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USAT Si ENONAL

THE FORAMINIFERA

AN ENERODOCTION LO, PAE STUDY
OF THE PROTOZOA

BY

FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.5., F.R.M.S.

FORMERLY ASSISTANT IN THE GEOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF
THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, LONDON; PALE ONTOLOGIST TO THE

NATIONAL MUSEUM, MELBOURNE

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

1902

All rights reserved

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THOMAS RUPERT JONES

BY WHOSE LABOURS AND FRIENDLY SYMPATHIES

I HAVE BEEN GREATLY HELPED

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PREFACE

Tue classical volume of Dr. W. B. Carpenter, written
in conjunction with Professors Kitchen Parker and
Rupert Jones, is still an exceedingly valuable book
for workers in this special branch of study, for it
contains the pioneer work of those authors on the
morphology and microscopic shell structure of
Foraminifera.’ The monographs of Drs. W. C.
Williamson” and H. B. Brady’ are also indispensable
as works of reference. But these and others more
recently published are voluminous and not always
easily accessible to the student; whilst the increas-
ingly large number of smaller works on the subject,
written by Continental, English, and other authors,
which have from time to time appeared in the
various publications of Scientific Societies and in
periodicals and journals, are quite outside the scope
of the general student’s reading. '

' Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera. Ray Society
publication. London, 1862.

* The Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain. Ray Society's publica-
tion. London, 1858.

* Report on the Foraminifera: H.M.S. ‘ Challenger, Zoology,
vol. ix. 1884.

* For the literature on Foraminifera to 1888 consult C. D. Sherborn’s
Bibliography of the Foraminifera, London, 1888, and the supplemental
work, to 1898, by Paul Tutkowski, Cracow, 1898.

x PREFACE

Of late years also much attention has been
directed to the elucidation of the life history of the
Foraminifera and other groups of the Protozoa,
whilst fresh discoveries concerning the geographical
distribution of the fossil Foraminifera and their range
in time have served to make our knowledge of this
group more complete, and in some cases have
disturbed the generally accepted ideas about the
early, if not the actual primeval, forms of these per-
sistent types of animal life.

With a view, therefore, of meeting a demand
which has arisen for a concise account of the
Foraminifera, suited to the requirements of the
student of Natural History and Paleontology, the
following pages have been written.

For friendly criticism of the earlier chapters of
this book, and for valuable advice, I am much
indebted to Professor G. B. Howes, LL.D., F.R.S. I
also take this as a fitting opportunity for expressing
my thanks to Professor J. W. Judd, C.B., LL.D.,
F.R.S., for the facilities granted from time to time,
in the laboratory of the Royal College of Science, for
working out and recording observations on various
deposits, fossil and recent, without which some
sections of this book would have been incomplete.

BCH APMEAINe
January 1902.

CON TEEN AS

PAGE
PREFACE 5 : : ; . . : : : : : 1x
CHAPTER
I. InrrRopuctory REMARKS ON THE NATURE AND OCCURRENCE
OF FORAMINIFERA—IMPORTANCE OF THEIR STUDY TO
THE ZOOLOGIST AND GEOLOGIST—THE STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PRoTOzZ0A—THE POSITION OF
THE FORAMINIFERA IN THE PHYLUM PROTOZOA oe il
Il. THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE RHIZOPODA . - : ‘ ay,
Ill. Tue StrrRucturRE AND REPRODUCTION OF THE FORAMI-
NIFERA (RHIZOPODA RETICULARIA) . é : ete LS.
TV. Tue SHELL STRUCTURE OF THE FORAMINIFERA AND THEIR
PLANS OF GROWTH i : : ; F : 2 32
V. Tue IDEAS oF THE HaARLY AUTHORS REGARDING THE
FORAMINIFERA . : : ; F : F 5 6 0)
VI. THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE FORAMINIFERA . . F 55
VII. Tue Famity GROMIIDA . ; P : : Pe 68
VIII. Tue Famiry MILIOLIDA : . - ; ; 3 75
IX. Tuer Famiry ASTRORHIZIDA . F ; : 5 oo KOS
X. Tae Famity LITUOLIDA : ; : : ; los
XI. Tue Faminy TEXTULARIIDEA . ; : 2 5 5 IUGR
XII. THe Famiry CHEILOSTOMELLIDA . : : . 180
XIII. Tue Faminy LAGENIDA . 3 : ; : 5 oo aleys
XIV. Tue Famity GLOBIGERINIDA . , am e204:

XV. THe Faminy ROTALIIDA . : ; ; : x 8 AB}

Xi

CHAPTER

OVAL.
evans

OVALE

INDEX

CONTENTS

THe Faminry NUMMULINIDA ; :
THE GEOLOGICAL RANGE OF THE FORAMINIFERA

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE FORAMINIFERA,
WITH REMARKS ON THE ACCOMPANYING CONDITIONS OF
TEMPERATURE, DEPTH, AND GENERAL ENVIRONMENT .

ON THE COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, AND MOUNTING OF
FORAMINIFERA

CHIEFLY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, TO FACILITATE REFERENCE
TO THE DIFFERENT LINES OF RESEARCH .

PAGE

251

527

d47

PLATE

Ie

2.
3)

4.
5D.

6.

om x

10.

dal:

12.

13.

14.

bw

Oe

PS BAAS

PLATES
FaMILy I. GROMIIDA
II. MILIOLIDA
(continued)
a (concluded)
i fil. ASTRORHIZIDA
” (concluded)
IV. LITUOLIDA
i (concluded)
e V. .TEXTULARIIDA .
VI. CHEILOSTOMELLIDA, anp Faminy VII.
LAGENIDAG
VII. LAGENIDA (concluded), ann Famity VIII.
GLOBIGERINID&
IX. ROTALIIDA
X. NUMMULINIDA .
Pa (concluded) .
LN EET
FoRAMINIFERAL SAND, LITTLEHAMPTON, SUSSEX

SAND FROM A COMMON SPONGE

Haplophragmium, WITH EXTENDED PSEUDOPODIA .

A THIN SECTION OF CHALK, MISSENDEN

Gs

Or

ILLUSTRATIONS

FOoRAMINIFERA WASHED FROM CHALK 3 : ; ‘ : ic
TERRIGENOUS Mupb, WITH FORAMINIFERA . : ‘ a? 8
GLOBIGERINA OozE, N. ATLANTIC . : 5 2 ; ; 8
Ameba proteus . : : : : : : ee)
LONGITUDINAL Fisston In Dallingeria . : ‘ . oe 1D

Karyokrnetic DrIvistoN oF THE NUCLEUS IN Acanthocystis . 12

Types oF PRoTOZOA—GYMNOMYXA . 3 ; : F . +14

“ ¥ 53 —CORTICATA . 3 ; ; : ells
SarcoDE Bopy oF Rorauia BECcCARIT ; : 3 : |
NUCLEI IN FORAMINIFERA . : ‘ ; . : » 2 23
Division oF THE NUCLEUS IN Calcitwba : : é 5 es
RepropuctTion IN Miliolina ; ‘ : , , Ros DAG)
DivorpHism In Miliolina : : : , : 5 5 Ove
Srnicrous INTERNAL Cast oF Cristellaria . : ; < D
Cast oF Anomalina ammonoides . ‘ : : F - oo

MEpDIAN SECTIONS OF FORAMINIFERA, WITH STOLON PASSAGES 35
APERTURES IN Peneroplis AND Anomalina . : : is)
CoarsE AND Fine TusuLi—Carpenteria AND Amphistegina. 36
Mepran Section oF Test In Rotalia Beccariwi : : 5 Bt
Exocenous Layer in Cycloclypeus . : é ‘ ee OS

ILLUSTRATION OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF A FORAMINIFERAL

SHELL . - : : : : : A ; : : 42
D’ORBIGNY’S CLASSIFICATION OF THE FORAMINIFERA . To
Spirillina Rock; UPPER CAMBRIAN; MALVERNS . : . 254

Saccammina LIMESTONE; CARBONIFEROUS; NORTHUMBERLAND 256

Fusulina LIMESTONE ; CARBONIFEROUS; RUSSIA. ; 5 ASST
Endothyra LIMESTONE; CARBONIFEROUS ; DERBYSHIRE > « 258
Miliolina LimEsToNE; EocENE; Paris BASIN ‘ : 5) PAO)
Heterostegina Limestone; TertTrary; Ea@ypr . A ie 3. iil
Alveolina LIMESTONE; EocENE; EGypt . : : : s 2202:
Nummu.tiric LIMESTONE; EOCENE; SINAI . : : ~ ee ie
Orbttoides LIMESTONE; M1IocENE; CHRISTMAS ISLAND . 5 DA:

FIG,

42.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Conulites LIMESTONE ; Tertiary; Eeypr . F . Look
Tue Tow-NET IN USE :

Various Forms oF Dippinc TUBES . : : : ames
Stack AQUARIUM FOR OBSERVING Livinc FORAMINIFERA
Metuop oF Mountinc FoRAMINIFERA IN Dry CELLS eee

MetHop oF MountTinc A SERIES OF FORAMINIFERA ON ONE
SLIDE . , : ; : : , ; : : ;

Harvey’s Metuop or Mountinec Opaque OBsECTS

THRE FORAMINIFRERA

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON THE NATURE AND OCCURRENCE
OF FORAMINIFERA—IMPORTANCE OF THEIR STUDY TO THE
ZOOLOGIST AND GEOLOGIST—THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSI-
FICATION OF THE PROTOZOA—THE POSITION: OF THE
FORAMINIFERA IN THE PHYLUM PROTOZOA,

Where to find Living Foranuufera.—The most
casual observer who takes a walk by the seashore,
especially if it be in a sheltered bay with a gently
sloping strand, will have noticed the sandy streaks
left by the receding tide. If this sand, which to the
eye appears like a collection of mere chalky and
sooty fragments, be examined with a pocket lens,
some of the whitish specks will be seen to be tiny
but perfect shells. These delicate little shells belong
to the lowest group or phylum of animal life, and
they are known as Foraminifera, ‘ hole-bearers,’ as
the name implies, on account of their internal septa
having perforations.

There may be other little organisms accompany-
ing the Foraminifera in this sand, such as the shells
or carapaces of bivalved crustaceans or Ostracoda,
the young shells or fry of molluscs, or even seeds of

B

bo

THE FORAMINIFERA

plants. The shells of the Foraminifera are easily
distinguished by their particular shape and texture ;
they are sometimes white and opaque, glassy or
translucent, and often decorated with the finest and
most beautiful surface tracery. Their minuteness,
especially those in shore-sands, may be conceived
from the fact that one observer, Plancus, counted
6,000 in an ounce of sand from the Adriatic. This
number is perhaps rather within than beyond the
mark.

One of our best examples of a strand composed
almost entirely of foraminiferal shells in the British
Islands is that of Dog’s Bay, near Connemara. The
sand from this locality contains a very small admixture
of molluscan shells, Ostracoda, and other marine or-
eanisms, and the lighter foraminiferous shell material
is blown inland for a considerable distance, forming
drifts and mounds. Messrs. Balkwill and Millett drew
attention to this rich deposit some years ago, describ-
ing many species, since when Mr. Joseph Wright of
Belfast has considerably added to the list, and the
number now recorded from this bay alone amounts to
124 species and varieties. Through the courtesy of
Mr. R. Welch the writer has been able to include a
view of this bay, which is thus of so much interest
to naturalists. (See Frontispiece.)

Fig. 1 represents a sample of shore-sand from the
Sussex coast, containing numerous Foraminifera,
associated with broken molluscan shells, fragments
of corallines, Ostracoda, and quartz-grains.

The shells of Foraminifera collected from shore-

NATURE AND OCCURRENCE 3

sands, however, may not contain the living animal,
since they have probably drifted and floated on the
tide for some length of time.

The shallow-water sands of the Grecian Archi-
pelago and the Levant often contain a large propor-
tion of foraminiferal shells; and by taking a common
washing sponge, obtained from such a locality, in the
dry state before it has been used, and shaking it over
a sheet of paper, we may obtain a quantity of fine

Fic. 1.— FORAMINIFERAL SAND Fig. 2.—SAND FROM A ComMMON

FROM TIDE-MARKS ON THE SHORE SPONGE, CONSISTING OF [oRA-
AT LITTLEHAMPTON, SUSSEX. MINIFERA, SPONGE SPICULES,
x 26. Original. OsTRACODA, SHELL FRAGMENTS,

AND SAND GRAINS. x26. O7i-
ginal.
sand which, on examination with a lens or low-power
microscope, will often reveal countless shells of the
Foraminifera (fig. 2).

In order to see these tiny creatures alive let us
take some fresh seaweed at low tide and place it in
a glass jar of sea-water. After a short space of time
the Foraminifera will be seen moving over the inside
of the vessel, whither they have travelled from the

B »)

4 THE FORAMINIFERA

seaweed, and they can then be observed with a
moderately powerful lens.

Living Foraminifera are very beautiful objects
when viewed by means of a back-ground illumination,
using an objective of about 40 diameters. The shell
under these conditions appears surrounded by a sort
of cobweb of extremely fine sarcode threads, which, if

observed closely, will be seen to exhibit a streaming

le ae poem ae)

Fie. 3.—HAPLOPHRAGMIUM |NONIONINA SILICEA| WITH
EXTENDED PsEUDOPODIA. x 72. After Schultze.

movement, owing to the rapid circulation of crystalline
particles in the sarcode, reminding one of the cyclosis
or circulatory movements seen in the cells of certain
plants. A reproduction of Schultze’s figure of a
living Haplophragmium, given above, affords a good
idea of the appearance of the living organism (fig. 3).

How to find Fossil Foraminifera.—Fossil speci-
mens may also be obtained with very little difficulty ;

NATURE AND OCCURRENCE

On

as, for example, by crushing a piece of soft white chalk
under water, and repeatedly washing the residue,
taking care that nothing but the fine milky fluid is
thrown away during the process of levigation. After
drying the residue, the powder thus obtained will
probably yield numerous specimens of Foraminifera.
That some chalks and hmestones are largely com-
posed of foraminiferal shells we may see by examining

Fic. 4.—F rom A PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A THIN SECTION OF CHALK
FROM MISSENDEN, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE. x 936. Original.

thin slices of these rocks from certain horizons. Fig.
4 is taken from a photomicrograph of a section of
the chalk-rock of Buckinghamshire ; in this zone the
Foraminifera are always abundant. The separated
microzoa often contain some handsome forms, as the
next illustration (fig. 5) will show. ‘To be successful,
however, in extracting Foraminifera from the chalk,
it must be borne in mind that some strata are almost

6 THE FORAMINIFERA

devoid of these organisms, and a little geological
knowledge is requisite to secure a suitable piece from
the proper horizon in the chalk series.

The majority of the Foraminifera are of marine
habit, although many such species are capable of living
far up the estuaries of rivers, provided the water is
brackish and well within the reach of tidal influence ;
but under these conditions they are as a rule thin-
shelled, chitinous, or
dwarfed modifications of
the more robust marie
types. A few forms also
are exclusively of fresh-
water habit.

The shells of Forami-
nifera are usually micro-
scopic, averaging from

about ;, inch down to

a)

Fic. 5.—FORAMINIFERA WASHED 1: 5 ANE
a meh (to -2ommame
FROM CHALK-ROCK NEAR Dun- 100 ( = ),
STABLE. x36. Original. but there are certain

genera which attain a
comparatively large size, such as Orbitolites, which
sometimes reaches a diameter of ’5 inch (1°75 cm.);
Nummulites, with a diameter of 44 inches (over 11
cm.), and Cycloclypeus, 24 inches (5°7 cm.) ‘There
are also other genera, such as Carpenteria and Poly-
trema, Which by their accumulative and encrust-
ing growth form large masses of shell material, often
reaching 5 inches in lateral expanse and an inch and
a half to two inches in thickness.

. NATURE AND OCCURRENCE 7

The Foraminifera present many features of
interest from a zoological point of view, for they
exhibit in certain of their familes so complex a shell
structure that it seems quite marvellous that the
perfect details of their investment have been pro-
duced by so lowly a type of animal life, in itself
apparently so structureless. The great variability of
the numerous types and so-called species of the Fora-
minifera, and the inter-relation of genera which at
first sight are apparently distinct, lend additional
interest to the study of the group.

Apart from their zoological interest, however, the
remains of Foraminifera found in the various fossili-
ferous strata of the earth’s crust are often of great
importance to the stratigraphical geologist, since they
assist in determining the age of a deposit, in many
cases helping to clear up doubtful pomts regarding
the conditions under which a particular bed was laid
down. It must not, however, be inferred that species
or types of Foraminifera are always distinctive of
special geological horizons, for some well-marked
forms are persistent (with some sleght modifications
in their shell structure) throughout nearly all forma-
tions from early paleeozoic times to the present day.
But when we study a facies or assemblage of these
fossils from any given horizon we find it presents
certain peculiarities which distinguish it from that
found in another set of strata of a different age. A
change in the aspect of a foraminiferal facies may
also point to a change of condition under which the
animals lived rather than to any great difference in

8 THE FORAMINIFERA

age, and in such case the earlier aspect of the fauna
would return at a later period, provided there did not
elapse too great a space of time, when the former

marine conditions recurred.

The Foraminifera have in past geological times
been among the most active agents in building up
the sedimentary rock masses of the earth, by secreting
the carbonate of lime from the waters of the ocean.

Fic. 6.—TERRIGENOUS (GREEN) Fic. 7.—GLOBIGERINA Ooze. x 24.
MuD, WITH FORAMINIFERA. x 24, North Atlantic, 2,760 fathoms. Original.
Off Cape Verde, 284 fathoms. Original.

This work is still being carried on by them around
the shores of continents, where their accumulated
shells go to form, alone with the land débris, the
terrigenous deposits (fig. 6), and over large areas
of the ocean floor, where, intermixed with coccoliths,
they form the well-known Globigerina ooze (fig. 7).
The organic rocks formed by the agency of
Foraminifera are often of very great thickness and
extent, and foraminiferal rocks are found inter-

IMPORTANCE TO ZOOLOGIST AND GEOLOGIST 9

stratified with other deposits in almost every
geological formation.

It is therefore essential that the stratigraphical
geologist, in studying the sedimentary rocks, should
become acquainted with the principal types of
Foraminifera likely to be met with in this way.

THe STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROTOZOA.

The Protozoa, of which the Foraminifera con-
stitute an important group, are characterised by their
simplicity of structure as compared with the higher
animal groups, the metazoa. In this respect they
correspond with the similarly elementary forms of
vegetable life sometimes called the protophyta ; and
indeed it is difficult, if not impossible in some cases,
to assign them to either the animals or the plants.

The protozoa are typically unicellular—that is to
say, they often consist of a single animal cell which,
with its nucleus, is complete in itself for the functions
of life and growth. Any increase which takes place
is made on the same general plan as the previous
cell—that is, without any special differentiation of
its structure, such as the formation of tissue, for any
particular function. The protozoa consist of a
jelly-like substance having a colloidal consistency,
called sarcode. The sarcode has the ability to throw
out extensions from the main mass, either of blunt
processes or of fine hairlike extensions. The sarcode
body may be naked or having a covering which
in some cases is of extreme tenuity; in others

10 THE FORAMINIFERA

there may be a denser covering or cortical layer,
derived from the same sarcode body. These inner
and outer portions may be termed respectively the
endoplasm and exoplasm.

A good example of the protozoa may be seen in
the amoeba, which is common in pond water (fig. 8).

Protozoa may, at one time of their existence,
form a coherent group or colony of cells. This,
however, is merely a case of cohesion or aggregation
after the increase of the original cell.

Fic. 8.—AM@BA PROTEUS. « 500. Original.

N=nucleus, v=vacuole, r=food particles, c=crystalline bodies.

With regard to the phenomena and ordinary
structures observed in protozoa we may notice the
following as of most importance :—

Tur Nuciteus.—This is a small more or less solid
body present in nearly all protozoan cells, having a
eranular structure, and sometimes containing smaller
bodies of a like nature (nucleoli). Itis capable of being
stained with various reagents, such as picrocarmine,
hematoxylin, or methylene blue. For the reproduc-

STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PROTOZOA 11

tion or division of the organism the presence of a
nucleus seems essential (fig. 8, N).

Foop Parricnes.—Minute aggregates of solid par-
ticles, sometimes showing their organic and adven-
titious nature when they are incapable of being
completely digested (fig. 8, F).

GLOBULAR BopiEs AND CoNnTRACTILE VESICLES.—The
former are spherical spaces filled with an oily-looking
liquid, often surrounded by an empty space (vacuole) ;
they probably represent stages in the digestive process
on organisms taken in as food. The liquid inclusion
has been proved, in the case of certain protozoa, to be
of an acid nature.

The latter are capable of undergoing contraction
during the life of the organism (fig. 8, v).

CrysTaLLINE Bopres.—In certain of the protozoa,
as amoeba, granules of a crystalline form occur,
which are refractive; they are thought to represent
the final stage in the digestion of the food taken in
by the organism before it is assimilated by the
protoplasm (fig. 8, c).

The protozoa increase by fission or binary di-
vision and by the formation of zodspores. The
first stage in the process of subdivision is the
division of the nucleus. This takes place either by
the simple process of binary division (fig. 9) or by
the more complex: and beautiful process of karyo-
kinesis (fig. 10), in which the nuclear body is in-
vested with strands of chromatin threads, becoming
elongate and constricted in hour-glass form, and finally
separated into two distinct bodies, the surrounding

12 THE FORAMINIFERA

cell-contents giving rise to independent organisms.
This latter process, however, seems rare in the
Foraminifera.

Fic. 9.—STAGES IN THE LONGITUDINAL FISSION OF A
FLAGELLATE MoNnAD—DALLINGERIA DRYSDALI.

N=nucleus.

Protozoa are distinguished from the other and
higher groups of animal organisms, sometimes collec-

1
|
Fic. 10. KARYOKINETIC DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS IN ACANTHOCYSTIS.

After Schaudinn.

tively termed metazoa, by the absence of any struc-
tures resembling the organs and tissues of the higher

STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PROTOZOA 13

animals, which perform important functions for the
benefit of the whole being. There is, moreover, no
evidence of an organised nervous system, although
something approaching a sense of touch may be
possible.

Of the many classifications of the protozoa it
will only be necessary to quote the two most
generally accepted.

The first which is here given was drawn up by
Professor Ray Lankester in 1891.

PROTOZOA.
Grave A.—Gymnomyxa. (See fig. 11.)
Sections.
Class I.—Protromyxa.
Proteana .;, Ex. Vampyrella, Protomyza,
| Archerina.
(Class [].—Mycertozoa.
Plasmodiata . - ;
( Hx. The Hu-mycetozoa of Zopt.
Lob (Class I1I.—Lososa.
ag ' | Ex. Ameba, Arcella, Pelomyxa.
Class 1V.—LasyrinTHULIDEA.
Ex. Labyrinthula, Chlamydomyxa.
Class V.—HEtL10z0a.
Ex. <Actinophrys, Raphidiophrys,
Clathrulina.
Filosa . . «Class VI.—Rericunaria.

Ex. Gromia, [ituola, Astrorhiza
Globigerina.
Class VII.—Rapionaria.
Kx. Thalassicolla, Hucyrtidiwmn,
Acanthometra.

)

14 THE FORAMINIFERA

GravE B.—Corticata. (See fig. 12.)

(Class I.—Sporozoa.
Lipostoma : ae ae,
Ex. Gregarina, Coccidiwm.
Class I]. —FnaGeLuata.
Ex. Monas, Salpingwca, Euglena,
Volvo.
Class IL].—DInoriaGELiata.

Ex. Prorocentrum, Ceratium.
Class [V.—RuHYNCHOFLAGELLATA.
Stomatophora § Ex. Noctiluea.
|Class V.—Cinrata.

JD. Vorticella, Paramecium,

Stentor.
Class VI.—AcINETARIA.
Ex. Acineta, Dendrosoma, Podo-

phrya.

MILIOLINA

ACTINOPHRYS HALIOMMA

LABYRINTHULA

Fic. 11.—Typrs oF ProrozoAa—GYMNOMYXA.

The first division in this arrangement, Grade A,

STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PROTOZOA 16

includes the Foraminifera, since the sarcode body of
these animals is capable of free extrusion, as distin-
cuished from those protozoa with a definite cortex or
covering. Class VI. comprises the Rericunaria, which
are chiefly marine types ; examples of the fresh-water
types are Gromia and Diaphoropodon. ‘This group
takes its name from the fact that the prolongations

of sarcode emitted by the organism form a reticulum

PODOPHRYA

wi

NOCTILUCA

VORTICELLA — CERATIUM

Fic. 12.—Typres or ProtozoA—CoRTICATA.

of anastomosing threads. These sarcode extensions
entrap minute organisms or other food particles,
which are drawn to the mouth of the test, or may
even enter it, there to be assimilated. ‘This
reticulated character of the extruded sarcode is very
distinct from that of the true Lobosa, with which,
however, they are grouped in another classification
as Rhizopoda (Dujardin), and which have finger-like
prolongations with rounded tips. ‘These two groups

16 THE FORAMINIFERA

are sometimes referred to as Rhizopoda reticularia
and Rhizopoda lobosa.

The classification given by Parker and Haswell in
their ‘ Textbook of Zoology’* is also a very con-
venient one. ‘The divisions or classes are more com-
prehensive than in the previous table. Thus
Class VI., the Reticularia (Foraminifera) of Ray
Lankester, is included in the Ist group, the Rhizo-
poda, together with the Classes III.,IV., V., and VII
of that author.

Puytum PROTOZOA.

Class 1. Ruatzopopa.—Protozoa in which the
amoeboid form is predominant, the animal always
forming pseudopods. Flagella are often present in
the young, and occasionally in the adult. HEncys-
tation frequently occurs.

Class 2. Mycnrozoa.— Terrestrial protozoa im
which the plasmodial phase is specially characteristic,
as is also the formation of large and often complex
cysts. | |
Class 3. MasticopHora.—Protozoa in which the
flagellate form is predominant, although the amoeboid
and encysted conditions frequently occur.

Class 4. Sporozoa.—Parasitic protozoa without
organs of locomotion in the adult. Kneystation is
almost universal, and the young may be flagellate or
amoeboid.

Class 5. Inrusorta.—Protozoa which are always
ciliated, either throughout life or in the young con-
dition.

1 A Textbook of Zoology, vol.i. pp. 43, 44. Macmillan, 1897.

17

CHAPTER If

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE RHIZOPODA

Tor name Rhizopoda was first used by Dujardin to
designate that group of the Protozoa which have the
ability of throwing out extensions of protoplasm
called pseudopodia, which may be used either for
prehension and locomotion or for the purpose of
gathering minute organisms for food, whence they
derive the name Rhizopoda (root-footed animals).
This class of animal is characterised by its extreme
simplicity of structure, and is represented in a
general sense by the ameboid type. In strict signi-
fication, however, the amewba differs from the Forami-
nifera in having the pseudopodia finger-like or lobose
(Lobosa; see fig. 8), whilst the Foraminifera have
thread-like and anastomosing extrusions of sarcode
(Reticularia). See fig. 3.

The Rhizopoda, according to Dujardin, constituted
a family of the Infusoria, and his arrangement com-
prised eight genera, as follows :—

1, Arncenta; 2, Dirriueia; 3, Trinrma; 4, Hu-
GLyPpHA; 5, Gromia; 6, Miniona; 7, CRISTELLARIA ;
8, VoRTICIALIS.

This arrangement did not include many important
forms, and gave distinction to others now known to
be closely related.

Another scheme of the Rhizopoda was published

C

18 THE FORAMINIFERA

by Claparéde and Lachmann in 1858-9. They
divided the group into four Orders—I. Proreina
Gneluding Ameba and Actinophrys); II. Eoutno-
cystipA (fRadiolaria); Ill. Gromipe (Gromia) ;
IV. ForaminirEra.

The arrangement published by Dr. Carpenter in
1862 is one even now followed, with certain modifica-
tions—I. Loxsosa; IL. Rapronaria; III. Rericunosa
(afterwards altered by Carpenter to Rericunarta).

It will be observed that the group of the Ruzzo-
popa in these systems of classification comprise
almost the whole of Ray Lankester’s division of the
GYMNOMYXA.

The following in detail is one of the latest
arrangements of the Rhizopoda, viz. that of Parker
and Haswell in their ‘Textbook of Zoology’ (vol. 1.
p. 46) :—

Crass REIZORODA.

Order 1. Wozosa.—Rhizopoda with short blunt
pseudopods.

Order 2. LasyrinrHutmEa-—Rhizopods having a
network of fine pseudopods, in which corpuscles
travel to and fro.

Order 3. Foramintrera.—Shelled Rhizopoda
with fine branched and anastomosing pseudopods.

Order 4. Hentozoa.—Rhizopoda with fine stiff
radiating pseudopods.

Order 5. Raptonarta.—Rhizopoda having a shell
in the form of a perforated central capsule, and
usually in addition a siliceous skeleton. ‘The pseudo-
pods are long and delhcate.

its)

CHAPTER, iit

THE STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION OF THE
FORAMINIFERA (Rhizopoda reticularia)

Structure.—Foraminifera differ from the lobose
rhizopods, such as Amba, not only in the form of
their sarcode prolongations or pseudopodia, but in
having an investing shell or test composed of car-
bonate of lime, of cemented sand-grains, sponge
spicules, and other adventitious particles, or of
chitin. It is true that some of the lobose forms
possess a covering, or lorica, but these are excep-
tional, and in the case of Arcella it is merely a scale-
hike chitinous shield. Diglugia also bears some
resemblance to the monothalamous (single-cham-
bered) forms of Reophar, but the former genus is
essentially of fresh-water habit.

The body substance of Foraminifera consists of
protoplasm or sarcode, generally transparent and
nearly colourless, but sometimes of a pale brownish,
pink, or violet tint. The animal is usually divided
into more or less numerous segments, each of which
is separated from the adjacent one by a septal shell-
wall, and which are connected with one another by
slender filaments of sarcode, called stolons, which
pass through the foramina of the septum.

To gain an adequate idea of the appearance of

G2

20 THE FORAMINIFERA

the living organism we cannot do better than quote
the admirable description of Gromia which Dr.
Carpenter gives in his ‘ Introduction to the Study of
the Foranimifera.’

‘In the Gromie, some forms of which inhabit fresh
water, whilst others are marine, the sarcode body,
which is of essentially the same character with that
of Lieberkuehnia, is enclosed in a yellowish brown
membranous “ test’ of ovoidal shape, with a single
round orifice of moderate size, through which the
protoplasmic substance extends itself from the interior
through the surrounding medium. When the animal
is in a state of rest the whole of this is drawn within
the test; and when its activity recommences single
fine processes are first put forth, which move about
in a groping manner until they find some surface to
which they may attach themselves. When this
attachment has taken place new sarcode flows into
them, so that they speedily increase in size ; and they
then elongate themselves by sending out finer ramify-
ing processes, which, in diverging from each other,
come into contact with those proceeding from other
stems, and, by mutual fusion, form a set of imoscula-
tions or connecting bridges between the different
systems of ramifications, so that the whole becomes
a complicated network extending to a distance of six
or eight times the length of the body. This network
continues to undergo incessant changes, new fila-
ments being put forth in different directions, some-
times from its margin, sometimes from the midst of
its ramifications, whilst others are retracted. Not

STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 21

unfrequently it happens that at a spot where two or
more filaments meet and fuse together a lamina is
formed by the expansion of the viscous protoplasm
that flows towards this point; and from such an
expansion a new set of thread-like processes is given
off, as from the central body.’

Fic. 13.—SarcopE Bopy or Rovrarta BEccARIT, MEGALOSPHERIC
ForM, WITH A NUCLEUS IN THE EIGHTH CHAMBER. «x 170.
After Lister.

As in the case of other protozoa the Foraminifera
possess a nucleus, and sometimes contractile vacuoles
(fig. 13).

For a long time, however, the presence of a
nucleus in the Foraminifera remained undiscovered.
It was in the genus Gromia that Dr. Wallich,
the pioneer of deep-sea research, first observed it.

22 THE FORAMINIFERA

Since that time, however, this structure has been
detected in nearly all genera which have been made
the subject of careful observation. The following is
a list of such genera, with the authorities: Gromia
(Wallich, Max Schultze); Spiroloculina (Hertwig) ;
Miholina (Schulze) ; Peneroplis (Biitschli) ; Orbitolites
(Biitschli, Lister) ; Dendrophrya (Mobius) ; Saccam-
mina (Rhumbler) ; Vextularia (Biitschl, Hertwig) ;
Lagena (M. Schultze, F. E. Schulze, Griiber,
Biitschli); Globigerina (Hertwig); Spirillina
(Biitschli); Discorbina (Biitschli): Truncatulina
(Lister); Rotaha (F. EK. Schulze); Calcarina
(Biitschhi) ; Polystomella (F. E. Schulze, Lister,
Verworn) ; Amphistegina (Biitschli) ; Heterostegina
(Chapman) ; Cycloclypeus (Lister, Chapman).

The nucleus of the Foraminifera varies in size
even in the same species. Lister’s observations
regarding the nucleus of Polystomella crispa show it
to vary in its diameter from ‘018 to ‘066 mm. The
nucleus often contains more or less numerous smaller
bodies (nucleoh).

F. E. Schulze described the nucleus of Polystomedlla
striatopunctata, and stated that it was a round body
having, in some cases, a diameter of ‘056 min. and
surrounded by a conspicuous membrane of consider-
able thickness; this latter appearance, however, seems
to be exceptional, and Lister remarks that there is
usually no perceptible investment of the nucleus
other than the reticulum. Highly refracting nucleoh,
lying in a clear and apparently fluid substance, occu-
pied the interior. In quite young specimens only one

STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 23

nucleolus was found, but there were often as many
as twenty or more in full-grown specimens. Schulze
also noticed that the nucleus occupies a position in
the middle third of the series of chambers, and often
hes partly in one of the narrow canals connecting the
chambers, being preserved in its progress from one
chamber to another. The position of the nucleus is

“Fic..14.

1. Nucleus of Polystomella crispa (L.), megalospheric form. 2. Nucleus with large
vacuolated nucleolus, in P. crispa. 3. Nucleus of same species, which has lost
its rounded form, lying within four segments. 4. Nucleus of a megalospheric
specimen of Rotalia Beccaru. After Lister.

thus dependent on the number of chambers in the

individual ' (fig. 16).

That the presence of a nucleus is essential for the
growth and reproduction of the animal is proved by
such observations as that of Verworn, who broke up
a specimen of Polystomella, the larger pieces re-
maining alive, as shown by their extended pseudo-

! For further details of observations on the nucleus of the Foraminifera
see Lister, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. vol. 186 B, 1895, pp. 401-453.

24 THE FORAMINIFERA

podia, and only those fragments that possessed a
nucleus were able to secrete fresh material to repair
the broken shell. The outer surface of the nucleus,
and even the nucleoli, are often covered with fine
strands of chromatin forming a reticulum.

The nucleo (fig. 14) appear to be the active
portion of the nucleus in effecting the reproduction
from an old nucleus by the formation of a morula-

Fic. 15.—TuHrE SuccrEssiIvE STAGES IN THE DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS
IN CALCITUBA POLYMORPHA. After Schaudinn and Schlumberger.

hke centre within the nucleus. An interesting series
of stages in the reproduction of nuclei in this way
has been described by Schaudinn in Calcituba
polymorpha, a Foraminifer from the. Adriatic Sea
(fig. 15). He shows that the nucleus, surrounded by
protoplasm, is invaded by the latter, which breaks up
into globules, penetrating little by little into the
nucleus. The protoplasm disintegrates the chromatin

STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 25

of the nucleus, rendering the mass granular. The
external granules of the mass then arrange them-
selves against the nuclear membrane. The central
portion of the nucleus then reunites and forms a
solid body of chromatin. The result of this move-
ment is to draw the peripheral granules towards the
centre, and to lengthen them until they are attached
by their points only to the external membrane.
This results in the formation of little nuclei lining
the inner surface of the membrane ; when this mem-
brane breaks up the nuclear bodies are disseminated
through the surrounding protoplasm, and later play
the part of nuclei.

The multipheation of the nucleus is, however,
often carried out in the simple manner of binary sub-
division; and a karyokinetic division has been
observed by Lister in the nucleus of Polystomella
crispa.

Solid particles of a more or less granular structure
are often present in the protoplasm ; they are capable
of being stained like the nucleus by various reagents.
They are referred to as nutritive particles, and
probably represent various stages in the assimilation
of food material.

reproduction and Dimorphism.—The production
of young in the shells of Foraminifera has long been
known, for they were observed as long ago as 1847
by Gervais, who noticed a brood of young shells,
each consisting of a single large chamber, and
numbering about one hundred, grouped together in
the orifice of a species of Miliolina which had been

26 THE FORAMINIFERA

kept in sea water. Further, in 1856 Max Schultze
noticed an example of the same genus which, after
remaining on the side of a vessel containing sea
water for from eight to fourteen days, produced about
forty young individuals (fig. 16). Their shells con-
sisted of a central chamber with a second chamber
coiled partially round it. The condition of the
parent shells after this process was such that

1. Miliolina from Trieste, surrounded with young. x15. 2. A young specimen more
highly magnified, showing extended pseudopodia. x330. After Schultze.

Schultze concluded that the protoplasmic contents
are used up in the formation of the young, for
nothing but a little granular matter remained
behind.

Both Ehrenberg and Strethill Wright, a few years
later, observed the tiny shells of young Spirilline
living within the mouth of the mdividuals of advanced
erowth. This particular fact, indeed, suggested to

STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 27

Ehrenberg the specific name for that form of Spard-
lina, namely, S. vivipara.

In his ‘Introduction’ Dr. Carpenter in 1862
mentions the fact that Professor Kitchen Parker had
noticed young specimens having an investing shell
occupying the peripheral chambers of Orbitolites ;
and soon after, another independent observer, Semper,
noticed the same thing.

This leads us to another side of the same
question, namely, the phenomenon of dimorphism ;
for all the specimens found in the peripheral chambers
of Orbitolites have invariably a comparatively large
primordial cell or chamber.

The dimorphism referred to consists in the same
species exhibiting two distinct forms of shell. It
was shown by Munier Chalmas in 1880 that Num-
mulites occurring in the same strata, and having
the same external characters, fall into two groups ;
one possessing a large central chamber and a small
disc, the other a small central chamber and a large
disc. These are respectively termed form A and
form’ B, or the megalospheric and microspheric stage
of the species. This phenomenon is best seen in a
half-section of the shell taken through the middle of
the test, or in a thin median section (fig. 17).

Further observations on these two types of shell
form were made by De la Harpe on Nummulites, and in
1883 and 1885 by Schlumberger in collaboration with
Munier Chalmas on dimorphism in the Mimionm..
These authors have shown that in this group the inter-
nal arrangement of the chambers is different for the

28 THE FORAMINIFERA

two forms of one species. For example, mn biloculina
depressa there are two forms—A, with a large
central chamber 200-400 »' in diameter, and with
an outside diameter of the test of 2-1 mm.; and B,

MILIOLINA (QUINQUELOCULINA) SEMINULUM.
Form A. ~x 100.

MILIOLINA (QUINQUELOCULINA) SEMINULUM.
Form B. x90.

Fic. 17. After Schlumberger.

with a small central chamber 20 mp in diameter and
an outside diameter varying from 1°5 mm. to 2°64 mm.
In form A of this species the arrangement of the

1 w= zoo7 Mulimetre.

STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 29

chambers is biloculine from the commencement, but
in form B the minute central chamber is followed by
a series of chambers arranged in the quinquelocu-
line manner, the biloculine arrangement not being
attained until the eleventh chamber is formed.
Many other genera were described by these authors
as having true dimorphic characters.

In the case of Orbitolites complanata, which has
been investigated by Brady and Lister, its dimor-
phism presents many points of interest. Form A is
smaller than form B; and Lister found that in a
large series of the former the number of rings of
chamberlets is usually under thirty, whilst form B
has from 79 to 110 rings. As the microspheric form
increases in size the edge of the disc becomes
double, so that a radial section at right angles to
the plane of the disc is Y-shaped. The marginal
chambers of this form (B) are not divided into small
chamberlets, but consist of large chambers as high
as the disc is thick. These brood-chambers, as they
are called, contain the young forms, which in all
cases are megalospheric. ‘The megalospheric forms,
on the other hand, often show numerous compact
bodies of different sizes and irregular shape, derived
by disintegration of the nucleus.

The megalospheric form is, as a rule, much more
abundant than the microspheric. Of Polystomella
crispa Lister gives the proportion which he found
of forms A and B as 34 to 1. Of Adelosina poly-
gonia Schlumberger gives the proportion as 8 to 1.

30 THE FORAMINIFERA

Of Heterostegina depressa the difference is still more
marked, being as great as 300 to 1.

In the megalospheric form of Polystomella crispa
Lister states that the breaking up of the nucleus
gives rise to numerous small nuclear bodies, each
of which afterwards becomes a centre of a flagellated
ZOOSpore.

The general conclusion from the observations
which have been made on dimorphism by some
authors is that, rather than a sexual difference,
the two forms represent alternate phases of genera-
tion; for the reason that both the megalospheric
and microspheric tests can produce megalospheric
young.

Some recent observations by Schaudinn’ have
thrown light on the hitherto obscure and curious
phenomenon of fused tests often found in the
Foraminifera, as in Vewrtularia foliwm, Patellina,
and Discorbina. This is due to the conjugation of
two or more individuals, whose nuclei are in a state
of rest, that is, not undergoing subdivision. Maupas
had already pointed out that by long-contimued
fission the lower forms of life were hable to weaken-
ing and final extinction, but by fusion of the proto-
plasm and contents the organism undergoes re-
juvenescence. The process of fission of the nucleus
has been termed Karyogamy, and the process of
fusion of the cytoplasts Plastogamy. Hartog defines
Plastogamy as the cytoplastic union of cells without

1¢Ueber Plastogamie bei Foram.,’ Svtz. Gesellsch. naturforsch.
Freunde, 1895, No. 10.

STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION 31

nuclear fusion. The plastogamic reproduction of
Discorbina is shown by Schaudinn to occur as
follows. The flat or inferior faces of the tests are
brought together with the apertures coinciding. ‘The
walls of the last formed chambers are sometimes
resorbed, and an enclosing shell made around the
space between the tests. Then follows the breaking
up of the nuclei, and the formation of embryonic
young, which speedily form their own investment
to the extent of two or three chambers before
breaking away from the enclosing shell.

32 THE FORAMINIFERA

CHAPTER IV
THE SHELL STRUCTURE OF THE FORAMINIFERA AND
THEIR PLANS OF GROWTH
Ir is due to the fact that the Foraminifera present
such an extensive variety of regular and beautiful
forms that their shells are so much in favour with

beginners in microscopy.

Fia. 18.

a, Test of Cristellaria crepidula (F. and M.); 0, siliceous internal cast of the
same species from ‘ flint-meal,’ Upper Chalk. Highly magnified. After Eley.

The plan of the shell is dependent upon the
arrangement of the continuously budded segments,
and this is partially determined by the form of
the primordial or initial chamber. It may be that of
a straight series of segments, gradually increasing

THE SHELL STRUCTURE

Co
W

in size, as in Nodosaria ; curved, as in Marginulina ;
or colled, as in Rotalia.

The shell is, as it were, moulded upon the
sarcode of the organism, and when we can obtain
a cast of the shell—and this often happens in the
case of the fossil Foraminifera—we have a perfect
representation of the form of the animal (figs.
Se. UO):

This feature of continuous segmentation of the

Fic. 19.—ANOMALINA AMMONOIDES (Rruss), Upper CHALK.
After Eley.

a, Shell; b, internal cast. Highly magnified.

body in the Foraminifera gave rise to the term Poly-
thalamia (many-chambered), which was applied to this
section of the order by Schultze. It will be seen subse-
quently (Chap. V.) how the early observers were misled
by the external form of the Foraminifera, which, in
spiral shells, such as Cristellaria and Polystomella,
resemble those of cephalopods, as Nawtilus and Spirula,
except that they are much more minute. The inter-
nal appearances of the shells of the two groups are,

D

34 THE FORAMINIFERA

however, fundamentally different. All the chambers
in the Foraminifera are occupied by the sarcode,
whilst the cephalopod molluscs inhabit only the
last chamber, leaving behind them in the earlier
chambers merely a stolon or siphuncle. There is
also another difference between the two groups, for
while the septal face in the Nautilus is concave
anteriorly, that in the foraminiferal shell is generally
convex.

All Foraminifera are not multilocular, for some
genera consist only of a smgle chamber at the most
advanced stage of growth, as, for example, the
chitinous form Gromia, or the calcareous Lagena.
These were referred to as Monothalamia (single-
chambered) in Schultze’s classification.

THE SHELL STRUCTURE.

The shells of the Foraminifera, although formed
by one of the simplest types of animal life, often
show quite a complex structure. The outer shell-
wall is non-tubulate only in the group of the
Porcellanea or Imperforata; but in all the sub-
divisions of the Foraminifera the septa dividing the
chambers are perforated by a tube or tubes called
stolon canals or passages (fig. 20), by which the
sarcode has free communication from chamber to
chamber, and which allows the passage of the nu-
cleus and other bodies contained within the proto-
plasm. ‘These perforations of the septal walls are
identical with the oral apertures seen on the last

THE SHELL STRUCTURE 30

septal face of a foraminifer, and they constitute
the external apertures of each chamber in succes-

Fig. 20.—MeEpDIAN SECTIONS OF FORAMINIFERA, SHOWING STOLON
PASSAGES THROUGH THE SEPTA.

,=Peneroplis, with imperforate shell-wall; B=Cristellaria, with perforate
shell-wall.

sion as the segmental buds are added to the growing
shell.
The stolon passages are, as may be supposed,

¥ - ————_—_-4

02000268 020

«
«
Ri
°

¢

¢

Fig. 21.
A, Apertures (a) on the septal face of Peneroplis pertusus.
B, Single aperture in Anomalina ariminensis.
more numerous in the imperforate group, which,
generally speaking, has a series of apertures, as in

p2

36 THE FORAMINIFERA

Peneroplis and Orbitolites; but are represented in
the perforate group usually by a single opening or
slit placed either on the inner or outer border of
the shell in curved and coiled forms (fig. 21).

The group of the Perforata, as the name sug-
gests, is distinguished by having a tubulated shell-
wall. The tubules vary greatly both in number and
also in diameter in the various genera. Usually
the number of tubules varies, according to their

Inne; DY, aye.

A=Coarse tubuli in the shell-wall of Carpenteria ; B=fine tubuli in Amphistegina.
Original.

size, In a proportionate manner; that 1s to say,
the coarsely tubulated shell-wall has tubules placed
at considerable intervals, whilst the finely perforate
types have the shell-wall crowded with them. Those
shells which have coarse tubules appear punctate
when the surface is examined with a lens; but
surface punctations are not always indicative of
tubulation. An example with coarse tubuli is Car-
penterva, in Which the perforations have a diameter
Ol ae mim: (Gis,

S)

22, a). The tubuh in Amphestegina

THE SHELL STRUCTURE 37

are very fine; they are about ‘Ol mm. in their
transverse section (fig. 22,8). Certain parts of the
shell are not tubulated in the hyaline or perforate
eroup, and these layers may be regarded as an
exogenous growth. This secondary structure is
found only in the higher types of foraminiferal
shells, and chiefly in those which have a double sep-
tum—that is, a complete and separate investment
to each segment, as in fotalia (fig. 23). It is seen

sy v ba VV
va “SN wae UI OS Ld
eS ain 4
Z Aa \\
SS / .\. \

Te WAN =
cc
a «€ P) “

Wy,
(i
| 1

Lig “{
7
bs

¢

NGI A
(jitalh) wi AL .

Fic. 23.—MeEp1an SEcTION oF Roratia BEccARII, SHOWING INTERSEPTAL
CANALS (int. ¢.), ExoGENOUS SHELL-LAYER (ex.), AND TUBULI
(t.). x 30. Original.

on the external part of the shell, filing up sutural
lines and umbilical depressions, and even forming
a thick superficial coating to the shell or internal
pillars, thereby adding greatly to the strength of
the shell-wall. This layer often imparts an orna-
mental aspect to the surface of the shell in the form
of beads or cones with the apices directed inwards,
and the convex bases exposed, as in Cycloclypeus

(fig. 24); or it may take the form of spurs and

38 THE FORAMINIFERA

processes, as in Calcarina and Tinoporus. This
exogenous shell layer, which was termed the in-
termediate or supplemental skeleton by Carpenter,
is usually accompanied by a secondary stoloniferous
system, called interseptal canals. Carpenter regarded
this structure as a residual one, resulting from the
imperfect junction of the septa and the supple-
mentary skeleton, thereby causing certain portions
of sarcode to be surrounded or partially cut off,
although, in many cases, communication is probably

Fic. 24.—ExTrERNAL LAYER IN CYCLOCLYPEUS CARPENTERI, SHOWING
Cones OF NON-TUBULAR SUBSTANCE IN THE ‘'TUBULATED
SHELL-WALL. Magnified. After Carpenter.

kept up for nutritive purposes between them and the

sarcode in the chambers of the shell.

THe SHELL TEXTURE.

There are two principal types of shell texture in
the Foraminifera, known as the porcellanous and
the hyaline, which are usually taken as fundamental
in classifying this order of animals. ‘Two other
prominent types of shell texture are also met with,

THE SHELL STRUCTURE 39

the arenaceous and the chitinous; but these occupy
a subsidiary place in the classification, for the genera
which they comprise have representatives also in the
hyaline and even the porcellanous groups.

1. Imperforata or Porcellanea.— This type of
shell is, as the first name implies, without perfora-
tions in the shell wall, and the emission of the sar-
code filaments (pseudopodia) is effected by the oral
aperture only. The appearance of the shell is of a
chalky white, generally glazed, and somewhat lke
porcelain. The shells, when seen by transmitted
light, either in thin sections or, in the case of thin-
shelled or young forms, when mounted in a medium
like Canada balsam, appear of a pale horn-brown
colour.

The mineral constituent of this type has long
been supposed to be carbonate of lime in the form
of aragonite. This appears from recent researches,
and from the author's own experiments, to be
extremely doubtful, and is more likely to be an
intermediate mineral condition in which the organic
element is intimately mixed with the mineral, and
probably corresponding with the new mineral species
Conchite. One powerful argument against the view
that the porcellanous shell is composed of aragonite,
which is a very unstable mineral, is the fact that
certain calcareo-argillaceous rocks of Carbo-Permian
age from Australia have recently been described,
which are largely made up of the tests of a wild-
growing or meandering form of Nubecularia in
which the shell texture is exactly comparable with

40 THE FORAMINIFERA

that of the recent porcellanous forms of the genus.
The group of the imperforata is chiefly comprised
within H. B. Brady’s family of the Minionipm.

2. Perforata or Hyalina—These forms have a
shell-wall which is perforated by minute tubes
that pass to the external surface of the shell.
The sarcode is extruded through these tubuli,
and more or less covers the outer surface of the
shell in the lving animal, breaking up into reticu-
lating and anastomosing pseudopodia; or in other
cases is extruded directly from the tubuli as fine
threadlike pseudopodia. The sarcode is also, as
in the previous group, extruded through the aper-
ture on the last septal face, and by other apertures
which may exist on the external surface, such as
the lateral series of perforations in Polystomella.
The shell texture of this group is usually trans-
parent and glassy, hence the term hyalina. The
shell itself is composed of carbonate of lime in the
form of calcite.

This group comprises the remainder of the
Foraminifera, with the exception of the families of
the Gromups, the Asrroruizip®, the Lrruonms, and
a part of the family of the TrexruLarmps.

3. Arenacea.—This group is distinguished from
the two previous in having a test not secreted by the
organism, but constructed by it from adventitious
particles picked up from its surroundings, and ce-
mented together by a modification of the sarcode
itself. In this respect it often resembles the curious
little cases formed by the caddis worm, as, for

THE SHELL STRUCTURE 41

example, in Rhizammina. ‘The material thus used
in building the test may be sand grains (volcanic
dust, quartz, calcareous, or glauconite grains), sponge
spicules, or even the small tests of other Foramini-
fera, as in the case of Rhizammina and Reophaw.
In the genus Carterina the organism, however, does
not rely on its surroundings for building material,
but itself secretes innumerable delicate little fusiform
spicules of a calcareous nature, with which to form
its test.

A noticeable feature of all arenaceous Fora-
minifera is the invariably smooth internal lining
to the test, which is glazed over with a film of
chitinous or sarcodic material; the exterior, how-
ever, may vary from the neatly cemented and
smooth-surfaced test of T’rochammuina to the coarsely
agelutinated covering of a Haplophragmium or a
heophax.

Many arenaceous species are isomorphous, as
regards external form, with species of other and
distinct groups, such as Haplophragmiuwm with
Anomalina, or Placopsilina with Nubecularia.

That the arenacea is not a true zoological group
is borne out by the fact that both arenaceous and
hyaline types of shell structure exist in the same
natural group or genus, as seen in Texrtularia or
Vernewilina.

The whole of the families of the Asrroruizipx, and
the Lirvotipm, and also a part of the Trxrunarmps,
have arenaceous tests.

4. Chitinous Forms.—The members of the family

42 THE FORAMINIFERA

Gromup# have no calcareous shell, but are chitinous
or horny in texture. ‘This particular kind of invest-
ment is also found in a few forms in the genus
Miliolina and in some usually arenaceous genera of
the family TexTuLarmp#.

Descriptive TERMINOLOGY.

Before proceeding to discuss the subject of the
various methods of growth in the foraminiferal shell

»SEPTAL LINES pao ER
eS é MARGIN

-- -\- SEPTAL FACE

. --APERTURE
- PERIPHERAL
* MARGIN

*- UMBILICUS ~~ “USEPTAL LINES

“SPIRAL SUTURE
Fic. 25.—AN INVOLUTE NAUTILOID FORAMINIFER, NONIONINA DEPRESSULA,
TO ILLUSTRATE THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE SHELL.

it will be- well to give a few of the terms used in
describing the parts of the shell and their relations
to one another. (See fig. 25.)

The outward indication of the septum is usually
either a ridge or depression—the septal line; some-
times the suture is flush with the shell surface, and is
then only recognised by a difference in its trans-
lucency.

The superficial area of the septum is called the
septal plane or septal face.

THE SHELL STRUCTURE 43

In the nautiloid forms the entire shell has two
lateral faces and a peripheral margin.

The septal plane has three angles, a peripheral
and two wmbilical angles.

Each segment has three margins, a posterior
(nearest the primordial chamber), an anterior (nearest
the oral aperture), and a peripheral.

In trochoid shells the surface on which the
primordial segment appears is termed the posterior or
superior surface, Whilst the opposite, usually flat side,
is the inferior surface.

In the nodosarian type the lateral aspect is that
seen when the shell is viewed lengthwise ; the oral
or anterior aspect being that seen when the ultimate
septal face is presented to view.

In compressed forms, as Lingulina, we speak of
the edge of the shell as its periphero-lateral aspect.

The two ends of the rectilineal shell are referred
to as the aboral (=proximal) extremity, and the oral
(=distal) extremity.

Pans oF GROWTH.

We have already seen that certain of the
Foraminifera, as Lagena and Gromia, are single-
chambered, which is the result of a complete
separation of the segments of sarcode, each having
a distinct shell. When, however, as is usually the
case, the sarcode body consists of many connected
segments, these are arranged according to a definite
plan or tendency inherent in the primordial and

tt THE FORAMINIFERA

early chambers; and the position of the aperture of
each chamber, which subsequently becomes a stolon
connection, determines the axial direction of growth
for the succession of chambers. <A lageniform
chamber with the aperture arranged centrally would
be followed by a rectilinear series of chambers, each
connected by a central stolon, and this would give
rise to a form lke Nodosaria.

