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PREFACE.

THE act of the New York State Legislature, passed
on the 15th day of May, 1885—which may justly be
considered as inaugurating a new era in the forestry
matters of the Empire State—directs the members of
the Forest Commission “ to prepare tracts or circulars
“ of information, giving plain and concise advice for
“the care of wood-lands upon private lands, and for
“the starting of new plantations upon lands that
“ have been denuded, exhausted by cultivation, eroded
“by torrents, or injured by fire, or that are sandy,
“marshy, broken, sterile, or waste and unfit for other
“use.” This well-meant instruction has not, to my
knowledge, been carried into execution, very likely
because we have no literature of any importance
upon this subject—for forestry with us has not been
regarded as being a branch of rural economy worthy
of literary treatment, and, therefore, this field of cul-
ture has been left nearly untouched.

In this limited work I have attempted to bring
within as small a compass as is consistent with clear-
ness of statement the salient points of systematic
forestry and its application to the restocking of de-
nuded wood-lands on plains and mountains. Ameri-
can writers on forestry have mostly confined them-
selves to the treatment of forest trees as single trees,
and not as masses of trees raised for the purpose of
producing crops of wood or timber. They thought
that forestry was an art of tree planting, destined to
create, by artificial sowing and planting, new forests;
and that, as we are still in the possession of many
and large natural forests, the creation of new forests
was to us a foreign matter. This is entirely wrong,

IV FOREST PLANTING.

for if we really will preserve our natural or wild
forests—and this is undoubtedly a much better and
cheaper policy than to continue destroying them,
and to later raise, at an enormous cost and loss of
time, artificial forests—we have to care for our
woods just as fully as the artificial forests in the
European countries are treated ; for in the preserva-
tion of forests it makes no difference at all whether
they are originated by nature or by human art, be-
cause both are subject to the same dangers and
injuries. Unless the natural forests are managed
systematically, we cannot but expect that the repara-
tion of damages done to a forest either by accidents
or elementary forces, or by the natural course of tree
life, will take as many centuries as it would require
decades for this purpose, if we assist nature in its
regenerating endeavors through the means suggested
by scientific forestry.

The condition in which our forests are now, is not
such as to warrant us in “ pooh-poohing”’ the idea of
looking forinstruction inthis matter to the European
nations, and to only glance at their methods of treating
forests, because we have a different form of govern-
ment (see Report of the N. Y. Forest Commission,
1886, page 67), or because “the entire condition of
things here differs so materially from that in the old
world.” (See Report of the Forest Commission, 1887,
page 17.) Certainly there is a great difference be-
tween our government and that of most of the Euro-
pean nations, and politico-economical matters are
often treated here differently from what they are
there; but this does not affect the question of pre-
serving to the succeeding generations the zatural
resources of a country necessary for the welfare of its
inhabitants. If we cannot invent better methods
of preserving forests than those we have practiced

PREFACE. Vv

up to the present time, and by which our forests
will soon be doomed to total extinction, we should
not only glance at, but study European systems
closely, and inquire into the possibility of adopting
them to some extent, if necessary. If we do that we
will find that, without “ making the elaborate science and
intricate machinery of European forestry available in thts
State” (see Second Annual Report of the Forest Com-
mission, Albany, 1887, page 17), the preservation of
our woods can be accomplished, and at the same time
acontinued and even enlarged exploitation may be
secured by applying some similar methods, subject
of course to such changes as are rendered necessary
by a diversity of climate, soil and local influences.

Although twenty years’ experience in forestry in
northern Germany, combined with personal observa-
tion in this country, during a like period, would seem
to justify me in urging the practicability of intro-
ducing systematic forestry into the United States, I do
not intend to express here a positive opinion on this
point. During the course of my experience in this
State, I have heard and read so much regarding the
necessity of arresting the reckless use and destruction
of our forests, that [thought the time had at last ar-
rived to answer the question, ‘* How shall we preserve our
forests?” with a practical work. In the following
pages I have endeavored to furnish sufficient hints to
those who are interested in this important matter, to
form a correct opinion in regard to the requirements
of the culture of forests, and to apply the acquired
knowledge to the proper preservation of wild or
natural forests, and the restoration of wood-lands
which have been denuded.

In the arrangement of the chapters, I have been led
by a desire to give not only reliable information upon
the subject, but also to furnish teachers in forest cul-

tg

VI FOREST PLANTING.

ture a more practical guide than they have found
hitherto in American books. No claim for complete-
ness is made, the less so as it is only a pioneer des-
tined to invite better and more experienced men to
treat more fully upon a subject, the importance of
which is more and more felt every year. The enum- -
eration and description of our common forest trees
has been omitted intentionally, as these topics are
treated by others with great thoroughness.

The Diagrams given in Chapter IX, Part II, and in
Chapter III, Part III, explain themselves, and show
the engineering work to be done in covering downs
on the sea-coast with trees, and in reforesting mount-
ains when their slopes have been cleared of natural
woods, and torrents with deep ravines have been
formed. The views showing the gorgeous scenery of
the Adirondacks are not, perhaps, necessary to the
book ; but they are given to arouse those who are
unaware of the beauties of our native mountain for-
ests, and to create a spirit of enthusiasm which shall
not only help to prevent further devastation of our
State forests, but also may assist in restocking the
wantonly denuded wood-lands.

To a good agriculturist with sufficient experience
in the nature and behavior of the principal forest trees,
it will not be difficult to apply the given instructions
so as to accomplish the principal objects of modern
forestry in the preservation of wild or natural forests.

Although the present book is written only with
regard to the requirements of the State of New York,
there is no reason why the instructions given in its
pages should not be applicable to other localities,
where the same conditions exist, if the proper allow-
ance is made for diversity of climate, soil and topo-
graphy,

THE AUTHOR.

CONTENTS.

PART I.—Forest CULTURE,

CHAPTER I.
Reemauctory ROMOriKe. 5 oi aoe ss oe tee ence wtennanaeenenes oe.
; CHAPTER II.
een Oe PR ORORE MC NO ee on ow sacri en SAAS ep annmde see wks 15
‘ CHAPTER III.
Proportion of the Wooded Lands of a Country to its Total Area.... 19
CHAPTER IV.
Relations of the Government to Forests—Protective Forests-- ---- -- 22 _ pe
CHAPTER V.
Governmental Assistance to Forest Culture — Establishment of
Forest Schools for Training Foresters-----.....------------- 29
CHAPTER VI.
Forest Planting-~Preparatory and Precautionary Measures- -------- 36
CHAPTER VII.
Methods of Cuiture and their Success--.........-..--...---------- 38
F CHAPTER VIII.
~. Cultivation of the Soil. ..-..---...-,--------- 2-2-0 renee eee nee nne 41
CHAPTER IX.
Syrainage. and imigation..4 s~ 53s. 2 0 Sct dew edee hot nena gewadan 43
CHAPTER X.
BalaPHION 501 ANGeWes ous onsale So ete ce abe dda Sener nbn cocaanee 47
CHAPTER XI.
The Various Systems of Forest Management--....-....-.--------- 54
CHAPTER XII.
* Raising Forest Trees by Natural Reproduction. -....--------------- 64
CHAPTER XIII. aaa
The Collection and Treatment of Seeds for Forest-Trees .-.------- 68
CHAPTER XIV.
PRaising Forest Trees by Seeding. -.-..-.-----.-.----------------- 74
, CHAPTER XY.
Pemeatiee OCG, TVOCR noche tab arade er aonekevedsdesdasccncees 90
CHAPTER XVI.
\ Tie are Or SOMME FISMLONODN...2 225 «Some en 3 <= Sins eo nece anne soc 109
CHAPTER XVII.
\_ Protection of Forests against Animals and Elemental Forces.-.--.---- 118

CHAPTER XVIII.
= The Conversion of the Wild or Natural Woods into Cultivated
Forests—What the American Forester should do next-------- 188

VIII FOREST PLANTING.

L- PART IIl.—Forrest PLANTING ON PLAINS.

CHAPTER I.
Forest Planting on Lands with Alluvial Soil.-.........---.-.-.---. 147
CHAPTER II.
Forest Planting on Marshy or Swampy Lands--.--.-.----.-..-------- 150
CHAPTER III. |
Forest Planting on Moorlands.--...-.--..-.--..-.---------c--cc--- 153
CHAPTER IV.
Fotos Pianting-on* High Moors.: <= -<2222- 022555 eee 156
CHAPTER V. ‘
Priinage he. 5612 5 Bee ce A ce ak Le Bs ae 160
CHAPTER VI.
O Burning over the Soil for Cultivation..............--.------------ 165
CHAPTER VII.
Forest Planting on Sand-Wastes or Pine-Barrens.........-....----- 168
CHAPTER VIII.
Forest Planting on Inland Sand-Drifts.............-.-------------- 171
CHAPTER IX.
Covering Downs or Sand Dunes on the Sea Coast with Trees and
Shrubs—With Diagrams. «..<.. <0 .i2. 525 desabseucaens Semana 174

PART III.—Forestr PLANTING on Mounralns.

CHAPTER I.
The Objects of Covering Mountains with Forest Trees_............ 182
CHAPTER IL.
Selection of Trees—Replanting Forests on Mountains—Planting or
BOCGIRG 5 5c inn ness unfieens + Girne deass Ogu ei eseieeweenasad 184

CHAPTER III.
Restocking Denuded Woodlands in Mountains—Preparatory and

Protective Measures— With Diagrams.-_...........---..-.-__- 190
CHAPTER IV.
How to Arrest and Bind the Shifting Sand on Mountains---.-.._.._- 204
CHAPTER V.
Replanting Forests on Mountains of the Sandstone Formation. - .--- 207
CHAPTER VI.
Replanting Forests on Mountains of the Limestone Formation --.-- 209
CHAPTER VII.
Re-stocking Mountains having Rocky Surfaces.........-..-...---- 2138
CHAPTER VIII.
Re-stocking Denuded Woodlands on High Mountains--..........- 217

CHAPTER IX.
Concluding Remarks—1. State Forest Nursery. 2. Forest School

in the Adirondacks, 38. Forest Experiment Station. 4.
Asylum for Game to Rest and Breed--...........-....-..-.-- 222

ee eo te te IN TE NG.

PART J.—Forest CuLTurRE.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

ABOUT sixty years ago, Governor DeWitt Clinton, in
a message to the Legislature of New York, urged the
fostering of forest planting, and declared that the repro-
duction of our woods was an object of primary import-
ance. ‘This sensible advice did not receive that legisla-
tive consideration which the great interests involved
therein merited. The devastation of our forests, especi-
ally of those situated in the Adirondack region, went on
as before, nay even increased from year to year, so that
now the formerly densely wooded summits of those
mountains_are nearly denuded. We will not expatiate
here on the calamities which have already befallen. the
country by the continual deforestation of our mountains,
and which undoubtedly will in time grow to much larger
dimensions ; we only point to the fact that since the axe
of the tanner, lumberman and miner has reached the
previously well-stocked high plateaus on the Adirondacks
(whence the sources of the Hudson, the Black River,
some tributaries of the Mohawk and other rivers take
their rise), our noble Hudson river has lost nearly five
feet in its average depth. ‘This fall in the level of the

(9)

10 FOREST PLANTING.

river will undoubtedly continue, unless an effective stop
is put to the further deforestation of the Adirondacks,
and the reforestation of the denuded wood-lands thereon
is begun. But here we encounter difficulties which
apparently are scarcely to be overcome. For it is not so
much the inclemency of the climate, or the exposure of
the location, or the poorness of the soil, which prevents
the restoration of our mountain forests; it is the fact
that of the four millions of acres covering the Adiron-
dacks, only eight hundred thousand belong to the State,
while the remaining three millions and two hundred
thousand acres are the property of private owners—and
these, in general, have neither the intention ner the de-
sire to be troubled with forest planting. They strip off
every valuable tree, and when their lands become un-
profitable allow them to be sold for taxes. In this way
a great many acres reverted to the original owner, the
State, as nobody found it desirable to buy denuded or
devastated wood-lands.

In 1872 the ‘*‘ Park Commissioners,” it is true, recom-
mended that in the mountainous regions of our State no
more State lands should be sold, and that, as lands
reverted from non-payment of taxes, they be held for
future forest management. This advice, however, was
not acted upon until 1885, when the State, notwithstand-
ing the sales that had been effected during the interval,
had again become the owner of about eight hundred
thousand acres of wood-lands.

To the Legislature of 1885 is due a new and sound
departure in the forestry interests of our State; for by
the act passed on the 15th day of May, 1885, a Forest
Commission was established, whose duty it was to
preserve the State forests, and the former recommenda-
tion of the ‘‘ Park Commissioners ” was made obligatory.
At present none of the State lands situate in the coun-

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, z 8 §

ties embracing the Adirondack and Catskill mountains
can be sold or leased; but every piece of land situated
in those counties which may in the future be acquired
by the State, shall be added to the State lands and for-
ever kept as a forest preserve.

From the first annual report of the State Forest Com-
mission, published at Albany in 1886, it appears that the
gentlemen forming that Commission had at that time a
correct view in regard to the extent of their duties, for
on page 12 they declare that they not only must protect
the preserve against ravages by the elements (fire), and
against the army of thieves and trespassers who are
plundering the State forests, but that there should be
devised a system “‘ which would, in time, make these
forests not only self-sustaining as to cost of management,
but, in addition, a source of wealth and revenue to the
commonwealth.”

With these words the Commissioners expressed an idea
the proper consideration of which would ensure the
introduction of systematic forest culture. For it was
not so much the decreasing area of woods, nor the in-
creasing demand for forest products, which led in the
European territories to the introduction of the present
so highly esteemed forest culture ; it was the necessity of
deriving the highest possible permanent revenue from
the forests. And this dire necessity performed what for
want of means and knowledge could not be done in
former times. But as soon as the owners of large forests,
especially the corporations, possessors of entailments,
and governments in Europe, were forced to look upon
the forests as a perpetual source of revenue, there were
found the means and the knowledge of scientific or
systematic management of forests.

In order to avoid any misconception in regard to the
words ‘‘ scientific forestry,” it may here be observed that

12 FOREST PLANTING.

this expression does not designate any exact science; but
just such management of forests, the practical results of
which had been retraced to their scientific basis, and
were found to be in harmony with scientific principles.
For this reason the advanced forest economy of to-day is
called scientific or systematic forestry, and this means:
First, to continually have a sustained forestal production
jSrom a certain area; Second, the natural regeneration
of the forests ; and, Third, a progressive improvement of
the forests, instead of former deterioration.

That the introduction of systematic forestry into our
State forests would lead to a revenue for the State there
can be no doubt, provided the management should be
entrusted to experts. But at present we must drop this
question entirely, as we have to concentrate every effort
to the restocking of the many denuded public wood-
lands in the State, and to inducing owners of the
adjoining private woods to enter into a combination
among themselves and with the public officers, in order
to protect their wood-lands against damages, and to im-
prove them by adopting the same measures which ought
to be maintained in the State preserve. Yor it is a great
drawback to the effective management of our State forests
that they are not compact bodies of larger extent, but
mostly disconnected plots, situated in different counties,
ranging from a few acres up to many thousands, and
usually surrounded by private lands, and, therefore, in-
accessible by roads. As systematic forestry cannot be
advantageously applied except on larger areas of compact
bodies of wood-lands, it is evident that means must be
devised to urge upon the adjoining owners of those
private wood-lands, the necessity of entering into a com-
bination with the managers of the State forests, and of
a preconcerted action with them in regard to the pre-
servation of their forests. There is no doubt that in

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13

the future such a combination will be agreed to, but not
until the managers of the State forests upon the larger
tracts have shown that a systematic forest economy is
more profitable than the reckless felling of trees now
going on in the private forests.

It might be advisable for the State to buy up small
plots in limited numbers for the purpose of rounding off
the boundaries of one or the other of the larger wood
tracts owned by the State. But to obtain control over
all the Adirondack forests by a general purchase—as is
recommended by some—would be for many reasons very
objectionable. Ownersof those forests in the Adirondacks
which are necessary for securing a continual flow of water
to the rivers and streams could—as we will see in Chapter
IV—be compelled by legislative measures to manage their
woods so as to keep the grounds covered and protected
against the influence of sun and air; and this is the only
object it is desirable for the State to control the man-
agement of private forests of that character. But even if
this question was, from the standpoint of the ‘‘right of
eminent domain,” decided in favor of the State, our
government would not be able to undertake the exercise
of this privilege unless there were secured for the service
of the State men who understand how to systematically
manage those mountain forests, which are called pro-
tective forests.

If we want to do our full duty toward those who are toe
come after us in this richly endowed country, we must
repair, before it is too late, the damages done to the
mountain forests in our State by the avarice and
ignorance of the last two generations ; and if the Forest
Commission adhere to their programme, outlined in the
cited first annual report, we will succeed in the restora-
tion of the old, splendid wild forests of the Adirondacks,
For properly preserved forests have :

14 FOREST PLANTING.

(1) To be guarded by officers from the encroachment
of persons who have no rigkt in them, and from abuses
and infractions of the law by those who have.

(2) To be protected from injury of various kinds, as
for instance, from fires or other elementary damage, from
destruction caused by pasturing farm animals or game,
and from injuries caused by insects.

(3) In a properly conducted forest preserve there must
be performed the following principal labors :

(a) Annual felling of mature, defective or dead trees,
and their transportation in such a way that no damage
shall be done to young growing trees.

(4) The periodical thinning out of places where the
trees have sprung up too thickly, in order to effect a
more vigorous growth to the remaining trees. At the
same time the worthless kinds of trees are cleared out to
give room for the more valuable.

(c) Vacant spots have to be filled out by natwral
reproduction of the trees, either by shoots, sprouts and
layers from the stumps and roots, or by the natural sow-
ing of the seed of the parent trees ; or, finally, if in the
way mentioned a reproduction of the trees i not prac-
ticable, artzficial replanting, such as sowing the seed or
planting young trees raised in forest nurseries, has to be
resorted to, although this should be done as rarely as
possible.

From the foregoing we perceive that the duties of the
authorities in charge of our State forest preserve do not
end when the grown up or planted trees have been cared
for and protected to their full growth, but when they
have been cut down and others started in their places.

If our forest preserve were conducted in some such
way we should not any longer be compelled to witness
every year the dying away of the enormous masses of
trees and going to rot, killing young saplings and pre-

IMPORTANCE OF FOREST CULTURE. 15

venting others from springing up; besides furnishing
the materials for originating and maintaining destructive
forest fires. ‘These dead trees are the headquarters for
breeding beetles, bugs and other insects which prey upon
the sound trees and destroy them long before they have
reached their maturity.

Under all circumstances steps should at once be taken
to establish on a proper place in the Adirondacks a
nursery for raising the principal common forest trees, to
be used upon the denuded State lands. ‘This institution
could later on be enlarged and also serve both the pur-
poses of an experimental station for forest trees and a
forest school for training and educating good foresters.
The best crude material for this class of men our Forest
Commissioners will undoubtedly find among the inhabit-
ants of the Adirondacks, and if they will give those men
an opportunity to become conversant with the practical
instructions approved by systematic forestry, they will no
longer ridicule the possibility of finding scientific foresters
among the denizens of the North Woods. (See Second
Annual Report of the Forest Commission, Albany, 1887. )

CHAPTER II.
IMPORTANCE OF FOREST CULTURE.

THERE are over six million acres of wood-lands in the
twenty-six million acres of land in our State. The great
interests involved in such a vast area should in them-
selves lead to a close study of everything pertaining to
the nature of forests, and their influence upon the welfare
of our commonwealth. Moreover, the State being an

16 FOREST PLANTING,

owner of about 800,000 acres of those wood-lands,* the
revenues of which would amount to a considerable sum,
if the forests were properly managed, and every tax-payer
should look into the matter and endeavor to help in in-
troducing a system by which the State forests could be
made profitable. Up to the present time they have not
yielded any income to the State, but are considered by
the people living in their neighborhood as a piece of
‘*Commons,” from which.they have a right to cut down,
and take away what pleases them. It was a good step
in the right direction when the Forest Commissioners
hunted down the thieves and endeavored to put a stop to
that disgraceful traffic. +

Another reason why we should pay more heed to the
forest matters of the State arises from the circumstance
that agriculture and industry are daily increasing their
demands for certain kinds of wood, and that there is no
likelihood of obtaining any material which could be
entirely substituted for these woods, as is the case with
coal and iron, which have encroached for some time upon
the old privileges of certain kinds of trees used formerly
exclusively for fuel and timber. True, for a certain
period we can, after the exhaustion of our own resources,
import lumber and timber from other states, especially
from Canada. But, as the same mania of destroying the
forests from which our own State up toa recent date
has suffered, is raging in that country, we cannot for
any considerable length of time rely upon importations,

* The State forests are situated in the Adirondack wilderness, except-
ing about 50,000 acres in the Catskill region, most of which are in
Ulster Co.

+ It is a sad but true observation that the moral views of our people in
regard to public property have a much lower standard than is enter-
tained in the transaction of private business. This deplorable neglect
of the duties owed to public affairs on the part of the people can only
be remedied by giving to them the same supervision as to private affairs.

IMPORTANCE OF FOREST CULTURE. 17

and, therefore, we should prepare to satisfy as far as pos-
sible the demands of our people by home production.

tis very fortunate that coal and iron now cover many
demands, which otherwise would have to be satisfied by
still more recklessly cutting down our forests. And it
is very favorable to our growing industries that we can,
at present, easily import from other States nearly any kind
of wood now in use. However, we should not trifle with
the time that is thus left to us for considering and
changing the modes of the present treatment of forests ;
but utilize it for the introduction of systematic forest
culture, although the benefits of which will not be fully
enjoyed save by future generations.

The present indications are that in the further develop-
ment of our State the demand for those kinds of wood
which are especially used in our industries, will be always
on the increase. And, therefore, these indications must
guide us in many other questions which will arise, when
it is to be determined what kind of forest trees to grow
in the various localities. We may follow this guidance
the more safely, as with the decreasing stock of wood
for industrial purposes, there will be undoubtedly a cor-
responding increase in its price, and, therefore, presum-
ably the net revenue from systematically managed forests
will in the future be much larger than we are at present
able to imagine.

As to the revenue derived from well managed state
forests, the official reports published yearly by the vari-
ous German governments are very instructive. They
give not only full information in regard to the average
production of wood and the income from the forests, but
also explain the particulars of the management by which
their success has been attained. These publications have
greatly encouraged the introduction of scientific forest
culture in wood-lands belonging both to corporations and
private persons in Germany. From one of the last

18 FOREST PLANTING.

publications, we see that the yearly average increase in
wood to the acre was :

Lumber and Timber. Smaller Wood.

ES ee ee 0.84 cubic yard. 1.04 cubic yard.
i erg eer 1.34 - 1.60
** Elsace-Lothringen-..- 1.20 * 1.68 ee
AC OS 2d Soc Skul y 1.24 Hd 1.80 «
get «7 URE Ae Tae 1.60 =A: 2.06 ”
Mt BASONY \o soca care 1.78 sip 2.16 ef
“ Wurtemberg --.-.--.--- 1.86 rf 2.22 46

The yearly average income was to the acre :
Gross Amount. Net Income.

Ea ND ne ceeded hea mee $1.60 $0.70
SC BAVAHE ccccascsobaccendesem 2.90 1.22
M Fenee e ed ts bien wee 4.02 2.65
OS agORs 2, 2 nears oes. odiosd ine 4.60 3.68 ©
* ‘Wartembere’ 25.222: S05 has 4.65 2.79
** Elsace-Lothringen - -- .------ 4.75 2.69
wh RRIUEY (tas amen onbee busine in 4.85 3.50

As to the condition and productiveness of forests, much
certainly depends upon soil and climate, and, therefore,
the southern German states with their more congenial
climate and soil are expected to yield a larger crop of
forestry products, and consequently greater revenues
than the northern states. But the marked difference
in the proceeds of the named states is caused by the
fact that scientific forest culture was introduced in
the southern German states much earlier than in the
northern, ‘The treatment of the forests in the Kingdom
of Saxony is conceded to be superior to any other, and,
therefore, the output and net increase there is the
largest.

To the private owner the revenues from forests are of
course still larger, he being able to make of every forestry
product a much more profitable use than the state, while
the expenses of a private management are far below those
of the government or corporations,

Under these circumstances, it is no wonder that forest
culture on the eastern hemisphere of our globe is making
great advances. For centuries there progressive science

PROPORTION OF WOOD-LANDS. 19

advocated only one side of field culture, viz., the agri-
culture ; but now it is also vindicating the natural rights
of the other side, viz., the forest culture. The combina-
tion of these ideas is expressed by the principle that
wherever agriculture does not prove remunerative, while
the cultivation of forests would indicate material profits,
there is the proper place for sylviculture.

Finally, it may not be amiss to call attention to the
fact that fine forests, besides giving inexpressible charms
and attractions to the country, and thereby exercising a
refining influence upon the moral and esthetical seuti-
ments of the people in general, serve as a resort for in-
valids, owing to the air which imparts vigor to the re-
cuperative powers of those who are weak of nerve and
broken in health. This is especially applicable to the
Adirondack and Catskill mountain forests, whither every
year hundreds of thousands of those who have lost their
energy in the daily battle of city life flee to seek restora-
tion Ly inhaling the invigorating mountain air, and
enjoying out-of-door life.

CHAPTER III.

PROPORTION OF THE WOOD-LANDS TO THE TOTAL
AREA OF A COUNTRY.

THE influence of forests upon the climate of a country
is undoubtedly important, and it cannot be denied that
forests exercise also a marked effect upon the aqueous
conditions of a certain territory. But, as far as experi-
ence in this State goes, the devastation of the forests
on the plains has not essentially diminished the an-
nual guantity of rain, although the general decreasing
depth of the Hudson River convincingly tells of the

20 FOREST PLANTING.

losses caused by devastating the head waters of that
stream at the summits and slopes of the Adirondacks.
The destructive methods of forest exploitation with us
are felt by the increasing abrupt changes of cold and
heat, and of dry and wet spells. Forests retain much
longer the humidity received in the shape of rain, snow,
dew, etc, than the open fields, and they, therefore, pro-
mote the frequency of showers when a current of moist
air strikes them. Owing to this peculiarity we justly
consider the forests as equalizers in the distribution of
rainfall during the seasons, and, as the fury of the violent
winds which cause the abrupt changes of temperature
ean only be broken by a mass of elastic trees, we cannot
deny that woods located either on the plains or moun-
tains are the only means to mitigate the sudden changes
from heat to cold.*

But the most beneficial influence is exercised by the
forests to the neighboring territory, as their capability of
receiving great quantities of moisture, and retaining
them by protecting the soil against swift evaporation,
renders them the most reliable reservoirs for the water
in the subsoil, an element of the greatest importance for
a successful pursuit of agriculture. It is a fact that
wherever large tracts of woods have been cut down, the
level of the ground water has been lowered sometimes to
ten inches and more, and by that the cultivation of
many plants which formerly thrived in such places has
been made impossible. Clover, for instance, was raised.
in ancient times in Greece. After the country became
denuded of forests, the culture of clover, requiring a
moist atmosphere, had to be abandoned, and passed from

* Unfortunately our principal mountains extend from north to
south. If they ran from east to west, we should have a climate
such as Italy enjoys, as the most troublesome winds come to us from the
northwest, against which the present formation of our mountains offers
no protection.

PROPORTION OF WOOD-LANDS. 21

there to Italy. But the devastation of the forests dur-
ing the period of the “‘ migration of the nations” caused
such droughts that the culture of clover had to be given
up in Italy,and it found anew start in southern Germany.
Here clover has been cultivated for centuries with the
most pronounced success. But during the last century
the wooded area has been much encroached upon, and
since that time clover culture began to decrease there,
and to move into the moister climate of north Germany.

The consideration of the importance of the woods for
a country has led to the question as to the proportion
the wooded area of a country should bear to the
whole territory, in order to secure the full benefit of
the forests for the state. The economists generally
contend that for this purpose twenty to twenty-five
per cent of the total territory should be kept in wood.
If this be true, our Empire State would come up fully to
this standard, as she comprises 6,257,684 acres of wood-
lands among her total of 25,659,266 acres. But it isa
sheer impossibility to determine once for all upon such a
general rule. The proper answer depends upon the pur-
pose for which the question is raised. If it be intended
to establish a normal proportion between the wooded and
the not wooded area of a country in regard. to its general
culture, and especially to its climatic and agricultural
conditions, much will depend upon the _ geological
formation and situation of the territory. The fertile
sites along the shores of the oceans need no woods,
as the air currents laden with moisture from the
sea regulate, in the most beneficial way, the climate of
such country, and the easy access of vessels from all
lands secure the importation of whatever wood is wanted.
Just the reverse is it with mountainous regions. ‘There
nature itself has necessitated a much larger percentage
of wood-lands than the above named, while in the broad
plains of the interior of a large country that percentage

22 FOREST PLANTING,

might be sufficient to retain the good effects of forests,
especially if they are properly distributed over the
country.

But if the question be how to determine the portion of
the wood-lands of a country to the not wooded areas, in
order to raise a quantity of wood for fuel, timber and
lumber, sufficient for the wants of the inhabitants, the
proper answer cannot be given without the help of a
statistical bureau for forest’ matters.

The duty of such a bureau should be to ascertain the
quantity and quality of the wood which annually can be
cut without injuring the sustained growth of the forests,
and to compare this amount with the demands of the
population for the different kinds of wood. If the coun-
try be able to meet the requirements of the inhabitants,
we call the proportion adequate, otherwise there must be
importation.

Entirely excluded from the question regarding the
proportion of the wooded area of a country to the not
wooded are the so-called ‘‘ protective or shelter-forests,”
7. €., such as would, when cut down, cause irreparable
damage to the public. These forests, which will be
treated of in the next chapter, must be preserved at all
events, and be managed in the public interest.

CHAPTER IV.
RELATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS TO FORESTS.

Tue necessity of forests to the permanent welfare of
the commonwealth on one hand, and the rapid destruc-
tion of the woods by private owners on the other, led in
the old world many economists to the assumption that it
would be better for the prosperity of a state if all forests

J re -
2? x
Be

ones

RELATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS TO FORESTS. 23

were owned, or at least controlled, by the governments.
To the American mind this view seems incredible, as
our opinions regarding the administration of private
property are just to the contrary. We insist upon the
least interference from public authorities with the man-
agement of private property. But when we consider
that the benefits derived from the forests consist not
only in revenues drawn from the forest vegetation, but
also in the advantages bestowed upon the development
and prosperity of the country by the influence of the
forests in regard to climate, weather, protection of the
soil, regulation of the flowing waters, etc., we cannot
deny that certain forests should be considered as public
entailments, given to us for our own use with the direc-
tion to transfer them in the best possible shape to the
generations that will live after us, and who will, like us,
be compelled to make the same use of their beneficence.

For this reason it is claimed that the State should
own: (1) The forests and areas surrounding the water-
sheds of the navigable rivers and their tributaries, in
order to secure to the country a continual and undisturbed
water supply, on which not only depend navigation and
commerce, but also agriculture and manufacturing in-
dustries.*

(2) The sand-downs or dunes along the sea coasts and
all infertile tracts containing shifting sands which en-
danger the adjoining fertile lands, unless kept continu-
ally in wood.

(3) Every area unfit for agricultural purposes, but well
adapted for forest culture, if the owner should not be
able or willing to plant forest trees thereupon.

* The adage, ‘‘ the forest waters the farm,” is not a mere saying ; it is
undeniably true that without a proper management of forests in civil-
ized and densely populated countries no remunerative agriculture is
practicable ; nay, without a proper preservation of certain forests, none
of the scveral branches of the politico-economical household of a people
can be in a prospering condition.

24 FOREST PLANTING.

If this theory be accepted as correct, and justified by
the principles governing our law in regard to the right
of eminent domain, at least the claims sub 1 and 2 would
bring the entire sea coast of our State, the Adirondacks,
and Catskill mountains, wnder the control of the State,
those mountains enclosing the head-waters of nearly
all principal rivers of our State, especially those of the
great Hudson River. The forests belonging to these first
two classes are called ‘‘ protective forests,” because they
have proved necessary for averting irreparable damages,
which would befall the commonwealth if they were cut
down at once. In the interest of the public welfare and
the general culture of the countries, the European gov-
ernments have obtained, if not the full property, at least
such control of those classes of woods as to force the
owners to manage their property without hurting the
public interests. Should the present policy of our State
Government, outlined in Secs. 7, 8 and 9 of the Act
passed May 15, 1885, be strictly enforced, there is a good
prospect that the Empire State in due time will be the
undisputed owner of the denuded wood-lands in the
higher regions of the Adirondacks. ‘These lands are only
capable of bearing—if anything at all—slowly growing
forest trees. As the expenses of reforesting such tracts
would far surpass the income derived for several genera-
tions to come, it is easily understood how private owners
are inclined to abandon such property, allowing the State
by tax sale to come again into possession of lands, the
ownership of which never ought to have gone to private
parties.* The State can safely take in hand the replant-

*The State of New York has also had the advantage of formerly
owning most of the wood-lands in the Adirondacks. But the particular
notion, entertained still by our Federal Government, that public lands,
without much discrimination in regard to economic value to the coun-
try, should be disposed of as quickly as possible, led to the complete
eale of the most beautiful wooded tracts, at prices ranging between five

RELATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS TO FORESTS. 25

ing of those lands, as it is not looking upon the forest
products as a source of immediate profit, but upon the
important economic effects which well cared for forests
of this kind contribute to the general weal and pros-
perity of our country. Moreover, there is no doubt that
the State, by introducing a systematic cultivation and
exploitation, will be enabled to cover—without prejudice
to the sustained growth of the woods—the actual ex-
penses incurred in the difficult operation of reforesting
the denuded areas of the high mountains.

In this connection it may »e proper to call the atten-
tion of the reader to the difference between net proceeds
obtained in a business which is conducted by a private
party, and that which is managed by the commonwealth.
The general economy of a people, it is true, consists of
the total of the households of the single individuals, but
this fact does not justify the conclusion that the highest
success with the former is attained when the net proceeds
(or rents of the soil) in the management of the private
households have reached the highest point. For the
determination of what are considered expenses incurred
by the production is different in the two kinds of manage-
ment. While the private person puts every expenditure
for the production to the debit account of his business,
the management of public property considers only such
disbursements as real expenses (7. é., as diminution of its
income) as do not afford an immediate benefit to the
people. For instance, if a private person possesses a mine
which cost every year $100,000, in order to obtain its
yearly output, valued at $100,000, there is no net profit,
and the owner of the mine would hardly be inclined to

and ten cents per acre, with easy terms of payment at that. Both houses
of the last Legislature passed a bill empowering, with certain restric-
tions, the Forest Commissioners to buy up wood-lands situated in the
Forest Preserve at figures not exceeding $1.50 per acre. This bill has
how vecome a law.

26 FOREST PLANTING.

continue the enterprise, unless prompted by the charita-
ble desire to give some men employment. From a quite
different standpoint would in this case the question of
the profitableness be considered, should the government
take this work in hand. The $100,000 paid for labor,
machinery, etc., would then be looked upon as benefiting
the people, and the nation would have by the continued
exploitation of the mine a profit of $100,000 every year,
that being the sum which had been distributed for labor,
etc. The same principles govern the profitableness of State
forests, unless a State is forced or willing to use them a3
a source of revenue. If after all expenditures and re-
ceipts there be a surplus, all the better. But even if,
after paying the salaries of the officers, the wages of the
laborers, the cost for cultivating, planting, etc., nothing
of the receipts be left, those items would not be regarded
as expenses in the same sense as a business man wouid
view them, but would represent a real gain for the com-
monwealth. In other words: owners of private forests
endeavor to obtain from their property the largest possi-
ble income ; whereas the managers of State forests should
aim at the highest possible gross amount of revenue from
the wooded public domain.

The advocates of state socialism use this maxim for
justifying their theorem that every business which is car-
ried on with the intention of accumulating wealth, should
be conducted by the government or public authorities,
and all net proceeds should be distributed among the
employees. But in the public economy the natural prin-
ciples are only effective and applicable as far as they are
not modified by such laws as are acting alongside with
them, or which are even opposed to them. In our
democratic republic the doctrine that the State must
only interfere ‘‘ to protect freedom of labor,” is in regard
to the social question considered a corner-stone of our
government, and therefore we do not allow the public

RELATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS TO FORESTS. 27

authorities to undertake any enterprises, except such as
are necessary for the promotion of the public welfare ;
and to this certainly belongs the care of the areas which
secure to our navigable rivers a constant flow.

As for 3, the time has not yet arrived with us, in
which we have to be so sharply on the lookout for utiliz-
ing every piece of land. But it is not to be denied that
something should be done to make useful the 3,526,030
acres of the State lands which are by the last census
registered as wild and uncultivated. This area comprises
more than one-eighth of the entire territory of the State, is
mostly hilly or mountainous, has been stripped of all
trees by their owners, and, after having been used for a
few years as pasture, became barren by the sun, which
burnt the grasses up, and by the rains, which washed the
fertile surface soil down the hills. ‘There is no doubt that
were these three and a half millions ofacres planted with
forest trees, the country would receive a great benefit, and
by a proper management, the lands would yield a satis-
factory revenue.

However, this does not furnish the State with sufficient
reasons for exercising its right of resumption by eminent
domain; but there is a good opportunity for the Croesuses
of our country to combine business with beneficence to-
ward the people. For whoever is able to spend 100,000
dollars without being compelled to look eagerly for any
revenue from this money during the uext generation, can
make no better investment and bequest to his heirs, than
to buy up large tracts of the wild landsin our State, and
plant forest trees thereupon. By a sound systematic
management, the purchaser may safely expect that in the
course of time the net proceeds of his investment will at
least equal the amount he would receive, if the invested
money was entrusted to a savings bank. In the ‘old
world ” large tracts of forest lands are principally select-
ed as family entailments, both on account of the safety of

28 FOREST PLANTING.

such investments, and the increase of the revenues in the
future time. With us, entailments, containing provisions
beyond the second generation, are against the law. But,
unless the Legislature should find it advisable to exempt
this special case for economical reasons from the general
rule, the members of a family in a corporative capacity
could attain the desired object, and the very rich men
could in this way provide for their posterity, and at the
same time benefit their country and fellow men. There
are in the State of New York many hundreds of thou-
sands of acres of sandy lands which scarcely return the
cost of cultivation for agricultural operations. For five
acres of sand need five times more outlay than one
acre of good land, they require nearly five times as much
seed and manure as one acre of good land, but they yield
not a larger crop than the one acre of good land; in other
words, sandy lands, or such infertile lands as are de-
ficient in the principal constituents of a fertile soil, do
not pay at all to the farmer, because to fertilize them,
there would be involved more expenses than in the pur-
chase of the most fertile grounds. An exception could
only be stated, if the farm be situated in the vicinity of
a large city, where additional manure can be procured
cheaply, and where the farm products can be sold ata
much higher price than in the distant country. Were
all the unprofitable sand lands in our State to be planted
with forest trees, the owners of them need fear no more
disappointments in regard to the crops of sandy soil, but
could confidently hope that the future would reward their
efforts ; under all circumstances they could be assured
that their forest planting was a permanent improvement
to the farm, and would show its full value at a sale of
the farm, this being the time when every farm improve-
ment is realized financially.

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO FOREST CULTURE. 29

CHAPTER V.

ASSISTANCE FROM THE GOVERNMENT TO FOREST
CULTURE—ESTABLISHMENT OF FOREST SCHOOLS
FOR TRAINING FORESTERS.

Tne American theory of State activity does not favor
any system of a paternal nature. We therefore would not
be inclined to encourage forest growing by awarding pre-
miums or other pecuniary benefits to those who under-
take the restocking of their denuded woodlands. How-
ever, there can be no doubt that it is the duty of the govy-
ernment to furnish the facilities by which the citizens
may acquire the necessary knowledge for enabling them
to secure all the advantages which arise from the scien-
tific treatment of forests.

This view on the subject has been taken by our Legis-
lature and framed in Sect. 18 of the Forestry Act as fol-
lows :

‘‘T’he forest commission shall take such measures as
‘*the department of public instruction, the regents of
“the university and the forest commission may approve,
‘‘for awakening an interest in behalf of forestry in the
“public schools, academies and colleges of the State, and
‘‘of imparting some degree of elementary instruction
**upon this subject therein.”

If this provision were carried out,the Empire Statewould
inaugurate a new era in political economy, and would lay
the foundation upon which to build the science of sys-
tematic forest culture. Then we would be inspired with
the hope of having called into productivity the 3,526,030
acres of wild lands lying within our State, and which do
not contribute one tithe to its wealth. Experience teaches
us that in whatever country profitable and systematic
management of the forests has been successfully intro-

30 FOREST PLANTING.

duced, the first step to it was the establishment of schools
of forestry. For men educated in such schools become
not only fit for their vocation, but consider their position
asa trust, and perform their duty to the Government, in-
stigated not only by their fealty to the public authorities,
but by a professional pride which makes dear to them the
forests given to their careand protection. From unskilled,
hired men you cannot expect such devotion to the in-
terests of the position as is developed in the trained for-
ester. That man will always do his full duty even at the
peril of his own life.

Whether our public schools are the proper places for
awakening interest in behalf of forestry, we will leave out
of this discussion, but our Agricultural Colleges should
consider it incumbent upon them to impart not only ele-
mentary but full scientific information upon this subject.
By pursuing this course, they would follow the example of
similar institutions in European countries a century ago.
For although it is true that in matters pertaining to forest
culture much depends upon experience, and that the first
impulses to an improved management of forests were
given by practical woodsmen, systematic forestry did not
make its appearance until the learned men at the univer-
sities took the matter in hand, and applied the prin-
ciples derived from mathematics, natural philosophy,
political economy and public law to forestry. After hay-
ing found the teachings of the practical foresters to be in
harmony with the principles of science, the learned men
did not stop work, but continued their efforts to improve
the method of managing forests, and built up a system of
managing forests, which, although it cannot be declared
yet perfect, has contributed much to the amelioration
of the economical condition of the European nations.

Prominent teachers in forest culture are still at variance
in regard to the aims and ends of their endeavors, but
all concur in this that Hzperimental Stations are neces-

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO FOREST CULTURE. 31

sary to help science in determining the correct methods
of managing the forests advantagously and successfully.
In Europe, colleges of forestry and agriculture are most-
ly combined, and require two years of study to complete
the forestry course alone. During six of the winter
months instruction is given in the several branches of
forest science, while the summer months, after deducting
some weeks for vacations, are employed in making excur-
sions to places where forest operations are going on, or
where the students have an opportunity to practise what
they have learned during the winter time. The full win-
ter course gives instruction in :

(1) Cultivation of the forest trees and the uses to which
their woods may be applied, with the mode of propagating
them upon different soils ;

(2) Forest exploitation and the managment of forests
according to the various systems now in use ;

(3) Forest taxation and mensuration ;

(4) Surveying, draining, and embanking ;

(5) The methods of resisting the encroachments of
shifting sands ;

(6) Care and chase of game ;

(7) Laws and regulations governing the forests.

For practising these studies, excursions are arranged
during the summer months, and the students are trained
in making topographical sketches, surveyings, openings
of roads through unbroken forests; and in every kind of
forest operation, which may occur either on plains or
mountains.

The examination, which the candidates for appointment
to a position in the management of forests have to under-
go, is very strict, and the result of this system has proved
eminently beneficial to the European forestry interests.

But of much greater advantage would it be at present
for our State to establish a simple forest school in which
young men could receive the pzoper training for render-

32 FOREST PLANTING.

ing them fit for the position of foresters. 'The French
government has done much to educate good foresters by

purchasing the well known forest-farm ‘‘ Barres,” which

is situated 1,000 feet above the sea level near the great
Orleans forests. ‘This farm had been used already for
fifty years as a private Experimental Station for forest
trees. ‘The objects of this Station were:

1. Investigations in regard to the most profitable use
of certain soils for raising the most valuable kinds of wood
thereupon. With this department there were connected
experiments for acclimatizing useful foreign forest trees.

2. Raising at the least possible expense the greatest
amount of good seedlings, combined with observations in
regard to the yearly increase of wood in the various forest
trees.

3. Producing and closely examining the seeds used in
the State forests.

The French government bought this farm in 1873, not-

withstanding her great financial trouble at that time, for
the purpose of establishing there a Government ‘‘ school
of forestry.” 'This was done without interfering in any
way with the objects to which the farm had been during
half a century so beneficially subservient. There was
simply added to this establishment the ‘‘ school of for-
estry,” in which young men obtain such information as to
enable them, after the completion of the full course, to
act as foresters. ‘The course lasts through two years and
is more calculated for a practical instruction than a high
scientific education. ‘lo impart the latter, and to raise
the higher officers in the department of forestry, the
widely known Institution at Nancy is destined, and con-
sidered amply sufficient for all France. At ‘ Barres”
instructions in certain sciences are given only in order to
accustom men brought up in common schools to concen-
trate their mental power more upon practical subjects.
Therefore, only during four winter months is elementary

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GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO FOREST CULTURE. 33

enlightment given to them in mathematics, geometry,
surveying and leveling, forest botany, zodlogy and ento-
mology, while they are thoroughly instructed, first, in
the management of forests, with special reference to
both the artificial and natural restocking of forests; and
second, in the laws and regulations by which the ad-
ministration of forests is governed.

The institution at Barres is a public one. “A certain
number of young men between the age of nineteen and
twenty-four years are received every year, and after two
years of study, having passed the examination, get an
appointment for the lowest position among the forest
officers, advancing to higher positions after some years’
service and having passed further examinations. The
pupils are, similar to our West Pointers, educated entire-
ly at public expense, receiving even a small salary as
pocket money. But they have during the eleven working
months of the year—one being devoted to rest and vaca-
tion—to perform every manual labor required on the
farm in cultivating the soil, raising seeds and seedlings
for nearly free distribution among the French farmers,
and all other work connected with the Institution. Be-
sides this, they have to do every kind of labor in the
adjoining State forests, which is needed to preserve the
woods and retaining them in a first-rate condition ; they,
therefore, have to personally do the seeding, planting,
thinning and cutting of trees, making roads, openings,
ditches, etc., in order to learn practically every work
that may occur in the course of systematic treatment of
forests, as these will come under their care and guidance.

To establish in or near the Adirondacks a school like
this one, would be a move in the right direction for
bringing into effect the well-meant instructions of the
cited Section 18 of the Forestry Act. It is true that the
Report on Forestry published at Washington in 1884
recommends very strongly the establishment of schools

34 FOREST PLANTING.

of forestry by the Federal Government, but to wait until
this sensible advice should be acted upon, would show
too much faith in the activity of Congress regarding
affairs other than those merely political.* It is entirely
a matter for each separate State in the Union to take care
of its forestry interests and to educate its own officers,
the more so as diversity of climate, situation and other
economic reasons will make the proper training of the
foresters in the various States in certain respects a di-
versified one.

