FOREST PRODUCTS THEIR MANUFACTURE AND USE .-., -/, VJURTLANDT BROWN OF . CAUFORNIA . CALIFORNIA FOREST PRQI5UGTS THEIR MANUFACTURE AND USE EMBRACING THE PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL FEATURES IN THE PRODUCTION, MANUFACTURE, AND UTILIZATION OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FOREST PRODUCTS OTHER THAN LUMBER, IN THE UNITED STATES BY NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B.A., M.F. Professor of Forest Utilization, The New York Stale College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York; Trade Commissioner, United States Lumber Trade Commission to Europe, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. FIRST EDITION NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 1919 vS.D-.ry/ Engineering- Library COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN / PRESS OP BRAUNWORTH & CO. BOOK MANUFACTURERS BROOKLYN, N. Y. TO A. V. B. 51930 PREFACE THE object of this book is to present to the student or reader the chief commercial features involved in the manufacture and use of the princi- pal forest products except lumber, and to serve as a reference book for those interested in them. The treatment of the subjects, therefore, has necessarily been very brief. A book could easily be written on each sub- ject, but the curricula of the professional forest schools usually do not provide for extensive study and investigation of each product, unless special and separate courses are offered in such subjects as pulp and papermaking. It is impossible to include in a book of this kind some of the wood- using industries which are closely associated with lumber and its uses, such as the furniture industry, ship building and car construction, etc., because they belong in a separate category. The important problem has been to determine what to include in a book of this kind, and to discriminate and to exclude some of the less essential material. It is planned to make this volume a brief treatise preliminary to a more complete and exhaustive work or group of books to be written at some later date. Although there are more or less statistical data available on some of the industries treated in this book, there has been very little written in American forestry literature on the principles and practices followed in the production of materials other than lumber. From the viewpoint of invested capital, and value of products,they are of greater importance, collectively, than lumber. The values and conditions used in this book are largely given for the period prior to the participation of this country in the war. This has been deemed advisable because of the wholly abnormal and somewhat temporary conditions brought about by the war itself. Much of the data has been obtained as the result of personal investi- gation and inspection of operations in the South, the Lake States, the Northeast, and the Far West during the past ten years. Some mate- iii iv PREFACE rial has also been collected on trips during 1913, 1917, and 1918, to various European countries. Brief bibliographies are appended at the end of each chapter. These were used, to some extent, as sources of information and can be consulted for further study in each subject. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Hugh Potter Baker and members of the faculty of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse and to the United States Forest Service and various individual members of its staff for a number of excellent suggestions as well as material. I am also grateful to the Bureau of Chemistry, the Census Bureau, and Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, for statistical material. I wish to acknowledge my special gratitude to the following specialists in their respective fields for review of the various chapters: Mr. A. R. Joyce of the Joyce-Watkins Tie Co. for reviewing the text of the chapter on Cross Ties; Mr. Samuel B. Sisson of the S. B. Sisson Lumber Co., on Poles and Piling; Mr. J. C. Nellis, Assistant Secretary of the National Association of Box Manufacturers, on Boxes and Box Shocks; Mr. E. A. Brand of the Tanners' Council of the United States and Mr. Henry W. Healey, formerly of the Central Leather Co., on Tanning Materials; Mr. Thomas J. Keenan, F. C. S., Editor of Paper, on Wood Pulp and Paper; the editorial staff of the India Rubber World on Rubber, and Mr. S. J. McConnell of the Keery Chemical Co., on Hardwood Distillation. The chapter on Softwood Distillation has been reviewed and corrected by a prominent operator in the South who requests that his name be with- held from publication. It was originally deemed advisable to include chapters on such other important materials as certain medicinal and chemical products of the forest, as well as camphor, palm oils and other foreign commodities, and to discuss the relation of the subjects treated to the present and future of forestry in this country. However, it was found that on account of the necessity for economy in space, it would not permit the inclusion of a more elaborate treatment. Many of the chapters have already been curtailed for this reason. NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN. JULY, 1919. