grow slowly at first, the more so if the
weather be cool, and so are likely to be injured by weeds or
even destroyed in broadcasted sowings.

When planted in rows sorghum is cultivated often
enough to keep down weeds. In the semi-arid region
frequent cultivations are believed to conserve the soil
moisture.

Whether broadcasted or sown in rows, sorghum can be
harrowed until about 6 inches high with practically no
injury to the young plants. Rows 24 to 30 inches wide
may be cultivated with a weeder till 2 feet high.

316. Time of sowing. — Sorghum should not be sown
until the soil is thoroughly warm in the spring, and usually
a little later than corn. Early sowings often given imper-
fect stands. Later seedings can be made at any time in the
summer provided there is likely to be sufficient moisture
and time enough to mature before frost.

317. Seeding in rows. —Sorghums may be sown in
cultivated rows in widths varying from 18 inches to 44
inches. Cultivation with horses is difficult, however, if
the rows are narrower than 28 inches, and 42 or 44 inches
is the usual distance used. The thickness of the seeding
in the rows may also be varied. Thick seeding will pro-
duce finer stems and a larger proportion of leaves, and this
is therefore desirable where moisture is ample. In dry
regions, however, where the moisture supply may be very
scanty, thin seedings are most satisfactory in the long run,

2968 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

even if the yield be somewhat reduced, and the plants
coarser.

If the rows be 3 feet wide and the plants 1 inch apart
in the rows, an acre will contain 174,240 plants. Six
pounds of seed of a sweet sorghum would, therefore, be
sufficient if they all grow. Four to 6 pounds of seed to
the acre is, however, commonly used in the drier regions,
and in humid regions up to 8 to 10 pounds.

In the semi-arid regions sorghums are usually planted
in furrows made with a lister, as this is believed to make
the plant more firmly rooted, especially as the later cul-
tivations throw the soil about the base of the stems. At
Chillicothe, Texas, however, flat planting gave better
yields in average seasons.

318. Seeding broadcast. — Where sorghum is sown
broadcast an average of about 40 pounds to the acre is
best. Such seedings are usually confined to the sweet
sorghums the seeds of which do not differ greatly in size
in the different varieties. This amount of seed if drilled
will sow 1 seed each inch in 7 inch drill rows. In drier
regions somewhat less seed is more desirable, but in the
humid regions 1 to 2 bushels is the usual rate of seeding.

At the lowa Experiment Station but slight differences
in yield were obtained when sown at the rates of 40, 80 and
100 pounds an acre, excepting that in the thicker seedings
the stalks were not as coarse.

319. Number of cuttings. — As a rule sorghum is cut
but once for fodder. This is all that is possible in the
Northern States or in the semi-arid regions on unirrigated
land. In the South, however, where the rainfall is ample
or where irrigation is available, two or three cuttings may
be secured in a season, new shoots developing from the
stubble. To secure a better second crop the rows or

SORGHUMS 269

broadcasted stubble are sometimes cultivated after the
first cutting is removed.

320. Yields of forage. — The yields of forage from the
sorghums vary greatly and, as is the case with similar
coarse plants, are not often weighed. Maximum yields
probably reach 40 tons of green and about 10 of dry forage.
Very large yields can be obtained by growing very coarse
varieties, but smaller yields of less coarse fodder are more
desirable. In general, 3 tons an acre may be considered
a good yield and 6 tons a large yield.

321. Seed. — The seeds of the sorghums differ greatly
according to variety in size, shape, color and hardness.
The weight to the bushel will vary from 54 pounds to 62
pounds per bushel, depending upon the freedom from hulls
and the variety. The legal weight to the bushel is 30
pounds in Iowa and Nebraska; 42 pounds in Missouri and
Mississippi; 50 pounds in Arkansas and Tennessee; 56
pounds in Kansas; 57 pounds in Minnesota.

According to the last census (1909) there was produced
833,707 bushels of seed on 72,497 acres. Of this Kansas
produced 565,522 bushels on 53,706 acres. Other im-
portant seed-producing states are Nebraska, Texas and
Oklahoma.

The number of seeds in one pound of different varieties
is as follows: Sumac, 35,000; Orange, 23,500; Amber,
23,000.

322. Agricultural varieties. — The agricultural varieties
of the sorghums important for forage include all the sorgos
or sweet sorghums, the kafirs, milo and feterita, as well as
Sudan-grass. The broom-corns, the kowliangs, shallu and
many of the Indian and African-grown varieties have
dry, pithy stems and are therefore much less valuable
for forage.

270 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The principal sorgos are Amber, Orange, Sumac, Goose-
neck, Honey and Planter; there are four important
varieties of kafir, two of milo and one durra (feterita)
commonly grown for forage.

Amber. — Amber was the first sorgo introduced into
America. It 1s said to have been developed in Indiana
from the Chinese sorgo brought to France in 1851 from
Tsungming Island, China. Amber sorgo has open, usually
pyramidal panicles with the lower branches drooping ;
glumes black, slightly hairy, shiny, nearly inclosing the
elliptical reddish-yellow grains. It will mature in Ontario
and Minnesota.

Red Amber. — This variety was introduced in 1903 from
Australia, where it is called Early Orange. It differs
from amber in the glumes being dark red or reddish-
brown. It is not early enough to use north of Kansas
and Maryland.

Orange. — Orange sorgo was one of the forms introduced
from Natal in 1857. It has moderately compact heads, 5
to 8 inches long, oblong, cylindric or spreading at the top;
glumes reddish to black, two-thirds as long as the reddish
yellow grains, which become paler when fully ripe. Usually
it is two weeks later than Amber and about one week
earlier than Sumac.

Planter.— This variety is much grown in Australia
under the name Planter’s Friend and in America has been
called Sourless from the idea that the juice in the stems
would not ferment as quickly as that of other varieties.
Its origin and early history are obscure, but forms much
like it came from South Africa. It much resembles
Orange, but is less sweet and juicy. The heads vary in
compactness and may be spreading above; glumes pale
brown, very acute, half inclosing the straw-colored grains.

SORGHUMS Ara

Planter is not considered a desirable variety under
American conditions.

Sumac. — Sumac sorgo, also known as Redtop or Red-
head, was introduced from Natal in 1857. Sumac varies
but little and may be easily distinguished by its erect,
cylindrical, quite dense heads 6 to 9 inches long, some-
times loose at the top; glumes dark red or black, hairy,
much shorter than the seeds; grains very small, obovate,
brownish red. Sumac is too late to mature north of a
line from northern Virginia to southern Kansas.

Honey. — Honey has also been called Japanese seeded
cane. It was found growing in Texas in 1904, but its
earlier history is uncertain. Stems tail, very juicy,
sweeter than any other variety known; leaves 14 to 16;
panicles erect, pyramidal, very loose and open, 9 to 11
inches long, the slender branches more or less drooping ;
glumes reddish, nearly smooth and about equal in length
to the dark red-brown grains; late, maturing with Sumac.

This variety is probably the best of all in its ability
to remain erect until maturity.

Gooseneck. — This is also known as “ Texas Seeded Rib-
bon Cane.” It has been known since 1876 and is perhaps
one of the varieties from Natal. Stems very tall and stout,
12 to 14 feet high, very sweet and juicy; heads ovoid,
rather dense, 5 to 9 inches long, 3 to 5 inches broad, all
recurved or at least inclined at maturity; glumes hairy,
black, the lower one awned; grains obovate, reddish yel-
low, inclosed by the glumes; later than Sumac by about
one week.

Gooseneck is better for sirup than for forage. It does
not lodge much in spite of its great height.

Kafir or Kafir corn.— Kafirs are all originally from

southeast Africa, whence they were introduced in 1876,

272 =FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

but were not much grown until ten years afterwards.
They differ from other grain sorghums in having the stems
quite sweet, being intermediate in this respect between the
sweet sorghums and the pithy-stemmed sorghums. They
are characterized by stout, short-jointed stems, numerous
(12-18) broad, rather stiff leaves, and especially by the
dense, erect, cylindrical or oblong heads. The grains are
oval, half covered by the short glumes.

The most important variety is Blackhull kafir with
heads 10 to 14 inches long, and nearly white grains with
black glumes. Less important is Red kafir with longer,
more slender heads, 12 to 18 inches long and dark red grains
with yellowish to dark gray glumes. Pink kafir recently
introduced from South Africa, with pink grains, is otherwise
intermediate between the Blackhull and the Red varieties.
White kafir with white glumes and grains is the earliest
variety of kafir, but its heads often remain inclosed in the
upper sheath.

Feterita. — Feterita or Sudan durra is an erect-headed
durra introduced in 1906. It is much cultivated in Sudan
in the region about Khartum. Feterita has rather slender
stems, 5 to 7 feet high, slightly juicy and sweet and in-
clined to produce branches; heads erect, cylindrical,
dense but not so compact as milo; grains bluish white,
subglobose, much larger than those of milo or kafir; glumes
black, shiny, densely hirsute on margins only half inclos-
ing the seeds; early, maturing about one week before
milo.

Milo.— Milo is also called milo maize and in northern
Texas is often known simply as maize. It was first grown
in South Carolina or Georgia between 1880 and 1885.
With scarcely a doubt it came from Africa, but nothing
exactly like it has since been obtained from that con-

SORGHUMS O18

tinent, but the yellow durra or durra safra of Egypt is
more nearly like milo than any other known variety.

Milo is characterized by having stout, rather pithy
stems; dense ovate heads, nearly always recurved ; glumes
dark colored; florets awned ; grains pale yellow. A white-
seeded form has also been developed near Chillicothe,
Texas. Milo seems to be entirely immune from kernel
smut and head smut.

323. Seed-production.— The seeding habits of the
sorghums are excellent and the yield an acre large. The
grain varieties, kafir, milo and feterita, commonly yield
25 bushels an acre and maximums of 75 bushels are
reported for kafir, 46 bushels for milo and 80 bushels
for feterita. The average yield an acre according to the
United States Census was 19.4 bushels in 1899 and 19.8
bushels in 1909. The commercial seed of these grain
sorghums is usually excellent both in purity and germina-
tion.

The seed yield of sorgos is much less definitely known.
The census of 1909 shows a total production of 833,707
bushels on 72,497 acres or 11.6 bushels an acre. Over
70 per cent of this was produced in Kansas, the other
important states being Nebraska, Texas and Oklahoma.
Of the total amount probably over one-half was Amber
sorgo. Good yields range from 20 to 40 bushels an acre.

The commercial seed of the sorgos often leaves much to
be desired, as there is usually a mixture of varieties and
seldom a pure strain. There is, however, no greater
difficulty in growing pure seed than in the case of the grain
sorghums.

The seeds of most sorghums retain their viability well
for several years, but no detailed studies have been re-

corded.
T

274 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

324. Utilization. — Sorghums for forage may be utilized
as soilage, hay, fodder or silage, and with due precautions,
may be pastured. The crop should be harvested before
frost, if possible, but light frosts do but little damage. If
the crop becomes injured by frost, the harvesting should
be completed as rapidly as possible.

325. Soilage. — Sorghum is an excellent crop to feed
green, and is probably thus used to a greater extent than
any other forage crop in America. For this purpose it
may be cut at any time after it is 2 or 3 feet high. It is
not desirable to cut, however, until it heads, as both the
yield and the quality are better at that time. The second
growth is more rapid if it be cut before heading than after-
wards, but the total yield is probably reduced if cut either
before heading or after the dough stage of the seeds is
reached.

In growing sorghum for soilage, sowings may be made
at intervals of about 15 days, as this is about the length
of time that a sowing will afford desirable green feed.
Or early and late varieties may be used. The average
yield of green forage an acre may conservatively be placed
at 15 tons.

326. Fodder.— Sorghum in cultivated rows is_har-
vested much the same as corn, being cut either with a row
binder or with a corn knife. The crop is commonly cut
for this purpose when the seed is in the early dough stage.

The thick, juicy stems cure with difficulty. It is best,
therefore, to begin the curing by having the stalks in
small shocks, and to combine these into larger ones as the
curing progresses. The large shocks are put under cover
when dry enough, or they may be left in the field until
used. If left in the field, they should be capped or at
least tied closely at the top so as to shed rain water.

SORGHUMS OD

When only small areas are harvested, the curing may be
done with the aid of a pyramid.

Sweet sorghum fodder, if left in the field, is likely to
become sour after about three months, due to the fer-
mentation of the sugar by yeasts. This difficulty is
greatest with the saccharine sorghums in humid climates,
and probably in nearly direct proportion to their sugar
content.

327. Hay. — Where sorghum is sown broadcasted or
in close drills, it is usually cut for hay when the seeds are
in the early dough stage. In dry regions it may be cut
with a binder and allowed to cure in the bundles. In
more humid localities, methods must be used to insure
as rapid curing as possible, as the rather thick, juicy stems
dry out but slowly.

328. Silage. — Sorghum has long been used as silage
and the results are nearly as satisfactory as corn. Even
in the semi-arid regions the use of the silo has become
common in recent years, and an increasing proportion
of the sorghum crop, both saccharine and grain varieties,
is thus preserved. With the grain sorghums an incidental
advantage is secured by the softening of the seeds during
silage fermentation, so that practically none are voided
by the animal undigested.

For preserving as silage, sorghums should be allowed
to become fully mature. In palatability and feeding
value sorghum silage has proven to be nearly as good as
corn silage.

329. Sorghum and legume mixtures. — A mixture com-
posed of sorghum and cowpeas for hay has long been used.
The advantages of the mixture are that the sorghum
supports the cowpeas and in curing keeps the leaves from
becoming matted. The yield is probably somewhat

276 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

decreased, but the mixed hay is better than sorghum
alone. Amber sorgo is generally used in such mixtures,
but in Texas, Sumac is preferable because it is later. Any
of the medium late cowpeas may be employed, such as
Whippoorwill, Brabham and Unknown.

Where moisture is ample, the seeding may consist of
1 to 3 bushel per acre of sorghum and 1 bushel of cowpeas.

When planted in rows under dry-land conditions,
the rate of planting needs to be regulated in accordance
with the probable amount of moisture. Theoretically
there should be one plant of cowpea to two of sorghum.
At Chillicothe, Texas, 6 pounds of Whippoorwill cowpeas
to 1 pound of Amber sorghum proved very satisfactory.

Other legumes that may be used in place of cowpeas
are soybean, bonavist beans and kulthi beans.

330. Pasture value. — Sorghum may be used as pas-
turage, but on account of the danger of poisoning has never
been much employed for this purpose alone.

It is a common practice, however, to turn live stock
into a field of sorghum from which the heads have been
removed for seed, and when thus utilized there have been
no reports of deaths resulting.

The principal danger from sorghum seems to be when
the young second growth from the stubble is pastured.

331. Poisoning. — That green sorghums are poisonous
under certain circumstances has long been known. The
cause is now generally admitted to be due to prussic acid,
which under some conditions is formed in the leaves both
of young and old plants, but has not been found in the
roots or seeds. The conditions under which prussic acid
is formed is not clearly understood, but 1t seems more
likely to occur when for any reason the growth of the plant
has been checked. As the same phenomenon occurs in

SORGHUMS yA

Lima beans, Hyacinth beans, Guinea-grass and other
plants, it is quite certainly not due to a parasite. Poison-
ing has been most frequently reported when cattle were
pastured on second-growth sorghum, and on account of
the danger this is rarely advisable. A few cases of
poisoning by Johnson-grass are also recorded.

332. Diseases. — Three diseases cause more or less
damage to the sorghums; namely, kernel smut (Sphace-
lotheca sorghi); head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana) ; and
Red spot or Sorghum blight (Bacillus sorghi).

Kernel smut affects only the individual grains, and all
or nearly all the seeds in a head are destroyed, but the
appearance of the head is but slightly changed. Kernel
smut may be controlled by treating the seed with formalin
or with hot water.

Head smut destroys the entire head, which, as it emerges
from the sheath, is practically a mass of smut spores
covered with a whitish membrane. No satisfactory
treatment for this smut has yet been found.

Red spot or blight causes characteristic red spots to
appear on the leaves and stems. When abundant the
leaves die prematurely. All varieties of sorghum and
Johnson-grass are subject to the disease, but by selection
strains that show a high degree of resistance may be secured.

333. Insect pests. — Only a few insects cause serious
damage to sorghums. The most important are the
sorghum midge, the chinch-bug, the corn-worm and the
fall army-worm.

Sorghum midge (Diplosis sorghicola). — It has long been
known that the sorghums seldom produced good seed
crops in southern Texas. The cause of this is the sorghum
midge, as first demonstrated by C. R. Ball in 1907. This
little fly lays its eggs in the flower when in bloom and

278 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the young larva feeds on the juices of the developing ovary,
preventing the formation of the seed. If a head of
sorghum be bagged before it blooms so as to exclude the
insect all of the seeds may develop. The insect also lives
in Setaria glauca, Tridens flava (Sieglingia seslerioides)
and probably other grasses. Its occurrence is probably
general in the Southern States over about the same area
as cotton.

Corn-worm (Heliothis armiger).—The larva of the corn-
worm is often found in the heads of sorghum, but mostly
in those which are rather dense.

Chinch-bug (Blissus leucopterus). — Chinch-bugs, when
abundant, do serious damage to young sorghum plants.

Fall army-worm (Laphygma_ frugiperda).— The fall
army-worm, when abundant, may do serious damage to
sorghums. The larve usually feed in the young leaves
while still coiled, perforating them so that they may break
off after they have expanded. Sometimes the larve
tunnel into the young stem below the developing head,
which may later break where weakened.

Sorghum aphis (Sipha flava). — This plant louse is
sometimes abundant, but rarely does much damage.

334. Sorghum improvement. — The improvement of
sorghums by breeding presents no particular difficulties,
but care is necessary to keep any strain pure. Sorghum,
like corn, is wind pollinated, and different varieties grown
close together cross freely. Uncontaminated seed can
easily be obtained by bagging the heads before the stigmas
are exposed. After the seeds have set, the bags should
be opened to prevent molding. Natural crosses may be
found in almost any field of sorghum. Heterozygote
plants are often prominent from the fact that they grow
much taller than the other plants. Artificial crosses are

SORGHUMS 279

not particularly difficult to make, but the blossoms must
be emasculated before the anthers open.

Selections can easily be compared by the head-to-row
method; that is, planting each row from a single head,
preferably in duplicate so as to permit of careful compari-
sons.

Among the sweet sorghums, selections should be for
leafiness, disease resistance, sweetness, juiciness and
erectness, as well as yield. Yield, indeed, is a secondary
matter, as otherwise the tallest and coarsest varieties
would be preferred.

Among grain-producing sorghums the yield of seed is
the paramount consideration, but in dual-purpose sor-
ghums, like milo, kafir and feterita, the other points
should be considered.

When a desirable strain is determined upon, the heads
in the row test should be bagged, and from the seed thus
secured, a field isolated from other varieties should be
planted. As soon as a stock of seed is secured, the variety
may be kept practically pure by saving the seed only from
the central portions of a field and by promptly removing
any rogues that may appear.

SUDAN-GRASS (Andropogon sorghum var.)

335. Description. — Sudan-grass is probably native
to Egypt, where it is cultivated under the name “ garawi,”’
but it may have originated farther south in Africa. It
was first introduced into the United States in 1909. There
are strong reasons for believing this plant to be the wild
original form of the cultivated sorghums, with which it
spontaneously crosses wherever the two are planted near
each other.

It is a tall annual grass, growing under favorable

280 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

conditions to a height of 6 to 10 feet, but when broad-
casted thickly it grows only 4 to 5 feet high. The stems
are fine, the largest stalks seldom larger than a lead pencil.
Where the plants are scattered they stool abundantly,
as many as 20 to 100 stalks coming from a single root.
In general appearance Sudan-grass is very much like
Johnson-grass, but the two are entirely distinct, for
Sudan-grass lacks rootstocks and, therefore, never be-
comes troublesome as a weed. The stems are leafy,
perfectly erect and seldom lodging. The sugar content
is small, but enough to give a decided sweetish taste.
The panicle is loose and open, pyramidal in form and 6
to 18 inches long.

336. Adaptations. — Sudan-grass is adapted to the
same general conditions as the sorghums, but it ripens
earlier than any sorghum, and will probably mature as
far north as latitude 49°. It has been grown with marked
success in the semi-arid region from South Dakota to
Texas, where it is quite as drought resistant as any other
sorghum. It grows equally well through the humid
regions and has given splendid results from Maryland to
Louisiana. Along the Gulf Coast and in Florida, however,
it bas not succeeded very well, probably on account of
the great humidity. Under irrigation it seems destined
to become important, judged from the results secured in
Colorado, Arizona and California.

337. Culture. — Sudan-grass may be sown broadcast,
drilled or in cultivated rows. Where there is sufficient
moisture, broadcasting or drilling is preferable ; otherwise
the grass is likely to be coarse. In seeding this way three
pecks of seed to the acre should be used.

Under conditions of light rainfall Sudan-grass is prob-
ably best sown in cultivated rows, though excellent

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SORGHUMS 281

results have been secured in dry regions from broad-
casting. In rows 36 inches wide, 3 pounds of seed to the
acre are sufficient, even with rather thick seeding, which
is recommended when grown for hay. For seed-pro-
duction much thinner seeding has given excellent results.

It is sometimes practicable in humid regions to sow in
18-inch rows and cultivate. This is especially desirable
where the land is very weedy. The grass grown under
such conditions does not become too coarse, and further-
more, the dense shade kills out the weeds. Five pounds
of seed to the acre should be used when thus sown. For
drilling or broadcasting 15 to 25 pounds of seed per acre,
depending on rainfall, should be used. The seed should
not be sown until the ground is warm, that is, about the
time for planting corn. Some experiments indicate that
Sudan-grass may be seeded considerably earlier, but
further experiments are needed before this can be stated
definitely. The young plants will withstand slight frosts
without injury.

338. Utilization. — Sudan-grass may be compared to
the millets in that it makes a large crop of hay in a short
season of warm weather. It is preferable to the millets,
however, in that the hay is much superior and can be fed
to all kinds of live stock without injury to them. While
it is closely related to the cultivated sorghums, it has much
finer stems, enabling it to be cured into hay readily and
thus filling a somewhat different function on the farm.

It is probable that the same precautions will need to be
taken in pasturing Sudan-grass aftermath as with the
sorghums.

339. Hay. — Sudan-grass may be cut only once in a
season at the northern limit of its growth, but southward
may be cut two, three or even four times, depending on

OS? FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the length of the season and moisture conditions, and. the
time of cutting. Sudan-grass is probably best cut when
in full bloom, and early cutting is advisable where two or
more cuttings are expected. There is little if any deteri-
oration, however, if the grass be allowed to stand longer,
as the later culms of the same stool continue to appear
over a considerable period.

The grass can be cut with a mower, but more conven-
iently with a binder, especially in dry regions, as the hay
cures very readily in bundles.

At Chillicothe, Texas, 4 cuttings were obtained in 1912
from a broadcasted tenth-acre plot, the yield being at
the rate of 8800 pounds of hay per acre. At Arlington
Farm, Virginia, single cuttings yielded at the rate of 2.8
tons and 3.5 tons per acre.

340. Hay mixtures. — Sudan-grass is well adapted for
growing in mixtures with cowpeas and soybeans or both,
as they mature well together and the stems of the Sudan-
grass prevent the leaves of the legumes from matting
together in curing. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, a plat
of Sudan-grass and Black cowpeas yielded at the rate of
4.6 tons an acre, about one-fourth being cowpeas, while
Johnson-grass and Black cowpeas yielded but 2.8 tons.

A similar mixture of Sudan-grass and Arlington soy-
beans, a twining variety, yielded at the rate of 4.4 tons
per acre, about one-fourth of the material being the
legume.

In these trials, Sudan-grass was seeded at the rate of
20 pounds, and the cowpeas and soybeans 30 pounds an
acre.

341. Chemical analysis. — As far as chemical analyses
can determine, Sudan-grass does not vary greatly in com-
position from before heading until the seed is ripe. As

“VINIDULA NI SSVUD-Nvang 4O dTatI

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SORGHUMS 283

the leaves dry more or less after full bloom, it is probably
best cut at that time. In the following analyses, perhaps
the most important point shown is the close comparison
of the mature plant with that cut in bloom :—

Cur Ava. 7 C
: gs cr. 1,
UBSTANCE Heade ae ee NORE: [SEED WAS
Bef : Lene In Full =| ULE
Heading | 0 AD- eto) Figo /HBADINO| vote
Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent
Moisture . .| 4.13 3.4. 3.46 Bel 4.82 4.38
(XG) (ge 6.61 00 9.02 5.64 7.12 5.59
Ether extract LayZ 1.39 js 1.27 1.49 1.48
Protein cae TEES 6.06 5.16 4.66 9.03 4.19
Crude fiber .| 30.68 | 31.94 | 33.23 | 35.62 | 34.30 | 34.44
Pentosans Jee b 2a08 | 24-40 12251 1223.88 1226.70
imdétermmed \° 27-29 »|) 27.51. | 27.20 | 24.79 |-23:26 126.70

342. Seed-production. — Sudan-grass yields excellent
crops of seed, especially if planted in cultivated rows.
At Arlington Farm, Virginia, a yield of 12.8 bushels an
acre was obtained when planted in 18-inch rows, while
but 3.7 bushels were secured from broadcasted plats. At
Chillicothe, Texas, under farm conditions a yield of 356
pounds an acre was secured from 36-inch rows, and on
another farm 642 pounds from 42-inch rows. At the South
Dakota Experiment Station small plots have yielded at the
rate of 1000 to 1500 pounds an acre. The seed weighs
32 to 44 pounds a bushel.

Seed for commercial purposes should be grown on land
not infested with Johnson-grass, as the seeds of the two
are distinguishable only with difficulty. Where Johnson-
grass is abundant, Sudan-grass for seed should be grown

984 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

only in cultivated rows, taking great care to hoe out any
Johnson-grass that may appear in the field.

Sudan-grass crosses very readily with all of the culti-
vated varieties of sorghum, so that when it is grown near
any such variety, more or less numerous hybrid plants will
appear in the progeny. These hybrids do no harm in the
fields intended for hay, but where a crop is to be harvested
for seed the hybrid plants should be rogued out. This
should be done preferably as soon as the hybrids appear
in bloom, so as to prevent further crossing in the field, but
in any event it should be done before the Sudan-grass seed
is harvested.

CHAPTER XIV
MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES

Tue millets furnish another example of a crop utilized
in the Old World for human food, but in America grown
only for forage. They are important mainly as short-sea-
son summer catch-crops, but their culture is diminishing
steadily. As hay producers they are far less important
than the small cereals, namely, oats, barley, wheat and
rye.

The term millet has been used agriculturally with a
wide meaning, having been applied to about 10 species
of grasses belonging to the genera Setaria or Chetochloa,
Panicum, Echinochloa, Pennisetum and sometimes others,
including Paspalum. The sorghums, too, have fre-
quently been called “ giant millets.”’ All the ‘ millets ”
are rapid-growing summer annuals.

343. The principal millets are the following :—

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), including the varieties
known as Common, German, Italian, Hungarian, Siberian
and many others. In Europe and America they are used
wholly as forage, but in other countries have been grown
for human food.

Broom-corn millet, Hog Millet or Proso (Pantcum
miliaceum), cultivated in Russia and other countries as
human food and now grown to a considerable extent in

America, mainly as a cereal crop, though sometimes cut
285

286 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

for hay. This is the ‘Common millet ”’ of Europe, the
Milium of the Romans from which the name millet is
derived.

Japanese barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea). —
This is also known as Sanwa millet and Billion-dollar grass.
In America it is grown purely as a forage crop, but in
Japan and India the grain is used as a cheap human food.
The very closely related Echinochloa crus-galli is the
common Barnyard millet.

Ragi or finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is much grown
in India as a cereal, but has never attained favor in
America.

Pearl or cat-tail millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is as tall
and coarse as the sorghums and is extensively grown in
India and Africa as human food. In the United States it
is sparingly grown as forage and often called Penicillaria.

The fruit of the true millets, Panicum, Setaria and
Echinochloa, differs from that of nearly all other grasses
in having the grain inclosed in a firm box composed of the
firmly interlocked lemma and palea. This peculiar fruit
deserves a distinct name and for it the name caryocist —
from the Greek words meaning grain and box — seems
appropriate.

344. Foxtail millet (Setarta italica).— There is general
agreement among botanists that the cultivated foxtail
millets have been derived from the green foxtail (Setaria
viridis), now a cosmopolitan weedy grass, especially in the
tropics and warmer portion of the temperate zone. Green
foxtail is native in temperate Eurasia and botanists have
distinguished about 8 varieties, largely based on the rel-
ative length of the awns.

345. Agricultural history. — Foxtail millet is a plant
of very ancient cultivation. It is probably a native to

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 287

southern Asia and with little doubt its cultivation began
in that region. According to Bretschneider it was men-
tioned in connection with religious ceremonies in Chinese

records about 2700 B.c.

in India and it had
early spread west to
Switzerland as_ its
seeds there occur in
the remains of the
lake dwellers of the
stone age. ,

346. Adaptations.
— The foxtail millets
are very rapid-grow-
ing, erect annuals,
which delight in great
summer heat. In gen-
eral they require the
same climatic condi-
tions as sorghum, but
as they mature in a
shorter time, are
adapted to regions
where sorghums will
not develop suffi-
ciently. They are
quite as drought re-
sistant as the sor-
ghums and are im-

Its cultivation is also very ancient

Fig, 29. — Foxtail millet (Setaria ztalica).
a and b, dorsal and ventral views of a
spikelet ; c, lemma.

portant in much the same areas, but as the sorghum will
produce greater yields of better forage the foxtail millets
are now used mainly as catch-crops when the time is
too short for other crops to mature.

288 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Millet bears the reputation of being ‘‘ hard on the land ”’
— that is, reducing the yield of subsequent crops — but
this is probably no more the case than with any similar
crop that produces equal yields.

347. Importance. — The foxtail millets are still im-
portant as cereals for human food in China, India and
other Asiatic countries. In mountainous regions of North
Asia they are cultivated by many wild or half savage
tribes.

In Europe the variety known as Hungarian millet or
Mohar is extensively cultivated for forage on sandy lands
in Austria, Italy and the Balkan region.

In America the foxtail millets are grown wholly for
forage, their culture being most important in the semi-
arid regions, but by no means insignificant in humid
areas.

The area planted in the United States in 1909 was
1,117,769 acres, yielding 1,546,533 tons, an average of
1.33 tons an acre. The acreage decreased about one-
third between 1899 and 1909. The states where millet
is most important are Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Texas
and North Dakota. Some, however, is grown in every
state of the Union.

348. The agricultural varieties of foxtail millet are
very numerous and many of them have been given two
or more names, which unfortunately have become vari-
ously used by different seedsmen. The problem of deter-
mining the original or proper application of each name is
very involved, and it is very doubtful if this can now be
done satisfactorily. The most prominent commercial
varieties now used in the United States and Canada are
the following : —

Common. — This is the best known and perhaps the

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 289

most widely grown variety. It is fine-stemmed and leafy,
with a small cylindrical head, compact except near the
base, and numerous yellow fruits. It has a short season
of growth and produces a fair yield of good quality hay.
The California and the Gold Mine are heavy-yielding
strains of common millet.

Other names that belong here, in the main at least,
are Small millet, Dakota millet, Early Harvest millet,
Missouri millet and American millet. This variety has
long been cultivated in the United States, but its early
history is obscure.

German. — This variety is coarser than the common,
with broad leaves and a distinctly lobed, much larger and
somewhat looser head. The individual fruits are yellow
like the common, but smaller and less flattened. The
season of growth is fully two weeks longer, and the hay
yield is larger but not quite so good in quality.

The Golden Wonder is a selected type of the German
in which the head is distinctly lobed but more compact,
longer and more slender. It makes good yields of both
forage and seed.

Other names that have been applied to German millet
are Southern millet, Mammoth millet, Golden millet and
Bengal-grass. German millet was introduced into the
United States before 1870, at which time it was well
known in Tennessee. It has always been the most im-
portant millet in the South. Owing to its coarser habit
it yields more per acre than other varieties. It is, however,
not so resistant to severe drought. The original! source
of German millet is doubtful, probably India, but its
introduction into Tennessee was from France.

The Golden Wonder variety is said by Crozier to
have originated in Michigan in 1884, and its introducers

U

290 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

claim it is a cross between German and Hungarian
millets.

Hungarian. — This variety possesses a small, compact
head with seeds much the same shape as those of common
millet. The color of the fruits is mixed, some being yellow,
others black or very dark purple, both colors being found
in one head. The season of maturity is intermediate
between the common and German, but the yield is practi-
cally the same as the common, except under dry climatic
conditions, when it is apt to be less. It is better suited,
to the humid than to semi-arid conditions, but is sometimes
objectionable on account of its tendency to volunteer.

Hungarian millet is commonly called Hungarian-grass.
It is the German millet of Europe, but not that so-called
in America. It was introduced into the United States as
early as 1830 and probably much earlier, but did not
become prominent until after the seed had been distrib-
uted by the Patent Office in 1854.

Siberian. — This variety was introduced from Russia
about 1896. It is very similar to common millet, except
that it has orange-colored fruits. The season of growth
is a few days longer than the common and the yield
slightly larger, especially in the semi-arid districts.

Another strain of it, called the Kursk, was introduced
by the U. 8. Department of Agriculture in 1899 from
Kursk Province, Russia, and has since been improved by
selection. This is the best millet for the semi-arid regions
from Kansas and Colorado northwards.

Still other varieties of foxtail millets occur in Japan,
Korea and Manchuria, but none of these have attained
a place in American agriculture.

349. Culture. — Foxtail millets are mostly sown broad-
cast or drilled on specially prepared ground, but in the

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 291

semi-arid regions row culture is sometimes used, especially
with the larger varieties like German millet. <A well-
prepared, firm seed bed is best, but sometimes millets are
sown, with very little soil preparation, as on disked corn
stubble.

The seed should not be sown until the ground is warm,
not earlier as a rule than two or three weeks after the usual
time for planting corn. From this time on, millet may
be sown at any time in summer if there is sufficient mois-
ture and time enough before frost to mature. The least
touch of frost is fatal to millet. Under the most favorable
circumstances a crop of millet may be cut in 40 to 50 days
after seeding. ‘Towards the end of the season from 60
to 90 days must be allowed.

350. Seeding. — The rate of seeding recommended by
different authorities ranges from 2 to 4 pecks to the acre.
Crozier on the basis of trials at the Michigan Experiment
Station concludes that 2 pecks is the best for Hungarian
and common millets on ordinary soils.

For seed-production, however, thin seedings are best
and 1 peck to the acre is usually recommended. Under
semi-arid conditions millets for seed-production are some-
times grown in cultivated rows.

At the Ontario Agricultural College three millets were
sown at six different dates for five years. Japanese
broom-corn millet yielded best when sown June 1;
Japanese barnyard millet, when sown June 16; and Hun-
garian millet when sown July 1.

351. Hay. — Millet should be cut for hay just after
blooming, but for cattle and sheep it may be left until the
seed are in the late milk stage of development.

The quality of hay produced is rather inferior, especially
if allowed to become too ripe before it is cut. No danger

292 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

is experienced in feeding it to either cattle or sheep, but
instances of unfavorable results when fed to horses are
numerous. Hay intended for feeding horses should be cut
before the seed has formed; such hay is more palatable
and is not as dangerous.

352. Feeding value. — Armsby, on the basis of calori-
metric experiments, finds that Hungarian millet hay is
superior to red clover, alfalfa, cowpea or timothy hay for
beef production by cattle. This finding gives a much
higher value to Hungarian hay than has heretofore been
supposed. |

At the Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment Station, how-
ever, Hungarian millet proved inferior to red clover
when fed to dairy cows : —

‘In these experiments when clover was fed, the amounts
of milk and butter were considerably increased and the
percentages of fat were higher than during the test with
Hungarian-grass just before and after those with clover.
The average product from four cows during the first
series of clover tests (August 10, 14 and 18) of 1891 was
281 pounds of milk and 15.6 pounds of butter, and the
average percentage of fat was 5.3 per cent; while for
the test with Hungarian-grass (August 3 and 27) the
average quantity of milk was 249 pounds, and of butter
12.9 pounds, and the average percentage of fat 5 per
cent.’

353. Silage from foxtail millet. — Millet has sometimes
been tried as silage, but is not well adapted for this purpose.
At the Michigan Experiment Station millet preserved in
the silo was dry and fluffy when removed and much like
hay. It had a pleasant odor, however, and was readily
eaten by cows.

At the Vermont Experiment Station two cows fed with

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 2938

Hungarian millet silage after hay showed a shght im-
provement in milk production. One cow that had been
fed on corn silage lost in quantity and quality of milk
when changed to Hungarian millet silage, which she ate
greedily.

354. Injurious effects. — oxtail millet has long been
regarded as an unsatisfactory feed for horses unless fed
sparingly. The experiment at the North Dakota Ex-
periment Station in which horses were fed millet hay for
a long period led to the conclusion ‘‘ that millet when used
alone as a coarse food is injurious to horses, — first in
producing an increased action in the kidneys; second, in
causing lameness and swelling of the joints; third, in
producing infusion of the blood into the joints; fourth,
in destroying the texture of the bones, rendering it softer
and less tenacious, so that traction causes the ligaments and
muscles to be torn loose.”

Millet is both laxative and diuretic in its action,
but except in horses never seems to produce injurious
effects. It is probable, however, that it is always
better to feed in connection with other roughage instead
of alone.

355. Seed-production. — Millet produces abundant
seed and is usually harvested with a binder, cured in shocks
and thrashed with a grain separator. It is commonly cut
when the seeds are nearly mature, as later cutting results
in some loss from shattering.

In a comparative test of 5 years at the Ontario Agri-
cultural College, Siberian millet averaged 47.5 bushels an
acre; Hungarian, 45.2 bushels; German, 38.8 bushels;
Golden Wonder, 18.5 bushels.

356. Seed. — The seeds of different varieties of millet
vary considerably in size and in weight per bushel. In

294 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

most states the legal weight of common and German
millets is 50 pounds, and of Hungarian-grass 48 pounds
per bushel. The actual weight, however, varies from 40
to 55 pounds. One pound contains from 175,000 to
250,000 seeds.

357. Diseases and insects.— The only important
disease of foxtail millet is smut (Ustilago crameri) which
replaces the grain with a mass of black spores. The disease
is transmitted by smut spores on the seed, and can be pre-
vented by treating the seed with hot water in the same
manner as the bunt of wheat.

The chinch-bug is very injurious to millets of which
it seems especially fond. On this account millet is
sometimes sown around or in strips through a field
of wheat to attract the bugs. The insects and _ their
eggs may then be destroyed by plowing under the
millet.

358. Japanese barnyard millet (Hchinochloa frwmen-
tacea). — This millet is known as sanwa millet in India
and in America has been called billion-dollar grass.
It is cultivated in Japan, India and other oriental
countries for human food. It has probably originated
from the common barnyard millet (H. crus-galli), now
a cosmopolitan weed in the tropics and in warm temper-
ate regions. The cultivated plant differs mainly in its
more nearly erect habit, more turgid seeds and in always
being awnless.

Japanese millet is a coarser plant than any foxtail
millet, and on account of its thick stems does not cure
readily into hay. It has been recommended for silage,
but on the whole is probably best used for soiling. Reports
differ as to its palatability, probably due to the fact that
it is palatable when young and before heading, but much

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 295

less so as it approaches maturity. It is not known ever
to cause any ill effects either on horses or on other
animals.

The yields are large when there is ample moisture.
At the Massachusetts Experiment Station it has produced
as high as 6 tons of hay per acre and seed yields of 67
bushels per acre.

359. Broom-corn millet (Panicum miliacewm) is_ of
prehistoric cultivation in Europe as indicated by seeds
found in Switzerland and Italy with human remains of the
stone age. It was probably even more ancient in central
Asia, in which region it appears to be native.

The cultivated plant is sometimes divided into three
botanical varieties: effusum with loose panicles; con-
tractum with the panicles denser above; and compactum
with dense panicles.

The numerous agricultural varieties are distinguished
primarily by the panicles, secondarily by the color of the
glumes which may be red, black or white.

Broom-corn millet is cultivated largely in Europe,
especially in Russia and throughout temperate Asia.
It is invariably grown as a cereal crop, but to some
extent is used as forage. In America it has been grown
most in the Dakotas and Manitoba, though it is well
adapted to a large portion of the West, and fairly well to
the East.

From a forage standpoint, broom-corn millet is not as
desirable as the foxtail millets, the yield being less as a
rule and the stems more woody and less leafy. For seed-
production they are, however, at least as good as the fox-
tail millets.

The culture of broom-corn millet is essentially the same
as that of foxtail millet.

296 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

360. ComparaTIVE Hay Y1ELpS IN Pounps To THE ACRE OF
DIFFERENT MILLETS AT SEVERAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS

Z Sg me x z 3
fe8 | sg | #8 | £3 | 83 | ge
$2 | 62 | #2 | ee | we] ge
ss PS) R= a a he)
VARIETY a © an on Ee?) Be
fe | So | Ba | So |e Reet
He | #2 | Sa | fa | Be | Ba
S Ky eS a Zi a
ae; > 5 me re Za es a
= oe) leas a Al A a,
a cal 7,
Hay Hay Hay Hay Hay Green
German from Dakota . | 4000
Common from Dakota | 4840
German from Tennessee | 3800
German from south 221386
German . . . . «| 5248 | 5600 | 7700 | 2611
Common .. . .. .| 2952 | 5600 3360 14520
Hungarian . . . «| 2240 | 6600 | 4840 | 4820 | 3500
Hungarian pga eae
Japanese foxtail . . .| 3440
Japanese broom- corn
(P. miliaceum) . .| 4232 | 8600 | 5600
Hog (P. miliaceum) . | 2682 3320 | 3000 | 1150 | 21054
Golden Wonder . . . 7000 5000 | 17908
Siberian foxtail . . . 6400 | 3420 10406

Japanese barnyard . . 6200 5250 | 32912

361. Shama millet (Hchinochloa colona) is a native
of India where it is more or less cultivated for human
food, but it is now generally spread through the tropics
and in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. It is
not uncommon in the southern portion of the United
States, especially: the southwest and in Mexico. It has
a general resemblance to barnyard millets, but is much
smaller in every way. The panicle is narrow and open
and the spikelets unawned. The grass has been tested at

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 297

many experiment stations on small plots, but has not been
found valuable enough in comparison with other millets.
362. Ragi, finger millet or coracan (Hleusine coracana)
is much cultivated in India and to some extent in Africa
as a cereal. It produces large crops of rather poor grain
which is therefore very cheap. The cultivated plant is

supposed to be a deriva-
tive of the wild Eleusine
indica, native to India.
It is markedly charac-
terized by having 5 to
7 elongate one-sided
spikes arranged in an
-umbel.

Ragi has much the
same adaptations as
foxtail millet, but is
coarser and more leafy.
The varieties are nu-
merous. Insmall tests
it has succeeded well
throughout the South-
ernStates, but has never
come into use as a forage
crop in America.

363. Texas millet
(Panicum texanum).—
This annual grass is
native to Texas and
adjacent Mexico. It
occurs mainly on the

Fic. 30. — Texas millet (Panicum
texanum). a and b, dorsal and ventral
views of a spikelet; c, lemma.

bottom lands along streams, and from its occurrence along
the Colorado River, Texas, is most commonly known as

298 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Colorado-grass. It has shown a marked tendency to
volunteer in cultivated fields after the manner of crab-
grass, not only in Texas, but also in Alabama and other
Southern States where it has been introduced.

The hay of Texas millet bears an excellent reputation,
and as it is practically always a volunteer crop, it is highly
esteemed. The seed habits are good, and more or less
seed is handled by Texas seedsmen. As a crop to be
planted, however, it cannot compete with the foxtail
millets, as it does not yield so heavily. In the southern
half of the Gulf States it is probably worth while to estab-
lish it generally so that it will make a portion, at least, of
the volunteer grasses that hold their own in cultivated
land. It rarely does well, however, except on loams and
clays, so there is little use to plant it on sandy lands.

CEREALS FOR HAY

364. All of the common small grains, namely, wheat,
spelt, emmer, rye, oats and barley, may be and are
utilized more or less for hay production, either alone or
grown in mixtures with such legumes as crimson clover,
vetches and field peas. The production of hay from
such crops is most important in regions where the rainfall
is comparatively light. Thus wheat is very commonly cut
for hay in the Columbia Basin region of Washington,
Oregon and Idaho; barley in the same region, but more
so in California. Rye and oats are more or less utilized
for this purpose in all regions where these cereals are grown.
According to the Thirteenth United States Census, the total
area of small grains thus cut for hay aggregates 4,324,878
acres, with an average yield of 1.24 tons an acre. This
total acreage is slightly greater than that of alfalfa and
nearly four times as large as that of the millets. Such

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 299

cereal hays are mostly utilized for feeding to cows, but with
care may be satisfactorily fed to horses. Rye is somewhat
objectionable on account of awns on the heads, and the
same thing applies to awned varieties of wheat and barley.

The straw of all of these cereals is also utilized as feed,
that of oats being considered far more valuable than any
of the other small grains.

The same use of small grains for hay is made in Australia
and New Zealand. In Australia over half of the total hay
crop is made from wheat and nearly half of it from oats. In
New Zealand over half of the hay crop is produced by oats.

Where cereals are thus cut for hay, it is the usual
practice to cut them in the late milk or early dough stage.
In the western United States, where wheat is largely har-
vested by headers or by harvesters, it is a very common
practice to open up the field; that is, cut one or more
swaths clear around the field and one or more across the
field so as to make a passage for the grain harvesting
machinery. The grain cut in opening up the field is
commonly used for hay.

OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES

365. Chess or cheat (Bromus secalinus). — Cheat is
an annual grass native to the Old World and frequently
occurring as a weed in wheat fields. The adaptations
of the two plants are very similar and formerly the idea
was held that cheat is a degenerate or changed form of
wheat, whence its name.

Cheat is sometimes grown as an annual crop for hay,
planting it in the fall ike winter wheat. Formerly it
was quite largely grown in western Oregon. In recent
years it has been cultivated in northern Georgia under
the name of Arctic-grass.

300 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Cheat is easily grown and produces good crops of hay.
In Georgia, liverymen consider it equal to timothy, es-
pecially if it be cut when the seeds are in the dough stage.
For hay purposes it probably has no advantage over the
ordinary small grains.

366. Canary-grass (Phalaris canariensis) is, with little
doubt, native to the countries about the western end of
the Mediterranean, though there is doubt about its
nativity on the Canary Islands, whence its name is
derived. It was introduced into the Netherlands from
Spain about the middle of the sixteenth century, which
seems to be the first definite mention of the grass. At the
present time it is cultivated mainly in Turkey
and adjacent countries for the seed, which is
used to some extent as human food, but
largely as feed for cage birds.

Canary-grass is an annual species, growing
to a height of 3 to 45 feet, several culms
usually stooling from the same root. It is
conspicuously characterized by its dense
oblong head-like panicle, the white glumes
having green nerves.

Canary-grass has succeeded very well in Cali-
fornia planted in fall, and in Saskatchewan
sown in spring. It will probably succeed

Fic. 31. Wherever barley can be grown, but the de-
Canary grass mand for the seed is limited. As a hay crop
(Phalaris ca- .
nariensis), 1+ has no apparent advantage over wheat,

oats or barley. Its mode of culture is iden-
tical with that of the small grains. At Indian Head,
Saskatchewan, yields of 29 bushels of seed and 3960 pounds
of straw per acre have been secured, and in California
23,952 pounds of seed were grown on 40 acres in 1905.

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 3801

367. Penicillaria (Pennisetum glaucum). — Penicillaria,
Pencilaria or Cat-tail millet is most commonly known as
Pear! millet, and there are several synonyms of its scientific
name. It is probably native to Africa, where it is largely
cultivated by the natives, but it is most cultivated in India.
It was early brought to the West Indies from Africa. It is
a tall, erect annual, usually growing 5 to 8 feet high, but
in Florida attaining a height of 16 feet on rich soil. The
stems are not quite as stout as sorghum, but have shorter
nodes, more woody cortex and rather dry pith without
sugar content. The head is cylindrical, very dense, 4 to
14 inches long and bearing numerous round white ex-
posed grains.

There are several varieties, eight or more having been
introduced by the United States Department of Agri-
culture. The common variety seems to be that grown
extensively in India, where it is known as bajri. In one
variety from South Africa, the heads are much shorter
and nearly as thick as long.

Penicillaria is adapted to practically the same con-
ditions as the sorghums. The common American variety
will mature seed as far north as Maryland and Nebraska,
but doubtless earlier-maturing sorts could be developed.

It was formerly grown to a greater degree than at pres-
ent, both in the South and in the semi-arid regions, but
it has given way in competition with the sorghums. As
a forage it is not so desirable on account of the harder
pithy stems. As a cereal it has never had any standing
in America, as the yield in grain is meager and of poor
quality, and furthermore is subjected to much loss by
birds.

As a soilage crop, penicillaria will in the South yield
very heavily and perhaps is exceeded by no other grass.

\

302 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

For this purpose it is a very useful forage plant. It
should be cut preferably when 3 or 4 feet high before the
stems become hard and pithy. In the southernmost
states it can be cut three or four times in a season and on
very rich soil as many as six cuttings may be obtained.

Penicillaria has been recommended for silage, but for
this purpose is not as desirable as corn or sorghum.

The culture of penicillaria is practically like that of
corn or sorghum. It is most commonly planted in rows
3 feet wide and 3 to 6 inches apart in the rows, under which
conditions it stools abundantly. For thus planting, about
4 pounds of seed per acre are needed. It may also be
planted thickly, either drilled or broadcasted, under
which conditions it does not stool so much nor grow so
large. Thus sown it may be cut and cured as hay, but
on account of its thick stems is not easily dried. For this
purpose about 30 pounds of seed should be sown to the acre.
Sowing should take place about the same time as corn, as
the plant does not withstand frost either in spring or fall.

On good soils penicillaria will yield as large or larger
crops of forage than sorghums, but on poorer soils not
somuch. Yields to the acre of green fodder have been re-
corded by experiment stations as follows : South Carolina,
6 cuttings, 94,424 pounds; Georgia, 52,416 pounds in
3 cuttings; Alabama, 13,800 pounds; Louisiana, 16,000
pounds; Kentucky, 80,320 in 2 cuttings; Delaware,
9964 pounds; New Mexico, 56,600 pounds; Arkansas,
9600 pounds; California, 63,000 pounds; New Jersey,
24,000 pounds.

Dry fodder yields to the acre are reported as follows:
North Carolina, 6806 pounds; Kentucky, 32,800 pounds ;
Georgia, 19,474 pounds ; Alabama, 2900 pounds ; Arkansas,
9600 pounds; Washington, D.C., 15,440 pounds.

MILLETS AND OTHER ANNUAL GRASSES 808

Notwithstanding large yields, penicillaria has not
become popular, as have other coarse forage grasses,
especially sorghum and Japanese sugar-cane.

At the Kansas Experiment Station, penicillaria stover
was compared with kafir corn stover in feeding cattle.
In a 22-day test the cattle ate only half as much of the
former as of the latter. Those eating the penicillaria
stover lost an average of 30 pounds each, while those
fed on kafir corn gained an average of 6.9 pounds
each.

American seed is at present grown mainly in Georgia,
where the yield is said to average 500 pounds to the acre.
Where English sparrows are abundant, it is useless to try
to get a seed crop.

368. Teosinte (Huchlena mexicana) is a coarse annual
grass, growing 8 to 12 feet high, and commonly producing
many stems from the same root. It is a native of tropical
America, probably Mexico, and is closely related to corn,
with which it forms hybrids.

Teosinte requires a rich soil and a long season of moist
hot weather for its best development. It never has ma-
tured north of central Mississippi, but as a fodder crop
is occasionally grown as far north as Maryland. The
first frosts of autumn promptly turn the leaves brown.

In recent years its culture in the United States has
dwindled. On soils of moderate fertility it does not yield
as well as the sorghums and on rich soils not so heavily
as Japanese sugar-cane. The rather high cost of the seed
has perhaps also been a factor in reducing the culture of
teosinte.

Teosinte may be used in the same way as sorghum;
namely, as fodder, green feed or silage. If cut green for
silage two cuttings each 4 or 5 feet high can be secured in

304 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

a season. The stems contain a small amount of sugar
and the herbage is readily eaten by animals.

On account of its abundant tillering, teosinte is best
planted in hills 4 to 5 feet apart each way, which requires
about 3 pounds of seed per acre; or it may be planted
in rows 4 to 5 feet wide.

Yields to the acre have been reported by various experi-
ment stations as follows: Louisiana (Audubon Park), 50
tons green weight ; Georgia, 38,000 pounds green weight ;
Mississippi, 44,000 pounds green weight ; North Carolina,
4021 pounds dry fodder against 4576 pounds for Orange
sorghum; South Carolina (Charleston), 43,923 pounds
green weight in 6 cuttings; New Jersey, 9 tons, as com-
pared to 12.4 tons for milo.

CHAPTER XV

ALFALFA

ALFALFA is at the present time the third most important
forage crop in America, being exceeded only by timothy and
red clover. Under irrigation in semiarid regions no other
perennial forage crop is known which will yield so boun-
teously. The future agricultural development of western
America will to a large degree be associated with the cul-
ture of this plant. Further, it may be safely prophesied
that alfalfa will become of increasing importance in the
east, as the peculiar requirements for its successful culture
become better known.

369. Agricultural history. — Alfalfa was cultivated by
the Greeks and Romans. According to Pliny, it was
introduced into Greece from Media at the time of the
Persian wars with King Darius; that is, about 470 B.c.
Pliny’s statement agrees with the earlier account of
Strabo. Perhaps both are based on the authority of
Greek writers on agriculture whose works are referred
to by Pliny, but which have been lost. Most writers
have accepted the statement of Pliny and of Strabo, but
Fée doubts its correctness. Media or Persia is in all
probability the region of its original culture. Confirma-
tion of this conclusion is found in the fact that the wild
alfalfa of that region most closely resembles the culti-
vated.

Alfalfa is therefore the oldest plant, so far as known, to
x 305

306 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

be cultivated solely for forage. Furthermore, it is the
only plant cultivated for such purpose by Asiatic peoples
until modern times. Its culture in Italy in the days of
the Roman Empire is referred to by Virgil, Columella
and Varro, and it was doubtless introduced into Spain in
imperial Roman days. In the sixteenth century, it was
introduced into France and southern Germany and from
thence to England at least as early as 1650.

The early American colonists made many attempts to
cultivate the plant, but only in a few localities was any
decided success achieved. Its rapid development in the
United States dates from 1854, when it was introduced
into California from Chile.

370. Origin of the common names. — The name alfalfa
is of Arabian origin, adopted and modified by the Spanish.
By different authorities the Arabian word is variously
spelt, with or without the prefix el or al, thus, fisfisat,
isfast, elkasab, alfafa, alfasafat. The Arabian designations
are probably modifications of the Persian name uspust,
aspest or isfist. The word alfalfa is now used almost
exclusively in the United States.

In most countries, however, the name lucern is in
common usage. According to some authorities the name
is derived from the valley of Lucerna in northwestern
Italy. De Candolle, however, considers it was probably
derived from its local name in the south of France, laou-
zerdo, apparently a corruption of the Catalonian name
userdas. Historical evidence indicates that the plant
was introduced into France from Spain and not from Italy.
The word luzerne was apparently first recorded in 1587
by Dalechamps who also gives the form luzert.

The name medick is derived directly from the Greek
Medicai and Latin Medica, so called because introduced

ALFALFA 307

into Greece from Media. Purple medick is ordinary
alfalfa, while yellow medick is sickle alfalfa, but the names
are rarely used. Black medick, however, is still often
used for Medicago lupulina, but yellow trefoil is a more
popular name. Erba medica is still an appellation of
alfalfa in Italy and the Spanish sometimes use mielga or
melga, perhaps corrupted forms of Medica.

371. Heat relations. —In climates of low humidity,
alfalfa seems able to withstand extreme summer tempera-
tures under irrigation. No injury from heat has ever
been recorded in such climates as those of Arizona and
Punjab, India. It seems probable, therefore, that the
crop is not adaptatively limited in its heat relations.

High temperatures combined with even moderate
humidity are so injurious that the crop is nowhere success-
fully grown in humid subtropical or tropical regions.
This is partly due to the fact that such conditions are
favorable to many weedy plants which smother out the
alfalfa, but even if grown in cultivated rows, alfalfa
languishes under such climatic conditions.

372. Cold relations. — The minimum temperature that
alfalfa will withstand without injury is difficult to deter-
mine accurately, as it is affected by other factors, among
them variety, degree of dormancy, thickness of stand,
soil moisture and snow cover. These factors are further
discussed under winterkilling. In Europe, according to
Stebler, a temperature of — 13° Fahrenheit is injurious
only when the plants are unprotected by snow.

Brand and Waldron report the effects of winter cold
on 68 varieties and strains of alfalfa at Dickinson, North
Dakota, in the winter of 1908-1909, when a minimum of
— 31° Fahrenheit was reached. The seeds were planted
both in drilled rows and in hills in the spring of 1908,

308 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and the resulting plants were not protected by snow
during the coldest weather. The drilled rows suffered less
than the hills.

Tabulated according to the geographical origin of the
strains, the results are shown in the following table : —

AVERAGE Mortauity OF REGIONAL STRAINS OF ALFALFA
PLANTED IN Hiuus at Dickinson, NortH Dakota, 1908-1909

5 strains from South America ..... . . . 99.6%
2 strains from Africa . . . . . ss « « « 3 ss LOCO,
2 strains from Russia . . . . . « «© «© « « » Oa.
5 strains from Germany . . . i 1 « « « «, «. GoebZ
5 strains from France . . . . .°« . . «» « » “89GG%
I strain from Italy « . . .. « » « "#94. 5 S 99Ssm
Il strain from Spain... .. 2 = «-. « 's = TOO
4strainsfrom‘Arabia . ........ .- - 100.0%
12 strains from Turkestan . . . . . . . . « « | (2:59
3 strainsfrom Mongolia ........ . . 383.5%
2 strains from Canada. ........ .. 454%
2 strains from Mexico . ....... =. .- =. #£85.0%
18 strains from United States. . . . ... . . 83.3%
10 strainsfrom Utah. . ......... . 904%
1 strain from Colorado. . . . . . . 2 «© « « 0087
1 strain from Kansas . . =. . : « % 5 . ss @ Mohag
3 strains from Nebraska ......... .- 64%
3 strains from Montana . . . 65.4%
1 strain Grimm alfalfa, from Fareo, Woon Dako : 23 To
1 strain Grimm alfalfa, from Clearwater, Minnesota . C.0%%

1 strain Turkestan alfalfa, from Highmore, 8. D. , 9.2%

While the mortality may not have been due to cold
alone, the data clearly indicate great differences in cold
resistance, as a rule correlated with the severity of the
winter climate of the region whence the seed was secured.

Several of the same strains reported on had been sown
broadeast in neighboring plots in the spring of 1907,
and were exposed to the same conditions in the winter

ALFALFA 309

of 1908-1909. The mortality in these plots was very
much less, in most cases not enough to injure the stand
seriously. It is not clear to what extent this lessened
mortality was due to the alfalfa being broadcasted and
the plants therefore close together, and how far the greater
age of the plants, and perhaps other factors, had a bear-
ing on the results. The fact that the surviving stand
varied considerably in different parts of the broadcasted
plots indicates that other factors than low temperature
were concerned.

The data clearly show, however, that a temperature
of — 31° Fahrenheit in a region of comparatively low
humidity is decidedly injurious to most varieties of al-
falfa when growing in hills or rows and unprotected by
snow. Even the most hardy cultivated sorts suffer a slight
loss under such conditions.

Undoubtedly the highest degree of cold resistance is
found in Siberian strains of sickle alfalfa. According to
Hansen this occurs even farther northward than Yakutsk,
latitude 62°, where a minimum temperature of — 83°
Fahrenheit is recorded.

Extensive trials of alfalfa varieties were conducted at
the Minnesota Experiment Station during six years, and
data were kept on the loss due to winterkilling. The loss
varied greatly in different winters and between different
varieties in the same winter. In most cases Grimm alfalfa
suffered the least loss. Turkestan proved very variable,
a fact doubtless connected with the wide origin of the
commercial seed. In one winter with a minimum tem-
perature of — 17° Fahrenheit three strains of Turkestan
alfalfa suffered no loss, while 14 strains of Grimm alfalfa
lost from 15 to 28 per cent, a much higher loss than oc-
curred in other winters with more severe cold.

310 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

373. Humidity relations. — Alfalfa is especially adapted
to regions possessing a semi-arid climate, and in such areas
succeeds well in nearly all types of soil, and through a
wide range of normal annual temperatures. In moister
climates, such as much of Europe and the eastern United
States, success is rarely secured excepting where soil
conditions are unusually favorable. In arid regions the
plant will withstand great heat without injury, but a
combination of heat and humidity is decidedly harmful.
On this account, success with the crop in tropical or sub-
tropical regions can be secured only where the climatic
conditions are such as to render artificial irrigation
necessary.

Even in temperate climates, wet weather is more
injurious than drought. According to Stebler, little
success is secured in Europe where the annual rainfall
exceeds 32 to 36 inches. In the United States, however,
marked success is obtained on certain soils in Mississippi
and Alabama, where the annual rainfall exceeds 50 inches,
but in general an excess of annual rainfall over 40 inches
is decidedly unfavorable to the plant.

374. Soil relations. — Under semi-arid conditions of
climate, alfalfa succeeds in most types of soil excepting
those heavily charged with alkali. On account of its
ereat root development, deep soils are especially suitable
to alfalfa. Good drainage is also essential, as alfalfa
roots will not grow in water-logged soils.

Under humid climatic conditions, alfalfa is especially
intolerant of adverse soil conditions. In such climates,
its culture is rarely successful, except on deep, fairly fer-
tile, well-drained soils rich tn lime. <A few types of soil
rich in potash, but poor in lime, have also been found suit-
able, but liming increases the crop even in such soils.

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ALFALFA

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Sd De FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

375. Distribution of the alfalfa crop. — The regions in
which alfalfa is prominent as a crop are those possessing
the proper climatic conditions, or in lieu of this, unusually
favorable soil conditions. Thus the crop is important
in the western United States, the Mediterranean region,
Australia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, South Africa and
Central Asia because of favorable climate. Regions with

Fic. 33.— Map of the United States and Canada showing acreage of
alfalfa. Figures = acres.

less favorable climate, but with an unusually favorable
limestone soil occur in Mississippi, Alabama, New York,
Ohio and other states and in portions of Europe.

The present northernmost limit of American culture
is near the 51st parallel of latitude, in Assiniboia. In
Colorado it is grown successfully at an altitude of 8637
feet, and one field 14 years old is recorded as being 7900
feet above sea level.

The accompanying map shows the distribution of the
crop by acres in the United States and Canada.

ALFALFA oats

376. Botanical varieties of alfalfa.— Wild alfalfas
occur over much of central and western Asia, scattered
through the southern half of Europe, and in the mountains
of northern Africa. The wild plants are very variable,
but some are so much like the cultivated that there is
no reason to doubt the genetic origin of the latter.

Besides the ordinary cultivated form of alfalfa about
15 distinct varieties have been named by botanists. Only
one of these has been of any particular economic impor-
tance, namely, variety falcata with yellow flowers and
smooth sickle-shaped pods. The usefulness of this variety
lies mainly in its hardiness and the valuable hybrids it
makes with ordinary alfalfa.

377. Cultivated varieties of alfalfa. — At the present
time, there are no established varieties of alfalfa that
are even approximately pure strains. Every field, from
whatever source, exhibits a widely diverse assemblage of
individuals. Nevertheless, several of the commercial
varieties or regional strains show combinations of char-
acters by which they may be distinguished. Others,
like Turkestan, can be differentiated from common alfalfa
only by obscure differences in behavior.

The agronomically important varieties or strains of
alfalfa include common or ordinary, Turkestan, Arabian,
Peruvian, Siberian or sickle, and variegated (including
sand lucern and Grimm).

Common or ordinary alfalfa. — Under this category is in-
cluded the alfalfa ordinarily grown in Europe, the United
States, Argentina and Australia. Most of the European
seed imported into the United States is from Provence,
France, but seed is also grown in Italy, Hungary and
Germany. There is a growing tendency in the American
seed trade to designate the state in which the seed is

314 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

grown. Dryland alfalfa is ordinary alfalfa grown one or
more generations under semi-arid conditions without
irrigation. The seed is generally considered superior for
dryland farming.