There is every gradation between the rectilinear
and the spiral mode of growth, and an alteration in
the plan often occurs at a later stage of the growing
shell, some genera embracing the two kinds, as
Peneroplis, which in several of its species com-
mences with a spiral followed by a straight series of
chambers.

Spirally formed shells present many modifica-
~ tions, the simplest consisting of a coiled tube wound
on the same plane, as in Spurillina. Or the tube
may be wound in a conical manner, as in Lnvolutina.
Segmented spiral shells, when coiled in one plane, so
that in the peripheral aspect they are equilateral, are
termed nautiloid; when the shell is more or less
conical, the primordial chamber occupying the apex,
the shell is trochoid or turbinoid. The whorls in the
latter instance are only visible on one face, the
superior. The coils of the spiral may be either
evolute, as in Operculina, which has the whorls
entirely exposed on both surfaces, or involute, as in
Polystomella or Cristellaria, 11 which the shell is
covered up at each successive turn, usually only the
last whorl being visible. In the last-named genus,

PLANS OF GROWTH 45

when the specimen 1s megalospheric—that is, with a
large central chamber—there is a boss generally
visible at the umbilical centres of the shell, the
exterior of the megalosphere ; for this is usually left
uncovered by the involving series of chambers of
later growth. Sometimes the coiling of the shell is
rapid, and then there are few chambers to each
turn, as in Globigerina.

Leaving the forms which have a series of
chambers arranged along a single axis, we come to
the biserial forms, those which have two rows of
segments side by side, which are not connected
with each other on the same line of growth, but are
connected by stolons to the segments above and
below on the opposite side, as in Tertularia. Other
forms are in a similar manner arranged in three rows
(triserial), as in Trvtaria.

Another plan, the cychcal method of growth,
seems to be derived from the spiral, for both in
Orbitolites and Cycloclypeus the earlier segments show
a tendency to a spiral manner of growth, but this
soon changes into the concentric by the segments
budding, not on one side only, but all round, so as to
form a ring or annulus of chamberlets.

There are many other fundamental forms—for
instance where the axis has, so to speak, been
twisted during the growth of the shell, as in Buli-
mina. Others are represented not only by the
apparent twisting of the axis of growth, but also by a
folding and inrolling, which are represented by the
forms Cassidulina and Khrenbergina.

46 THE FORAMINIFERA

The plans of growth in the Foraminifera formed
the basis of D’Orbigny’s classification, and he
erouped the various forms in seven orders! (fig. 26).
These are given below, to afford an idea of the great
variation in the foraminiferal shell.

1. Monostres.—Body consisting of a single seg-
ment: shell of one chamber. Flask-shaped, as in
Lagena; spherical, as in Orbulina; cylindrical and
coiled, as in Cornuspira.

MONOSTEGA CYCLOSTEGA STICHOSTEGA

CYCLOCLYPEUS RO DeennIa :

LAGENA ORBULINA

HELICOSTEGA ENTOMOSTEGA ENALLOSTEGA AGATHISTEGA f

Bo Se

CRISTELLARIA DISCORBINA BULIMINA TEXTULARIA SPIROLOCULINA

MARGINULINA

Fic. 26.—D’ORBIGNY’S CLASSIFICATION OF THE JFORAMINIFERA,
ILLUSTRATED BY SELECTED TYPES.

9. CycLostEGA.—Body discoidal, composed of con-
centric lines of segments, simple or multiple, never
spiral. Examples: Orbitolites, Cycloclypeus.

3. SricHostEGa. — Body composed of segments
disposed in a single line. Shell consisting of a linear
series of chambers. Straight, asin Nodosaria ; curved,
as in Marginulina.

' Cours Elémentaire de Paléontologie et de Géologre Stratigraphique,
vol. ii. p. 189. Paris, 1852.

PLANS OF GROWTH 47

4. Hrnicostrca.—Body consisting of a spiral series
of segments. Shell made up of a number of convolu-
tions. The spiral may be either nautiloid (flat), as in
Cristellaria, or turbinoid (conical), as in Discorbina.

5. Entomosteca.—Body consisting of alternate
segments spirally arranged: shell chambers disposed
on two alternating axes forming a spiral. Example:

sulimind.

6. HnanLosteca.— Body composed of alternate
segments not forming a spiral; chambers arranged
on two or three axes which do not form a spiral.
Examples: Textularia, Bolivina.

7. AGATHISTEGA. — Body consisting of segments
wound round an axis: chambers arranged in a similar
manner, each investing half the entire circumference.
Examples: Biloculina, Miliolina.

Besides the foregoing types there is another
method of growth, which is provided for in Schultze’s
classification of the Rhizopoda, in which the segments
are arranged without any general plan, apparently
heaped together in an acervuline mass, as in Gyp-
sina.

Schultze’s classification is as follows :—

B. TESTACEA (including Foraminifera and
Arcellina).

1. MonoTHALAMIA

(= Monostega of D’Orbigny, and Arcellina).

48 THE FORAMINIFERA

2. PoLYTHALAMIA.

Cyclostega, D’Orb.
Helicostega, D’Orb.

A. Helicoidea = + Kntomostega, D’Orb.
Enallostega, D’Orb.
Agathistega, D’Orb.

B. Rhabdoidea = Stichostega, D’Orb.

Soroidea. Contains the genus Acervulina,

Schultze (= Gypsina).

The above classificatory schemes, based entirely
on external form, do not allow for those types of
Foraminifera which change their plan of growth once
or even twice during their development. For ex-
ample, Spiroplecta is at first of a nautiloid-spiral
form, then biserial, and afterwards uniserial, thus
possessing characters which belong to orders 4, 6, and
3 of D’Orbigny’s classification, in succession. Or
Hauerina, which is at first milioline and then plano-
spiral. Such complex forms are spoken of as dimor-
phous and trimorphous.’

Tsomorphism wn the Foraminifera.—When two or
more forms distinct in shell structure exhibit similar
external outlines they are said to be isomorphous.

As examples among the Genera of Foraminifera
the following may be quoted :—

1 These terms should not be confused with ‘dimorphic’ and ‘ dimor-
phism,’ which have a totally different meaning

PLANS OF GROWTH 49

PoRCELLANOUS.

Cornuspira
Peneroplis

Orbiculina
Orbitolites
Alveolina

HYAULINE.

Spirulina
Operculina
Heterostegina
Cycloclypeus
Fusulina

As examples amone Species the following are
8 YP! 5

given :—

PoRCELLANOUS.

Cornuspira
anvolvens
Nubecularia tibia

Peneroplis
cylindracea

HYALINE.

Sprrillina
vivipara
Nodosaria

pyrula

Cristellaria

elegans

ARENACEOUS.

Ammodiscus
incertus

Reophax
nodulosa

Haplophragmium
agglutinans

50 THE FORAMINIFERA

CHAPTER - V

THE IDEAS OF THE EARLY AUTHORS REGARDING THE
FORAMINIFERA

Ir will now be interesting to consider the various
ideas of the early writers concerning the nature of
Foraminifera ; and thus, by following the gradual
progress of thought which eliminates the erroneous,
we may more clearly see the. reasons for the con-
clusions arrived at up to the present time.

Very little seems to have been known about the
Foraminifera before the time of Linneus. ‘The dis-
coid (coin-shaped) form known as the nummulite,
and which largely constitutes some of the Hocene
limestones of Egypt and elsewhere, appears to have
first attracted attention, presumably on account of
its unusually large size. Probably the first writer
who noticed them was Strabo, who mentions their
resemblance to lentils; and, smce they were found
round the bases of the pyramids, they were fabulously
supposed to be the pulse-food dropped by the work-
men, which afterwards had become petrified.

Long after this many other observers gave de-
scriptions of Nummulites, notably Agricola in 1558 ;
Conrad Gesner in 1565; Scheuchzer in 1697-8, who
described them as ‘Lentes lapidez striate, We. ;
Edward Lhuyd in 1699; and Brueckmann in 1727,

IDEAS OF THE EARLY AUTHORS 51

who gave a good figure of his ‘lapidus numismalis,’
which is a fine example of Nuwmimalites complanata.

One of the first naturalists to notice the minuter
Foraminifera which are so frequent in shore sands and
the later Tertiary deposits was Beccarius (J. Beceari),
who, in 1731, described the various minute shells he
found in the yellow Pliocene sands near Bologna.
Beccarius also mentions the shore sand of Rimini, on
the Adriatic coast, a locality which afterwards yielded
many interesting specimens to another observer,
Janus Plancus (Giovanni Bianchi), who published
his well-known memoir in 1739, on the minute shells
from the shore sand at Rimini. In this collection
there are many characteristic Foraminifera, and they
are referred to generally as ‘ Cornua hammonis.’ The
figures which Plancus gave show that these forms
belong to the genera Nodosaria, Cristellaria, Rotalia,
and Polystomella. Some of Plancus’s specimens were
evidently derived from, or washed out of, the Tertiary
clay cliffs near at hand.

The early observers, it should be noted, classed
the minute shells of the Foraminifera with the
Nautilus and Serpule, under the supposition that
they were small individuals of the larger marine
shells.

The figures and descriptions given by Plancus
(1739), Gualtieri (1742), and Ledermiiller (1760-68)
were assigned specific names by Linnieus in the 12th
edition of his ‘Systema Nature’ (1766-67), and in
Gmelin’s edition of the same work (1788-93) the

E 2

59 THE FORAMINIFERA

forms given by Spengler (1781) and Schroter (1793)
were included.

Another observer, Soldani (1780-98), described
a large number of recent and fossil forms from the
shores of the Mediterranean, but he did not adopt
the binomial nomenclature of Linnzus’s system.

The work written by Walker, Jacob, and Boys on
the minute shells from the sand of Sandwich Bay
(1784) made us familiar with the ordinary British
species of Foraminifera, but they were still referred
to such genera as Nautilus and Serpula.

Montagu, in the ‘Testacea Britannica’ (1803),
also retained these generic names for the ordinary
coiled and straight forms, whilst Fichtel and Moll
(1798) published an important memoir on the coiled
shells which they included in the genus Nautilus.

In his ‘Cours de Zoologie’ Lamarck, in 1812,
referred the Foraminifera either to the group of
molluscs known as Cephalopods or to the Corals,
according to the external appearance of the shell.
The genera established by Lamarck in this work are
among the most important now in general use, as
Nodosaria, Cristellaria, and Rotalia, although the
zoological position they were then thought to occupy
is incorrect.

De Montfort (1808), De Blainville, and Defrance
(1816) figured and specified many new forms, but
they also retained the old idea of grouping them with
the Cephalopods and other organisms higher in type
of structure than the Protozoa. A great advance,
however, was made by A. D. d’Orbigny in his sys-

IDEAS OF THE EARLY AUTHORS 53

tematic view of the class Cephalopoda (1826), in
which he separates the Foraminifera from the rest of
the group.' D’Orbigny divided the class Cephalopodes
as follows: Order I., Cryptodibranches; Order ILI.,
Siphoniféres ; Order III., Foraminiféres. The last-
named order was distinguished by having a cham-
bered shell, with communications between them by
means of holes or foramina in the septa. Hence the
name foraminrrerA (hole-bearers). The foramina
are in reality the stolon passages between the cham-
bers, and not the tubules or perforations of the outer
shell wall, as is sometimes mistakenly asserted, which
are only characteristic of one of the divisions of the
Foraminifera. This distinction will be seen on
reference to fig. 20.

Various other names, such as 'T'REMATOPHORES,
PonyrHanamtia, and T'HanamMopuHora, have been used for
designating this group, but the term ForaminirEra
has obtained the widest acceptance among natu-
ralists.

Finally, to Dujardin (1835) the credit is due for
conclusively proving that the Foraminifera are not
cephalopodous molluses, but that they are of much
lower organisation, and that their relationship is
with the Rhizopoda.

Since that time Ehrenberg, Williamson, Car-
penter, Carter, Parker, and Rupert Jones, as the
pioneers in the discovery of facts concerning this
important group of animals, have been followed by a

" See ‘ Tableau Méthodique de la Classe des Céphalopodes,’ in Annales
des Sciences Naturelles, vol. vii. p. 245.

54. THE FORAMINIFERA

large number of enthusiastic workers. There yet
remains, however, much to be accomplished in the
elucidation of the life history of the Foraminifera, as
well as in making careful observations regarding
their distribution in time and space.

Or
or

CHAPTER VI

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE FORAMINIFERA

Every classification is more or less artificial and
imperfect, and this must especially be the case with
a variable order of animals lke the Foraminifera.
It is inconceivable that any type of animal life
underwent a series of changes in any direct line for
very long, without interference from dissimilar influ-
ences, the stronger prevailing; and thus a devious
path would be tracked out, defying all our attempts
to place certain groups in definite order or sequence
with regard to others. Instead of a gradually
branching phylogenetic tree we should, to be accu-
rate, have to make an arrangement taking the form
of a net, in which the species were represented by
the knots which unite the threads, the latter standing
for the series of intermediate forms connecting the
species. <A difficulty would arise in determining
where the knots were to be placed—that is to say,
what were the types to be retained as such—and the
extent of the connecting threads.

The division into genera and species is the
outcome of a selection of what the systematist is
pleased to regard as types, whilst the intermediate
conditions are either considered as varietal or, what
is more often the case, ignored altogether. It is

56 THE FORAMINIFERA

possible to take a large series of a common form from
one locality and to arrange it gradationally. By this
means we can sometimes determine that the two
extremities of the series have as high a specific value
as many so-called species which occur but rarely. If
this can be demonstrated with a series of specimens
from a single locality, it is easy to conceive what an
enormous variation obtains with regard to what we
imagine to be a specific type over the whole of the
faunal area. Although this is true of many of the
Foraminifera, there are numerous type forms which
are well worthy of a specific name, for they present
marked characters of their own, and have shown
persistent characters throughout many successive
eeological ages.

Notwithstanding all that has been written against
the principle of using the character of shell-texture
as a prime factor in the classification of the Fora-
minifera, this method has very much to recommend
it; and it also, besides its convenience, possesses
some merits for being a natural arrangement, so far
as it brings together certain tribes and types which
are clearly related to one another, even if they have
not emanated from the same prototype.

The classification of H. B. Brady (1884) is based
on the earlier systems of Reuss (1861), Carpenter,
Parker, and Jones (1862), and of Rupert Jones (1876).
The chief differences in Brady’s classification are the
amalgamation of the families and the institution of
sub-families; the creation of a new family, the
AsrrorHizip®, which received large accessions by the

CLASSIFICATION 57

examination of the rich collections dredged by the
‘Challenger ;’ and the removal of the Trxrunarimpa
and the Burminima to a separate family, the Trxru-
LARUDs. ‘The retention of this latter group would
seem to throw doubt on the utility of regarding differ-
ences of shell structure as a canon of classification,
since this family contains examples of both types of
structure, the arenaceous and the hyaline. There is
also another weakness in the arrangement, which has
been lately emphasised by Continental systematists,
as Himer and Fickert, and was also remarked upon
by Brady himself—namely, the presence, in the family
of the Lirvonins, of numerous arenaceous isomorphs
of the hyaline forms. |

But, with the exception of these perhaps unavoid-
able discrepancies, Brady’s classification has the
merit of being quickly and easily understood by the
student of Foraminifera, and it certainly holds the
field in point of the number of writers who still make
use of it.

It will be useful, however, to insert at this place
three of the latest classifications of Foraminifera.

Dr. Biitschli (1880) divides the Rhizopoda, as did
Max Schultze, into two sub-orders, Am@bea (Nuda,
Schultze) and Testacea.

Testacea, M. Schultze. (Lhalamophora, R. Hertwig.)

A. Tribe.—Inurrrrorata, Carpenter.

Family 1. Arcellina, Khrenberg.
» 2 Huglyphina, Bitschli.

58 THE FORAMINIFERA

Family 3. Gromiina, Bitschlhi.
» 4 Amphistomina, Bitschhi.
5. Miliolidina (Miliolidea Reuss, + pars
Lituolidarum).
» 6. Peneroplidina, Reuss.
7. Orbitolitina (Orbitulitidea, Reuss).
Arenacea, Biitschli.

2)

Ss
@
:

B. Tribe.—Prrrorata, Carpenter + pars
Lituolidarum.
Family 1. Rhabdoina, Schultze.
» 2 Polymorphinina, Biitschh.
3. Globigerinina, Carpenter.
Sub-family (a) Globigerine, Carp.

9

a (b) Cryptostegia, Reuss.
55 (c) Textularide, Carp.
: (dq) Rotalne, Carp.

Fanuly 4. Nummulitine (Nummulinida, Carpenter),
emend. Biitschh.
Sub-family (a) Involutine, Biitschh.

aa (0) Pullenine, Biitschh.

> (c) Nummultide.

Fa (7) Fusulinide, Moller.

' (e) Cycloclypide, Biitschhi.

The difficulty in accepting this system, although
the external form has been carefully considered, les
in the fact that in the same family such distinct types
as the Textularids and the Rotalines are associated,
and which have very little in common as regards the
minute structure of the shell-wall. The same may
also be said for the fourth family of this arrangement.

CLASSIFICATION 59

Neumayr’s classification (1887) recognises three
main groups, namely, the irregularly formed arena-
ceous types (Astrorhizids); the regularly formed
arenaceous types; and the calcareous types. The
Ynd and 3rd groups are again divided into two
parallel and isomorphous series which comprise the
following fundamental types: A, Cornuspira; B,
Textularia; C, Lituolg; D, Fusulina.

In 1895 Dr. L. Rhumbler published his ‘ Entwurf
eines natiirlichen Systems der Thalamophoren.’ He
divides the group into ten Famihes, and by a diagram
points out a probable evolution of types from simple
arenaceous tubes to the highly differentiated Rotaline
shell-structure.

The Families are numbered in the following
order :—

1. Rhabdamminide. 6. Orbitolitidee.
a

2. Ammodiscide. Textularide.

3. Spirillinide. 8. Nodosaride |) Lage-
4, Nodosinellide. 9. Endothyride ) nine.
5. Miliolinidee. 10. Rotalidee.

Rhumbler considers that the Lagenine were
derived from the nodosarine type of shell by a
permanent separation of the chambers.

Himer and Fickert (1899) have published an
elaborate and well-illustrated treatise on the mor-
phology and relationship in the Foraminifera,’ and
propose a new classification of the group. There are
many strong points in this scheme which deserve

'<Die Artbildung und Verwandtschaft bei den Foraminiferen,’
Tiibinger Zoologische Arbeiten, Band ui. No. 6. 1899.

60 THE FORAMINIFERA

careful consideration, suchas the grouping together of
genera which are morphologically similar, but which
have differences of shell-structure. According to
these authors the shell-structure should be subordi-
nated to the form and manner of segmentation in
the animal, and this 1s in accordance with accepted
zoological principles. They divide the Foraminifera
into as many as thirty-seven families. To give an
example of the method used in classifying the group,
the Tribe Stichostegia (Kimer and Fickert) is divided
into, A, PSAMMATOSTICHOSTEGIA, Including the Families
HypERAMMINIDA (genera Hyperammina, Reophax, and
Hormosina) and ASCHEMONELLIDE (genera A schemo-
nella and Ramulina): B, TITANOSTICHOSTEGIA, repre-
sented by the Family Noposarupm and genus
Nodosaria. In division A the test is arenaceous, and
in B it is calcareous. There is, however, no apparent
reason given for including Ramulina in Division A,
since it is essentially calcareous. Very diverse forms
are here brought together, such as Cristellaria, Cas-
sidulina, and Sagraina, which are morphologically
distinct.

The relationship of the different types of form in
Foraminifera is so complex and interwoven that,
from whatever standpoint we may approach the
subject, we are certain to meet with numerous
difficulties which prevent our making a satisfactory
classification. We may expect a more hopeful state
of things when further ight has been thrown upon
the relation of environment to shell structure, and
dimorphism to specific forms.

CLASSIFICATION 61

Meanwhile we are perforce necessitated to accept
a simple and ready, although more or less artificial,
system, such as that used by H. B. Brady in his
Report on the ‘ Challenger’ Foraminifera.

The idea has lately been advanced by certain
authors that the earlier types of Foraminifera were
probably simple straight sandy tubes, without
partitions, followed by coiled and segmented or
chambered tests, and subsequently in later times by
a secreted shell of a calcareous nature. Detailed
observation, however, often refutes the best formu-
lated ideas, and it appears to have done so in this
case. Recent researches in the Cambrian Rocks of
New Brunswick and England have resulted in the
discovery of the following among other generic
types: Lagena, Nodosaria (including Glandulina),
Cristellaria, Globigerina, and Spirilina. All of these
forms have well-developed shell structures of a cal-
careous nature. With regard to the forms with
arenaceous tests, on the other hand, we find no evi-
dence of these until we reach the Upper Silurian
deposits, when we meet with Hyperammuna, and the
calcareo-arenaceous genus Stacheia.

The classification which will be followed in the
succeeding pages of this book is that which has been
eradually evolved principally by the British school of
Rhizopodists—Wallich, Parker and Jones, Carpenter
and H. B. Brady—and which has been largely
emended and added to by the last-named author.’
With regard to the utility of this simpler method of

' See Report Challenger, vol. ix. ‘ Zoology,’ 1884, pp. 60-76.

62 THE FORAMINIFERA

classifying the Foraminifera by the selection of
central types, Brady says: ‘The study of the
Foraminifera as assemblages of forms grouped round
a comparatively small number of central or typical —
species, as advocated by Carpenter and his colleagues,
is, | am convinced, the only means of arriving at a
correct understanding of the biological relations of
the group; but this mode of treatment, whilst
determining the general lines of classification,
furnishes no direct basis for the construction of a
synopsis suited to the requirements of the systematic
zoologist. The scheme which I now venture to
propose differs in many respects somewhat widely
from that foreshadowed by the authors referred to,
but in its essential elements there is little or nothing
that is incompatible with the conclusions they have
so ably expounded; and I have the satisfaction of
knowing that it has their general approval. Every
attempt to arrange in single series a class of
organisms of which the constituent groups are apt to
run in parallel lines, or even sometimes to form,
morphologically speaking, independent circlets, is of
necessity open to objection at one point or other;
and the aim of the systematist 1s well attained if the
anomalies and inconsistencies are slight, and are
confined to matters of small zoological importance.’!

Sub-kingdom— PROTOZOA.
Class—Ruizopopa.
Order—Loraminifera (Keticularia).

' See Report Challenger, vol. ix. ‘ Zoology,’ 1884, p. 58.

CLASSIFICATION 63

Family I.—GROMITID A.

Division A.—Aperture single, terminal. Genera—-
Lieberkuehnia, Mikrogromia, Gromia, Diaphoropodon.
Division B.—With mouth at each end of test.

Genera—Shepheardella, Amphitrema.

Fanuily I1—MILIO“LID AA.

Sub-family 1.—NvBEcuLaRun®.

Genera—Squamulina, Calcituba, Nubecularia.

Sab-family 2.—-MInIoLInIn®.
Genera—Bbiloculina, Fabularia, Spiroloculina,
Mihiolina (sub-genera—Dillina, Triloculina, Tril-
lina, Quinqueloculina, Pentellina, Idalina, Adelosina,

Periloculina, Massilina, Heterillina, Sigmoitlina).

Sub-family 3.—HAvERINIn®.
Genera — Articulina, Vertebralina, Ophthal-
nudium, Hauerina, Planisprrina.
Sub-family 4.—-PENEROPLIDIN ®.
Genera—Cornuspira, Peneroplis (saub-genera—
Monalysidiwm, Archiacina), Orbiculina (sub-genus—
Meandropsina), Orbitolites.

Swb-family 5.—ALVEOLININ #.

Genera —Alveolina (sub-genus—F'losculina), La-
cazZInd.
Sub-family 6.—KERAMOSPHERINE.

Genus—Ieramosphera.

64 THE FORAMINIFERA

Family III.—ASTRORHIZID AL.

Sub-family 1.—AStTRORHIZIN”!.
Genera—A strorhiza, Pelosina, Storthosphera,
Dendrophrya, Syringammina.

Sub-family 2.—PmvuLinine&.

Genera

Pilulina, Technitella, Rhaphidoscene,
Bathysiphon. .

Sub-fanily 3.—SaccaMMININ#.

Genera—Psammosphera, Sorosphera, Saccam-
mind.
Sub-family 4.—RHABDAMMININ®.

Genera—Jaculella, Hyperammina, Marsipella,
Rhabdammina, Aschemonella, Rhizammina, Sa-
genina, Botellina, Haliphysema.

Family IV—LITUOLIDA.
Sub-family 1.—Lrrvoiine.

Division A.—Non-labyrinthic tests. Genera—
Reophax, Haplophragmium (sub-genus—Coskinolina),
Placopsilina, Crithionina, Verrucina.

Division 6.—Chambers labyrinthic. Genera
Haplostiche, Lituola, Bdelloidina, Haddoma, Poly-

phragma.

Sub-fanily 2.—TROCHAMMININE.
Genera—Thurammina (sub-genus—Thurammin-
opsis), Hippocrepina, Hormosina, Ammodiscus,
Trochammina, Carterina, Webbina.

CLASSIFICATION 65

Sub-fanmily 3.—HNDOTHYRIN®.
Genera—Nodosinella, Stacheia, Involutina, Orbi-
tolina, Conulites, Endothyra (sub-genera—Bbradyina,
Cribrospira).
Sub-family 4.—Lortustne.

Genera—Cyclammina, Loftusia.

Fanily V—TEXTULARITIDA.
Sub-fanily 1.—TExtTuLarine.
Genera — Textularia, Cuneolina, Verneuilina,
Tritaxia, Chrysalidina, Bigenerina (sub-genus—
Stphogenerina), Pavonina, Spiroplecta, Gaudryina,
Valvulina, Clavulina.
Sub-family 2.—BvuLIMININ”.
Genera—Bbulimina, Virgulina, Bifarina, Bolivina,
Mimosina, Pleurostomella.
Sub-famely 3.—CassIDULININe.
Genera—Cassidulina (sub-genus—Orthoplecta),
Ehrenbergina.

Family VI.—MCHEILOSTOMELLIDA:.
Genera—Ellipsoidina, Cheilostomella, Seabrookia,
Allomorphina.
Family VIT.—LAGENIDA4.

Sub-family 1—Lacenine.

Genus—Lagena.

66 THE FORAMINIFERA

Sub-family 2.—N oposarune.

Genera — Nodosaria (sub-genera — Glandulina,
Dentalina), Lingulina, Frondicularia, Rhabdogonium,
Marginulina, Vaginulina, Rimulina, Cristellaria.

Dimorphous genera—Amphicoryne, Lingulin-
opsis, Flabellina, Amphimorphina, Dentalinopsis.

Sub-family 3.—PoLyMoRPHININ®.

Genera—Polymorphina : dimorphous form, Di-

morphina. Uvigerina: dimorphous form, Sagraina.
Swb-family 4.—RaMuLinine.

Genera—Ramulina, Vitriwebbina.

Family VITI.—GLOBIGERINIDAL.

Genera — Globigerina, Orbulina, Hastigerina,

Pullenia, Spheroidina, Candeina.

Family IX.—ROTALITD A.
Sub-family 1.—SPIRILLININE.
Genus—Spirillina.
Sub-family 2.—Roranne.

Genera—Patellina, Cymbalopora (sub-genus—
Tretomphalus), Discorbina, Planorbulina, Trawn-
catulina, Anomalina, Carpenteria, Rupertia, Pulvin-
ulina, Rotalia, Calcarina.

Sub-family 3.—'TINOPORINE.

Tinoporus, Gypsina, Muiogypsina,

Genera
Polytrema.

CLASSIFICATION 67

Famly X.—NUMMULINIDAi.
Sub-family 1.—Fusuninin 2.
Genera—Iusulina — (sub-genera—Henufusulina,
Fusulinella), Schwagerina.
Sub-family 2.—PoLystToMELLIN®.
Genera—Nonionina, Polystomella (sub-genus—
Faujasina).
Sub-family 3.—NUMMULITINE.
Genera—A rchediscus, Amphistegina, Operculina,
Heterostegina, Nummutlites, Assilina.
Sub-family 4.—CyYcLochyPEIn ®.

Genera—Cycloclypeus, Orbitoides (sub-genera—
Discocyclina, Lepidocyclina).

68 THE FORAMINIFERA

CENP DR, Wall
THE FAMILY GROMIILDA

Tue characteristics of the test in the Gromup are
a chitinous or skinlike investment, without super-
ficial perforations, and with an aperture for the
emission of sarcode either at one end of the test
(Section A) or at both ends (Section B). The invest-
ment is either thin and closely adherent to the body
of the animal, as in Lieberkwehnia, or more rigid, as
in Gromia. In the latter genus it forms a distinct
test, whilst in the former genus the covering or mem-
brane alters its shape in accordance with the changes
in the shape of the body of the animal. The colour
of the investment in this family ranges from hyaline
to yellowish or light brown, and it is sometimes
encrusted with adventitious particles, such as sand
erains or diatoms.

Many of the lobose and filose kinds of Protozoa
are closely allied to members of this family, such as
Difflugia and Huglypha, and the only difference
between them, which at the best is slight, is the
habit and form of the extended pseudopods, which in
the Foraminifera are characterised by thei fine
threadlike and anastomosing characters.

No Fossil representatives.

THE FAMILY GROMIIDA 69

Section A.—GENERA IN WHICH THE APERTURE IS SINGLE
AND TERMINAL.

Ineberkwehnia, CLAPAREDE and LAcHMANN.

Test rather large, ovate or pyriform, with the
mouth in a depression at the middle of the broad
end, which is more or less four-lobed. Circulation of
protoplasmic granules rapid.

ExampLe.—L. Wagenert, Clap. and Lachm., * Mém.
Inst. Nat. Génevois,’ vol. xvi. 1859, p. 465, pl. xxiv.
Habitat, fresh-water ponds in Germany. (Plate 1,
ike Np)

Mikrogromia, R. Herrwie.

Test minute, ovate ; somewhat bilateral, owing to
the one-sided position of the produced collar-like
mouth. Cavity of the test only partially filled.
Pseudopodia given off from an oral column. Often
found in colonies.

ExampLe.—WM. socialis, Archer sp. (Gromia socia-
las), archer, “Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.” N.S., vol. 1x.
1869, p. 27, pl. xx. figs. 7-11. See also ‘ Ueber Mikro-
gromia,’ by R. Hertwig, ‘Arch. Mikr. Anat.’ vol. x.
1874, supplement, vol. 1. Habitat, fresh water.
Diameter of separate tests, ‘015 to ‘025mm. (Plate 1,
fig. B.)

Gromia, Dusarpin.

Test large, ovate or rounded, symmetrical in form,
flexible. Mouth terminal; pseudopodia much reticu-
lated. Possessing one or more nuclei; contractile
vacuole often wanting.

70 THE FORAMINIFERA

Species of this genus are sometimes found in
fresh water, and sometimes are marine.

EXAMPLES FRoM FrEsH Water. —G. fluviatilis, Du-
jardin, ‘ Hist. Nat. Zooph. Infusoires,’ 1841, p. 255,
pl. i. fig. 17; pl. un. fig. 182. This species measures
from ‘09 to:25mm.in breadth. Found upon Cerato-
phyllum, an aquatic plant growing in stagnant water.

G. hyalina, P. Schlumberger, ‘ Ann. Sci. Nat.,’
ser. 3, vol. ii. 1845, p. 255. This species has a
breadth of :03 to ‘05 mim.

Marine Hxampies.—G. oviformis, Dujardin, ‘ Ann.
Sci. Nat. Zool.,’ ser. 2, vol. iv. 1835, p. 345, pl. ix.
figs. 1,2. Measures 1 to 2mm.in length. Found
among marine plants. (Plate 1, fig. C.)

G. Dugardinii, Schultze, ‘Organismus Polythal.’
1854, p. 55.

Diaphoropodon, ARCHER.

Test large, ovate; built up of foreign bodies
(diatoms and the lke). Pseudopodia of two sorts ;
the one long, branching and arborescent, issuing from
the mouth; the other fine and hairlike, not reticu-
lated, springing from between the shell particles
(perhaps not true pseudopodia). Nucleus single,
large. Contractile vacuole present.

EixampLteE.—D. mobile, Archer, ‘Quart. Journ.
Micrs Sci. N-S:, vol; 1x. 1869; p. 394, pix eso,
and vol. x. 1870, p. 123. Habitat, fresh-water pools
in Ireland. (Plate 1, fig. D.)

THE FAMILY GROMIIDAi fea

Section B.—GENERA WITH APERTURES AT BOTH ENDS
OF THE TEST.

Shepheardella, SIDDALL.

Test hyaline, elongate, tubular, cylindrical or
flattened, ends shehtly tapering towards the aper-
tures. Nucleus large and complex.

Exampie.—s. teniformis, Siddall, ‘Quart. Journ.
Micr Scr, NS voli xx, 1880, p. 131. pl xv.
Habitat, marine, in shore pools, on marine alge.
(Plate 1, fig. H.)

Amphitrema, ARCHER.

Test more or less covered by foreign arenaceous
particles ; apertures at opposite ends of the test and
provided with a rimlike neck, giving off two tufts of
elongate, linear, branched, pellucid pseudopodia.

ExampLt.—A. Wrightianum, Archer, ‘ Quart.
Journ. Nicer. Ser, N.S: voll x 1870; p. 122) plo xx
figs. 4, 5. Habitat, fresh water, in boggy places,
Ireland. Length of test about -O05 mm. (Plate 1,
flO El.)

Genera sometimes referred to the Gromips :
~ Protogenes (by Claus) ; Lagynis (by Carpenter).

72

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1.

Lieberkuehnia Wagenert, Clap. and Lachm. Magnified
Mikrogromia socialis, Archer sp. x 200.

Gromia oviformis, Dujardin. x 25.

Diaphoropodon mobile, Archer. x 100.

Shepheardella teniformis, Siddall. Magnified.
Amphitrema Wrightianum, Archer. x 800.

PGA: a

GROMIID.

Famity I.

Fac - a:

ee peeks oni oe e<-. OV c-

=]

Or

CUELMESM aes WAUBL
THE FAMILY MILIOLIDAL

Tis very important division comprises the whole of
the porcellanous-shelled Foraminifera, and the tests
are further distinguished by their imperforate shell-
wall (sub-order Imperforata vel Porcellanea, Rupert
Jones).

They are divided by H. B. Brady into six sub-
families, more or less closely related to one another.

The characteristic features of the foraminiferal
shell in the family Minionm»® are as follows :—

‘Test imperforate ; normally calcareous and por-
cellaneous, sometimes encrusted with sand; under
starved conditions (e.g. in brackish water) becoming
chitinous or chitino-arenaceous ; at abyssal depths
occasionally consisting of a thin, homogeneous,
imperforate, siliceous film’ (H. B. Brady).

The shell wall of the miliolids is in nearly all
cases of a smooth texture and usually chalk-white in
appearance. In some examples, however, the surface
is pitted, reticulated, or furrowed, whilst others have
their surfaces encrusted with sand grains or shelly
particles. Young specimens are, as a rule, trans-
lucent and opalescent. ‘This latter appearance is a
marked character with the group, for on mounting a

76 THE FORAMINIFERA

fragment of almost any of the shells belonging to
this family in a transparent medium, like Canada
balsam, the white appearance gives place to a yel-
lowish brown or horn colour, and the absence of the
tiny tubules, which pierce the shell-wall of the
hyahne forms, will be at once noticed.

In discussing the various members of this family
it will presently be seen that this division of the
Foraminifera exhibits a great many types of shell-
building, and presents isomorphous analogues with
those of the other groups of the arenaceous and the
hyaline Foraminifera; and in fact are only dis-
tinguished from some other genera outside the family
by the imperforate and porcellanous nature of the
shell.

A certain degree of relationship with one another
may be found amongst the various genera belonging
to this family. The simplest types are those of the
genera Sguamulina, which has a single-chambered
plano-convex test, and Cornuspira, which forms
a non-septate tube coiled in one plane. Starting
from Squamulina, a series of such chambers joined
end to end gives rise to Nubecularia; or, if non-
septate and sending off radiating tubes, to a form
like Calcituba, an isomorph of the arenaceous genus
Astrorliza. In Squamulina again we may discover
relationship with certain wild-growing Milioline and
also with the subspherical but septate Nubecularia.

In the Minroniniw® the fundamental form may be
considered a globose segment, which afterwards, as
by a modification of a spiral tube hke Cornaspira,

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA ia

develops a coiled series, as Spiroloculina, plano-
spiral, but constricted and partially septate at
either end of its axis of elongation. The next step is
shown in Miliolina (vera), where the alternate series of
partially divided segments are not disposed in one plane
in their subspiral manner, but in the course of growth
are turned on the longer axis of the shell three or five
times in one complete revolution, as the case may be.
An apparently simple form, Biloculina, which exter-
nally appears to be a series of chambers placed
oppositely against the longer axis of the shell, is
evidently derived from the milioline form, since,
although its form A is constructed on this plan,
form B, with the microspheric chamber, commences in
many of the species, as Munier Chalmas and Schlum-
berger have shown, with a iilioline form of shell
of the quinqueloculine type—that is, having five
chambers in one whorl—and only takes on the
biloculine arrangement in the adult stage.

Labyrinthic modifications of the septate types of
shell growth are often found among the Foraminifera,
and Labularia is an istance of such in the Minions.
This genus resembles a Biloculina externally, but the
chambers within are subdivided by meandering parti-
tions of the secondary shell-growth.

The sub-families of the Milioline and the Penero-
plidine are connected by an annectent group, the
Hauerinine. The genera in this division resemble
Spiroloculine in the earlier part of the shell, in being
plano-spiral and septate, but they have their septa
arranged without regard to any ratio with the whorls,

78 THE FORAMINIFERA

and usually have more than two to each turn of the
shell. The later growth of the shell is sometimes
rectilinear, and, as in Articulina, may closely
resemble the extended forms of Nubecularia.

Peneroplis may have its origin in a simple form,
like Cornuspira, by its becoming septate. Peneroplis
exhibits a spiral series of chambers the septa of
which are numerously perforate, and the spiral
manner often changes in later growth to an elongate
straight series. The sub-genus Archiacina forms a
link with genera having a cyclical arrangement of
chambers by showing a tendency towards that plan
of growth in the last formed portion of the adult
shell.

-Peneroplis passes into Orbiculina by the sub-
division of its chambers into chamberlets by means
of vertical partitions connecting septum with sep-
tum. The last-named spirally formed genus, again,
forms a link with the discoidal shell of Orbctolites :
this genus possesses a subglobular primordial cham-
ber, and the succeeding chambers are distinctly
spiral, but usually quickly assume a cyclical (con-
centric) manner of growth, although in one species
at least a considerable part of the earlier shell is spiral.
The annular chambers in Orbitolites are always
subdivided into little subquadrate chamberlets, each
with its stolon aperture for the passage of the
sarcode into the neighbouring compartments. There
are often two, three, or even more tiers of annuli
superposed to form the entire shell, and these, in

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA

=~]
ite)

certain species, increase in number as the shell
developes.

The relationship of the foregoing group to the
Alveolinine is easily recognised when we conceive
the plan on which the test is formed. Like Orbi-
culina it is spiral, but instead of being compressed
laterally, as in that genus, the shell is often
enormously elongated on an axis passing through the
umbilical centres.

The last sub-family of the Keramospherine com-
pletes the series, in that it presents a modification of
the Orbitolites type by the fact of its having the
chamberlets arranged not in flat annuli, but in
a sphero-concentric manner.

Sub-family 1. NuUBECULARIINA.

This group is distinguished by the irregular a-
symmetrical form of the test, which is free or, perhaps
more often, adherent; with a variable aperture or
apertures, often rimmed in Nuwbecularia or otherwise
thickened with extra shell growth.

Genus Squamulina, SCHULTZE.

Test, a single inflated chamber, with aperture on
the convex surface. Recent.

Exampie.—S. levis, Schultze, Organismus poly-
pal 1854; p..56, pl. vr figs. 116, 17.

Found by Schultze adhering to the surface of
marine alge from Ancona. Longest diameter of test,
°O8 min.

80 THE FORAMINIFERA

Some little doubt has been thrown on the validity
of this genus as a separate type, some supposing it to
be a young nubecularian. Recent. (Plate 2, fig. A.)

Genus Calcituba, Roxsoz.

Test imperforate, normally adherent; consisting
of a series of irregular and lengthened chambers
more or less cylindrical, emanating from a central
trunk-like segment ; sometimes arranged radially, as
in Astrorhiza. Apertures numerous at the terminals
of the branches.

Exampie.—C. polymorpha, Roboz, ‘ Sitz. Ak. Wiss.
Wien,’ vol. Ixxxvili. 1883 (1884), p. 420, pl. —, figs.
1-16.

This, the only species of the genus, was discovered

by Roboz, attached to algw, in a marine aquarium in
the Institute of Gratz, supplied by material from the
Adriatic Sea.

The shape of the test in Calcituba polymorpha is
extremely variable and irregular, and it starts from a
young Miliolina-like segment which eventually forms
a kind of central core or trunk for the irregular off-
shoots of Nwbecularia-like chambers. <A section
through the median plane of the test shows the
chambers to be connected by a stoloniferous joint,
made by the neck of one chamber being thrust, as it
were, into the base of the succeeding chamber; in
this latter feature, and also in the presence of
numerous circular apertures to the offshoots of the
test, this form shows a decided relationship (morpho-
logically speaking) with the isomorphs Aschemonella

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA SL

(with an arenaceous test) and Ramulina (with a
hyaline test). A typical specimen of C. polymorpha
measures ‘*8 mm. in length. The lengths of the
chambers in two separate individuals were °242 mm.
and *269 mm. respectively, and their breadths -128
mim. and ‘095 mm.

This species is of especial interest on account
of the valuable physiological researches conducted
upon it by Schaudinn, in tracing the progressive
changes in the division of the nucleus. The affinity
of this genus is very closely connected with Nubecu-
laria itself, especially in those irregular and inflated
forms which have numerous apertures sporadically
placed on the surface of the test, such as Nwbecularia
Bradyi, Millett, and N. novorossica, Karrer and
Sinzow. Recent. (Plate 2, figs. B, C, D.)

Genus Nubecularia, DEFRANCE.

Test spiral, straight, or irregular; usually ad-
herent; septate. Surface often encrusted with sand.

The elongate adherent species are plentiful as
fossils in certain Liassic and Oolitic deposits, and
the coarse thick-walled forms constitute important
calcareous strata in the Miocene sands of South
Russia.

At the present day this genus is usually repre-
sented by species found almost restrictedly in the
shallow-water sands of tropical or warm areas, and
are rarely found in very deep water. Carbo-Permian
to Recent.

Examptes.—N. lucifuga, Defrance, ‘ Dict. Sci.

G

82 THE FORAMINIFERA

Nat.’ vol. xxxv. 1825, p. 210; “cAtlas »Zooply
ploxly. ie. 3.

This species is eenanley found adherent, but
sometimes free, and it is easily recognised by its
spirally arranged chambers, which are very irregular
in form compared with those of other species of this
family. N. lucifuga is quite common in certain
warm temperate areas, and is found in some abun-
dance in the beach sands of Palermo, Melbourne, and
off the coast of Tripoli. As a fossil it is known from
Tertiary beds in France, and a variety was recorded by
Howchin from the Carbo-Permian beds of Australia.
Carbo-Permian to Recent. (Plate 2, figs. HE and F.)

N. novorossica, var. nodula, Karrer and Sinzow,
‘Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,’ vol. lxxiv. Abth. 1, 1876
(1877), p. 281, pl. —, figs. 11-25.

The species named above, of which the variety
nodula is a many-apertured, agglomerated modifica-
tion, is a thick-walled nubecularian in its typical form,
but otherwise somewhat like N. lwczfuga in contour.
This and other varieties of N. novorossica occur in
ereat abundance in the Sarmatian Sands (Miocene)
of Kischenew, in Bessarabia. ‘They average 3 to 4
mm. in diameter. The writer has described a modi-
fication of this form as occurring in the Upper Chalk
of Taplow. Upper Cretaceous, Miocene. (Plate 2,
foe Ge)

N. tibia, Jones and Parker, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soe.’ vol. xvi. 1860, p. 455, pl. xx. figs. 48-51.

This species consists of an elongate series of ovate
or pyriform chainbers, and the test is either adherent

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDAL 83

or free. When attached, the form of the segments
is plano-convex, but when free they assume a
normal subcylindrical form. The commencement of
this species often has an arrangement of chambers
like that of Miliolina, by which it shows an affinity
with Articulina.

By an error in determining its source N. tibia has
often been quoted as a Triassic fossil. It first makes
its appearance in the Lias, where it often occurs in
company with N. lucifuga. In recent dredgings
N. tibia 1s a shallow-water organism. Las, Oolite,
Recent. (Plate 2, fig. 4.)?

Sub-family 2. Muntoninina.

Test coiled on an elongated axis, having two
chambers in each complete whorl, either opposed and
on a single plane of symmetry, or disposed at various
angles round the longer axis. Aperture alternately,
during growth, at either end of the shell.

Genus Biloculina, D’Orsteny.

The chambers are arranged in a single plane, the
last two only being visible. The internal structure
of the microspheric form often has a quinquelocu-
line commencement. The aperture is usually
crescentic, enclosing a valve-like projection, normally

' For references to other species of this genus and those that follow
consult Sherborn’s Index to the Genera and Species of the Foraminifera.
Only one or two important types of each genus can be given here, on
account of the limits of space.

84 THE FORAMINIFERA

T-shaped, on the inner surface of the shell. Las
to fecent.

Exampites.—B. comata, Brady, ‘ Rep.‘ Chall.””’ vol.
ix. 1884, p. 144, pl. ii. figs. 9 a, b.

This is a pretty, striated form of Brloculina,
which was brought to light by the ‘ Porcupme’ and
‘Challenger’ expeditions. It is rarely that we find
Biloculine with a surface ornamentation so well
marked as this, and the present species is also
striking on account of its fairly large dimensions.
It measures nearly 1 min. in length. B. comata
generally affects depths ranging from 300 to 600
fathoms. Recent. (Plate 2, figs. I and J.)

B. ringens, Lamarck sp. (Miliolites ringens),
‘Annales du Muséum,’ vol. v. 1804, p. 351, No. 1;
SOM evolsixs pl scviiegie ei

This is one of the earliest known species to such
pioneers as Soldani, who in 1795 described it under
the name of ‘Frumentaria Ovula.’ Lamarck, who
adopted the Linnean system of nomenclature, gave
it the name of Miliolites ringens, the generic name
being used at the time equally for the biloculine,
the triloculine, and the quinqueloculine — types.
B. ringens is a typical form of the genus, and
exhibits a medium inflation of the chambers,
B. depressa being narrower in section and JB.
bulloides more globose.

B. ringens makes its first appearance, so far as
we know, in the Tertiary beds (Middle Hocene) of
the Paris Basin, and it also occurs in strata of
Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene ages.

THE FAMILY MILIOLID/ 85

This species was met with in some abundance
in the deep-water area of the northern part of the
North Atlantic during the dredging operations by
Professor Sars, who found the bottom temperature
of the water nearly uniform, only varying from
32° F. to 34:9° F. between the depths of 300 and 2,000
fathoms. The mud from the bottom is a light-
coloured ooze, and was called Biloculina mud, since it
was supposed to be almost entirely formed of the
tests of Biloculine. This does not seem to be the
case, however, for it has been shown that after the
fine silt was washed away the Biloculine only
constituted 50 per cent. of the dried material.

Hocene to Recent. (Plate 2, figs. K and L.)

Genus Fabularia, DErrance.

The chambers are arranged in one plane, as in
Biloculina, but the chamber cavities are subdivided
or partitioned off into chamberlets and labyrinthulee
by shell projections and partitions, which results
in the sarcode having to occupy numerous little
channels throughout the shell, with perhaps the
exception of the earlier chambers, as shown by
Schlumberger in the case of the Miocene specimens.
The aperture is porous or cribrate (sieve-like).
Lower and Middle Hocene and Miocene.

Hxameie.—F’. discolithus, Defrance, ‘ Dict. Sci.
iNatieanvol. xvi. 1820; p. 103; “Atlas Zooph.; pl:
xlviii. fig. 5.

The genus is very restricted in its range and is
entirely fossil. It is best known by the above

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2.

Squamulina levis, Schultze. Magnified.
Caleituba polymorpha, Roboz. Typical specimen. — x 50,
Caleituba polymorpha, Roboz. Young shell. x 100.

Calcituba polymorpha, Roboz. Medium section of the shell,
passing through two chambers. « 150.

Nubecularia lucifuga, Defrance (after Brady). <A spiral form ;
superior aspect. x 10.

Nubecularia lucifuga, Defrance. Inferior (attached) surface.
S¢ INO)

Nubecularia novorossica, var. nodula, Karrer and Sinzow. x 5.
Nubecularia tibia, Jones and Parker. Magnified.

Biloculina comata, Brady. x 25.

Biloculina ringens, Lamarck sp. (after Brady). = 13.

Fabularia discolithus, Detrance (after Carpenter). 5

PLADE 2

Faminy Il. MILIOLIDA.

hh

-

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 89

species, which is found in some frequency in the
‘caleaire grossier’ (Middle Eocene) of the Paris
Basin. Externally FF. discolithus resembles a
laterally compressed Biloculina having a_ faintly
striate surface, but the porous nature of the aperture
reveals its internal labyrinthular or subdivided
character. It often attains to a considerable size,
sometimes as much as 6 mm. in length.

Two other species of Habularia are known, one,
closely related to the above form, Ff. Zitteli of
Schwager, which was found in beds in Egypt of
nearly similar age to those of the Paris Basin; and
another lately described from the Miocene beds of
Muddy Creek, Victoria, by Schlumberger, under the
name of L. Howchini.

Middle Hocene. (Plate, figs. M and N.)

Gunus Spiroloculina, D’Orsteny.

The chambers in the shells of the genus Spiro-
loculina are arranged in a single plane, and the
whole of them are visible on either side of the test.
The aperture is generally circular with a toothed or
T-shaped projection. Sometimes the aperture is
prolonged into a neck or sahent tube. This type is
usually characteristic of shallow-water faunas, both
in temperate and tropical areas, but one species,
S. tenwis, is found at various depths down to 2,750
fathoms. Carbo-Permian to Recent.

Exampies.—S. asperula, Karrer, ‘ Sitz. Ak. Wiss.
ren, vol. lvmi- bth e638) pe 136; pl. 1 ielO,

This species has a thin complanate shell, and

90 THE FORAMINIFERA

is encrusted with sand, which gives it a rough
appearance, as its name implies. It was. first
described as occurring in the Miocene of Kostej, in
the Banat, and it has since been found in the
Folkestone-Gault. At the present day it occurs in
shallow-water dredgings in the tropics. Lower
Lias to Recent. (Plate 3, figs. A, a.)

S. planulata, Lamarck sp. (Miliolites planulata),
‘Ann. Mus.’ vol. v. 1805, p. 352, No. 4; 1822,
‘Anim. sans Vert.’ vol. vii. p. 613, No. 4.

The chief features of this form are a simple
complanate and smooth-textured shell, with the
surface of the chambers not thickened at the suture
lines, as in some species, such as S. limbata and
S. wmpressa.

S. planulata is commonest in shallow water, and
as a fossil it seems to range from the Carbo-Pernuan
onward, if its occurrence in Tasmanian rocks can be
verified. (Plate 3, figs. B, 0.)

Genus Miliolina, Win.iaMson.

Chambers inequilateral, coiled round the long
axis of the shell, so that usually three or five are
visible externally, but sometimes as many as eight.
Aperture large and alternately occupying opposite
extremities of the shell, generally furnished with a
valve-like projection or tooth.

This important genus is usually well represented
in shallow-water sands around the shore lines and
coasts both of temperate and tropical countries, and
the genus was one of the first to be noticed by the

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA Sil

earliest workers on this group of animals. Las to
Recent.

Exampies.—M. (Adelosina) bicornis, Walker and
Jacob sp. (Serpula bicornis), Kanmacher’s edition of
Adams’s ‘Hssays on the Microscope,’ 1798, p. 633,
ple xivadig. 2:

A neat striate milioline form, fairly common in
shallow-water deposits, and very rarely found deeper
than 40 or 50 fathoms. It is a well-known British
species. Schlumberger has shown that this species
belongs to the type Adelosina of D’Orbigny, and that
it has a distinct standing of its own in regard to the
internal arrangement of the chambers—that is to
say, In the dimorphic form B Adelosina has its me-
geasphere completely enveloped by the first chamber,
which becomes lenticular. It afterwards passes
through the biloculine, triloculine, quadriloculine,
and quinqueloculine stages.

M. bicornis occurs in the fossil condition in the
Kocene of the Paris Basin and the London Clay, the
Miocene of Vienna and Muddy Creek (Victoria), and
in the Phocene of Italy, St. Hrth, and Suffolk.
Eocene to Recent. (Plate 3, fig. C.)

M. oblonga, Montagu sp. (Vermiculum oblongum),
@lestprit. 1803, ps, 022, ple xive ne. 9:

One of the commonest forms of the shallow-water
Milioline. It is distinguished by its lengthened
test, the chambers of which are inflated and smooth.
It exhibits sometimes three, sometimes five faces on
the exterior of the shell. M. oblonga is found fossil
in the Upper Chalk of Taplow, the London Clay, the

92 THE FORAMINIFERA

Miocene of Muddy Creek (Victoria), and the Phocene
of St. Erth, of Suffolk, and Italy. Upper Cretaceous
to Recent. (Plate 3, fig. D.)

M. (Quingqueloculina) seminulum, Linné - sp.
(Serpula seminulum), “Syst. Nat.’ 1758, ed. =.
p. (865 Gmelines (an )\jed. 17/838, pp. aij.39.

This is one of the Milioline which shows portions
of five chambers on the surface of the shell (hence
Quinqueloculina). Itis generally looked upon as a
central type of the group, and it is one of the most
widely distributed of the family, both as to locality
and depth ; regarding the latter it is found down to
3,000 fathoms. M. seminaulum was one of the earliest
figured species of the genus, and was formerly
described as a serpula, on account of its contorted
and wormlike appearance, although, comparatively
speaking, of very minute size. This species ranges as
a fossil from the Lower Hocene upwards. (Plate 3,
figis- Hy es)

The genera, or rather sub-genera, established by
Munier Chalmas and Schlumberger by means of their
work upon the internal appearance of the test in
transverse section of the megalospheric form are as
follows :—

Dillina, Triloculina, Trillina, Quinqueloculina,
Pentellina, Idalina, Adelosina, Periloculina, Massi-
lina, Heterillina, Sigmoilina.

Thus, for example, Massilina is distinguished by
having a quinqueloculine arrangement of chambers
surrounding the megasphere, which are followed by
a series of chambers disposed in one or two planes,

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 93

as In a Spiroloculina, or two of the same intersecting
in different planes.

In Stgmoitlina the chambers are arranged alter-
nately at both poles of the megasphere, with a
centrifugal or rotary twist of growth, so that a
transverse section of the test shows the chambers
grouped in sigmoidal fashion. Usually there is
an extensive deposit of shell substance round each
chamber-wall. (See Plate 3, figs. K, 4.)

Sub-family 3. HaAvERININ®.

The test in this group is dimorphous—that is,
exhibiting two different plans of growth at different
stages of the shell-development. The chambers are
partly milioline and partly spiral or rectilinear.