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. GENERAL PAGE Introduction i Original forests 2 History of lumber cut 2 Present forest resources 3 Rate of consumption 4 Annual production of lumber 6 Lumber values 9 Use of the lumber cut n Wastage in production of forest products 12 Converting factors 14 CHAPTER II. WOOD PULP AND PAPER General 18 History of pulp and papermaking 20 Kinds of paper manufactured 22 Requirements of desirable pulp woods 22 Annual consumption of wood 23 Woods used 24 Consumption by states 26 Consumption by processes 27 Raw material 28 Requirements for the establishment of a pulp mill 30 The manufacture of mechanical pulp 31 Preparation of the wood 31 Barking 31 Cold and hot ground wood pulp 33 Screening 35 Yield 37 The manufacture of sulphite pulp 38 The manufacture of sulphate pulp 47 The manufacture of soda pulp 48 The manufacture of paper from pulp 50 Imports of pulp wood and wood pulp 57 CHAPTER III. TANNING MATERIALS General 60 Historical. . 61 vi CONTENTS - PAGE Principal sources and tannin contents 64 Production of hemlock bark 65 Harvesting hemlock bark 66 Production of chestnut oak bark. 70 Chestnut extract 73 Tanbark oak 75 Western hemlock 77 Black oak bark and other domestic materials 78 Quebracho 79 Mangrove bark 82 Myrobalan nuts 84 Divi-divi 84 Imported sumach 85 Valonia : 85 Other foreign tanning materials 85 Imports « 86 CHAPTER IV. VENEERS General < 89 Methods of making veneers ;..-...;. 90 Qualifications desired in veneer woods 91 Woods used ;............ 92 Annual production and values 94 Rotary cut veneers : 95 Sliced veneers 99 Sawed veneers I.:.:....;...:..:.:.:..:::.::;.... 101 Built-up stock I.:.:...... 103 Utilization of veneers ..........; 105 Utilization of waste ...:.... 107 Grading rules .........:...... 109 CHAPTER V. SLACK COOPERAGE General ............' 115 Annual production 1 16 Slack cooperage versus other forms of shipping containers 117 Laws governing the industry 118 Qualifications for slack cooperage stock .". 119 Woods used 119 Manufacture of slack cooperage stock ",..... 122 Manufacture of staves 1 23 Manufacture of heading 127 Manufacture of hoops i .". t . . . . . .! 131 Sawed hoops ......,; . .' 132 Cut hoops 132 Assembling . . 134 Utilization of waste 135 Equivalents 137 Stock weights 137 Grading rules 140 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER VI. TIGHT COOPERAGE PAGE General 143 Special features. 145 Species used 146 Annual production 147 Value of products 148 Woods operations 149 Stumpage 149 Rived staves 149 Logging and delivering bolts 150 Equivalents 152 Manufacture of staves and heading ....,.,, 153 Assembling . 159 Standard specifications and rules 163 Exports 164 CHAPTER VII. NAVAL STORES General 165 Source of products 167 Annual production 167 Woods operations 169 Cup and gutter or apron systems 173 Distillation 178 Yields 182 Utilization of products ............. . •....-..•..•..•........•. :::.::: 183 French methods ....:.:;•.:.::::.:.:•.;•..:•.....:: ...::: 185 CHAPTER VIII. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION History 189 Introduction 189 Early practices 189 Utilization of wood in the industry 192 Favorable conditions 192 Desirable species 192 Stumpage values 192 Cutting and delivering to the factory 193 Seasoning and weights 193 Opportunities for utilization of sawmill and woods waste 194 Management of timberlands 195 Statistics of wood consumption , 196 Developments in the industry 197 Processes of manufacture 199 Brick kilns 200 Iron retorts 200 Oven retorts 201 Distillation '. 203 Plant equipment . ....................... r ,.,...,..... 206 Plant operation ••:.•••.• 213 Utilization of products 220 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER IX. SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION PAGE General 225 Destructive distillation 227 Steam distillation and extraction 230 Utilization of products 233 Future of industry 232 CHAPTER X. CHARCOAL General 235 Woods used and yields 236 Processes used 238 Utilization and prices 245 CHAPTER XL BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS General 248 Qualities desired in woods used for boxes 249 Species used and annual consumption 250 Manufacture 253 Sizes and specifications 254 Export of shooks 260 CHAPTER XII. CROSS TIES General 263 Species used 264 Requirements of a good tie 267 Sawed versus hewed ties 269 Specifications and prices , 270 Making and delivery to market 277 General 277 Stumpage 277 Suitable sized timber for hewing 278 