Turkestan alfalfa has been imported into the United
States since 1898. The seed can usually be distinguished
by the weed seeds present, especially Eruca sativa and
Centaurea picris. The plants are indistinguishable from
ordinary alfalfa. The consensus of American opinion is
that this variety is inferior in the humid eastern United
States, but in the semi-arid regions has some superiority
in drought and cold endurance. Under American condi-
tions, Turkestan alfalfa produces but very small crops of
seed. On this account, it is not increasing in importance
notwithstanding the fact that most of imported alfalfa
seed is from Turkestan.

Arabian alfalfa comes from the lower valley of the
Kuphrates. It is characterized by its hairiness, large
leaflets, very rapid growth and relatively short life. The
seeds, too, are decidedly larger than any other strain.
It begins to grow and continues growth at a lower tempera-
ture than common alfalfa, which, together with its remark-
ably rapid growth, enables it to produce more cuttings
in aseason than any other variety. In the Imperial Valley
of California, it has produced twelve cuttings in a season
and in the Sacramento Valley of the same state, eight
cuttings. Unfortunately it is short-lived, the stand be-
coming thin by the third year and but few plants surviv-
ing the fourth year.

Peruvian alfalfa.— This variety (Medicago sativa var.
polia Brand) comes from the highlands of Peru. It is
distinguished by the marked pubescence of its whole
herbage, which gives it a somewhat bluish appearance;

ALFALFA ole

its relatively coarse, very erect stems; its comparatively
large leaflets. Physiologically it behaves much like
Arabian alfalfa in that it begins to grow earlier in spring
and continues growing later in fall than ordinary alfalfa.
Partly on this account it is likely to be injured by severe
cold. Its large size and rapid growth make it a valuable
variety for California and Arizona.

Variegated alfalfa. — This term is applied to crosses
between ordinary purple-flowered alfalfa and the yellow-
flowered sickle alfalfa. In the cross, a great variety of
flower colors appear — white, cream, yellow, bluish-green,
smoky-green and purple. Variegated alfalfa is in some
other respects intermediate between its parents. It is
rather decumbent in habit, but has greater cold endurance
than ordinary alfalfa. This is partly due to its tendency
to produce rootstocks, a character inherited from its
yellow-flowered parent.

Under the name sand lucern, variegated alfalfa has
long been grown in Europe, especially Germany, where it
enjoys the reputation of being superior for sandy soils.
In the United States, sand lucern has given excellent
results, being superior in both drought resistance and
winter hardiness.

Grimm alfalfa is an acclimated strain of sand lucern
brought to Minnesota from Wertheim, Germany, in 1857.
In its half century of culture under severe climatic condi-
tions, it has apparently gained additional winter hardi-
ness through the elimination of the less hardy plants.
At the present time, Grimm alfalfa seed is the most ex-
pensive on the market, being greatly in demand for sowing
in states where the winter is very severe.

Yellow, sickle or Siberian alfalfa occurs wild throughout
northern Europe and Siberia. The European form was

316 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

formerly cultivated to a slight extent in Sweden and else-
where in Europe. ‘The yield, however, is small on account
of its usually decumbent habit and the lack of aftermath,
and the stems early become woody. ‘The seed is expensive
because it shatters readily.

Several forms from Siberia have been introduced into
the United States in recent years, especially with the end
in view of securing hardier alfalfas for Dakota, Montana,
and other states with cold winters. Some of these Sibe-
rian strains are erect or nearly so, while others have a
remarkable development of rootstocks. It is not unlikely
that some of these may prove highly valuable, provided
seed can be grown satisfactorily. In any case, they offer
high promise for breeding work.

378. Importance of the varieties. — Thus far, regional
or other varieties have been of relatively small importance.
At least 95 per cent of the alfalfa of the United States
may be called ordinary alfalfa. Most of the seed is either
American grown, or imported from Turkestan. The
Turkestan alfalfa is shghtly more resistant to both cold
and drought. Variegated alfalfa, especially the Grimm
strain, is decidedly more cold resistant than ordinary
alfalfa, and with cheaper seed will come into much larger
use, especially in the northern tier of states. Peruvian
alfalfa is more valuable than common. alfalfa in the south-
western states, owing to its large size and rapid growth,
but as yet it is not largely cultivated. Arabian alfalfa
lasts only about two years, and in spite of its very rapid
growth, this has militated against its use.

It is altogether likely that in the further development of
alfalfa culture, improved varieties will occupy a more
prominent place, especially such as are cold enduring or
which produce large seed crops.

ALFALFA S17

379. Influence of source of seed. — The general con-
clusion to be drawn from the available data concerning
the influence of the source of the seed of alfalfa, is that
the best results are as a rule to be secured from locally
grown seed, provided there is no difference in variety in-
volved. It may happen that a newly introduced variety
or strain is superior not on account of source of the seed
but because of inherently better qualities.

In places where alfalfa is grown, but which must depend
on distant sources for seed, the question of the relative
value of different regional strains becomes important.
Elsewhere this factor is of minor consequence.

In Germany and France several investigators have
compared the relative behavior of plots sown respectively
with seed of American and of European alfalfa from dif-
ferent sources. In all the trials reported the yield of hay
from the American seed was least. At Hohenheim,
Germany, Kirchner found American alfalfa more subject
to mildew than European. Provence-grown alfalfa seed
is held in high regard throughout Europe, but comparative
trials have not shown that it bears consistently heavier
yields than other European grown seeds.

At three Danish experiment stations, the following
results were secured with regional strains : —

ORIGIN 1910 1911 1912
Tammemariame Pe poet Re: as 2 100 100 100
Merete eo E) ge ew aig Poste tas 102 92 89
French PE vs, &. % 88 Ba oe 102 96 97
Italian Res Pe, oe: ES 104 96 90
PUSS 10 0 ieee er 94 83 69

American aera 29 hed DAS uk ta) el 45 49 67

318 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The amount of accurate data concerning the relative
value in America of alfalfa seed from various sources is
not large, but is supplemented by the experience of prac-
tical farmers. In the Eastern States French (Provence)
seed has as a rule proven quite as satisfactory as western
American seed, while Turkestan seed has given decidedly
inferior results. In the West, éxcepting where the winters
are very severe, Provence seed has also proven very satis-
factory. California-grown seed is not held in high repute,
even in that state, but there seems insufficient evidence
to warrant this attitude. In general southern-grown seed
is not favored in more northern regions, and the evidence
is fairly conclusive that such strains are inferior in cold
resistance.

380. Comparison of regional strains. — In recent years
many experiment stations have tested the relative yield-
ing capacities of alfalfa seed from different sources. This
has been done more with the idea of determining whether
any of the regional strains possess really different qual-
ities as many of them come from countries where no con-
siderable quantity of commercial seed is produced.

Practically all the imported commercial seed used in
America is from Turkestan, so that the only source of
seed problem which is at present of much concern, is the
relative yielding capacity of Turkestan as compared with
that from various American states.

The data thus far secured at most of the experiment
stations do not admit of very clear deductions being
drawn. Where the tests have been conducted longest
the actual differences in yield are not very pronounced.
The results shown in the following table were secured by
planting the same bulked seed of the different strains re-
ported upon :—

ALFALFA 319

TABLE SHOWS YIELDS OF Hay IN Pounpbs AN ACRE oF SEV-
ERAL REGIONAL STRAINS OF ALFALFA GROWN AT VARIOUS
EXPERIMENT STATIONS

eee ease te oa ine
dig) He /ég [80 jae |2e] de | ae
Se : : 2 Z al ol
Source or Seep | 74a aes Ba 8 zt on 19 aoe
Pi RG . : tot oe, : m -
PaenS B x ae | ae | Me | oe ap ae
zMs | Se ba = 5 oa iM <i An a
a OC |Fe le |4 Ss
Canada... .
Utah (irrigated) . 9,980
Utah (non-irrigated) 2,988 | 1,085 | 9,820
Nebraska a 11,820!
Montana 11,500 | 2,405
Ohio .
Kansas . 874 | 11,260 | 1,460
Texas 11,000
New York .
Colorado (eT | eo Gg
Grimm . 2,150? 960
Turkestan . 1,6463) 10,500 | 2,073?
Sand lucern 1,8498
France 10,140

381. Important characteristics of alfalfa. — Alfalfa owes
its high importance as a forage crop to a combination of
characteristics, as follows :—

(1) its high nutritive value and palatability ;

(2) its large total yield where successful ;

(3) its drought resistance, due largely to its very deep
roots ;

and (4) its long life.

Such a combination of desirable qualities has led to a
vast amount of experimental investigations with alfalfa,
perhaps more in the aggregate than has been devoted to
any other forage plant.

1 Average for seed from 2 sections of the state.

2 Average for seed from 4 sources.
3 Average for seed from 2 sources.

320 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

382. Life period. — The life period of the alfalfa plant
varies according to conditions and variety. In the semi-
arid regions of America, authenticated cases of fields
twenty-five years old are recorded, and much longer ages
are asserted. In the more humid East, fields rarely per-
sist more than five years, largely owing to the ingress of
weeds.

In Europe fields under ordinary conditions are reputed
to last four to six years; under favorable conditions, nine
to twelve years; and in exceptional cases, fifteen to
twenty years, or very rarely thirty years.

Arabian alfalfa is a short-lived variety, few individuals
persisting as much as four or five years even under favor-
able conditions.

Yellow or sickle alfalfa lives, according to Werner,
six or eight years.

Variegated alfalfa is perhaps as long-lived as ordinary
alfalfa, but records are lacking.

Alfalfa yields are heaviest from plots three years or
more old, and tend to decline by the seventh year. Crud
in France secured the heaviest yields in the third and
fourth years followed by a gradual decline to the seventh
year. Walz in Germany obtained maximum yields in
the third, fourth, fifth and sixth years, a gradual dimi-
nution of the yield following in the next three years.

383. Roots. — The roots of alfalfa are remarkable for
their length and the depth to which they penetrate the
soil. Under ordinary conditions they will descend to a
depth of 6 feet, and authentic instances are recorded
where they have reached a depth of 15 feet. Less
well-authenticated reports of roots 25 to 45 feet in length
have been made, while Stebler and Schréter cite Bonnet’s
record of a tap root 66 feet long. In ordinary alfalfa the

ALFALFA BOA

root maintains its tap character, the branches being usually
much smaller than the main root which may become one
inch in diameter, but rarely exceeds half this thickness.
The crown which is just beneath the surface of the soil,
becomes much branched and in old plants may give rise
to as many as 100 ascending leafy branches. True rhi-
zomes rarely occur in common alfalfa, though the crown
may become branched 2 or 3 inches below the surface.

The root system of yellow or sickle alfalfa differs
markedly from common alfalfa in producing abundant
rhizomes. Not only this, but in some cases aérial branches
arise directly from horizontal roots. Such roots may
extend six feet or more, giving rise at intervals to aérial
shoots.

Variegated alfalfa, in accord with its hybrid. origin,
possesses roots with intermediate characters. In many
cases the roots promptly divide into several branches,
and rootstock development also occurs in a large propor-
tion of the plants. On account of this root branching,
variegated alfalfa is less subject to heaving, and the deep
crown and rootstocks protect the plant against severe
winter cold.

Oliver has developed hybrids that under greenhouse
conditions produce rootstocks luxuriantly, and suggests
that such varieties will be especially valuable for pastur-
age.

Alfalfa will not thrive in water-logged soil, or, in the
language of the farmer, will not withstand ‘ wet feet.”
The probable reason for this is more likely due to insufhi-
cient air than to superabundance of moisture. Alfalfa
will rarely succeed unless the water table is more than a
foot from the surface.

On account of the deep roots, a friable subsoil is best
nY:

apa FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

suited to alfalfa, though fair success can be secured where
an impermeable layer occurs a foot or so beneath the sur-
face. While alfalfa roots will penetrate a firm subsoil,
they apparently possess no greater ability in this respect
than most trees and shrubs.

The growth of the root on young plants is very rapid.
Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found them
to be 38 feet long in plants when 2 months old, and
63 feet when 3 months old. Headden in Colorado
reports roots 9 feet long on plants 9 months old.

Alfalfa roots have sometimes been reported as being
destructive to drain tiling. Cook in Ohio records a case
where the roots in a field seven years old had filled up
thirty-two feet of three-inch drain tile placed three feet
beneath the surface. It is very doubtful, however,
whether alfalfa left only three years will in any way affect
the tiles.

384. Relations to soil moisture. — Alfalfa roots will
penetrate but a few inches deeper than the permanent
water table. Further downward growth is_ probably
mainly due to lack of air. It is on account of this moisture
relation that alfalfa should be planted only on deep, well-
drained soil, as other crops thrive better where the water
table is shallow.

According to Fortier, alfalfa on irrigated land does not
do well after the third year. He thinks this is due to the
fact that the water table is kept too high during the spring
and summer.

Alfalfa does not endure being covered by flood waters.
During the growing season it may be destroyed if covered
by water for twenty-four hours. When dormant, how-
ever, it will withstand a similar flooding for a week or
more.

ALFALFA ole

385. Seedlings. — Alfalfa seedlings are poorly adapted
to cope with ordinary weeds because the initial growth is
largely centered in root production. No exact study seems
to have been made of the relative rate of growth in seed-
lings of roots and shoots. Porter at the Minnesota Experi-
ment Station records that plants two months old had roots
3 feet long and tops 10 inches high; at five months the
roots were 64 feet long and the tops 16 inches high.

386. Rootstocks. — Common alfalfa rarely shows any
trace of rootstocks. These are, however, well developed
in some forms of sickle alfalfa, and remarkably so in
Medicago sativa Gaetula from Tunis, in which they may
reach a length of 33 feet. They also appear commonly
in the variegated hybrid alfalfas, and less so in Turkestan
and Mongolian alfalfas, but appear to be absent in the
Peruvian and Arabian forms.

Oliver has bred some hybrids remarkable for the extent
to which they develop rootstocks, at least under green-
house conditions. Some of the hybrids form a dense
matted growth, a single plant covering a surface of several
square feet, and presenting much the general appearance
of white clover. The value of these for pasturage purposes
is suggested.

Oakley has recently described some extraordinary
examples of sickle alfalfa. These produce horizontal
roots two to four feet long, which at intervals give rise
to erect leafy shoots. These shoots may grow from as
great a depth as twelve inches, and commonly arise from
nodular swellings on the roots.

The development of rootstocks is greater when plants
are grown isolated than when sown thickly. It seems
also to be encouraged by partly covering the plants with
soil. True rootstocks on alfalfa were first noted on

3924 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

variegated alfalfa in England in 1791 by Le Blanc, who
states that he preferred this variety because of its greater
ability to withstand cold and also to resist choking by
grasses.

Under Colorado conditions, Blinn found that Arabian
and North African strains of alfalfa, when planted in hills,
suffered a loss of over one-half from winter-killing. Under
the same conditions, strains from Mexico, Spain and
South America also showed considerable loss, while
Turkestan and Grimm alfalfa plants all survived. In
connection with the last two varieties, the production of
rootstocks is noted, and Blinn believes that winter hardi-
ness is largely associated with this habit. :

387. Shoots. — A well-developed alfalfa plant has
from 20 to 50 erect or suberect leafy branched shoots,
which usually grow to a height varying from 18 to 36
inches. The form of the leaflets, as well as the degree of
leafiness, vary considerably. In different varieties the
stem varies from very hairy to nearly smooth. It may
be either green or purplish.

Under its natural conditions of environment — namely,
a dry summer season — alfalfa produces but a single
crop of stems, these drying as the seeds ripen. In a humid
climate, however, a new crop of shoots begins to develop
about the time the plant reaches full bloom, and this
militates strongly against seed-production. In arid cli-
mates where irrigation is practiced, the development of
the new shoots can be controlled by supplying or with-
holding water.

There seems to be no limit to the number of crops of
shoots an alfalfa plant will produce under favorable con-
ditions. Only when an unfavorable condition of cold or
drought intervenes does growth cease,

ALFALFA 545)

Yellow or sickle alfalfa differs markedly from true
alfalfa, in that the shoots are usually procumbent or pros-
trate, and a second crop is but rarely produced, correlated
probably with the production of rootstocks.

Variegated alfalfa, at least in its commercial forms,
behaves much like ordinary alfalfa, but the shoots are
not so erect. In Germany, according to Werner, the
new growth after cutting is less prompt than in common
alfalfa, and the yield less.

Dillman found at Bellefourche, South Dakota, that a
_well-grown plant of alfalfa will produce in the first cutting
134 to 192 grams of hay.

388. Relative proportion of leaves, stems and roots. —
Headden in Colorado has estimated the ratio of roots
to tops to be as 1: 1.3, based on the weights obtained from
thirty-two plants. At the Delaware Experiment Station
the roots and tops in one acre were determined respectively
as 1980 and 2267 pounds. Ritthausen in Europe found
the average percentage weight of leaves to stems in alfalfa
hay to be 48 to 52. Cottrell in Kansas found an average
relation of 45 parts leaves to 55 of stems. In very leafy
plants, the proportion was 49 to 51; and in very stemmy
individuals, 41 to 59.

The subject has been further studied at the Utah Ex-
periment Station by Widtsoe, who determined the rela-
tive percentage of leaves, stems and flowers at nearly
every stage of growth for the first, second and third
cuttings. In the following table are shown the data
obtained from the first and second cuttings made when
the plants were in bloom. It will be noted that the
percentage of leaves decreases as the plants grow
older, and that the second crop is less stemmy than the
first : —

326 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF LEAvEs, STEMS AND FLOw-
ERS IN Dry ALFALFA HARVESTED AT DIFFERENT STAGES.
Utan EXPERIMENT STATION

First Crop Srconp Crop
Date | Condition % of Date of
of of the oe of Je of Hee of ue of & of Boge
Cutting Crop SAVES" PLES ers Cutting CAVES || Oberst ar
June 22} Early 38.4 58.8 2.8 | July 14 43.7 54.6 17.
bloom
June 29 | Medium Bore 59.4 5.4 | July 20 42.4 50.8 6.8
bloom
July 7 | Full flower 33.9 59.8 6:3 | July 27 36.8 55.6 7.6
July 20 | Full flower 2583 67.4 7.3 | Aug. 3 35.1 51.6 13.3
July 27 | Late bloom 2201 67.3 10.0

389. Seed-bed. — Young alfalfa plants are but poorly
adapted to compete with weeds, largely from the fact
that the early growth is devoted mainly to root extension.
On this account, a seed-bed as free as possible from weeds
is important, and it is also desirable that it be well settled
and moist. Such a seed-bed is best secured by fallowing
the land for six weeks or more before sowing. Or, where
the alfalfa is sown in the late summer or early fall, a clean
hoed crop, such as potatoes or tomatoes, may in some
states be harvested by the middle of August and leave the
land in excellent shape for alfalfa.

On land that is likely to drift, special care is necessary
to secure a stand of alfalfa. In such cases, nurse-crops
are seldom practicable on account of insufficient moisture.
Drifting, however, may be prevented by scattering straw
or coarse manure over the field, or the alfalfa may be sown
in the old stubble of corn or sorghum.

390. Inoculation. — Alfalfa will rarely grow to maturity

ALFALFA 3271

unless the roots become noduled. Without the nodules
the young plants grow but three to six inches high, grad-
ually turn yellow and die. Natural inoculation is rare
except in regions where alfalfa is grown extensively or
where a few closely related plants have been growing,
including melilotus, bur clover and yellow trefoil. The
fact that the nodule germs of melilotus will inoculate al-
falfa was first proven by Hopkins. There is no positive
proof in the cases of bur clover and yellow trefoil, but field
observations leave little doubt as to their efficacy.

The nodules of alfalfa are small, club-shaped when
simple, but often branched to resemble fingers. Rarely
there are enough branches to form a globose mass. These
nodules are all on the smaller roots, and are nearly always
stripped off when a plant is pulled out of the ground.

391. Rate of seeding. — One pound of common alfalfa
contains about 220,000 seeds. Therefore, each pound of
alfalfa seed, if evenly sown on an acre of 43,560 square
feet, would average over five seeds to the square foot.
Alfalfa fields one year old rarely contain more than twenty
plants to the square foot and older fields usually have
less than ten. In the United States, the usual rate of
seeding alfalfa to the acre is twenty pounds in the West
and twenty-five to thirty pounds in the East. In Europe,
the rate is variously given as twenty-five to thirty-five
pounds to the acre. Fair stands of alfalfa have been
secured in the West with one pound of seed to the acre,
and good stands are not rarely obtained with five pounds
an acre.

Westgate, on the basis of thorough inquiry into the
practice of the best growers, recommends twenty-four
to twenty-eight pounds an acre for the Atlantic and
Southern States; twenty to twenty-four pounds for the

328 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

region between the meridian of 98° and the Appalachian
Mountains ; five to fifteen pounds on unirrigated, semi-arid
lands, depending on the amount of rainfall; fifteen pounds
on irrigated lands.

Provided a good stand is secured, a low rate of seeding
is just as satisfactory as a high rate. At Lethbridge,
Alberta, alfalfa was seeded at the following rates on irri-
gated land: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 80 pounds an acre. The
average yields for 3 years were, respectively, 10,273, 11,333,
11,426, 11,220, 10,875 and 11,394 pounds an acre.

392. Time of seeding. — Alfalfa is sown either in the
spring or in late summer or early fall, depending on cli-
matic and other conditions. In the irrigated lands of the
West, spring seeding is most frequently practiced, but fall
seeding is just as successful. On unirrigated lands in the
West, the time is usually determined by the moisture
conditions of the soil. In the Great Plains region, this
is usually best in spring, while in the intermountain
region, spring seeding on fallow land is a common practice.
In states with very cold winters spring or early summer
seeding is necessary, as fall-sown stands are likely to be
winter-killed. Where the winters are not severe, and mois-
ture conditions permit, late summer or early fall sowing
is preferable. The sowing should be early enough to
permit the alfalfa plants to become well rooted by winter ;
otherwise, serious losses may result from heaving; and
late enough so that summer weeds — especially, crab-
grass and pigeon-grass — will not seriously affect the
stand. In the Northern States, winter-killing is the most
serious difficulty in securing a stand of alfalfa, while south-
ward, weeds become the principal factor. From an
economic standpoint, fall sowing in the East is also prefer-
able, as a good crop is secured the next season, while with

ALFALFA 329

spring sowing, very little alfalfa can be harvested the
same season.

393. Method of seeding. — Alfalfa seeds germinate satis-
factorily from all depths up to two inches under satis-
factory conditions of moisture. At a greater depth all
of the seedlings will not reach the surface. In field prac-
tice, the aim is to sow the seed from one-half to one inch
deep in ordinary soils, but under droughty conditions or
in sandy soils one and one-half inches is safer.

The seed is variously sown by hand or by using dif-
ferent types of seeders. A grain drill is the most economical
implement to use where the planting is extensive. In
this case the amount of seed sown may be regulated by
the use of leather thongs to reduce the feed, or by mixing
the seed with bran or other inert substance.

394. Nurse-crops. — The use of a nurse-crop for alfalfa
is to be recommended only in regions or on soils where but
little difficulty is experienced in securing a stand. It is
doubtful whether a nurse-crop is ever beneficial to the
alfalfa, but on the irrigated lands of the West, alfalfa may
be sown with a nurse-crop, and a good stand usually
secured. Spring-sown barley is used most often, as the
nurse; oats less frequently. Barley draws less heavily
on the soil moisture.

In the humid parts of the United States, occasional
examples are found where success has been obtained by
sowing alfalfa with spring oats or barley. This, how-
ever, involves sowing the alfalfa seed early in spring, an
unfavorable time on account of weeds, besides increasing
the chance of failure from drought. Seeding in fall with
winter wheat, oats or rye postpones the sowing beyond
the most favorable time to insure ample growth of the
alfalfa before winter. In view of the care usually neces-

330 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

sary to secure a stand of alfalfa in humid regions, the use
of a nurse-crop under such conditions is inadvisable as a
rule.

When, however, experience has shown that all the
soil conditions are favorable, spring seeding with a nurse-
crop gives good results. This is especially true in the
northern tier of states and in Ontario. At the Ontario
Agricultural College just as good results were secured
with a nurse-crop of barley, seeding one bushel to the
acre, aS where no barley was used. In an experiment
comparing wheat, barley and oats as nurse-crops, wheat
was the best, but not much superior to barley, while oats
was decidedly the poorest, all measured by the resulting
yields of alfalfa for 2 years. In a few instances, success-
ful stands of alfalfa have been secured by sowing between
the rows of corn at the time of the last cultivation. With-
out very favorable moisture conditions, success with such
sowing is problematical.

395. Clipping. —Some writers have recommended clip-
ping young alfalfa, when three or four inches high, with
the idea that this treatment would strengthen the sub-
sequent growth in a manner analogous to the pruning
of trees. The cases are, however, not comparable, inas-
much as there is no reserve store of food in the alfalfa
plant, as there is in the branches of trees. Clipping is
never justifiable unless weeds threaten to smother out the
young alfalfa. Exact data are wanting to show the effect
of clipping on yields. In one experiment at Pullman,
Washington, the effects of clipping could easily be observed
for two years, the clipped plot showing weaker growth.

At the Ohio Experiment Station, three plots of alfalfa
were sown June 27. One of these was clipped September 9,
when 12 to 18 inches high, and about 15 per cent in bloom ;

ee

ALFALFA Dol

the second, October 16, when the blossoms were mostly
dried up; the third was left uncut. In the spring the
unclipped plot started off with a noticeably stronger
growth than the others. It produced a yield in three
cuttings 522 pounds greater than the plot clipped Octo-
ber 16, and 1376 pounds greater than that clipped Sep-
tember 9. The September clipped plot was apparently
injured by the weed growth that took place after clipping.

At Lyngby, Denmark, the effect of cutting spring-sown
alfalfa the same year it was seeded was tested. It was
found that the first season’s crop plus that of the second
season was not equal to that of the second year’s crop
alone on plots that had not been cut the first year.

396. Winter-killing. — The injury or destruction of
alfalfa in winter is associated with various factors. Among
the most important are the variety; the actual minimum
temperature; the amount of snow cover; the thickness
of the stand; the amount of moisture in the soil; the
condition of dormancy; alternate freezing and thawing ;
and particularly the condition of the plants at the begin-
ning of winter.

The most cold-resistant varieties of alfalfa are Grimm
and strains of Turkestan and ordinary alfalfa which have
been grown under severe winter conditions, as in Mon-
tana and the Dakotas, for many years. In all these,
natural selection has eliminated the non-hardy individuals.

Injury to alfalfa by cold alone is rarely serious unless
the temperature falls to — 20° Fahrenheit or lower. In
North Dakota all but the most hardy varieties, when
planted in rows and not protected by snow, showed a
loss of 80 per cent or more in a winter where the minimum
temperature was — 31° Fahrenheit. In_ broadeasted
stands, however, the loss was much less. <A thick stand

332 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

probably provides a somewhat higher soil temperature,
and also reduces the percentage of soil moisture.

Alfalfa is, however, successfully grown in regions where
a minimum of — 40° Fahrenheit, or even lower, is not
uncommon, as in Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana.
This is doubtless due in part to protection afforded by
snow.

Young alfalfa is more often winter-killed by cold than
older plants, but there are no accurate data as to their
relative cold endurance. It sometimes happens that
alfalfa — especially in low spots — becomes covered for
a considerable period by a sheeting of ice. This usually
kills the plants.

The degree of dormancy of the plants also affects their
ability to resist cold. It is well known that fruit trees
are much less likely to be injured by cold when the twigs
have become fully hardened and dormant and remain so
during the winter. In the irrigated regions, instances
have occurred where a portion of the orchard was irri-
gated late in the season so that the trees did not become
fully dormant. These were winter-killed when adjoining
trees of the same variety not irrigated escaped injury.
For the same reason, warm weather in late winter which
starts growth in the trees is likely to be disastrous if fol-
lowed by more cold. The behavior of alfalfa seems exactly
comparable to that of fruit trees, in that dormant plants
are much more resistant to cold and that high soil moisture
tends to retard dormancy. Fortier cites the experience
of a farmer at Chateau, Montana, who irrigated late in
the fall a portion of a field of alfalfa two years old. This
winter-killed, while the unirrigated portion was unharmed.

Peruvian and Arabian alfalfas are varieties which con-
tinue to grow at temperatures lower than that which

ALFALFA oOo

induces dormancy in most varieties. This late production
of tender shoots is probably the principal reason why these
varieties succumb so easily to winter cold.

Alfalfa sometimes dies in very dry winters in Colorado
and other western states apparently from lack of sufficient
soil moisture. To remedy this, late fall irrigating would
be necessary, though this involves an increased danger of
injury by winter cold.

Young alfalfa is most frequently injured or destroyed
by the heaving of the soil caused by alternate freezing and
thawing. This results in the plants being raised out of
the ground so that the young tap root may be exposed
to a length of 2 to 5 inches. It is partly on this account
that fall sowings should be early, as the larger the root
development the less apt are the plants to be heaved.
Heaving is especially likely to occur when the soil contains
much moisture, and for this reason is far more common in
clayey than in sandy soils.

Any conditions that do not permit the seedlings to
make a good healthy growth before the beginning of
winter, will tend to increase winter-killing. A top
growth of 4 to 6 inches is considered good, but even
more is desirable.

397. Time to cut for hay. — The important factors that
determine the best time to cut alfalfa for hay are the effect
on the succeeding cutting, and the relation of stage of
maturity to feeding value. Both of these considerations
are necessarily affected by the probability of good haying
weather, as neither a somewhat superior quality or a
lessened succeeding cutting would compensate for a loss
or serious injury to the crop at hand.

The general practice in America is to cut for hay shortly
after the first blossoms appear. After this time the stems

3384 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

become more woody, and the leaflets are more likely to
fall off. In Europe, Stebler and Schréter recommend
that it be cut some time before flowering.

In humid regions, alfalfa sometimes blooms but spar-
ingly. In such climates the best rule is to cut for hay as
soon as new shoots appear at the crown. If cutting is
delayed longer, the new shoots are apt to be cut off, thus
injuring the second crop. This difficulty does not arise
during periods of drought, and in arid regions can be con-
trolled by withholding irrigation.

Late cuttings may also be at the expense of total yield.
At the Utah Experiment Station, three plots of alfalfa
during five seasons were cut respectively when the first
blossoms appeared; when in full bloom; and when half
the blossoms had fallen. The first two plots produced
three cuttings annually, the third but two, except one
unusually favorable season when three were harvested.
The average acre yields for the three plots were respec-
tively, 4553, 3554 and 1776 pounds, or a relative propor-
tion of 100: 78: 39.

At the Kansas Experiment Station, four plots of 4 acre
each duplicated were cut respectively when in first bloom,
in one-tenth bloom, in one-half bloom and in full bloom.
The respective acre yields for the first cutting were
1.36, 1.76, 1.81 and 2.04 tons; for the whole season,
4.69, 5.35, 4.52 and 5.99 tons. In this case the late
cuttings gave both the greatest yield to the cutting and
the largest total.

The question of the best time to cut alfalfa for hay
has also been much studied from the viewpoint of chemical
composition and digestibility. Thus, Willard, in Kan-
sas, compared alfalfa hay cut at three stages —
namely, when about 10 per cent in bloom; when about

ALFALFA et)

half in bloom; and in full bloom. The first mentioned
was found “ richer in ash, protein and fat than that pro-
duced by later cuttings, while the crude fiber and the nitro-
gen-free extract Increase in percentage as the plant
matures.”’

Harcourt, at the Ontario Agricultural College, concludes
that ‘fa much larger amount of digestible matter was
obtained by cutting when the plants were about one-third
in bloom than by cutting either two weeks earlier or two
weeks later.’”?’ Snyder and Hummel in Minnesota state
that ‘‘ alfalfa for hay should be cut when one-third of the
blossoms have appeared because at this stage it will yield
the largest amounts of the several nutrients in the most
valuable forms.” Widtsoe in Utah holds ‘‘ that to insure
a large yield of dry matter and the largest amounts of
albuminoids, lucern should be cut not earlier than the
period of medium bloom and not much later than the
period of first full flower. This in most cases will be two
or three weeks after the flower buds begin to appear. It
will be a more serious error to cut too early than to
cut too late.’”’ Headden in Colorado concludes from
his investigations of alfalfa “that the best general-
purpose hay is obtained by cutting it when it is in full
bloom.”

The object for which the hay is cut is also a factor to
be considered. For horses it is generally held that alfalfa
cut in full bloom is best, as earlier cuttings are too laxative.
This conclusion is also reached by the Kansas Experiment
Station, as the result of extensive horse feeding experi-
ments. Horses, however, frequently eat only the alfalfa
stems, leaving much of the leaves in the bottom of the
manger.

Alfalfa straw or hay from ripe alfalfa must be fed

336 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

very cautiously. Werner states that it is dangerous to
feed alfalfa hay containing ripe seeds to horses, as the
seeds are apt to cause laryngeal trouble.

At the Ontario Agricultural College, a valuable cow
died of stoppage of the bowels after being fed on ripened
alfalfa. The ball of indigestible fiber found in the intestine
‘was supposed to be formed from the alfalfa eaten. A sheep
also was affected in a similar way, but recovered.

398. Number of cuttings.— The number of times
alfalfa can be cut for hay depends mainly on the length
of the season; secondly, on the moisture supply. Under
the most favorable conditions, a cutting can be made
every thirty days. As many as nine cuttings of ordinary
alfalfa, and twelve of Arabian alfalfa have been secured
in a year in the Imperial Valley, California. Over most
of the irrigated region, from three to five cuttings are
obtained. Without irrigation, frequently only one crop
can be harvested in the drier states, but three cuttings
are the rule wherever corn will mature and moisture con-
ditions are favorable. At high altitudes in the Rocky
Mountains where the season permits of but a single
cutting of alfalfa, red clover is preferable, as it will make
its growth in cooler weather. —

399. Quality of different cuttings. — The first cutting
of alfalfa is as a rule coarser than the later cuttings, and
in some markets this has an effect on its price. From a
chemical standpoint there is very little difference between
the first and the later cuttings.

At the Utah Experiment Station alfalfa from three
cuttings grown on light bench lands was fed to milch
cows to determine their relative value in the production
of butter fat. The opinion of dairymen in Utah is that
the second cutting of alfalfa hay is far superior to the first

ALFALFA Dol

cutting and somewhat better than the third cutting. The
experiments were carried on two seasons with three lots
of 5 dairy cows each, each lot being fed for 4 weeks with
each cutting of hay after a preliminary feeding of 25 days.
The cows both years ate most of the third crop, followed
in order by the first and the second crops. The total
amounts of butter fat produced were, respectively, 707,
687 and 675 pounds for the first, second and third cuttings
in order. On the whole the experiment does not indi-
cate any marked difference in feeding value of the three
cuttings.

400. Irrigation. — A large proportion of the alfalfa
grown in the United States and Canada is produced under
irrigation in the semi-arid regions. The general practice
of growers is to use far more water than is necessary. This
is harmful, as in time it brings about a water-logged condi-
tion of the soil, which in itself is directly harmful to the
alfalfa, but indirectly far more so, as it causes soluble
alkali salts to rise and accumulate near the surface. On
this account it is best to apply only as much water as will
result in the production of satisfactory crops. This
amount varies principally according to the character of
the soil. To a less degree it is affected by the amount of
evaporation and transpiration, these increasing with high
temperature, dryness of the air and wind movements.
The optimum amount of water required needs, therefore,
to be determined in each locality by comparative plot
trials.

401. Time to apply irrigating water. — In irrigation
farming, alfalfa is practically always irrigated as soon as
each crop is removed from the field. Additional irrigations
are required in many places, the number depending on

both soil and climatic conditions. The best guide is to
Z

338 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

watch carefully the condition of the plants. When the
water supply becomes too low, the growth is checked and
the leaves become darker and duller in color than those
_of vigorously growing plants. The wilting of the leaves
is also indicative of insufficient moisture, especially if it
occur before or after the heat of midday. Fortier also
recommends that the soil at a depth of about 6 inches be
examined. If it will readily form a ball when pressed
between the hands and retain its form, there is sufficient
moisture present; but if the ball falls apart when the
pressure is removed, irrigation is needed.

The number of irrigations a year when water is avail-
able varies from 4 in Montana to as many as 12 in Ari-
zona and California. The number depends upon various
factors, especially the depth and character of the soil,
the depth of the water table, number of cuttings and such
climatic factors as temperature, rainfall, humidity and
wind movements.

In localities where water is abundant only in the spring
and early summer, it is the common practice to water
more freely and more frequently at that time, as
this tends to lessen the amount needed later in the
summer.

402. Winter irrigation. — In parts of the West, where
the water supply happens to be abundant in winter and
scant or even lacking in summer, fields are irrigated in
winter when the plants are dormant. This is especially
practical in regions where the winters are mild. The prin-
cipal object is to conserve water which would otherwise
be wasted, the soil retaining a large amount and thus
lessening the water required during the summer. Even
where no water is available in summer, one good cutting
is in many places obtained as the result of winter irriga-

ALFALFA 309

tion. A second advantage is that winter-killing from exces-
sive dryness of the soil is prevented. Where the winters
are severe, however, too great an amount of soil moisture
is conducive to winter-killing.

403. Relation of yield to water supply. — The actual
water required in irrigating alfalfa depends largely on the
permeability of the soil, but temperature, humidity and
wind are also factors of importance. Fortier states that
the larger number of western alfalfa fields are irrigated
annually with 2.5 to 4.5 feet of water, but in quite a
large number of cases the amount used would cover the
field in depths ranging from 6 to 15 feet.

While larger yields are often obtained by using greater
quantities of water, such use is wasteful and apt to be
injurious to the land or to surrounding lands by causing
waterlogging and the consequent rise of alkali.

Fortier secured the following results at the Montana
Experiment Station : —

P y ie
ass aioe eer Toray DrprH SOE

Feet Feet Feet Tons
1 0.5 0.7 1.20 4.61
2 0.0 One 0.70 1.95
3 1.0 0. 1370 4.42
4 leo 0.7 2.20 ote
5 ZO) Oe 2.70 G55
6 Zo 0.7 Al 4)
7 3 OF 3210 7.68

The following yields are reported from the Utah Experi-
ment Station, using different quantities of irrigation
water ; —

340 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

ENG aes On ETE 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 50.0

First Crop wl oDOr 3194 3759 3790 3326 3795
Second crop. .| 4077 DAT a 3193 3245 3338 4016
‘hird crop: — <4|) 2240 tor 2145) 23199 2G 3002

Total yield 9884 7546 : 9097 9354 | 8840 | 10813
Yield for each
inch of irri-
gation water 988 HOS 455 374 295 216

(Quantities of water used are expressed in acre-inches. Yields
of alfalfa are expressed in pounds to the acre.)

404. Care of an alfalfa field. — After a good stand of
alfalfa has been secured, its subsequent treatment — apart
from harvesting, and in dry regions, irrigating — should
be mainly to hold weeds in check. The worst weeds that
invade alfalfa fields are blue-grass in the north, and Ber-
muda-grass and crab-grass southward. Other weeds are
held largely in check by the regular mowings, but the weedy
grasses can be eradicated only by careful harrowing.

Blue-grass and Bermuda are both perennials, and grad-
ually kill out the alfalfa as the grass sod extends. Usually
this requires three or four years. Crab-grass grows most
luxuriantly in moist hot weather, under which condi-
tions alfalfa languishes, so that crab-grass often com-
pletely destroys an alfalfa field in the Southern States in
a single season.

The best implement to destroy grass in alfalfa is the
spike-tooth harrow, especially the form with broad chisel-
shaped teeth. Where the ground is very hard, it 1s neces-
sary first to use a disk harrow. This implement often
splits up the crowns of the alfalfa plants, but this injury

ALFALFA 341

is ordinarily not serious. It certainly is not beneficial
as some writers have claimed. The disk harrow alone is
not effective against blue-grass, but needs to be followed
with the spike-tooth.

When grass is troublesome, it is commonly recommended
that alfalfa should be thoroughly harrowed after each
cutting. By this means, the life of the field may be ex-
tended several years, at least in some localities.

= = Law : f : ey & eg fs ba
ya, mr Jai 1 Sa i as Se fon ee ie w
NVGDD | p i \ NAN - ne ANN

Fig. 34.— An implement for harrowing fields of alfalfa.

At the Kansas Experiment Station a plot disked every
year for 3 years yielded at the average rate of 9922 pounds
an acre, while one not disked gave a yield of 10,269
pounds.

405. Alfalfa in cultivated rows. — Alfalfa planted in
rows has often been grown in an experimental way in
humid regions where broadcasting is unsuccessful on ac-
count of weeds. Such a type of cultivation has never
come into actual practice in such regions, mainly because
other leguminous crops succeed in spite of weeds.

342 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In some semi-arid regions, notably India and Algeria,
alfalfa for hay is grown in this manner both with and
without irrigation. In these countries, however, labor is
much cheaper than in America.

Thus far the culture of alfalfa in rows in the United
States has been mainly with the idea of producing seed
crops. The success already attained leads to the belief
that the method will come into wide use. The area
particularly adapted to this method of seed-production
is that east of the Rocky Mountains, where the annual
rainfall lies between 14 and 25 inches, and west of the same
mountains, where the precipitation is between 12 and 20
inches. Such conditions supply sufficient moisture if the
alfalfa is planted thinly in rows 30 to 40 inches apart and
cultivated frequently. Furthermore, it is under just
such conditions of drought that seed setting is favored.
Irrigable lands cannot be economically utilized in this
manner, as they will produce 3 to 5 cuttings of hay from
broadcasted alfalfa, while the unirrigable lands rarely
produce more than one such cutting.

Fairchild has described an interesting method of alfalfa
culture in Algeria, where the alfalfa is grown in double
rows 40 inches apart, and every second year a crop of
durum wheat is grown between the rows.

406. Alfalfa in mixtures. — Alfalfa is not commonly
employed in grass mixtures, mainly because the especial
peculiarity of the crop — namely, its ability to produce
two or more cuttings —is thereby impaired.

In humid regions, alfalfa as a rule does not withstand
the crowding of other grasses such as are usually employed
in mixtures. It is not so well adapted for this purpose as
is red clover.

In irrigated regions, especially at high altitudes, where

ALFALFA 343

timothy is an important crop, the practice of growing it
in mixture with alfalfa is increasing. This permits, in
many places, the cutting of a second crop of hay, which
is largely composed of alfalfa. Alfalfa as ordinarily cut
is ready two weeks sooner than timothy, but additional
maturity makes it better feed for, horses. Furthermore,
experience has shown that when mixed with timothy,
the stems are more slender, and there is no objectionable
woodiness.

407. Alfalfa in rotations. —On account of its long life,
as well as the value of an established field, alfalfa is not
much used in regular rotations. The almost universal
custom is to retain a field in alfalfa as long as it continues
to produce satisfactory crops. In Colorado, however,
alfalfa is used in rotation with potatoes, the alfalfa com-
monly being sown with a nurse-crop of oats and usually
allowed to stand two seasons.

In Europe the idea prevails that land should not again
be sown to alfalfa until after a period of rest equal to the
time the land was in alfalfa, or somewhat less if there is
a deep and good subsoil. American experience has not
as yet disclosed any need of such practice. It is, how-
ever, desirable, after a field of alfalfa has been plowed,
to follow it with one intertilled crop and one of small
grains, as this permits the land to be cleaned of weeds,
and also secures the benefit of the fertilizing value of the
alfalfa.

If alfalfa is again to be sown on the land, the interven-
ing crops should be planned to permit alfalfa being sown
at the best time. On farms where experience has shown
that alfalfa can be successfully grown, it is most economi-
cally seeded after a cultivated crop that can be removed
in time enough to sow the alfalfa, Among such crops

344 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

are potatoes and sweet corn. Certain broadcasted crops
will also leave the land in good shape for alfalfa, among
them field peas and cowpeas.

408. Pasturing alfalfa. — Alfalfa may be pastured to
all kinds of live stock, but this is rarely done in regions
where the hay commands a good price, excepting when the
field has become weedy. In the eastern United States
pasturing will nearly always result in great injury to the
stand of alfalfa, but in the West this difficulty is not so
serious. It is best not to pasture alfalfa during the first
two seasons, and even old fields cannot be pastured heavily
without injuring the stand.

Hogs are most often employed in pasturing alfalfa and
injure it less than other live stock. Where, however, the
soil is loose, it is well to ring their noses to prevent rooting.
Horses and sheep are most injurious to alfalfa plants, as
they eat the young buds from the crowns. Both sheep
and cattle are likely to become affected with bloat or
hoven when upon alfalfa pasture. This danger is appar-
ently lessened by not allowing the animals to go on the
pasture when the alfalfa is wet with rain or dew. Neither
should hungry cattle be turned in alfalfa so that they will
gorge themselves, as this is particularly likely to cause
bloat. The danger is always present, however, and so
large that cautious farmers do not consider alfalfa a proper
plant for pasturing valuable animals.

Fields of mixed alfalfa and grass are much better for
pasturing cattle and sheep than alfalfa alone, as such a
mixture is much less likely to cause bloating. Orchard-
grass 1s well adapted to such a mixture in the more humid
states; and brome-grass in the region west of the longitude
96° and north of the latitude 37°. Kentucky blue-grass
should not be sown, as it tends to crowd out the alfalfa.

ALFALFA 345

Eventually it invades many fields, and when this is the case
the mixture makes fine pasturage.

Few data are available as to the carrying capacity of
alfalfa pastures. In good alfalfa sections, a field will sup-
port an average of ten hogs to the acre throughout the
grazing season. Fields should never be closely pastured
to the end of the season, but the animals should be removed
in time to allow a growth of 6 inches or more before the
beginning of winter.

409. Use as a soiling crop. — Alfalfa is an excellent
soiling crop, especially for dairy cows. Only one precau-
tion needs to be taken; namely, not to cut the same field
more often than it would be cut for hay, as otherwise the
plants are greatly weakened and often succumb. Such
an injurious result is not uncommonly seen in alfalfa near
dairy barns, which, on account of its convenience, has
been cut too frequently. No cases are on record of cut
alfalfa ever having caused bloating.

410. Alfalfa silage.— Alfalfa alone has not given
very satisfactory results as silage in the few tests re-
ported. This method of preservation is rarely necessary
in the West, where most of the alfalfa is grown. In the
East, however, ensiling the crop would be a means of
saving it during weather unfavorable for hay curing.
One difficulty encountered in making good silage from
alfalfa is to secure sufficiently dense packing to prevent
spoiling. Chopping the alfalfa reduces the loss from
this cause. Much additional investigation regarding
the preservation of alfalfa as silage is needed.

At the Utah Experiment Station there was placed in
one silo 14,165 pounds red clover, 4020 pounds sweet
clover, 8620 pounds alfalfa and 3720 pounds Hungarian
millet, a total of 30,525 pounds. The total silage taken

346 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

out was 19,599 pounds, a loss of 35.7 per cent, and besides
7007 pounds were spoiled. Neither the cut nor the whole
alfalfa silage proved satisfactory in two years’ trial.

411. Alfalfa meal.—In recent years, finely ground
alfalfa has been placed on the market under the name of
alfalfa meal. The best quality of meal is bright pea green
in color, as this indicates that it has been made from the
best quality of hay. The product is very convenient to
use in mixed feeds, as there is practically no waste such
as occurs with hay. It usually commands a price about
25 per cent higher than prime alfalfa hay.

The ground material contains no more nutriment than
hay of the same quality, and its digestibility is probably
not increased materially. The justification for its use hes
in the convenience in feeding, and the avoidance of waste.

412. Seed production. — Alfalfa seed is rarely grown
commercially except in semi-arid regions. In humid
regions, the production of seed is small except in seasons
when drought prevails. At the present time, about one-
half of the commercial seed is grown on irrigated lands in
regions of dry summers. Moisture from rain or irriga-
tion after the alfalfa plants are in bloom will stimulate
new growth from the crown, which greatly reduces the
seed yield. When a seed crop is desired, irrigation is
withheld until the seed has been harvested. Usually the
second crop of alfalfa is allowed to produce seed, but in
the northernmost states of the West, it is necessarily the
first crop, as the second will not mature, and in the South-
western States the third crop is often preferred for seed.

Various factors affect the amount of seed that alfalfa
plants produce. The most important are the thickness
of stand, moisture supply, and conditions favorable for
tripping.

ALFALFA 347

Isolated plants of alfalfa produce most seed. West-
gate compared isolated plants vegetatively propagated
from the same mother plant. ‘The plants that were
farthest apart —namely, 18 by 39 inches — produced
as many as 505 pods each, while those closest together
—namely, 7 inches each way — produced a maximum
of but 38 pods. The beneficial effect of isolation seems
partly due to the increased sunlight
received, as shaded plants produce but
few pods. It is possible, too, that the
heat of the sun favors tripping, as flowers
ean be tripped with a burning glass or
by shading under a cage and then ex-
posing to the hot sunshine.

Abundant moisture lessens seed pro-
duction, apparently mainly because it
stimulates the growth of new sprouts.
Too little moisture may also seriously
reduce the seed yield, but alfalfa with
its deep root system is not frequently
subjected to this extreme. The subject BiG gh A ole
is a difficult one for field experimenta- 5°t cluster of alfalfa
; pods.
tion, but needs much further study.

Tripping of the flowers (Par. 413) is doubtless an impor-
tant factor, but more data and observations are needed, es-
pecially with reference to the relation of climatic factors
to tripping. The relative importance of automatic
tripping and insect tripping remains to be ascertained,
but observations indicate that in some localities when
tripping insects are rare, automatic tripping is probably
the determining factor.

In all producing sections, the yield of seed varies
greatly from season to season, but the factors actually

848 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

involved are obscure. Maximum yields of 20 bushels
to the acre have been reported, but 8 bushels is considered
a large yield. Returns of from 2 to 5 bushels an acre
represent the usual crop. In Europe the yield to the
acre ranges from 300 to 700 pounds, according to different
authorities.

In recent years, an increasing amount of alfalfa seed
has been grown on unirrigated semi-arid lands. Such
seed is considered preferable for dry land farming, and
this is probably so, but there is no convincing experimental
evidence of such superiority. In growing alfalfa for seed
production on dry land, very thin stands are best, but
there is an increasing tendency to plant it in rows about
three feet wide with the plants about one foot apart in
the rows. This permits of cultivation as frequently as
may be desired.

The crop, if harvested for seed, should be cut as soon
as most of the pods are ripe and the seeds yellow and
hardened.

413. Pollination. — The structure of the alfalfa flower
has a peculiar explosive mechanism which especially
adapts it to being cross-pollinated by large bees, especially
bumble bees. The filaments of the upper stamens form-
ing the stamineal tube are under tension, but are held in
a straight position in the keel by means of processes on
the wings. The insertion of a toothpick into the nectary
or the pressing downward of the keel will release these
processes, when the stamineal column with the inclosed
pistil recurves, violently striking the standard. This
process is called ‘ tripping.’”” When a bee trips a flower,
the pollen is scattered on its under side. If it then visits
and trips another flower, it is quite likely to dust pollen
from the first on the stigma of the second.

ALFALFA 349

Numerous investigators have studied the process and
have experimented in various ways with the flowers.
These researches have shown that only in very rare cases
will an alfalfa flower set seed without being tripped ;
that self-tripping takes place under certain conditions ;
that artificial tripping with self-pollination is hardly
as efficacious as cross-pollination; that honey-bees are
usually unable to trip the flowers, bumble bees and other
large bees being the most efficient insects. Burkill’s
contention that the stigma must be ruptured or irritated
by striking the standard or an insect does not hold true
under American conditions. Cross-pollination results in
the production of about 30 per cent more seeds to the
pod than does self-pollination. It has not been definitely
shown, however, that cross-pollinated seeds possess any
superiority.

Under Western conditions, it is probable that more
flowers are self-tripped than are tripped by insects, but
more quantitative data on this point are needed.

414. Seeds.— Alfalfa
seed may be adulterated
with that of trefoil, sweet
clover or bur clover. All
of these resemble alfalfa
seeds closely. The sweet
clover can be detected
easily by crushing a few See
seeds when the character- Fic. 36.— Alfalfa seeds: a, indi-
istic vanilla-like odor of Vidual seeds, showing variation in

: form; 6b, edge view of a seed, show-
the sweet clover will re- ing the scar; c, natural size of seeds.
veal its presence. A very
small amount of sweet clover seed, up to 5 per cent,
is sometimes present in American seed as an impurity,

as

350 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

but more than this is certainly an adulteration. To
detect trefoil and bur clover seeds, careful examination
is necessary. Very commonly both of these are added as
adulterants, especially to European seed. Old alfalfa seed,
as well as shriveled seed, has a dull reddish brown color.

Troublesome weeds that may be present in alfalfa are
Canada thistle, dodder, curled dock, quack-grass, wild
carrot and oxeye-daisy.

Good commercial seed may attain a purity of 98-99
per cent and a viability of 97-99 per cent. A bushel weighs
from 60 to 63 pounds. One pound contains 182,000 to
237,000 seeds, an average of about 220,000. Usually a
small per cent of the seed is hard, especially if the seed is
new. Good seeds germinate within 6 days and mostly
in 2 OL ocd ays.

415. Viability of seed. — Alfalfa seed retains its via-
bility for many years, depending partly on the conditions
of storage. Seed of the season does not germinate as well
as that one year old.

The best alfalfa seed is characterized by its plumpness
and a decidedly yellowish color. Dead seeds become
reddish brown and are easily distinguished. Turkestan
alfalfa seed is trampled out by animals, and may often be
recognized by its dusty appearance and the presence of
small pebbles.

In all alfalfa seed a varying percentage is “ hard ”’;
that is, does not absorb water and germinate promptly.
There are no published data regarding the behavior of
hard seeds in the soil, but the probability is that some of
them remain dormant a long time and hence are practically
worthless.

At the Colorado Experiment Station samples preserved
in envelopes and vials for six years showed a range of ger-

ALFALFA S51

mination of 66 to 92 per cent, and six years later the same
samples, then twelve years old, still germinated 63 to 92.5
per cent. One sample germinated 72 per cent when ten
years old and 63 per cent six years later.

Experiments in Austria showed a gradual decrease in
germination from 94 per cent the first year to 54 per cent
the eleventh year. Shriveled seed is inferior to plump
seed, both in percentage of viability and in keeping qual-
ities. It is probable, also, that the resultant plants are
less vigorous.

416. Alfalfa improvement. — The wide diversity which
exists both in wild and cultivated alfalfas has in recent
years stimulated much interest in breeding to secure
varieties especially adapted to certain purposes and to
special localities. Among the improvements sought by
various investigators along this line, the following may be
enumerated : —

1. A higher degree of leafiness combined with erect
stems, so as to produce more and better hay ;

2. Better seed production, especially if combined with
good hay quality ;

3. Greater drought resistance ;

4. Greater cold resistance ;

5. Varieties that possess ability to produce seed under
humid conditions, so that adapted strains may gradually
be developed ;

6. Better pasture varieties, especially such as have root-
stocks so as to withstand pasturing without injury ;

7. Disease resistance.

The characters enumerated are all possessed in vary-
ing degrees by different varieties. Especially promising
for the breeder are hybrids between sickle alfalfa and true
alfalfa, of both of which numerous forms exist. The

B02 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

greater hardiness and rootstock-producing tendency of
the former, combined with the better seed-production and
superior habit of the latter, are characters highly desirable
to combine.

While breeders have already developed various promis-
ing improved alfalfas, none of these has yet become estab-
lished commercially.

417. Breeding methods.—In connection with the
improvement of alfalfa by breeding, certain special
methods will be found useful. Due to the readiness with
which natural crossing takes place, a large proportion of
alfalfa plants are heterozygote; that is, do not breed
true even when the seed is produced by bagged or caged
flowers. On this account a progeny row of each selected
plant should be grown from seed produced under bag to
determine whether it will breed true to type.

For the rapid multiplication of a selected plant, two
methods may be used: First, new plants can readily be
produced either from cuttings, or, where rootstocks are
present, by division; second, pure seed can be secured
by growing the plants in cages to exclude insects, and
tripping the flowers by pressure of the hand.

Increase plots of a selected strain must be grown at a
considerable distance from any other alfalfa, otherwise
crossing will be effected by bees.

418. Weeds. —In many places weeds constitute a
serious drawback to alfalfa culture.

Kentucky blue-grass is probably most troublesome to
established fields in Ontario and the Eastern States. Heavy
liming so necessary for alfalfa also favors blue-grass, which
usually appears by the second year, and unless restrained
will kill out half of the alfalfa by the third or fourth year.
In the northern part of the irrigated regions, blue-grass

ALFALFA ane

is also beginning to be troublesome in alfalfa. Blue-grass
is best eradicated by means of a spring tooth harrow,
especially one with broad pointed teeth. Care must be
taken to subdue the blue-grass as soon as it begins to
appear. The disk harrow is also commonly used, but
this does not destroy the blue-grass as well as the spring
tooth, though it may be used to precede the latter. Disk-
ing often splits the crowns of the alfalfa plant, and the
opinion is growing that this is injurious rather than
beneficial, as some writers have claimed.

Quack-grass (Agropyron repens), in Michigan, Vermont
and other Eastern States, is a serious weed. Owing to
its deep running rootstocks, it cannot be eradicated by
harrowing, and thus continues to spread as long as the
field remains in alfalfa.

Crab-grass (Digitaria) and foxtail or pigeon-grass
(Setaria) are the worst alfalfa weeds in the Southern
States. The former is troublesome as far north as Kansas
and Maryland, and the latter still farther. Both are
annuals and reseed in spite of any practical precaution.
The plants are rather easily destroyed by harrowing, as
they are annuals and lack the rootstocks characteristic
of blue-grass. Humid weather especially favors crab-
grass, while it injures alfalfa, which under such conditions
may be smothered and practically destroyed.

Bermuda-grass is becoming an increasing menace in
alfalfa fields in Arizona and California. In this region,
Bermuda-grass produces an abundance of seed which
reaches the alfalfa fields in irrigation water. Its eradi-
cation without plowing has not been accomplished. In
Virginia, Bermuda-grass, even when abundant, has not
proven to be troublesome in alfalfa.

Squirrel-tail (Hordeum jubatwm), a grass native to the
2A

354 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Rocky Mountain region, is a troublesome weed in Colorado,
Utah and other states. This grass matures before alfalfa,
and the long bearded spikelets are very injurious to live
stock. When squirrel-tail is very abundant, the first
crop of alfalfa is rendered practically worthless. Such
a crop is sometimes cut while very young before the
squirrel-tail is mature enough to be objectionable to
animals.

Wall-barley (Hordeum murinum) is a winter annual
from the Mediterranean region abundant in California.
Like squirrel-tail, it is very objectionable on account of
its bearded glumes, but, before these are formed, provides
good early pasturage. It is a common practice to burn
this grass when dry. Where abundant, it may ruin the
first crop of alfalfa.

419. Dodder or love-vine. — This parasite or weed is
often very injurious in alfalfa fields. Alfalfa fields usually
become infested by sowing dodder seed mixed in with
alfalfa. The dodder seed germinates in the ground, and
the young plantlets quickly twine about the alfalfa seed-
lings. Thereafter, they are parasitic on the alfalfa, ab-
sorbing their nourishment by means of sucker-like organs
which penetrate the host. Dodder usually appears in
alfalfa fields in small isolated spots which rapidly grow
larger if the weed is not destroyed.

Four species of dodder have been found infesting alfalfa
in the United States; namely, Cuscuta planiflora, C.
indecora, C. epithymum and C. arvensis. The last named
is native to America, infesting many kinds of herbaceous
plants, while the other three are of Old World origin.
Cuscuta planiflora is the most abundant and most injurious
species on alfalfa in the West.

The best way to prevent this weed is to avoid planting

q
1

ALFALFA ODO

alfalfa seed containing dodder. The seeds of the latter
can usually be detected by careful examination with a
magnifier. In all the species the seeds are smaller than
those of alfalfa, subglobose or somewhat angular, with a
finely roughened, dull
surface. The color
may be grayish, yel-
lowish or brownish.

Various methods of
destroying patches of
dodder in alfalfa fields
have been suggested.
A good plan is to cut
the affected plants
very close to the
ground before’ the
dodder sets seed.
Burning the infested
spots by means of
straw or by spraying
with kerosene is also
effective.

If the whole field
is affected, the best
plan is to utilize it

as pasture, especially

for sheep which eat Fic. 37.— Dodder or love-vine growing
: on alfalfa.

the alfalfa close and
thus check the dodder. If such a field be utilized
for hay, some of the dodder seed will ripen and the
field tend to become more infested every year.

When such a field is plowed up, it is best to grow other
crops not subject to dodder, at least two years. Other-

a0 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

wise, there is likelihood of the alfalfa becoming infested
by the dodder seed in the soil.

420. Diseases. — Alfalfa is subject to various fungous
diseases, but it is exceptional for any of these to cause
large damage, though the aggregate loss is considerable.

Root-rot (Ozonium omnivorum) occurs in Texas and
Arizona, and attacks many other plants besides alfalfa.
It appears on the roots as orange-colored threads. The
attacked plant nearly always dies. The fungus gradually
spreads to surrounding plants, which, with the rotting of
the root, wilt and then die. Rarely a plant may survive
by sending out new roots from near the crown. The circles
of dead plants caused by this disease are characteristic.

Only indirect means of treatment can be used. The
root-rot fungus thrives best in poorly ventilated soils,
and further is not known to attack any monocotyledonous
plant. The growing of such crops as corn, sorghum, the
small grains and grasses, in rotation tends to free the land
from the fungus.

At the Ohio Experiment Station a root-rot caused by |

Fusarium rosewm has been found killing young alfalfa
seedlings.

Bacillus tumefaciens, the organism of crown-gall on
fruit trees, sometimes affects alfalfa, causing small irregu-
lar nodules on the roots and stems. Affected plants have
been found in Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania and
Alabama. The affected plants are stunted somewhat,
but no serious damage to fields has yet been traced to this
organism.

Urophlyctis alfalfe is a fungus that causes wart-like
excrescences to appear near the crown, both on the larger
roots and on the bases of the stems. The galls are usually
small, but may become 3 or 4 inches in diameter. This

A i eA, A On ne ee ee

ALFALFA SSH

disease was first observed in Ecuador, but has recently
been found in Germany, England, California, Oregon
and Arizona.

Bacterial stem-blight of alfalfa caused by Pseudomonas
medicaginis has recently been described from Colorado
and neighboring states. This disease attacks the stems
primarily, usually causing a linear yellowish to blackish
discoloration down one side of the stem through one or
more internodes. Sometimes the disease extends to the
crown, destroying the buds and eventually the plant.
The disease is confined almost wholly to the first cutting,
which may be seriously injured, but the subsequent cut-
tings are almost unaffected. Few plants are killed the
first year, but thereafter the loss is greater so that in
three or four years the stand may be ruined. Cutting
the stubble very short in early spring as soon as the first
damage is over has been recommended. This will remove
any diseased portions which may infect the new growth,
and besides removes the weakened frost-injured shoots
which seem particularly liable to the disease. Hardy
varieties which escape winter injury are likely to prove
less subject to the disease. A very similar disease also
occurs in Virginia and Maryland.

The leaves of alfalfa are attacked by various fungi.
Most common is Pseudopeziza medicaginis which causes
small dark brown spots on the leaves. When very abun-
dant, there is considerable shedding of leaflets.

At the New Jersey Experiment Station comparative
chemical analyses were made of healthy and diseased
plants of the third cutting. The healthy plants showed
10 per cent more fat, 12 per cent more protein and 18 per
cent more fiber than the diseased, and were richer in car-
bohydrates by 11 per cent.

358 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Rust (Uromyces striatus) is another common leaf
disease recognizable by forming small spots of reddish
spores. Macrosporium sarcineforme occurs frequently
in the East, forming pale circular spots bearing scattered
black spores.

Two mildews also occur occasionally, especially in the
shade; namely, powdery mildew (Erysiphe trifolii) and
downy mildew (Peronospora trifolit).

None of these leaf diseases has as yet proven to be
of serious consequence.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii) occurs on alfalfa
in Virginia and Maryland, causing spots on both the stems
and leaves. These are at first purplish, then brown. The
stems are frequently girdled by the spot and then die,
and the whole plant may succumb.

Alfalfa ‘‘ yellows” is a disease of unknown cause. It
occurs quite commonly in Virginia and other Eastern
States. The leaves turn gradually to an orange-yellow
color, and the plant then ceases growth. When this
happens, it is best to cut the crop at once, even if but a
few inches high. It has been suggested that the disease
is probably related to the mosaic disease of tobacco,
known to be transmitted by a species of aphis. A species
of leaf-hopper seems to be constantly associated with
alfalfa yellows.

421. Insects. — Insects have thus far not proved a
serious menace to alfalfa culture in America, but locally
and in occasional seasons a large amount of damage may
be caused by grasshoppers or by caterpillars. The
recently introduced alfalfa leaf weevil may, however,
prove to be a serious factor to contend with.