As for the cost of establishing and dnalegtaine such
an institution, it would not be very large, especially if
adjoining States of similar climate and topography would
unite, and contribute in proportion to its support. In
fact, the labor performed by the young men of the Institu-
tion would make it nearly self-supporting, and the de-
mand for trained foresters in the United States would
bring more students to the Institution than could be ac-
comodated. But the benefit which the commonwealth
would derive from the introduction of a systematic treat-
ment of the State forests would be so great as to make it

*In the First annual report of the Ohio State Forestry Bureau for
1885, p. 20, we find the following well founded complaint on this point:

‘When a few years ago the St. Paul, Minn., Chamber of Commerce
petitioned the Congress of the United States to establish a National
School of Forestry at St. Paul, the subject of forestal education, and more
especially its necessity in this country, was discussed by the friends of
forestry.

‘* Five years have elapsed and many of the warm advocates of the pro-
ject have died. The subject seems to have been stricken from the pro-
gramme of subjects at forestry conventions ; the press too is silent on
the question, and yet the subject has lost none of its great importance.
No one who has studied the extent, the distribution and condition of our
forests, and who has inquired into the prospet of a renewal of our
forests, will hesitate to assert that the need of instruction in forestry is an
absolute necessity.

“The objection that there is no need of trained foresters in this coun-
try, which was urged som: years ago, was not based upon a knowledge
of the extent and truc condition of our forests, but rather upon a blind-
ness to the best interest of our land.”

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO FOREST CULTURE. 35

nearly impossible to give at present a faint idea of its
value. Besides a considerable income to the State, the
army of laborers who are now used by unscrupulous
lumbermen and their agents in illegally cutting timber
on the State lands, and who are becoming every year
more depraved on account of the unpunished continu-
ance of their public plundering, could then be made to
return to an honest and well paid activity, as a great
many hands would be required in bringing the State
forests into such a shape as to produce the largest possi-
ble output.* The moral standard of the laborers living
in or near the State forests would rise again to the
level of honesty, and the ‘State Troops” or ‘‘The Grena-
diers”’ + would give up their dishonest ways and become

* Although the work to be performed in the management of forests
does not require so many hands as in the management of farms, there is
always so much to do that most of the laborers, who have settled in the
sparsely populated wood countries, can find profitable employment. In
Germany, the management of the forests is so conducted that a tract of
from 40,000 to 80,000 acres of wood-lands—the greater number of acres
being alloted to the mountainous regions—is given to the care of an
“Over-forester.”? This territory is divided up into districts, containing
from 6,000 to 10,C00 acres each, and superintended by a ‘“‘ forester.”
Each of these districts is cut up into smaller tracts of from 3,000 to 4,000
acres, and placed in charge of an ‘‘Under-forester,’” who superintends
the laborers working within the tract. The number of common laborers
employed during the most part of the year in the territory of an Over-
forester is from 200 to 300. The average expense amounts to about one
dollar per acre a year, while the average income runs to between two
and three dollars per acre, leaving a net profit of from one to two dollars
per acre. At the same time the condition of the woods is steadily im-
proved, this insuring even a greater profit in the future. As most of
these wood-lands are not fit for agricultural purposes, it cannot be de-
nied that from this management a handsome revenue is derived, besides
furnishing ample sustenance to thousands of families.

+ The N. Y. St. F. R.. page 28, describes this class of men as follows:
‘* Hidden within the remote seclusion of the wilderness, this latter class
(of wood thieves) have been secure from observation, and there has been
to a certain extent a banding together for defense and systematic
plundering. This has become a matter of notoriety, so much so that in
certain localities these organized bands of trespassers go by the nee of
‘* State Troops,’’ while in others they are known as ‘‘ The Grenadiers.”

36 FOREST PLANTING.

employees of the State. They would lose nothing financi-
ally by this change, while the money which formerly went
into the pockets of the unscrupulous dealers in the stolen
State property would flow into the State Treasury.
The price for logs which now, owing to those nefarious
operations, has sunk far below their real value, would
rise to such a degree as to give to the owners of the wood-
lands encouragement for introducing a systematic man-
agement of their forests, from which in the future an
adequate and permanent revenue would be derived.

CHAPTER VI.

FOREST PLANTING — PREPARATORY AND PRECAU-
TIONARY MEASURES.

In order to obtain all the advantages of real forests,
the principal requirements are correspondingly extensive
areas. Forests have to protect not only themselves, bus
also their surroundings against the atmospheric influences,
and if a small forest shall perform this and contribute to
the welfare of the country, it has to be brought into a
proper connection with other wooded tracts. A forest
will not have been built up satisfactorily, unless each
tree is capable to protect his neighbor, and each wood lot
is enabled to afford protection from sun, rain, wind and
cold to the adjoining one. Only after this has been ac-
complished can a forest reach that state of perfection
which is necessary to make it profitable and of economic
value. To the simple farmer, who is governed only by
his personal interests, a tract of from 10 to 20 acres may
suffice for raising forestal products, especially if there is
a protected situation, and a regular rotation in cutting
and reproducing the forestal vegetation ; but this is a
wooded tract, and cannot be called a forest,

FOREST PLANTING—PREPARATORY MEASURES. 37

Precaution is everywhere advisable, and nowhere it is
more necessary than in reforesting denuded wood-lands,
because there not only come up considerations of the most
complicated sort, but because mistakes committed in the
execution of the plans often involve irreparable damages.
It is very natural that those who undertake reforesting
vast tracts of land, desire to complete their labors as
quickly as possible, in order to be able to soon enjoy the
fruits of their endeavors, especially if unlimited means
are at their disposal. But if such improvements are to
produce real benefits, large expenses should be avoided,
leaving to the effect of time—and this is the most potent
factor—the accomplishment of the most permanent bene-
fits. Exorbitant expenses are in such operations never
compensated for by what is gained in the shortening of
time, whereas going ahead gradually, considerately and
practically, will always bear good fruits.

For the same reason the area to be restocked during a
certain season should not be too large. That the means
of performing the proposed task must be adequate, is a
matter of course. But before beginning to restock those
parts of a large forest which are denuded and over which
parching winds sweep unchecked, the old wooded tracts
should be looked after, and if necessary, extended so that
they are brought into a certain connection with isolated
places of a large denuded area. ‘Thereupon, when the
work is to be entered upon, it should, if practicable, be
commenced at a place which is already protected by the
borders of adjoining woods. From there the plantation
is pushed forward under the protection of the growing
trees, until the whole tract is restocked.

If the site is entirely open, and blasting winds peremp-
torily prevent the growing of trees, there have to be pro-
tective earth walls thrown up, on top of which less valu-
able, but more hardy trees, such as poplars, cotton-wood
and birches are planted. Under cover of this protection

38 FOREST PLANTING.

the planting may be begun, and if properly done, will
prove successful.

In restocking large areas, a good deal of mental work
must be performed before the undertaking can be com-
menced. Elaborate plans have to be made in which the
lots, with proper divisions and sub-divisions, must be
determined upon, roads and ways laid out, drainage
attended to, in short, every thing must be considered
which will assist in securing the vigorous growth of the
trees. In making these plans, the limits placed by the
necessity of returning the invested capital with compound
interest, must never be lost sight of. Nor can we make
use of any artificial fertilizer, for we have to be contented
with the resources furnished by the kindness of nature.
Therefore, first of all, we have to look for the dormant
forces of nature, and to consider whether, and with what
means, we may be able to make them subservient to our
purpose. ‘’heagriculturist is able to correct his mistakes
every year, but the forest culturist’s mistakes accompany
him to his grave, and often cannot be corrected, except
by generations that come after him.

CHAPTER VII.

THE METHODS OF CULTIVATING DENUDED WOOD-
LANDS.

THERE are several modes of cultivating wood-lands.
To determine upon one or the other of them by a general
rule or by theoretical principles is absolutely impossible,
because everything therein depends upon the condition
of the soil, climate and situation of the tract to be

CULTIVATING DENUPED WOOD-LANDS. 39

wooded. ‘The only general rule which intelligent forest-
ers follow in such cases is: first, to make a calculation
in regard to the profitableness of the operation, and then
to do the work as thoroughly as the means on hand will
permit.

Before entering upon active operations, there should
be taken into consideration everything influencing the
growth and thrift of forestal vegetation. In this respect
we have first to examine the condition of the soil, this
being a source from which the young trees receive their
principal nourishment. As the soil, especially on the
plains, changes very much in regard to both its mechan-
ical character and chemical condition of fertility, a close
investigation of the components of the soil is required, to
find out the quantity and quality of the plant-food con-
tained therein.

Trees strive to penetrate with their roots as deep as
possible into the soil. The more room there is for the
extension of the roots, the more they will be developed
and able to promote a quicker and stronger growth of
the trees, these receiving a great deal of their food—and
a very essential one at that—through the roots from the
contents of the soil. Poor soils as well as exhausted ones
offer great difficulties for raising trees, and, therefore,
preparatory operations have to be undertaken, in order
to enable them to produce a good forest vegetation.
The obstacles to a vigorous growth of forest trees are
manifold. Sometimes the soil, by the continuous and
unimpeded exposure to the sun’s rays and parching winds,
has become thoroughly dried up and impoverished, and
in addition to this it is often covered either on its top or
in its intermediate layers with impenetrable strata of
carbonaceous or feruginous substances, which prevent the
growth of plants upon them. Sometimes the fertile soil
has been either washed away or made too compact and
firm, or swampy, or boggy, by rain or snow. In all such

40 FOREST PLANTING.

cases the soil should be brought, by proper plowing and
subsoiling, into such a condition that plants will grow
there. The soil having been deeply broken and mixed
up with the macerated hard pan brings the hidden treas-
ures of the deeper soil, consisting of easily soluble salts,
carbonates or oxides, in contact with the fertilizing power
of light and air, thus restoring the plant-food that had
been washed down into the all-absorbing subsoil. Be-
sides this the deep and thorough pulverizing of the
impoverished soil increases the depth of the ground to
which gases and humidity from the open air may pene-
trate, helping the growth of plants by increasing the
warmth of the soil, and thus giving a more regular
moisture to the roots of plants, both by supplying it in
times of drouth and by carrying it away when in excess.
Deep plowing of the ground is unavoidably necessary,
if it is intended to plant forest trees with long tap-roots
on heavy compact soil, as these trees will never have a
vigorous growth, unless the soil is rendered fine to a con-
siderable depth.

On heaths deep cultivation destroys the growth of
lichens and breaks up the hard pans, both of which are
heavy drawbacks to forest planting on the infertile
heaths. ‘The carbonaceous soil is entirely insoluble and
impenetrable. It can only be rendered fertile by break-
ing and mixing it with the other ingredients.

‘he same favorable effect is accomplished with peat or
muck soils, Stirring them up thoroughly to the depth
of about 12 to 14 inches renders them able to produce
valuable forest trees.

Forest vegetation cannot succeed but on soil which
contains sand, clay and lime, the two first named being
the most potent factors of vegetable growth. If the soil
does not contain at least some parts of each of the three
named minerals, complete infertility will be the result.
The more equally these three ingredients are mixed

CULTIVATION OF SOILS. 41

together in the soil, the more fertile it will be. Nature
has distributed these three minerals pretty equally all
over the earth. But on many places they are not mixed
together and, therefore, we have to apply deep culture in
order to produce in the seed-beds the mixture wanted
for a successful growth of forest trees. The only ex-
ceptions are the places where high winds have gath-
ered and piled up the loose sands. ‘These never must
be touched by any means of culture, except by those
which will be explained further below, and which con-
fine themselves to means which never disturb the
soil. The same is true in all cases where a layer of
quick-sand is underlying a thinny surface clay soil.
Here the cultivation should be confined to a slight stir-
ring up of the fertile soil, leaving the infertile subsoil
entirely untouched, otherwise the latter would be
brought to the top and completely bury the fertile soil.

On tracts where the full deep cultivation of the soil
is advisable and practical, certainly it is the better plan
to undertake the operation to its widest extent. But as
there exists on heaths great danger from shifting sands,
and on mountainous declivities from washing away the
soil by rain storms and snow drifts, it is often expedient
to undertake those improvements in instalments, sub-
jecting only parts of the whole tract to the appropriate
treatment.

CHAPTER VIIL
CULTIVATION OF SOILS.

The implements for cultivating the soil with regard to
forest planting are the plow, spadeand hoe. Manual labor
has great advantages on account of its thoroughness ; but
the high price for labor forces us to mostly use plows, ex-
cept in places where the condition of the soil (boggy,

42 FOREST PLANTING.

stony or steep) prevents the application of this useful im-
plement. Asa rule the double plow is used to break up
larger tracts of denuded wood-lands, because it is only
with such a plow that the heavy swath formed by a
thick cover of lichens can be thoroughly peeled off, while at
the same time the main plow enters deep into the soil,
turning it over in furrows. Heaths which have remained
for a long time uncultivated, are lable to formations
of hard pan within the extent of the fertile soil. Such lay-
ers cannot be broken except by steam plows. ‘These
should also be employed where the cultivation of extended
tracts justify a larger expenditure. It is a well-known
fact that steam plows perform this work not only cheaper
than horse-power, but also more thoroughly and benefici-
ally for the growth of trees. Owing to the greater
celerity of the movements of the plow, and its long screw-
shaped boards, the particles of the soil and subsoil are
infinitely pulverized and mixed together. A common
plow never could do the work so nicely.

After the soil thus having been prepared, it is neces-
sary to give it a rest of a year or at least of an entire
winter, in order that the air, moisture, warmth and
frost may act upon the infertile subsoil, newly brought to
the surface, and impart upon it the ingredients which
are missing in the subsoil, and yet necessary for a
healthy growth of forest vegetation. At all events
plantations cannot be begun on places treated in the
aforesaid manner, unless the old turned under surface-
soil has completed its fermentation and settling. After
being exposed for some time to the air, the turned up
subsoil will have lost most of its humic acid, and the in-
soluble mineralic parts of the same will have been partly
made soluble, and for the roots of trees available; while the
gases of the air, which have entered the soil, directly
furnish to the plants vegetable food. Only after the soil
has rested so long as to receive the said beneficial influ:

DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION. 43

ences of its rest, planting may be successfully com-
menced.

The greatest difficulties in restocking denuded wood-
lands are encountered on the bare, steep slopes of the
mountains, because every heavy rain carries away from
there a part, if not every particle of the soil. Help
against this trouble is found in seeding the places with
quick growing, and, as to plant-food, unpretentious
grasses, or planting such trees as will by their nets of
roots bind the soil. On this mode of culture we shall
treat in Part III.

CHAPTER IX.
DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION.

The supply and the preservation of water in the
soil is of the greatest importance to the growth of trees.
Wherever drainage is required, there should at the same
time be considered the question of preserving the humi-
dity in the ground. By lowering the water table—z. e.,
the top of the ground water, we always must prevent the
exsiccation of the soil, if necessary, by the erection of
some apparatus for stopping the flow of water at any de-
sired time.

A proper quantity of humidity in the soil always exer-
cises a beneficial effect upon the growth of trees, the
roots of which only being able to assimilate the plant food
contained in the soil, after this has been made liquid by the
water. Butstagnant water is detrimental to the growth
of every vegetation : it kills the activity of the roots. In
order to retain- the proper degree of moisture in the
soil of the plains, there should not only be had regard
to the humidity received from the atmosphere, but
also to the water contained in the subsoil, the ground
water. ‘The less. rain is falling in the country, and the

44 FOREST PLANTING.

more the soil is liable to quickly evaporate its moisture,
the more evident is the beneficial result of an abundant
stock of water in the subsoil to the vegetation. In the
not drained lowlands along the rivers, the water table is
on the level with the river. But the moisture of the
soil, owing to the capillary attraction, rises above this
station so that the less is done in the way of drainage,
the higher penetrates the humidity in those lands. This
holds principally true in regard to swampy grounds or
moorlands, which, owing to their sponge-like structure,
are able to receive enormous quantities of water, and to
retain it.

The injurious effects of wet soils to the growth of
trees can easily be observed. Such soils are cold and do
not retain warmth ; whereas forest vegetation requires —
more than any other plant a warm soil. Moreover, a
wet soil disolves the vegetable food contained therein
rapidly, and carries it down into the subsoil, where it is
inaccessible to the roots of young trees. Thus the upper
soil is sometimes entirely washed out, losing a great deal
of its power to sustain plant growth. An excess of
moisture in the upper soil prevents access of air, and
consequently there does not properly go on the decom-
posttion of organic matter, nor the disintegration of the
minerals contained in the ground, both chemical actions
being necessary for the sustenance of plant life. When
organic matter in the soil decomposes while in contact
with an excess of moisture, there will be produced acetic
acid and other organic acids, which soon make the ground
sour. Then the formation of impenetrable layers of
protoxide of iron will commence, and that means death
to every vegetation. ‘To the spongy, swampy soil, exces-
sive quantities of water are especially deleterious, these
swelling up the pores in the ground so greatly as to dis-
turb the development of the tree roots, and causing,
during the spring, late frosis.

DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION. 45

A properly made drain leaves in moorlands enough
moisture in their smaller pores for furnishing to the
roots of young trees the necessary plant-food, helping at
the same time to impact the roots in the soil ; while the
air in the emptied large pores continues circulating, and
neutralizes the acids produced by the moisture when com-
ing in contact with the organic matter of the soil.

It is, therefore, obvious that in regulating the aqueous
conditions of a tract of land, both the efflux and the in-
flux of the water must be arranged so as to avoid the in-
jurious effects of being too wet, and yet to retain in the
ground the moisture necessary to plant vegetation.

In regulating the conditions of the water with swampy,
boggy and peaty soils, an attempt should be made to
bring fresh soil over the surface. This is done by dig-
ging parallel ditches of the proper distance, depth and
width, and throwing the dug-out soil at both sides upon
the thus formed beds. This culture, called border or
bed culture (Rabatten Kultur), serves not only to im-
prove the chemical but also the mechanical condition of
the soil, and therefore has the same result as deep
plowing has upon common soil.

The boggy or peaty soils especially require chemical
improvement, as they mostly need the important sub-
stances for the growth of trees—the mineral components.
For this reason they are unable to make their richness of
nitrogen available to the trees, these being unable to appro-
priate the nitrogen, except after it has been converted,
with the help of some minerals, into nitric acid. Be-
sides, the spongy condition of this kind of soil does not
furnish to the roots of trees the rest and stability neces-
sary for the development of the root system, because the
soil, in receiving humidity, swells up, and in drying up,
contracts; thus always disturbing the position of the
roots and preventing their development.

The improvement of peaty tracts can best be effected

46 FOREST PLANTING.

by mixing sandy loam with them, especially when the
latter contains marl, because such a mixture furnishes
rich plant-food for the tree roots. But even coarse sand
added to peaty soil would be a great improvement, because
sand contains always a large part of silica combined with
kali, which, either by the influence of the carbonic acid
of the air, or of the humic acid in the soil, are disin-
tegrated and converted into carbonate of lime, this being
soluble in water, and in this shape available to the roots.

Moreover, this treatment acts beneficially upon the me-
chanical condition of the loose soil, which by the weight
of the coarse sand is compressed, and yet remains porous
enough to let the air percolate in the ground. Finesand
should not be used, because it never contains kali; in
coarse sand kali always is found, and for this reason it
deserves the preference.

Raising the soil by throwing earth over the surface of the
borders (beds) is especially helpful in the regions of large
rivers, where otherwise drainage is impossible.

The extent of the drainage, as well as the increase of
the elevation of the borders, depends upon how much or-
dinary moisture shall be retained in the soil, and especially
how high the water table in the subsoil shall rise. Upon
common soil trees grow best when the ground water does
not rise higher than 3 or 4 feet below the surface, because
under such circumstances the superfluous water can run
off, and at the same time the water evaporated on the sur-
face soil can be easily replaced from the ground water
through the capillary attraction. But the spongy peat
soils, bogs, ferns, etc., attract, owing to their increased
capillary functions, water too easily, and, therefore, must
have a lower water-line than common soil.

We shall consider this question more fully, when fur-
ther treating upon the drainage of swamps, bogs and
peaty fens.

THE SELECTION OF TREES. 47

CHAPTER X.
THE SELECTION OF TREES.

If the question arises: What kind of trees should be
selected for the reforesting of denuded wood-lands, the
choice must necessarily confine itself to those trees which
are indigenous to the given locality, and which afford
ample protection to the soil against sun and wind. Wood-
lands proper are commonly too poor, or have such a site
as to render them unadapted for agricultural purposes ;
and even forest trees, although generally not being pre-
tentious as regards soi’, cannot prosper when very young,
unless the surface soil contains some available plant-food.
Therefore, the poorer the soil, and the more unfavorable
the location, the more difficulties arise in answering the
question : What kind of trees shall we plant in a certain
locality ? Then we can but look at such as will be con-
tent with poor soil, and these are the coniferous trees,
especially the pines, as for instance: The Yellow Pine,
Pitch Pine, Red or Norway Pine (Pinus Austriaca),
and Pinus sylvestris, usually called the Scotch Pine.
They not only lay the least claims on the soil as for
plant-food, but with their leaves, broken twigs and de-
cayed roots, give back what they have received from the
soil, adding much to what they have elaborated from the
atmosphere ; thus they increase every year the quantity of
the fertile surface-soil or humus, and perform this
function nearly as good as the broad-leaved trees do. Be-
sides, they are easier to raise than other trees, and as for
the profits derived from their wood, these are at least
just as large, as in raising other kinds of trees. There-
fore, it cannot be denied that the conifers are the most
desirable trees for the recuperation of the fertility of the
soil in denuded wood-lands.

48 FOREST PLANTING.

Of all the conifers there is no species which can com-
pare in frugality quantity of wood production and returns
with the Scotch Pine (pinus sylvestris). This tree, al-
though a native of the Hastern hemisphere, is now largely
grown here. It will succeed even upon the poorest soil,
altering, during its growing period, the condition of the
soil in such a manner that later on more valuable trees
may me raised there. ‘This species should always be
resorted to in places where no other tree will grow,
and although the benefits offered by it will not last
longer than during its first growing period,—as it is
losing its soil-shading capability after a growth of from 15
to 20 years—we cannot spare it, but have to give the
plantation either a short rotation, or we must intermix
other suitable trees right at the planting time, or later,
as soon as openings in the plantation appear. In moun-
tainous regions the Larch or Tamarack serves nearly all
the purposes for which the Pine is used on the plains,

Excepting the general principles laid down in the pre-
ceding suggestions, there is no absolute rule for selecting
the proper trees to be planted in a given locality. The
best way to avoid mistakes is to study, not only the na-
ture of the various species of the forest trees by them-
selves, and in aggregate life—but also the hints afforded
by the lay of the land; and when we have mastered these
hints, we should follow them by selecting such trees as
will find on the given place everything that is required
for their full development. At the same time we
must not overlook the purpose for which trees are planted
—a point which is to be considered even before the ques-
tion arises: ‘‘ What to plant?” For instance: When we
advise the intermixture of spruces, oaks, and even
beeches with pines, there could possibly some one find
fault with us because the trees named will never reach a
full development on poor ground, but become, after the
first growing period, stunted and suppressed by the pines.

THE SELECTION OF TREES. 49

However, in giving this advice, our intention is accom-
plished as soon as those trees obtain a sufficient hold
upon the soil to protect it against sun and air during
that time in which the pine is unable todo this. The
increased cost of the plantation, caused by the temporary
growth of these trees, which will be removed before they
have reached maturity, cannot be considered as a draw-
back, because the condition of the pines, these being the
real stock of the plantation, will be so much improved
as to fully counterbalance the additional expenses.

A more effective agent upon the amelioration of the
soil can be made by spruces and firs. But these trees re-
quire more food for their sustenance than a poor soil is
able to offer them, and they, therefore, cannot obtain a
permanent footing upon it. Besides, the spruce, not-
withstanding its desirability in an intermixture, does not
preserve the freshness, that is: the vigorous activity of the
soil, and, for this reason, should never be grown alone as
a stock of trees. This fact might also account for the
decaying of many blocks of the black spruce in the
Adirondacks since 1878, of which the First Report of the
N. Y. State Forest Commission, on pages 50, 62 and 76
tomplains.

The common beech renders very valuable services in the
recuperation of the lost fertility to the soil, for it furnishes
great masses of rich leaves, forming a vigorous humus-soil
which is continually increased, and preserved in this
state by the shading qualities of the tree. But as
the beech requires for its luxurious growth asoil rich in
soluble minerals, and as such soil will be claimed by the
agriculturist, there will seldom be a chance for the beech
to exercise its beneficial function, unless it be on mountain-
ous slopes, where agriculture cannot be conducted.

Generally speaking, the densely foliaged trees, viz:
Beech, Hornbeam, Spruce, Fir, Walnut, Chestnut are,

50 FOREST PLANTING.

in regard to the amelioration of the soil, to be preferred
to those with thin foliage, as Oak, Maple, Ash, Elm,
Birch, Alder, Aspen, Acacie, Pine, Larch, because the
former furnish acontinual cover to the ground, and create
an always increased producing capability of the soil,
while the latter, with their increased growth, draw for
their subsistence more upon the soil, which, on account
of the thin foliage of these trees, is continually decreasing
in fertility, owing to its exposure to sun and air.

The greatest difficulties beset the forest-planter in the
selection of trees to be planted, when denuded wood-
lands, and poor ones at that, in mountainous regions are
to be reforested. Here we must not overlook the fact
that, before the final stock of trees can be planted, often
a cover of the ground has to be created by other easily
and rapidly growing forest-trees. Under these, the young
plants of the future stock of trees may besafely devel-
oped, until they are able to shift for themselves. An il-
lustration of this is the Beech, Hornbeam, Fir, and
other shade-enduring trees. These are, when young,
so sensitive in regard to the influence of the sun and
wind, that the seedlings, even upon the richest soil, will
not thrive, unless shaded by densely foliaged trees.

The determination upon the proper trees to be planted
on a given locality, should always be preceded by a care-
ful examination in regard to soil, site, and surroundings
of the place. As woody plants, except when very young,
obtain the most part of their nourishment through the
gases in the air, and not from the soil, it is obvious that
the chemical conditions of the soil do not play such
an important part in the development of trees, as 1s the
case with grasses and other agricultural plants. But the
mechanical or physical condition of the soil is of the
greatest importance to the growth of forest trees, and,
therefore, the investigation into this point should never

THE SELECTION OF TREES. 51

be neglected. If such an examination is scrupulously
conducted, it should lead with safety to the conclusion
that the selected species of trees will find there every-:
thing which will secure its thrift. In doubtful cases those
trees which lay the lesser claim upon the soil are to
be preferred. The safest way is always to follow the
hints of nature, and plant such trees as are thriving best
in or near the region in which the planting shall be
done.

This understood, we have still, as mixed planting now-
a-days—and with the best reasons—is commonly preferred
to the planting of pure stock, to determine upon what
varieties will fraternize with each other when planted in
amixture. So, for instance, Elm and Maple do not
agree with the Oak, Walnut and Hickory as neighbors,
but will lean away, become crooked, and die out before
reaching their maturity; whereas Ashes thrive well
when planted with the last named trees. With such a
mixture, the ground would be fully and profitably
utilized, as the Ashes draw their food from the surface,
and the other (tap-rooted) trees from the subsoil. Pines,
although also provided with tap-roots, succeed very well
in a mixture with Oaks, Hickories, Walnuts and Chest-
nuts ; mostly, however, they serve as nurses to the last
named trees, and are cut before reaching their full
maturity, after which the sheltered trees obtain their
full development. The Larch is often planted on suit-
able grounds as pure stock; but a slight intermixture of
the common Pine or Scotch Pine has proven very advan-
tageous.

It is very important for the forest-planter to know this
behavior of the trees among themselves, and much re-
mains to be done with us, to correctly classify the forest
trees in this direction. Lasier is another for mixed plant-
ing, also important classification of trees, viz: such as in

52 FOREST PLANTING.

their early age have a dense foliage, that, with increased
age, is getting thinner, and such as preserve their dense
foliage. ‘To the latter belong Firs, Beeches, Spruces, and
the Catalpa; to the former, Oaks, Birches, Pines,
Larches, Hickories.

Valuable hints on mixed forest planting are given in
the Report of the Division of Forestry, published by the
Department of Agriculture at Washington, 1887, on
page 189. There we read: ‘‘ After having determined
what kinds are desirable and suitable to be planted in a
given locality, the possibility of mixing two or more
kinds depends :

(a) On their relative capacity for preserving or in-
creasing favorable soil conditions ;

(4) On their relative dependence for development on
light or shade ; and

(c) On their relative rate of height growth.”

As general rules for mixing are thereupon summed up
the following :

1.—The dominant species, 7. ¢., the one that occupies
the greater part of the ground, must be one that im-
proves the soil conditions, generally a shady kind.

2.—Shade-enduring (7. e., densely foliaged) kinds may
be mixed together when the slower-growing kinds can be
protected or guarded against the overshading of the more
rapid grower, either by planting the slower grower first
or in greater numbers, or in larger specimens, or else by
cutting back the quicker-growing ones.

3.—Shade-enduring kinds may be mixed with light-
needing kinds, when the latter are either quicker growing
or are planted in advance of the former, or in larger
specimens.

4.—Thin foliaged kinds should not be planted in mix-
tures by themselves, except on very favorable soils, as in
river bottoms, marshy soil, etc., where no exhausting of

THE SELECTION OF TREES. 53

soil-humidity need be feared, or else on very meager, dry
soils, where most shady trees would refuse to grow, and
one must make a virtue of necessity.

5.—The mixing in of the light-foliaged trees in single in-
dividuals is preferable to placing them together in
groups, unless special soil conditions make the occupa-
tion of certain spots by one kind, which may be better
adapted to them, more desirable, as for instance, the Ash
in a wet ground (slough). When a slower-growing, light-
needing kind is to be grown side by side with the quicker-
growing shady one—as for instance, Oak and Catalpa—
a group of Oaks will have more chance to withstand the
shade of the densely foliaged Catalpa than the single in-
dividual.”

The late Dr. John A. Warder, who was the first man
in America to make an effort at developing a system of
forestry adapted to this country, expressed his hopes, that
we would in the course of time come to an expedient pro-
cess for the care of our forests, dependent upon the correct
answers of the question: Which trees should be planted
in mixed groups, and which trees are obnoxious to one
another? He observed that it is necessary to know re-
specting each of this species:

1.--The term of rotation of trees.

2.—The height attained by the trees at maturity.

3.—The rapidity of their growth.

4,.—What trees should never be grouped together.

5.—What trees are exclusive, and should be planted in
masses by themselves.

6.—Which require the protecting care of nurses.

From all this, appears the urgent necessity of estab-
lishing experimental stations in those parts of our
country which are in need of the helping hand of the
forester.

As far as my own experience in this State goes, I can

54 FOREST PLANTING.

recommend the following mixture of the principal
forest trees :

1.—Oaks with Ashes, Hickories and Chestnuts.

2.—Oaks with Spruces and Walnuts.

3.—Oaks with Pines and Spruces.

4,—Oaks with Beeches and Spruces.

5.—Larch with Pines and Oaks.

6.—Black Walnut with Maples and Beeches.

7.—Beeches with Maples, Elms and Ash.

8.—Black Ash with Alders and Beeches in swampy
grounds.

9.—White Pine with Beeches and common Pines.

10.—Scotch Pine with Spruce and Fir.

11.—Locust, Ashes and Catalpa.

In our natural forests we find Birches scattered all over
among groves of the various kinds of forest trees. How-
ever, we would not advise to mix this tree with other val-
uable ones, as the Birch, owing to the whipping property
of its branches, injures, more or less, the young twigs and
buds of the neighboring trees. Only to very poor soil
and where no other trees but the Pine (on dry ground)
and the Alder (on swampy ground) grow, we should assign
the Birch.

CHAPTER XI.
THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Wooded countries are unable to support a large popu-
lation, as there is not mnch of the area left for raising
the required grain, fruits, vegetables, etc. Therefore, in-
creased population regularly diminishes the country’s
wooded area, increasing at the same time, the demands
made upon the forest vegetation. Besides this, there are

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF FOREETT MANAGEMENT. 55

many other causes which often produce a sudden and
enormous destruction of the woods, causing great desti-
tution among nations, and heavy drawbacks to the pro-
gress of the general weal and culture of a people. The re-
cuperative power of the forests being but slow, the human
mind has long been bent upon inventing artificial means
for the purpose of always having on hand a sufficient
quantity of wood to satisfy the diversified demands of the
public. This led to the introduction of a systematic ro-
tation in cutting down the woods. ‘The forests are di-
vided up into as many if not equal but possibly equiv-
alent parts,* as years are required to bring the trees to
their maximum growth, and then every year one lot is
entirely cleared of trees and thereupon replanted. The
next year the same treatment is applied to the second
lot, the third year to the third one, and so on until the
whole tract is gone over. Then the trees on the first lot
will have reached their full growth again, and be ready
for the axe.

This mode was certainly a progressive one, and it is
still in practical use in many of the European countries,
But it often caused greatinconvenience, when the lot to be
cut contained trees which were not so much wanted as
other trees, that grew upon lots not yet reached by the
rotation. And then it was ascertained that the division
of the forest alone in as many lots as possible, did not
secure an equally sustained production through the suc-
cessive cycles of the rotation, the second crop never being

* The reason why the woods are divided up in this way is to obtain,
at every cutting period, an equal average product of the forest vege-
tation. As the various portions of a large forest, on account of difference
in soil, exposure, etc., often vary very much in their productiveness, parts
equal in extent are not always equal in production. To obtain such
equivalence, it is necessary to take into consideration the variations in
soil, in exposure, and in adaptation to the growth of the kind of trees
which happen to be upon it.

56 FOREST PLANTING.

equal to the primitive, nor the third to the second, and
so forth.

And then there arose a diversity of opinions relative to
the ends and objects to be reached by rotations in forest
culture, and this was the more important, as upon the
decision of this controversy would depend the determin-
ation of the proper (that is, the most economical) time
of the growing-period of forest trees. In this regard
there prevail four different opinions, which are based
upon the following principles :

1.—The principle of the uninterruptly continued pro-
duction of the same kind of trees in a certain wooded
area.—By putting into practice this principal, there will
at the same place always be the same pure stock of trees,

and as for their cutting time, those periods will be ob-
served which will secure the continuance of the original

stock.

This system, called the dlock system, and worked in
-rotation, was not long since the most popular in Ger-
many, because it satisfied the national predilection for
extended forests of large Beeches, Oaks and Evergreens.
The growing periods for the single lots of the rotation
were of long duration, viz.: from 120 years to 140, and
even 200 years.

But the increased demands made by the industries for
other kinds of wood, and the decreasing demand for the
high-priced Beeches as fuel, on account of the inex-
haustible supply of cheap mineral coal, shook the foun-
dations of a system which had no regard for the wants
either of the present or of the future. And then it was
shown that the ‘‘ sustained” production of the wooded
area and its fertility could even be better retained by
growing such kinds of wood as are now more in use—
Ash, Maple, Elm, Alder, etc.—and that a growing period
of from 60 to 80 years allotted to said modern trees, was

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 57

financially much more profitable than the former large
ones.

2.—The principle of the maximum growth of the
trees.—In accepting this principle, the time of cutting
the trees has arrived as soon as the yearly average in-
crease of the wood in the trees has reached its highest
point.

The average maximum growth of a tree is found by
dividing the entire mass of the tree by the number of
years of its age. The current or yearly increase of the
mass shows the relation of the quantity of wood grown
during the year in question, to the existing whole mass
of the tree.

3.—The principle of producing the maximum of value.
—According to this principle, the lot is cut as soca as
the trees have reached the age at which they bring the
highest prices in the gross amount. The average
maximum of value is found in the same way as the
maximum of growth.

But these two latter systems suffer the same fault of
having their cutting periods too far apart, thus pre-
venting the capital invested from being made profitable;
for trees do not continually increase in their growth at
the same rate in which the capital invested accrues with
compound interest. They grow only during the first
sixty or seventy years in a proportion adequate to
straighten their debit account, and leave then a hand-
some profit. Later this proportion changes very much
to the detriment of the capital. For instance: A forest
of Conifers furnishes at the age of one hundred years
not much more wood than double the quantity which it
would have yielded at the age of sixty years, while the
sum representing the value of the wood at the forest’s
age of sixty years, would, with compound interest, in-
crease during the next forty years to at least four times
its amount.

56 FOREST PLANTING.

equal to the primitive, nor the third to the second, and
so forth.

And then there arose a diversity of opinions relative to
the ends and objects to be reached by rotations in forest
culture, and this was the more important, as upon the
decision of this controversy would depend the determin-
ation of the proper (that is, the most economical) time
of the growing-period of forest trees. In this regard
there prevail four different opinions, which are based
upon the following principles :

1.—The principle of the uninterruptly continued pro-
duction of the same kind of trees in a certain wooded
area.—By putting into practice this principal, there will
at the same place always be the same pure stock of trees,

and as for their cutting time, those periods will be ob-
served which will secure the continuance of the original

stock.

This system, called the dlock system, and worked in
-rotation, was not long since the most popular in Ger-
many, because it satisfied the national predilection for
extended forests of Jarge Beeches, Oaks and Evergreens.
The growing periods for the single lots of the rotation
were of long duration, viz.: from 120 years to 140, and
even 200 years.

But the increased demands made by the industries for
other kinds of wood, and the decreasing demand for the
high-priced Beeches as fuel, on account of the inex-
haustible supply of cheap mineral coal, shook the foun-
dations of a system which had no regard for the wants
either of the present or of the future. And then it was
shown that the ‘‘ sustained” production of the wooded
area and its fertility could even be better retained by
growing such kinds of wood as are now more in use—
Ash, Maple, Elm, Alder, etc.—and that a growing period
of from 60 to 80 years allotted to said modern trees, was

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 57

financially much more profitable than the former large
ones.

2.—The principle of the maximum growth of the
trees.—In accepting this principle, the time of cutting
the trees has arrived as soon as the yearly average in-
crease of the wood in the trees has reached its highest
point.

The average maximum growth of a tree is found by
dividing the entire mass of the tree by the number of
years of its age. The current or yearly increase of the
mass shows the relation of the quantity of wood grown
during the year in question, to the existing whole mass
of the tree.

3.—The principle of producing the maximum of value.
—According to this principle, the lot is cut as soca as
the trees have reached the age at which they bring the
highest prices in the gross amount. The average
maximum of value is found in the same way as the
maximum of growth.

But these two latter systems suffer the same fault of
having their cutting periods too far apart, thus pre-
venting the capital invested from being made profitable;
for trees do not continually increase in their growth at
the same rate in which the capital invested accrues with
compound interest. They grow only during the first
sixty or seventy years in a proportion adequate to
straighten their debit account, and leave then a hand-
some profit. Later this proportion changes very much
to the detriment of the capital. For instance: A forest
of Conifers furnishes at the age of one hundred years
not much more wood than double the quantity which it
would have yielded at the age of sixty years, while the
sum representing the value of the wood at the forest’s
age of sixty years, would, with compound interest, in-
crease during the next forty years to at least four times
its amount.

60 FOREST PLANTING.

trees, although using an equal quantity of plant-food,
abstract different elements from the soil and leave it in a
much better condition in general than if only one kind
of plant-food were exhaustingly consumed. Besides, the
mixed stock of trees offer more opportunities to satisfy
the growing demand for the various kinds of wood.
Therefore, the scientific forest culturists of the present
time have directed their efforts toward

(e) Introducing the so-called plenter-management. By
this the primitive forest, in which the various trees are
mixed up, both in regard to kind and age, is divided
into a certain number of large tracts, according to the
time required for the reproduction of the full-grown
trees. But instead of confining the exploitation at a time
to one of these tracts, the supply of wood required is ob-
tained, during a certain period of years, from the felling
of the trees in one tract, and from the several ¢hinnings
and other necessary cuttings in others. For instance:
it is intended to treat, by this management, a wooded
area, say of 50,000 acres, with different kinds of soil and
trees of various ages, the full development of which
would be reached by an average growth of 80 years.
Then the forest is divided up into eight equal or at least
equivalent parts, which are separated either naturally by
roads, creeks, mountains, etc., or artificially by opening
paths or roads that serve at the same time as a protection
against fire, wind-breaks, snow-drifts, and as outlets for
forest vegetation. During a period of ten years there
are taken from one part* at different places, whatever
timber, fuel or lumber may be wanted, thinning out at

* Those parts, in Germany called ‘‘ Reviere’’ (Districts), are subdivided
into lots of from 200 to 300 acres, which are also separated by paths
from 10 to 14 feet wide, called ‘‘Schneisen.’”? They have, like the
wider roads of the Districts, proven very useful in suppressing
forest fires and protecting the trees against wind-storms and snow"
drifts, besides their principal use in serving as an outlet for the products
of the forest.

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 61

the same time in other tracts those trees or bushes
which encroach upon other trees, and felling such trees as
have passed their maturity and are going to decay. The
same operation is done during the next decade in the next
tract, and so forth, till all the tracts are fully exploited,
when the cycle of successive fellings will be recommenced
again. ‘These cuttings can, if desired, always be so ar-
ranged as gradually to arrive at groups of trees of the
same age and description, and finally at blocks with high
forest trees worked in rotation. At all events, the fel-
lings are so conducted as to secure simultaneously and
without prejudice to one or another part of the forest:

(1) A continually sustained supply of a desired variety
of forest products.

(2) A sure reproduction of the forest, either by self-
sown seed, by shoots and suckers from stumps and roots
of felled trees, or by seeding and planting.

(3) A progressive and improved condition of the
forest, in place of former deterioration.

In these three points there are concentrated the ob-
jects which scientific managers of forests in Germany
and France have in view, and which are being accom-
plished, not there alone, but also in other European
countries to which students of forest science have brought
the knowledge of advanced management of forests.
This revolution in the management of forests was
brought forth by the calculations made in finding the
exact amount of the net proceeds obtained from the
usual forest exploitation.

The mode of ascertaining the proceeds of a capital in-
vested in forest culture is as follows: The value of
the lands and all expenses, from the time of begin-
ning the plantation, or cultivation till the time of
cutting, are figured up, and compound interest from
the time of incurring the expenses till the cutting time
is added. This sum forms the debit accownt. The credit

62 FOREST PLANTING.

account is made up by figuring all the revenue derivable
from the forest during the growing period, and carrying
it forward with compound interest to the cutting time.
The value of the wood at the cutting time is found by
the help of tables based upon certain methods of de-
termining accretion in yearly mass, and large ex-
perience for every variety of wood in any kind of soil
and location, and this amount, added to the sum of
the revenues with compound interest, forms the credit
account. If from this amount is deducted the total
of the debit account, the difference is the amount of
the net revenue. For instance: the 80 years’ growing
period for a certain plantation shows that the invested
capital of $10 for an acre would yield, at the end
of this period, a net revenue of about $154; while
the 50 years’ period by the same calculation netted $110 ;
the 60 years’, $125; 70 years’, $130; 90 years’, $140; 100
years’, $130; 110 years’, $120—the 80 years’ period
would be considered the most profitable, netting over
four per cent. interest, and the others less.

The term ‘‘ Forest Gardening” is sometimes under-
stood to signify a special mode of systematic forest cul-
ture, quite distinct from the others now in use. But this
phrase, correctly applied, means simply a plenter man-
agement made serviceable in certain localities, and under
certain conditions. While the forester has generally to
deal with the aggregate of trees in the woods, his at-
tention is not infrequently claimed by single trees, or by
groups or rows of trees, which serve to protect the soil
from the influence of sun and air, and the neighborhood
from the effects of sudden atmospheric changes. In such
cases extraordinary measures must be taken to prevent,
at all events, openings in the woods; the single trees
have to be always watched, and those, which from over-
matureness or other causes are incapable of affording ef-
fects which would justify their preservation, must be

vARIOUS SYSTEMS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 63

carefully removed and replaced.by others of a suitable
character.

This sort of forest culture is resorted to upon mountain
summits, to retain the atmospheric moisture in the
ground, and upon steep declivities, to prevent rains from
washing down the soil and causing land-slides. It is also
applied upon level plains, where areas of loose sand, if
not retained by forest trees, may spread in sand-drifts
and bury adjacent cultivated fields. Agricultural lands
which are exposed to strong winds and frost, can be pro-
tected against these influences by surrounding them with
the proper trees, disposed in screens or belts. This
treatment is especially useful in small farms where a sus-
tained growth upon the wood-plot is highly desirable,
and for this reason it will be of practical benefit to us.

If from the foregoing suggestions it should appear de-
sirable that an application of the methods above alluded
to should be made to our wild or natural forests, it is
evident that the so-called plenter management would be
the best adapted to them. We are still in the fortunate
position that we need not look out either for the natural
products of the State forests, or for revenues derived
from them; but we should make use of this opportunity
and employ better and more efficient means to preserve our
forests, than those which are calculated to protect them
against fire and spoliation only. We should put an end
to the present chaotic condition within the forests, and
introduce a methodical exploitation of the woods, combined
with a proper care for the undergrowth, so that the trees
cultivated shall be such as are most adapted to the dif-
ferent localities of our widely dispersed state forest, and
may satisfy the demands of the people for fuel, timber
and lumber. Under expert management we can reach
these objects, and at least make our forests self-sup-
porting, provided that at regular intervals every har-
vested forest product is sold at public auction, and not

64 FOREST PLANTING.

—as is now the practice—left to rot and create dan-
gerous fire-traps, or breeding places for noxious insects.

CHAPTER XII.

RAISING FOREST TREES BY NATURAL REPRODUCTION.

SHOOTS.

THERE are a great many trees—to be found mostly
among the deciduous varieties—which have the power of
forming buds in the stem or exposed parts of the roots,
jn addition to the usual buds formed upon joints and the
base of leaves.

The formation of these adventitious buds seems to be
caused by the endeavor of the tree to apply to the pro-
duction of new shoots the plant-food taken up by the un-
hurt parts of the root. ‘These new shoots grow up into
trees and are called coppice or copse-wood. Thus ina
very simple way the restoring of forests has been mace
practicable by saving and properly treating the stumps
and roots of felled trees. The more a certain kind of
tree is inclined to coppicing, the better is this mode of
propagation adapted to it, and it is a method which in
many cases will be found to be the cheapest and most
successful. In employing it, the cutting of the trees
should always, if possible, be exactly even, and in an up-
wardly sloping direction, care being taken not to sep-
arate the bark from the trunk, because their conjuncture
at the line of incision is the place at which the new
shoots will appear. Experience shows that trees which
can be propagated by sprouts, lose with their advancing
age the capability of sending up vigorous shoots. We

FOREST TREES: BY NATURAL REPRCDUCTION. 65

should, therefore, select the stumps of vigorous and
younger trees for natural regeneration, and if these
cannot be found, it is better to plant seedlings for cop-
pice than to force old stumps to spend their last energy
in sending out some weak shoots.