Number of ties per thousand board feet 279 Hewing 280 Skidding 283 Hauling 283 Other forms of transportation 284 Summary of operating costs 285 Sawed ties 287 Seasoning 289 Life of untreated ties 291 The preservative treatment of ties 293 The protection of ties against mechanical wear 294 CHAPTER XIII. POLES AND PILING General 299 Qualifications desired in pole and pile timbers 299 Species and amount used 300 CONTENTS ix Specifications and prices 304 Logging and production of poles and piles 310 General considerations 310 Stumpage values 312 Felling and peeling 313 Skidding 314 Hauling and other forms of transportation 314 Yarding, seasoning and shipping 314 Summary of costs 318 Length of service untreated 319 The preservative treatment of poles and piling 321 Substitutes for poles and piling 325 CHAPTER XIV. POSTS 326 CHAPTER XV. MINE TIMBERS General 330 Kinds and amounts of woods used 331 Specifications and prices 333 CHAPTER XVI. FUELWOOD General 336 Amount used 337 Sources of supply 340 Fuel values 341 Principal markets 344 Amount of solid wood per cord 344 Cutting, hauling and delivering to market 345 Prices 348 CHAPTER XVII. SHINGLES AND SHAKES History 351 Qualifications of shingle woods 352 Annual production 353 Raw material 354 Shingle machines 356 Manufacture of shingles 358 Specifications and grading rules 360 The laying of shingles 364 Packing and shipping 365 Shingle substitutes 367 Durability and prevention of decay 368 Shake making 370 x CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XVIII. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR History and development 374 Species of maples used 378 Annual production 380 Conditions necessary for commercial operations 381 Sap flow and season 382 Woods operations 385 Tapping trees and distribution of buckets. 385 Collection of sap 388 Manufacture of syrup and sugar 390 The sugar house 390 Fuel 391 Equipment and cost 391 Process 394 Yields of sap, syrup and sugar 396 Uses and value of products , , , , 398 CHAPTER XIX. RUBBER General ../.... 401 History 40: Sources of supply and methods of production 404 Rubber plantations 407 Methods of manufacture '. 411 Principal uses 412 CHAPTER XX. DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS General description 414 Manufacture of dyestuffs 415 Raw materials used 416 Logwood 416 Brazil woods 417 Fustic 418 Red sandalwood 419 Quercitron 419 Venetian sumach 419 Osage orange 419 Cutch 421 Gambier 421 Importation of dyestuffs, , ,,,,,, 421 CHAPTER XXI. EXCELSIOR General 424 Qualities desired 424 Uses and value of excelsior 425 Woods used arid annual consumption 426 CONTENTS xi PAGE Manufacture 427 Preparation and cost of raw material 427 Excelsior machines 427 Baling press 427 Description of operation 430 CHAPTER XXII. CORK General 433 The cork oak 434 Harvesting the bark 435 Yield and value 437 Manufacture 438 Utilization of cork 44° INDEX 445 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. About 10,000 cords of pulpwood bolts, Hinckley, New York 19 2. A pulp mill with a capacity of 60 tons of pulp in twenty-four hours 25 3. A four-pocket grinder used to reduce wood bolts to fiber by the mechanical process . . 34 4. Grinder room in a large pulp mill containing 24 wood grinders of the three-pocket type 36 5. Wood chipper used to reduce the bolts of wood to chips for use in the manufacture of chemical pulp 39 6. Digester used to cook chips in the manufacture of sulphite pulp 42 7. Wet machine or press — the final step in the manufacture of paper pulp 44 8. Beating machines 52 9. Fourdrinier wire, the most specialized machine in the manufacture of paper 54 10. Diaphragm plate screen tilted for washing 55 11. The end of the drier, the calender stack, reels, rewinder and cutter 56 1 2. Peeling hemlock bark in North Carolina 62 13. Hauling and loading hemlock bark in the Southern Appalachian Mountains 67 14. Method of hauling hemlock bark in Garrett Co., Maryland 69 15. A large leather tannery at Andrews, North Carolina 74 1 6. A peeling operation on tanbark oak near Sherwood, California 76 1 7. Rotary veneer machine in operation 91 1 8. Rotary veneer machine showing the lugs on which the log is turned and the veneer knife 97 19. A veneer slicing machine in operation, cutting Circassian walnut veneers 100 20. Making sawed veneers 102 21. Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels 103 22. A hollow die stamping machine used for making fruit-basket tops, novelties, etc. ... 