Grasshoppers are the most injurious insects to alfalfa
in the West at the present time, but the area of destruction

ALFALFA 359

varies from year to year, depending on the local abundance
of the insects. The species that causé most damage are
Melanoplus differentialis and Melanoplus bivittatus. They
are more likely to be destructive in seasons when drought
causes a shortage in natural food supply and in areas
where the proportion of uncultivated land is large, as
under these circumstances they congregate in the culti-
vated fields.

Two effective means
of destroying these in-
sects are by the use of
the hopper-dozer and
poisoned baits. The
hopper-dozer is essen-
tially a shallow pan with
a vertical back one or
two feet high. The pan
contains water covered
with a layer of kerosene.
When this is dragged
over the field, many of
the insects jump directly — y,. 3g. — adult form of the alfalfa

into the pan or fall into weevil (Phytonomus posticus): Adults

c oe. clustering on and attacking a spray of
4 aan striking the ‘alfa. (lightly enlarged)
ack.

The most effective poisoned bait is the Criddle mixture
made by mixing one pound of paris green and one pound
of salt in one-half barrel of fresh horse manure. Grass-
hoppers eat the bait very readily and are killed by the
poison. Where grasshopper eggs are known to be abun-
dant in an alfalfa field, many may be destroyed by disking
in the fall or winter.

The alfalfa leaf weevil (Phytonomus posticus), a native

360 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

of Europe, appeared in Utah in 1904, and has now spread
over a considerable portion of that state and south Idaho.
The insect causes much damage by the larve eating the
leaves of the first crop of alfalfa, and incidentally, by delay-
ing the second crop, does not allow time enough for the
third crop to mature.

The best method of control thus far devised is to cut
the first crop and remove it from the field as soon as it
shows signs of serious injury. The field should then be
gone over with a spring tooth harrow and followed by thor-
ough treatment with a heavy brush drag. The object
is to destroy as many of the larvee and pup2 as possible,
partly by crushing, partly by burying in the dust, and
partly by starving, as after thorough dragging the alfalfa
stubble will be entirely bare of leaves. If the work has
been well done, the second crop will be practically free
from the weevil, and if done early enough, there will be
ample time for the third crop to mature.

Several caterpillars cause more or less injury at times
to alfalfa by eating the leaves. The most important are
Eurymus eurytheme and Autographa gamma. californica.
The best practical remedy, if the caterpillars are abundant,
is to cut the alfalfa as close to the ground as possible while

the caterpillars are young, thus starving them and protect-.

ing the succeeding crop from injury. Close pasturing is
also a means of preventing injury, as caterpillars rarely
become abundant in fields thus utilized.

— ae, ee eee

= -.

CHAPTER XVI

RED CLOVER

Rep clover is the most important of all leguminous
forage crops both on account of its high value as feed and
from the fact that it can be so well employed in rotations.
The last decade has witnessed a serious decline in the
acreage grown in most of the eastern states, apparently due
to an increasing difficulty in securing satisfactory stands.

422. Botany of red clover. — The plant occurs naturally
in the greater part of Europe; in Algiers, northern Africa ;
and is found in Asia Minor, Armenia, Turkestan, southern
Siberia and the Himalayas.

A large number of forms have been named by botanists,
Ascherson and Graebner describing 30 varieties from
middle Europe alone.

423. Agricultural history. — Red clover was not known
as a crop by the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was
apparently first cultivated in Media and south of the
Caspian Sea, in the same general region where alfalfa
was first domesticated. In Europe its use as an agri-
cultural plant is comparatively modern, the first mention
of its use as feed for cows being by Albertus Magnus in
the thirteenth century. There are definite records of
its cultivation in Italy in 1550, in Flanders in 1566, in
France in 1583. From Flanders it was introduced into
England in 1645, and shortly afterwards its culture was
described in several books. Its use in Europe became

extensive about the end of the eighteenth century.
361

862 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

It was probably introduced into the United States by
the early English colonists, but the first published mention
of its culture was by Jared Eliot, who wrote of its being
erown in Massachu-
setts in 1747.

Its introduction into
European agriculture
had a profound effect
in that clover soon
came to be used in ro-
tations in place of
bare fallow. Its in-
fluence there on agri-
culture and _ civiliza-
tion is stated by high
authority to be greater
than that of the
potato, and much
greater than that of
any other forage plant.
Clover not only in-
creased the abundance
of animal feed and
therefore of manure,
MH} but also helped greatly

Fic. 39.— Red clover. by adding nitrogen to
the soil directly.

It is now much cultivated not only in Europe and
America, but also in Chile and New Zealand.

424. Importance and distribution. — Red clover is by
far the most important leguminous crop grown in America.
The area devoted to it is about five times as great as that
to alfalfa. More exact comparisons are not possible,

RED CLOVER 3638

as clover is most commonly grown mixed with timothy,
while alfalfa is mainly grown alone.

On the accompanying map is shown the acreage of all
clovers in the United States and Canada in 1909. It
will be noted that the crop becomes decidedly less impor-
tant in the Southern States. This is also true of the semi-

Fic. 40.— Map showing acreage of red clover in the United States,
1909, and Canada, 1910.

arid states, except that in Colorado and Montana consid-
erable red clover is grown in the mountain valleys at high
altitudes.

In Norway it is grown as far north as latitude 69.2°.
On the south coast of Alaska it succeeds fairly well, but
it winter-kills in the interior.

425. Soil relations. — Red clover is not a particularly
exacting crop in regard to its soil requirements, excepting
that it be well drained. It succeeds better as a rule in

364 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

clayey soils than in loams, and better in loams than in
sandy soils. ‘Tough clays are, however, very unfavorable,
partly on account of their undrained condition. The
best growth is secured on fertile clayey soils rich in lime.
A good content of humus is also favorable. Deep soils
are especially desirable, as this enables the plant to develop
its extensive root system which may penetrate to a depth
of over five feet.

Soil moisture conditions are most important for red
clover. It will not thrive in sandy or gravelly soils that
become droughty. It is especially intolerant of water-
logged soil, and on this account is poorly adapted to grow-
ing under irrigation on poorly drained lands.

426. Climatic relations. — In a general way the climatic
relations of red clover are shown by the map of its dis-
tribution, in which both the regions and the extent of
its culture are indicated. It is distinctly a crop for
humid regions without excessive summer or winter tem-
perature.

No critical studies have been recorded of the cold
resistance of red clover, but it is probably more hardy in
this respect than alfalfa, as it endures well the winters of
Nova Scotia, Maine and Minnesota. Seeds from north-
ern-grown plants are preferred for regions of cold winters.
Stebler and Schroter remark that dry cold is injurious in
Switzerland in spring after growth has begun.

Regarding the heat tolerance of red clover, the data are
even less definite. In the southernmost states the crop
succeeds only if planted in the fall, and all of the plants
usually disappear by the following August.

Humidity combined with moderate temperature 1s
favorable to the plant, and dry atmospheric conditions
are decidedly unfavorable. Combined with high temper-

(a ie an a

Ne ee a ee

RED CLOVER 365

ature, humidity seems to be more injurious. Under such
conditions, the Orel variety quickly shows signs of distress.

427. Effect of shade. — Red clover is often planted in
orchards as a cover crop. It does not thrive very well in
shaded places and mostly disappears after the first season.
Stebler and Volkart report an experiment in which a mix-
ture containing red clover was grown on two plots, one
of them artificially shaded. These plots were observed
six years and the percentage of clover plants determined
each season, with the following results :—

1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908
Not shaded .| 38.7 223 Aad. 0 he. 0.8 Doe
Shaded Bie ou 7.8 4.9 02 0. 0.1

428. Life period. — Red clover is commonly said to be |
a short-lived perennial. As a crop it is nearly always
treated as a biennial over the principal area of its distri-
bution in America. In the Southern States, it is often
grown as a winter annual, as it does not as a rule survive
the hot summers and such weeds as crab-grass. In the
Pacific Northwest and northern Europe, red clover fields
often yield satisfactorily for three years.

Individual plants of red clover may live six to nine
years, but comparatively few live over three years. To
some extent, the length of life period is a varietal character,
both short- and long-lived strains being secured by selec-
tion. Pastured plants persist a long time and probably
much longer than when not grazed. On the other hand,
but few plants survive after a seed crop has been harvested
from them.

366 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

429. Agricultural varieties. — Red clover is a very
variable species, and in any field numerous forms may
easily be selected. Many of these different forms are
particularly prominent in the spring before the flower-
ing branches appear. In speaking of varieties and strains,
it must, therefore, be borne in mind that such are defined,
not by the individuals being all alike, but only by possess-
ing one or more characters in common. Two so-called
varieties of red clover are distinguished in American
agriculture: ordinary or medium, and mammoth or
sapling. Other so-called varieties are usually named
after the region in which they are produced and are better
considered regional strains; such as, Chilean red clover,
French red clover, etc., though in a few cases the plants
are readily recognizable.

Ordinary or medium red clover, as grown in America,
is distinguished by the fact that over most of the clover
region it will produce both a hay crop and a seed crop the
same season. If sown by itself, it produces satisfactory
crops for only one season, but in grass mixtures, a good
many of the plants live two years and some of them
longer. Various characters to distinguish medium from
mammoth red clover have been stated by authors, but
none of them hold perfectly true. In the order of their
trustworthiness, these characters may thus be contrasted :—

Mepium Rep CLovER Mammotu REp CLOVER

Blooms two weeks earlier than Blooms with timothy.
timothy.

Stems hollow. Stems solid.

Plants live two years. Plants live three years or more.
Tap root branches little. Tap root branches much.
Heads often in pairs. Heads seldom in pairs.

Pedicels short, straight. Pedicels longer, bent.

RED CLOVER BOT

Mammoth red clover is also known as sapling clover,
bull clover, pea-vine clover, perennial clover, and in
Europe as cow-grass. Botanically it is known as Tri-
folium pratense perenne Host, but has erroneously been
considered the same as zigzag clover (Trifolium medium),
which is a distinct species, only very sparingly introduced
into America. On account of its lateness, as well as its
longer persistence, mammoth clover is preferable for
mixing with timothy, as the blooming time of the two
coincide. If sown alone, the yield is somewhat greater
than the medium, as it usually. grows taller. On this
account, it is preferable where both a hay crop and a seed
crop cannot be secured in the same season. Mammoth
clover is preferred to medium for poor or sandy soils,
as it is generally believed that it produces better crops
under such circumstances.

The seed of mammoth clover is slightly larger than
that of medium, but cannot be certainly distinguished.
Genuine seed is scarce and commands a relatively high
price. In Rhode Island, Card reports that it succeeds
better than medium red on “ acid ”’ soils.

Regional strains of red clover are usually named from
the region in which they are produced. Only a few of
them differ markedly from the ordinary American strain.
Orel or Russian clover has nearly smooth herbage, and,
like mammoth, does not produce a second cutting. For
the northern tier of states and Canada, it possesses con-
siderable promise. Under Maryland conditions it suffers
noticeably from the summer heat.

430. Comparison of regional strains. — Numerous com-
parative trials of red clovers from different sources have
been made both in Europe and in America. In Europe,
American red clover is objected to on account of its greater

368 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

hairiness. The opinion prevails also that the yield is
not as a rule as satisfactory, and that the plants are more
subject to mildew. Werner states, however, that the value
of the American seed under German conditions is not yet
clear, in spite of the numerous field trials.

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station in 1901 American
medium and mammoth both outyielded European strains
from Hungary, England, Steirmark, Transylvania, Russia
and Germany, though the hay of the European sorts was
better in quality, owing to the plants being less hairy.
In 1902 out of 16 American and European strains, the
four highest yields were from American lots. In 1905
out of 22 American and 2 foreign strains, the largest
yield, 2.2 tons an acre, was from the Orel strain from
Russia.

At the Maine Experiment Station 29 regional strains
of red clover were tested in 1902 on duplicate plots of one-
eightieth acre. One plot of each was cut August 30, when
the earliest was ready for cutting. The largest yields were
obtained in the order given from plots-with seed from
Minnesota, Bohemia, Indiana, Wisconsin, Brittany and
Ohio. In the following season the order of their excel-
lence, arranged according to the total yield from two
cuttings, was Indiana, Bohemia I, Russia, Bohemia II,
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio.

A test of regional strains conducted codperatively by
the United States Department of Agriculture in 1905 gave
the results shown in the accompanying table. In this
series, Orel clover gave the highest total yield, as well as
the highest at two of the stations. Orel clover yields,
however, but one cutting, so the relative ranks of the
varieties would undoubtedly be different if the total yields
for the season were tabulated : —

RED CLOVER

369

TABLE SHOWING ACRE YIELDS OF THE FIRST CuTTiINnG oF DIFFER-
ENT REGIONAL STRAINS OF RED CLOVER AT FIVE STATIONS IN 1905

SOURCE OF SEED

Commercial seed (Western
bulk) .

Western Ohio .

Northern Indiana

Southern Indiana

Illinois

Missouri

Iowa . 5 EES Cee

Commercial seed (not inocu-
lated) . OS Ns eh ee

Commercial seed (inoculated)

Michigan

Nebraska

Eastern Ohio

Kentucky

Tennessee

Kief, Russia

Orel, Russia

Mogileff, Russia

Courland

Wisconsin

Oregon

Pennsylvania

New York

< a br
5 | ez 2
oe ia a =
BA :

Se scallion) ate

im pe ldvy.| 38 ax 2

i 8 Sees | eager Be 5
SF Gaon tees | ee 16oo a
Ib. Ib. Ib. Ib. lb. Ib.
5,700 | 4,400 | 4,320 | 5,220 | 3,633 | 23,273
4,980 3,500 4,248 4,950 2,760 | 20,438
4,780 | 2,510 | 4,468 | 4,484 | 2,960 | 19,202
5,020 | 2,710 | 4,800 | 4,860 | 2,440 | 19,830
4,990 | 3,990 | 4,068 | 4,830 | 2,720 | 20,598
5,010 | 4,450 | 4,400 | 5,510 | 2,640 | 22,010
3,950 | 4,130 | 4,120 | 3,960 | 2,320 | 18,480
5,750 | 3,998 | 4,420 | 4,680 | 3,520 | 22,368
6,040 Aol 4,394 4,140 3,520 | 22,406
5,570 | 4,400 | 4,109 | 3,750 | 2,240 | 20,069
3,590 | 4,500 | 4,308 | 5,080 | 2,720 | 20,198
5,080 | 4,640 | 4,800 | 5,370 | 2,320 | 22,210
5,540 | 3,420 | 4,120 |. 4,610 | 2,840 | 20,530
4,670 | 3,970 | 3,640 | 5,090 | 2,800 | 20,170
5,840 | 4,080 | 4,020 | 4,200 | 2,800 | 20,940
7,100 | 5,610 | 5,320 | 4,062 | 4,360 | 26,452
5,750 | 4,030 | 5,000 | 4,350 | 4,080 | 23,210
4,750 | 3,280 | 3,780 | 4,470 | 2,880 | 19,160
4,950 | 2,970 | 3,760 | 4,380 | 2,960 | 19,020
4,930 | 4,560 | 4,460 | 4,300 | 2,680 | 20,930
4,460 | 1,800 | 4,480 Donel
a WS Agi = || eee ay, |: eee

431. Time of seeding. — The time of seeding red clover
is determined largely by its relation to other crops
rotation, and by climatic conditions.
most clover sections, fall sowing is necessary, as few plants
are able to survive the summer after the hay is cut.
northernmost places where it succeeds, spring sowing is
usually necessary in order to avoid serious winter-killing.
In the region of its most extensive culture, seeding may
be done at any time from very early spring to early fall,
or even in midwinter on the snow or frozen ground.

2B

in the

In the southern-

In the

370 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In the last-mentioned area, the seed is most commonly
sown in spring on fall-sown grain, as the preparation of
a special seedbed is thus rendered unnecessary. The
actual time of thus seeding in grain is determined mainly
by soil conditions. If the seed is broadcasted on the
surface, the ideal soil condition is while the ground is still
much cracked and honeycombed from alternate freezing
and thawing in very early spring, as the seeds thus become
covered.

Later spring sowing on grain, even with harrowing,
or with a seed drill, is as a rule less desirable; the fall-
erown grain is larger and the later started clover seed-
lings are less well able to withstand either the shading
of the grain, or the drought of summer.

If sown alone, red clover may, in the region of its best
development, be sown at any time from early spring until
early autumn. Late fall plantings are undesirable, as the
danger of winter injury is thereby increased.

At the Indiana Experiment Station, red clover was
seeded in the middle of each month from April to Sep-
tember on well-prepared seed beds. Excellent stands were
secured from the April, May and June seedings; good
stands from those of August and September; while that
of July was decidedly poor.

Crozier in Michigan obtained excellent stands by seed-
ing in February, March, April and December. Sowings
made in July, August, September and October succumbed
to winter.

432. Rate of seeding. — Red clover contains about
250,000 seeds to the pound, varying from 207,000 in Ger-
man seed to 297,000 in American. One pound of seed to
an acre evenly scattered would be about 6 seeds to a
square foot.

RED CLOVER Oe

The usual rate of seeding red clover in America is
8 pounds to an acre. Different experiment stations rec-
ommend the following rates for their respective states:
Wisconsin and North Dakota, 15 pounds; Oregon, 8 to
10 pounds; Louisiana and Kansas, 10 to 15 pounds.

In Europe the rate seems to be higher. Stebler and
Volkart recommend 17 pounds an acre in Switzerland,
and Glaerum in Norway found the optimum rate to be
25 pounds per acre.

433. Seedlings. — The first true leaf of red clover is
compound, but consists of only one leaflet. This, how-
ever, is Jointed on to the petiole in the same manner as
the three leaflets of an ordinary leaf. The primary root
is undivided and grows more rapidly than the stem. In
contrast to the alfalfa primary root, that of red clover
contracts as it grows older, resulting in the crown becom-
ing deep-set. Nodules may appear on the roots by the
time they are one week old.

434. Seeding with a nurse-crop. — Red clover is most
frequently sown with some other crop, not because this is
the best for the clover, but because it economizes labor.
The seed may be sown in or with the following crops :—

1. In winter or spring on fall-sown wheat or rye.

2. In spring with wheat, barley or oats.

3. In corn at the last cultivation.

4. With rape or turnips in late summer.

If sown in spring on fall-sown grain, the clover seed
may be broadcasted, preferably in early spring when the
ground is still loose from frost action ; or somewhat later in
spring, the seed may be sown and the grain cross-harrowed.

Shepperd in North Dakota secured the best results by
seeding with a disk grain-drill across the rows of wheat.
This method is increasing in favor in other states.

Sie FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In Ohio and neighboring states, Drake advocates scat-
tering straw over fields of fall sown wheat in which it
is planned to seed clover the following spring. A thin
mulch of straw increases greatly the likelihood of a good
“catch” of clover. The effect seems due to the straw
keeping the soil surface moist and preventing packing and
erosion, and perhaps also by supplying humus.

When the clover is seeded in spring with a small grain,
barley is preferable to oats, as it does not make so dense
a growth and thus injure the clover by shading. Where
wheat can be planted in spring, it is preferable to either
barley or oats. At the Minnesota Experiment Station,
clover seeded with wheat yielded 4360 pounds an acre
against 2360 pounds when seeded with oats.

Seeding in corn is becoming a common practice in the
New England States. At the Massachusetts Experiment
Station this method was used seventeen years without
failure. In recent years, it has been the most satisfactory
practice in Vermont, and has given good results in Minne-
sota. It has not been successful in Kansas.

Good stands of clover have been obtained in Tennessee
by sowing in tobacco at the last cultivation about the
end of July. Red clover may be sown in cotton stubble,
but this is rarely practicable.

Sowing clover with two pounds of rape about the end
of May gives good results in western Oregon. Sowing
in July or August with turnips has proved satisfactory in
the Eastern States.

At the South Dakota Station, excellent results were
secured by sowing medium clover in early spring on brome-
grass sod after thorough disking. The clover seed was
sown at the rate of 10 to 12 pounds an acre. In one field
the mixture yielded 5484 pounds of hay an acre of the

RED CLOVER Bie

mixture against 3294 for the brome alone; in another
9358 pounds to 2360 pounds.

Clover is sometimes sown in wheat or rye stubble. This
is a frequent practice in Europe, especially if the spring-
sown seed fails to catch. The same method gives excel-
lent results in western Oregon if seeded in early September.

435. Seeding without a nurse-crop. — A stand of red
clover is most likely to be secured when sown alone.
This method is, however, seldom used unless all others
prove unsatisfactory, as it involves special preparation
of the land. In the South, such seeding must be in the
fall, preferably about September 1; otherwise crab-grass
and other weeds will destroy the clover. In the North,
the seed may be sown on a well-prepared, firm seed-bed
any time from early spring until fall. Late fall sowing
is inadvisable, as winter-killing is likely to be excessive.
Weeds are the principal menace to the success of spring
seeding, but they may be controlled to some extent by
occasionally clipping with the mower.

436. Depth of planting. — Clover seed should be
planted shallow to get the best results, in no case more
than an inch in clay soils and one and one-half inches
in sandy soils.

At the Wisconsin Experiment Station less than one-
half of the seeds germinated when covered with 1 inch
of compacted garden soil, and less than one-fifth when
covered with 2 inches. Shallow planting } to ? of an inch
in depth gave the best results and all very similar. The
seeds planted $ to 2 of an inch deep also germinated more
promptly than those placed on the surface or those planted
deeper. The longest rooted seedlings developed from the
seeds planted 4, 4 and 2 of an inch deep.

At the Michigan Experiment Station red clover was

374 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

seeded at various depths. The best germination was at
a depth of 1 inch and none grew when planted 2 inches
deep or more.

437. Winter-killing. — In soils composed of heavy clay
or rich in humus, red clover is very apt to be uprooted and
destroyed by the heaving of the soil in late winter or early
spring. This is particularly lhkely to damage young
clover seeded in the fall, but may injure that seeded the
previous spring. A top dressing of coarse stable manure
applied in fall will lessen greatly the lability to damage
from this cause. If the roots be heaved out 1 inch or less,
prompt rolling will be helpful. Very dry autumn weather
sometimes weakens clover plants so that the winter
mortality is increased.

According to Werner, red clover suffers from cold in
Germany only on wet clay, limestone and humus soils
during January in the coldest winters. Lund found that
at Copenhagen in a severe winter American red clover was
much more injured than was European.

438. Treatment of clover fields. — If clover be seeded
in spring with a grain crop, there is usually no return the
first season other than a little fall pasturage. Under
very favorable conditions, however, a moderate crop of
hay may be cut, or this may be allowed to mature for
seed.

If the clover be seeded alone in spring on well-prepared
land, a good cutting of hay is as a rule secured the same
season, and in rare cases a second crop.

During the second season, the general practice is to cut
the first crop for hay and the second for seed, after which
most of the plants die.

439. Fertilizers. — Numerous fertilizer experiments on
clover have been reported by American experiment

RED CLOVER 375

stations. It is difficult, however, to generalize from them,
but lime and barnyard manure both nearly always increase
the yield, and phosphatic fertilizers are usually beneficial.
The results with potash are negative in about half of the
experiments reported.

Brooks in Massachusetts found no appreciable difference
in the effect of potash when applied as muriate and as
sulfate. Chemical analysis, however, showed in all
cases a higher per cent of “ nitrogen-free extract ’’ in the
clover fertilized with the sulfate of potash.

In New Jersey the use of superphosphates with other
crops was quite beneficial in increasing the clover crop.
Potash also was useful, but barnyard manure gave the
best results of all. There was no residual effect from
nitrate of soda, and land plaster was without effect.

At the Cornell Experiment Station pot experiments
showed that clover was unable to obtain the phosphorus
in ground rock phosphate, but was greatly benefited by
acid phosphate, basic slag or bone black. These results
agree with those of Kossovich in Russia.

At the West Virginia Experiment Station phosphatic
fertilizers greatly benefited red clover, but potash did not
increase the yield.

In southern Illinois, Hopkins secured an average in-
crease of 1.14 tons hay to an acre by the use of 2000 pounds
ground limestone and 1200 to 1500 pounds ground rock
phosphate. ‘‘ Accumulating evidence indicates that the
increasing frequency of clover failure in the Illinois corn
belt is due in many cases to deficiency in phosphorus.”

Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station tested
various fertilizers on a mixture of orchard-grass and red
clover. ‘‘ At the start all the plots had apparently about
an equal stand of cover and of orchard-grass, but on the

376 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

plots which received acid phosphate or a mixture of acid
phosphate and potash salts the growth of clover predomi-
nated more and more as the season advanced. On the
other hand, where the nitrate of soda was used alone or
in a mixture with acid phosphate and potash the orchard-
grass predominated; that is, the minerals enabled the
clover to crowd the grass, while the nitrate of soda enabled
the grass to crowd the clover.”

440. Gypsum. — Gypsum was formerly much used for
its favorable effect on clover, but in the United States
now seems to be employed only in western Oregon. At
the Oregon Experiment Station, increases in yield of from
20 to 200 per cent were secured. The rate of application
varies from 40 to 200 pounds to an acre.

The cessation of the use of this substance in the East-
ern States 1s perhaps largely the result of the increased
use of lime. There is difference of opinion as to the
action of gypsum, but it is generally agreed that it is in-
effective on poor land.

441. Lime. — Lime has in general given an increased
yield when applied to the soil before sowing red clover.
Usual applications are 1000 to 2000 pounds of burned
lime or twice as much of ground limestone to an acre.

Most investigators regard the litmus test as a fairly
reliable indication that the soil needs lime, but in some
cases this does not hold true. For example, at the Ohio
Experiment Station clover grew normally on one soil and
but poorly on two others, all of which reddened litmus
paper. Lime alone did not benefit the first soil for
clover but improved the crop on the last two, though it
did not bring about a full yield.

442. Irrigation. — Clover is not much grown on irrigated , —
lands, principally because alfalfa will yield far larger

RED CLOVER Sel

crops. In high mountain valleys, however, clover suc-
ceeds well under irrigation, notably in the Gallatin Valley,
Montana, but similar success has been had in several
Western States, either when sown alone or mixed with
timothy.

King in Wisconsin tested irrigation on red clover.
Where the plots were irrigated twice after the first cutting,
the second cutting was over two tons to an acre as against
one ton where not irrigated. Irrigation after the second
cutting also increased greatly the fall pasturage. With
an optimum amount of water, either rain or irrigation,
King concludes that the clover crop may be double what
is ordinarily secured.

443. Red clover in mixtures. — Much more'red clover
is sown in mixture with timothy than in any other way,
approximately three-fourths of the total acreage being
thus sown. The timothy is commonly sown with wheat
in fall, and the clover added in the spring.

In this mixture the crop is mainly clover the season after
sowing, but thereafter is mainly timothy. An objection
to this mixture is that medium clover matures sooner
than the timothy, but this may be avoided by using the
mammoth variety. Red clover and alsike are also fre-
quently sown together, especially where there is difficulty
in securing a stand of the former.

Other grasses suitable to grow with red clover are
orchard-grass and tall meadow oat-grass, but these mature
somewhat sooner. In complex grass mixtures, which are
more popular in Europe than in America, red clover should
always be included.

444. Use in rotations. — The characteristics of red
clover make it particularly well adapted to use in rotation
with other crops. Various such rotations are possible,

378 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

but only a few of the most important and their modifica-
tions need to be discussed.

1. Corn, oats, wheat, clover, timothy. — This five-year,
five-crop rotation is the commonest one employed in the
Central States. The timothy is seeded with the wheat
in the fall, and the clover on the wheat in the spring. In
the fourth year of the rotation the crop is largely clover,
and in the fifth mainly timothy. Rye may be substituted
for wheat in some places.

2. Corn, oats, wheat, clover.— Where the hay is not
needed for live stock, the timothy may be omitted and the
clover, preferably mammoth, grown for seed only, the
straw and the stubble being plowed under. This is an
excellent plan to follow on farms where it is not desired
to keep live stock.

3. Corn, wheat, clover. — This rotation of three years
and three crops is employed where wheat is sown in the
spring. Rye, barley or oats may be used instead of the
wheat, and any other cultivated crop in place of the corn.

4. Corn, clover or corn, corn, clover. — This is the sim-
plest of all clover rotations, but probably brings the clover
too frequently to secure the best results. The clover
may be sown in the corn at its last cultivation, or in the
spring in the stubble, or after preparing the land.

445. Effect of clover in rotations when only the stubble
is turned under. — Red clover usually exercises a mark-
edly beneficial influence on the crop that succeeds it, even
where the clover has been cropped. This is ascribed
mainly to the humus and nitrogen added to the soil by the
roots and stubble.

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, potatoes
after clover stubble, on land that had not been fertilized
for 16 years, the yield of potatoes was 95 per cent as great

RED CLOVER 379

as on similar plots that had received a fair amount of
fertilizer containing nitrogen each year. At the Rhode
Island Experiment Station potatoes yielded 294.5 bushels
after clover and 259.7 bushels after corn. At the Pennsy]-
vania Experiment Station the fertility of the soil was
fully maintained for 25 years on certain plots where clover
was grown every fourth year in the rotation and only the
stubble plowed under. No barnyard manure was used,
but each alternate year 48 pounds of phosphoric acid and
100 pounds of potash per acre was added.

The results at the Ohio Experiment Station show that
in general a good crop of clover will leave enough nitrogen
in the roots and stubble for the succeeding crop, but the
nitrogen supply cannot be maintained by clover alone
even if planted every third year. At the Illinois Experi-
ment Station the yield of corn grown continuously for 7
years averaged 35.7 bushels to an acre. In a rotation of
corn, oats, clover, the average yield of corn for the 5 years
immediately after clover was 55.1 bushels, and after clover
cropped two years 46.8 bushels to an acre. At the Minne-
sota Experiment Station it was found that 6 pounds of red
clover sown with wheat in continuous wheat culture in-
creased the average yield of wheat for 10 years 3% bushels
to an acre. The results at this station taken as a whole
show that the nitrogen content of the soil is preserved if red
clover is grown two years in a five-year rotation. At the
Canebrake, Alabama, Experiment Station, oats yielded
52 bushels an acre after four-year-old clover stubble,
while a yield of 54 bushels was obtained by using 200
pounds of nitrate of soda to an acre.

446. Volunteer crops. — A good stand of red clover is
sometimes secured by the scattering of barnyard manure
which happens to contain sufficient viable seed.

880 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Volunteer crops may also be secured from fields when
some of the seed has been lost in harvesting, or by allow-
ing the seed to become shattered. Successful fields were
obtained in this manner at the Louisiana Experiment
Station and in Alabama.

To secure a stand in this manner is, however, very un-
certain, and further, it is better to grow some other crop
than to have clover follow clover.

447. Stage to cut. — If red clover be used as green feed,
it is probably best cut before bloom. This method of
feeding is more common in Europe than in America.
European authorities nearly all agree that the clover for
this purpose should be cut before blooming, as the digesti-
bility is then highest, as well as the percentage composition
of protein.

If cut for hay, different authorities recommend cutting
in young bloom, in full bloom, and when the heads are
half brown. The content of digestible nutrients is greatest
in full bloom. Later cuttings, however, cure more easily
than the early ones, and it is probable that better curing
counterbalances largely the lower content of nutrients : —

TABLE SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN TIME OF CUTTING AND
Acre YIELD OF Rep CLOVER IN PoUNDS ON A WATER-
FREE BASIS

STAGE WHEN Cur ILLINOIS mogee CoNAn ga

Just before bloom . Sees ane a —— 1385
Hall bloom tse ta) 4445, eee eee 2526 3680 1401
Sometheads dead 9.” 3 23.85". 3420 —
Three-fourths heads dead . . . 2427 —
All heads dead Repetto) ee 3361 —
Nearly outrote bloom mes oncay ole a aa 1750

co —— —— 152

Nearly ripe

A FIELD oF SuMAc SoRGO IN TEXA

STATE.

J ASHINGTON

W

ER IN

PEATE,

A Fieutp oF Rep CLov

=
/

RED CLOVER 381

448. Composition at different stages. — Several inves-
tigators have studied the composition of clover at dif-
ferent stages of its development. The total dry matter
and the ash increase until maturity, though in some
cases there is a slight decline after flowering, due to leach-
ing. The highest percentage of protein is contained before
blossoming, but the greatest total amount when the plants
are in full bloom. The fatty substances show but little
change in their relative amounts. The percentage of
fiber increases quite rapidly after blooming. The per-
centage of carbohydrates shows little change, but is
greatest during blooming.

The greatest total amount of digestible substance is
about the time of full bloom. The highest percentage of
nutritive substance is before bloom, and also the highest
percentage of digestibility.

449. Number of cuttings. — Mammoth clover yields
but a single cutting of mature hay, the second growth
never becoming large enough to justify mowing. Orel
red clover behaves in the same way.

Medium red clover, over much of the area best adapted
to it, yields a heavy crop of hay at the first cutting, and
later a second smaller cutting. Usually the second cut-
ting is allowed to mature for seed.

Near the northern limit of clover culture but one crop
of either hay or seed can be obtained.

In Louisiana, near the southern extreme ‘of its success-
ful culture, red clover is best sown in October, when two
cuttings of hay, one in May and one in July, are usually
secured.

_ European experiments have consistently shown a greater
total yield of hay from two cuttings than from a greater
number. Voelcker in Germany secured a less yield from

382 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

three and four cuttings than from two, and still less when
the clover was cut five and six times, but the smallest yield
of all when cut but once. Weiske secured 3570 kilograms
to an hectare when cut twice, and only 3392 kilograms
when cut three times. In another experiment in Germany,
clover was cut six times and yielded only 4678 pounds to
an acre against 9297 pounds when cut but twice. It
is probable, therefore, that the total yield of red clover
is much less if pastured than if cut for hay.

450. Yields of hay. — The average yield of red clover
hay in the United States in 1909 was 1.29 tons to an
acre when sown alone and 1.27 tons to an acre mixed
with timothy.

At the Michigan Experiment Station red clover grown
continuously for 5 years from 1896 to 1900 averaged 3110
pounds hay to an acre. In rotations the yields were
higher. During the years 1906-7-8 clover grown con-
tinuously averaged 2430 pounds to an acre on one plot and
2240 pounds on another; in simple rotation with wheat
2520 pounds on one plot and 2457 pounds on another ;
in a three-year rotation with wheat and corn, 2143 pounds
on one plot, 2683 pounds on another.

At the Rhode Island Experiment Station with very
heavy fertilizing red clover produced to an acre 6360 pounds
hay in the first cutting and 2760 pounds in the second.
At the North Dakota Experiment Station the average
hay yield to an acre of the first cutting for 7 years was 3547
pounds. At the Ontario Agricultural College the average
hay yield to an acre for 6 years of the first cutting was 5900
pounds of medium red and 6620 pounds of mammoth.

451. Relation of green weight to hay weight. — Taking
the average water content of green clover at 72 per cent

RED CLOVER 383

and that of clover hay at 18 per cent, the ratio of green
weight to hay weight would be approximately 3 to 1.

The available American field data show, however, a
wide range of variation in the ratio both as to different
places and as to different strains in the same place : —

TABLE SHOWING CORRESPONDING YIELDS OF RED CLOVER
GREEN AND Dry

GREEN WEIGHT Hay | Ratio PLACE AND AUTHORITY
Pounds Pounds
17461 4482 | 3.9 | Penn. Exp. Sta.
17760 4808 | 3.7 | Penn. Exp. Sta.
11020 3200 | .o.¢. | Wiss Exp: Sta. Bul. 121.
First cutting
4620 1740: |) 2.7. || Wis: Exp. Sta. Bulk 1213
Second cutting
20939 4330 | 4.8 | Minn. fHixp.. Sta. wibur. Pl. Ind.
Bul. 95) average for 21 strains.
16474 2760 | 6 Guelph, Canada (Bur. Pl. Ind. Bul.
95) average for 29 strains.
23280 2880 | 8.1 | Guelph (Courland, Russia, strain).
20800 4360 | 4.8 | Guelph (Orel, Russia, strain).

452. Feeding value. — But few feeding experiments
have been recorded that show the feeding value of red
clover compared with other hays. It is, however, gener-
ally recognized to be of high value.

At the Indiana Experiment Station clover and timothy
were compared in fattening steers, using corn as a con-
centrate. The animals fed on clover consumed 1.41 pounds
more hay each day and 3.06 pounds more corn. The
actual gain and the cost of a hundredweight of gain was
distinctly in favor of the clover. ‘‘ Throughout the

384 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

experiment the condition of the clover-fed steers was
much better.”

453. Comparative feeding value of the first and second
crops of hay. — As the second crop of clover is but rarely
cut for hay, the subject of the relative value of the hay
of the two cuttings has received but little attention.

At the Tennessee Experiment Station the crop of red
clover hay from the second cutting was found both less
palatable and also less nutritious to steers. Comparative
chemical analyses showed but very slight differences.

454. Soiling. — Red clover is an excellent green feed
for milch cows. German experiments show that it pro-
duces more milk than an equivalent amount of hay.

Bloating seems never to occur when clover is fed in this
manner, but it must be neither wet with dew or rain
when cut, nor should it be wilted.

The acre yields of green matter from fields of red clover
have been measured by several investigators. At the
Pennsylvania Experiment Station, the first cutting yielded
17,461 pounds. At the Idaho Experiment Station yields
of 12 tons from hill land and 18 tons from bottom were
secured. Three cuttings at Agassiz, B. C., in one season,
were, respectively, 14.5, 12.0 and 6.2 tons. At the Minne-
sota Experiment Station the average yield from 21 regional
strains at the first cutting was 20,948 pounds.

Green feeding of clover is the usual mode of utilizing
in many parts of Europe. It is usually cut shortly before
the blossoms appear, as the nitrogen content is highest
at this time, and there is but little fiber.

455. Pasturage. — Red clover makes an excellent pas-
ture for all kinds of live stock, but care must be exercised
with ruminants to avoid bloating (Par.101). As ordinarily
grown in rotations, the crop furnishes some pasturage in

RED CLOVER 385

the fall of the season it is planted, but it should not be
grazed too closely, otherwise the danger of winter injury
is increased. Where two crops of hay are harvested the
second season, there may still be some pasturage produced,
especially if soil moisture conditions are favorable. There
is rarely much pasturage after a seed crop has been
harvested.

456. Silage. — Red clover may be preserved as si-
lage, especially when unfavorable weather makes haying
impracticable. The results so far obtained with pure
red clover thus preserved have not been entirely satisfac-
tory. At the Canada Central Experimental Farm, clover
silage was found on the basis of chemical analysis to be of
less feeding value than green clover, but the silage was
eaten with eagerness both when the clover was put in
whole and when cut into lengths of 1 inch. At the Wis-
consin Experiment Station clover silage varied greatly in
quality, some samples being very good, others ill smelling.

At the Oregon Experiment Station, clover was ensiled
when the first heads were beginning to discolor. The
clover was run through a cutter and made good silage.
There was no apparent need of additional water. At the
Ohio Experiment Station clover silage was kept three
years and was then eaten readily. The clover should
be ensiled as rapidly as possible after mowing, first run-
ning it through a cutter to insure close packing.

457. Number of flowers and seeds to the head. —
The number of flowers in a head of red clover averages
about 85. At Ames, Iowa, Pammel reports that the num-
ber of flowers to a head varies apparently with soil condi-
tions. On black loam the average for the first crop was
71.1 and for the second crop 98.1, or where underlaid with

gravel, 101; on alluvial soil, third crop, 68.7. The maxi-
20

386 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

mum number found in any head was 140 for the first
crop, 150 for the second and 123 for the third.

The ovary of red clover contains two ovules, but of
these usually only one matures. Good heads contain
from 16 to 40 seeds each, the average being about 25. In
exceptional plants, both ovules may develop. Records
have been published of heads containing 90 to 130 seeds
each.

Beal in Michigan counted the seeds in 50 heads from
each of 6 plants, finding, respectively, 1260, 1275, 1640,
1485, 1820 and 2720 seeds.

Hopkins at the West Virginia Experiment Station
found that 122 red clover heads of the first crop contained
6042 seeds, an average of over 49 seeds per head.

Pammel has made numerous counts of seeds to the head
in Iowa. His results are tabulated as follows :—

Rep CLOVER SEEDS TO THE HEAD — First AND SECOND Crops

IN lowa
PLACE SorL Crop Gora eee
Ames . . .| Clay loam First 44 64.7
Idagrove . .| Black loess First 50 1.82
Algona . .{| Black loam Second 28 80.4
Harlan . .| Black soil Second 50 3.9
First 1242 25.99
sa a Second 701 Zh.oo
—- a First 200 41.1
ae aa Second 200 43.7

The average number of seeds to a head is sometimes used
to estimate the probable yield of seed to an acre. If the
seeds average 25 to the head, and the stand is good, a
yield of one to two bushels to an acre may be expected.

RED CLOVER 387

458. Pollination and fecundation.— The flowers of
red clover are especially adapted to being cross-pollinated
by insects, especially bumble bees.

Miiller records 39 species of insects that visit red clover
flowers in Germany. One species of bumble bee secures
the honey by biting through the base of the corolla. For
Iowa, Pammel records 14 species, 8 of them being bumble
bees. In Illinois, Robertson observed 20 species, five
of them being bumble bees.

Plants screened from flying insects failed to set any
seeds in the experiments conducted by Darwin in Eng-
land, and this has been the common result secured by later
experimenters. Some investigators have, however, found
a few seeds produced by screened plants.

Frandsen in Sweden has recently made extensive studies
regarding the matter. In 1910 out of numerous bagged
and undisturbed flowers he secured no seed; when arti-
ficially self-pollinated, 0.1 per cent of the flowers set seed ;
when artificially pollinated by another flower of the same
plant, 0.8 per cent; when artificially cross-pollinated,
46.1 per cent. In 1911 in similar experiments the per-
centage of seeds to flowers by the three methods was,
respectively, 0 per cent, 0.1 per cent, 0.4 per cent and
42.3 per cent.

Waldron at Dickinson, North Dakota, found that
53.6 per cent of the heads produced seeds in the open and
but 9 per cent when screened. When butterflies were
placed in netting tents over red clover, only 2.4 per cent
of the heads set seed, but when bumble bees were thus
placed, 45.7 per cent of the heads produced seeds.

459. Seed-production.— Medium red clover seed is
mainly produced in those regions where a crop of seed
can be procured after one of hay has been harvested. In

888 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the northernmost regions of clover culture, only one crop
can be secured, which may be either hay or seed. Mam-
moth clover does not produce much second growth, so
that the hay crop must be sacrificed when a seed crop is
desired.

Where two cuttings can be obtained, it is very rare
that the first is ever cut for seed. The first crop does not
as a rule seed heavily. Two reasons have been assigned
in explanation — first, that
pollinizing insects are not
abundant enough; and second,
the plants tend to produce new
shoots from the base unless
weather conditions are very
dry. There are no _ experi-
mental data recorded, however,
as to the relative seed-yielding

Fic. 41.— Stages in the de- capacities of the first crop and
velopment of red clover seed. the second crop, but in Iowa

a and c, flower in prime and
ripe; b and d, immature and more seeds to a head have

eat seed vessel; e, mature heen found in the second crag
than in the first.

Seed crops are not usually harvested until the second
season, but sometimes a fair seed yield may be obtained
from clover sown in spring, either on wheat or alone.
This treatment is thought, however, to weaken the
plants and materially lessen the growth the following
season.

The best seed crops are obtained when the growth of
the clover is not rank, and when dry, cloudless weather
conditions prevail during the period of blooming and ripen-
ing. For the first reason, light soils are supposed to pro-
duce better seed crops than clays or clay loams, especially

a

RED CLOVER 389

if the latter be moist so as to stimulate much vegetative
growth. Pammel’s investigations in Iowa did not, how-
ever, disclose any definite relations between the character
of the soil and the number of seeds to a head. Sunshiny,
warm days at blooming time insure a greater abundance
of pollinizing insects, and these are absent in cold, wet
weather.

Where the first crop is cut for hay, the time of cutting
may affect markedly the subsequent seed crop. Clover
hay is usually cut when the first heads turn brown, but the
belief is general that the seed crop is apt to be better if the
hay crop is cut a little before full bloom, as this makes the
second growth stronger.

Where the season is not long enough to secure both a
hay crop and a seed crop, as in the northern tier of states,
it is a common practice to pasture the field or to clip it
back in June, so as to bring the seed crop in September.
It is claimed that by this means better yields of seed are
obtained. Among the advantages supposed to be secured
are: 1. A more even ripening of the crop; 2. A more
favorable season for blooming and seed setting ; 3. Lessen-
ing of injury by the clover midge and the clover chalcis ;
4. A smaller growth, which is not likely to lodge and is
more easily handled. Experimental data on this subject
are lacking.

Prolonged rains at harvest time seem to be the cause
of many of the seeds turning brown. Seeds that have
turned brown with age do not germinate nearly as well as
yellow or violet-tinged seeds.

460. Harvesting the seed crop. — Red clover for seed
should be cut when the heads have all turned brown, and
the seeds are firm and shining. Cutting in the soft dough
stage results in shriveled seed. If the seeds are allowed

390 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

to ripen, there is no loss by shattering, but the heads
break off very easily. If the clover has become riper than
stated, much loss of heads can be prevented by mowing
in the early morning when wet with dew.

Mowing may be accomplished in several different ways.
A self-rake reaper is very satisfactory. An ordinary mower
with a bunching attachment (Fig. 42) that throws the
bunches of clover to one side so that they may not be
trampled upon, is also excellent. Heading machines
which cut the straw high are sometimes used, and these
are particularly de-
sirable, as they econo-
mize labor and cut
much less straw to be
thrashed.

Red clover is most
commonly harvested,

Fie. 42. — A bunching attachment on an however, by mowing
ordinary mower. :

y

iv~@
FS BERD
PS BY S
US aera —
wy,

Via

Kent Es
A ( a &

4
,
a i

and then raking into
windrows, using practically the same method as in har-
vesting hay.

In favorable weather the clover is ready to store or hull
in about four days if cut in the late dough stage. The
bunches should then be piled in cocks, or better, placed
under cover. During unfavorable weather there is some
danger of the seed sprouting if the clover is kept contin-
uously damp.

In the principal seed-growing districts, special machines
called clover hullers are used to thrash the seed and shell
it from the pods. This can be done only when the straw
is very dry.

461. Yields of seed. — The yield of seed to an acre for
the main part of the clover area probably averages about

4 &
a ee

Estas

RED CLOVER 391

100 pounds, and rarely reaches 300 pounds. Yields have
been reported by experiment stations, as follows: North
Dakota, 46 to 146 pounds; Oregon, 175 to 250 pounds.

For the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Hunter reports the
usual yield 4 to 6 bushels, and occasionally 7 to 9 bushels
to an acre.

The average yield of seed in Wisconsin in 1905 was
1.84 bushels to an acre, but this was somewhat lower than
usual. In northern Wisconsin, a maximum yield of 44
bushels to an acre is reported.

Werner gives the yields in Germany at 150 to 225 pounds
to an acre.

462. Statistics of seed crop. — The total yield of clover
seed in the United States in 1899 was 1,349,209 bushels
valued at $5,359,578. In 1909 the corresponding figures
were 1,025,816 bushels valued at $6,925,122. The
principal seed-producing states in the order of the total
yield produced were, in the latter year, Wisconsin, Ohio,
Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Minnesota, Iowa,
Oregon.

Clover seed has been an article of export from the United
States since 1792.

463. Value of the straw. — The straw of red clover
from which the seed has been thrashed possesses but little
feeding value, and is both coarse and unpalatable.
Usually much of its little feeding value is diminished by
being rained upon. Animals will, however, eat some of
the straw, and this, combined with its value for bedding,
makes it worth saving.

Perhaps the best use to make of the straw is for bed-
ding, but it is often scattered directly on the field.

464. Seed. — Seed of red clover (Fig. 48) is readily dis-
tinguished from similar leguminous seeds by its color,

392 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

which is yellow or violet, or both combined. Old seeds
become dull and brownish.

The seed may be adulterated with yellow trefoil;
with old red clover seeds sometimes oiled and polished ;
and with small or shriveled seed obtained in screenings.
Where cheaper foreign clover seed has been added to
American seed it may be detected by the presence of cer-
tain weed seeds. A
large proportion of
small seeds indicates
that these have been
added.

The most objection-
able weed seeds that
may occur in red clover
are dodder, Canada

Fie. 43.— Seeds of red clover. 1, side thistle. curled dock
view and, 2, edge view of seeds; 3, the , :
triangular form indicated; 4, a seed cut buckhorn and oxeye-
lengthwise ; 5, aseed cut crosswise, show- daisy.

ing the embryo; a, a seed scar; b, a :
stemlet (radicle) of the embryo; c, seed The best commercial

leaves (cotyledons) of the embryo ; 6,a red clover seed may
pod of red clover; 7, natural size of

Boh ds: attain a purity of 99

per cent and a viability
of 98 per cent. Good seeds germinate in from 2 to 6
days, excepting the ‘‘ hard” seeds. The percentage of
hard seeds is often 20 per cent and may reach 50 per
cent in very fresh seeds.

The seed varies in weight from 60 to 63 pounds a
bushel. One pound contains 279,000 seeds (Stebler),
232,000 seeds (Hunter), 200,000 to 240,000 seeds (Hunt).

The optimum temperature for germination was found
by the Ontario Agricultural College to be 90° Fahrenheit.
At 95° the vitality was distinctly impaired.

oo
0@
7

RED CLOVER 393

Hiltner and Kingel examined a sample of red clover
seed that had been stored 8 years. It was separated into
three lots: first, those which were apparently unchanged ;
second, those which were pale in color; and third, those
which were brown and more or less shriveled. Of the
first lot 10.5 per cent germinated and 81.9 per cent re-
mained hard. In the other lots the germination ranged
from 1.7 to 8.1 per cent. By scratching the seed coats
of those that remained hard; it was found that nearly all
were viable.

465. Color of seeds. — The seeds of red clover are
either pure yellow or more or less completely tinged with
violet, but never wholly violet. There is a popular
belief that violet-tinged seed is superior in viability and
vigor. This subject has received attention from various
investigators.

Gernert in Illinois finds that white-flowered plants
produce yellow seeds without trace of purple. Plants
with dark red flowers yield invariably seeds much tinged
with violet, while those with pink flowers in some cases
produced yellow seeds. The violet color appears late,
and may not show in prematurely gathered seeds. Five
plants were selected, each with a different seed color;
namely, pea; purple tint on yellow; reddish-purple on
yellow; medium purple on yellow; dark purple on
yellow. The progeny of each of these showed a wide
range as regards seed color, indicating that the parent
plants were heterozygote as regards seed color. The
data suggest that the character is a Mendelian one, and
that it is entirely feasible to isolate strains with violet-
tinged seeds.

Friwirth in Austria concludes that there is a tendency
for clover plants to produce seeds of one color. Thus

894. FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

one plant produced 160 deep yellow and 445 yellow seeds;
another, 154 violet, 125 variegated, 58 deep yellow and 11
yellow seeds ; a third, 177 deep yellow and 366 yellow seeds ;
a fourth, 1381 variegated and 47 deep yellow seeds. Yel-
low seeds are more likely to breed true than violet-tinged
seeds. In weight, violet seeds are heaviest, followed by
variegated and yellow. He obtained a higher yield of
air-dry substance in the crop from yellow seeds than from
either violet or variegated, a result in accord with that
of the Kentucky Experiment Station.

Card in Rhode Island analyzed plants grown from yel-
low seeds and from purple seeds, but found no difference
in their nitrogen content.

466. Roots. — The roots of red clover penetrate to a
maximum depth of about six feet, but ordinarily not
more than four feet. Hays at the Minnesota Experiment
Station found that the tap root was 7 inches long after
1 month, 2 feet after 2 months, and after five months 5%
feet. The lateral roots were a little deeper than the main
root.

The greater part of the roots is in the top six inches
of soil and according to all investigations about 95 per
cent in the top 8 inches. Thus, John in Germany found
the following vertical distribution : —

7.8 to 9.0 em. deep — 3760 kg. to a hectare.
15.7 to 18.3 em. deep — 338 kg. to a hectare.
27.4 to 28.8 em. deep — 196 kg. to a hectare.
36.6 to 39.2 em. deep — 78 kg. to a hectare.

At the Utah Experiment Station the weight of roots
was estimated for each inch of depth in fields respectively
2 years old and 4 years old. The basis was the weight of
roots obtained from an area 2 feet square : —

RED CLOVER 395

TABLE SHOWING WEIGHT oF RED Criover Roots to An ACRE
FoR EKacuH IncH oF Deptu, Utau ExpEerRIMEeNT STATION

4 Years OLD 2 YEARS OLD

Water-free Water-free

1058.4 240.7
1248.5 449.3
UE e be 433.9
1142.4 170.9
508.8 149.3
124.8 137.5

88.8
66.3
62.2
50.4
50.2
48.5

5630.3

At the Minnesota Experiment Station, Snyder found in
a square yard of earth that clover roots when water-free
weighed: 122 grams just before the heads appeared;
320 grams in early bloom; and 916 grams in full bloom.

At the Delaware Experiment Station, Penny determined
that the roots 8 inches deep weighed, air-dry, 1185 pounds,
and the next 4 inches 27 pounds, the whole containing 33
pounds nitrogen. The tops weighed 2819 pounds.

At the Connecticut Experiment Station Woods esti-
mated the roots 8 inches deep to contain 850 pounds,
and those in the subsoil 48 pounds of dry matter. At
Middletown, Connecticut, a crop was determined to have
1355 pounds of dry matter in the roots.

467. Shoots. — The main axis of the red clover is a
rather deep-seated, short crown, from which arise a dense

396 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

mass of basal leaves. From the axils of each of these, a
secondary leafy aérial branch may arise, and these con-
stitute the larger visible portion of the plants. Hach sec-
ondary branch is terminated by a head of flowers, but
commonly bears also tertiary branches each terminated
by a head of flowers. One shoot may thus bear as high
as 14 heads of flowers.

The height of the secondary branches varies with the
fertility of the soil, but they seldom exceed 30 inches under
field conditions. ‘The number is usually from 10 to 20,
but as many as 76 have been found on a single plant.
After cutting, the branches die back as far as the lowest
internodes.

In winter the hibernating shoots lie close to the ground.

Werner found that a well-grown plant with 108 leaves
had a surface area of 712 square centimeters. Von Gahren
in a similar examination found 875 square centimeters.

468. Proportion of roots to shoots. — Several investi-
gators have determined the relative proportion of the
different parts of the clover plant.

At the Arkansas Experiment Station single plants
showed an average dry weight of two ounces for the
tops and 2% ounces for the roots. Smith in Michigan
examined plants of red clover at the end of September.
Those sown the previous spring had 4.625 pounds of tops
and .75 pound of roots, while those sown the year before
in June had 1.5 pounds of tops to 1.44 pounds of roots,
in each case weighed when fresh. King in Wisconsin
estimated the green weight of the tops to an acre at
12,486 pounds and of the roots at 3120 pounds. The
data used for the estimates were obtained by driving
down a cylinder 12 inches in diameter and 30 inches
long. Snyder in Minnesota estimated that an acre field

RED CLOVER 397

yielding 4000 pounds of hay contained 1760 pounds of
dry roots. At the Delaware Experiment Station the
tops and roots to an acre were determined respectively
at 2819 and 1212 pounds dry weight.

At the Central Experiment Farm, Canada, the roots
were dug from areas 4 feet square and 9 inches deep on
seven different plots. The estimated green weights to an
acre are shown in the following table : —

EsTIMATED GREEN WEIGHT OF Tops AND Roots To AN ACRE,
CANADA CENTRAL EXPERIMENT FARM

PLots LEAVES AND STEMS Roots RaTE OF SEEDING

Pounds. Pounds

1 5441 5105 4 pounds

2 6849 5147 4 pounds

2 6934 6047 4 pounds

4 8508 5785 4 pounds

5 7997 5615 4 pounds

6 7657 4349 4 pounds

7, 10209 6296 14 pounds
Motal.'. >. 53595 38344

469. Relative proportions of stems, leaves and flower
heads. — Dietrich in Germany studied the relative per-
centage weights of leaves, stems and flower heads at dif-
ferent ages. The following results were secured : —

Marcu 31 APRIL 26} May 19 | June 1 | JuNE 16 | FLOWER-
Leaves | STEMS Bups First FuLu ING
ForMING | FoRMING|FORMING |FLOWERS| BLoom |FINISHED

Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent

WeaVves. 5, ...:. 40 41 DA 24 19 18
Leaf stalks : 60 29 14 12 11 10
Stems 2:05 — 30 58 58 59 60

Flower heads oo — 4. 6 Mi f2

398 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

From these figures, clover hay should consist of about
60 per cent stems, 30 per cent leaves and 10 per cent
flower heads.

470. Diseases. — Red clover is subject to a long list
of fungous diseases, few of which are, however, a serious
menace to its culture. Only the more important and more
common ones are here mentioned.

The leaves may be affected by clover leaf-spot (Pseu-
dopeziza trifolit); black spot (Polythrincium trifolir) ;
powdery mildew (Hrystphe polygont); downy mildew
(Peronospora trifoliorum); and clover rust ( Uromyces
striatus). It israre that any of these diseases causes much
damage.

The roots are subject to a root rot (Rhizoctonia violacea).

The stems are sometimes injured by stem rot (Sclero-
tinia trifoltorum) which is easily recognizable by the large
dark sclerotia formed. Clover anthracnose (Colleto-
trichum trifolii) is probably the most destructive disease
that has attacked red clover in America. It appears as
purplish spots on the stem which increase in size until the
stem is girdled and thus killed. It is known to occur in
Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee and Alabama, and
is probably much more widely spread. No direct means
of control is known, but results secured at the Tennessee
Experiment Station show that highly resistant strains
-may be secured by selection.

Two other anthracnoses, caused respectively by Colle-
totrichum cereale and Gloeosporium trifolii, are also found
occasionally, but no serious damage by either has been
reported.

471. Clover sickness. — This term is used to designate
a condition or conditions which prevent the successful
growing of red clover, at least continuously. This has

RED CLOVER 399

long been recognized in Europe, where numerous explana-
tions as to its cause have been advanced. The principal
theories are: 1. The exhaustion of some necessary element
from the soil, in particular lime, potash or phosphorus ;
2. The formation or excretion by the clover plant of some
deleterious substance; 38. Unfavorable physical condition
of the soil, especially the subsoil; 4. Presence of disease-
forming fungi or bacteria; 5. Injurious insects and other
animals; 5. Depletion of humus content of the soil.

None of these theories has been proven, but it is not
unlikely that there may be some truth in each of them.

Experience in Europe has shown that good clover may
be grown on clover-sick soil if a sufficient interval of time
elapse. In Germany this is usually four to six years,
but on some soils a period of nine or even twelve years
seems necessary.

It is not certain that the increasing difficulty in secur-
ing a stand of red clover in various parts of the United
States is the same as the European clover sickness, but
this seems highly probable. The evidence indicates that
the trouble first became prominent in the Atlantic States
and has been slowly extending westward. Even in regions
where clover sickness is common, land that has long been
uncultivated will often produce good crops of red clover
for a few years. Alsike clover, however, grows readily on
land ‘sick ”’ to red clover, and in many places is now
substituted for the red.

Soil acidity has recently been considered to be a cause
of failure with red clover, but lime has not proven to be
a remedy for the trouble. It has not yet been demon-
strated that the European practice of planting red clover
at long intervals will be equally successful in this country.

In England the question has been raised as to whether

400 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

land becomes sick to naturalized wild plants of red and
white clover. Several experiments have shown that
clover plants grown from cultivated seeds disappear
largely in 1 year, while those from wild plants persist 3
to 5 years or more. One experiment with red clover
resulted in the plants from cultivated seeds lasting but
2 years, while those grown from seed gathered in an old
meadow lived 5 or 6 years.

472. Reduction of acreage probably due mainly to clover
sickness.— The statistics of the thirteenth census of the
United States, 1909, shows that a great decrease in the acre-
age of clovers has taken place since 1899, especially in the
eastern part of the country. Every state east of the 95th
degree of longitude, excepting Illinois, showssuch a decrease.

The average decrease in the acreage of ‘‘ clover” for
the whole United States was 40 per cent. In certain
states the decrease was much greater, being 88 per cent
in New Jersey, 78 per cent in Pennsylvania and 65 per
cent in Indiana. In the states immediately west of the
Mississippi River the decrease was not so great, but is 30
per cent in Missouri, 23 per cent in Minnesota and 16 per
cent inIowa. In the states farther west the figures are of
less interest, owing to the large acreage of new land brought
under cultivation and the general preference for alfalfa.

While the significance of the figures is not wholly clear,
the most probable explanation is that it is associated with
the increasing difficulty in securing stands of red clover.
The striking contrast in the figures for 1899 and 1909
may in part be due to unusual conditions in the latter
year —but it does not appear from records that there
was undue loss from winter-killing or other climatic causes
in that year. The extent of the reduction in acreage is
shown in the following table :—

RED CLOVER 401

TABLE SHOWING THE ACREAGE OF CLOVERS IN THE EKASTERN
PaRT OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1899 anp 1909

CLovER ACREAGE
DECREASE
PER CENT
1899 1909
Now England States 18,681 15,097 19
New York . ws 103,155 87,267 15
New Jersey 51,635 6,893 88
Pennsylvania . 293,683 64,372 78
Ohio . 617,516 181,048 71
Indiana . 776,810 271,697 65
Michigan 225,636 168,180 25
lowa. 148,720 .fol 16
Minnesota . 74,669 57,308 23
Wisconsin . 203 ,253 119,522 41
West Virginia. 25,170 6,661 73
Maryland . 67,375 26,545 60
Virginia 104,124 54,016 48
Missouri oltzes 262,263 30
United States. 4,103,968 | 2,443,263 40

In Illinois the acreage in 1899 was 362,044, while in
1909 it was 427,957, an increase of over 18 per cent.

473. Insects. — There are five insects which cause rather
serious damage to red clover, one of them attacking the
root, one the foliage, one the hay, one the flower and one
the seed.

The clover root-borer (Hylastinus obscurus). — The
clover root-borer is easily recognized from the fact that
its larva burrows in the root, thus greatly injuring and
sometimes killing the plant. The damage is nearly al-
ways done in plants the second season, after the roots have

attained a considerable size. The only remedy suggested
2D

402 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

is to plow under the clover immediately after the first
crop of hay is cut. With the death of the plant the larve
also die. If, however, the plowing is delayed until later,
the larvee may have attained their growth and will then
develop into adults.

The clover-leaf weevil (Phytonomus punctatus). —
This little beetle and its larvee feed on the foliage of red
clover in early spring. The damage is seldom serious,
and in any event serves mainly to delay the maturing of
the plant.

The clover-flower midge (Dasyneura leguminicola). —
This little two-winged fly lays its eggs in the blossoms and
the maggot injures the blossoms so that seeds are not
formed. One method of control suggested is to cut the
hay early, as this will destroy many of the larve before
they have time to develop further.
When clover is grown primarily for
seed, sometimes the first crop is
clipped so as to bring the blooming
of the next crop later in the summer,
in this way avoiding much injury
by the midge.

The clover-seed chalcis fly (Brucho-
phagus funebris). — This is a small,

black, wasp-like insect whose larva
ae 44.—Sketch develops in the clover seed, all. oi
showing the effect of : a ;
the clover-seed chalcis Which is eaten excepting the hard
fly. Calyx(a),seedcap- shell, The work of this insect is
sule (b) and seeds (c : ;
and d). At ¢ the ma- conspicuous by the finding of hollow
ture insect is shown in seeds, each containing a round hole
the act of emerging. .

through which the adult has emerged
(Fig. 44). The only remedy suggested is pasturing the
crop in early spring, or clipping the first crop so as to

RED CLOVER 403

make the seed crop at a time when the fly is not
abundant.

The clover-hay worm (Hypsopygia costalis). — This is
the larva of a small, brown moth which feeds on the dry
hay in storage. Most of the damage is usually done near
the bottom of hay stacks or mows. To some extent, it
may be prevented by salting the hay, especially near the
bottom of the stack. Where hay is stacked in the field,
the injury is much lessened by building the stacks on a
foundation of logs, or other platform.

474. Improvement of red clover by breeding. — In
recent years there has been much interest in the subject
of breeding improved red clover. Individual plants differ
greatly and this permits of selection for numerous dis-
tinctive characters. More or less work of this kind has
been conducted at the experiment stations of Tennessee,
Illinois, Iowa, Indiana and North Dakota and by the
United States Department of Agriculture. In Europe
similar breeding researches have been undertaken in
Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland.

Breeding red clover presents difficulties in that cross-
pollination is required and that, therefore, at least two
individuals are necessary to start a strain. Furthermore,
isolation is then required to prevent miscellaneous cross-
pollination.

Mass selection is much simpler, especially where an
unfavorable factor eliminates a large proportion of the
population. In this way a strain resistant to anthracnose
has been developed at the Tennessee Experiment Station.