Genus Articulina, D’OrBIeNY.

The shell commences with a miloline series of
chambers, afterwards followed by a straight series.
Lower Hocene to Recent.

Exampie.—A. Sagra, D’Orbigny, De la Sagra’s
‘Hist. Physiq.’ &c., Cuba, 1839, ‘ Foraminiféres,’
p. 1838, pl. ix. figs. 23-26.

One of the interesting ornate forms, found chiefly
in the vicinity of coral reefs, as in the West Indies
and at the Fiji Islands. The early milioline
chambers are clearly seen in this species; the aper-
ture is a lengthened curved sht. Secent. (Plate 3,
fig. F.)

94

K, k.

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3.

Spiroloculina asperula, Karrer : a, peripheral aspect. 45.

Spiroloculina planulata, Lamarck: a, oral aspect (after Brady).
x 25.

Miliolina (Adelosina) bicornis, W. and J. sp. (after Brady.) x 25.

Miliolina oblonga, Montagu, sp. (after Brady). x 35.

Miliolina (Quingueloculina) seminulum, Linné sp.: e, oral aspect
(after Williamson). x 10.

Articulina Sagra, D’Orbigny. x 50.

Vertebralina striata, D’Orbigny (after Brady). x 35.
Ophthalnidium tumidulum. Brady. ~ 50.

Hauerina ornatissima, Karrer (after Brady). x 25,
Planispirina contraria, D’Orbigny sp. (after Brady). x 10.

Miliolina (Sigmoilina) celata, Costa sp.: k, trans. section of test.
(After Brady.) x 30.

PLATE 3.

MILIOLID (continued).

Faminy II.

a
4
7
‘
<
,
=
:
xt
~ —
.
i
. vy
=
.

7

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 97

Gemnus Vertebralina, D’Orsieny.

Karly chambers partly milioline and partly plano-

spiral, later segments in a straight series. Hocene to
recent.

Exampie.—V. striata, D’Orbigny, ‘ Ann. Sei. Nat.’
vol. vii. 1826, p. 283, No. 1; Modéle, No. 81.

The above species is often found in sponge sand
from the Mediterranean, and it is frequent in shallow
water round coral islands in the tropics.—Recent.

(Plate 3, fig. G.)

Genus Ophthalmidium, KGBLER.

Spiral and unconstricted at the commencement,
subsequently with two or more segments in each
whorl. Las to Recent.

ExampiE.—O. twmidulum, Brady, ‘ Rep. “ Chall.” ’
ol Ix. 1884p. 189, pl, xi. fg. 6.

This species was obtained by H.M.S. ‘ Challenger ’
from the West Indies at a depth of 390 fathoms.
An arenaceous isomorph of this form was found by
the writer in the Gault clay at Folkestone. — Recent.

(Plate 3, fig. H.)

Genus Hauerina, D’ORBIGNY.

Commencing with a mliolina-like series, after-
wards planospiral, with more than two segments in
each whorl. Cretaceous to Recent.

Exampne.—H. ornatissima, Karrer sp. (Quinque-
loculina ornatissima), ‘ Sitzangsb. Ak Wiss. Wien,’
vol. Iyiii. 1868, p. 151, pl. i. fig. 2.

H

98 THE FORAMINIFERA

This elegant little species was first described as a
fossil from the Miocene of the Banat. It is a well-
known form in the coral sands of tropical areas ; for
example, it is common at Funafuti, in the Pacific,
at depths ranging from 35 to 150 fathoms, whilst
at less depths it seems to be rare. Miocene and
Recent. (Plate 3, fig. I.)

Genus Planispirvina, SEGUENZA.

Chambers equitant, otherwise arranged as in
Hauerina ; the lateral alar prolongations of the latest
convolution enclosing the previous whorl. Tertiary
to Recent.

ExampLe.—P. contraria, D’Orbigny sp: (Biloculina
contraria), ‘ Foram. Fossiles de Vienne,’ 1846, p. 266,
pl. xvi. figs. 4-6.

In the earher part of the shell there are two
chambers in each whorl, which increase later to five
or six. ‘The walls of the chambers extend over the
lateral faces of the shell, asin the nummulite. For this
reason Stemmmann proposed the name Nwmmoloculina
for the genus, which, however, does not stand, since
Seguenza’s name is of earlier date. The range of
this species 1s from the Miocene to Recent. (Plate 3,
fig. J.)

Sub-family 4. PeNeROPLIDINE.

The test in this group is planospiral, or cyclical,
sometimes crozier-shaped, and bilaterally symme-
trical.

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 99

Genus Cornuspira, SCHULTZE.

Consists of a planospiral tube, which is un-
divided.

This genus is isomorphous with certain species of
the arenaceous genus Ammodiscus and the hyaline
genus Spirillina.

Cornuspira has been doubtfully recorded from the
Carbo-Permian of Tasmania. The recorded occur-
rences of the genus from Jurassic and Cretaceous
rocks are not satisfactory, for the specimens gene-
rally prove to be Ammodiscc on minute examination.
The genus is common, however, throughout Tertiary
fossiliferous strata to recent times.

Hxampie.—C. involvens, Reuss, ‘ Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss.
Wien,’ vol. xlvili. (Abth. 1), 1863 (1864), p. 39, pl. 1.
ne. 2.

This species is distinguished by the embracing
character of the whorls as they rest successively on
each in turn, as well as in the roundness of the tube.
In this latter feature it differs from C. foliacea, which
has a thin flattened shell. It is usually a shallow-
water form, but is sometimes found at considerable
depths. Tertiary to Recent. (Plate 4, fig. A.)

Genus Peneroplis, Monrrort.

Chambers undivided; arrangement either plano-
spiral throughout or spiral only at the commence-
ment, subsequently becoming rectilinear or cyclical.
Tertiary to Recent.

Exampies.— P. arietinus, Batsch sp. (Nautilus—

iW 2

100 THE FORAMINIFERA

Lituus—arietinus), ‘Conch. Seesandes,’ 1791, pl. vi.
hie Wa cr (tye)

This is a common form in the sand from the
shores of the Levant, and can often be obtained from
sponges. ‘This and other forms of the genus are so
nearly related that they are by some authors grouped
as a species under the collective type-name P.
pertusus. ‘The genus is commonly found at depths
of less than 30 fathoms. ecent. (PI. 4, figs. B, 0.)

P. planatus, Fichtel and Moll sp. (Nautilus
planaiis), Wests Mier? 1793, 1p: Oil ply save teal
nese

A broad complanate form with a striated surface.
The apertures are a single row of pores on the septal
face. Recent. (Plate 4, fig. C.)

The. sub-generic types which call for special
notice are Archiacina, Munier Chalmas, in which
the test is of the P. planatus type, but the later
chambers tend to a cyclical arrangement ; and Mona-
lysidium, Chapman, which includes the delicate-
shelled forms, such as those of the P. /ituus type, and
the recent form Monalysidium Sollasi. (Plate 4,
rakes, 1D),)

Genus Orbiculina, Lamarck.

Chambers subdivided by transverse secondary
septa; early segments embracing; arrangement
either plano-spiral throughout or partly cyclical ;
contour nautiloid, auricular, crozier-shaped or com-
planate.

Exampnte.—O. adunca, Fichtel and Moll sp.

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 101

(Nawtilus), “Vest. Micr.’ 1798, pp. 112, 113, 115, pls.
XX1.—XXiil.

The single species of this genus is found com-
monly in the West Indies, the Red Sea, and the
Indian Ocean. It is found at moderate depths.
Miocene to Recent. (Plate 4, figs. H, e.)

The sub-generic type Meandropsina (Munier
Chalmas) has a test in which the median layer of
chamberlets is arranged as in Orbeculina, whilst
the outer layers are formed on the plan _ of
Orbitolites.

Genus Orbitolites, Lamarck.

Test discoidal, sometimes undulate or rarely
sinuous ; growth either spiral (non-embracing) just
at the commencement, or with one or more inflated
primordial chambers ; subsequently cyclical ; cham-
bers more or less regularly divided into chamberlets.
Upper Cretaceous to Recent.

Exampie.—O. complanata, Lamarck, ‘ Syst. Anim.
sans Vert.’ p. 376; Carpenter, ‘Phil. Trans.’ 1856,
p24; pls. 1v.-1x.

This is one of the best known species of Fora-
minifera, for they form a large proportion of the
calcareous sands which make the beaches, and assist
in the building up of the coral islands of the Pacific
and Indian Oceans. It 1s common in all tropical
and temperate seas, occurring abundantly in the
shallow-water sands.

O. complanata is the most complex species of the

102 THE FORAMINIFERA

genus, and in adult forms is composed of many
superposed layers of chamberlets, the number of the
layers increasing as the shell advances in growth.
Sometimes this species loses its regularly discoidal
contour and, growing attached to alge and other
marine objects, becomes more or less sinuous and
irregular.

Owing to the thinness of the wall of the primor-
dial segment, and to the fact that it usually
protrudes beyond the general surface of the test,
the specimens found in shore sands, where they are
exposed to weather action, are often found perforated
in the middle. The natives of coral islands often
take advantage of this, and select the larger speci-
mens (often half an inch or more across) to sew into
the native dresses for decorative purposes.

There is a large variety of O. complanata known
as variety plicata (Dana), or variety lacimata
(Brady), in which the edge of the disc is double and
is also frilled. This condition of the shell was
shown by H. B. Brady and other observers to
contain the megalospheric young of the species,
enclosed in large chamberlets arranged around the
periphery. ‘This particular variety is only found in
tropical areas, and usually in the neighbourhood of
coral reefs, in quite shallow water.

O. complanata apparently first appeared in the
Maestricht beds (Upper Cretaceous), and continued
on to the present day. (Plate 4, figs. F, f.)

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 103

Suwb-family 5. ALVEOLININA.

Test spiral, elongated in the line of the axis of
convolution, chambers divided into chamberlets.

Grnus Alveolina, DEFRANCE.

Test subglobular, elliptical, or fusiform; recent
species often with subdivided chamberlets. Cre-
taceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—A. Boscii, Defrance sp. (Oryzaria),
‘ Dict. Sci. Nat.’ vol. xvi. 1820, p. 104.

The chamberlets in this species are often sub-
divided by horizontal partitions, which give rise to a
complex series of pores, appearing externally along
the septal plane of the test. This species seems
restricted to shallow water, being rarely found deeper
than 30 fathoms. Middle Hocene to Recent. (Plate
4, figs. G, 4.)

The sub-genus Jlosculina, Stache, is chiefly
distinguished by its extraordinarily thickened shell-
wall, the rows of chamberlets occupying a proportion-
ately small space.

Genus Lacazina, SCHLUMBERGER.

Test ovoid or subspherical; the chambers
arranged in an elongated coil, as in Alveolina, but
having apertural communication alternately at
opposite ends. The chambers are subdivided into
chamberlets. Cvetaceous and Tertiary.

ExampeLe.—L. Wichmanni, Schlumberger, ‘ Bull.

104

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4.

Cornuspira involvens, Reuss. x 30.

Peneroplis arietinus, Batsch sp.: 6, oral aspect. x 20.

Peneroplis planatus, F.and M. sp. x 20.

Peneroplis (Monalysidiwm) Sollasi, Chapman. ~ 50.

Orbiculina adunea, F. and M. sp.: e, half-section of a fragment
of test showing chamberlets. E x 13, e x 82.

Orbitolites complanata, Lam. (young specimens): jf, transverse
and vertical sections (after Carpenter). F x 30, f x 36.

Alveolina Boscit, Defr. sp.: g, transverse section (after Brady).
x 15.

7

Keramosphera Murrayt, Brady. ~ 7.

PLATE 4.

Pier ~

OCD ASP

1

>
ba) B)
a
9
Wis

2p |

hs
ie?

Famity Il. MILIOLID (concluded).

-

THE FAMILY MILIOLIDA 107

Soc. Géol. France,’ ser. 3, vol. xxi. 1894, p. 296, pl.
xii. and text figure 1.

The test in this species resembles <A/lveolina
spherica, but with the internal arrangement of
chambers peculiar to Lacazina. ‘The chamberlets
are small, with much secondary shell growth, as in
Flosculina. Surface of the test pitted. Tertiary,
New Guinea.

Sub-fanily 6. KeRAMOSPHERINE.
Test spherical, chambers in concentric layers.

Genus Keramosphera, Bravy.

Test spherical, composed of a multitude of more
or less irregularly shaped chamberlets arranged in
concentric layers. This form appears to be iso-
morphous with the hyaline Gypsina globulus.

HxampLe.—K. Murrayt, Brady, ‘Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist.’ ser. 5, vol. x. 1882, p. 242, pl. xiii.

In transverse section the test appears somewhat
like that of Orbitolites in its arrangement of the
chamberlets, but it is more irregular, and the pores
on the surface communicate with each chamberlet
obliquely instead of by pores disposed normally to
the surface of the test, as in Orbitolites.

Only two specimens of this interesting porcella-
nous type were found by Mr. (now Sir John) Murray
during the ‘Challenger’ expedition. They came
from the deposit of Diatom Ooze, at some distance
off the S.W. of Australia, from a depth of 1,950
fathoms. Recent. (Plate 4, fig. H.)

108 THE FORAMINIFERA

CHAPTER LX
THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA

General Characters and Affinities—Test invari-
ably composite, usually of large size and monothala-
mous; often branched or radiate, sometimes seg-
mented by constriction of the walls, but seldom or
never truly septate; polythalamous forms rarely
symmetrical.

The various genera of this group are all arenace-
ous in their shell structure; and this series, together
with the succeeding family of the Liruonipm and
the portion of the family TExrunarmps consisting
of the arenaceous types, form the comprehensive
group of the Arenacea of Rupert Jones and the ‘ kiesel-
schalige Foraminiferen ’ of Von Reuss. The material
of which the test is composed comprises coarse or
fine sand-grains (quartzose), fine arenaceous mud,
admixtures of calcareous mud and sand, sponge
spicules felted together or made coherent by sarcodic
cement, the agglomerated tests of other Foramini-
fera, or, in rare cases, merely of an investment of
chitinous substance with or without a meagre stiffen-
ing of fine sand.

The majority of the forms which are comprised
in the Family Asrrornizipx, owing to their generally

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA 109

deep-water habits, have been discovered only of
late years, comparatively speaking, by the modern
methods of deep-sea dredging, the operations of
which have effectually proved that almost every
part of the ocean floor is the habitat of living
organisms.

One of the most noteworthy forms in this family
is that of the ‘genus Astrorfiza, which, as a
central type, has been taken by Brady to indicate the
general character of the whole group. <A_ shallow-
water species of this genus was discovered as far
back as 1857 by Sandahl, who found his specimens
of A. limicola, as the species is named, off the coast
of Sweden. ‘This is, however, one of the exceptions,
since the majority are found in deep water, and to
this exceptional occurrence the early discovery of
the genus is due.

The Astrorhizids are for the most part irregular
in form, or at all events do not show the same
symmetry as members of other families of the
Foraminifera. A special feature in the construc-
tion of the test is that, notwithstanding the rough
exterior, the inside is, we may say, invariably
smooth, and often quite glazed or polished with
the sarcodic or chitinous cement; reminding one
in this respect of the internal surface of molluscan
shells where in contact with the mantle of the
animal.

The genus Pswmmosphera is one of the simplest
types of the Asrroruizipa, consisting of a single
globular segment enclosed in a rough sandy test,

110 THE FORAMINIFERA

without any definite aperture, for the sarcode flows
out between the interstices of the coarse sand-
erains which form the investment.

An agelomerated series of spherical or sub-
spherical chambers results in a form like the genus
Sorosphera. In Saccammina the walls of the test
are more firmly cemented, and a distinct orifice 1s
present. In the fossil species, found in the Carboni-
ferous limestone (S. fuswliniformis), the shell-wall
is partly arenaceous and partly calcareous; or,
perhaps more correctly, consists of calcareous grains
with a partially calcareous cement (subarenaceous) ;
and there is a tendency for the subglobular or
fusiform segments to form a connected series of
chambers united by a short stolon or necklike
prolongation, instead of breaking off as a separate
individual after reproduction, as in the recent
S. spherica. On the other hand the recent
S. socialis shows some affinity towards the fossil
form in its tendency to assume a lateral plan of
serial budding, the segments being formed side by
side, with their apertures directed outwards.

Other similarly rudimentary types have their
tests composed of sponge spicules selected by the
organism from the surrounding mud; these may be
more or less closely felted together, and mingled in
some cases with a small proportion of the mud.
These spicular forms are chiefly found in the sub-
family PILULININe.

The tubular modifications of the AsrrorHizip»
frequently consist of a simple tube with constric-

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA TEE

tions, but with one end closed, as in Jaculella and
Hyperammina, whilst some sinuous and branching
forms are represented by Rhizammina.

The typical Astrorhiza has a test composed of
fine sand and mud; the primordial portion of the
test is the central swollen part,.from which starts
a series of radiating tubes. Modifications of this
type form are found in Dendrophrya, the tubes of
which are usually compressed and irregular.

Syringammina is « complicated radial growth of
astrorhizid tubes, the whole test having a spherical
contour.

A ramifying network of finely arenaceous tubes
adherent to shells and alge is represented in the
genus Sagenina. In Rhabdammina the test is
tubular and radial, the arms being limited in number
to three, four, or five rays, which are generally
straight. The structure of the test is usually
coarsely arenaceous. Marsipella is another tubular
form, with apertures at both ends; and its test is
normally composed of short sponge spicules, grouped
in little bunches as it were side by side.

Botellina is distinguished from some forms of
Hyperammina having regular or straight tubes, by
the peculiar inner structure of the test, which in
the former genus is irregularly divided by partitions,
so that the interior is labyrinthic.

The recent genus Aschemonella is singular in
having a somewhat different structure from the rest
of the Asrroruizip.®, for in this genus we have indi-
cations of a partially septate test, connecting it with

112 THE FORAMINIFERA

the unsymmetrical forms of the Porcellanous and
Hyaline groups, as Nubecularia and Ramulina. In
external characters it also bears some resemblance to
the fossil genera Stacheia and Nodosinella, but differs
in its simple chamber cavities and thinner shell-
walls.

Haliphysema is another example of the types
which construct their tests largely of sponge spicules.
The bristling termination of the test causes the
organism to look very like a tiny sponge; and it was,
indeed, taken for such by Bowerbank, who first
described it as the smallest known British sponge.

Some doubt has been expressed regarding the
validity of some of the more irregular of the fore-
going examples of arenaceous organisms as definite
rhizopod structures, and Professor Haeckel is dis-
posed to regard them as members of the group of
deep-sea keratose sponges (Aimmoconide). In point
of size, for instance, these arenaceous forms greatly
differ from the Keratosa, being much smaller, even
when fully developed.

The true forms of arenaceous Foraminifera are
practically unknown to us from the oldest rocks, and
there is, therefore, no direct evidence that these were
the primitive forms of foraminiferal life, although
strongly maintained by some writers. The oldest
Foraminifera known to us, as will be seen in the
chapter on the Geological Range of these organisms,
are those of the hyaline group. ‘This is to be
expected as a natural sequence in their relations to
the evolution of marine deposits and their accom-

THH FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA 113

panying faunas; for it has been shown, by Murray
and others, that the mud line round continents is
the great feeding-ground of the various groups of
animal life, and, with equal reasoning, the starting-
point of many types of life, which subsequently
became modified by change of condition, such as
the abyssal for example, which, according to its
faunas, may be regarded as abnormal, since at the
present time only erratic or specialised modifications
of life are found there. At first thought it might seem
that the simplest type of test structure would be
the arenaceous tube or sphere, but observations in
other groups will serve to show how a decidedly
complex structure may be produced on the simplest
possible plan. Looking further into the case of the
foraminiferal shell, the essential feature of the
animal is its ability to send forth reticulate and
threadlike pseudopodia. These extruded threads
become, in the course of the building up or forma-
tion of the shell-wall, partially surrounded by shell-
substance along a certain line external to the main
body or series of segments, and thus, by a simple
process of calcification of the external layer, or depo-
sition at the bases of the pseudopods, an apparently
complex shell-structure may be formed, corresponding
with any of the hyaline types which have been found
in the lower paleeozoic rocks.

114 THE FORAMINIFERA

Sub-family 1. AsrRoryizin a.

Walls thick, composed of loose sand or mud, very
shehtly cemented.

Genus Astrorhiza, SANDAHL.

Test fusiform or depressed; in the latter case
either sublenticular, with angular or twregularly
radiate margin, or in branching masses. Apertures
terminal in each ray or branch. Recent.

HxamMpLte.— A. arenaria, Norman, ‘Proc. Roy.
soc: vol. xxv. 1876, p. 213; Brady, * Rep. “ Chall
vol. 1x. 1884, p. 232, pl. xix. figs. 5-10.

This is a deep-water form, being seldom found in
less than 150 fathoms, and usually much more. It
is almost essentially a North Atlantic species.
Norman obtained it from Norway, Goés from Spitz-
bergen, and Brady from the Cape of Good Hope (a
single example). Recent. (Plate 5, fig. A.)

Genus Pelosina, Brapy.

Test formed of mud, with a chitimous lining ;
more or less flask-shaped or subcylindrical. Recent.

ExampLte.—P. rotundata, Brady, ‘Quart. Journ.
Mier. Sci.’ vol. xix. 1879, p. 31, pl. iii. figs. 4 and 5.

The walls of this species are very thick and com-
posed of soft mud or ooze. Its range in depth
appears to be from 640 to 2,050 fathoms. Lecent.
(Plate 5, fig. B.)

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA 115

Gunus Storthosphera, ScHuuze.

Test subglobular, very irregular externally ;
apertures numerous, situated in horn-like protube-
rances ; interior smooth.

Exampie.—N. albida, Schulze, ‘ II. Jahresberichte
d. komm. Untersuch. d. deutsch. Meere,’ Berlin,
rei, p. 113) plu: figs: 9a—d.

This genus is represented by a single species
only, which until lately seemed to be restricted in its
habitat to the N. Atlantic, where it was found off
the coast of Norway, the Faréde Channel, and the
Bay of Biscay, all in moderately deep water. <A
doubtful worn example was obtained from the
S. Atlantic in 1,900 fathoms by the ‘ Challenger.’
Dr. Flint records it from the Gulf of Mexico at
730 fathoms (‘ Albatross’ Collection), and it has also.
been found by Dr. Egger in the ‘ Gazelle’ dredgings
off Western Australia. Recent. (Plate 5, fig. C.)

Genus Dendrophrya, Streram.t WricHt.

Test adherent, formed of mud with a chitinous.
basis; either irregularly outspread or columnar and
branching. Post-Tertiary. Recent.

HxampeLte.—D. radiata, Str. Wright, ‘Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. viii. 1861, p. 122;
Brady, ‘ Rep. “ Chall.”’ vol. ix. 1884, p. 238, pl. xxvi.
eetros, 1012:

This shallow-water form is allied in structure to
Astrorhiza, but the test is very variable in form. It

Tee

116 THE FORAMINIFERA

was found by the above author in the Old Granton
Quarry, near Edinburgh, and in the low-tide pools
of Cumbrae, Firth of Clyde, generally attached to
stones and fuci. The other remaining species of
this genus, D. erecta, has been recorded by the author
from the Post-Tertiary deposits of Barry Dock, Cardiff.
tecent. (Plate 5, fig. D.)

GENUS Syruugammina, Bravy.

Test consisting of a large rounded mass of
branching radiating tubes, arranged in more or less
distinct layers or tiers; texture coarsely arenaceous,
the sand-grains very loosely aggregated. Recent.

Exampne.—S. fragilissima, Brady, ‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ vol. xxxy. 1883, p. 155, pls. 1. and 111.

This is a peculiar organism, resembling a mass
of Astrorhiza-like tubes arranged radially. When
broken open the separate tubes are seen to bear
numerous apertures opening into the interstices of
the mass. ‘The examples on which the description
is based were obtained from the ‘Triton’ dredgings
in the Farée Channel by Murray. The specimens
measure about 12 inch (38 mm.) in diameter.
Recent. (Plate 5, figs. I, e.)

Swb-family 2. PmvuLINInz.

Test monothalamous ; walls thick, composed
chietly of felted sponge spicules and fine sand, with-
out calcareous or other cement.

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA Jl

Genus Pilulina, CARPENTER.

Test nearly spherical; aperture a long and more
or less curved or sigmoid slit. Recent.

ExampLe.—P. Jeffreysii, Carpenter, ‘The Micro-
scope,’ 5th ed. 1875, p. 532, figs. d, e.

This is the only species of the above genus, and
until lately examples were only known from the
‘Porcupine’ dredgings, from the N. Atlantic, at
630-1,476 fathoms.’ It has again been recorded
quite lately by Flint from the N. Atlantic (‘ Albatross’
Collection). Recent. (Plate 5, fig. F.)

Genus Technitella, Norman.

Test oval or subcylindrical; aperture, typically,
a rounded orifice at one end. Recent.

ExampiE.—'. legqumen, Norman, ‘ Ann. and Mag.
Nata Elist. sero, yok i IS7Sy p. 2195 pk xvi. es:
3, 4.

A variable species, but distinguished by its elon-
gate-oval form. It 1s sometimes quite encrusted
with mud, but on removing this the characteristic
spicular test is seen beneath. The range in depth of
this form is very great—from 60 to 2,350 fathoms—and
it is found in almost every part of the world, though
never very common in any sounding. fecent.

(Plate 5, fig. G.)
Gmnus Rhaphidoscene, VAUGHAN JENNINGS.

Test conical or tent-shaped, composed of sponge
spicules ; adherent. Aperture probably at the apex.
Recent.

118

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5.

. Astrorhiza arenaria, Norman (after Goés). x 5.

. Pelosina rotundata, Brady. x 10.

. Storthosphera albida, Schulze (after Brady). = 10.

. Dendrophrya radiata, Strethill Wright (after Brady). x 39%.

Syringammina fragilissima, Brady. Ti =nat. size; e= x8.

. Pilulina Jeffreys, Carpenter. x 8.

. Technitella legumen, Norman (after Brady). x 35.
. Rhaphidoscene conica, Jennings. ~ 18:

. Bathysrphon filiformis, M. Sars. x 8.

PLATE 5.

Famity III. ASTRORHIZIDA,

at

to

.

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDAs 121

Exampie.—h. conica, Jennings, ‘Journ. Linn.
Soc., Zool.” vol. xxv. 1895, p. 320, pl. x.

Test conical, height slightly greater than width
at the base. Composed of spicules closely arranged,
and pointing from the base to the apex. Base of
test attached by a small amount of whitish, possibly
calcareous, cement. Adherent on Botellina tests.
Height about 1 mm. From the Farée Channel at
440 fathoms. Recent. (Plate 5, fig. H.)

Grunts Bathysiphon, Sans.

Test long, cylindrical, slightly tapering; in the
form of a straight or curved tube open at both ends.

Exampie.—B. filiformis, G. O. Sars, ‘ Vidensk.-
Selsk. FHorhandl.’ 1871, p. 251; Brady, ° ep.
“‘ Chall.”’’ vol. ix. 1884, p. 248, pl. xxvi. figs. 15-20.

This species has a very long and narrow tube,
often two inches in length. The walls of the test
are composed of felted spicules and fine sand. Colour
light grey or white ; sometimes yellowish brown. In
the living state the shell is filled with dark-coloured
or nearly black sarcode.

It is a rare form, and has been recorded from the
Hardanger Fiord (M. Sars, G. O. Sars, Norman),
Bay of Biscay (Norman, De Folin), Amboyna (Brady),
Arabian Sea (Chapman). Recent. (Plate 5, fig. I.)

Sub-family 3. SACCAMMININ#.

Chambers nearly spherical; walls thin, composed
of firmly cemented sand-grains.

422 THE FORAMINIFERA

GENUS Psammosphera, SCHULZE.

Test a single globular chamber without any general
aperture, the pseudopodia issuing from interstitial
orifices. Jurassic to Recent.

Exampie.—P. fusca, Schulze, ‘II. Jahresberichte
d. komm. Untersuch. d. Deutsch. Meere,’ p. 118,
OMI ail, 1H, to, lef

This little spherical foraminifer is normally free,
but is sometimes found attached to stones, or built
round sponge spicules. It is widely distributed, both
geographically and bathymetrically. It has also been
recorded as fossil from the Upper Jurassic of Switzer-
land, by Haeusler. Upper Jurassic and Recent.
(Plate 6, fig. A.)

Grnus Sorosphera, Bravy.

A number of gobular chambers adherent to each
other, without distinct stoloniferous tubes and with
no general aperture. Ltecent.

Exampin.—sS. confusa, Brady, ‘Quart. Journ.
Mice, Sei. vol, soa, INIS: 18795 p. 98, pla ivemies:
Ths, Je),

The walls of this species are thin and finely
arenaceous in texture, with minute interstitial ori-
fices. Diameter of the colony sometimes one-sixth
inch (45 mm.) It has been found in various parts
of the N. Atlantic from 542 to 900 fathoms, and in
the N. Pacific at 2,900 fathoms. Recent. (Plate 6,
fig. B.)

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDAi 123

Genus Saccammina, M. Sars.

One or several gobular, pyriform, or fusiform
chambers, with distinct apertures. Polythalamous
forms with or without stoloniferous connections.
Carboniferous and Recent.

Exampires.—S. fusulinformis, M‘Coy sp. (=S.
Carteri, Brady) [Nodosaria fusulinaformis], ‘Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 2, vol. in. 1849, pp. 131,
132. Chapman, ibid., ser. 7, vol. 1. 1898, p. 215,
woodcut.

This is an important rock-forming organism, since
it often constitutes a large proportion of the lme-
stones of the Carboniferous formation. The weathered
spherical tests stand out in reef on the rock, and
the limestone containing them is called ‘ the spotted
post* by the Cumbrian miners. The subspherical
tests of S. fusuliniformis are usually found separated,
but such was not their condition during growth, for
when their remains are found protected, as, for
example, enclosed in the shell of Huomphalus, we
find the chambers are united in a straight or slightly
curved series, and, indeed, even in the rock itself we
may often see two or even three chambers connected
together. Carboniferous Limestone. (Plate 6, fig. C.)

S. spherica, M. Sars, ‘ Vidensk.-Selsk. Forhandl.’
1868, p. 248; Brady, ‘ Rep. “ Chall.”’ vol. ix. 1884,
p. 253, pl. xvii. figs. 11-17.

The globular or pyriform tests of this species are
composed of coarse arenaceous material. The sand
forming the walls is generally quartzose ; that of the

124 THE FORAMINIFERA

fossil species seems to have been calcareous. SV.
spherica is dredged up in considerable numbers
from some localities; in this it resembles the
occurrence of the fossil species. Recent. (Plate 6,

fig. D.)

Sub-family RHABDAMMININ®.

Test composed of firmly cemented sand-grains,
often with sponge spicules intermixed ; tubular,
straight, radiate, branched, or irregular; free or
adherent; with one, two, or more apertures; rarely
segmented.

Genus Jaculella, Brapy.

Test elongate, tapering; aperture at the broad
end. fecent.

Exampie.—J. acuta, Brady, ‘Quart. Journ. Micr.
Ser. vols xax. NES: 1895p. oo, ple tia tios 2 aly

In this species the test is elongate, closed, and
pointed at one end, gradually increasing in width
towards the other. The walls are coarsely arenaceous.
Length 4 to 1 inch, or even more. It has a wide
eeographical distribution. Recent. (Plate 6, fig. E.)

Genus Hyperammina, Bravy.

Test elongate, tubular, the closed end broad and
rounded, sometimes inflated, so as to form a distinet
chamber; tube simple or branched, free or adherent.
Silurian to Recent.

Exampie.—H. vagans, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sil WOK abn Wee Ike jor ais), [1 ais ike 3),

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA 125

Test with a spherical or oval primordial chamber,
opening into a long tortuous tube, the whole often
adherent to the surfaces of shells or stones. Shell-
wall thin and finely arenaceous. Diameter of tube
‘05 to °2mm. There is no real evidence to establish
the identity of Girvanella with the above form; it
is more than hkely that the Girvan fossils are a form
of the tortuous algoid bodies common in certain
paleozoic and mesozoic lmestones. Jurassic to
Recent. (Plate 6, fig. F.)

Genus Marsipella, Norman.

Test fusiform or cylindrical, with an aperture at
each end ; largely composed of sponge spicules, espe-
cially near the extremities. Jurassic and Recent.

Exampie.—WM. cylindrica, Brady, ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.
Ridimb. 1882, vol.jxi. p. 714; * Rep. “Chall.” vol. 1x.
1884, p. 265, pl. xxiv. figs. 20-22.

This form has a delicate spicular test. It is widely
distributed, and ranges in depth from 210 to 1,900
fathoms. Recent. (Plate 6, fig. G.)

Genus Rhabdammina, M. Sars.

Test rectilinear, radiate, or irregularly branching ;
with or without a central chamber. ‘The open ends
of the tubes forming the apertures. (?) Lower Plio-
cene to lecent.

Exampné.—h. abyssorum, M. Sars, ‘ Vidensk.-
Selsk. Forhandl.’ 1868, p. 268; Brady, ‘ Rep.
a Chale: 2 yolwix. 1884p, 266) ple xxi. fies, 113:

The original specimens were dredged in deep

126 THE FORAMINIFERA

water off the coast of Norway by Professor M. Sars.
They are frequent in many of the deep-sea soundings
from all parts of the world, occurring in both low and
high latitudes.

This species is typically triradiate, but occasion-
ally varies in having four or even five arms to the
test. The shell wall is coarsely sandy, and there is a
fairly large proportion of peroxide of iron in its com-
position. It varies in colour from pale to dark
reddish brown, or even nearly black.

The species has been recorded, with some reserva-
tion, by Dr. de Amicis from the Lower Pliocene of
Sicily. (?) Lower Pliocene. Recent.

Genus Aschemonella, Brapy.

Test very variable in form; usually consisting of
irregular inflated sacs, either single and presenting
several tubulated orifices or combined in branching
series. Recent.

Kxampie.—A. catenata, Norman sp. (Astrorhiza),
“Proc. hoy. Soc: vol xxy. USiG. sp. 2ilse bras
“Quart: Journ. Micr Sei. volosxax, Nos. 1S ope on
jollguing. covers J Jes

This is an essentially deep-water type. The
species above named is widely distributed. It has an
irregularly branched test, with inflated chambers ;
and more than one orifice to each chamber is fre-
quently seen. The shell wall is compact but thin,
and the interior smooth, whilst the exterior is slightly
rough in texture, and often coated with mud.
Recent. (Plate 6, fig. I.)

bo
~J

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA =r ara

Genus Rhizammina, Brany.

Unattached masses of fine flexible, simple or
branching, chitino-arenaceous tubes; more or less
rough externally. Gault. Recent.

ExampLte.—. algeformis, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ.
Microcl. vol. xix. N.S: S79) p: 39s ply iv. ties 16. 17:

This form is seen under a variety of aspects,
according to the nature of the sea bottom. Some-
times it is merely a branched flexible tube, roughened
externally by adherent mud or fine sand, at others
thickly encrusted with minute objects, as other
Foraminifera, which the organism has selected from
the surrounding ooze. It is a deep-water species.
Recent. (Plate 6, figs. J, K.)

GrENuS Sagenina, CHAPMAN.

Test a branching, reticulated, adherent, sandy
tube, spread over the surface of shells or stones ;
apertures terminal.

The name Sagenella, given by H. B. Brady for
this generic type, had been already used for a genus
of the polyzoa by James Hall. The above definition
of the genus naturally still holds good for these

types. Recent.

Exampte. — Sagenina frondescens, Brady sp.,
‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.’ vol. xix. N.S. 1879, p. 41,
plav. fis. 1.

This peculiar branching form is especially re-
stricted, in its distribution, to the shallow water of
coral regions in the 5. Pacific. Its ramifying test is

128 : THE FORAMINIFERA

found adherent to shells, Halimeda joints, and even
Foraminifera, as Cycloclypeus. Since its occurrence
in the ‘Challenger’ gatherings from the Admiralty
and Friendly Islands Sagenina has been found in con-
siderable abundance around the atoll of Funafuti,
where it flourishes both inside the lagoon and on the
outer reef. Recent. (Plate 6, fig. L.)

Genus Botellina, CARPENTER.

Test subcylindrical, probably growing attached at
one end; the other end rounded, and formed of loose
sand-grains with interstitial openings. Interior filled
with irregular septa, formed of coarse sand-grains
shghtly cemented together. Recent.

Exampie.—B, labyrinthica, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ.
Mier. Sci.’ vol. xxi N.S. 1881, p. 48; ‘ Rep. “ Chall.”
WOlG Is JO, CASE Tolls nox, mS, (S18).

This species is pecuhar among the Asrrorutzip®

in having a labyrinthic structure in the interior of
the test. It is a singular fact that B. labyrinthica,
the only representative of the genus by the way,
has only occurred once, in dredgings made by the
‘Porcupine’ in the Farée Channel, at 440 fathoms.
Recent. (Plate 6, fig. M.)

Genus Haliphysema, Bowrrnank.

Test columnar, growing attached by an expanded,
convex, pseudo-polythalamous base ; column straight
or crooked, either simple and gradually increasing in
size towards the apex or dividing into a number of

THE FAMILY ASTRORHIZIDA 129

branches. ‘Test generally beset with sponge spicules ;
aperture terminal. Lecent.

ExameLe.—H. Tumanowiczti, Bowerbank, ‘ Phil.
rans.’ 1862, p. 1105, pl. ixxin. fig. 3.

There are two species in the above genus, the
example here selected being the better known. It
grows adherent to various objects in low-tide pools or
between tide-marks to a depth of 20 fathoms, and the
tiny whitish tufty tests are often seen clustering on
stems of sea-weed. Among other localities it has
been found off Hastings, Torbay, Jersey, Colwyn
Bay, and Dublin Bay. Recent. (Plate 6, fig. N.)

130 THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 6.

fe
=

HAH BPO Boo dP;

Psammosphera fusca, Schulze (after Brady). 20.
Sorosphera confusa, Brady. «x8.

Saccammina fusuliniformis, M‘Coy sp. x 4.

Saccammina spherica, M. Sars (after Brady). x 4.

Jaculella acuta, Brady. x 4.

Hyperammina vagans, Brady. x8.

Marsipella cylindrica, Brady. x8.

Rhabdammina abyssorum, M. Sars. x 4.

Aschemonella catenata, Norman, sp. (after Brady). «x 5.
Rhizammina algeformis, Brady. x 4.
Rhizamminaalgeformis,amore highly magnified fragment. x 20.
Sagenina frondescens, Brady sp. x8.

Botellina labyrinthica, Brady. x8.

Haliphysema Tumanowiczii, Bowerbank. x 17.

PLATE 6.

ASTRORHIZID (concluded).

Famizy III.

——
—

133

CHAPTER X
THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA

Tue Lirvonm are separated from the foregoing
family of arenaceous rhizopods chiefly on account of
their possessing truly septate tests, and their more
regular form.

The septa are not always perfectly developed, and
the interior of the test is frequently occupied by
meandering or labyrinthic chambers.

In this family arenaceous isomorphs of nearly all
the simpler porcellanous and hyaline types may be
found: as, for example, in Ammodiscus, which
resembles Cornuspira and Spirillina; the monotha-
lamous form of Reophaxr, resembling Lagena; the
uniserial Reophax and Hormosina, resembling Nodo-
saria; the complanate forms of Haplophragmium,
resembling Marginulina, and Cristellaria; the
Haplophragmia with inflated chambers, resembling
Globigerina, Rotalia, and Nonionina; the attached
form Webbina, resembling Vitriwebbina; and Troch-
anmminda, resembling Anomalina and Rotalia.

As in the Astrorutzip& the tests of the Lituolids
may be variously constructed of coarse or fine sand-
erains held together with chitinous or ferruginous
cement, as in Leophax and Hormosina; of calcareous

134 THE FORAMINIFERA

sand with lttle or much calcareous and sarcodic
cement, as in Haddonia; of the tests of smaller
Foraminifera with or without an admixture of cal-
careous mud, as in certain species of Haplophragmium
found in Globigerina Ooze; of sponge spicules and
calcareous mud, as in Reophax armatus; or even
consisting of tiny fusiform spicules of a calcareous
nature formed by the rhizopod itself, as in Carterina
spiculotesta.

The genera belonging to the sub-family Lrrvoni®
are associated together on account of the general
structure of the test, which is coarsely arenaceous.
The septation of the test is more often complete, as in
Reophax, Haplophragnium, and Placopsilina ; but in
Lituola, Haplostiche, Bdelloidina, Haddonia, and
Polyphragma the chambers are labyrinthic, and con-
sequently the septation is interrupted or sinuous.

The genus Polyphragma is here placed with the
typical lituolids instead of with the HENpornyrina,
since its chambers have this labyrinthic character
well developed, and the test presents the ordinary
coarse arenaceous appearance, without a prepon-
derance of calcareous cement.

The labyrinthic genera in the LirvoLin® appear
to be normally adherent to marine objects, as shells,
stones, or alew; and they are either attached to a
partial extent by the proximal end of the test or are
adherent along their whole length.

A thin arenaceous test is a feature of the next
sub-family, the TrocHamminins. ‘The external shell
surface is more or less smooth, and the interior is

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 135:

glazed by a thin chitinous lining. Sometimes the
arenaceous material composing the test is reduced to
au minimum quantity under certain conditions, as in
estuarine or brackish pools, the result being a thin
membranous and flexible test, as, for example, in some
species of the genus Trochammina.

The Enporuyrin® are not so well defined a group
as the two previous; but they can be said to be
generally characterised by an arenaceous test com-
posed of calcareous particles, with a large proportion
of calcareous cement; their shell-wall is often
distinctly perforate. There is also a tendency for
the internal shell structure to become cancellated, or
broken up into a rudely cellular structure, but not
to so great a degree as in the next sub-family of the
Lorrusiine.

The EnporHyrin® is an entirely fossil group of
organisms, and it is well represented in the Paleozoic
rocks by Nodosinella, Stacheia, Hndothyra, and
Bradyina, whilst Involutina is restricted to the
Jurassic series of the Mesozoic period. The genus
Stacheia further extends its range from the Paleozoic
into the Mesozoic rocks by its appearance, in some
abundance, in certain marls of Rhetic and Liassic
ages in England and France.

The types of subarenaceous Patelline, as Orbito-
lina and Conutites, are perhaps more conveniently
separated from the firstnamed genus; not on
zoological grounds, however, for they represent the
same morphological species of organism. For this
latter reason Carpenter and Rupert Jones treated

136 THE FORAMINIFERA

them as true Patelling, and the author has previously
followed up their study on these lines (see ‘ Bibl.
List,’ No. 139). The subarenaceous group is never-
theless so important and distinct in the Cretaceous
and Tertiary rocks that their separation seems to be
necessary, especially as we follow the principle of
classification by shell structure, which is the most
convenient, as we have already seen, for a clear and
systematic survey of the order.

The sub-family of the Lorrustins comprises two
genera only, in which the chambers are partially
occupied with cancellated or labyrinthic developments
of the shell-wall. The minute structure of the test
in Cyclammina represents the same type of structure
seen in the shell-wall of the other genus Loftusia.
The latter form, however, attains a_ relatively
gigantic size compared with the majority of Forami-
nifera; and although it has been regarded somewhat
doubtfully as a rhizopod, chiefly on account of its size,
it is now generally accepted asa true foraminifer. In
both genera the interiors of the chambers are more or
less filled up with the cancellated and labyrinthic
shell-wall and septa. The microscopic appearance of
the central part of Cyclamumina and the first few
whorls of Loftusia are strikingly similar. The con-
tour of the test in Loftusia resembles Alveolina, and
it may therefore be regarded as an isomorphous form
of that genus.

A third genus was originally included in this
sub-family—namely, Parkeria, from the Cambridge
Greensand (Cenomanian)—but the structure of its

THE FAMILY LITUOLID/ 137

test, although, like the porcellanous type Keramo-
sphera, or the hyaline Gypsina globulus, in general
contour, in part resembles the hydroid Hydractinia,
in its concentric manner of growth and the vertical
pillars and septa, and in part shows affinities towards
the Hydrocorallines in exhibiting in section what
appear to be zooidal tubes disposed at intervals
through the ccenenchyma, as in the allied genus
Stoliczarva from the Trias of Cashmere.

Sub-family 1. Lirvuoniwn®.

Test composed of coarse sand-grains, rough
externally ; often labyrinthic.

Division A.—NON-LABYRINTHIC SERIES.

Genus Reophax, Montrort.

Test free; composed either of a single flask-
shaped chamber or of several, united in a straight, .
curved, or irregular line; never spiral. Jzwrassic to
Recent.

Exampurs. — ft. difflugiformis, Brady, ‘Quart.
Jour Micrs Sei. vol. xix Nis. 1879) poi, pl. av:
figs. 3a, b.

This is a single-chambered form of Reophaz,
which has a wide range in modern deposits both as
to depth and locality. In fossil deposits its occur-
rence commences with the Rhetic series in Somer-
setshire, described by the author; and in the Jurassic
rocks of Switzerland, recorded by Haeusler. It also

138 THE FORAMINIFERA

appears to occur in the Gault of France, and is
known from Pleistocene deposits at Cumbrae.
Jwrassic to hecent. (Plate 7, fig. A.)

R. scorpiurus, Montfort, ‘ Conchyl. Systém.’ vol. 1.
1808, p. 330, 83° ‘ genre.’

Of the many species of Foraminifera which are
widely distributed over the oceanic areas of the
elobe this is one of the better known. It constructs
its test typically of coarse sand-grains, but where
restricted to an oozy or spicular deposit it selects
small shells or spicules, as the case may be, to form
its test.

The geological range of this form commences
in the Jurassic strata and continues to the present
time. (Plate 7, fig. B.)

Gunus Haplophragmium, Reuss.

Test free; partially or entirely spiral; nautiloid
or crozier-shaped ; chambers numerous. Carboniferous
to Recent.

The sub-genus Coskinolina, Stache, is dis-
tinguished by the form of its later chambers, which
widen rapidly.

ExampLte.—H. Hwmboldti, Reuss (Spirolina),
‘Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch.’ vol. i. 1851,
Pa Oo ple nes li, Ne:

This neat and typical crozier-shaped Hap/lo-
phragmium makes its first appearance as a fossil in
the Aptian beds of Surrey, and it was also described
from various deposits of Lower Tertiary age in Ger-
many and Hungary. It does not exactly agree in

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 139

specific characters with any form of the same genus
now found living. (Plate 7, fig. C.)

HI. nonioninoides, Reuss, ‘ Sitzungsb. k. Ak. Wiss.
Wien,’ vol. xlvi. 1862, p. 30, pl. 1. fig. 8.

The test of this fossil form is composed of sand-
particles of medium coarseness, of a pale grey to a
ruddy brown colour, with occasional chips of green
glauconite interspersed. The contour of the shell is
well rounded and fairly subglobular in form, but
flattened at the umbilici. The arched slitlike aper-
ture is very nearly central on the septal face of the
shell. As to distribution in geological time, it is
quite a restricted form; for it first appears in the
Aptian formation of England and afterwards in the
Gault both of England and Germany. (Plate 7,
fl.)

Genus Placopsilina, D’Orpteny.

Chambers plane-convex, adherent. Jurassic to
Recent.

ExampLe.—P. cenomana, D’Orbigny, ‘ Prodrome
Paléont.’ vol. u. 1850, p. 185, No. 758.3. Reuss,
‘Denkschr. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien,’ vol. vii. 1854,
pel; pl xxvii fies; 4,5:

Some of the modifications of this species consist
of a long sinuous series of adherent segments, whilst
some allied forms are monothalamous. The figure
given here is from an intermediate type of shell, and
appears to be constructed chiefly of coral sand. The
test is usually seen with a spiral commencement,
afterwards running off into a linear series. Some of

140 THE FORAMINIFERA

the published figures of this species undoubtedly
represent other types of shell structure, as Nwbecu-
laria, for certain authors have not recognised these
differential characters of the foraminiferal test.

P. cenomana is said to have occurred in the
Lower Lias marls of the West of France. It
occurs with some frequency in the Upper Jurassic
strata; again in the Gault and Upper Greensand,
and later in certain Tertiary deposits, though rarely.
It is, at the present day, most usual in shallow
water. (Plate 7, fig. E.)

GeEnus Crithionina, Goiis.

Walls of test generally thick, composed of fine
arenaceous mud. Normally attached. The interior
a simple cavity, or divided by irregular, sometimes
by radial, septa. Contour hemispherical, sublen-
ticular, or depressed. Apertures few and indistinct.

On account of the septate interior of several
species of this genus it is here regarded as one of
the non-labyrinthic Lirvomipm. Recent.

HxampeLe.—Crithionina mamnulla, Goés, ‘ Kongl.
Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad. Handlingar,’ vol. xxv.
INO 918945 pe 1a, ple ies, 34-36:

Usually adherent, subglobose, somewhat smooth.
Walls thick and spongy. Central chamber sub-
spherical, having a diameter equal to the thickness
of the walls; undivided. Apertures few and small.
Constructed of fine detrital and argillaceous material.
Dr. Goés found his specimens in the Skagerack at a
depth of 57 fathoms. It has since been recorded by

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 141

Millet from the Malay Archipelago. (Plate 7, figs.
BP, f)
Genus Verrucina, Goiis.

Test adherent, constructed of agglutinated sand,
divided in the interior into a few more or less regular
chambers, having an outlet in the sunken apex of the
test. Recent.

HxampLe.—V. rudis, Gots, ‘ Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. Harvard,’ vol. xxix. No. 1, part xx. 1896, p. 25,
Pisiciss. 15, 16,

The shape of the test is irregularly ovoid,
adherent, with a rough surface. The sunken top
carries the irregular apertures, communicating with
the septate interior. Found by Goés in the Pacific,
at a depth of 772 fathoms. Recent. (Plate 7,
fig. G.)

Division B.—SeErties with LAByRIntHIC CHAMBERS.

Genus Haplostiche, Rruss.

Test free, uniserial, straight, or arcuate; never
spiral. Chambers labyrinthic. Aperture terminal ;
porous or dendritic, rarely simple.

Hxampte.—H. Soldani, Jones and Parker sp.
(Lituola), ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xvi. 1860,
p- 307, No. 184; Brady, ‘ Rep. ‘“ Chall.” ’ vol. ix. 1884,
peels, pl. xxx: figs. 12-18:

This series has an elongate, subcylindrical, or
ovate test, with tapering or rounded ends. Segments
convex, slightly embracing, subdivided by irregular

142 THE FORAMINIFERA

secondary septa. Sometimes measures as much as
So harelay ((f/°S) cadua)

This striking form is frequently found in dredgings
from the West Indies and the Pacific, among other
localities. It ranges in depth from about 40 to
435 fathoms. As a fossil it first occurs in the Mio-
cene. Miocene to Recent. (Plate 7, figs. H, h.)

Gemnus Litwola, LAMARCK.

Test free, partially or entirely spiral; nautiloid or
crozier-shaped. Carboniferous to Recent.

Exampie.—L. placentula, Chapman, ‘Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist.’ ser. 7, vol. 11. 1899, p. 54, figs. 2a, 6.

Test complanate, irregularly suboval; composed
of coarse arenaceous particles with much cement of
a finer sandy nature. Interior labyrinthic. The
general aspect of the test shows this form to have
had a spiral, but the separate segments are obscure.
Cretaceous (Cambridge Greensand). (Plate 7, fig. I.)

Genus Bdelloidina, CartEr.

Test adherent; chambers linear, vermiform, ap-
proximated, intercommunicating by a row of pores
seen on each septal face. Cretaceous, Recent.

Exampie.—b. aggregata, Carter, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist.’ ser. 4, vol. xix. 1877, p. 201, pl. xiii. figs. 1-8.

This is apparently the only species of the above
genus. The test is generally constructed of coarse
calcareous sand, the exterior of the shell being rough,
the internal surface smooth. With the exception of
one fine example met with in the Chalk this form is

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 143

almost confined to recent deposits, usually in the
neighbourhood of coral reefs. Its range in depth is
from 25 to 63 fathoms. (Plate 7, fig. I.)

Genus Haddonia, CHAPMAN.

Test calcareo-arenaceous ; adherent and sinuous;
the commencement sometimes straight, sometimes
spiral. Chambers hnear and narrower in the line of
growth than laterally. Sutures roughly parallel, but
sometimes quite irregular. Chambers imperfectly
septate or coarsely labyrinthic. Shell-wall per-
forated by a series of coarse pores. Aperture .a
crescentic or horseshoe-shaped slit.

Hxampie.—H. torresiensis, Chapman, ‘Journ. Linn.
Soc. Lond., Zoology,’ vol. xxvi. 1898, p. 454, pl. xxviii.

This species was originally found in abundance
affixed to a mass of rough coral rock from Torres
Strait. It has since occurred in considerable numbers
from the reef of the Funafuti atoll. The colour of
the shell-wall is from whitish to cream colour or pale
brown; the breadth of the chambers about twice
their height, here and there subdivided obliquely,
somewhat in the manner of Vertularia, but very
irregularly, the general plan being a moniliform
series of segments. Aperture usually crescent-shaped,
sometimes gaping, but more often having a valvular
flap, formed by a prolongation of the superior surface
of the test, which nearly closes up the orifice, as in
Valvulina and certain of the Milioline. Recent.
(Plate 7, fig. K.)

144 THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 7.

ie Reophax difflugiformis, Brady. x 50.
B. R. scorpiurus, Montfort (after Brady). x 15.
C. Haplophragmium Humboldti, Reuss (after Hantken). ~ 18.
D. H. nonioninoides, Reuss (after Chapman). ~ 80.
E. Placopsilina cenomana, D’Orbigny (after Brady). x 30.
F, f. Crithionina mammilla, Goes. x 11,
G. Verrucina rudis, Goés. x 7.
H, h. Haplostiche Soldanii, Jones and Parker (after Brady). x 10.
I. Lituola placentula, Chapman. «x 14.
J. Bdelloidina aggregata, Carter (after M. Wright’s drawing). x 5.
K. Haddonia torresiensis, Chapman. ~*~ 5.

L, l. Polyphragma cribroswm, Reuss (after Perner). x 8.

PAAR ie

Faminy ITV. LITUOLIDA.

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atv , ‘

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 147

Gmenus Polyphragma, Reuss.

Test cylindrical, growing attached by the basal
extremity ; consisting of a lne of very short cylin-
drical segments placed one above the other. Interior
of the chambers labyrinthic; aperture terminal, cri-
brate (sieve-hke). Cretaceous.

Exampte. — P. cribrosum, Reuss (Lichenopora),
‘Versteinerungen der béhm. Kreideformation,’ pt. 1.
1846, pp. 60, 123, pl. xiv. fig. 10, pl. xxiv. figs. 3-5.

The above species was found in the chalk forma-
tion of Bohemia by Reuss, and later by Perner in
the Cenomanian of that country. The affinities of
the genus towards the semi-labyrinthic forms of
Haplophragmiwm are seen in the internal structure
of the segments as revealed by thin sections of the
test, as well as by the nature of the septal face, which
is cribrate, as in Haplophragmiwm irregulare. ‘The
species is found adherent to shells and Cidaris spines.
Steinmann has referred this genus to the group of
the pharetrone sponges, but the minute structure of
the walls of the organism does not support this view.
Cretaceous. (Plate 7, figs. L, J.)

Sub-family 2. 'TROCHAMMININE.

Test thin; composed of minute sand-grains in-
corporated with calcareous or other inorganic cement,
or embedded in a chitinous membrane ;_ exterior
smooth, often polished ; interior smooth or (rarely)
reticulated ; chambers never labyrinthic.