The condition of the soil, with respect to its being
either dry, or wet and swampy, has an important influence
upon the result of the operation. In the former case
the trees should be cut close to the ground, so as to force
the roots to produce shoots underground. ‘The trees
growing up from such shoots are more capable of stand-
ing drought than shoots produced on higher stumps.
On swampy soil, especially if subjected to overflows, the
stumps should be left high enough to prevent the water
from overflowing them, because if cut too low, the
stumps will sometimes be covered with water, and will
perish for want of air. As that part of the old root, which
produced the new tree, detaches from the old root system,
forming a separate root with its own rootlets, there is no
limit to the continued reproduction, provided the dead
leaves, broken twigs, branches, etc., of the trees are left
on the ground to decay, for they are the manure espec-
ially adapted to trees, and when taken away—as is often.
the case in husbandry, to serve as litter or feed—the
woods, being deprived of a natural element of their thrift,
exhaust themselves and dwindle away, while the soil of
those forests, where the leaves are never removed, con-
tinually grows richer and yields better products.

If denuded and neglected wood-lands are to be re-
stocked cheaply and quickly, the first step to be taken is
to cut, in the manner described, every stunted tree or
bush, and to smooth off the stumps where the surface is
rugged. ‘The best time for cutting trees, in order to
raise coppice-wood, is during the dormant season, that
is, during the latter part of the winter, or after the cold-

66 FOREST PLANTING.

est weather is over. ‘Trees should never be cut for this
purpose later than March.

LAYERS.

Sometimes stumps develop shoots which may be bent
down into the soil to a certain depth, after an incision
has been made on the under side of the shoot, in the
bend, so as to split it, if possible, a little below the bud,
and to form a tongue. A hooked peg is usually employed
to hold the layer in place. ‘The tops should be elevated
above the surface of the ground in an upward direction,
and tied up toa pole. In time, the buried parts of these
shoots (or branches) take root, and finally become indi-
vidual trees. The ground around the layers should be
kept quite clear of weeds, and the layers should be freely
watered in dry weather. When sufficiently rooted the
layers should be carefully separated from the stool
(parent tree) with all the rootlets attached to them, and
planted in nursery lines, or in those situations where they
are permanently to remain. Layers may be made at any
time in the growing season ; but they will root sooner if
made when the trees are growing rapidly (spring) than at
any other time. The process of producing layers, as we
shall see further on, is of great importance in replanting
denuded side-hills where rain may wash away the soil.
The roots of the old stumps and the new roots of the
layers bind the soil, and thus prevent its washing out.

CUTTINGS,

While ‘‘shoots” are produced in deciduous trees by
adventitious buds, the layers and cuttings of some of the
deciduous trees have the power of forming roots. A
number of trees can be propagated by cuttings, as for in-
stance: the Willows, Poplars, some of the Alders and

{ ah
eR
Bl

Jue

ee

FOREST TREES BY NATURAL REPRODUCTION. 67

Maples, and the Buttonwood or Sycamore. It is advis-
able to make these cuttings in the fall; they should be
about twelve inches long, and made in wood of the cur-
rent season’s growth, and heeled, during the winter, in a
moist place, protected against frost. This serves to
form on the base of the cuttings a callus from which the
roots push out, as soon as they are planted in the spring.
They should be set deep enough to nearly cover their
greatest part, and treated in the same way as trans-
planted seedlings, except that they should be set slanting
—not straight. For when the ground settles it packs to
the cuttings, and prevents them from becoming loose, a
result, and a very injurious one at that, which often pre-
vents the prosperous growth of straight-planted cuttings.

To promote the production of roots of cuttings which
are planted in dry soil, they should during the summer
months be mulched, as only a moist soil is able to secure
the quick and strong development of roots.

Cuttings do not well stand transplanting. It is, there-
fore, advisable to set them where they are to remain.

Coniferous trees in general cannot be reproduced in
the natural ways just named, but require the artificial
means of propagation by seeding or planting. However,
there is a natural way in which denuded wood-tracts,
which had been covered with conifers, may be replanted,
provided there are left at proper distances standard or
parent trees, from the scattered seeds of which young
plants can spring up. This treatment can be recom-
mended as eflicient with very poor soil where there is no
danger of grasses easily getting hold of the ground. But
if it is to be expected that such will be the case, a light
tillage with a wooden harrow should be given to the soil
in the late spring. By this operation the mosses and
grasses spreading over the ground are destroyed, and the
seeds which fell from the parent trees will be sufficiently
covered in order to secure to the tract a natural regenera-

68 FOREST PLANTING.

tion. The standard trees, which serve as parent trees,
are commonly called with us ‘‘staddles.” One tree is
sufficient for each intervening space of from 60 to 80
feet ; for an acre of woodland from 10 to 12 seed trees
would, therefore, be required.

In Europe the use of these natural modes of reproduc-
ing forest trees is exceptional, and is confined to partic-
ular localities and conditions. ‘True, where a denuded
wood tract contains a sufficient number of trees which
will copse, and which have not yet reached an age when
they can no longer send out vigorous shoots, coppice cul-
ture will invariably be resorted to. The skillful application
of the planter management in the administration of the
forests has been able, in time, to convert mixed coppice
woods (or low forests) into middle forests, andeven into
high forests, with a pure stock of trees and the block
system. But, usually, forest trees are now raised arti-
ficially, either by seeding or planting, which methods we
will, in Chapters XIV and XV, consider in connection
with the principal forest trees.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE COLLECTION AND TREATMENT OF SEEDS FOR
FOREST TREES.

THE easiest way of procuring seeds for forest trees is
to buy them from the seed dealer. But as even the most
conscientious dealer will seldom warrant the full vitality
of his stock, it is a much better plan to gather them
when ripe, and, unless used at once, to properly preserve
them till seeding time. At all events the seeds should,
before using them, be subjected to a vigorous test in
order to ascertain the percentage of seeds which will

COLLECTION AND TREATMENT OF SEEDS. 69

germinate. For this purpose the forest planter should
apply one of the many well-known modes of testing the
germinating power of the seeds, and act accordingly.
Seeds which show in the test that 70 per cent. of them
sprout, are called good, whereas those which contain only
from 50 to 60 per cent. kernels of germinating power, are
called fair. Seeds which show vitality only in less than
50 per cent. should be rejected, if offered by the trade.

(a) SEEDS OF DECIDUOUS TREES.

The seeds of deciduous trees are easily collected.
Most of them ripen in autumn, but a few, as Elms, Pop-
lars, and kindred trees, some species of the Maple (soft
Maple) produce mature seeds early in the summer, while
seeds of Birch, Mulberry, and like kinds, ripen later in
the summer.

The seeds should be sown as soon as they fall from the
tree, because they do not keep well over till next spring.
But if it is desirable to preserve them for later use they
should be treated in the following way :

After the seeds have been collected they are subject to
what is called ‘‘sweating.” The seeds, or fruits, are for
some time (about 8 days) gathered in a heap, and when
signs of heating appear they are spread and dried till
they become completely siccated. In order to accelerate
this condition, the room in which the process of drying
is carried on may be heated up to 90 degrees, provided
care is taken for an abundant circulation of fresh air.

Cleaning of the seeds, and removing the different
covers in which they are imbedded require special atten-
tion. A bag half filled with those seeds that are
enclosed in dry shells, pods, or hulls, is beaten with a
stick, and then the seeds are winnowed. Small quanti-
ties may be cleaned by hand.

Seeds having a fleshy and succulent cover must first be ©

70 FOREST PLANTING.

denuded of it. ‘Thisis done by squeezing the kernels
out of the fleshy portion, cleaning them in water, and
thereby freeing them from all fibrous and slimy parts.
Then they are dried.

Winged seeds are usually slightly trashed with a stick,
like those which have dry covers, but it is more safe
to rub them with the hands, as even the slightest beat-
ing may destroy the vitality of the kernels.

Seeds with woolly covers (poplars, willows, etc.,) should
be rubbed between the fingers. This can easily be done
when the seeds, either by artificial or solar heat have
been dried to such a degree that the adherent parts, by
the touch of the fingers, can, without any effort, be sep-
arated from the kernels.

In regard to the preservation of the seeds of the prin-
cipal forest trees, the necessary directions are given in the
next chapter in treating of the seeding of the several
kinds of forest trees. As a general rule it may be said
here that most seeds of deciduous trees will be preserved
over winter when mixed with sharp, moist (not wet)
sand, and kept protected from the access of the atmos-
vhere in a place not exposed to the cold and wet.

If large quantities of seeds of Oaks, Beeches, Hickories
and other hard-shelled nuts are to be kept over winter, a
kind of cellar should be made in the open field similar
to the well-known potato cellar. A ditch about 7 feet
wide and 2 feet deep is dug, and the earth taken out is
used to build the side-walls of the cellar. Over these a
roof is laid of straw, reeds, or sedges. In this cellar the
nuts, after having been dried well, are piled up from 12
to 14 inches high, as soon as the cold weather sets in,
and they should be shoveled over during the winter
several times in order to prevent heating. ‘The gable
ends of the roof remain open till the strong frost com-
mences, when they are closed with straw mats. The
nuts will be well preserved in such a surface cellar, and

COLLECTION AND TREATMENT OF SEEDS. 71

will not lose their vitality, even should they show signs
of sprouting in the spring.

(6) CONIFEROUS TREES.

Much more difficult, but also much more remunerative,
is the collection of the seeds of coniferous trees. The
cones, from which the seeds have to be extracted, should
be collected at the time of their maturity. This time
differs much with the various kinds. Hemlock, and
Abies alba produce ripe seeds iate in the fall, Larch and
Spruce during the first winter, the Scotch Pine (Pinus
sylvestris) matures its seed in the second winter. The
exact time of the maturity of the cones should te rigidly
observed, this period being near the time of the natural
distribution ofthe seeds, the extraction of them is then
greatly facilitated.

The extraction of the seeds in the cones is effected
either by artificial or solar heat. The former mode is
generally employed in Europe, as it is more expeditious
and permits the making of larger quantities. In Sweden
and Germany, the countries where this industry is most
cultivated, there are erected on the ground floor of a
stone building heating apparatuses, similar to those used
in hot-houses, by which, from a circuit of pipes, heated
air is conveyed throughout the room. In this room are
constructed scaffoldings, on which may be placed trays of
wooden lattice or wire-work, 5 feet long and 2 fect
wide, in stages of about 6—7 inches between. Under the
lowest range of trays drawers are placed to receive the
seeds. The trays are then filled up three quarters of
their capacity with cones, and the heat of the furnace
brought to a standard of from 80 to 90 degrees. This
heat is maintained till the cones open, whereupon the
trays are shaken, commencing with the highest row, so
that the seeds may fall from tray to tray till they reach

72 FOREST PLANTING.

the drawers of the lowest tier. When the cones beneath
have opened as extensively as possible they are taken
out and placed in a churn-like vessel with an opening, by
which the seeds which have remained in the cones may
pass, and be received in a wooden box placed beneath.
The cones are then well shaken until completely emptied
of their seeds, and the empty cones are employed to feed
the fire in the furnace.

At some places in Germany they use, instead of
these hot houses, ovens with iron plates on the tops,
upon which the cones are placed, and by heat forced to
discharge the seeds. ‘This device is not to be recom-
mended, as the plates very often become too hot, and the
seeds are burnt and deprived of their vitality.

The extraction of seeds by solar heat 1s preferable to
that by artificial heat, as the seeds thus obtained, never
having been exposed to excessive heat, do not lose their
vitality. When solar heat is to be employed, a frame-
work or scaffolding similar to that just before described
is placed against the wall of a building on asouthern ex-
posure. Upon this the trays are arranged of such a
height between that the sun’s rays may fall on all alike.
Under the lowest trays are drawers provided with cover-
ings of thick cloth, so that, if rain falls, the seed may be
covered at once and kept dry. The whole apparatus is
covered with a light roof, the slope of which runs toward
the north. After the cones have been exposed for some
time to the sun and summer heat they will open, and
then they should be shaken, commencing with the trays
in the upper tiers and proceeding in regular succession
to those of the lowest row, whereupon the seeds are col-
lected in the drawer. When the cones have opened as
much as possible they are taken away and put in a churn,
such as has been described above, for the extraction of
the seeds which have remained in the cones.

If it is desired to divest the seeds of their wings, the

en ee be ey,

ere at

COLLECTION AND TREATMENT OF SEEDS. 13

best mode is to put them into bags, filled only to one-half
or one-third of their capacity, and thrashed slightly with
astick till the wings are separated from the kernels. The
contents of the bags are cleaned by means of a winnow-
ing fan.

The seeds of Evergreens can, without danger, be pre-
served for some years. In such a case they should not be
separated from the wings. This preservation will be
still more efficient when the seeds remain in the mature
cones, and are extracted shortly before seeding time.

For our conditions the solar extraction of the seeds of
Conifers is, undoubtedly, the most advisable mode, not
only on account of the safety and cheapness of this pro-
cess, but because the solar heat here is more lasting and
powerful than in Sweden or Germany, and the quality of
seed thus collected in this country would be the best
imaginable.

In regard to the duration of the germinating power of
the seeds of forest trees, many efforts have been made to
ascertain the period of time during which the various
seeds retain their vitality ; but the results have been very
unsatisfactory. It is only safe to say, that this period is
with all kinds of these seeds comparatively a short one,
but that most of the seeds of Conifers retain their germi-
nating power longer than those of the deciduous trees,
especially when left in the cones, or at best, when not
separated from the wings, and carefully housed. How-
ever, the seed of Spruce, Cypress, Hemlock and Larch
should not be used when older than one year.

The seeds of most of the deciduous trees lose their
vitality after the lapse of one year, as, for instance,
Oaks, Chestnuts, Maples, Beeches, Birches, while the
seeds of the Locust, Arbor Vite, Ash, Mulberry, Alder,
and Catalpa retain it for two years. Seed witha spongy
or fleshy cover, as the Juniper, should be sown at once,

74 FOREST PLANTING.

when ripe, because their germinating power will be gone
after the exterior hull has become fully dry.

The safest way, therefore, is always to use fresh seeds
collected from the parent tree at the time of their
maturity.

It has been stated as a general rule that seeds of plants
when not collected in the locality, where they are to be
planted, nor ina similarly conditioned locality, shonld be
taken from a colder rather than a milder region. This rule
holds good also for forest trees, and for this reason it is
advisable that forest nurseries should be located in the
vicinity of those woods for whose renewal they are
destined.

CHAPTER XIV.
SEEDING FOREST TREES.

THE artificial regeneration of denuded wood-landsis
effected either by sowing the seed of forest trees, or by
planting seedlings. The production of seedlings is prac-
ticable only upon soil that is free from growing weeds or
grasses, and entirely clear, so that there need be no ap-
prehension that a grass cover will be formed during the
first two years. In such cases, if good seed can be pro-
cured at a moderate price, seeding large tracts of wood-
land will certainly be cheaper than planting, besides the
areas thus seeded will, by the process of thinning, furnish
material for fuel or other purposes sooner than those
that are set with plants ; still, taken all in all, seeding is
never as certain as planting, and as soil which is fit for
seeding (1. ¢. free from weeds and grasses) is also suitable
for the planting of two-year-old plants, and as such mode,
by proper manipulation, requires little, if any, more ex-
pense than seeding, we would not recommend the latter

SEEDING FOREST TREES. 75

for general culture, but would advise seeding only in
nurseries to raise the material required for plantations.
Therefore, in the following, we will consider first the
beds upon which seedlings are raised, and then the
nursery-rows into which the seedlings are transplanted
and cultivated up to the time when they are to go to the
grove or place where they are to remain permanently.
However, after having given the instructions for seeding
a certain kind of forest trees upon seed-beds, we shall
briefly add the most usual and tried methods of using
these seeds in the general culture of forest trees.

SEED-BEDS FOR THE PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES.
(a) Seed-beds for Coniferous Trees.

We select some place of good humus soil located on
forest ground, with a protected situation, break it up in
fall with the plow, divide it in beds of from five to six
feet width, and leave it untouched during the winter.
Should the soil be covered with heath-growth, or with a
heavy grass sod, the sward must, previously to the plow-
ing, be peeled off by the skim-plow, and entirely removed
from the field, for, if plowed under, there would be
formed in the ground, during the next year, such a thick
net-work of fibres that the seedlings, when taken out for
transplanting, would lose many roots and rootlets, these
being kept in the grasp of the dense matting, and there-
by broken.

As soon as the ground in spring has become moder-
ately dry, the beds should be plowed once more and care-
fully harrowed. They are then ready for the reception
of the seed. Four small furrows are formed the whole
length of each bed by laying down a lath four inches
wide, and pressing it into the ground by walking to and
froupon it. When taken up, adrill-row four inches wide
is formed, the bottom of which offers a smooth, level

76 FOREST PLANTING.

ground to the seed for germination. The seed (in the
proportion of about 20 to 30 pounds of winged seed to the
acre) is then evenly and plentifully strewn into the furrows
and covered loosely—not more than one half of an inch—
with well-burnt sod ashes, mixed with some sand, or with
compost. Good, fine humus soil taken from the woods may
also be used, though this is apt to favor the growth of
weeds between the plants—something that always should
be avoided. A cover of clayey soil should never be ap-
plied, this being conducive to form, from rain or water-
ing, a crust which prevents the seedlings from freely
breaking through the surface.

To ward off birds, especially wild pigeons, from
damaging the seedlings by eating the tops as soon as they
appear above the ground, it is necessary to cover the beds
with dry sedges and boughs—pines preferred, as spruce
and hemlock drop the leaves too readily—until the leaves
of the young plants have developed and thrown off the
tops. Inadry season it is necessary to carefully water
the beds in order to assist in the uniform sprouting of
the germs; but great care should be exercised to prevent
the soil from becoming crusted. Weeds should be en-
tirely eradicated, and the ground between the drills well
stirred up, a work which requires but little labor, if
done in time. After every good weeding the drills should
be filled up with some compost. Weeding and stirring
the soil of the seed-beds should be entirely omitted late
in fall, otherwise frost will hurt the seedlings. In the
second year the young plants must, whenever the soil had
been stirred up, be covered at the roots with some earth.
After the lapse of two years—or if very strong
plants ure desired—after three years the seedlings are
ready for transplanting, those of the common pine,
white pine and larch being already, after one year’s
growth, fit for this operation. In the mountains the
young plants are exposed to greater hardships than on

08 EE ee

‘ SEEDING FOREST TREES. rar

the plains. There seedlings are not transplanted before
they have reached the fourth or fifth year. They
are then taken up in large balls and brought to the
planting-ground, where they are carefully separated
from the ball, and planted, as is described in the next
chapter.

Some people sow broadcast upon seed-beds laid out four
feet wide, and separated by small paths, using for
the acre from 30 to 40 pounds of cleansed seed, that is,
double the amount of seed required in drill rows. But
this method cannot be recommended, as the cleansing of
such beds is very difficult, and the seedlings, when they
are going to be taken up, cannot be handled so carefully
as When raised in drill-rows.

Seeding on a large scale is operated either with cones
or seeds, the latter being either winged or unwinged.
The cultivation of the grounds to be seeded down de-
pends much upon the condition of the soil, as a loose soil
requires less stirring up than a compact one. On very light
soil, especially on heaths having only avery thin surface
growth, or none at all, and on mountains with a very thin
sward, no plowing should be employed; cross harrowing
with the iron harrow is in such cases sufficient to prepare
a good seed-bed. ‘The seed is then properly distributed,
and covered by dragging over the field with a brush-
harrow—12. e. a wooden harrow, between the teeth of
which twigs have been entwined, in order to prevent
them from entering the soil.

Seeding cones on large tracts is now much recom-
mended, and this coincides with my own experience.
There was a sandy area of about 80 acres which had been
exhausted by growing rye and oats during many years with-
out manuring, so as to be at last unable to produce any-—
thing but some sheep fescue and wild grasses. ‘This
tract was in fall lightly plowed, remaining during the
winter in this state. Early in spring it was harrowed

78 FOREST PLANTING.

smoothly, whereupon matured pine-cones, collected
during the latter part of the preceding winter, were at
the rate of 5 bushels per acre evenly distributed over the
field. When the heat in June had fully opened the
cones, the field was dragged over with the brush-
harrow, the dragging being only practised to shake
the cones, and make them discharge those seeds which
were still kept in the scales. The tract was then left
undisturbed. During the next spring so many plants
had come up, that this plot, by thinning, furnished
sufficient seedlings to restock, for two years, some large
openings in the adjoining woods.

One bushel of pine-cones weighs about 45 pounds,
contains about 3,000 cones with 1 pound clean seed,
or about 70,000 kernels.

Seeding Pines in open fields is often done broadcast
with clean seed, using for the acre from four to five
pounds. If Spruces are seeded, one pound per acre
should be added. If winged seed is used, one quarter
of the quantity just specified must be added. Jor the
proper distribution of the seed, such sowing machines
are commonly used as are employed in seeding clover.
Should it be advisable to mix Pine seed with Spruce and
Larch, one pound of the Spruce and Larch is substituted
for half a pound of Pine.

Mostly, however, large tracts are seeded by drilling
in the Pine seeds by which operation one-third part of
the seed required in broadcast sowing will be saved.

As for the time of seeding, it makes a difference
whether cones or seeds are used. The former should be
distributed early in spring, while the latter are sown when
the temperature has become somewhat warmer.

The best way to cover the seeds of the cones is that
which has been suggested heretofore, as only a light
cover is required. Clean seeds are usually covered with
a wooden harrow, the teeth of its front row only being

SEEDING FOREST TREES. 19

permitted to operate, while the others are interwoven
with small twigs or branches of willows. In hght soils
the seed should not be covered deeper than one quarter
of an inch, while in heavy soils the cover should be even
thinner.

(6) Beds for the nut-bearing Trees, especially for
Oak, Chestnut and Hickory Trees.

The storing of acorns, chestnuts and hickory nuts
during the winter being attended by many difficulties,
on account of their being easily injured by frost, wet,
dry and heating, fall seeding can only be recommended,
and this mode is always successful, if the mice be kept
from the seed. Poisoned wheat or corn in drain-pipes
has proved most useful. On the thoroughly worked and
well prepared seed-beds, four drills about 15 inches apart,
and two inches deep for acorns and chestnuts, and three
inches deep for walnuts and hickory nuts, are opened
with the hand hoe, and healthy, well sclected acorns or
nuts placed in the rows so close that they nearly touch
each other, whereupon the drills are raked perfectly
even with the soil of the bed. It is not necessary to fill
the rows with ashes or burnt sods, or with compost ; but
where the means permit this application, it will be found
of great advantage in the development of the plants.
The beds are then covered with dry leaves, two inches
high, and burdened with brush-wood to prevent uncover-
ing by winds. * When spring opens with warm days, the
leaf-cover is removed and piled alongside the beds.
After the plants have sprung up the ground should be
cleansed and thoroughly raked. The leaves have then to
be scattered between the drills, to be used as a mulch for
preventing the growth of weeds.

The one-year-old plants may be transplanted to their
place of destination (groves), if game is not apt to damage

80 FOREST PLANTING.

them there. Commonly, however, they have to be trans-
planted to the nursery, and raised to a height of from
five to six feet to prevent game from eating the tops.
This peint will be mentioned again further on; here we
only remark that if (what we prefer) two-year plants
be used for the start in the nurseries, the seed-beds, during
the second year, should be carefully cleaned, and the soil
between the drills kept loosened.

Seeding large tracts of wood-lands with acorns is often
done because the transplanting of oaks, on account of
their large tap-roots, is not always successful. Some
species, as for instance, Quercus Llex or sempervirens, are
only propagated by placing the acorns into the holes
where the trees are to remain, because they form
already in the first year a tap-root three feet in length.

In general, the seeding of large tracts with nuts or
acorns is done in the following manner :

1. On soil which is not too heavy throw broad-
cast the seeds (about 8 bushels to the acre) over the un-
plowed field,* either harrowing or plowing under the
kernels. On such fields sometimes furrows, three feet
distant, are opened (from three to four inches apart) in
which the acorns or nuts are laid, and covered three
inches deep with the loose soil taken from the top of the
furrow ridge. Four bushels of seed will be required for
this operation.

2. Mostly the lands to be seeded down with nut-bear-
ing forest trees, especially when the ground consists of
heavy loam, should be well plowed and harrowed, where-

* Under favorable circumstances acorns will sprout and thrive even if
very little or no pains at all is taken for their growth. Mr. Wm. Pick-
hardt, of New York, who owns about 24,000 acres of burnt-over wood-
lands near Schroon Lake, in the Adirondacks, some years ago, in March,
sowed upon the snow three tons of white pine seed, and one hundred
bushels of acorns of the German oak. He succeeded so well that the
oak seedlings, one year after planting, measured from two to three
inches.

is elie

eee es OO

SEEDING FOREST TREES. 81

upon in distances of about three feet, furrows about 4
inches deep are opened with a small plow, and the acorns
or nuts placed therein, from three to 4 inches apart.
This culture requires about four bushels of seed to the
acre. Still less seed is needed when it is put in witha
drill, the teeth of which should run from 3 to 4 inches
deep. Make the rows three feet distant, and deposit the
seed from three to four inches apart. In this case there
are only from 2 to 2'/, bushels consumed.

Inregard to the number of bushels of seed used in
seeding large tracts, due regard should be given to the
size of the kernels, the above named number of bushels
being calculated only for the largest acorns or nuts.
When using smaller sized nuts or acorns, the said quan-
tity of seeds should be decreased proportionately. As for the
proper depth to cover the seeds of nut-bearing trees, the
quality of the soil plays an important part init. Ina
close, heavy soil a thinner covering is required than in a
light, gravely or sandy. While a depth of from 2 to3
inches is quite sufficient to make the seeds germinate in
‘the former, 1t will do them good, if covered in the latter,
as deep as from 4 to & inches; and this depth is usually
resorted to when the seeds are sown broadcast over an
uncultivated field with light soil, and plowed under.

(c) Beds for Beeches.

The seed-beds for the Beech tree are treated precisely
like the foregoing, except that the leaves’ cover remains
unremoved for a longer time, to prevent too early a
_ germination of the seed, the young plants being very
susceptible to frost. Besides, these plants require much
protection, at least for the first year, against excess of air
and sun-light. It is, therefore, advisable to locate them
so as to shelter the young plants against the south side.
If this cannot be done, then pine boughs should be

82 FOREST PLANTING.

driven in suitable intervals into the beds, although the
cleansing and loosening of thy soil will be made tedious
by it.

As it is less difficult to store beech-nuts for the winter
than other nuts, seeding in spring gives.often good re-
sults. But we prefer fall seeding, having thus obtained
more vigorous plants.

Well-managed Beech forests are never permitted to be-
come denuded, but are rejuvenated by preserving so
many large treesas are required to drop sufficient seed
nuts, and to cover the soil, thus furnishing to the self-
sown seedlings the much needed protection against sun
and air, up to the time when they can get along without
further protection.

Seeding beech nuts successfully on a large scale re-
quires not only the proper soil—good loamy soil, some-
what caleareous—but also a most thorough cultivation of
the grounds to the depth of from 10 to 12 inches. The
nuts are broadcast seeded over the unharrowed field,
using from 3 to 4 bushels per acre, and thereupon har-
rowed in about one inch deep on heavy, and from 2 to3
inches deep on lighter soil. Usually, however, seeding is
done in drills from 3 to 4 feet apart, using one-half of
the quantity of seed employed in broadcast seeding.
Sometimes the nuts are planted in holes made at inter-
vals of 3 feet. The rows are from 3 to 4 feet apart. For
this operation only half a bushel of nuts is required.

The usual time of seeding is in spring, when cold
weather is over, and no late frosts are expected, as the
young plants, which will come up in abont three weeks,
are very tender, and liable to be killed by late frosts,
unless well protected.

(d) WSeed-beds for Ashes.

The seeds of Ashes ripen very late in autumn, and
therefore are often left on the trees until the next spring,

SEEDING FOREST TREES. 83

when seed twigs may be cut with hedgeshears. The
seed gathered in fall should be air-dried, and during the
winter stored inthe barn. Ifit be not practicable to dry
them satisfactorily, they should be mixed with dry, sandy
soil, and laid in small heaps ona place which is protected
agamst rain and frost. ‘To prevent them from heating,
the heaps should be turned over during the winter
several times.

In spring the seeds are freed from the sand by sifting.
They are then so closely distributed in the drills of the
well prepared bed that the winged seed kernels lap one
over the other. The drill-rows are one inch deep and
two inches wide. After carefully covering the seeds
about half an inch, the beds are raked and overspread
four inches high with moss, heath, straw or leaves, on the
top of which should be laid brushes or twigs to keep this
light cover in position, and to prevent the growing of
weeds. In this condition the beds remain till next
spring when the cover is removed, whereupon the plants
appear above the ground. As these seeds mostly require
a longer rest before they germinate, it is advisable, in
order to avoid damage by mice upon the seed-bed, and
damage by overgrowing with weeds in the field culture,
to properly store the seed till fall time, and sow them at
that time.

Weeding and loosening the soil between the drills, and
slightly covering the root-crowns of the young seedlings
is here, as in all seed-beds, a necessary requirement.

Ashes, Elms and Maples, which in forest economy
are considered closely allied, are seldom found as pure
stock, because they lose, in the middle of their life term,
their soil-shading quality, allow the impoverishment of the
soil, and the springing up of valueless bushes and trees.
But if mixed together in seeding large tracts, good re-
sults may be anticipated. For an acre there would be
required for each kind, if sown separately, pure cleaned

84 FOREST PLANTING.

seed, viz.: for Ashes, about 50 pounds; Maples, 30
pounds; and Elms, 25 pounds. If mixed together one-
third part of each of these quantities of seed should be
used to seed an acre broadcast, and only one-sixth part
if seeded in drill-rows. The covering should be light
and should not exceed half an inch; to effect this the
brush harrow, or the reversed wooden harrow is em-
ployed to cover the seed.

(e) Seed-beds for Maples.

Although some varieties of the Maple tribe can be
propagated by shoots, layers and cuttings, they are prin-
cipally increased by seeding. ‘The seed of most varieties
ripens in spring or early summer, and should then at
once be sown in well prepared beds. Only the acer
pseudo platanus arrives at maturity in October. Its
seed soon loses the power of germinating, and should be
used in the same fall; but if it is necessary to keep it
over winter, the air-dried seed should be put in bags,
fastened tothe beams of the barn in a place where no
frost penetrates. Mixing the seed thus with dry sand,
and then placing it where it will not freeze, preserves
the vitality of the seed.

When sown in fall, precautions should be made against
ravages by moles and mice—animals that are very fond
of these seeds. In selecting the seed attention should be
paid to its condition. When the wings begin to turn
brown and the cotyledons are green and succulent, the
seed is all right; but when the green color has dis-
appeared, the kernels will not sprout.

Maple seed is sown in the same manner as Ash, viz.:
very close, because the seed-wings take up much room.
But no cover of moss, leaves, or bushes is required, as
the plants, when sown in autumn, come up early in
spring, and are not susceptible to frosts,

SEEDING FOREST TREES. i+ 88

_ These seed-beds would always give the best result if
the mice did not destroy the seedlings in the second
winter by gnawing the young bark. ‘This is difficult to
prevent unless the mice can be exterminated before win-
ter sets in, for the most damage is done during the
winter, under cover of snow.

If sown in spring the seed sprouts in from four to five
weeks, with the exception of acer campestre, which does
not make its appearance before the second year. The
seed, when sown in spring, should not be covered
more than half an inch, and the ground should be
shaded with leaves or straw to prevent the growth of
weeds.

The bushel of air-dried Maple seed weighs about 15
pounds. If it should be determined upon to seed an acre
broadcast with Maples, two bushels, or about 30 pounds
of seed would be required, and for drill-seed about one-
half of this quantity. But for reasons given above it
will come seldom to this. The cover of broadcast sown
seed must be light, and should not be thicker than one-
half of an inch.

(f) Seed-beds for Hims.

The seeds are ripe in June, and can be kept, with
care, till next spring; but it is better tosow them at
once. Hor tlis purpose the beds are in time prepared, and
the drill-rows (made in the same manner as for evergreen
seed-beds) entirely filled with seed, and thereupon lightly
covered, at most one half of an inch, with prepared
loose humus soil or compost. The beds being apt at that
season soon to become dry, it is necessary to water them
in the evenings, and to use a cover of straw or heaths
until the plants spring up. Usually this occurs from six
to eight days after sowing, but it may be retarded by the
season from two to three weeks.

86 FOREST PLANTING.

Elms produce a great many infertile seed pods. Be-
fore sowing them they should be examined by a touch of
the fingers, and by this manipulation should be ascer-
tained whether the seed pods in the center of the round
wings are full or empty. According to the proportion
of empty seed pods, the seed should be used more or
less freely. It is not advisable to obtain this seed from
dealers, as it will seldom germinate. The grown up
trees yield always plenty of seed, and this can be easily
gathered by those who want it.

If broadcast seeding in seed-beds be resorted to, there
will be required for the square rod one-quarter of a
pound good seed. This is covered by sifting over it a
layer of good compost, one-half of an inch thick.

Broadcast seeding on a larger scale would require 5
bushels, or about 15 pounds per acre; while drilling in
rows with the proper distance (3 feet) could be done with
one-half of the quantity of seed named.

(g) Seed-beds for Alder-treez: and Birches.

Although the Birch and Alder-tree do not rank very
high among forest trees, they are valuable in the econ-
omy of wood-lands, as they often thrive in localities
where no other forest tree would grow, thus preserving
the much desired soil-humidity and preventing soil ex-
haustion by surface evaporation. They belong to the
same order—Betulacew —but differ entirely in their
habits and requirements as to soil and situation.

The Alder is mostly found in wet and swampy grounds,
whereas most varieties of the Birch are satisfied with
poor, dry and gravely soil, and are not influenced either
by the chemical properties of the soil or the nature of
the lay.

The Seed-beds for Birches and Alder-trees are treated
exactly like those for Elms, with the exception that

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SEEDING FOREST TREES. — 87

their seeds do not like a very loose soil, and therefore the
beds should be rolled down a little before distributing
the seed. Seeds ripen from midsummer till October, and
should be sown immediately after gathering when the
catkins are still wet; the plants appear then early in
spring. Tho Alder seedlings being very tender and
liable to be destroyed by frost, should be covered by some
leaves and twigs. Birch seedlings are hardy, and require
no protection ; but the proper sowing time for both is
spring, and broadcast sowing is mostly employed. The
seed should be very lightly covered with a wooden rake.
If sowing in drills is preferred, the seed is sown in broad
beds in the manner of the coniferous trees, and the
beds are kept free of weeds till the plants have
sprung up. ‘They require careful cleaning and frequent
watering during the first year. In the second year they
reach already a height of from 8 to 10 inches in suitable
soil—loose and rich in vegetable mould—and are able to
be transplanted. But if they shall be used to fill out
vacant spaces in the woods, or to form coppice-wood,
three-year-old plants should be selected.

It is also advisable to gather these seeds rather than to
obtain them from seedsmen, and for the same reason as
above mentioned. ‘The cones, or catkins, are picked in
fall when their color has turned into brown, and before
frost appears. ‘They should then be air-dried, put in
bags and hung up in a barn. In spring they will be
found to have mostly opened and dropped the seed.
Should the deliverance of the seed not have been fully
accomplished, the cones have to be taken into a warmed
room, where they soon will discharge the rest of the
seed. Some collect the seeds by thrashing in fall the
air-dried catkins in the bags, and store the cleaned seed
in a dry barn in small piles protected against very
cold and wet air, while some cut in the fall the twigs on
which the cones grow, hang them during the winter up in

88 FOREST PLANTING.

the barn, and thrash them in spring. Atall events there
should be used for seeding only fresh seed, as the germ-
inating power of most of the varieties lasts not longer
than one year.

Birches and Alder-trees copse very well, and are in
this way especially regenerated wherever this is practi-
cable and advisable. This is principally the case with
the Alder-tree, as it grows in from twenty to thirty
years to a pretty large tree. ‘The Birches do not grow
so quickly, but attain later a very respectable circum-
ference.

Seeding on a large scale gives, especially with Birches,
almost always good results.* ‘I'he soil, which usually
will be of a light kind, should not be loosened too much,
and the seed only slightly covered with the brush-har-
row. For broadcast seeding there are required from 20
to 30 pounds per acre. Seeding in drills is seldom em-
ployed, but should it be determined upon, one-third of
the seed used in broadcast seeding at least is spared.
Birches are especially serviceable for the protection of
Oaks when cultivated ona large scale. In such cases 10

*This I can recommend from my own experience. I recall an
instance where a large tract of cleared wood-land with poor, gravely
soil had been cultivated with crops for several years, and was then laid
to rest. Soon it became covered with coarse grasses and small bushes,
At the end of one summer this tract was burnt over and prepared for
spring seeding. Next spring oats were sown and properly plowed in
and harrowed. Some days later cleansed birch seed, about 15 pounds to
the acre, was sown broadcast over the oats, and lightly covered with
the brush-harrow. The result was surprisingly successful. The birch
seedlings, coming up much later than the oats, were, during the summer,
protected against the sun and kept back, so that at harvest-time the
young plants were not hurt by the cradle. After the removal of the
oats from the field, the birch seedlings received a new start, and entered
well prepared into the winter season. Seedlings were so numerous that
two years later a great many plants were taken up, and used for setting
out a coppice plantation. The expense of the whole operation was
fully covered by a rich oats crop.

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SEEDING FOREST TREES. 89

pounds of Birch seed are used and sown over the ground,
after the acorns have been properly planted.

The arboreous vegetation in American forests contains
many varieties which cannot be considered as forest trees
proper, and yet are of great value either to serve as soil
cover, nurses, or to fill in between the main crops, or to
promote the growth of the principal forest trees in any
other wise. ‘Io these belong the Poplars, Willows, Bass-
wood, Locust, Catalpa,,;Tulip tree (variety of the Mag-
nolias) and Hornbeam.)) The propagation of these trees
offers no difficulties ; catalogues of our seed dealers give
satisfactory information in regard to that point. But
the great value the Hornbeam has, both as copse-wood
and as an intermixture with other forest trees, may
justify a few remarks in regard to its propagation. The seed
contained in hop-like catkins ripen im the fall. A bushel
of winged seed contains from 6 to 7 pounds of clean seed.
The catkins should, after being gathered, be spread out
and dried in the shade until the seed can be thrashed in
bags. As the seeds do not keep long, it is advisable
to sow them at once, or at latest next spring, after having
preserved them during the winter in the same way in
which Ash seeds are preserved. ‘Thus preserved the seed
may be kept till the second spring. ‘The seed should be
covered very slightly, one-quarter of an inch. It is best
to nse only fully cleaned seed. Of these, for broadcast
seeding, are used from 22 to 24 pounds per acre; for
seeding in drills, 12 to 16 pounds.

An essential requirement for every seed-bed of forest
trees is the selection of good wood-land soil, the best that
can be found, but rather mild loamy than heavy
clayey soil ; for seedlings grown on good soil are much
better than those grown on poor grounds. They have
more and better roots, and are in a better condition to
endure the shock sustained in transplanting, and to grow
in their new locality. But the soil should not be made

90 FOREST PLANTING.

rich by manuring, as this produces a rank growth, which
prevents the proper ripening of the wood. All that is
required is a ground sufficient to make a healthy tree.

The place to be selected should have a situation well
protected against cold and drying winds; and yet this
location should not be such as to enfeeble the seedlings
and render them unable to go through the hardships of
young forest trees. If nurseries for forest trees are to
be established upon the open ridges of a mountainous
country, the proper protection may be obtained either by
fences, or, if permanently established, by surrounding
them with earth walls from 6 to 8 feet high, on the top
of which are planted Birches, Pines and Alders.

CHAPTER XV.

PLANTING FOREST TREES.

THE planting of forest trees can only succeed in places
where there is no grass, and where no grass would or-
dinarily grow for some years to come. In such places,
especially in poor sandy or peaty soil, two-year-old plants
without ball are usually selected for planting; assigning,
of course, to the proper soil, the suitable kind of trees—
to the poorest soil the Pine and Birch. But Spruce
should always be intermixed even on the poorest
ground. The Spruce can be made to grow upon such
soil by means of abundant watering. Even a slow growth
of these trees is satisfactory, as they have only to
serve as nurses, and to form the undergrowth of the pine
forest.

The mode of planting is as follows: ashes from dried
peat-sods, or compost haying been prepared the sum-

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PLANTING FOREST TREES, 91

mer or fall preceding the planting season, as soon as the
frost is out of the ground, and the latter warmed to
some extent, the seedlings are taken from the seed-bed
by a spade ; the earth and the plants carefully separated
with the fingers so as not to injure the roots and fibres.
Thereupon lots of from 10 to 12 plants are placed to-
gether, crowns of roots exactly upon crowns, and tap-
roots shortened to the length of from 6 to 8 inches. ‘The
plants, piled up in a basket in which they have to be well
moistened and protected against the rays of the sun, are
then taken to the planting ground. Here everything
should have been in time prepared for their reception.
Planting holes of about six square inches are cleared
with the hoe in distances never exceeding one yard. On
ground which is covered by moss, the latter is simply re-
moved.

On clay soil the holes should be made in the preceding
fall, and should be about 10 inches square, and from 7
to 8 inches deep; the earth dug out of the holes should
be placed alongside. In the spring, shortly before plant-
ing begins, the holes are filled up, the top soil going to
the bottom, and the surface completely leveled.

A pail of brine is prepared principally of clay and
water, mixed with ashes or rich humus soil and a little
salt. This mixture should have such consistency that the
plant roots, dipped into it, retain a thin covering, but
never so muchas to paste the roots and fibres together.
This can easily be ascertained by trial. From 10 to 20
plants are at a time dipped into the brine so as to coat
the roots preparatory to planting.

The planter carries a basket with thoroughly worked
compost, peat ashes or good humus soil, upon which the
coated plants are deposited, and a short-handled axe.
The latter is driven up to the handle into the center of
the prepared and leveled spot, pressed to both sides and
then carefully taken out. With the left hand two plants

92 : FOREST PLANTING.

are lowered in the cleft to a point just above the crown
of the roots, one finger separating the plants, and while
thus suspended a haudful of compost is with the right
hand sifted into the cleft between the plants. The axe is
then driven in about one inch distance from the cleft and
pressed a little toward it, so as to cover the roots with
earth. The second cleft should then be filled up with a
few light strokes of the axe.

On stony soil it would be impossible, or at least very
difficult, to operate in the manner just explained. In
such soil use should be made of a steel-pointed iron
planter, by which a square hole is driven into the ground,
large enough to set two plants in the manner just de-
scribed.

Watering the plants after setting is very well, if it is
done carefully with a rose sprinkler, and lumping of the
soi] is avoided ; but generally it is not necessary, except
in times of impending drought. If watering during the
hot season has to be resorted to, it should be done late in
the afternoon or evenings.

It will not do to set one or two-year-old plants on grass
lands or on such soil as is favorable to the growth of
grass and weeds. On such ground plants from four to
six years old should be set, as these are able to resist the
encroachments of grass and weeds. Where game may do
damage, deciduous trees of such height should be planted
as to prevent the animals from touching ard eating the
top shoots of the young trees. ‘To raise trees of that
size, tree nurseries are necessary. ‘These should be loca-
ted at or near the places to be planted, so that the con-
siderable risk and expense of transporting larger trees,
and to acclimatize the young trees to the natural condi-
tions of their future habitat may not be unnecessarily in-
creased. ‘The ground for these nurseries shonld be
plowed and subsoiled in fall to a depth of from fifteen to
eighteen inches, and exposed to the action of the air,

ee eel eS,

a

PLANTING FOREST TREES. 93

rain and frost during the winter. At the proper time in
the following spriug the nursery ground should be har-
rowed, then plowed and again harrowed, and then the
one or two-year-old plants are set in the proper one of
the two following ways :

(1) NURSERY LINES FOR CONIFEROUS TREES.

Beds are laid out of the same size a8 seed-beds, at most
six feet wide, in order to permit from four to five rows of
plants to be set from five to seven inches apart. The
rows are marked by a cord or chain, and the planting is
done by the short handled axe, as just described, after
the plants have been previously dipped into the clay
mixture. In these beds it is desirable to set but one
good plant to the hole. Watering immediately after
planting is necessary; but it should not be done close to
the plant, but at the second cleft.

Careful cleaning and stirring the soil is a matter of
course. But the two operations should never be con-
tinued late in the summer, as they encourage the tree
growth too late in the season, and the wood thus made
does not ripen well, but will be killed by a strong winter
frost ; they should be entirely omitted the latter half of
the summer previous to the transplanting of the young
trees, in order that a strong ball may be secured, and the
taking out of the trees with balls in the following spring
facililated.

(2) NURSERY LINES FOR DECIDUOUS TREES.

The first thing to be determined upon before laying
out these nursery lines, is the decision of the question
whether we intend to raise only small trees, of from three
to five feet height, or Jarger ones—up to twelve feet. In
the first case the plants are set from ten to twelve inches

94 FOREST PLANTING.

apart in the rows; in the other case from eighteen to
twenty-four inches. But even for the latter purpose it
is advisable to plant first closely (say ten inches apart),
and transplant later further apart at another place in the
nursery. Although we would not advise that a tree be
transplanted in the nursery more often than is absolutely
necessary to attain the purposes aimed at, repeated trans-
planting, if carefully done, promotes the development of
the root system, as each planting will require a little
trimming of the roots, and by shortening of the tap-
roots, which too often run deeper than is desirable, the
growth of the lateral roots will be favored—this being
the most desirable point in the culture of whatever tree
may be in question. If the transplanting in the nursery
is not done with the proper care, and the roots, owing
to their injured condition, have to be pruned heavily, no
vigorous growth can be expected, but debilitation is in-
duced and a premature death must be expected. The
mode of planting the one or two-year-old plants is
the same as with the coniferous trees; but the holes
opened with the axe must be correspondingly larger for
the greater root development of the two-year-old plants.
It is, therefore, a better plan that such plants as have a
strongly developed root system be transplanted into the
nursery lines when one year old.

In transplanting young trees of from four to five feet
high in the nursery, for the purpose of raising larger
ones of from ten to twelve feet high, the axe of course
will not answer. In that case holes of sufficient size
should be dug with the spade and hoe, and the lateral
roots should be well bedded in by hand in their original
position. Many deciduous trees, especially oaks, incline
much to forkiness, which tendency should be promptly
and carefully suppressed in the nursery by proper trim-
ming, unless it is intended to raise such forky trees on
account of their usefulness in certain manufactures, as

PLANTING FOREST TREES, 95

ship-building, etc. But in general the forester should
always have the knife ready to clip the inferior limb as
soon as forks appear. Sometimes the superior limb has
to be trimmed off, if by the growing of the inferior a
more desirable standard tree is formed. In such cases no
certain rule can be given, except not to allow the tcps of
the trees to go into forklike shapes.

PLANTING WITH THE BALL.