Card in Rhode Island found that the nitrogen content
of different individual plants ranged from 2.86 per cent
to 4.62 per cent. This suggests the possibility of select-
ing strains with high protein content.

404 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

475. Disease-resistant strains. — There have been but
few attempts made to secure strains of red clover immune
to disease. Bain, at the Tennessee Experiment Station,
has, however, thus bred a strain resistant to anthracnose
(Colletotrichum trifolii) by selecting plants not affected
by the disease. Apparently the same result was reached
by Clarendon Davis, in northern Alabama, by merely
saving the seed each year from the surviving plants.

CHAPTER XVII

OTHER CLOVERS.—ALSI KE, HUNGARIAN,
WHITE AND SWEET

Tue genus Trifolium comprises a large list of species
both annual and perennial, all of them confined to regions
of temperate climate or at least temperate during the grow-
ing period. Red clover is by far the most important eco-
nomic species, but where there is difficulty in growing this
crop other species, especially alsike and white clover, are
very valuable substitutes. The clover-like plants of the
genus Melilotus are also useful and worthy of more atten-
tion than they have heretofore received.

ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum)

476. Botany of alsike. — The alsike clover is so named
from a place in Sweden where it is much grown. It is
also called Swedish clover. The scientific name was so
given because Linnzeus erroneously believed it to be a
hybrid between red clover and white clover.

Alsike is native to the temperate portions of Europe
and Asia and also occurs in Algiers. It is rare, however,
in southern Europe. The plant is very variable, but
only a few forms have received botanical names. Ascher-
son and Graebner consider that cultivated alsike is a sub-
species (Trifolium fistulosum Gilibert), differing through
long cultivation in having larger, less toothed leaves,
larger heads and longer calyx teeth. Another subspecies

405

406 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

is Trifolium elegans Savi, with rose-colored flowers and
other slight differences.

In recent years the improvement of alsike by selection
has been undertaken at Sval6f and other places in Europe.

477. Agricultural history. — Alsike has long been
cultivated in Sweden, probably as early as 1750. Its
spread into other countries was, however, quite recent.
In England and Scotland the first clear record is 1832.

Alsike seed was distributed in the United States by the
Patent Office in 1854, but it was probably introduced
earlier. The plant was called alsike in Scotland as early
as 1832.

478. Adaptations. — Alsike clover is adapted to a wider
range of both climatic and soil conditions than red clover,
and nearly as great as that of white clover. It thrives
especially well in cool climates with abundant moisture.
It rarely winter-kills and often survives winter conditions
that destroy red clover. On the whole it is, perhaps, as
resistant to drought as red clover, but drought reduces
its yield greatly. It endures both cold and heat better
than red clover.

It is not particular as to soil, provided abundant mois-
ture is available, thriving well on clay, clay loams, sandy
loams and muck soils. Unlike most clovers, it will thrive
even where the soil is waterlogged. On this account it
is also well adapted to growing under irrigation.

Alsike is peculiar in that it will thrive where red clover
culture has dwindled on account of “ clover sickness ”’ ;
a trouble that seems never to affect alsike, and which
permits its frequent or almost continuous use on the
same land.

479. Characteristics of alsike clover. —It is a long-
lived perennial, fields enduring 4 to 6 years in good soil.

OTHER CLOVERS 407

The stems are erect or ascending when crowded, but in
isolated plants are spreading. The herbage is smooth and
decidedly more leafy than red clover. The hay consists
of about 60 per cent leaves and 40 per cent stems. Werner
records 168 leaves on 8 branches, with a total flat surface
of 504 square centimeters. Under favorable conditions
it reaches a height of 25 feet in the mass, but is usually
less. On account of the dense growth the lower leaves are
apt to decay, especially where growing in wet land. The
root system is relatively shallow, and on this account the
plant does not well withstand drought.

Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found that the
tap root after one month was 93 inches long and after two
months more than 2 feet. It does not remain prominent as
many of the secondary roots become as large. The mass of
roots is greater at the same age than that of red clover.

The growth begins later in spring than red clover,
and the blooming time is also somewhat later. Isolated
plants often measure one foot in diameter, and in closely
grazed pastures resemble white clover somewhat in habit.

480. Regional strains. — There is but very little dif-
ference in alsike, depending on the source from which seed
is obtained, according to the results secured by Stebler
and Volkart in Switzerland. Plots sown with American
seed gave slightly better results the first year, but in the
second year the results showed no definite superiority.

In extensive trials at the Danish Experiment Station
the relative yields of regional strains were as follows:
Swedish, 100; Rhine, 98; English, 97; German, 91;
Canadian, 83; American, 80.

481. Importance. — Alsike clover has been growing
in importance in America in recent years, mainly because
it succeeds well on land that will no longer grow red clover

408 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

on account of “ clover sickness.’”’ Apart from this it is
valuable for growing on land too wet for red clover and
in mixed hay meadows because of its longer life.

No accurate statistical information is available, but
alsike is probably most abundantly grown in the following
states and provinces; namely, Ontario, Wisconsin, Mich-
igan, Minnesota, Ohio, New York, Maryland, Virginia.

482. Culture. — The culture of alsike differs but little
from that of red clover, and it may be used for the same
purposes. Seed is sown alone or with a nurse-crop, either
in fall or in spring. In Europe winter seeding is a com-
mon method. The rate of seeding is 8 to 12 pounds an
acre, if seeded alone. Fields last well for two or three
years and often for four or five years. Usually the sec-
ond season gives the best yields.

Alsike is, however, best adapted to growing in mixtures,
especially in low or wet soils. In mixtures the alsike
is abundant for two years and then rapidly disappears.

483. Hay. — Alsike may be cut for hay over a longer
period than red clover, as the main stems continue to
grow with the production of new flowers. It is usually
recommended to cut when in full bloom. Under favor-
able circumstances two cuttings are obtained, but the
second is nearly always smaller than the first. If the
cutting of the first crop is delayed, the second is reduced.

German records of hay yields are as follows: Pinckert,
4000 to 5600 pounds to an acre; Werner, 2600 to 4500
pounds; Schober, for the first cutting, 3000 pounds.

Yields on an acre are recorded by American experiment
stations as follows: Pennsylvania, 3956 pounds; Kansas,
3110 pounds; Illinois, 2400 pounds; Michigan Upper
Peninsula, 6800 pounds; Minnesota, 5860 pounds;
Utah, 2780 pounds.

OTHER CLOVERS 409

484. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of alsike
clover is now produced mainly in Ontario, Wisconsin,
Michigan, Ohio and Minnesota. It is also produced in
most of the countries of northern Europe, but mainly
for home consumption. Alsike usually yields less seed to
the acre than either red clover or white clover.

The seed yields are best on land that is moderately
dry. The plants are mowed when the heads are brown
and the seed in the dough stage, as later cutting involves
loss by shattering. If not cut till ripe, it should be mowed
when moist with dew. Great care is necessary in curing.
Usually the first crop is harvested as seed, as in most of
the regions where seed is grown the second crop does not
have time to ripen.

European seed yields are given by various authorities
as ranging from 100 to 600 pounds to an acre, with about
300 pounds as the average.

In 9 coéperative trials in
northern Wisconsin, the
maximum yield was 6}
bushels to an acre, and the
average 33 bushels.

485. Seed. — Alsike clo-
ver seed (Fig. 45) may be
distinguished from most
other clovers by its small,

Fig. 45.— Alsike clover seeds.
somewhat heart-shaped a, seeds showing variation in form

seeds and from white and surface appearance, enlarged ;
: ]

i b, natural size of seeds.
clover by its green color.

Old seeds turn brown. Old seeds and screenings are
sometimes used as adulterants. Trefoil may be, and
timothy is commonly, present as an impurity.

Good seed often attains a purity of 99 per cent and a

410 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

viability as high. It will germinate in 2 to 6 days, except-
ing the hard seed, which is not as abundant as in red
clover. Any of the ordinary noxious weed seeds may
occur in alsike as impurities, but the most dangerous is
dodder. The seed retains its viability well for two years,
but then rapidly deteriorates.

A bushel of seed weighs 60 to 66 pounds. One pound
contains 700,000 to 718,000 seeds.

486. Value for pasturage. — Alsike clover is often used
in pasture mixtures for low, wet lands and the aftermath
of hay fields is also utilized by pasturing. It is eagerly
eaten by all farm animals, but with cattle and sheep the
same precautions must be exercised to avoid bloating as
with red clover and alfalfa. In closely grazed pastures,
the stems are commonly spreading or nearly prostrate.

Werner states that if fed green to horses, it is very
laxative and results in much of the accompanying grain
feed being voided undigested.

HUNGARIAN CLOVER (T'rifolium pannonicum)

487. Hungarian clover is native from northern Italy
to the Caucasus region of Asia Minor. It is a deep-
rooted, long-lived perennial having much the same general
habits as red clover, but the whole herbage is more hairy,
and the white or yellowish flowers are in large ovate heads.

Hungarian clover has been tested at many of the Ameri-
can experiment stations, and in most cases has grown quite
as well as red clover. It is not much cultivated in Europe,
largely on account of the high cost of the seed, and for the
same reason it has been tried only in an experimental
way in America. The seed can rarely be purchased for
less than $1 to $1.25 a pound.

OTHER CLOVERS 411

WHITE CLOVER (T'rifolium repens)

488. Botany. — White clover is also known as Dutch
clover and rarely as white trefoil. It is native throughout
the temperate portion of Europe and Asia, while in Africa
it occurs in the Azores.

Numerous botanical varieties have been named, but
none of these have been of any agricultural importance.
A variety with purple foliage is sometimes cultivated
as an ornamental. The only really distinct agricultural
variety is Ladino clover. Individual plants of white
clover vary greatly so that it would be possible to secure
numerous varieties by selection. Work of this kind has
been undertaken at several places.

489. Description. — White clover is a long-lived but
shallow-rooted perennial. It differs markedly from red
and alsike clover in that the solid stems creep on the sur-
face of the ground and root abundantly. On this account
the growing point is seldom injured by mowing and graz-
ing, and so the growth is not interrupted. When mowed,
the hay consists entirely of leaves and flower stalks. The
leaflets hold on much better in curing than do those of red
clover. Single plants make a dense turf often a foot or
more in diameter.

Hays at the Minnesota Experiment Station found the
tap root after one month to be 45 inches long and with
numerous side roots, and when two months old to be 2
feet long. At this time roots began to be found on the
creeping branches. The tap root is said to die in one or
two years.

Werner calculated the surface area of the leaves from
18 square centimeters, and found it to be 172 square
centimeters.

412 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

490. Agricultural history. — White clover seems to
have been first cultivated in Holland, where it forms an
important element in the pasture lands. The harvesting
of the seed for sowing began about 1759 in Holstein and
in 1764 in England, but was apparently still earlier in
Holland.

Jared Eliot mentions it in Massachusetts in 1747,
and Kalm in his American travels a few years later found
it common. Strickland, who traveled in the United
States in 1794, writes as follows :—

‘‘In every part of America, from New Hampshire to Carolina,
- from the sea to the mountains, the land, whether calcareous or
argillaceous, whether wet or dry, whether worn out or retaining
its original fertility, from the summit of the Alleghany ridge to
the sandy plains of Virginia, is spontaneously covered with white
clover, growing frequently with a luxuriance and perfection
that art can rarely equal in Kurope.

““T am told it is never met with far back in the woods, but
immediately on their being cleared away, either by fire or other-
wise, it: takes possession of the ground; which should prove that
it was natural to it; that the seed les there, but cannot vegetate
till the ground is cleared; but again I have been told, that by
some tribes of Indians it is called ‘white man’s foot grass,’ from
an idea that wherever he has trodden, it grows; which should
prove at least, that it had not been known in the country longer
than the white man.”’

491. Adaptations. — White clover is adapted to moist
soils in nearly the whole temperate zone. In America its
range is quite as wide as that of redtop, occurring north-
ward to the limits of agriculture, and southward nearly
to the Gulf of Mexico. It thrives best in regions of cool,
moist climates. In the South, it persists through the hot
weather of summer and becomes an important element
of the pastures in winter.

OTHER CLOVERS 413

It will grow in any sort of soil, provided moisture is
abundant, but it thrives best in loams and clay loams
rich in humus, and fairly well drained.

Through all the moisture areas in America, it is so well
adapted that it holds its own spontaneously, and in old
pastures gradually becomes more abundant unless the
soil is poor or droughty. From the fact that cattle avoid
the flowers, spontaneous reseeding is continuous.

White clover also grows well in shady places and often
makes up a considerable portion of the ground cover in
orchards.

Phosphatie fertilizers have a marked effect on white
clover and where these are applied, the growth of the clover
is usually greatly stimulated. Potash fertilizers also have
a similar but less marked effect.

492. Importance of white clover. — With the exception
of blue-grass, and possibly Bermuda and redtop, white
clover is the most important perennial pasture plant in
America. It is nearly always an element in blue-grass
pastures, but in the best blue-grass areas it is not abun-
dant. Otherwise it is always an important element of
mixed pastures, and in the cotton region is more impor-
tant than blue-grass.

White clover is said not to be nearly as liable as red
clover to cause bloating, but as it is usually mixed with
grasses, this is rarely apt to occur. Under some condi-
tions it causes horses to “ slobber.”’

Apart from its use as pasture, white clover is very much
used as an element in lawn mixtures.

493. Seeding. — White clover is rarely sown except in
mixtures with other grasses, and after it is once established
usually maintains itself indefinitely. The usual rate of
pure seeding recommended is 9 to 13 pounds to an acre.

414

FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

494. Yields. — White clover is so seldom grown pure
as a hay crop that there are but scant data concerning its

hay-yielding capacity.

Friiwirth compared several strains both of ordinary
and Ladino white clover in Austria in 1904 and 1905,
with the following results, the weights being of the green

clover : —

YIELD TO A

YIELD TO A

TOTAL

STRAIN Hecrare — 1904 | Hecrarr—1905 | Yrewip
Kilograms Kilograms Kgm.
Colossal Ladino (Hohen-
heim Seed) . | 39,239 23020 62,965
4 cuttings 3 cuttings
Colossal Ladino (Hohen-
heim Seed) 43,476 27,442 70,918
4 cuttings 3 cuttings
Colossal Ladino from
Italy 34,447 29,214 63,958
4 cuttings 3 cuttings
Carter’s Common White
Clover 23,098 15,917 30,015
3 cuttings 1 cutting
Carter’s Giant White
Clover yuh ladle OO 15,158 38,627
3 cuttings 1 cutting

Stebler and Volkart report an experiment in Switzer-

land in which white clover from various sources was grown
in small plots. The Ladino clover plots were much in-
jured by winter-killing. The others yielded hay at the
following rates to a hectare in kilograms: English I, 5500 ;
America, 5000; Bohemian I, 4750; Russian I, 4500;
Bohemian II, 4250; Polish, 4000; Galician, 4000;
Russian II, 3700; New Zealand, 3500; English II, 2500.

At the Danish Experiment Station various regional

OTHER CLOVERS 75 hs

strains were grown two years and gave comparative yields
as follows: Danish, 100; Ladino, 94; Holland, 92;
American, 89; Pomeranian, 86; English, 80; Silesian,
70> German, 73.

In England a number of experiments have shown that
if seed gathered from wild white clover plants be sown,
the plants will persist much longer than if seed of the cul-
tivated plants be sown. The cultivated white clover
disappears in one or two years, while the wild white
clover persists much longer — at least three to five years.
The explanation given is that the cultivated white clover
is kes resistant to the rigorous EES and perhaps also
to ‘‘ clover sickness.”’

Werner gives the hay yields to an acre in Germany as
ranging from 1760 to 2640 pounds.

The only American hay yield reported seems to be the
following: Pennsylvania Experiment Station, 4133
pounds to an acre.

495. Pollination. — White clover has long been valued
as a honey plant. If the visits of insects are prevented,
only about one-tenth as much seed is produced, according
to Darwin’s experiments in England.

Beal in Michigan secured only 5 seeds from covered
heads, while 8 uncovered heads contained 236 seeds.

In an experiment by Cook, 10 heads covered to exclude
insects set no seeds, while 10 heads in the open produced
541 seeds.

496. Seed-production. — Commercial seed of white clo-
ver is grown mainly in Europe (Bohemia, Poland, Russia,
Germany, Holland, England), but some is produced in
New Zealand. In America seed is produced in Ontario,
Michigan, Wisconsin and western Washington. Ladino
white clover seed comes wholly from Italy.

416 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The yield of seed to an acre in Europe seems to vary
greatly. Werner gives it as 260 to 520 pounds; Schwerz,
as 350 pounds; Sprengel, as 70 to 880 pounds; Krafft,
130 to 440 pounds.

Werner gives the average yield of straw as about 1000
pounds to an acre. |

When white clover is tall enough, it may be cut with
a mower, preferably with a buncher attachment. If
short, a light iron pan or a canvas is attached behind the
mower and the cut clover removed by a helper with a
pitch fork.

497. Seed. — White clover seed is very similar to that
of alsike, but is slightly smaller and pale yellow, pinkish
or pale brown in color. It is seldom adulterated except
with old seeds.

The purity should reach 98 per cent and the viability
99 per cent. Good seeds germinate in 2 to6days. The
seed retains its viability well for two years and then
eradually deteriorates. It may contain any of the ordi-
nary weed seeds as impurities. |

A bushel weighs 60 to 63 pounds. One pound contains
732,000 to 800,000 seeds.

498. Ladino white clover.— This variety grows to
about twice the size of ordinary white clover. In recent
years various seedsmen have advertised it as Giant,
Mammoth or Colossal White Clover. Botanically this
variety has been called Trifolium repens latum by Mc-
Carthy.

Ladino clover is abundantly cultivated on irrigated
lands in Lombardy and derives its name from Lodi, where
it was probably first developed. In the subalpine Italian
valleys it is cut four to five times, and under these condi-
tions outyields alfalfa. It is grown only on heavy lands

OTHER CLOVERS 417

and is irrigated about every twelve days. According
to Friiwirth the annual yield of hay in Italy is 7000 to

10,500 pounds to an acre. It is
usually sown with wheat, and the
fields are maintained from 2 to 7
years.

This variety is considerably
less cold-resistant than ordinary
white clover, and was badly in-
jured by winter cold in Swiss
trials when ordinary white clover
was uninjured.

SWEET CLOVER (Melilotus alba)

499. Botany and description.
— Sweet clover (Fig. 46) is also
known by many other names,
among them Bokhara clover,
melilot, white melilot, sweet
melilot, Siberian melilot, bee
clover, honey clover and galy-
gumber. In the South it is now
commonly called melilotus. It is
native to temperate Europe and
Asia as far east as Tibet, but is
now spread over much of the
United States and Canada, and
also in the south temperate zone

Fia. 46.— Sweet clover.

of both hemispheres. Several varieties have been de-

scribed by botanists.

Sweet clover is biennial in duration. The seedlings
appear in early spring under natural conditions and grow

2E

418 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

rather slowly the first season, but by fall have reached a
height of 3 to 4 feet, and a few of the plants will bloom, at
least inthe South. By this time the root is large and fleshy
and may extend to a depth of 6 feet. The second season’s
growth begins quite early, two weeks before that of alfalfa,
which at first it closely resembles. The stems reach a
height of 6 to 12 feet, and bear numerous white, sweet-
scented flowers in narrow, erect racemes. ‘The mature pods
are reticulated and each bears a single seed. About the
time the pods are well formed, the leaves begin to drop off.

Every part of the plant contains a bitter-tasting sub-
stance called cumarin, but which has a sweet, vanilla-like
odor. The young shoots contain but little cumarin, and
so are quite readily eaten by sheep and cattle, but the older
stems and leaves are decidedly better. About the time
sweet clover comes into bloom the stems rapidly become
woody. After fruiting the plants die.

Individual plants vary in their content of cumarin
as well as in other characteristics, and some attempts
have been made to improve the plant by selection, and
particularly to secure a non-bitter variety.

500. Adaptations. —So far as climate is concerned,
sweet clover is adapted to southern Canada and practi-
cally the whole of the United States, thriving equally well
in semi-arid and in humid regions.

Its soil relations are likewise very wide, as sweet clover
will grow in practically all types from cemented clays and
gravels to poor sand. It thrives best, however, on soils
containing an abundance of lime. Sweet clover, on
account of its deep root system, is able to withstand
drought nearly as well as alfalfa. On the other hand, it
can endure wet or poorly drained soils better than either
red clover or alfalfa.

OTHER CLOVERS 419

On account of its wide adaptations to both soils and
climate, sweet clover is valuable to use in places where
neither red clover nor alfalfa gives satisfactory results.

501. Agricultural history. — Sweet clover was probably
first cultivated in western Asia in the same general region
where alfalfa and red clover were first used in agriculture,
but neither in Asia nor Europe has the culture of the plant
ever been of much importance. It was introduced into
North America at least as early as 1739, when it was
found by Clayton in Virginia. It was recorded from New
England in 1785. For 20 years or more it has been
utilized on the black calcareous soils of Mississippi and
Alabama, where it grows luxuriantly. In more recent
times it has been grown in many other states.

It is a very aggressive plant, spreading along roads
and railways and in irrigated sections along the ditches.
Its spread has also been greatly increased by the habit of
bee keepers of scattering seed in waste places so as to
provide pasturage for bees.

On account of its tendency to spread, sweet clover
has at times been feared as a weed, but it rarely causes
any trouble in cultivated land.

502. Seeding. — Seeding may be done either by broad-
casting or with a drill. Much of the seed is “ hard ”’ and
does not germinate the first season. According to its
viability, from 20 to 30 pounds of hulled seed should be
used to an acre if broadcasted, or somewhat more if the
seed is unhulled. Werner says the usual rate in Germany
is 26 pounds, if broadcasted, and half this amount when
drilled.

503. Securing a stand. — On account of the way sweet
clover spreads as a weed in waste ground, it has commonly
been supposed that it would be exceedingly easy to obtain

420 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

a stand on cultivated land. Numerous failures, however,
show that this is not the case. Westgate’s investigations
have led to the conclusion that the main requirement is
a thoroughly firmed seed bed. Another factor of impor-
tance is inoculation, as sweet clover seems just as likely
as alfalfa to fail where the proper nodule organisms are
absent.

Under natural conditions the pods of sweet clover fall
on the ground in late summer and germinate in early
spring, most of them remaining on the surface or being
very shallowly embedded in the soil. On cultivated land
good stands may be secured either by sowing in early fall
or in spring.

Fall seeding has the disadvantage that the root growth
made the first season is not very large and consequently
the plants the second season are not so vigorous. Further-
more, the crop lasts but one growing season and not two,
as is the case in spring planting. Fall planting in rye is
the common method in Germany according to Werner,
but in this case the crop is used mainly as green manure
and plowed under after one season. This method has also
been used occasionally with success in America, but sweet
clover is nearly as apt to winter-kill if thus sown as is red
clover. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, sweet clover was
sown at various dates but the best results were secured
when sown in May and in October.

On the whole, spring seeding is to be preferred and this
has generally proved satisfactory.

Lloyd thinks the best method for Ohio and Kentucky is
to sow from January to March either on wheat or on bare
ground, the former being the common practice in Ken-
tucky. In gullies the best method is to scatter sweet
clover straw or ripe plants with the pods still attached.

OTHER CLOVERS A:

504. Relative proportions of tops and roots of sweet
clover. — Hopkins at the Illinois Experiment Station
determined the total yield of tops and roots to a depth of
20 inches, when the plants were nearly mature, to be
respectively 10,367 and 2410 pounds dry matter to an
acre. 1809 pounds of the roots were in the first seven
inches of soil and 601 pounds between 7 and 20 inches
in depth. The tops contained 197 pounds of nitrogen
and the roots 31 pounds.

505. Utilization. — Sweet clover may be utilized either
as pasturage, hay or green manure, and has been used
both for soiling and for silage.

While the herbage is bitter, it is much less so in early
spring and most animals can be taught at this time to
eat the plant. It may be thus used for all classes of farm
animals, but is probably best for hogs and cattle. An
acre of sweet clover will furnish pasturage through the
season for about 20 young hogs, which apparently thrive
quite as well as those on alfalfa or red clover. At the
Iowa Experiment Station pigs made an average daily
gain of 1.02 pounds on sweet clover as against 1.13 pounds
on red clover pasturage. In pasturing cattle care must
be taken to avoid bloating.

The use of sweet clover as a soiling crop is uncommon,
but hogs eat it readily when thus fed. At the Ontario
Experiment Station a yield of over 30 tons green matter
to the acre was obtained.

Sweet clover is mostly used as hay and should be cut
just as the first blossoms appear, or a little before, as the
stems thereafter rapidly become woody. In curing, much
of the cumarin volatilizes so that the hay loses much of
its bitter taste.

Tf spring sown it is usually best to utilize sweet clover

AQ? FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

by pasturing the first season, or a crop of hay may be cut.
The second season it is best cut for hay or for seed, or both.
Too close cutting with the mower is harmful, as new shoots
appear only from the stems and not from the crown as in
alfalfa.

Sweet clover is slightly more succulent than alfalfa and
therefore a little more difficult to cure without undue loss
of leaves. To avoid this the hay should be handled as
little as possible, curing as much as possible in the windrows
and then in small shocks.

Lloyd states that it has been utilized as silage by Ohio
farmers, and thus fed to sheep and cattle with good results.

506. Advantages and disadvantages. — The chief disad-
vantages of sweet clover are :—

1. The cumarin content of the herbage, which makes
animals avoid it until they have acquired a taste for its
bitterness. On the other hand, this is said by some to
be an advantage, as animals when first put in a pasture
will not eat enough to cause bloating. 2. The rapidity
with which the stems become woody, and the difficulty of
curing.

On the other hand, sweet clover will thrive on soils
where neither red clover nor alfalfa will succeed, and there
can be little doubt that it will become much more utilized,
especially for pasturage on poor sandy soils.

507. Yield. — Comparatively few data on the yields
of sweet clover have been reported. In the North two
cuttings may be secured the second year, both of hay or
one of seed, while in the South three hay cuttings or two
of hay and one of seed may be harvested. Tracy says that
the three cuttings in the South will each average 1 to 2
tons an acre. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Substa-
tion the first season’s spring-sown crop was at the rate of

OTHER CLOVERS 423

5056 pounds of hay to an acre, and in the second season
three cuttings gave 6320 pounds to an acre. On another
plot the results were respectively 6672 and 7048 pounds
to an acre.

At the Massachusetts Experiment Station, a plot
seeded May 8 yielded September 9 at the rate of 2700
pounds of hay an acre. The next season it was cut on
June 24 and September 22, yielding respectively 2727 and
1000 pounds an acre.

At the Utah Experiment Station a yield of 7700 pounds
of hay an acre was obtained. At the Wyoming Experiment
Station yields of 8960 pounds and 7500 pounds of hay to
an acre were secured. At the Ontario Experimental Farm
a yield of 61,300 pounds green matter an acre is recorded.

508. Seed-production. — Seed of sweet clover is pro-
duced both in Europe and in the United States. Euro-
pean commercial seed is always hulled. American seed
is always in the hull and is produced in the South and in
Kansas. On account of the limited demand until now the
methods of seed-production have not been especially
developed. The best yields of seed come from thin
stands that have not been cut for hay, but satisfactory
yields may be obtained from fields that have previously
produced one cutting, or in the South two cuttings of
hay. To avoid shattering the hard stems should be cut
when damp, and cured in small shocks; or it may be cut
with a binder. The time to cut is when about three-
fourths of the pods have turned dark. In western Kan-
sas it is sometimes harvested with a header and cured
in medium-sized shocks. In the South the seed pods
are usually removed: by flailing, but in the West grain
thrashers are now used. The yields in Kansas are said
to be from 2 to 8 bushels to an acre.

494 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

509. Seed. — The seeds of sweet clover (Fig. 47) are
yellowish brown, much like those of alfalfa, but the sur-
face is duller and slightly uneven. By crushing, the
vanilla-like odor of cumarin is evident, at once distin-
guishing it from all
similar seeds except
other species of Melilo-
tus. Commercial seed
usually has a high de-
eree of purity and
should approximate
100 per cent. The
germination, however,

Fic. 47.—Seeds of sweet clover. a, 18 Very variable on ac-
seeds showing variation in form and size; count of ‘‘ hard”’ seed.

b, natural size of seeds; c, a pod of sweet
clover. In 22 southern-grown

samples, the average
proportion of hard seed was 60 per cent, and in an equal
number of northern-grown samples, 43 per cent. Im-
ported seed showed but 12 per cent hard seeds in 28
samples. The probable explanation of the better quality
of the European seed is that most of it was one year old
or more. The seed is reported to have remained alive in
some cases for 77 years. According to Werner, one pound
contains 235,000 seeds.

510. Related species. — Various other species of Meli-
lotus have been more or less utilized agriculturally, includ-
ing M. officinalis, M. indica, M. altissima, M. gracilis,
M. speciosa and M. cerulea. The first two are abundantly
and the third sparingly introduced into America. The
last is really a species belonging to T'rigonella.

Melilotus officinalis, official melilot, is a biennial yellow-
flowered species. It is about two weeks earlier than

OTHER CLOVERS IAS

Bokhara clover, much less leafy and smaller in size, grow-
ing but 3 to 7 feet tall. It has spread over much the same
territory as Bokhara clover. In New Jersey, it is becom-
ing the dominant species. Some commercial seed is grown
in Kentucky. It is from this species that cumarin was
secured for medicinal use in olden times.

Melilotus indica (Melilotus parviflora), the “ sour
clover’ of California and Arizona, is an annual species
with small yellow flowers. It is called King Island melilot
from the fact that it was introduced on King Island near
Tasmania about 1906 and rapidly spread over the sandy
lands of this island, resulting in the establishment of a
great dairy industry.

In the United States, it is most common in the South,
being abundant about Charleston, New Orleans and in
southern California. In the citrus regions of California,
it has been used in recent years as an orchard green
manure crop, and commercial seed is now produced in that
state.

CHAPTER XVIII

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS

THE annual clovers and clover-like plants are much less
important agriculturally than the perennials. They are
variously used as hay, pasture and green manure crops.
Their greatest use is as winter cover crops.

CRIMSON CLOVER (T'rifolium incarnatum)

Fic. 48.— Crimson clover.

511. Botany. — Crimson clo-
ver (Fig. 48) is also known from
the color of its flowers as scarlet,
carnation and incarnate clover ;
also from its reputed origin as
German, Italian and French
clover.

The plant is native to south-
ern Europe, occurring as far
north as England. The wild
plant (variety Molinerit) has
yellow-white flowers, except one
form in which they are rose-
colored. The cultivated plant
is taller, more vigorous and less
hairy than the wild.

512. Agricultural history. —
Crimson clover was probably
first cultivated in southern

France and adjacent Switzer-
426

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 427

land. It was cultivated in Germany as early as 1796.
At the present time it is grown in France, Switzer-
land, northern Italy, Austria, the wine districts of Ger-
many and in southern England. ‘The earliest established
record of its culture in the United States is 1818, when
it was introduced by Bedingfield Hands of Chestertown,
Pennsylvania, and distributed among his friends. It was
widely distributed by the United States Patent Office
in 1855, but its culture did not assume much importance
till about 1880.

513. Description. — Crimson clover is an annual plant,
reaching under favorable conditions a height of three feet.
The root system penetrates at least as deep, as plants
sown at the North Dakota Experiment Station in spring
were found to have roots three feet deep by August 22.
At the Delaware Experiment Station the tops and roots
on an acre were determined to contain respectively 5372
and 413 pounds of dry matter. The stems are spreading
or ascending where the plants are isolated, but more
nearly erect where they are crowded. When sown in fall,
the young plants are apt to be single stemmed. Well-
grown plants from fall-sown seed may have as many as
20 stems and 50 or more flower spikes. The flower clus-
ters are dense cylindric or slightly tapering spikes, 14
to 2 inches long, the flowers usually brilliant crimson, but
rarely white, yellowish, rose or variegated.

514. Adaptations. — Crimson clover is normally a
winter annual and is, therefore, primarily adapted to
regions where the average minimum temperature is not
fatal. In Germany Werner thinks this temperature is
about 4° below zero Fahrenheit. By selective elimina-
tion, however, hardier strains can undoubtedly be secured,
as J. H. Hale grew for a period of years in Connecticut

428 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

a strain that he had thus selected. Ordinary crimson
clover, however, usually winter-kills in the states north
of New Jersey and west of the Alleghany Mountains.

Crimson clover has been successfully grown in Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee, but the prevailing
dry autumns in these states make it difficult to secure a
catch. In the moister region near the Gulf of Mexico, it
succeeds well, but is little used.

In Oregon, Washington and British Columbia west of
the Cascade Mountains, the conditions are also very favor-
able to crimson clover, but it has never been much used.

For fall sowing the important requisites are a mild winter
climate and comparatively frequent rainfalls in late sum-
mer and early fall so that the plants can get well started.

As a spring-sown crop, crimson clover has succeeded
in Michigan and North Dakota, but it is doubtful if it
can compete with red and alsike clover used in this manner.

Crimson clover shows no very marked soil preferences,
succeeding both on sandy and clayey soils, whether cal-
careous or not, so long as they are well drained. It does
not succeed well on poor sandy soils and demands a good
humus content for its best development. On muck soils
it is said not to succeed well.

Crimson clover is well adapted to withstand shade,
and so is often sown in orchards and with other crops.

Crimson clover apparently never has been troubled in
America by ‘ clover sickness,” jt having been sown on
some farms continuously for at least ten years. Werner
writes that in Germany it should not be again sown on the
same ground until four to six years have elapsed.

515. Importance. — Crimson clover is grown in the
United States mainly in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland
and Virginia, but its culture is increasing in the Carolinas.

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 429

In these states it is well adapted both to the sandy soils
of the coastal area and the clayey soils of the Piedmont.
Elsewhere in the United States it is but little grown.
In the states above mentioned, the total area planted in
1909 was about 50,000 acres, basing this on the assump-
tion that crimson clover was } of the “‘ clover ”’ acreage
in Delaware; 4 in New Jersey, + in Maryland, } in Vir-
ginia and 3 in North Carolina.

516. Variability and agricultural varieties. — Crimson
clover is conspicuously variable in two respects; namely,
the color of the corolla and the life period. In a single
field of crimson clover, plants may be found with white,
rose, crimson and variegated crimson and white flowers.
As crimson clover is mainly self-pollinated, such varieties
are easily selected and established.

At the present time European seedsmen offer five
varieties; namely, extra early, ordinary, late and extra
late crimson-flowered and late white-flowered.

517. Seeding. — The rate of seeding varies from 12
to 20 pounds to an acre, 15 pounds being the usual rate.
One pound contains about 120,000 seeds, so that at the
ordinary rate 45 seeds to the square foot are sown. In
Europe the rate of seeding seems to be much higher, as
Werner recommends 22 to 40 pounds if broadeasted, and
18 to 26 pounds if drilled.

Crimson clover is sown either by broadcasting or by
drilling. Shallow seeding seems to be most satisfactory,
but no critical experiments have been recorded. One
inch depth in sandy soil and one-half inch in clay soils is
probably a good general rule.

Home-grown seed in the hull is often sown by farmers,
and the belief prevails that such seed is more likely to give
a good stand than the hulled seed.

430 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

518. Time of sowing. — In the latitude of Maryland,
crimson clover may be sown any time from midsummer
until October. Midsummer sowings are apt to be injured
by heat, and late sowings to be winter-killed. So far as
temperature is concerned, the best time is probably late
summer, which will permit about ten weeks’ growth before
the first frost. Ample moisture at the time of seeding
and while the plants are young is quite as important as
the temperature relations, and lack of timely rains results
in more failures to secure stands than any other one
cause. A common saying among farmers is that ‘‘ crimson
clover should be sown between showers.”

In the Northern States and Canada, crimson clover
may be sown in spring. Spring sowing is used to some
extent in Europe and may be practicable for some pur-
poses in America. A nurse-crop cannot be used with
spring sowings, however, as the clover grows too rapidly.

519. Methods of sowing. — Crimson clover is sown in
many different ways, whether grown primarily for hay,
pasture or green manure. The principal methods are
sowing alone; sowing in an intertilled crop; and sowing
mixed with a small grain — wheat, rye, barley or winter
oats for hay.

More crimson clover is probably sown in cultivated
rows of corn than in any other way. This is commonly
done by broadcasting at the time of the last cultivation
of corn in Maryland, but farther south later sowing is
more desirable to avoid injury to the crimson clover by
hot summer weather. The clover matures early enough
the next season so that the hay crop can be removed in
time to plant corn again; south of central Delaware the
crimson clover may be harvested for seed and still leave
time to grow a crop of corn.

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 481

In North Carolina successful stands of crimson clover
have been secured by sowing in cotton in August, but it
is difficult to cover the seeds without injuring the opened
cotton. Among other intertilled crops in which crimson
clover may be sown are soybeans, tobacco, cantaloupes
and all vegetables except root crops, as the digging of these
necessarily destroys much of the clover.

Crimson clover is most often sown alone, whether in-
tended for use as green manure, hay or seed-production.
In recent years it has been much grown in mixtures with
wheat, oats, rye or barley. Sometimes only a small
amount of the grain crop is added so as to prevent the
clover from lodging, but more often a half seeding of the
grain is used, and the resulting hay crop is much larger
than that of clover alone. The common rate of seeding in
such a mixture is 15 pounds of the clover seed and 30
pounds of the grain seed to the acre.

Crimson clover may be sown with buckwheat, in
midsummer or even later, provided there is time for the
buckwheat to mature before frost. The buckwheat must
be seeded lightly, otherwise the clover may be destroyed
by the dense shade. In place of buckwheat, cowpeas
may be used, and either cut for hay before frost or allowed
to remain on the ground.

520. Time to cut for hay. — Crimson clover should
preferably be cut for hay just as soon as the lower flowers
on the most advanced heads have faded. If cutting be
delayed beyond this, the hairs on the calyx and elsewhere
become hard and stiff, so that if the hay be fed to horses,
the hairs are likely to form compact “ hair-balls ”’ in the
intestines, which nearly always result in death. The
danger is generally believed to be much lessened by feeding
crimson clover mixed with other roughage, or by wetting

A, FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the clover hay about 12 hours before feeding so that the
hairs become soft. Such hair-balls rarely, if ever, form
in cattle and sheep, so that late cut hay may be safely
utilized as feed for such animals. If cut before bloom, the
yield is much less and the curing more difficult.

521. Yields. — The yield of hay from crimson clover
where the stand is good ranges from 1500 to 6000 pounds
an acre, probably averaging about 2500 pounds.

Yields reported by experiment stations are as follows
in pounds to an acre: Pennsylvania, 2154 to 5121; New
Jersey, 2460 to 4600; South Carolina, 3600; Florida,
about 4000; Alabama, 4057; Arizona, 145 to 570;
Oregon, 13,340; Vermont, spring-sown, 4550; Michigan,
spring-sown, 4400.

Mixtures usually yield more heavily. Thus, at the
Alabama Experiment Station the following results were
secured : —

Crimson clover seeded alone « es « « «9 «- 2oa0alio#
Crimson clover seeded in mixture : —
Barley and crimson clover... . . . . S8695]b.
Wheat and erimson clover ..... . . 8771 |b.
Oats and crimson clover .... . . . . 4228 Ib.

522. Other uses of crimson clover. — Besides being
used as a hay crop, crimson clover is extensively used for
pasturage, to a slight extent for soiling and very much
as a soil improver both in orchards and elsewhere.

Crimson clover will furnish a small amount of pasturage
in fall, especially for hogs and calves. In the spring it
comes on earlier than other clovers, and under the most
favorable conditions may be grazed for a period of eight
weeks. The usual precautions must be taken to avoid
bloating.

Crimson clover may also be utilized as soiling, and will

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 433

furnish succulent green feed for a period of 2 to 5 weeks,
especially if both early and late varieties be used.

As a green manure or cover crop, crimson clover is
especially valuable because of the early date at which it
can be plowed under, thus permitting corn and other crops
to be planted in time.

Only two other legumes can be used in the same way and
for the same purpose as crimson clover, — yellow trefoil
and hairy vetch. Trefoil does not produce nearly so
much herbage; while hairy vetch does not mature as
early in spring, and the cost of seeding is considerably
higher.

523. Seed-production. — Crimson clover is harvested
for seed as soon as perfectly ripe. As the seeds shatter
easily, it is best to mow early in the morning or when
slightly moist, using either a mowing machine or a self-
rake reaper. In drying, care is necessary to avoid loss by
shattering, and to this end it is usually cured in small
bunches. If the clover becomes wet from rain, the seed
will sprout promptly, and this may be a source of serious
loss. The unhulled seed may be secured by thrashing or
by flailing.

To harvest seed for home use, there has long been used
a device consisting essentially of a platform or box on the
front of which is a comb, that may be raised or lowered,
the whole mounted on wheels. This device is used when
the seeds are ripe and dry. The most efficient of these
combs is said to secure about 90 per cent of the seed.

The yield is said to average about 6 bushels to an acre.
In Europe the yields are given as 250 to 450 pounds to an
acre.

524. Seed. — Seed of crimson clover (Fig. 49) is larger

and more rounded than most other clovers. Fresh seed
2F

434 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

is shiny and somewhat pinkish in color. Old seed be-
comes dull and brownish. Rarely it may be adulterated
with red clover screenings, and
sometimes there is considerable
trefoil present.

Good, fresh commercial seed
should be 99 per cent pure and
have a viability of 98-99 per cent.

Fic.49.—Seedsoferim- It loses its viability -rapidivemee
son clover (enlarged and that seed two years old is worth-
natural size). .

less. There is never much hard
seed, and all the good seed should germinate in 2 to 6
days.

Troublesome weed seeds that may be present as impuri-
ties are Canada thistle, wild carrot, yellow dock, buck-
horn and oxeye-daisy.

The legal weight of a bushel is 60 pounds, but it may
weigh up to 63 pounds. One pound contains 118,000 to
150,000 seeds.

SHAFTAL OR SCHABDAR (T'refoliwm suaveolens)

525. Shaftal or Persian clover is an annual, native to
central Asia. It is characterized by hollow stems, which
lodge easily ; smooth herbage; small heads of pink, very
fragrant flowers; and pods inclosed in a much swollen
calyx.

This clover is cultivated under irrigation in Persia and
northwest India for forage. In Europe it has been cul-
tivated many years as an ornamental. Seeds of it some-
times occur as an impurity in crimson clover seed from
France, and thus occasional plants may be found in crim-
son clover fields. Commercial seed in small quantities
can be obtained in Persia.

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 48:

While shaftal withstands the winter in Maryland when
fall sown, its lodging habit makes it less desirable than
crimson clover. It has given excellent results under
irrigation in Arizona as a winter crop.

BERSEEM (Trifolium alexandrinum)

526. Berseem is an annual white-flowered clover, much
cultivated in the valley of the Nile in lower Egypt, where
about 1,500,000 acres are grown as a winter annual under
irrigation. It is probably native to this region, but the
species is not known in a wild state. There are three
varieties grown: the Fachl, cut but once; the Saidi, cut
twice; and the Muscowi, cut as many as four times.

It was introduced into the United States in 1900 and
widely tested. As it is destroyed when the temperature
falls to about 18° F., it can be grown in most of the United
States only as a summer annual. For that purpose it
cannot compete with other clovers — especially red and
alsike — as it does not yield as well and must be planted
each season.

In the extreme southern portions of the United States,
from California to Texas, berseem succeeds well enough
under irrigation, but cannot compete with alfalfa. As a
winter crop to grow in short rotations, it may eventually
be utilized in this region.

The seed of berseem is cheap, but is likely to contain
wild mustard seed as an impurity.

YELLOW TREFOIL (Medicago lupulina)

527. Yellow trefoil is also known as black medick and
nonesuch, and rarely as hop clover, the last term being
more properly applied to yellow-flowered clovers. Yel-

436 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

low trefoil has become rather notorious from the fact
that its seed (Fig. 50) has been much used to adulterate
alfalfa seed, but nevertheless the plant has some merit as
a forage crop. It is native to Europe and Asia, but has
become thoroughly es-
tablished from Ontario
3 to the Gulf of Mexico,
(f@\ and is also common on
the Pacific Coast. Its
wide naturalization in-
dicates its wide adapta-
tion.

Fig. 50%

Seeds of yellow trefoil. a, ; , ;
seeds showing variation in form and size; Of its wide value in

b, natural size of seeds; c, oval form of
trefoil seeds indicated ; d, a pod of trefoil.

Europe Stebler and
Schroter write: “ Al-
though neither very productive nor persistent, still on
many soils where red clover is not successful this plant
becomes valuable because its fodder is so nutritive. It is
especially valuable in pastures. Because of the diffuse
stems and their spreading habit, yellow trefoil is usually
sown in mixtures with clovers and grasses, and thus forms
excellent pasturage. As the plant itself only lasts for
one or two years, it ought to be used in lays of short dura-
tion. In mixtures on warm and favorable soils, it reaches
maturity and propagates by sowing its own seeds.”

The plant is normally an annual, but with perennating
forms. Its small size is the principal objection to its
culture, but where it once becomes established, it makes
a valuable addition to pastures, even on very poor soils.
Planted thickly in late summer or early fall, the plants
will make a dense mass of herbage 10 to 16 inches deep
by the following May or June. In this way it has much
the same use as crimson clover, but it will withstand much

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 487

greater cold, more even than red clover. Mixtures with
crimson clover are very satisfactory, but probably do not
increase the total yield. Under like conditions, yellow
trefoil will probably not yield more than three-fourths
as much as crimson clover, but with its wider range of
adaptation and cheap seed should fill a niche in American
agriculture. Difficulty in establishing trefoil may be ex-
pected until the ground has become inoculated for it.

Werner gives the average seed yield as 440 to 700
pounds an acre. The commercial supply has been scarce
in recent years, perhaps because the practice of using it
as an adulterant of alfalfa has greatly diminished.

BUR CLOVERS (Medicago spp.)

528. Bur clovers. — There are about 40 species of these
plants native to the countries about the Mediterranean Sea.
Most of these, probably all, are annuals, springing up in
the fall, and maturing in early summer. They are all
procumbent or prostrate plants when growing isolated,
but if planted thickly, make a mass of herbage 8 to 18
inches deep. The species are distinguished largely by
the burs or pods, which show a wide variation in size and
form.

In America two species have thus far become used in
agriculture; namely, the toothed bur clover (Medicago
hispida) and the spotted bur clover (Medicago arabica),
the former especially in California, the latter mainly in
the Southern States.

Among the other species that are likely to become of
importance are button clover (Medicago orbicularis) and
snail clover (Medicago scutellata), both with large smooth
pods.

Toothed bur clover. — 'Toothed bur clover is also known

438 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

as California bur clover, as it is especially abundant in
that state. It was early introduced into California, where
it has become widespread and proven valuable for pastur-
age both on cultivated and on range lands. The same
species is also abundant in Argentina, Chile and Australia.
The burs get caught in the fleece of sheep, and in recent
years seed has been saved and cleaned in Europe from
the rubbish taken out of wool.

While toothed bur clover is most abundant in Califor-
nia, it also occurs in Washington and Oregon, and to some
extent in the Southern States. In the latter region it is
not as well adapted as spotted bur clover, and instances
are known where the toothed bur clover was winter-killed
when the spotted was uninjured.

Toothed bur clover can hardly be called a cultivated
crop, but where it persists it furnishes a large amount of
pasturage, both on cultivated and on uncultivated land.
Even after the burs are ripe and dry they are eaten eagerly
by sheep. <A considerable amount of bur clover seed is
harvested incidentally with wheat in California, and from
this source all of the American-grown seed is obtained.

There are several varieties of toothed bur clover, differ-
ing in the character of the fruits, two of them having spine-
less burs; namely, confinis with 3 coils, and reticulata
with 5 coils to the pod.

Spotted bur clover. — Spotted bur clover differs from
toothed bur clover in having a dark purple spot on each
leaflet, and in the pods being beset with longer and softer
bristles and the edges of the coils furrowed. A spineless
variety, wnermis, is also known.

Spotted bur clover is less abundant in California and
more plentiful in the Southern States than toothed bur
clover. This may be partly incidental to earlier introduc-

CRIMSON CLOVER AND OTHER ANNUALS 439

tion, but apparently spotted bur clover is better adapted
to the conditions in the Southern States. It is quite
certain that it is more resistant to winter cold, withstand-
ing a temperature of about 15° F. without injury. Its
area of usefulness extends from North Carolina to Arkansas
and southward, both on sandy and clayey soils.

Bur clover may be sown any time from August to Novem-
ber. If the seed is hulled, it should be sown at the rate of
15 pounds an acre and harrowed in lightly. In the bur
the seed weighs 10 pounds to the bushel, and two bushels
should be sown to the acre, harrowing or brushing it in
lightly. When sown in the bur, the resultant plants are
nearly always abundantly noduled, but this is seldom the
case when hulled seed is planted in new ground. Bur
clover reseeds itself readily, even if the ground is plowed in
late May or June for asummer crop, but it is never trouble-
some as a weed. Its use for winter pasturage in the South
is Increasing.

Commercial seed of spotted bur clover occurs as yet
only in the bur and often contains much straw and other
trash. The seeds are raked up from the ground after the
plants have become thoroughly dry so that the pods readily
detach.

DAKOTA VETCH ( Hosackia americana or Lotus americanus)

529. Dakota vetch is a close relative of bird’s-foot
trefoil and has been called prairie bird’s-foot trefoil. It
is native to the western United States from Minnesota
and Arkansas west to the Pacific. It is especially abun-
dant in the Pacific States. The plant is a slender-stemmed,
loosely branched annual, growing 12 to 24 inches high;
leaves trifoliolate; flowers small, yellow and red; pods
linear, pendent.

440 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Dakota vetch has long been recognized by cattlemen as
an excellent native forage plant and on this account was
recommended for cultivation by the South Dakota Experi-
ment Station in 1894. The plant and yield is so small,
however, that the returns do not warrant its culture. A
large percentage of the seed — at least of the California
form — is hard and does not germinate.

CHAPTER XIX

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS

PEAS are grown more extensively for the seed than for
the herbage. In mixed cultures, however, especially with
oats, peas make an excellent quality of hay. The seeds
are valuable both for human food and as feed for
domestic animals. In contrast with the various kinds of
beans, peas never cause digestive disturbances.

PEA (Pisum sativum)

530. Botany and history of the pea.— The pea is
native to the Mediterranean region of southern Europe
and north Africa, extending eastward to the Himalayas.
Its culture is in all probability very ancient, seeds having
been found in the remains of the lake dwellings in Switzer-
land. De Candolle, who considers the field pea distinct
from the garden pea, inclines to the belief that the culture
of the former is not ancient.

It is customary to distinguish agriculturally between
the garden pea (Piswm hortense) and the field or Can-
ada pea (Pisum arvense), but whatever distinguishing
characteristics are used, there are all possible intergrades
in the long series of cultivated varieties. In general the
term field pea is restricted to those having somewhat angled,
brown to black or marbled or speckled seeds, and colored

flowers; garden pea, to those having white flowers and
441

442 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

round yellow seeds. But several varieties are used both
for vegetables and for forage.

A third group of varieties, the sugar peas (variety
saccharatum), 1s distinguished by having broad, flat, tender
pods, which are used
as a vegetable after
the manner of snap
beans. Most of these
have the pods green,
but in one variety
they are yellow.

531. Description.
— The pea (Fig. 51)
is an annual plant
with hollow stems
varying in length
from 13% to 10 feet,
according to variety
and conditions. The
entire herbage is pale
and glaucous. The
stems are weak, usu-
ally decumbent at
base and much in-
clined to lodge. The

Fic. 51.— Field pea. leaves are pinnate

with 1 to 3 pairs of

leaflets and one or more pairs of tendrils besides the tip of

the rachis, by which the plant clings to supports. The

stout, axillary peduncles each bear 1 to 3 flowers. The
pods are green or rarely yellow.

The root system is rather shallow, not exceeding three
feet, but nevertheless the pea is fairly resistant to drought.

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 443

532. Adaptations. — Field peas are adapted only to
moderate temperatures; and while they will withstand
heavy frosts, they quickly succumb to high temperatures,
especially if combined with humidity. As their period
of growth is short, —60 to 100 days for hay, 80 to 120 days
for seed, — they may be grown as summer crops in the
North, winter crops in regions where the temperature
rarely falls below freezing and spring or fall crops in
intermediate areas. The non-adaptation of field peas to
heat is frequently seen as far north as Maryland, where
the crop is often severely injured by hot weather in May.
Their preference for a cool growing season has led to their
being much more extensively grown in Canada than in the
United States.

Field peas are not particular in regard to humidity,
thriving well both in humid and in semi-arid regions, but
they succeed best in regions of moderate rainfall.

They do best on loams or clay loams, but will succeed
on most soil types, if well drained. Like the majority
of leguminous plants, they prefer an abundance of lime in
the soil.

533. Importance. — Field peas are more important in
Ontario, Michigan and Wisconsin than in any other
states or provinces. ‘To some extent they are grown in
most of the northern tier of states in the Union and in
all the southern provinces of Canada. In 1909, there
were in Ontario, 258, 461 acres; in Michigan, 94,932 acres ;
and in Wisconsin, 78,017 acres.

534. Agricultural varieties.— The varieties of field
peas are very numerous, probably numbering over 100
and not including any of the more numerous sorts of
garden peas.

Varieties differ in such characters as degree of earliness,

444 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

height, color of flowers, size of pods and especially in the
size, Shape and color of the seeds. The seeds may be
either globose or more or less shrunken and angular. The
angular form is due to a higher sugar content and conse-
quent greater shrinkage in drying. The color of the seeds
when of a single tint may be yellow, pea-green, brown or
black. Yellow or green seeds may be marbled with brown,
or speckled with blue-black or brown or both marbled and
speckled. The embryos are yellow in yellow seeds, and
green in green seeds.

The earliest varieties will mature seed in 73 days in
Canada, while the very late ones require 109 days.

Among the better known varieties are the following :—

Arthur. — This variety has round yellow seeds of
medium size. It is an early, productive variety which
originated at Ottawa, Canada. It is now one of the
most important varieties in Canada.

Golden Vine. — The Golden Vine, also called the French
June, is perhaps the most widely grown variety of field
pea in the United States. It is a medium-early pea, hav-
ing a white blossom and small round cream-colored seeds,
and makes good yields of both forage and seed.

Marrowfat. — This name has been loosely applied to a
class of large cream-seeded varieties rather than to a
definite variety. This variety has a white blossom and
is medium to late, maturing about a week later than the
Golden Vine, and makes large quantities of forage with
fair yields of seed.

Canadian Beauty. — An early variety resembling Mar-
rowfat, maturing at about the same time as the Golden Vine.
It makes a large growth of vine and fair yields of seed.

Blackeye Marrowfat.— The seeds of the Blackeye Mar-
rowfat are similar in appearance to the regular Marrowfat

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 445

except for the black hilum. This variety matures a trifle
earlier than the Marrowfat and about five days later than
the Golden Vine.

Prussian Blue.—One of the “ blue ’’-seeded forms of
the field pea, the seeds being round, smooth and bluish
green. This also has a white blossom and is rather late,
maturing about eleven days after the Golden Vine. It
makes good yields of both forage and seed.

Wisconsin Blue. — A ‘‘ blue ’’-seeded form similar to the
Prussian Blue, but about four days later in maturing. In
yield of forage and seed it is about equal to the Prussian
Blue, but it has, perhaps, a trifle heavier growth of vine.

Early Britain. — The season of maturity of the Early
Britain is about the same as that of the Golden Vine.
The blossoms, however, are colored and the seeds large
and of a brown color. This variety, although not sc well
known as the Golden Vine and the Marrowfat, is valuable
from both seed and forage standpoints.

As a result of extensive tests in Canada, the following
varieties proved in the order given the most satisfactory
for each province :—

For Ontario. — Arthur, Chaneellor, Golden Vine, White
Marrowfat, Prussian Blue, Wisconsin Blue and English Grey.

For Manitoba. — Arthur, Chancellor, Golden Vine, English
Grey and Prussian Blue.

For Saskatchewan. — Arthur, Chaneellor, Golden Vine and
Prussian Blue.

For Alberta. — English Grey, Arthur, Chancellor and Golden
Vine.

For British Columbia. — Chaneellor, Arthur, Golden Vine
and Prussian Blue.

For Nova Scotia. — Arthur, White Marrowfat, Daniel
O’ Rourke, Golden Vine and Prussian Blue.

For Prince Edward Island. — Arthur, Prussian Blue, White
Marrowfat and Golden Vine.

446 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

New varieties that have succeeded well in the western
United States are Concordia from Sweden, with large,
round, yellow seeds; Amraoti from India, with small,
smooth, pale yellow seeds; Bangalia from India, with
dull green, somewhat shrunken seeds; and Kaiser from
Germany, with grayish seeds speckled with blue. The
last named is very reliable and will withstand heat and
humidity combined better than any other variety known.

535. Seeding. — Peas should be sown in temperate
regions as early in the spring as danger from heavy frosts
is over, and in tropical or subtropical regions as soon as
the cool season begins, or at least in time to mature before
very hot weather. In the Southern States it is sometimes
possible to sow in fall and make a hay crop before winter.
In the North fall preparation of the soil is desirable so
that the peas may be sown in early spring. Where early
and late seedings have been compared, the yield is usually
highest from the early plantings and falls off quite rapidly
in the later plantings.

The rate of seeding an acre varies from 1} bushels
for varieties with small seeds to 3 bushels for those with
very large seeds.

The seed may be sown broadcast or drilled. The latter
method is preferable on account of the more even germina-
tion. When broadcasted by hand, they may be plowed
under lightly, or, if sown on freshly plowed soil, covered
with a disk or drag harrow. In Ontario experiments ex-
tending over a period of more than 4 years, the yield of
peas was slightly larger when the seed was drilled than
when broadcasted, but in no case was the difference as
great as 10 per cent.

The seed should be covered to a depth of 15 to 3 inches,
depending on the nature of the soil. At the Michigan

PEAS AND PEA-—LIKE PLANTS 447

Experiment Station peas germinated best when planted
4 inches deep. Even when planted 8 inches deep, some
of the plants emerged.

536. Development of the plant. — Stewart at the Utah
Experiment Station has made a careful study of the com-
position of the Golden Vine pea at various stages of
growth, when grown under irrigation. Some of his results
are shown in the following table : —

YIELD |PERCENT-

Dare ax Stace or |yPRE,| $2528 | proven PEROT] Ace oF
ae TO THE Dry STALKS sea
AcrE | WEIGHT AND Pops
Pounds | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent
June 19 — 9 inches high 936 | 79 22 A 0
June 26 — 1628 76.6 20.1 23.4 0
July 3— 2583 pms Dene A hays 0
July 10 —early bloom | 4997 | 67 26.7 27.8 5.2
July 17 — 4412 50% 24.2 28.7 14.6
July 24 — pods filled 3496 | 48.6 20 19:7 SL.7
42.1

July 31 — pods ripe 2658 | 40.9 Zoe LZ

537. Hay. — Field peas are usually cut for hay when
the first pods are full grown but not yet filled, but cutting
may be delayed until the leaves begin to turn yellow.
This, however, will result in the hay containing many
seeds.

At the Utah Experiment Station Golden Vine peas
cut in bloom gave a larger yield to the acre than when cut
late.

The yield of hay from peas alone probably averages
less than 1 ton an acre. Partly on this account, and
partly because of easier harvesting, they are nearly al-
ways sown mixed with oats when intended for hay.

448 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

At the Washington Experiment Station 7 varieties of
field peas cut for hay gave an average yield of 5620
pounds an acre in 1909, while in 1910 the average of 11
varieties was 2730 pounds; at the Michigan Upper
Peninsula Station the average hay yield an acre of 7 va-
rieties was 4100 pounds, the best being Golden Vine with
5060 pounds; at the South Dakota Experiment Station
two varieties yielded 1400 and 1520 pounds to the acre.

538. Peas and oats. — One of the oldest mixtures of
a legume and non-legume for hay is peas and oats, both
of which require much the same conditions, except that
oats will withstand more cold. The advantage of the
mixture is that the oats support the peas so that mowing
is much easier. The rate of seeding is 1 to 2 bushels of
peas and 1 to 2 bushels of oats to an acre.

At the Ontario Agricultural College the best results
were secured with 2 bushels of peas and 1 bushel of oats,
and the next best with 2 bushels of each to the acre. The
average yield of peas and oats during 7 years was 12.08
tons green substance and 3.26 tons dry hay to the acre.

The crop is cut for hay when the oats are in the early
dough stage, but both may be allowed to mature and the
seeds separated after thrashing.

Other cereals are not quite as satisfactory as oats to
grow with peas. Six-year average yields at the Ontario
Agricultural College in green weight to the acre were as
follows: peas and oats, 7.93 tons; peas and barley, 7.20
tons; peas, barley and oats, 7.07 tons; barley and oats,
6.78 tons; peas and wheat, 6.03 tons.

539. Pasture value. — Peas are sometimes utilized by
pasturing to hogs or sheep. Shaw states that 1 acre of
peas at the Minnesota Experiment Station furnished in
1895 pasture sufficient to feed 1 sheep for 345 days.

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 449

The pasturing of field peas to fatten lambs has become
an important industry in the mountain valleys of Colorado.
As arule the peas are sown with a small quantity of wheat
or oats to support the vines. The lambs or sheep are
turned into the pea fields when the peas are mature and
are fed upon them for 70 to 120 days. These pea-fattened
lambs command a high price in the market.

540. Garden pea vines. — At canning factories where
the green peas are separated from the vines by special
machinery, the refuse vines are utilized as feed, being fed
green, cured into hay or preserved as silage. It is some-
times made into silage by putting the green vines in large
stacks, this being the common method at canneries. Pea-
vine silage has proven to be a good feed for dairy cows as
well as for beef cattle and sheep. In 1908, 96 canneries
handled the pea vines grown in 66,959 acres, and about
60 per cent of the refuse vines were preserved as silage, the
rest being fed green or cured into hay.

541. Irrigation. — Peas may be grown under irrigation,
but it is doubtful if so short-lived a forage crop will prove
desirable for this purpose.

At the Wyoming Experiment Station small plots were
irrigated 1 to 7 times, using about 3 to 5 inches of water
at an application. The yields of hay increased with the
number of irrigations, the heaviest being 4.2 tons an acre
from 7 applications, aggregating 23 inches of water.

For seed-production 4 irrigations, aggregating 20 inches,
gave a yield of 34.75 bushels to the acre, much more than
was obtained by using either more or fewer irrigations.

542. Seed-production.— Peas are usually harvested
with an ordinary mower having an attachment in front of
the knife so that the tangled vines are. lifted up from the
ground. Two men follow behind the mower and roll the

2G :

450 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

pea vines back in a row or in bunches, so as to be out of
the way of the mower when the next swath is cut. Some
machines have a platform behind the mower, from which
the vines are thrown at short intervals in bunches.

From a small area the seed may be flailed, but usually
grain thrashers are used. Precautions must be taken to
avoid cracking too much of the seed; namely, by remov-
ing most of the teeth from the concaves, and by reducing
the speed. If the crop is well cured, the seed thrashes out
very easily.

Extensive work has been conducted at most of the
Canadian Experimental Farms in testing field peas for
grain production.

The average yield of the 12 best varieties tested for
6 to 8 years at 5 Canadian stations was 2141 pounds, some-
what over 35 bushels. At Ottawa the 12 best varieties
averaged 2018 pounds to an acre; at Brandon, Manitoba,
2602 pounds; at Nappan, N.S., 1917 pounds; at Indian
Head, Saskatchewan, 2253 pounds. The maximum
yield reported is 85 bushels to an acre, a yield reached
by the Mackay variety at Brandon, Manitoba, in 1904.

The average yield for Canada in 1909 was 19.34 bushels
an acre and in 1910, 13.388 bushels.

In the table opposite are given the results of long-
continued tests at 7 experimental farms in Canada.

At the Montana Experiment Station, the average yield
of peas for 2 years of all varieties tested was 39.5 bushels,
and at the Washington Experiment Station 7 varieties
gave the following yields of seed to the acre: Potter, 23.7
bushels; Canadian Beauty, 23; White Marrowfat, 20.3 ;
Early Britain, 21; Scotch, 20; Golden Vine, 18.7; Prus-
sian Blue, 16.7.

543. Seed. — Peas germinate readily at low tempera-

451

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS

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452 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

tures. The seed retains its viability well for 5 years and
then quickly deteriorates. The legal weight of a bushel is
60 pounds, but a bushel may weigh as high as 68 pounds,
or as low as 52 pounds.

Large seed is preferable to small seed of the same variety.
In two-year trials at the Ontario Agricultural College the
yield from the large seed averaged 26.2 bushels of peas
and 1.14 tons of straw to an acre, while the small seed
yielded 22.6 bushels of peas and 1.04 tons of straw.