148 THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Thurammina, BRavy.

Test usually monothalamous, inflated or com-
pressed, with apertures situated at the summits of
surface mammuille. Jurassic to Recent.

Exampie.—’. papillata, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ.
Micr, “Ser vol. xix. NS. 1879, p. 45, plh xaos
4-8.

The variability shown in this species is very
creat, the characteristic papille being in some speci-
mens few, in others very numerous, and imparting
quite a rugose appearance to the test. The interior
is sometimes occupied by another globular chamber,
after the manner of Orbulina, with which form it
presents some points of isomorphisin. It is a deep or
moderately deep water species. The geological range
of 7’. papillata commences with the Jurassic beds of
Switzerland, in which they were discovered by
Haeusler. Jurassic to Recent. (Plate 8, fig. A.)

The sub-genus Thuramminopsis was established
by Haeusler for certain types of Juvassic Foraminifera
allied to the above genus, but which are much more
irregular in growth and consist of a multiple series
of chambers, on the internal walls of which a system
of tube-like ridges are apparent. The external sur-
faces of the test are papillate, especially at the
irregular outgrowths, after the manner of the typical
Thurammina. Thuramminopsis canaliculata was de-
scribed by Haeusler from the sponge beds of the
Jurassic ‘Transversarius’ zone of Aargau, Switzer-
land (‘ Neues Jahrbuch,’ 1883, vol. i. p. 69, pl. iv.)

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 149

Gunus Hippocrepina, Parker.
Test monothalamous, elongate; broad and rounded
at one end, tapering to a point at the other; aperture
large, curved or irregular. Lecent.

Examen. — H. indivisa, Parker (an Dawson’s
paper), ‘Canad. Nat.’ N.S. vol. v. 1870, pp. 176, 180,
fig. 2.

This interesting little species 1s the only form in
the genus. It is recognised by its finely sandy tex-
ture, the thin test, and undivided interior. The root-
like test bears a somewhat crescentic or horseshoe-
shaped opening at the broad end, and surrounded by
a thickened rim. ‘The species is entirely confined to
northern seas of high latitudes. It has been found at
the mouth of the River St. Lawrence, 16-20 fathoms,
by Dr. G. M. Dawson; off Greenland in 10 and 13
fathoms by Norman and Goés; and at Novaya
Zemlaia, 10-15 fathoms, by Brady. Recent. (Plate 8,
figs; 1,0:)

Genus Hormosina, Bravy.

Test free, consisting sometimes of one chamber,
but more often of a series of chambers, which are
subglobular, fusiform, or pyriform, joined in a single
straight or arcuate series. Walls thin, smooth ex-
ternally ; texture finely arenaceous ; coloured vari-
ously yellow or brown. Ltecent.

HxameLe.—H. ovicula, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ.
Mvcrescin vole sax. NES wliS79s p. Gil, pl. ividie.6:

The test of this species consists of several fusiform

150 THE FORAMINIFERA

segments forming a slender moniliform series. The
junction of one segment with the other is usually
marked on the stolon tube by a darker brown circlet
around the shell. This species is solely a recent
form and affects deep water. The ‘ Challenger’ dredg-
ing ylelds this species from samples of over 1,000
fathoms in every case. Goés records it from the
Pacific in shallower water, ranging to 300 fathoms.
Fiecent. (Plate 8, fig. C.)

Genus Ammodiscus, Reuss.

Test free, formed of a tube coiled upon itself in
various ways; sometimes constricted at intervals,
but never septate. Carboniferous to Recent.

Exampie.— A. incertus, D’Orbigny sp. (Operculina),
Horan Cubar S39 i. 1 playin kG elie

This, the simplest form of the genus, consists of
a circular tube coiled in plano-spiral fashion. It
made its first appearance, so far as our knowledge
eoes, in the Carboniferous Lmestone series, where it
is sometimes found in great abundance ; and it is
found with some frequency in nearly all later forma-
tions. The species is lable to great variation, the
tube showing various degrees of flattening; and it
often tends to depart from the plan of a flat coiled
shell, and even to bend und twist on itself. The
structure of the test is always more or less finely
arenaceous.

The specimens dredged up from existing sea
bottoms are often as large as 3 mm. across. A.
incertus has an extensive range in depth; Goés

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 151

found it in the Pacific Ocean from 600 to 1,200
fathoms, and in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf
of Mexico from 200 to 1,800 fathoms. The
‘Challenger’ obtained it from the N. Atlantic from
450 fathoms and deeper, and from the N. Pacific
in the very deep area at 3,125 fathoms. It has been
found as far north as the southern coast of Norway
and the Faréde Channel. Carboniferous to Recent.
(Plate 8, fig. D.)

Genus T'rochammina, Parker and Jongs.

Test free, or rarely adherent; rotaliform,
nautiloid, or trochoid ; more or less distinctly
septate. Lower Lias to Recent.

This genus was subsequently restricted in its
meaning from the original sense intended by Parker
and Jones by H. B. Brady, who found it necessary
to distinguish between the non-septate and the
septate forms of finely arenaceous Foraminifera.

Hxamete.—T'. litwiformis, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ.
MiICEs OCI vole xix Nos. 18.9) p.09) pl vane. NG:

Test free, crozier-shaped ; consisting of an
irregularly septate or pseudo-septate tube, spiral at
its commencement, subsequently linear.

Other well-known modifications of T'rochammina
are 7’. squamata, Jones and Parker, isomorphous
with the thin trochoid Discorbine and T’. inflata
(Montagu), isomorphous with Discorbina rugosa.

T. litwiformis is a recent species only, and was
found in depths varying from 390 to 900 fathoms.
(Plate 8, fig. E.)

152 THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Carterina, Brapy.

Test rotaliform, convex; normally adherent ;
with pointed oval calcareous spicules formed by the
organism itself. Recent.

Exampite.—C. spiculotesta, Carter sp. (Rotalia), |
‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 4, vol. xx. 1877,
p. 470, pl. xvi.

This singular little organism is peculiar in
being constructed of little spicular bodies secreted by
the sarcode; they are arranged somewhat regularly,
with their long axes in the direction of the peripherical
margin of the test. The central portion of the test
is usually a dark purplish brown, the outer chambers
eradually fading off to white.

Carter’s specimens came from the South Pacific
and the Gulf of Manaar; Brady records it from the
Gulf of Suez at 40 fathoms, and Millett from the
Malay Archipelago.

Recently the writer has obtained the same
species from the dredgings at Funafuti, where it
occurs outside the reef at 36, 50, and 60 fathoms, and
in the lagoon at 19, 20, 25, and 26 fathoms, usually
attached to Halimeda fronds. fecent. (Plate 8,
ight) lah 7/2)

Genus Webbina, D’Orsieny.

Test adherent; consisting either of a single tent-
like chamber or of a number of such chambers
connected by adherent stoloniferous tubes. It is
isomorphous with the hyaline form Vitriwebbina.

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 153

Exampeie.—W. clavata, Jones and Parker sp.
(Trochamnuna), ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xvi.
1860, p. 304; Brady, ‘ Rep. “ Chall.”’’ vol. ix. 1884,
pe29: pl. xl fies, 12-16:

This simply constructed organism is found
attached to shells or stones, sometimes at great
depths. Parker and Jones record its occurrence in
the Mediterranean at depths from 90 to 1,700
fathoms. It is also fairly well distributed in the
various oceanic deposits. Aecent. (Plate 8, fig. G.)

Sub-family 3. ENporHyrw®.

Test more calcareous and less sandy than in the
other groups of the Lirvotips ; sometimes perforate ;
septation usually distinct.

Genus Nodosinella, Brapy.

Test free, straight, arcuate, or crooked, never
spiral; formed either of a tube constricted at
intervals or of a single series of segments variously
combined. ‘l'est arenaceous, often smooth exter-
nally, imperforate, but sometimes having pustulate
orifices at various points on the surface. Wall of
test thick, with a labyrinthic structure. Aperture
variable, simple or compound. Carboniferous to
Rhetic.

HxampLte.— N. cylindrica, Brady, ‘Monograph
Carb. and Perm. Foram.’ (Pal. Soc.), 1876, p. 104, pl.
Silly a0 Vots i: eu

154 THE FORAMINIFERA

These curious little fossils are mostly found in
washings from the rotten Carboniferous limestone.
Brady compares them with Botellina, from which,
however, they differ in the finer arenaceous structure
of the test. Carboniferous. (Plate 8, fig. H.)

Genus Stacheia, Brapy.

Test adherent or free; composed of numerous
segments subdivided in their interior, or of an
acervuline mass of chamberlets, sometimes arranged
in layers, sometimes confused, or of a thick-walled
test with acervuline or labyrinthic structure, and
with the interior subdivided into numerous elongate
sinuous cavities (the latter characters especially
applying to fossils of the genus from the Rheetic).
Apertures simple but irregular, terminal, or scattered
over the surface of the test. Texture subarenaceous,
composed of fine sand, sometimes admixed with
coarser material, and with a calcareous or chitinous
cement; imperforate. Silurian to Lias.

ExampLe.—S. congesta, Brady, ‘Monogr. Carb.
and Perm. Horam, (Pol. See.) 1876; p. ii ple
Hl Seuleeeys

Of the many different modifications of this genus
the above species is taken as a simple example. It
is typically adherent, and usually grows round
certain objects of attachment. The areolation of
the shell structure and its method of growth caused
Dr. Brady to compare this species with the isomor-
phous hyaline form Gypsina inherens. Brady’s

THEH FAMILY LITUOLIDA 155

examples came from the Carboniferous limestone of
England and Scotland. The author has described
the same form from the Rhetic of Somerset.
Carboniferous. Rhetic. (Plate 8, fig. M.)

Genus Involutina, TERQUEM.

Test discoidal to conical; consisting of a coiled
tube wound spirally either in a plane or to form a
hollow cone. When conical the hollow inferior
surface is filled in with exogenous shell-growth ;
when discoidal both surfaces are thickened with
exogenous tubercles. The tube is sometimes
partitioned at intervals by incomplete septa. Aper-
ture circular or slit-like. Shell-wall more or less
perforate. Jurassic.

Exampne.—l. Remesiana, Chapman, ‘ Journ.
Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool.’ vol. xxviii. 1900, p. 29, pl.
OTS ond —C.

This form has a conical test, depressed, and
consisting of a simple coiled tube of about five
whorls; the sutures distinct. The inferior surface
is slightly convex, and covered with papille of
exogenous shell growth, excepting the last whorl,
which is marked on the periphery with distinct
furrows at right angles to the edge. ‘The test is
finely perfcrate on the inner parts of the tubes, and
calcareo-arenaceous on the outer. ‘The aperture
opens on the inferior side of the test. Upper
Jurassic (Tithonian), of Nesselsdorf, Austria. (Plate
Sigs, as 0)

156 THE FORAMINIFERA

Grnus Orbitolina, D’Orsiany.

Test conical, more or less depressed, consisting
of an external series of annular or more rarely
spiral chambers, divided into chamberlets; also a
central aggregation of compressed chamberlets, in
which the partitions are either labyrinthic or arranged
in tiers. Base of cone usually excavate. Shell-wall
fairly stout, and subarenaceous in texture. Lower
and Upper Cretaceous.

A very flat and explanate type of this genus is
the Cyclolina cretacea of D’Orbigny.

Exxampeie. —O. concava, Lamarck sp.

This is one of the largest species of the genus,
often reaching a diameter of 2 centimetres. The
external layer of chambers are in this form arranged
in an annular series, and the central group of
chamberlets are more or less acervuline. Ceno-
manian. (Plate 8, figs. J, 7-)

Genus Conulites, CARTER.

Test conical, usually steep, the height being
ereater than the width at the base. The external
series commences with a distinct spiral, which either
continues to the last coil or subsequently gives place
to an annular arrangement. The external chamber-
lets, into which the chambers are divided, are
separated by straight partitions forming rectangular
cells, and the chamberlets themselves are partially
divided by one to three short dissepiments. The
internal portion of the test is divided into curved

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 157

floors, and subdivided by secondary labyrinthic
partitions. Hocene. (?) Lower Miocene.

ExampLe.—C. egyptiensis, Chapman, ‘ Geol.
Migr, Nis3 Decade 4, vol. vii 1900; p.. 11,” pl. i:
figs. 1-3.

Test conoidal, in vertical section nearly equi-
lateral, the two sides slightly convex, straight, or
incurved in the middle of the test; base circular in
outhne, and with a shghtly convex surface ; peripheral
edge rounded. The base of the test, the homologue
of the septal face, is finely porous, or perforate.
(2?) Lower Miocene of Kgypt; constituting a large
proportion of a limestone. (Plate 8, figs. K, /.)

Genus Hndothyra, Puiuirs.

Test polythalamous; nautiloid or rotaliform ;
aperture simple, situated at the inner margin of the
final chamber. Carboniferous to Trias.

Exampte.—H. Bowman, Phillips, ‘Proc. Geol.
Tech. Soc.,’ West Riding, Yorks, vol. 1. 1845,
Paton pls vat te. I

Test depressed, usually consisting of two or three
oblique convolutions, of which but little more than
the last is visible on the exterior. Margin thick,
rounded, lobulate ; septal lmes depressed. Segments
inflated ; variable in number, usually from seven to
ten in each whorl. Aperture single, simple.

This species is usually the chief foraminiferal
constituent of the Hndothyra limestones often met
with in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, the

158 THE FORAMINIFERA

Caucasus, and Indiana. Carboniferous. (Plate 8,
figs. L, Z.)

The sub-genus bradyina, Moller, is distinguished
from Hndothyra (typica) in having a crescentic series
of pores on the septal face of the last chamber, as
well as a series of pores in the septal depressions of
the shell.

Exampite.—Bradyina nautiliformis, Moller, ‘ Mém.
Ac. Imp. Sci. St.-Pétersbourg,’ ser. 7, vol. xxv. No. 9,
1878), p: 83, pl. in. fies: 4a=d; pl. x. ns. 38a, 0 Cage
boniferous.

The sub-genus Cribrospira, Moller, is distinguished
by the cribrate orifices on the septal face of the
shell.

Exampie. — Cribrospira Panderi, Moller, ibid.
SiS, p: 87, pl iv.sties. fa—c; pla x. fies. la, bea

boniferous.

Sub-family 4. Lorrustn.

Test of relatively large size; lenticular, spherical
or fusiform; constructed either on a spiral plan or
in concentric layers, the chamber cavities occupied
to a large extent by the excessive development of
the finely arenaceous cancellated walls.

Genus Cyclammina, Bravy.

Test spiral, nautiloid ; lenticular or subelobular ;
smooth externally; chambers numerous, involute.
Pliocene and Recent.

Exampie.—C. cancellata, Brady, ‘ Quart. Journ.

THE FAMILY LITUOLIDA 159

Nicrsoc. volb xx N.S: 1S¥9; p262> Rep. “Chall”
vol. ix. 1884, p. 351, pl. xxxvii. figs. 8-16.

This is a large compressed form, with slightly
sinuous suture lines and rounded peripheral edge. The
internal structure of the first chambers is entirely can-
cellated. The apertures on the septal face consist of a
number of pores communicating with the labyrinthic
interior. In recent gatherings this species extends from
75 to 2,900 fathoms. Goés found it in the Pacific at
depths from 660 to 995 fathoms; and in the
Caribbean Sea from 196 to 1,830 fathoms. Pliocene
and Recent. (Plate 8, figs. N, 7.)

Genus Loftusea, Brapy.

Test of large size, spiral; elongated in the
direction of the axis of convolution: fusiform or
elliptical ; resembling Alveolina in contour.

ExamMpieE.—L. persica, Carpenter and Brady,
oeimilrans.- 1869) ps 739) pls: iscvirixxx,

There can be little doubt, after a careful
examination of the minute structure of this fossil,
that we are dealing with a Foraminiferon rather than
a Hydrozobn. The construction of the test agrees
in every way with Alveolina and Fusulina, and the
labyrinthic character of its walls proclaims its
affinities with Cyclammina. Tertiary, Persia. (Plate
Sues. Oo: )

160

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 8.

Thurammina papillata, Brady.» 15.

Hippocrepina indivisa, Parker (after Brady): 6, = oral aspect.
x 20.

Hormosina ovicula, Brady. «8.

Ammodiscus incertus, D’Orbigny sp. x 25.

Trochamnina litwiformis, Brady. x 14.

Carterina spiculotesta, Carter (after Brady): F = superior
aspect x50; f = a fragment of test x 100.

Webbina clavata, Parker and Jones sp. (after Goés). x 20.

Nodosinella cylindrica, Brady. * 15.

Involutina Remesiana, Chapman; I=superior surface; 7=
inferior, granulate, surface; 7’ =median, vertical section of
test. x15.

Orbitolina concava, Lamarck sp.: J = superior aspect; 7 = vertical
section through the test. Natural size.

Conulites egyptiensis, Chapman sp.: K-=superior aspect;
k: = vertical section through the test. x 23.

Endothyra Bowmant, Phillips (after Brady): /= peripheral
aspect. x 20.

Stacheia congesta, Brady. x 25.

Cyclammina cancellata, Brady: N-=lateral aspect; m= peri-
pheral aspect. x 9.

Loftusia persica, Brady and Carpenter: O = natural appearance,
cut to show internal structure; o = central portion in trans-
verse section, showing the labyrinthic shell-wall and arrange-
ment of the primary chambers. x 4.

RIGA ES:

(concluded).

1
D:

LITUOLID

Faminy IV.

M

163

CHAPTHR Xi
THE FAMILY THXTULARIITDAD

In this family the usual texture of the test is
arenaceous ; but this is by no means arule, for nearly
all the smaller species are hyaline, and in some cases
this type of shell-structure is typical of an entire
genus.

The relationships of the various types constituting
this family are very apparent from the fact that the
connecting links are numerous, and the plans of
erowth, though diverse, are of definite conformation.
The general plans on which the shells are constructed
are either as a double series of segments placed
alternately in relation to each other, and in the same
plane of growth, or as a triserial group of segments ;
in certain genera the double or triple series is spi-
rally twisted ; in others the arrangement is confused.
There is also a tendency for certain forms to take
on, at different stages, diverse lines of growth,
usually from the more complex to the simpler; as,
for example, Bigenerina, which begins with a biserial
arrangement followed by a uniserial set of segments ;
or Clavulina, which is at first triserial and afterwards
uniserial. |

The sub-family of the TExrunarun® consists of
those forms which are either biserial or triserial, and

M 2

164 THE FORAMINIFERA

which exhibit a succession of segments joined together
in a regular manner. There are modifications of these
fundamental types in which two or even three plans
of growth are seen (bimorphous and trimorphous
forms).

The larger species are arenaceous, the smaller
ones usually hyaline, and conspicuously perforate.

The sub-family Buttmmyin= includes types of
shell-structure which may be either triserial or
biserial, but spirally wound round the axis of growth.
The attenuated and feebly developed species are
usually biserial in arrangement, sometimes twisted,
sometimes not, but differing in other points when
compared with the typical textularid shell, as, for
example, in the position and shape of the aperture.

The most complex of the textularid forms are
erouped together in the next sub-family, the
CassipuLinin®. Here the plan of growth may be
explained by imagining a Vextularia coiled upon
itself, as in Cassidulina. A modification of this
plan is seen in Hhrenbergina, i which the shell is
partly unrolled, as it were; and consequently shows
a convex dorsal surface and a concave side contain-
ing the early spiral portion. The test in this group
in all cases is hyaline, and usually surface-polished.

Sub-family 1. 'TEXTULARIINA.

Test having a biserial or triserial arrangement of
chambers. Sometimes bimorphous or even tri-

morphous.

THE FAMILY TEXTULARIIDA 165

Genus Textularia, DEFRANCE.

Segments in two rows alternating with each
other ; normal aperture an arched slit at the base of
the inner wall of the last segment. Cambrian to
Recent. i

This genus is very important as a foramini-
feral type. Its distribution through almost all the
principal fossiliferous rocks is very striking, there
being hardly an instance of a foraminiferal fauna
without some representatives of the genus.

Exampites.—T’. rugosa, Reuss sp. (Plecaniwmi),
‘Sitzungsberichte d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,’ vol. lix.
HSOo APs 400, pl. 1. fe 3 a, Ob:

This species is easily recognised by the imbricated
appearance of the suture lines. It is at the present
day a familiar coral-reef species, and attains to quite
a large size. The writer has recently found speci-
mens dredged at Funafuti, in the Pacific, measuring
as much as 5 mm. in length. It is very rarely
found in deeper water than 30 fathoms. Oligocene
to Recent. (Plate 9, fig. A.)

T’. complanata, Reuss sp. (Proroporus), ‘Sitzungsb.
ole Ak Wiss. Wien, vol x 1860, pk 231, pls xa:
nes. Da, 0:

The flattened, complanate textularians have a
somewhat modified aperture, which in this particular
form appears as a circular aperture placed on a slight
prolongation of the upper margin of the last chamber.
T. complanata is a very restricted species as to age,
for it has only been recorded from Cretaceous beds,

166 THE FORAMINIFERA

in Germany and England, of about the period of the
Gault. (Plate 9, fig. B.)

Genus Cuneolina, D’OrpIGNY.

Test textularian, complanate; compressed in a
direction at right angles to the normal plane, so that
the two alternating series of segments appear on the
narrow lateral edges. Cvetaceous.

Exampie.—C. pavonia, D’Orbigny, ‘ Foram. Foss.
Vienne,’ 1846, p. 253, pl. xxi. figs. 50-52.

This interesting species is the sole representative
of the genus, and was described by D’Orbigny from
the Lower Chalk, near the mouth of the Charente.
Although the arrangement of the segments is dis-
tinctly textularian, the aperture, instead of being
shtlike, as we might expect, is represented by a row
of pores at the junction of the penultimate and
last segments. It is not unusual, however, in
other genera to find the same type exhibiting a
diversity of character in this respect. For example,
in the genus Peneroplis some of the forms which
are complanate have a similar row of pores on the
apertural plane, whilst the stouter kinds have a slit-
hike or branching orifice.

Genus Vernewilina, D’Orsteny.

Test triserial, with a textularian aperture. Lower
Cretaceous to Recent.

ExamMpLe.—V. spinulosa, Reuss, ‘ Denkschrift d.

. Ak. Wass; Wien,* vol. 1. 1849) po 347.7 le sla

ae 12 a-c.

THE FAMILY TEXTULARITIDA 167

The triserial arrangement of the segments is very
clearly seen in this species. The angles of the
segments forming the salent edges of the test
are prolonged by exogenous shell growth into spines,
which in specimens from clean and well-preserved
dredgings are sometimes of considerable length and
delicacy. Besides being found in the Chals this
species is frequent in many succeeding formations, as,
for instance, the Miocene of Austria, Bavaria, and
Malta, the Pliocene of Italy, and others of still later
age. By its occurrence in recent dredgings we find
it is most at home in depths of less than 100 fathoms.
(Plate 9, fig. D.)

Genus T'ritaxia, Reuss.

Test triserial, sometimes dimorphous, with a
simple produced central aperture. Lower Cretaceous
to Recent.

Hxampete.—T. tricarinata, Reuss, ‘ Verstein.
béhm. Kreideform.’ pt. 1. 1845, p. 39, pl. vin.
fig. 60.

This typically Cretaceous form is still represented
very sparingly in our present seas. It was an
abundant form in Upper Cretaceous times, and is
most characteristic of the Lower Greensand, the
Upper Gault, and the Chalk-Marl in England.
Lower Cretaceous to Recent. (Plate 9, fig. 1.)

Genus Chrysalidina, D’Orsieny.

Test triserial (sometimes dimorphous—that is to
say, triserial at commencement and afterwards

168 THE FORAMINIFERA

uniserial), with a porous septal face. Cretaceous.
Recent.

Exampir.—C. dimorpha, Brady, ‘ Rep. ‘“ Chall.” ’
vol. iv. 1884, p. 388, pl. xlvi. figs. 20, 21.

This is a. particularly interesting species, on
account of the dimorphous arrangement of its seg-
ments, which at first are triserial, as In Verneuzlina,
and afterwards uniserial, as in the later segments of
Clavulina. It is confined to fairly shallow water in
tropical areas. Recent. (Plate 9, fig. I.)

DinvorpHows (Textularian) Fors.
Genus Bigenerina, D’Orzteny.

Early chambers textularian ; later chambers
uniserial and rectilinear. Carboniferous to Recent.

Hxampie.—B. capreolus, D’Orbigny sp. (Vulvulina),
“Anmoc. Nat vol. vil. 1826, No. 1p) xi, teseromer
modeéle, No. 59.

An arenaceous species distinguished by its com-
pressed textularian commencement. Only the last
chamber or so in this species is simple, and associated
specimens are often found with only the textularian
portion developed. It first made its appearance in
Lower Tertiary times, and it was an abundant form on
the London Clay sea floor, where Piccadilly now
stands. In recent soundings the ‘ Challenger’ ob-
tained 6. capreolus from 350 to 675 fathoms in the
N. and §. Atlantic. Goés obtained it from the
Caribbean Sea at 300 fathoms. Tertiary. Recent.
(Plate 9, fig. G.)

THE FAMILY TEXTULARIIDA 169

Sup-Genus Siphogenerina, SCHLUMBERGER.

Test either arenaceous or hyaline, and in no
essential particular differing from Bigenerina exter-
nally, excepting in the position of the aperture ;
internally the uniserial chambers are connected by a
siphon or tube.

Exampte.—B. (Siphogenerina) Schlumbergeri,
Millett, ‘Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc.’ 1900, p. 7, pl. i.
MOG O00.

The thin hyaline test of this species shows, when
mounted in a transparent medium, the internal
siphonate tube which connects the chambers of the
later series. Mullett records this species as being
very common in the Malay Archipelago. (Plate 9,
io Ea.)

Genus Pavonina, D’Orsteny.

Early chambers small and textularian, later cham-
bers broadly arched and uniserial, forming a fan-
shaped test; aperture porous. Recent.

Exampie.—P. flabelliformis, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann.
pel Nat. vol. vil. 1826, p. 260, No. 1, pl. x. figs:
10, 11; modéle, No. 56.

This is the only species of the genus. It is a very
handsome but rare form. The principal localities
where it has been found are the West Indies, Mada-
gascar, the Seychelle Islands, the Mauritius, Ceylon,
Torres Strait, Malay Archipelago, Cocos Island, Ad-
miralty Islands, Honolulu, and the coast of Korea.
It inhabits fairly shallow water. (Plate 9, fig. I.)

170 THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Spiroplecta, WHRENBERG.

Early segments planospiral, later ones textularian,
uniserial in the latest. Lower Cretaceous to Recent.

Exampite.—S. annectens, Parker and Jones sp.
(Textularia), ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3,
vol. xi, 1863, 5p. 92, woodcut, ne: I.

This elegant species 1s more regularly formed in
the recent examples from Torres Strait and else-
where than in the Gault specimens; the latter con-
sist of fewer chambers, and there is also a tendency
for the test to run into the uniserial condition in extra
long specimens. Lower Cretaceous to Recent. (Plate
Oe)

Genus Gaudryina, D’Orpteny.

Karly segments triserial (verneuiline), later ones
textularian ; aperture either shthke, as in Vextularia,
or an orifice situated on a short terminal neck.
L. Cretaceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—G. rugosa, D’Orbigny, ‘Mém. Soc.
Géol. France,’ vol. iv. 1840, p. 44, pl. iv. figs. 20, 21.

This species is distinguished by the acutely
angular commencement of the test. Other species
have the aboral end more rounded, and consequently
the triserial beginning is more difficult to distinguish.
The recent specimens are, as a rule, more coarsely
arenaceous than those from the Cretaceous and
Tertiary strata. It inhabits fairly shallow water.
Cretaceous to Recent. (Plate 9, fig. K.)

THE FAMILY TEXTULARIIDA GL

Genus Valvulina, D’Orpieny.

Test not dimorphous, spiral, typically triserial,
with three segments or rarely more in each convolu-
tion; free or adherent; aperture partially covered by
a valvular lip. Carboniferous to Recent.

Exampeite.—V. pale@otrochus, Ehrenberg sp. (Tetra-
taxis and Textilaria), ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ 1854, pl. xxxvul.
par. xi. figs. A’, 1-4.

The valvular aperture pertaining to the genus is
well seen in the above species. In contour it
resembles V. conica, but the test is largely calcareous,
and the chambers more numerous and compressed.
Carboniferous.

DivorpHows (Valvuline) Form.

Genus Clavulina, D’Orsieny.

Early segments triserial (valvuline), later ones
uniserial and rectilinear ; test generally either cylin-
drical or trifacial; aperture valvular. Hocene to
recent,

ExamMpLe.—C. communis, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann. Sci.
Nat.’ vol. vii. 1826, p. 268, No. 4.

This species is well distributed through the princi-
pal Tertiary strata. It is found in fairly deep water
at the present day. Goés records it as occurring
from 700 to 1,400 fathoms in the Pacific, and from
20 to 1,800 fathoms in the Caribbean Sea. Hocene
to fiecent. (Plate 9, figs. M, m.)

172 THE FORAMINIFERA

Sub-fanuly 2. Bui inin®.

Test typically spiral, the weaker forms tending to
become biserial; aperture oblique, twisted, and
comma-shaped.

Genus Bulimina, D’Orsieny.

Test spiral, elongate, more or less tapering ; often
triserial. Jwrassic to Recent.

Exampirn.—B. Presli, Reuss, ‘ Verstein. bohm.
Kreidets) pt. 11845, ps 38, ply xis tess

The Cretaceous deposits furnish us with some of
the most characteristic species of the genus, and the
present one, found in the Gault and Lower Chalk, is
taken as a typical example. These forms are mainly
arenaceous in shell-structure, and for this group
Reuss proposed the name Ataxophragmium. It is
difficult in practice, however, to separate the two
series according to the structure of the shell, as they
undoubtedly assume the different characters accord-
ing to their surroundings. Cretaceous. (Plate 9,
fig NG)

Genus Virgulina, D’Orsteny.

Test much elongated, more or less tapering ;
often triserial. Lower Cretaceous to Recent.
EXXAMPLE.

V. Schreibersiana, Czjzek, ‘Haidinger’s
naturw. Abhandl.’ vol. u. 1847, p. 147, pl. xii.
KES, eo IL.

This species shows the tendency of this particular
type to assume the textularian arrangement of its

THE FAMILY TEXTULARITIDA 173

segments. In deposits forming at the present time
it is not restricted in its depth. Miocene to Recent.
(Plate 9, fig. O.)

Genus Bifarina, Parker and Jones.

This 1s a dimorphous form, in which the earlier
chambers are bulimine or bolivine and the later
ones uniserial.

ExampLte.— Bb. porrecta, Brady sp. (Bolivina),
“Ouarct, Journ. Mier. Sci N:S: vol. soa. 1881, par:
“hep. “Chall.” ” vol. ix. 18845 p. 418, pk. li. fig. 22.

This is a thin hyaline-shelled species, with more
or less coarse perforations in the shell-wall. It is
usually rare in marine dredgings, but was found in
abundance by Millett in his Malay samples. It is
never found in very deep water. Recent. (Pl. 9,
hie, P;)

Genus Bolivina, D’Orsteny.

Test distinctly biserial, arrangement Textularian.
L. Cretaceous to Recent.

Exampite.—B. texrtilarioides, Reuss, ‘ Sitzungsb.
duke Ale Wisss Wien; vol? xivi, 1862) p, Sik ple x:
ies

Of the regularly formed, few-chambered Bolivines
this species may be regarded as a central type. The
test is usually very finely arenaceous, especially the
fossil representatives. Its geological distribution
dates from the Lower Cretaceous period, and it
appears in many Tertiary beds. B. textilarioides
inhabits shallow or moderately deep water at the

174 THE FORAMINIFERA

present day, and is but rarely found in depths greater
than 900 or 1,000 fathoms. (Plate 9, fig. Q.)

Genus Mimosina, Minuet.

Test typically spiral, conical, or trochoid ; cham-
bers having a biserial or triserial arrangement.
Aperture complex, consisting of two distinct orifices,
one of them usually being a slit at the base of the
inner wall of the final chamber, the other an opening
varying in shape and situated near the apex of the
chamber ; the two orifices frequently connected
internally by means of a bent tube or septum. Shell-
wall cellular or spongy. Lecent.

ExampeLte.—M. hystrix, Millett, ‘Journ. Roy. Mier.
Soc.’ 1900, p. 549, pl. iv. fig. 14.

The test of this species is triserial in the earlier
part, afterwards becoming biserial. Double apertures,
oval, with a bordered margin. Chambers armed each
with a spine at the salent margin. Mr. Millett
found this species in abundance in the Malay Archi-
pelago. Recent. (Plate 9, fig. R.)

Genus Pleurostomella, Reuss.

Test biserial; aperture large, usually arched or
semicircular, with a notch at the middle of the lower
edge, situated at the top of the nearly erect septal
face of the last segment. Cvetaceous. Recent.

Hxampie.—P. subnodosa, Reuss, ‘ Sitzungsb. d. k.
Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xl. 1860, p. 204, pli yam:
figs. 2a, b.

The features of this species are the cylindrical

THE FAMILY TEXTULARIIDA 175

form, the short oblique sutures, and the rounded
commencement. The communication between the
chambers at their point of junction shows an atte-
nuated spouted aperture, and this is covered over by
the hoodlike prolongation formed by the succeeding
chamber.

The fossil specimens are found in some abundance
in the Gault and Chalk of N. Germany and Bohemia.
Those from the recent soundings by the ‘ Challenger ’
occur at considerable depths—namely, 1,375 to 2,350
fathoms. Cretaceous and Recent. (Plate 9, fig. S.)

Sub-family 3. CAassipuLINIne.

Test consisting of a TVextularia-like series of
alternating segments, more or less coiled upon itself.

Genus Cassidulina, D’Orsieny.

Test biserial, folded on its long axis, and coiled
more or less completely on itself; rarely dimorphous.
Lower Cretaceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—C. calabra, Seguenza sp. (Burseolina),
“Kormaz. ‘Nerz. Reggio; 1879, p. 138.) ply sant
figs. Ta, b.

Our present example is one of the more globose
of the Cassiduline, in which the suture lines are
flush with the surface of the shell. The test is
usually of a polished texture. The fossil specimens
came from Reggio, Calabria. As a recent form
Cassidulina calabra has been recorded by Dr. H. B.
Brady from Raine Islet, Torres Strait, 155 fathoms,

176

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 9.

. Textularia rugosa, Reuss sp. (after Brady). x 13.
. T. complanata, Reuss sp. (after Chapman). x 16.

. Cuneolina pavonia, D’Orbigny. c=peripheral face view, showing

arrangement of suture lines. Magnified.

. Vernewilina spinulosa, Reuss (after Brady). ~ 40.

. Tritaxia tricarinata, Reuss (Gault specimen, after Chapman). x 24.
. Chrysalidina dimorpha, Brady (after Millett). x 80.

. Bigenerina capreolus, D’Orbigny (after Brady). = 10.

. B. (Siphogenerina) Schlumbergeri, Millett. A specimen viewed

by transmitted light, to show internal arrangement. 50.

. Pavonina flabelliformis, D’Orbigny (after Brady). 80.
. Spiroplecta annectens, Parker and Jones sp. (after Brady). x 40.

. Gaudryina rugosa, D’Orbigny (Tertiary specimen, after Hantken).

x 20.

. Valvulina paleotrochus, Ehrenberg sp. Carboniferous limestone,

specimen (after Brady). x 24.

. Clavulina communis, D’Orbigny (after Brady). M, lateral aspect,

x 80; m, mouth of a larger specimen, x 22.

N. Bulimina Presli, Reuss (a Gault specimen, after Chapman). x 380.
O. Virgulina Schreibersiana, Czjzek (after Brady). x 60.

P. Bifarina porrecta, Brady sp. (after Millett). x 60.

Q. Bolivina textilarioides, Reuss (after Brady). x 55.

R. Mimosina hystrix, Millett. x 50.

S. Pleurostomella suwbnodosa, Reuss (after Brady). x 37.

T. Cassidulina calabra, Seguenza (after Brady). x 37.

U. C. (Orthoplecta) clavata, Brady. x 56.

Vi

Ehrenbergina pupa, D’Orbigny (after Brady). x 42.

PLATE 9.

TEXTULARIIDA.

Faminy VY.

THE FAMILY TEXTULARIIDA ITA)

and off Kandavu, Fiji Islands, 610 fathoms. The
writer has recently met with it in the dredgings
made by Prof. David round Funafuti, Ellice Islands,
at 50 to 60 fathoms. Upper Miocene and Recent.
(Plate 9, ig. T.)

Sus-GENus Orthoplecta, Brapy.

In this genus there is no coiling of the test, but
the segments are otherwise arranged, as in Cassv-
dulina. It bears the same relation to the type-form
as Nodosaria does to Cristellaria. Recent.

Exampie.—C. (Orthoplecta) clavata, Brady, ‘ Rep.
“Chall.” vol: 1x. 1884, p: 432; pl. cxiu. fig: 9.

This interesting but rare form was originally
found at Nares Harbour, Admiralty Islands, 17
fathoms. The writer has since obtained it from the
Funafuti dredgings at 50 to 60 fathoms. Lecent.
(Plate 9, fig. U.)

Gunus HLhrenbergina, Reuss.

Test biserial, broad, arched on the dorsal side ;
general form that of an unfolded and uncoiled Cass:-
dulina. Lower Cretaceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—LH. pupa, D’Orbigny sp. (Cassidulina),
‘Foram. Amér. Mérid.’ 1839, p. 57, pl. vii. figs. 21-23.

This is a smooth-tested form of the above genus.
Other species bear numerous spines as in Mimosina,
notably Hhrenbergina serrata and EH. hystrix. The
author has recorded it from the Aptian beds of
Surrey. Lower Cretaceous to Recent. (Plate 9, fig. V.)

N 2

180 THE FORAMINIFERA

CTIA 2xcn
THE FAMILY CHEILOSTOMELLIDAL

Onuiy four genera are at present included in this
family—namely, Hllipsoidina, Cheilostomella, Sea-
brookia, and Allomorphina.

The test is always calcareous, usually thin, and
finely perforate. The segments, of which there are
always more than one, are arranged either succes-
sively along an axis, placed alternately to one another
at either end of the test, or grouped in cycles of three.
The chambers are always more or less embracing.
The aperture is either a curved or straight slit at the
end or margin of the last segment.

Possibly the best known genus of this family is
Cheilostomella, in which the chambers are placed
alternately at either end of the long axis of the test.
The separate segments are inflated, and the shell-
walls of the chambers almost entirely conceal one
another by their embracing growth.

In Hilipsoidina the chambers are entirely embrac-
ing, and a solid shelly column runs from the top of
one chamber to the top of the succeeding one.

Allomorphina vesembles Cheilostomella in the
alternation of the position of the chambers, but the
arrangement is in a cycle of three.

THE FAMILY CHEILOSTOMELLIDA 181

Lastly, in Seabrookia, a form which has been
discovered within recent years, we have a modified
Cheilostomella, in which the chambers are not so
strongly inflated, and the aperture occupies a position
at the apex of the shell instead of at the point of
junction between the two chambers on one side of the
test.

The members of this family were first recognised
in the fossil state, and two of the genera, Cheilosto-
mella and Allomorphina, formed the family Crypto-
stegia of Reuss.

Genus LHllipsoidina, SEGUENZA.

Test uniaxial, segments oval, each springing from
the base of the previous one and entirely enveloping
it; aperture terminal. Miocene to Post-Tertiary.

Exampite.—H. ellipsoides, var. oblonga, Seguenza,
‘Fico Peloritano,’ ser. 2, vol. v. 1859, fasc. 9 (13), pl.
—, fig. 4 a, b; Brady, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.’
VOhoxive T8885 po, pl. 1. ne. 1

This form, as well as the type species, was origi-
nally described from specimens out of the Miocene
strata of Messina. Dr. Brady discovered, since then,
other examples from the late Tertiary or post-Tertiary
rocks of the Solomon Islands and from the ‘ Soap-
stone’ of Fiji.

The section of the shell shown in fig. a of pl. 10
gives the position and appearance of the peculiar
shelly pillar connected with the ends of each succes-
sive chamber. This genus has not been found in
deposits actually forming at the present day. (Plate
LOW HOS Ae d.)

182 THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Cheilostomella, Russ.

Seements oval, placed alternately at either end of
the test. Aperture a curved slit, sometimes gaping,
situated to one side, and at the junction of the
penultimate and the final chamber. In recent speci-
mens the test is thin and sparsely perforate ; in fossil
examples it is thicker and the perforations are
difficult to make out on the polished shell surface.
Tertiary (Hocene) to Recent.

Exampeie.—C. ovoidea, Reuss, ‘Denkschr. d. k.
Ak. Wiss. Wien,’ vol. i. 1850, p. 380, pl. xlvuii. figs.
WA Gee:

The figure of the recent example, reproduced from
Mr. Millett’s drawing, shows the arrangement of the
chambers rather distinctly on the outer shell surface.
The fossil specimens are as a rule more regularly
ovoid in outline, save for the apertural portion of the
shell, which is sometimes salient, or spouted. The
oldest formation in which this species appears to have
made its appearance is the London Clay ; and in the
material from Piccadilly the little egg-shaped tests
are not uncommon. It is also a characteristic fossil
in various Oligocene strata in North Germany and
Austria, in the Miocene of Vienna, and the Mzocene
and Pliocene of Calabria. It is a well-distributed
form in our existing seas. (Plate 10, fig. B.)

Genus Seabrookia, Brapy.

Test free, hyaline, perforate; composed of a
number of chambers, each enclosing, partially or

THE FAMILY CHEILOSTOMELLIDA 183

entirely, that preceding it; aperture terminal, alter-
nately at each end of the test. Recent.

Exampeie.—S. pellucida, Brady, ‘Journ. R. Micr.
Soc.’ 1890, p. 570, figs. 60, 1 a-c,2; Wright, ‘ Proc.
R. Irish Acad.’ ser. 3, vol. i. 1891, p. 476, pl. xx. fig. 5;
Millett, ‘ Journ. R. Micr. Soc.’ 1901, p..3, pl. 1. fig. 4.

The test of this species is oval and depressed,
with the two sides unequally convex, or sometimes
almost plano-convex. The aboral end is rounded,
the oral end somewhat drawn out. The peripheral
edge is acute or subcarinate, and in large specimens
serrate. The shell-wall is thin and _ transparent,
smooth and finely perforate. Aperture terminal, slit-
like with a thickened border.

The original specimens of the above form were
obtained by Mr. Harris, of Cardiff, from Captain
Seabrook, who dredged the material in the Java Seas
off Cebu at 120 fathoms. Since then it has been
obtained off Bermudas, 435 fathoms, and from the
Malay Archipelago. (Plate 10, fig. C.)

Genus Allomorphina, Reuss.

Segments alternating at three sides, so as to leave
portions of two, in addition to the final one, exposed.
Up. Cretaceous. Lecent.

HxampLe.—A. trigona, Reuss, ‘ Denkschr. k. Ak.
Wiss. Wien,’ vol. i. 1850, p.. 380, pl. xlvii. figs.
14 a-e. /

Most, if not all, of the various so-called species of
this genus may possibly belong to the one form
named above. It occurs as a fossilin the Chalk Marl

184 THE FORAMINIFERA

of Lemberg, in Galicia, and it is also distributed
through various Oligocene and Miocene strata in
Germany, Austria, and Poland. The living examples
were found south of Japan, 345 fathoms, and off
Tahiti, 620 fathoms. (Plate 10, fig. D.)

CANPi Re cul
THE FAMILY LAGEHNIDAt

Tue simplest type of shell in this family is the mono-
thalamous Lagena, which is a flask-shaped, sub-
spherical, or flattened chamber with a single orifice.
The various generic types comprised within this
family are the result of a successional growth or bud-
ding of a series of lageniform chambers joined
together in various ways and on certain definite plans.
When, for instance, the chambers are attached in a
moniliform series by their ends, we have a form like
Nodosaria; in a curved series, Marginulina; im a
spiral series, Cristellaria; in alternating double or
triple series, Polymorphina, and so on.

The type of shell-structure is the hyaline or vitre-
ous; the shell-wall is finely perforated and usually
thin. There is no trace of a double shell-wall or double
septum, as in the Rotaline and Nummuline types
of shell-structure. But although the shell-wall is
simple in its construction, it is often variously orna-
mented on the surface with hexagonal meshwork,
strong riblets, fine striz, or series of punctations,
which, however, do not show the laminar structure
seen in the exogenous shell-growth of the Rotalines
and other forms of an advanced type.

186 THE FORAMINIFERA

Many of the genera belonging to the family
Lacenip® include a large number of known specitic
types, as Nodosaria, containing about 140, and
Cristellaria about 160, well-defined forms. Their dis-
tribution as a group is very extensive throughout the
fossiliferous strata of the earth’s crust, and some of
the earliest known types belong to this group of
vitreous-shelled Foraminifera.

The sub-family Lacextya includes only one genus,
Lagena. This is typically monothalamous and pre-
sents a great variety of forms, some of which are
flask-shaped, with an extended neck-like orifice (ecto-
solenian), or having an aperture at the end of an
inverted neck, which is turned into the chamber and
concealed by the shell (entosolenian). Other species,
again, may have the flask-shaped form, but more or
less compressed on two opposite faces, and with the
normally circular aperture modified and represented
by a slithke orifice. In certain forms the orifice is
triradiate, or even star-shaped (multiradiate). These
various kinds of apertures are again met with in the
succeeding groups of the Noposaruna and the Pony-
MORPHININ 2.

The genera which constitute the sub-family of the
Noposarun#® are very important, on account of their
occurrence in considerable numbers and variety in
the argillaceo-calcareous strata laid down in the seas
of past geological times, such as those of the Lias, the
Gault, the Chalk, and certain Tertiary beds. At the
present day these Nodosarine forms are met with in
a few localities in tolerable abundance ; but they seem

THE FAMILY LAGENIDA 187

to have flourished best during the Mesozoic and
Tertiary periods.

The Nodosarines are characterised by a plan of
successional growth of lageniform chambers joimed in
a moniliform series and variously modified. In the
next sub-family, the PotyMorpHinin», the chambers
are arranged side by side, or wound spirally round a
common. axis of growth.

The fourth sub-family, the Ramuniin®, includes
two genera, which in their early stages show
affinities towards Polymorphina, but which afterwards
erow erratically and consist essentially of branching,
tubular chambers.

Sub-fanily 1. Lacentne.

Test monothalamous, hyaline, finely perforate.

Genus Lagena, WALKER and Boys.

A single-chambered shell, with either an ectoso-
lenian or an entosolenian orifice ; sometimes disto-
mous apertures at both ends. Shell-surface either
smooth or variously decorated with strizw, puncta-
tions, ridges, or polygonal meshwork. Cambrian to
Recent.

Exampires.—L. sulcata, Walker and Jacob, Adams’s
‘ Kssays,’ Kanmacher’s ed., 1798, p. 634, pl. xiv.

The present example affords one a good idea of
the typical ectosolenian and flask-shaped Lagena.
This species and its allies are often met with in the

188 THE FORAMINIFERA

shallow-water sands and dredgings off the coasts of
the British Islands and elsewhere. The geographical
distribution of this particular form is very extensive
in the seas of the present day. It is not confined to
shallow water, but has a range from the httoral zone
down to 2,750 fathoms. Svlwrian to Recent. (Plate
IMO) sales ahi)

LL. marginata, Walker and Boys, ‘Test. Min.’
ICSE To A, [Oli ale, 10, The

Of the compressed varieties of Lagena with an
entosolenian orifice this present form may be con-
sidered typical. The flange-lke border or keel varies
ereatly in width, and is sometimes so developed that
it forms an encircling wing.

L. marginata, like the preceding, has an extensive
eeographical distribution ; and is found at all depths
from shallow water down to 3,125 fathoms. Upper
Cretaceous (Gault) to Recent. (Plate 10, fig. F.)

Sub-fanily 2. Noposartna.

Test polythalamous ; straight, arcuate, or plano-
spiral.

Genus Nodosaria, LAMARCK.

Test straight or curved, circular in transverse
section; aperture typically central. Cambrian to
Recent.

Exampte.—N. Zippet, Reuss, ‘ Verstein. bohm.
Kreidef.’ pt. 1, 1845-6, p. 25, pl. vi. figs. 1-3.

Many of the true forms of Nodosaria are variously

THE FAMILY LAGENIDA 189

striated and sulcate, and the present example falls
into this group, in which the central type is N.
raphanus of Linné. N. Zippes is a characteristic
cretaceous fossil, occurring in the Gault and Chalk of
Kngland and Bohemia. It is well separated from the
type form N. raphanus by the strongly inflated
chambers and the small number of the salient
vertical costa. Cretaceous. (Plate 10, fig. I.)

Two other examples are now given of what are
often regarded as sub-generic modifications of
Nodosaria—namely, Glandulina, 1 which the test is
short and almost lageniform in outline, the earlier
chambers being vertically compressed into a shorter
space than is usual in Nodosaria, and with the later
chamber or chambers much more spacious and
inflated; and Dentalina, which is a curved nodo-
sarine form, often gracefully tapering towards the
aboral extremity.

N. (Glandulina) levigata, D’Orbigny, ‘ Ann.
Sei. Nat.’ vol. vil. 1826, p. 252, pl. x. figs. 1-3.

This species has a fairly wide range in the fossili-
ferous formation, since it first appears in the Lias of
Chellaston ; and it has been recorded under various
synonyms, from successive strata of later date. As
N. (G.) abbreviata it was described from the London
Clay of Piccadilly, and from the Miocene of Tran-
sylvania. ‘This species is well distributed in modern
seas. izas to Recent. (Plate 10, fig. G.)

N. (Dentalina) Adolphina, D’Orbigny, ‘ Foram.
Foss. Vienne,’ 1846, p. 51, pl. 11. figs. 18-20.

This pretty little species is found in some abund-

190 THE FORAMINIFERA

ance in various Tertiary deposits, such as the London
Clay (Kocene), the ‘Clavulina’ beds of Budapest
(Hocene), the Miocene of the Vienna basin, and the
Pliocene of Kar-Nicobar. It is also known from
recent soundings, but it is very rare, and apparently
confined to the Indian Ocean. Tertiary to Recent.
(Plate 10, fig. H.)

Genus Lingulina, D’Orsieny.

Test straight, compressed; aperture typically a
narrow fissure. Permian to Recent.

Exameie.—L. semiornata, Reuss, ‘ Sitz. d. k. Ak.
Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. pt. 1. 1862, p; 91, pl aae
ties. lila gb:

The chief features of the genus are well seen in
this example; the compression of the nodosarine
chambers affects the oral aperture, which is thereby
modified as a terminal slit.

L. semiornata is almost confined to the Gault
formation, and it was from a specimen of English
Gault clay sent to Prof. von Reuss by Prof. Rupert
Jones that the original examples were described. It
has lately been met with in the Aptian beds of
Surrey. Cretaceous. (Plate 10, fig. J.)

Genus Frondicularia, DEFRANCE.

Test compressed or complanate, segments shaped
like an inverted V, equitant; primordial chamber
distinct. Permian to Recent.

ExampLe.—F’. Parkert, Reuss, ‘ Sitzungsb. d. k.

THE FAMILY LAGENIDA Git

pce iVWisse Wien, vol, xiva: pina. 18625 pe QUl pl. xi
OS. (a, 0.

This genus was particularly abundant in Cretaceous
seas; the above example is a typical one from the
Gault, and it also extends its range into the Chalk.
(Plate 10, fig. K.)

Genus Rhabdogonium, Reuss.

Test straight or shghtly curved, angular or sub-
carinate, usually three- or four-sided. Las to Recent.

Exampite.—f. tricarinatum, D’Orbigny sp. (Vagi-
nulina), ‘Ann. Sci. Nat.’ vol. vii. 1826, p. 258, No. 4;
‘Modeéle,’ No. 4.

The typical examples of the above species are
confined to Tertiary strata, where it has a wide
distribution. A variety (acutangulwm, Reuss) has
been described from Lower Cretaceous beds of
Aptian age in Germany, and it also occurs in the
Gault of England.

As a recent form it is common in the North
Atlantic from shallow water down to 1,360 fathoms ;
and it also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and the
Pacific Ocean. Silvestri’s specimen (see figure)
came from the Pliocene of Sienna. Tertiary to
Recent. (Plate 10, figs. L, /.)

Genus Marginulina, D’Orsieny.

Test elongate, curved; segments circular in
section ; aperture marginal.—Cambrian to Recent.
Exampie.—WM. raricosta, D’Orbigny, ‘ Mém. Soc.

192 THE FORAMINIFERA

Geol: France,’ ser. 1, vol. iv. 1840; p. 5i5 joleer
fig. 25

The marginuline characters are well seen in this
species. ‘The test in this genus is frequently ribbed,
as in the raphanus type of Nodosaria, whilst the
smooth forms are comparable with the Dentaline
of the communis section.

M. raricosta was obtained by D’Orbigny from the
Chalk of Meudon, France. (Plate 10, fig. M.)

Genus Vaginulina, D’Orsieny.

Test elongate, compressed or complanate; septa-
tion oblique ; aperture marginal. Las to Recent.

Exampnn.—V. recta, Reuss, ‘Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak.
Wiss. Wien,’ vol. xlvi. Abth. 1, 1862, p. 48, pl. i.
sO Systy JAE TUS) voi (ay

The Jurassic and Cretaceous species of Vaginu-
lina are usually costate, and the above is a typical
example of such. The recent examples of the genus
are generally of the smooth type of shell. V. recta
was found by Reuss in the Gault Clays of North
Germany, and in that at Folkestone, whilst Berthelin
noted it from the equivalent strata in France (at
Montcley). It is also of frequent occurrence in the
Red Chalk of Speeton. Higher in the series it
occurs in the Chalk Marl of Folkestone and else-
where. Cretaceous. (Plate 10, fig. N.)

Genus Rimulina, D’Orsteny.

Test resembling a thick, somewhat rounded,
Vaginulina; septation very oblique; aperture a

THE FAMILY LAGENIDA 193

long sht down the ventral face of the final segment ;
chambers few. Lecent.

Exampte.—f. glabra, D’Orbigny, ‘ Foraminif.
Hoss. Vienne,’ 1846,)p:63) pl. xxi. fies) 5, 6:

This form is not often met with, and may
possibly be only an aberrant variety of Vaginulina.
D’Orbigny’s specimen was obtained from the Adri-
atic. Recent. (Plate 10, fig. O.)

Genus Cristellaria, LaMaRcK.

Test planospiral in part or entirely ; complanate,
lenticular, crozier-shaped or ensiform (elongate).
Upper Cambrian to Recent.

Hxampues.—C. crepidula, Fichtel and Moll sp.
(Nautilus), ‘Test. Micr.’ 1798, p. 107, pl. 19, g—.

This is a complanate and somewhat elongate
form of the genus. It is common in fossiliferous
strata dating from the Lias, and at the present day
it is found in comparatively shallow water. Las to
Recent. (Plate 10, fig. P.)

C. budensis, Hantken sp. (Robulina), ‘ Mitth.
a. d. Jahrb. k. ungar. Geol. Anstalt,’ vol. iv. 1875
@issil)sp. 58; plvii te. 1

The above species is a complanate, partially
evolute form of Cristellaria, in which the primordial
chamber is just visible in the centre of the spiral
shell. The margin is carinate or sharply flanged,
as in the central type C. cultrata, and of which there
are many varieties. C. budensis was obtained from
the Clavulina-szaboi beds of Budapest, of Hocene age.
(Plate 10, fig. Q.)