When coniferous trees previously transplanted into
the nuresry rows have reached an age of from four to six
years, they are ready for final transplating and have to
be taken up with the ball—that is, without disturbing
the roots or removing the earth from them. In this
condition they should be put in holes large enough to
give ample room for the ball. The taking up is done by
the spade, a httle ditch being dug along the first row of
the plants, and the plants cut out in square blocks. The
plants with the balls are carried on barrows or carts
and deposited near the plant holes. Before setting in,
the planter must examine carefully the depth and width
of the hole, as the roots must have the same position and
the same level relative to the earth’s surface in their
new place as they had in their old one. Therefore, if the
holes are found to be too deep, some earth is thrown in ;
if too shallow, they are dug deeper. ‘The tree is then set
perpendicularly in the center of the hole, and the space
around the ball filled in with loose soil, and gently
pressed down with the feet.

It is true, close planting does well for quickly covering
the ground. Butas this is an expensive operation, owing
to the number of young trees to be planted, and the sub-
sequent labor of thinning them out, it is usually better
to maintain a greater distance. The rows are then laid
out five feet apart, and the trees in each row three feet
from each other.

96 FOREST PLANTING.

Diciduous trees can be transplanted more easily with-
out ball, especially when they have been already trans-
planted, and thereby acquired a better developed root-
system.

PLANTING WITHOUT BALL.

The larger deciduous trees of from six to twelve feet
in height are always transplanted without ball. It is,
however, advisable to manage the transplanting so as to
retain some of the old soil between the rootlets and
fibres. The holes are dug according to the extent of the
roots, so that they may have room in width and depth,
without changing in the form they have grown.

On heavy soil the holes should be opened in the fall,
if spring planting is intended, in order that the winter
frost may assist in breaking up the soil mechanically. At
planting time the young trees, unless they have been taken
up in fall and safely heeled in during the winter, are
taken out of the nursery, injured roots and such as ex-
tend too deep (especially the taproots) being trimmed
off, the clay brine already mentioned is used, and the
trees brought to the holes. Holding the tree with the
left hand perpendicularly, the forest planter, vsing a hoe
in his right hand, fills the spaces between the roots with
loose humus soil. If horizontal roots are bent down in
this process, they should be raised up, and supported
with earth so as to keep their natural position. For such
trees as have root systems which incline to lateral exten-
sion (Spruces, Beeches, etc.), a little mound of earth
should be made at the bottom of the plant-hole, upon
which the tree is set, so that the roots spread out ina
natural way. Special attention must be given that the
roots are perfectly imbedded in the soil without leaving
cavities, and that the original position of the fibres be
maintained. ‘The fertile top soil dug from the plant-

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PLANTING FOREST TREES. 97

hole should always be used to fill the bottom of the pit
to feed the roots and fibres, while the raw soil taken from
the bottom serves for leveling the surface. Planting is
finished by gently pressing down the earth around the
tree with the feet, and covering the recently disturbed
soil with sods or stones, leaving uncovered aspace ofa few
inches in diameter around the base of the tree. The sod-
ding will keep the dirt in the plant-hole fresh and moist.

In cases where dryness or looseness of the soil renders
plant growth at the start uncertain, especially for plant-
ing the hardy kinds of Pines upon sterile lime-stone soils
and shifting sands, the report of the Department of Ag-
riculture for 1887 recommends the ‘‘ puddling in,” and
describes this method as follows: ‘‘A thin puddle is
‘made of two parts water and one part loamy forest soil
‘for mold. In planting, a conical hole is made to re-
*‘ceive the plant, and while holding the plant in the
‘‘hole, the puddle is ponred into it with a cup. The
** puddle must be stiff enough to hold the plant at a pro-
*‘ner height; yet not too thick, because in such cases
‘‘it would not fill the bottom of the hole, but would ad-
**here to the sides, and thus the tips of the roots would
“have no covering, aud would die off. To be sure, in
“‘hot weather the upper loamy layer dries out quickly
‘‘and hardens ; but this layer, not being hygroscopic,
‘prevents the drying out of the lower strata, which is
*‘the important point to secure in the quickly drying
‘‘sand. The cost of this method of planting is about
** double that of ordinary planting in holes.”

Sometimes it is desirable to plant trees upon loose,
boggy ground, where plant-holes, if made in the usual
way, would always be full of water, thereby killing the
trees set in them. In such cases trees may be planted
entirely above the surface ground by spreading out the
roots, and throwing dry, good soil over them. The coni-
cal mound thus formed is then covered with inverted sods

98 FOREST PLANTING.

or soil taken from the vicinity, and the tree, if of larger
size, is fastened to the ground for some time by wires run-
ning from the trunk of the tree to pegs in the ground. By
this method we are able to plant trees in places where the
impossibility of obtaining drainage would entirely prevent
planting in the usual way. Trees with taproots, of course,
cannot be used for such plantations, as the condition of
the underlying soil does not favor the roots penetrating
deeply into the ground.

The transplanting of seedlings or saplings from the
woods, if this be carefully done, should meet with the
same success as if they were removed from the nursery.
Usually, however, the loss in transplanting saplings
grown naturally in the woods, is much greater than
with nursery-grown seedlings, because the forest planter
seldom gives to the young trees all the opportunities for
their growth which are afforded to them by the soil and
the surroundings in their habitat. ‘To transplant spon-
taneously grown seedlings of the shade-enduring kind
(Beeches, Spruces, Hornbeams), is much more difficult
than to transplant seedlings of the light-needing kinds
(Pines, Oaks). With the latter it does not make much
difference whether they are grown in the woods or in the
nursery, whereas the former will only succeed if the con-
ditions of their habitats are fully provided for. But if
this is possible, and the removal is done carefully, there
is no doubt that a dense spontaneous growth of saplings
in one part of a forest can be very serviceable in restock-
ing other denuded parts of the forest. However, in order
to be certain of success in this matter, saplings taken
from the thick woods should first be transplanted into
nursery lines, to give them an opportunity to get accli-
matized and to obtain, by the help of air and light, a
greater development of the branches and twigs, which in
the thick woods usually are suppressed at the expense of
the formation of the trunk.

+

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PLANTING FOREST TREES. 99.

The general rules in regard to trimming of roots and
tops hold true also for the transplanting of seedlings
taken from the woods. Experts inthis matter, however,
contend that these seedlings should be pruned more se-
verely than those from the nursery.

In conclusion some remarks in regard to tree planting
in general may still be added.

1. Great care must be taken to protect the seedlings
against the rays of the sun and drying winds. Planting,
therefore, should be done only in mild weather, when no
strong winds prevail, and the sun is not too powerful.
If possible, the operation should be performed during a
gentle rain. If this be not practicable, and if we have
to work in warm, sunny weather, there should be no more
plants taken up from the nursery than can be planted
within the next hour; for if the young trees are exposed
to wind and light, the roots and fibres often shrivel
up, and become unable to furnish food to the tree.
Should it be impossible to observe this direction on ac-
count of the distance the trees have to be transported,
while being removed they should be coated with the clay
brine, and be well wrapped in wet moss or other damp
materials, to check loss of moisture through foliage and
roots. ‘Trees which appear to have suffered from evap-
oration of moisture during the removal, after their ar-
rival should be heeled in—that is, laid in trenches,—and
if they have suffered much, they should for some time
be entirely covered with fresh soil until taken to the place
where they are to be planted.

2. The best time for transplanting trees is during
the dormant period, when the sap in the tree does not
run. ‘This period lies between the end of autumn and
the beginning of spring. Conifers, however, may, with
the exception of the Larch, be transplanted even after
budding. Under favorable conditions, planting may be
done either in fall or spring with the same good result ;

100 _ FOREST PLANTING.

but in cold climates like ours, spring planting is to be
preferred, as only at that time new roots are formed,
through which the tree can obtain the sap necessary for
the support of the top growth. In such a case the trees
to be transplanted should be taken up in fall, and
heeled in, till planting time in spring arrives. This
treatment facilitates spring planting very much.

3. All trees should be planted alittle higher above the
ground than they previously stood; * at least they should
never be set deeper. In this respect the place from which
they are taken makes uo difference, be it the nursery or
the woods. It is often the case that workmen without
experience do the planting, and not making the proper
allowance for the looseness of the soil, set trees too
deep into the hole. This treatment kills a great many
trees during the second year after transplanting and
more often prevents their luxuriant growth. But if
trees are planted a little higher out of the ground than
they previoulsy stood, they develop a better and quicker
growth, have a longer life time, and will give better tim-
ber of aneven texture.

All top trimming or shortening of the main branches
should be avoided, even with deciduous trees, except
when, in taking up, the roots are much bruised or
broken, and, therefore, have to be shortened in order to
obtain smooth ends of the roots and fibres. In such a
case the top has to be cut back so far as to restore the
proportion in which crown and root system were
prior to the removal. ‘Transplanting causes a great
disturbance in the life of a plant, arresting the cir-

* The only exception to this rule is the planting of one-year-old Pine
seedlings in very poor soil, In such ground the seedling should be buried
80 deep that only its top shows above the soil. How F. B. Hough, in
his ‘‘ Elements of Forestry,’’ on page 55, arrives at the conclusion that
‘*as a rule trees in transplanting should be set deeper than they stood
before,’ is more than we can comprehend, as experts in this matter
agree in accepting the reverse to be true,

Ee Ta

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PLANTING FOREST TREES. 101

culation of the sap that is constantly going on under
the bark of the tree. To overcome this shock, and to
make a new start, the fullactivity of the leaves and roots
is put in requisition, as the plant takes up a part of its
food by the roots, and assimilates it by the leaves. But
how can this be done when an operation has been per-
formed by which both organs are made to suffer so greatly
as to be unable to discharge their ordinary functions.

As for the rest, the forester, in transplanting, should
look into and examine closely the principles by which
nature is working, furnishing to the plants everything
which they require for the full development of their in-
born recuperative power. It is true, the use of the short-
handled axe in planting trees does not seem to correspond
with this advice, as the side roots are thereby somewhat
pressed together; but this isonly recommended with very
young seedlings, and especially with young Pines and
Oaks, as they have long taproots, the conservation of
which is of chief importance during the first years of
their growth. Moreover, as the soil in the plant-hole is
very loose, the side roots of the saplings soon succeed
in vindicating their right of spreading sideways.

TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES,

The forester is sometimes called upon to move large
trees from the position in which they have grown for
years to another. This work is often required on moun-
tain forests, and in such cases as are called ‘‘ Forest
Gardening”, and which have been alluded to on page 62.
It necessarily involves some amount of anxiety to the
operator ; it is the most precarious and uncertain opera-
tion in regard to its result, the forest planter has to per-
form. Success can only be attained by the most careful
execution of the work in every detail.

The preparation of the trees beforehand is undoubtedly

102 FOREST PLANTING.

the most important of the details in connection with the
work, No large tree that has stood a few or more years
in one position undisturbed should be transplanted with-
out being prepared some time beforehand by operating on
its roots. The growth of trees should be checked skill-
fully by a system of root-pruning. The customary way of
doing this is to dig a trench around the tree, at such a dis-
tance from the stem as may appear desirable or neces-
sary to secure a requisite breadth of roots all around to
support the tree when it is finally transplanted. The
trench is dug deeply enough to get to the nethermost
roots. Usually all the roots are cut away, and the trench
is again filled in with good rich soi!. This is commonly
done twelve months before the transplanting is to take
place, and the objects are to administer a check to the
tree and induce a free production of fibrous roots.

No doubt these objects are, in the main, successfully at-
tained in most cases, but in such a way as to minimise
the chances of success when the final operation of removal
is performed twelve months hence. It is no uncommon
thing to find the entire circle of soft fibrous roots that
may have been formed during the intervening growing
season fall away when the trench is again opened for the
purpose of removal. If this occurs, and it is hardly pos-
possible to prevent it more or less, the tree is then more
seriously crippled than it would have been had it been
lifted at the time of preparation. A much better method
is to open a trench twelve months beforehand, a con-
siderable distance from the trunk, to such a depth as will
reach the lowest roots, and work gradually in towards
the center in a regular way all round, laying bare every
root, preserving the smaller and fibrous roots, and cut-
ting away the stronger ones until within a foot or two of
the stem, when the trench should be filled in, laying the
preserved roots out carefully, and covering them with
good fresh soil. When treated in this way, a greater

TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 103

proportion of the fibrous roots can be preserved at the
final lifting. These fibrous roots are those on which
ultimate success depeuds, and every means should be
taken to preserve as many of them as possible. ‘The tree
may require to be stayed or supported during the time
intervening between the period of preparing and that of
removal. If the top is a heavy one, and the position
exposed, it should certainly be secured against disturb-
ance.

The removal must be done with great care. It is the
critical and anxious part of the work. The seasonable
time must be rezulated »y the character of the tree. If
it is deciduous, very early spring is preferable to late in
our climate. In warmer climates, however, early autumn
it the best time for the removal, when the fall of the
leives has not yet taken place. The tree will, owing to
the disturbance in tlhe preparation of the preceding year,
have made no luxuriant growth, and such growth as it
may have made will ripen early; there is, therefore, no
danger in an early removal, and every other consideration
is in favor of it. Ifthe tree is Evergreen, the operation of
final removal should not be performed till late spring.
Immediately after the first symptoms of returning ac-
tivity are observed, is the proper time for the removal of
Evergreen trees of all kinds.

The work of removal involves the consideration of the
apparatus required, and this depends on the size of the
tree to be operated upon, and the distance it has to be
carried to its new position. ‘There are various machines
invented for the purpose of removing very large trees,
but they are costly concerns, which are not needed in the
every day routine of the forester’s work. For trees of or-
dinary size there exists no necessity for anything so costly
or cumbrous as any of these machines. A cart or wagon
of any sort will do the work of transporting the tree
quite well, provided care is taken to prevent all avoidable

104 FOREST PLANTING.

injury either to the stem or the roots in loading or un-
loading it.

The most important point is the lifting of the tree in
such a manner as to minimise injury to the roots. The
operation should be conducted in the same way as that of
preparing, already described. Begin by opening a trench
at the same point as was opened for preparing, and work
in a circle round the tree. After the trench is opened
use forks only and use them with great caution
among the roots to prevent their destruction. Clear
away the earth loosened by the fork with spade or shovel,
so as to keep the trench clear, and prevent the roots
being covered or entangled with it till a solid ball is
reached a little way from the stem all round. It is de-
sirable to keep this ball of earth and roots intact, and at
this point the fibrous roots liberated from the soil in ex-
cavating should be tied up in bundles and laid conven-
iently over the ball. What remains to be done, in order
to liberate the tree, is to excavate under the ball all round,
so that 1t may be drawn by ropes attached to its top to
one side or the other. The ball is then to be bound
firmly up in mats, secured in such a way as that it may
be safely transported any reasonable distance without
breaking to pieces.

When taken to its new position, the pitin which it is
to be planted should be examined to ascertain that it is
quite large enough to allow of the roots being spread
out straight. There should be no doubling of them back
to accomodate them. Badly injured portions should be
cut away with a sharp knife, as they are spread out, and
the finest of the soil sprinkled over them. Let there be
no treading in of the soil, but use water copiously in-
stead. Water will fill in all hollows and cavities in the
soilin a more perfect manner than treading, and also
leave the soil in a thoroughly genial condition for
the roots. A mulch of straw, litter or leaves placed

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TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES, 105

over the area occupied by the roots, a day or two after
planting is finished, will be beneficial. The tree must
be carefully secured against disturbance by wind. The
most effectual way to do sois by strands of rope stretched
from the top to pegs in the ground.

In conclusion it may not be amiss to add some direc-
tions for transplanting large trees, which were given in a
pamphlet published by the Department of the Interior in
1885 for the celebration of Arbor Day. There it reads
as follows :

At the outset it is necessary to bear in mind that the
tree is a living body, and that the process of removal in-
terferes with its functions, and when it is displaced from
the ground, causing an arrest of the circulation that is
constantly going on between the tree and the soil, a severe
shock is sustained. Every root-fiber and its spongiole
destroyed lessens by so much the chances of success, and
when a greater portion of these are gone, the tree is forced
to depend on its own vitality to supply a new set of root-
lets before growth can take place.

In the beginning bear in mind that it is important not
to injure the roots and to preserve as many as possible,
particularly the small ones, for these are what must be de-
pended on to start the growth in the new life. Where
trees are dug up to be removed ashort distance, preserve
all the roots if possible.

When the tree is out of the ground, exposure to the
sun or drying winds will cause evaporation, which is very
detrimental to the tree, and is acommon cause of failure,
and one which is often overlooked. If, however, the tree
has become shriveled and dried, vitality may often be
restored by burying the whole for a few days in moist
soil ; but it is far better not to have them get in condi-
tion to need any such remedy, which at best cannot restore
the tree to its original condition.

In excavating holes for planting, it is necessary to dig

106 FOREST PLANTING.

very deep, unless for a tree with a tap-root ; it may even
be hurtful in a hard soil by affording a place to hold water
under a tree toits injury. ‘The roots of young trees grow
near the surface, and the holes should be large enough
to allow the roots to be extended their full length with-
out cramping or bending.

In case itis very dry at the time of planting, it is a good
plan to puddle (see page 97) the soil around the roots,
always covering with dry earth. In this way moisture
will be retained for a long time. Avoid too deep plant-
ing. The roots must not be placed beyond the action of
the air; about the depth they were in before removed, or
a very little deeper. (We would say ‘‘ higher,” instead
of deeper. See the remarks on page 100, sub. 3.) When
filling, press the earth from the first firmly, so as to leave no
spaces, and have it compact about the roots. This latter
point cannot be too thoroughly attended to, and, of course,
to do this well, the soil must be finely pulverized and no
lumps be allowed in the filling. It will be necessary to
use the hand to place the soil in spaces where the spade
cannot go.

The time of setting is best when the soil has settled in
the Spring and become warm, so that trees not being re-
moved begin to start. Earlier than this is not so well,
for the sooner the tree begins to grow after being set, the
more likely to do well. We believe the proper time is
the Spring, the best time for planting all kinds of trees,
although early Fall planting is often recommended.
Evergreens often succeed well planted in Angust ; still
we would rather risk them in the Spring, just as they are
ready to grow. LEvergreens are the most sensitive of any
to drying while being removed, and if once allowed to
become dry it is all-day with them ; no amount of pains
or trouble can restore the lost vitality. For this reason
they can be removed but short distances, unless very care-
fully packed.

TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 107

As more or less of the roots are removed or injured, it
is necessary to prune the top when transplanted. ‘This
has generally been done by cutting all the branches back ;
but a better way is to remove a portion of the branches,
leaving those strong ones that are in position to give the
tree a well-shaped top. If all the branches are left, and
the proportion between the tops and roots balanced by
cutting all back, in after-growth some of these branches
will require to be removed—an injury, perhaps, to the
tree. ‘'his certainly will apply to fruit trees. Sometimes
trees for ornament or shade require to be cut back to
make a thicker top or one more symmetrical.

Large trees are removed in Winter with a large ball of
earth attached to the root, and, though a heavy job, it
is the only* successful method of doing it. A trenchcan
be dug atthe proper distance around the tree, and filled
with coarse litter previous to freezing, and also the holes
to receive the trees, which will much facilitate the labor.

Small trees do better than large ones, and itis better
to be to the trouble of taking care of them one or two
years longer than to have them grow too long in the
nursery row. ‘Trees grown on good soil are better than
from poor soil, They have more and better roots, ard
are in better condition to grow in their new location.
Of course, it is not desirable that the soil where they
have grown should beso rich as to produce such a growth
that the wood will not properly ripen, but sufficient to
make astrong, healthy tree. A tree in poor soil has
weak, spindling, feeble branches, and, like a starved an-
imal, takes a long time to recover, even when placed in
better soil with better feeding.

After large trees are properly transplanted, they should
be staked, to prevent swaying around by the wind.
When the ground is soft, the movement of the top

* Thisis a little too much claimed.

108 FOREST PLANTING.

creates a displacement of the roots before they have
taken any holdin the soil, resulting in injury or death
to the tree. Mulching must not be dispensed with. Its
object is to keep the soil moist until the roots obtain a
strong hold. ‘This may be overdone. Mulch for shade
only. A large mass of decaying matter is more hurtful

than beneficial. We can not avoid all risks in trans-

planting ; but if these conditions, which we repeat, are
followed, the risk will be very much lessened: (1) Care-
ful removal ; (2) protection from drying y.hile out of
the ground; (3) setting in warm, well-pulverized soil ;
(4) hard tramping* the soil about the roots; (5) judi-
cious pruning; (6) stalking ; and (7) mulching.

All this requires care and labor; but it will make the
difference between a thrifty tree, and a stunted, un-
healthy specimen.

* We would not advise hard tramping, but rather gently pressing
down—not too firmly—to the level of the surrounding surface. Atall
events, heaping the soil around the tree should be avoided.

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THE CARE OF YOUNG PLANTATIONS. 109

CHAPTER XVI.
THE CARE OF YOUNG PLANTATIONS.

1. Protection afforded by the older trees to young and
growing ones:

Young forest-trees are very sent to many ex-
ternal influences. as, for instance: frost, aridity, extreme
sunshine, excessive growth of grasses and weeds, etc.
In the natural reproduction of forests we are able to pro-
tect the saplings and seedlings during the trying years
of their first growth by retaining a proportionate number
of the larger trees, which, in due time, and with the
growing up of the young trees, are gradually cut down,
till, at last, nothing but the younger trees remain.

We may also employ the same means in the artificial
reproduction of forests, either by growing first a hardy
kind of trees, under the protection of which, at the
time of the first thinning, ten or fifteen years later, the
more tender species, intended for the future stock of
trees, may be planted ; or, by sowing or planting both
kinds of trees together, selecting for the protecting trees
those varieties that are fast growers, thus enabling them
to afford shelter to the more slowly growing tender ones.

Upon denuded woodlands, especially upon such as are
surrounded by natural forests, hardier and quick grow-
ing trees, as, for instance, poplars, birches, willows and
even pines very often spring up by themselves. In such
cases, we have only to plant the better and more tender
kinds mixed with the hardier saplings, and we may ex-
pect an undisturbed, continuous growth of the tender
trees under the shelter of the hardier ones.

Even bushes and shrubs may be made to serve as
nurses for young trees. They have the advantage of
being the cheapest means for reaching the purpose aimed.

110 FOREST PLANTING.

at. But no return of wood material is realized when
they have to be removed later on, while timber obtained
from the hardier protecting forest-trees pays at least the
expense of cutting, and, sometimes, even the cost of
planting.

For nurses to the young, shade-enduring trees, such
kind of trees are usually selected as cause only a light
shade. So, for instance, the principal species of the firs,
as Abies pectinata, A. nobilis, and, upon good soil, the
spruce may be advantageously grown in the shade of the
common pi:e or birch ; the beech, which is quite as diffi-
cult to grow as Abies pectinata or picea, can be grown in
the shade of the poplar, willow, alder, etc. If the nurses
are properly selected they will grow quickly without
preventing the development of the future stock of
trees, but their own value increascs with the length of
time they remain. These nurses, belonging mostly to
the light-needing varieties, afford still another advantage
to the protected trees, as they have the tendency to
crowd out such trees of their own kind as grow up
too thickly, and to drop off, for want of light and air,
their own lower branches, furnishing thus to the pro-
tected shade-enduring trees every condition to mature
and attain a sound development.

2. Cleaning and Thinning.

We are able to obtain great advantages both in natural
and artificial plantations by applying a proper system of
cleaning and thinning.

Cleaning.—As soon as the nurses threaten to over-
whelm with too much shade the protected young
trees, of which we have been speaking, they have to be
cut down so far as to prevent them from interfering
with the luxuriant growth of the future and predomi-
nant stock of trees.

In the natural reproduction of forests, the quick grow-
ing sprouts from stumps become often very troublesome,

THE CARE OF YOUNG PLANTATIONS. 111

because they are apt to subdue valuable, young trees that
have grown up from seeds, and which are mostly slow
growers. Insuch case, the sprouts of each stock should be
very much reduced in numbers, and only a few strong ones
should be left. In the course of time, the latter will again
increase and begin todo harm to the neighboring self-sown
seedlings of the more valuable kind. ‘Then the sprouts
are still reduced, and but one for each stock is kept over.
This will be removed when the saplings have reached
such a size that they will not be in any danger from
subsequent sprouts of the felled tree.

Thinning.—It is an undeniable fact that in natural
forests sometimes over one hundred thousand young trees
can be found growing upon an area of one acre; and yet we
cannot expect to raise more than from one to two hun-
dred full grown trees upon that space. Left to itself,
the natural forest will eliminate in the course of their
growth all those trees that cannot stand the struggle for
existence; and, finally, there will be only some giants
found upon each acre of woodland. ‘This constant
nutural thinning-out is more prevalent during the
earlier years of tree-growth than in their advanced age,
while the remaining trees increase in strength and
vitality. Then there commences a struggle which soon
assumes such proportions as to involve danger to most of
the survivors. Here the skilful hand of the forester is

‘required to terminate the contest, especially when the

trees are of the same age and equally developed. ‘True,
in such ease, although a tree cannot expand laterally, it
can attain a good height. However, this being a forced
growth, the individuals become extremely weak and suc-
cumb in a body to such forces as high winds, great snow
drifts, etc., or their accretions become from year to year
smaller till the whole body falls a prey to insects or
blight.

In a natural forest, where trees of different kinds and

112 FOREST PLANTING.

ages grow up together, the conditions for natural thin-
ning out are more favorable. Here, nature itself does
the principal work of timely thinning out, and the
elementary forces do—as is generally known—less dam-
age in forests where conifers are intermixed with
foliaged trees, than in forests of pure stock. And still
the helping hand of the forester can do a great deal to
produce a quicker development of the trees and to in-
crease their strength and growth.

It is an old rule in forestry to commence thinning early,
and repeat it often, but always to do the work moderately.
But after the lapse of from 60 to 70 years, when the
trees have attained their full height, it is expedient to
open out the stock itself more freely, in order to give the
trees a chance to extend their remaining branches, and
thus enable them to accelerate their accretion of wood.
The branches of trees in forests under sixty years of age
should be allowed to grow pretty close together—so
densely as not to show any gaps. Such forests will
produce the best timber, as the trees then will develop
branches only on the higher part of the trunk, leaving
the lower part free, and yet keeping the soil well shaded.

Absolute rules as to the exact time for the periodical
thinnings cannot be given, except that the soil should
always be protected from light, sun and wind, and that
the vigorous growth of those trees which are intended for
future stock, should never be interfered with by their
companions. Which trees should be selected in thin-
ning out a forest, can best be shown in forests with a
pure stock of trees, i. e., with trees of the same kind
and mostly of the same age. Here you find three dif-
ferent classes of trees, viz.:

(1) The dominant, which have grown ahead of the
others.

(2) The governed, which, although lifting their crowns
in the sunshive, are narrowed in by the other trees.

THE CARE OF YOUNG PLANTATIONS. 113

(3) The subdued, which are overgrown by both the
preceding classes.

There is no doubt that the latter class should be taken
out entirely, while the first should remain intact, except-
ing those trees which are infested with dangerous insects,
or have incurable defects in the bark and trunk. In
such cases, even dominant but faulty trees should be
removed in time, to avoid spreading of evil, and to give
the confined trees in their neighborhood the possibility
of extending laterally and attaining a larger growth.

As to class 2, it makes a difference as to what kind of.
trees are growing in the forest. The light-needing
species require a more open position, and, therefore, a
stronger thinning; while the shade-enduring thrive even
when they are so closely grown that sunlight cannot fall
upon the lower branches of the trunk, and, therefore,
require but a moderate thinning.

The location has great influence upon the extent to
which the thinning out is to be carried. Upon good,
fertile soil the gaps and openings made by a more ex-
tensive thinning will fill up soon, even if there be a
northern or northwestern exposure. But on poor soil,
even a small interruption of the density of the tree-
growth is apt to cause drying up of the soil, spring-
ing up of weeds, blowing away of the leaves on the
ground—all these being conditions detrimental to tree-
growth, and which should be strictly avoided. For this
reason the wood-material obtained by thinning out
forests upon poor soil, and, which usually is removed
at once, is often not taken away, but is left on the spot
to falla prey to the destroying effect of the elements,
thus enriching the soil by the decay of twigs and leaves.

As to what age the trees should attain before the
forest is thinned out, we must remember that the
younger trees have a tendency to grow upward rather
than to extend laterally. They, therefore, can stand a

114 . FOREST PLANTING.

much greater density than older ones, and do not need
to be so carefully thinned out as the older ones. At
all events the margin of woods should be left thicker, not
only in respect to tree-growth, but also in regard to the
undergrowth, formed by shrubs and brushes, which
have sprung up there. For only in this natural way
can the noxious influences of the sun, light, and drying
winds upon the forest-growth at the margins of the woods
be obviated. ‘The same rule holds good if there are open-
ings in the interior of woods on account of the inter-
ruption of the density of the trees in those places. The
point never to be lost sight of in the management of forests
is, to keep the soil fully shaded, especially when it is
poor and dry.

In woods of mixed growth, such as occur in natur-
ally grown forests, thinning is done on different princi-
ples. There the light-needing trees grow ahead of the
shade-enduring ones, and seemingly subdue them.
Nevertheless, the latter must not be removed, as they
form the most important part of the forest, and thrive
even in the shade of the light-needing trees. In thin-
ning such forests we have to consider both classes of
trees separately, and by looking at the overgrown trees,
we have to remove of this class (light needing), those
which prevent the full development of their companions ;
while looking at the undergrowth we have to remove of
the shadc-enduring class, such as are subdued or are likely
to be subdued by trees of their own class. However, to
proceed here correctly is not an easy task, and should
never be left to the discretion of ordinary workingmen.

Old trees growing among young stock should not be
felled in the ordinary way, but gradually removed by
first separating the branches so as not to injure the young
trees surrounding them; and then the trunk after being
felled, should be cut up and carried piece by piece, with
the least damage possible to the after-growing trees.

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THE CARE OF YOUNG PLANTATIONS. 115

3. Removal of large branches.

The removal of the large branches of trees, which have
been retained and left to increase in growth, is seldom
needed in the management of forests, as in properly
kept forests the density of the trees forces them to follow
the light and sun, and grow up in height, thereby keep-
ing back the branches, which, by the increasing shade
from the tops of the young trees, gradually drop
off. In this way the trunks of trees in the high forests
become clear of knots and attain the form so valuable in
lumber and timber. Wherever large branches appear on
forest trees a defective position of the trunks has been
the cause. To remove such branches will seldom be
worth while, except in very valuable trunks the value
of which may sometimes be increased by the removal; and
when room is wanted to enable young trees, growing in
the shade of larger ones, to increase in growth. The re-
moval of such branches becomes necessary when in so-
culled middle forests trees are left overgrown to attain a
greater height. In such a forest each of these large
trees grows up more or less separated, pushes out its
branches laterally, and when not properly attended to,
forms less [useful] wood in trunk and stem, and more
in the useless branches. Moreover, these branches have
a damaging effect upon the sprouts of the cut stock
growing under them by shadowing and preventing their
vigorous growth; and for thisreason they frequently have
to be removed.

In removing a large branch from a tree, we must first
endeavor to minimize as much as possible the extent of
the wound ; especially we must avoid causing a split in
the bark remaining on the tree. In order to attain this
we should not cut the branch in one cut, but make first
an incision underneath, about twelve inches beyond the
place where the branch is to be cut off, then saw entirely
through the branch about one inch further outward, and

116 FOREST PLANTING.

thus the largest part of it is removed. Thereupon re-
move the remaining stump by sawing at a right angle
where it joins the tree, but never in a line running
parallel with the standing tree. [See illustration. ]

If there be more than one branch to be removed from
a tree, commence with the highest branches, at the same
time taking off the dry ones. If the trunk retains its
branches for one third part of its entire height it is suf-
ficient for its vigorous growth.

A, first incision ; B, first cut ; CD, second cut, cor-
rectly executed; C E, incorrectly made cut.

The most favorable time for removing large branches
is late in the fall and in the first part of the winter, be-
cause the healing of the wound will be completed when
the sap begins torun. The sap is then prevented from
running out of the cut and causing it to rot. No puint-
ing with tar, oil, paint, or the like, is required.

4. Undergrowth as a protection to the forest-soil.

It is generally conceded that a favorable condition of
a forest is only practicable when the soil is constantly
protected against the drying infiuences of sun, light and
wind. For this reason the skillful forester always

THR CARE OF YOUNG PLANTATIONS. 117

endeavors to keep the soil in forests of foliaged trees
covered with tree-leaves, and in coniferous forests
covered with needles. The growth of grasses, moss,
heaths, bushes, etc., should be stopped wherever they
appear in forests, and precautions should be taken to
prevent their return. Such vegetation appears in the
openings of imperfect and neglected forests, and in
those woods that consist of light-needing trees, when the
foliage of the trees becomes too thin to overshadow the
soil. Upto withina short time it was customary to plant
these openings and gaps with shade-enduring trees, viz.,
foliaged forests with oaks, beeches, maples and horn-
beams; and light-needing coniferous forests of pines and
larches with spruces and firs, by which measure the
grasses, weeds, etc., would be killed off, while the newly
planted trees under the shade of the old stock would
grow luxuriantly, thereby increasing the wood produc-
tion of the forest. All this sounds very plausible, but
experiments made in Germany at different experimental
stations during several decades show that trees planted
for the protection of the denuded soil use up most of the
plant-food in the surface soil, and thereby damage or at
least keep back the growth of the old stock of trees. It
may be that this observation will not coincide with
similar experiments yet to be made in this country, be-
cause our natural forests contain much more plant-food
than the artificial forests in the old world ; but, even in
Germany, intellizent foresters insist upon preserving
whatever is produced in the woods that will cover the soil
and retain its humidity, thus preventing undue exhaus-
tion by surface evaporation.

118 FOREST PLANTING.

CHAPTER XVII.

PROTECTION OF FORESTS AGAINST ANIMALS AND
ELEMENTARY FORCES,

THE doctrine of the protection of forests includes all
subjects and events by which forests and forest-products
may be imperilled, and the measures to be taken in order
to obviate and lessen the severity of such evils. These
protective measures are directed either against animals,
or elementary forces.

I.—THE RELATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM TO
FORESTS.

There exist many animals which are useful and pro-
mote the well-being of forests, others whose value is
doubtful, being at some seasons and times beneficial
and at others injurious—and still another class whose
presence is always detrimental to forestal growth. In
the second case—doubtful unimals—the injury inflicted
is often overestimated and war waged against animals
which, although doing little harm, are persecuted be-
cause their habits are unknown, and, therefore, a preju-
dice prevails against them.

A.—The Useful Animals.

Among the mammals we find some carnivorous animals
which feed principally on noxious insects, (bugs, cater-
pillars, pupas, butterflies and their eggs) viz.: bats, some
species of the shrew-mouses, moles, hedgehogs, or porcu-
pines and skunks.

The burrowing habit of the mole is sometimes inju-
rious in forest-nurseries, but in the ordinary forests it is
of great advantage, as it loosens the ground and renders

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. 119

it more adapted for the reception and retention of
humidity and fertilizing matter.

Martens, some species of the weasel, the fox, polecat
and badger, are very useful also. These animals feeding
principally upon mice, and many noxious insects, should
be allowed to remain. Special care should be taken to
spare the young of these animals as they live exclusively
on mice and insects.

The importance of birds, as valuable factors in forests
is very great. With the exception of some of the larger
ones as for instance: the eagle, vulture, falcon, the
hawk, the horn-owl and the raven, most of them contrib-
ute to the healthy growth of trees. The smaller birds
are always hunting the enemies of tree-growth, and their
multiplication should be encouraged in every conceivable
way. They, therefore, should not only be spared, but
also protected against their principal foes, cats and squir-
rels, during breeding-time. Thestarlings, woodpeckers,
all kinds of thrushes, black birds, whip-poor-wils, the
purple martin, the oriole, the cedar-bird, the cat-bird,
the red-eyed vireo and the like have proved especially
beneficial ; they feed not only upon insects, but in
winter, when the ground is covered with snow, some of
them search industriously for the eggs of the insects
buried in the bark and twigs of the trees. No gunner
should shoot one of these little animals of the feath-
ered tribe.

Singing birds live without exception on insects. The
forester should devote to them special care, and set aside
certain places where there are bushes or hollow trees, as
these afford the most desirable opportunities for nest-
building. In case such opportunities are lacking, breed-
ing-boxes should be hung up in the trees in order to
afford the feathered tribes the facilities to build nests
and rear their young. It is advisable to leave wild fruit-
trees as crab-apple, wild cherry, plum, pear etc., which

120 FOREST PLANTING.

usually are scattered over a forest area, undisturbed, as
the fruit serves to support useful animals during the time
that insects, caterpillars and eggs of insects cannot be
had.

The various kinds of lizzards, most of the snakes, the
blind worms, frogs and toads are also useful animals as
they devour not only obnoxious insects, but many of
them attack also rats, mice and other small rodents.

But even among the insects we find many which are
carnivorous, and feed mainly upon the smaller and
noxious kinds of their own tribe. To this class belong
the following beetles :

(1.) The lion beetles Calasoma calidum and Calasoma
serutator, of which the former hunts mostly during the
night, while the latter kills and eats all soft-bodied larvee
during the daytime.

(2.) The elongated ground beetle, Pasimachus elonga-
tus, preys also upon all soft-bodied larve.

(3.) The Cicindelide are very appropriately named
‘“¢ Tiger-beetles.” They live in burrows, and are contin-
ually at the top of their burrows waiting for insects
which they catch and drag into their holes where they
eat them at leisure.

(4.) The most widely known and justly appreciated
beneficial beetles are the Lady-birds, Coccinellidw. 'They
perform the work of extermining noxious insects quietly
and silently, and devour countless numbers cf their vic-
tims in a short time.

Beetles are not the only beneficial insects ; a still larger
number is found among the Hymenoptera. Special
notice deserve :

(1.) The dragon-fly or adderbolt-fly (Libdellula), ants
and wasp-flies. The latter two are eyen in their larve
state carnivorous, and prey upon other insects, devouring
also their eggs.

(2.) The white faced hornets are busy all day long in

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. 121

search of larve and slugs with which they feed their
young.

(3.) Other insects prove beneficial by depositing their
eggs in the pupas of injurious caterpillars upon which
the young feed, when hatched. ‘To this class (parasites)
belong the ichneumon-flies (¢enthredo) which range all
the way from flies an inch in length to so minute species
that they scarcely are visible to the naked eye. The
larger kinds deposit only one egg in each victim, while
some of the smaller leave their entire complement of
eggs on one caterpillar. The eggs hatch soon, and the
larvee eat their way into the worm where they consume
all the substance that would otherwise go to make the
future noxious moth.

B.—The Doubtful Animals.

Mistakes are often made with regard to the good or
bad offices of birds by those who ought to know which
are their friends and which their foes. This holds es-
pecially good in reference to

The jay. It is true that this fellow in the spring
hunts after the eggs of the smaller, useful birds, and
sucks the meat out of them with great relish ; but in the
fall he industriously collects ripe acorns and beechnuts,
and buries them in various places in the ground, in
order to lay aside food enough to supply his needs during
the winter. Fortunately he forgets most of the hiding-
places, and the result is that the seeds sprout and pro-
duce fine seedlings.

The sparrow, of which lately much complaint has been
made, is in many respects detrimental to field and garden
products, as he feeds principally upon fruit. But in the
winter time he is very useful, living then upon eggs of
the insects which he picks from the bark of the trees.
During the breeding-time, in spring and early summer,
he destroys a great many insects in order to satisfy the

122 FOREST PLANTING.

wants of his young that will take no other food for the
first weeks of their life. An excess of their multiplica-
tion should be checked by the gun or trap. Hither
fried or boiled, for soup or stew, they make an excellent
meal.

C.—The Injurious Animals.

Animals of prey such as bears, wolves, catamounts,
wild-cats, etc., should be unmercifully persecuted and
killed off as they devour the nobler kinds of game and
also animals useful in promoting the forest-growth.

Of the mammals, the rodents are the most obnoxious
animals, especially the deaver—one of them alone being
able to cut down in one night a tree measuring 12 inches
in diameter. In the State of New York they are now
nearly exterminated, but their pernicious work can still
be seen on streams and creeks in the Adirondack region
on the so-called ‘‘ beaver meadows.” ‘The beavers built
their dams across the streams causing long back flows by
which the surrounding trees and bushes were water killed
or drowned in the ponds formed through the dams.
These ponds became, in time, filled by the decaying wood
material and other debris of the forests, and furnished
the aquatic plants the soil in which they found not only
root, but.such rich plant food that the whole pond soon
was overgrown with coarse grasses. After the extinction
of the beaver the lumbermen have resumed this work of
destroying trees by water. For in order to cheaply
transport the logs through the Adirondacks, dams are
now built, causing back flows that annually kill more
trees than ever have been there destroyed by fire.

Mice are very obnoxious to forest-growth. They feed
upon tree seed, gnaw off the tender bark of young trees,
and bite entirely through small seedlings and saplings.
Foliaged trees are the principal object of their ravages ;
but they do not spare conifers, especially when the

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. 123

forests are surrounded with fields upon which a rich
grass-cover exists. ‘They hide during the winter under
the grass and direct from thence their feeding expeditions
to the neighboring woods. It is, therefore, advisable to
cut late in the fall the grass in and around young plan-
tations as short as possible, thereby preventing the mice
from making their headquarters near the young trees.
But if the damage is done, the girdled trees should be
cut early in spring clean above the ground, in order to
invite a stump growth. ‘True, girdled trees will also
sprout, but as the sap is unable to circulate in the trees,
their vitality is weakened to such a degree that they die
off during the next season. If the mice increase so much
as to become a plague there is no better mcans in which
to fight them than to foster their natural enemies in the
animal kingdom, and to often drive hogs and cattle into
the endangered groves, thus disturbing them in their
feeding-places. In fenced-in forest nurseries mice may
be destroyed by putting poisoned grains in drain pipes ;
but to do the same in the forests is not advisable for the
reason that useful animals would be killed when feeding
upon the poisoned mice.

The squirrel, rabbit, rellmouse and some species of the
dormouse are just as injurious as the mice ; the first one
besides gnawing the trees, consumes the eggs and young
of small birds. Squirrels and rabbits should, therefore,
be shot or trapped. The other named foes cannot be de-
stroyed except by promoting the multiplication of their

natural persecutors, as is recommended in regard to /

mice.

Game, especially deer, when too numerous, will do
much harm to young plantations by feeding upon small
seedlings, and rubbing their horns or branches against
the taller ones. Ashes and spruces, grown up to the
size of hop-poles are sought out by deer, and their bark
is peeled off the stem as far up as the animals can reach.

ee

124 FOREST PLANTING.

In this way game can do much harm to young planta-
tions. ‘The forester must know how many heads of game
a forest can support without imperilling the tree-growth ;
he should kill off the excess or cause it to be killed off.
This is one of the many reasons why the learned for-
ester should have the exclusive care of game in his
territory. ‘I'o entrust the duty of caring for the game to
so-called ‘‘ game keepers” as is done in our State, is pre-
posterous, and serves only to cause collisions between
officers who should be subjected to the directions of one
and the same superior, and act harmoniously in the in-
terest of the preservation of both game and woods.

The most careful attention should be given by the
forester to the habits and life history of insects noxious
to forest-trees, because, without a correct knowledge of
those circumstances, he will not be able to stop or mini-
mize the often enormous ravages accomplished by these
small animals. Their habits are very manifold. Some
make their appearance in February and March, others
in summer, and still others in the fall. Some go dusing
one year through all four stations of their development
(egg, larva or caterpillar, chrysalis or pupa, butterfly
beetle), others require several years for their complete
evolution, the young of others are hatched several times in
one season. It is also of interest to know in which
state of development the insects attack the trees. Com-
monly the larve do all the harm by feeding upon leaves
aid twigs; sometimes the fullfledged insect, especially
many beetles, perform this operation. ‘To observe what
kind of trees are particularly sought after by one or the
other species of insects is also important. Some species
confine themselves to one kind of trees, others attack
several kinds ; the most obnoxious are those which feed
upon both coniferous and foliaged trees. Some insects
consume only leaves, others feed upon the buds; some
live inside the tree, others between tree and bark ; some

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. 125

are always to be found but not numerous ; others appear
seldom, but when they appear, they muster up danger-
ously great numbers ; some are slow in their movements
and walk only; others fly and cover very quickly large
stretches of forests.

From this it will be seen that a keen observation is
required to be able to employ at the right time, and in
the right place, the proper means to moderate the damages,
and to prevent the further spreading of insect-pests.
The most efficacious measure of obtaining these results
consists in sparing and even fostering the multiplication
of the natural enemies of the injurious insects. ‘The
equilibrium between useful and obnoxious animals is
kept up in the animal kingdom by the production of
such animals as persecute the injurious ones. This law
is nowhere more obvious than with insects. There a
considerable number can be looked upon by their de-
struction of obnoxious insects as real benefactors to
mankind.

It is further recommended as a preventive means from
insect ravages the removal of stumps, dry trees and
branches, cut wood and timber, and the peeling off
the bark from timber in case it cannot be shifted
from the forest, whereby the breeding-places of insects
are destroyed. The most effective means to sup-
press the insect-plague, especially in wild or natural
forests, is the introduction of a sy:tematic management,
of which the first step would be a correct and periodically
repeated thinning by which we in time obtain a thoroughly
sound and vigorous growth of trees—and to such trees
obnoxious insects cannot do much harm.

If the just mentioned means to prevent the spread of
injurious insects are observed, it is not difficult to get rid
of them completely. For this purpose the bark of trees
invaded by insects should be stripped off and burnt,
the dead trees should be cut, and unless removed,

126 FOREST PLANTING.

should be burnt up; allstumps, even those of pines, should
be barked, and the bark be removed or burnt; for
stumps, especially those of trees, which have been felled
during the preceding two years, are a general resort for
all kinds of destructive boring insects, and should be
pulled up. But as this, if done on a large scale, is very
expensive, we reach the same end by tearing off the
bark, the naked stump being not frequented by obnox-
ious insects.

The forester, who has made careful observations on the
habits of destructive forest insects, is further able to
keep his district clean by putting at proper places, so-
called ‘‘ trap-trees.” Healthy, living trees, especially
conifers, are felled in many spots of the forest at the time
when the obnoxious insects commence flying around, and
left on the ground without peeling the bark or remoying
tle branches. The insects like to deposit their eggs in
these newly cut trees, and if such trees are removed
or burnt up ere the eggs are hatched, all danger from
attacks of the destroyed generations will be over. But
the forester must endeavor to obtain correct knowledge
of the habits of injurious insects, because without that it
would not be possible for him to determine the most
proper time for removing and destroying the “ trap-
trees.”

The United States Entomoijogical Commission, pub-
lished in 1881 in its Bulletin No. VII a very interesting
and useful treatise on the insects injurious to forest
and shade trees, from which we can see how numerous
and pernicious these insects are in this country. Those
who want more information upon this subject, than the
limited space of this publication permits to give, are re-
ferred to said pamphlet, the author of which is Dr. A.S,
Packhard.

According to the said bulletin oaks are attacked by
214 different species of insects ; elms by 43; hickories

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS, 127

by 87; black-walnut by 11; butternut by 18 ; chestnut
by 18; locust by 20; maple by 37; birch by 19; beech
by 15 ; tulip-tree by 9; pines by 102 and spruces by 24.