544. Pea-weevil (Laria pisorum or Bruchus pisorum).
— The most serious enemy of the pea, especially when
grown for seed-production, is the pea-weevil. This insect
lays its eggs in the very young pea pods, and the larva
upon hatching burrows into the soft young seeds, only one
larva entering each seed. The larve grow with the seed
and remain therein until they become adult beetles. Nor-
mally the beetles do not emerge until spring, in fact usually
being in the seed when planted; but if the seed is stored
in a warm room, they emerge sooner. There is only one
generation a year, and the insects do not multiply in the
stored seeds.

Seed may be rid of weevils in two ways; namely, by
fumigating with carbon bisulfide, so as to destroy the
insects without injuring the seeds (Par. 625) ; or by keeping
the seeds over one season in tight bags or other receptacles
The beetles all emerge from the seeds and, being unable
to escape, perish.

Where peas are grown each year, weevils tend to be-
come increasingly abundant, and finally make it impos-
sible to grow crops of satisfactory seed. If, however, their
planting is suspended for 2 to 3 years, the weevils are
nearly eradicated. The growing of peas for seed is prac-
tically limited to those regions where weevil injury is

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 453

least. Weeviled seed shows greatly reduced germination,
usually not over half of the seeds making plants.

In Ontario both grass-peas and chick-peas have been
grown to some extent in place of field peas, as they are not
attacked by the pea-weevil.

CHICK-PEA (Cicer arietinum)

545. The chick-pea is probably a native of western
Asia. It was cultivated in ancient Greece and probably
quite early in India. The plant has numerous other
names, among them coffee bean, Idaho pea, Egyptian pea,
Gipsy pea, garbanzo and Madras gram. At the present
day its culture is important in India, Syria, Spain and
Mexico, being grown mainly for the seeds, which are used
as human food.

The plant is a branched annual, growing to a height of
1 to 2 feet ; leaves odd-pinnate with 7 pairs of oval toothed
leaflets ; flowers small, white or pink, solitary; pods thin,
inflated, less than 1 inch long, each having 1 or 2 seeds.
The whole herbage is sparsely covered with glandular
hairs which secrete an acid substance.

The varieties are numerous, differing in the size and
shape of the seeds, and in Palestine, it is said, in their soil
and seasonal adaptations. The variety grown in Spain
and Mexico is that with the largest seeds, which are pale
straw color.

In a general way the adaptations of the chick-pea are
like those of the common garden pea, the plant requiring
a cool season for its best growth.

It does not, however, withstand humidity as well as the
garden pea, preferring a rather dry atmosphere. The
crop is grown in winter in India, Spain, Mexico and to a

454 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

slight extent in California. In the latter state it was
uninjured by a temperature of 13° Fahrenheit.

As a spring-sown crop the chick-pea has done fairly
well in Idaho, Washington, Colorado, Iowa and Ontario.
At the Ontario Agricultural College it has produced an
average annual yield of 35.6 bushels seed and 1 ton of
straw to an acre, and the average yield obtained by 56
farmers was 19.8 bushels to an acre. In cold seasons,
however, it does not thrive. The seeds are free from
attack by the pea-weevil.

The hay or straw of the plant is not liked by animals on
account of the acid secretion, which is said to be injurious
both to cattle and horses. In any case its very small
yield does not justify growing the plant for hay.

GRASS-PEA (Lathyrus sativus)

546. The grass-pea, vetchling or chickling vetch, is
native to the Mediterranean region eastward to central
Asia. Its culture, which is very ancient, probably began
in the region south of the Caspian Sea. Seeds have been
found in the ruins of Troy, in ancient Egyptian graves and
with human remains of the stone age in Hungary. In the
Old World the plant is more or less cultivated in India,
western Asia and the south of Europe. The seeds are
used as human food, but it is said that if eaten continu-
ously they are likely to cause paralysis. This deleterious
character is, however, probably restricted to the varieties
with colored seeds.

The plant is an annual and has much the same adapta-
tions as the pea, which in a general way it resembles.
The stems are wing-margined and grow 2 to 3 feet high;
the pinnate leaves have but a single pair of narrow lanceo-
late leaflets and tendrils at the tip; the long-peduncled

PEAS AND PEA-LIKE PLANTS 455

flowers are solitary and either white or blue; the pods are
4—5 seeded; the seeds are easily distinguished by being
wedge shaped. There are probably ten or more varieties,
distinguished most easily by the color of the flower and
the size and color of the seeds. The latter may be yellow,
brown or variously marbled and speckled.

The grass-pea does not grow as tall as the field pea,
but in yield of hay and grain it compares favorably. Its
value lies mainly in the fact that its seeds are never at-
tacked by the pea-weevil and seed crops can therefore be
grown where weevils are too numerous for the field pea.

In America they have been grown mainly in Ontario,
but in small trials have been found to succeed in Iowa,
Texas, Washington and California, and probably will
thrive wherever the garden pea can be grown. At the
Ontario Agricultural College, a variety with white flowers
and yellow seeds has been extensively tested and has
given good results except in the cold wet seasons. The
average acre yield of seed for 7 years up to 1902 was 25.7
bushels and the maximum 43 bushels, yields but slightly
smaller than the best field peas. The average yield of
straw was 2.2 tons to an acre, as against 1.6 tons for the
Golden Vine pea. Grass-peas and common vetch were
also tested in comparison during 5 years, the average
green yield of the former being 6.7 tons to an acre
against 6.8 tons for the latter. In another series of
tests the average yield to an acre of green fodder was
grass-peas, 10 tons; common vetch, 8.93 tons; and
hairy vetch, 8.65 tons. More recent experience with
grass-peas has been less favorable.

The seeds of grass-peas have about the same feeding
value as field peas. A bushel weighs 64 pounds,

CHAPTER XX

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS

Tue term “vetch’’ has in common usage a rather
loose application. Properly it refers to species of the
botanical genus Vicia, but it is in the cases of some culti-
vated plants applied, to species in related groups of plants.
Thus crown vetch is a species of Coronilla; kidney vetch
is Anthyllis vulneraria; Dakota vetch is a species of
Hosackia; and several of the vetchlings, species of Lathy-
rus, are sometimes called “ vetch.”’

Botanists recognize about 120 kinds or species of Vicia,
of which about 50 are annuals and most of the remainder
perennials. In the United States, where about 20 wild
kinds occur, they are commonly known as wild peas.
Many of the species of vetch have been more or less
extensively cultivated, and several others growing wild
are utilized for hay or pasturage, or in a few cases the
seeds are used for human food.

547. Kinds of vetches. — The cultivated vetches include
the following: Common vetch, or tares (Vicia sativa) ;
hairy, sand or Russian vetch (Vicia villosa) ; bitter vetch
(Vicia ervilia) ; scarlet vetch (Vicia fulgens) ; purple vetch
(Vicia atropurpurea) ; Narbonne vetch (Vicia narbonnen-
sis); narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia angustifolia). Another
species, Vicia faba, is extensively cultivated and has

numerous varieties known as broad beans, Windsor beans,
456

\

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 4p(

sow beans, horse beans, and so on, but the name “ vetch”’
is never used in referring to this crop. Only two kinds
of vetches, namely, the common vetch and the hairy
vetch, are much grown in the United States at present, but
other species are likely to become of increasing importance.
Thus bitter vetch is growing in favor as a cover crop
in California, and scarlet, purple and woolly-podded
vetches are all excellent, and with cheaper seed would
certainly be largely grown.

548. Common vetch (Vicia sativa). — Common vetch,
or tares, is strictly an annual, having much the same habit
as the garden or English pea, but the stems are more
slender and usually taller, growing 3 to 5 feet or more in
length; leaves pinnate, with about seven pairs of leaflets
and a terminal tendril; flowers violet-purple, rarely white
and borne in pairs on a very short stalk; pods brown,
each containing four or five seeds, which are gray or
marbled in the commonest varieties. At maturity the
pods readily coil and discharge the seeds.

Owing to the fact that the seed is grown largely in
western Oregon, where it is usually fall sown, it has be-
come known, also, as Oregon winter vetch. In contrast
with hairy vetch, common vetch is also known as smooth
vetch, and sometimes the name English vetch is applied
to it. The gray-seeded variety of common vetch is the
one most cultivated in the United States.

549. Botany and agricultural history. — Common vetch
is native over much of Europe and western Asia. The
species is very variable, and numerous botanical varie-
ties have been named.

According to De Candolle, the earliest reference to its
culture was by Cato about 60 B.c., when it was grown
both for seed and for fodder.

458 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Common vetch was grown in New York as early as
1794. |
550. Adaptations. — Common vetch requires a_ cool
growing season; the winter strains will withstand a
temperature as low as 10° F. without injury, but zero
weather results in much winter-killing. Vetch is therefore
planted in the fall on the Pacific Coast and in the South.
In the Northern States and Canada spring sowing is
necessary. It languishes, however, under hot summer
weather and is not adapted to the Central States.

It prefers a well-drained soil and will not thrive in poorly
drained land. It does best in loams or sandy loams,
though excellent crops are grown both on sandy and grav-
elly soils. On poor lands vetch is often used as a soil
improver, and while the yield may not be large, to plant
it is often good farm practice. On poor soils special care
should be taken to provide thorough inoculation, as with-
out it failures commonly result.

551. Importance. — Common vetch is important as
a hay crop west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon
and Washington; as a winter green-manure crop in Cali-
fornia; and as a hay crop in the Southern States. In the
Northern States and Canada it is but little grown, hairy
vetch being much better adapted.

In Europe, vetch is probably the most important annual
legume grown for forage.

552. Agricultural varieties. — The cultivated varieties
of common vetch are numerous and distinguished mainly
by the size and color of the seeds. The most important
variety has the seeds gray, marbled with a darker color.
Of this there are two strains, distinguished in European
agriculture as spring vetch and winter vetch. Pearl or
white-seeded vetch has white seeds often used as human

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 459

food. Sardinian vetch has the seeds brown; gray vetch
is another name for the commonest variety with grayish
seeds.

553. Culture. — The seed-bed for common vetch should
be quite firm. For this reason it is a common practice in
Oregon to broadcast the seed in wheat or oat stubble and
then go over it with an ordinary disk harrow, or if the land
is fairly loose the seed is simply sown in the stubble with a
disk drill. This method gives satisfactory results, espe-
cially if the previous small-grain crop has been spring sown
and if the vetch is sown quite early in the fall. If the
planting is done later or if the previous grain crop was
fall sown, the land is usually too compact, and thorough
preparation of the soil is advantageous.

In the South special preparation of the soil before plant-
ing vetch is usually necessary. But few successes have
thus far been noted by planting in cotton or other culti-
vated crop, but where the soil is thoroughly inoculated
this method has given excellent results.

Common vetch seed may be sown either broadcast or
by drilling. Broadcasting is the older method and _ per-
haps still the most common, but the use of the drill has
greatly increased in recent years, especially in Oregon.

Vetch may be sown alone or with one of the small grains
as a supporting crop. To sow with grain has been and
still is the commoner practice where the crop is grown
mainly for hay, as the grain furnishes a support for the
weak stems of the vetch and prevents lodging to a con-
siderable extent. Oats are the favorite grain to use in
combination with vetch, though rye, wheat and barley
may be used. Oats are preferred, not only on account
of the superior quality of oat hay, but from the fact that
where a seed crop is grown the oat seed can be readily

460 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

separated from the vetch seed, while there is greater
difficulty with rye, wheat, or barley. ~

Where vetch is used mainly as a green-manure crop,
as in southern California, it is nearly always sown alone.
In late years in Oregon the tendency has been to plant
vetch alone when the crop is grown for seed. This
change has been brought about as a result of the high
prices charged for thrashing, the same price being charged
for thrashing vetch and wheat or oats combined as for
vetch alone.

554. Time of sowing. — Common vetch is usually sown
in the fall, from September till as late as December. In
western Oregon and western Washington most of it is
seeded in October, but a growing tendency is to plant it
in September, as the damage by winter-killing seems to
be reduced. Pearl vetch, which is not winter hardy, is
planted toward the end of March, and it is not uncommon
to plant common vetch at the same time. Indeed, some
dairy farmers plant it at various dates, so as to use it to
feed green. Sown with oats about October 1, it is ready
to feed about May 1; planted later, it can be cut about
June 1; and if early spring sowing in February or March
is practiced, the vetch can be fed from June 15 to July 15.
When cut early for soiling, a small second crop may be
cut or used as pasture.

In southern California, when used for green-manuring
purposes, common vetch is sown in September, so that it
can be plowed under by March.

In the Southern States, oats and common vetch should
always be sown in the fall, October being the best month,
though the planting may be delayed till the middle of
December. Early fall planting gives the best results for
green manuring.

\
i
;

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 461

Where the winters are severe, common vetch must be
planted in the spring, but it is not often grown. It suc-
ceeds wherever field peas do well, but the field peas are
usually preferable.

555. Rate of seeding. — Common vetch if sown alone
is perhaps most often seeded at the rate of 1 bushel (60
pounds) to the acre. This is sufficient to produce a per-
fect stand if there is no winter-killing. Thus, in Oregon,
it is the common practice to sow 60 pounds of seed to the
acre in the foothills where the drainage is good and the
amount of winter-killing very small. If a mixture be
sown, it varies from 30 pounds of vetch and 20 pounds of
oats to double this combined quantity.

In the low-lying lands, where a certain amount of loss
is likely from winter-killing, especially where soils become
wet, a larger quantity of seed, namely, from 70 to 90 or
even 120 pounds, is sown. If sown in combination with
oats, 60 pounds of vetch and 40 pounds of oats are most
commonly planted. The same rate of seeding is used as
a rule whether the crop is grown for hay or for seed.
Should the prospect be good for a high price for seed, the
crop may be left to mature; otherwise it is cut for hay.

Some growers plant as high as 2 bushels of vetch to the
acre when grown for seed alone. Such thick plantings
stand up somewhat better, but it is doubtful whether
any material gain results.

In California, when common vetch is planted as a green-
manure crop, the usual rate of seeding is 60 pounds to the
acre, but as low as 40 pounds are sometimes sown.

In the Southern States there is nearly as much varia-
bility in the seeding rate as in Oregon, but usually less
seed is sown, about 40 or 45 pounds of vetch and 8 to 10
of oats.

462 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

556. Harvesting for hay. — Vetch should be cut for
hay from the period of full bloom to formation of the first
pods. Itis commonly and satisfactorily cut with an ordi-
nary mower with a swather attachment. After cutting,
the vetch should be bunched with a horserake and then
shocked with pitchforks. This handling should always
be done before the vetch leaves are dry. It should be
allowed to cure in the shocks several days, and, if possible,
hay caps should be used, especially if rainy weather is
feared. Where a swather is not used, the cutting is con-
siderably more difficult. In either case it is the common
practice to allow the vetch to lie one day before shocking.

It is sometimes desirable to pasture fall-sown vetch in
the spring so as to bring the haying season somewhat

later and also to prevent heavy lodging. This is quite -

commonly done in western Washington and western
Oregon.

Common vetch yields from 13 to 33 tons of hay to an
acre. An average yield in the Pacific States is 23 tons,
and in the Southern States somewhat less.

557. Pasturing. — Common vetch is utilized by Oregon
and Washington dairymen for pasturage during winter,
spring and early summer. It is eagerly eaten by all
farm live stock. As a general rule, the vetch is pastured
only when the ground is dry, not only to avoid packing
the soil but because both cattle and sheep are lable to
bloat on vetch, especially in wet weather.

Even when vetch is grown primarily for hay or for seed,
a limited amount of pasturing is often desirable, especially
where the growth is unusually rank or where it is desirable
to bring the harvest later. Hogs should not be used for
this purpose, as they kill out many of the plants by biting
them off below the crown. Sheep and calves do the least

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 463

damage in pasturing vetch designed for a hay or seed
crop.

558. Feeding value. — Common vetch is eagerly eaten
by cows, hogs and sheep. Its high value for milk produc-
tion has long been recognized in Europe. At the Oregon
Experiment Station cows fed vetch hay for 45 days kept
up their milk flow unimpaired. In a feeding test with
steers fed for 42 days two animals fed vetch hay gained,
respectively, 3.07 and 2.07 pounds a day, while two fed
red-clover hay gained 2.56 and 2.16 pounds a day.

559. Rotations. — Common vetch is nearly always
grown in rotation. Continuous cropping to vetch for seed
production usually results in reduced yields after two or
three years, according to Oregon experience. The effects
of cutting the crop for hay seem to be far less marked, but,
nevertheless, continuous cropping to vetch is unnecessary
and undesirable.

In Oregon and Washington common vetch is usually
grown after spring-sown oats. It is advantageously used
also in rotation with potatoes or corn.

In the region about Augusta, Georgia, the most famous
vetch-growing section in the South, the crop is mostly
grown in rotation with Johnson-grass, this being especially
true on valley lands where the Johnson-grass volunteers.
Vetch, commonly mixed with oats or other small grain
is usually planted in October on well-prepared land and
harvested by the middle of May. After the vetch crop is
removed, the Johnson-grass, more or less mixed with other
grasses, begins to grow and commonly yields two hay
cuttings during the season.

Where Johnson-grass does not permanently occupy the
land it is not advisable to sow it, as it is extremely difficult
to eradicate. In this case various summer crops can be

464 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

grown in the rotation, such as sorghum, cowpeas, sorghum
and cowpeas, soybeans, peanuts, ete.

Common vetch is not well adapted to rotating with
cotton unless used merely as a green manure. The vetch
cannot be harvested soon enough to permit the early
planting of cotton, even when the seed is sown between
the rows of cotton.

Common vetch is somewhat inclined to persist when
once grown, especially where the winters are mild. Ex-
amples are known of its reseeding itself in pastures for
five years. In cultivated fields it volunteers readily,
which is especially objectionable in the wheat crop, owing
to the difficulty of separating the vetch seed from the
wheat. There is no danger of volunteer vetch unless a
seed crop is grown or at least some of the seed allowed to
ripen. In such cases, to avoid volunteer vetch, the best
plan is to follow with a crop of vetch and oats for hay,
pasturing the stubble, so that no seed is allowed to ripen.
A cultivated crop should be grown the next season, and
then the land can be planted to wheat without any danger
of the vetch volunteering.

560. Fertilizers. — Information concerning the _ best
fertilizers for common vetch is very limited. Barnyard
manure is nearly always beneficial, and dairy farmers
especially find it profitable to use on vetch fields.

In western Oregon, it is now a common practice to apply
gypsum, or land plaster, and special machines are often
used to apply it. It is commonly applied at the rate of
75 to 150 pounds to the acre. At the Oregon Experiment
Station, 100 pounds of gypsum to the acre increased the
yield from 7394 to 9031 pounds of hay to the acre. ,

In the South, a fertilizer containing phosphoric acid and
potash is often used, a common rate of application being

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 465

200 pounds of acid phosphate and 100 pounds of muriate
of potash to the acre.

561. Lime. — Vetches, like lupines, are injured by large
applications of lime, but are not so sensitive to small
amounts. Ulbricht in Germany found that in pot
experiments the application of lime diminished the ability
of the plant to assimilate phosphorus and nitrogen, but
not potash.

Field experiments have given mixed results, but in gen-
eral it appears clear that liming is not advisable for vetches.

562. Silage. — Vetch has been several times preserved
as silage at the Oregon Experiment Station, where cattle
preferred it to that made of red clover. Smith reports
that it is also used for silage at a large dairy in South
Carolina with entire satisfaction.

563. Seed-production. — Common vetch seed is pro-
duced in large quantities in the United States only in the
Willamette Valley, Oregon. The methods of handling the
seed crop vary, due partly to difference of opinion as
to the best method, but more largely to the machinery
possessed by the grower.

It is the general practice to cut vetch for seed as soon
as the lower pods are fully ripe, at which time the upper
pods will be fully formed and the plant will be carrying
a maximum quantity of seed. Later cutting occasions
more shattering of seed, while earlier cutting results in
a considerable percentage of immature seed. In a few
places, where but little seed is raised, the crop is cut with
an ordinary mowing machine. Two men with pitchforks
follow the mower and roll the vetch back from the uncut
area so as to enable the machine to get through when
cutting the next swath. Sometimes the first swath cut

is rolled on the uncut vetch, and when the succeeding swath
2H

466 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

is cut, the two are rolled back out of the way. This puts
the vetch in larger swaths than the first-mentioned
method and also somewhat reduces the loss from shatter-
ing. These two mower and pitchfork methods were for-
merly used generally, but now have been largely super-
seded by other methods.

An ordinary grain binder is used by some growers, es-
pecially when the vetch is short and therefore quite erect
or when it is grown with a supporting crop, such as oats.
When thus harvested, the crop is put in shocks similar
to grain shocks and allowed to remain until thrashed.

The most common way of harvesting vetch at present
is to use an ordinary mower with a swather attachment.
The swather, which is attached to and behind the sickle
bar, rolls the vetch in a swath to the outside and leaves
the way clear to cut the next swath.

Whatever method is used in cutting, the vetch is put
at once into shocks and remains till thrashed. The most
important rule in the harvesting of vetch seed is to handle
the crop rapidly and as little as possible when cut.

Common vetch varies considerably in the yield of seed
to the acre. Five bushels is considered a low yield, and
20 to 25 bushel yields are near the maximum. The
average acre yield is probably from 10 to 12 bushels.

564. Seed. — Common vetch seed has been extensively
grown for some years in western Oregon, and practically
all of this seed has been marketed on the Pacific Coast.
Were it not for high freight rates, all of the seed required
in the United States could be grown in this section. The
price paid to the grower has varied greatly, the maximum
being 13 cents a pound, but in 1909, owing to extraordi-
nary conditions, he realized but one-half cent a pound, at
which price the seed crop is not profitable.

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 467

Practically all of the common vetch seed used in the
Southern States is from Europe. Its wholesale price at
European ports is usually from 2 to 24 cents a pound and
the freight to American ports is about one-quarter of a
cent a pound. The prices that American vetch seed
growers obtain is practically controlled by the price of
European seed.

Common vetch seed retains its vitality well for about
three years, after which it rapidly deteriorates. Very

Fic. 52.—Seeds of Fic. 53.— Seed Fic. 54. Types of

common vetch (Vicia scar of common mottling of seeds of
sativa). (Natural size.) vetch. (Enlarged.) common vetch; a and

b, from light and dark
seeds, respectively.
(Enlarged.)

fresh seed of common vetch does not germinate well.
A large proportion of the seed is hard, and most of this
probably does not germinate until the following season.
One pound contains about 8000 seeds.

HAIRY VETCH (Vicia villosa)

565. Hairy vetch is also known as sand vetch, Russian
vetch, Siberian vetch, and villose vetch. In the United
States it has also come to be known as winter vetch,
a term used in Europe wholly for a winter strain of
common vetch. It is a winter annual, but often behaves
as a biennial; stems slender, sometimes growing to a

468 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

length of 12 feet, but on account of the weakness, the mass
of plants seldom exceeds 4 feet in height; herbage hairy
and somewhat silvery; leaflets narrow, 11 to 17; flowers
blue-violet, rarely white, borne on a long stalk in dense
one-sided clusters of
about 30; pods pale
colored, smooth, each
) ' containing two to

ESS
i
~

vy A \, M4 eight small, globose,
: Zi nearly black seeds.
4 f

The root system is
richly branched and
extends deep into the
soil. At the Cornell

wk station plants from
lz 9 seed sown July 10
; had roots by Novem-
ber 10 which pene-
trated 3 feet 8 inches
in tough clay. The
young plants go
largely to root devel-
opment, so that the
Fic. 55. — Hairy vetch. top growth is slow

at first.

At the Delaware Experiment Station the tops were
estimated to produce 3064 and the roots 600 pounds dry
weight to the acre.

566. Botany. — Hairy vetch is found wild in Russia,
Germany and Hungary, in which countries it is apt to
occur as a weed in grain fields. It was cultivated in Eng-
land in 1815, in Scotland in 1833, and in Germany in 1857.
Its first introduction into America was about 1847, but

Y ff fi

=

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 469

it obtained little prominence until 1886, when it was again
introduced by the Department of Agriculture, since which
time it has become more and more appreciated.

567. Climatic adaptations. — Hairy vetch is naturally
adapted to cool temperate climates, under which condi-
tions it behaves normally as a winter annual. The seeds
ripen from July to September, germinate the same season,
and the plant reaches maturity the next season. If
planted in spring, the growth made is not nearly so large
as if planted in fall. In the Northern States spring
plantings may produce some flowers but rarely produce
pods, the plants living over the winter and coming to
maturity the second season. In the Southern States fall
plantings are necessary, as hairy vetch will not withstand
the heat of the summer. The cold resistance of the plants
is very marked, hairy vetch rarely winter-killing in any
of the states if well established in the fall. It is also
markedly drought resistant, much more so than common
vetch.

Perhaps correlated with its greater hardiness is the
fact that hairy vetch makes much less growth in winter
than common vetch and other species. On this account
hairy vetch is not desirable as a green-manure crop to be
plowed under in early spring.

568. Soil preferences. — Hairy vetch prefers sandy
or sandy loam soils, especially such as are rich in lime.
The plant will succeed, however, in a great variety of soils,
doing well even on clays, provided they are well drained,
but does not succeed on very wet soils. It is quite
resistant to alkali, and will germinate in soils too alkaline
for most legumes.

569. Rate of seeding. — Hairy vetch is not often sown
alone, but when this is the case, the common American

470 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

practice is to sow 40 to 60 pounds to the acre. No exact
American experiments have been conducted to ascertain
the most satisfactory rate in such seedings. In Europe,
the seeding rates, according to Werner, are very much
higher, 120 to 200 pounds to the acre when broadcast,
120 to 160 pounds when drilled.

On account of the weak stems of hairy vetch, the most
common practice is to sow it with a supporting crop,
usually one of the small grains —rye, wheat, oats or
barley. In such mixtures a full seeding of the small
grain is usual, and to this is added 20 to 25 pounds of
hairy vetch.

At the Virginia Experiment Station the following
results were secured from different mixtures : —

Per Cent | YIELD TO AN ACRE

RatTE OF SEEDING TO AN ACRE te jeret

Crop aie Hay

Tons Tons

Vetch, 16 lb. — Oats, 25 lb. . .. 5.00 2.52 1.37
Vetch, 16 lb. — Oats, 374 lb. . .. 4.57 2.60 an
Vetch, 16 lb. — Oats, 50 Ib. . . . 2.00 2.02 1.47
Vetch, 32: lb. — Oats,-25.. Ib. 4 46a. 9.03 1.80 .90
Vetch, 32 lb. — Oats, 374 lb. . . . 4.94 2.15 1:25
Vetch, 32 lb. — Oats, 50 lb. . . . 1.86 2.30 1.45
Vetch, 48 lb. — Oats, 25 Ib. . . .| 12.68 1.67 .97
Vetch, 48 lb. — Oats, 37i lb. . . . Doo 1.75 1.00
Vetch, 48 lb. — Oats, 50 Ib. . .. 1.76 Pes ly 2S
Vetch, <0 lb: — Oats, 50" Ib: 52") 3 —— 2.25 1.32

570. Time of seeding. — Hairy vetch succeeds every-
where best if planted in the fall. However, in regions where
soil moisture conditions are such as to render fall planting
unsatisfactory, spring plantings often give good results,

= be " ‘
———— ee i = oe |

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 471

especially in the Northern and Western States. Spring
seedings are, however, wholly unsatisfactory where the sum-
mer heat is great, as the plants quickly succumb under
such conditions. The soil condition at the time of seeding
is not a matter of vital importance, as if the ground is too
dry, the seeds will remain a long time without germinat-
ing, and with comparatively little moisture the seedlings
become well established.

Too late seedings are to be avoided. At the Virginia
Experiment Station mixed seedings of hairy vetch 32
pounds and oats 50 pounds to an acre were made Sep-
tember 15, September 30, October 15 and October 30.
The resultant hay yields were respectively 4200, 4500, 134
and 0 pounds to an acre.

571. Depth of seeding. — The seed of hairy vetch
germinates very much like that of the field pea; that
is, the cotyledons remain where planted, the plumule
becoming much elongated. Largely on this account, hairy
vetch seed may be sown quite deeply without any injury
to the stand. Up to 4 inches in depth, no loss from
deep planting occurs, and surface sowings are satisfactory,
provided moisture conditions are good. Ordinarily, a
depth of 15 to 2 inches is to be recommended.

572. Inoculation. — Hairy vetch unless inoculated does
not succeed. It is readily inoculated from both common
vetch and narrow-leaved vetch, and doubtless by other
vetches. According to Nobbe the pea and _ vetches
readily inoculate each other. This idea prevails where
vetches are most grown, but the evidence is not conclu-
sive. The nodules are usually lobed and often in globose
clusters.

573. Uses of the crop. — Hairy vetch may be fed
either as hay, pasturage or silage, The greater part of the

472 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

crop is fed as hay. Smith reports that a large dairy farm
near Columbia, South Carolina, feeds it as silage with
good results. As a pasture crop it is excellent for swine,
sheep and cattle. It is sometimes pastured for a period
while young, and then permitted to grow a crop of hay or
seed. This has the advantage of making the second
growth smaller, so that it does not lodge, which is
especially desirable in seed-production. If the crop of
hay is cut rather young, the aftermath furnishes good
pasturage, or sometimes a second crop of hay.

574. Pollination. — Hairy vetch is much visited by
bees, both honeybees and bumblebees. ‘The structure
of the flower is adapted to cross-pollination, and experi-
ments in bagging the flowers to prevent visits of insects
show that the latter are necessary for the formation of pods
and seeds.

575. Harvesting for hay. — Hairy vetch is probably
best cut for hay during the time that the first pods are
full grown, but not filled out, but it is often cut when
the plants are in full bloom. On account of the tangled
mass of vines which hairy vetch makes, especially when
grown alone, mowing is sometimes difficult. It may be
cut with an ordinary mower, but a swather attachment is
desirable. The curing is difficult on account of the ten-
dency of the leaflets to dry before the stems. On this
account, great care needs to be taken to avoid the loss of
the leaves. Ordinarily hairy vetch is allowed to remain
in the swath for one day and then shocked. With good
weather, complete curing can be obtained in from five to
eight days.

Hay of hairy vetch is palatable and as a rule readily eaten
by animals. The yield of hay when grown alone ranges
from 3000 to 5000 pounds or more to an acre. The acre

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS ATS

yields actually reported by experiment stations are:
Michigan, 4188; Colorado, 7000; Mississippi, broadcast,
3565, drilled in 30-inch rows, 2774; Alabama, 2540;
Cornell, 6824; Pennsylvania, 1785; Idaho, 4600;
Tennessee, 3200 to 6560.

Other stations have reported the yield green as follows
in pounds to an acre: New Hampshire, 27,588 ; Colorado,
13,400; California, 32,760; Pennsylvania, 5250; Ontario
Agricultural College, 20,400, average of 4 years; Massa-
chusetts, 20,000.

576. Feeding value. — Little is definitely known of the
value of hairy vetch, as but few feeding experiments are
reported. Judged from chemical analyses alone its value
would apparently be the highest of all legumes.

577. Use in rotations. — Hairy vetch is well adapted
for use in a simple rotation with a summer crop, filling
practically the same place in this respect as crimson clover,
but hairy vetch is adapted to a much wider range of
climatic conditions. As a winter crop, it can well be
grown in rotation with such summer crops as sorghums,
millets, late-planted corn, cowpeas and soybeans. In some
southern states it is commonly grown in rotation with
Johnson-grass. Johnson-grass sod is plowed in the fall,
and the hairy vetch then planted usually with oats.
The oat and vetch hay can then be cut in May, and fol-
lowing this, two crops of Johnson-grass hay can be secured.
A fall plowing is not only necessary for the planting of
the vetch and oats, but increases greatly the yield from
the Johnson-grass. In the Northern States a crop of
vetch hay can be cut early enough to grow a crop of.
millet hay the same season.

The practice of planting hairy vetch in corn at the
last cultivation is increasing. The vetch is often more

AT4 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

desirable than crimson clover from the fact that stands
are much more easily obtained. In some instances mix-
tures of crimson clover and hairy vetch are being sown,
partly because the mixture is a desirable one, and partly
because a catch of vetch is often obtained when crimson
clover fails.

578. Advantages and disadvantages. — The principal
advantages of hairy vetch are its winter hardiness and
drought resistance, and the fact that satisfactory crops,
at least of hay, may be secured on nearly all types of soil.
Its disadvantages are the fact that the cost of seed is
usually too high, costing in recent years from 10 to 15
cents a pound, and the difficulty of mowing the tangled
and often lodged mass of herbage. The problem of the
cost of seed can easily be solved by most farmers by grow-
ing their own seed, but there is no good reason why the
commercial cost of seed should be greater than 7 cents a
pound. In feeding value and in effect on succeeding crops
hairy vetch is comparable to other annual legumes. An-
other great advantage of hairy vetch up to the present
day is that it is almost completely free from any serious
insects or diseases. Occasionally fields are somewhat
injured by mildew, but this damage is rarely important.

579. Growing seed. — Seed crops of hairy vetch can
probably be grown in most parts of the United States.
When grown for this purpose, it is rather better to plant
with a small grain and to seed the vetch thinly. Much
more vetch seed is also produced on poor soil than on rich
soil. Where the stand of vetch in rye or other grain is
thin, the crop is harvested as easily as if alone. On the
other hand, if the vetch is too thick, the grain does not
cut well with a binder, and often is lodged badly on account
of the weight of the vetch plants. Most of the Russian

PLATE VI.—Hatry Vetcu anp Rynrz.

y

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS AT5

seed is that obtained incidentally from vetch occurring
naturally in grain fields. When grown alone, hairy vetch
should be harvested for seed as soon as the first pods are
ripe, regardless of the fact that flowering takes place
over a considerable period, and that many pods are green
when the first are ripened.

The seeds of vetch are easily separated from wheat or
rye by means of a spiral separator especially designed
for the purpose. For local use, mixed seed of hairy vetch
and a grain is sometimes sold as harvested, but usually,
in such combinations, the proportion of grain to vetch seed
is too large. Some farmers do not cut their vetch for hay
until some of the seed has ripened and shattered. By
this means a volunteer crop can be obtained year after
year. The quality of the hay is injured, however, on
account of late cutting. On fields of hairy vetch har-
vested for seed it usually happens that sufficient seed
shatters to give a perfect stand.

The yields of seed vary greatly according to season.
At the Ontario Agricultural College the maximum yield
obtained was 21.2 bushels to an acre, but the average of
9 years was only 6.8 bushels. Yields recorded by experi-
ment stations in bushels to an acre are: Washington, 14.7
and 5.5; South Dakota, 6.5; Colorado, 7.7; Wisconsin,
Zoo. Whississippl, 5.57, 5.85, 7.4 and 10; Oregon, 10
bushels vetch and 30 bushels oats; Connecticut, 12
bushels vetch and 15 bushels rye.

580. Sources of seed. — Most of the seed used in the
United States at the present time is obtained from Russia
and eastern Germany. Larger quantities of it, however,
are being grown in the United States each year, and
undoubtedly sufficient for domestic use will soon be home-
grown seed. European seed is frequently deficient in

476 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

germination. Shamel reports experiments from Connecti-
cut which seem to indicate that Connecticut-grown
seed is considerably hardier than Russian seed. The
experience at the Ontario Agricultural College shows
clearly that acclimatized seed gives better results. ‘The
seed yield alone averaged 2.5 bushels more to an acre
during 7 years from the acclimatized strain.
581. Seeds. — The seeds of hairy vetch are globose.
Most of them appear black, but really are black marbled
on an olive ground 08
color. Rarely olive-
colored seeds are
found. When fresh,
the surface appears
velvety. They vary
greatly in size, but
one pound of an Fre 57-7 een

Fic. 56.— Seeds of average sample con- scar of hairy vetch;

hairy vetch (Vicia . a and b, forms show-
villosa). (Natural tains from 70,000 to ing the white, central

size.) 80,000 seeds. Fresh slit of some scars.

seeds germinate well, (Hele
usually over 90 per cent. Seeds a year old are charac-
terized by a high percentage, 10 per cent to 40 per
cent, of hard seeds which lie in the ground a long time
without germinating. According to Hillman, the pro-
portion of hard seeds diminishes in seeds older than one
year.

Other vetch seeds, especially small seeds of common
vetch, are used to adulterate hairy vetch. These can
usually be detected by their grayish or mottled color.
Hillman points out that hairy vetch seeds can be distin-
guished from any other vetch seed used as an adulterant
by the shape of the hilum or seed scar. In hairy vetch

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS Atel

this is narrowly elliptical in outline, almost equally broad
at each end, while in other vetches it is lanceolate or wedge-
shaped. Brown finds that the germ of hairy vetch seed
is paler than other vetches used as adulterants. If any
of the seeds when crushed disclose colors varying from
dark fawn to reddish-orange, they are not hairy vetch.

OTHER VETCHES

582. Narrow-leaved vetch (Vicia angustifolia) is very
nearly related to common vetch, but is distinguished by
its narrower leaflets, smaller flowers, black pods and round,
smaller seeds. It is much better adapted to the conditions
of the eastern United States than common vetch, as it has
become naturalized and thoroughly established from
Georgia to Pennsylvania, and occurs even as far north as
Nova Scotia. In Georgia it is highly appreciated in
the vetch-growing sections and sometimes makes up a
considerable portion of the hay. It maintains itself
from year to year, as some seeds mature before common
vetch is ready to cut for hay. On pastures it remains as
a permanent element and is greatly valued. Seed is
sometimes offered for sale, but is not available in quan-
tity.

583. Purple vetch (Vicia atropurpurea) is a native of
Europe cultivated to a slight extent in England, Germany,
and France. It is an annual species with handsome red-
purple flowers. Its adaptations are essentially those of
common vetch.

It has proved to be very well adapted to western Oregon,
where it has produced as good hay crops and better seed
crops than common vetch. In California it has proven
very satisfactory as a green-manure crop in citrus orchards,
as it makes a heavy growth in the cool weather of winter.

478 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

In the Southern States it has also succeeded well, and with
seed as cheap as common vetch will probably come into
large use.

584. Woolly-pod vetch (Vicia dasycarpa) is native over
much of Europe. It is very similar to hairy vetch in every
respect, but the leaves are less pubescent, the fragrant
flowers are purple, and the plant 2 to 3 weeks earlier.
Agriculturally it can be used in exactly the same way as
hairy vetch, but it makes better growth in cool weather,
so that when mature the total yield is scarcely inferior.

585. Scarlet vetch (Vicia fulgens) is an annual, native
to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated to a small
extent in France. Scarlet vetch is the most erect growing
of the annual slender-stemmed vetches. It is charac-
terized by its narrow leaflets and beautiful scarlet flowers
in one-sided clusters. It is even less hardy than common
vetch, but usually withstands the winters of the Pacific
coast and the cotton states. Only rarely does it produce
seed in large quantities, and the pods shatter readily, so
that the seed is comparatively expensive. The plant is
quite drought resistant, and from spring sowings has suc-
ceeded better in the semi-arid regions than any other vetch
except the purple. It is very doubtful whether the seed
of this vetch will ever be cheap enough to enable it to com-
pete with other varieties.

586. Ervil or black bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) was culti-
vated for fodder by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and
seeds have been found in the ruins of ancient Troy. It
still is a crop of some importance in Asiatic Turkey. The
plant is apparently native to the region about the eastern
end of the Mediterranean.

Unlike most other vetches, it is upright in habit, and
without tendrils. The plants grow to a height of 2 to 23

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 479

feet. The seed habits are excellent, the plant producing
numerous pods which shatter but little. Seed is grown
so cheaply that it has been imported into England from
Syria for stock feed.

The seeds, however, are said, like those of species of
Lathyrus and Coronilla, to affect the nervous system and
finally cause paralysis.

Ervil has succeeded admirably under California condi-
tions when sown in the fall. The crop makes a good
growth through the winter and for this reason is well
adapted for use as a cover crop In orchards. ‘To secure a
good stand about 70 pounds of seed to an acre is needed.

At the Puyallup, Washington Station, five plots of ervil
were planted in spring on clay uplands and yielded re-
spectively 7.5, 21.5, and 37.7 bushels seed to an acre;
one plot on alluvial clay yielded 36.6 bushels; and one
on sandy loam 13.3 bushels to an acre.

587. Narbonne vetch (Vicia narbonnensis) is native to
the Mediterranean region of Europe, Asia and Africa.
In general appearance it is intermediate between common
vetch and the horse bean, having tendrils like the former
but resembling the latter in its thick foliage, which turns
black in drying. By some writers it has been considered
the wild original of the horse bean, but this view is not now
held.

Its culture and requirements are essentially the same
as those of common vetch, excepting that it requires more
warmth for its best growth. It is cultivated for forage to
a small extent in southern Europe, but under American
conditions has found no place.

588. The horse bean (Vicia faba) in some of its varieties
at least, is also known as tick bean, field bean, pigeon
bean, broad bean, and Windsor bean. ‘The last two names

480 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

refer primarily to the large-seeded varieties used as human
food, and the first four names to the smaller-seeded sorts
used for animals. The culture of the horse bean ante-
dates history, the seeds having been found in several
places in remains of the stone age, as well as in ancient
Egypt. What is apparently the wild original has been
found in Algeria by Schweinfurth and by Trabut. The
plant was abundantly cultivated in ancient Greece and
other Mediterranean countries, and is important in
Europe to-day, as well as in China, India, and Egypt.
In warm countries it is grown as a winter crop, and in
very cool regions as a summer crop.

The plant is a stout, erect annual, growing to a height
of 24 to 44 feet ; leaves pinnate with 2 or 3 pairs of leaflets,
but no tendrils; flowers in short, axillary clusters of 2
to 4; corolla white and black. The stem is usually
simple, but sometimes branched at the base.

The horse bean is adapted to a cool growing season, |

and will not endure heat. It is not particular in its soil re-
quirements, except that it be well drained and rich in humus.

The cultivated varieties are very numerous, probably
over 100 occurring in different parts of the world. They

are distinguished mainly by the size, shape, and color .

of the seed. Most of them are adapted to spring planting,
but a few varieties may be planted in fall in England.

In England and Germany they are mostly planted in
early spring. The seed is sown broadcast, or. preferably
drilled, in rows 8 to 14 inches wide. The amount of seed
to an acre depends on the size of the seed, which varies
according to variety. With the common horse bean about
4 bushels to an acre is used, a bushel weighing about 56
pounds.

For green feed the plants are cut when in bloom; for

2}

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 481

seed, when the lower pods turn black. The shocks are
allowed to cure about two weeks before thrashing.

Horse beans have found but a small place in American
agriculture. As a winter crop they succeed well in Cali-
fornia, where they are grown to some extent as a vegetable,
and have been used as a green-manure crop. On the north
Pacific Coast, where climatic conditions are much like
those of Europe, they also succeed well. The hardy
winter varieties will usually survive the winter if planted
in fall as far north as the District of Columbia. Farther
south they have, in some seasons at least, given splendid
results when thus planted, and would probably succeed
generally. If planted in the spring, they suffer severely
from hot summer weather, the herbage turning black.
Even as far north as Ontario they suffer from heat, and
after 15 years’ experimental work at the Ontario Agricul-
tural College, the conclusion is reached that the crop is not
to be recommended, as the results are usually unsatis-
factory. The best yield of seed, 29 bushels to an acre,
was secured in an unusually cool season.

In Germany, the yield of green feed to an acre ranges
from 14,000 to 20,000 pounds, and of seed from 25 to 50
_bushels. When grown for green feed, horse beans are
often mixed with peas or common vetch.

589. Bird or tufted vetch (Vicia cracca) is a perennial
species native to Eurasia, also occurring naturally in
North America from Newfoundland to New Jersey, west
to Minnesota and perhaps to Washington. Bird vetch
closely resembles hairy vetch, but the herbage is less
pubescent. In Europe bird vetch occurs as a weed in
grain fields, and the commercial seed is that separated
from the grain. It is commonly mixed with that of

Vicia hirsuta and Vicia tetrasperma.
21

482 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The adaptations and culture of the plant are essentially
the same as those of hairy vetch. At the Ontario Agri-
cultural College it produced yields of green forage during
2 years of 2.2 and 3.9 tons to an acre, somewhat more
than that produced by common vetch, but less than
that of hairy vetch.

The native form is sometimes abundant in moist mead-
ows in New England, but as it turns black in curing, is
not always welcomed.

590. The Tangier pea (Lathyrus tingitanus) is an annual
legume, native to North Africa, and similar in a general
way to the garden sweet pea, but much more vigorous in
growth. The flowers are deep red and smaller than the
sweet pea. As an ornamental the Tangier pea has long
been known. As a forage crop it was first grown and
recommended by Trabut in Algeria.

It is adapted to about the same conditions as the sweet
pea. In the North it must be planted in the spring; in
the South and on the Pacific Coast, in the fall. In com-
parison with the vetches and other annual legumes used
as winter green-manure crops in California, the Tangier
pea has proved to be much more vigorous in growth and
to choke out weeds perfectly. At the California Experi-
ment Station a yield of 9 tons of hay to an acre in a
single cutting has been recorded. Ordinarily, however, it
will not yield nearly so large a crop as this.

Both in the Southern States and in western Oregon the
Tangier pea has given very promising results.

The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and is nearly
as large as that of the field pea, though somewhat
flattened. If broadcasted, about 45 pounds of seed to an
acre is necessary ; if drilled, 30 pounds is sufficient ; very
excellent stands have been secured by using only 12 pounds

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 483

to the acre. On account of the enormous mass of rather
stout stems which the Tangier pea produces, it is not
advisable to plant

with oats or barley. (S
If, however, this is aN
done, the amount of aN

the seed should be
reduced one-half.

In regard to the
feed value of the
Tangier pea there
are but few data
available. However,
it is both palatable
and nutritious, and
no deleterious effects
have been noted
either in Algeria or
in this country.

Seed is produced
well both in western
Oregon and in Cali-
fornia, but the pods
shatter easily. The
principal difficulty is
the production of
seed cheaply enough
so that the crop can
be used in competition with other vetches, and its final
place in American agriculture will depend largely on this.

At the Puyallup, Washington, Station, Tangier peas
gave in a small plot a yield of 72.4 bushels of seed to
an acre.

Fic. 58. — Tangier pea.

484 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

As a spring-sown crop Tangier peas produced 2816
pounds hay to an acre at Dickinson, North Dakota, when
field peas produced but 1780 pounds.

591. Flat-podded vetchling ( Lathyrus cicera) isan annual,
native to the Mediterranean region, at least in Europe.
To asmall extent it is cultivated as fodder in Spain, France,
and Italy. Care must be taken in feeding, however, as
the seeds, if eaten in quantity, have a dangerous
effect.

The stems are weak; the leaves pale green with one
pair of leaflets, the upper with a simple tendril; flowers
red.

The flat-podded vetchling has made fine growth during
several years at Chico, California, when planted in fall.
It seems to possess no character, however, in which it is
superior to common vetch, and it is not likely to be much
grown. Planted at Arlington Farm, Virginia, in spring
the plants languish with the summer heat and die
without blooming.

592. Ochrus (Lathyrus ochrus) is an annual, native to
the Mediterranean region, where it is cultivated to a slight
extent for fodder, especially on the island of Crete and in
Catalonia, Spain. From all other cultivated species of
Lathyrus it is easily distinguished by the foliage, which
consists mainly of the broadened petioles, only the upper
leaves having 1 or 2 pairs of leaflets and a branched tendril.
The solitary flowers are bright yellow.

Ochrus has grown very well in California when planted
in fall. At Jackson, California, a small plot yielded at
the rate of 30,855 pounds green weight to an acre. In
plats at Chico, California, its behavior has not been
consistent, some years being very good, other years very
poor. At Puyallup, Washington, the average yield of

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 485

seed from 3 plats was 8.7 bushels to an acre. The plant
possesses no visible advantage over common vetch, and
there is no apparent reason why it should be recommended.

593. Comparison of vetch species. — On the Pacific
Coast all the vetch species are admirably adapted and in
California a number of them have been tested as green-
manure crops. In the data shown in the following table,
it will be observed that the yield of hairy vetch is small
if plowed under early, but if left to reach its maximum
erowth exceeds the other species. To a less degree
common vetch shows the same lack of ability to grow in
cool winter weather.

There is little to choose between the vetches in habit
and feeding quality where they all succeed well. On this
account preference is given mainly to those which have
good seeding habits, and consequently cheaper seed : —

YIELDS TO AN AcRE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF VETCHES IN

CALIFORNIA
SOUTHERN
CHICO CHICO CALIFORNIA | BERKELEY
SUBSTATION
SPECIES
Green Weight | Green Weight | Green Weight Green
March 18, 1908/March 16, 1909} June 4, 1909 Weight
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
Dine] ie 27,646 21,017 —
Purple vetch . 19,826 27,469 17,240 44,255
Woolly-pod
ViSTEN ns. ears 18,876 25,074 30,921
Hairy vetch . 11,616 5,880 32,670
Common vetch 7,623 2,831 25,410 SltaZ
Searlet veteh 18,150
Narbonne vetch —- —— 25,400 Ha
Horse bean P 10,890 21,130 68,970

Tangier pea. 13,794 12,840 a 34,485

486 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

OTHER LEGUMES

594. Fenugreek (Trigonella fenum-grecum) is a native
of the Mediterranean region of Europe, but extends to
central Asia and north Africa. As a cultivated crop it
is mainly grown in Turkey and India, and harvested prin-
cipally for the seeds, but in India the very young plants
are also used as a condiment. The seeds have a peculiar
characteristic odor and possess definite medicinal qualities.
Large quantities are imported into the United States to
use in ‘‘ condition powders ”’ for horses.

Fenugreek is an erect plant with usually several stems
from the same root. The leaves are clover-like, but the
pods are long and pointed. The plant is remarkably free
from insect enemies and diseases.

Fenugreek has thus far been found a useful plant in the
United States only in California, where in Ventura and
Orange counties it is now largely used as an orchard green-
manure crop. The recognition of its value for this
purpose dates back to 1903, when it was first distributed
by the California Experiment Station. It is best adapted
to the region near the seacoast, but has succeeded in all
the citrus districts of the state.

The yield of green matter to an acre compares favorably
with other legumes used for the purpose and the seed cost
for an acre is very low. At Santa Paula, California, the
green weight of fenugreek to an acre was estimated to be
11,745 pounds and common vetch 19,140 pounds; in the
San Joaquin valley a yield of 15,518 pounds green fenu-
greek to an acre is recorded.

Fenugreek prefers loam soils but is not very exacting.
In California the seed is sown either broadcast or drilled,
using 30 pounds to the acre, if for a green-manure crop.

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 487

The usual time for seeding is September in southern Cali-
fornia and October in northern California.

For seed production only 15 or 20 pounds to an acre
issown. ‘The crop is cut with a mower when the pods are
mature, cured in windrows, and thrashed with a grain
thrasher. Some care is necessary in curing to avoid loss
by shattering. The average yield of seed to an acre in the
best seed district is 1500 pounds. The seed weighs 60
pounds to the bushel.

595. Lupines (Lupinus spp.). — Several annual species
of lupine are much cultivated in southern and central
Kurope both as forage and green manure. The important
species are white lupine (Lupinus albus), Egyptian lupine
(L. termis), yellow lupine (L. luteus), and blue lupine
(L. angustifolius).

All of these species are adapted to a cool growing
season, and succeed best on sandy loams. They will not
endure much lime in the soil nor an undrained subsoil.
Light frosts are not injurious to the young seedlings.

Lupines are planted in early spring in northern coun-
tries, and in fall in regions where only light frosts occur.
They are utilized as pasturage, green feed, or hay for sheep
and goats, but other animals will not eat them on account
of their bitter taste. The bitter substances can be re-
moved from the hay by soaking in cold water, and when
thus treated the hay is eaten by cows and horses. The
seeds may be treated by boiling one hour and then
washing 24 hours in running water. This treatment
removes the bitter substances, but results in a loss of
about one-sixth of the dry matter. The disembittered
seeds furnish a rich proteid feed.

Lupines have often been tried in America but rarely
make satisfactory growth. This may be partly due to

488 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

lack of inoculation, but primarily because they cannot
well endure the hot summer weather in the eastern United
States.

Lupines have grown well in California when planted
in the fall, and fair results have been obtained in Michigan,
Massachusetts, Kentucky and Virginia when planted in
the spring. At the California Foothill Station white
lupines sown at the rate of 100, 150 and 200 pounds to
an acre gave green yields of 1739, 2193 and 3819 pounds
to an acre respectively. Ninety-five pounds of seed to
an acre drilled gave a green yield of 3348 pounds to
an acre, as compared to 3819-pounds obtained by broad-
casting at the rate of 200 pounds to an acre. A sowing
made October 22 yielded 4846 pounds of green herbage
to an acre, much more than that from earlier and later
seedings.

These yields are small compared with those secured in
Europe. The average yield in Germany is given as 3600
pounds hay to an acre. Maximum yields in favorable
seasons may reach 9000 pounds to an acre.

596. Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) is an annual legume
native to the Spanish Peninsula and Morocco. It is cul-
tivated for forage and green manure in Portugal, Spain,
France, and Germany, in the last country beginning with
1842. In America it has thus far found no place. It has
been tested in a small way at most of the experiment
stations, but only at one has it been deemed worthy of
recommendation. At the Massachusetts Experiment
Station it yielded 10 to 12 tons green weight to an acre,
containing 19 to 20 per cent water. It was there consid-
ered better than oats and vetch or cowpeas, and nearly
as good as soybeans. At Guelph, Ontario, the yield of
green forage was only 4.7 tons to an acre.

VETCHES AND VETCH-LIKE PLANTS 489

Serradella is a much-branched, slender-stemmed plant
with pinnate leaves, a stout tap root, umbeled rose-
colored flowers, and pods which break into joints, these
constituting the commercial seed. Each joint is reticu-
lated on the outside, but about one-fifth of these are
empty. Well-grown plants of serradella reach a height
of 2 feet.

Serradella is adapted primarily to moist sandy soils
and a cool growing season. Unlike its effect on many
other legumes, lime is not helpful but often deleterious
to its growth. The young plants will withstand several
degrees of frost in the spring, but not so much when in
bloom.

In Europe serradella is sown in early spring, either alone
on fall-sown rye or with spring-sown oats, using 40 to 60
pounds of seed to an acre. The seedlings grow very slowly
at first, except the root. If sown alone, it may be cut for
green feed by July. The first cutting of hay is made when
the blooming has nearly ceased, and a second cutting can
be made in the fall. The hay must be cured with great
care, as the leaflets fall off easily. The average yield of
hay in Germany is said by Werner to be 2500 to 5000
pounds to an acre.

Seed is harvested from the second cutting, and the
yields are said to range from 350 to 1200 pounds to
an acre.

Serradella may be found to be useful on moist sandy
lands in the northernmost states and in Canada, and per-
haps as a fall-sown crop in the extreme south. Many of
the failures with this plant have doubtless been due to
jack of inoculation.

597. Square-pod pea (Lotus tetragonolobus) is native
to the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, where

490 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

it has long been cultivated for the pods and seeds, which
are used as human food. It is also grown to a small
extent in England.

The plant is an annual with weak stems 12 to 18 inches
long; leaves trifoliolate; flowers handsome, scarlet;
pods dark colored with wings as broad as the body;
seeds large, ovate, brownish.

The square-pod pea requires much the same conditions
as the field pea, but is not so productive either of herbage
or of seed.

At the California Experiment Station this pea produced
on small plots yields of green herbage at the rates of 24 and
26 tons to an acre.

CHAPTER XXI

COW PEAS

THE cowpea is really not a pea at all but a bean, being
indeed the one most commonly cultivated for human
food in the Old World before the discovery of America.
Its ease of culture and productivity have combined to
make it popular in all the southern states.

598. Botanical origin. — The native home of the cow-
pea (Vigna sinensis) is doubtless Central Africa. Through-
out much of that continent occurs a wild plant differing
from the cultivated cowpea in having smaller seeds and
dark pods which coil in ripening. Hybrids of this wild
plant and the cowpea are readily obtained. Occasionally
the wild plant is cultivated by African tribes, but ordi-
narily the cultivated plants are modified, having straw-
colored pods and somewhat larger seeds. In no other
region have wild cowpeas been found.

Cultivated varieties of cowpeas occur through Africa
and over the southern half of Asia and the adjacent islands,
The large number and great diversity of the varieties over
this vast region indicate that its extended culture is very
ancient. There is, however, no direct evidence on this
point in the way of seeds from ancient temples or tombs.

599. Agricultural history. — In the old world, particu-
larly Africa and Asia, as well as the Mediterranean region

of Europe, the cowpea is of ancient cultivation for human
491

492 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

food. It is without doubt the phaseolus of Pliny, Colu-
mella and other Roman writers, but this name became
applied also to the kidney-bean following its introduction
into Europe from America. In Italy, however, the black-
eye cowpea is still called
by the same name as
kidney-beans, namely,
fagiolo.

The cowpea early be-
came introduced into
the West Indies and was
well known in Carolina
as early as 1775. Its
culture had extended to
Virginia by 1795, and
was probably general
early in the nineteenth
century.

In the United States,
the cowpea has always
been grown mainly as a
forage and restorative
crop, but the seeds,
particularly of the white
or nearly white-seeded
varieties, are commonly
used as human food,
especially in the South.

As early as 1822, several varieties are mentioned by
American writers, one of which, with buff-colored seeds,
was called the ‘‘ Cow ”’ pea. From this variety the name
has become extended to the whole crop.

600. Adaptations. — The cowpea is adapted to almost

Fic. 59. — Cowpea.

é
fe

COWPEAS 493

the same climatic conditions as corn. It requires, how-
ever, somewhat more heat, as corn will develop at least
to the “ roasting ear’ stage in regions too cool for cow-
peas. In drought resistance there is but slight difference,
but that is in favor of the cowpea.

The cowpea is not particular as to soil except that it
be well drained. It succeeds apparently quite as well on
sandy soils as on heavy clays. Both in spring and in fall
the leaves are injured by the least touch of frost, and a
heavy frost is always fatal. Cowpeas withstand moderate
shade, sufficiently so at least to be valuable to grow in
orchards. In heavy shade they are usually much subject
to mildew.

601. Importance. — The cowpea is the most important
legume grown in the area where cotton is cultivated.
The only statistics available are those which concern
seed-production. There were harvested for seed in the
Southern States 209,604 acres in 1909. This is probably
only a small fraction of the entire acreage planted.

602. Uses of the crop. — The ancient use of cowpeas
was as human food, and this is still the case in all Old
World countries where the crop is grown. In the United
States, varieties with white or nearly white seeds are
mainly grown for this purpose, though seeds of any variety
may be eaten. In California, blackeye cowpeas are grown
primarily for the seeds, being adapted to drier soils than
Lima beans.

Only in the United States are cowpeas grown mainly
for forage and green manure. As forage, it is especially
valuable because it will grow in all types of arable soil
as a short summer crop, requiring but little attention,
as it is able to smother most weeds, and producing most
excellent forage either for hay or pasture. Incidentally,

494 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

it is a splendid restorative crop, which has led to its
being largely used purely for green manure.

603. Varietal distinctions. — The varieties of cowpea
are very numerous. They are distinguished by various
characters, those of agronomic importance being the
habit, life-period, disease resistance and differences of
pods and seeds.

On the pod and seed characters, three subspecies have
been recognized, — namely, the catjang, with small erect
pods and small subcylindric seeds; the asparagus bean,
with very long inflated pods which in ripening collapse
about the kidney-shaped seeds; and the cowpea, with
pendent thick-walled pods which preserve their form, and
containing variously shaped seeds.

In habit the unsupported plant may be prostrate, lying
flat on the ground ; procumbent, the mass two to four times
as broad as high; low, half-bushy, the mass of vines once
or twice as broad as high; tall, half-bushy, the mass taller
than broad; erect, not at all vining and taller than broad.
From a forage standpoint, the half-bushy varieties are
most valuable, and when planted in corn or other support-
ing crop their vining habit asserts itself.

604. Life period. — The life period of the different
varieties — that is, the time from germination till the
plant is mature —is a matter of importance, especially
toward the northern limit of the crop. The cowpea is
indeterminate in growth — that is, under favorable condi-

tions of moisture and temperature, it continues to grow |

indefinitely — and the conditions which favor excessive
vegetative growth inhibit the formation of pods and seeds.
In other words, the fluctuating variation of the cowpea is
very great, and many writers have mistaken this for
hereditary variation. On this account, some arbitrary

ile Kae gS <a - 2 ae

COWPEAS 495

stage of maturity needs to be selected in order to compare
varieties. The dates that have been most used are when
the first pod is ripe and when the majority of the pods are
ripe, the latter date usually ten to fifteen days later than
the former.

The length of the life period varies slightly according to
season, but markedly depending on date of planting.
Thus, at the Tennessee Experiment Station, Mooers
found that the Whippoorwill cowpea varied in life period
as follows: Planted April 15, 183 days; May 1, 168 days;
May 15, 153 days; June 5, 132 days; June 17, 113 days;
June 29, 101 days.

In general, early varieties of cowpea will mature their
first pods in 70 to 90 days; mediwm varieties, in 90 to 100
days. Beyond this are all degrees of lateness, some tropi-
eal sorts not even coming to bloom under conditions in
Virginia, Mississippi or northern Florida.

605. Pods and seeds. — The greatest variation in cow-
peas occurs in the pods and seeds, characters of 1mportance
in distinguishing varieties. Considering only the true
cowpeas — that is, excluding the catjangs and asparagus
beans — they may be divided by their pod and seed char-
acters into two groups; namely, kidney and crowder.
Kidney cowpeas have their pods somewhat compressed,
and reniform or subreniform seeds. Crowder cowpeas
have thick-walled, terete pods, and globose, or, if much
crowded, somewhat disk-form, seeds. The crowder varie-
ties are not as numerous as the kidney, but nearly every
color of seeds that occur in the latter may be found in the
former. Cowpea pods are usually straw-colored, but in
a few varieties are purple, and in a single known variety
purple streaked.

The seeds closely resemble the common kidney-bean,

496 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and there is quite as wide a range in the color of the testa.
On uniformly colored seeds, the testa may be black,
brown, purple, buff, maroon, pink, or white; or where
more than one color is concerned, it may be speckled,
usually blue speckles on a buff or brown background ;
or marbled, commonly brown on buff or on maroon; or
both marbled and speckled. When the seed is not uni-
formly colored, the second color is concentrated about the
eye or hilum in various forms, or else blotched in an irregu-
lar saddle-shaped area. White cowpeas may be eyed or
blotched with any of the other colors, or the white may
be exposed only on a small spot at the chalazal end of the
seed. In all cowpeas, the germ is yellowish.

606. Correlations. — But few definite correlations of
characters have been observed in cowpeas, and much
breeding work is necessary before these can be considered
proven. As in all annual legumes, earliness is nearly
always associated with lessened growth. White-flowered
cowpeas have their seeds white or mainly so, or coffee-
colored. All other colors of seeds are associated with
purple flowers. Purple coloration of the leaves or of
the leaf-nodes is nearly always associated with purple
flowers.

607. Important varieties. — Among the very numerous
varieties of cowpeas, comparatively few are important
either commercially or agronomically. Unfortunately,
some of the commercial names are based wholly on the
color of the seed, and thus comprise a number of distinct
varieties under a single designation.

Whippoorwill. — Probably more than half of the
acreage of cowpeas in the United States is devoted to this
variety. It is easily distinguished by its subreniform
seeds, which are buff marbled with brown. This variety

PLATE VII.— Groir Cowpras In A BroabDcastED FIELD IN
VIRGINIA.

COWPEAS 497

is also called Shinney and Speckled. It has been known
in the United States for at: least seventy years.

Iron. — This variety became known first from Barnwell
County, South Carolina, in 1888. It is especially valuable
on account of its immunity to rootknot and wilt. The
seeds are rhomboid, buff in color, decidedly angular, and
harder than most cowpeas. It is perhaps on this account
that Iron volunteers to a greater extent than any other
important variety, the hard seeds resisting decay. ‘The
Iron is not a heavy seed producer.

New Era. — Among well-known varieties, this is the
most bushy in habit and earliest to mature, the first pods
ripening in about seventy-five days. The seeds are easily
recognizable, being small, rhomboidal, buff, thickly and
evenly sprinkled with minute blue specks.

Groit. — This is a cross between Whippoorwill and New
Era, the seeds sharing the coloration of both parents,
apparently superimposed on each other. It is larger and
more prolific than New Era, and on the whole the best
forage cowpea for states north of the cotton belt.

Brabham. — This is a cross between Iron and Whip-
poorwill, having the immunity of the former, and being
even more vigorous in growth than the latter. It is later
than either parent, and in sandy soils very prolific.