194

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 10.

Ellipsoidina ellipsoides, var. oblonga, Seguenza: a, section of
test showing internal arrangement of chambers (after Brady).
x 20.

Cheilostomella ovoidea, Reuss (after Millett). x 50.

Seabrookia pellucida, Brady: test as it appears by transmitted
light. x 100.

Allomorphina trigona, Reuss (after Brady). 55.
Lagena sulcata, Walker and Jacob (after Brady). x 40.
L. marginata, Walker and Boys (after Brady). x 30.

Nodosaria (Glandulina) laevigata, D’Orbigny (after Neugeboren).
x 20.

N. (Dentalina) Adolphina, D’Orbigny (after Sherborn and Chap-
man). x 20.

N. Zipper, Reuss (after Chapman). x 30.
Lingulina semiornata, Reuss: j, oral aspect. ~ 60.
Frondicularia Parkert, Reuss (after Chapman). «x 80.

Rhabdogonium tricarinatum, D’Orbigny sp. (after Silvester) :
l, oral aspect. x 50.

Marginulina raricosta, D’Orbigny. Magnified.
Vaginulina recta, Reuss (after Berthelin). x 50.
Rimulina glabra, D’Orbigny.

Cristellaria crepidula, Fichtel and Moll sp. Magnified.
C. budensis, Hantken sp. x 10.

Amphicoryne parasitica, Schlumberger. 30.
Lingulinopsis bohemica, Reuss: s, oral aspect.
Flabellina rugosa, D’Orbigny (after Reuss). x 16.
Amphimorplhina striata, Reuss. Magnified.

Dentalinopsis subtriquetra, Reuss. Magnified.

PEATE 10:

CTS
SCE

a

Famity VI. CHEILOSTOMELLIDA; anv

LAGENIDA.

Famity VII.

THE FAMILY LAGENID/A bo

DiworpHous GENERA.

Genus Amphicoryne, SCHLUMBERGER.

Harly chambers Cristellarian, later ones Nodo-
sanian. ecent.

HxampLe.—A. parasitica, Schlumberger, ‘ Mém.
Soc. Zool. France,’ vol. v. 1892, p. 197, pl. vil. figs.
10-12.

This is an intermediate form between Cristellaria
and Dentalina. The commencement of the shell
resembles Cristellaria crepidula. The original
examples were dredged by the Prince of Monaco
in the Azores at 71 fathoms. (Plate 10, fig. R.)

Genus Lingulinopsis, Reuss.

Karly chambers Cristellarian, later ones Lingu-
line.

Exampie.—L. bohemica, Reuss ; Reuss’s ‘ Model,’
No. 30, 1865.

A compressed marginuline form with the aperture

shtlike and terminal.
Reuss’s specimen came from the Chalk of
Bohemia. (Plate 10, fig. 8.)

Genus labellina, D’Orpieny.

Karly chambers Cristellarian, later ones Frondi-
cularian. Lias to Recent.

HxampLe.—F’, rugosa, D’Orbigny, ‘Mém. Soc.
Geol. France,’ vol. iv. 1840, p. 23, pl. i. figs. 4,
a, and 7.

198 THE FORAMINIFERA

This is a typical example of the peculiar di-
morphous form referred to as Llabellina. It is
almost essentially a Cretaceous genus, but it occurs
sparingly in certain Tertiary deposits, and aberrant
forms of Frondicularia are still found in the living
condition which resemble this dimorphic type of
organism. ‘The present species, £’. rugosa, is well
known from Cretaceous strata. (Plate 10, fig. T.)

Genus Amphimorphina, NwvuGEBOREN.

Early chambers Frondicularian, later ones Nodo-
sarian. Cretaceous and Tertiary.

ExaMpLe.—A. striata, Reuss, ‘Sitzungsb. d. k.
Ak. Wiss» Wien,’ vol. xlvi. Abth. 1, 1862 (1868),
10s (DM pally sie takes ty

Reuss’s example was obtained from the Upper
Hils Clay of Northern Germany. The only other
known species, 4A. Haueriana, Neugeboren described
from the Miocene of Transylvania, and Karrer has
recorded it from the Miocene of the Vienna Basin.
(Plate 10, fig. U.)

GENUS Dentalinopsis, Reuss.

Early chambers Rhabdogonian, later ones Nodo-
sarian (Dentaline). Lower Cretaceous.

Exampin.—D. subtriquetra, Reuss, ‘ Sitzungsb.
d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,’ vol. xlvi. Abth. 1, 1862
(1863), peor, pls v. tes. 07a. 0:

At the earlier part of the shell this form re-
sembles a triangular Dentalina. Reuss found his

THE FAMILY LAGENID/ 199

specimens in the Middle Hils Clay of North Ger-
many (Aptian stage). (Plate 10, fig. V.)

Sub-family 3. PoLyMorRPHININ#é.

Segments arranged spirally or irregularly around
the long axis; rarely biserial and alternate.

Genus Polymorphina, D’Orsieny.

Segments biserial or triserial or irregularly spiral.
Aperture radiate. Trias to Recent.

ExampLe.—P. gibba, D’Orbigny, ‘ Ann. Sci. Nat.’
vol. vil. 1826, p. 266, No. 20; — Modele, No. 63.

This species has an almost globular test, generally
with three chambers visible on one of the surfaces.
The suture lines are only faintly marked on the
shell-surface.

P. gibba first makes its appearance as a fossil in
beds of Oolitic age, and it is found in all succeeding
formations to the present day. It is a well-distributed
species both geographically and _ bathymetrically.
(Plate 11, fig. A.)

DivorpHous Form.
Grnus Dimorphina, D’Orsieny.
Karly chambers Polymorphine, later ones Nodo-
sarian.
Hxameie.—D. tuberosa, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann. Sci.
Nat.’ vol. vii. 1826, p. 264, No. 1; Modéle, No. 60.
The shell of this species is elongate, subeyhndrical,

200 THE FORAMINIFERA

and straight. Anterior end acuminate; posterior
obtuse and rounded. LEarly alternating chambers
vary in number; later, uniserial chambers two to six
in number, more or less inflated. Surface smooth.
The fossil specimens of the above form were found
in the Tertiary beds of Italy, Spain, of the Vienna
Basin, and East Anglia. It is also noted from the
Mediterranean at depths not exceeding 100 fathoms.
(Plate 11, fig. B.)

Genus Uvigerina, D’Orsieny.

Segments arranged in a more or less regular spire
round the long axis of the shell, rarely biserial.
Aperture single, usually surrounded by a phialine
hip: often forming a prolonged terminal tube.

In this genus the surface of the test is frequently
ornamented either with strize, cost, prickles, or
spines. Hocene to Recent.

ExampLte.—U. pygmea, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann. Sci.
Nat.’ vol. vu. 1826, p. 269, pl. xi1. figs. 8, 9; Modéle,
No. 67.

This species is one of. the strong-ribbed modifi-
cations, with a broadly ovate test. As a fossil it is
common in all the later Tertiary (Neogene) deposits.
In modern seas it is a well-distributed species, and
ranges from shallow water to 2,600 fathoms. Goés’s
specimens came from the west coast of Scandinavia
at depths of 11 to 49 fathoms. Miocene to Recent.
(Plate 11, fig. C.)

THE FAMILY LAGENIDA 201

DimorpHous Form.

Genus Sagraina, D’Orsteny, emended by Parker and
JONES.

Early segments Uvigerine, later ones Nodosarian.
Eocene to Recent.

ExampLte.—S. striata, Schwager (Dimorphina),
‘Novara-Exped., geol. Theil,’ vol. 11. 1866, p. 251,
leva. tie, 99.

The typical Uvigerine commencement is distinctly
seen in this species.

Asarecent form S. striata seems confined to tropi-
cal areas, and ranges in its depth from quite shallow
water to 350 fathoms. The fossil examples were
obtained from the Eocene beds of Hungary, the
Miocene.of Malta, and the Pliocene of Kar Nicobar.
Hocene to Recent. (Plate 11, fig. D.)

Sub-family 4. RaMuULININ”E.

Test commencing with an imperfectly segmented
series of chambers, sometimes resembling to a certain
extent the simpler forms of Polymorphina, to which
genus the present group bears some affinities ; after-
wards branching irregularly and taking the form of
subspherical chambers united by long and slender
stoloniferous tubes, or a series of pyriform chambers
with or without intermediate stoloniferous tubes.

Genus Ramulina, Rupert Jones.

Test branching, composed of spherical or pyriform

202 THE FORAMINIFERA

chambers connected by long stoloniferous tubes.
Jurassic to Recent.
R. globulifera, Brady.

This species, which may be taken as typical of
the free-growing forms, is distinguished by its

EXAMPLE.

branching test, composed of irregular subglobular
chambers, connected by slender curved or straight
stoloniferous tubes, and which radiate from the
chambers. Segments internally septate, but only in
an imperfect manner. ‘Texture hyaline, finely per-
forate. Surface of test hispid or aculeate, but not
so coarsely as in the cretaceous species ft. aculeata.

Rh. globulifera has been recorded as a fossil under
various names from the Middle Jurassic of Poland
and Switzerland, the Aptian beds of Surrey, the
Gault of France and England, and from various
Tertiary beds, as the London Clay, and the Pliocene
of Italy. It occurs at moderate depths in the seas
of the present day. Jurassic to Recent. (Plate 11,
fig. H.)

Genus Vitriwebbina, CHAPMAN.
4)

Test adherent, consisting of a series of hemi-
spherical or elliptical chambers, gradually increasing
in size and usually arranged in a curvilinear manner.
The commencing segment sometimes exhibits a poly-
morphine septation. Shell finely perforate, translu-
cent or dull. Surface of the test smooth or minutely
tuberculate. Aperture a simple crescentic space
situated between the inferior margin of the shell

THE FAMILY LAGENIDZ 203

and its object of attachment, at the termination of
the last chamber. Cretaceous.

Exampie.—V. levis, Sollas sp. (Webbina), ‘ Geol.
Mag.’ Dec. 2, vol. iv. 1877, pp. 103, 104, pl. vi. figs.
1-3.

The test of this species is smooth and glossy in
appearance. ‘The segments, which are hemispherical
or ovoid, are joined to form a short series; adherent
to fragments of rolled phosphatic chips or shells, and
usually found in hollows or recesses in such frag-
ments, as 1f for protection.

V. levis is found sparingly in various Cretaceous
beds, as the Marl of New Jersey, the Gault of Folke-
stone, the Greensand of Cambridge, and the Chalk-
marl of Kent. (Plate 11, fig. F.)

204 THE FORAMINIFERA

CHAPTER XIV
THE FAMILY GLOBIGERINIDA

Tue group of Foraminifera which constitutes the
above family is not, hke most of the preceding
divisions, separable into a closely connected and pro-
eressive series of forms, but the various genera have
many features in common with the whole group, and
the phenomena of isomorphism amongst species of
different genera is often very marked. The greater
number of the members of the GnopicERINIp® are
pelagic or surface-living organisms.

The salient characters of the group are a test
which is never attached; a perforate shell-wall very
variable in thickness even in the same genus;
chambers few, inflated, arranged spirally ; aperture
single or multiple, conspicuous. ‘There is no supple-
mentary skeleton nor canal system.

With regard to the isomorphism of the various
species, mention may be made of Globigerina bulloides
with Candeina nitida, Globigerina conglobata with
Spheroidina bulloides and Pullenia obliquiloculata
and Globigerina equilateralis with Hastigerina pela-
gica and Pullenia quinqueloba. The genus Globigerina
has some isomorphous types corresponding even with

THE FAMILY GLOBIGERINIDA 205

certain forms of the next family, the Roranups, as
Globigerina cretacea and Discorbina rugosa.

Genus Globigerina, D’Orsteny.

Test coarsely perforate; trochoid, rotaliform, or
symmetrically planospiral; segments few, inflated ;
pelagic specimens spinous. Cambrian to Recent.

Exampies.—G. bulloides, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann. Sci.
Nat, vok vir 1826, p. 277, No. 1: * Modéles.? No. 17
and No. 76.

The size of the test in this species varies greatly.
The British specimens are usually one-fifth the dia-
meter of good typical examples from mid-ocean.
It is found in every sea, and certain deep-sea
deposits are often chiefly composed of the shells of
this type-form. Undoubted examples are recorded
from strata of Lower Cretaceous age, and it is
well distributed throughout almost all Tertiary de-
posits up to the present time. The Pliocene speci-
mens more nearly approach the recent examples
in point of size.

Fig. H shows the appearance of the test when
obtained from bottom oceanic deposits. (Plate 11,
Hgste EL /.)

G. bulloides, var. triloba, Reuss, ‘ Denkschr. d. k.
Akad. Wiss. Wien,’ vol. i. 1849, p. 374, pl. xlvii.
fig. 11 a-e.

This is a three-chambered variety with an almost
invisible spire, which is found associated with the
typical G. bulloides. Fig. G represents a surface

206 THE FORAMINIFERA

specimen of this variety, in which the slender spines
are still attached. (Plate 11, fig. G.)

Genus Orbulina, D’Orpteny.

Test having the external form of a single spherical
chamber with two sorts of perforations, large and
small; pelagic specimens often with a thin shell-wall
and radiating spines.

Exampie.—O. wiiversa, D’Orbigny, ‘ Foram. Cuba,’
JUSS), joe Br, oll i, aaveg, Ile

This consists of a spherical chamber, sometimes
modified by showing a bilobation or protuberance on
one side. Usually the interior, especially in the thin-
shelled pelagic forms, contains a small Globigerina-
like series of chambers fastened to one side of the test.
Tt has been considered by some Rhizopodists that this
genus is only of quasi-generic value, and that it is a
reproductive stage of the typical Globigerina. It is
a very common form in all surface dredgings, and the
tests often constitute a large proportion of the Globi-
gerina oozes accumulating at the present time.
(? Cambrian.) Lias to Recent. (Plate 11, fig. I.)

Genus Hastigerina, WyvitLe THomson.

Test regularly nautiloid, involute ; shell-wall thin,
finely perforated; armed with long serrate spines.
Aperture a large crescentiform opening at the base of
the last chamber. Essentially pelagic. Recent.

Exampie.—H. pelagica, D’Orbigny sp. (Nonionina),
‘Foram. Amér. Meérid.’ 1839, p. 27, pl. i. figs. 13,
14.

THE FAMILY GLOBIGERINIDA 207

This is a thin-shelled form, consisting of a nauti-
loid spire, subglobular, or compressed bilaterally, with
unbilical depressions, and a lobulated margin. The
specimens ordinarily obtained from deep-sea deposits
are imperfect, showing only the bases of the spines
which in the living condition beset the surface of the
test. Sir John Murray, in referring to the appear-
ance of this interesting form when alive, says: ‘ At
times calcareous Foraminifera occur in vast numbers
on the surface, and with a bottle can be picked up
from a boat. In one specimen thus procured the
sarcode of the animal was found thrown out into
bubble-like extensions between the spines of the
shell, and over these expansions of the sarcode and
along the spines the pseudopodia moved freely and
rapidly.’

H. pelagica is by no means a common form in
ordinary dredgings, but from surface dredgings speci-
mens are often procured in considerable numbers.
(Plate 11, fig. J.)

Genus Pullenia, PARKER and JONES.
>)

Test regularly or obliquely nautiloid and involute ;
segments only slightly ventricose. Shell-wall very
finely perforated ; aperture a long curved slit close to
the line of union of the last segment with the
previous convolution. Cretaceous to Recent.

Exameie.—P. spheroides, D’Orbigny sp. (Nonio-
mina), ‘Ann. Sci. Nat.’ vol. vil. 1826, p. 293, No. 1;
‘Modele,’ No. 45.

The shell is subglobular, with a smooth or even

908 THE FORAMINIFERA

polished surface. The perforations of the test are
very minute; Dr. Brady gives as their approximate
diameter 3545, Of an inch (0001 mm.) It first
makes its appearance as a fossil in the Chalk-mazrl,
and continues through many formations of succeed-
ing age to the present time. It is now a widely dis-
tributed form in deep-sea deposits. (Plate 11, figs.
Keo)

Genus Spheroidina, D’Orsieny.

Segments few, coiled so as to form a_ nearly
elobular shell; aperture arched ; sometimes partially
closed with a valvular tongue. Cvetaceous to Recent.

Kxampie.—S. bulloides, D’Orbigny, ‘ Ann. Sci.
Nat.’ vol. wi. 1826, p. 267, No. 1 ; ‘ Modéle,’ No. 65.

The test of this species is nearly spherical, but
somewhat flattened at the umbilical axis. The
chambers to a certain extent embrace the earlier part
of the shell, so that only the last three or four cham-
bers—practically the last convolution—are visible.

In the fossil state S. bulloides first makes its
appearance in the Gault of Folkestone. It has also
been found in the Chalk of Meudon, France, and of
the Island of Riigen, and it is a well-known and widely
distributed species in the faunas of the Tertiary beds
of Europe generally. At the present time it is found
from the coast of Norway to the Southern and Indian
Oceans, and at almost every depth where Foramini-
fera are obtained. It has not yet been ascertained
whether this species is pelagic. Cretaceous to Recent.
(Blae Wilts: 1G)

THE FAMILY GLOBIGERINIDAi 209

Genus Candeina, D’Orpieny.

Test trochoid ; segments inflated ; shell-wall thin,
finely perforated. Apertures consisting of rows of
pores along the septal lines. Recent.

Exampie.—C. nitida, D’Orbigny, ‘ Foram. Cuba,’
sade. td pl. me hes, 27, 28:

This pelagic form is widely diffused, but is by no
means common. It has occurred in the N. Atlantic,
to the 8. of the Canaries,and in the shore sands of
Cuba and Jamaica. It has also been found in the
S. Atlantic and in the N. and S. Pacific Oceans.
At Funafuti, in the S. Pacific, it has lately been found
in dredgings from depths of 50 to 60 and 200 fathoms.
(Plate 11, figs. M, m.)

210

Ke k.
Th.
My.

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 11.

Polymorphina gibba, D’Orbigny (after Goés). x 16.

Dimorphina tuberosa, D’Orbigny. « 25.

Uvigerina pygmea, D’Orbigny (after Goés). « 12.

Sagraina striata, Schwager (after Brady). x 30.

Ramutlina globulifera, Brady. x 35.

Vitriwebbina levis, Sollas sp. x 17.

Globigerina bulloides, D’Orbigny, var. triloba, Reuss ; surface
specimen, with spines. x 50.

G. bulloides, D’Orbigny: h, oral aspect of another specimen. x 46.

Orbulina universa, D’Orbigny : pelagic specimen. x 25.

Hastigerina pelagica, Wyville Thomson. x 27.

Pullenia spheroides, D’Orbigny sp.: k, oral aspect. = 35.

Spheroidina bulloides, D’Orbigny. « 14.

Candeina nitida, D’Orbigny : m, inferior surface. x 1S.

PEAR H Ae

eS

= SAS

3 Vase -
2

2 Se >,

ae

Sy oegge

—

LAGENID<E (concluded); AND

Faminty VII.

GLOBIGERINID,

Famity VIII.

ia

+

CHAPTER, XV
THE FAMILY ROTALIIDA

THe shell-structure of the Foraminifera constituting
the Family Roratimp# is essentially calcareous, hya-
line, and perforate. The tests are sometimes found
adherent to other objects, but are more usually
free. Their chief character is the rotaline or spiral
form of the shell; and the coil is generally asym-
metrical. To this method of growth there are some
exceptions, as in the acervuline genera, like Planor-
bulina and Gypsina, but which, however, show their
relationship to the more typical members of the
family by their rotaline contour in the earlier stages
of growth, occasionally only in those chambers formed
in the embryonic condition.

The typical appearance of a Rotaline form is a
spiral series of chambers so arranged that on one
face, the superior, we have all the chambers visible ;
whilst on the other, the inferior face, only those of
the last whorl are seen. The aperture is usually
situated on this inferior surface.

The more advanced types of shell-structure in
this family consist in the presence of a double wall
to the chambers. There is sometimes a redundant
erowth of shell-structure also present, which chiefly

214 THE FORAMINIFERA

serves to strengthen or otherwise fortify the shell,
called the supplemental skeleton, and these extra
layers and the shell-wall proper are frequently
traversed by a system of interseptal canals.

In the Sprrinninin= we have an example of
perhaps the simplest type of shell, consisting as it
does of an open and coiled tube without any septa-
tion. In the conical modifications of this generic
group we seem to see the relationship between this
type and the genus Patellina of the next sub-family.

In the Rorarunm the typical Patellina is an
irregularly coiled shell forming a cone, in which the
spiral portion at the commencement is sometimes
non-septate, but this is immediately succeeded by a
septate, or imperfectly septate, tube. The genus
Cymbalopora proceeds a stage farther ; the chambers
are at first spirally arranged, but afterwards grow
in a concentric manner; and the chambers have
an oblique septation somewhat similar to that seen
in the later whorls of Patellina. On the other
hand Cymbalopora, especially the outspread modifi-
cations, shows some relationship with Planorbulina.
The typical rotaline shells are comprised in the
genera Discorbina, Truncatulina, Pulvinulina, and
Rotalia; and these, being mainly distinguished by
the nature of their shell-structure, present an in-
teresting series of isomorphous species.

In the apparently aberrant genera Rupertia and
Carpenteria the affinity to the Rotalines proper may
be seen in their earlier chambers, which are arranged
as in Truncatulina. The sub-family of the Trvo-

THE FAMILY ROTALITIDA 215

PORINE embrace a number of somewhat aberrant
forms, which, although in their earliest chambers
distinctly rotaline, are sooner or later modified in
their plan of growth, and increase in size by the
addition of numerous chamberlets, somewhat ir-
regularly disposed in relation to one another (acer-
vuline).

Sub-family 1. SPrRIuLINne.

Test spiral, non-septate.

Genus Spirdllina, WHRENBERG.

Test a complanate, plano-spiral, or conoidal non-
septate tube; free or attached. Upper Cambrian to
Recent.

ExampLe.—S. vivipara, Ehrenberg, ‘ Abhandl. k.
Akad. Wiss.’ Berlin, 1841, p. 442, pl. 11. fig. 41.

This is a delicate little species, usually free but
sometimes found attached to marine objects, as sea-
weed. It is very extensively distributed, and occurs
usually in fine muddy deposits of less than 150
fathoms. As a fossil it has been noted from various
strata dating from Miocene times. Miocene to Recent.

(Plate 12, fig. A.)

Sub-family 2. Rorantns.

Test spiral, Rotaliform, rarely evolute, very rarely
irregular or acervuline.

216 THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Patellina, WILLIAMSON.

Test conical, consisting of an external layer of
spirally arranged or annular chambers divided into
chamberlets ; the interior of the cone filled either
with hyaline shell-substance or by an aggregation of
compressed chambers. Lower Cretaceous to Recent.

It seems advisable to restrict this genus to the
hyaline forms, and to retain the generic terms
Orbitolina and Conulites for the subarenaceous
fossils, which are nevertheless morphologically similar
to the above genus.

Examete.—P. corrugata, Williamson, ‘ Recent
Foram. Gt. Britain,’ 1858, p. 46, pl. i. figs. 86-89.

It is interesting to note that this identical
species, held to be a degenerate form of the sub-
arenaceous type Orbitolina, was existing in the seas
of the Lower Cretaceous period at the same time as
the larger morphological types, as evidenced by its
occurrence in the prolific fauna of the Bargate stone
series in Surrey. This interesting little species
is distinguished from the larger fossil forms by its
clear hyaline shell-structure. Like the preceding
genus, Spirillina, it seems most at home in fairly
shallow water. Aptian to Recent. (Plate 12, figs.
1B), Oy)

Genus Cymbalopora, Hacrnow.

Test more or less trochoid or complanate.
Seements of the trochoid forms spiral at the
apex, subsequently arranged concentrically round

EEE EAMG Y. TR OUWATS ED An, 217

a deep umbilical vestibule with which each chamber
communicates by a neck. Complanate forms with
a row of pores along the septal depressions of the
inferior surface. Pelagic type with large inflated
chamber covering the base of the shell. Upper Cre-
taceous to Recent.

Exampite.—C. Poeyi (D’Orbigny), (Rosalina),
ehoram.Cuba, 1839) p. 100; plains iss. 13220:

This is a common species in the coral sands of
low latitudes. It appears to be commonest in
shallow water, but 1s found down to a depth of over
600 fathoms. Some of the varieties of this form are
often found growing attached to seaweed. In fresh
specimens the test, especially the apical portion, is
stained a deep brown or purplish red, with the
sarcode. Recent. (Plate 12, fig. C.)

Prnacic Type.

CU. (Tretomphalus) bulloides (D’Orbigny), ‘ Foram.
Cuba,’ 1839, p. 104, pl. i. figs. 2—5.

The chief difference in this form is the large
inflated chamber which is developed from the
inferior surface of the test of an ordinary Cymbalo-
pora of the variety squwamosa.

This pelagic modification 1s particularly interest-
ing on account of the frequent occurrence of
embryonic shells lying within the balloon-like
chamber, and which are liberated through an ento-
solenian orifice. Recent. (Plate 12, fig. D.)

218 THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Discorbina,, Parker and JonEs.

Test free or adherent, Rotaliform ; plano-convex
or trochoid, rarely complanate ; aperture an arched
sht, often protected by an umbilical flap—the flaps
sometimes forming a whorl of subsidiary chambers.
Shell-texture somewhat coarsely porous. Lower
Cretaceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—D. patelliformis, Brady, ‘ Rep. “Chall.”
vol. ix. 1884,-p. 647, pl. Ixxxvill. fig. 3 a—c; spk

Ibexercbeg lees Tei aop

This neatly btult species is characteristic of the
genus. ‘The lower surface of the test shows the
eranulated surface or exogenous shell-layer, which
in some species presents the form of sutural thicken-
ings along the radial margins of the chambers, the
astral arrangement of which gave rise to the quasi-
generic group the Asterigerine.

D. patellifornis has occurred in the Pacific, and
from the shores of Ceylon, Madagascar, the Mauritius,
Malta, and South Australia. It is chiefly confined
to shallow water. Recent. (Plate 12, figs. H, e.)

Genus Planorbulina, D’Orsieny.

Test normally adherent; compressed or com-
planate segments very numerous; commencing
erowth on a spiral plan, but subsequently becoming
more or less cyclical; the lipped apertures of the
individual segments opening externally at the
periphery. Aberrant varieties often wild-growing

THE FAMILY ROTALITIDAL 219

and irregular, sometimes acervuline. Shell-wall
coarsely porous.

The granulate discoidal forms lately described
from Cebu, Philippines, by Schlumberger, under the
name of Linderina, may belong to this type of
Foraminifera. Tertiary to Recent.

HixampLe.—P. larvata, Parker and Jones, ‘ Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. v. 1860, p. 294 ;
Seis trans. “vols “cly., Usbow ps 3195. pls) sane
HSS, od, OV:

This parasitic form is usually of a regularly
discoidal shape, and is characterised by the acervu-
line centre, with the marginal ring of apertural
chambers. It is often abundant in sands of coral
areas. Recent. (Plate 12, fig. F.)

Genus Truncatulina, D’Orpieny.

Test free or adherent, Rotaliform; the inferior
face generally more convex than the superior. Shell-
wall coarsely porous ; surface sometimes tuberculated,
especially in old shells. Aperture a curved slit at
or near the superior margin of the inner edge of the
final segment, sometimes with a phialine neck and~
lip. In one instance the aperture is compound,
peripherical (epistomine), and normal. Carboniferous
to Recent.

Exampte.—T'. lobatula, Walker and Jacob sp.
(Nautilus), Adams’s ‘ Essays,’ Kanmachey’s ed., 1798,
p. 642, pl. xiv. fig. 36.

Of the plano-convex types of Truncatulina this 1s
perhaps the most characteristic form, and it is

220 THE FORAMINIFERA

certainly the best known. It is abundant in almost
every shore-sand, and is found increasing in rarity
down to 3,000 fathoms.

7’. lobatula is often found adherent to marine
fragments, and it sometimes covers its test with
a nidus of loosely agglutinated sand; possibly a tenta-
tive experiment in view of becoming an arenaceous
foraminifer. Carboniferous to Recent. (Plate 12,
figs. G, 9.)

Genus Anomalina, Parker and Jonzs.

Characters similar to those of Truncatulina,
except that the two faces are more nearly alike, the
general contour being biconcave or subnautiloid, and
the whorls more or less evolute. Lower Cretaceous
to Recent.

ExaMpLE—A. grosserugosa, Giimbel sp. (Trun-
catulina), ‘ Abhandl. d. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.’ Cl. m1.
vol. x. 1868, p. 660, pl. 11. figs. 104 a, 6.

The present example has a stoutly built test,
with fewer chambers than in some other species of
this genus, and the perforations are very conspicuous.
As a fossil its earliest appearance is in the Bargate
beds of Surrey. It is well distributed in modern
deep-sea deposits, both as to depth and _ locality.
Lower Cretaceous to Recent. (Plate 19, figs. H, h.)

Genus Carpenteria, Gray.

Test adherent, in the smaller forms or young
stage spiral; convex, monticular, cylindrical, or

THE FAMILY ROTALIIDA 221

branching ; segments more or less inflated, some-
times irregularly or sinuously disposed, in the
smaller forms spreading radially or superimposed
vertically ; aperture at the apex of the final segment,
or when compound situated in prolonged simple or
arborescent tubes. Canal system, when present,
rudimentary. Cretaceous to Recent.

The examples referred by Roemer, Goldfuss, and
Reuss to the genus Thalamopora, and which have
been well illustrated by the latter author, are
without doubt referable to Carpenteria. They
represent a cylindrical modification of the genus.

ExampeLes.—C. balaniformis, Gray, * Proc. Zool.
Soc. Lond.’ vol. xxvi. 1858, p. 269, figs. 1-4.

This, the smallest form of the present genus, is
usually found in considerable numbers where it occurs.
It is often attached to corals, the surfaces of which
are sometimes dotted over quite numerously with
the little barnacle-shaped tests. It is usually asso-
ciated with other species of adherent Foramini-
fera found in common with this one, in tropical seas.
Recent. (Plate 12, fig. L.)

C. proteiformis, Goés, ‘K. Svenska Vet. Akad.
andlmear, vol: sax. No. 4 (1882) p. 94, pl vit
figs. 208-214, pl. vii. fig. 215-219.

The above is a few-chambered form of upright
erowth. As its name implies, it 1s very variable in
shape. Fig. J is typical of the species. Goés found
this form in the Caribbean Sea at 300 fathoms, and
it has since been found in the lagoon of the Funafuti
Atoll, Ellice Islands. Recent. (Plate 12, fig. J.)

bo
bo
bo

THE FORAMINIFERA

Genus Rwpertia, WaLuicH.

Test columnar, growing attached by a slightly
spreading base; segments numerous, — spirally
arranged ; aperture at the inner margin of the
terminal segment. Lecent.

HxampLte.—fi. stabilis, Wallich, ‘Ann. and Mag.
Natelist= ser 4 volyxax 1S 15a. OOL apple xexe

This species exists in great abundance in the
colder area of the Farde Channel, in 632 fathoms.
It has been found in other localities, but very
sparingly. Recent. (Plate 12, fig. K.)

Genus Pulvinulina, Parker and JoNgEs.

Test Rotaliform, superior side usually thickest ;
shell with rare exceptions very finely porous;
segments fewer in number than in the other
Rotanun®. Shell-thickening usually taking the form
of external sutural limbation. Aperture typically a
large slit at the base of the umbilical margin of the
last segment, often irregular both as to form and
position; sometimes with a second slitlke aperture
at the peripheral angle of the segments, chiefly found
in the group of the P. elegans type (Hpistomina). Face
of the terminal segment sometimes inflated and
studded with larger perforations. Some species
pelagic. Carboniferous to Recent.

Exampte.—P. Menardii, D’Orbigny sp. (fotalia),
‘Ann. Sei. Nat.’ vol. va: 1826; p. 273, Now 26.
‘Modele,’ No. 10.

This is an abundant species in certain pelagic

TEE PANES ROAD AL 223

deposits of the present day, where it often constitutes
the larger proportion of the material. It is widely
distributed in its geographical range both north and
south of the equator. Its geological occurrence
commences in the Chalk-marl, and it is found at many
horizons in Tertiary strata. (Plate 12, figs. L, J, U’.)

Genus Rotalia, LAMARCK.

Test Rotaliform, shell-wall very finely porous ;
with an exogenous deposit in the form either of
embossed septal lines or of granulation of the sutures
near the umbilicus. Aperture a neatly arched slit,
nearly median. Larger species have double septa
and a system of interseptal canals. Lower Cretaceous
to Recent.

Exampin.—fh. Soldaniw, D’Orbigny sp. (Rotaliina),
‘Ann. Sci. Nat.’ vol. vil. 1826, p. 278, No.5; ‘ Modeéle,’
No. 36.

The shell of this species exhibits the extreme
type of the plano-convex Rotalie. R. Soldanii is
widely distributed in our modern seas, and occurs
most frequently at depths between 1,000 and 2,000
fathoms. The type-form first makes its appearance
in strata of Eocene age, whilst the variety nitida has
been recorded from beds as old as the Gault. (Plate
12, figs. M, ™m.)

Genus Calcarina, D’OrBIenyY.

Test Rotaliform, lenticular; periphery furnished
with radiating (sometimes branching) spines ; supple-
mental skeleton and canal system very largely
developed. Chalk to Recent.

224 THE FORAMINIFERA

Hxampue.—C. hispida, Brady, ‘ Proc. R. Irish
Acad. ser. 2, voli i. 1876; 7p: 590; “ikep, “Challe
vol. ix. 1884, p. 713, pl. cvim. figs..8; 9)

This pretty little aculeate form is very common
in tropical parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, in
the neighbourhood of coral islands. It usually affects
shallow water down to 60 fathoms; at Funafuti it
occurs sparingly at 200 fathoms. Recent. (Plate 12,
fig. N.)

Sub-family 3. 'TINoPORINA.

Test consisting of irregularly heaped chambers
with or without a more or less distinctly spiral
primordial portion; for the most part without any
general aperture.

Genus Tinoporus, Montrort.

Test lenticular or subspheroidal, with radiating
marginal spines and tuberculated surface; central
chambers forming a_ plano-spiral disc, which is
thickened by an aggregation of smaller chambers
arranged in tiers on the two sides. No general
aperture, the extrusion of sarcode taking place chiefly
through the canals of the spurlike growths of the
supplemental skeleton. Recent.

On account of the somewhat dubious depiction of
Montfort’s type this genus is referred to as Baculo-
gypsina by many authors.

Examete.—T’. baculatus, Montfort, ‘Conchyl.
System.’ vol. i. 1808, p. 146, 37° genre ; Carpenter,
Philly irance ASO pools cvallepxcc:

THE FAMILY ROTALITIDA 225

The present species is often associated with
Calcarina im the littoral sands of coral islands. It
is easily distinguished from its congener by the
surface tuberculations, the ends of the pillars of
exogenous shell-growth, among other characters.
T’. baculatus is found in extraordinary abundance in
some of the sands of the Pacific, the orange-brown
tests giving the deposits quite a colouring of their
own. It is most characteristic of the shore-sands of
the reef, but has been obtained from a depth of
200 fathoms, although sparingly. Recent. (Plate 12,
fig. O.)

Genus Gypsina, CARTER.
Y} ,

Test free or attached, spheroidal or spreading ;
structure acervuline, radiating, or laminated; primor-
dial chambers spiral. The chambers are rounded or
polyhedral ; coarsely perforated. There is no sup-
plemental skeleton, nor canal system. Apertures
obscure, sometimes marginal.

This genus also includes the type to which Carter
eave the name Aphrosina, and which appears to be a
plano-convex modification of Gypsina inherens,
Schultze sp. Cretaceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—G. vesicularis, Parker and Jones sp.
(Orbitolina), ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3,
vol. vi. 1860, p. 31, No. 5.

This subconical form is a good type of the genus.
The surface is marked with fine raised lines, the
boundaries of the polyhedral chambers. G. vesicularis
and its attendant varieties occur in the sands of

Q

226 THE FORAMINIFERA

tropical areas in its best developed condition, al-
though small forms are occasionally met with even
on the shores of the British Islands. It is commonest
in shallow-water sands. As a fossil this species dates.
from the Miocene. (Plate 12, fig. P.)

Genus Miogypsina, Sacco.

Test consisting of a median spiral series of
chamberlets, with superimposed lateral layers of
acervuline segments. Oligocene, Miocene, and (?)
vecent.

Exameite.—M. complanata, Schlumberger, ‘ Bull.
Soc. Géol. France,’ ser. 3, vol. xxvii., 1900, p. 300,
pl. ii. figs. 18-16 ; pl. in. figs. 18-21.

Shell discoidal, undulate, with the contour very
irregular. The surfaces studded with protuberances,
the ends of pillars inserted between the chamberlets.
Test perforate. In the young individuals the central
protuberance indicates the position of the internal
spire. Oligocene (Aquitanian) of St. Etienne d’Orthes
(Landes).

It is probable that the so-called Gypsina vesicu-
laris, var. discus of Goés, occurring in coral areas of
the present day, is a degenerate form of Miogypsina.

Genus Polytrema, Risso.

Test parasitic ; encrusting or arborescent ; surface
areolated, colour usually orange, scarlet, or pink,
sometimes white. Interior partly occupied by small
chambers arranged in more or less regular layers, and
partly by non-segmented canal-like spaces, often

THE FAMILY. ROTALIIDA 227

crowded with sponge spicules, especially at the apices
of the test. No canal system. Tertiary to Recent.

HxampLe.—P. miniaceum, Pallas sp. (Millepora),
‘Hlenchus Zoophytorum,’ 1766, p. 251; Brady, ‘ Rep.
SOhall7?~ vol. ix. 18s4 pr 721, pli ic. fies. 5-9:
peer fies 1

This is the small coral-like organism which has
been frequently referred by earlier authors to the
Zoophytes. Its branching dendroid test is usually
found attached to shells of molluses, corals, and other
objects. The pink colouring matter is present in
specimens from fairly deep water, and is as vivid
in those from 150 fathoms as in those near the
surface.

The encrusting species of this genus is usually
snow-white in appearance.

P. miniaceum is common in tropical and sub-
tropical seas, and its home is in the shallower waters
of those areas. Recent. (Plate 12, fig. Q.)

228

KS
LBB he

M, 7.

IN:

we) eS)

THEHK FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 12.

Spirillina vivipara, Ehrenberg (after Brady). x 65.

Patellina corrugata, Williamson: B, superior, ), inferior, sur-
face. x75.

Cymbalopora Poeyt, D’Orbigny sp. (after Brady). x 25.
C. (Tretomphalus) bulloides, D’Orbigny (after Brady). x 30.

Discorbina patelliformis, Brady ; E, lateral aspect; e inferior
aspect. x 50.

Planorbulina larvata, Parker and Jones (after Brady). x 17.

Truncatulina lobatula, Walker and Jacob, sp. (after Goés) :
G, superior aspect; g, inferior aspect. x 16.

Anomalina grosserugosa, Giimbel (after Brady) ; H, superior
aspect; h, peripheral aspect. x 20.

Carpenteria balaniformis, Gray (after Chapman). ~ 4.

C. proteiformis, Goés. x 8.

Rupertia stabilis, Wallich (after Goés). x 21.

Pulvinulina Menardii, D’Orbigny sp. (after Brady): L,
superior; /, inferior; l’, peripheral, aspect. x 15.

Rotalia Soldanw, D’Orbigny sp.; M, superior, m, inferior,
aspect. x18.

Calcarina hispida, Brady. ~ 15.
Tinoporus baculatus, Montf. (after Brady). x 10.
Gypsina vesicularis, Parker and Jones sp. (after Brady). x 10.

Polytrema miniaceum, Pallas sp. x 3.

PLATE 12.

ROTALIIDA.

Faminy IX.

oo

&

prod , J

CHEAP i Devel
THE FAMILY NUMMULINIDA

In this family the foraminiferal shell exhibits its
highest structural development. One of the chief
characters of three of its sub-families is the presence
of a supplemental skeleton with a more or less com-
plex interseptal canal system. The shell-wall is
always finely perforated. The general plan of the
shell is spiral and equilateral; some exceptions to
this are Amphistegina, Archediscus, and Hawasina :
or cyclical, as in Cycloclypeus and Orbitoides. The
tests in the NumMurninip® are either discoidal, lenti-
cular, ovate, or fusiform in contour.

The isomorphous forms in this group which agree
with those of other divisions according to some general
plan of growth are quite numerous, and we may quote
for examples Lusiulina (=Alveolina) and Cycloclypeus
(=certain species of Orbitolites).

From a geological point of view this family is
perhaps the most important of the entire order, since
nearly all its members are active agents in the for-
mation of lhmestone rocks of considerable extent.
Among the more noteworthy of these the genera
Pusulina, Amphistegina, Operculina, Heterostegina,
Nummulites, and Orbitoides may be mentioned.

232 THE FORAMINIFERA

To turn to the separate divisions of this family,
the sub-family Fusunininm has the important genus
Fusulina for its type. This, with the various allied
genera and sub-genera, are fossil forms, and restricted
to paleozoic strata. Their shell-structure is not
typically nummuline, for the canal system and sup-
plementary skeleton appear to be absent.

The next group of the PotystomELiin»® is a farther
step towards the higher shell-structure seen in the
Nummulites. In Noniomna the shell-wall is. still
simple in character, but the suture lines are some-
times thickened by an extra shell-layer. Polystomella
comprises an instructive series of shells in which the
eraduations may be traced from those with a simple
series of interseptal canals opening out at the suture
lines by a row of pores, to those with a more complhi-
cated system, and with a varying amount of exogenous
shell-structure forming a true supplemental skeleton,
as well as secondary thickening of the test in the
form of septal bridges laid at intervals across the
sutural furrows, and also sutural cost.

The genus Archediscus represents the simplest
form of the typical nummulite group, in being little
more than a simple non-septate or partially septate
tube wound round an axis which at intervals changes
its direction, as in many of the milioline genera. This
genus, which is restricted to Carboniferous rocks,
shows an affinity with the nummulne forms in
having a thick laminated shell. It is finely porous,
but also exhibits a secondary kind of tubulation in
the form of numerous coarser pores or canals. Am-

THE EAMILY NUMMULINIDAi 233

plistegina has a more advanced type of shell nearer
the true nummulites; in fact, it is difficult at times
to be certain whether one is dealing with these forms
or Nummulites when its chief character, the asym-
metry of the test, is more or less obscure. Until
lately it was held by Rhizopodists that Amphistegina
had no interseptal canal system, but its presence
has now been proved both in the fossil and recent
examples.

Operculina is typically evolute and outspread,
but the earlier chambers are embracing. Hetero-
stegina 1s comparable with the last-named type, but
the chambers are partitioned off into chamberlets.

The discoidal test of Nuwmmulites consists of
numerous chambers wound in a flat spiral, with the
walls of the chambers double. The intermediate
space is traversed by interseptal canals, which open
out on the surface of the test. The walls of the
chambers of each coil are so extended by alar pro-
longations or flaps that they become equitant and
completely cover up the preceding whorl of the
shell, and the test shows no signs of septation ex-
ternally. The sinuous lines seen on the surface of
Nummulites are the junctions of the alar extensions
of the outer septal walls of the chambers.

The genera Cycloclypeus and Orbitoides, which
constitute the sub-family CycLociyPEIn®, are examples
of a cyclical method of growth in these shells. In
the former genus there is a single layer of annular
chambers divided into chamberlets, and with superim-
posed supplementary skeleton and numerous exo-

234 THE FORAMINIFERA

genous conelike layers of shell. In the latter genus
the central disc, resembling Cycloclypeus, is enclosed
between two layers of acervuline chamberlets, which
gives to the shell a lenticular contour. It is further
modified very frequently by the more rapid growth of
the shell along certain radial nes, which imparts a
stellate form to the test.

Sub-family 1. Fusuntnin2.

Test bilaterally symmetrical ; chambers extending
from pole to pole; each convolution completely
enclosing the previous whorls. Shell-wall finely
tubulated. Septa single, or rarely double; no true
interseptal canals. Aperture a single elongated shit,
or row of small rounded pores, at the inner edge of
the final segment.

Genus Fusulina, FIscHER.

Test fusiform or subglobular ; chambers entire,
or only subdivided by the infolding of the septal
wall; aperture an elongated central fissure. Car-
boniferous and Permian.

Exampiré. — Ff’. cylindrica, Fischer, ‘ Oryctogr.
Gouv. Moscou, 1830-37, p. 126, pl. xm. figs. 1-5:

The test of this important rock-forming species is
spindle-shaped and rounded at the ends. The shell
is marked with longitudinal furrows, and the shtlike
aperture is situated in the centre of the overlapping
angle of the septal plane. Carboniferous and Per-
man.

Or

THE FAMILY NUMMULINIDA 23

Some species of Fusulina attain a length of half
an inch. They constitute a large proportion of the
Upper Carboniferous limestones of certain localities,
as in Russia, the Arctic Regions, Armenia, India,
China, Japan, the United States (lowa, Illinois,
Kansas, Utah, New Mexico, and California), and
British Columbia. In Central Europe also the
Zechstein (of Permian age) contains F'wsulina.
(Plate 13, figs. A, a.)

The sub-genera Hemifusulina and Fusulinella of
Moller are modifications of the typical Lusulina, and
they are confined to the Carboniferous formation.
Hemifusulina resembles Fusulina in form and
general structure, but with the exception that it
possesses a double septal wall. Musulinella may be
compared with a Fwsulina which has been compressed
on the axis of the umbilicus, the resulting form being
a complanate nautiloid shell, ike Nonconina. The
brown bituminous Carboniferous limestone of Russia
and China contains Musulina, Fusulinella, and Schwa-
gerina. The specimens of the latter genus are often
found infilled with the hydrocarbonaceous material
of the rock-matrix.

Genus Schwagerina, Monier.

Test subglobular, elongated, or subcylindrical,
seldom fusiform; chambers subdivided by true
secondary septa; aperture either a simple central
fissure or a row of rounded pores. Carboniferous.

Exampte.—S. princeps, Khrenberg sp. (Borelis),
‘Mikrogeologie,’ 1854, pl. xxxvil. figs. x. c, 1-4;

236 THE FORAMINIFERA

Brady, ‘Geol. Mag.’ 1875, p. 537, pl. xiii. figs. 6

Ce aC

iC
The above species gives one a good idea of the
chief characters of the genus, and by referring to the
drawing (fig. b of Plate 13) the perfect septation will
be noticed, which forms its distinctive feature. It
occurs as a fossil in the Carboniferous limestone of
Russia, China, and Sumatra. (Plate 13, figs. B, 0.)

Sub-fanuly 2. PoLystoMELLIN®.

Test bilaterally symmetrical; nautiloid. Lower
forms without supplemental skeleton or interseptal
canals; higher types with canals opening at regular
intervals along the external septal depressions.

Genus Nonionina, D’Orpreny.

Supplemental skeleton either absent or rudimen-
tary, and confined to the umbilical region; no
external septal pores or bridges. Aperture a simple
curved sht. LL. Cretaceous to Recent.

ExampLe.—N. umbilicatula, Montagu sp. (Nawti-
lws), “Lest, Brit.’ [803,>p. 191 > Suppl ps a/oaaple
SQialtig soley IL

The evenly rounded nautiloid contour of the
genus is well shown in the present form; it is
chiefly distinguished from the other species of the
genus by its conspicuously sunken umbilical area.

As a recent species N. wmbilicatula is widely
distributed. The fossil specimens date from the
Middle Hocene. (Plate 13, figs. C, c.)

THE FAMILY NUMMULINIDA 237

Genus Polystomella, LAMARcK.

Supplemental skeleton, septal bridges, and canal
system more or less fully developed; canals opening
externally at the umbilicus, and by a single or
double row of pores along the sutures. Aperture a
V-shaped line of perforations at the base of the
septal face. Middle Jurassic to Recent.

Exampite.—P. macella, Fichtel and Moll sp.
Nautilus), “West. Microgr’ 1798; p:—66;, pl. x.
figs. e-q.

The chief features of this species are its com-
pressed form and acute periphery. ‘The points round
the shell margin are often produced to a considerable
extent. P. macella appears to be a modification of
the more inflated type P. crispa.

It is commonest in shallow water, and is found
in all parts of the world excepting the extreme
northern and southern portions. Jurassic to Recent.
(Plate 13, fig. D.)

The sub-genus Lawasina, D’Orbigny, includes
certain forms which, although exhibiting the general
characters of Polystomella, are plano-convex in
shape, the entire spiral portion beig visible only on
the flat face, and the last whorl on the convex side.
It is isomorphous with Truncatulina lobatula.

The type form I’. carinata (D’Orbigny, ‘ Foram.
Foss. Vienne, 1846, p. 194, pl. xxi. figs. 29-31) was
first obtained from the Chalk of Maestricht. It also
occurs in various ‘Tertiary deposits. (Plate 13,
figs. H, e.) Upper Chalk to Pliocene.

938 THE FORAMINIFERA

Sub-fanuly 3. NUMMULITIN®.

Test lenticular or complanate ; lower forms with
thickened and finely tubulated shell-wall, but no
intermediate skeleton; higher forms with supple-
mental skeleton and complex canal system.

Genus Archediscus, Brapy.

Test lenticular, consisting of a non-septate tube
coiled upon itself in constantly varying direction,
embedded in a thick mass of finely tubulated shell-
substance. No supplemental skeleton nor canal
system. Carboniferous.

Exampte.—A. Karreri, Brady, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat.
list.” ser. 4, vol. xm, 1873): 286, pk xin; Monosr
Carb. and Perm. Foram. (Pal. Soc.), 1876, p. 142;
ple xd. tgs: 16;

The only species of this remarkable genus is of a
lenticular rounded form, with a somewhat angular
margin. ‘The aperture is situated at the open end of
the tubular cavity, in various positions on the peri-
phery, according to the development of the shell;
rounded or crescentic, and simple. ‘The presence of
the coarser pores in this shell probably points to the
early stage of a canal system, which is, however,
obscured by the mineralisation of the fossils. It
appears to be restricted to the Carboniferous forma-
tions of the British Islands. (Plate 13, figs. F, /)

THE FAMILY NUMMULINID/A 239

Genus Amphistegina, D’Orsieny.

Test spiral, lenticular, inequilateral ; chambers
equitant, the alar prolongations on one side simple,
on the other divided by deep constrictions, so as to
form supplementary lobes. Shell-wall thickened
near the umbilicus, finely perforated ; the exogenous
thickening non-tubulous, and in transverse section
appearing as two cones of different sizes with the
apices opposed. A finely ramifying canal system
present both in the septa and in the shell-wall.
Carboniferous and Tertiary to Recent.

Hxampte.—A. Lessonii, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann. Sci.
Nat.’ vol. vii. 1826, p. 304, No. 3, pl. xvii. figs. 1-4.

This is a very variable form, and the names
under which it has been described are nearly as
numerous as its variations. A. Lessonii has a test
which ranges in form from a thin complanate disc to
a subspherical or dome-shaped test. Even in one
dredging many gradations in form may be found.

It is usually found in the tropical areas of the
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; and is com-
monest in water of less depth than 30 fathoms, but
also occurs at greater depths, even down to 1,750
fathoms. Middle Hocene to Recent. (Plate 13,
figs. G, g, g’.)

Grnus Operculina, D’Orpieny.

Shell typically complanate and plano-spiral, with
the whole of the convolutions visible; the earlier
whorls more or less embracing. Interseptal and

240

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 138.

Fusulina cylindrica, Fischer: A, external and internal aspect,
x6; a, transverse section, x 15.
Schwagerina princeps, Ehrenberg sp. (after Brady): A, ex-
ternal view, x 1}; 0, transverse section of test, x 3.
Nonionina wmbilicatula, Montagu sp. (after Parker and
Jones): C, lateral aspect ; c, oral aspect. = 30.

Polystomella macella, Vichtel and Moll sp. (after Brady). x 60.

Fauwjasina carinata, D’Orbigny: E, inferior aspect (convex
surface) ; e, peripheral aspect.

Archediscus Karreri, Brady: I, periphero-lateral aspect; f,
transverse section of test. x 20.

Amphistegina Lessonw, D’Orbigny : G, inferior lateral aspect,
showing the astral lobes; g, superior lateral aspect, with
granulations near oral region, g’, peripheral aspect. (After
Parker, Jones, and Brady.) x 55.

Operculina ammonoides, Gronovius sp.: H, lateral aspect; h,
peripheral aspect. 50.

Heterostegina depressa, D’Orbigny : I, lateral aspect of a full-

grown shell; 7, peripheral aspect, x7}; 7, young shell,
x 25,

PLATE 13,

NUMMULINIDA.

FAMILY X.

am 27 Fe cet

a

a

THE FAMILY NUMMULINIDZA 243

marginal canals conspicuously developed. Lower
Cretaceous to Recent.

Exampne.—O. ammonoides, Gronovius — sp.
(Nautilus), ‘Zooph. Gron.’ 1781, p. 282, No. 1220,
and p. v.

A small complanate form with comparatively few
chambers and with limbate or thickened sutures. It
is found at the present day in fairly shallow water.
Pliocene to Recent. (Plate 13, figs. H, h.)

Grnus Heterostegina, D’Orsteny.

Test resembling Operculina in general contour ;
chambers long and narrow, and divided into chamber-
lets; aperture a row of pores on the outer septal face.
Hocene to Recent.

Exampeit.—H. depressa, D’Orbigny, ‘Ann. Sci.
iat wol. vi. 1826, p. 805, pl) xvii. tes to27;
‘Modeéle,’ No. 99.

The present species is the type of the genus, and
the many variations which have been described
as species differ in little from this form. The
shell presents itself in the two stages having the
large or small initial chamber, in common with many
other types of Foraminifera, and, as is often the
case, the small-chambered form is much rarer than
the large-chambered form. In the dredgings from
Funafuti, where these two conditions were observed,
the writer found them in the proportion of about 500
of Form A (the megalospheric shell) to 1 of Form B
(the microspheric shell). It inhabits moderately

RQ

244 THE FORAMINIFERA

shallow water often in the neighbourhood of coral
reefs. Hocene to Recent. (Plate 13, figs. I, 2, 2’.)

Genus Nummatlites, LAMARCK.

Test lenticular or complanate, plano-spiral, regu-
lar. Segments equitant, the alar prolongations of
each convolution completely enclosing the previous
whorls. Aperture simple, close to the periphery of
the previous convolution. Supplemental skeleton
provided with a complex canal system. Carbonife-
rous, (2) Jurassic, Tertiary, and Recent.

The paleozoic specimens of this genus are small
but characteristic ; they were found in the Carboni-
ferous limestone of Belgium. Nummulites is, how-
ever, peculiarly a Tertiary form, and was abundant in
Kocene and Oligocene times, especially in the
former. The recent specimens are not far removed
in structure from Operculina and Amphistegina.

ExampLe.—N. elegans, Sowerby sp. (Numumu-
laria), ‘ Mineral Conchology,’ vol. vi. 1826, p. 176,
pl. xxxvilil. fig. 2; Rupert Jones, ‘ Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc, vol. xlm. 1887, p. 132) pl sa) figs, 1-9:

This species, with its thin complanate test, is
found in abundance in certain horizons of the
Barton Beds of the Isle of Wight and Hampshire.
(Plate 14, figs. A, a, B.)

Genus Assilina, D’OrRBIGNY.

Test complanate, structure similar to that of
Nummutites, but the alar extensions of the chamber-
walls thin and closely superimposed, so that the

THE FAMILY NUMMULINIDZ 245

outline of the convolutions is visible externally.
Hocene.