Besides enumerating and describing those insects the
bulletin also contains an account of the remedies to be
applied in destroying them. But the average forester
will seldom be able to make use of them, they being too
expensive and causing too much labor in extensive for-
ests. If large tiacts in the forest are taken hold of by
insects, we have to decide which parts can still be saved,
and then apply every means to suppress the pest. But
if it has spread to such a degree that human help can-
not more be of any use, the afflicted trees have to be cut,
and if possible to be disposed of as wood products, or,
if that is not practicable, the torch has to be applied to
them with proper precaution against spreading of the
fire beyond the limits of the infested tract. After the
fire has destroyed the insects, larve and eggs, the de-
nuded area should be reforested at once, in order to
close the opening made in the forest as soon as possible,
and to prevent the elements from making inroads upon
the opened forest.

In the same proportion as the species of forest-trees of
this country greatly outnumber those of Europe the in-
sects detrimental to them are here more numerous than in
Europe. But the damaging influence of the inzects here
upon forest-growth has not been so generally injurious
on account of the diversity of trees growing in our wild
or natural woods, where insects may feed undisturbed
upon certain trees preferred by them ; and for the exten-
sivity of our forests, where the damages of the several
species of insects may be not so remarkable on the single
trees ; both circumstances furnishing at the same time
very good opportunities for creating in large numbers the
natural persecutors of obnoxious insects. However, we
should not be careless in this matter as not only in our

128 FOREST PLANTING.

Adirondack forests,* but also in other States,+ serious
comp'aints are being made that valuable tracts of timber
are dying off. We must watch closely the working of
these little animals, and neglect nothing that can con-
tribute to their suppression. This duty should be con-
sidered by us the more urgent as in regard to the
extensivity of our forests close observers have already
pointed out the next future as the time where complaints
of wood searcity { might be more justified than boasts of
superabunduance ; and then, of course, the great diversity
of trees will have gone also.

II.—INJURIOUS INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS UPON
FOREST-GROWTH.

A.— Frost:

Frost causes injury to forest-trees in various ways :
sometimes the cold during the winter is so excessive that
entire groves of our hardiest trees are killed. This oc-
curs principally in valleys where there are great stretches
of marshy or swampy land, and also in adjacent higher
land lovking towards the south. Not unfrequently the

*Cfr. Ann. Report St. Forest Commission for 1885, pp. 52, 59;
Report for 1886, p. 14; Report for 1888, p. 27.

+A West Virginia paper Jately had the following item :

MORGANTOWN, West Va., Sept. 14.—During the present Summer
large tracts of valuable black spruce timber along the valley of the
Cheat River have died, entailing a loss of tens of thousands of dollars
upon the owners of the land. Botanist C. F. Millspaugh and Entomolo-
gist A. D. Hopkins of the State University have undertaken to investi-
gate the matter, in the hope of being able to point out a remedy. It is

suspected that some insect is at the bottom of the disease which is at-
tacking the trees.

t The Lewiston (Me.) Journal of April 4, 1890, contained as follows:
‘*Tt’s rather queer—the fact that the Boston and Maine had to
suspend operations on its Kittery-Portsmouth bridge for a whole season
beeause the company could not find suitablo timber for its completion,
The depiction of our forest treasures is no myth,

INJURIOUS INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS. 129

frost causes fissures to appear in the bark and wood of
trees, by which they are weakened to such a degree that
they succumb as soon as the weather becomes very cold.
During early spring, when the running of the sap in the
trees has commenced, and a very cold spell follows after
some warm days, the sap often freezes, especially at the
south-side of the trunk; then the bark, covering the
frozen sap, becomes loosened, thereby exposing the under-
lying wood, which in consequence goes to rot.

To prevent these casualties there is only one means,
viz.: the preservation of the close density of the forest,
especially at its margin where it borders on an open
field or a very young plantation. ‘This means of preven-
tion may in case of need be assisted by cultivating ‘‘ wood-
mantels.” A wood-mantel is a strip of ground along the
margin of a forest upon which hardy trees are planted
at such distances that the single trees may be able to
send their roots both perpendicularly and horizontally
into the ground so as to fully resist the fury of the wind-
storms and to develop, far down upon the trunk, strong
branches by which cold winds are prevented from enter-
ing the forest.

Alternate freezing and thawing of the surface soil
causes often the greatest injury to young plantations, es- -
pecially when they are produced by seeding. In such
case the roots are lifted and separated from their hold
upon the soil. The deep roots which penetrate below
the reach of frosts are broken off, and from the higher
roots the earth: is more or less loosened ; finally, the plant
is lifted by the expansion of the surface soil, and the re-
maining roots are laid bare. The seedling then dies. The
only protection against this evil is to allow the natural
grasses and weeds to extend moderately over the ground
of the plantation so as to furnish a covering for the
plants not unlike that afforded by snow. In forest-nur-
series where, under no circumstance, grasses and weeds

130 FOREST PLANTING.

are allowed to grow, we can prevent the damaging influ-
ence of frost upon the plants by covering the rows with
a layer of evergreen boughs.

The late frosts in spring when the trees have already
developed their buds are the most injurious, killing
young trees completely and affecting the older ones so far
as to incapacitate them from producing seeds and from
making any accretion in wood. ‘This evil appears most
frequently in wet or swampy valleys, where the evapora-
tion of moisture prevents the access of the warmth con-
tained in the upper layers of the atmosphere, and thereby
increases the cold developed by evaporation in the soil. In
such cases drainage should be applied to let off the excess
of water; but when this is not practicable, hardy trees
should be planted for the protection of the young ones,
and retained till the latter have reached a size large
enough to overshade the ground and to prevent too
strong an evaporation of the moisture in thesoil. Pines,
hornbeams, alders and the American aspen are best
adapted for this purpose, and even large bushes may be
advantageously used.

In the swampy parts of mountainous regions there
occur, sometimes, late in summer heavy though not last-
ing frosts, which may do a great deal of harm insomuch as
after such a spell a second growth of wood takes place,
which will not ripen by the time the winter sets in, and
is then killed by frost. Oaks and beeches are especially
subject to this casualty The best one can do in such
case is to plant spruces which stand these vicissitudes
yery well.

Sun heat does damuge to forests when there is a want
of a proper water supply. If this can be procured all
danger to the trees is over. Irrigation will seldom be
practicable. But a great deal of the natural moisture
can be retained in forests by preserving a compact dens-
ity of the tree-growth, and keeping the soil well shaded

INJURIOUS INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS. 131

by heavy foliaged trees. Should the management of the
forest require giving the trees some more light in order
to increase the accretion of wood, the complete clearing
by a total felling should not longer be postponed than is
unavoidably necessary, as in the open space the aug-
mented falling of dew will benefit a young plantation
more than if the seedlings are grown bencath tsolated
single trees ; under which they are apt, owing to the re-
flected rays of the sun to be burnt and to dry up. In
regions where the sun is known to injure tree-growth,
Scotch pine (pinus sylvestris) should be cultivated ex-
clusively. Asis well-known, this tree grows where other
kinds are regularly burnt up; but as soon as the pines
commence to show openings there may be planted among
them other and more valuable kinds of trees which,
unprotected, would not stand long continued sun heut.
The winds produce evil effects by desiccating the soil
and blowing away the fallen leaves which cover the
ground. Both troubles can be avoided, or at least less-
ened, by retaining the fullest possible density of the tree.
growth, especially at the margins of the woods. Should
this not be practicable the establishment of so-called
“<wood-mantels” as described on page 129 is advised.
The fallen leaves being better retained at the ground
when there is asmall growth of grasses, it may be some
times advantageous to open the forest a little more, caus-
ing thereby the growth of a thin grass layer upon the
bare forest-soil. At any rate, wide openings in the woods
should never be allowed ; but if the same by any accident
occur, planting of hardy trees and the intermixture of
conifers with foliaged trees should be undertaken at once,
omitting the removal of the stumps of felled trees.
Excessive rains are apt to do much damage to forests,
especially to the various cultures which, in a properly
conducted forest-management, will invariably have to be
undertaken. Planted seedlings cannot be much injured

132 FOREST PLANTING.

by rain ; but the rows in which the seeds are distributed
may easily be washed out if they are very long and not
laid quite horizontally. For this reason it is recom-
mended to interrupt long seed-rows often, and never neg-
lect to give them a horizontal and level situation.

Inundations within the forests, caused by long con-
tinued rains may also do much injury by washing away
the precious uppersoil consisting of rotten and half rot-
ten leaves of the trees and twigs; and by hurting tree-
growth itself through temporary submersion of the roots
and parts of the trunks; but most of the damage is
done where fvrests abut for long distances on streams
which are apt to overflow, especially at the opening of
spring when the ice-covering is broken up. In such
case big flouting ice-cakes are sent by the current into
the woods exposed to the river-floods, cutting or bending
down every tree which is not strong enough to with-
stand the pressure caused by the intruding ice-cakes,
In order to prevent or at least to lessen those dangerous
actions of inundations, copse-wood, with short periods of
rotation should be cultivated on the forest territory as
far as it is exposed to such overflows. ‘The copse culture
is here recommended because the trees, best adapted for
it are quick growers, reaching soon above the high
water mark and possess in their elastic stems and
branches efficient means to break the force of currents,
thereby lessening the dangers threatened by the mig
ice-cakes,

The banks of such streams should be planted with
rows of so-called ‘‘ Pollards” * to ward off, as much as

* Pollards (in German Kopfhdlzer) are hardy but well copsing trees of
which not only the tops but also parts of their trunks are lopped off so
that about 8 or 10 feet of the stems remain. At the new top sprouts
will come out forming new branches. By this treatment we obtain
more powerful trees which are able to resist the inroads of the ice-cakes
and to detain .them from entering the over-flooded parts of the forest.

INJURIOUS INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS. 133

cun be done, the big rampant ice-cakes from entering the
overflown copse-wood and destroying its tree-growth.

Heavy snowfalls do much more harm than rain to for-
est trees, especially to the conifers, as most of them
retain during the winter a thick growth of leaves which
form a substantial bed for the snow. But in moun-
tain regions snow falls sometimes in October or Novem-
ber when the deciduous trees have not yet thrown off
their foliage, and then these trees are also liable to be
hurt by snow.

Snow acts most perniciously when falling in large
flakes upon the branches of the trees while they are
frozen on the outside. The flakes then accumulate upon
the branches and twigs in such quantities that the tops
of the trees form a nearly unbroken mass of ice, which
weighs down the trees and sometimes destroys entire
groves. The most approved safeguard against this oc-
currence consists of (1) a properly made thinning, to-
gether with a somewhat wider planting than is usual in
plantations, and (2) the dividing up of the forest, with-
out interfering with its compactness, into smaller tracts,
separated by avenues or paths from 10 to 12 feet wide,
laid out, if possible, so that the principal rain and snow-
storms strike the paths crosswise and not in the direc-
tion of their length. See page 60, note. In restocking
denuded woodlands planting is also for the same reason
to be preferred to seeding as in the latter case an over-
crowded condition of the seedlings can seldom be avoided.
This is particularly true when pines and spruces are re-
produced by seeding.

Woods in which conifers grow mixed with foliaged
trees are less exposed to damages by snowdrifts, because
they do not present an even surface, but one which is in-
terrupted at the places where the defoliated trees stand.
The snow settles then all around the naked deciduous
trees without hurting them, and is in a great part pre-

"

134 FOREST PLANTING.

vented from settling upon the surface stretching over
the tops of the conifers.

Damages caused to forests by an excess of humidity in
the soil, which has to be drained, and by drifting sands
of adjoining sandlayers are not infrequent. We shall
treat of them at the proper places in Part II and III.

fire is the most pernicious agent in the destruction of
our forests. It is seldom that such fires can be traced to
incendiarism. ‘They mostly result from the carelessness
of lumbermen, tourists and their guides. True, the es-
tablishment of the State Forest Commission, in 1885, has
done much to prevent fires, and the principle that pro-
tection is better than cure has proved also in this case to
be the best guard against fire. But often fires originate
in the woods without human agency. Lightning has
been the most frequent cause of wood-fires, although in

some cases they may have originated from other causes —

as for instance from the spontaneous combustion due to
the decomposition of pyrites, which is known to have set
fire to beds of lignite in the Saskatchewan region.*

It is, therefore, very necessary that besides precaution-
ary measures stringent rules regarding the extinguishing
of fires occurring in forests and denuded woodlands
should be adopted. ‘I'he establishment of a proper road-
system, and the division of a large forest into districts
and plots separated by paths and avenues contributes
much to confining forest-fires. Commonly they origin-
ate upon light, dry soils, when overgrown with conifers
and covered with athick layer of resinous needles ; while
a disaster of this kind hardly is ever known in forests
with heavy clay or loamy soil upon which foliaged trees
grow.+ A discarded cigar or a blown out pipe bowl

* See American For. Congress 1888, page 50,
+ Therefore in Germany, where railways pass through coniferous for-
-ests, and it is feared that the sparks flying from the locomotives may

Inprian F Ace

AUSABLE POND.

Mr, CoLvin.

See albeit

meen a

INJURIOUS INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS. 133

thrown upon forest soil of the former sort readily com-
municates fire to its surroundings. The smouldering
sparks eat through the dry vegetable mould, attack the
scant grasses and mosses and make so much headway
that the green leaves of the young conifers are soon invaded.
The least brecze will fan the smouldering mass into
flames which spread rapidly to the tops of the larger
trees, and are then beyond control.

Happy if you discover the fire when it is still confined
to the inflammable material on the surface soil. All that
is necessary then is to have some energetic men with
rakes, brooms and shovels to rake the grasses, leaves
and other ignitible substances, scattered over the forest
soil, several yards ahead of the fire towards the burning
mass, so that all litter and other combustible material in
front of the fire is accumulated into a wall. It will not
be difficult with a sufficient force of men to put out with
their shovels and spades the approaching flames and con-
fine them to the raked-up wall.

Much more difficult is the task of stopping a forest-
fire after it has reached the branches of the larger trees
and is running up to the tree-tops. Unless a heavy rain
sets in the only means for putting the fire out is to make,
at a proper distance ahead of the invading fire, a broad
passage in such manner that the trees standing there are
felled and thrown towards the advancing fire. As this
work takes much time while forest-fires make quick
headway, the opening in front of the fire should be begun
at such a distance from the fire that the felling is fin-
ished before the flames reach the margin. Otherwise the

light the accumulated leaves and other ignitible material, as dry heather,
mosses @. s. f., it is customary to guard against this danger by safety-
strips, formed by not-coniferous trees that are planted along the line of
railways, as for instance birches, oaks, poplars, etc. Besides the ground
of these strips is always kept clean of dry leaves, litter and other com-
bustible material.

136 FOREST PLANTING.

entire labor is frustrated, and the work has to be done
over again, at a greater distance from the fire, thus sac-
rificing a still larger part of the forest than would have
been destroyed if the distance was at the first properly
taken. As soon as the fire reaches the row of felled
trees a sufficient number of men with shovels, spades and
wet brooms should be in readiness to work, and to use
every means to extinguish the sparks and flames which
fall upon the overturned trees.

Although the methods employed by the management
of European forests in preventing the spreading of for-
est-fires are at present not yet fully available in our
State, it may not be amiss to briefly describe the mode of
European warfare against fires. This mode is in general
as follows :

‘¢ Whenever a forest-fire is discovered the church-bells
in all neighboring villages begin to ring and all able-
bodied persons—men, women and children—turn out
with axes, spades, shovels, rakes, brooms, etc., under the
guidance of acknowledged leaders. They combine their
movements, according to the direction of the wind and
other circumstances, and dispose their forces with intell-
igence and promptitude. A mode often resorted to is
the contre feu, fighting the fire with fire just as in the
Prairies is often done. Knowing the forest well, they
direct their forces to one of the safely-strips, (7. e. open
paths in the woods upon which no shrubs or trees are
allowed to grow) or to the most favorable spot on the
path of the fire. At a sufficient distance ahead of it,
an extended line of workers wider than the fire is formed
and set to work to remove as much of the inflammable
material as possible. They cut down and burn and
trample and shovel earth and carry away stuff, etc., and
when the fire in its course reaches that spot, it finds
little food, hesitates, and at last is generally conquered.”

Our forests are not always surrounded by villages, the

INJURIOUS INFLUENCE OF THR ELEMENTS. 137

alarm bells cannot muster crowds of willing workers to
our distant wildernesses ; therefore, we cannot yet act in
case of emergency as they do in Europe. But if we can-
not extinguish the fire in quite the samo way as they
do, we can do just as much to prevent it, and to
limit its ravages. ‘The best means adopted in Europe for
preventing the spreading of the fire over a large extent
of the ground, is the laying out of their forests, and
dividing them in somewhat isolated independent blocks
by means of the safety-strips, in German called
*‘ Schneissen.” * With such openings you can much
more easily subdue an approaching forest-fire than if the
work of extinguishing has to be commenced in the
midst of an unbroken forest.

However, forest-fires, especially in coniferous woods,
cause another injury much beyond the actual destruc-
tion of timber by burning, in this, that the trees that
have been killed or even scorched by the fire become
principally liable to attucks by wood-boring insects. The
larvee of these by boring large galleries in the substance
of the wood, will in a single season render it worthless
for sawing or use in any other form than, as fire wood
and quite inferior for that. It is, therefore, the best we
can do with a burnt over wood plot to utilize the remains
as soon as possible for charcoals.

*See page 60, note.

“4?
ahd
<. ~

138 FOREST PLANTING.

CHAPTER XVIII,

THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE WILD OR NATURAL WOODS
INTO CULTIVATED FORESTS—WHAT THE AMERICAN
FORESTER SHOULD DO NEXT.

WHILE the calling of the European forester chiefly con-
sists of establishing and caring for artificial forests—
originated either by seeding or planting—the destination
of the American forester points to the transformation of
our still abundant, but very much abused natural or wild
woods into cultivated forests. In a properly managed forest

Shere are from three to four times more useful trees than
in a natural wood. The duty of the American forester,
therefore, is to apply his ingenuity and experience ¢o
make a certain area of woods, without disturbing their
permanency and their economic influence, producing from
three to four times more than it does now.

It is true that exact knowledge of scientific forestry,
as applied in Europe, may help him to understand how
most easily to effect this transformation; but as the main
principles, upon which scientific forestry is based, are no
strangers to our intelligent agriculturists and arboricul-
turists, there is no doubt that we can readily find per-
sons fully qualified for a beginning, and that they will
be followed by others who will endeavor to acquire the
full knowledge of the theory and practice of this science,
completing what their predecessors may have left unfin-
ished, or correcting such defects in the treatment of
woods es close observation and experience has shown them
to be erroneous. Up to the present time, there has been
no demand for skilled foresters in this country. Nay, the
framers of our Forestry Act of May 15, 1885, prohibit in
§8 with the words “the forest preserve shall be forever

TRANSFORMATION OF WILD OR NATURAL WOODS. 139

kept as wild forest lands” the application of any system
of forest management by which the rich products of an
area, containing nearly one million acres of woodland,
may be utilized. Our Forest commissioners, therefore,
can hardly be blamed when they construed their duty
to preserve the State forests only as a direction to secure
the forests from the ax of the lumberman, and from the
torch of the careless or wilful incendiary. *

During the last few years, however, when it became
more and more apparent that our State forests, under the
present laws and management, could not be preserved,
but that their deforestation was progressing to sucha
degree that the watersheds of our principal rivers were
imperilled, a large number of the most prominent men
in the city and State of New York commenced a move-
ment which culminated last year in the formation of the
Adirondack Park Association for the purpose of greatly
enlarging the territory of our State woodlands, and pre-
serving the forests more efficiently by advocating the
application of a systematic management of the woods.

This is a very timely movement which undoubtedly
will make a lasting mark upon the history of the polit-
ical economy of our State. As just before mentioned, we
possess among our citizens many who are both theoreti-
cally and practically well acquainted with all matters
pertaining to the growth and reproduction of forest-trees,
and with the exploitation of woodlands. Such men, if
endowed with good executive ability and assisted by
experienced civil engineers, could be safely entrusted
with the introduction of a systematic management of our
State forests. Generally speaking, their efforts would be

‘directed:

(2) 'To insure the permanency of tree-growth.
(6) To develop and increase, after a well-considered

* See Report of the St. For. Com. for 1888, p. VI.

140 FOREST PLANTING.

plan of thinning, pruning and felling, the productive
capacity of the forests, and —

(c) To restock the denuded woodlands by seeding or
planting such trees as are most desired and best adapted
to soil, climate and location.

In particular, the labors to be performed during the
first four or five years would consist of the following:

(1) Asurveyor accompanied by an expert on soils and
woods should first survey the whole tract, and then, under
the advice of the expert, mark off and map out such sub-
divisions as are indicated by diversity of soil, tree-growth
and other conditions affecting the production and
development of forest-trees.

(2) Then the best plan of laying out roads and ave-
nues, which will have to be constructed for the transpor-
tation of timber and other wood products, has to be
deliberately considered. ‘This is one of the most import-
ant works for the future management ef the woods. It
should be entrusted only to a person who is theoretically
and practically fully conversant with such operations. For
it is not sufficient to lay out one or more roads to satisfy
the transient and local wants which have chanced to
springup; but the entire interests of the forest in its
present and future condition as well as those of its envi-
rons have to be looked after, and a road system has to be
devised which, although not yet fully required, will be
necessary in the future when the woods are more developed,
and the time arrives that the wood products will be
utilized to their fullest extent.

(3) A wooded region to be taken in hand, and to be
worked systematically, should after the completion of the
operations indicated in 1 and 2, be laid out in districts con-
taining from 100,000 to 150,000 acres, and subdivided in
smaller ones of from 10 to 20,000 acres. While the whole
tract would be supervised by one Over-forester, the subdivi-
sions should be.under the continual care and attention of

TRANSFORMATION OF WILD OR NATURAL WOODS. 141

a forester, acquainted with the methods of the routine
work, who should, according to the directions given by
the Over-forester, superintend the working force of
laborers employed in cutting and removing the wood
products, or in cultivating and planting denuded
stretches within the district. The Forest Officials should
have a permanent residence within their territory, and it
should be their duty to guard the place against fire and
trespass, for which purpose they should have the power
to arrest trespassers.

The boundaries of the districts, and their subdivisions,
may be formed either naturally by old roads, streams,
ditches, adjoining open fields, etc., or artificially by open-
ing avenues and roads. Under all circumstances, adjoin-
ing forests belonging to different owners should be
separated by a clearing of trees along the boundaries,
about one rod wide, to which each party should contrib-
ute one-half of the space so that a properly indicated
boundary line would run in the midst of this path.

(4) After the above-mentioned labors have been com-
pleted the first and most effective step to be taken in
order to transform a wild wood intoacultivated forest, is
to thin it out, that is, to cut and remove all inferior vege-
tation and dead trees as well as those that encroach upon
the quick development of the more desirable trees; but
with the restriction that the soil may not be exposed to
sunlight and atmospheric influences.* In order to enable
the laborers to do this work efficiently, the subdivisions of
the forests should be cut up in dlocks containing from 3
to 400 acres, and separated by a clearing or path about
eighteen or twenty feet wide, called in German “ Schneis-
sen,” upon which the output of the block can be removed.

(5) When the roads and avenues in a large forest have
been established and made practicable, we can go on cut-

* See page 111. sqq

142 FOREST PLANTING.

ting and removing all mature and overmature trees,
observing as far as possible the restriction made by
thinning out the woods, viz., to preserve the natural soil
conditions to the best of our ability.
_ (6) While in cutting and removing wood products out
of the forests the rule of performing this work with the
greatest care and regard toward the adjoining tree-
growth has to be strictly obeyed (see p. 114. if.); the
felling itself should be done so as to promote a natural
reproduction according to the directions given in Chapter
XII. But where this is impracticable—and this will
often happen in wild woods—there should be no delay
in establishing forest nurseries, not only for rearing the
required seedlings for restocking or filling out denuded
wood areas; but also for collecting at the proper times
ripe seeds from the most desirable kinds of trees in the
whole forest. A good gardener, well versed in the culture
of trees, will prove fully competent to manage such a
concern.
Thus it will be seen that the possible absence of men
fully acquainted with the methods of scientific forestry
should not prevent us from the int: sduction ofa rational
treatment of our wild woods, as every thing that has to
be done during the first four or five years before scien-
tific methods may be employed, can be perfectly done
by our own citizens without any prejudice to the future
management. In the mean time, if it should be necessary
to employ skilled foresters, enough of them will probably
be found,*

* The report of the State Forest Commission for 1886, on page 17. i.f.,
contends that scientifically educated foresters cannot be obtained here.
This statement is not supported by facts, as skilled foresters are very
often, through the advertising columns of the New York news-
papers, seeking employment, Certainly they do not find it in the
management of woods, because such a thing like that does not exist
here ; but they embark in allied employments, especially in agriculture.
However, as soon as the State will introduce a systematic management

TRANSFORMATION OF WILD OR NATURAL WOODS. 143

By inducing our State to enlarge its wooded area
in the Adirondacks and to introduce there a meth-
odical management, we should urge this measure
for the sole reason, that this is the only means to pre-
serve the forest-growth upon the woodlands containing
the watersheds of our principal rivers permanently, and
that without a permanent forest-growth upon these lands,
the continuance of a regular water-flow to the rivers
would be greatly endangered. ‘That the State woods will
yield lateron a revenue, if managed on business princi-
ples, cannot be doubted. But we should not expect such
a result during the next generation. The income ob-
tained at present by European Governments from their
well-managed forests, may serve as an example of what a
well-conducted administration of forests may be able to
perform. However, it would be a very erroneous concep-
tion of the present desolate condition of our State forests
and of the wide disproportion between the value of lum-
ber and the cost of both labor and transportation, as we
find in our country, if we should expect with the intro-
duction of a methodical forest management, to at once
obtain the same pecuniary results which the European
governments have realized through a well-organized forest

of its forests, there will be made undoubtedly many offers to serve the
commonwealth,

In this connection it may be of interest to our forestry students to
Jearn that the tendency of European experts in sylviculture, contrary
to former practices in the management of forests, is lately directed to a
more close observation of Nature’s workings in the wild forests. They
try now to sustain their theories from facts suggested to them by Nature,
rather than to follow the narrow paths outlined by old authorities.
Whereas formerly the European forester advocated the cultivation of
forests with pure stock, divided in blocks with adequate revolutions of
cutting and replanting, the present generation acknowledges in many
respects the great advantages of the natural woods, and recommends
now in ihe establishment of new forests, mixed planting, and in their
exploitation the selection of single trees, instead of the former complete
clearing of entire wood areas.

144 FOREST PLANTING.

service with the greatest exertions during the last fifty
years.

What we may reasonably expect, is to bring our woods
after continued and well-directed operations during
the first decade, to a condition in which they may
prove self-supporting. Having reached this point, with
which a great benefit to our State will be gained—see pa-
ges 25 and 26—we may be confident, that enlarged know-
ledge and experience of our Forest Officials in matters of
scientific Forestry will render our State forests from year
to year more profitable, with a steadily improving condi-
tion of the forests; so that the next century may witness
such an increase of the wealth to our State from this
single source, as we are now entirely unable to imagine,
People will then bless those men who undauntedly
persisted in establishing a State industry, by which not
only the commonwealth derived a handsome income, but
which also created the opening of a new and honorable
career to many men for profitable employment. This
condition of things will be the more gratifying as the peo-
ple will not be taxed for the support of a small army of
Forest Officials and laborers; they will be paid by the
profits derived from their operations in the culture of the
forest, and they will earn much more than they expend.

In conclusion, a few remarks in regard to the nomen-
clature used in the science of forestry might be well-
timed.

Forestry, as applied on the European Continent, being
an entirely unknown science in England and its depen-
dencies, it is not to be wondered at that the English lan-
guage has no designations appropriate to the technical
words and methods of managing forests recognized in
European forest economy. We, therefore, in introducing
systematic forestry in our country, have mostly to fall
back upon the expressions applied in Europe, till we have
advanced so far as to establish our own system of desig-

_ aa

TRANSFORMATION OF WILD OR NATURAL WOODS. 145

nation. In the mean time we should apply those words,
which although now used indiscriminately in forestry mat-
ters, are able to recive a specific technical signification in
a confined and appropriate meaning. First among
them is the word “forest.” It is in English used as being
identical with “ woods;” and yet it would be a great lin-
guistic improvement, if we would only apply it to those
woods, which are cultivated and systematically managed ;
and leave the expression “ woods” to the wild or natu-
rally grown-up woods. We would then very properly
speak of the North woods of the Adirondacks, but very
improperly, when designating them as wild or natural
“forests.”

PART II.—Forestr PLANTING ON PLanes:

Havine treated in the foregoing part of general
matters of forest culture, we will now consider the
various kinds of forest planting.

All forest vegetation is dependent, not only upon the
climate of the country, but also upon the soil and loca-
tion. The State of New York is especially favored in its
situation, as its climate is moderated by the close prox-
imity to the Atlantic Ocean, a circumstance that increases
the humidity of the generally very dry air, and causes a
snow, and rainfall sufficient to produce a luxurious
forest-growth. Woods, therefore, have sprung up all
over the State, except in those places where the soil is
too poor to bring forth any vegetation at all, and the
variety of trees of spontaneous growth is larger here than
in any other State of the Union by reason of the many
varieties of soil and diversities of elevation, the latter in
many cases reaching heights where only bushes and
shrubs grow.

As the vegetation on the plains shows a marked differ-
ence from that on the mountains, both in regard to
varieties and treatment, we have to consider them sepa-
rately and wili take up first, Forest Planting on Plains.

146

PLANTING ON LANDS WITH ALLUVIAL SOIL, 147

CHAPTER I.
FOREST PLANTING ON LANDS WITH ALLUVIAL SOIL.

In our State we have a great amount of alluvial soil
formed by the deposits of the many rivers and rivulets
which descend from our hills and mountains. This soil
mostly contains such favorable mixture of earthy and
mineral substances as to promote all vegetation to the
highest degree—and on such places, agriculture lays its
exclusive and well-founded claims. But there are among
them many low sites which, being subjected to oft-
repeated inundations, cannot be used for agricultural
purposes, and yet may be utilized advantageously for the
cultivation of willows.

Although the willow is not considered as being a
forest-tree proper, the management of large forests,
especially that of mountain forests, requires often the
propagation and cultivation of willows on an extensive
scale, because they chiefly furnish the material to bind
the drifting sand, and to hold the loose soil along the
banks of streams in place. For this purpose—as we will
see in Part I1i—those kinds are cultivated which retain
their shape as shrubs; while the tree-like kinds are
used to serve as pollards, (see page 132 Note*). The
propagation is effected by cuttings—see page 67—and
in the management of the willow shrubs along the banks
of rivers, exposed to inundations we resort to a coppice
treatment with short rotations from eight to ten years,
the rods retaining up to that age the pliability, by
which they are able to withstand the pressure of the
invading waters, and to break their force without being
broken themselves. If they are allowed to grow older,

148 FOREST PLANTING,

they lose their flexibility, and becoming stiff and
immovable, the intruding waters create behind them
whirlpools which undermine the soft soil, and form pools
with stagnant water, by which not only the further
plant-growth but also the consistency of the bank is
endangered. What kinds of willows of the many indig-
enous species we should employ for the purposes stated,
will be best learned from experience made in the different
localities of our State in regard to the growth and
behavior of the same. That our indigenous species are
not of great economic value especially for osier purposes
is pretty certain, as their twigs and rods are mostly
wanting the flexibility which renders them so useful in
basket-making. ‘To furnish the required material for
this growing industry we therefore have had for years
to look—and are still looking upon importations of
rods from Germany. Lately, however, the cultivation
of some of the foreign species having met with success
here, we are now ableto advantageously employ a culture
by which many areas of lands may be made profitable
which otherwise would be entirely useless.

The willows mostly used in Germany for industrial
purposes are: salix purpurea and viminalis. The latter
grows tree-like, while the former develops into shrubs.
Saliz viminalis produces a much larger quantity of twigs,
and strong ones at that, which farmers use for building
fences. Salix purpurea is by far not so coarse as vimi-
nalis and, therefore especially in demand for the manu-
facture of the finer grades of willow-ware. In our
State the salix purpurea is called the red osier, and
although imported from Germany, succeeds very
well. It produces numerous pliant, evenly grown
rods which are especially adapted for wattling pur-
poses. This willow, the bark of which furnishes also
the material for extracting salicylic acid, is not so fasti-

eS a a P

PLANTING ON LANDS WITH ALLUVIAL SOIL. 149

dious in regard to the soil, growing well not only on
moist but also on dry, sandy soil, and even on swampy
lands. It can endure the heat and cold as well as moisture
and dryness. The profits of a willow plantation are very
large. In Germany they used to be as high as $80 per
acre. The cultivation is comparatively easy. The nat-
ural homes of the willow are the banks of rivers and the
low bottom lands subjected to temporary inundations,
The soil best adapted for a permanent willow plantation
is a moist humus with asandy subsoil. There is no kind
of tree with which water plays so important a part as the
willow. It is true the willow likes a moist soil which
may sometimes be even entirely overflowed, but the
water should not remain for too long a time and, there-
fore, in places where this occurs, drainage should be
resorted to.

Willow ptantations require athorough cultivation with
deep plowing and subsoiling to the depth of 18
inches. If expenses are no obstacle, spading in such a
way as to turn the subsoil up and spread it over the
humus is to be preferred. Then the roots of the young
plants have the benefit of the fertile soil, while the in-
fertile subsoil on the top prevents the growth of weeds.
For spring planting—and this is in our State preferable
to fall planting—the ground should be fully prepared
during the preceding fall before the first frost appears
and exposed to the action of the frost and air during
the winter. The cuttings should be made late in the
fall, when vegetation has come to rest, about 12 inches
long, from vigorous and sound main shoots, using only
the lower half of them. They should be kept during
the winter, bundled up in moist sand in a place which
is free from frost. They are planted from one to two
feet apart in rows, which are wide enough to allow the
soil between them to be worked, in order to eradicate

150 FOREST PLANTING.

the weeds. The best way to keep the plantation clean,
and at the same time to secure a rapid growth, is to
manure the space between the rows and raise therein
potatoes, turnips, or other root-fruits which require a
good deal of cultivation during the summer. If this
system be practiced, there will be already in the
second year shoots so large as to allow acrop. Large
plantations, however, are commonly divided into three
to four fields (lots), of which one is cut every year.
This short rotation is preferred, because the rods when
young are more pliable than when growing older. In
planting the cuttings, care should be taken, not to dis-
turb the callus, which had been formed at the bottom of
the cuttings during the time of their being bundled up
and covered with moist sand. They should be set at an

angle of forty-five degrees in the plant hole with the —

eyes in an upward direction. Cuttings planted in this
way are much better packed in the ground by the set-
tling of the soil than when set straight up, and there is
nothing which hurts the growth of cuttings more than

becoming loose in the soil and being shaken by the
wind. See page 67.

CHAPTER II.

FOREST PLANTING ON MARSHY OR SWAMPY LANDS,

4

THERE are many acres of bottom land along the rivers,
which, owing to their low situation, cannot be drained.
Upon them there soon appear sour grasses, reeds,
rushes and sedges, out of the decaying materials of
which and of other vegetable and mineral accretions
the bogs, marshes or fens and swamps are formed,

dle pee nn a

PLANTING ON MARSHY OR SWAMPY LANDS. 151

Wet grounds are called either bogs or marshes or
swamps. Bogs are the softest grounds, and often too
soft to bearaman. Marshes or fens are less soft, but
very wet; however, they beara man. Swamps are soft
and spongy but sustain man and beast, and are often
pastured. The subsoil, mostly, is of sandy structure.
If these wet grounds contain a good proportion of
minerals and mineral combinations with vegetable
matter, they afford the best opportunity for raising
every cultivated fruit. But commonly this kind of
soil is too porous and does not possess the consistency
required by plant vegetation for its vigorous growth.
Should it be possible to overcome this obstacle by
adding sand or clay to the surface soil there is no artifi-
cial meadow which will, under proper treatment, pro-
duce more grass and fodder than such a natural mea-
dow. Ifsuch meadows can be drained even only by
forming raised beds, with deep ditches, every crop
could be successfully raised upon them. But most
localities of this kind cannot be drained, and being
exposed to repeated inundations by rivers, there is no
cther means of utilizing them than by growing forest-
trees. The preparation of the soil, in this case con-
sists in burning over the top of the soil, in doing
which, care has to be taken that the fire should not
penetrate too deeply into the soil and consume the
entire vegetabie mould, for then the soil would lose most
of its fertility, and produce only shrubs and mullen
stalks. But if only the top of the surface soil is burnt,
the mixing of the ashes with the remaining soil renders
it very fertile, and planting may be begun in the fol-
lowing spring.

Another means to prepare swampy grounds for tree
culture is to dig out narrow but deep ditches at the
proper distance apart, and spread the dugout upon the

152 FOREST PLANTING.

beds thus formed. The softer the field, the deeper the
trenches should be dug, and consequently the higher
should the beds be raised. Although there is much
left for one’s own judgment in this matter, the propor-
tion of the width of beds to that of the ditches usually
is five to one, while the depth of the ditches is regulated
by the depth of the vegetable mould and the level of the
ground-water. The ditches should be so deep as to
bring up a layer of the sandy subsoil at least six inches
thick, and heighten the beds to such a degree that the
level of the ground-water remains at least three feet
below the surface soil. After the lapse of one year,
planting may be begun without any further working of
the soil, the heavy sand sinking by its own weight into
the porous surface, thus rendering it fit for sylvi-cul-
ture. But should the dugup subsoil be loamy, a thor-
ough plowing and mixing with the top soil is necessary.
On the soil of a swamp prepared in this manner,
“planting” of forest-trees is decidedly preferable to
“seeding” as such ground invites the growth of
grasses tou much, and, therefore, the surface will soon be
covered by a dense mat of grass and weeds unless more
often disturbed by the cultivator, a treatment which
would in a seeded field prevent the seeds from sprout-
ing. The best time for planting is the spring, as by
planting during the fall, winter killing could not be
avoided on account of the elevated lay of the spongy
beds, and their being greatly exposed to frost. But
even to plant seedlings (from one to two years old) the
rapidity of the growth of gras. and weeds is very obnox-
ious, and, therefore, to prevent any inroads from this
cause, hill-planting has to be resorted to.* In these hills,
made from the subsoil earth, the seedlings are set as

*See pages 97 and 98,

ny
¢ ——™~ YT"

PLANTING ON MOORLANDS. 153

deep as possible without covering the top of the hill.
Upon swamps containing rich soil should be planted
spruces, oaks and beeches, with which ash, elm and
maple, may be mixed. On such places the most lucrative
forest management for producing timber and lumber
can be introduced, as here also all valuable light-needing
trees prosper and grow so strongly that even an inter-
mixture of the otherwise much dreaded birch may be
permitted.

If the soil of the swamp is poor, spruces and oaks
may be planted under the protection of the pine. On
sloughs, that is, swamps with such wet ground as can-
not be drained at all, the swamp hickory, alder and black
ash will still thrive, and even the spruce and balsam fir
will grow and exercise a beneficient effect in absorbing
the moisture of the ground and rendering it more com-
pact.

CHAPTER III.
FOREST PLANTING ON MOORLANDS.

LEAVING the low bottom lands of the rivers—called
the alluvium—and ascending to the higher plains we
find, that, in the original state of the country, a few
kinds of the Erica family take possession of the territory
both dry and wet, and form the principal vegetation.
Only where the ground is too sandy and loose do they
give way to lichens, mosses and other plants which are
content with very poor soil, as for instance, smali leaved
winter dock, corn marigold etc. Those Hricas possess
the peculiarity of secreting through their leaves much

154 FOREST PLANTING.

resin, and this combined with the rotten roots and other
parts of the plants, bring into existence in the course of
time, so thick and impenetrable a surface soil that
neither rain nor any other moisture of the air or earth
can sink into the ground. Moreover, should any ele-

vation of the ground prevent the stagnant waters from

flowing off, swamps are formed which foster the growth
of aquatic plants (cotton-grasses, tuft-grasses, etc.), by
the decay and rotting of which the organic surface of
the soil is continually increased. This is the way in
which the so-called moorlands are built up. When the
accumulations of aquatic plants have reached a consider-
able height the power of vegetation passes away and
peat bogs of more or less consistency are formed accord-
ing to whether the water is drained off or retained in the
soil. In the lowlands of the heaths this soil is often
mixed with more or less muck.* Should it be possible
to apply drainage here, there would be an opportunity
for cultivating every kind of grain. But if moorlands
do not contain anything to counteract the noxious effect
of the too abundant carbonaceous humus and humic acid,
there is no other means of utilizing such lands except to
prepare them for raising forest-trees, and, for this pur-
pose, to mix with the moor soil the deeper lying mineralic
ingredients of the subsoil. This is done in the following
manner: After the moor has been drained as much as
practicable the tufts of the top soil are scattered all over,
and the surface is, as much as possible, made level.
Thereupon deep plowing is resorted to with the effect of
bringing up the sand from the subsoil for mixing it with
the moor dirt. Should the moor layer be so thick that

*We mean by “ muck ’’ the vegetable deposits of swamps and ponds,
consisting of decayed organic substances mixed with more or less earth
and containing much carbon.

PLANTING ON MOORLANDS. 155

the subsoil cannot be, reached by the plow, then sand
should be dug up from the bottom of the ditches, run-
ning through the moor, and scattered cver the surface
soil, whereupon by deep plowing a complete mixing of
the surface soil with the dugout sand should be perfected.
If the surface soil be pretty compact and strong, a sand
layer from five to six inches thick will be sufficient,
while poorer soil should be enriched by a layer several
inches thicker.

This culture may be preceded by burning over the
surface soil, by which process the expenses of the culti-
vation are remarkably lessened. Butif theturf (top of
the moor soil) proves to be very thick, burning over the
surface soil cannot be avoided, but must be, under all
circumstances, employed.

When the surface of a moor has been treated in this
way, the spruce, and even fir, may be planted as principal
stock of trees; as the soil, even during the driest summers,
will contain sufficient moisture to favor the growth of
these trees. According to the quality of the soil, either
beeches and oaks, or oaks and pines,or only pines are
used to serve as mixture, the best soil been assigned to
the first-named trees and the*next best to the second
combination. The poorest soil will not permit the growth
of any other kind of trees but the pine. However, under
the cover of this tree there may spruce and hemlock
grow, although they will not flourish luxuriantly.

156 FOREST PLANTING.

CHAPTER IV.

FOREST PLANTING ON HIGH MOORS.

Ir is an undisputed fact that an area covered with the
richest humus, if exposed to continual moisture, will
soon lose its fertility, and all plant-life on it will die, as
the stagnant water thoroughly chills the soil and leeches
out every particle of plant-food. Upon the remains of
the destroyed vegetation, first peat-mosses, und later,
more developed aquatic plants make their appearance.
These continually die off, only to let others spring up
again, and in the fulness of time, they reach such an
elevated position as to bein want of necessary humidity.
The remainder of these plants, on account of their sub-
mersion and of the antiseptic property of the humicacid
contained in the water do not fully decay, but accumu-
late during many years and finally form a thick mogs-
turf (cover of the moor) upon which some of the ericaeas
appear, together with other plants which are content
with a moist moor ground and sour humus. Asiong as
the bottom of a moor is being raised by this accretion,
the moor extends further on over the margins and
becomes larger, for the original vegetation of the borders
also dies out, owing to the increased swampy condition
into which the surrounding margin of the moor has been
brought, giving way to the mosses, ‘The central part
of these moors, having grown up for a longer time than
the margins (which always extend laterally) usually has
a higher situation than the borders and is, therefore,
called in Germany High Moor and in England Moss-
land. The vegetation thereon principally consists of

-

~~

Ble

PLANTING ON HIGH MOORS. 157

peat-mosses and heath-plants, of which the former
occupy the low, swampy places, while the latter settle
upon the comparatively higher and, therefore, drier and
more compact parts of the moor—the tufts

The first annual report of the New York Forest Com-
mission contains the following graphic description of
these moors which are called there “natural meadows.”
“These natural meadows are formed by the gradual
filling-up of lake or pond-beds with an accumulated
growth and deposit. ‘They are seen in the Adirondacks
in all stages of formation; some having a wide swampy
margin with a matted growth of aquatic vegetation; and
others still, entirely grown over. The last stage of
development is the natural meadow, level as a floor, on
which grows a scant, wiry, inferior quality of grass.”

The high moors or moss lands are formed not only on
plains and on heaths, but also in forests and upon mount-
ains, covered with a luxuriant growth of forest-trees.
This is proved by the many iarge trees which are found
in the peat layers. In former years the beavers, by
building their dams across the forest streams, laid the
foundation for many high moors. At present, reckless
men, who undertake to transport felled trees by rafts
upon the torrents of mountains, often stop the natural
flow of the waters, by erecting dams, and. cause a back
flow which kills even the most luxurious forest-growth,
forming a nucleus around which the rapacious aquatic
plants gather and work up their way in the above des-
cribed manner. On this subject the cited Report of the
New York Forest Commission also contains a vivid des-
cription which we think will be very interesting to the
reader. Under the heading of Beaver Meadows it says,
on page 19, “ Years azo when the beavers were plenty in
the Adirondack waters, they built their dams across the
creeks and streams. Sometimes these dams caused long

TO __ e

158 FOREST PLANTING.

back flows, covering the low ground where the stream
was sluggish and the fall slight. he surrounding trees
and bushes, water-killed or drowned by the back flow,
or gnawed down by the beavers, fell into the water and
gradually decayed. ‘This mixed with the débris brought
by floods, as time went on, filled their pond, and aquatic
vegetation, finding root in this rich mould, soon com-
pleted the work.”

In regard to the cultivation of the high moors the
following considerations may be kept in view: The
peat-mosses form an infertile soil and wherever the top
soil consists of such ingredients there is no possibility
for a successful culture of forest vegetation. But the
heath plants render the moor soil compact, and even
enrich it, forming in due time a surface soil which
proves the more nutritous the thicker it becomes, and
enables us to proceed with growing forest-trees thereon.
In Europe those countries which contain many high-
moors are very poor and, therefore, only sparsely settled.
But lately the moors have been recommended for plant-
ing them with forest-trees and people have successfully
grown there all kinds of trees, especially oak seedlings
as coppice wood for tanning purposes.