Clay. — This name is given commercially to any buff-
colored cowpea except Iron. There are several varieties
with such seeds, differing much in earliness and habit,
but most of them are quite viny. Those which mature
their first pods in about 90 days make up most of the seed
sold as Clay, while those which require 110 days or so
probably constitute the variety which appears in agronomic
literature as Wonderful or Unknown. None of the buff-

seeded varieties except Iron possesses especial merit.
2K

498 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Black. — Seedsmen sell all black-seeded cowpeas under
this name, but there are several varieties. The most
common are Early Black or Congo, maturing its first
pods in about 70 days, and ordinary Black, requiring
about 80 days. Both are decidedly viny, and somewhat
sprawling. Black is nevertheless popular in some sec-
tions because the seeds do not decay readily after ripen-
ing, even if they lie on moist earth.

Red Ripper. — Commercially all cowpeas with maroon
seeds are called Red Ripper, but there are at least eight
varieties with maroon seeds more or less widely grown. In
a general way, the maroon-seeded varieties closely resemble
those with buff seeds, and none possesses outstanding
merit.

Early Buff. — This is a new variety, the progeny of a
single seed obtained from Leghorn, Italy, in 1907. It is
a very prolific, half-bushy variety, maturing about two
weeks earlier than New Era. The first pods ripen in about
65 days. It is the earliest variety of over 300 tested at
Arlington Farm, Virginia, and should prove valuable at
the northern limit of cowpea culture.

Blackeye. — Varieties of cowpeas having the seed white
with a black spot at the hilum are mostly known as
Blackeye, but among American varieties several possess
such colored seeds. None of them has a bushy habit
such as is desirable for forage, but blackeyed varieties
are grown almost wholly for human food. It is probable
that the total acreage of blackeyed varieties is exceeded
by no other sort except Whippoorwill.

608. Rate and method of seeding. — Cowpeas, when
planted alone, are sown broadcast, drilled, or in broad
rows to be cultivated. When broadcasted, one or two
bushels to an acre are planted; if drilled, five pecks

COWPEAS 499

to an acre is very satisfactory; while in three-foot
rows, fifteen to twenty pounds is sufficient.

Formerly cowpeas were often planted in grain stubble
without further preparation of the ground. This practice
is now much less common, special preparation of the soil
being the rule. On account of higher seed prices, as well
as better yields of both hay and seed, planting in cul-
tivated rows is becoming more popular. When thus
planted, two or three cultivations are necessary.

At the Arkansas Experiment Station, six varieties of
cowpeas were sown at rates varying from 6.25 pounds to
100 pounds to an acre. The highest average yield of hay
was produced from 25 pounds of seed. The heaviest
yields of hay varied to a considerable extent with the
variety and amount of seed sown, ranging with the
Whippoorwill from 12.5 pounds of seed to the Taylor from
100 pounds of seed. In another experiment with the
same varieties, it was found that the best seed yields
were secured by sowing not less than 12.5 nor more
than 37.5 pounds to an acre.

At the North Carolina Experiment Station in a three
years’ test of different quantities of seed in 3% foot rows
with the New Era variety the best yields of hay were
secured by planting one-half bushel of seed to an acre.

609. Time of seeding. — Cowpeas should never be
sown before the ground becomes well warmed. It is
never advisable to sow them before corn planting time,
and usually it is better to delay sowing at least two weeks
later. After this time they can be sown whenever moisture
conditions are favorable. The latest date for profitable
sowing is about ninety days before the first killing frost.

Early sowings are unprofitable because the seed is apt
to decay in the soil, but even if a perfect stand is secured,

500 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the growth is very slow until hot weather comes. Thus,
Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station found that
Whippoorwill cowpeas sown April 15, May 1, May 15,
June 5, June 17, and June 29, all became fully mature at
about the same date; namely, the middle of October.
The earliest sowing required 183 days to mature, while
the latest needed but 101 days.

If grown primarily for hay, the time of planting should
be regulated so that the crop is ready to cut at the time
weather conditions are best. Through most of the cotton
region rains are less frequent in September and October
than earlier.

610. Inoculation. —It is rarely necessary to apply
bacteria for the production of the cowpea, as natural
inoculation is quite generally distributed throughout the
Southern States.

At the Michigan Experiment Station, investigations
were conducted to learn the influence of nodules on the
composition of the cowpea. The following table gives
the composition of the dry matter in the leaves, stems,
and roots of inoculated and not inoculated cowpeas : —

f
D 12 -
Maren ae mee AsH Putoxic PorasH
Inoculated : Per Cent| Per Cent |PerCent pe Cent |\PerCent
Leaves . . .| 220.61 /|27.08| 4.33 | 16.38 ay | 1.63
Stems . . .|220.21/17.938| 2.87 | 12.40 .65 5
* Thoots: 2. = «171.157 5.62 89 5.38 .62 1.32
Not inoculated
Leaves . .. . | 238.41 | 21.52| 3.48 | 18.30 87 1.20
Stems . . .|3815.44|10.47| 1.67 9.73 .83 2.04
Roots . . .| 62.75) 12.34): 1.97 8.57 61 Dee

ee

COWPEAS 501

611. Number of cuttings. — Under favorable conditions,
cowpea plants will sprout again from the base — indeed,
this will take place indefinitely in a greenhouse plant, but
the growth becomes greatly reduced. A second crop of
hay, or at least considerable pasturage, is sometimes se-
cured if good moisture conditions follow the first cutting,
as happens not uncommonly near the Gulf coast. Ordi-
narily, however, but a single cutting of the crop can be
made.

612. Hay. — Cowpeas should not be cut for hay until
the first pods are ripe, and the cutting may be delayed
until considerably later. After the pods begin to ripen,
the leaflets are more likely to fall off, especially if the
plants are attacked by leaf-spot or rust. Unless these
diseases are serious, the cutting can be delayed until
many of the pods are ripe. If these are promptly picked,
a continuous succession of pods will be formed.

Cowpeas planted thickly, or even in three-foot rows,
support each other so that they can be cut with an ordinary
mower, to which it is desirable to add a bunching attach-
ment. A self-rake reaper is also excellent to harvest
cowpeas. The vining varieties like Clay, Black, and Red
Ripper are less easily handled than the more bunchy |
varieties like Whippoorwill and New Era.

Cowpeas have rather succulent leaves and thick stems,
so that they are not easily cured except in very favorable
weather. Also the large leaflets are inclined to mat
together. In hay making, it is common to use some type
of shock supporter, as this greatly aids the final stages of
curing. In curing, the especial points to guard against
are permitting the leaves to become too dry in the swath
before raking into windrows, as loss of leaves may result ;
and making the cocks too large, as the moist stems are

502 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

apt to favor mildewing, especially of the pods. Even
with favorable weather, quick curing is impossible owing
to succulency of the stems and green pods. Should the
hay be wetted by rain at any stage of curing, it should
not be handled again until the surface is well dried.

Even when poorly cured —or indeed, moldy and
decayed — cowpea hay is eaten by animals, a partial
compensation for the difficulty of curing it satisfactorily.

It will be noted that the percentage of protein, and fat,
as well as of the ash and fiber increases from first bloom
until the pods are fully formed, while the carbohydrates
decrease markedly. Chemical composition, therefore,
agrees with other considerations in indicating that the
best time to cut cowpeas for hay is when the first pods
become mature. The fiber of the cowpea vines when
mature is fairly strong and from time to time its use as a
textile has been suggested.

In the following table is shown the composition of the
cowpea at different stages of growth : —

TABLE SHOWING CoMPOSITION OF CowPpEA Hay AT DIFFERENT
STAGES oF Maturity. WaATER-FREE

NITROGEN-
STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT PROTEIN; Fat FIBER FREE ASH
EXTRACT
Per Cent |Per Cent| Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent
Full bloom 17.86 | 4.04 | 18.39 | 52.28 | 7.48
Pods forming . 19.93 | 3.06.| 18:52.) 505s 7.91
Pods formed 21.38. | 5.01 | 29.05> | 132459 197

613. Hay yields. — The yield of cowpea hay ranges
from one to three tons to the acre, varying according to
variety, soil and weather conditions.

COWPEAS 503

TABLE SHOWING ACRE YIELD IN PouNDS OF CowPpEA Hay aT
Various EXPERIMENT STATIONS

<
| iy A é
< % = | << < n a cI A °
ae aoe eae ae cig mee ue
VARIETY Py < a is a Zz a | § = ie)
< id 4 i] = a zB | e ive
Seow eal ee Be
ie Sal = Zi a
i: Z
Whippoorwill . Sy te 2720 3297 3850/ 16892 4476 5260 2880 3720 3424
Clay... . . . .. . (2852/4872/3960)20664/4219 3880 2556/3660) 16600|3688
Unknown . . . . [381438}38990|/——}21730 2916 14000|5200
New Era... .. .. . |2310/2756)/3620) —— |3893)/4280| 2628/3660! 14600/2727
Itong, 804s) a ee aleZONS 3700 4877 2160/3350] 16200|3872
Red Ripper... ._ . |8720)4230|——|25256 2350|4270| —— |3339
Black . . . . . .. . |2239/2702/3190|21812|——|4460/2090/4420/11000/3175
sanvlorests af © ah as 13041/3270 —|4940 2420| ——
Large Blackeye . . . . |——!/2803 16400 4340) 2090/3290) 15000/2560
Extra Early Blackeye . . |1416)1628)2650| —— |2769|——}|1369 3050 2602
Michigan Favorite . .) . |—— 3450} —— |4325|——|——|3350|13600)|2400
Groit re —._ |—— | —— |— 13350

614. Feeding value. — The high feeding value of cow-
pea hay has long been recognized and it has been used
extensively for all kinds of stock. It is particularly high
in protein, and where properly cared for, furnishes one of
the cheapest feeds for the modern farm.

Experiments in the feeding of cowpea hay in compari-
son with other feeds have been repeatedly made at various
experiment stations throughout the country. The Ten-
nessee Station found that 6 to 10 pounds of cowpea hay
could be substituted for 3 to 5 pounds of cotton-seed meal
in beef production. In the production of milk and butter
this station reports that 14 pounds of chopped pea hay is
equivalent to one pound of wheat bran, and 3 pounds of

1Green weight.

504 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

chopped pea hay to one pound of cotton-seed meal. Ina
comparison of cowpea hay with timothy hay for wintering
yearlings, 1t was found that the steers made nearly 50 per
cent better gains where the cowpea hay was used. In a
three months’ test at the North Carolina Experiment
Station with two Percheron mares used as a team, the
rations differed only in the use of 10 pounds of cowpea
hay in one and the same quantity of wheat bran in the
other. The horse fed bran just held its own, while the
animal fed cowpea hay gained a little.

The high price of cowpea seed prevents its use as a feed,
although its composition indicates that it is a richer feed
than wheat bran. Excellent results were obtained -
by the Alabama Experiment Station by feeding cowpea
seed to fattening hogs. More lean meat was found in the
bodies of the pigs fed cowpeas than in those fed corn meal
only. Cracked or split seeds, and also whole seeds have
been fed to poultry with splendid results. Not only were
the fowls kept in good condition, but a good production
of eggs resulted, even in the winter months.

The straw obtained when cowpea seed is secured by run-
ning the vines through a thrashing machine is valuable as
feed. Certain types of machines chop the straw so that
it is in fine condition for feed. There is, however, lack
of experimental data with regard to the feeding value of
this straw. Reports from farmers and others who have
fed the straw indicate that it is an excellent feed.

615. Cowpeas in broadcast mixtures. — To furnish
support to the vines as well as to facilitate curing, cowpeas
are often planted in combination with some other crop.
When broadcasted or drilled, millet, sorghum, Johnson-
grass, or soybeans may thus be used. The ideal mixture
would be a stiff-stemmed easily curing grass that matures

COWPEAS 505

with the cowpea. Such a grass would prevent matting
_ of the leaves, and otherwise promote aeration and drying
of the shocks. None of the above-named plants quite
fulfills these requirements. Millet of any variety matures
earlier than the cowpea, and often is too small for support.
Amber sorghum is excellent from the standpoint of size
and time of maturity, but the juicy stems do not cure
easily. Johnson-grass is excellent wherever it is not objec-
tionable as a weed. The newly introduced Sudan-grass
promises to be exactly what is needed. Soybeans help
support the cowpeas, and with proper choice of variety,
simultaneous maturity is easily secured, but the mixture
does not cure much more easily than cowpeas alone.

In seeding such mixtures, enough seed should be used
to secure a half stand, or better, of each. One bushel of
cowpeas and half a bushel of Amber sorghum an acre gives
excellent results ; if, millet is used, 15 to 20 pounds is suffi-
cient. Johnson-grass seed is so poor in quality as a rule
that at least a bushel should be used, with a bushel of
cowpeas to an acre. Where a soybean-cowpea mixture
is used, better results are usually secured if the former
predominates, using one bushel of soybeans and one-half
bushel of cowpeas to the acre.

616. Cowpea mixtures not broadcasted. — Cowpeas
are very widely used for planting in between the rows of
corn. When thus used, the seed is sown at the rate of
about three pecks an acre after the last cultivation of the
corn. Usually the crop is allowed to mature, and some of
the pods picked, and the remainder of the crop is pastured.
In some regions, however, the cowpeas are cut for hay
after the corn has been harvested. If this is done, it is
desirable to cut the corn stems close to the ground, as
otherwise the stubble will interfere with a mower. Where

!

506 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

the corn is not cut close to the ground, heavy wooden
rakes are sometimes used to harvest cowpea vines.

Another method of sowing cowpeas in corn is to plant
the seed close to the corn plants after the last cultivation
of that crop. The cowpea vines then climb up the corn
stalks and add materially to the amount of herbage.
When the mixture is thus grown, it is usually preserved
as silage. The cowpeas add considerably to the value
of the silage, but also increase somewhat the difficulty
of harvesting, as the vines bind the corn stalks together.

617. Growing cowpeas for seed. — The great bulk of
the cowpea seed grown in the United States is hand-picked.
When this is done, the vines should be picked over two
times in order to secure the maximum yields. Hand-pick-
ing, however, necessarily means a high price for the seed.

The vines may be cut when half or more of the pods
are ripe. The riper the pods, the more easy the curing,
but the less valuable the residual straw for feed. The
mowing is very satisfactorily done with a self-rake reaper.
If this is not available, an ordinary mowing machine may
be used, but it is very desirable to use with it a bunching
attachment. Bean harvesters which cut the stems just
beneath the surface of the ground are very satisfactory in
sandy soils, but not in clay soils.

In thrashing cowpeas with an ordinary grain separator
many of the seeds are cracked even when the speed of the
cylinders is much reduced. The vines too are inclined to
wrap about the cylinders, necessitating frequent stoppings.
The use of sharpened teeth on the cylinders or concaves
or both prevents this clogging, and also greatly reduces
the percentage of seeds cracked.

618. Pollination. The cowpea is completely self-
fertile, flowers protected from insects setting pods normally.

EE ee a

COWPEAS 07

Insect visitors are numerous, but they are attracted mainly
to the extra-floral nectaries at the base of each flower.
Natural cross-pollination is usually very rare, but in a few
localities, as at the Michigan Experiment Station, occurs
abundantly. This is probably due to bumblebees, but
exact observations are lacking. Through such chance
crosses the majority of American varieties of cowpeas
have probably arisen.

619. Seed yield. — Varieties of cowpeas vary strikingly
in their seed production, the bunch varieties usually yield-
ing more seed than the trailing sorts. Moreover, the
yield of seed with the same variety varies greatly from
year to year, depending upon weather conditions and
according to locality. In favorable seasons, good produc-
ing varieties yield from fifteen to thirty bushels to the
acre, while in unfavorable seasons the same varieties may
yield only five to ten bushels to the acre.

TABLE SHOWING ACRE YIELD oF CowPEA SEED AT VARIOUS
EXPERIMENT STATIONS

4 2 rel < <

a) 212/48] ¢]2¢)8/,21.2

a Z B O a < 5 Malwa

VARIETY 0 < < 2 < D n |Hol|a0

< i A ) 5 4 n | & me) 5 wR

rE “| @ a ~ |g | OS th6

< <q a) O a a A |AO|wne

Bu. | Bu. | Bu. | Bu. | Bu. | Bu. | Bu. | Bu. | Bu.

Whippoorwill. Jess) ey 6 2245) 25.6)1 13.2) |95 3518.3 1 tts) 1a Oe? 1.13.8

@layats. «9 92. = « 6 ce) 4 WLOS 1-98) 6.6343" 5.31010 | 14 Zo 1363
Wmknowmne ve 60 ne te os aI a2 30.5 8.8

New Era Sten ay et. eee 203929 oeG 14.0 | 12.4 | 14.0} 11.9 | 24.2

IrOnMRee see FCs Bete 7.4 6.3 59. 9s 9 OFS
IVEGMEVIPDEI sige) = te ey L928: le PAT let 8.3] 8.9

Black I ie ec a fe eet I i LES a7 7 fae in et) TTA TS .6 13.0

Malone i ees, ay ee 236.119.9195 4:9 11.9 11.5

Marge Blackeye . . . . .|17.0| 23.61] 5.6/31.3 12.7} 14.8], 9.8] 21.7

Iixtra Early Blackeye . . ./16.4/29.1] 5.4 14.2 10.6} 9.2] 9.9
Michigan Favorite ... . 8.2 19.3) 11.2) 11.4] 7:9

CROLUM EE tsetse gE: 8.2 14.8

508 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

620. Proportion of seed and hulls. — The method of
gathering seed by hand, where the peas are planted in
corn, is a very common practice throughout the South.
Fields grown to cowpeas alone for seed-production are
often hand picked. Generally the pods are picked at a
price for each hundred pounds. From the results obtained
at the Alabama and Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
Stations, it appears that the proportion of seed and hulls
varies according to the variety and locality.

TABLE SHOWING PouUNDsS oF CowPEA SEED IN 100 Pounpbs
oF Pops

Ala- Ar- ; Ala- Ar-

Variety bama | kansas vere, bama | kansas

Large White Crowder | 83 | 75.0 || Whippoorwill | 73 | 67.3

Large Blackeye . .| 77 | 71.2 || New Era .. .| 73 96s
MavlOr pe) .| 77 | 64.7 || Red Ripper .| 71 | 66.0
Ex. Early Blackeye 76 | 75.0 || Wonderful .| 70

Blacks 2705, 2s | 76 |.638.2\\ Tron... | SCOR Gare

Lady <. . « . « |) 74 | 63:2 |WClay . 2) 2 shOsgei Sees

621. Seeds. — Cowpea seed is usually considered to
weigh 60 pounds to the bushel, but this varies consid-
erably according to the variety. On the basis of 60 pounds,
the number of seeds to the bushel has been calculated by
Duggar, by Newman and by Morse. Duggar used the
weight of 100 seeds as a basis, while Newman counted the
number in one ounce, and Morse counted the number in
three samples of one ounce each. The largest seeded
varieties contain less than 100,000 seeds to the pound,
while the smallest seeded catjangs contain five times as
many. The common commercial varieties average about
150,000 seeds to the pound. The figures for standard
and other varieties are shown in the following table : —

COWPEAS 509

CowrpraA SEEDS, NUMBER TO THE OUNCE AND BUSHEL AND
Wericut or 100 Sreps oF DIFFERENT VARIETIES

SEEDS IN ONE WrIcHT ‘
ene Onsen Pees SEEDS IN 60 PouNnps
Newman] Morse Duggar | Duggar | Newman] Morse
Grams
Black Crowder .| —— 102 97120
Taylor epee lh PLOW 117 | 28.72 | 946384) 102720 | 112320
BlackyA.42" ~| SAL 149 | 22.07 | 123153 13853860 | 148040
Red Ripper . .| 164 151 | 20.89 | 1380110} 157440 | 144960
Unknown a ele ale 179 | 18.86 | 144117 | 164160 | 171840
Glas .. 2 <1 S165 181 | 17.86 | 151629} 158400 | 173760
Whippoorwill 162 195 | 17.98 | 150621) 155520 | 187200
Gro oe re Va l=. 02 193920
OMG jeremy. > ep.) 4 4: 240 186240 | 230400
Now alutay iit sil eee 278 | 11.49 | 236545 | 214080 | 266880
Catjang, 21295 D 324 311040
Catjang, 25144 | 491 471360

Small-seeded varieties like New Era are cheaper on
account of the greater number of seeds, and because the
percentage of broken seeds is usually less. This fact is
becoming recognized by seedsmen, and therefore a slightly
higher price is asked for small-seeded varieties. , One
bushel of New Era contains nearly 50 per cent more seeds
than the same measure of Whippoorwill.

622. Viability. — Seed not properly cured or stored
quickly loses its viability. For this reason a germination
test is always advisable.

Good seed, especially of small-seeded varieties, may re-
tain its viability for several years. The following table
gives the germination of seed kept for various periods of
time in a storeroom : —

510 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

VIABILITY OF CoWPEA SEEDS OF STANDARD VARIETIES WHEN
4, 7 anp 10 YEARS OLD

Srrp 4 SEED 7 SrEp 10

VARIETY YEARS Otp | YEARS OLD | YEARS OLD
Per cent Per cent Per cent
Whippoorwill, “ast ee 96.0 93.5 79.5
INOW: Era)... se. co. Sean eee eet 13.0 61.0 18.0
15270) 2 ihe Maer Cr ae ian) SA eg ia 60.5 ies 14.5
Clay Crowder. ie. (eae. ete 42.0 42.0 9.0
OE a ck ae te Aerts iin 38.0 8.0 1.5
Blacks oye vie EAP ae si 79.0 82.0 ——
MavlOny ae tee. ta Okan Leeatos eae os 50.0 26.9 0.0
Blackeye won enter iet “lee wee os 22.0 3.9 0.0
hed@Ripper- We. ass s 35 O25 0.0
Groit SO ena cen mie og se ee 0.0 0.0 0.0
Michigan Favorite . . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0
Extra Early Blackeye . . . 0.0 0.0 0.0

Ordinarily, however, seed over two years old has lost
much of its viability. Seeds which have been wetted or
which are dead become duller and darker in color; there-
fore uniformly bright colored seeds should be selected.

623. Root system. — The root system of the cowpea
is deep for an annual, there being a well-developed tap-
root with a number of large branch roots. These roots
spreading horizontally for a short distance, go deeply
into the subsoil, thus enabling the plant to draw freely
upon the minerals and water below the reach of the shal-
lower-rooted crops.

At the Storrs Connecticut Experiment Station, an
investigation was conducted upon the amount of stubble
and roots, and distribution of the roots of the cowpea.
The following table gives the amount of roots at different
depths : —

Se ae ea eee Ce ee ee teh, er aN Beas ae

Upper Left.
Center Left.
Lower Left.
Upper Right.
Lower Right.

PGATHAVauLE,

SEEDS OF TEN VARIETIES OF SOYBEANS;
SEEDS OF TEN VARIETIES OF CowPras;
SEEDS OF SIx VARIETIES OF VELVET-BEANS
Pop or FLoripa VELVET-BEAN;

Pop or Yoxouama Bran.

’

COWPEAS let

Stubble and first 6 in. of roots lene om | O12 bin aere
Secona (6.1n. of roots:( 6-12 in.) . 0... . . 45 lb. an acre
Avner GO In. OMnOObSsIa-Loans). eo a! 54 lb. an acre
Rourth 6 ins of roots (1S—24eim:)... ~. -. . 34 Ib. an acre
High. 6.1n.of roots (24=50 me) 3). 4 a 63 lb. an acre
Sixth |G in. OL. roots (S0—s01in.) .< % ©. «6. 59 Ib. an acre
Seventh 6 in. of roots (86-42 in.). . . . . 40 lb. an acre

At the Delaware Experiment Station, it was found that
the cowpea did not have more than 10 per cent of the total
weight in the roots.

624. Disease resistance. — In the United States, only
two diseases of the cowpea can be considered serious ;
namely, rootknot, caused by the nematode (Heterodera
radicicola) ; and wilt, caused by a Fusarium on the roots.
The Iron variety — first found in Barnwell County, South
Carolina, a region infested by these diseases — is almost
perfectly immune to both. Orton has found that the
immunizing character is transmitted to crosses. One
such cross, the Brabham, whose parents are Iron and
Whippoorwill, has become very popular in the Atlantic
coastal region of the Southern States.

Several other diseases attack the cowpea, — among
them rust (Uromyces phaseoli), white leaf-spot (Amero-
sportum economicum), red leaf-spot (Cercospora cruenta)
and mildew (Sphaerotheca sp.). Most standard varieties
of cowpeas are immune to rust, and the other diseases are
rarely serious on the best varieties.

625. Insect enemies. — The leaves of cowpeas are more
or less subject to attack by various insects, but this damage
is seldom serious.

The seeds, however, are much subject to injury by two
species of weevil (Pachymerus chinensis and P. quadri-
maculatus) whose habits are practically identical. The
weevil lays its eggs on the pods of the cowpea in the field

512 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

or on the seeds when in storage. The greatest amount of
damage is done when the peas are in storage. Each female
lays as arule 1 egg on a seed, but this does not deter other
females from doing the same. The larva upon hatching
burrows into the seed, if necessary first penetrating the
pod. Under very favorable conditions the whole life
cycle from egg to adult may take place in 18 days, but
under ordinary conditions 30 days or more is required.
Under indoor conditions at Washington, D.C., 6 or 7
broods occur ina year. This rapid reproduction continues
until all the peas are practically all destroyed.

Fumigation by carbon bisulfide is probably the best
method of destroying the weevils in stored seeds. The
seeds are put in an airtight bin or other receptacle and
fumigated 48 hours, using 2 to 3 pounds of carbon bisul-
fide for each 1000 cubic feet of space. The bisulfide
is poured in shallow pans or dishes on top of the seed, and
as the gas volatilizes, it sinks between the seeds, as it is
heavier than air. When the fumigation is complete,
the seed should be thoroughly aired, as otherwise the
germination may be affected.

CHAPTER XXII

SOYBEANS

THE soybean is the most productive as regards seed of
any legume adapted to temperate climates. This fact
alone gives the crop a high potential importance and in-
sures its greater agricultural development in America. At
the present time the soybean is most largely grown for
roughage, but the high value of the seed for human food,
as well as animal feed and for oil, will in all probability
result in its being more and more grown for the seed.

626. Agricultural history. — The soybean, or soja-bean,
is a plant of ancient cultivation in Japan, China, Korea
and Manchuria, and to a much less extent in northern
India and in the highlands of Java. As grown in these
countries, it is used mainly for human food, the beans
being prepared in various ways. A large amount of the
beans are utilized by first extracting the oil. In this
case the bean cake is used both for cattle food and as a
fertilizer.

The soybean was first cultivated in the United States
in 1829, but it apparently attracted but little attention
until 1854, when two varieties were brought back from
Japan by the Perry expedition. Other varieties were
introduced from time to time, among them the Mammoth,
which was introduced previous to 1882. It is largely due
to the introduction of this variety that the soybean has

become an important crop in the United States, as a very
21L- 5138

514 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

large percentage of the acreage is still planted to this
variety. Between the years 1900 and 1910, the United
States Department of Agriculture introduced about 250
varieties from all portions of the Orient. In Europe a
number of varieties were introduced by Haberlandt of
Vienna in 1875, who experimented with them for a num-
ber of years. The crop,
QR. A however, never obtained
. any great importance in
Kurope, but is cultivated
to a limited extent, espe-
cially in France and
Italy.
~ Beginning with 1908,
large amounts of soy-
beans were exported from
Manchuria to Europe
and the United States.
The beans were utilized
for extracting the oil,
which was used for vari-
ous industrial purposes,
and the bean cake was
Fia. 60.— Soybean. used as cattle food. This
trade has had the effect
of increasing interest in the soybean crop, especially from
the standpoint of producing seed.

The total yield of seed in Manchuria during 1909 is
estimated at 2,000,000 tons, of which over one-half is
exported as seed, and three-fourths of the remainder as
oil cake.

627. Botany. — The erect or nearly erect form of the
soybean, as cultivated in Japan and Manchuria, is not

ay)

SS bs \\"
i) Hy . ;
NW Wa ee
SRN 2 SU \ WG gee
= Ni. ~ ax x 7,
\
= i Ny
Sa p ih
See b a4
4 ny we il
SAF (9)
aan Pe. 4 ay
A 5 ih
“2 Pt ee! |v Wy
yee: —— .

SOYBEANS 515

known to grow wild. The nearest wild relative of the
cultivated plant is a slender-stemmed vining plant with
smaller flowers, pods and seeds. This has usually been
considered a distinct species under the name of Glycine
ussuriensis, and occurs wild in Japan, Manchuria and
China. The Indian varieties of soybeans are quite inter-
mediate between this wild plant and the Japanese and
Manchurian varieties, being for the most part rather
slender-stemmed, vining, small-flowered and small-seeded
varieties. A critical study of an extensive series of
varieties shows that all intergrades between the wild
plant and the cultivated erect forms exist, so that there
ean be but little doubt that but one species is represented.
The usual botanical designation for this species is Gly-
cine soja, but under recent botanical codes it must be
changed to Soja max. If two species are to be recognized,
then both are cultivated, as some of the Indian varieties
are much more like the wild soybean than they are like
the erect Japanese varieties. The large number of varieties
of the soybean and the great range of differences in these
varieties indicate a very ancient cultivation.

The flowers of the soybean are small, white or purple,
and borne on short axillary racemes, which usually bear
eight to fifteen flowers in a cluster, but the number may be
as high as thirty-five.

The pods of most varieties are compressed, though some
are nearly terete, each bearing two or three seeds, or rarely
four. The pods vary in length according to variety from
three-quarters of an inch to three inches, and there may
be considerable variation even on the same plant. The
pods are commonly borne in clusters of three to five, in
extreme cases as many as twelve. On single plants over
400 pods have been counted. The pods are gray or tawny

516 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

or sometimes black. Gray pods always bear gray pubes-
cence, while the tawny pods have tawny pubescence.
Black pods may have either color as to pubescence.

The variation in the seeds of the soybean is very great.
Some are nearly globose, others much flattened, but the
great majority are elliptical in outline, the thickness
less than the breadth. The largest seeded sorts contain
about 2000 seeds to the pound, while the smallest seeded
contain about 7000. The color of the testa shows the fol-
lowing range of colors: straw yellow, olive yellow, olive,
green, brown and black. In a very few varieties, the
testa may be bicolored. Among such combinations are
green or yellow with a saddle of black, and brown and
black in concentric bands. On heterozygote plants, the
seeds are often irregularly two-colored, but these do not
breed true. The embryo or germ may be either yellow
or green. It is green in all the green-seeded varieties and
in some of the black-seeded ones, in all others being
yellow.

628. Description. — The soybean is an annual, and
strictly determinate in growth; that is, the whole plant
reaches maturity as the pods ripen, and no further growth
takes place. Most of the cultivated varieties are erect
and branching, the main axis being well defined. With
few exceptions such varieties have decidedly stout stems.
In other sorts the stems and branches are somewhat
twining and weak, so that the plant is more or less procum-
bent. All intergrades between these types of growth
exist, some sorts being slender-stemmed with the branches
more or less twining. The height of the stem varies accord-
ing to the variety from six inches to six feet. In general,
the earliest varieties are the most dwarfed.

All soybeans are hairy plants, no smooth variety being

ee

SOYBEANS olln

known. The hairiness occurs in two colors, grayish and
tawny. The tawny pubescence is nearly always associated
with dark-colored pods and usually with purple flowers.

The leaves of the soybean show large variation in size,
shape and color. The leaflets are usually ovate-lanceo-
late, but in some varieties are narrowly lanceolate or
almost linear. In broad-leaved varieties they may be
nearly orbicular. With few exceptions the leaves of the
soybeans begin to turn yellow as the pods ripen and usually
all have fallen by the time the pods are mature. In afew
sorts, however, the leaves persist and retain their green
color even after all of the pods have ripened.

629. Soil adaptations. — Soybeans are not particular
in their soil requirements. Even on poor soil they will
make a satisfactory growth, provided they are inoculated,
but on such soils the growth is rarely as good as is made
by cowpeas. They succeed best on loams and clays, but
the Mammoth variety also does admirably on sandy or
silty soils. They are not sensitive to an excess of moisture,
although they will not thrive in a soil where water stands
for any considerable length of time. In marked contrast
to their ability to grow on wet soils is the fact that the
soybean is also decidedly drought resistant, much more
so than cowpeas. Unfortunately, however, rabbits are
very fond of the soybean, and in the semi-arid regions the
danger of damage from these animals is a serious dis-
advantage.

630. Climatic adaptations. — In the United States, soy-
beans show almost exactly the same range of climatic
adaptation as varieties of corn. Early varieties will
mature northward wherever corn will mature. South-
ward, however, the soybean does not seem to be adapted
to as extreme climatic conditions as the corn; for example,

518 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

under Florida conditions, soybeans seldom grow normally.
In southern Louisiana it is a common phenomenon for
the Mammoth soybean to make a satisfactory growth,
but the pods do not fill. Some very late varieties tested
at Arlington Farm, Virginia, failed to bloom when killed
by frost at the end of 150 days. Such varieties were
mainly from the highlands of northern India, where a
much longer growing season occurs.

Soybeans will withstand considerable frost, both when
young and old. Some varieties will in the fall withstand |
temperatures as low as 27° Fahrenheit without serious
injury to the leaves. If the pods are fairly well filled
before a killing frost occurs, they will usually ripen
satisfactorily.

631. Importance. — The soybean has been slowly but
steadily increasing in importance in America during the
past 20 years. Its relative importance is less than that
of either the field pea or the cowpea.

632. Desirable characters in soybean varieties. — As
the number of soybean varieties is very large, and as new
sorts are easily secured by crossing, the most desirable
characters, both for forage and for seed-production, need
to be considered. In this crop as in others, yield is the
most important single desideratum. Secondary consider-
ations are habit, coarseness, ability to hold leaves, color
of seed and ease of shattering. |

An ideal variety for forage should be erect; tall, so that
the pods are not too near the ground; slender, but without
tendency to lodge, so as to permit easy mowing; leafy
and with the ability to retain the leaves late; yellow-
seeded, as hogs will find such seeds as are shattered more
readily; non-shattering, a character more common in
small-seeded than in larger-seeded varieties; disease

SOYBEANS 519

resistant, especially to nematodes and cowpea wilt, which
seriously affect most varieties of the soybean.

For seed-production alone, percentage of oil content
is second in importance to yield, and leafiness and ability
to hold leaves of practically no concern.

633. Commercial varieties. — At the present time Apo
fifteen varieties of soybeans are handled commercially
by seedsmen, the most important of which are Mammoth,
Hollybrook, Haberlandt, Medium Yellow, Guelph, Ito
San, Wilson and Peking.

Mammoth. — This is a tall late variety, under average
conditions growing from three to five feet high, and strictly
bushy in habit. At the present time probably two-thirds
of the acreage of soybeans of the United States is devoted
to this variety. On account of its lateness, it will not
usually mature seed north of the District of Columbia and
Kentucky. This variety was introduced prior to 1882,
but there is no record as to its exact source. The seeds
are yellow, one pound containing about 2100. The pubes-
cence is gray, and the flowers are white.

Hollybrook. — The Hollybrook soybean matures 15 to
20 days earlier than the Mammoth. The plants are very
compact, the pods being densely crowded. The pubes-
cence is gray, but both white and red-flowered strains
occur. The seeds are yellow, very much like Mammoth,
2100 weighing one pound. The plants seldom grow more
than three feet high, and the pods cover the stems nearly
to the ground. The Hollybrook was first introduced
about 1904.

Haberlandt. — This variety matures about a week earlier
than the Hollybrook. It is a more bushy and spreading
plant, but grows to nearly the same height. It is a
heavy yielder of seed, and also a good hay variety. The

520 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

pubescence is tawny, and both purple-flowered and white-

flowered strains occur. The seeds are straw yellow with —

a brown hilum, one pound containing about 2400. The
Haberlandt variety was introduced from Pingyang,
Korea, in 1901.

Medium Yellow. — This is an erect, bushy, heavy seed-
ing variety growing 23 to 3 feet high, and requiring about
the same length of season as the Haberlandt. The pubes-
cence is tawny, and the flowers either purple or white.
The seeds are straw yellow with a pale hilum, one pound
containing about 3500. This variety was introduced
from central China in 1901. Some seedsmen advertise
it under the name of Mongol.

Guelph. — This variety was introduced from Japan in
1889 by W. P. Brooks. It is also known under the
names of Medium Green and Medium Early Green.
The plants are stout and bushy, growing 13 to 2 feet high.
The pubescence is tawny, and the flowers purple. The
whole seed, including both the coat and the germ, is green
in color. One pound of seed contains about 2600. This
variety has been much grown in the Northern States, as it
requires only about 90 days to become fully mature.

Ito San. — This variety is also known as Japanese pea,
Early White and Early Yellow. It was introduced
from Japan by C. C. Georgeson in 1890, but apparently
the same or a very similar variety was distributed
by the United States Patent Office in 1853. It is
a bushy variety growing 2 to 24 feet high, with rather
slender stems, and on this account, excellent for hay. It
becomes fully mature in about one hundred days after
planting.. The pubescence is tawny, and the flowers
purple. The seeds are rather small, straw yellow with a
pale hilum, but with a brown speck near the micropyle,

SOYBEANS 521

by which this variety may be certainly known. One
pound contains about 3200 seeds. This variety has been
much grown in the Northern States.

Wilson. — This variety was introduced from Newch-
wang, Manchuria, in 1906. It is a tall, slender variety,
erowing 3 to 4 feet high, with a few erect branches, and
becoming fully mature in about 110 days. On account of
its tall, slender height, it is readily harvested, and makes
excellent hay, besides being a heavy seed producer. The
pubescence is tawny, and the flowers either purple or white.
The seeds are black, with a yellow germ, one pound con-
taining about 2400 seeds.

Peking. — A variety introduced from Peking, China,
in 1907. This variety is characterized by its dense bushi-
ness, leafiness and slender stems, growing 23 to 3 feet
high, and becomes fully mature in about 120 days. The
pubescence is tawny, the flowers white, the seeds black
and much flattened, with a yellow germ. One pound con-
tains about 6300 seeds. This variety is one of the most
satisfactory of all, both for hay and seed production. It
is rather remarkable among soybean varieties as being
almost completely non-shattering.

634. Preparation of soil and cultivation. — The seed
bed for soybeans should receive as thorough preparation
as land for corn. This preparation should consist of deep
plowing and subsequent working with disk and harrow
until a firm seed bed, with the upper 2 or 3 inches loose
and mellow, is secured.

Soybeans germinate in a very few days under proper
soil conditions, and cultivation is begun as soon as the
seedling plants appear. The cultivation should be shallow,
and any good cultivator may be used. Soybeans require
about the same number of cultivations as corn. Level

522 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

cultivation is preferable, as the harvesting can be more
easily done.

635. Rate of seeding. — The quantity of seed to be
sown to the acre will vary somewhat according to the size
of the seed and the use of the crop. With rows from 24 to

36 inches apart, from 20 to 30 pounds of seed to the acre is

satisfactory. When sown broadcast for hay, from one to
one and a half bushels of seed is required. Few rate of
seeding experiments have been reported, but the following
results were secured at the Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station :—

TABLE SHOWING ACRE YIELDS OF SOYBEAN Hay AND SEEDS
WHEN PLANTED AT DIFFERENT RATES

YIELD TO THE ACRE
RATE OF
PampiNe ENF Hay Thrashed Grain
ACRE
1909 1910 1911 1909 1910 1911
Pounds Inches Pounds| Pounds| Pounds| Bushels | Bushels | Bushels
15 28 2480 | 2685 | 4510) 10.66} 18.91 | 35.58
30 28 3640 | 2775 | 4216 16.58} 20.08 | 33.78
45 28 3760) 3010} 5040 | 17.33 | 21.00 | 38.40
60 28 3640 | 3345 | 4608 | 16.08 | 23.16 | 36.35
120 8 3080 | 4300 | 5393 | 12.66 | 15.42 | 33.86

636. Time of seeding. — Soybeans may be sown at

any time after danger of severe frosts is over.

The

plants, however, grow slowly in cool weather and ordi-
narily there is no advantage in planting them earlier than
corn, especially late varieties. In the cotton region, two
crops of the early and medium varieties can be grown in
a single season by planting the first early. With the
very earliest varieties this can also be accomplished as far

:
i

SOYBEANS a0

north as Maryland. Generally speaking, June 1 is about
the best date for seeding.

637. Method of seeding. — The method of planting
will depend on the purpose for which the soybeans are
grown. Soybeans are grown either in cultivated rows or
broadeasted. The former method is preferable in weedy
land and usually gives larger yields of hay and practically
always of seed. The general practice for seed-production
is the row method, while for hay or soiling, drilling or
broadcasting furnishes a forage of finer texture.

In Manchuria soybeans are usually planted in rows
17 inches wide, the plants about 2 inches apart in the row.
With rows so close together, hand hoeing is necessary.
In the United States the rows are most often 36 inches wide,
so as to facilitate easy cultivation. This distance is not
too much for large varieties like the Mammoth. In the
low, poorly drained lands of eastern North Carolina, the
rows are planted four feet apart and on raised beds, to
facilitate drainage. For the smaller, earlier varieties,
rows 18 inches apart give sufficient room for the plants
to develop fully. The plants of different varieties range in
height from one foot or less to five feet or more, so the
optimum distance apart of rows is thus partly a matter
of variety and partly one of the culture implement to be.
employed. For the larger varieties, three-foot rows are
very satisfactory with plants 2 to 3 inches apart in the
rows.

Soybeans may be drilled with an ordinary wheat drill,
the width of the rows adjusted by covering the feed cups
not in use. Corn planters are sometimes used in planting
soybeans, as most of the modern planters have special
plates for drilling beans.

638. Depth of planting. — The depth of planting soy-

524 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

bean seed is very important, poor stands frequently re-
sulting from too deep covering. The depth should not
exceed two inches, since with shallow planting chance of
failure due to formation of a soil crust is lessened. Ina
test under favorable conditions with the Mammoth and
Peking varieties, 100 seeds each were planted respectively
1, 15, 2, 25, 3 and 4 inches deep. The percentages of plants
reaching the surface one week after planting are shown in
the table : —

GERMINATION OF SOYBEANS AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS OF PLANTING

Per Cent GERMINATION AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS
VARIETY 1 re 2 Qu 3 A
Inch Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches
Mammoth ‘ 100 93 98 95 92 84
Pekane . .'4. 95 97 92 92 90 86

At the Tennessee Experiment Station, it was found that
seed of the Ito San variety failed to reach the surface when
planted 6 inches deep. At 5 inches the stand was very
poor, but it was apparently perfect at any depth of plant-
ing between 1 and 4 inches.

639. Inoculation. — Natural inoculation now occurs
quite generally throughout much of the soybean region
in southern United States. In localities, however, where
this crop has not been previously grown it is advisable
to inoculate.

The inoculation of the soybean by means of artificial
cultures has been found to be unusually difficult, the rea-
sons for which are obscure. In soil supplied with nitro-
gen, the plants grow fairly well without nodules, and
according to Kirchner nodules were not detected on Euro-

SOYBEANS

pean grown plants dur-
ing the twenty years
after the crop had been
introduced.

Smith and Robinson
at the Michigan Agri-
cultural Experiment
Station made observa-
tions on the influence
of nodules on the roots
upon the composition
of the soybean. The
conclusion of two years’
work was that the nod-
ules on the roots, in a
fairly fertile soil, may
not notably increase the
yield, but do increase
the relative and absolute

Fic. 61.— Roots
nodules.

amounts of nitrogen in the plants.
is given the composition of the dry matter of leaves, stems
and roots of inoculated and not inoculated soybeans :—

of soybean, showing

In the following table

tae cers oa ASH
Grains % Ts

Inoculated : —

eaves =. «4 <5) 205-983 22-71. 11-26

DLOMIS ee sa On on | lee lf 02

EUOOUS <u a) palo Sard tale
Not inoculated :—

Leaves . . .| 198.92 | 17.89 | 13.86

poms ca aes Seo deoO,

foots.) +s 9." 1.49.00: °6:60)| 12708

=
|

NitTROo-
GEN

‘PHOSPHORIC
ACID

%

Por-
ASH

Jo

2.27
2.21
29

2.29
2.07
Zit

526 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

640. Life period. — The length of time required by the
soybean plant from germination to maturity varies
greatly with the variety and with the time of planting.
Early plantings require a much longer time to mature than
late plantings, but the same varieties do not behave
consistently in this respect. With a single variety, Haber-
landt found that the life period at Vienna, Austria, varied
from 182 days when planted March 31 to 139 days if
planted June 9, there being almost a perfectly regular
gradation for intermediate planting.

Extensive experiments of this kind have been conducted
by Mooers at the Tennessee Experiment Station. Some
of his results are shown in the table : —

TABLE SHOWING RELATIONS BETWEEN DATE OF PLANTING AND
Lire PERIOD IN SOYBEAN

1907 1908

VARIETY mate Date a d Date Date ues
Planted | Harvested Dave Planted | Harvested Days

Mammoth | Apr. 3]| Oct. 5| 186 | Apr. 2/ Oct. 7| 188
Apr. 15'|'Oct.. 5| 173 |'Apr: 14 Oct, fia ba
Apr. 30°} Oct. 6) 160° | May 1)) Octy fies

7

7

May 15| Oct. 9| 146 | May 15 | Oct. 145
June 5/| Oct: 12) 129 | June’ 1 Gece: 128
June 17 | Oct. 22| 127 | June 17} Oct. 21) 126
June 29 | Oct. 22) 113. | July 1 | Oct-21 ie
July 15 | Oct. 28) 105 | July 17 | Octe 2a ae
Ito San Apr. 3| Aug. 9| 114 | Apr. 2) July 25)))
Apr. 15| Aug. 9} 106 | Apr. 14/ July 29} 106
Apr. 30| Aug. 9 96 |May 1/] Aug. 5 96
May 15 | Aug. 17 92 | May 14/ Aug. 15 92
June 5/|Sept. 3 87 |June 1 | Aug 27 87
June 17 | Sept.18 85 | June 17-| Sept. 10 85
June 29 | Sept. 18 80 | July 1] Sept.19 80
July 15 | Oct. 9 82 | July: 16: | Octe ie 82
Aug. 6] Oct. 29 85 | Aug. 1 | Oct. 24 85

SOYBEANS 527

Ordinarily it is not advisable to sow soybeans until |
about the time for planting corn, as soybean plants grow
but slowly during cool weather. Of 330 varieties grown
at Arlington Farm, Virginia, 2 were classified as very
early, maturing in 80 to 90 days; 12 as early, maturing
in 90 to 100 days; 40 as medium early, maturing in 100
to 110 days; 76 as medium, maturing in 110 to 120 days;
85 as medium late, maturing in 120 to 130 days; 55 as
late, maturing in 130 to 150 days, and 60 as very late,
requiring more than 150 days.

On account of self-pollination, soybean varieties show
but little variability. Of such important varieties as the
Mammoth, Ito San and Guelph, which have been grown
in the United States for many years, seed from different
sources planted at the same place gave results which
show that no change in the life period has taken place,
whether the seed was grown in the North or in the South.
In a few varieties, however, there is satisfactory evidence
to show that the life period of a variety changes, becoming
gradually shorter when grown northward, and gradually
longer when grown southward.

641. Time to cut for hay. — Soybeans may be cut for
hay at any time from the setting of the seed until the
leaves begin to turn yellow. The crop is best fitted for
hay when the pods are well formed. If allowed to stand
much longer than this the stems rapidly become woody
and the percentage of protein lower; and if left too long,
there is much loss in leaves. In the development of the
plant from bloom to maturity there is a marked increase
in the percentage of fat, little change in that of carbohy-
drates, but a decided diminution in the percentage of
protein. The following table shows the variation in the
composition of soybean hay of the Mammoth variety at
different stages of development : —

528 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

TABLE SHOWING CHEmMIcAL ANALYSES oF MammotH SoyBEAN
Hay cur av Four DIFFERENT STAGES

PURSE EN WatTER| PROTEIN) Fat mae FIBER ASH
EXTRActT

Full bloom. . . «| 5.11 | 19.22 | 1.45 | 38.56,|> 2650) 20516

First pods . . .| 5.00-| $2.72 | 1.06 | 42.50) 30;82Gf55

Seed 4 grown. .| 5.40 | 10.31 | 2.34 | 44.73 | 30.45] 6.77

Seed full grown. .| 5.30 | 15.94-| 7.83 | 38.76 | 25.97} 6.20

642. Hay yields.— Yields of soybean hay range from 1
to 3 tons and occasionally 4 tons to the acre. The average
yield is about 2 tons to the acre : —

TABLE SHOWING YIELDS OF SOYBEAN Hay atv Various AMERI-
CAN EXPERIMENT STATIONS, IN PouNDS TO THE ACRE

VARIETY DELAWARE) TENNESSEE OHIO KANSAS VIRGINIA
Mammoth ; 5660 5700
Hollybrook . 4500 5220 5900
Guelph . . . 4350 4560 1 Ad 3260
Ite San’). 3200 4340 1725 4739 5120
Haberlandt . 5800 5400 2431
Med. Yellow . 4500 4560 1840 3095 4600
Wilson... 5200
Peking . . .| 4830
Ebony .. . 3800 1860
Cloud : « . 6100 2170

643. Fertilizers. — On land of moderate fertility, com-
mercial fertilizers do not seem to show marked results in
the yield of soybeans. On sandy soil or soils in poor con-
dition, experiments show that a dressing of stable manure
or of acid phosphate and potash gives the best results.

SOYBEANS 529

At the Delaware Experiment Station, an application of 250
to 350 pounds to the acre of a mixture of 400 pounds of acid
phosphate and 100 pounds of muriate of potash is recom-
mended. Good results were obtained at the Tennessee
Agricultural Experiment Station by using acid phosphate
alone at the rate of 200 to 800 pounds to the acre. In using
commercial fertilizer, it is well to apply broadcast before
the soybeans are planted.

Lime as shown especially by Mooers’ experiments in
Tennessee almost invariably gives pronouncedly larger
yields.

644. Soybean mixtures. — Soybeans are well adapted
to planting in mixture with other farm crops. Results of
experiments along this line indicate that a larger yield of
hay can be secured and also a greater variety of forage.
The chief advantage, perhaps, is in the varied ration.

Soybeans and corn.—Soybeans are more generally
grown with corn than with any other crop. They may be
planted in the same hills with corn, in alternate hills with
the corn in the same row, in alternate rows of each or two
rows of each. Rarely they are broadcasted in mixture.
When soybeans are grown with corn by these methods, the
crop may be fed on the land to hogs or harvested for si-
lage. The early and medium varieties of soybeans may
be planted in between the corn rows at the time of the
last cultivation.

Soybeans and cowpeas. — A mixture of soybeans and
cowpeas is more easily harvested and cured than cow-
peas alone. In such mixtures, tall strong-growing varie-
ties of soybeans are best as they tend to support the
vining cowpeas. Care should be taken to select varieties
of soybeans and cowpeas that mature about the same

time. In sowing such a mixture, it is better to use a larger
2M

530 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

‘proportion of soybeans. One bushel of soybeans to one-
half bushel of cowpeas gives excellent results if broad-
casted, but half this quantity is sufficient if planted in
three-foot rows. The time for cutting for hay is deter-
mined primarily by the soybeans, as cowpeas can be cut
for hay over a much longer period than the soybeans.

Soybeans and sorghums.— Soybeans may be grown
very satisfactorily for hay or silage in a mixture with
sorghum. The tall-growing vining varieties are best,
and either Amber or Orange sorghum may be used. This
mixture is most satisfactory in cultivated rows, as the
sorghum is apt to choke out the soybeans when broad-
casted, unless the sorghum is planted thinly.

Soybeans and Johnson-grass. — Johnson-grass as well as
Sudan-grass is excellent for growing in mixtures with
soybeans. Not only are better yields obtained with these
mixtures but also the quality of the hay is improved.
Twining varieties of soybeans have a distinct advantage
for growing with these grasses.

Soybeans and mallet.— Soybeans and millet are not
to be recommended as a mixture. The millet matures
too early for any of the good hay varieties of soybeans.

645. Silage. — Soybeans may be very satisfactorily
used for silage, the best results being obtained when
mixed with corn or sorghum. The soybeans may be
grown either in combination with the corn or the sorghum,
but it seems preferable to grow them separately and to
mix them while cutting for the silo.

646. Rotations. —In the South soybeans are adapted
to practically the same place in rotations as are cowpeas.
In Tennessee and North Carolina, a soybean crop is often
grown between two wheat crops, and in other parts of
the South, between two oat crops. In such cases medium

SOYBEANS Hou

early varieties are preferable. Where a whole season can
be devoted to soybeans in the South, two crops of early
varieties can be grown in place of one crop of a late variety.
Especially where seed-production is the object, much larger
yields can be obtained by this practice. In the North,
soybeans generally occupy the same place in rotation as
oats, the principal objection being that the harvesting of
the soybeans presses very closely on the seeding time for
wheat.

647. Feeding value of soybean hay. — At the Tennessee
Experiment Station, dairy cows were fed soybean hay in
comparison with alfalfa hay, and soybean straw in compari-
son with corn stover. Judging by the amount of milk
and butter fat obtained, the data show a slight superiority
of soybean hay alone over alfalfa hay alone. The
soybean straw alone produced 12 per cent more milk
and 14 per cent more butter fat than the corn stover
alone.

648. Seed-production. — The character of growth, the
uniform maturing habit of the soybean and the large
yield of grain recommend the plant for seed-production.
Tall varieties that do not branch nor bear pods close to
the ground are most desirable, as they are more easily
harvested. i

When grown for grain alone, soybeans should be allowed
to develop fully. This stage of maturity is indicated in
the case of most varieties when all of the leaves have
fallen. The Guelph and a few varieties not on the market
retain the leaves late and much seed would be lost by
shattering if the harvesting were not done earlier. Soy-
beans may be also harvested for grain when the leaves first
begin to fall. If cut at this stage practically as much
seed is saved as when the plants are allowed to mature,

5382 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

and the straw obtained is a much better feed. The plants
should be allowed to become thoroughly dry after cutting.
When ready to bunch and put into shocks, soybeans
should be a little damp, as some shattering will occur if
handled when very dry.

One of the chief difficulties in growing soybeans for
seed has been the harvesting. The small early varieties
can be harvested only with a mowing machine, or a bean
harvester or by hand. For harvesting many of the later
and more erect growing varieties, a mower with a bunch-
ing attachment or a self-rake reaper is better adapted.
The self-binder has been found the most satisfactory
machine to use with tall varieties.

Thrashing is most satisfactorily done in the field with-
out previously stacking if conditions will permit. Soy-
beans may be thrashed with an ordinary grain separator
if necessary adjustments are made, otherwise a large per
cent of the beans will be cracked or split. The cylinder
should be run at about one-half the speed used in thrash-
ing grain, but at the same time maintaining the usual
rate for the rest of the machine. Some of the concaves
should be removed or a special set of thin concaves should
be used. The ordinary wheat separators are now manu-
factured provided with a pea and bean hulling attachment
which is said to do satisfactory work. Special pea and
bean separators are now on the market which not only
do clean hulling, but split none of the beans. Soybeans
cannot be satisfactorily thrashed unless thoroughly dry,
for when slightly damp the pods are tough, and much of
the seed remains unthrashed.

Special care is required in storing soybean seed to
prevent heating, which will ruin the beans as far as germi-
nation is concerned. The seed should be thoroughly

SOYBEANS Bays:

dry when placed in storage or else placed where good
ventilation is afforded and the seed not bulked together
in large quantities. Under whatever conditions the seed
may be stored, it should be examined occasionally to detect
any tendency to heat. If signs of heating are found, the
seed should be removed at once and spread out until per-
fectly dry.

649. Pollination. — The soybean flower is completely
self-fertile, bagged plants setting pods as perfectly as those
exposed. The flowers are much visited by bees, which
seek principally the pollen, as the soybean flower secretes
but little nectar. Pollination occurs even before the flower
opens, but nevertheless occasional cross-pollinations occur
where different varieties are grown in close proximity.
Such natural hybrids can often be detected by the fact
that the seeds of heterozygote plants present queer combi-
nations of color, such as smoky green, smoky yellow,
brown, and yellow and black banded. In the course of
varietal trials at Arlington Farm, Virginia, extending over
five years, many such natural hybrids were secured, and
similar crosses occurred at the Kansas Experiment
Station.

650. Seed yield. — With regard to the seed yield of the
soybean, there is considerable variation in the figures
given. When grown alone for seed, the best varieties
under proper culture yield from 30 to 40 bushels of seed
to the acre. A maximum yield of 50 bushels to the acre
has been reported from North Carolina. According to
various authorities, the yields in Manchuria range from
about 1000 pounds to the acre on very poor soil up to about
1800 pounds to the acre on good soil.

In the United States, yields have been reported by
various investigators as follows : —

584 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

TABLE SHOWING AcRE YIELD IN BUSHELS OF SOYBEAN SEED
AT VaRIouS EXPERIMENT STATIONS

E e
> Q g
> A ? & < 2 < a
A S S < Z ° a z, A
VARIETY & = a A = ir < ces
o z A =| A (@) i eo}
a 5 AS ia] 4 ea] S fy
Sg tec |S ees s a
a p
(>)
Mammoth et see | eS Oo 32329 oe26
Hollybrook “4. 1023/0) 1722.97) 16.2) 29.2 283s | elele!
Guelph A Re) go ee Se || Oso 1s 22.38 16.16
Ito San Rates pick Be ee del aan |aeeO22 8.0 | 21.9 24.7 18.43
Haberlandt %, 3, . .|| 23.0) 125.7 | 14:0.) 23.3 18.33
Med. Yellow. . . .{| 23.2 | 25.9 26.9 | 18.1 Wl
Wilson A ee ee oh (LOR, LO 2TeS82.2 ale OM
Reking@orey cn ete bias | ore BPE 15.00
Wbonyy celee ts os eee elon 1225.0" 810.0) 25.2
Chernie ee eee PIX b5)

651. Seeds. — Soybean seeds weigh about 60 pounds
to the bushel and this weight is recognized as standard
in most states. The size of the seeds varies greatly,
as shown in the following table : —

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF SOYBEAN SEEDS TO THE POUND
AND TO THE BUSHEL IN TEN VARIETIES

NuMBER OF SEEDS NuMBER OF SEEDS
VARIETY : = VARIETY
One One One One
pound bushel pound bushel
Mammoth . | 2144} 128640 | Ito San . . | 32382) 9095020
Hollybrook ./| 2144/ 128640 | Ebony . .| 3240; 194400
Haberlandt .| 2400] 144000 | Med. Yellow | 3552 | 213120
. Wilson . . ./| 2400 144000 | Wisconsin
black . .{|5104{ 306240

Guelph . . .| 2624/ 157440 | Peking . . | 6388] 383280

SOYBEANS 00

The seeds do not retain their viability well, and it is not
advisable to sow seed two years old without previously
testing. Unless care is exercised in properly curing and
storing, soybean seeds are apt to heat and thus quickly
have their viability destroyed. A small percentage of the
seed will under favorable conditions retain its viability
four or five years, and this has been found to vary accord-
ing to variety, as shown in the table : —

VIABILITY OF SOYBEAN SEEDS

VARIETY Srrep CoLor 1 ao 2 Gone 4 ae

Per cent Per cent Per cent
Shanehali *, 2. «| Black 99.0 93.0 43.5
Whence. «242 4,..),.2 | Black 94.0 76.5 46.5
Bardi 2) ac, |. brown: 97.0 88.0 24.5
Kairchild) . ......| Black 95.5 84.5 20.0
Jet Mo Lat btaele 925 60.0 19.5
Phony... ... ., + | Black 94.0 (eres 4.0
hasmmes 9. 3. >. | Green 90.5 81.5 3.0
Guckpbtane. .o-+ -. | Green 97.5 86.5 1.5
Brownie, . .... . | Brown 90.5 67.0 1S
itomoan: “= > .. «| Straw Yellow) . 100.0 83.0 Zo
Haberlandt . . .| Straw Yellow) 76.0 25 0.0
Mammoth .. .|StrawYellow| 77.0 a2c0 0.5

Weevils rarely injure soybean seeds, but under excep-
tional circumstances have been known to destroy them.
This relative immunity to weevil injury is important,
especially in the South.

652. Pests. — Soybeans are troubled by few serious
enemies. On the whole, rabbits are most troublesome,
as they are extravagantly fond of the herbage, and where
they are abundant soybean culture is practically impos-

536 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

sible. At the Tennessee Experimental Substation at
Jackson, rabbit injury was much reduced by using
scarecrows, to each of which a lantern was hung at
night. :

Rootknot caused by a nematode ( Heterodera radicicola)
often injures soybeans considerably, but more damage is
caused by cowpea wilt, due to a Fusarium.

Caterpillars sometimes eat the leaves, but the loss
from such insects is seldom serious.

On the whole it may be said that no insect or fungus
pest has yet assumed any great economic importance in
connection with the culture of the soybean.

653. Breeding. — The soybean lends itself readily to
improvement, and considerable work in breeding is being
carried on by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, the Tennessee Experiment Station and the Ohio Ex-
periment Station. The Ohio Station is testing individual
plants in duplicate plant-row work in much the same way
that it is testing ears of corn and is finding decided differ-
ences in yield of seed and forage, in tendency to shatter
and in habits of growth. The Tennessee Station is con-
ducting selection work with a number of varieties and has
found considerable variation in maturity, habit of growth
and plant characters within the same varieties, so that
several strains of the same variety are under test. The
United States Department of Agriculture has done a very
considerable amount of work toward the improvement
of the soybean by selection and hybridization. The
results of the breeding work thus far indicate that
it is easily possible to improve the varieties now on the
market.

654. Soybeans and cowpeas compared. — Inasmuch
as soybeans are adapted to so nearly the same uses and

SOYBEANS Dol

same place in farm rotation as the cowpea, an agronomic
comparison of the two crops has often been made.

The soybean is determinate in growth; that is, it reaches
a definite size and matures. Nearly all varieties of cow-
peas, on the other hand, are indeterminate, continuing
growth until killed by frost. With the exception of a
few varieties, the soybean does not vine, but grows erect or
nearly erect. Cowpeas, on the other hand, are viny plants,
and therefore more difficult to harvest. Soybeans mature
all their pods at one time. Cowpeas continue to produce
green pods as long as the plant lives.

Soybeans will withstand rather heavy frosts, both in
the spring, when young, and in the fall, when nearly
mature, while the same frosts are fatal to cowpeas. They
are more drought resistant than cowpeas, and in a dry
season will give much greater yields; they will also with-
stand excessive moisture much better.

For green manuring or soil improving, the cowpea is
far more valuable than the soybean, as it will smother
weeds much more successfully.

The value of the hay of the two plants is nearly the
same. ‘There is frequently doubt as to which is the more
desirable to grow. On relatively poor soil or when broad-
casted, cowpeas are always preferable. When cultivated,
the soybean will yield the greater return, and if cut late,
the hay is more easily cured.

For growing with corn or sorghum for hay or silage the
cowpea is generally preferable to the soybean.

The feeding value of an acre of soybeans for beef cattle
was found by the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment
Station to be about 50 per cent greater than that of cow-
peas grown on an adjoining acre. This was also approxi-
mately the difference in yield of the two crops.

5388 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

As a grain producer the soybean is in every way prefer-
able to the cowpea, as it produces larger yields of richer
grain and can be harvested much more easily.

The soybean, therefore, is to be recommended above
the cowpea where intensive rather than extensive farming
is practicable and desirable.

CHAPTER XXIII

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES

THERE are numerous tropical and subtropical legumes
well adapted to culture in the Southern States. None of
these are of equal importance to the cowpea and the soy-
bean, but several of them have high value for particular
conditions. Among these are Japan clover, velvet-bean
and beggar-weed. Others such as bonavist, guar, mung
and related beans can hardly compete with the cowpea,
although there is need of much further experimentation
with these crops before their value can be clearly
determined.

LESPEDEZA OR JAPAN CLOVER (Lespedeza striata)

655. Description. — Lespedeza or Japan clover is a
native of eastern Asia, occurring in Japan, Korea, Man-
churia, Mongolia and China. It is a summer annual with
reddish, usually much-branched, wiry stems and numerous
small, sessile, trifoliolate leaves. Over most of the area in
which it occurs the plants are only 4 to 6 inches high, and
isolated plants often make masses 6 to 12 inches across.
Under very favorable conditions of soil and climate, the
plants commonly grow 12 inches high, frequently reach-
ing 18 inches and exceptionally 24 to 30 inches. In thin
stands the plants are spreading, or even prostrate, but
where dense are quite erect and not much branched.

The plants begin to appear rather late in spring, bloom
539

540 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

in late summer and mature their seeds in September and
October. The small flowers are purple. Dodson found
that a plant in good condition had 45.4 per cent of its
weight in stems and the remainder in leaves and buds.
As the plants get old, the lower leaves are shed more or
less and the percentage of stem weight becomes higher.
The roots are not deep, but Dodson estimated that the dry
weight of the stubble and roots to 12 inches in depth is
about one-third that of the hay removed. McCarthy at
the North Carolina Experiment Station described a broad-
leaved variety which showed “ immense superiority ”
over the common sort.