HxamMpLe.—A. exponens, Sowerby sp. (Nummu-
laria), ‘Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond.’ ser. 2, vol. v. 1834
(1840), p. 719, pl. lxi. figs. 14 a-e. D’Archiac and
Haime, ‘Descr. Anim. foss. groupe Nummulitique
de l’Inde,’ vol. 1. 1853, p. 148, pl. x. figs. 1-10.

The shell of this species is discoidal and thin,
with a central depression more or less pronounced.
The surface of the test is covered, especially in the
central area, with fine radiating pustular or granular
lines. ‘The septation of the shell is more clearly
seen towards the periphery. It is a wide-spread
form, and has been found in various HKocene de-
posits in Spain, France, Switzerland, Bavaria,
Carinthia, the Carpathians, Northern Africa, Asia
Minor, and in the Cashmere Mountains, upon the
right bank of the River Indus, and in the Province
of Cutch, in India. (Plate 14, figs. C, c.)

Sub-family 4. CycLocLyPEINe®.

Test complanate with a thickened centre, or
lenticular ; consisting of a disc of chambers arranged
in concentric annuli, with a more or less lateral
thickening of laminated shell-substance, or of acer-
vuline layers of chamberlets. Septa double, and
furnished with a system of interseptal canals.

Gunus Cycloclypeus, CARPENTER.
Discoidal layer usually single ; with superimposed
lamine of finely tubulated shell-substance, thickest

246 THE FORAMINIFERA

at the centre, often only slightly developed (especially
in the microspheric form). Hocene to Recent.

HxampitE.—C. Carpenteri, Brady, ‘ Rep. “ Chall.
vol ix.71884, p. To25 also2bid. p. Tol, pl. ex sniee
8 a,b (C. Guembelianus).. - |

A great deal of interest attaches to the above
species, not only on.account of its large dimensions
as a foraminifer, but also because of its conspicuous
occurrence in the two stages of shell development,
forms A and B. The megalospheric form is often
found in the sands of the coral islands, and bore
the name of C. Guembelianus. The other form, the
microspheric, occurs quite locally in just a few

2bedoy)

places, and is the original type on which Carpenter’s
lucid descriptions of the genus were based (see ‘ Phil.
rans. vol. exlvi. 1856," p. 155; pl. xxx. fies, J anmdaae
and ‘Introd. Study Foram.’ 1862, p. 292, pl. xix.
fig. 2).

The places whence C. Carpentert have been
obtained are Borneo, the Macclesfield Bank, in the
China Sea, Solomon Islands, the Mauritius, and the
following places in the Pacific: Tonga, Fiji, Tonga-
tabu, and Funafuti. At the latter place Cycloclypeus
occurs in great abundance at certain depths, at about
50 to 60 fathoms, and the limit of its range there
seems to be from 30 to 200 fathoms. Recent.
(Plate 14, figs. D, d, E.)

Genus Orbitoides, D’Orpieny.

Median plane composed of chamberlets arranged
in regular annuli round a distinct central chamber

THE FAMILY NUMMULINIDA 247 -

or chambers ; thickened on either side by layers of
flattened chamberlets, more or less irregularly dis-
posed. Upper Cretaceous to Miocene.

Exampnte.—O. (Discocyclina) papyracea, Boubée
sp., Giimbel, ‘Abhandl. m.-ph. Cl. k. bayer. Ak.
Wiss.’ vol. x. 1868 (1870), p. 690, pl. i. figs. 3-12,
19-29.

As a component of certain Tertiary limestones
this species is often of very great importance. It was
undoubtedly a foraminifer living in shallower water
than the related type Cycloclypeus, which has a thinner
test; and it formed extensive shell-banks, which
eventually became consolidated into beds of Orbi-
toidal limestone. ‘This species is easily recognised
by its thickened central disc and expansive peri-
pheral flange. Hocene of Hurope, Egypt, Persia, and
India. (Plate 14, figs. FB, f, G, H, I.)

The chief sub-generic types of Orbitoides are
based on the appearance of the chamberlets of the
median layer. The sub-genus Discocyclina has the
chamberlets of a rectangular form, whilst the sub-
genus Lepidocyclina (see Plate 14, fig. I) has them of
lozenge-shaped or spathulate form. The Discocyclines
are apparently restricted to Hocene beds, and the
Lepidocyclines occur in the Upper Cretaceous, the
Oligocene, and the Miocene. Other sub-generic
types are of little importance, such as Aktinocyclina,
Rhipidocyclina, and Asterocyclina, their distinction
being based on external form alone.

248

THE FORAMINIFERA

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 14.

Nummnvulites elegans, Sowerby sp.: A, lateral. aspect; a, vertical
section. x10.

N. elegans, Sowerby sp.: median section. x 20.

Assilina exponens, Sowerby sp.: C, lateral aspect; c, peripheral
aspect. Natural size.

Cycloclypeus Carpenteri, Brady: form A; D, lateral aspect; d,
peripheral aspect. x 5.

C. Carpenter; form B. Natural size.

Orbitoides papyracea, Boubée sp.: f, peripheral aspect. Natural
size.

O. papyracea, Boubée sp.: vertical section of a larger specimen.
Natural size.

O. papyracea, Boubée sp.: median to tangential section ; m, rect-
angular chamberlets of median layer; s, areolated chamberlets
of superficial layer. x 6.

Type of Lepidocycline structure in median layer of Orbitoides
(Lepidocyclina) Verbeeki, Newton and Holland. x 75.

Type of Discocyline structure in median layer of Orbitoides
(Discocyclina) papyracea, Boubée sp. x 50.

PLATE 14.

4
4

QOGOO00L
JUOUOOD)-
IWOUGOf °

Famity X. NUMMULINID! (concluded).

CHAPTER XVII
THE GEOLOGICAL RANGE OF THE FORAMINIFERA

In commencing a survey of the various foraminiferal
faunas of past ages we might naturally expect to
find the remains of such lowly organised and adapt-
able creatures as Foraminifera in great abundance in
the oldest fossiliferous rocks. But this does not
appear to be so, for the older Paleozoic series has up
to the present yielded very few genera and species
of this type of animal life. At one or two horizons
only are their remains found in tolerable abun-
dance, and these are generally in the form of glau-
conite casts. On the other hand in these oldest
rocks certain examples have been found which have
the hyaline type of shell, and in which the original
structure has been wonderfully preserved. The
majority of the older Paleozoic Foraminifera have
been assigned to genera of the perforate type, such
as Lagena, Nodosaria, Globigerina, and Spirillina,
whilst in strata of later age in the same era the
arenaceous genera Hyperanvnina, Stacheia, and
Textularia make their appearance.

Seeing that the shells of the Foraminifera which
are as a rule so well preserved, especially in calca-
reous strata, as the limestones and calcareous shales,

252 THE FORAMINIFERA

are comparatively rare in the older rocks, we may
reasonably infer that the types of Protozoa, which
very probably existed in earliest times and in pro-
digious abundance, were chiefly represented by those
forms which did not possess an investment of hard
material, but consisted merely of sarcode, or perhaps
were covered by a thin chitinous investment. This
conjecture, however, will require proof which prima
facie will be next to impossible to obtain, for the
chitinous forms are practically unknown as fossils.

It appears by recent researches to be pretty
conclusively proved that the whilom sensational
Hozoén Canadense of the Laurentian limestone rocks
of Canada and elsewhere is not a gigantic foramini-
fer. Whether it be a purely mineral structure or a
mineralised organism of a larger type of growth, such
as a hydrozoan, remains to be seen; it will not be
necessary to dwell further upon it here.

Some exceedingly minute bodies resembling Fora-
minifera in their general form have been described
by Cayeux from the Pre-Cambrian of Brittany, where
they occur in quartzites and pthanites. They are,
however, of such small dimensions, the largest of
their segments having a diameter of only 3,!55 inch,
that their relation to Foraminifera may be con-
sidered somewhat doubtful.

Four noteworthy occurrences of Foraminifera
have been recorded from Cambrian strata. Hhren-
berg, in 1858, figured various glauconitic casts
of Foraminifera from the so-called ‘ Silurian clay’
near St. Petersburg, which apparently belong to

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 253

the genera Verneuilina, Bolivina, Nodosaria, Pul-
vinulina, and ftotalia. This blue clay of the
Baltic Provinces is now known to belong to the
Lower Cambrian, for it underlies the Olenellus
beds. Other examples of glauconite casts of
these organisms had been previously figured by
Khrenberg in 1855, and discovered by him in the
glauconitic sandstone near St. Petersburg. The
Hollybush Sandstone of this country, also of Lower
Cambrian age, often largely consists of bright green
glauconite casts of Foraminifera, embedded in a
ferruginous and argillaceous cement, the casts
resembling small forms of Globigerina. Evidence
of an old foraminiferal fauna has been brought to
light in Southern New Brunswick by Messrs. W. D.
and G. F. Matthew, who discovered these micro-
scopic fossils in the Arcadian or lower division of the
St. John’s series. They have been referred by the
above authors to the genera Globigerina and
Orbulina.

The Cambrian strata of Siberia have, according
to De Lapparent, lately yielded foraminiferal remains
in some abundance in the limestones of a plateau
traversed by the Olenek.

An interesting discovery of an Upper Cambrian
foraminiferal fauna in a shaly limestone near Chase
End Hill, in Shropshire, was lately made by Professor
Groom, and the organisms have been described by the
writer. The collection comprises a number of genera
with hyaline tests which are very well preserved, the
tubuli of the shell-wall appearing quite distinctly in

254 THE FORAMINIFERA

many of the specimens. The commonest genus in
point of numbers in this rock is Spirillina (see fig.
27), and the particular form is not so very different
from a species now often met with in shallow water
off the British coasts. The other genera accompany-
ing the Spirilline of the Upper Cambrian are
Lagena, Nodosaria, Marginulina, and Cristellaria.

Fic. 27.—Sprrityina Rock ; Upper CAMBRIAN,
MALvERNS. x 36.

In the Ordovician system the shales above the
Bala limestone at Guildfield, near Welshpool, have
been recorded as foraminiferal by W. Keeping.

In the Silurian system the Llandovery beds of
Cwm Symlog have yielded to J. F. Blake Dentalina
communis and to W. Keeping Vextularia, Dentalina,
and (?) Rotalia.

From the Woolhope Limestone of the Malverns
H. B. Brady obtained four species of Lagena, which

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 255

he referred to more recent types, although the general
surface of the tests, as well as the ornamentation, is
much coarser.

In sections of the Wenlock Limestone of the
Midlands the writer has frequently noticed small
forms of Lagene, and he has lately described some
species belonging to the genera Hyperammina and
Stacheia from the Wenlock Series of Gotland. The
latter genus has also been obtained by Vine from the
Wenlock shales of England, and described by him
under the name of Psammosiphon. |

The Upper Silurian of Waldron (Indiana) has
yielded Terquem four species of Placopsilina, which
were found attached to crinoid stems.

The same author also found casts of Foramini-
fera, which he referred to Lagenulina, Cristellaria,
Orbulina, Globigerina, and Fusulina, in Devonian
rocks at Paffrath, in the Kifel. This appears to be
the only record of Foraminifera occurring in
Devonian strata in any country. ‘The absence of
these organisms is very remarkable, for the condi-
tions under which the deposits of Devonian age with
the marine facies were laid down seem to be espe-
cially favourable for the existence of Foraminifera.
The usual concomitants of foraminiferal deposits
are greatly in evidence in Devonian rocks, such as
corals, ostracoda, and oolitic-granules, but neverthe-
less the Foraminifera are strangely wanting.

This singular paucity of Foraminifera in the
Devonian strata is strongly emphasised by the appa-
rently sudden appearance of a large number of genera

256 THE FORAMINIFERA

and species in the Carboniferous system. At this
period the Foraminifera were so abundant in certain
areas that they often formed very extensive deposits.
For example, Saccammina constitutes a large pro-
portion of the rock known as the Saccammina lime-
stone of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Belgium ;
and this genus is found throughout the Carboniferous
series, but chiefly near its base. Fusulina is

Fic. 28.—SaccamMina LIMESTONE ; CARBONIFEROUS,
NORTHUMBERLAND. x 63}. Original.

another important genus, forming the main bulk
of the Fusiulina limestones so extensively developed
in the Upper Carboniferous of Russia, China,
Japan, and North America; and which also occurs
in Spain (Cantabrian Chain) and the Southern
Alps (Upper Carniola and Carinthia), the Caucasus,
Isle of Chios, Borneo, and Sumatra.

The two above-mentioned genera are of fairly

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 257

large dimensions; there are, however, many others
in the Carboniferous series which, although smaller
in size, are often very numerous, and _ therefore
important as rock-builders. Many of these species,
and even genera, are more or less restricted to
the Carboniferous system. Among other Carboni-
ferous types we may mention the genera Haplophrag-
minum, Stacheia, Nodosinella, Endothyra (generally a

Fic. 29.—FUsSULINA LIMEsTone : Russian CARBONIFEROUS.
x 63. Origunal.
Carboniferous genus, but also found in the Trias),
Ammodiscus, Textularia, Valvulina, Lagena, Arche-
discus (restricted), and Husulina (restricted to Car-
boniferous and Permian).

The genera Saccammina (fig. 28) and Lusulina
(fig. 29) often form the larger proportion of extensive
beds of limestone, as we have already seen, but
occasionally some of the smaller types, as Hndothyra

S

258 THE FORAMINIFERA

and Archediscus, are also abundant in certain lime-
stones, so much so, in fact, as to merit in the former
case the name Hndothyra Limestone (fig. 30). Fre-
quently the Foraminifera are associated with other
organisms, such as Ostracoda, Polyzoa, Corals, and
so forth, which form together an organically derived
limestone. ‘T'wo other genera were recorded by
Brady from the Carboniferous System which are

Fie. 80.—ENbotHyra LIMESTONE; CARBONIFEROUS,
DovVEDALE, DERBYSHIRE. x 24, Original.

of especial interest, since they are characteristic of
certain strata of much later date, namely, Amphi-
stegina (from Bristol) and Nummulites (from near
Namur, Belgium).

In some parts of the world we meet with a series
of sedimentary rocks which are partly homotaxial
with the Carboniferous strata, and partly with the
Huropean group of the Permian which is so exten-

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 259

sively developed in Russia. In these particular
beds, generally known as the Permo-Carboniferous—
and which

perhaps more correctly Carbo-Permian
are principally seen in Southern India, Australia,
and Africa, the invertebrate fauna partakes of
characters which belong to both the Upper Carboni-
ferous and the Permian elsewhere. As regards the
Foraminifera, they are abundant in some localities in
South-East Australia and Tasmania, but beyond the
record of the genera Nubecularia, Spiroloculina, (2)
Cornuspira, and Nodosaria by Howchin nothing
further has yet been published from Australia. From
similar beds in Kansas Spandel has lately recorded
Ammodiscus, Bigenerina, Monogenerina,' Textularia,
Nodosaria, Geinitzina® and Fusulina.

In the Permian Limestones of England and
Ireland and the Zechstein of Germany several
genera of the Foraminifera have been detected.
The specimens are in nearly all cases of small dimen-
sions, and never so abundant in the rock as those
from the Carboniferous system. The only excep-
tion to this is the Fusulina of the Alps, which
occurs in some abundance in the Zechstein there.
The most noteworthy genera of the Permian System
are Anumodiscus, Nodosinella, Textularia, Nodosaria
Gneluding Dentalina), and Fusulina. The last-
named also characterises certain of the limestones of
North America (Texas and New Mexico), which by

* In which the test, otherwise like Bigenerina, is uniserial throughout.
* A type resembling Lingulina, but with mid-lateral depressions and
rounded peripheral edges.

82

260 THE FORAMINIFERA

the species appear to be of Permian age. Quite
recently Spandel has, however, considerably added
to the Zechstein foraminiferal fauna, and cites the
following additional genera: Hyperammina, Cornu-
spira, Lingulina, Frondicularia, Vaginulina, Marginu-
lina, Geinitzella (afterwards changed to Geinitzina),
and Lunucammina.'

By the presence of forms like Lingulina, F'ron-
dicularia, and Vaginulina we are reminded of the
prevalent characteristics of the Mesozoic foramini-
feral faunas, in which the above-named genera are
conspicuous in increasing abundance as we ascend
the geological scale. The prototypes of these hyaline
forms may have been the somewhat irregular and
subarenaceous isomorphs found in the Carboniferous
System which have been described by Brady under
the generic names of Stachera and Nodosinella.

The Triassic System as a rule is not prolific
in Foraminifera. The Muschelkalk has yielded
organisms in some abundance belonging presumably
to the genera Globigerina and Orbulina. Giimbel
has described a fauna from the oldest strata of the
Bunter Sandstone in the Alps, which is remarkable
from the fact that it includes two species of Hndo-
thyra, a genus which otherwise is unknown outside
the Carboniferous System. Associated with Hndo-
thyra are the following genera, Ammodiscus, Valvu-
lina, Bulimina, and Lingulina. Several genera,

1 Lunucammina is a modification of Geinitzina in which the vertical

axial depression exists only on one side, the other side forming, so to
speak, a rounded dorsal surface.

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 961

including Nodosaria, Polymorphina, and Pulvinulina,
have been figured by the last-named author from the
Upper Trias and Rheetic of the Southern Alps.

In the topmost or passage beds of the Triassic
series—the Rhetic—in England a somewhat rich
foraminiferal-fauna was recently found by the writer,
in the marls, black clay, and shelly limestones of
Wedmore, in Somerset. The marly strata are there
filled with several species of Stacheia and Nodosi-
nella. The black clay yielded Lteophax, Haplophrag-
mium, Ammodiscus, Bulimina, and Truncatulina.
Two hyahne types, Nodosaria and Marginulina, were
found in the limestones of the same series.

In considering the foraminiferal facies of the
Jurassic system we shall note the general absence of
any of the larger Foraminifera, which in other for-
mations often play an important part in forming
massive limestones. In the strata which form the
Liassic beds the Foraminifera are for the most part
found distributed, sometimes in great abundance, in
certain zones of the marls and clays of the series ;
but they are usually quite microscopic and nearly
always in a small proportion to the bulk of the rock.
Many of the genera continue upwards into the Lias
from the Upper Paleozoic strata, such as Ammodiscus,
Haplophragmium, Valvulina, and Stacheia. The most
noteworthy feature, however, is the great influx of
hyahne genera and species, the allied types of which
now only flourish in warm, temperate, and tropical
seas, such as the large Cristellarie, and the flattened
forms of the same genus, which also bear some

262 THE FORAMINIFERA

relationship to Vaginulina, and which D’Orbigny de-
scribed under the quasi-generic name of Planularia.
The tiny discoidal Ammodiscus, so common in the
Carboniferous System, is found profusely in some
Liassic clays; and a related form, though distinct in
internal structure, Znvolutina, here makes its first
appearance, and continues nearly to the top of the
Oolitic series (Portlandian), where it finally dis-
appears, or perhaps gives rise to the more specialised
Orbitoline of subarenaceous structure, which make
their appearance in Neocomian strata (O. lenticularis
and O. discoidea). Certain of the porcellanous forms,
as Spiroloculina (often arenaceous also) and Miliolina,
are met with in some abundance in the Lias. The
hyaline genera are represented by Nodosaria, Mar-
ginulina, Cristellaria (of which the planulate forms are
much in evidence), and Polymorphina; the rotalnes
chiefly being Truncatulina and Pulvinulina.

In the Oolitic period the Foraminifera were some-
what similar in character to those of the Lias, but
show a considerable increase in the number of genera
and species, whilst towards the top of the series the
fauna shows a certain likeness to those of the
Neocomian and Cretaceous strata. Our knowledge
of the Foraminifera from the Jurassic system of
Germany and France is due to the indefatigable
labours of Terquem, whilst Wisniowski and Uhlig
have described Polish and Russian deposits contain-
ing Foraminifera. The Jurassic strata of England
have not, perhaps, received so much attention as they
deserve, but Brady and others have done some work

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 263

in elucidating the Liassic foraminiferal fauna. An
important find was made by Haeusler some years ago
in the sandy marls (Oxfordian) of the Canton Aargau,
in Switzerland, where a remarkable series of Forami-
nifera was discovered from the zones of Ammonites
transversarius and A. bimammatus. This fauna
comprised many nodosarian forms, but the larger
part consisted of arenaceous genera, the existing
forms of which usually indicate deep-water conditions.
To mention some of the arenaceous genera met with,
we may quote Psammosphera, Astrorliza, Rhabdam-
mind, Marsipella, Hyperammina, Lituola, Reophaz,
Haplophragmium, Haplostiche, Placopsilina, Tro-
chammina, Anvmodiscus, Hormosina, Webbina,
Thurammina, Textularia, Bigenerina, and Valvulina.

Inthe Oxford Clay of Weymouth, in England, the
porcellanous type Nubecularia is frequently found
covering the exterior of large shells, such as Gryphea,
with their ramifying tests.

The Kimeridge Clay is also prolific in Foramini-
fera at some localities, the prevailing genera being
Cristellaria and Pulvinulina.

The Tithonian beds (Portlandian) of the Continent
have yielded many interesting genera, notably
Involutina, Haplophragmium, Valvulina, Nodosaria,
Frondicularia, and Cristellaria. The facies appears
to be a transitional fauna between the older and the
newer Mesozoic strata.

The Neocomian and Aptian formations, both in
England and in Germany, contain a comparatively
sparse foraminiferal fauna, owing to the lithological

264 THE FORAMINIFERA

conditions of the beds, which comprise a large
proportion of glauconitic sandy strata. They bear
evidence, however, in the glauconitic granules, or
casts, to the former existence of these organisms in
prodigious abundance.

The Neocomian (Urgonian) beds of the Isle of
Wight, especially the argillaceous and marly strata
known as the Atherfield Clay, contain many minute
species of Cristellaria and Pulvinulina, which occur
in the succeeding beds of the Albian or Gault in
other parts in considerable numbers and _ better
developed in point of size.

The Aptian beds of Surrey, locally known as the
Bargate Stone Beds, contain a rich and varied
foraminiferal fauna, partly due to the fact that it
comprises some species which have been derived
from pre-existent strata in the neighbourhood, of
Oolitic age.

At Sandgate the clays of Aptian age also contain
many species which bear a strong resemblance to
a Lower Gault facies.

The Aptian beds of Switzerland have also proved
to be productive in Foraminifera, and it is in this
formation that the Orbitolina lenticularis, previously
mentioned, occurs, where it forms a more or less
massive rock called the Orbitolina Limestone.

By far the richest foraminiferal beds of the
Lower Cretaceous are those of Albian age, and the
Gault clays of England, France, and Germany have
furnished several hundred species. Reuss has very
thoroughly described the foraminiferal facies of these

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 26

Or

beds for Germany, and Berthelin for France. An
idea of the profusion of Foraminifera in this forma-
tion may be gathered from the fact that in this
country, from the Folkestone cliffs alone, the writer has
described 265 species, comprised within 43 genera.
The Gault fauna embraces among its commoner
types such genera as Nubecularia, Miliolina (Upper
Gault), Haplophragmium, Ammodiscus, Textularia,
Gaudryina, Tritaxia (most frequent in the Upper
Gault), Bulimina (chiefly in the Upper Gault), Nodo-
saria, Frondicularia, Rhabdogonium (Upper Gault),
Vaginulina, Cristellaria, Globigerina, Anomalina, and
Pulvinulina.

The Red Chalk of Yorkshire and Norfolk is
apparently the equivalent of certain zones of the
Upper Gault and Greensand, although so lithologi-
cally distinct. This is especially borne out by a
comparison of the Foraminifera.

The Greensand of New Jersey, a formation of
equivalent and later ages to those just named, has
yielded an abundant foraminiferal fauna, and many
of the species have developed to a comparatively
large size. They have been studied by Reuss,
Woodward, and Bagg, the latter author having
largely added to the list of late years.

The Upper Greensand in Devonshire contains a
chert bed, which in places is almost entirely
composed of the large tests of Orbitolina concava ;
and the gravels in the neighbourhood of Haldon
Hill consist largely of this foraminiferal rock. The
calcareous shells are in this chert-rock entirely

266 THE FORAMINIFERA

replaced by silica. As a rule, however, the Upper
Greensand is rather poor in microzoa, and very little
beyond Haplophragmiwm and Globigerina is found
in this formation.

The so-called ‘Cambridge Greensand’ is a
remanié bed with derived fossils, and even the
larger part of the Foraminifera, which are abundant
therein, may owe their origin to the waste of beds
equivalent to the Upper Gault.

From the Cenomanian beds of Bohemia an in-
teresting and abundant foraminiferal fauna has been
obtained by Perner.

The Chloritic marl of England contains a small
fauna, for the larger part possibly derived and
consisting mainly of arenaceous foraminifera.

The Chalk Marl of England, and its equivalent,
the Lower Planer limestone, in Westphalia and
Hanover, contain a rich assemblage of species,
and have a large percentage of forms common to
the Upper Gault and Red Chalk; this points to
the long continuance of the conditions which existed
in earher times.

The Grey Chalk of the South of England is not
very productive in Foraminifera, and the specimens
are small and apparently starved.

In the Turonian series the ‘ Melbourne Rock’ is
largely composed of Foraminifera, which may be
seen in thin sections; and its equivalent in Ger-
many, the Upper Planer Limestone, also yields an
abundant fauna. The ‘chalk without flints’ of this
country is not so rich in Foraminifera as the suc-

=I

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 26

ceeding beds, but they have been shown to contain
a considerable number of distinct forms.

The ‘Chalk rock’ or zone of Holaster planus is
in England largely constituted of Foraminifera
(see fig. 4), principally Tertularia globulosa and
Globigerina cretacea and marginata, and it is here
we seem to obtain a first glimpse of the different
and varied microzoic fauna so characteristic of the
Upper Chalk.

The ‘ Micraster Chalk, with flints,’ is in most of
its zones largely constituted of foraminiferal shells,
and some forms, like Textularia globulosa and
Bolivina strigillata, are especially characteristic of
this part of the series. At certain levels the chalk
is partly replaced by phosphate of lime, and _ this
mineral change, to a great extent, has the effect
of preserving the shells. The flints of this series,
when hollow, are found to contain a siliceous powder,
sometimes called ‘ Flint-meal,’ which is largely made
up of the casts or replacements of Foraminifera and
other organisms, such as Ostracoda, polyzoa, and
also sponge-spicules. The following species, among
others, are characteristic of the Upper Chalk fauna,
including those mentioned above: Textularia
decurrens, T. serrata, Gaudryina Jonesiana, Mar-
ginulina elongata, Cristellaria Gaudryana, Flabellina
rugosa, F'. ornata, F. Baudouinana, Polymorphina
acuminata, Truncatulina Clementiana, TI’. Lornevana,
and Rotalia exsculpta.

The White Chalk of the Island of Rigen has
been productive in Foraminifera, and Marsson has

268 THE FORAMINIFERA

described the fauna in detail. Wright has dealt
with the Irish foraminiferal chalk, and the material
on which his work has been based is the flint meal
found in the pot stones or paramoudras of Ireland,
the chalk itself being usually so hardened by the
proximity of the basalt flows that it is impossible to
deal with it like our ordinary soft writing chalk.

In Australia the borings into the cretaceous of
the central territories have given Howchin oppor-
tunity to record a fairly rich fauna, comprising the
genera Sigmoitlina, Hyperammina, Reophax, Haplo-
phragmium, Placopsilina, Thurammina, Ammodiscus,
Bigenerina, Verneuilina, Gaudryina, Lagena, Nodo-
saria, Lingulina, Frondicularia, Vaginulina, Mar-
gunulina, Cristellaria, Polymorphina, Spirillina,
Patellina, Discorbina, Anomalina, Truncatulina, and
Pulvinulina.

The Chalk of Maestricht is rich in Foraminifera,
and the facies there met with is peculiar, for there
is a large preponderance of genera which are
characteristic of Hocene and Miocene strata else-
where, as, for example, Orbitolites, Calcarina,
Amphistegina, Operculina, and Orbitoides (sub-genus
Lepidocyclina).

In the London Basin Foraminifera occur in
nearly all the members of the Lower Eocene. The
Thanet sands in their more argillaceous strata in
Kent have afforded many species, which have
been described by Burrows and Holland. The
Foraminifera show a marked difference in the facies
from that of the highest mesozoic strata, but

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 269

resemble in many points the Liassic series, and also
parts of the Gault, in containing a large proportion
of planulate Cristellari@, which poimts to similarity
in the conditions of habitat. The Thanet beds also
contain many Rotalines and the beaded form of
Cristellaria (C. fragraria), which are later found in
the London Clay of London and Sheppey in some
abundance.

The clays of the Woolwich and Reading series,
consisting as they do of estuarine muds with much
ferruginous material, have not yielded more than
a few starved species, mainly of Rotalines, which
the author has noticed in certain samples from
Dorsetshire.

In the London Clay, both in the London and
Hampshire Basins, we find a rich and varied
foraminiferal fauna. This formation is now held
by some geologists to belong to the Middle rather
than the Lower Eocene period; the presence and
distribution of the Nummaulites and other Fora-
minifera in equivalent strata elsewhere, however, do
not bear out this assumption. The equivalent strata
to the London Clay in the Paris Basin are the
Ypresien beds, containing Nummualites planulata.

The Middle Eocene also embraces the Brackles-
ham Beds, which in the South of England contain a
stratum with Nummulites levigatus, associated with
a smaller species, N. scabra; N. variolaria also
occurs in the upper part of this series. Besides
these Nummulites there are a few species of Bilo-
culina, Miliolina, and some Rotalines, as Discorbina

270 THE FORAMINIFERA

trochidiformis. Just off Selsey a patch of partially
submerged rocks called the ‘ Mixens’ occurs, which
is a hard foraminiferal bed composed almost entirely
of Miliolina and Alveolina, and which was used in
building the old Selsey churchyard wall.

The ‘Calcaire grossier’ beds of the Paris Basin
are of the same age as those just described, and
contain a similar foraminiferal fauna, with the addi-

Fic. 31.—-Mittotina Limestone (M. TRIGONULA); KOcENE,
Parts Basin. Original.

tion of Orbitolites. The preponderance of Miliolina
(Pentellina saxorum and other species) in this rock,
which has been extensively utilised as a building
stone for Paris, has given rise to its name ‘ Miliolitic
Limestone’ (fig. 31).

The Upper Eocene of the Hampshire Basin con-
tains, in the Barton Beds, certain strata which yield
in abundance the small species of nummulites, N.

GEOLOGICAL RANGE Daal

elegans and N. variolaria, and these species also
occur in the equivalent beds, the ‘Sables Moyens’
of the Paris Tertiary.

The limestones formed chiefly of nummulites are
developed to a large extent on the Continent, and
they form a broad but interrupted series extending
right across the region of the Old World. In the
South of France, at Biarritz, the Nummulitic series

i iS
Fig. $2.—HETEROSTEGINA LIMESTONE; TERTIARY,
Want Dara, Eaypr. x 16.

is more than 3,000 feet thick. In the South and
South-East Alps the Nummulitic limestone series is
well developed, and they areassociated with Alveolina.
In the Northern Apennines the Middle Kocene con-
tains Nummalites Brarritzensis, N. Lamarcki, N.
Lucasana, Assilina, Operculina, and Alveolina ; the
Upper Eocene contains Nwmmulites striata, N. T'chi-
hatcheffi, and Orbitoides radians.

272 THE FORAMINIFERA

The Kressenberg inlier, in Bavaria, consisting of
the Lower Nummulitic series, has yielded a very
rich foraminiferal fauna. The nummulites there
and in Austria are of an exceptionally large size.
The Kressenberg series also contains numerous
species of Orbitoides, which, from that locality,
have been principally worked out by Giimbel.

The Nummulitic series in Egypt constitutes

Fic. 83.—ALVEOLINA LIMESTONE; EOCENE,
Fararra, Eeyrer. x16.

the greater part of the Hocene limestones. It is
divided into three stages, the Libyan or Lower
Kocene, the Mokattam or Middle Eocene, and the
Bartonian or Upper Eocene; each of these contains
certain characteristic groups of nummulites, which
are of much value in the determination of the various
horizons. The nummulites attain their greatest
development and abundance in beds of Middle

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 273

Eocene age, as they do in many other places.
Associated with these are other genera, such as
Heterostegina (fig. 32), Operculina, and Alveolina
(fig. 33), and sometimes by their abundance they
form limestones almost wholly consisting of one
particular form.

The Eocene nummulitic beds extend into the
Sinai Peninsula (fig. 34), and thence to other parts

Pas
Fie. 34.—NumMuuitic Limestone; EocENE, JEBEL
ABYAD, Sinar. x16.

of Asia. In India the nummulites and other Forami-
nifera form massive beds of limestone, often con-
stituting the greater part of some of the mountain
ranges. By a process of folding and crumpling these
beds of limestone have been elevated, so as to form
some of the highest mountain crests, attaining in
some cases an altitude of 16,000 feet. ‘The lower part
of the Nummulitic Series in Sind is represented by

ah

274 THE FORAMINIFERA

the Ranikot beds, contaming Nummulites spira, N.
urregularis, and N. Leymeriec ; and this is followed
by the Kirthar Group, with N. Garansensis, also a
Kuropean species, and N. swb-/evigata, apparently
confined to India. The nummaulites are here asso-
ciated with large species of Alveolina and Orbitoides.

In the Oligocene strata in Germany the beds are
often richly foraminiferal, and the Septarian Clay

Fic. 385.—OrpBrIroripEs LIMESTONE ; LOWER
MIocENE, CHRISTMAS ISLAND. x 10.

of Hermsdorf and other localities has yielded a
prolific fauna. In this country the Oligocene is
not so productive, since the beds are for the main
part of fresh-water or fluvio-marine characters.
From the Isle of Wight a small series, chiefly re-
presented by Miliolina and Polymorphina, has been
obtained by the writer. The Malta tertiary beds are
in part of Oligocene age, and many of the beds there

GEOLOGICAL RANGE

bo
I
Or

as well as in Jamaica, in the West Indies, contain
an abundance of Orbrtoides.

The Miocene System in the Vienna Basin is very
productive of Foraminifera, and a rich assemblage has
been described by D’Orbigny, and later by Karrer.
The Miocene Clays and sands of Muddy Creek and
Mount Gambier, in Victoria, Australia, have yielded
an abundant fauna, and the specimens are well

Fic. 36.—ConvunitEs LIMESTONE ; TERTIARY,
iRGYPT De

erown and comparable in many respects with the
specimens from Jamaica, as well as those of Java
and Christmas Island (fig. 35). In the United States
the Miocene of Maryland and Virginia have been
proved to be rich in these organisms. The upper
series in Malta, which are of Miocene age, contain
a vast number of a large variety of Heterostegina.
In Italy the richly fossiliferous tertiaries are partly

aa 2

276 THE FORAMINIFERA

of Miocene age, but there the Phocene strata are
mostly in evidence, contaiing an abundant foramini-
feral fauna. A limestone of foraminiferal origin, chiefly
consisting of Conulites, and doubtfully of Miocene age,
has lately been described from the neighbourhood of
Cairo (fig. 36).

The Older Phocene of Italy, as described by
Costa, Terrigi, Fornasini, and Egger, has a remark-
able fauna, and the interesting deposit of blue sandy
clay at St. Hrth, Cornwall, as elucidated by Millett,
is In many respects comparable with those beds,
especially with the deposits at Bordighera.

The Pliocene of England, in Hast Angla, has
been productive of an extensive series of distinct forms,
both from the Red and the Coralline Crags.

The Tertiary clays of California are possibly
of Pliocene age, and also the richly fossiliferous
Globigerina-marls of Barbados, although the latter
deposits have certain affinities with Miocene and
even Oligocene faunas.

The foraminiferal deposit of Wanganui, in New
Zealand, a green sandy shell-marl, also calls for
special note, on account of its richness in these
fossils.

Up to the top of the Pliocene system the various
tertiary faunas, although represented for the main
part by species now living in various parts of the
ocean, are yet differentiated from the foraminiferal
facies still existing near those localities by the
influences which changes of climate and altera-
tion in the coast lines or the trend of the mud

GEOLOGICAL RANGE 207

lines, their chief feeding ground, have borne upon
them.

The Post-pliocene and Estuarine deposits of the
Raised Beaches and the recently emerged tracts of
land have little to show in their facies of a different
character, excepting what might result from slight
changes of climate or in the nature of the sea-floor,
evidenced in the greater or less development of the
foraminiferal shells.

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278 THE FORAMINIFERA

CHAPTER XVIII

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FORAMINIFERA,
WITH REMARKS ON THE ACCOMPANYING CONDITIONS
OF TEMPERATURE, DEPTH, AND GENERAL ENVIRON-
MENT

FoRAMINIFERA are largely influenced by the tempera-
ture of the water in which they live, and therefore it
will not be surprising to find that different latitudes
have their own peculiar assemblages of species, and
that the foraminiferal faunas of the colder regions
are In many respects unlike those of the warmer
areas. This difference is naturally more noticeable
in the case of bottom-living species from _ shallow
water, for the surface waters of nigh and low lati-
tudes present a wider range of temperature than ~
the water of similar areas at greater depths. Then,
again, the distribution of the equatorial and other
warm surface currents has a marked influence
on the surface-living organisms, as will be seen
later on. |

Some genera, and even species of living Fora-
minifera, are cosmopolitan, like Miliolina seminulum
and Nonionina depressula, which are found in almost
equal abundance on the shores of the British Islands
and in the equatorial waters of the Pacific. Others
again are restricted to certain areas, as, for example,

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 279

some of the larger Nodosarie, which are found in the
West Indies; A/veolina, recorded from the equatorial
parts of the Indian and Pacific Ocean; or Cyclo-
clypeus, Which is found in a few widely separated
localities, off Borneo, Solomon Islands, the Fijis, and
Funafuti.

In studying the question of distribution we shall
find that each distinct kind of sea-bottom contains its
own group of organisms, microscopic and otherwise.
To take the well-known example of the Globigerina
Ooze, this for the most part, in typical samples, is
composed of the shells of the pelagic or surface-
living Foraminifera, viz. Globogerina, accompanied by
other pelagic genera, as Spheroidina and Pulvinulina,
associated frequently with an admixture of bottom-
living forms, such as Iteophaz, Cristellaria, Truncatu-
lina,and Rotalia. In order to gain a clear idea of the
association of Foraminifera in the various kinds of
deposits now being formed either in deep oceanic
areas or on the shallower continental slopes, we shall
now proceed to select typical examples of such de-
posits from high and low latitudes.

The two principal types of foraminiferal deposits
are the Pelagic Deposits, formed in deep water, far
removed from land, and the Verrigenous Deposits,
formed in incderately deep and shallow water closer
to land masses.

The bottom areas of deep-sea deposits have a tem-
perature below 40° F., but little subject to variation,
and then only when in proximity to the 100-fathom
line. An idea of the range of temperature in the

280 THE FORAMINIFERA

water of tropical areas may be seen by the observa-
tions made by the ‘Challenger’ in the South
Atlantic Ocean near the equator. Whilst the tempe-
rature of the surface water varies between 76° and 80°,
at a depth of 300 fathoms it is only 40°; and in the
deeper parts of the same area it is as low as 32:4.

Pextacic Deposits.

Globigerina Ooze 1s the name which was given to
the fine, sticky, calcareous mud brought up by the
sounding apparatus when testing the ocean contours
in order to lay the cables for the electric telegraph.
It owes its distinctive name to the comparatively
large proportion of shells of Gdlobigerina bulloides
and other pelagic Foraminifera of which the deposit
largely consists. The dried ooze varies from white,
yellow, or rose colour to brown or grey, and it is,
obviously, of a darker tint when wet. Those deposits
which contain more than 30 per cent. of material
directly due to the shells of Globigerina were classed
by the ‘Challenger’ naturalists as Globigerina oozes.
Besides the pelagic Foraminifera this ooze generally
contains a variable quantity of the minute algal bodies
known as coccospheres and coccoliths, and rhabdo-
spheres and rhabdoliths, together with a small pro-
portion of amorphous, calcareous, or earthy matter.

The Globigerina oozes, according to the ‘ Chal-
lenger’ statistics, range in depth from 400 to 2,925
fathoms; but they occur chiefly and typically within
the limits of 1,500 to 2,500 fathoms.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 281

Globigerina ooze 1s one of the most widely dis-
tributed of the marine deposits, and its importance
as a recent foraminiferal deposit may be conceived
from the fact that it covers an area of the ocean
floors estimated at 49,000,000 square miles. The
pelagic species found in these oozes are—

Globigerina sacculifera, Brady ;

G. equilateralis, Brady ;

G. conglobata, Brady ;

G. dubia, Egger ;

G. rubra, D’Orbigny ;

G. bulloides, D’Orbigny ;

G. mlata, D’Orbigny ;

G. digitata, Brady ;

G. subcretacea, Chapman MS. (=cretacea of recent
deposits) ;

G. Dutertrei, Brady ;

Orbulina universa, D’Orbigny ;

Hastigerina pelagica, D’Orbigny sp. ;

Pullenia obliquiloculata, Parker and Jones ;

Spheroidina dehiscens, Parker and Jones ;

Candeia nitida, D’Orbigny ;

Cymbalopora (Tretomphalus) bulloides, D’Orbigny
she

Pulvinulina Menardu, D’Orbigny sp. ;

P. tumda, Brady ;

P. canariensis, D’Orbigny sp. ;

P. Micheliniana, D’Orbigny sp.; and

P. crassa, D’Orbigny sp.

The influence of surface temperature on the

282 THE FORAMINIFERA

pelagic fauna is seen in the fact that Globigerina
ooze 1s especially developed in those areas where the
surface of the sea 1s traversed by warm currents; and
where it is found in the Arctic regions is principally
in the track of the Gulf Stream. Therefore, as might
naturally be expected, Globigerina ooze is found more
abundantly in tropical areas and at greater depths
than in the higher latitudes in colder areas.

To take as an example a specimen of Globigerina
ooze from a comparatively high latitude in the
northern hemisphere, the following sounding from the
‘Challenger’ series may be quoted :—

‘ Station 76.—July 3, 1873. Lat. 38° 11’ N., long.
27° 9 W. Off the Azores. Depth, 900 fathoms ;
bottom temperature, 4:2° C. (89°5° F.); Globigerina
Ooze.

‘Contains sinall stones, pteropods, and a good deal
of coarse stuff. In addition to Globigerina and the
pelagic Pulvinuline the more noteworthy species
belong to the genera Biloculina, Miliolina, Cristel-
laria, Truncatulina, Rupertia, Haplophragmium,
Trochammina, and Hormosina.

The following may be quoted as an example of a
Globigerina ooze from a high latitude in the southern
hemisphere :—

‘ Station 146.— December 29, 1873. lat. 46° 46’S..,
long. 45° 31’ H. Depth, 1,375 fathoms; bottom tem-
perature, 1°5° C. (84:7 F.) ; Globigerina ooze.

‘A ereyish-white mud with fragments of echinus
tests, spines, &c. Chiefly made up of Globigerina
bulloides and G. inflata. Of the surface Pulvinuline

GHOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 283

the comparatively uncommon P. crassa appears to
preponderate in this locality. Arenaceous Foramini-
fera are almost entirely wanting. The occurrence of
two or three specimens of Clavulina communis
forms perhaps the most interesting feature in the
dredging.’

As a typical specimen of Globigerina ooze from a
position nearly under the equator in mid-ocean we
may quote the ‘ Challenger ’ sounding.

“Station 271.8. Pacitic. Lat. 0 33° 5. long.
151° 34 W. Depth, 2,425 fathoms; bottom tem-
perature, 1:0° C. (83°8° F.)’

‘This deposit contains a large proportion of
Radiolaria.

‘The larger Foraminifera were chiefly of two
species, Pullenia obliquiloculata and Pulvinulina
tumida. All the common varieties of Globigerina
were present, together with such genera as Lagena,
Nodosaria, Truncatulina, and Nonionina; but per-
haps the species most characteristic of the locality
were Pulvinulina favus and Hhrenbergina serrata.’

Pteropod Ooze-—The foraminiferal fauna of a
pteropod ooze largely depends upon the position of
the deposit, whether in proximity to-land or far
removed from any coast line. This is shown by the
following soundings taken by the ‘ Challenger,’ in
which, in the one case, where the deposit was formed
at a considerable distance from the land, the fauna
was restricted to an almost purely pelagic series,
chiefly of Globigerine, whilst, on the other hand,
the series obtained from a rich calcareous, pteropod

284 THE FORAMINIFERA

ooze, from moderately deep water, not far from land
masses, yielded no less than 177 species, mainly of
bottom-living Foraminifera.

‘Pteropod Ooze.—Station 337. March 19, 1876.
South Atlantic. Lat. 24° 38’ S., long. 13° 36’ W.
Depth, 1,240 fathoms; bottom temperature, 2°5° C.
(36°5° F.) The washed material consisted chiefly
of Pteropod shells, and the Foraminifera present
belonged exclusively to surface species. Amongst
the latter are most of the known forms of Globigerine
and of pelagic Pulvinuline, together with a consider-
able number of Hastigerine and Candeine.’

‘Pteropod Sand.—Station 24. March 25, 1873.
Off Culebra Island, N. of St. Thomas’s, West Indies.
Depth, 390 fathoms. White material, with large
numbers of Pteropod shells. Very rich in Forami-
nifera, particularly in the larger forms of Nodosariine
and Textulariine, and in arenaceous types. Of the
former the genera Nodosaria, Lingulina, Frondicu-
laria, and Cristellaria are represented by remarkably
fine examples; the Textularian group contributes
specimens of TVertularia, Pavonina, Bigenerina,
Verneuilina, and Clavulina, which are equally
noteworthy, whilst the Arenacea furnish Rhabdam-
mina, Hyperammina, Cyclammina, and Anvmediscus,
together with many of the smaller forms; and the
Porcellanea are conspicuous in Orbiculina and large
Biloculine.’

This latter deposit also contains many pelagic
species not enumerated in the above diagnosis given
by Dr. Brady. The deposit, however, might equally

GEHOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 28:

Cr

well be classed with terrigenous deposits, on account
of its proximity to the land.

Red Clay.—The Foraminifera of the Red Clay
deposits of the ‘Challenger’ collection have been
enumerated by Brady, who records 182 species. The
fauna, as a whole, consists largely of pelagic species,
with an admixture of arenaceous deep-sea forms. A
conspicuous feature of some of these deposits is the
abundance of delicate-shelled Lagene@, many of them
exceedingly beautiful in their superficial ornament.
Some of the deeper Globigerina oozes, approaching
the Red Clays in character, from the Pacific Ocean
in the neighbourhood of the Ellice Islands, have
been found by the author to contain similar delicate
Foraminifera of the same genus.

Certain of the Milioline of the Red Clay deposits
have their calcareous tests replaced by a thin siliceous
film.

TERRIGENOUS DEPOSITS.

The variously coloured Blue, Red, and Green Muds
which are found near the coast ines of continents or
other land masses, and which almost directly owe
their origin to the wearing down of the land surfaces
by rivers and the coast line by the action of the
waves and tide, possess a foraminiferal fauna some-
what peculiar to these accumulations. There is a
marked scarcity of calcareous material to be fre-
quently noticed in the conditions under which they
are formed, and this, consequently, has a direct effect
on the shell-structure of the organisms found there,

236 THE FORAMINIFERA

showing a prevalence of certain generic types best
fitted for those particular conditions.

In the terrigenous deposits we find, for example,
the thin-shelled Foraminifera, as Lagena, Bolivina,
Bulimina, and certain small forms of Globigerina
usually predominant, whilst porcellanous forms are
restricted to those which have a thin shell-wall,
or one constructed of fine arenaceous material.

For an example of a terrigenous deposit of this
description we may quote a sample collected by the
U.S. Fish Commission steamer ‘ Albatross’ east of
Mariato Point, Gulf of Panama. This was a Green
Mud dredged from 695 fathoms. ‘The chief forami-
niferal contents, enumerated by Dr. Axel Goés, are
as follows: Haplophragmium canariense, D’Orb. sp. ;
Textularia sagittula, var. cuneiformis, D’Orb.; Bolt-
vina punctata, D’Orb.; Bulimina ellipsoides, Costa ;
Cheilostomella ovoidea, Reuss; Lagena marginata,
W.and B.; Nodosaria raphanus, Linné sp.; Uvigerina
pygmed, D’Orb.; U. Auberiana, D’Orb.; Trunca-
tulina Wuellerstorfi, Schwager sp.; 7. mundula,
Brady, Parker, and Jones; Lotalia Soldani, D’Orb.
sp.; and a few pelagic species, as Globigerina dubia,
Egger.

The Greensands largely consist of green granules,
which on minute examination prove to be casts of
Foraminifera in Glauconite. In some samples of
Greensands the tests still remain, but more often
they speedily decay and only the cast is left. The
following is Dr. Brady’s description of the note-

)

worthy ‘ Challenger’ sounding of Greensand off

GHOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 287

Sydney at 410 fathoms. The deposit resembles a
erey 00ze :—

‘The organisms contained in the material from
this station are infiltrated in a very remarkable
manner with a siliceous mineral (Glauconite), and
by decalcifying with weak acid perfect casts of the
chambers of most of the Foraminifera of a common
Globigerina ooze may be obtained. The list of
species is a tolerably long one, and contains an
admixture of some shallow-water forms, but other-
wise presents nothing very distinctive.’

In consideration of the fact that Greensands
occur as important foraminiferal deposits in various
geological systems it is interesting to note that at
the present day these deposits are never found deeper
than 900 fathoms, whilst their average depth is
449 fathoms. For the formation of these deposits it
seems essential that they should be within the in-
fluence of marine currents by which the sands are set
in motion. Extensive deposits of Greensands are met
with off the coast of California, the east coast of
N. America, the Cape of Good Hope, to the east
of Africa, and off the coasts of Portugal, South
America, Japan, and Australia.

The deposits forming round coral islands in the
Pacific and Indian Oceans are known as Coral Muds
and Coral Sand. They are largely made up of the
organisms which live in great numbers in such locali-
ties, as, for example, the Calcareous Algw, various
Foraminifera, Alcyonarians, Corals, Molluscs, Poly-
zoa, Annelids, and Kchinoderms.

288 THE FORAMINIFERA

These deposits of Coral Mud and Sand only differ
from one another in the former containing a larger
percentage of fine amorphous matter, chiefly car-
bonate of lime, whilst the coral sand, occurring
generally at less depths, consists of organic particles,
with a small or almost inappreciable quantity of fine
material.

The Coral Sands, forming on the slopes and shoals
of the reef, are sorted and sifted by wave action, and
consolidated sometimes by the deposition of calcareous
cement, or by the growth of Lithothamnion and
encrusting Foraminifera; the latter often covering
patches of the sand measuring as much as five
inches across, and due to the continuous growth of
one particular organism—the remarkable Polytrema
planwm of Carter.

The proportion of the Coral Sand actually due to
the remains of corals is usually very small, and there-
fore the term must be regarded as indicative of
association rather than of composition.

The foraminiferal fauna of the Coral Sands
presents many features of interest, and the assem-
blages formed under the conditions associated with
reef-building organisms often have a distinct character
by themselves. We may find under favourable and
variable conditions, such as these, an extensive series
of foraminiferal forms, many of the shells being of
ereat delicacy and beauty.

One of the most remarkable foraminiferal
deposits of Coral Sand was dredged from Raine’s
Islet, Torres Strait, at 155 fathoms, by the

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 289

‘Challenger.’ This material has yielded in the
hands of Dr. Brady and others no less than 269
species and varieties of the Foraminifera alone.
Concerning this Brady says: ‘Amongst the many
rare forms are the following:—Lagena spiralis,
Lagena Hertwigu, and Lagena Schulzeana ; Cristel-
laria gemmata and Cristellaria tricarinella ; Sagraina
linbata ; Pulvinulina procera and Pulvinulina
Schreibersi ; Truncatulina precincta, Rupertia
crassitesta, Textularia crispata, Textularia foliwm,
and Vextularia transversaria; Pavonina flabelli-
formis, Chrysalidina dimorpha, Spiroplecta annectens,
Cassidulina calabra, Cornuspira sulcata, and Cornu-
spira carinata.’

The dredgings made by the Coral Reef Expedi-
tion round Funafuti, in the Pacific, have yielded
an even more extensive fauna than the above, for
the number of species found there is over 300,
amongst which many large reef-living species are
conspicuous, such as Carpenteria rhaphidodendron,
Polytrema planum, and Cycloclypeus Carpentert.
The beach sands of the coral islands in the Pacific
are sometimes entirely composed of a few genera of
Foraminifera in extraordinary abundance, such as
Amplistegina Lesson, Heterostegina depressa, Poly-
trema mimaceum, Tinoporus baculatus, Orbitolites
complanata, Carpenteria monticularis, Gypsina globu-
lus, Calcarina hispida, and Miliolina reticulata.

The Shore Sands of temperate and colder areas
have a fauna peculiar to themselves. The dis-
tribution of the various genera and species is depen-

U

290 THE FORAMINIFERA

dent upon several factors in their conditions of
existence, such as the surface and bottom temperatures
of the water; the presence of warmer or colder
currents, as, for example, in the Farée Channel,
which, being on the border line between the warm and
cold areas, presents a special feature in its foramini-
feral fauna ; the’proximity of limestone cliffs ; and the
nature of the surrounding sea bottom. As it has
already been remarked, a certain proportion of species
are cosmopolitan in their habits, being found alike in
shallow and deep water; and in both high and low
latitudes. On this statement, however, there must be
placed a certain amount of reservation, for there is
generally some varietal difference even in these ubi-
quitous forms when they are found existing under
extreme conditions.

291

CELE WE XonxX

ON THE COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, AND MOUNTING OF
FORAMINIFERA

In taking up the study of Foraminifera it will be
found impossible to confine ourselves either to the
recent or fossil forms, for, in order to learn something
of this group of animals, more especially with regard
to the morphology of the shell, one must be
acquainted with their occurrence as fossils in the
clays, shales, and limestones, as well as in their
more recent condition, whether in deep-sea oozes or
in shore sands.

On the Collection of Living Foraminifera.—The
surface of the ocean is in places teeming with
pelagic life, especially in the tracts occupied by the
warmer currents, as well as the more extensive areas
of tropical waters; and this plankton fauna contains
a very large proportion of pelagic Foraminifera, as
Globigerina, Orbulina, Hastigerina, Spheroidina,
Pullenia, and Pulvinulina. The dead shells of these
genera are continually falling through the water to
form the bottom ooze of the ocean floor.

The usual method of collecting the living
Globigerine and other pelagic forms of life is by
the use of the ordinary surface tow net (fig. 37).

U »

«<

292 THE FORAMINIFERA

The net is made of coarse cloth to form a long
bag, with an iron hoop of 1 foot to 18 inches in
diameter at the mouth. On board the ‘ Challenger ’
these tow-nets were dragged either from the ship or
from small boats lowered for the purpose ; and by
this means the beautiful specimens of living Globi-
gerne and Orbuline, beset with their long and deli-
cate spines, were collected, figures of which are given
in the Report on the Results, vol. 1x. plates Ixxvu.
xxviii.

Ordinary deep-sea dredges or beam trawls are
used at varying depths for collecting the oceanic
bottom deposits; for a great many species of Forami-

Fie. 837.—TuHE Tow-NET in UsE (from ‘ Rep. on Deep-sea Deposits’).

nifera habitually live on the ocean floor, where they
creep over the surface objects on the mud or sand ac-
cumulations, or attach themselves to the seaweeds,
stems of hydrozoa, or the long spicules of sponges, such
as Hyalonema. ''o make the dredge effective in bring-
ing up the fine oozy material, a piece of fine cloth is
tacked on to the inside of the dredge at the bottom.