For raising forest-trees upon high moors, first of all
there has to be ascertained whether mineralic earth
may be had from the subsoil without too much expense,
If this be the case, the culture upon raised beds as des-
cribed in Chapter II. would be the most advisable one.
The more mosses the top soil contains and consequently
the poorer this soil is, the more sand has to be brought
up from the subsoil and thoroughly mixed with the moor
soil. Commonly a layer of sand from 6 to 10 inches
will be sufficient. Should the moor ground be too deep
to reach the sandy subsoil, drainage combined with
burning over the top soil is the only means for unlock-

PLANTING ON HIGH MOORS. 159

ing the plant-producing power of the ground. High
moors which have been burnt over are very favorably
changed, both in regard to the mechanical and chemical
conditions of thesoil. Naturally the peaty ground is
too porous to retain moisture and, therefore,in dry
weather parches up while it, by a continuance of rain, is
converted into amud pool. After the surplus water has
been drained off and the top soil burnt over, the ground
becomes more compact and, for this reason,: does not
change so much by alternate drying up and being over-
flowed with water. In this condition of greater density
the soil is still enabled to let in the gases of the air,
required for the support of every vegetation, and to
easily absorb moisture from the atmosphere to supply
the demands of the plants. Such soil does not retain so
much water as thereby to kill the plant-roots in case of
frost. ‘The chemical condition of this soil is, by the
burning in so far improved, as many of the elements
obnoxious to plant-growth, are destroyed while others
enter into combinations which are favoring plant-growth.
So the too abundant humic acid disappears and leaves a
carbonate of lime which serves to further take out the
sourness of the ground. ‘The protoxide or black oxide,
which is always found in great quantities on such places
and poisons every plant, takes up, after the water is
removed, more oxygen, and is then changed into the
unnoxious peroxide, or red iron which even furnishes
some food to plants.

As for the trees to be planted after the high moors
have received the proper preparation, it has been proved
to be best, to plant upon sanded moor ground princi-
pally the spruce, to which may be added oak and pine.
Upon the not sanded moors, pine is the leading tree, to
which the spruce and, in a small scale, the oak may be
added as mixtures,

160 FOREST PLANTING.

Drainage and burning over the surface soil being the
principal means to bring the moors into such a condition
as to plant forest-trees upon them, are, therefore, so
important that they may well form the subject of a
special consideration.

CHAPTER V.
DRAINAGE,

WHEN moors are to be prepared for tree-growth, the
first step to accomplish this end is to apply drainage.
By this it is not intended to remove all of the humidity
out of the ground, but only the excess of water—a
water-soaked soil being detrimental to every plant-
growth.

In bottom-lands, drainage is often dammed up by the
high water-table of adjoining rivers, but the hilly up-
lands afford ample opportunity for the application of
this improvement.

In order to render the drainage of a place or district
perfect, a careful investigation of the entire locality
should be instituted, and its topography, including the
courses of the streams and rivers, should be minutely
mapped out. Thereupon the elevations of the surface
and the height of the water-table should be found out
and marked on the map or chart.

After the level of the place, both in regard to its prin-
cipal part and the adjuncts, has been ascertained, a
system of drains and their operation, by which the
excess of water may be let off, can be easily delineated.
First, an appropriate direction has to be given to the
main or receiving ditch. Commonly, this direction will

DRAINAGE. 161

point to the more inclined part of the place, and the
outlet will be the spot which is situated lowest.

On most of extended tracts, we find empty beds of
old rivulets or other water courses. ‘These are the best
guides for ascertaining the natural level of the place.
However, the site and run of the river, stream or other
channel, into which the principal ditch is supposed to
pass off its contents, is the decisive moment in settling
the question of the direction of this ditch. If feasible,
the direction should be the straightest possible, not only
for the sake of saving territory and labor, but because
the flow of water is then less damaging to the slopes of
the ditch than when checked by curvatures and
windings.

In order to determine upon the width and depth of
the main ditch, the quantity of water which runs over
the place not only during summer time, but also during
floods and in wet seasons must be ascertained. Finally,
an examination of the quality of the soil, especially in
regard to its different layers, ingredients, water-table,
porosity, etc., must be made, because the correct laying
out of the trenches depends for the most part upon
these considerations.

In planning out the particulars of a drainage system
for moors there should not only be taken into considera-
tion the best way to let off the water, and to prevent
forever the degeneration of moors into swamps, but
also the means to stop the outflow during the dry sea-
sons at will. If the subsoil be sandy, a deepening of
the level of the ground water sometimes becomes highly
objectionable because the vegetation in such case, dur-
ing a dry season, will not be so sufficiently developed as
it would be if the necessary humidity of the soil were
retained.

Usually forest-trees thrive where the land extends

162 FOREST PLANTING.

from three to four feet above the level of the ground
water, although a great many trees send their roots
much deeper into the soil. But if the moor is very
spongy and porous, there exists such a capillary attrac-
tion of the ground water up to the overlaying soil, that
with the lowering of the water-table to the stated depth,
the necessary drainage and percolation of air through
the soil cannot be obtained. It is, therefore, advisable
to lay the main ditch, if possible, deep enough so as to
bring the water-table to a level with the solid subsoil.
The danger that the surface soil, by this arrangement,
may be rendered too dry will be avoided, as hereinbe-
fore stated, by the erection of proper devices for stop-
ping the flow of water at will.

The main ditch should be laid out in the deepest
places of the longitudinal fall of the area, and into this
ditch the side-ditches open so as to discharge their water
at the most acute angle possible. The side ditches are
mostly laid out pretty regular, except if springs or
other aqueous spots should be found for the drainage of
which special trenches should be opened. If the area
to be drained extends more in breadth than in length,
especially if the middle part contains an elevation run-
ning straight through the middle and is sloping on
both sides of the centrum of the area, no side ditches
are required, but only several longitudinal ditches, run-
ning parallel or nearly so with the main ditch, may be
opened, provided they are situated so near to each other
as to drain off, completely, the water of the land lying
between them.

The number of side ditches depends upon the quan-
tity of the water to be drained off and the condition of
the soil, while the depth of the ditches depends upon
the elevation of the soil and the quantity of water to
be carried by the ditch. Owing to the pressure exer-

———— =

-- ee). os

_ _—

ite? ee

DRAINAGE. 163

cised by the surrounding soil upon the sides of the
ditches, danger exists of the embankments sliding down
and, ere long, to fill up the ditches. For this reason the
sides of the ditches have to slope at an angle of about
35° from the horizontal, whether the soil may consist
of sand, clay or loam. For, although the soil of the
last-named kind stands for a while firm, if the sides of
a ditch are all perpendicular, the drying effect of
the air upon the sides is such as to soon remove every
tenacity out of the soil, and make it crumble down into
the ditch. |

The slope of ditches in moors with tenacious soil
used to be from 15° to 30° from the perpendicular; with
loose soil 45° ; and if there isreason to assume that the
quantity of water carried through will be very large
and rapid, a slope of 60° to 70° is to be given. The
base of the ditches is commonly as wide as the ditch is
deep, unless the locality, especially the elevation of the
soil, renders a change necessary. From the depth, the
width of the base and the pitch of the sides it is easy to
compute the amount of area occupied by the ditch. It
is of great importance to establish a uniform grade of
descent in the slope of the ditches. The larger the bulk
of the water is which has to pass off, the greater the
force of the water in the duct (or conduit) becomes, and
the less the gradual fall should be, especially in loose
soils ; otherwise the bottom and slopes of the ditches
will be exposed to the danger of washing out. In case
the natural descent should be too steep and, therefore,
encroachments upon the slopes are apprehended, it is
necessary to interrupt the descent from time to time,
and to establish little rapids in the ditches at the foot
of which a new grade commences. But this operation
seldom occurs in the plains; it is applied mostly in hilly
regions. :

164 FOREST PLANTING.

In large, extended plains a fall of 1.6000 may be suf-
ficient for a regular flow of the water ; usually the pro-
portion of 1.2000 is considered desirable for the proper
discharge of the water, and in smaller ditches even a
greater fall may be given without danger of injury to
the base or sides of the ditches.

The transverse ditches which discharge their water
into the main ditch should have the least possible fall,
because, if thus constructed, they can easily be shut up
whenever required and the water therein retained during
a dry season. Usually they are so planned that during
the wet seasons they discharge the water at a proper
depth, while during the dry summer seasons, the water
in the main ditch is stopped and forced to flow back into
the lateral ditches, in order to furnish the soil with the
necessary moisture. ‘This is especially desirable in sandy
soils.

The above suggestions may be sufficient for guidance
in draining smaller areas, and where no great local dif-
ficulties have to be overcome. However, where the proj-
ect assumes larger dimensions, and the obstacles to be
surmounted are of more than usual magnitude, an ex-
pert should be called in for surveying, mapping and
laying out the field, while the employer will be greatly
assisted by the rules hereinbefore given to ascertain that
the planning and execution of the work will prove
satisfactory.

——

BURNING OVER THE SOIL FOR CULTIVATION. 165

CHAPTER VL.
BURNING OVER THE SOIL FOR CULTIVATION.

THERE does not exist any mode of cultivating the
soil which the agriculturist despises. more than that
which is done by burning over the surface ground. And
yet there is no means by which the natural or wild
moors may be brought into the proper condition for
growing upon them forest-trees more cheaply and
quickly than just this primitive operation. We, there-
fore, may be permitted to treat upon this subject a little
more extensively.

After the moor has been sufficiently drained, beds
about fifty feet wide are laid out and enclosed with
ditches twelve inches deep. In the fall or early winter,
preceding the burning, the rugged surface soil is broken
up with a hand hoe, the iron of which should be
tapering and curved on the inside. By this action the
peaty tufts become inverted and the top soil assumes a
pretty even form. During the ensuing winter the frost
acts upon the clods making them more friable. In
the next spring the work of hoeing over the surface-is
repeated for the effect of pulverizing the clods thor-
oughly, and of making the top on the lower parts of the
moor as even as possible, whereby the laborers are in-
structed to work the soil so as to make a little ridge in
the middle of the beds in order that the atmospheric
moistures may flow off more quickly. Thereupon the
moor is allowed to rest several weeks till the surface has
become thoroughly dry. After this the ground is often
worked with a hand harrow—for working with farm
animals would be impossible upon such a light and
spongy soil—till the top becomes fully dried to the

166 FOREST PLANTING.

depth of about eight inches. On a warm,sunny day in
early summer burning over the peaty ground begins,
and for that purpose little heaps of the lightest and dry-
est soil, in distances of from forty to fifty feet, are raked
up and kindled in such a way that the heaps lying to
the windward are ignited first. When these heaps are
fairly burning, panfuls of the burning soil are taken up
and the ignited turf is scattered all over the spaces be-
tween the heaps till the whole area is on fire. The op-
eration is generally done during the noontime, when wind
and heat are strong, and in such manner that the opera-
tor commences kindling from that part of the moor
which is situated in the face of the wind, working up
his way against the wind. In doing so the fire pene-
trates from three to four inches into the soil and leaves
an ash layer of the same thickness. As soon as the
fire has done its work and the smoke is cleared away,
the best we can do to make the moor pay for the ex-
penses caused by this culture, is to sow buckwheat even
upon the warm ashes, as this grain, under favorable cir-
cumstances, may yield the richest crop ever harvested.
The best time of sowing is at the end of May. The
sowing is done by hand, whereupon with a light hand
harrow, the grain is covered and rolled over by a hand
roller. Early in fall, when most of the buckwheat ker-
nels have turned black, the crop is cut and left in the
field in swaths until dry enough to be put into little
heaps, which, when perfectly dry, are placed in the
barn.

Every spring during the next three years, the ditches
should be deepened in the same proportion as the sur-
face soil is lowered by the burning, in order to keep the
ditches at a uniform depth of about twelve inches; and
the moor should be worked with a common, perforated
hand hoe and burnt over again. Buckwheat will still

BURNING OVER THE SOIL FOR CULTIVATION. 167

be the most profitable crop, paying nearly all the ex-
penses that have been ‘incurred for the improvement.
The moor will then be in such a condition as to produce
for several years a crop of oats or rye; but it is best
not to exhaust the fertility of the soil too much, and
rather let it rest and enter upon a fallow of several
years, after which forest-planting may be commenced
successfully. At all events, the soil, by the several
burnings and cultivatings, will be chemically so much
changed that its obnoxious ingredients are destroyed,
and components favorable for plant-growth which for-
merly were locked up, become unlocked and efficient.
Precautions have, however, to be taken not to burn too
deep into the moor-ground, because only the heath plan-
tation should be destroyed, while the underlying inac-
tive elements which originated from the decayed aquatic
plants will be brought into use by the drainage. For this
reason the fires should run over the top soil as quickly
as possible, and, therefore, the ignition be made when
the weather is very dry and fresh winds are blowing. It
is true that then the ashes are lost, but the residue of
the coals is what stimulates the vitality of the underly-
ing soil. In order to prevent damages which may occur
when the fire penetrates too deep into the earth it is
advisable to close the ditches so as to keep the water-
table up to a desired height.

168 FOREST PLANTING.

CHAPTER VII.
FOREST PLANTING ON SAND-WASTES OR PINE-BARRENS.

In our State we have many varieties of sandy soils,
which contain principally silicates, without a proper
admixture of the other minerals (clay, lime, potash)
necessary for a thrifty vegetable growth. Moreover the
mechanical texture of such grounds is entirely unquali-
fied to retain humidity, as this either disappears by
evaporation or by sinking into the depths of the soil,
where it is inaccessible to the roots of plants. The only
way to utilize such lands is to grow forest-trees upon
them, as experience shows us that upon soils containing
nearly ninety-eight per cent. pure sand and almost no
water * pines and oaks may be successfully grown, unless
climate and situation prevent the growth of any plant-
vegetation.

In the European territories most of the sand-wastes,
excepting blowing sands, are covered with a mat of
heaths, whins and brooms, through which water pene-
trates but sparsely into the ground. This mat which is
from three to five inches deep, usually rests upon an
impenetrable stratum, from eight to twelve inches thick,
which consists of sand cemented by calcareous and vege-
table matter or by iron oxide. This hard-pan or heath-
pan, in Germany called “ Orstein,” which is formed by
acidification of the subsoil, and is underlaid with sand,
must first be broken, and the broken pieces must be
brought to the surface in order that the air may desoxide
them and remove the elements obnoxious to plant-growth
contained therein. After this has been effected, plant-

* The far-famed forest of Fontainebleau, in France, is grown on just
such kind of soil.

———— a

PLANTING ON SAND-WASTES OR PINE-BARRENS. 169

ing can be begun. But as this kind of soil is not often
met with in our State, we will leave it out of further
consideration, and turn to the common sand-wastes, of
which there are, as the census of 1880 says, several mill-
ions of acres.
_ In order to bring the sand-wastes proper (excepting
the blowing or shifting or drifting sands) in a condition
adapted for raising tiees upon them, the soil should re-
ceive one deep plowing in the fall preceding the plant-
ing, and, after being harrowed, should be left untouched
during the ensuing winter. Early in spring, planting
or seeding—as the cultivator may have decided upon—
can be commenced.

Regarding the selection of the trees to be planted,

there is no doubt that the pine will be the dominant

species. But as in sandy soils constant protection of
the ground against the drying influences of sun and
wind has to be principally aimed at; and as the pine,
after a growth of from ten to fifteen years, loses its side
branches, with which it effects this protection, spruce,
oak and even beeches should be mixed in the proportion
of one-fifth of spruces, and of one-tenth of oaks and
beeches. In case seedlings are set out, it is easy to de-
termine upon the proper place for each tree. But when
the ground is to be seeded—and, over large areas, sowing
is by far cheaper and more quickly accomplished,
although it is not so sure during the first growing period
of the seedlings—furrows have to be opened, in which
the nuts of oaks and beeches are sown, whereupon the
field should be harrowed even. ‘Then the pine and
spruce seed is sown broadcast and lightly harrowed
under. On very light soil this operation has the effect
of causing the several kinds of trees to spring up easily
and to continue growing until first the beech, then the
oak, and finally the spruce disappears for want of plant-

170 FOREST PLANTING.

food; while the pine remains as the stock of standard
trees. On the better sandy soils, containing a larger
amount of clay, lime, etc., the pine is destined to pre-
serve the humidity of the soil, and to protect its co-
plants against sun and wind. In this case, therefore,
the management should be so directed as to eliminate
the evergreens as soon as the deciduous trees have
reached the proper age and condition that will enable
them to shift for themselves in light soil, and at the
same time to constantly protect the soil against sun and
wind. Forsuch kind of ground preserves its increasing
fertility only when continwally protected against atmo-
spheric influences, whereas a removal of the trees and
the exposure of the soil to the effects of sun and air
make the recovered fertility of the ground disappear
very soon. Conclusive evidence of the truth of this as-
sertion is furnished by the present condition of the
“Landes of Sologne,” in France, a barren sand-waste
of 100,000 acres, only interrupted by marshes and
swamps. And yet history tells us that these “ Landes”
formerly were covered with a dense forest.’ Avarice and
imprudence of men cleared the woods away, and the
“ Landes” relapsed into what was their original condi-
tion. Therefore, care must be taken to at once replant
vacancies and glades with oaks, beeches, hornbeams, etc.,
at small distances apart—from four to six feet; and to
renew stunted or damaged single trees by strong seed-
lings. Openings in plantations of very light soil should
be filled out with spruces.

It is, therefore, justly contended that sand-wastes can
be reclaimed by sylviculture, because they obtain thereby
a fertility which afterwards enables them to produce
grain for some time. As soon as this fertility has given
out, we have it in our power to regain the lost fertility
by reforesting the sand-wastes.

PLANTING ON INLAND SAND-DRIFTS. 171

CHAPTER VIII.
FOREST PLANTING ON INLAND SAND-DRIFTS.

THE difficulties which have to be overcome in order
to aforest sand-wastes or pine-barrens, are, as we have
seen in the preceding chapter, not inconsiderable. And
yet they will be still greater and nearly insurmount-
able when sand-drifts or blowing sands are to be
brought into a condition which shall render them suit-
able for sylviculture. In general there are two different
phases in which sand-drifts are met with. One form is
that of barren plains in the interior of our State, an-
other that of the downs or dunes, that is: the shifting
hillocks upon the sea coast. Undoubtedly the former
have been in times long past fixed naturally by arbor-
eous growth; while the sand-drifts on the sea coast never
have been covered with any substantial vegetation.

The inland sand-drifts can be brought into cultivation
after the mobile sand on the surface of the barren plains
has been bound or fixed. This operation is accomplished
by, first, making the ground as even as possible, and
then laying over it in a chessboard-like way, sods taken
from old pastures or peatbogs, whereupon the whole
tract—both the covered and the uncovered part of it—
is seeded down with grasses which check the extension
of shifting sands. Especially recommendable for this
purpose are: arwndo arenaria, elymus arenaria and other
grasses growing upon dunes. These. grasses send their
roots deeply into the loose soil, consolidate the sand with
their roots and rootlets, prevent its drifting and render
it, during an undisturbed growth of several years, so com-
pact that trees, which are content with poor soil, may

172 FOREST PLANTING.

safely be grown there. Common juniper is the tree gen-
erally planted to protect that side of the wood area
which is principally exposed to strong winds. Other use-
ful trees are the Canadian poplar, some pines as the pitch
pine, scrub pine, Scotch pine, some acacias, and even
some oaks and birches may be used as an admixture.
‘The leading tree should be the Scotch pine, the plant-
ing of which is commonly done by setting out three-
year old plants with the balls. If one-year old seed-
lings are used they should be planted close to the north
side of the adjoining sod in order that the sun during the
hot summer months cannot so easily penetrate through
the soil, and dry up the roots of the young plants.

The most successful attempts for bringing inland sand
wastes into such a condition as to use them either as for-
est-grounds or as grain-bearing fields, have been made in
France with the sandy “ Landes” of Gascony and of the
Gironde. ‘These sand-wastes, containing several millions
of acres poor sand land, from one, to one-and-a-half feet
deep, with shifting sand at the top and resting upon an
impermeable layer of hard-pan, were about forty years
ago, during the summer time, great deserts; and during
the winter overflown, with water. They could only sup-
port a very small population, living on the scant revenue
derived from little flocks of poorly fed sheep. At the
present time they are covered either with splendid pine
and oak forests or with grain-bearing fields. This has
been accomplished by first: draining off the stagnant
water and then: sowing some of the above-named grasses,
the grounds became in due time quite compact. ‘They
were then in such a condition that sowing and respect-
ively planting pines in combination with other trees as
red oak, post oak, birch and chestnuts could be under-
taken. The first two named kinds of trees succeeded
especially well; they furnish now the material required

PLANTING ON INLAND SAND-DRIFTS. 173.

by the two provinces for tanning purposes and for coop-
erage. On some of these lands agriculture is also suc-
cessfully practiced, but this was only feasible by intro-
ducing a rotation in which sylviculture plays a promi-
nent part. ‘The farms are all kept in wood, and after
they have thus been brought into a fertile state, a part
of the wood is cut down, made areable anécultivated for
a period of from 10 to 15 years. ‘The then exhausted
area is again planted with forest-trees, and after the lapse
of about 12 years again turned over to agriculture. So the
inventive genius of modern times has assisted Europe,
in repairing the damage done by the nefarious action of
improvident and avaricious people, as history shows
that four hundred years ago those “ Landes” were cov-
ered with dense forests, interspersed with many flour-
ishing farms and villages.

With the increasing population of our State and the
(alarming) decrease of the principal trees from which
tanning material has been hitherto derived, there should
the reclaiming of the many millions of barren acres,
both in our State and the neighboring States through
forest planting not longer be delayed. It is proven’ be-
yond any doubt, that tree culture even upon such
waste lands as are entirely unadapted to agriculture—
see Chapter IV., p. 158;—Chapter precedent—is prof-

‘ itable, and that it is a sure and valuable investment. It
is true that landowners will not be inclined to interest

themselves in the establishment of high forests and wait
from 80 to 100 years for earning the fruits of their labors ;.
and even middle forests, which require a term of from 40
to 50 years for their exploitation, will not be attractive
to them, but coppice-cultures with cutting periods of
from 12 to 15 years will always, besides improving poor
soils, be desirable and well-paying operations. By select-
ing the proper species among our oaks, acacias, ashes,

174 FOREST PLANTING.

poplars, willows, etc., it will not be difficult to start a
coppice-wood which, will within a term of 10 or 15
years, furnish material not only for the tanner, but also
for the cooper and the paper maker.

The continual treatment of woods as coppices is not
guite natural, and cannot be fully maintained, unless
the trees to which such repeated exploitations cause
death (oaks) are sometimes replaced by seedlings.
When for one reason or the other, especially through ex-
haustion of the soil, these replacements become imprac-
ticable, there remains but one remedy, that is to give up
the copse culture and substitute for foliaged trees coni-
fers. These will grow well on lands on which the
former cannot live, and bring the soil to such a degree
of fertility, that it may later be used for agricultural
purposes.

CHAPTER IX,

COVERING SAND DUNES ON THE SEA COAST WITH
TREES AND SHRUBS,

WHEN the sand in the ocean is washed up by the surf,

it dries on the beach and, in this condition, is carried °
inland by the wind and piled up in hills. The little |

mineralic grains of which the sand consists, and which,
at the surface of the beach, for want of sufficient means
to arrest them, are continually in an unsettled condition,
will be easily by the winds, brought into a landward
motion, covering up, in due time, vast fertile tracts of
land with sterile stuff. In Europe, there are made, on
several places, the strongest efforts to reclaim millions
of acres, which thus had been, from the most fertile

COVERING SAND DUNES ON THE SEA COAST. 175

fields, converted into sand-wastes. The most remark-
able case known is the Tidswilde Hegn (forest) situated
at the north coast of the Danish island “Seeland.” This
island is one of the most fertile spots on the earth, con-
taining a soil which produces the best grain and the
finest forests, composed of beeches and oaks. The north
coast of the island is exposed to strong winds, which carry
enormous masses of sea-sand to the coast, forming there
great hillocks. Up to four hundred years ago, forests of
foliaged trees extended behind these hillocks, and arrested
the flying sand so that the fertile land lying behind
the forests were not exposed to the inroads of the sand.
But, since then, the woods, which formerly belonged to
the Government, came into private hands and were
ruined by excessive fellings so that, two hundred years
later, the blowing sand had moved several miles inland,
covering whole villages and towns with powdered quartz-
grains, to the depth of several feet. One hundred and
fifty years ago, the Danish Government, in order to pro-
tect this beautiful island from complete ruin, com-
menced operations to confine the shifting sand to the
north coast, and to cover its sandy surface with forest-
trees. This has been done so successfully that, at pres-
ent, fine beech and oak forests are grown where, two
hundred years ago, several feet of sand were piled up.
However, we need not to go to Europe in order to see
the damages done by the shifting sands of the dunes,
when the natural protection of the coasts, the forest-
growth has disappeared. We have the same spectacle
before us on the coasts of Long Island and New Jersey.
At the south side of Long Island there were, some thirty
years ago, pine forests behind the dunes, which, with the
increasing improvements on Coney Island, Rockaway
Beach, etc., have been felled. Since that tine, the wind
commenced to carry the sea-sand into the interior of the

176 FOREST PLANTING.

island, and now farmers living four miles distant from
the coast complain that the sand borne inland by the
wind increases from year to year upon their fields, and
threatens to bury entire farms in the course of time. ‘T'o
arrest these effects, scientific forestry teaches us, first, to
prevent the shifting of the sand on the surface of the
dunes; and then to bind the loose soil so as to be able
to bear grasses, shrubs and later on, trees. Although
the dunes consist of the most infertile and mobile sand,
they have the peculiarity of absorbing and retaining,
especially in their elevated parts, much humidity; and
this peculiarity helps us greatly to control the drifting
sand ridges, by covering them with herbaceous and, even
with forest-growth, thus permanently binding them.

Among the European nations, there is none that has
done more to resist the encroachments of blowing sands,
and to reclaim such wastes than France. The arresting
and reclaiming of the sand dunes along the Atlantic
Ocean, in the Departments of Gascony and Gironde is a
work which nowhere has been executed with more skill
and success. In consideration of the growing import-
ance of this subject in relation to our State, it may not
be out of the way to describe the particulars of this
operation a little more minutely.

The operations for arresting the destructive effects of
the invasion of the sea-sand consist of (1) the erection
of palisades along the coast, by which the dunes situ-
ated in the rear are protected from the attacks of the
sea-wind and from being exposed to increased sand-
drifts and sand deposits; (2) the work proper, for
binding the sand-dunes by aforestation.

1, The magnitude of a performance of this kind
renders it necessary to operate in instalments. Usually
the place to be worked extends in length from 4,000 to
5,000 feet, and in depth or width about 1,000 feet. In

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COVERING SAND DUNES ON THE SEA COAST. 177

front of this place a palisade of planks is erected par-
allel to the shore, about 300 feet distant from the high-
est water-mark. ‘The planks, from seven to eight feet
long, are sunk in the sand to a depth of abont 18 inches,
a space of one inch being left between them. The sand
arrested by the palisade forms, in due time, an artificial
dune, sloping towards the sea, with the destination to
prevent fresh arrivals of sand from being blown over
the place to be cultivated. The sand which passes
through the interstices of the palisades, banks up behind.
them, and strengthens the sand wall. When the pali-
sades, in this way, are nearly covered on both sides, the
planks are, with the help of a lever, lifted up, so as to
keep them about six feet above the surface, and thus the
protection against wind and sand is made permanent.
Sometimes a fence, made of eight feet long stakes, be-
tween which strong but flexible twigs and boughs are
interwoven, is substituted for the wooden palisades. As
soon as the accumulated sand has nearly reached the
top of the fence, the stakes are raised by a lever and.
interlaced again. These fences, however, are only in
less exposed situations employed instead of the planks.

2. Thereupon the place to be worked is enclosed, at
the other three sides, by wattled fences. Leaving a
space, three yards wide, next to the back fence un-
touched, owing to the fact that this space will soon be
oversanded by the winds blowing from inland and, there-
fore, unfit for plant vegetation. In distances of ten feet,
parallel with the back fence, towards the sea furrows are
opened, eighteen inches wide and twelve inches deep, in
the midst of which the seed of the maritime pine—a
variety of pinus silvestris—is drilled and covered with a
little sand, mixed with powdered artificial manure. At a
distance of eight inches from the middle drill, another
drill is made, at each side, in one of which is sown sand-

178 FOREST PLANTING.

reed, and in the other furze or gorse. These seeds are
also covered with powdered manure and sand, where-
upon the open furrow is covered with furze o-, in want
of this, with pfrieme, heather, buckwheat plants, pine
boughs or seaweed. The boughs are cut of equal length,
about ten feet long, and laid down in rectangular lines
to the sea-coast, so that the thick ends of the boughs or
plants are placed seaward, and the top of the following
bough covers the stem of the preceding like shingles.
After the entire area or a part of it is worked and coy-
ered in this way, thin but long poles are laid over the
ends of the boughs and fastened to the ground with
wooden staples, in order to shelter the surface and to

keep the movable sand in its place. Under this cover

the seeds will germinate and spring up. Wherever
should be found steep hill-sides covered with sand-reeds
or sand-grasses—a common occurrence near the cavities
of the dunes—first of all the plant-growth should be cut
down to the root-crowns, otherwise the covering material
cannot be distributed evenly over the surface soil when
seeding is done; and then the place must be made some-
what level.

The operations of the next year, unless there is in-
tended a lateral extension, are directed to the area par-
allel with that which has been worked, and is laying
behind it. For this section it is only required to erect
side fences and a back fence, as the planted section
forms a protective wall from the shifting sea-sand.
Should there be found some places within the dunes
which are compact and solid, covering them is dispensed
with, and seeding is done in the usual way by drilling
in the seeds,

A simpler and, formerly, more frequently employed
mode of consolidating the drifting sands upon the
dunes is shown in the following:

179

COVERING SAND DUNES ON THE SEA COAST,

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180 FOREST PLANTING.

After the place to be worked has been protected in
the manner heretofore described, by front, back and
side fences and uneven spots, if there be any, leveled,
the entire surface is covered with brushwood or small
evergreen boughs, about four feet in length; and the
seeds of pines, birches, bushes and grasses are sown
upon them broadcast. Thereupon the laborers take
sand from the adjoiming unworked part of the place,
and throw at every two feet a shovelful over the brush-
wood, thus covering not only the seeds, which will, in
the meantime, have mostly fallen through the bushes
to the ground, but also fastening the loose brushwood
to the soil.

This work is done in sections of about three hun-
dred feet long, and of twelve to fourteen feet wide.
Generally it is commenced about three yards distant
from the back fence by children that, while going
backward with the face directed to the back fence,
unloosen piles of brushwood, placed in proper distances
all over the place, and distribute them over their dis-
trict, when the seedsman comes to release them. He is
then followed by the workingmen, who cover the place
with sand.

In the diagram on the opposite page, the formation
of an artificial dune is shown by Fig. 1. It begins at
the high-water mark of the sea, and gradually rises
when the wind is blowing landward, till it has reached
the highest pitch at the top of the dunes. If it is de-
sired to hasten this formation, bundles of straw or
brushwood, so-called fagots, are stuck into the beach-
ground, less in number and height at the start on the
shore, and more numerous and taller near the end of
the artificial dune. ©

Fig. 2 shows a fenced-in working place, divided up in
three sections. One-half of the first section is finished

PR oe bh

. COVERING SAND DUNES ON THE SEA COAST. 181

in the manner described on page 178, the other half is
to be worked after the old mode (see page 179), and ex-
poses to view the piles of brushwood set in a circle per-
pendicularly to the ground, in order that the shifting
sands may not cover them.

The maritime pine (pinus maritima), which is of such
great importance to southern France, cannot be recom-
mended for similar operations in our State, as it requires
a warmer climate, such as that of California and the
southern Atlantic and Gulf States. If exposed to our
dry and cold winds, during the winter, this tree would
certainly perish. However, we have among our pines
some species which would fully accomplish upon our
dunes what the maritime pine has done in France, as,
for instance, the Jersey pine (pins inops), the pitch
pine (pinus rigida), the gray pine or scrub pine, and
the red cedar (juniperus virginianus). For binding
the sand-dunes we have a great selection of grasses and
bushes, among which deserve special notice: beach-
grass (calamagrostis arenaria), myrtle bush (myrica
cerifera), and such small creeping vines as naturally
take root in the movable arid sand of our sea coast.

PAR Av sdideds

CHAPTER I.

THE OBJECTS OF COVERING MOUNTAINS WITH
FOREST-TREES,

THE aforesting of mountains has for its object the
creation of a forest vegetation, which should pervade the
soil with a net of numerous roots and rootlets in order
to bind the soil, especially on the steep slopes, and to
prevent its dissolution or sliding down into the valleys
by heavy rain storms which underwash the surface soil.

The forests of mountains are furthermore destined to
furnish to the lower situated, cultivated parts of a
country an effective and lasting shelter against meteoro-
logical influences, especially against the fury of strong
winds. When a tempest beats upon the denuded slopes of
a mountain, it will shake the boulders, catch up the stones
and overturn isolated trees. ‘These obstacles, far from
calming the storm, will redouble its fury; it will re-
bound and form in the valleys tornadoes which devastate
everything that is lying in their way. But when it strikes
a wooded slope, each tree, each branch will bend under
the force of the wind, but will check its force by its
elasticity; the hurricane will be sifted and absorbed by
the woods,

But the principal advantage of wooded mountains
consists in the furnishing and regulating of a continual
flow of water to the lower situated regions. Usually the
surface soil of mountains is not very thick and, there-
fore, unable to retain, for a long time, the quantity of

182

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OBJECTS OF COVERING MOUNTAINS WITH TREES. 183

humidity which falls upon it. Mountains that are de-
nuded of forests discharge the mass of melted snow
which has been accumulating there during the winter
as soon as the warmth of the sun increases in spring.
Then the waters and streams rush down the valleys,
carrying off whatever they find in their way, swell up
the rivulets and rivers of the valleys, into which they
flow, and cause enormous damage by the inundations
that follow. But when the mountains are covered with
trees, the surface soil becomes not only continually richer,
owing to the accumulation of leaves under the trees and,
therefore, able to support, later on, more and stronger
trees, but also thicker, so as to absorb and retain more
moisture than the old soil was able to do. During the
winter the soil of the forests protected by trees, dead
leaves, mosses, etc., seldom freezes, and so the snow under
the influence of the warmth of the earth me!ts so slowly
from beneath, that when the warm season appears, some-
times still in the middle of the summer, vestiges of ice and
snow can be found there. The consequence of this
condition of the ground is that every liquid particle is
seized and in its course downward retarded. The for-
mer inundations during spring, followed by aridity and
low water in the navigable rivers during the summer,
cease, and in their stead the discharge of water from the
mountains is so regulated as to deliver an equal and
continually well-regulated flow. The conclusive proof
of these facts is that, in general, abundant springs are
almost all situated at the foot of wooded mountains or
hills.

In order to obtain with certainty the above-stated
objects of sylviculture upon mountains, there should be
applied that form of forest management by which the
sustained growth of standard (fully developed) trees or
high forests will be secured. The so-called coppice man-

184 FOREST PLANTING.

agement—low forests—by which the reproduction of
the trees is done in the natural way of allowing shoots
and sprouts to grow up. cannot realize the end aimed
at, although on many places the condition of the ground
will prevent us from raising standard trees in the usual
way. In such cases the forester must be satisfied for a
long time if he is able to produce a vegetation which will
simply improve and respectively increase the soil.
Commonly this is done by growing grasses upon the
poor grounds, and, when they have increased the mould,
bushes may occupy the area, after which planting of
forest-trees may be begun, provided the soil has attained
sufficient solidity and compactness.

CHAPTER II.
RE-PLANTING FORESTS IN MOUNTAINS.

Selection of Trees—Planting or Seeding.

Forest vegetation in the plains depends almost ex-
clusively upon the condition of the soil; but in the
mountains, besides this, the climate and the formation of
the soil play an important part.

By the spontaneous vegetation we perceive at once
that with the vertical elevation of the mountains, the
temperature of the air gradually is decreasing. This
fact proves that there are climatic stations of vegetation,
the most downward of which corresponds with the vege-
tation in the plains on foot of the mountains, while the
elevated regions manifestly develop mountainous peculi-
arities.* In regard to forest vegetation the tree-growing

* It is a well known fact that the average temperature of a locality is
decreased in proportion to its distance from the Equator, This prin-
ciple also holds good in regard to territorial elevations above the sea-
level. For we find that each elevation of 300 feet above the sea-level
equals, in regard to average temperature, a distance of one degree (65
miles) northward from the Equator.

|
t

RE-PLANTING FORESTS IN MOUNTAINS. 185

territory in mountains, therefore, is divided into three
stations, viz.:

1. The temperate station or mild region, which in our
State extends up to about 1,000 feet above sea-level. At
this point begins

2. The cool region—middle mountains—and reaches
up to about 3,000 feet above sea-level. Thereupon follows

3. The cold region—high mountains—running up-
ward to from 6,000 to 7,000 feet above sea-level.

In the first region regularly grow the same trees
which we find in the plains at the foot of the moun-
tains: oak, pine, hickory, black walnut, chestnut, elm,
ash, basswood, locust, maple, etc.

The second region produces, under ordinary circum-
stances, especially the following trees: beach, fir,
spruce, hemlock, pine, larch, mountain maple, aspen,
willows, etc.

The third region is confined to the crippled and
stunted varieties of pine, birches and other hardy trees
and shrubs.

But if we will successfully reforest the mountains, we
have besides the alleged observation to take into con-
sideration a great many other points, the most impor-
tant of which we will now briefly discuss.

It is an established fact that trees grown in a higher
latitude will easily be raised in a lower region, but not
vice versa; and that trees of the same zone grow better
if planted more hill downward than upward.

Moreover, the elevation of the mountains, the situation
of the slopes in regard to wind and sunshine, have great
influence upon the growth of trees. The slopes which
point to the south and east have a higher average tem-
perature during the year than those which are exposed
to the north and west. In following up this natural
disposition it is possible to raise, in higher situated re-

186 FOREST PLANTING.

gions, trees which are generally found only in lower locali-
ties, while on the other hand trees will not grow in their
particular region if exposed to more than ordinary hard-
ships, and that in such case—as the forester calls it—
the trees “step downward.”

Those parts of the mountain slopes which are exposed
to the scorching sun rays (south) and the parching
winds (west) suffer often by the rapid evaporation of
the moisture contained in the soil, and, therefore, do not
favor the growth of deciduous trees, but allow-only such
evergreens as are not so pretentious in this Tegan as
for instance, pines, cedars and larches.

Sometimes the prevailing winds, being either un-
usually cold or excessively dry or very wet, change the
character of a mountain situation to the worse and do
not permit the growth of a vegetation which commonly
thrives there; while surrounding higher mountains exer-
cise a protecting effect against such physical influence,
and often allow the growth of trees otherwise entirely
unknown in such a locality.

The average humidity of the air, in growing forest-
trees, should also not be undervalued. So, for instance,
the fir, hemlock, spruce, beech, birch, ash and maple,
grow better in a more moist air than do pines and even
oaks. At all events the effects of excessive warmth upon
trees will be considerably counteracted by an excess of
moisture in the currents of the air.

The quantity of warmth, light and humidity received
by any locality, depends, to a great extent, on the angle
with which the sun rays fall upon the same, and there-
fore the particular inclination of the soil towards the
horizon must not be left out of consideration.

While the leaves of the trees feed mostly on the con-
tents of the air, the roots have to draw their support
from the soil in which they grow. ‘Therefore, in ordef

*

RE-PLANTING FORESTS IN MOUNTAINS. 187

that trees may thrive, the quality of the soil, both the
mineral and physical, should well be heeded. The mix-
ture of the soil and the proportions in which it con-
tains the principal component parts of the soil, viz., clay,
sand and lime is—as every farmer knows—very impor-
tant. But still more important are the physical con-
ditions of the soil. Very favorable conditions are:
depth, friability, moisture and the capacity of the soil
for absorbing and retaining warmth and gases. If you
find besides these qualities a good humus at the surface,
you can be sure to raise the most fastidious trees. Elm,
maple and ash require the best soil. Less pretentious
are: oak, beech and other nut-bearing trees, the bass-
wood or linden, fir, etc. Still more readily are satisfied:
larch, hemlock, spruce, hornbeam, locust, alder, willow,
poplar, aspen, cedar, etc., and the least demands are
made by the pines and even by some kinds of the birch
and alder.

If in selecting the kind of trees, attention is given to
these hints, we may be pretty safe to successfully grow
forest-trees on a proper place in the mountains. But
considering the very great difference which often exists
in near-by situated mountain localities, we may still
be safer in our selection if we raise those kinds which
have grown with success before on that spot or its
neighborhood. But even this rule does not always hold
good, especially where an area for a long time has been
denuded of vegetation and become barren owing to the
exposure of the winds and the sun. In such case
nature often demands a rotation* in the kinds of trees,

* The doctrine of ‘‘ rotation ” in the culture of forests has been lately
very rudely shaken up by theoretical reasons as well as by practical
observations. In regard to the former, reference is had to the differ-
ence between the growth of grains and that of trees, by which it is
claimed that woodlands, through the undisturbed tree-growth, will al-

188 FOREST PLANTING.

because the materials of the soil on which the former
kinds have subsisted were consumed and the deficiency
in the soil had not yet been made up by a natural fal-
low. The poorer the soil is, and the more unfavorable
become other conditions for plant growth, the more
difficult is the restoration of denuded mountainous wil-
dernesses. In such case there is no other chance left
but to make some judicious trials on a small scale, and
if they turn out favorably, to act accordingly.

Planting or Seeding ?

The remarks made in Chapter XIV of Part I regard-
ing the question whether we shall seed or plant, were
destined to be applied in the aforestation of tracts situ-
ated on the plains. However, they hold in general also
good for mountain districts; and as plantations are
less subject to destructive agencies than seed beds, it is
the more advisable to give planting on mountains the
preference to seeding, because the peculiar condition of
climate, soil and location on mountains impose greater

ways be enriched in fertilizing ingredients while the reverse holds true
in agriculture, and therefore a rotation of crops, which in a successful
farm management, appears to be desirable, can be dispensed with in
the renovation of forests. As for the observations made in this
direction, the natural rotation in forest-growth is ascribed to natural
causes, as, for instance, to the distribution of tree seeds by winds, by ani-
mals and even by currents of the waters. However this may be, the fact
is undeniable that, provided the soil is equally adapted to both foliaged
trees and conifers, the latter grow more Juxuriantly after the first have
disappeared than when followed by their own kind, and vice versa, For
the Adirondack forests this question is in a certain respect decided by
investigations instituted with old woodmen whose experience, together
with that of their ancestors, reaches nearly 150 years back, From these
it has appeared that upon the ordinary forest soil 150 years ago, pinus
strobus, or white pine, was the governing tree, then followed the
spruce and lately, foliaged trees such as oak, beech, maple, ash, birch,
blackberry, American elm, alder and poplar with intermixture of the
hemlock, seem to become leading trees,

RE-PLANTING FORESTS IN MOUNTAINS. 189

hardships upon the plant-vegetation than on plains.
For this reason only such seedlings should be selected
for mountain plantations as exhibit a strong, vigorous
growth, even if they are some years older than those
usually transplanted on plains.

Moreover, the peculiar physical condition of moun-
tains, especially the unevenness of the surface and the
steepness of the slopes, require, sometimes, alterations in
approved modes of forest cultures on plains. So, for
instance, when it is decided upon to seed down large
sloping tracts with tree seed, there cannot exist much
doubt about the direction to be given to the seed-fur-
rows, as it is an unalterable rule in the cultivation of soils
on declivities to open furrows only level horizontally.
But even the best plowman would not be able to always
follow up an exact level direction in transverse plowing.
A long continued furrow will soon exhibit irregularities
by which, in times of heavy rains, openings will be caused
in the furrow through which not only the water, but
also washed out seeds and seedlings may be discharged
into lower localities. The ruts and grooves thus formed
would soon increase in volume and power, and in their
further run down hill break through the lower situated
seed furrows and destroy many parts of the plantation.
For this reason the plowman should, in distances of about
6 feet, interrupt the row after having made openings
from 15 to 20 feet long and the next following lower
furrow should be so arranged that their openings would
face the midst of the unplowed places above. The
entire field would then look like this:

20 f. 20 f. 20 f. 20 f.
o~ 6 f, 6 f. 6 f.

20 f. 20 f. 20 f.
6 f.

20 f. 20 f. 20 f. 20 f.
6 f. 6 f. 6 f.

190 FOREST PLANTING.

Many alterations of the rules, given for tree-planting
on plains, are also, on mountain sites, rendered necessary
in the establishment of young plantations. When hardy
trees are planted for the purpose of protecting tender
ones, the plant-rows have to be run east-westward, in order
that the latter ones are protected against the strongest
sun rays. But on slopes of mountains there are greater
trials in store for young, susceptible trees than sun rays,
namely, the danger of being rooted up by heavy rains
through the water running downward. ‘To prevent this
the plant-rows must always have a transverse direction
around the mountain slopes and no attention is given to
geographical situation.

CHAPTER III.

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS IN THE MOUNTAINS.
—PREPARATORY AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES.

ALTHOUGH, in the restoration of the mountain forests,
the selection of the proper kind of trees to be planted is
just as difficult as the determination upon the kind of
culture, viz., whether we shall plant or sow, far more
difficult are the measures we have to take, both in regard
to the preparations for beginning the work of cultiva-
tion and the protection of the finished work. In locali-
ties over which Nature has poured unbounded favors, it
is easy to solve this problem and, therefore, we omit
such cases, confining ourselves to those which offer
uncommon difficulties, and showing how to overcome
them.

Nature works with small means to produce great and,
to mankind, sometimes very disastrous effects. This is
done by the concentration of those little means, and by

Se ee

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 191

their joint operation towards the final result. Although
man is unable to avert such events entirely, he can lessen
their ravages by timely taking up the battle against the
single, isolated forces, and thus prevent their dangerous
combination. This observation led human genius to
the discovery of means and ways to moderate the disas-
trous effects of violent storms upon the physical condi-
tion of mountains, after avarice or imprudence of man
had denuded their summits and steep slopes of the
forest vegetation, thereby allowing the formation of tor-
rents which carried away the earth, and rendered the
restoration of the mountain forests nearly impossible.
French engineers and experts in forestry matters have,
during the last one hundred years, devoted much time
in ascertaining the causes of the origin and dimension of
the torrents by which the washing-down of the mountain
soil into the valleys and the disastrous, nearly every
year, recurring inundations in the mountainous parts of
South France were brought about. These investigations
led to the following theses, the correctness of which is
now fully established:

1. If the mountains are covered with forests, the
formation of torrents is impossible.

2. The deforestation of the mountains surrenders the
soil to the formation of torrents.

3. By extending the forest area, we do away with tor-
rents, and promote an increased formation of natural
water reservoirs.

4, The disappearance of a forest redoubles the vehe-
mence of torrents, and even may resuscitate extinct
ones.

We will now consider the various phases in which the
accumulated mountain waters may be prevented from
doing harm to plant growth, and may even be turned
so as to promote forest vegetation.

192 FOREST PLANTING,

The Regulation of the Mountain Waters.

It will be remembered that, as a principal requirement
for tree-growing in mountains, we have before stated
the necessity of procuring and retaining a certain quan-
tity of moisture in the soil. This requirement is the
more urgent as the steep inclination of the slopes makes
the rain and snow waters run swiftly over the surface
without offering them many chances to enter the soil
and to percolate it. On the other hand, we see how de-
structive the waters become if they pour, unchecked,
over the slopes, carrying with them vast quantities of
earthy components which increase the grinding power
of the current, wash the soil from the mountains, and
leave bare and sterile rocks behind them. It is in such
cases that man’s helping hand has to enter the field and
to break the steepness of the slopes, the cause of the
rapid rush and destructive power of the waters.