656. Agricultural history. — Lespedeza was first found
in the United States at Monticello, Georgia, by Thomas
C. Porter in 1846, his specimens being still preserved.
The plant seems to have already become common
by the close of the Civil War, and perhaps was much
spread by the movements of the cavalry during that
conflict, as the seeds are not digested by horses. At the
present time it occurs spontaneously in most of the area
from central New Jersey west to central Kansas and south
to the Gulf. Throughout all of this region it furnishes a
portion of the summer pasturage, thriving even on the
poorest soils. In the lower Mississippi valley, especially
in Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas, it grows tall
enough to cut for hay, and to a less extent this is the
case in other southern states on rich lands.

There are no definite records as to when Lespedeza
was first cut for hay, but about 1880 its culture was taken
up and later strongly advocated by J. B. McGehee
in Louisiana. Its status as a cultivated crop may be said
to date from this time. Apparently it has never been
cultivated in its native country.

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 541

657. Adaptations. — Lespedeza has spread naturally
since its introduction into the United States over practi-
cally the whole area from southern New Jersey westward
nearly to central Kansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico.
It is only in the lower Mississippi valley that it grows
large enough to cut for hay, elsewhere being valuable
only for pasturage. It shows no marked preference for
soils, occurring on every type, if well drained near the
surface.

Lespedeza delights in heat and does not begin to grow
in spring until warm weather. It does not withstand
frost, but it rarely begins growth until all danger of frost
is over. Its northern limit seems determined wholly by
the length of the hot season necessary for it to mature
seed.

658. Culture. — Lespedeza is best seeded in early spring,
preferably February in Louisiana and Mississippi, but it
may be sown up till April. From 15 to 25 pounds of seed
is used to the acre. Where once land has grown Japan
clover, it is rarely necessary to reseed it again if proper
precautions be used. The seed, however, is quite cheap,
and Lespedeza is being grown more and more in regular
rotations.

It is most commonly sown perhaps with oats as a nurse-
crop, sowing the Lespedeza with the oats in fall or better
in early spring on the fall-sown oats. After the oats are
harvested, a good crop of Lespedeza can be harvested the
same season. It may thus occupy the land for two or
more years, reseeding itself each year, or better, be suc-
ceeded by corn or cotton in a regular rotation.

The reseeding of the land to Lespedeza may be regu-
lated in harvesting the crop. If cut when in bloom, the
aftermath will ripen seed before frost, or strips of the

542 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Lespedeza may be left between each swath for re-
seeding.

If harvested for seed, enough will shatter to produce a
good stand the next year.

Lespedeza is nearly always a spontaneous constituent
of Bermuda-grass pastures, but if not present, should be
sown. Redtop is another grass that makes a good mixture
with it, the first crop being mainly redtop and the second
Lespedeza.

659. Pasturage value. — Lespedeza is remarkable for
its ability to grow in the very poorest of sandy or gravelly
soils, but it makes far greater growth on rich calcareous
loams or clay loams. If not too closely grazed, it maintains
itself indefinitely where once established. It is a common
element of the pastures throughout the area where it
occurs except on wet lands. On poor thin soils it often
occurs in dense pure growths. It endures shade fairly
well, occurring abundantly in moderately open woodlands.
In no sense can it be called a weed, as it is quickly de-
stroyed by cultivation. The herbage is readily grazed by
all farm animals, and will withstand very heavy pasturing.
Like other clovers it sometimes causes mules and horses
to ‘“ slobber,’”’ but it has never been known to cause bloat-
ing. Late spring frosts sometimes destroy it. Under
close mowing, as on golf courses, it disappears after a few
years because no seed is formed.

In the lower Mississippi valley, where it succeeds best,
Lespedeza may be grazed until June and still make a hay
crop, or cut in August and the aftermath used for pasture.

660. Hay. —Only in the lower Mississippi valley, where
Lespedeza grows tall, is it much cut for hay. It is com-
monly harvested with an ordinary mowing machine, but
is seldom cut for hay if less than 8 inches tall. The plants

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 548

contain but little water, so the hay cures more readily
than any other cultivated legume and nearly as easily
as timothy.

Owing to the dense stands of Lespedeza and the solid
stems, it weighs very heavy. If the stand is dense, a
height of 8 or 9 inches will yield about 1 ton of hay to the
acre; if 12 to 14 inches, approximately 2 tons; and when
24 to 30 inches high, 4 tons to the acre.

Probably the best time to cut Lespedeza for hay is when
it is in full bloom, but as the weather conditions in the
fall are usually better, it is mostly cut in October.

Dodson at the Louisiana Experiment Station compared
Lespedeza hay protected from rain with that which had
been subjected to various weather conditions, in two cases
being rained upon twice. So far as chemical analyses
show, practically no loss resulted, but rains do injure the
appearance of the hay as well as its palatability.

661. Seed-production. — Seed of Lespedeza is mainly
harvested in Louisiana. It is conveniently cut with a
mowing machine having a bunching attachment. The cut-
ting should take place when the seeds are ripe or nearly
ripe, but the plants still green. Care is necessary in han-
dling to avoid undue shattering, and the straw must be
thoroughly dry before it is thrashed.

The seed crop produced by the dwarfer plants on poorer
lands is often as large as that produced on better soils.
Such a seed crop is best harvested by means of an iron pan
attached behind the cutter bar of the mower, the top of
the pan being covered by wires or a perforated sheet of
galvanized iron to keep out trash. Sometimes such a
pan is used in cutting tall Lespedeza, and in this way
the best and ripest seed which otherwise would be lost is
secured.

544 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The yield of seed to the acre ranges from 5 to 12 bushels,
and one bushel of clean, unhulled seed weighs about 25
pounds. One pound contains about 370,000 seeds.

FLORIDA VELVET BEAN (Stizolobium deeringianum)

662. Description and history.— The Florida velvet
bean is a vigorous-growing bean-like vine, introduced
into Florida previous to 1875. It is an annual, with
much-branched twining stems, which under favorable
conditions may attain a length of from 30 to 50 feet,
usually growing to about half this length. The leaves
are trifoliolate with large, membranaceous leaflets shorter _
than the petiole. The leaflets are ovate, the lateral ones
oblique, and each is attached to a short pubescent stalk.
The flowers are dark purple in long pendent racemes.
The matured pods are about two inches long, turgid, some-
what constricted between the seeds, and covered with a
soft, nearly black velvety pubescence. Each pod con-
tains three to five, marbled brown and gray seeds.

The velvet bean will rarely mature its pods as far
north as Washington, D.C. As the pods constitute the
most valuable part of the plant, it is of importance only
where these will become mature, which area includes
Florida and the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi and Louisiana.

663. Utilization. — On account of the long vines and
the tangled mass of herbage which it produces, the velvet
bean is not a satisfactory hay plant,-as it can be cut and
cured only with great difficulty. On this account, it is
utilized mainly as a pasturage, the stock being turned
into the field in the fall after the pods have matured,
as cattle will eat not only the pods but also the dry
leaves which have fallen to the ground. It is fed mainly

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 545

to cattle, but hogs also thrive upon it. Owing to the
very viny nature of the plants, it is necessary to grow
it in conjunction with some supporting crop; other-
wise but a comparatively few pods are produced.
Among the supporting crops that can be used are corn,
pearl millet, and sorghums. Of these, corn is the best,
especially the strong-growing varieties. Various methods
of planting are used. When planted alone, the velvet
bean should be planted after the ground has been thor-
oughly worked, so as to obtain one plant about every five
feet each way. This requires about 12 pounds of seed
to the acre. When planted with corn or other supporting
crops, various plans are used. The beans may be planted
in the same row with the corn, but under such conditions
practically no corn is secured. Another method is to put
the corn in successive rows and plant the velvet beans in
the middle. Still another method is to plant two or three
rows of corn to each row of velvet bean. The maximum
yields of beans is secured where the plants are supported
on poles or trellises, but this is not practicable where it is
designed to pasture the crop.

664. Other species of Stizolobium. — Recent investiga-
tions have disclosed the fact that in the countries sur-
rounding the Indian Ocean, there are numerous species
of stizolobium closely related to the velvet bean. Most
of these have been recently introduced and are being
tested in comparison with the Florida velvet bean.
Among the most important are the Lyon bean (Stizolobium
niveum), differing from the Florida velvet bean in having
white flowers and white seeds, and nearly smooth pods
which, however, shatter readily when they become mature ;
the Chinese velvet bean, differing from the Lyon bean

only in being much earlier, maturing its seeds as far north
2N

546 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

as Washington, D.C., and the Yokohama bean (Stizo-
lobium hassjoo) from Japan, the earliest and least vigorous
of all the species, readily maturing its seeds as far north as
Maryland and Kansas. Unfortunately the pods shatter
quite readily and also rot where they lie in contact with
the ground.

The most desirable type of the velvet bean would be
one that is comparatively early, and relatively bushy in
type, whose seeds would not shatter, and whose pods would
not rot when lying in contact with the wet ground. At
the Florida Experiment Station, hybrids have been made
between the Florida velvet bean and the Lyon bean,
which have given rise to numerous forms. From these,
it seems very probable that much improved varieties
will be secured, even if the ideal is not reached. Many
of these hybrids resemble in some of their characteristics
other species, and it is possible that all the species of culti-
vated stizolobiums are forms of a single species.

OTHER CROPS

665. Peanut (Arachis hypogea). — The peanut is in
all probability a native of South America. It is also
known as ground nut, earth nut, goober, and pindar.
The plant is cultivated primarily for its seeds for use as
human food, but the herbage is nearly always saved for
hay, and sometimes the whole crop is utilized by pasturing
to hogs.

The peanut is adapted only to regions with long hot
summers. In the United States it succeeds best south
of 36°. The plant does well both on sandy and clay
soils, but as the young pods must burrow into the ground
to develop, peanuts are rarely planted except on sandy or
silty soils. The principal producing states were, in order

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 547

of their acreage in 1909, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia,
Florida and Alabama.

The varieties most cultivated are the following: Vir-
ginia Bunch, Virginia Runner, Tennessee Red, Valencia,
and Spanish. All of these have decumbent branches
except Spanish.

Peanuts are planted in late spring after the ground is
thoroughly warmed. They are usually planted in rows 28
to 36 inches wide and 9 to 16 inches apart in the row,
depending on the variety. The Spanish variety may be
planted more closely than others, and on this account, as
well as its erect habit, is practically the only one used
where the entire crop is to be used for hay.

Peanuts are usually harvested by piling the vines in
tall, narrow cocks about a stake with cross pieces near
the base. When thoroughly cured, the nuts are removed
and the straw used as fodder. The yield of fodder
ranges from about 1500 to 3000 pounds or very rarely
4000 pounds to the acre.

If grown for forage, the same method is commonly used,
but sometimes the tops are cut and cured for hay, and hogs
then turned in the field to feed on the pods. As a hay
plant the peanut cannot compete with the cowpea and the
soybean, but as a crop to be pastured by hogs it has con-
siderable importance.

Peanuts are not infrequently used as pasture to fatten
hogs. From hogs thus fattened the famous Smithfield
hams are made. Bennett, at the Arkansas Experiment
Station, pastured pigs on peanuts and on chufas in compari-
son with penned animals fed corn. The pigs on peanuts
showed a gain of 1045 poundsa pig; on chufas 66 pounds ;
and on corn 112} pounds. Duggar, at the Alabama
Experiment Station, found that one acre of peanuts would

548 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

give pasturage for 1 month to about 25 pigs weighing
100 pounds each. In comparison with chufas, rape,
cowpeas and sorghum, it was estimated that to make one
pound of gain the pigs required in addition to the pastur-
age grain as follows: 1.77 pounds when on peanuts;
2.3 pounds when on chufas; 3.07 pounds when on cow-
peas; 2.68 pounds when onrape; and 3.7 pounds when on
sorghum.

666. Florida beggarweed (Desmodiwm tortwosum or
Meibomia tortuosa). — Florida beggarweed is a native of
the West Indies, but has been known in Florida at least
since 1833. It is an erect annual with rather woody
stalks from 3 to 10 feet high, bearing an abundant leafage
above, and when in flower tipped with much-branched
erect panicles, the ascending lateral branches being often
8 to 12 inches long. The seeds are borne in many-jointed
prickly pods, which break apart at maturity and are
carried about by sticking to the bodies of animals or the
clothing of persons. The plant is hairy throughout, and
has trifoliolate leaves, the obliquely rhomboid leaflets being
from 2 to 4 inches long. Florida beggarweed is adapted
only to the warmer parts of the Southern States, being
grown especially on the sandy lands of the coastal plain
from North Carolina to Texas. It 1s useful as a soil reno-
vator and makes a fine quality of hay that is relished by
all classes of farm stock. Beggarweed seems never to
be attacked either by nematodes or root rot.

For a crop of seed, beggarweed should be sown at the
rate of 5 or 6 pounds of clean seed to the acre. If grown for
hay, from 8 to 10 pounds should be used. It should not
be sown until the ground is warm and moist, and clean
seed is preferable to the pods because of the more uniform
germination and better stand which may be obtained.

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 549

If sown at the beginning of the summer rains, the seed
need not be covered. It must not be covered too deeply,
else the young plants will not be able to reach the surface.
By sowing at the beginning of the summer two crops may
be secured in Florida.

If cut for hay when the first flowers appear, the stubble
will send up a second crop, which may be saved for
seed, and enough seed will scatter to insure a crop next
season. On very rich ground 4 cuttings in one season
with a total yield of 4630 pounds to the acre were obtained
at Charleston, South Carolina. The seed may also be
scattered in the corn rows at the time of the last cultiva-
tion or at the beginning of the rains in June. Then, after
the corn has been stripped or cut for fodder, the beggar-
weed may be mown for hay or harvested for seed. The
crop should be cut for hay when it is about 3 or 4 feet
high, or at the beginning of the blooming period. If cut
after full bloom, many of the lower leaves will have
fallen and much of the best part of the crop will be lost.

Hulled seed is now commercial, being produced wholly
in Florida.

667. The jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis). — The jack-
bean is a bushy, semi-erect annual plant, growing to a
height of 2 to 4 feet. Its stems are rather coarse and
become woody toward the base. The rather thickish
leaves have a decidedly bitter taste. The flowers are
purple, borne near the base of the stem, so that most of
the pods hang low. When mature, the pods are hard and
firm, 9 to 14 inches long, each containing 10 to 14 seeds.
These are pure white, with a brown hilum. The plant
will withstand much drought, and is remarkably free from
insects and fungous diseases, but is affected by root-knot.

The jackbean is a native of the West Indies and the

550 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

adjacent mainland. In Jamaica, whence it first became
well known, it is called the horse bean or the overlook bean.
In this country it has been designated the Pearson bean,
and recently the Wonder bean. Owing to confusion with
the similar species cultivated in Japan, China and India, it
has also been called the sword bean and the knife bean,
but those names properly belong to the Asiatic species
(Canavalia gladiata), used principally as a vegetable.

In the last 25 years, the jackbean has several times
attracted attention on account of its vigorous growth
and large yield of pods and seeds. It was extensively
tested at the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station
during the years 1890 to 1895. Under field conditions
yields of 30 to 40 bushels of beans to the acre were obtained,
even when grown on thin soil. Attempts were made to
utilize these beans as feed for both beef and dairy cattle,
but the beans were found to be both unpalatable and
indigestible.

Seeds of the bean were distributed by P. Pearson, of
Starkville, Mississippi, from which fact it became known
as the Pearson bean. At the Texas Agricultural Experi-
ment Station it produced 35 bushels to the acre. At the
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station it pro-
duced an estimated yield of 40 bushels to the acre. It was
also tested at the Louisiana Experiment Station. None of
these stations regarded the bean as promising, but, so far
as recorded, no attempt was made to utilize either the
herbage or the seeds as forage. More recently the plant
has been tested in Hawaii, and favorable reports as to its
forage value have been published.

The value of the plant as forage is yet problematical.
Its successful utilization as green feed in Hawaii encour-
ages the belief that it may be found equally valuable in

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 551

this country, especially in Texas and Oklahoma, where
its great drought resistance gives it particular promise.
There is also the probability that the jackbean may prove
to be valuable for silage. Its coarse habit and heavy
tonnage should adapt it well to this purpose.

The large yield of seed to the acre justifies further experi-
ments to determine whether any means can be devised to
utilize the seeds profitably as feed, which the work of the
Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station indicates is
a difficult problem.

668. Mung bean (Phaseolus aureus).—The mung
bean is native to southern Asia. It is probably a plant
of very ancient culture, as it is grown by the natives
throughout the southern half of Asia and the principal
Malayan Islands as well as on the eastern coast of Africa.
In these countries the mung bean is grown mainly for the
seed which is an important article of human food, but in
India the straw is also prized as forage for live stock.

The habit of the mung bean is very similar to that of
the cowpea, but the plants are less viny and some are
strictly bush. The adaptations of the plant are also
practically identical with that of the cowpea. The plant
was introduced into American agriculture as early as
1835 when it was known as the Chickasaw pea, and some-
what later it was called the Oregon pea under the erroneous
idea that it came from that region. Notwithstanding its
wide testing thus early in the Southern States and much
testing in recent years with numerous varieties, the mung
bean has not been able to find a place in American agricul-
ture in competition with the cowpea. The reasons for
this are mainly that the pods continue to be formed and
ripen until frost, and they shatter very readily. In coun-
tries where labor is cheap and the pods are picked promptly

Hoe FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

as they ripen, this is not a serious objection to their
culture. ‘The seeds also are very much attacked by the
cowpea weevil, perhaps more so than any other legume
seeds.

The culture of the mung bean is essentially the same as
that of the cowpea, but it is preferable to plant in culti-
vated rows as the young plants do not compete with weeds
as well as does the cowpea. If cut for hay, this should
be done as soon as the first pods begin to turn black in
ripening.

The varieties are very numerous, differing in size,
habit, earliness and the shape and color of the seeds.
These are spherical in most varieties, green, brown or
marbled. The variety recently known as the Newman
bean is undoubtedly the same as the old Chickasaw pea,
and this variety has become spontaneous in portions of
South Carolina. The Newman bean is very late, strictly
erect, reaching a height of 3} feet and barely maturing
seeds at Arlington Farm, Virginia.

669. Urd (Phaseolus mungo). — The urd is very closely
related to the mung bean, but it differs in its procumbent
habit, in its shorter, more hairy pods, and in its oblong
green or mottled seeds which have aconcave hilum. The
urd is probably native to India, in which country it is
extensively grown for human food. As a hay crop it is
inferior to the mung bean on account of its procumbent
habits which make it difficult to mow. The largest and
latest varieties, however, make a dense mass of herbage,
a single plant covering an area 3 feet square and reaching
a height of 20 to 30 inches. One of these late varieties
is used as a green-manure crop in the West Indies under
the name of Woolly Pyrol. There is hardly any like-
lihood of the urd becoming of agricultural value in

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 65538

the Southern States, as it can scarcely compete with
the cowpea, except perhaps in Florida as a_ green-
manure crop. Unfortunately, however, all of the varieties
seem much subject to the attack of nematodes.

670. Moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius). — The moth-
bean is an annual legume, native of India, where it is
grown principally for its seeds, which are used as human
food. In habit it forms mats 2 to 3 feet in diameter and
12 to 18 inches high, with very numerous viny branches,
the lower ones lying prostrate on the ground. The leaves
have three leaflets, each divided into 3 to 5 narrow seg-
ments. This bean has proved to be exceedingly well
adapted to the conditions in northern Texas, where in
many ways it is superior to the cowpea. The prostrate
habit and immense amount of foliage enable it to cover
the ground so completely that there is practically no
evaporation of water from the soil. The very viny
branches and the persistency with which the leaves are
held make an unusually fine quality of hay, which stock
of all kinds eat greedily. No difficulty has been found in
mowing this plant if cultivated in rows, as is usually neces-
sary in semi-arid regions, if the mower be started under
the first plant.

The yield to the acre during the three years in which it
was under trial averaged about 2 tons, fully equal to that
of the cowpea. Under favorable conditions the pods are
produced in large numbers and show no tendency to shatter.
The roots are remarkably well provided with tubercles,
indicating that the plant is a very efficient nitrogen
gatherer. So far as can be ascertained in limited experi-
ence with it, it is somewhat more drought resistant than
the cowpea, with which crop it will necessarily compete
agriculturally. It seems reasonably certain that this

554 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

plant will become of considerable use in southwestern
Kansas, western Oklahoma and northern Texas. Where
the rainfall is greater, comparative experiments indicate
that the cowpea is distinctively preferable.

The methods employed in growing cowpeas are satis-
factory for the moth bean. The crop should be planted
in rows from 2% to 3 feet apart, with plants every 2 to 3
inches. This requires from 5 to 6 pounds of seed to the
acre. Owing to the thick mat of vines produced, the crop
can be easily harvested with a mower by setting the cutter
bar low. At least two cultivations should be given and
the surface soil left as smooth as possible, so as to facili-
tate harvesting. The crop should not be harvested
until it has made its maximum growth. The mass of
green forage can best be cured in windrows and later hauled
and stored without putting into cocks.

671. Adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis). — The adzuki
bean is probably native to eastern Asia, but the wild
plant is not known. It is extensively cultivated in Man-
churia, Korea and Japan, and is rarely found in the
hill country of northern India. In Japan about 350,000
acres .are grown annually. It is readily distinguished
from the mung bean, to which it is closely related, by the
pods and seeds. The seeds of this species are about the
size of an average garden pea, but are oblong in shape, and
red, cream, orange or mottled in color. The pods are
mostly pale colored and smooth, resembling small cowpea
pods, while those of the mung bean are dark colored,
smaller,and hairy. This bean resembles an upright cowpea
in its habits of growth, but the stems are not as large and
hardly as woody. It is adapted to essentially the same
conditions as the soybean.

In Japan and Manchuria the adzuki bean is grown

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 555

entirely for human food, and as a producer of seed it excels
any other bean adapted to the region in which it will
grow, excepting the soybean. On account of its heavy
yield of seed it is likely to become of some impor-
tance in the United States, either for human food or
for growing to feed animals. The plants are smaller
than cowpeas or soybeans, so the yield of herbage is
but moderate.

The adzuki bean does not compete satisfactorily with
weeds and therefore must be planted in cultivated rows
which may be from 18 inches to 3 feet apart, depending
on the variety and the method of cultivation. The earli-
est varieties mature in about 90 days, while the latest
varieties require 140 days.

672. Bonavist or hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab). —
This bean is probably a native of Africa, but has been
cultivated since ancient, perhaps prehistoric, times in
southern Asia, as well as in Africa. The ripe seeds, as well
as the green pods, are used for human food.

The bonavist is an annual except in the tropics, where
it may persist two years or more. In a general way it
resembles the cowpea, but the stems are harder, and the
plant more viny, but when supported, often grows to a
height of 20 to 25 feet. The flowers are sweet scented
and borne in panicles, 4 to 18 inches long; the much-
compressed pods are shaped like a broad scimitar and
the seeds have a conspicuous white caruncle extending
one-third of their circumference.

The varieties are numerous, at least 30, and differ in
earliness ; color of foliage, green or purple ; color of flowers,
white, pink or purple; size, shape and color of the pods
and seeds, the latter being white, reddish, black or
speckled. The varieties with purple foliage are often

556 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

grown as ornamentals. One variety with white, waxy
pods is excellent as a vegetable.

The adaptations of the bonavist are practically identi-
cal with those of the cowpea, and it may be culti-
vated by identical methods. When grown in fields for
hay, they have given very promising results in southern
Kansas and northern Texas, being at least equal to cow-
peas in yield and palatability. Some varieties are heavy
seed producers, yielding about as much as cowpeas. The
habit of all the varieties is very much more viny than
cowpeas, in a general way being intermediate between
cowpeas and velvet beans. When grown in Virginia
with corn for silage or with sorghum for hay, they have
outyielded cowpeas, the vines being much more rapid
growers. There are two possible objections to them,
however. The vines grow very much more rapidly than
the cornstalks and tend to bind the rows of corn together,
and there is also a much larger mass of herbage covering
the ground than in the case of cowpeas, much of which
cannot be saved in harvesting. ;

In Cuba this bean has been considered superior to the
cowpea. Like many other legumes, however, the bonavist
is susceptible both to the root-knot caused by nematodes
and to wilt, although it is possible that varieties resistant
to these diseases may be found, as has been the case with
the cowpea. At the present time, however, the bonavist
offers no particular promise throughout the cotton region
except in Texas. In drought resistance it is at least equal
to the cowpea and apparently somewhat superior. In
all respects it will have to meet the cowpea in competi-
tion, and it still remains to be determined whether in any )
part of the country it will be sufficiently superior to the
cowpea to warrant its general culture. The roots are

OTHER HOT-SEASON ANNUAL LEGUMES 507

remarkably well provided with tubercles; indeed, in this
respect far surpassing the cowpea.

673. Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba).— Guar is an
annual, native of India, where it has long been cultivated
to a limited extent. The plant is grown both for green
forage and for the seed, which according to Duthie is
used mainly to fatten cattle.

The plants are stiff and erect, simple stemmed or with
comparatively few branches, and 3 to 6 feet high. The
leaves are trifoliolate and angularly toothed. The small
flowers are numerous in short erect axillary racemes.
The pods are flat, 1} to 2 inches long, and about 7-seeded.

Guar is adapted to about the same general conditions
as the cowpea, but it does not ripen its seed in northern
Virginia. It is especially characterized by its remarkable
drought resistance. At Chico, California, a fine crop was
produced without a drop of rain falling upon it from the
time it was planted until nearly ready to harvest. During
the whole season these plots showed no suffering whatever
from the drought, which seriously affected adjoining plots
of Kafir corn and sorghum. Similarly marked drought
resistance was shown at San Antonio, Texas.

Guar is very prolific, a single plant grown at Chico
producing 260 pods. The yield in India is stated to be
about 13 bushels to the acre, but small plots in this country
have shown a considerably greater yield.

There are many varieties, some of them with single
stems; others branched from the base. The upright-
growing varieties are preferable, at least from a seed-pro-
ducing standpoint. Some of the varieties have much
larger seeds than others, and on this account are more
desirable.

In regard to its palatability to live stock, the evidence

008 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

is thus far somewhat conflicting. At the Oklahoma
Experiment Station the cattle ate the straw readily after
the seeds had been thrashed out, notwithstanding that it
was decidedly coarse and the leaves had fallen. Most
experimenters report that their mules and cows eat it as
well as cowpeas. G. A. Schattenberg, of Boerne, Texas,
found that his sheep ate it readily, and he regards it
as an exceedingly valuable plant for pasture. A few
experimenters have had less satisfactory experiences, in
some cases the animals absolutely refusing to eat it.
The mixed results would lead to the belief that most
animals will acquire a taste for it, as animals commonly
refuse a new forage at first. Its use in India certainly
confirms this idea.

CHAPTER XXIV

*

MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES

THERE are parts of America to which none of the pe-
rennial clovers or alfalfa are well adapted and for which a
good perennial legume is greatly to be desired. This need
is greatest in the South. In Europe sainfoin, kidney
vetch, and other perennials have been profitably employed,
but none of these seems to possess much value for America.
Among recently exploited crops of this class, kudzu is
probably the most promising.

SAINFOIN (Onobrychis viciefolia)

674. Description. — Sainfoin is also known as esparcet
or esparsette. A synonym of its botanical name is Ono-
brychis sativa Lam. It occurs wild in most of the southern
half of Europe and eastward to Lake Baikal. About
twelve botanical varieties have been described from
Europe, but none of these has come into agricultural use.

Sainfoin is a very long-lived, deep-rooted perennial.
It is stated by Lawson that plants may live 100 years.
The root may reach a diameter of 2 inches and extend
to a depth of 20 feet or more. From the branched crown
arise numerous stout, erect stems which reach a height of
1 to 2 feet. The leaves are odd-pinnate with 13 to 15
leaflets. The rose-colored (rarely white) flowers are in

an erect, close raceme 2 to 5 inches long. The one-seeded
559

560 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

pods are brown, indehiscent, lenticular and reticulated
on the surface.

675. Agricultural history. — The culture of sainfoin prob-
ably dates back about 400 years. It was first cultivated
in southern France, the first definite record according to
Vianne being in 1582. Its culture was first described
in 1629. It was grown in Germany in the seventeenth
century, but not in Italy until the eighteenth century.

Its spread over Europe had a very marked effect inas-
much as it led to the profitable cultivation of much dry
caleareous land, which before had been nearly valueless.
Its culture has been largely restricted to chalky or other
calcareous soils, particularly where subject to drought.
In a general way, its distribution is nearly the same as that
of the grape in Europe, but it does well in places too cool
for grape culture.

Sainfoin has never attained any agricultural impor-
tance in America, though it has often been tested. It
would seem, however, that on some calcareous soils its
culture might become profitably established.

676. Culture. — Sainfoin is usually grown in pure cul-
tures, the seed being sown at the rate of 120 to 150 pounds
to the acre if drilled, more if broadcasted. Commercial
seed is in the hull, and this germinates better than the hulled
seed. The seed should be sown with a drill a half-inch or
more deep, or else well harrowed after broadcasting. It 1s
usually sown in spring with a nurse crop. Fall sowings
are apt to winter-kill.

Usually but one cutting of hay is obtained each season,
mowed during bloom, which lasts about one week. Under
favorable conditions a second smaller cutting may be
secured, but this as a rule is only half as large as the first,
so that it is generally pastured. Sainfoin has never been

MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES ob1

known to cause bloating. The yield of hay varies from
1800 to 6000 pounds to the acre, on the average about
3000 pounds. The yield is as a rule best in the fourth
year.

On poor soils fields are reported to last 15 to 22 years.
On good soils, however, the better practice is to allow the
fields to stand 4 to 7 years, and then not plant sainfoin
again for an equal length of time, as soils become “ sick ”’
to sainfoin in a manner analogous to ‘ clover sick ”’ soils.

677. Seed. — Commercial seed of sainfoin is nearly
always in the hull. Fresh seed should germinate 98 per
cent and have a purity of 80 per cent. The seed loses its
viability rapidly, so that after one year it is valueless.
On this account the commercial seed: is often very low in
viability. After planting the seed is slow to germinate,
requiring 2 to 3 weeks before it has all sprouted.

The seed is all grown in Europe, the average yield being
stated as about 500 pounds to the acre.

678. American data. — Sainfoin has been tested in a
small way at most of the American experiment stations,
but nowhere on the continent has it become established
as a crop. Long before the days of experiment stations,
sainfoin had been frequently tested by farmers, and there
are many references to it in early American agricultural
literature. Fields have often been planted in the irrigated
lands of the West, but neither under such conditions nor
on the unirrigated lands has it yielded as heavily as alfalfa.
Under irrigation the average yield for 2 years at the Utah
Experiment Station was but 2000 pounds to the acre, much
less than either red clover or alfalfa. Without irrigation
but one early cutting was secured.

At the Ontario Agricultural College an average yield

of 12 tons green matter to the acre has been secured from
20

562 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

spring sowings. In one case the plants survived in a plot
for 8 to 10 years.

At the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada,
sainfoin has given the most favorable results reported in
America. A plot sown May 14 was cut August 12 and
yielded 3700 pounds hay to the acre; the next year it was
cut twice, the yields being respectively 4200 and 5400
pounds of hay to the acre. During three years the annual
yields in hay to the acre were respectively 7160, 9160 and
13,398 pounds. The yield in the third year was larger
than that of any other of 18 hay crops, either single or in

mixtures.
OTHER PERENNIAL LEGUMES

679. Sulla or Spanish sainfoin (Hedysarum coronarium)
is a perennial legume native to the Mediterranean region
of Europe and north Africa, where its culture is locally
important in Spain, Sicily, Malta and southern France.
Its culture was recorded in Italy in 1766, but it is probably
still older. The plant has deep roots; ascending stems
1 to 3 feet long; pinnate leaves with 3 to 5 pairs of oval,
obtuse, pale leaflets; flowers numerous in erect racemes ;
pods flattened, constricted between the circular joints.

The ordinary variety has red flowers and under favorable
conditions grows 4 to 5 feet high. Another variety with
white flowers grows less tall. In Algeria there is said to
be a red-flowered, biennial variety.

Sulla is especially adapted to deep soils, especially if
calcareous, but will grow on any deep, fertile, well-drained
soils. It is commonly planted in the spring, and thus
sown, will yield on dry soil one cutting the first season and
thereafter two. Under irrigation three or more cuttings
may be obtained.

The seed germinates poorly, much of it being hard, but

MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 563

it is said that after immersing it 5 minutes in boiling
water a germination of 95 per cent may be obtained. The
seed costs about 25 cents per pound.

Fields are usually left 3 years or more and may yield as
high as 5 tons of hay per season.

Fairly satisfactory results with sulla have been secured
in southern Texas with irrigation, but under such conditions
it cannot compete with alfalfa. At the Massachusetts
Experiment Station it is said to have lived for several
years.

680. Kudzu (Pueraria thunbergiana) is a woody, legu-
minous vine native to Japan. The leaves resemble in a
general way those of the common bean, but they are larger
and angularly lobed, besides being tougher in texture ;
the stems and leaf stalks are somewhat hairy. As far
north as Maryland the vine will bloom, but only occasion-
ally, and then late in the fall. The blossoms are dull pur-
ple-red in pendent racemes, but a white-flowered variety
is said to occur in Japan. The pods are thin, very hairy
and do not mature in the latitude of Washington, D.C.

Kudzu is remarkable for its very rapid growth during
the warm weather of midsummer. It succeeds well in
the humid eastern part of the United States, and will
grow in almost any type of soil. It succeeds best, how-
ever, with an abundance of heat and moisture. Kudzu
is a most excellent vine for arbors and porches, for which
purpose it is grown in most of the southern cities,
climbing to a height of 60 feet or more. It survives
winter as far north as Nova Scotia.

Kudzu was probably first introduced in the United
States in 1876, when it was grown at the Centennial
Exposition in Philadelphia. It is only recently, however,
that it has created interest as a forage crop, due largely

564 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

to the work of C. E. Pleas of Chipley, Florida. At-
tracted by the remarkable luxuriance of the plant and the
fact that horses and cows ate the leaves greedily, he cured |
some as hay and found it equally palatable to animals.
He then planted a small field, probably the first of the
kind ever planted in this country. Under field conditions
kudzu sends out long prostrate branches which root at
many of the joints and send up ascending twining branches
to a height of 2 to 4 feet. Eventually these become sepa-
rate plants as the prostrate stems usually die between the
rooted joints. Such a field when full grown presents
much the appearance of a thick field of cowpeas or soy-
beans. It can be readily cut with a mower, and the hay
cures more readily than most legumes, as the leaves are
less juicy. There is practically no shedding of the leaves
in curing.

Some fields in northern Florida have yielded three cut-
tings of hay a season when well established, and yields of
as high as 10 tons to the acre have been claimed. In other
fields the total yield has been smaller than that of velvet
beans. It seems probable that under favorable conditions
kudzu will prove a very profitable crop, notwithstanding
the fact that its perennial nature does not permit of grow-
ing a winter crop in rotation.

The seed of kudzu does not germinate very well, so that
the plant is usually propagated by layers. A new field
of kudzu is best established by the transplanting of well-
rooted plants in very early spring. These should be
planted about 10 feet apart each way, and the first season
will pretty well cover the ground with prostrate runners.
The second season a fair crop should be obtained, but the
field will not produce best results till the third year. The
planting should be done early in the spring, but in the

MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 565

extreme south may be done at any time during the winter.
To avoid the loss of land the first season, corn may be
planted after setting out the kudzu, and the two do not
interfere with each other.

The culture of kudzu is still in an experimental stage,
but for permanent hay fields, especially in the South, it
is likely to become of considerable importance. Small
experimental plots at the Kentucky and Alabama Experi-
ment Stations, as well as at Arlington Farm, Virginia,
have given promising results. At the Florida Experiment
Station the plot yields have thus far not been as satisfac-
tory as those of velvet beans.

681. Flat pea (Lathyrus silvestris var. wagnert) is a
native of most of Europe and the Caucasus region of
Asia. The cultivated variety was first domesticated by
Wagner in 1862 from the Carpathian Mountains, Austria.
The wild plant was unpalatable and the seeds very hard,
but Wagner was able to improve the plant by selection in
both these respects. Since 1878 the plant has been much
discussed, and at times very extravagant claims made for it.

The plant is a long-lived perennial closely allied to the
old perennial sweet pea of the gardens. The stems are
wing-margined, weak and reclining without support,
becoming 3 to 6 feet long; leaves with a single pair of
lanceolate leaflets, and branched tendrils; flowers pink,
3 to 10 in a loose raceme.

It grows but slowly at first and usually does not bloom
till the second year. In Germany the green plant is said
to be eaten readily by horses and swine.

The flat pea has been tested at many of the American
experiment stations, but by none has the plant been com-
mended nor has it won for itself a place in American
agriculture. When once established it may persist for

566 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

years. At the Michigan Experiment Station one acre
yielded in its second year two cuttings; the first cutting,
June 29, weighed 23,997 pounds green and 5431 pounds
dry; the second cutting, September 16, weighed 17,188
pounds green and 3636 pounds dry — a total yield of 20.5
tons of green matter and 4.5 tons dry hay. Cattle ate
the green forage readily.

At the Vermont Experiment Station the second year’s
crop was 62 tons green matter or 12 tons hay to the acre,
and the third year’s crop fully as large.

At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, flat peas
gave in two years an average yield to the acre of 17,700
pounds green herbage of 3700 pounds of hay, but the crop
is not recommended, because of the difficulty of securing a
stand, and its unpalatability.

The flat pea has nowhere in America attained any
definite status as a field crop, but where a long-lived
perennial legume is needed in the Northern States, prob-
ably no other species is better adapted to the purpose.

682. Kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria) is native to
much of temperate Europe, Asia and North Africa. It
was first brought into cultivation in Prussia about 1859.
Two varieties are cultivated, one with pale yellow and
the other with reddish flowers, but otherwise they scarcely
differ.

The plant is a perennial with roots 3 feet or more long.
The basal leaves are simple, but the cauline are pinnate.
The stems are stout and erect, not at all viny as in the true
vetches, to which it is not closely related.

Kidney vetch is most important on sandy and calcareous
soils in North Germany, but is grown to some extent in
other European countries. It is especially valuable where
clover and other legumes do not thrive. In all respects

MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 567

it is cultivated much like red clover, being sown in Ger-
many in fall with a grain crop. The plants grow so slowly
that there is but little fall pasturage after the grain crop
is removed. Thereafter it yields moderate hay crops for
two years; if pastured, it lasts 3 to 4 years. Usually
but one hay crop a year can be obtained, and the after-
math is very small. Kidney vetch is, however, rarely
sown alone but in mixtures, and is better adapted for pas-
tures than for meadows. Both as pasturage and as hay,
kidney vetch is more readily eaten by sheep than by other
animals. It seems never to cause bloating.

The harvesting of the seed is rather difficult, as, if cut
too green, it will not thrash out, and if too ripe, it shatters
much. The plants usually die after seed harvest. The
seed yield varies from 350 to 700 pounds an acre. <A
bushel weighs 60 to 64 pounds, and one pound contains
126,000 to 182,000 seeds, according to Stebler.

Kidney vetch is usually sown in mixtures, but if sown
alone 20 pounds of seed an acre is used. Werner says
that the yield of hay on calcareous sand is 5000 to 9000
pounds an acre; on good sandy soil, 3500 to 5000 pounds ;
and on poor sandy soils, 1800 to 2500 pounds; or on the
average about 4000 pounds to the acre.

Kidney vetch has not proved of any particular value
under American conditions. The plant is not rarely found
in ballast grounds, but nowhere has it become really natu-
ralized. It has been tested in a small way at many Ameri-
can Experiment Stations, but none have recommended
it as being promising.

At the Utah Experiment Station it gave a yield of only
1150 pounds of hay to the acre. At the Ontario Agricultural
College the average yield for 2 years was 2.6 tons green
matter to the acre.

568 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

683. Goat’s rue (Galega officinalis) is native from south-
east Europe to Persia, and came into agricultural use in
Germany in the latter part of the eighteenth century.
It seems never to have been much grown, and is not now
important except in special localities. Goat’s rue has
succeeded well in small trials at many places in the United
States, but has never come into agricultural use. |

The plant is a deep-rooted perennial with abundant
stout stems three to four feet high, each terminated by a
raceme of pale violet flowers, but white-flowered and rose-
flowered varieties occur. The leaves are numerous and
pinnately compound.

Two cuttings are obtained under favorable conditions
in Europe, and this has also been the experience at Arling-
ton Farm, Virginia. The plant is too coarse to make good
hay, and so is used mainly for soiling. In good soil, the
yield of green substance is said to equal that of alfalfa.
It is usually sown in spring, and is best grown in cultivated
rows, never in mixtures. The seeds are rather large, one
pound containing 62,000, and 22 pounds an acre is the
rate of seeding. The Utah Experiment Station records
yields of 4490 pounds of hay to the acre.

One instance in France is recorded where 54 sheep died
and 84 were badly affected from eating goat’s rue. In
further tests it was found that 7 pounds of the plant would
kill a sheep.

684. Bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) 1s native
to much of temperate Europe and Asia. It is a low-
growing perennial with a stout root and bearing numerous
slender, ascending or spreading branches 6 to 18 inches
long. The leaves bear five small leaflets. The bright
yellow, showy flowers are in umbels of 2 to 6.

In northern Europe bird’s-foot trefoil is considered

MISCELLANEOUS PERENNIAL LEGUMES 569

a valuable constituent in pasture lands, and is sometimes
sown in hay mixtures, but it is too small to be of much
value for such purpose.

Bird’s-foot trefoil has succeeded well enough in trials
in nearly all the humid portions of the United States,
except the extreme south, but its growth is too small to
warrant its cultivation, and it has not shown any aggres-
siveness in becoming established. It is nowhere really
naturalized in North America.

The seed weighs 60 pounds to the bushel and 11 pounds
to the acre is seeded, if sown alone. It is expensive to har-
vest, and this has perhaps prevented the greater use of the
plant.

Two varieties of Lotus corniculatus are also utilized
agriculturally and sold by seedsmen; namely, var. fenwi-
folius with narrow leaves, and var. villosus with pubescent
foliage. Another species, Lotus uliginosus, is also offered
by seedsmen, and not infrequently under the name vil-
losus, according to Stebler.

685. Astragalus falcatus is native to the Caucasus region
and utilized to a small extent in Europe for forage, espe-
cially in Russia and France. It is a deep-rooted, long-
lived perennial; leaves pinnate with 15 to 20 pairs of
leaflets; flowers yellowish in a spike-lke panicle. This
species is very hardy and probably will withstand as
severe conditions as alfalfa. In France it is said not to
be able to compete with alfalfa on good soil, but to be val-
uable on poor, dry lands. It begins its growth very early
in spring, and in France may be cut three times. It is
mostly fed green, and animals eat it readily.

This astragalus has grown well at Arlington Farm, Vir-
ginia; Pullman, Washington ; and Akron, Colorado. Well-
grown plants become a foot or more in diameter and 2 to

570 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

24 feet high. The commercial seed is not high priced, but
much of it is ‘‘ hard ’”’ and does not germinate. The crop
is worthy of further investigation in connection with dry
farming.

686. Furze (Ulex europeus). — Furze or gorse is a
spiny leguminous shrub native to northern Europe.
The leaves are very small, and with the twigs are evergreen.
The handsome yellow blossoms are much ike those of the
Scotch broom.

Furze has never been cultivated for forage in America,
but it has become established in places along the New
England coast, and on the Pacific coast in Washington
and British Columbia. Its adaptation to these regions
may in time lead to its utilization for forage.

In Europe it is planted more or less on sandy or rocky
land, and the crops either cut and fed green in winter, or
browsed with sheep and cattle. Where cultivated it is cut
every year, as the year-old branches become quite woody.

CHAPTER XXV

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE

Apart from the grasses and legumes few plants are
worth cultivating for forage and none of these is of high
importance. Those discussed in this chapter are the best
known.

687. Mexican clover (Richardsonia scabra) is wrongly
named, as it is not clover at all, but belongs to the family
Rubiacee. In Florida and other Southern States it is
commonly called purslane or “ pusley.”’ Mexican clover
is native to Mexico, and now extends along the Gulf coast
and throughout Florida. In the latter region there is
some question as to whether it is truly native, as it is found
almost entirely in cultivated land.

Mexican clover is an annual plant much branched from
the base, the weak decumbent stems reaching a length of
1 to 2 feet; leaves opposite, simple, entire; flowers small,
pinkish, crowded into close heads.

Mexican clover is a summer annual springing up in
cultivated land in spring after the manner of crab-grass.
It is especially abundant in sandy land, springing up after
cultivation has ceased in hoed crops, or after early crops
have been removed. Under favorable conditions it makes
a dense mass of herbage 1 foot to nearly 2 feet deep.
The plant is rather succulent and not easily cured into

hay, but when well cured is readily eaten by farm animals.
571

Si FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The maximum yield of hay is probably about 2 tons to the
acre.

Mexican clover may also be used for pasturage, and is
readily eaten by most farm animals.

Seed is produced in abundance and can easily be saved,
but there is no commercial demand, as the plant when
once established volunteers year after year indefinitely.
Strictly speaking, it is not a cultivated plant at all, but a
useful weed comparable in this respect to crab-grass and
bur clover. In the United States it is adapted only to
Florida and a relatively narrow region westward to Texas.
It succeeds best on sandy soils.

688. Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.).— These “ pears ”’
are all natives to America. Some of the larger species
which grow to a height of from 3 to 6 feet or more and
which have flat, oblong or circular joints, have long been
utilized for forage. Some of these species, especially
those which are nearly spineless, were long ago introduced
into northern Africa, where they are grown quite extensively,
not only for the fruit but as feed for camels and bullocks.
In Texas they have been used as forage, especially during
periods of drought, for 50 years or more. In recent years
their cultivation for forage has received considerable atten-
tion in the United States.

In the United States the larger species of Opuntia are
well adapted only to southern Texas and California and
portions of Arizona and New Mexico. They will with-
stand a temperature as low as 20° Fahrenheit for a short
time, but where the temperature often falls lower their
culture is not advisable. The spiny species especially
endure periods of drought remarkably well, but to obtain
a satisfactory growth under cultivation a good supply
of moisture is necessary. The root is comparatively

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 573

shallow, and without a good supply of soil moisture the
growth is exceedingly slow. Prickly pears are like other
plants, in that the best growth is secured on the best soils,
although the plants will make some growth on any type
of soil so long as it is well drained and there is sufficient
moisture for growth. All of the species thrive best in
regions where there is a season of low moisture supply dur-
ing which the plants become semi-dormant.

Prickly pears may be propagated either by seed or by
plant joints. Propagation by seed is, however, more
costly and a longer time must elapse before the plants can
be harvested. Griffiths finds that there is considerable
difference between plants of the same species grown from
seed and propagated from cuttings. The latter tend to
be tree-like, while the former are headed on the ground
and without distinct trunks. In propagating vegetatively,
single joints 1 to 3 years old should be used, as younger
joints are not as certain and do not start off as vigorously
as the older ones. Old trunks which have lost their Joint
character are also satisfactory. It is preferable to cut
the joints below the articulation. In planting, the best
plan is to have the joint covered } to 3 of its length. In
plantings thus far made the plants have been put 3 feet
apart in rows 6 feet wide, but with the larger sorts 8-foot
rows are probably more advantageous. When thus
planted they can be easily cultivated, and better results
are secured by cultivating fields often enough to maintain
a good tilth and destroy weeds.

The prickly pears can be harvested and fed at any time
of the year. Cattle, however, do not like the young
joints and there is therefore considerable waste in har-
vesting the plants while growth is active. In California
it has been found inadvisable to harvest them in winter

5(4 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

from December to March, as during the cool season the
remaining portion of the stem is likely to rot instead of
healing over.

Under moderately favorable conditions yields of 20 to
25 tons of green matter to the acre may be obtained.

Prickly pears are readily eaten by cattle, hogs, sheep
and goats. The spineless ones may be fed directly,
but the spiny sorts require preliminary treatment. The
spines may be removed by singeing either with a brush
fire or by means of a gasoline torch, or the plants may be
chopped into pieces and piled into heaps when the spines
become softened so that they do not trouble animals, or
the whole plant may be steamed in vats. The feeding
value is low, as from 80 to 90 per cent or more of the plant
consists of water. Nevertheless, very satisfactory results
have been obtained in using prickly pears as roughage
feed for dairy and beef cattle as well as for hogs, sheep and
goats.

Under Texas conditions some of the spiny sorts have
given more satisfactory results than the spineless ones.
The latter are more subject to damage by rabbits.

689. Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus). — The sunflower
is native to the western United States, where the wild form
often occupies extensive areas. It is an annual with a
stout, erect, usually simple stem which becomes woody ;
alternate ovate petioled leaves; and one or more large
half-nodding heads with a black disk and numerous golden-
yellow rays. Under cultivation numerous varieties have
been developed, some with all the flowers ligulate. The
agriculturally valuable sorts are those which produce a
single large head, which may be 8 to 12 inches in diameter.

Sunflowers are grown extensively in Russia for the
seeds, which are used both for poultry feed and for oil pro-

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 575

duction. In America their culture has not been large,
partly from the fact that there are several insects that live
naturally in the seeds.

The plants are cultivated much after the manner of
corn in rows 28 to 36 inches wide, with the plants a foot
apart in the rows.

Sometimes sunflowers are grown thickly and cut for
fodder, but the woody nature of the plants makes them
undesirable for this purpose.

At the New Hampshire Experiment Station three varie-
ties gave the following yields of heads to the acre: Rus-
sian, 23,958 pounds; White Russian, 19,360 pounds;
and Grey, 20,812 pounds.

In Ontario they have been grown to some extent as a
forage crop, the heads being put into silos with corn.
There seems, however, to be no economy in this practice.
At the Ontario Agricultural College three varieties have
been grown continuously for a period of years, the result-
ing yield data being as follows : —

AVERAGE AVERAGE YIELD TO THE ACRE
DIAMETER LN | ——— SSS

ey eas 25 in ADS HEIGHT Heads eee Grain

(10 yrs.) (13 yrs.) (13 yrs.) (13 me (12 yrs.)

Inches Inches Tons Tons Bushels
Mammoth Russian 7.29 100 5.97 |, 18:05 74.7
White Beauty . . 7.38 87 5:60" e168 74.4
Black Giant eu ne 7.08 107 6.32 22.36 120

According to the last census, the total area of cultivated
sunflowers in the United States was 4731 acres, which
yielded 63,677 bushels of seed. Illinois, with 3979 acres,
produced most of the crop; namely, 49,064 bushels.

576 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

690. Spurrey (Spergula sativa). — Cultivated spurrey
has been much confused with the very similar corn
spurrey (Spergula arvensis). The latter is generally in-
troduced in America as a rather harmless weed in culti-
vated soil. Common spurrey was cultivated for forage
in Europe in 1566 and probably much earlier.

Spurrey is much employed as a catch crop and for
green manure on sandy lands in north central Europe,
especially France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Denmark
and Russia. It is adapted to a moist, cool growing season,
and under such conditions will produce a crop of green
fodder 12 to 14 inches high in 7 or 8 weeks. ‘Three crops
may thus be grown on the same piece of land in a season,
the first being sown as soon as danger of frost is over ;
or one crop may be grown after a crop of winter grain is
harvested and before another is planted. It is often sown
with a grain crop in spring, and after it has grown in the
stubble, used as pasture. If sown alone, it is cut when in
bloom and fed green or cured into hay, the latter being
rather difficult, as the plant is quite succulent. The value
of spurrey for sandy lands in Europe is so great that
some writers have called it the ‘ clover of sandy soils.”

Spurrey has often been tested in America, beginning
with 1853, but thus far it has been but little used. One
crop can be grown in early spring and another in fall if
the frosts are not too early. The plant languishes, how-
ever, in our hot midsummers, to which it is not adapted.
Young plants do not withstand frost, but when well
grown ordinary frosts are not injurious.

The most extensive investigations were those conducted
on the sandy Jack pine land of Michigan. The results
reported were very promising, but the culture of the crop
does not seem to have become established. At Grayling,

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 5177

Michigan, seed yields of 8 to 12 bushels an acre were
secured. There is likelihood, however, that spurrey may
in time be a useful plant in America on very sandy lands
in the Northern States, when economic conditions will
justify their development. On better lands it is not likely
ever to be used.

In Germany the hay yields are said to be about 6000
pounds and the seed yields 450 to 600 pounds an acre.
The straw is nearly as good feed as the hay.

Spurrey has sometimes been condemned as a weed, but
such references belong to corn spurrey and not to the
cultivated plant. The seed is small, one pound containing
1,350,000. The usual rate of seeding is 15 to 20 pounds
to the acre.

Another species, the Giant Spurrey (Spergula maxima),
has also been cultivated since 1841. This is a larger plant
with larger seeds, 740,000 weighing one pound. It reaches
its growth in 10 to 12 weeks and ripens its seed in 16
weeks. Unlike common spurrey, this species is adapted
to heavier soils rich in lime, and its culture is of much less
importance. At the Michigan Upper Peninsula Station,
it was sown July 28 and cut September 10, giving a yield
of about 3.5 tons hay to the acre.

691. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), in some of its numer-
ous forms, is native throughout the north temperate zone.
The plant has the strong odor of chamomile, but cattle
and sheep eat it when young. It is a long-lived, deep-
rooted perennial; leaves pinnately divided into very
fine, numerous segments; heads numerous, small, white-
rayed, in a dense flat umbel.

Yarrow will grow in any type of soil if well drained and,
because of its persistence, has been used in pasture mix-
tures for poor, hilly lands in Europe. It will withstand

2P

‘Sites FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

heavy trampling and close grazing, and if kept closely
clipped on lawns, makes a fine turf. The seed is very
small, one pound containing 1,667,000 seeds.

At the Ontario Agricultural College it gave a yield to
the acre of 3.5 tons green matter or .9 tons of hay.

692. Sachaline (Polygonum sachalinense) is a native of
the island of Saghalien. It was introduced into cultiva-
tion in 1869 as an ornamental and has been used for this
purpose ever since. In 1893 it was considered in France
to possess some value as forage, and in the succeeding
years was much advertised and extravagant claims made
for it.

The plant is a stout perennial herb, spreading by root-
stocks, and growing to a height of 6 to 10 feet; the leaves
are heart-shaped, and the greenish flowers inconspicuous.
Well-established plants produce an abundance of herbage,
and this is eaten readily by all farm animals. The habit
of the plant adapts it better to green feeding and possibly
silage than for dry fodder. In Germany it is said to
yield 8 to 16 tons green matter to the acre.

The difficulty with sachaline as a forage crop is that it
is troublesome to start, hard stemmed, and does not yield
more than corn or sorghum. Its rootstock habit makes
it rather difficult to destroy promptly, but it is never
troublesome as a weed. Its only practicable use would
seem to be to furnish an abundance of green feed from a
small area without planting each year.

Sachaline was tested at many of the American experi-
ment stations, but has not commended itself as worthy of
culture except as an ornamental. Plants may be started
either by seeds or propagated by rootstocks.

693. Burnet (Sanguisorba minor) is a native of Europe.
It was first cultivated in England about 1760 as a pasture

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 579

plant, and since that time has been used in England and
France. It is a deep-rooted perennial that withstands
heavy pasturing, and in England continues to grow during
most of the winter. For these reasons it is commonly
used in pasture mixtures, especially on poor, dry hills
where the soil is calcareous.

On good land, plants will grow 2 feet high, and under
such conditions yield as much as 6 tons of green matter
to theacre. Burnet is, however, not well adapted to such
use.

In America burnet has not yet been found sufficiently
valuable to justify cultivation. It has been tested at
many experiment stations, but mostly in small plots
and not as a pasture plant. From the fact that it
has become spontaneous in New England, it may be
worthy of more attention as a pasture plant for that
region.

At the Utah Experiment Station a small plot yielded
hay at the rate of 1567 pounds to the acre.

694. Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata), or narrow-leaved
plantain, is a native of Europe, but has become a common
weed nearly everywhere in America, having been intro-
duced as an impurity in grass and clover seeds. It is a
long-lived perennial which maintains itself firmly on any
soil so long as it is well drained. On this account buckhorn
has been used more or less in Europe in pasture mixtures
for poor hill lands, and to some extent has also been
included in hay mixtures. In America it is commonly
looked upon as a troublesome weed, especially in alfalfa
and red clover. The herbage, however, is readily grazed
upon by sheep and cattle and eaten when cured into hay.
As a pasture plant it is apparently deserving of more con-
sideration than it has received, especially for thin, stony

580 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

soils. It is probably never necessary to sow buckhorn,
as more or less seed is usually mixed with grass and clover
seeds, and where once established the plant spreads abun-
dantly by its seed. While the plant is justly condemned
as a troublesome weed in lawns and elsewhere, its value
for pasturage should not be overlooked.

695. Prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum) is a
perennial herb native to the Caucasus region. The plant
has a large taproot 8 or 9 feet deep; stems 2 to 4 feet high ;
leaves oblong, large, rough, sometimes a foot or more long ;
flowers tubular, bright-blue, nodding in one-sided clusters.
The plant is hardy, withstanding the winters in Ontario
and succeeding well in most of the United States.

It was introduced into England as early as 1801 as an
ornamental, and beginning with 1830 has from time to
time been praised as a forage plant, especially to furnish
green feed for hogs, sheep and cows.

The seed of prickly comfrey is not very satisfactory,
so the plant is usually propagated by divisions of the crown
or by sections of the taproot. On rich soil with intensive
cultivation prickly comfrey may be cut green from 3 to
6 times in a season, and the yield is said to range from
10 to 50 tons of green matter to the acre. The plants
are long-lived and are said to produce abundantly for
15 to 20 years.

The plant has been tested by a number of experiment
stations, but has never come into much use in America.
Yields have been reported by various American experi-
ment stations in green matter to the acre as follows :—

Ontario Agricultural College, 92 tons in 4 cuttings;
New York (Geneva), 14 to 16 tons; Vermont, 46 tons;
North Carolina, 63 to 174 tons; Wisconsin, 33% tons.

Even with these large yields comfrey can hardly compete

MISCELLANEOUS HERBS USED AS FORAGE 581

with other forage crops. At the Wisconsin Experiment
Station the yield of dry matter to the acre for red clover
was 23 per cent greater than that of comfrey. At the New
York Experiment Station alfalfa yielded 16 tons of green
matter as compared to 14 tons by prickly comfrey. At
the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the yield of diges-
tible matter by prickly comfrey was considerably less than
that produced by either Kafir corn or cowpeas.

The value of prickly comfrey would seem to be restricted
entirely to that of a soilage crop where a large amount of
green matter is to be grown on a limited acreage, but even
in this respect it is surpassed by other crops. As a silage
crop it has been used somewhat, but the product is said
to be disagreeable in odor. Animals are somewhat averse
to eating comfrey at first, either green or preserved, but
soon acquire a taste for it.

696. Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata). — This
plant is native to alkali lands in Australia, where it has
long been recognized as a valuable natural forage for sheep.
It was introduced into the United States in the hope that
it would be profitable as a crop to grow on lands too alka-
line for ordinary crops. ‘This hope, however, has not been
realized, and about all that is cultivated are a few fields
to supply the small demand for seed which still persists
from the advertising the plant received. In southern
California the Australian saltbush has become naturalized
and moderately aggressive in a few places, but elsewhere
it has not shown this trait.

After Atriplex semibaccata was introduced, many other
species from Australia and South Africa were tested.
Many of them grow well and some are quite ornamental,
but none of them has come into use as a crop.

On the whole, the introduced species of Atriplex are

582 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

little, if any, superior to the numerous native species that
grow on the alkaline lands of the West. None of the
species yet introduced has shown any tendency to spread
and become aggressive, except the European Atriplex
hastata L. in the Columbia Basin.

GHAPTER, XXXVI

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE
FORAGES

Roor crops were all developed primarily for use as
human food and are still mainly grown for this purpose.
They are similarly useful, however, as rich feed for do-
mestic animals, and where they can be grown more cheaply
than grain are important for such use.

697. Root crops. — This general phrase is used somewhat
loosely in agronomic literature. In the broadest sense
it includes all plants whose roots, tubers, bulbs or other
underground vegetative parts are utilized. More gener-
ally, tubers, such as potatoes, and bulbs, such as onions,
are excluded. As usually employed the term includes
primarily beets or mangels, rutabagas, turnips and carrots.
Some other roots used as forage are cassava, artichokes,
sweet potatoes and chufas, but these are adapted to
warmer climates. Ina looser usage rape, kale and cabbage
have been included with “root crops.” The German
term hackfriichte or ‘‘ hoe crops”’ is even less definite,
including not only ordinary root crops, but pumpkins,
cabbage and kale.

All of the root crops used for forage are also used as
vegetables for human food, but the varieties grown for
forage are the larger, coarser ones which produce corre-
spondingly heavier yields.

585

584 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Root crops for forage comprise in America but a small
portion of the root crops grown. Much the larger part of
the “ root ”’ crop is grown for vegetables and the acreage of
beets for sugar is far greater than that of roots for forage.

The portion of the plant harvested in “ root” crops is
truly a thickened root in cassava, chufas and sweet pota-
toes. In beets, carrots, rutabagas and turnips, it is partly
root and partly stem which merge insensibly together.

A root crop may replace any other cultivated crop in a
rotation. As a rule four or more years should elapse be-
fore the same or a related root crop is grown on the same
piece of land, as otherwise the damage by insects and
disease is apt to be large.

698. Importance of root crops. — Root crops for forage
are extensively grown for stock feed in northern Europe,
especially Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, Denmark
and Seandinavia. In America they have thus far been
grown mainly in Canada. In the United States they are
nowhere important, but according to the thirteenth census
are most largely grown in the states of California, Colo-
rado, Utah, New Mexico, Wisconsin, Washington, Oregon,
Michigan and New York in order. The large use of
forage roots in the first four states is probably associated
with beet culture for sugar.

On the accompanying map is shown the number of
acres of roots for forage in each state, according to the
Thirteenth United States Census, and in each province
according to the Fifth Canadian Census.

In a general way the lack of importance of root crops
in the United States is correlated with the extensive cul-
ture of corn, which supplies a cheap grain feed for live
stock. In northern localities, on the Pacific Coast and
at high altitudes where corn or other equally cheap grain

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 585

cannot be grown, root crops furnish the most satisfactory
substitute. One pound of dry matter in root crops is
considered about equal in feeding value to one pound of
grain.

Perhaps the principal reason why root crops are not
grown where corn or grain sorghums can be produced is
the large amount of hand labor required by the former.

Fic. 62.— Root crops 1909-1910. Figures = acres.

If such be the explanation, root crops are likely to become
more important as population becomes denser. At the
Cornell Experiment Station the average cost for four
years of producing one acre of mangels was $77.28 as con-
trasted with $40.77 for corn. The cost per pound of dry
matter was low enough to be a profitable substitute for
part of the grain rations.

699. Kinds of root crops. — The most important root
crops grown for forage are mangels and sugar beets (Beta

586 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

vulgaris), rutabaga (Brassica campestris), turnip (Brassica.
rapa), carrot (Daucus carota) and parsnip (Pastinaca
sativa). These are all cultivated as vegetables; their
culture on a large scale is by essentially the same methods.
All of these root crops are best adapted to regions with a
cool growing season, and hence their culture is most impor-
tant northward. Southward the mangel and the turnip
are grown more successfully than the others.

All of these root crops require a fertile, loamy soil to
secure the largest yields. They are nearly always grown
in rows wide enough to permit of easy cultivation. The
culture of most of them, however, involves considerable
hand labor, especially in thinning the rows.

700. Comparison of various root crops. __ ingen
as mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, turnips, carrots and
parsnips are all adapted to very closely the same conditions,
the problem arises as to which is to be preferred. In
Great Britain more than 3 times as many rutabagas are
grown as mangels, while in Germany, the reverse is the
case. In Canada the acreage of mangels in 1910 was
53,576 against 76,488 for rutabagas and turnips.

In feeding value these roots apparently stand in the
following order, sugar beets highest, followed by parsnips,
mangels, rutabagas, carrots, turnips, but the differences
are small.