In shallow water, Foraminifera in the living con-
dition can be collected from seaweed, and the lami-
narian zone round the coasts of Britain furnishes us
with a good collecting ground. Mr. Halkyard describes
the method of procedure as follows :—

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 293

‘Living Foraminifera may be found by washing
in a fine muslin net the small seaweeds and
zoophytes growing in low-tide pools. The manner
of using the net is as follows: a quantity of weeds,
&c., having been gathered, the net is immersed in a
pool (care must, however, be taken that the upper
edge of the net is kept above water), the weeds
being washed one by one inside it; after this is done
the contents of the net are turned into a large wide-
mouthed bottle full of sea water, for examination on
the return home. Of course many other organisms
besides Foraminifera will be found in this gathering,
such as Ostracoda, Copepoda, and other small crus-
taceans, which do not make the work any the less
interesting.’

If we place the seaweed or the washed-out
material into small glass jars or tubes of sea-water,
the Foraminifera will travel to the sides and creep
about by means of their pseudopodia. They can
then be transferred to the stage aquarium for obser-
vation by means of dipping tubes. The latter may
easily be made by drawing out an ordinary piece of
glass tubing in the gas flame, and can be used either
straight or curved according to requirements
(fig. 38).

The following account of the method of collect-
ing living Foraminifera, especially from a silty area
like the Dee estuary, is given by Mr. Siddall, who
has had considerable experience in collecting and
observing these little organisms. Concerning the
Foraminifera obtained he says: ‘These have in-

294 THE FORAMINIFERA

variably been got from the mud at the bottom
of shore pools of greater or less depth. Under
the influence of the sunlight the Diatoms and
other alge, which grow in the mud at the bottom
of such pools, often rise to the surface in patches.
These act as rafts and carry the Rhizopoda up
with them. Once up, the outspread pseudopodia

Fic. 38.—Various Forms oF Dippinc TUBES.

enable even the largest and heaviest forms got
in our district to float perfectly. I have seen
a shore pool at Holywell covered quite thickly
with Polystomella striatopunctata (the commonest
form in the Dee), its reddish-coloured sarcode
rendering it easy to distinguish on the surface of
the water.’

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 295

Regarding the collection of foraminiferal material
from the locality in question Mr. Siddall states
that ‘they may always be got by carefully scrap-
ing the surface of the velvety brownish mud at the
bottom of pools left by the tide, or by skimming the
top of the water, if this mud be found to have risen
under the influence of sunlight. The oozy mud may
be got rid of by washing through a muslin net, and
the residuum put into small bottles filled with sea-
water.’

Fig. 39.—StTace AQUARIUM FOR OBSERVING
Livinc FORAMINIFERA.

One of the best contrivances for exhibiting the
Foraminifera alive is a glass cell made in the follow-
ing manner: A thin plate glass slide measuring
about 3 in.x2in. is taken to form one side of the
cell. Next a piece of glass rod, such as that used for
stirring purposes, is bent up into a U-shaped form,
the sides of which are ground flat with emery and
water. This bent rod is cemented to the glass plate
by one of the flat surfaces with marine glue or india-
rubber cement. Another piece of thin plate glass, of

296 THE FORAMINIFERA

the outer form of the U-shaped rod, is then fastened
to the other side, and the cell is complete (fig. 39).
Another method is to cement a glass slide through
which a hole has been drilled to another slide of the
same size, the top of the cell being covered with a
thin glass. For a cell of small dimensions the
following can be quickly made: A vulcanite ring is
split in halves and one of the semicircular pieces
cemented to a 3” x1” glass shp. The upper wall of
the cell is made by affixing half of a circular cover
elass (cut with the point of a writing diamond) with
india-rubber cement.

When the object is placed in a cell of this
description with sea-water, it may be viewed either
as a transparency, in which case, however, the
extended pseudopodia are seen with some _ diffi-
culty, or as an opaque object under a spot lens,
or a parabolic reflector. The latter method gives a
much better result, for the streaming of the proto-
plasm along the pseudopodia is well shown in this
way. At times the living Foraminifera seem very
shy, and refuse to extrude the sarcode through
the shell, but if left undisturbed for a short time
one is often rewarded by the beautiful phenomenon
of the living rhizopod with its extended pseudopodia.
The common shallow-water species Polystomella
crispa makes a very good subject for such observa-
tion.

On the Collection and Preparation of Recent and
Sub-recent Foraminifera.—The deep-sea oozes are
principally obtained by the sounding apparatus and

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 297

deep-sea dredges. Samples of these deposits we may
be fortunate enough to secure from the officers of the
various expeditions which have been sent out from
time to time, or from the cable-laying companies.
These deep-sea oozes and muds require to be cleansed
from the finer impalpable deposit of coccoliths by
washing through a sieve. In order to retain the
smallest Foraminifera the sieve should be covered at
the bottom with miller’s silk, having about 200
meshes to the inch. The contents of the sieve, after
washing away the finest mud, should be slowly and
carefully dried, ready for examination with the micro-
scope. If the material to be washed contains many
coarse fragments, we must use a sieve of a larger
mesh, say 30 or 60 to the inch, to give an inter-
mediate separation.

The soundings taken by an ordinary boat-lead in
shallow water are usually mixed with tallow, used
for the purpose of arming the hollow end of the
sounding lead in securing a sample of the sea-
bottom. To clean the material so obtained, the tallow
should be melted in a porcelain basin and poured
off, and the residue of foraminiferal sand or ooze
further cleaned by treatment with benzole.

The shallow-water foraminiferal sands of our
coasts may be gathered in the following way: ‘To
secure a favourable collecting ground, we must notice
the set of the tides and choose a bay which has a
considerable stretch of fine sand. The Foraminifera
which live amongst the seaweed between tides,
becoming detached, float with the incoming tide, and

298 THE FORAMINIFERA

on its retreat the shells are left behind on the ripple-
marked sands, often filling up the furrows and mark-
ing the strand with white lines composed of their
minute shells. In proceeding to collect this material
we may use a large spoon to scrape up the surface
layer of these streaks, and to fill some muslin bags
with which we should be provided. This material
will possibly require to be further cleaned and
separated—tirst, to get rid of the salt from the
water, and secondly, to divide the shells from the
sandy portion, of which latter there will be a varying
proportion, according to the purity of our foraminiferal
deposit and the care we bestow upon it in collecting.
Sometimes it is found necessary to separate the
lighter Foraminiferafrom the larger and heavier forms,
by a process called ‘floating. This is done by
gently warming the dried material and then throwing
it upon cold water, when the smaller or lighter air-
filled chambered shells, as Lagena, Miliolina, and
Globigerina, will remain on the surface. These float-
ings can be poured on to a fine muslin sieve, which
will retain the shells and allow the water to pass
through. The iaterial can then be dried for the
selection and examination of species. In this part of
the work the sieves used should have copper sides, as
these will not rust nor warp, as iron or wood. A
further separation of the sunken or heavier foramini-
feral shells may be effected by stirring up the material
in water and decanting the lighter portion before it
can subside.

Another method of separating the lighter forami-

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 299

niferal sand often found useful to the manipulator is
that variously known to miners as ‘vanning’ or
‘panning,’ in which the sand is put into a shallow
dish or pan with water, and a circular motion or
dexterous twirl given to it, so as to throw over the
edge some of the lighter particles. By this plan,
conversely, our ‘ gold dust’ lies in the lighter portion,
and this must be collected in a larger vessel placed
under that in which the vanning is done.

It occasionally happens that the dead shells of
Foraminifera are not so clean as they might be, on
account of dried sarcode or other extraneous matter
clinging to the surface; or it may be necessary to
further empty the shells of the sarcode, shrivelled
though it may be, in order the better to observe their
internal construction. ‘l’o clean the shells, therefore,
we may resort to the method of boiling the material
in a weak solution of caustic potash. After boiling,
the shells should be thoroughly washed in clean
water and dried slowly, as described before. ‘he
foregoing processes apply both to recent and sub-fossil
gatherings, for the latter are often in as good a state
of preservation as the existing forms, as evidenced by
the faunas of estuarine deposits, fossil mud deposits,
and raised beaches.

On the Extraction of Fossil Foraminifera from
Sedimentary Rocks.—Fossil Foraminifera are obtained
from clays and marls by a process of disintegration,
the rock being washed down to a sandy and shelly
residue, and further cleaned by mechanical or
chemical means. In enumerating a few of the more

300 THE FORAMINIFERA

familiar clays and marls which may thus be treated
with satisfactory results we may mention the Lias
Clays, the Gault Clays and Marls, the London Clay,
Bracklesham Clay, Barton Clay, and the Pliocene
Clay of St. Hrth.

The material chosen to be worked upon for its
Foraminifera is broken up into pieces about the size
of a walnut, slowly and thoroughly dried in an oven,
and dropped, preferably when warm, into a vessel of
cold water. The material thus treated should be left
to remain undisturbed until the whole of the material
has broken up into a fine silty mud, which condition
may be tested by raking up a sample with a fork.
This precaution has to be taken on account of the
tendency of the clay to clot together when touched
with the fingers. When the clay is thoroughly dis-
integrated, forming a more or less fine mud, we may
commence to wash away the finest argillaceous por-
tion. The decanting should be done with care, so as
to run no risk of pouring off the shells with the
mud. The washing is repeated until the water is
no longer turbid. For the final cleaning of the
residue, which often takes a little extra time if the
material is close and refractory, we must pour off as
much of the water as possible and vigorously work
the vessel with a rotary motion until the residue looks
of the consistence of cream. Then we pour on water
to fill the vessel, allowing the material to subside
before decanting. This should be done repeatedly
until no more fine clay can be separated, and the
residue looks clean and sandy. Should some clay-

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 301

flakes still remain unbroken, the material must again
be dried and washed.

In the case of shales or indurated muds, such as
Kimeridge shale, or the shaly material found as
partings between the joints of the Carboniferous lime-
stone, a shghtly different treatment may be required,
and the material must be broken up mechanically
into smaller pieces before washing. Should the work
be prosecuted in winter, we may be able to take
advantage of a severe frost by exposing the material,
just covered with water, to the action of frost, which
materially aids its disintegration. But by these means
even, it will be found impossible to reduce the whole
of the material by washing, and in this case we must
have further recourse to sifting after the material is
dried, in order to select that portion which will yield
the best results when it is sorted. Hard marls may
often be broken up by boiling the fragments in a flask
with sulphate of soda.

Calcareous sandy rocks, such as the Crag deposits,
can only be sifted, in the majority of cases, on account
of the friable character of their Foraminifera.

Soft limestones, such as Chalk, can generally be
readily broken down by first selecting pieces, not larger
than hazel nuts, of the softest material from the
particular stratum one wishes to examine, tying them
in a strong coarse linen bag, and thoroughly soaking
in water. The bag can then be pressed and kneaded,
so as to crush the lumps of chalk, and the milky
water strained off. This process should be followed
so long as the water in which it is steeped is made

302 THE FORAMINIFERA

turbid, and then the residue can be turned out for
final cleansing. This may be done by taking a
corked bottle, in which we place the chalky sand, and
with the merest trace of water; the bottle is then
shaken vigorously, so that the particles may be cleaned
by a certain amount of friction. If our specimen is
well selected, the result will be a sand largely
composed of the shells of Foraminifera. Another
method, and perhaps a safer one for the shells, is
to take a piece of soft chalk and with a tooth-
brush briskly rub it under water until a fine sandy
residue falls down.

On a larger scale the actions of frost and rain
effect what we have here been trying to do; for it
is not uncommon to see in chalk districts a fine
powdery material lying at the foot of the dip slope,
where the rain drains off into runnels, which often
consists almost entirely of foraminiferal shells.

In searching for Foraminifera in the harder rocks
we must resort to a different method of investigation ;
for the foraminiferal limestones of the Carboniferous:
system, and also those of Hocene age, are often
extremely hard, and resist all attempts to disintegrate
them by ordinary methods such as we have just
described. These hard fossiliferous rocks are sliced
in the usual way in cutting thin rock-sections, by the:
lapidary’s slitting machine. The slice is then surfaced
by grinding on fine emery, and, if it be a limestone,
faced on a whet slate. The prepared surface is then
cemented to a glass slip by using Canada balsam, and
ground down by successive grades of emery powder

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 303

with water until the required transparency is
attained. ‘The slice is then mounted in Canada
balsam and covered with a thin glass.

It is the rule to find fossil Foraminifera having
their original shells, but in some cases only their
partial remains are found, in the form of casts,
usually internal. These are formed by the infilling of
the chambers with various mineral substances, such
as Chalcedony, glauconite, marcasite, calcite, phos-
phatite, chalybite, hematite, and limonite.

The hollow flints, containing the fine white
powdery substance sometimes known as ‘ flint meal,’
yield casts of Foraminifera in cHaLcEDony generally
in abundance. In many cases not only the casts
but actual replacements of the tests are found in this
substance, as in the meal deposits in the pot stones
(paramoudras) in the Chalk of the North of Ireland.

The GLavconite casts of foraminiferal shells are
found in extraordinary abundance in certain fossili-
ferous deposits, as in the Hollybush Sandstone of
Shropshire, which is of Cambrian age; and the
Neocomian and Aptian glauconitic sandstones of the
Isle of Wight. The greensands of the Lower and
Upper Greensand formations in the South of England,
the Greensand beds of the Gault and the Cambridge
Greensand, and also the Upper Cretaceous Hibernian
Greensand of the North of Iveland are all largely
composed of these glauconite casts, chiefly of Forami-
nifera. In strata of Tertiary age the basement beds
of the London Clay, the glauconitic clays of the
Bracklesham series, and the Barton beds also yield

304 THE FORAMINIFERA

elauconitic casts in abundance. Similar glauconitic
casts are forming within the shells of Foraminifera at
the present day, as, for example, in the greensands
and glauconitic muds of the Agulhas Shoal, off the
South African coast.

Casts of Foraminifera in iron pyrites, or, more
strictly speaking, in Marcasirr, are frequent in many
clays which are strongly impregnated with sulphides,
as the Lias Clay, Gault Clay, and London Clay, and
the rapid change from the disulphide into the
sulphate is frequently seen in the fracture and
ultimate destruction of the shell.

Caucrre infillings are often observed in the forami-
niferal tests of certain chalk strata, such as that of
Southerham, near Lewes, but, owing to the ease with
which such casts are broken up, on account of the
cleavage in the mineral, they are not often seen in
the separated condition. From certain of the
Egyptian limestones the writer has described Num-
mulites and other Foraminifera in which the internal
septation is broken down and the whole of the test im
some instances occupied by a mould of Calcite.

PuospHatic casts and replacements of Foraminifera
are met with abundantly in certain limestone deposits
where the strata have been impregnated with phos-
phoric acid, due to the decomposition of fish remains
in many cases, and giving rise to the phosphate of
lime or phosphatite. A notable instance of phospha-
tised Foraminifera is that occurring in the Phos-
phatic Chalk of Taplow and Twyford. One may
easily obtain very beautiful casts of the Foraminifera

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 305

by dissolving the shells of the phosphatic chalk
Foraminifera in weak acetic acid. The residue must
be washed and dried with the greatest care, on
account of the extreme delicacy of the casts.
CHALYBITE is sometimes found as an infilling of
the Foraminifera Saccammina and Endothyra in
the Carboniferous Limestone; and Hamatire and
Livonite are occasionally found as casts of Forami-
nifera in ferruginous limestones which are undergoing

decay.
On Hxanuning and Selecting the Shells of Fora-
minifera. — In discussing the various methods of

mounting the Foraminifera we presume that one of the
first requisites is a lens or hand magnifier, by which the
various larger forms may be discovered and examined.
The majority of the species, however, are so small
as to make a microscope almost a necessity. Al-
though a triplet hand magnifier will be found useful
in going over the coarser siftings, the selection of the
smaller Foraminifera must be done with a compound
microscope, with objectives having a magnification of
at least 30 to 60 diameters. A very convenient
microscope stand is that known as the Wale’s
Binocular, a form which the writer has had in
constant use for nearly twenty years, and which is
convenient not only on account of the space for deep
slides which the hollowed arm affords, but also for
the convenient clamping arrangement when the stage
of the microscope has to be tilted at high angles for
camera lucida or photomicrographic work. ‘The
binocular arrangement is also to be recommended for
Be

306 THE FORAMINIFERA

reducing the strain on the eyes of the worker, as
both eyes will be used; for the monocular form
necessitates work with one eye, and if both eyes are
not used alternately the mjury done by continued
work may be great, especially since the selection
of specimens is more often carried on by artificial
light and with a comparatively powerful illuminant.
It is well to bear in mind, in prosecuting this
work, the words of Dr. W. B. Carpenter, who him-
self devoted forty-five years to microscopical study
by artificial light: ‘ Every microscopist who thus
occupies himself, therefore, will do well, as he values
his eyes, not merely to adopt the various precau-
tionary measures already specified, but rigorously
to keep to the simple rule of not continuing to
observe any longer than he can do so without fatigue.’
Should the worker be obliged to use a monocular
microscope, it would be well if he became used to the
method of working with both eyes alternately, so as
to divide the strain between them.

The material which contains the foraminiferal
shells, and which we wish to sort, is best viewed as an
opaque object. A condenser is used to concentrate the
rays of light and to illuminate the part immediately in
the field of vision; the lamp found to be most useful
is perhaps the ordinary one used by microscopists,
which is provided with a shade, screening off all but
the rays in a direct line with the condenser and
object. In regulating the amount of lght when
working in this way with the microscope it is better
to err on the side of too little rather than too much

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 307

light. In working by ordinary daylight it is prefer-
able to get the rays from a hght cloud, direct sun-
light being too glaring to the eyes, and there is also
a risk of burning the object. A parabolic con-
denser illuminates the object very well when diffused
light is used; and with artificial ight this condenser
can be used with advantage in conjunction with the
bull’s-eye condenser.

To facilitate the sorting of material containing
foraminiferal shells, it will be found advisable to use
a series of sieves of graduated sizes, having an
increasing number of meshes to the inch, as, for
example, 30, 60, and 120. These sieves can be
obtained of chemical apparatus dealers, made with
the sieves fitting one upon the other; the material
to be sifted is placed in the top, and after a vigorous
shake is separated into the various grades ready for
examination. It must be remembered that the
ereatest care should be taken to clean the sieves from
one kind of material before using them for another,
as all the value of our detailed examination would
be lost if we mixed the forms out of different
deposits.

In commencing to select the specimens of
Foraminifera from the material prepared according
to the foregoing methods the sand may be thinly
and evenly strewn on a tray, which can be passed
over the stage of the microscope. This tray by
preference should have a rim, to prevent loss of
material over the sides. If the surface of the tray
is blackened it forms a good background. Some

xy,

308 THE FORAMINIFERA

workers use black ribbed silk to cover the sorting
tray, fastened so that the ridges of the silk run
horizontally, or from left to right; this will pre-
vent the specimens from rolling when the microscope
is inclined for comfort in observation. A useful
form of tray for sorting purposes may be made
of black vulcanite (ebonite), and rimmed round as
before ; this material, however, loses its black surface
after a year or two, but can then be reblackened
with a smooth quick-drying varnish.

Some preliminary sorting may be carried out in a
mechanical way by taking advantage of the forms of
the shells. For example, in a medium sifting from an
ooze, by tilting the tray the Orbuline will first roll
down, and on further inclining it the Globigerine
and Pullenie. Discoidal forms will remain behind
after all the other particles have been made to roll
off by a gentle persuasive tapping.

On Mounting the Shells of Foranunifera.—For
the ordinary purposes of mounting, the opaque
wooden cell introduced by Dr. Carpenter may be
adopted (fig. 40). It is a strip of wood 3 inches by
1 inch, with a hole bored in the centre. ‘To this
wooden slip a thin piece of cardboard is glued,
which has been previously blackened in the middle
with Indian ink, to form a background. Several
sips may be mounted at one time on a long strip
of cardboard measuring a little more than 3 inches
in width, and having a broad black stripe along
the centre, and put under pressure; when dry the
slips can be cut round with a sharp penknife.

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 309

The thickness of these wooden slips can be made
to vary according to the height of the specimens
to be mounted in the cells; the shells should in
all cases lie below the surface of the slip, to avoid
any risk of injury to them. These strips of wood
may be cheaply prepared from the wood of cigar
boxes, by cutting through both surfaces with a
marking gauge. Should a large number of the
slips be required, it will be easier to procure a
block of wood (preferably, mahogany) measuring
3 inches by 1 inch, and of any required length,
bored through from end to end and sliced up by a

Calearinc ..

- Speagles.

Fic. 40.—MeEtHop or MountTInG
TORAMINIFERA IN Dry CELLS.

circular saw according to the needed thickness.
The holes in these slips may be made to vary
according to the area which the shells will occupy,
convenient sizes being +3 inch, 4 inch, and + inch
diameters.

There is another form of mount which is of great
convenience to the worker on account of its compact-
ness... It is made of a piece of thick cardboard
measuring 3 inches by 1 inch or wider, and has a

* The original form was devised by Messrs. William Swanston and
Joseph Wright.

310 THE FORAMINIFERA

rectangular piece punched out of the middle; to this
is glued at the back a form stuck on thin cardboard,
on which are photographed or lithographed a number
of divisions, each having a numeral placed in the
corner in rotation. ‘The mount is covered for
security by a case made from a 3 by 1 inch glass
slip, a piece of thin cardboard of the same size, and
a piece of tinted writing paper cut to enclose the
whole. The card is glued to the centre of the paper,
and lunettes punched out at the ends for the in-

Fic. 41.—Meruop or MountTinG A SERIES OF
FORAMINIFERA ON ONE SLIDE.

sertion of the finger-tip when removing the sheath.
The tray is placed on the top of the card and covered
with the slip, and the edges of the paper turned up
and fastened over the slip (fig. 41). These mounts
are very convenient for the storage space they afford
for the little specimens, and when covered with the
case they are quite dust-tight. They may be made
of various widths, keeping to the 3-inch length as
convenient, and to contain 10, 30, 50, or even 100

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 311

spaces as required. If the form is photographed, say,
from a diagram drawn up in Chinese white, the lines
in the positive will of course also appear white. The
forms can then be printed on ordinary bromide paper,
which will give a good dense black. The general
title and name of the formation to which the speci-
mens on the mount belong may be written on the
white card at the ends of the mount, and a number
given which will refer to a list of the species it
contains, kept in an index register elsewhere.

To attach the shells of Foraminifera to the
mounts, gum arabic is most frequently used. A few
drops of glycerine should be added to an ounce of the
eum. ‘This will prevent the gum from becoming
brittle and spoiling the shells by its fracture, espe-
cially when exposed to a very dry atmosphere. Better
than gum arabic, however, is gum tragacanth, for
when this dries it is practically invisible on the
mount. To prepare it the gum should be steeped
in water until it swells, when it should be dissolved
in alittle warm water untilitis of the consistency of a
thin jelly.

In mounting the minuter Foraminifera the sur-
face of the mount should be brushed over with a film
of gum, and when the object is transferred to 1b a
sight breathing close to the surface will deposit
sufficient moisture to cause the shell to adhere.
Larger Foraminifera may be cemented one by one
by placing little spots of gum where they are to be
affixed.

The best brushes for the purpose of selecting and

312 THE FORAMINIFERA

mounting the little tests are the finest red sables,
which should have a fine and fairly flexible point.

An ingenious mount for showing opaque objects,
such as Foraminifera, in various positions by a turn-
ing arrangement has lately been described by J. J.
Harvey in the following words: ‘One of the many
objections to the present system of mounting opaque
objects is that it is necessary to permanently hide
one side of the specimen, and in the case of aberrant
or rare forms this may greatly lessen the value and
interest of the slide. The method here advocated
allows of the revolution of the object under the
microscope, and permits of its examination with as
much ease as a hand specimen. It is at the same
time as permanent and as compact as the older
system. Another important advantage is the
differential lighting which this rotation brings into
play, and which the inventor has found of special
service in the study of the Foraminifera for which
this method was originally designed. The slides
used are the wooden slips recommended for this
class of objects by Carpenter and others. The
specimen is attached by means of a suitable medium
to the end of a needle (fig. 42 8) which has been
thrust through the centre of a plug of indiarubber
cord C. This is laid, with the specimen projecting
into the central cell D, in a shallow longitudinal
eroove A cut just deep enough to enable the speci-
men to revolve without touching the cover-glass, a
hole also having been cut for the reception of the
rubber plug. The projection of this plug above the

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 313

surface allows the whole arrangement to revolve by
the mere movement of the finger. When the cover
glass has been placed in position the whole can be
finished off with paper in the usual way. A neater
appearance is obtained by mounting two specimens
in each slip, one on either side of the cell.’

We will now transfer our attention to the
methods for mounting Foraminifera as more or less
transparent objects in media. After cleaning the
material as far as possible, and by the use of liquor
potasse, the shells may be immersed in a thin solu-
tion of Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine,

Fic. 42.—Harvey’s Mretuop or MounrtTING
OPAQuE OBJECTS.

chloroform, ether, or benzole; this will saturate the
tests and expel the air from the chambers. It is by
some thought to be expedient to place the vessel
containing the shells under an air-pump to complete
the process of filling the internal chambers and
extracting the air, but this does not in the majority
of cases seem necessary. The tests of the Forami-
nifera can, after the lapse of a few hours’ immer-
sion, be mounted in the ordinary way in Canada
balsam, using a gentle heat and covering with a thin
glass.

314 THE FORAMINIFERA

It is sometimes desired to arrange a group of
Foraminifera, or a series, upon a slide before mounting
in balsam. This can be effected by washing the sur-
face of the slide with a thin layer of gum ; the objects
may then be placed in position, or arranged with the
aid of a moistened brush or a needle mounted in a
handle. The specimens can then be covered with
Canada balsam and mounted in the usual way.

On Preparing Thin Sections of the Tests of
Foraminifera.—The internal structure of the forami-
niferal test is revealed by means of thin sections cut
in various and definite directions. Sometimes only
one half-section is required, and if the specimen
be large, like a Nummulite or an Orbitoides, the
object may be held in a cork slightly hollowed at
the end, into which the specimen is pressed, and
rubbed on a snakestone or Water-of-Ayr stone with
water until one half of the specimen is entirely
removed by grinding.

In the same way a polished specimen of a forami-
niferal limestone will show the included tests of
Foraminifera cut in various directions, and when
this surface is examined with a lens a great deal
may be learned about the internal structure of such
fossils.

When a thin section of a shell measuring no
more than ;!, inch in diameter, or even smaller, has
to be cut through the median plane, then the coarser
methods of cutting and polishing must be re-
linquished for the more delicate methods of Wallich,
Schlumberger, and others.

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 315

In 1861 Dr. Wallich described the following very
ingenious way of obtaining slices of minute objects,
as the shells of the Foraminifera; the chief point in
his method being the plan of turning a number of
specimens over together, so as to expose the alternate
sides for grinding. ‘The specimens are cemented
with Canada balsam in the first instance to a thin
film of mica, which is then attached to a glass slide
by the same means; when they have been ground
down as far as may be desired (upon the snakestone)
the slide is gradually heated, just sufficiently to
allow of the detachment of the mica-film and the
specimens it carries, and a thin slide with a clean
layer of hardened balsam having been prepared, the
mica-film is transferred to it with the ground surface
downwards. When its adhesion is complete the
erinding may be proceeded with, and as the mica-
film will yield to the stone without the least diffi-
culty, the specimen, now reversed in position, may
be reduced to the requisite thinness.

In the preparations of sections of Foraminifera by
this method it is necessary, in the case of shells with
inflated chambers, to take care that the whole test is
permeated with the fluid Canada balsam, and in
order to do this the shells must be placed in the
balsam before the latter 1s quite tough, so that
during the few seconds of prolonged heating which
will be required to bring the cement up to the proper
degree of toughness, the balsam will have the oppor-
tunity of penetrating to the mnermost recesses of
the shell. Instead of grinding off the mica-film, as

316 THE FORAMINIFERA

Wallich describes, it may be easily split from the
balsam when the latter is cold ; and, moreover, this
will provide a test as to the proper toughness of the
balsam, for it should shell off with ease when a knife
point is inserted under one corner, and it should
at the same time be noticed that the balsam does
not powder under the knife point, for in that case
it will be too brittle to grind with safety to the
shells.

Some of the most interesting discoveries during
past years on the morphology of the foraminiferal
shell have been made by M. Schlumberger, and he
has shown by means of his superior skill in preparing
thin sections of Foraminifera, chiefly of the Muilho-
lide, that the same species presents two entirely
different aspects with regard to their inner plans of
erowth, and to which reference has already been
made on the subject of dimorphism. ‘The follow-
ing is a translation of Schlumberger’s description
of his method of preparing these sections, which
is given by Heron-Allen in his useful and sug-
gestive ‘Prolegomena towards the Study of the
Foraminifera : ’—

‘The apparatus necessary is very slight, and the
whole operation may be performed within the most
restricted space. A bottle of chloroform, one of
Canada balsam, a few stoppered tubes, two or three
fine brushes, a scalpel, a stone such as is used for
erinding razors, a piece of pumice stone, and a spirit
lamp are all that is necessary in addition to the
ordinary accessories of a good microscope. One side

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. d17

of the piece of pumice stone must be kept always
very plane by means of a fine file.

‘Suppose that we desire to obtain a section of a
Biloculina. The first object to be attained is the
filling of all its chambers, to the very centre or
primordial chamber, with a medium sufficiently re-
sisting to prevent the shell being crushed by the
action of the rubbing stone. To effect this the
Biloculina must be dropped into a stoppered tube
with a httle chloroform, upon which at first it will
most probably float, but the fluid penetrating little
by little into the inner chamber will drive out the
air, and the test will sink to the bottom of the tube.
After letting it remain there for a while it is picked
out and set in a drop of Canada balsam, placed upon
the centre of a cover slip. The chloroform being a
rapid and perfect solvent of Canada balsam, the
latter will soon penetrate to the inmost chambers ;
but it is desirable, if one is not pressed for time, to
wait a day or two before continuing the operation, in
order that the chloroform may disappear from the
chambers by evaporation as completely as possible ;
this prevents the inconvenient presence of bubbles of
air in the subsequent stages of the operation.

‘When one judges that the balsam has suffi-
ciently penetrated all the chambers of the test, one
warms the cover glass over the spirit lamp to drive
off the volatile constituents of the resin, and before
the drop of balsam containing the test has become
cold and hard the test is placed in the position
required for making the section by means of a hot

318 THE FORAMINIFERA

needle or stiff brush; vertically if one wants a trans-
verse, or horizontally if one wants a vertical, section.

‘At this point it is necessary to be sure whether
the balsam is of the right consistency, i.e. neither
too hard nor too soft; in the former case it will
splinter away and the test be torn from its position,
and in the latter the rubbing action of the stone will
crush the walls of the chambers. If, however, you
always use the same balsam and the same method of
heating it, you will soon be able to bring it always
to the required condition, but to make sure it is
advisable to take up a tiny drop of the balsam whilst
still soft with a needle and let it cool, and if it
crumbles into fragments when pressed upon the
finger-nail you can safely proceed with the operation.

‘Place the cover slip upon a flat surface, place a
moistened plane of the grinding-stone (or hone)
upon the test, and commence rubbing it softly with
a circular movement of the hone. The greatest
care must be taken to keep the hone absolutely
parallel to the plane of the section you desire to
make, as the test wears down and the hone rubs
closer to the cover slip. One cannot see the pro-
gress of the operation with the naked eye, but the
section in progress must be constantly examined
under the microscope, washing away the muddy
detritus of the test with a wet brush before each
examination. Almost immediately the internal
chambers make their appearance, outlined in white
on the yellowish matrix formed by the balsam, and
one continues until one judges that one is almost

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 319

down to the primordial, or centre, chamber. Then
dry the section and re-warm the balsam, and with
the needle (under a lens or low-power objective) turn
the test over, in the balsam, on to its now flattened
surface; by transmitted light under the microscope
you can see in the centre of the section the little
round primordial chamber, and by focussing through
it you can judge how much must be rubbed away on
either side to reach the centre of this chamber, at
which point the section is to be taken.

‘When the test is worn down to this central
point on either side the section is once more turned
over, and, with a fine scalpel, the superfluous balsam
is scraped away round the section, after which the
rubbing down is carried to the finest possible degree.
This turning over must be accomplished with the
greatest care, for if the warmed balsam is too
“tacky” at this point the central chambers may be
carried away, or the outer ones (especially in the
case of the Miliolingz) may disintegrate. To obviate
this the balsam must be thoroughly fluidified, when the
section may be turned over by pushing one or two
hairs of a fine brush underneath it. In some species
the arrangement of the chambers is such that, when
the rubbing has been carried down to the central
chamber, the centre of the section finds itself
isolated from the periphery, and then the turning
must be done in the cold or hardened state; that is
to say, the whole mass of balsam, with the em-
bedded section, must be dexterously split off the
glass with the scalpel, and not warmed again until it

320 THE FORAMINIFERA

has been turned over upon a fresh area of the cover
slip.

‘To avoid importing confusion into the above
exposition, I have omitted to refer to certain precau-
tions that must be taken. It is obvious that in
rubbing down the test in the balsam, especially if
the test contain siliceous granules, the hone will
itself be worn away, and however slight this wear
may be, unless it is corrected, one would in time be
making a convex surface, the result of which would
be that, when the section is turned over, the greater
resistance of the periphery would cause it to be worn
away before the central chamber was reached. It
is here that the pumice-stone comes into use, and by
its continual use during the operation the rubbing
surface of the hone is kept quite plane. One small
difficulty sometimes attends the use of the pumice-
stone. ‘The glassy detritus of the latter adhering to
the hone, whilst it assists the operation of rubbing
down, has a tendency to get into and clog the
section, introducing itself either into the chambers
or into any minute air-bubbles that may be present.
This glassy mud will soil and confuse the section,
but it may be got rid of by means of a strong jet of
water from a tap or wash-bottle directed upon the
section through a glass tube drawn out to a fine
point. When the section is thus cleared, the little
spaces left by the process may be filled up with a
fine brush dipped in a solution of balsam in chloro-
form, after which the section is again warmed and
allowed to cool. If recourse to the tap or wash-

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 321

bottle is impracticable these fragments of pumice
may be got rid of by covering the section with a
little of the balsam solution and heating it, when the
ebullition of the medium will bring the particles to
the surface with the air-bubbles, when they may be
removed, as they form, with a fine brush.

‘Careful observance of these directions will
ensure success, after perhaps a failure or two;
the most annoying casualty being that often, at the
last moment, a too vigorous rub may wipe the whole
section out of existence, in which case the only
thing you can do is to begin again upon another
specimen.’

The above excellent description is given in full,
since, if these minute instructions are carefully
followed, there is more chance of success.

The following method for hardening and slicing
friable deposits and loose sands has been devised by
I’. G. Pearcey, and used with much success in the
‘Challenger ’ Office :-—

The dried deposit or sand is placed in a small
pill box, upon which is poured a solution of mastic
dissolved in benzole. The mass is hardened by
slowly heating in a hot-water oven, and when cold
the piece is sliced into layers about ;/, inch thick or
more. ‘These slices are rubbed down and _ polished
upon the snakestone, after being cemented to a
thin glass, which in turn is fastened to a glass slip.
When one surface has been sufficiently prepared, the
cover glass. is removed by a gentle warming, and
then cemented in the reverse position with Canada

vi

322 THE FORAMINIFERA

balsam to a glass slide. The cover glass can then
be ground away or carefully flaked off, and the
rubbing down proceeded with until thin enough ;
it is then mounted in the usual way with Canada
balsam and a cover glass, great care being taken to
avoid displacing the prepared section by too much
pressure.

It will now be convenient to describe the method
of making sections of chalk.

The above plan will also answer equally well for this,
but the following is the usual way of procedure :—

The chalk selected for the section should, if
possible, be cut into a slice with fairly parallel sides,
and having a thickness of 4 inch or so. | This slicing
is not absolutely necessary, but it ensures the
better permeation of the rock; whereas if a chip is
used it will take a longer period for the medium to
penetrate to the plane through which the section is
to be made. The slice or chip is carefully warmed,
to drive out any moist air which may lurk in the re-
cesses of the specimen; and at the same time we
should have in preparation an evaporating basin, of
about 24 inches in diameter, half filled with Canada
balsam, and resting on a tripod and piece of wire
gauze, placed over the flame of a spirit lamp. When
the balsam has been heated to the condition of being
nearly tough when cold, tested by drawing out
a thread on the point of the forceps, the piece of
chalk may be dropped in and allowed to absorb the
balsam freely. If a few flakes of shellac be added to
the balsam it will render the chalk more coherent

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 323

in the process of grinding. After the lapse of a little
time, and when the bubbles of air cease to be given
off, the flame should be withdrawn, and the specimen
allowed to partially cool in the balsam. This is
done in order that, during the contraction of the
balsam in the rock, the interstitial spaces may be kept
completely filled with the medium; if this is not
carefully attended to, the chalk will grind up readily
into a mud when we endeavour to produce a surface
upon it, and the result will be a hole in that particular
part of the section. As soon as the balsam begins to
harden, our specimen must be withdrawn and left to
cool down. ‘The superficial balsam is then scraped
away with a penknife, and a surface produced upon
it with a snakestone and water. When one face
is sufficiently smooth, presenting an even balsam-
filled surface, it should be carefully dried and
cemented with balsam to a glass slp. The bulk of
the chalk may then be ground away on mediuin-
grain emery, and the finishing proceeded with as in
the preparation of the preliminary surface, by rubbing
down on a perfectly plane snakestone. As soon as
the section is nearing completion little spots of light
may appear through the section, showing the pre-
sence of organisms. This thinning down should be
continued until the matrix is also fairly translucent,
and then it may be mounted with fluid balsam, using
a very moderate heat to harden the medium. It
is often of great convenience to make a section of
chalk before proceeding to wash down a quantity for
the extraction of the Foraminifera, for by this means

x 2

324 THE FORAMINIFERA

we are enabled to see whether the specimen is worth
the trouble of disintegration.

To prepare the Sarcode Bodies of Foraninifera.—
In order to examine the sarcode for structures such
as the nucleus, the gemmules or zodspores, and so
forth, it is essential to remove or decalcify the shell.
In order to do this successfully the body of the fora-
minifer, which is jellylike in consistence, must be
hardened; and this process should go on side by side
with the dissolution of the shell. The best reagent for
doing this is undoubtedly that known as Perenyi’s
Fluid. It consists of nitric acid, 10 per cent. sol.,
4 vols.; alcohol (absolute), 3 vols. ; chromic acid, 5 per
cent., 3 vols.

If we are able to obtain the living animals by
dredging, the material should be bottled, until re-
quired, in weak spirit, or, what is perhaps better, a
weak solution of formalin. On selecting our specimens
for decalcification they may be placed on a thin
cover glass in the solution mentioned above, con-
tained preferably in a glass box with a lid, a covered
watch-glass, or other convenient vessel, and _ left
undisturbed until the solution of the shell is effected.
Should the organism require to be stained, the cover
glass with the specimen may be gently lifted by means
of a section-lifter, and transferred to a fresh vessel
containing water; and afterwards to a weak solution
of picro-carmine. After the lapse of half an hour it
may be transferred to methylated spirit. If the speci-
men be washed in water after staining, the picric acid
is removed, otherwise it acts as a yellow stain to the

COLLECTION, EXAMINATION, ETC. 325

protoplasm, whilst the nucleus and nutritive particles
take up the carmine. The cover glass is next placed
beside a slip and gently warmed in a water bath, at
the same time introducing a drop of fluid glycerine
jelly beside the object. This will presently run in,
and a minute piece of the jelly having been melted
upon the glass slip, the cover glass can be turned
over on to the slide. Hxtreme care must be taken
during this operation, so as not to displace the fragile
object. When cold the superfluous jelly may be
removed with a damp cloth and the mount sur-
rounded with a ring of gum arabic, and finally with
varnish.

Apparatus used in drawing the Foraminifera.—lt
is hardly necessary to give many details on this
branch of the subject in a book of small pretensions,
such as this; especially since much valuable informa-
tion is always available in the well-known works of
Carpenter on ‘The Microscope’ and Dr. Beale on
‘How to work with the Microscope,’ not forgetting
several of a similarly useful character lately published.

The camera lucida is to some workers a very indis-
pensable piece of apparatus ; the two best known
forms being Wollaston’s prism and Beale’s neutral
tint reflector. Many persons, however, have not found
these accessories necessary, but trust rather to drawing
and measuring alternately, so as to ensure accuracy.
It is, however, better to employ a form of camera
lucida in getting the outlines of the objects, when
the detailed filling in may be done with more freedom.

Another extremely useful piece of apparatus

326 THE FORAMINIFERA

which the writer has often employed in making
drawings is Beck’s revolving disc, which carries a
needle, to the point of which a specimen may be
affixed ; and by means of a universal movement of
the apparatus, this can be turned in all directions.

327

CHAPTER XX

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS, TO FACILITATE REFERENCE TO
THE PRINCIPAL LINES OF RESEARCH; COMPRISING
THE MORE IMPORTANT WORKS ON FORAMINIFERA,
ESPECIALLY THOSE OF RECENT DATE

THE selection given below is necessarily incomplete,
but is sufficient to enable the student of this sub-
ject to gain further information by references to be
found in the works themselves.

GENERAL TREATISES AND ARTICLES, INCLUDING
BIBLIOGRAPHIES.

1. W. B. Carpenter, W. K. Parker, and T. R. Jones.—Introduce-
tion to the Study of the Foraminifera. Ray Society. London,
1862.

[The morphology and structure of the foraminiferal shell is very fully
dealt with, and well illustrated by numerous plates. ]

2. K. A. von Zittel— Handbuch der Palaeontologie : Protozoa.
Vol. i. 1876-1880, pp. 55-126. Also Grundziige der Palaeontologie.
Munich and Leipzig, 1895 (pp. 18-34).

3. W. B. Carpenter.—The Microscope and its Revelations.
6th ed. London, 1881. See also later editions edited by W. H.
Dallinger.

[For technical instructions relating to the examination and preparation
of minute objects, as Foraminifera. Also a chapter on Foraminifera. |

4. H. B. Brady.—Report on the Foraminifera dredged by
H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ during the years 1873-1876. Scientific
Results. Vol. ix. (Zoology), Foraminifera. London, 1884.

[Besides embodying a report on the ‘Challenger’ collections this mono-

328 THE FORAMINIFERA

graph deals generally with the recent Foraminifera. It has a good
introduction and bibliography, and all the species, according to the
recognised types described in the volume, are figured. |

5. C. D. Sherborn.—A Bibliography of the Foraminifera, Re-
cent and Fossil, from 1565 to 1888. London, 1888.

6. Idem.—An Index to the Genera and Species of the Fora-
minifera. Parts i. ii. Washington, 1893, 1896. 485 pp.

7. P. Towtkowski.—Index Bibliographique de la Littérature sur
les Foraminiferes Vivants et Fossiles (1888-1898). Kiev, 1898.

8. L. von Fichtel and C.von Moll.—Testacea microscopica aliaque
minute ex generibus Argonauta et Nautilus ad naturam delineata et
descripta. Vienna, 1798.

{Ilustrations of numerous types of well-known species. ]

9. T. R. Jones.—Catalogue of the Fossil Foraminifera in the British
Museum (Natural History). London, 1882.

10. W. Howchin.—A Census of the Fossil Foraminifera of Australia.
Rep. Austral. Assoc. Ady. Sci., Adelaide Meeting for 1898 (1894).

11. L. Cayeux.—Contribution a l’Etude Micrographique des Terrains
Sédimentaires. Lille, 1897.

[Gives the distribution and mineralogical condition of the Foraminifera
occurring in the secondary and tertiary strata of Belgium and the Paris Basin.]

Bronoey.

12. F. Dujardin.—Observations sur les Rhizopodes et les
Infusoires. Comptes Rendus, 1835, pp. 338-340.

13. Idenv.—Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes. Infusoires,
comprenant la physiologie et la classification de ces animaux et la
maniére de les étudier & l'aide du Microscope. Paris, 1841.
Pp. 126, 128, 240, 253; pls. 1, 2.

14. Maz Schultze—Ueber den Organismus der Polythalamien
(Foraminiferen), nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Rhizopoden im
Allgemeinen. Leipzig, 1854. 68 pp. 7 pls.

15. Idem.—Beobachtungen itiber die Fortpflanzung der Poly-
thalamien. Miiller’s Archiy, 1856, pp. 165-173, pl. vi. B.

16. A. Griiber.—Wleine Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Protozoen.
Ber. Naturf. Gesellsch., Freiburg, 1881. Vol. vi. pp. 533-555, 1 pl.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 329

17. O. Biitschlu—Protozoa. Abth. 1. Bronn’s Thierreich,
vol. 1. Leipzig und Heidelberg, 1880-1882.

18. A. Griiber.—Die Protozoen des Hafens von Genua. Nova
Acta Acad. C. L. xlvi. 1884.

19. Idem.—KWleinere Mittheilungen tiber Protozoen-Studien.
Ber. Nat. Gesellsch. Freiburg, vol. ii. 1886, pp. 1-15.

20. O. Biitschli.—Kleine Beitrage zur Kenntniss einiger
mariner Rhizopoden. Morph. Jahrb. vol. xi. 1886, p. 78.

21. H. B. Brady—Note on the Reproductive Condition of
Orbitolites complanata, var. lacimata. Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1888,
pp. 693-697, pl. x.

22. H. J. Carter—On the Nature of the Opaque Scarlet
Spherules found in the Chambers and Canals of many Fossilised
Foraminifera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. i. 1888, pp.
264-270.

23. f. Greef.—Studien iiber Protozoen, I-III. Sitzungsb.
Gesellsch. Naturw. Marburg, 1888, pp. 90-158.

24. Max Verworn.—Biologische Protisten-Studien. Zeitschr.
fiir wiss. Zool. vol. xlvi. 1888, p. 455.

25. L. Rhumbler.—Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Rhizopoden
II. Saccammina spherica. Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. vol. lvii.

1894, p. 433.

26. fF. Schaudinn.—Die Fortpflanzung der Foraminiferen und
eine neue Art der Kernvermehrung. Biol. Centralbl. vol. xiv.

1894, pp. 161-166, 8 figs.

27. Idem.—Ueber Plastogamie bei den Foraminiferen. Sitz-
ungsb. Gesellsch. naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin, 1895, No. 10, pp.
179-190, 1 fig.

28. J. J. Lister.—Contributions to the Life History of the
Foraminifera. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. vol. clxxxvi. B. 1895, pp.
401-445, pls. vi.ix.

29. Ff. Schaudinn.—Untersuchungen an Foraminiferen. I.
Calcituba polymorpha, Roboz. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. vol. lix. 1895,
pp. 191-232, 2 pls.

[Description of the life-history of the nucleus. |

330 THE FORAMINIFERA

30. C. Schlumberger.—Note sur la Biologie des Foraminifeéres.
La Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes, No. 305, ser. 11. Année 26,
1896.

SHELL MorpHouoey.

31. H. J. Carter.—Description of some of the Larger Forms of
Foraminifera in Scinde, with Observations on their Internal Struc-
tures. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. xi. 1853, pp. 162-177,
pl. vii. Further observations, &. &e. Idem, wbid. ser. iil.
vol. viii. 1861, pp. 809-333, 366-382, 446-470, pls. xv.—xvil.

32. W. J. Sollas.—On the Perforate Character of the Genus
Webbina, with a Notice of Two New Species, from the Cambridge
Greensand. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. 1877, pp. 102-105, pl. vi.

[Descriptive of the shell-morphology of Vitriwebbina, Chapman. |

33. K. Martin.—Untersuchungen tiber die Organisation von
Cycloclypeus und Orbitoides. In Junghuhn’s ‘ Die Tertiarschichten
auf Java.’ Leiden, 1879-80. Pal. Th. pp. 150-164, pls. xxvii.

XXVI1LL.

34. Munier-Chalmas.—Etudes sur les Nummulites levigata,
planulata, variolaria, irregularis, et sur les Assilina granulata et
spira. [Sur le Dimorphisme des Nummulites.] Bull. Soc. Géol.
France, sér. 3, vol. viii. 1880, pp. 300 and 301.

35. Mwnier-Chalmas and C. Schlumberger.— Nouvelles Observa-
tions sur le Dimorphisme des Foraminiféres. Comptes Rendus,
vol. xeyi. 1883, pp. 862-866, figs. 1-4, pp. 1598-1601, figs. 5-8.
Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 5, vol. xi. 1883, pp. 336-341,
figures ; vol. xii. 1883, pp. 67-69.

36. EH. van den Broeck.—Etude Préliminaire sur le Dimor-
phisme des Foraminiféres et des Nummulites en particulier. Ann.
Soc. Malac. Belgique, vol. xxviii. 1893, Bull. des Séances, pp. Xv—Xx.
Brussels.

37. H. Halkyard.—Plans of Growth and Form in the Fora-
minifera. Trans. and Ann. Rep. Manchester Micr. Soc. 1893, 16 pp.

38. T. R. Jones.—Dimorphism in the Milioline and in other
Foraminifera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. xiv. 1894,
pp. 401-407. (See also Nos. 1, 9, 48, 56, 69, 72, 73, 121, and 174.)

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 331

CLASSIFICATIONS.

39. A. H. von Reuss.—Entwurf einer systematischen Zu-
sammenstellung der Foraminiferen. Sitzungsb. k. Ak. Wiss.
Wien, vol. xliv. 1861, pp. 355-396.

40. C. Schwager.—Saggio di una Classificazione dei Foramini-
feri avuto riguardo alle loro Famiglie Naturali. Boll. R. Com.
Geol. Ital. anno 1876, pp. 475-485 ; anno 1877, pp. 18-24, 1 pl.

40a. M. Newmayer.—Die natirlichen Verwandtschafts-
verhiiltnisse der schalentragenden Foraminiferen. Sitzungsb. k.
Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xev. 1887, Abth. i. pp. 156-186.

41. L. Rhumbler—Entwurf eines natiirlichen Systems der
Thalamophoren. Nachr. k. Gesellsch. Wiss. Gottingen, Math.-
nat. Cl. 1895, pp. 51-98.

42. G. H. T. Himer and C. Fickert—Die Artbildung und
Verwandtschaft bei den Foraminiferen. Entwurf einer natiirlichen
Hintheilung derselben. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lxy. 1899, pp. 599-
708, 45 figures.

CriricAL Works (REVISIONAL).

43. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones—On the Nomenclature of
the Foraminifera. Part. i. On the Species enumerated by Linnzus
and Gmelin. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. ii. 1859,
pp. 474-482. Continued in same publication to part xv. of the
series (1872); later in conjunction with H. B. Brady. See
Sherborn’s Bibliography of the Foraminifera.

44. G. A. de Amucis.—Osservazioni critiche sopra talune
Tinoporinae Fossili. Proc. Verb. della Soc. Toscana Sc. Nat.
1894.

45. C. Fornasiu.—Foraminiferi della marna del Vaticano
illustrati da O. G. Costa. Palwontographica Italica, vol. i. 1895,
pp. 141-148, pl. vii.

[A revision of Costa’s work in 1857. |

46. Idem.—Le Sabbie Gialle Bolognesi e le Ricerche di J.
B. Beccari. Rend. Sess. R. Accad. Sci. Istit. Bologna. N.S. vol. ii.
1897, pp..1-8; pl. 1.

332 THE FORAMINIFERA

TECHNICAL (PREPARATION AND Movuntr1ne).

47. H. van den Broeck.—Instructions pour la Récolte des
Foraminiféres Vivants. Ann. Soc. Belge Microsc. vol. 11. Année

1877, pp. 5-16.

48. C. Hlcock.—How to prepare Foraminifera. Journ. Postal
Microsc. Soe. vol. i. 1882, pp. 25-29, 139-145.

49. H. Halkyard.—The Collection and Preparation of Fora-
minifera. Trans. and Ann. Rep. Manchester Micr. Soc. 1888,
Mapp rle pls

50. A. Tellint.—Istruzioni per la Raccolta, la Preparazione e la
Conservazione dei Foraminiferi Viventi e Fossili. Rivista Ital.
Sci. Nat. Anno xi. 1891.

51. EH. Heron-Alien.—Prolegomena towards the Study of the
Chalk Foraminifera. London, 1894.

[Contains information on separating and mounting Chalk T[ora-
minifera. |

52. A. Harland.—Collection and Preparation of Foraminifera.
Science Gossip, N.S. vol. vi. 1899, pp. 8,9; 53, 54; 74.

WorKS DEVOTED TO GENERA OR SPECIAL GROUPS
(ZOOLOGICALLY ARRANGED).

53. A. Silvestvi.—Il genere Nubecularia, Defrance. Atti Accad.
Pontif. N. Lincei, 1897, pp. 29-39. Rome.

54. T. R. Jones.—A Scheme of the Genus Spiroloculina, illus-
trated by sectional views. See Monogr. Crag Foram. part i.
Pal. Soc. 1895, p. 103.

55. C. Schlumberger.—Note sur le Genre Adelosina. Bull. Soc.
Zool. France, vol. xi. 1886, pp. 91-104, pl. xvi.

[An interesting study in dimorphism. |

56. Idem.—Monographie des Miliolidées du Golfe de Marseille.
Mém. Soe. Zool. France, vol. vi. 1893, pp. 199-222, pl. i.—iv.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 333

57. EF’. W. Millett—A scheme of classification for the Genus
Cornuspira. See Monogr. Crag Foram. part. ii. Pal. Soc. 1895,
pp. 129-131.

58. W. B. Carpenter.—Report on the Specimens of the Genus
Orbitolites, collected by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ during the Years
1873-1876. ‘Challenger’ Reports, Zoology, vol. vii. pt. xxi. 1883,
pp. 1-47, pls. i.—viii.

59. EH. Spandel.—Untersuchungen an dem Foraminiferen-
geschlecht Spiroplecta im allgemeinen und an Spiroplecta carinata
D’Orb. im besonderen. Abhandl. Naturhist. Gesellsch. Niirnberg,
ISTO

60. A. H. von Reuss.—Die Foraminiferen-Familie der Lagen-
ideen. Sitzungsb. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. Abth. 1, 1862
(1863), pp. 303-342, pls. 1.—vil.

61. H. Derviewx.—Osservazioni paleozoologiche sopra le
Linguline terziarie del Piemonte. Mem. Pont. Accad. Nuovi
Lincei, vol. xiv. 1898, 1 pl.

62. C. Fornasini.—Indice Ragionato delle Frondicularie Fossili
d’ Italia. Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Istit. Bologna, ser. v. vol. vi. 1897,
pp. 649-661.

63. T. R. Jones—Remarks on the Foraminifera, with especial
reference to their Variability of Form, illustrated by the Cristel-
larians. Monthly Microsc. Journ. vol. xv. 1876, pp. 61-92, pls.
exxvlll. exxix. Also part il. by Jones and Sherborn, Journ. R.
Micr. Soe. ser. ii. vol. vil. 1887, pp. 545-557.

64. H. Dervieux.—Le Cristellarie Terziarie del Piemonte.
Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. vol. x. 1891, pp. 5-22, pl. la.

65. Idem.—Il Genere Cristellaria, Lamarck, studiato nelle sue
Specie. Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. vol. x. fase. 4, 1892, pp. 557-642.

66. H. B. Brady, W. K. Parker, and T. R. Jones.—A Mono-
graph of the Genus Polymorphina. Trans. Linn. Soe. vol. xxvii.
1870, pp. 197-253, pls. xxxix.—xlii.