A.—Regulation of Rain and Snow Water on Mountain
Slopes.

To break the steepness of the slopes, there have to be
dug, horizontally running-trenches or ditches of proper
depth and width at appropriate distances, commencing
as near to the top as is deemed necessary to catch up the
waters, making them temporarily stagnant and letting
the excess equally flow over the ridge to lower-situated
ditches, where the same effects are obtained. This work
will be done or, at least, facilitated by a proper sidehill
plowing. According to the greater or less steepness
of the slope, there have to be made furrows about one
foot wide and deep, from six to seven feet apart; or
deeper and wider trenches, two feet by eighteen inches,
from twelve to fourteen feet apart. The soil taken out
of the furrows or trenches is deposited right along the

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 193

lower edge of the furrow, thus forming a level wall over
which the surplus water collected in the furrow or trench
will slowly run downward, to be caught up by the next
furrow below, unless absorbed by the soil over which it
is flowing.

This operation will be a great help for raising trees
on steep slopes, by planting them in the middle of the
ridges, alongside the trenches. Should the ridges be
larger, and have more the shape of a terrace, it is advisable
to open in the middle of the terrace, a furrow and plant
therein the trees, thus forming an additional obstruction
against the waters sweeping down into the lower grounds.
The fast-growing root system of the trees and bushes
planted upon the mellow ridges will help greatly to
strengthen the latter, and thus increase the power of
resisting the destructive effects of the water currents. *

Formerly, running down the denuded slope, these
waters began to wear out little ruts, then furrows,
gulches, channels and, finally, enlarged in width and
depth till they became enormous torrents. But treated
in the stated way, their force is broken, and they filter
quietly into the soil or flow down, impeded by so many
obstructions that they cannot do harm. ‘The trenches
form also, during the winter, receptacles for the dead
leaves of the shrubs and trees and, owing to the half-
decayed condition of these leaves, retain, during the

* This mode of cultivation of the soil might sometimes be used ad-
vantageously to retrieve the great damages caused to many hilly farms
of our State by the improvidence of former owners who stripped the
steep hill-sides on the farm of their trees, in order to enlarge the pas-
tures. As such fields usually, by nature, are not rich, and only kept
fertile by the shade of the trees grown thereon and by the accumula-
tion of their leaves, they became, when denuded of trees, infertile and
barren; whereupon the loose surface soil was washed down by the
rain into the lower-situated grounds, covering them with sand and
gravel.

194 FOREST PLANTING.

spring, the snows cover much longer than the bare
soil would do, contributing, in this way, much to the
most desirable effect of wooded mountains, viz., the
retarded melting of the snow accumulated there during
the winter.

B.—Regulation of the Rivulets and Brooks in the
Mountains.

Much more difficult is the regulation of the little
rivulets, brooks, streamlets, etc., which originate in the
mountains, run down in cavities and, uniting with other
running waters, form, during heavy rains, torrents which
undermine their banks and carry away the best ingredi-
ents of the mountain soil into the valleys. In such
case, the first step to be taken must be to secure the
banks of these little waters against the eroding force of
the current by planting deep-rooting trees and shrubs
upon them as near to the water front as possible. The
elm, ash and alder are, on such places, quick growers and
will soon be strong enough to protect the banks against
further incursions. The next thing to be done is to
break the force of the downward-running waters by
opening furrows at proper distances apart, commencing
as high upward as is necessary, or by constructing dams
or dikes across the beds, grooves or ravines.

With exceptions such as are quite apt to be required
by local conditions, the following are the main rules for
properly selecting and locating the means of checking
the rapidity of mountain waters. Upon aslope of fifteen
yards descent in the one hundred (7. ¢., 15 per cent.) the
water flows pretty quietly for fifty yards, then it begins,
according to the inequalities and the resistance of the
soil, to carry away the earth, showing by this the first
point of defense. If the ground is compact, there is

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 195

not much to fear, but if it is light and exposed towards
violent winds, something should be done to avert danger.
In this case, however, some transverse furrows would be
sufficient for this purpose.

Upon a surface inclined twenty yards in the one hun-
dred (20 per cent.), the water after running about forty
yards will begin to loosen the soil and, according to its
being more or less compact, the erosion will be more or
less rapid. Then low-turfed earth walls should be built
strong enough to resist the pressure of the waters, but
allowing the flow over the tops without doing harm.

If the slope is one of twenty-five yards to the one
hundred, the water after a run of twenty-five yards, digs
out ruts and loosens the soil. Then hedges or small
fences should be erected to stop the quickened water-
course, and to allow the formation of terraces by the soil
and cobble-stones accumulated behind the fences.

When the soil has a slope of thirty yards in the one
hundred, it will be dug out by the water after an un-
checked flow of twenty yards, and the damming up
should begin at this point. With a declivity of forty
yards in the one hundred, the unchecked flow of water
should not be more than fifteen yards, and upon steeper
slopes the establishment of terraces should be more
narrowed down.

The diagrams on pages 196 and 197 show the different
kinds of dams, dikes and fences which are to be built
in order to check the rapid flow of mountain waters.
The material to be used depends much upon that which
is found in localities where it is to be utilized.

In order to preserve these expensive means, which are
both preparatory and protective to tree-growth for all
times to come, the terraces created by the accumulation
of stones and earth should be consolidated by sowing
grasses and planting quick-growing coppice wood.

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RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 197

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198 FOREST PLANTING.

When, in the course of time, the soil is increased in
quantity and quality, we must endeavor to plant more
valuable trees. At all events, upon slopes whose pitch
exceeds forty yards descent in the one hundred, the
high-forest system is the only rational one, and in stock-
ing with young trees, we should, if the nature of the sur-
face permits, prefer the species having long tap roots,
which will bind the soil better.

The proper time to build these dams is, of course,
during the season when the waters flow least or not at
all. They must be very strong in order to successfully
resist the force with which the headwaters, in times, are
precipitating themselves into the valleys. It is, there-
fore, advisable, instead of building a few high dams in
great distances from each other, to construct as many
as possible low ones. For it is the intention to use these
dams not only to obviate the fury of the downward
streaming waters, but also to catch up every particle of
fertile soil which is being carried below, and thus to
make the soil remain in the more elevated parts of the
mountains. Inorder to make the dams strong and last-
ing, the basis and sides of the same must be protected
by fascines, hurdle work or even by rocks and mason
work.

This is the way in which the memorable work for re-
stocking the denuded woodlands upon the Alps of
Southern France has been achieved, and by which the
former frequent and pernicious inundations of the rivers
there for the last ten years have been prevented.* It
is true the costs have been enormous, but a single inun-

* The best book on this subject is written by the French Over-forest
Master Demontzey, who conducted for nearly thirty years the work of
re-foresting and returfing denuded woodlands in Algiers and France,
The full title of this book is : ‘‘ Demonizey F. Traité pratique du reboise-
ment et du gazonnement des montanges, Paris, 1882,”

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 199

dation of old would now do more damage than the whole
expenses amount to.

After a dam has been perfected, there should be made
on both sides outlets in the shape of ditches, having
such an inclination as to lead the surplus water, which
accumulates before the dam, into transverse running
trenches out of which the excess of water flows equally
into the territory below.

In regulating the mountain waters we have, however,
not only to look out for the very rivulets, streamlets or
whatever name may be given to the small running
mountain waters, but also for the many trowgh-like
natural formations of the soil in the mountains, the
ruts, grooves, streaks and even roads, as these in times
of heavy and lasting rains often are converted into water
currents, quickly changing innocent-looking furrows
into brooks and steeply embanked ravines. If possible,
these irregularities of the soil must be removed in time,
by filling them up with earth, commencing at the high-
est sites. But if this course is not expedient, there
should be constructed at proper places and distances in
these cavities crossdams or dikes, capable of arresting
flowing waters and leading them through outlets, which
are made in the above-described manner on both ends
of the dam, into horizontally running furrows or
trenches, by which they are scattered over a larger area.

It is advisable to first fill the lower part (bottom) of
the large cavities with stones, dead trees and bushes in
order to secure drainage under the soil which will there
be accumulated as time goes on.

Then commence constructing at the highest part of
the ravine in distances from 10 to 50 yards, according
to the steepness of the soil, a series of barriers out of
fence-wood, fascines or stones. The volume of water
at the starting point of the ravine not being large, these

200 FOREST PLANTING.

barriers will resist the current. Arrested at each instant
by these obstacles, the water will deposit there, little by
little, some stones, gravel and earth, thus establishing
terraces upon which we may plant whatever is required
after they have been consolidated on their banks with
sods. If such works are simultaneously established in
the bed of a ravine there cannot occur any dangerous
accumulation of the waters, and they will ran down the
mountains without violence, feeding springs and ferti-
lizing the fields in the valleys instead of devastating
them.

C.— Artificial Irrigation of Mountains Having Very
Dry Surface Soil.

The system just alluded to is of great importance for
mountains which have a poor, dry soil, particularly for
such as contain much lime, because these, owing to their
enormous capacity of absorbing moisture, are especially
inclined to dry up at their surface. If this system be
applied on such soils, it enables to introduce an artifi-
cial irrigation by which the greatest results may be
expected. For the trough-like formations of the moun-
tain soil will be converted into reservoirs by construct-
ing strong dams across their banks and thus catch
up the rain and snow waters. They should have outlets
at both ends of the dams from which the water, if
wanted, is led off into horizontally-running trenches,
over which it will flow slowly and equally, irrigating the
area down below. The diagrams (pp.196—7) show how such
trenches are built. If there should run off more water
than is wanted, the surplus is caught up at a similarly
situated lower place, and respectively stored or distrib-
uted like that in the higher-lying localities. Treated in
this way, whole mountains which would in no otherwise

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 201

have been made able to produce a green swath,in Eu-
rope, have been planted with forest-trees, thereby
changing the nature of the country entirely. Formerly,
bleak winds swept unresisted over these mountains,
drifting away during the winter the snow which shel-
tered the surface against cold and dryness ; and while
during the spring, the rains and melting snow rushed
over the frozen soil, causing very often, in the rivers of
the valleys, inundations which occasioned great losses of
life and property, now after a thirty years’ wood culture,
assisted by the above-described system of accumulating
and properly distributing. the natural waters over the
entire mountain district, the winter snow is all over
retained, and when slowly melting, absorbed by a loose
and retentive mould; and the rain and snow waters, in-
stead of rushing destructively downward, fill a retentive
bed of absorbent soil, storing up a supply of moisture
to feed, besides the forest vegetation, perennial springs
and brooks.

D.—fegulation of the Overflowing Rivers in the Valleys.

The mountain waters which are not consumed by the
soil or air, flow, if regulated as before described, greatly
reduced into the valleys, forming brooks and streams or
increasing the contents of other streams and rivers. But
under extraordinary circumstances there may, in spite
of all human precautions, occur such an increase of
water that the shallow streams in the valleys cannot
hold it but let it run over the cultivated lands. To ob-
viate such overflows, or at least to mitigate their effects,
in case they occur, it is advisable to reduce the width of
the flowing waters and force them into smaller but
deeper beds. It is not necessary to make expensive em-
bankments or jetties, the cultivation of the willow—

202 FOREST PLANTING.

which we have extensively ventilated on page 148
(Part II.)—alongside the banks is the cheapest and
safest means. ‘The natural location of the willow is in
low bottom-lands which are exposed to occasional inun-
dations. If planted upon the banks of a river, the wil-
lows will thrive and retain, in case of the overflowing
river, a great mass of earthy substances enmeshed in its
net-work of fibrous roots, after the waters have sub-
sided. At the same time the spongy banklands are
made more compact by the luxurious growth of the
willow-roots, and able to better resist encroachments
caused by the current ofthe waters.

In the same proportion in which thus the running
waters, by the gradual elevation of the banks and their
greater consistency are rendered more narrow, the depth
of the slanting bed will increase, owing—as every
engineer must admit—to the increased force of the nar- -
rowed river current. This change produces two very
desirable conditions. Firstly, the lands situated behind
the willow plantation are protected against inundations
by the elevated banks and, secondly, the flow of the
deepened and, therefore, largely augmented river is,
owing to the decreased slant in the bed, running slow-
lier, thus contributing much more water, during a longer
period of the year to the receiving river below than the
former shallow overflowing rivulet.

If the banks of the rivers in the mountain valleys
consist—as is often the case—of gravel, sand and stones
carried down by the torrents from the high mountains,
the willow cannot be grown on such soil successfully.
In that case we select trees and shrubs which are in this
respect less exacting in regard to location, as, for instance,
the poplar, birch and alder. These will grow, if planted
respectively as cuttings or as seedlings, on such soil. If
the plantation be well looked after, there will soon, by

RE-STOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS. 203

the dead leaves, be formed a layer upon which will grow
mosses and lichens, which, when decayed, under the
assistance of the many earthy particles, left by reiter-
ated inundations, help to cover the stony surface in the
course of time with such good humus soil as to enable
us to raise, later, more valuable forest-trees.

204 FOREST PLANTING.

CHAPTER IV.

HOW TO BIND THE SHIFTING SAND ON THE
MOUNTAINS.

To bind the shifting sand on the plains and render it
compact, adapting it to tree-culture, is a difficult task.
But this work is still more difficult when it has to be
done in mountainous localities. In the plains we have
only to fight the winds, which cause the sand to drift;
but in the mountains, besides this, we have to overcome
the troubles arising from the unevenness of the soil and
its favoring the formation of destructive water currents
during rainy weather.

Wherever the sandy soil is sufficiently deep and pos-
sesses the necessary components for securing the growth
of trees, the work of planting should be at once com-
menced, this being the only means to prevent the loose
sand from drifting, both in the plains and mountains.
But when wind and water currents have swept away
every bit of soil and vegetation from the slopes, and
nothing is left except the rubble-stones, which origi-
nated, during past ages, by the corroding action of the
glaciers upon the rocky surface, which formed the ground
upon which the sand settled, there occur difficulties
which appear to be nearly insurmountable. But “for-
est science ” has been brought to bear upon the discoy-
ery of appropriate expedients, and found them in some
grasses which will grow in such places, producing in
due time a cover that will later develop into a sward. If
this cover be left for some time undisturbed and not
exposed to the attacks of pasturing farm animals, there
will appear such beneficial accumulations from above

HOW TO BIND SHIFTING SAND ON MOUNTAINS. 205

and below the surface that, in the course of time, tree
planting may be begun.

The kind of grasses to be principally used for binding
the mobile sand and keeping it in its place are: creep-
ing soft grass, tall oat grass, broom grass, tall meadow
oat grass, fescue grass, quack grass, wood poa, pimpi-
nella, knotted hair grass, amophila, lyme grass, reed
grass or bur-reed. In the lower Alps of France sain-
foin has been used for this purpose with great success.

In seeding these grasses the soil, being too mobile,
should not be touched either by plow or harrow, and
the seeding should be done broadcast by hand, using
about twenty pounds of seed to the acre. The only
tool to be used in this operation is the hand-rake, for
slightly covering the seeds. After the elapse of some
years, during which the reclaimed lands should remain
entirely undisturbed, there will, through the decay of
the old grasses and the spontaneous growth of the young
ones, be formed a sward_ thick enough to allow the rais-
ing of some shrubs and arborescent plants, the root sys-
tem of which qualifying them especially to keep the
scanty poor soil together. For this purpose are recom-
mended: juniper, hazel, sallow-thorn or sea-buckthorn,
barberry, bladder-senna - or bastard-senna, locust or
acacia, rosin weed, asp or trembling poplar, white alder,
blackthorn, mountain ash, poplar, birch, dwarf moun-
tain and especially the “American ” laurei(Kalmia.) It
has no economic value, however, it is hardy and will
maintain a foothold where other shrubs would perish.
Its presence has saved in Ulster and Sullivan Counties,
N. Y., many a mountain side from the appearance of
total denundation.

In order to avoid unnecessary disturbance of the soil,
when sowing and cultivating the shrubs and small trees,
it is advisable to sow the former together with the grass

206 FOREST PLANTING.

seed, covering them with the hand-rake, and plant the
latter—when one or two years old—three feet distant
from each other, in horizontally running rows, six feet
apart, using no other tool but the (in Part I.) described
short-handled planting axe. Those trees which repro-
duce. themselves from the stumps should, after having
grown two or three years, be pruned down so as to leave
only a short stump, as by this process the roots will be
increased in numbers and strength, and thus the final
purpose of the culture of these protective trees will be
reached in a comparatively short time.

As soon as the soil has become more compact and the
trees in the rows have grown thick enough to afford
some protection against the wind and sun rays we can
begin planting forest-trees. In selecting these we must
pick out those kinds that have strong tap roots, which
will run deep into the loose soil and contribute to
further strengthen and bind it. To this class of trees
belong: oak, pine, fir, larch. ‘They have to be planted,
when two or three years old, three feet apart between
the above-mentioned (protective) rows by means of the
planting-axe. Should the sward be uncommonly thick,
there should be dug, at the proper places, plant holes in
which to set the trees. In case the sward be very thin,
it is advisable to open the plant holes with the hoe, fill
them with some good humus soil or compost, and plant
therein by hand the trees, putting around them stones
or sods as a mulch for keeping the moisture in the soil.
But in such case we cannot use trees with large tap roots,
we must have recourse to other kinds which form only
lateral roots, as, for instance, beech, hornbeam, and par-
ticularly spruce hemlock. Should there exist spots, on
which no vegetable growth at all is found, they should be
left alone, as the time will come when the shade and
protection furnished by the surrounding forest vegeta-

RE-PLANTING FORESTS—SAND-STONE FORMATION, 207

tion will allow such places to obtain a sward, and then
trees may be jlanted.

At all events, in reclaiming such sandy locations there
should, if possible, be avoided any tearing up of the soil,
thus leaving a good deal cf the work to the kindness
and fertilizing power of nature.

CHAPTER V.

RE-PLANTING FORESTS ON MOUNTAINS OF THE SAND-
STONE FORMATION,

THE cultivation of the poor sand soil on the plains
for farming and even for grazing purposes, meets very
often with so many difficulties, that sand-lands mostly
are considered worthless. And yet, if they would be
planted with suitable forest-trees, both the country and
the owner would be benefited, provided the latter is able
to stand the expenses of cultivation without expecting
any noteworthy income from his property during the
first quarter of acentury. How easy it is to raise forest-
trees on deep sandy soil, shows the cultivation of trees
which is effected on mountains of the sandstone forma-
tion. With the exception of those parts in these moun-
tains, which are very steep and too much exposed to the
sun, and certainly with the exception of such places as
are infested with shifting sands, of which we have treated
heretofore, there is not much trouble in restoring de-
nuded woodlands on sand-mountains. ‘This formation
contains always some clayey component parts and fur-
nishes, if the surface of the rocks becomes more or less
dissolved by the air, the best material for creating forests.
Usually we find at the top of these mountains a loamy

208 FOREST PLANTING.

soil, which offers no difficulties for raising forest-trees,
unless it is too clayey and, therefore, retains too much
moisture. In that case we must resort to the “dam”
or “bed” culture, described in a former chapter, and
proceed accordingly.

The slopes of the sand-stone mountains commonly con-
tain enough clay to bind the soil, and afford thus every
facility to soon re-stock the denuded woodlands there-
upon, except the sun and winds have parched the soil,
and the natural humidity sunk too deep into the subsoil
to be reached by the forest vegetation. In such a case
there is no time to lose to stop the loosened sand from
running down into the valleys by planting some pines,
especially the pinus silvestris. ‘This modest and unpre-
tentious friend of the forester is the principal tree which
will grow on those neglected places, and render the worn-
out soil capable of producing, in later times, more valu-
able trees.

Although the sand in the valleys of the sand-stone
mountains, washed from the slopes, often reaches a con-
siderable height, the spontaneous growth of trees there, —
dating back perhaps hundreds and thousands of years,
shows that this locality is the proper place for the most
valuable deciduous treés, viz.: beeches and oaks. Cer-
tainly on such sites, if denuded for a long time, and,
therefore, having become sterile on the surface, we can-
not expect to raise, right away, beeches, as these require
besides a friable fertile soil, when young, ample protec-
tion against the sun. But the re-foresting can be
effected by planting pines in rows, properly distant, and
after the pines have reached a height sufficient to over-
shade and fertilize the surface soil, the interjacent open
rows should be planted alternately with beeches, oaks,
firs, and larches. It is true that in favorable years and
with good seeds, satisfactory results have been obtained

RE-PLANTING FORESTS-—LIME-STONE FORMATION. 209

by “ sowing” the last-named trees in the rows protected
by the pines; but in general, planting is here also more
safe. Planting is easily done by removing the moss from
the friable soil and using the short-handled planting axe.

If the soil of the plantation is so poor as to foretell,
under all circumstances, a failure in producing foliaged
trees, the interjacent rows should be planted with other
coniferous trees, especially with spruces, to which
should be given a wider position towards each other than
is usual with young deciduous trees, viz.: a width of
from six to eight feet.

CHAPTER VI.

RE-PLANTING FORESTS ON MOUNTAINS OF THE LIME-
STONE FORMATION,

Now8eEnr:E is shown the effect of forest-trees upon the
soil more convincingly than in the mountains of the
limestone formation. ‘The power of the limey or calca-
reous soil, and its adaptability to promote the growth
of forest-trees, are very great and can be enormously
increased by uninterruptedly keeping the surface coy-
ered with trees. On the other hand, there is no ground
quicker deteriorated by being exposed to the sun and
weather than the limestone soil. If the ground on the
calcareous mountains has been once completely denuded
from forest vegetation, there is seldom any hope to stop
its progressing sterility. For, on such soil, every moist-
ure received from the air will, owing to the peculiar-
ity of the ground, evaporate much quicker than on any
other soil, and the balance of the water will run without
any hope of being returned into the depth of the lime-

210 FOREST PLANTING.

stone, forming hydrates. Denuded woodlands on lime-
stone mountains, therefore, very soon lose their vegetable
mold. At first, it is true, there will spring up a strong
sward of grasses; but soon, for want of shade and moist-
ure, the grasses disappear, the soil softens by the rain
and snow water, becomes a pap which, after the evapo-
ration of the natural moisture, dries up stone-like, and
exhibits at the surface but burned-up spots.

If, on the other hand, forests on limestone mountains
are managed so as to have the soil always covered with
trees—as is the case with the “ planter management ”—
there will nowhere grow finer beech forests. The culti-
vation of this majestic tree is natural to this soil, forming
the most convenient habitat to the beech. The shade
created by the dense growth of the beeches makes the
surface soil increase in richness from year to year, and
this increase of plant-food furnished by the decaying
leaves and twigs of the beech is amply returned to the
forest vegetation. Certainly, coniferous trees will suc-
ceed on these places just as well as beeches, and as the
more valuable kinds of evergreens prove to be commer-
cially more profitable than beeches, the cultivation of
the pride of the old European foresters, already dimin-
ished by the encroachments made by the agricultural
interests in the beech lands on the plains, is in the old
country decreasing from year to year.

For the restoration of the denuded woodlands in lime-
stone mountains we have again to resort to the pine,
this being the only tree which will, even luxuriantly,
grow on such soil.

This observation has led many scientific foresters to
assume that pines should be principally raised upon the
soil in question. But experience has shown that this
was a mistake. The luxuriant growth of the pine does
not last longer than the first twenty years of its life;

RE-PLANTING FORESTS—LIME-STONE FORMATION, 211

after that period the pines slowly dwindle away. How-
ever, if the growing period be properly used, the restora-
tion of the soil may be so far completed as to begin the
cultivation of the beech. With an eye to this object,
the plantation of the pines should be considered as a
transitory one, and so arranged as to protect the poor
soil against the scorching sun-rays, and other attacks
made by the elements upon the ground. ‘The larch, if
intermixed with pines, has proven a great help for im-
proving the soil, this tree being the only coniferous tree
which drops every year its leaves, and thus furnishes
more material for the formation of a new humus soil
than the evergreens. Under all circumstances the lime-
stone soil may hopefully be considered reclaimed as soon
as the pine has gained a foothold upon it. After that,
it is easy to plant there beeches and oaks, and other
valuable forest-trees.

Should it, for financial or commercial reasons, be con-
sidered not advisable to raise pure stock, intermixing
pines and larches with beeches can be recommended, as
these trees agree very well with each other. But we
must avoid to employ here the spruce, on account of its
being inclined to encroach upon the growth of neigh-
boring trees. However, we should always bear in mind,
that the limestone mountains are the natural home of
the beech and, therefore, endeavor to keep, wherever
possible pure stock of beeches, this being the only means
to increase, by degrees, the fertility of this questionable
soil. After the soil having, by continued cultivation of
the beech, fully recovered its fertility, it is easy, if
wanted, to raise among the beeches other valuable forest-
trees, as, for instance, spruce, larch, and.ash.

The mode of cultivating trees on limestone moun-
tains is the same as upon sandstone mountains, but the
directions given under the chapter of regulating moun-

212 FOREST PLANTING.

tain waters and binding the shifting sand should be
here very closely observed.

As before stated the pines play the most important
part in the reforestation of denuded woodlands on cal-
careous mountains, and among them the unpretentious
Scotch pine usually performs very valuable service.
However, in this case the well-known Austrian black
pine has proved still more serviceable, it being not only
indigenous in high mountains, but thriving also on
light, dry calcareous soil no matter how destitute it may
be of humus. The foliage of this tree is very thick,
and the shade caused by it very dense. ‘The soil,
therefore, is supplied with an abundance of detritus,
and the humidity, received by the ground from the
atmosphere, evaporates but slowly. ‘This pine has no
taproot, but sends its creeping roots along the stony
ground till they find fissures into which they insinuate
themselves, thereby strengthening their adherence to
the slippery soil. ‘The cultivation of the Austrian pine
offers still less difficulties than that of the Scotch pine.
The thin or hardened soil should be torn up by cross-
harrowing with an iron harrow, and the seed, about
three pounds to the acre, sown broadcast, should be
covered by dragging over the field with the brush har-
row—see p. 77. If the seed is drilled in, two pounds
per acre are sufficient to produce the required density
of tree growth, as this pine on account of its thick foli-
age stands in need of more space than the Scotch pine.
In a few years the Austrian black pine will have got it-
self properly established, putting forth considerable
shoots, under the protection of which the beech, as the
final stock of tree, may be started. In order to secure
a safe and speedy growth of the seedlings the plant-
holes on this shallow and stony ground should be well
filled with good humus soil or compost.

RESTOCKING ON ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 213

CHAPTER VIL
RESTOCKING MOUNTAINS HAVING ROCKY SURFACES.

NoTHING can be grown on rocks that are entirely bare
except some varieties of mosses and plants of the lowest
order which derive their food wholly from the air, and
use the rocks only as a holdfast. But, when the sur-
face of the rock has been broken up by the action, both
of the rock-devouring bacilli* and the elements—heat
and cold principally;—and crumbled into its original
composing parts, the growth of plants and trees may take
place. This process is still going on all over the earth,

*Very interesting observations in regard to the decomposition of
rocky mountains and the formation of humus upon their surface have
been lately made by Professor A. Muentz. He found that the contin-
uous dissolution of uncovered rocks was not caused solely by the
chemical and mechanical action of the atmosphere ; but also in part
by some microbes which develop in pure mineral solutions by obtain-
ing the required carbon from the carbonic acid and carbonate of
ammonia contained in the atmosphere. These minutest of animal-
cules penetrate into the smallest, and, to the naked eye, imperceptible
fissures of rocks, manifesting their presence by leaving behind them
atoms of organic substances which serve to form the first traces of
humus. During the winter they rest and take their winter nap; but
when the warm season returns, they resume their rock-destroying
activity and enter deeper and deeper into the solid stone formation.
While the geologist stands here full of admiration at the results of the
workings of nearly invisible microscopic creatures, entirely unknown
up to the present time ; the physiologist is still more astonished at the
ability of these bacilli to build up their substance by assimilating
carbonic acid and ammonia without the help of any other power but
the warmth generated by the oxydation of ammonia. Undoubtedly
these microbes have exercised a great influence upon the present con-
tour of our globe, and the accumulation of the plant-nourishing
humus ; they will continue their action upon the stone formation of
our planet till the last rock has crumbled to pieces,

214 FOREST PLANTING.

and if we follow the hints pointed out herein by nature
we are able to cover rocky surfaces with vegetation much
quicker than nature does it herself.

If only a small area with a rocky surface is desired to
be planted, the ground should first be covered with
sods; and after the turf has become firmly fastened to
the rocky foundation, grasses, bushes, and even trees
may be grown thereon. But upon bare rocks of larger
dimensions this operation would be too expensive and
therefore we must look for other means to secure our
object.

Regularly the crevices and fissures of rocks, caused
by alternate freezing and thawing of the humidity that
enters the pores of the rocks, are first filled up with
mineralic particles on which plant growth is made
possible. ‘These places have first to be taken up and to
be planted with suitable shrubs or trees, according to
the location and site of the place. The development of
the roots of the trees and bushes grown in those crevices
helps very much to promote the further disintegration
of the rocky surface and the accumulation of ingredients
upon which plants and trees feed. As soon as the sur-
face of the rock is sufficiently broken up into small
stones, which in time become embedded in some soil, the
operation of planting trees can be accelerated by mak-
ing horizontal terraces at convenient intervals, beginning
at the highest point of the place to be improved, and
securing the steep edges of the terraces by fascines of
wattled willow fences. It will not take a long time ere
the spaces between the edges of the terraces become
filled up by the further decomposition of the rocks and
stones, and then there will be room enough for planting
shrubs and trees.

This is the only way in which rocky surfaces of
mountainous slopes, on which the mold has been

RESTOCKING ON ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 215

washed down by rain, or been burnt away—as often oc-
curs in the Adirondacks—may be covered with materials
for producing a forest vegetation. The terraces may
also be secured by planting bushes at their outside,
thus forming living hedges. These will in due time
be covered by the accumulated earthy substances, and
then the decaying vegetation will enrich the soil. Upon
the soil, which has accumulated between the edges of
the terraces, rows of suitable young trees are set along,
which, when properly rooted, will secure the object in-
tended and prevent the recurrence of further damages
by keeping the surface soil from shifting.

On rocky steeps where there is little or no visible soil,
and where seed can only be deposited in chinks and
crevices, or sown in occasional patches of soil, seeding
will always have the preference to the mode of planting.

As for the trees and shrubs to be selected for planting
in the fissures and interstices of rocks, there are none
which serve the purpose of working through their roots
upon the rocks better than the Austrian black pine, the
ailanthus, crabapple, and the wild rosebush. In regard
to the Austrian pine we have seen in the preceding
chapter that it prospers.even upon the scantiest and
poorest soil, and, therefore, is well qualified for the re-
forestation of bare rocks, provided there are some inter-
stices or fissures into which it can send its strong roots
to retain its holdfast. Of the action of the ailanthus in
this respect we can convince ourselves easily by looking
at some unfinished rocky parts of our great Central
Park. There this tree has obtained such a hold upon
the rocks that, after the lapse of another quarter of a
century, no artificial means will be required to cover
those rocks with vegetation. The crabapple and the
wild rosebush make so little demand upon the soil that
their seeds, fallen into crevices of old brick walls, sprout,

216 FOREST PLANTING.

grow up, and develop such powerful vegetation in root
and trunk that they, in the course of time, tear the walls _
asunder. The wild roses, besides, have the advantage
of sending up many shoots, all around the stem. If
these shoots are laid down in from four to five inches
deep grooves, and so covered with earth that only the
tips are looking above the ground, there will be soon
formed such a thick net of rootlets under the surface
soil as to bind entirely the soil and keep it together.

Besides the ailanthus French authorities recommend
for reforesting localities with rocky surfaces the larch
and the pine of Aleppo. The latter thrives upon even
the poorest soil, because it draws, like most of the coni-
fers, a large part of its food from the air, increases by
its plenty leaves (needles) the soil underneath, and is
not affected either by the scorching heat of the sun or
the blasting winter winds.

These trees and shrubs permit even grasses to grow
under their shade, and thus aid to increase the mold on
the rocky surface by the successive growth and decay of
the vegetation, enabling us, as time goes on, to plant
more valuable trees.

It happens very often that the soil upon the said
terraces is neither sufficiently thick nor stable
enough to furnish a good bed to the young trees.
They grow there very slowly and poorly, their roots
being unable to hold on the little soil which should
cover them, but is washed away by rain, so that the
roots receive their subsistence only by the humidity
retained on the overlaying stones. In such cases we
have to sow quickly and vigorously growing fodder
grasses, either before planting or shortly afterwards, as
these at first give the best protection for young trees
against meteorological influences; and later, when de-
cayed by the shade of the growing trees, they increase

RESTOCKING ON HIGH MOUNTAINS. 217

the fertile soil. At all events, these grasses prevent
the washing away of the thin soil by rain storms.

The French have had a long and satisfactory experi-
ence in this matter, as they have during the past thirty
years undertaken the reforesting of the denuded wood
and grass lands on the Lower Alps. They recommend
principally the esparsette, as giving the best protection
to the saplings. But as this grass runs out after three
or four years, unless resown, it is, when the planta-
tion requires protection during a longer time, usually
mixed with other grasses, especially with bromus erec-
tus, avena elatior, holcus mollis, lastagrostis, calamagros-
tis, and pimpinella. Mixing is done in the proportion
of seventy-five esparsette to twenty-five of the bulk of
the other grasses. It is true that the admixed grasses
do not fully develop until two or three years after being
sown, but they last much longer than the esparsette.

CHAPTER VIII.
RESTOCKING DENUDED WOODLANDS ON HIGH MOUNTAINS,

THE attempts to repair the damages caused by the
cupidity and imprudence of men to the woodlands on
those mountains which extend upward to from five
thousand to nine thousand feet above sea level, have
shown how hazardous it is to interfere, however
slightly, with whatever nature has arranged by the work
of time. The high mountains are the principal sources
and headwaters for navigable rivers. Whatever tree,
bush or shrub may grow there forms a protection
against uncommon flowing off of the water supply, and,

218 FOREST PLANTING.

therefore, should never be touched, the penalty for the
violation of this rule being often an irreparable injury
to the best interests of the commonwealth. European
countries have enormously suffered from the reckless
devastations committed on the high mountains during
the last two centuries. Southern France above all labored
heavily under the inundations caused every year by the
torrents pouring down unchecked from the denuded
mountains. But the great efforts both financial and
scientific, made by France during the last twenty-five
years, have culminated in a success, of which that
nation can justly be proud. While France thus has
been expiating a great politico-economical sin of former
generations, that part of Austria-Hungary, which sur-
rounds the Adriatic Gulf, and contains a territory of
about four thousand square miles, is now threatened
with entire sterility by shifting sands, unless the
exertions initiated recently for reforesting the denuded
woodlands on the high mountains of the coast meet
with success. In a short time men can destroy through
ignorance and avarice what took nature centuries to
build up. If the summits and higher parts of the
mountains be entirely denuded, the force of the winds,
being there nearly irresistible, checks the growth even
of those grasses aud sedges which usually spring up
there luxuriantly, when not disturbed or tied down by
the elements.

In order to restock the denuded woodlands on the
high mountains, there should, in the first place, be
strictly observed the directions heretofore given in
regard to the regulation of the mountain waters and
springs and to the binding of shifting sands, as far as
applicable to the requirements of the locality. But the
greatest hindrances to be fought against here are the
high and destructive winds which prevent the growing

RESTOCKING ON HIGH MOUNTAINS. 219

of any forest vegetation on these exposed regions. ‘To
obviate this evil, the first thing to be done is to culti-
vate the coarser kind of mountain grasses to act as
a protection to the future plantations. After a few
years’ undisturbed growth, during which the grasses
have been protecting the ground against the damaging
influence of cold, dry, and stormy weather, we can com-
mence planting in rows from twelve to fifteen feet
apart shrubs and bushes of the hardiest kind, such as
juniper, sorbtree, common hawthorn, etc., as a protec-
tion to subsequent plantations. As soon as they have
gained a good hold upon the soil, the intervening,
empty stretches should be filled with additional pro-
tective rows, containing, according to climatic circum-
stances, pines, larches, wild or dwarf pine, grey alder,
birch, willows, aspen-trees, etc.; while the spruce, the
fir-leaved pine and sometimes larch and wild mountain
pine should be planted later for forming the stock of
trees. Among the pines there is no species which
serves better the purpose of re-stocking steep and high
mountain plateaus than the oft-mentioned Austrian
black pine. It gets along well on declivities and high
situations, and all exposures seem to agree with it.

Should pines grow well—a case which seldom occurs
in these high regions—it is advisable to plant the entire
area with pines as the stock of trees. After they have
fairly developed, open spaces found between them
should be filled in with spruces.

But should the growth of the spruce prove satisfac-
tory for forming the stock of trees, larches are to be
used as a protection, and should be planted in rows from
twelve to fifteen feet distant, to serve as a windbreak to
the spruces which will later be planted in the alternat-
ing oyen spaces. For the spruce being one of the har-
diest trees, is able to live farthest up on the mountains,

220 FOREST PLANTING.

and, therefore, is especially qualified to form the stock
of trees in the higher regions.

Should it be practicable to successfully grow the
larch, then the wild or dwarf mountain pine (pinas
pumilio) may be used as a covering and protection to
the former, during the first period of its growth.

In the very highest regions, there does not exist any
forest vegetation except the wild or dwarf mountain
pine; to try other trees is sheer waste of time and
money.

Finally it should always be borne in mind that in
undertaking to replant such exposed localities, the
operation never should be begun at a place which is
from all sides exposed to the inclemencies of the
weather and situation ; but work must, if practicable,
be commenced at a place which adjoins an existing
stock or clump of trees or has any other protection,
and, shielded in this manner, planting should gradu-
ally go on till the whole area is set out.

The seedlings to be employed in bleak and exposed
situations should be brought up as hardy as possible,
and so that they take girth in proportion to their height
and develop such a strong root system as to hold them
firm against violent winds. For this reason, when large
tracts in those locations are to be reforested, there
should be established in the midst of the grounds a
nursery for raising the required seedlings because plants
grown under less trying circumstances would not
thrive here. Certainly the nursery must be sheltered
against severe winds by building substantial stone
walls or earth embankments around them. ‘These
dams should not be higher than about six feet, but
they should be covered with a strong and projecting
coping by which the wind is broken when it rises at the
wall, If the seedlings in exposed localities are too

RE-STOCKING ON HIGH MOUNTAINS. 221

much sheltered, they are unable to withstand the
severity of the exposure when transplanted to their place
of destination.

As to the expenses of the operations, it is well known
that they are very heavy, because most of the work has
to be done by manual labor and a return, if at all, will
come in very late and very slowly. Therefore it is no
wonder that private property situated upon high moun-
tains, after it has been stripped of the trees, is abandoned
by the owners and left to the care of the government.
Such property never should go into private hands, but
always ought to be retained by the government. The
latter have the means to undertake the expensive cul-
tures called for by an urgent politico-economical neces-
sity, and need not expect any other return from the
amelioration than that which results to the general wel-
fare of the people.* Besides, governments have always
thousands of strong hands at their disposal in the public
prisons. They cannot make better use of them, both
for the prisoners’ own sake and that of the common-
wealth, than to employ them in this kind of work.

The State of New York would undoubtedly derive a
great benefit by adopting some such measure, and going
on to replant the denuded woodlands in the Adirondacks,
whereby it would be self-evident that the State should
be the owner of the high mountain territory. At the same
time the State would solve in the most simple way the
grave question of competition of prison labor with free
labor. There was some time ago a report in the
newspapers about a visit paid by Governor Hill to the
Clinton State Prison which, as is known, lies in the
northwestern part of the Adirondacks, 1,700 feet above
sea-level. In this report it was stated: “that there

* See the remarks on pages 24 and 25,

222 FOREST PLANTING. |

were 500 convicts kept busy every day, each of them
being worth 50 cents a day to the State. The State made
garments and overcoats at prices from $3.50 to $6.00,
which could not be produced from any tailor in New
York City under $12 or $15.” Now would the public
interests of the State of New York not much better be
promoted if these prisoners were kept busy in replant-
ing and improving the denuded woodlands in the
Adirondacks; even if they were then worth much less
than fifty cents a day to the State, than to rane with
the cheap tailoring in our cities ?

CHAPTER IX.
CONCLUDING REMARKS,

State Forest Nursery—Forest. School—Fforest Experi-
ment Station—Asylum for the Game,

THE preceding chapter brings us to the end of the
discussions outlined in the preface, in which, when
written some time ago, the application of scientific for-
estry to our State forests was considered more as a pos-
sibility for the future than in the expectation that the
principles which it advocated were so soon to be real-
ized. But as a great and significant change in public
sentiment, leaning toward the author’s views has taken
place since that time, a few further remarks may not be
out of place.

The Forestry Act of 1885 provided in fact solely for
the protection of the State forests against fire and thefts,
but made no attempt to have them managed efficiently.
The Adirondack Park Association, however, as stated on

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 223

page 139, has taken the matter in hand, and 1s endeavor-
ing not only to bring about an enlargement of the State
property in the Adirondacks in order to secure the water
sheds of our navigable rivers against further wanton
wood destruction; but also to introduce a systematic
management of the State forests with the view of mak-
ing them a source of permanent revenue for the State.

Now the question arises whether this change of policy
by which the State appears as a great landed proprietor
and dealer in wood products is desirable in the face of
the strongly existing American idea that the Govern-
ment never shall compete with private industries and
occupations, but must only interfere to secure perfect
freedom of labor and facilitate private enterprise.

And here we may, without resorting to the dangerous
expedient of forming new schools of economists for
America,* on general grounds as well as by the experience
of other countries enjoying the same free institutions
which we possess (¢. g. Switzerland), answer this question
unhesitatingly in the affirmative.

The Adirondack region as a whole is, with the excep-
tion of lands situated along the river valleys and the
shores of some of the larger lakes, utterly unfit for agri-
cultural purposes. As soon as the timber is taken away
the owner of the tract has no more interest init. Seed-
ing and harvesting time are too far ayart from each
other. ‘The forest-planter will never reap the full bene-
fit of his labors, and therefore, the owner does not feel
like going on to replant a tract which he has just
stripped of its trees to realize the anticipated benefits of
his property. ‘To replant his denuded lands a large capi-

* See ‘Annual Report of the Division of Forestry for 1887,’ p. 47,
init.

224 FOREST PLANTING.

tal is required, and this capital will be tied up for
generations, and pay only at the end of a long period
accumulated interest together with the invested money.
This kind of business does not agree with the average
American. He prefers to have his capital at his dis-
posal and when he uses it, he expects to make high
profits and quick returns. To the State, however, the
material value of the wood products are of secondary
significance; the economic influence of those wooded
mountains upon the general weal of the country is the
principal reason for endeavoring to obtain control over
a region which will secure the ascribed economic effects
only when continually kept under wood.

And yet there are some peculiar features about the —
possession of well-managed forests which should make
them extremely desirable for the many rich people we
have in this country, and who can afford to tie up a
part of their wealth for a longer period before receiving
returns. ‘These features are:

1. The investment is as safe as in the most solid say-
ings bank, and at a rate of interest which at least equals
that paid by the banks.

To prove this, is not difficult, but it would lead us
here too far to do it. Suffice it to observe that the
elosest calculations made in European countries in re-
gard to wood accretion in the forests confirm the cor-
rectness of this statement, which will be still more
applicable to our country as the growth of trees here by
far surpasses that in Europe, and the rate of interest is
the same in both countries.

As for the much-feared forest fires, it is to be hoped
that we also will be able to discover and apply some such
means, both of preventing and extinguishing forest fires
as have been devised in Europe so that there at present

— s

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 225

any aanger of passing railroad trains through wooded
districts has been removed.

2. The labor required in the management of forests
is much smaller than that employed in any other busi-
ness, especially in the allied one, of agriculture; but
any sum of money properly spent in the administration
and exploitation of forests will always give sure and

highly satisfactory returns. See pp. 17 and 18.

3. Forest lands are bound to be in the future much
more high-priced and remunerative than they are at
present, because with the continually increasing popu-
lation in our State and country the demand for wood
products will become larger and influence their prices
to such a degree as we are now unable to imagine. The
first importation of foreign pine will send up the price
of American pine to the cost of production.

Considered solely from a business standpoint, the said
features would render the possession of forests greatly
acceptable to corporations and governments, as these
are supposed to be not confined to the short natural term
of human life, and, therefore, will live to enjoy the full
benefits to be derived from forest planting and forest
management. To our State the acquisition of the
Adirondack forests would be the more desirable as this
as the only means to preserve the wooded condition of
that region for the purposes for which they are by a
benign Providence destined, viz., to protect and benefit
the country in its physical condition, and to furnish a
permanent supply of lumber, timber, and fuel. It is
true, there has been in p. 13 expressed a somewhat
different opinion in this regard. But those lines were
penned under the impression that the imperfect views
about “ forest preservation,” laid down in the Forestry
Act of 1885 would not so soon be given up, and sub-

226 FOREST PLANTING. ©

stituted by sound business principles—and under those
circumstances every enlargement of the State forest
preserve would have only increased the public expen- —
diture, without even attaining the object of the “ are
servation” of the State forests.

This state of things has been lately changed alto-
gether, as the Adirondack Park Association has made
the introduction of a systematic, paying management
of our State forests the condition under which the
acquisition of the Adirondack Park grounds is to be
effected. This is the only correct and expedient step. to
be taken in the matter. For without proper manage-
ment the protection of woods from their many foes, both
human and elemental, cannot be realized. But with a
rational management we can not only effect the fullest
preservation of the Adirondack forests but we will also
lay the foundation for a future revenue which will in the
course of time not only blot out the capital invested in
the acquisition and the management of the forests, but
also create a source upon which the people may draw
for helping to defray the public expenses.

As the projected enlargement of the State forest
domain and the preparatory measures necessary for the
introduction of systematic forest culture involve a large
amount of money and labor, it is but just that a consid-
erable number of intelligent and public-spirited citizens
should be enrolled to fulfill a patriotic duty in which
they themselves have not only to lay aside every shadow
of partisan spirit but also to secure by proper legislation
the adoption of such principles and rules for the future
organization and management that mere political influ-
ences will never be permitted to interfere with the tech-
nical management. If we ever shall enjoy the benefits
justly expected from the projected public acquisition,

|
|

CONCLUDING REMARKS. R24

we have to subject the entire institution to some such
rigid civil service rules as exist in the Metropolitan
Fire Department or Police Department of the City of
New York. Without such unalterable restrictions the
management of the State Forests would soon become
the most coveted ground for political spoil-hunters, and
the State, instead of expecting an income, would soon
find its hoped-for revenues crumble down so as to leave
only from year to year increasing expenses of manage-
ment.