The yields of mangels and rutabagas are decidedly
greater than other roots, so the latter are grown more for
special purposes or for variety. At the Ontario Agri-
cultural College, the average yields to the acre for 26 years
have been 27,600 pounds mangels, 25,740 pounds ruta-
bagas and 20,760 pounds carrots. The yields at five
different stations are compiled in the accompanying
table :—

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 587

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588 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

The relation of roots to corn and other crops, as secured
in Maine, show that even in the Northern States corn may
outyield any root crop : —

SUMMARY OF AVERAGE YIELDS OF FODDER AND Root Crops
FOR 1890 anp 1891, Maine EXPERIMENT STATION

C Veco Y ACRE eee
AG Hyneneten [DRY Marran| DiORIBEE,

Pounds Pounds Pounds
Southern corn BN has be, Saar ke ah POO OAS 5,580 3,850
Rutabagas Se ee Pe emi e h(o12 5) 3,415 2,978
funeariam orass «<2. . ., | 116:910 4,680 2,967
SUcarDCetsm a hen) ts 17,645 2,990 2,447
English flat turnips . . <-. | 28,500 2,559 2,000
Kieidecorn int) .-.2 2... -|°21;,690 3,110 2,208
Sweet corn Se ie ore ae hie 18,260 2,60¢1 1,870
Mangel=-wurzels . .°...:>. |. 15;)875 1,613 1,266
Peas (seed) ctr eh ease 1,665 1,415 1,231
Timothy hay (assumed crop) 4,000 3,000 2,065

701. Roots compared with corn and sorghum. — At
the Michigan Experiment Station the yield of various
root crops, both green and dry, was compared with those
of corn and sorghum.

CoMPARATIVE ACRE YIELDS OF Root Crops, CoRN AND
SoRGHUM AT THE MICHIGAN EXPERIMENT STATION

GREEN WEIGHT Dry WEIGHT

Crop TO THE ACRE TO THE ACRE
Pounds Pounds
COOLS heute, destateoy tees tae 28,836 3,322
hone red-manvelss * v.58 ue 25,616 3,081
Tankard.<mangvels . « 2.55... 21,744 Dei
PUUG AO Av asa Ogee he ee cee ee 31,028 3,742
SUSar COLI cil yop te rue, eae 28,320 5,347
ORME: Mee amit Ao os Ml ue Ras 29,684 8,656

SORPMUMIGE | cg. ee Me ao teen 38,676 7,700

_— sey Se )

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 589

These results agree with those obtained by many other
experimenters; namely, that where corn or sorghum will
grow well, they will produce larger yields of dry matter
than root crops.

RAPE (Brassica napus)

702. Rape is a native of temperate Europe. The wild

plant is an annual, but the cultivated form may be either
annual or biennial. The former is grown only for the
seed, from which oil is extracted; and the latter mainly
for forage. Like the other Brassicas it is best adapted
to a cool growing season, and for heavy yields rich, moist
soil is required.
_ There are several varieties of rape, but the Dwarf
Essex is practically the only one grown for forage. An-
other variety, the Dwarf Victoria, is nearly as good, but
in long-continued trials at the Ontario Agricultural Col-
lege proved somewhat inferior.

703. Importance. — Rape is not an important forage
crop in North America, but deserves far more attention
than it has received. It is especially valuable for furnish-
ing good feed in autumn and early winter when little other
green feed is available. If thus utilized, it conserves the
stock of hay and silage for winter use.

704. Seeding. — Rape may be sown in the North from
May 1 to about the end of July. In Canada June 15 is
about the best date. In the South fall sowing is most
satisfactory. The seed should be planted about one-half
inch deep, as with deeper planting the stand is likely to
be very imperfect. At the Ontario Agricultural College
large seed gave decidedly better yields than either medium
or small seeds.

When rape is sown alone, the seed bed should be well

590 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

prepared. Three methods of seeding may be used;
namely, in cultivated rows, in drill rows and broadcasted.
If planted in rows to be cultivated, the rows should be as
close as possible to permit of easy cultivation; 24 to 28
inches is the usual width of the rows, but they may be as
narrow as 18 inches, or as wide as 36 inches. In 24-inch
rows, 2 pounds of seed an acre is sufficient, and more
than 3 pounds should not be used.

When planted in close rows with a grain drill, 4 pounds
of seed an acre is used. If broadcasted, the same or a
slightly larger amount is necessary. Too dense seeding
causes crowding and consequently smaller growth.

At the Ontario Experimental Farm seed was drilled at
various rates to the acre from 1.2 to 186.6 pounds. The
lightest seeding gave the best results, but up to 6 pounds
there was no great difference. The highest yield in the
series was 18.5 tons and the lowest 14.1 tons. At the
Tennessee Experiment Station rape was seeded March
31, April 16, April 30, May 14, Junel5and July. The last
two seedings were failures. The others yielded respec-
tively 8.5, 7.0, 6.0 and 3.9 tons green crop to the acre.

705. Place in rotations. —In the North rape is best
adapted as a catch crop to come after oats or other spring-
seeded grain. In the South it may take the place of crim-
son clover or fall-sown grain.

Where rape does well, it makes a dense growth which
tends to smother out many weeds, and the subsequent
close pasturing will destroy many of the remainder.

706. Sowing with another crop. — Rape is sometimes
sown in spring with or in a crop of grain, such as wheat,
oats or rye. One method is to broadcast the rape when
the grain is two or three inches high, covering the seed
by harrowing afterwards. Under favorable conditions a

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 591

good stand of rape is obtained, which in a few weeks after
harvesting the grain is ready for pasturing. At the
Iowa Experiment Station rape was sown with oats in
spring, but it grew large enough to interfere somewhat
with the harvesting of the oat crop.

Sowing rape in corn at the last cultivation is frequently
practiced, and where there is sufficient moisture for both
crops, good results are obtained.

In Oregon rape is sometimes sown in spring with red
clover, and the crops pastured in fall and early winter.

707. Utilization. — Rape is commonly utilized by pas-
turing to sheep or hogs. Cattle eat it readily, but destroy
a considerable proportion by trampling. The loss from
this cause is less where the rape is grown in rows, as the
animals tend to follow the rows. Animals feeding on
rape consume larger amounts of salt than usual, so that
this should be freely supplied. It seems to prevent too
great a purging effect which rape often produces. Most
animals have to acquire a taste for rape before they will
eat it readily. Care must be taken to avoid bloating.

Rape may also be used as a soiling crop. If fed to
milch cows, it should be just after milking, as otherwise
it may taint the milk. At the Michigan Experiment
Station rape was preserved in a silo and the product was
readily eaten by cows.

708. Carrying capacity of rape pastures. — Under fa-
vorable conditions rape is ready to pasture in 8 to 10 weeks
after seeding. On this account it is often sown as a catch
crop.

At the Ontario Agricultural College in 1890, 54 acres of
rape were fed upon by 537 sheep and lambs and 18 head of
steers for 59 days, and several acres were left unconsumed.
In 1891, 666 lambs fed on 40 acres for over 2 months.

HoZ, FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

Craig states that an acre of good rape will carry 30 hogs
for 2 months.

709. Yields. — Yields of rape range from 5 to 30 tons
an acre green weight. The average yield on the experi-
mental plots at Guelph, Ontario, for 6 years was 20.1
tons and the maximum 27.7 tons. Yields to the acre
reported from other experiment stations are: New Hamp-
shire, 50 tons; Wyoming, 14.6 tons; North Dakota, 5.5,
6.5, 14 and 5.2 tons for four years in succession ; Florida,
16.59 tons; Michigan, 6.46 tons.

The average yield of a good field of rape is probably
about 10 tons an acre.

710. Insects. — Rape, like all plants of the cabbage
tribe, is much subject to the attacks of numerous insects,
and this factor tends to restrict its culture as a field crop
to regions where the growing season is cool. The most
troublesome insects are the Cabbage Aphis (Aphis bras-
sice), a small plant louse which often swarms on the
plants in enormous numbers; the Cabbage-worm (Pieris
rape), asmooth, green caterpillar that feeds on the leaves ;
the Harlequin Plant-bug (Murgantia histrionica), a hand-
some insect which sometimes attacks the leaves in enor-
mous numbers and the Root-maggot (Anthomyia brassicae),
a small white grub which feeds on the roots near the sur-
face.

KALE (Brassica oleracea)

711. The varieties of kale used for forage are the coarse-
erowing sorts, especially the one known as Thousand-
headed. This is much grown in England and France as
a soiling crop, and has been found admirably adapted to
the north Pacific Coast, in Ontario, and in New England.
The plants grow to a height of 3 to 5 feet or more and pro-
duce larger yields of succulent forage, which can be fed

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 5938

from October to April in regions where the winters are
mild. Kale is usually fed to dairy cows, but to avoid
tainting the milk, it should be fed just after milking, 25
to 40 pounds a day, in two feeds. The kale may be fed
fresh or allowed to wilt before feeding, but it should not
be cut more than four or five days before it is fed, nor
should it be thrown in heaps, as it heats readily. Kale
should not be fed while it is frozen. On the approach of
freezing weather a supply sufficient to last several days
should be placed in the barn.

Kale may be grown by planting the seeds in hills
2.5 to 3 feet apart and then thinning to one plant. It is
better, however, to start the plants in a seed bed and then
transplant. The seed should be sown as early in spring
as conditions will permit, and the young plants trans-
planted to well-prepared land when 3 or 4 inches high.
The transplanting is commonly done by dropping the
plants into furrows at the proper distance apart so that
the next furrow will cover the roots, but not the tops.
The land is then rolled and any “ misses ”’ are later planted
by hand.

Kale does not seed until the second year, and on the
Pacific Coast the plants survive the winter. As the plants
vary considerably, it is advisable to select the best plants.
At the Puyallup, Washington, Substation, a yield of 1800
pounds of seed to an acre is reported.

Thousand-headed kale produced an average yield for
6 years of 19.1 tons an acre at the Ontario Agricultural
College. At the New Hampshire Experiment Station
a yleld of 47,432 pounds to the acre was secured.

Another variety of kale called marrow cabbage,
which has thick fleshy stems, has given very promising
results in western Washington. This variety is differ-

2Q

594. FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

ent from marrow-stem kale,

plant.

also used as a forage

712. Diseases. — Kale, like other plants of the cabbage

VARIETIES OF RaPEe, CABBAGE, Katz, ETc., AS Farm Crops

VARIETIES

Sutton Earliest
cabbage: «

Thousand-headed kale

Sutton Giant Drumhead cab-
bage .

Sutton Marlicst Sheepfold Cae
bage . :

Teeny Umbrella rape

Sutton Best of All Savoy cab-
bage ; 2

Large-seeded Common rape

Dwarf Victoria rape .

Marrow ecollards . .

Buckbee Wonderful
Bonanza rape

Dwarf Essex rape

Large-seeded White-flowering
rape yes:

Purple-sprouting boroccoli

Hardy Curled kale

Jersey kale eae 4

Cabbage-leafed rape

Brussels sprouts

New Chinese mustard ;

Bloomsdale large-leafed mustard

White mustard

German rape

Drumhead

Dwarf

GREEN FoppER

HEIGHT TO THE ACRE
Average, Average,
1910 | So. | A91d eee
1910 1910
Ins. Ins. Tons Tons
20 18 25.2 27.3
OZ 35 21 25.4
Pall v4 | 21:2 PAA
19 18 28 24.1
32 28 PATE T 22.6
19 18 20.5 Papel
30 30 20.4 21.8

20 29 19.6
28 24 1972 21.5

23.8
24 29 20.1 21.2

29 30 22.3
30 31 19.0 20.5
20.0
34 33 1oo
32 32 16:9 19.6
25 20 16.0 16.3
50 60 12.8 14.8
50 58 12.4 14.5
46 55 12.4 13.5
11 17 9.6 5.9

ae

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 595

family, may be attacked by various diseases. One of
the most common is club-root, or “ finger and toe disease,”’
caused by the myxomycete Plasmodiophora brassice.
This causes the roots to become greatly enlarged and mal-
formed. There is no direct remedy, and the organism
causing the disease will live in the ground several years.
Rotation is the best means of control.

713. Yields of kale, cabbage and other brassicaceous
plants. — The relative yields of various brassicaceous
plants other than root crops is well shown by the long-
continued tests at the Ontario Agricultural College. In
these trials the different varieties of cabbage taken to-
gether outyield any of the related groups; namely, rape,
kale, collards and similar plants.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthus tuberosus)

714. The Jerusalem artichoke or topinambur is a native
of America from Ontario to Saskatchewan south to Georgia
and Arkansas. It was cultivated by the Indians for the
edible tubers, and was early introduced into Europe.
The artichoke is a sunflower with medium-sized heads,
subcordate petioled leaves, and clustered tuberous roots.
There are several varieties, distinguished by the color of
the tubers, — white, yellow or red, —and by the shape of
the leaves, either narrow or broad.

Artichokes seem to be less cultivated now than formerly,
and are apparently relatively more important in Europe
than in America. They are cultivated much after the
manner of potatoes, the tubers being planted in hills 20
inches apart each way, or better, in rows 24 to 30 inches
wide. The crop is permitted to grow until the plants are
killed by frost. Artichokes are valuable as forage chiefly
for hogs, and they are usually harvested by turning these

596 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

animals in the field. The tubers keep in the ground all
winter and usually enough of them are left by the hogs
to make a new crop. Indeed, it is this weedy propensity
of the artichoke that has militated much against its
culture.

The yield of tubers to the acre ranges from 4 to 18 tons,
but in western Washington records of 20 to 39 tons to the
acre are reported.

CHUFA (Cyperus esculentus)

715. The chufa is apparently native in the subtropical
regions of both hemispheres, but its culture originated in
Mediterranean countries. It is a sedge-like plant with
creeping rootstocks which produce small sweet tubers
rarely over 1 inch in diameter. The tubers are eaten as
human food or pastured to hogs.

The plant is propagated by the tubers, which are planted
in spring in rows wide enough to be cultivated, placing
the tubers about one foot apart in the rows. In the South
they are sometimes planted in corn at the last cultivation.
One peck of tubers is needed to plant an acre, and itis better
to soak them a few days before planting.

Chufas are grown mainly in the Southern States. Prac-
tically all the “‘ seed ” is produced in Georgia, the product
in 1909 of 481 acres being 12,531 bushels. The yields
seem to vary greatly. At the Arkansas Experiment Sta-
tion the product was estimated at 6992 pounds to the acre.
At the Alabama Experiment Station the number of
tubers in 8 hills were counted and found to average 568.
The yield to the acre was determined as 172 bushels green
or 115.24 bushels dry. At the Ontario Agricultural Col-
lege the yield averaged 22.8 bushels an acre. One bushel
weighs 44 pounds.

ROOT CROPS AND OTHER COMPARABLE FORAGES 597

At the Arkansas Experiment Station one-fourth acre
of chufas pastured by hogs was estimated to produce
138 pounds of pork. At the Alabama Experiment
Station it was calculated that an acre of chufas pastured
to hogs produced 307 pounds of pork.

cASSAVA (Manihot utilissima)

716. Cassava is a tropical plant probably native to
Brazil. It is now cultivated in all parts of the tropics,
mainly as a source of human food, and also as a basis for
the manufacture of tapioca. Its culture is probably more
important in Java than in any other country.

Cassava is a bushy, branched, woody-based herb com-
monly growing 4 to 10 feet in height. The leaves are
palmately divided into 3 to 11 divisions which are oblan-
ceolate, or rarely lanceolate, and from 5 to 10 inches long
and about 1 inch wide. The flowers are polygamo-dice-
cious, that is, some are staminate, some pistillate and some
perfect. Usually flowers on one plant are primarily pis-
tillate and those on another primarily staminate. The
fleshy, starchy roots grow in clusters of 4 to 8 to each plant,
the largest being 3 to 4 feet in length and 2 to 3 inches
in diameter, a single cluster weighing usually 5 to 10
pounds, but sometimes 20 to 30 pounds. |

Cassava is adapted in the United States only to Florida
and the southern portions of Georgia, Alabama, Missis-
sippi, Louisiana, the coastal region of Texas and California.
The plant requires abundant moisture during the growing
season and preferably a sandy loam soil. The plants will
grow well in clay soils, but the cost of harvesting the roots
then becomes excessive.

The varieties of cassava are very numerous, but are
usually put into two groups, namely, the sweet and the

598 FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE

bitter, the latter containing more or less hydrocyanic
acid in the roots and therefore poisonous. Under certain
favorable conditions of soil and climate it seems that all
cassavas tend to become sweet, and under unfavorable
conditions there is a tendency for them to become bitter.

Cassava has been cultivated to a slight extent in Florida
for at least 50 years, primarily for the manufacture of
starch. It has also been employed to some extent to fur-
nish root forage for live stock. Cultivated in this way,
however, it is probably not as advantageous on the whole
as sweet potatoes.

Cassava is commonly propagated by means of portions
of the roots or portions of the stems which are stored in
a dry place during winter and protected against damage
by frost. The plants can also be propagated by means
of seeds, but this results in great variation and besides the
plants will not make as large growth in the same time.
Seed canes are usually cut in pieces 4 to 8 inches in length
and planted after all danger of frost is over. They are
usually planted 4 feet apart each way.

One great trouble with cassava is the difficulty, at
least under Florida conditions, of securing a perfect
stand, as many of the canes rot or otherwise become weak-
ened and do not produce plants. On this account the
yields are very variable, the maximum being perhaps
20 tons to the acre.

The culture of cassava has never been very important
in the United States and has greatly decreased in the
last 20 years.

Achillea millefolium, 577.
Adulteration of seeds, 71.
Adzuki, 554.

Aftermath, 4, 102.

Age of seeds, 72.

Aggressiveness in plants, 13.

Agropyron occidentale, 221.
repens, 353.
tenerum, 219.

Agrostis alba, 170.
capillaris, 170.
dispar, 170.
vulgaris, 170.

Aleppo-grass, 244.

Alfalfa, 305-359.
agricultural history, 305.
Arabian, 314.
botanical varieties, 313.
breeding methods, 352.
care of field, 340.
characteristics of, 319.
clipping, 330.
cold relations, 307.
crown-gall, 356.
cultivated varieties, 313.
cuttings, 336.
diseases, 356.
distribution of, 312.
dodder, 354.

Grimm, 315.
heat relations, 307.
humidity relations, 310.

importance of varieties, 316.

improvement, 351.

influence of source of seed, 317.

insects, 358.

irrigation, 337-338.

life period, 320.
love-vine, 354.

meal, 346.

methods of seeding, 329.

INDEX

599

mixtures, 342.

number of cuttings, 336.
nurse crops, 329.

origin of name, 306.
pasturing, 344.
Peruvian, 314.
pollination, 348.

proportion of leaves, stems and

roots, 325.

quality of different cuttings, 336.

rate of seeding, 327.
regional strains, 318.
root-rot, 356.

roots, 320.
rootstocks, 323.
rotations, 343.

row cultivation, 341.
seed, 349.

seed-bed, 326.

seed production, 346.
seeding, 327-329.
seedlings, 323.
shoots, 324.

Siberian, 315.

Sickle, 315.

silage, 345.

soil moisture relations, 322.
soil relations, 310.
soiling, 345.
statistics, 118-119.
time of cutting, 333.
time of seeding, 328.
time to apply irrigation, 337.
Turkestan, 314.
Variegated, 315.
viability of seed, 350.
weeds, 352.

winter irrigation, 338.
winter-killing, 331.
Yellow-flowered, 315.
yellows, 358.

600 INDEX

Alfalfa, — Continued.

yields in relation to water supply,
309:

Alopecurus pratensis, 227.

Alsike, 405.

Alsike clover, 405-410.
adaptations, 406.
agricultural history, 406.
botany, 405.
characteristics, 406.
culture, 408.
hay, 408.
importance, 407.
pasturage value, 410.
regional strains, 407.
seed, 409.
seed-production, 409.

Amerosporium economicum, 511.

Analyses, chemical, 56-59.

Andropogon halepensis, 244.
sorghum, 260-284.

Anthomyia brassicee, 592.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, 229.

Anthyllis vulneraria, 566.

Aphis brassicee, 592.

Aphis, sorghum, 278.

Arachis hypogeea, 546.

Arctic grass, 256.

Army worm, 278.

Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 189.
elatius, 189.

Artichoke, Jerusalem, 595.

Ash, 56.

Asparagus-bean, 494.

Astragalus faleatus, 569.

Atriplex hastata, 582.
semibaccata, 581.

Australian brome-grass, 256.

Australian oats, 256.

Australian redtop, 258.

Australian saltbush, 581.

Autographa gamma californica, 360.

Avena elatior, 189.

Axonopus compressus, 250.

Bacillus sorghi, 277.

tumefaciens, 356.
Bahama-grass, 237.
Bajri, 301.

Bareet-grass, 44.
Bean, Adzuki, 554.
Asparagus, 494.
Chinese, 545.
Horse, 479, 550.
Hyacinth, 555.
Jack, 549.
Knife, 550.
Lyon, 545.
Moth, 553.
Mung, 551.
Overlook, 550.
Pearson, 550.
Soy, 513-536.
Sword, 550.
Velvet, 544.
Yokohama, 546.
Bee clover, 417.
Beggarweed, 548.

Bermuda-grass, 237-244, 353.

adaptations, 239.
agricultural history, 238.
botany, 237.
characteristics, 237.
culture, 241.
feeding value, 248.
importance, 240.
rootstocks, 242.
seed-production, 243.
variability, 240.
yields of hay, 242.
Berseem, 435.
Bird’s-foot trefoil, 568.
Bird vetch, 481.
Black medick, 435.
Blight, sorghum, 277.
Blissus leucopterus, 278.
Bloating, 112.
Blue bunch-grass, 225.
Blue-grass, Canada, 163-166.
adaptations, 165.
botany, 163.
culture, 164.
importance, 166.
seed, 164.
Blue-grass, English, 204.

Blue-grass, Kentucky, 154-168.

adaptations, 156.
botany, 154.

4

is
i

INDEX

Blue-grass, Kentucky, — Continued.
characteristics, 157.
culture, 158.
fertilizers, 159.
hybrids, 163.
importance, 157.
seed, 162.
seed-production, 161.
yields of hay, 160.

Blue-grass, Texas, 166-167.

Blue-joint, 221.

Blue-stem, 221.

Colorado, 221.

Bokhara clover, 417.

Bonavist, 555.

Brassicaceous plants, 595.

Brassica napus, 589.
oleracea, 592.

Breeding, alfalfa, 351-353.
red clover, 403.
sorghum, 278.
soybeans, 536.
timothy, 149, 150.

Broad-bean, 479.

Broccoli, 594.

Brome, Australian, 256.
Austrian, 195.

Awnless, 195.
Erect, 233.
Hungarian, 195.
Meadow, 233.
Russian, 195.
Schrader’s, 256.
Smooth, 195.
Upright, 233.

Brome-grass, 195-203.
adaptations, 197.
agricultural history, 196.
botany, 195.
common names, 195.
description, 195.
fertilizers for, 199.
hay, 199.
mixtures, 202.
pasture value, 202.
rate of seeding, 198.
roots, 197.
seed, 201.
seeding methods, 197-198.

601

seed-production, 201.
time of cutting, 198.
treatment of fields, 200.
variability, 202.
Bromus erectus, 233.
inermis, 196.
Reimanni, 196.
secalinus, 299.
unioloides, 256, 257.
Broom-corn millet, 285, 295.
Brown hay, 2, 38.
Browsing, 4.
Bruchus pisorum, 452.
Brucophagus funebris, 402.
Brussels’ sprouts, 594.
Buckhorn, 579.
Bur clover, 437-439.
Burnet, 578.
Button clover, 437.

Cabbage, 594-595.
Cabbage aphis, 592.
worm, 592.
Calorie, 62.
Calorimeter, 62.
Canada blue-grass, 163-166.
Canary-grass, 300.
Canary-grass, reed, 230-231.
agricultural history, 230.
botany, 230.
characteristics, 230.
Canavalia ensiformis, 549.
gladiata, 550.
Capacity, carrying, 108.
Carpet-grass, 250.
Carrying capacity, 108.
Cassava, 597.
Cat-tail millet, 286, 301.
Catjang, 494.
Cat’s-tail, meadow, 124.
Cercospora cruenta, 511.
Cereals for hay, 298.
Cheat, 299.
Chemical analyses, 56.
Chemical composition, relation to
fertility, 56.
relation to stage of maturity,
58, 381.
Chess, 299.

602 INDEX

Chickasaw pea, 551.
Chickling vetch, 454.
Chick-pea, 453.
Chinch-bug, 278, 294.
Chinese velvet bean, 545.
Chufa, 596.
Cicer arientinum, 453.
Clover, Alsike, 405-410.
anthracnose, 398.
Bee, 417.
black spot, 398.
Bokhara, 417.
Bur, 437-439.
chalcis, 402.
Crimson, 426-434.
Dutch, 411.
flower-midge, 402.
French, 426.
German, 426.
hay-worm, 403.
Honey, 417.
Hungarian, 410.
Incarnate, 426.
Italian, 426.
Japan, 539.
Ladino, 416.
leaf-spot, 398.
leaf-weevil, 402.
Mexican, 571.
Orel, 367.
Persian, 434.
Red, 361-404.
root-borer, 401.
Russian, 367.
rust, 398.
Scarlet, 426.
sickness, 398-401.
Sour, 425.
Sweet, 417-425.
White, 411-417.
Club-root, 595.
Coarse forage, statistics, 118, 119.
Cock’s-foot, 176.
Coffee-bean, 453.
Collards, 594, 595.
Colletotrichum cereale, 398.
trifolii, 358, 398, 404.
Color of seeds, 72.
Colorado-grass, 297.

Common vetch, 457-467.
adaptations, 458.
agricultural history, 457.
botany, 457.
culture, 459.
feeding value, 463.
fertilizers, 464.
harvesting for hay, 462.
importance, 458.
lime, 465.
pasturing, 462.
rate of seeding, 461.
rotations, 463.
seed, 466.
seed-production, 465, 466.
silage, 465.
time of sowing, 460.
varieties, 458.

Concentrates, 4.

Coracan, 296.

Corn, comparison with root crops,

588.
statistics, 118, 119.
worm, 278.
Cost of seeding, 52.
Cowpea, 491-512.
adaptations, 492.
agricultural history, 491.
Black, 498.
Blackeye, 498.
Botanical origin, 491.
Brabham, 497.
Clay, 497.
Congo, 498.
correlations, 496.
cuttings, number of, 501.
disease resistance, 511.
Early Buff, 498.
feeding value, 503.
Groit, 497.
hay, 501.
hay yields, 502.
importance, 493.
inoculation, 500.
insect enemies, 511.
Tron, 497.
life period, 494.
mixtures, 504-505.
New Era, 497.

ee

INDEX

Cowpea, — Continued.
pods, 495.
pollination, 506.
Red Ripper, 498.
roots, 510.
seeding, method, 498.
seeding, rate, 498.
seeding, time, 499.
seed-production, 506.
seeds, 495, 508.
seeds, proportion to hulls, 508.
Shinney, 497.
Speckled, 497.
Unknown, 497.
uses, 493.
varietal distinctions, 494.
varieties, 496.
viability of seed, 509.
Whippoorwill, 496.
Wonderful, 497.
yield of seed, 507.
Crab-grass, 258, 353.
Crested dogstail, 235, 236.
Crimson clover, 426-434.
adaptations, 427.
agricultural history, 426.
botany, 426.
cutting for hay, 431.
description, 427.
importance, 428.
method of sowing, 430.
other uses, 432.
seed, 433.
seeding, 429.
seed-production, 433.
time of sowing, 430.
varieties, 429.
yields, 432.
Crop-grass, 258.
Crops, classification in statistical
returns, 113:
nurse, 90.
Crown-gall, 356.
Crude fiber, 56.
Crude protein, 56.
Cumarin, 418.
Curing hay, 24.
completion of, 28.
ease of, 53.

603

special devices for, 26.

Cuscuta arvensis, 354.

epithymum, 354.
indecora, 354.
planiflora, 354.
Cutting, time of, 22.
alfalfa, 333.
alsike clover, 408.
brome-grass, 198.
Canada blue-grass, 165.
chess (or cheat), 299.
common vetch, 462.
cowpea, 501.
crimson clover, 431.
Florida beggarweed, 549.
Guinea-grass, 256.
hairy vetch, 472.
lespedeza, 543.
meadow fescue, 207.
meadow foxtail, 228.
millet, 291.
orchard-grass, 181.
Para-grass, 254.
peas, 447.
red clover, 380.
sorghum, 274, 275.
soybeans, 527.
sweet clover, 421.
tall oat grass, 192.
timothy, 136.
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, 557.
Cynodon dactylon, 237-244.
Cynosurus cristatus, 235.
Cyperus esculentus, 596.

Dactylis altaica, 177.
aschersoniana, 177.
glomerata, 176.
Dakota vetch, 439.
Dasyneura leguminicola, 402.
Depth of seeding or planting, 88.
Desmodium tortuosum, 548,
Digestible nutrients, 59-62.
Digitaria sanguinalis, 258.
Diplosis sorghicola, 277.
Disease resistance, cowpeas, 511.
red clover, 404.
timothy, 148.
Diseases, alfalfa, 356.

604 INDEX

Diseases, — Continued.
cowpea, 511.
kale, 594.
meadow fescue, 209.
millet, 294.
red clover, 398.
slender wheat-grass, 220.
sorghum, 277.
soybean, 536.
timothy, 146.
Dogstail, crested, 235.
Dogs’-tooth grass, 237.
Dolichos lablab, 555.
Doob, 237.
Durra, 273.
Sudan, 272.

Earth nut, 546.

Echinochloa colona, 296.
crus-galli, 286.
frumentacea,. 286.

Egyptian pea, 453.

Eleusine coracana, 286, 296.
indica, 297.

Energy value, 62.

English blue-grass, 204.

English rye-grass, 211.

Ensilage, 39.

Erect brome, 233.

Ervil, 478.

Erysiphe polygoni, 398.
trifolii, 358.

Esparcet, 559.

Esparsette, 559.

Ether extract, 56.

Euchlena mexicana, 303.

Eurymus eurytheme, 360.

Evergreen grass, 189.

Evergreen millet, 244.

Experimental results in seeding, 89.

Extravaginal shoots, 15.

Fagiolo, 492.

False guinea-grass, 244.
False oat-grass, 189.

Fat, 56.

Feed, definition of, 1.
Feeding experiments, 54, 547.
Feeding values, 54.

Feeding values, Bermuda-grass, 2438.
common vetch, 463.
comparison of, 64.
cowpea, 503.
hairy vetch, 473.
millet, 292.
orchard-grass, 187.
peanuts, 547.
red clover, 383, 384.
root crops, 585, 586.
soybean, 531.
timothy, 144.

Fenugreek, 486.

Fermentation of silage, 40.

Fertilizers, effect on chemical com-

position, 56.
for brome-grass, 199.
for hay crops, 97-102.
for Kentucky blue-grass, 159.
for red clover, 374-376.
for soybeans, 528.
for timothy, 133.
for vetch, 464.

Fescue, Arizona, 225.
Chewing’s, 227.
Fine-leaved, 224.

Hard, 224.

Meadow (see Meadow fescue),
204-209.

Red, 226.

Reed, 210.

Sheep’s, 223-226.

Tall, 210.

Various-leaved, 224.

Festuca arundinacea, 210.
dumetorum, 227.
duriuscula, 224.
elatior, 204, 210, 211.
gigantea, 211.
heterophylla, 224.
ovina, 223-226.
pratensis, 204.
rubra, 225.
tenulfolia, 224.

Feterita, 272.

Fiber, 56.

Field bean, 479.

Field pea, 441-453.

Finger and toe disease, 595.

INDEX

Finger-millet, 286.
Flat pea, 565.
Florida beggarweed, 548.
velvet bean, 544.
Fodder, definition, 2.
loss of, in field, 32.
Forage crops, adaptation to con-
ditions, 48.
_adapted for ensiling, 42.
botany of, 11.
choice of, 47—66.
civilization and, 7.
comparative knowledge of, 5.
definition, 1.
in Europe and America, 9.
preservation of, 21-46.
special purposes for which grown,
A8.
statistics of, 113-122.
yielding capacity, 49.
Fowl meadow-grass, 167.
Foxtail, meadow, 227.
Foxtail millet, adaptations, 287.
agricultural history, 286.
culture, 290.
diseases, 294.
feeding value, 292.
German, 289.
Golden Wonder, 289.
hay, 291.
Hungarian, 290.
importance, 288.
injuriousness, 293.
insects, 294.
Kursk, 290.
Mammoth, 289.
seed, 293.
seeding, 291.
seed-production, 293.
Siberian, 290.
silage, 292.
varieties, 288.
French rye-grass, 189.
Fromental, 189.
Fumigation of seeds, 512.
Fungous diseases in seeds, 75.
Furze, 570.
Fusarium, 511, 536.
roseum, 356,

605

Galega officinalis, 568.
Galygumber, 417.
Garawi, 279.
Garbanzo, 453.
Genuineness of seed, 67.
Georgeson, 42.
German millet, see Foxtail millet.
Germination of seed, 70.
Gipsy pea, 453.
Glceosporium trifolii, 398.
Glumes, 14.
Glycine soja, 515.
ussuriensis, 515.
Goat’s rue, 568.
Golden crown-grass, 251.
Goober, 546.
Gorse, 570.
Grain cut green, statistics of, 118,
119.
Gram, Madras, 453.
Grass, definition of, 4.
Grasses, characteristics, 14.
wild, salt or prairie, statistics,
118, 119.
other tame and cultivated, 119,
120.
Grass-pea, 454.
Ground nut, 546.
Guar, 557.
Guaranteed seeds, 75.
Guinea-grass, 254.
false, 244.

Hackfriichte, 583.

Hairy vetch, 467-477.
advantages, 474.
botany, 468.
climatic adaptations, 469.
depth of seeding, 471.
disadvantages, 474.
feeding value, 473.
harvesting for hay, 472.
inoculation, 471.
pollination, 472.
rate of seeding, 469.
rotations, 473.
seed-production, 474-475.
seeds, 476.
soil preferences, 469.

606

Hairy vetch, — Continued.
sources of seed, 475.
time of seeding, 470.
uses, 471.
Hard seeds, 76.
Hariali, 237.
Harlequin plant-bug, 592.
Harvesting for hay, ease of, 53.
time of, 53.
Hawaiian redtop, 258.
Hay, alfalfa, 333.
alsike clover, 408.
brome, 199.
brown, 2, 38.
cereals for, 298.
common vetch, 462.
cowpea, 501.
crimson clover, 431-432.
curing, 24.
definition, 2.
field pea, 447.
Florida beggarweed, 549.
hairy vetch, 472.
lespedeza, 542.
losses in field, 32.
making, 23-27.
meadow fescue, 207.
millet, 291.
orchard-grass, 181.
perennial rye-grass, 213.
red clover, 380-3882.
shrinkage, 29.
sorghum, 275.
soybeans, 527.
stacks, 36.
statistics, 37, 117-120.
Sudan-grass, 281.
sweet clover, 421.
tall oat-grass, 192.
timothy, 136.
Haymaking in dry weather, 23.
under humid conditions, 24.
Hay plants, comparison of
Europe and America, 10.
Hedysarium coronarium, 562.
Helianthus annuus, 574.
tuberosus, 595.
Herd-grass, 123.
Heterodera radicicola, 511, 536.

in

INDEX

Hoe crops, 583.

Hog millet, 285.

Holcus lanatus, 232.

Homalocenchrus hexandrus, 44.

Honey clover, 417.

Hordeum jubatum, 353.
murinum, 354.

Horse-bean, 479, 550.

Hosackia americana, 439.

Hoven, 112.

Hungarian grass, 290.

Hungarian millet, 290.

Hyacinth bean, 555.

Hybrids, Kentucky blue-grass, 163.

meadow fescue, 209.

perennial rye-grass, 209.

Texas blue-grass, 167.
Hylastinus obscurus, 401.
Hypsopygia costalis, 403.

Idaho pea, 453.
Inoculation, natural, 17.
artificial, 18.
Insects, injurious to
alfalfa, 358.
cowpea, 511.
millet, 294.
mung bean, 552.
pea, 452.
rape, 592.
red clover, 401.
sorghum, 277.
soybeans, 536.
timothy, 146.
Intravaginal shoots, 15.
Irrigation
with alfalfa, 51, 337, 340.
with alsike clover, 406.
with berseem, 435.
with blue-grass, 161.
with brome-grass, 51.
with Guinea-grass, 255.

with Italian rye-grass, 51, 211.

with meadow foxtail, 228.
with orchard-grass, 51.
with peas, 449.

with red clover, 376.

with reed canary-grass, 231.
with sainfoin, 561.

INDEX

Irrigation, — Continued.

with Shaftal clover, 435.

with sulla, 562, 563.

with tall oat-grass, 190.

with timothy, 51, 134.

with Western wheat-grass, 221.
Italian millet, see foxtail millet.
Italian rye-grass, 215-219.

adaptations, 216.

agricultural history, 215.

botany, 215.

characteristics, 215.

culture, 216.

hay yields, 217.

irrigation, 216.

seed, 218.

seed-production, 218.

Jack bean, 549.

Japan clover, 539, 543.
adaptations, 541.
agricultural history, 540.
culture, 541.
description, 539.
hay, 542.
pasturage value, 542.
seed-production, 5438.

Japanese millet, 286, 294.

Japanese sugar cane, 247-249.
adaptations, 247.
characteristics, 247.
culture, 248.
history, 247.
planting, 248.
seed-cane, 249.
utilization, 248.
yields, 249.

Jerusalem artichoke, 595.

Johnson-grass, 244, 247.
adaptations, 245.
agricultural history, 244.
botany, 244.
poisonous qualities, 246.
utilization, 245.

Kafir corn, 271.
Kale, 592, 594.
diseases, 594.
Kentucky blue-grass, 154, 163.

607

Kidney vetch, 566.
Knife bean, 550.
Kudzu, 563.
Kursk millet, 290.

Laria pisorum, 452.

Lathyrus cicera, 484.
ochrus, 484.
sativus, 454.
silvestris, 565.
tingitanus, 482.

Legumes, definition, 15.
dependence on root nodules, 19.

Lemma, 14.

Lespedeza, 539.

Lespedeza striata, 539.

Ligule, 14.

Lime, effects on Kentucky blue-

grass, 159.
effects on red clover, 376.
effects on soybeans, 529.
effects on timothy, 134.
effects on vetch, 465.

Local seed, superiority of, 69.

Lodicule, 14.

Lolium multiflorum, 211, 214, 215.
perenne, 211.
temulentum, 211.

Loss of hay or fodder in the field,

gee

Loss of substance in growing plants,

34.

Lotus americanus, 4389.
corniculatus, 568.
tetragonolobus, 489.
uliginosus, 569.

Lucern, see Alfalfa.
sand, 315.

Lupines, 487.

Lupinus, 487.

Lyon bean, 545.

Macrosporium sarcinzeforme, 358.

Manihot utilissima, 597.

Market demands, 53.

Maturity of plants in relation to
chemical composition, 58.

Meadow, definition of, 4.

Meadow brome, 233.

608

Meadow fescue, 204-209.
adaptations, 205.
agricultural history, 204.
botany, 204.
characteristics, 205.
hay, 207.
hybrids, 209.
importance, 206.
pasture value, 209.
pests, 209.
seed, 208.
seeding, 206.
seed-production, 207.

Meadow foxtail, 227-229.
adaptations, 228.
characteristics, 227.
culture, 228.
seed, 228.

Meadow-grass, Fowl, 167.
Rough-stalked, 169.
Wood, 170.

Meadow mixtures, 92.

Meadow oat-grass, 189.

Meadow soft-grass, 232.

INDEX

White, 417,
Yellow, 424.

Melilotus alba, 417.
altissima, 424.
coerulea, 424.

- gracilis, 424.
indica, 425.
officinalis, 424.
parviflora, 425.
speciosa, 424.

Mesquite, 232.

Mexican clover, 571.

Midge, sorghum, 277.

Mildew, Downy, 398.
Powdery, 398.

Millet, 285-298.
Broom-corn, 285, 295, 298.
Finger, 286, 297.
Foxtail, 285, 286-294.
Hog, 285.

Japanese barnyard, 286, 294.
Pearl, 286, 300-303.

Shama, 296.

statistics, 118, 119.

Meadows, composition of mix- Texas, 297.

tures, 95.

fertilizers for, 97-102.

pasturing of, 108.

reseeding old, 96.

scarifying old, 96.

topdressing, 102.

treatment of, 96.
Meadows and pastures, 92-112.
Means-grass, 244.
Medicago arabica, 437.

faleata, 313.

hispida, 437.

lupulina, 435.

orbicularis, 437.

sativa, 305-360.

scutellata, 437.
Medick, see Alfalfa.
Medick, Black, 435.
Meibomia tortuosa, 548.
Melanoplus bivittatus, 359.

differentialis, 359.
Melilot, Official, 424.

Siberian, 417.

Sweet, 417.

Milo, 272.
Mixtures, compared with single
grasses (yields), 94.
meadow, 92, 95.
pasture, 105.
with alfalfa, 94, 95, 342.
with alsike, 95.
with brome-grass, 94, 202.
with cowpeas, 504, 506.
with fowl meadow-grass, 95, 168.
with Italian rye-grass, 95.
with Kentucky blue-grass, 158.
with oats, 448.
with orchard-grass, 94, 186.
with peas, 448.
with rape, 590.
with red clover, 94, 377.
with redtop, 94, 95.
with slender wheat-grass, 221.
with sorghum, 275.
with soybeans, 529.
with Sudan-grass, 282.
with tall oat-grass, 94, 191, 194.
with timothy, 94, 95.

———

INDEX

Mixtures, — Continued.
with vetch, 473, 474.
with yellow trefoil, 437.

Moth bean, 551.

Mung bean, 551.

Murgantia histrionica, 592.

Mustard, white, 594.

Natal-gragss, 258.
Net energy values, 62.
Nitrogen-free extract, 56.
Nodule organism, 16.
Nodules, root, see Root nodules.
Nonesuch, 435.
Number of seed in pound, 80-82.
Nurse crops, 90.

for alfalfa, 329.
Nutrients, digestible, 59-62.

Oat-grass, yellow, 234.
false, 189.
tall, 189-195.
tall meadow, 189.

Ochrus, 484.

Onobrychis sativa, 559.
viciefolia, 559.

Opuntia, 572. °

Orchard-grass, 176-188.
adaptations to shade, 178.
advantages and disadvantages,

179.

agricultural history, 177.
botany, 176.
climatic adaptations, 178.
description, 176.
feed value, 187.
harvesting for hay, 181.
harvesting for seed, 183.
importance, 180.
improvement by selection, 188.
life history, 181.
mixtures, 186.
pasturage value, 187.
pests, 188.
seed, 184.
seeding, 180.
soil preferences, 178.
source of seed, 185.

oR

609

utilization of stubble and after-
math, 186.
value as a soil binder, 188.
variability, 179.
weeds, 183.
yields of hay, 182.
Oregon pea, 551.
Ornithopus sativus, 488.
Overlook bean, 550.
Ozonium omnivorum, 356.

Pacey’s rye-grass, 215.
Pachymerus chinensis, 511.
quadrimaculatus, 511.
Palatability of pasture grasses, 104.
Palea, 14.
Panicum barbinode, 253.
maximum, 254.
miliaceum, 285.
texanum, 297.
Para-grass, 253, 254.
Paspalum, 251-253.
Paspalum dilatatum, 251-253.
Pasture, acreage of, improved in
United States, 102.
area of wild, in United States,
102.
definition, 4.
grasses, palatability of, 104.
mixtures, 105.
plants, most important, 103.
yield, 104-105.
Pasture value of alfalfa, 344.
of alsike, 410.
of Bermuda-grass, 240-242.
of brome-grass, 202.
of Canada blue-grass, 166.
of common vetch, 462.
of crimson clover, 432.
of hairy vetch, 472.
of Kentucky blue-grass, 157.
of lespedeza, 542.
of meadow fescue, 209.
of orchard-grass, 187.
of peanuts, 547.
of peas, 448.
of red clover, 384.
of redtop, 172.
of sorghum, 276.

610 INDEX

Pasture value, — Continued.
of timothy, 139.
of white clover, 413.

Pastures, meadows and, 92-112.
for hogs, 109-111.
temporary, 109.

Pasturing meadows, 108.

Pea, 441-453.
adaptations, 443.

Arthur, 444.
Blackeye Marrowfat, 444.
botany, 441.
Canadian Beauty, 444.
Chickasaw, 551.
description, 442.
development, 447.
Early Britain, 445.
Flat, 565.

Golden Vine, 444.
hay, 447.

history, 441.
importance, 443.
irrigation, 449.
Marrowfat, 444.
oats and, 448.
Oregon, 551.

pasture value, 448.
Prussian Blue, 445.
seed, 451.

seeding, 446.
seed-production, 449.
square-pod, 489.
varieties, 443-445.
weevil, 452.
Wisconsin Blue, 445.

Peanut, 546-548.

Pearl millet, 286, 300.

Pearson bean, 550.

Pencillaria, 300.

Penicillaria, 300.

Pennisetum glaucum, 286, 300.

Pentosans, 56.

Perch, 26.

Perennial rye-grass, 211-215.
adaptations, 212.
agricultural history, 211.
agricultural varieties, 212.
botany, 211.
characteristics, 211.

culture, 213.
hay yields, 213.
importance, 212.
name, 211.
seed, 214.
seed-production, 214.
Peronospora trifoliorum, 398.
Petit gazon, 250.
Phalaris arundinacea, 230-232.
canariensis, 300.
Phaseolus aconitifolius, 553.
angularis, 554.
aureus, 551.
mungo, 552.
Phleum alpinum, 122.
pratense, 122.
Phytonomus murinus, 359.
punctatus, 402.
Pieris rape, 592.
Pigeon bean, 479.
Pigeon-grass, 353.
Pindar, 546.
Pisum arvense, 441.
hortense, 441.
sativum, 441.
Plantago lanceolata, 579.
Plant-bug, harlequin, 592.
Plasmodiophora brassicze, 595.
Plumpness of seed, 12.
Poa arachnifera, 166.
compressa, 163.
flava, 167.
nemoralis, 170.
pratensis, 154.
serotina, 167.
triflora, 167.
trivialis, 169.

Poisoning by Johnson grass, 246.

by millet, 293.

by sorghum, 276.
Pollination, alfalfa, 348.

cowpea, 506.

hairy vetch, 472.

red clover, 387.

soybean, 533.

white clover, 415.
Polygonum sachalinense, 578.
Polythrincium trifolii, 398.
Preservation of forage, 21-46.

a ee ee ee

INDEX 611

Prickly pear, 572. distribution, 362.
Proso, 285. effects of gypsum, 376.
Protein, 56. effects of lime, 376.
Pseudomonas medicaginis, 357. fecundation, 387.
radicicola, 16. feeding value, 383-384.
Pseudopeziza medicaginis, 357. fertilizers, 374-376.
trifolii, 398. field treatment, 374.
Pueraria thunbergiana, 563. flowers, 385.
Pulses, 15. flowers, proportion of, 397.
Purity of seed, 68, 72. green weight relation to dry
Purslane, 571. weight, 382.
Pussley, 571. gypsum, effects of, 376.
harvesting seed crop, 389.
Quack grass, 353. hay yields, 382.
Quality of seed, 67. importance, 362.
improvement, 403.
Rabbits, injury by, 535. insects, 401.
Racehorse-grass, 244. irrigation, 376.
Rachilla, 14. leaves, proportion of, 397.
Ragi, 286. life period, 365.
Ranges, 5. lime, effects of, 376.
Rape, Dwarf Essex, 589. Mammoth, 366.
Dwarf Victoria, 589. Medium, 366.
importance, 589. mixtures, 377.
insects, 592. number of seeds on head, 385.
mixtures, 590. Orel, 367.
pasturage, 591. pasturage, 384.
rotations, 590. pollination, 387.
seeding, 589. regional strains, 367.
utilization, 591. root-borer, 401.
yields, 592. roots, 394-397.
Rate of seeding, 85 roots, proportion of, 396.
(also see Seeding). rotations, 377-378.
Red clover, 361-404. Russian, 367.
agricultural history, 361. seed color, 393.
botany, 361. seed yields, 390.
breeding, 403. seed-crop, harvesting, 389.
climatic relations, 364. seed-crop, statistics, 391.
clover-flower midge, 402. seeding, depth, 373.
clover-hay worm, 403. seeding rate, 370.
clover-leaf weevil, 402. seeding time, 369.
clover-seed chalcis fly, 402. seeding with a nurse-crop, 371.
color of seed, 393. seeding without a nurse-crop, 373.
composition at different stages, seedlings, 371.
381. seed-production, 387.
cuttings, number of, 381. seeds, 391-394.
cuttings, value of different, 384. shade, effect of, 365.
disease-resistant strains, 404. shoots, 395-396.

diseases, 398. shoots, proportion of, 396.

612 INDEX

Red Clover, — Continued. Root-rot, 356.
sickness, 398-401. Roots, alfalfa, 320, 325.
silage, 385. brome, 197.
soil relations, 363. cowpea, 510.
soiling, 384. Kentucky blue-grass, 158.
stage to cut, 380. orchard-grass, 188.
statistics of seed crop, 391. red clover, 394-397.
stems, proportion of, 396. redtop, 172.
straw, 391. sainfoin, 559.
varieties, 366-368. sorghum, 263.
volunteer crops, 379. sweet clover, 421.
winter-killing, 374. timothy, 142, 143.
yields of hay, 382. Rootstocks, alfalfa, 323.
yields of seed, 390. Bermuda-grass, 242.

Redtop, adaptations, 171. Rotations, with alfalfa, 343.
agricultural history, 171. with common vetch, 463.
Australian, 258. with hairy vetch, 473.
botany, 170. with rape, 590.
characteristics, 172. with red clover, 377.
culture, 173. with soybeans, 530.
Hawaiian, 258. Roughage, 3.
importance, 172. Rough cock’s-foot, 176.
names, 170-175. Roughness, see Roughage.
regional strains, 173. Rough-stalked meadow grass, 169,
seed, 175. Rowen, 4, 102.
seed production, 174. Rye-grass, Argentine, 215.
variability, 173. Bailly’s, 215.
yield of hay, 174. English, 211.

Reed canary-grass, 230. Italian, see Italian rye-grass.

Reed fescue, 210. Pacey’s, 215.

Rescue-grass, 256. i perennial, 211, 215.

Reseeding old meadows, 96. Rieffel’s, 215.

Respiration calorimeter, 62. short-seeded, 215.

Rhizoctonia violacea, 398. Westernwolth, 215, 218.

Ribbon-grass, 230.

Richardsonia scabra, 571. Saccharum officinarum, 247.

Robertson mixture, 43. Sachaline, 578.

Root crops, 3, 583. Sainfoin, 559-562.
comparison of different, 586. agricultural history, 569.
comparison with corn, 588. American data, 561.
comparison with sorghum, 588. culture, 560.
importance, 584. description, 559.
kinds, 585. seed, 561.

Root forage, statistics, 120. Spanish, 562.

Rootknot, 511, 536. Sampling of seed, 75.

Root-maggot, 592. Sanguisorba minor, 578.

Root nodules, description, 16. Schabdar, 434.

LOUMIS Olqere Schrader’s brome-grass, 256.

importance of, 19, Sclerotinia trifoliorum, 398.

- 2 eee ee

Scotch-grass, 237.
Seed inspection, 74.
Seeding, adzuki, 555.
alfalfa, 326-329. \
alsike clover, 419.
Bermuda-grass, 241.
brome-grass, 197-198.
bur clover, 439.
common vetch, 459-461.
cost of, 52.
cowpeas, 498-500.
crimson clover, 429.
depth of, 88.
experimental results, 89.
field peas, 446.
Florida beggarweed, 548.
hairy vetch, 469-471.
in practice, 83.
Italian rye-grass, 216.
Kentucky blue-grass, 158.
lespedeza, 541.
meadow fescue, 206.
millet, 291.
moth bean, 554.
mung bean, 552.
old meadows, 96.
orchard grass, 180.
peanuts, 547.
perennial rye-grass, 213.
rape, 589.
rate of, 85.
red clover, 369-373.
redtop, 173.
sainfoin, 560.
slender wheat-grass, 219.
sorghum, 267-268.
soybeans, 522-523.
Sudan-grass, 280.
sweet clover, 419.
tall oat-grass, 192.
time of, 86.
timothy, 128-132.
velvet bean, 545.
white clover, 413.

Seed-production, alfalfa, 346.

alsike clover, 409.
Bermuda-grass, 243.
brome-grass, 210.
common vetch, 465.

INDEX

cowpea, 506.
crimson clover, 433.
hairy vetch, 474.
Italian rye-grass, 218.
lespedeza, 543.
Kentucky blue-grass, 161.
meadow fescue, 207.
millet, foxtail, 293.
orchard-grass, 183.
peas, 449-451.
perennial rye-grass, 214.
red clover, 387.
redtop, 174.
soybean, 531.
Sudan-grass, 283.
sweet clover, 423.
tall oat-grass, 192.
timothy, 140.

Seeds, actual value of, 69.
adulteration of, 71.
age of, 72.
alfalfa, 349-350.
alsike clover, 409.
brome-grass, 201.
Canada blue-grass, 164.
color of, 72.
common vetch, 466.
cowpea, 495, 508.
crimson clover, 433.
fungous diseases of, 75.
genuineness of, 67.
guaranteed, 75.
hairy vetch, 476.
hard, 76.
Italian rye-grass, 218.
Kentucky blue-grass, 162.
meadow fescue, 208.
meadow foxtail, 228.
millet, foxtail, 293.
misbranding of, 71.
number to pound, 80, 82.
orchard-grass, 184.
perennial rye-grass, 214.
plumpness of, 72.
production of forage crop, 83.
purity of, 68.
quality of, 67.
red clover, 391-393.
red fescue, 226.

618

614 INDEX

Seeds, = Continued. alfalfa, 345.
redtop, 175. crimson clover, 432.
sampling of, 75. definition, 3.
sheep’s fescue, 226. penicillaria, 301.
sorghum, 269. rape, 591.
source of, 73. red clover, 384.
soybean, 534. sorghum, 274.
standards of germination, 70. systems, 44.

standards of purity, 70.
superiority of local, 69.
sweet clover, 424.

Soja bean, see Soybean.
Soja max, 515.
Sorghum, 260-284.

tall oat-grass, 194.
timothy, 127.
viability of, 68.
weed, 78.
weight of, 78—SO0.
white clover, 416.
Seeds and seeding, 67-91.
Serradella, 488.
Setaria italica, 285, 286.
Shaftal, 434.
Shama millet, 296.
Sheep’s fescue, 223-226.
culture, 225.
importance, 225.
seeding, 226.
Shrinkage of hay, 29.
Siberian melilot, 417.
Siberian millet, 290.
Silage, 39.
advantages of, 41.
alfalfa, 345.
crops for, 42.
definition, 3.
fermentation, 40-41.
millet, 292.
rape, 591.
red clover, 385.
sorghum, 275.
soybean, 530.
summer, 40.
sweet clover, 422.
vetch, 465, 471.
Silos, 39.
Sipha flava, 278.
Slender wheat-grass, 219.
Snail clover, 437.
Soilage, see Soiling.
Soiling, 45.

adaptations, 262.
agricultural groups, 263.
agricultural history, 261.
agricultural varieties, 269.
Amber, 270.

aphis, 278.

blight, 277.

botany, 260.
broadcasting, 268.

comparison with root crops, 588.

culture, 266.

diseases, 277.

Durra, 273:

Feterita, 272.

fodder, 274.

Gooseneck, 271.

hay, 275.

head smut, 277.

Honey, 271.
importance, 266.
improvement, 278.
insects, 277.

Kafir or Kafir Corn, 271.
kernel smut, 277.
legume mixtures with, 275.
midge, 277.

Milo, 272.

number of cuttings, 268.
Orange, 270.

pasture value, 276.
Planter, 270.

poisoning, 276.

Red Amber, 270.

root system, 263.

seed, 269.

seeding in rows, 267.
soilage, 274.

Sudan Durra, 272.

ee ae

INDEX -615

Sorghum, — Continued. sativa, 576.
Sumac, 271. Sphacelotheca reiliana, 277.
time of sowing, 267. sorghi, 277.
utilization, 274. Sphaerotheca sp., 511.
yield of forage, 269. Spontaneous combustion, 36.
Sour clover, 425. Spurrey, 576.
Source of seed, 73. Square-pod pea, 489.
Soybeans, 513-538. Standards of germination, 70.
agricultural history, 513. of purity, 70.
botany, 514. Starch values, 64.
breeding, 536. Statistical classification of forage
climatic adaptations, 517. crops, 113-117.
compared with cowpeas, 536. Statistics, 113-122.
cultivation, 521. alfalfa, 118.
cutting, time of, 527. coarse forage, 118.
depth of seeding, 523. corn, 118.
description, 516. cowpeas, 4938.
desirable characters, 518. forage crops, 8.
feeding value, 531. forage crops in Canada, 120-121.
fertilizers, 528. forage crops in United States,
Guelph, 520. 117-120.
Haberlandt, 519. grains cut green, 118.
Hollybrook, 519. hay yields, 37.
importance, 518. millet, 118-119.
inoculation, 524. other tame and_ cultivated
Ito San, 520. grasses, 119, 120.
life period, 526. pastures, 102.
Mammoth, 519. peas, 4438.
Medium Yellow, 520. red clover, 391, 400.
methods of seeding, 523. root forage, 120.
mixtures, 529. seed production, 83.
Peking, 521. sorghum, 266.
pests, 535. timothy, 124, 125.
pollination, 533. timothy and clover, 117.
rate of seeding, 522. wild, salt or prairie grasses, 118.
rotations, 530. Stizolobium deeringianum, 544.
seeding, 522, 523. hassjoo, 546.
seed production, 531. niveum, 545.
seeds, 534. Stover, definition, 2.
silage, 530. Straw, definition, 3.
soil adaptations, 517. Sudan-grass, 279-284.
soil preparation, 521. adaptations, 280.
time of seeding, 522. chemical analysis, 282.
varieties, 519. culture, 280.
Wilson, 521. description, 279.
yields, of hay, 528. hay, 281.
yields, of seed, 533. mixtures, 282.
Spergula arvensis, 576. seed production, 283.

maxima, 577. utilization, 281.

616 INDEX

Sugar-cane, Japanese, 247-249.
Zwinga, 247.

Sulla, 562.

Sunflower, 574.

Sweet clover, 417-425.
adaptations, 418.
advantages and disadvantages,

422.
agricultural history, 419.
botany, 417.
description, 417.
proportion of roots to tops, 421.
related species, 424-425.
securing a stand, 419.
seed, 424.
seeding, 419.
seed-production, 423.
utilization, 421.
yield, 422.

Sweet melilot, 417.

Sweet vernal-grass, 229.
botany, 229.
culture, 230.

Sword bean, 550.

Symphytum asperrimum, 580.

Tall fescue, 210.
Tall meadow oat-grass, 189.
Tall-oat grass, 189-195.
Tangier pea, 482-484.
Tares, 457.
temporary pasture crop systems,
109-111.
temporary pastures, 109.
Teosinte, 308.
Texas blue-grass, 166-167.
Texas millet, 297.
therms, 62.
Thousand-headed kale, 592.
Tick bean, 479.
time of seeding, 86.
alfalfa, 328.
common vetch, 460.
cowpeas, 499.
crimson clover, 430.
hairy vetch, 460.
red clover, 369.
sorghum, 276.
soybeans, 522.

Timothy, 122-153.

advantage of, 126.

agricultural history, 123.

agricultural importance, 124.

botany, 122.

breeding of, 149-150.

chemical analyses, 58-59.

climatic adaptations, 125.

comparison of vegetative and
seed progeny, 152.

depth of seeding, 130.

desirable types of, 151.

disease resistance, 148.

diseases affecting, 146.

feeding value, 144.

fertilizers, 133.

heavy vs. light seeds, 129.

improved strains, 153.

in rotation, 127.

insects injurious to, 146.

irrigation, 134.

life history, 141.

life period, 142.

lime, effect of, 134.

method of seeding, 130.

mixtures, 94, 95.

pasture value, 139.

pollination, 140.

proportion of roots to tops, 143.

rate of seeding, 129.

regional strains, 1438.

roots, depth of, 142.

seed, 127.

seed-bed, 128, 132.

seed-production, 140.

soil adaptations, 126.

soil preparation, 128, 132.

time to cut, 136.

variability of, 147.

weight of seeds, 129.

yield of hay, 138.

topinambur, 595.
Trefoil, bird’s-foot, 568.

white, 411.
yellow, 435.

Tricholzna rosea, 258.
Trifolium alexandrinum, 434.

elegans, 406.
fistulosum, 405,

r |
|

Trifolium, — Continued.
hybridum, 405.
incarnatum, 426.
pannonicum, 410.
repens, 411.
suaveolens, 434.

Trisetum flavescens, 234.

Tufted vetch, 481.

Tunis-grass, 260, 263.

Ulex europzeus, 570.

Upright brome, 233.

Wray 552:

Uromyces phaseoli, 511.
striatus, 358, 398.

Urophlyctis alfalfee, 356.

Ustilago crameri, 294.

Velvet bean, Florida, 544.
description, 544.
history, 544.
utilization, 544.

Velvet grass, 232.

Vernal grass, sweet, 229.

Vetch, bird, 481.

Bitter, 478.
Black bitter, 478.
Chickling, 454.
Common, 457.
comparison of species, 485.
Dakota, 439.
English, 457.
Gray, 459.
Hairy, 467.
Kidney, 566.
Narbonne, 479.
Narrow-leaved, 477.
Oregon, 457.
Pearl, 458.
Purple, 477.
Russian, 467.
Sand, 467.
Sardinian, 459.
Scarlet, 478.
Siberian, 467.
Smooth, 457.
Tufted, 481.
Villose, 467.

INDEX 617

White-seeded, 458.
Winter, 467.
Woolly-pod, 478.
Vetchling, 454.
flat-podded, 484.
Viability of seed, 68.
Vicia angustifolia, 477.
atropurpurea, 477.
cracca, 481.
dasycarpa, 478.
ervilia, 478.
faba, 479.
fulgens, 478.
hirsuta, 481.
narbonnensis, 479.
sativa, 457.
tetrasperma, 481.
villosa, 467.
Vigna sinensis, 491.

Wall-barley, 354.

Water-grass, 251.

Weed seeds, 78.

Weeds, in alfalfa, 78, 352-354.
in clover, 78.
in crimson clover, 434.
in Kentucky blue-grass, 163.
in Lespedeza, 78.
in orchard-grass, 183.
most dangerous, 78.

Weevil, cowpea, 511.

Weight, relation of green to dry, 32.
of seeds, 78.

Western wheat-grass, 221.

Wheat-grass, slender, 219.
western, 221.

White clover, 411-417.
adaptations, 412.
agricultural history, 412.
botany, 411.
description, 411.
importance, 413.
Ladino, 416.
pollination, 415.
seed, 416.
seeding, 413.
seed production, 415.
yields, 414.

White melilot, 417.

618 INDEX

White trefoil, 411.

Wilt, cowpea, 511.
Windsor bean, 479.
Wire-grass, 237.

Wonder bean, 550.

Wood meadow-grass, 170.
Woolly pyrol, 552.

Yarrow, 577.
Yellow oat-grass, 234.
Yellow trefoil, 435.
Yielding capacity, 49.
Yields of hay, alfalfa, 94, 118, 119,
319, 339.
alsike clover, 119, 408.
Bermuda-grass, 119, 242.
Canada blue-grass, 165.
common vetch, 462.
cowpeas, 119, 502.
crab-grass, 119.
crimson clover, 432.
fowl meadow-grass, 168.
hairy vetch, 472.
Italian rye-grass, 217.
Japanese cane, 249.
Johnson-grass, 119.
Kentucky blue-grass, 119, 160.
kidney vetch, 567.
kudzu, 564.
Ladino white clover, 417.
Lespedeza, 543.
millets, 118, 119, 295.
moth bean, 553.
orchard-grass, 119, 182.
pastures, 104.
peas, 119, 447.
perennial rye-grass, 213.
prairie-grass, 118.

red clover, 94, 119, 382-883.
redtop, 94, 174.
sainfoin, 562.
salt-grass, 118.
sorghum, 269.
soybeans, 528.
spurrey, 577.
sweet clover, 422.
tall oat-grass, 94.
timothy, 94, 119, 138.
under irrigation, 52.
white clover, 415.
wild grass, 118, 119.
Yields of seed, alfalfa, 347.
alsike clover, 409.
Bermuda-grass, 243.
Canada blue-grass, 165.
common vetch, 466.
cowpeas, 507.
crimson clover, 433.
guar, 557.
hairy vetch, 475, 476.
jack beans, 550.
kidney vetch, 567.
Lespedeza, 544.
millet, 298.
peas, 450.
red clover, 391.
sorghum, 273.
soybeans, 533.
spurrey, 577.
Sudan grass, 283.
sweet clover, 423.
yellow trefoil, 437.
Yokohama bean, 546.
Yorkshire fog, 232.

Zwinga sugar cane, 247,

HE following pages contain advertisements of a

few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.

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