67. T. fh. Jones and F. Chapman.—On the Fistulose Polymor-
phine, and on the Genus Ramulina. Journ. Linn. Soe. Lond.
Zool. vol. xxv. 1896, pp. 496-516 ; and zbid. vol. xxvi. 1897, pp. 334—
304, Figures.

334 THE FORAMINIFERA

68. #. Chapman.—On the Rhizopodal Genera Webbina and
Vitruvebbina. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.- ser. vi. vol. xviii. 1896,
pp. 326-333, figs. 1-4.

69. C. Fornasini.—Le Globigerine Fossili d’ Italia. Paleeont.
Ital. vol. iv. 1898, pp. 203-216 ; figures in text.

70. Idem.—Indice Ragionato de le Rotaliine Fossili d’ Italia,
spettanti ai Generi Truncatulina, Planorbulina, Anomalina,
Pulvinulina, Rotalia e Discorbina. Mem. R. Accad. Sei. Istit.
Bologna, ser. v. vol. vii. 1898, pp. 239-290. Figures.

71. C. Schlumberger.—Note sur le Genre Tinoporus. Mém.
Soe. Zool. France, vol. ix. 1896, pp 87-90, plates iii. iv.

72. Idem.—Note sur le genre Miogypsina. Bull. Soc. Géol.
France, sér. 3, vol. xxviii. 1900, pp. 327-333, pls. ii. and iil.

73. F. W. Millett.—Systematic Grouping of the published
Figures of the Genus Nonionina. See Monogr. Crag Foram. pt. iv.
Pal. Soc. 1897, pp. 339-341.

74. C. Fornasinit.—Le Polistomelline Fossili d’ Italia. Mem.
R. Accad. Sci. Istit. Bologna, ser. v. vol. vii. pp. 639-660. Figures.

75. Le Vicomte d Archiac and Jules Haime.—Description des
Animaux Fossiles du Groupe Nummulitique de l’Inde. Paris, 1853,
1854.

[Forming an indispensable work on the genus Nummulites. |

76. P. de la Harpe.-—Ktude des Nummulites de la Suisse et
Révision des Espéces Hocénes des Genres Nummulites et Assilina.
Parts i. ii. and ii. Mém. Soc. Paléont. Suisse, 1881 and 1883.

77. Idem.—Monographie der in Aegypten und der libyschen
Wiiste vorkommenden Nummuliten. Paleeontographica, vol. xxx.
1883, pp. 157-216, pls. xxx.—xxxv.

78. T. Rh. Jones—Note on Nummiulites elegans, Sowerby, and
other English Nummulites.’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlii.
1887, pp. 1382-149, pl. xi.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 3390

MEMOIRS DESCRIPTIVE OF SPECIAL FAUNAS.

Lower Paleozoic.

79. L. Cayeux.—Sur la Présence de Restes de Foraminiféres
dans les Terrains Précambriens de Bretagne. Ann. Soc. Géol.
Nord, vol. xxi. 1894, pp. 116-119.

80. W. D. and G. F. Matthew.—On Phosphate Nodules from
the Cambrian of Southern New Brunswick. Trans. N. York
Acad. Sci. vol. xii. 1893, pp. 108-120. Also ibid. vol. xiv. 1895,
pp. 109-111. and pl. i.

81. C. G. EHhrenberg.—Ueber andere massenhafte mikro-
skopische Lebensformen der iltesten silurischen Grauwacken-
Thone bei Petersburg. Monatsber. k. preuss. Akad. Wissensch.
Berlin, 1858, pp. 324-337 and pl. i.

82. Idem.—Ueber den Griinsand und seine Erliuterung des
organischen Lebens. Abhandl. k. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1855,
pp. 85-176, pls. i.-vil.

83. f. Chapman.—Foraminifera from an Upper Cambrian
Horizon in the Malverns. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lvi. 1900,
pp. 257-263, pl. xv.

[This paper also contains a note on previous records of Lower
Paleozoic Foraminifera. |

84. H. B. Brady.—Note on some Silurian Lagene. Geol.
Mag., Dec. 3, vol. v. 1888, pp. 481-484, pl. xiii.

85. f. Chapman.—On some Fossils of Wenlock Age from
Milde, near Klinteberg, Gotland. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 7,
vol. yil. 1901, pp. 142, 143, pl. iii.

Upper Paleozoic.

86. H. Bb. Brady.—A Monograph of Carboniferous and Permian
Foraminifera (thefgenus uwsulina excepted). Pal. Soc. 1876.

[A very comprehensive work, with good distribution tables. |

87. V. von Méller.—Die spiralgewundenen Foraminiferen des

russischen Kohlenkalks. Mém. Ac. Imp. Sci. St.-Pétersbourg,
sér. 7, vol. xxv. No. 9, 1878, pp. 1-147, pls. i—xv.

336 THE FORAMINIFERA

88. Idem.—Die Foraminiferen des russischen Kohlenkalks.
Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.-Pétersbourg, sér. 7, vol. xxvil. No. 5,
1879, pp. 1-131, pls. i—vil.

89. W. Howchin.—Additions to the Knowledge of Carboniferous
Foraminifera. Journ. R. Micr. Soc., ser. 2, vol. viii. 1888,
pp. 533-545, pls. vill. ix.

90. Idem.—On the Occurrence of Foraminifera in the Permo-
Carboniferous Rocks of Tasmania. Rep. Adelaide Meeting
Austral. Assoc. Ady. Sci. for 1893 (1894).

91. E. Spandel.—Die Foraminiferen des Permo-Carbon von
Hooser, Kansas, Nord-Amerika. Abhandl. Naturhist. Gesellsch.
Niirnberg, 1901, 20 pp.

92. A. EH. von Reuss.—Ueber Entomostraceen und Forami-
niferen im Zechstein der Wetterau. Jahresbericht Wetterauer
Gesellsch. 1851-18538 (1854), pp. 59-77 and plate. Hanau.

93. E. Spandel.—Die Foraminiferen des deutschen Zechsteins
und ein zweifelhaftes microskopisches Fossil. 1898. 15 pp.
11 figures. Nirnberg.

Trias and Rhetic.

94. A. H. von Reuss.—Die fossile Fauna der Steinsalzablage-
rungen von Wieliczka. Sitzungsb. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. lv.
Abth. 1, 1867, pp. 17-182, pls. i.—viii. (see pp. 62-107, pls. i—v.)

95. Idem.—Foraminiferen und Ostracoden aus den Schichten
von St. Cassian. Sitzungsb. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. lvii. Abth. 1,
1868, pp. 101-108, pl. i.

96. C. W. Giimbel—Ueber Foraminiferen, Ostracoden. und
mikroskopische Thier-Ueberreste in den St. Cassianer und Raibler
Schichten. Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. vol. xix. 1869, pp. 175-
186, pls. v. and vi.

97. C. Schwager.—Rhetic Foraminifera in Dittmar’s ‘ Die
Contorta-Zone.’ Munich, 1864, pp. 198-201, pl. ui.

98. F. Chapman.—On some Foraminifera of Rheetic Age from
Wedmore, in Somerset. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. xvi.
1895, pp. 305-329, 2 pls.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 337

JUrassic.

99. J. G. Bornemann.— Ueber die Liasformation in der Umge-
gend von Géottingen, und ihre organischen Einschliisse. Berlin,
1854.

{An important work on Liassic Foraminifera. |

100. C. Schwager.—Beitrag zur Kenntniss der mikroskopischen
Fauna jurassischer Schichten. Wirttemberg. naturwiss. Jahres-
hefte, vol. xxi. 1865, pp. 82-151, pls. ii.—vii.

101. J. Kiibler and H. Zwinglt.—Mikvroskopische Bilder aus
der Urwelt der Schweiz. Neujahrsblatt Buirgerbibliothek in
Winterthur, 1866.

102. O. Terquem.—Recherches sur les Foraminiféres du Lias.
Published in Mém. Acad. Imp. Metz, from 1858 to 1866
(6 memoirs).

103. Idem.—Sur les Foraminiféres du Systéme Oolithique.
Published in Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Dépt. Moselle, 1868, and Mém.
Ac. Imp. Metz, 1870-74. (4 memoirs.) A fifth memoir, Paris,
1883.

104. H. Zwingli and J. Kiibler—Die Foraminiferen der
Schweiz. Jura. Winterthur, 1870. 49 pp. 4 pls.

105. J. Wright.—A List of Irish Liassic Foraminifera. Proc.
Belf. Nat. Field Club, 1870-71, Append. ii. pp. 25, 26.

106. O. Terquem and G. Berthelin—Etude Microscopique des
Marnes du Lias Moyen d’Essey-lés-Nancy, Zone Inférieur de
PAssise & Ammonites margaritatus. Mém. Soc. Géol. France,
sér. 2, vol. x. Mém. 3, 1875, pp. 1-126, pls. xi.—xx.

107. V. Uhlig.—Ueber Foraminiferen aus dem rjisan’schen
Ornatenthone. Jahrb. K. K. geol. Reichsanst. vol. xxxii. 1883,
pp. 735-774, pls. vii.-ix.

108. Rk. Haeusler—Die Astrorhiziden und Lituoliden der
Bimammatuszone. Neues Jahrb. fiir Min. 1883, vol. i. pp. 55-61,
pls. ili. iv.

{Also many other works by the same author on Jurassic Foraminifera
published in the ‘ Neues Jahrbuch’ and elsewhere. |

109. W. Deecke.—Die Foraminiferenfauna der Zone des Ste-
phanoceras Humphriesianum in Unter-Elsass. Abhandl. geol.
Z

338 THE FORAMINIFERA

Special-Karte Elsass-Lothringen, vol. iv. Heft 1, 1884, pp. 1-68,
pls. i. 11. Strassburg.

110. W. Deecke.—Les Foraminiféres de l’Oxfordien des Environs
de Monbéliard (Doubs). Mém. Soc. émul. Montbéliard, 3° sér.
vol. xvi. 1886, pp. 1-47, pls. i. ii.

111. O. Terquem.—Les Foraminiféres et les Ostracodes du
Fuller’s Earth (Zone & Ammonites Parkinsoni), des Environs de
Varsovie. Bull. Soc. Géol. France, sér. ii. vol. xiv. 1886, pp. 20,
91; Mémoires, sér. 3, vol. iv. part 2, 1886, pp. 1-112, 12 pls.

112. R. Haeusler.—Die Lageninen der schweizerischen Jura-
und Kreideformation. Neues Jahrb. fiir Min. 1887, vol. i.
pp. 177-189, pls. iv. and v.

115. Idem.—Bemerkungen uber einige liasische Mailioliden.
Neues Jahrb. fir Min. 1887, vol. i. pp. 190-194, pls. vi. vii.

114. 7. Wisniowskt.—Mikrofauna ilow ornatowych okolicy Kra-
kowa. Czesé I. Otwornice gérnego Kellowayu w Grojcu. Pamietnik
wydz. matem.-przyrodn. Akad. Umiejetn. w Krakowie, vol. xvii.
1890, pp. 181-242, pls. viii—x. Krakow.

115. R. Haeusler.—Monographie der Foraminiferen der Trans-
versarius-Zone. Abhandl. Schweiz. Palaont. Gesellsch. vol. xvii.
1891, pp. 1-135, 15 pls.

116. W. D. Crick and C. D. Sherborn.—On some Liassic
Foraminifera from Northamptonshire. Journ. Northampt. Nat.
Hist. Soe. vol. vi. 1891, pp. 208-214, vol. vil. 1892, pp. 67-72,
2 pls.

117. J. Perner.—Ueber die Foraminiferen aus dem Tithon vou
Stramberg. Bull. Acad. d. Sci. Bohéme, 1898, 3 pp. 1 pl.

118. F. Chapman.—On some Foraminifera of Tithonian Age
from the Stramberg Limestone of Nesselsdorf. Linn. Soc. Journ.
Zool. vol. xxviii. 1900, pp. 28-82, pl. v.

Cretaceous.

119. A. D. d’Orbigny.—Mémoire sur les Foraminiféres de la
Craie Blanche du Bassin de Paris. Mém. Soc. Géol. France,
vol. iv. 1840, pp. 1-51, pls. itv.

_ [Figures reproduced in ‘ Science Gossip,’ 1870, pp. 81-83, 106-108,
155-157.]

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 339

120. A. H. Reuss.—Die Versteinerungen der bodhmischen
Kreideformation. Stuttgart, 1845-1846. Plates.

121. H. Hley.—Geology in the Garden; or, the Fossils in the
Flint Pebbles. London, 1859. See also Jones and Parker, Notes
on EHley’s Foraminifera from the English Chalk. Geol. Mag.
vol. ix. 1872, pp. 123-126.

[Excellent figures of Chalk Ioraminifera and their Casts. |

122. A. EH. von Reuss.—Die Foraminiferen der westphilischen
Kreideformation. Sitzungsb. K. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xl. 1860,
pp. 147-238, pls. i.—xiii.

123. Idem.—-Die Foraminiferen des norddeutschen Hils und
Gault. Sitzungsb. K. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. Abth. 1, 1862
(1863), pp. 5-100, pls. i.—xili.

124. T. R. Jones and W, K. Parker.—On the Foraminifera of
the Family Rotalinz (Carpenter) found in the Cretaceous Forma-
tion, with Notes on their Tertiary and Recent Representatives.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxvii. 1872, pp. 103-131.

125. J. Wright.—A List of the Cretaceous Microzoa of the
N. of Ireland. Rep. and Proce. Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1873-74,
Appendix, 1875, pp. 73-99, pls. ii. and ii.

126. T. Marsson.—Die Foraminiferen der weissen Schreib-
Kreide der Inseln Riigen. Mitth. nat. Ver. Neu-Vorpommern und
Riigen, Jahrg. x. 1878, pp. 115-196, pls. iv. Berlin.

127. G. Berthelin—Mémoire sur les Foraminiféres Fossiles de
VEtage Albien de Moncley (Doubs). Mém. Soc. Géol. France,
sér. 3, vol. i. No. 5, 1880, pp. 1-84.

[An exhaustive monograph on the Foraminifera of the Gault of
France. |

128. J. Wright.—Cretaceous Foraminifera of Keady Hill, Co,
Derry. Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1885-86 (1886), Appendix,
pp. 327-332, pl. xxvil.

129. H. W. Burrows, C. D. Sherborn, and G. Bailey.—The

Foraminifera of the Red Chalk of Yorkshire, Norfolk, and Lincoln-
shire. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc. 1890, pp. 549-566, pls. viii.—xi.

130. F. Chapman.—The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folke-
stone. Parts i. to x. in Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc. from 1891 to 1898.

[The zonal distribution of the specimens described is a special feature
of this work.|

G2;

340 THE FORAMINIFERA

131. F. Chapman.—Microzoa from the Phosphatic Chalk of
Taplow. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlvii. 1892, pp. 514-518,
pla xy.

132. J. Perner.—Die Foraminiferen des bbhmischen Cenomans.
Deutsch. Bohm. Akad. 1892, pp. 1-65, 10 pls.

133. F. Chapman.—The Bargate Beds of Surrey and _ their
Microscopic Contents. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. 1. 1894,
pp. 677-730, pls. xxxil. and xxxiv.

134. f. M. Bagg.—The Cretaceous Foraminifera of New
Jersey. Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 88, 1898, pp. 11-71,
pls. i.—-vi.

135. J. G. Hgger.—Yoraminiferen und Ostrakoden aus den
Kreidemergeln der Oberbayerischen Alpen. Abhandl. K. Bayer.
Akad. Wiss. Cl. IT. vol. xxi. Abth. 1, 1899, pp. 3-230, pls. 1-27.

Tertiary, Miscellaneous.

136. G. Seguenza—lLe Formazioni Terziarie nella Provincia
di Reggio (Calabria). Atti R. Accad. Lincei, ser. 3, vol. vi. 1880,
pp. 1-446, pls. i.—xvil.

137. W. Howchin.—The Foraminifera of the Older Tertiary of
Australia (No. 1, Muddy Creek, Victoria). Trans. Roy. Soc. South
Australia, 1889, 20 pp. pl. i.

138. Rk. M. Bagg.—The Tertiary and Pleistocene Foraminifera
of the Middle Atlantic Slope. Bull. Amer. Palaeontology, vol. ii.
No. 10, 1898, pp. 3-54, pls. 1-3. Ithaca.

139. F. Chapman.—Patellina Limestone from Egypt. Geol.
Mag., U.S., Dee. 4, vol. vii. 1900, pp. 3-17, pl. ii.
[Conulites egyptiensis. |

EHocene.

140. C. W. Giimbel.—Beitriige zur Foraminiferenfauna der
nordalpinen Hocingebilde. Abhandl. K. Bayer. Ak. Wiss. vol. x.
(1868), 1870, pp. 581-730, pls. i.—iv.

[An important monograph, especially relating to the genus Orbitoides.|

141. Max von Hantken.—Die Fauna der Clavulina Szab6i
Schichten. 1. Foraminiferen. Mitth. a. d. Jahrb. K. Ungavr. geol.
Anstalt, vol. iv. 1875 (1881), pp. 1-93, pls. i.—xvi.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 341

142. O. Terquem.—Les Foraminiféres de l Eocéne des Environs
de Paris. Mém. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 3, vol. ii. mém. 3, 1882,
pp. 1-193, pls. ix.—xxviii.

143. C. Schwager.—Die Foraminiferen aus den Hocaenab-
lagerungen der libyschen Wiiste und Aegyptens. Paleonto-
eraphica. Vol. xxx. 1883, pp. 81-153, pls. xxiv.—xxix. Cassel.

144. C.D. Sherborn and F’. Chapman.—On some Microzoa from
the London Clay exposed in the Drainage Works, Piccadilly,
London, 1885. Journ. R. Micr. Soe. ser. 2, vol. vi. 1886, pp. 737-
764, 3 pls. Also ‘ Additional Note,’ bid. 1889, pp. 483-488, pl. xi.

145. A. V. Jennings.—Note on the Orbitoidal Limestone of
North Borneo. Geol. Mag. Dec. 3, vol. v. 1888, pp. 529-532,
ple xay,.

146. H. W. Burrows and BR. Holland.—The Foraminifera of the
Thanet Beds of Pegwell Bay. Proce. Geol. Assoe. vol. xv. 1897,
pp. 19-52, pls. 1-11.

147. fF. Chapman.—Tertiary Foraminiferal Limestones from
Sinai. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. 1900, pp. 308-316 and 367-374, pls.

Xlll. Xiv.
Oligocene.

148. A. D. d’Orbigny.—Foraminiféres Fossiles du Bassin
Tertiaire de Vienne. Paris, 1846. 21 plates.

149. J. G. Bornemann.—Die mikroskopische Fauna des Septa-
rienthones von Hermsdorf, bei Berlin. Zeitschr. Deustch. geol.
Gesellsch. vol. vii. 1855, pp. 807-371, pls. xil.—xxi.

150. A. H. Reuss.—Zur fossilen Fauna der Oligocinschichten
von Gaas. Sitzungsb. K. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. lix. Abth. 1, 1869,
pp. 446-486, pls. ivi.

151. Idem.—Die Foraminiferen des Septarien-Thones yon
Pietzpuhl. Sitzungsb. K. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. Ixii. Abth. 1, 1870,
pp: 495-493.

[See the figured forms given by H. von Schlicht in ‘Die Foraminiferen
des Septarienthones von Pietzpuhl.’ Berlin, 1870. 38 plates. |

342 THE FORAMINIFERA

Miocene.

152. A. H. Reuss.—Neue Foraminiferen aus den Schichten des
6sterreichischen Tertiirbeckens. Denkschr. K. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. 1. 1850, pp. 365-390, pls. xlvi.-h.

153. J. G. Egger—Die Foraminiferen der Miocin-Schichten
bei Ortenburg in Nieder-Bayern. Neues Jahrb. fiir Min., Jahre.
1857, pp. 266-311, pls. v.—xv.

154. F. Karrer.—Ueber das Auftreten der Foraminiferen in
dem marinen Tegel des Wiener Beckens. Sitzungsb. K. Ak.
Wiss. Wien, vol. xliv. 1861, pp. 427-458, pls. 1. and i.

155. G. Stache.—Die Foraminiferen des tertiiren Mergel des
Whaingaroa-Hafens (Proving Auckland). Novara Exped.,
Geol. Theil, vol. i. 1864, Paliontol, pp. 161-304, pls. xxi.—xxiy.
Vienna.

156. F.. Karrer. — Die Miocene-Foraminiferen-Fauna von
Koste] im Banat. Sitzungsb. K. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. lviii.
Abth. 1, 1868, pp. 111-193, pls. 1.-v.

157. C. Fornasini.imForaminiferi Miocenici di San Rufillo
presso Bologna. 1 pl. 1889. Bologna.

158. &. D. M. Verbeek.—Description Géologique de Java et
Madoura. Amsterdam, 1896. Foraminifera in vol.i. 11 plates.

159. Rk. B. Newton and f. Holland.—On some Tertiary Fora-
minifera from Borneo collected by Professor Molengraaff and the
late Mr. A. H. Everett, and their Comparison with similar Forms
from Sumatra.- Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 7, vol. ii: 1899, pp.
245-264, pls. 1x. and x.

Pliocene.

160. C. Schwager—Fossile Foraminiferen von Kayr-nicobar.
Novara Exped., Geol. Theil, vol. ii. 1866, pp. 187-268, pls. iv.—vu.
Vienna.

161. T. R. Jones, W. K. Parker, and H. B. Brady.—A Mono-
graph of the Foraminifera of the Crag. Part i. (Paleeont. Soe.
vol. xix.), 1866. Parts ii.—iv. 1895-1897.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 343

162. O. Terquem.—Les Foraminiféres et les Entomostracés-
Ostracodes du Pliocéne Supérieur de l’Ile de Rhodes. Mém. Soe.
Géol. France, sér. 3, vol. i. 1878, pp. 1-133, pls. i—xiv.

163. G. TerrigiFauna Vaticana a Foraminiferi delle Sabbie
Gialle nel Plioceno subapennino superiore. Atti Accad. Pontif.
Nuovi Lincei, vol. xxxiii. 1880, pp. 127-219, pls. i-iv. Rome.

164. F. W. Millett—Notes on the Fossil Foraminifera of the
St. Erth Clay Pits. Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. x. part 7,
1885, pp. 213-216.

[Additional notes, 7bid. 1886, 5 pp.; 1894, 7 pp.; and vol. xii. pt. 3,
1897, 3 pp.|

165. G. A. de Amicis.—Contribuzione alla conoscenza dei
Foraminiferi Pliocenici. I Foraminiferi del Pliocene Inferiore di
Trinité-Victor (Nizzardo). Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. vol. xii. 1893,
pp. 293-478, pl. 3.

166. J. G. Egger.—Fossile Foraminiferen von Monte Barto-
lomeo am Gardasee. Naturhist. Ver. Passau, 16. Jahresber. 1895,
pp. 2-49, pls. 1-5.

167. A. Sclvestri.—Foraminiferi pliocenici della provincia di
Siena. Parts i. and ii. Mem. Pont. Accad. Nuovi Lincei, vol.
xi, 1896, and vol. xv. 1898. Plates.

Post-Pliocene.

168. W. Shone.—On the Discovery of Foraminifera, &c.,in the
Boulder Clays of Cheshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx.
1874, pp. 181-185.

169. J. Wright.—The Post-Tertiary Foraminifera of the north-
east of Ireland. Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1879-1880 (1881),
Appendix, pp. 149-163.

170. D. Robertson.—In Brit. Assoc. Rep., On the Character of
the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits in Kintyre. Liverpool, 1896.

[Lists of Foraminifera. |

171. J. Wright.—In ‘ The Glacio-Marine Drifts of the Vale of
the Clwyd,’ by T. Mellard Reade. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol.
hii. 1897.

[Lists of Boulder Clay Foraminifera. |

344 THE FORAMINIFERA

172. J. Wright.—Report on Pleistocene Foraminifera from
Novaya Zemlya. Appendix F' in Pearson’s ‘Beyond Petsora
Eastward.’ London, 1899, pp. 297-310.

Recent.

173. A. D. dOrbigny.—Foraminiféres; in Ramon de la
Sagra’s Histoire physique, politique et naturelle de |’Ile de Cuba.
French ed. Paris, 1839, pp. xlvili, 1-224, 12 pls.

174. W. C. Williamson.—On the Recent Foraminifera of Great
Britain. Ray Society. London, 1858. Plates.

175. W. K. Parker and T. R. Jones.—On some Foraminifera
from the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. Phil. Trans. vol.
clv. 1865, pp. 325-441, pls. xiii.—xix.

176. K. Moebius.—Foraminiferen von Mauritius. In Moebius,
F. Richter, and E. von Marten’s ‘ Beitriige zur Meeresfauna der
Insel Mauritius und der Seychellen.’ Berlin, 1880, pp. 63-110,
pls. 1.—xiv.

177. H. B. Brady.—A Synopsis of British Recent Foraminifera.
Journ. R. Micr. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vii. 1887, pp. 872-927.

[Records of frequency and localities. |

178. H. B. Brady, W. K. Parker, and T. R. Jones —On some
Foraminifera from the Abrohlos Bank. Trans. Zool. Soe. vol. xii.
pt. vii. 1888, pp. 211-239, pls. xl.—xlvi.

179. EH. Halkyard.—Recent Foraminifera of Jersey. Trans.
and Ann. Rep. Manchester Microsc. Soc. 1889, 18 pp. 2 pls.

180. A. Goés.—Report on the Dredging Operations off the West
Coast of Central America to the Galapagos, &c., by the U.S.
steamer ‘ Albatross,’ 1891. The Foraminifera. Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool., Harvard College, vol. xxix. No. 1, 1896, pp. 1-103, pls. i.—ix.

181. H. Halkyard.—A Comparative List of the Recent Forami-
nifera of the Islands of Guernsey, Herm, and Jersey. Trans. and
Ann. Rep. Manchester Mier. Soc. 1891, 11 pp. —

182. J. G. Hgger—Foraminiferen aus Meeresgrundproben,
gelothet von 1874 bis 1876 von S. M. Sch. ‘Gazelle.’ Abhandl. K.
Bayer. Akad. Wiss. Cl. II. vol. xviii. Abth. II. 1893, pp. 193-
458. 21 pls.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LISTS 345

183. A. Goés.—A Synopsis of the Arctic and Scandinavian
Recent Marine Foraminifera hitherto discovered. K. Svenska
Akad. Handl. Stockholm, 1894, pp. 1-127, pls. i.-xxv.

[A comprehensive and well-illustrated work. |

184. F. Chapman.—On some Foraminifera obtained by the
Roy. Ind. Marine Survey’s s.s. ‘Investigator’ from the Arabian
Sea, near the Laccadive Ids.’ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1895, pp.
4-50, pl. 1.

185. J. Murray.—On the Distribution of the Pelagic Forami-
nifera at the Surface and on the Floor of the Ocean. Natural
Science, vol. xi. 1897, pp. 17-27.

186. A. Silvestri. —Contribuzione allo Studio dei Foraminiferi
Adriatici. Atti Rend. Accad. Sci. Acireale. Vol. ix. 1897-98.
Cl. di Scienze, pp. 1-46, pl. i.

[Foraminifera figured and described by Plancus in his ‘ De Conchis
minus notis,’ &c. |

187. F. W. Millett.—Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the
Malay Archipelago collected by Mr. A. Durrand. Part 1. Journ.
Roy. Micr. Soc. 1898, pp. 258-269, pls. v. and vi. Parts ii—x.
Ibid. 1898-1901. (Publication still in progress.)

188. H. Kier.—Den Norske Nordhays Expedition, 1876-
1878. No. 25. Zoologi. Thalamophora. Christiania, 1899.

189. C. Fornasint.—Globigerine Adriatiche. Mem. R. Accad.
Sci. Ist. Bologna, ser. v. vol. vii. 1899, pp. 575-586, 4 pls.

190. J. M. Flint.—Recent Foraminifera. A Descriptive
Catalogue of Specimens dredged by the U.S. Fish Commission
steamer ‘Albatross.’ Rep. U.S. National Museum for 1897, pp.
249-349, 80 pls. 1899. Washington.

[With a fine series of photographic reproductions from actual
specimens. |

191. #. Chapman.—On some New and Interesting Forami-

nifera from the Funafuti Atoll, Ellice Ids. Journ. Linn. Soc.
Lond. vol. xxvii. 1900, pp. 1-27, pls. i.—iv.

192. L. Rhumbler—Nordisches Plankton, No. 14, Foramini-
feren. Kiel und Leipzig, 1900.

193. Ff. Chapman.—Foramini‘cra from the Lagoon at Funa-
futi. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. vol. xxviii. 1901, pp. 161-210,
pls. xix. and xx.

ASIN oD ale

[In this Index the species name is placed first, with the genus in parentheses.]

abyssorum (Rhabdammina), 125,
130
Acanthocystis, karyokinesis in, 12
Acanthometra, 13
Acineta, 14
ACINETARIA, 14
Actinophrys, 138, 14
aculeata (Ramulina), 202
acuta (Jaculella), 124, 1380
Adelosina, 68, 91, 92
dimorphism in, 29
Adolphina (Dentalina), 189, 194
adunca (Orbiculina), 100, 104
egyptiensis (Conulites), 157, 160
aggregata (Bdelloidina), 142, 144
Agricola, 50
Aktinocyclina, 247
albida (Storthosphera), 115, 118
algeformis (Rhizammina), 127,
130
Allomorphina, 65, 180, 188
Alveolina, 63, 103
Alveolina limestone, 272
ALVEOLININA, 63, 79, 103
Ammodiscus, 64, 188, 150
ammonotdes (Operculina), 240, 248
Ameba, 13, 14
type of Protozoa, 10
Anphicoryne, 66, 197
Amphimorphina, 66, 198
Amphistegina, 67, 283, 259
Amphitrema, 63, 71
annectens (Spiroplecta), 170, 176
Anomalina, 66, 220
Apertures in Foraminifera, 35
Aphrosina, 225
Apparatus used in drawing lora-
minifera, 325
Arcella, 13, 14, 17, 19
Archediscus, 67, 232, 288

|
|

Archerina, 13

Archiacina, 63, 78, 100
ARENACEA, 40

arenaria (Astrorhiza), 114, 118
arvetinus (Peneroplis), 99, 104
Articulina, 638, 78, 98
Aschemonella, 64, 111, 126
asperula (Spiroloculina), 89, 94
Assilina, 67, 244

Asterocyclina, 247

Astrorhiza, 13, 64, 109, 114
ASTRORHIZIDH, 64, 108, 119, 181
ASTRORHIZIN®, 64, 114

Atlantic ooze with Globigerina, 8

baculatus (Tinoporus), 224, 228
balaniformis (Carpenteria), 221,
228
Bathysiphon, 64, 121
Bdelloidina, 64, 184, 142
Beceari, J., 51
Bibliographical lists, 827-345
bicornis (Adelosina), 91, 94
Brfarina, 65, 173
Bigenerina, 65, 168
Biloculina, 68, 77, 83
size of central chamber in, 28
Binary division in nucleus of pro-
tozoa, 12
bohemica
197
Bolivina, 65, 173
Boscii (Alveolina), 103, 104
Botellina, 64, 111, 128
Bowmani (Endothyra), 157, 160
Brady’s classification of Foramini-
fera, 56, 61
Bradyina, 65, 135, 158
Brueckmann, 50
budensis (Cristellaria), 198, 184

(Lingulinopsis), 194,

348

Bulimina, 65, 172

BULIMININA, 65, 172

bulloides (Globigerina), 205, 210
var. triloba (Globigerina), |

205, 210

(Spheroidina), 208, 210
(Tretomphalus), 217, 228

Biitschli’s classification of Rhizo-

poda and Foraminifera, 57

calabra (Cassidulina), 175, 176
Calcarina, 66, 223
Calcituba, 63, 76, 80
Schaudinn’s observations on,
24
canaliculata
148
cancellata (Cyclammina), 158, 160
Cambrian Foraminifera, 252
Candeina, 66, 209
capreolus (Bigenerina), 168, 176
Carboniferous Foraminifera, 256
Carbo-permian Foraminifera, 259
carinata (Faujasina), 237, 240
Carpenter, W. B., 53, 61
Carpenter’s classification of the
Rhizopoda, 18
Carpentert (Cycloclypeus),
248
Carpenteria, 66, 220
Carter, H. J., 58
Carterina, 64, 134, 152
Cassidulina, 65, 175
CASSIDULININ®E, 65, 175
Casts of Foraminifera shells, 32, 33,
308
catenata (Aschemonella), 126, 180
celata (Sigmoilina), 94
cenomana (Placopsilina), 189, 144
Ceratiwm, 14, 15
Chalk Foraminifera, 5
to make sections of, 322
Cheilostomella, 65, 180, 182
CHEILOSTOMELLIDE, 65, 180, 195
Chitinous forms, 41
Chlamydomyxa, 13
Chromatin threads, 11
Chrysalidina, 65, 167
Cin1ata, 14
Claparéde and Lachmann’s classi-
fication of the rhizopoda, 18
Classification of Foraminifera) 55
(D’Orbigny’s), 46
(Parker and Haswell’s), 16
protozoa (Ray Lankester), 13

(Thuramminopsis),

246, |

THE FORAMINIFERA

Classification, Schultze’s, 47
Clathrulina, 13
clavata (Orthoplecta), 176, 179
(Webbina), 153, 160
Clavulina, 65, 171
Coccidium, 14
Collecting living Foraminifera, 291
comata (Biloculina), 84, 86
communis (Clavulina), 171, 176
complanata (Miogypsina), 226
(Orbitolites), 101, 104
(Textularia), 165, 176
concava (Orbitolina), 156, 160
confusa (Sorosphera), 122, 130
congesta (Stacheia), 154, 160
conica (Rhaphidoscene), 118, 121
Contractile vesicles in protozoa, 11
contraria (Planispirina), 94, 98
Conulites, 65, 135, 156
Conulites limestone, 275
Coral sand, Foraminifera of, 287
Cornuspira, 63, 76, 99
corrugata (Patellina), 216, 228
Corticata, 14
Coskinolina, 64
crepidula (Cristellaria), 193, 194
casts of test in, 32
Cretaceous (Lower) Foraminifera,
263
(Upper) Foraminifera, 266
Cribrospira, 65, 158
cribrosum (Polyphragma),
147
crispa (Polystomella), 237
Cristellaria, 17, 66, 193
casts of test in, 32
Crithionina, 64, 140
Crystalline bodies in protozoa, 11
Cuneolina, 65, 166
Cyclammina, 65, 136, 158
CYCLOCLYPEINA, 67, 233, 245
Cycloclypeus, 67, 233, 245
cylindrica (Fusulina), 234, 240
(Marsipella), 125, 130
(Nodosinella), 153, 160
Cymbalopora, 66, 216

144,

| Dallingeria, longitudinal fission in,

12
De Blainville, 52
Deealcification
shells, 824
Defrance, 52
De la Harpe on dimorphism in
Nwmmautlites, 27

of foraminiferal

INDEX

De Montfort, 52 |
Dendrophrya, 64, 111, 115
Dendrosoma, 14
Dentalina, 66
Dentalinopsis, 66, 198
depressa (Biloculina), size of cen-
tral chamber in, 28
(Heterostegina), 240, 243
Descriptive terminology, 42
Devonian foraminifera, 255
Diaphoropodon, 63, 70
Difference between cephalopod and
foraminiferal shells, 33
Difflugia, 17, 19, 68
difflugiformis (Reophax), 137, 144
Dillina, 68, 92
Dimensions of Foraminifera, 6 _
dimorpha (Chrysalidina), 168, 1U
Dimorphina, 66, 199
Dimorphism in Adelosina, 29
Foraminifera, 25
Heterostegina, 30
Orbitolites, 29
Polystomella, 29
DINOFLAGELLATA, 14
Discocyclina, 67, 247
discolithus (Fabularia), 85, 86
Discorbina, 66, 218
plastogamic reproduction in,
30, 31
discus, var. of vesicularis (Gyp-
sina), 226
Dog’s Bay, foraminiferal sand of, 2
D’Orbigny’s classification of ce-
phalopoda, 53
Foraminifera, 46
Drysdali (Dallingeria), longitu- |
dinal fission in, 12
Dujardin, 53 |
Dujardin’s classification of the rhi- |
zopoda, 17
Dujardinui (Gromia), 70

6

Early ideas about Foraminifera, 50 |

EcHINOocysTIDA, 18 |

Ehrenberg, 53

Ehrenberg’s observations on Spiril-
lina, 26

Ehrenbergina, 65, 179

Eimer and Fickert, classification
of Foraminifera, 59

elegans (Nummulites), 244, 248

ellipsoides, var. oblonga (Ellip- |
soidina), 181, 194

Ellipsoidina, 65, 180, 181 |

349

Endoplasm, 10

| Endothyra, 65, 135, 157
_ Endothyra limestone, 258

ENDOTHYRIN», 65, 153

Eocene Foraminifera, 268
Hozoon, 252

erecta (Dendrophrya), 116
Eucyrtidium, 13

Euglypha, 17, 68

EHu-mycetozoa, 18

Examination of Foraminifera, 305
Exogenous shell-layer, 37, 38
Exoplasm, 10

| exponens (Asstlina), 245, 248

| Fabularia, 638, 77, 85

Faujasina, 67, 237

jiliformis (Bathysiphon), 118, 121

Finosa, 13

jlabelliformis (Pavonina), 169, 176
| Flabellina, 66, 197

FLAGELLATA, 14
Flosculina, 63, 103

fluviatilis (Gromia), 70

Food particles in protozoa, 11
FORAMINIFERA, 18

Brady’s classification of, 56,
61

Biitschli’s classification of, 57

casts of, 32, 33, 303

classification of, 55

dimensions of, 6

dimorphism in, 25

early ideas regarding the, 50

Eimer and Fickert’s classifi-
cation of, 59

fossil, 4

habitats of, 6

in chalk, 5

isomorphism in the, 48, 49

living, 1, 3, 4

meaning of term, 1

Neumayr’s classification of,
59

nucleus in, 21

of coral sand, 287

of Globigerina Ooze, 280

of pelagic deposits, 280

of Pteropod Ooze, 283

of Pteropod Sand, 284

of red clay, 285

of terrigenous deposits, 285

reproduction of, 25

Rhumbler’s classification of,
a9

350

Foraminifera, sarcode of, 19
shell structure of, 34
shell texture of, 58
Foraminiferal facies, 7
mud (terrigenous), 8
sand from sponge, 3
Fossil Foraminifera, 4
to extract, 299
fragilissima (Syringammina), 116,
118
frondescens (Sagenina), 127, 130
Frondicularia, 66, 190
fusca ( (Psammosphera), 122, 130
Fusulina, 67, 232, 234
Fusulina limestone, 257
Fusulinella, 67, 285
fusuliniformis (Saccammina), 123,
130
FUSULININA, 67, 232, 234

Gaudryina, 65, 170

Geinitzina, 259

Genera showing nucleus, 22

Geographical distribution of Fora-
minifera, 278

Geological range of Foraminifera,
251

Gervais’s observations on reproduc-
tion, 25

Gesner, Conrad, 50

gibba (Polymorphina), 199, 210

glabra (Rimulina), 193, 194

Git guia. 66, 189

Globigerina, 13, 66, 205

Globigerina Ooze, 8, 280

GLOBIGERINID®H, 66, 204, 211

Globular bodies in protozoa, 11

globulifera (Ramulina), 202, 210

Gmelin, 51

Gregarina, 14, 15

Gromia, 13, 17, 63, 68, 69

description of living, 20
nucleus in, 21

GRomM1ID®, 18, 63, 68, 75

grosserugosa (Anomalina), 220, 22

Gualtieri, 51

Gypsina, 66, 225

Habitats of Foraminifera, 6

Haddonia, 64, 134, 143

Haliomma, 14

Haliphysema, 64, 112, 128

Haplophragmium, 64, 188, 138
living, 4

Haplostiche, 64, 184, 141

THE FORAMINIFERA

Hastigerina, 66, 206
Haueriana (Amphimorphina), 198

| Hauwerina, 63, 97

HAUvERININA, 63, 77, 93
Hettiozoa, 13, 18

| Hemifusulina, 67, 235

Heterillina, 63, 92

Heterostegina, 67, 233, 243
dimorphism in, 80

Heterostegina limestone, 271, 273

| Hippocrepina, 64, 149

| hispida (Calcarina), 224, 228
| Hormosina, 64, 133, 149

_ Humboldti

(Haplophragmium),
138, 144

| Hyanina, 40
| hyalina (Gromia), 70

Hyperammina, 64, 111, 124
hystrix (Ehrenbergina), 179
(Mimosina), 174, 176

Idalina, 68, 92

IMPERFORATA, 39

incertus (Ammodiscus), 150, 160
indivisa (Hippocrepina), 149, 160
InFrusorta, 16

inherens (Gypsina), 225
Involutina, 65, 185, 155
involvens (Cornuspira), 99, 104

| Isomorphism in Foraminifera, 48,

49

Jaculella, 64, 111, 124
Jeffreysvr (Pilulina), 117, 118
Jones, T. R., 53, 61

Karrert (Archediscus), 238, 240
Karyogamy in Foraminifera, 30

_ Karyokinetie division in Acantho-

cystis, 12
of nucleus, 11

| Keramosphera, 63, 107

28 |

KERAMOSPHERIN®, 63, 79, 107

labyrinthica (Botellina), 128, 180

| Labyrinthula, 18, 14

LABYRINTHULIDEA, 13, 18

| Lacazina, 68, 108

laciniata (var. of O. complanata),
102
levigata (Glandulina), 189, 194
levis (Squamulina), 79, 86
(Vitriwebbina), 208,
Lagena, 65, 186, 187
LAGENIDH, 65, 185, 195, 211

210

INDEX

LAGENIN#, 65, 187
Lagynis, 71
Lamarck, 52
larvata (Planorbulina), 219, 228
Ledermiiller, 51 ;
legumen (Technitella), 117, 118
Lepidocyclina, 67, 247
Lessonu (Amphistegina), 239, 240
Liassic Foraminifera, 261
Lieberkuehnia, 63, 68, 69
Lingulina, 66, 190
Lingulinopsis, 66, 197
Linneus, 51
Lrpostoma, 14
Lister’s observations on

stomella, 30

the nucleus, 22, 25

lituiformis (Trochammina), 151,

160
Iituola, 13, 64, 134, 142
LItTvuoLip®, 64, 133, 145, 161
LITuOoLINmE, 64, 137
Living Foraminifera, 1, 3, 4
Lihuyd, Edward, 50
lobatula (Truncatulina), 219, 228
Logosa, 13, 18

characters of, 15

Loftusia, 65, 136, 159
Lorrustn®, 65, 158
Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera, 263
lucifuga (Nubecularia), 81, 86
Lunucammina, 260

Poly-

macella (Polystomella), 237, 240
mamnmilla (Crithionina), 140, 144
marginata (Lagena), 188, 194.
Marginulina, 66, 191
Marsipella, 64, 111, 125
Massilina, 63, 92
MAsTiIcopHora, 16
Meandropsina, 63, 101
Menardw (Pulvinulina), 222, 228
Mikrogromia, 63, 69
Miliola, 17
MILioLip®, 63, 75, 87, 95, 105
Miliolina, 14, 63, 76, 77, 90
dimorphic forms in, 28
Miliolina limestone, 270
MILIOLININ», 63, 76, 83
Mimosina, 65, 174
Mineralised Foraminifera, 303
miniaceum (Polytrema), 227, 228
Miocene Foraminifera, 275
Miogypsina, 66, 226
mobile (Diaphoropodon), 70, 72

301

Monalysidium, 63, 100

Monas, 14, 15

Montagu, 52

Monogenerina, 259

Mounting Foraminifera, 308

Munier Chalmas’s observations on
dimorphism, 27

Murrayi (Keramosphera),
107

Mycrtozoa, 13, 14, 16

104,

nautiliformis (Bradyina), 158
Neumayr’s classification, 59
nitida (Candeina), 209, 210
Noctiluca, 14, 15
Nodosaria, 66, 188
NoOpDOSARIIN®E, 66, 188
Nodosinella, 65, 1385, 153
Nonionina, 67, 232, 236
nonioninoides (Haplophragnium),
139, 144
novorossica, var. nodula (Nubecu-
laria), 82, 86
Nubecularia, 68, 76, 81
NUBECULARIIN®, 63, 79
Nucleoli in Foraminifera, 22, 24
Nucleus in Foraminifera, 21, 22
protozoa, 10
variation in size of, 22
NUMMULINID&, 67, 231, 241, 249

Nummuiites, 67, 233, 244

of the pyramids, 50
Nummulitic limestone, 273
NUMMULITIN#, 67, 238
Nutritive particles in protoplasm,

25

| oblonga (Miliolina), 91, 94

Oligocene Foraminifera, 274
Oolitic Foraminifera, 262
Operculina, 67, 233, 239
Ophthalmidium, 63, 97
Orbiculina, 63, 78, 100
Orbitoides, 67, 233, 246
Orbitoides limestone, 274
Orbitolina, 65, 135, 156
Orbitolites, 63, 78, 101
dimorphism in, 29
Parker’s observations on, 27
Semper’s observations on, 27
Orbulina, 66, 206
Ordovician Foraminifera, 254
ornatissima (Hauerina), 94, 97
Orthoplecta, 65, 179
ovicula (Hormosina), 149, 160

302

oviformis (Gromia), 70, 72
ovoidea (Cheilostomella), 182, 194

paleotrochus (Valvulina), 171, 176

Paleozoic Foraminifera, 252

Panderi (Cribrospira), 158

papulata (Thurammina), 148, 160

papyracea (Discocyclina), 247, 248

Paramecium, 14

parasitica (Amphicoryne), 194, 197

Parker and Haswell’s classification
of Rhizopoda, 18

Parker, W. K., 53, 61

Parker’s observations on Orbito-
lites, 27

Parkeri (Frondicularia), 190, 194

Parkeria, 136

patelliformis
228

Patellina, 66, 216

pavonia (Cuneolina), 166, 176

Pavonina, 65, 169

Pearcey’s method of slicing loose
sands, 321

pelagic deposits, Foraminifera of, |
280

pelagica (Hastigerina), 206, 210

pellucida (Seabrookia), 183, 194

Pelomyxa, 13

Pelosina, 64, 114

PENEROPLIDIN», 63, 77, 98

Peneroplis, 63, 78, 99

Pentellina, 63, 92, 270

Perenyi’s fluid for decalcification,
324 |

PERFORATA, 40

Periloculina, 63, 92

Permian Foraminifera, 259

Permo-carboniferous Foraminifera,
259

persica (Loftusia), 159, 160

Pilulina, 64, 117

PILULININ®, 64, 116

placentula (Lituola), 142, 144

Placopsilina, 64, 134, 189

planatus (Peneroplis), 100, 104 |

Plancus, J., 51

Planispirina, 68, 98

Planorbulina, 66, 218

Plans of growth, 43

planulata (Spiroloculina), 90, 94

PLAsSMODIATA, 15

Plastogamic reproduction in Dis-
corbina, 80, 31

Plastogamy in Foraminifera, 30

(Discorbina), 218,

THE FORAMINIFERA

Plewrostomella, 65, 174
plicata (var. of O. complanata),
102
Pliocene Foraminifera, 276
Podophrya, 14, 15
Poeyi (Cymbalopora), 217, 228
polygonia (Adelosina), dimorphism
in, 29
polymorpha (Calcituba), 80, 86
Polymorphina, 66, 199
POLYMORPHININ»”, 66, 199
Polyphragma, 64, 134, 147
Polystomella, 67, 232, 237
dimorphism in, 29
nucleus in, 22

| POLYSTOMELLIN®, 67, 232, 236

Polytrema, 66, 226
PORCELLANEA, 39
porrecta (Bifarina), 173, 176

_ Post-pliocene Foraminifera, 277
| Pre-Cambrian Foraminifera, 252

Preparation of recent Foraminifera,
296

| Presli (Bulimina), 172, 176

princeps (Schwagerina), 235, 240

Prorocentrum, 14

PROTEANA, 13

proterformis

228

PRoTEINA, 18

PROTEOMYXA, 13

Protogenes, 71

Protomyxa, 18

Protozoa, classification of, 13
structure of, 9

Psammosphera, 64, 109, 122

Pseudopodia, 17

Pteropod ooze, Foraminifera of, 283
sands, Foraminifera of, 284

Pullenia, 66, 207

Pulvinulina, 66, 222

pupa (Ehrenbergina), 176, 179

pygmea (Uvigerina), 200, 210

(Carpenteria), 221,

Quinqueloculina, 68, 92

radiata (Dendrophrya), 115, 118

| RaproLaRiA, 13, 18

Raphidiophrys, 13

Ramutlina, 66, 201

RAMULININ®”, 66, 201

raphanus (Nodosaria), 189

raricosta (Marginulina), 191, 194

Recent Foraminifera, preparation
of, 296

INDEX

Recent Foraminifera, where found,
1

recta (Vaginulina), 192, 194
Red clay, Foraminifera of, 285
Remesiana (Involutina), 155, 160
Reophaz, 19, 64, 133, 137
Reproduction in Miliolina, 25

of Foraminifera, 25
RETICULARIA, 18, 15
Reticulum of nucleus, 24
Rhabdammina, 64, 111, 125
RHABDAMMININ®!, 64, 124
Rhabdogonium, 66, 191
Rhetic Foraminifera, 261
Rhaphidoscene, 64, 117
Rhipidocyclina, 247
Rhizammina, 64, 111, 127
Rutzopopa, 16, 17

Carpenter’s classification of,

18

Claparéde and Lachmann’s,
18

Dujardin’s classification of,
17

Rhizopoda lobosa, 16

Rurizopopa, Parker and Haswell’s |

classification of, 18
Rhizopoda reticularia, 16
Rhumbler’s classification of Fora-

minifera, 59
RHYNCHOFLAGELLATA, 14
Rimulina, 66, 192
ringens (Biloculina), 84, 86
Rotalia, 66, 223
RorTaLiip®, 66, 2138, 229
RovaLun®, 66, 215
rotundata (Pelosina), 114, 118
rudis (Verrucina), 141, 144
rugosa (Flabellina), 194, 197

(Gaudryina), 170, 176
(Textularia), 165, 176
Rupertia, 66, 222

Saccammina, 64, 110, 123
Saccammina limestone, 256
SACCAMMININ”, 64, 121
Sagenina, 64, 111, 127
Sagra (Articulina), 938, 94
Sagraina, 66, 201
Salpingeca, 14
Sarcode body, to prepare, 324
nature of, 9
of Foraminifera, 19
Schaudinn on plastogamy, 80
on the nucleus, 24

3083

Scheuchzer, 50

_ Schlumberger on dimorphism, 27

Sechlumberger’s method of making
sections, 316

Schlumbergert
169, 176

Schreibersiana
176

Schroter, 52

Schultze’s classification, 47

observations on Miliolina, 26

Schulze’s observations on the

nucleus, 22

(Siphogenerina),

(Virgulina), 172,

| Schwagerina, 67, 235

scorpiurus (Reophax), 188, 144

Seabrookia, 65, 181, 182

Secondary shell-layer, 37

Sections of chalk, to make, 3Y2

Selection of Foraminifera, 307

seminulum (Muiliolina), 28, 92, 94

semiornata (Lingulina), 190, 194

Semper on Orbitolites, 27

serrata (Ehrenbergina), 179

Shell structure of the Foraminifera,
BA

Shell texture in Foraminifera, 38

Shepheardella, 63, 71

Sigmotlina, 63, 93

Silurian Foraminifera, 254

Siphogenerina, 65, 169

socialis (Mikrogromia), 69, 72

Soldani, 52

_ Soldanii (Haplostiche), 141, 144

(Rotalia), 223, 228
Sollast (Monalysidiwm), 100, 104
Sorosphera, 64, 110, 122
Spengler, 52
spherica (Saccammina), 128, 180

_ spheroides (Pullenia), 207, 210

Spheroidina, 66, 208

_ spiculotesta (Carterina), 152, 160

spinulosa (Verneuilina), 166, 176
Spirillina, 66, 215,

Spirillina rock, 254
SPIRILLININ#, 66, 215
Spiroloculina, 63, 77, 89
Spiroplecta, 65, 170

Sponge sand, foraminiferal, 3
Sporozoa, 14, 16

squamosa var. of C. Poeyt, 217
Squamulina, 63, 76, 79

stabilis (Rupertia), 222, 228
Stachetia, 65, 185, 154

Staining foraminiferal sarcode, 324
Stentor, 14

A A

304

Stolickzaria, 1387
Stolon passages, 34, 35
STOMATOPHORA, 14
Storthosphera, 64, 115
Strabo, 50
Strethill Wright’s observations on
Spirillina, 26.
striata (Amphimorphina), 194, 198
(Sagraina), 201, 210
(Vertebralina), 94, 97
Structure of Foraminifera, 19
protozoa, 9
subnodosa (Plewrostomella),
176
UAE MEO (Dentalnopsia), 194,
» 198
sulcata (Lagena), 187, 194

174,

Sussex, foraminiferal sand of, 2,3. |

Syringammina, 64, 111, 116

teniformis (Shepheardella), 71, 72
Technitella, 64, 117
Terrigenous deposits, Foraminifera
-- of, 285

mud with Foraminifera, 8
tertilarvoides (Bolivina), 173, 176
Textularia, 65, 165
TEXTULARIIDA, 65, 163, 177
TEXTULARIIN®E, 65, 164
Thalassicolla, 13

to make, 314

Thurammina, 64, 148

Thuramminopsis, 64, 148

tibia (Nubecularia), 82, 86

TINOPORINE, 66, 224

Tinoporus, 66, 224

torresiensis (Haddonia), 148, 144

Tretomphalus, 66, 217

Triassic Foraminifera, 260

tricarinata (Tritaxia), 167,176

tricarinatum (Rhabdogonium),
191, 194 ;
(Rhabdogonium), 191

trigona (Allomorphina), 188, 194

Trillina, 63, 92

Triloculina, 63, 92

var. acutangulum |

THE FORAMINIFERA

Trinema, 17

Tritaxia, 65, 167

Trochammina, 64, 138, 185, 151

TROCHAMMININE, 64, 147

Truncatulina, 66, 219

tuberosa (Dimorphina), 199, 210

Tubuli, comparative sizes of, 36

Tumanowircezu (Haliphysema), 129,
130

tumidulum (Ophthatmidinm), 94,
Ml

umbilicatula (Nonionina), 236, 240
wniversa (Orbulina), 206, 210
Upper Cretaceous Foraminifera, 266
Uvigerina, 66, 200

vagans (Hyperammina),
Vaginulina, 66, 192.
Valvulina, 65, 171
Vampyrella, 13, 14
Verbeeki (Lepidocyclina), 248
Verneurlina, 65, 166 ; 5
Verrucina, 64, 141
Vertebralina, 63, 97

Verworn on the nucleus, 23
vesicularis (Gypsina), 225, 228
Virgulina, 65, 172
Vitriwebbina, 66, 202

124, 130

| vwipara (Spirillina), 215, 228
Thin sections of foraminiferal shells,

Volvow, 14
Vorticella, 14, 15
Vorticialis, 17

Wageneri (Lieberkuehnia), 69, 72

| Walker, Jacob, and Boys, 52

Wallich, G. C., 61

Wallich’s method of making thin
sections, 314

Webbina, 64, 133, 152

Wichmanni ‘(Giacazinayy: 103

Williamson, W. C., 53

Wrightianum (A mphitrema), ye

_ Zipper (Nodosaria), 188, 194

Zoospores, formation of, in Poly-
stomella, 80

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