It is only to be regretted that the said association has
thought proper to assume the name of a “ Park” associ-
ation because this leads to misunderstandings which, as
experience shows, may prove injurious to the project by
provoking the opposition of our rural legislators. Ina
correspondence which the author directed to the New
York Times, Feb. 27, 1890, it was stated that our coun-
try population regarded the project of a forest park in
the sense that its aim was the maintaining of woodlands
as a shelter for game, and asa region of pleasure resort
for those who can afford time and means for this enjoy-
ment. For this reason even the harmless provisions
made for the preservation of the State forests in the
Forestry Act of 1885 experienced a strong opposition
in the Legislature, although no considerable grant was
demanded, because the opponents of this measure repre-
sented to the masses that such parks were but resorts
for rich people, and that no regular exploitation of the
woods and no felling of trees would take place; and
that, therefore, the growth of timber for the supply of
man would come to an end, turning out very disastrous
to the local population that mostly were subsisting on
the products of the woods.

That this apprehension was well founded shows a

228 ' FOREST PLANTING.

correspondence from Lockport of this State, where lately
a farmers’ meeting was held in which the idea of estab-
lishing a public park in the Adirondacks was discussed,
and finally very violently opposed. Manifestly, the old
foes to the preservation of our State forests, who operated
also against the tame Forestry Act of 1885, were there
at work, and blinded the unsuspecting rural population
by the linguistic definitions of the word “ Park.” The
N. Y. Times made to this meeting the following very
appropriate remarks: |

“There evidently was a serious misunderstanding of
the nature of the case which calls for explanation of
this desirable project. This (park) is not for private
uses and for the enjoyment of a few wealthy persons
who may spend their leisure weeks of annual vacation
there. It is for the public advantage; for the preserva-
tion and profitable use of a valuable store of timber; for
the preservation and supply of the water which main-
tains great and indispensable channels for commerce
which have built up the Empire State, and upon which
the continued prosperity of the State depends, and also
for the favorable effect upon the climate of the veniae
broadly extended, of a great source of rain.’

However, when the projected enlargement of the State
forests is secured, and the management shall begin
operations in a business-like way, we will find that we
need a large tract of woodland, which has to be treated
somewhat differently from the general forest preserve,
and this tract should be distinguished from the preserve
by naming it the “ Park.”

This park should, among other purposes, be devoted ;

I, To the establishment of a State nursery for forest
trees.

The proper sreuotwabion of natural forests requires,

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 229

besides other operations, the continual care for replant-
ing areas which have been denuded either by accidents
(fire) or elemental forces (storms, snow) or by the natu-
ral course of tree life. Of the present State forest pre-
serve there are several hundred thousands of acres of
woodlands, which have been stripped in such a manner
that they forever are doomed to weeds and brambles
unless the helping hand of man is enlisted into service
for restocking them. Many of these tracts may be re-
forested by a general cultivation and seeding down with
the seeds of trees adapted to soil and location, but there
will remain many places which cannot be redeemed
from their desolate condition unless planted with seed-
lings, and sometimes with such ones as have been once
transplanted in the nursery. Itis true that wherever
large tracts are to be planted the nursery should be
located in the midst, or at least near the tract to be
operated on. But this would not exclude the advisa-
bility of creating a principal station for general nursery
purposes. For this institute has not only the care of
raising seedlings and disseminating the knowledge of
improved methods of forest planting, but also of col-
lecting the seeds of forest trees grown in the Adiron-
dacks, and of preserving the collected seeds till the
time arrives when they will be made use of. Sometimes
it may not be avoidable to buy tree seed from seed-
dealers. But it goes without saying that, to owners of
large forests, the most approved way of restocking their

_ denuded wood plots is to take the collection of seeds in

their own hands, although this operation is a tedious
one, and not infrequently more oRpanerre than to buy
the seed from the dealers.

II. A Forest School would be another institution tobe
established upon the privileged grounds of a Forest Park.

230 . FOREST PLANTING. >

With the introduction of systematic forestry men —
trained in all branches of forest planting, and in the
protection and exploitation of forests will be required
in great numbers. Referring to what has been said on
this subject in Chapter V., Part I., the following re-
marks may serve to give some more useful hints in this
regard. |

For the proper management of large forests there are
required two classes of officials, besides common labor-
ers, viz.: 1. The persons of the forest administration
service occupying the higher places in the department,
supervising the entire business and giving directions to
the local officials in the forest service for the suitable
methods of cultivating and exploiting the several
wooded tracts entrusted to the care of subordinate offi-
cials as foresters and their assistants. 2. These subordi-
nate officials, although occupying the inferior places in
the service, are with us in the present transitory stage
of converting the wild woods into cultivated forests of
the highest importance, because the principal work
during the first years will, besides the engineers’ work
of laying out and rendering passable the necessary
roads through the woods. consist of cleaning and clear-
ing out the thickets, felling off mature and overmature
trees, removing them out of the woods and preparing
them for the auction sale and the market, putting the
denuded woodlands in the proper condition for the recep-
tion of seeds or plants, and reforesting them.

With the further development of the profession, to .
be built up by introducing scientific forestry in this
State and country, there will undoubtedly appear forest
officials of the class No. 1, who have received besides
practical instruction in the culture and management of
forests, an university education to fit them for the for-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 231

est administration service, and to apply their widened
knowledge and experience for the benefit of the State
by increasing the revenues of the forests entrusted to
their care. But, at present, we need, par excellence, men
of class 2, practically instructed in the everyday rou-
tine of systematic forest management, after having
received the education of the average graduate from a
country school. ‘To impart such an education and to
accustom the students to a strict moral conduct and a
rigid, nearly military discipline, without which no large
forest can be managed successfully, the immediate
establishment of a forest school within the Adirondack
Park should be insisted upon. ‘There young men be-
tween 18 and 22 years old should receive an elementary
education and practical instruction under the direction
of an approved forester.* This school should be located
at a place where the teacher, for purposes of practical
instruction, can have at his disposition an extended area
consisting of standing wood, denuded woodlands, and a
well-equipped nursery. The students should be com-
pelled to devote half of the time of their education for
performing every manual work that is required to be
done in the proper management and exploitation of
forests. Referring as for the rest to what has been said
in this regard on page 33, sqq., it might not be amiss to
remember the experiences we have made with our agri-
cultural schoolst and not to raise in this school the

* We need not to fear a want of scientifically educated foresters.
The reverse might come nearer to the truth. See what is said about
this subject on page 142, note.

+ The last report of the Cornell University goes to show that, out of
a total number of 1,300 students, only thirty-one are inscribed in the
Agricultural Department. ‘‘ This meagre showing is,” as the Practical
Farmer lately said, *‘ not the result of poor or unqualified professors

232 FOREST PLANTING.

standard of professional education higher than is nec-
essary for the executive staff of the forest department.
However, should there be found talented scholars with
higher aspirations, occasion should be given to them
after completing the full course in this school to enter
a college for obtaining a higher standard of education
to fit them for the higher walks of the profession. —

III. The State Park should also afford an opportunity
for creating an experiment station for forest trees.

Our knowledge of where, what, and how to plant trees
is, as the late Dr. John Warder said, very imperfect.
There are only two ways to complete this knowledge,
viz., either by experience or by experiment. In Europe
it took more than a century to organize a system of
scientific forestry, and since that time the experiment
stations are fully engaged in disclosing the many dark
points which remain in this science still doubtful, in
spite of the excellent management of the European
forests by erudite and capable men. Now, if we intro-

and instructors, for they are the best that can be found. The trouble
lies in the system. There is a natural antagonism between agricul-
tural and classical students, and they will never in any manner coal-
esce; the former being in the minority, the latter will drive them by
sneers and taunts either into a strictly literary course, or send them
home in disgust.’? What should be done and can be done to avoid such
undesirable condition may be seen in the little ‘‘ Storrs Agricultural
School” of Connecticut. This is a purely agricultural school, costing
but a few thousand dollars every year, and has many more students
than the Cornell University has in its agricultural department. The
graduates of this school go all back to the plow and realize practically
the benefits of their education, while most of the few graduates from
the Cornell agricultural department enter city and business life. Let
us have a little forest school in the Adirondacks for educating the men
required to perform the practical operations in the management of
the State forests. Cornell University may rise to educate the higher
officials who, later on, will be in demand for the administration of
our State forests, and who should possess an university education.

™ ee ey ee ee

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 233

duce a systematic management of our forests with help-
ers who are nearly all crude lay hands, it devolves upon
us the more the duty of establishing experiment sta-
tions as the objects of our investigations are by far more
numerousand complicated than those treated in the Eu-
ropean stations. The principles of vegetable growth
being everywhere alike, we can obtain much useful
information by the instructions of the European forest-
ers. But as our climate and physical conditions differ
much from those prevailing upon the Eastern hemi-
sphere, and as these circumstances effect different results
in forest culture, we have to make careful observations
and experiments ourselves, in order to arrive at the
knowledge necessary to determine the most important
steps in the rational management of forests. See the
remarks on page 53 i. f.

An experiment station in the Adirondack Park would
be the more beneficial for the whole country, as we
would be able to attach to it a large tract of woodland
and an extensive nursery, thus combining the experi-
ments in the forest with those in the field (nursery).
We would be able in the course of time, by careful
measurements of trees, to determine: the rates of
growth in different species of trees, at different periods
of life, and could answer the question whether it would
pay to devote a certain area to forest culture.

We could furthermore determine the technical and
financial value of the different species, their wood accre-
tions under different conditions, and at a certain age,
and would then be in a position to decide on the most
desirable selection of trees from a financial point of
view. We could then answer many questions which are
at present still entirely wrapped up in darkness, or very
doubtful, such as regarding the conditions under which

234 FOREST PLANTING.

the different kinds of trees grow best and form the most
wood, some requiring close and some more open plant-
ing, some needing nurses and some not, some requiring
much light, while others get along well in the shade.
All these points, and many others connected with the
various forest cultures in seeding and planting forest
trees, which are so important for the systematic manage-
ment of forests and not yet settled, should be attended
to and by experiments determined, with the help of ten-
tative processes.

IV. The Park idea would, however, be still more ap-

propriate if it was made subservient to another economic

consideration, viz., to the preservation of the game
within the Adirondack region. Under the present sys-
tem of administration pot-hunting in the Adirondacks
will, from year to year increase; and, unless there is set
apart an extended district where game may rest and
breed undisturbed, the nobler species of game will soon
be a thing of the past. It was only by declaring some
of her mountains (Freiberge) exempted from the incur-
sions of hunters and trappers that Switzerland succeeded
in saving the beautiful chamois from total extinction.
If we take similar precautions and set apart a large
continuous wooded tract as a park, we could establish
it at the same time as an asylum for the much-persecuted
game, in which hunting and trapping game should be
prohibited under the heaviest penalties. Then we
would not only preserve a stock of the pretty game for
our successors without being compelled to keep a costly
deer park, we would at the same time protect people
who visit the park for pleasure or health against the
sinister stray shots of the pot-hunters to which visitors
of the Adirondacks are now exposed at all times and in
all places,

NATIVE TREES OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

A list of native trees of New York, published in the
last Annual Report of the State Forest Commission, is
as follows. Those marked with an asterisk being within
the boundaries of the projected Adirondack Park :

*Black willow.

Yellow willow.

Black walnut.

Butternut.

Locust.

Honey locust.

*Black or wild cherry.
Sweet gum or liquidambar.
Buttonwood or sycamore.
Persimmon.

Pepperidge or sour gum.
Nettle tree or hackberry.

Willow or peach-leaved oak.
Black Jack or barren oak.
*Black or yellow-bark oak.
Scarlet oak,

*Red oak.

Pin or swamp Spanish oak.
Post or box white oak.
Over-cup white or bur oak.
Mossy-cup oak.

White oak.

Swamp white oak.

Rock chestnut oak.
Chestnut or yellow oak. Red mulberry.

Shellbark or shagbark hickory. |§ White mulberry.
Mockernut or whiteheart hickory. Kentucky coffee tree,
Pignut or brown hickory. Magnolia or cucumber.
Bitternut or swamp hickory *Basswood or linden.
*Sugar maple or hard maple. Tulip tree or whitewood.
*Black sugar maple. *Tronwood or hop hornbeam.
*Soft or swamp maple. *Hornbeam or water beech.
*White or silver maple. *Flowering dogwood.

Ash-leaved maple or box elder. Dogwood.

*White birch. Judas tree.

*Canoe or paper birch. Holly.

*Yellow birch. Sassafras.

*Black or cberry birch. *Black thorn.

*Red birch. *Mountain ash or rowan tree.
*Red beech. Sweet-scented crab.
*White ash. Sheepberry.

*Black ash. *Stag-horn sumach.

Green ash. *Wild red or pin cherry.
*White elm. *White or Weymouth pine.
Slippery or red elm. *Pitch pine.

Cork elm or Thomas’s elm. *Yellow pine.

*Quaking aspen or small poplar. *Scrub pine.

*American aspen or poplar. *Black or double spruce.

*Virginia or necklace poplar.
Cottonwood or downy poplar.
*Balsam poplar or tacmahac.
*Balm-of-Gilead.

Chestnut.

Horse chestnut.

*White or single spruce.
*Balsam or balsam fir.
*Hemlock.

*Tamarack or hackmatack, or larch,

*Red cedar.
White cedar.

*Arbor vite or white cedar,

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INDEX.

Abies pectinata, picea--.--...-- 110 | Capillary Attraction........__- 162
ena ge coer awn a xninnes 50, Carbonate of Lime-....-....-.- 159
Acer pseudo platanus..--..---- 84 mia Carbonaceus humus.-.-..---..-- 154
* gempestre .....----...--. OS Tae eae er Oe NE) Sep
Adirondack SYildornene,: Se 9, it | Catskill Mountains. --._- 16, 11, 19
157 | iS ee eet nae eae
6s Park gives a 139 ROPES Pe ooo id cu aes 215
222, 226 | 2 ee eats cr 34
NEES GOON 2. on ens cenceus 218 Chemical Actions within the
Adyentitious Buds-_--..---..-.- 64 FU Se pite aha ee He piu 44
Aforesting Mountains. -.. ..--- 182 Chestunt Sc armlicnn eee beat Aare Dn el 49
ss Sand Wastes-..---- A991 Civil BOPvi0@ = 5 oooc 5 5 ~ ocs eae ce 227
Agriculture .........--.----..- 147 | Cleaning Forests............-- 110
MU atc Gs'sata'ou saya = 03% 215 | Clover Culture_-.-..-....._- 20, 21
MUGAP 46.5 50, 66, 86, 88, 180, 153 | Colleges of Forestry and Agri-
si ROR rco ys Face ait new 219 | COT oni) wraith ews. ie
oobi es senate i ee SAP | COMMONS 3... 265 pags anes ene
MOE AIDS vaniniin ee sennaias «Wik 105 Monitors... 3... 47, 67, 71, 73, 23
Arundo akanis: ee ae SIU MGB 160 <3 aitbscancuenas
UR acai aceon 83, 50, 82, 153, 186 Cooper Material-_...-.-.--- 178, 74
Aspen Tree-.-...--..-- 50, 130, 219 Copse or Coppice Culture, 64) 132
Asylum, for Game-.-.---- 222) 234 | 174
Austria-Hungaria -..-.-.-..--- 218 Corn-marigold -.............-- 153
Avena elatior._.......-.------ 217 Cornell University.-.......-.-- 232
Ax, Short-handled for Planting 3 Cotton Grasses. =... ..scacde 154
Bacilli, Rock Devouring ------- 213 County Schools_...-......---- 231
MOAN Whoo roe oncac na vek IBS Cee R 010. oc acccioncn<dnate 215
Basket Making......-..------- RSS Outten on ssn desen-nenncee 66
a ee a 89 Dams, Dikes-_-..---.-- 195, 196, i
BRO MERRG = os adios 055-+seseae 181 | Danish, Government.-_..----.
Beaver Meadows....---------- 157 | Deciduous Trees_.....-.---- 60, 93
SE ae See oN 122 | Deep Flowing sik ook eadaay 40, 41
aot 2s didn in cit 3 1, 152 | Densely Foliaged Trees----- 49, 52
Beech....-.-. 81, 49, 50, 153, 186, 212 - Dominant DOW 6 x omic an fenitnck 112
Betulacez ---- -86 Downs-Dunes_-6, 23, 171, 176, 177
Birch, 97, 86, 50, 54, 90, 109, 135, 219 | Downward Step (of trees) meee 186
Black River_......-..--------- SDC O0 WG sts 2. oan captcdcdns 120
TMM newness winch uae doen ECSINARE 2. 2 os beset Sanne 43, 160
Block System....--..-.- .--- 56, 141 | Elm, Seed-bed for, 50, 85, 83, 153
MNES Fe i Bia DEES wes Ss 151 187
Border or Bed Culture..---- 45,46 Elymus arenaria---....--..--- 171
Bottom Lands.-..........---..- 153 : Entailments.-.:......------...- 28
Bromus erectus-..---.----.---- Se Mriea Pay . 225th ean ceous 153
Brush-Harrow ..-.--------- 44, AS. Meparsette .. 226-5 ---.-siacces 217
Buckwheat... .....-...--- 166, 178 Evergreens---.----.----.----.-- 106
Burning Over the Soil--------- 165 Exper iments in the Forests - . ..233
BP AEOD 2 AS, Neen 52 215 | Field ----_- 233
eon W000 . 55... -..---5- 67 ee eae Stations, 15,30, 222, 232
Calamagrostis arenaria--.-.-118, 217 Extraction of Tree Seeds.....- 71

235

Layers (sprouts)....-....------ 66

236 FOREST PLANTING.
Felling of Trees......-..-..--- 114 | Dich@ns 2 i<.05055s1scese see 153
| EDT RRR te ae Soe EES 157 | Light-needing Trees_.52, 117, 153
Fires, Forest-- .--- 15, 134, 187, 224| Lion Beetles..-..-.....------- 120
aaa ers 49, 50, 155, 186 | Location of Seed-beds for For-
Forest Culture_9, 11, 15, 25, 30, 146 OBL-ErOES . 2. occ scene
Economy ibaa des ame 13 |} Locust: ..c ce scksscs coaseeeaee 89
“6 Farm a Barres... .-- 82, 33 | Long Island Sands---..-.------ 175
Ss GarGening 3 soc nns aces 62} Lumber: 2. .5<-<c. vs came 153
e Naveey. as 142, 220, 222 | Maple-.-..--- 83, 84, 50, 67, 153, 186
Oliittele <= 225.25 1s 200] Martens: ....92.5..Aale 119
ple 5 SE eS 228'| Marshes 5 ..¢-. 2c: ss isch soustee 151
“6. > Figutingt 10 ocecceee 9, 36 | Maritime Pine--...........--.- 181
‘¢ Preservation --.-4, 5, 13, 14 | CO ose co ccncueneee eee 119, 122
Revenues in Germany 17, 18 | Miller Joaquin--..--_---.------ Zz
a | OES FERS Aes 15, 29, 32, 230 | Mixed Forest-Planting --....-.- 52
WOteeey cs. 2=S2--2on 3, 176, 222, 230 | Mohawk River, --....-.---..--- 9
WOM ORS ceo cse tosh oe ae 141, 149) Moles: =~ ..2...-6--ecncceaete 118
Forkiness of Trees.....---.--- 94 | Moorlands-..-.-...--. 45, 153, 154
MORONS 25223 sSo rales eee ee 119 | Mosses........--....- 153, 156, 158
France, Forestry--..--...------ 176-| Moss-lands:.. «2 -..5i2.- -ceaeee 1
~e ta oy ees: Oe ae 51} Mountain Waters, Regulation
Freibe witzerland-----.-.-- 234 Of cnccankaxscetess cceeeeee
Frost sipantae oleate tater 198, 120) Mack ..2..<<.2.4.4sganeedeee 154
MRVMO cE ES errs cone oe thee 178'| Mueuts, Prof. <2... sscceenae 213
Game, Injurious to Trees. --... 123 Mulching Planted Trees__.---- 108
Germinating Power of Tree Myrica corifera |... ic san pee 181
BOONE so =<. Geran eke 78| Myrtle Bash... .2.15...aieeuer 181
GOmne o as 2h i cudseksoueennee 178 | Natural Meadows..........--.- 157.
Governed Trees-_--..-.-..------ 112 | Natural Moors.-.-..-..--.2.<-.. 1
Grenadiers, The----.--..------ 35 | Natural Reproduction of Woods,
De ig Se OPE ee 165
Hand-rolle? 22322560552 2c cake 166 | Natural Regeneration --.-.-.-- 64, 65
PBFA HAR 265232552 Soon ease 168 | New Jersey Sands-.----..---.---- 175
Pla wthowt «..2i5.c.6ag cs ona ace 219| Nursery, Forest-...15, 142, 220, 222
Beatie. 2-2 22865 soc 42, 154, 157 we Trees, ‘Seed-beds
B1eatle-pOe voo3 56 5602n0ckeenees 2063 OR san an cwdap ino nneee eee
MOSEROT 555 oo n4 ac clneckhaeene 178 ou x. otrimes este ee Ne 218
SEDO ms ano take ae See 5 ROG) SRR. 6 Us cdvsachace 153, 169
ass plotes, Forest Pantin Ohio, State Forestry Bureau Re-
Sieh Sh wa wialeee epee 56, 1 POPE. sscucccnSavicctetconaee
Hill "Planting ee 96, 97, 98, 103:)} Oretebs s25200c8sc access nko 168
Boleas mollis... 25 2.2 .i0--55% BIT} QUOT hts nae enews eee 148
Hornbeam ---.------ 89, 49, 50, 180 | Osier, Red......-.......--.... 148
POUGN SD. Ds ts da desatwcnntense 100 | Overforester ......--.--------- 140
Hudson River--..-.-.-.----- 01 Packhard, Df... 5. be s2.saeoue
Humic Acid-------- 42,154, 156, 159 Paper-Making Material. ....... 174
Ichneumon Flies----.....-.--- 131) Parasites... ...6. s<sesdncokumban 121
Inundations in Forests-.--.-.-.-.- 183} Parent Trees....-..:..cotseome 66
SIGN ONMIO Daun ncexcadeckacate 168 | Park Commissioners... -.-..-.---- 10
Terigetoe 555065 sa teteeees 48, 200 | Peat Bogs... 24... 2.0 din neenan 154
GAY puis lapesseclanspenbweceeee 191) .** Mosses ......<2t cane 156
SRRIDO « ccs cs Shcehine secs 172, 219 Peaty Soils.......-- 45, 46, 159, i
Lady-bitds 652i stk xocancucenee 120 Peroxide of Lime--...-.----.----- 159
Landes of Sologne........-.--- 170 Pirlomen.< 35. - <0, sn cUeeoeee 178
Landes of Gascony-..-.-..---.--- 172 Pickhardt, Wm., New York.... 80
EQROR 3 scbdctseuseiene , 186, 216 Pine, 47, 50, 90. 109, 180, 153, 172

177, 181

INDEX. 237
eee 168 (Shelter Forests._..........- 22, 24
“Black Austrian ..212, 215, 219 | Shifting Sands.-_._....__..__- 167
Re ORV... osc ccewc ns 9 | Shrew-mouses--.......-..----- 118
Pe MIN ua vs Snes tecns MAT RMOEM ol, hol alae duaswacccas 118
TOUS ogc eae wi bao sanee BOETIO PIGRS oa cunteeanccnaaets 219
6 Wild or Dwarf..-.---- ad, mee LEDAITOWS .2 2.2. 25.4 <s55-------
(| ES ae 217 | Spruce....-..-. 49, 90, 153, 156, a
Planting Forest Trees. ..90-98, 188 | Squirrel ...........-........--
eye Wate: le Wee PON occ SSS Ss cade cancbue 68
_ without Ball__...---- 96 | State Control over Forests -- 23, 24
Plains, Forest Planting on----- 146 | State Forests. -..16, 11, 21, “eg 223
Plenter Management.---.----- be State Forest Commission 3, 4, 10
SR as wine was os sex * BT
Poplar....----- 89, 66, 109, 138 Pal Wine ee 5
WOROCUOINOES: «5s 6s noses ..--e- 118 Statistical Tnvend for Forest
jE ee ee eae 234 PARULOND oo a ccc ndebned 22
Preparatory Measures for Re- Mien PIOW < . «5 siccnos cuccdaus 42
stocking Mountains. ---..-- 190 | Storrs Agricultural School ----- 232
Preservation of Tree Seeds. ---- 70 | St. Paul, Chamber of Commerce 34
Prevention of Injuries to — Subdned trees. .....--....--.- 113
123, 125 | Sun Heat, Damaging ---------- 130
Protection of Trees .-.-. _.. --109 Swamp Hickory-.-----.-------- 153
‘“* Forest Soil ------ T1641 Swamps... 22-5... 2 ce 151, 154
sc * Forest@ ....-.-.- 118 | Sweating, Tree Seeds.------.-- 69
Protective Forests - ...13. 22, 23, Bs BUPOIONG. 22.5 to cepcuccaastes 67
Protoxide of Lime------.--.-.--- 159 | Systems of Forest Management,
CoS Se ree eee 134 55-64
Quercus ilex or sempervirens-- 80 | Tanner Materials-_-_.--.--- 173, 175
Rabatten Culture---------.----- 45 | Thinning out ...------- 14, 110, 111
MR anc eh Cees pct nue 123 | Thin foliaged trees--..------- 50, 52
Railroads Passing Forests- ---- 225 | Tidswilde Hegn.-.-.....------ 174
NOR a ce ngtacs oh eee went 199 | Tiger Beetles..-........-.-.... 120
Reforesting Sand-wastes- ------ Peo UP TADEP 5 5 cad Genns asnenet ben 153
Regulation of Rivers---------- 201 ' Torrents, Formation of-------- 191
Removal of Tree Branches .---- 115 Transplanting Large ‘Trees 101, 108
Replanting, Artificial ---.-...-- 26 TG THE so). Bo wns esate ” 126
Reports of Forest Commission .4, 5| Tree Nurseries-.--.------------ 92
Reproduction of Woods- --.-- 14, ’33 Ht OTRRGOS. soit chs cc ncsn oe 154
Restocking High Mountains---213 | Tulip Tree---.-------------.-- 89
Right of Eminent Domain. .--13, 27 | Turf---...---------------- 155, 166
Roses, 3 a reek een MIT Walnat = 2-.<-) <: ce nck sees 49
Safety-strips....-.......-. 135, 136 | Warder, Dr. John A.,---------- 53
Palicylic Acid.-...-.....-.-...- SV Water Table. 6. Jens nonct a 160
Salix purpurea...-.-.-..-..--- CR OE or On ell oaaic'a wen bc Beige 19
rt WRN niga iain a ce dine - 748) Wild Forests. .....-2.2.5--2245 145
eNO gS sane cae 176: t- Wild: Woods: <= 55.2. ~~ 145
ae re 168, 172 | Willow- .--88, 66, 109, 147, 149, 219
Schneissen -----.------ 60, 187, 141 | Willow Plantations.......----- 149
Seeds for Forest Trees.-------- G61 Winter Doek.... 5 2.0--5.<.ci5- 153
Seed-beds for Forest Trees-_--75, 90 | Wood, Mantel------------ 129, 131
Seeding Forest Trees----74, 80, 188 | Wooded Tracts.....----------- 36
Seeland, Island-_.-------------- Trt WOON coin pha énus tinea men 140, 144
Shade-Enduring Trees --.-- 52, 117 | Young Plantations, Care of _...109

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SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE

pert 8 E ARP cae

RURAL BOOKS

Containing 116 8vo pages, profusely illustrated, and giving
full descriptions of nearly 600 works on the following subjects:

FARM AND GARDEN,
Fruits, FLowers, Ertc.,
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE,
Docs, Etc., Horses, Ripine, Erc.,
PouLTRY, PIGEONS, AND BEEs,
ANGLING AND FISHING,
BoaTING, CANOEING, AND SAILING,
FIELD SpoRTS AND NATURAL History,
HUNTING, SHOOTING, ETCc.,
ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING,
LANDSCAPE GARDENING,

HovusEHOLD AND MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS.

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
52 & 54 Lafayette Place, New York.

2 STANDARD BOOKS.

Mushrooms, How to Grow Them.

For home use fresh Mushrooms are a delicious, highly nutritious and
wholesome delicacy; and for market they are less bulky than eggs,
and, when properly handled, no crop is more remuuerative. Anyone
who has an ordinary house cellar, woodshed, or barn cau grow Mush-
rooms. This is the most practical work on the subject ever written,
and the only book on growing Mushrooms ever published in America,
‘The whole subject is treated in detail, minutely and plainly, as only a
atageaien man, actively engaged in Mushroom growing, can handle it.

he author describes how he himself grows Mushrooms, and how they
are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and for home
use by the most successful private growers. The book is amply and

ointedly illustrated, with engravings drawn from nature expressly

or this work. By Wm. Falconer. Is nicely printed and bound in
Cloth.~ Price, post-pain.... rk. con sscencckeeons ee ne eee 1.50

Allen’s New American Farm Book,

The gd best work on the subject ; comprising all that can be con-
densed into an available volume. Originally by Richard L. Allen.
Revised and greatly enlarged by Lewis F. Allen. Cloth, 12mo.--. 2.50

Henderson's Gardening for Profit.
By Peter Henderson. New edition. Entirely rewritten and greatly
enlarged. The standard work on Market and Family Gardening.
The successful experience of the author for more than thirty years,
and his willingness to tell, as he does in this work, the secret of his
success for the benefit of others, enables him to give most valuable
information. The book is profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo-_.. 2.00

Fuller’s Practical Forestry. |

A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting, and Cultivation, with a de-
scription and the botanical and proper names of all the indigenous
trees of the United States, both Evergreen and Deciduous, with Notes
on a large number of the most valuable Exotic Species. By Andrew
8. Fuller, author of ‘‘ Grape Culturist,” “Small Fruit Calturist,” 6

The Dairyman’s Manual,
By Henry Stewart, author of ‘*The Shepherd’s Manual,” “ Irriga-
tion,’’ ete. A useful and practical work by a writer who is well
known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which he writes,
CUOG, Binns oven ass panccenepeeaenbonpgen= .ae epee eee 2.00

Truck Farming at the South.

A work giving the experience of a successful grower of vegetables or
“rain truck’? for Northern markets. Essential to any one who con-
templates entering this promising field of Agriculture. By A. Oemler,
of Georgia, Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo....... ‘acduchaehaes ama 1,50

Harris on the Pig.
New edition. Revised and enlarged by the author. The points of the
various English and American breeds are thoroughly discussed, and
the ging advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly shown, Tho
work is equally valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to
the breeder on an extensive scale, By Joseph Harris, Illustrated.
Cloth, 19M0 oo aan ncn cdacsescntansconsscgekusencaueu@eahnnhe ene 1.50

Jones's Peanut Plant—Its Cultivation and Uses.
A practicg] Book, iustructing the beginner how to raise good crops
of Peanuts, By B, W, Jones, Surry Co,, Va, Paper Cover, ...-

:

STANDARD BOOKS. 3

Barry’s Fruit Garden.
By P. Barry. A standard work on fruit and fruit-trees ; the author
having had over thirty years’ practical experience at the head of one
of the largest nurseries in this country. New edition, revised up to
date. Invaluable to all fruit-growers. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00

The Propagation of Plants.
By Andrew 8. Fuller. Illustrated with numerous engravings. An
eminently practical and useful work. Describing the process of hy-
bridizing and crossing species and varieties, and also the many differ-
ent modes by which cultivated plants may be propagated and multi-
i Se EM iene wieed on incacanncs wane pues nesenndsstes 1.50

Stewart's Shepherd’s Manual.

A Valuable Practical Treatise on the Sheep. for American farmers and
sheep growers. It is so plain that a farmer, or a farmer’s son, who
has never kept a sheep. may learn from its pages how to manage a
flock suceessfully, and yet s0 complete that even the experienced
shepherd may gather many suggestions from it. The results of per-
sonal experience of some years with the characters of the various mod-
ern breeds of sheep, and the sheep-raising capabilities of many portions
of our extensive territory and that of Canada—and the careful study of
the diseases to which our sheep are chiefly subject, with those by which
they may eventually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents—as well
as the methods of management called for under our circumstances, are
here gathered. By Henry Stewart, Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo-... 1.50

Allen’s American Cattle.
Thcir History, Breeding, and Management. By Lewis F. Allen. This
Book will be considered indispensable by every breeder of live stock.
The large experience of the author in improving the character of
American herds adds to the weight of his observations, and has
enabled him to produce a work which will at once make good his
claims as a standard authority on the subject. New and revised
edition. lilusirated. Cloth, 12m0.......--46...c0-ccncnaseoucs 250

Fuller’s Grape Culturist.

By. A. 8. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the culture
of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all departments of propa-
gation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent engravings, illustrating plant-
ing, training, grafting, etc. Cloth, 12mo-.-...-.----------------- 1,50

White’s Cranberry Culture.

ConTENTS :—Natural History.—History of Cultivation.—Choice of
Location.—Preparing the Ground.—Planting the Vines.—Management
of Meadows.—Flooding—Enemies and Difficulties Overcome.—Pick-
ing.—Keeping.—Profit and Loss.—Letters from Practical Growers.—
Insects Injurious to the Cranberry. By Joseph J. White. A practi-
calgrower. Illustrated. Cloth,12mo, New andrevisedediticn. 1.2

Herbert's Hints to Horse-Keepers.

This is one of the best and most popular works on the Horse in this
country. A Complete Manual for Horsemen, embracing: How to
Breed a Horse; How to Buy a Horse; How to Break a Horse ; How
to Use a Horse ; How to Feed a Horse; How to Physic a Horse (Allo-
poy or Homepathy); How to Groom a Horse; How to Drive a

orse ; How to Ridea Horse, ete. By the late Henry William Her-
bert (Frank Forester), Beautifully Illustrated, Cloth, 12mo... 1.75

4 STANDARD BOOKS.

Henderson’s Practical Floriculture.
By Peter Henderson, A guide to the successful pro on and
cultivation of florists’ plants, The work is not one for florists and
deners only, but the amateur’s wants are constantly kept in mind,
and we have a very complete treatise on the cultivation of flowers
under glass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow flowers for
pleasure as well as those who make them a matter of trade. The
work is characterized by the same radical common sense that marked
the author’s ‘‘ Gardening for Protit,”’ and it holds a high place in the
estimation of lovers of agriculture. Beautifully illustrated. New an
enlarged edition. Cloth, 12mo---...-...---... testes ac cusseceene 1.50

Harris's Talks on Manures,
+, Siege Harris, M. 8., author of “‘ Walks and Talks on the Farm,”
‘‘ Harris on the Pig.’? ete. Revised and enlarged by the author. A
series of familiar and practical talks between the author and the dea-
con, the doctor, and other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures
and fertilizers ; including a chapter specially written for it by Sir John
Bennet Lawes, of Rothamsted, England. Cloth, 12mo_-_....-... 1.75

Waring’s Draining for Profit and Draining for Health,
This book is a very complete and practical treatise, the directions in
which are plain, and easily followed. The subject of thorough farm
drainage is discussed in all its bearings, and also that more extensive
land drainage by which the sanitary condition of any district may be
greatly improved, even to the banishment of fever and ague, id oid
and malariousfever. By Geo. E. Waring, Jr. Illustrated, Cloth oe

The Practical Rabbit-Keeper.

By Cuniculus. Mlustrated. A comprehensive work on keeping and
raising Rabbits for pleasure as well as for profit. The book is abun
dantly illustrated with all the various Courts, Warrens, Hutches,
Fencing, etc., and also with excellent portraits of the most important
species of rabbits throughout the world, 12mo--..----.--.....- 1.50

Quinby’s New Bee-Keeping.
The Mysteries of Bee-keeping Explained. Combining the results of
Fifty Years’ Experience, with the latest discoveries and inventions,
and presenting the most approved methods, forming a complete work.
Chota, F262 hot eo SACS i ee won le ae eee 1.50

Profits in Poultry.
Useful and Ornamental Breeds and their Profitable Management. This
excellent work contains the combined experience of a number of prac-
tical men in all departments of poultry raising. It is profusely illus-
trated and forms an unique and important addition to our poultry lit-
Grature,. OIOGD, TNI0. .nn ccnascduddunssidigcnbanetscenmaestiowhal 1.00

Barn Plans and Outbuildings.
Two Hundred and Fifty-seven Illustrations, A most Valuable Work
full of Ideas, Hints, Suggestions, Plans, etc., for the Construction of
Barns and Outbuildings, by Practical writers. Chapters are devoted,
among other subjects, to the Economie Erection and Use of Barns.
Grain Barns, House Barns, Cattle Barns, Sheep Barns, Corn Houses,
Smoke Houses, Ice Houses, Pig Pens, Granaries, ete. There are like-
wise chapters upon Bird Houses, Dog Houses, Tool Sheds, Ventila-
tors, Roofs and Roofing, Doors and Fastenings, Work Shops, Ponltry
Houses, Manure Sheds, Barn Yards, Root Pits, ete. Recently pub-
lished, Cloth, 12m0....cccencseesces Sadavecomdcsdceubebaninee 1,50

STANDARD BOOKS. 5

Parsons on the Rose.
’ By Samuel B. Parsors. A treatise on the propagation, culture, and
history of the rose. New and revised edition. In his work upon the
rose, Mr. Parsons has gathered up the curious legends concerning
the flower, and ree us an idea of the esteem in which it was held in
former times. simple garden classification has been adopted, and
the leading varieties under each class enumerated and_ briefly
described. The chapters on multiplicstion, cultivation, and training
are very full, and the work is altogether one of the mcst complete
before the public. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo...........-..-222-.- 1.00

Heinrich’s Window Flower Garden.
The author is a practical florist, and this enterprising volume cm-
bodies his personal experiences in Window Gardenin during a long
eriod. New and enlarged edition. By Julius J. Heinrich. Fully
Oo EO 9 ERE ee eae me nr Ay)

Liautard’s Chart of the Age of the Domestic Animals.
Adopted by the United States Army. Enables one to accurately de-
termine the age of horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, and pigs,.......-. 00

Pedder’s Land Measurer for Farmers.
A convenient Pocket Companion, showing at once the contents of
any piece of land, when its length and width are known, up to 1,500
feet either way, with various other useful farm tables. Cloth, 18mo;
.60

How to Plant and What to Do with the Crops.
With other valuable hints for the Farm, Garden and Orchard. By
Mark W. Johnson. Illustrated. ConTENTs : Times for Sowing Seeds :
Covering Seeds; Field Crops; Garden or Vegetable Seeds, Sweet
Herbs, etc.; Tree Seeds ; Flower Seeds ; Fruit Trees; Distances Apart
for Fruit Trees and Shrubs; Profitable Farming; Green or Manuring
Crops ; Root Crops; Forage Plants ; What to do with the Crops ; The
Rotation of Crops; Varieties ; Paper Covers, post-paid--.------ -50

Your Plants.
Plain and Practical Directions for the Treatment of Tender and Hardy
Plants in the House and in the Garden. By James Sheehan. The
above title well describes the character of the work—‘“‘ Plain and Prac-
tical.’? The author, a commercial florist and gardener, has endeavored,
in this work, to answer the many questions asked by his customers, as
to the proper treatment of plants. The book shows all through that
its author is a practical man, and he writes as one with a large store
of experience. The work better meets the wants of the amateur who
grows a few plants in the window, or has a small flower Garden, than
a larger treatise intended for those who cultivate plants upon a more
extended-scale. Price, post-paid, paper covers-.--..--.--------- 40

Husmann’s American Grape-Growing and Wine-Making.
By George Husmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New and
enlarged edition. With contributions from well-known grape-growers,
giving a wide range of experience. The author of this book is
recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo.............. 1.50

The Scientific Angler.
A general and instructive work on Artistic Angling, by the late David
Foster. Complied by his Sons. With an Introductory Chapter and
Copious Foot Notes, by William C. Harris, Editor of the ‘‘ American
Angler.””? Cloth, 12mo.-..-..... ens kp ening one's loneps nis 1.50

6 STANDARD BOOKS.

Keeping One Cow.
A collection of Prize Essays, and selectionsfrom a number of other
Essays, with editorial notes, suggestions, etc. This book gives the
latest information, and in a clear and condensed form, upon the man-
agement of a single Milch Cow. Illustrated with full-page engray-
ings of the most famous dairy cows. Recently published. oth

BOND «<n ws” eae dua ak Basan deen cave eee ae 1.00

Law’s Veterinary Adviser
A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic
Animals. This is one of the best works on this subject, and is especi-
ally designed to supply the need of the busy American Farmer, who
can rarely avail himself of the advice of a Scientific Veterinarian. It
is brought up to date and treats of the Prevention of Disease, as well
as of the Remedies. By Prof. Jas. Law. Cloth, Crown 8vo--.-- 3.00

Guenon’s Treatise on Milch Cows.
A Treatise on the Bovine Species in General. An entirely new trans-
lation of the last edition of this popular and instructive book. B
Thos. J. Hand, Secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club. Wi
over 100 Illustrations, especially engraved for this work. Cloth, a

The Cider Maker’s Handbook.
A complete guide for making and keeping pure cider. By J. M. Trow-
bridge. Fully lustrated. Cloth, 12mo--.-.....:-....-.....-.- 1.00

Long’s Ornamental Gardening for Americans.
A treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts, and Cemeteries. A
plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous illus-
trations, and instructions so plain that they may be readily followed,
By Elias A. Long. Landscape Architect. Illustrated. Cloth, <a

ook ever published. Cloth, 12mo0,........ coc cccncucesasenncs

Stewart's Feeding Animals,
By Elliot W. Stewart. A new and valuable practical work upon the
laws of animal growth, specially applied to the rearing and feeding
horses, cattle, diary cows, sheepand swine. Jilustrated. Cloth, _

How to Co-operate.

A Manual for Co-operators, By Herbert Myrick. This book describes
the how rather than the whendors of co-operation. In other words it
tells how to manage a co-operative store, farm or factory, and co-op-
erative dairying, banking and fire insurance, and co-operative farmers’
and women’s exchanges for both buying and mse The directions

iven are based on the actual experience of successful co-operative en-

erprises in all parts of the United States. The character and useful-
ness of the book commend it to the attention of all men and women
who desire to better their condition, 12mo, Cloth......--..-.- 1.50

STANDARD BOOKS, 7

Batty’s Practical Taxidermy and Home Decoration.

By Joseph I. Batty, taxidermist for the government surveys and
many colleges and museums in the United States. An entirely new
and complete as well as authentic work on taxidermy—giving in
detail full directions for collecting and mounting animals, birds, rep-
tiles, fish, insects, and general objects of natural history. 125 i!lus-
i ee PR aetna dnecesandesome nach nsescueeren<ous 1.50

Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm, Garden, and Orchard.
New and Enlarged Edition. This work is offered to those American
Farmers, aud other cultivators cf the soil, who from painful expc-
rience can readily appreciate the losses which result from the scarcity
of water at critical periods. By Henry Stewart. Fully illustrated.
RR es Cada aan Saas wwe snnececess sacteudeens 1.50

Johnson’s How Crops Grow.
New Edition, entirely rewritten. A Treatise on the Chemical Compo-
sition, Structure, and Life of the Plant. Revised Edition. This boo«
is a guide to the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition,
their structure, and modes of development and growth ; of the com-
plex organization cf plants, and the use of the paris ; the germination
of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both from the air and the
soil. The book is an invaluable one to all real students of agricul-
ture. With numerous illustrations and tables of analysis. By Prof.
Samuel W. Johnson, of Yale College. Cloth, 12mo.....-...... - 2,00

Johnson’s How Crops Feed.

A treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil, as related in the Nutrition
of Agricultural Plants. The volume—the companion and complement
to ‘“* How Crops Grow,’’—has been welcomed by those who appreciate
scientific aspects of agriculture. Illustrated. By Prof. Samuel W.
SE. Otis LANBO 4. oo. osc 252 ola ccc cceebecewncessuces -« 2.00

Hampshire. Cloth, 12mo-....-..--------------------------+----

Hunter and Trapper.
The best modes of Hunting and Trapping are fully explained, and
Foxes, Deer, Bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by following his
directions. By Halsey Thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman,
Cloth, 12mo-.-----. -----------------------------------------+--- :

The American Merino. For Wool or for Mutton.
A practical and most valuable work on the selection, care, breeding
and diseases of the Merino sheep, in all sections of the the United
States. Itis a full and exhaustive treatise upon this one breed of
sheep, By Stephen Powers. Cloth, 12mo-.....----.--------.--- i

8 STANDARD BOOKS.

Armatage’s Every Man His Own Horse Doctor.

By Prof. George Armatage, M. R. C. V.8. A valuable and compre
hensive guide for both the professional and general reader with the
fullest and latest informatior regarding all diseases, local injuries,
lameness, operations, poisons, the dispensatory, etc., etc., with practi-
cal anatomical and surgical Illustrations. New Edition. Together
with Blaine’s ‘‘ Veterinary Art,’? and numerous recipes. One large
8vo. volume, 830 pages, half morocco........-..---+---0-------- ve

Dadd’s Modern Horse Doctor.

seaage Practical Observations on the Causes, Nature, and Treat-
ment of Diseases and Lameness of Horses—embracing recent and im-
roved Methods, according to an enlightened See of Veterin
Practine. for Preservation and Restoration of Health. MTllustrate
By Geo. H. Dadd, M. D. V.8., Cloth, 120... crsasnsadeccousecm 1.50

BOinG 26 Soe eon cS eet Wie oe ee eee Wee oe

Bree ing Horses and the Management of Stallions, Brood Mares and
Foals. The book embraces all that the breeder should know in regard

By J.
H, Sanders. 12mo, cloth: ... 1... sc sls ees di scat dae cee ~--- 2.00

Coburn’s Swine Husbandry.
New, revised and enlarged edition. The Breeding, Rearing and
Management of Swine, and the Prevention and Treatment of their
Diseases. It is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to Swine
Breeding yet offered. By F. D. Coburn. Cloth, 12mo-..-...... 1

Dadd’s American Cattle Doctor.
By ees H. Dadd, M. D., Veterinary Practitioner. To help every
man to be his own cattle-doctor; giving the necessary information
for preserving the health and curing the diseases of oxen, cows, sheep,
and swine, with a great variety of original recipes, and valuable infor-
mation on farm and dairy management, Cloth, 12mo........... 1.50

Silos, Ensilage, and Silage.
A practical treatise on the Ensilage of Fodder Corn. Containing the
most recent and authentic information on this important subject, by
Manly Miles, M.D., F.R.M.8. Illustrated, Cloth 12mo........ :

Broom Corn and Brooms,
A Treatise on Raising Broom-Corn and Making Brooms on a small or
Large Scale. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth cover----.-------.--.- 50

American Bird Fancier.
Or how to breed, rear, and care for Song and Domestic Birds. This
valuable and important little work for all who are interested in the
keeping of Song Birds, has been revised and enlarged, and is now a
complete manual upon the subject. All who own valuable birds, or
wish to do so, will find the new Fancier indispensable, New, revised
and enlarged edition. By D. J. Browpe, and Dr. Fuller Walker. Illus-
trated, papery COVCLr.-..-----------0- 9g enone tenn n nnn e nnn e wees 0

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