106 23. Sawing up cores left after making rotary veneers at the Weed Lumber Co., Weed, California 109 24. The " U " plan of veneer mill in 25. Diagram illustrating the utilization of a log for quartered flitches 113 26. Stave cutter 116 27. Method of cutting logs of various diameters into stave bolts 120 28. Ground plan of slack cooperage plant 122 29. The Trevor stave bolt equalizer 124 30. Barrel stave saw and stave bolts ready to be sawn at Batesville, Arkansas 125 31. Heading sawing machine 128 32. First step in assembling a barrel 130 xiii xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 33. Method sometimes employed in riving sections of white oak logs into stave bolts, Houston County, Tennessee 144 34. Diagram showing method of riving staves from a white oak log 150 35. White oak butt cut for stave bolts from which twelve bolts were obtained. Giles County, Tennessee 151 36. Equalizer in operation at a tight stave mill in Tennessee 153 37. A split stave emerging between the bucker knives 154 38. Stave jointers or listing machines in operation at a stave mill in Arkansas 155 39. About 1,000,000 tight cooperage staves piled for seasoning in Quitman County, Mississippi 157 40. Stave jointer in operation in a large cooperage assembling plant 158 41. Method of heating the staves preliminary to placing them in a power windlass for final assembling 160 42. Machine for chamfering, howeling and crozing tight barrels 161 43. Cutting a box in the base of a longleaf pine for the collection of resin 166 44. Cornering a box to provide a smooth surface over which the resin is guided into the box. Statesboro, Georgia 1 70 45. Chipping the fourth streak above a virgin box near Ocilla, Georgia 171 46. Dipping the resin from the old-fashioned box 1 73 47. Correct position of the Herty cup and gutters 174 48. Method of collecting resin with the McKoy cup 176 49. Western yellow pine tapped for naval stores products. Experimental area on Coco- nino National Forest, Arizona 177 50. Tools and utensils used in the naval stores industry 178 51. Turpentine still at Clinton, North Carolina 179 52. Diagrammatic cross-section of a turpentine still 182 53. Method of tapping maritime pine near Arres in the Landes region of France 186 54. Beech, birch and hard maple cut in 5o-inch lengths for conversion by dry distillation 190 55. General view of the Maryland Wood Products Co., Maryland, New York 194 56. General view of hardwood distillation plant at Betula, Pennsylvania 198 57. The wood distillation plant of the Cobbs-Mitchell Co. at Cadillac, Michigan 202 58. Alley between the first and second sets of cooling ovens, showing the character of the doors and method of banking around the base 203 59. Cars or trucks loaded with charcoal after heating in the ovens 208 60. Interior of the still house at a hardwood distillation plant in Pennsylvania 211 61. Acetate of lime drying over the retorts in the oven house at a large plant at Betula, Pennsylvania 220 62. General view of the destructive distillation plant of the Pine Products Co., Georgia. 228 63. A charcoal pit near Elk Neck, Maryland 237 64. A charcoal pit in the process of burning 240 65. Type of brick beehive kiln used for making charcoal for iron furnaces in northern New York 242 66. A forest of beech cut clean for charcoal in one of the State Forests of Tuscany in central Italy 244 67. A view of the yard of a sawmill at Vallombrosa, Italy 246 68. Common forms of hewed cross ties with reference to their position in the log 264 69. Tie hacker making ties from lodgepole pine in the Gallatin National Forest, Montana 265 70. Peeler or bark spud used in removing the bark 268 71. Triangular tie used by the Great Northern Railway 274 72. Method of sawing triangular ties from tie logs 274 73. Making ties in the hardwood forests of Decatur County, Tennessee 281 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv FIG. PAGE 74. Hauling Douglas fir ties to the landing or chute with the "go-devil" 283 75. Ties hauled from i to 3 miles by wagon to the landing at the flume. Western Montana 285 76. Loading ties from barges to cars at Metropolis, Illinois 287 77. Conventional methods of piling cross-ties 289 78. Method of using " S " irons to prevent the further opening of checks in cross ties.. 291 79. Graphic representation of the price levels of No. i white and red oak ties delivered f.o.b. cars at East St. Louis for the years 1002 to 1917, inclusive 294 80. The effect of the nail spike and the screw spike on wood fibers of ties 296 81. Peeling western red cedar poles in the Priest River Valley, Kaniksu National Forest, Idaho : 302 82. Loading chestnut poles. Perry County, Pennsylvania 315 83. The beginning of a new pole yard in northern Idaho 315 84. Method used in piling poles to facilitate drying 317 85. Loading southern white cedar telephone and telegraph poles at Wilmington, North Carolina 318 86. Method employed in piling and loading poles on cars 320 87. Method of treating poles in an open tank to increase their length of service 322 88. Pole yard and treating plant at Gaulsheim, Germany 324 89. Over 500,000,000 posts are used annually on the farms and along the railways of this country 327 oo. Preservative treatment of fence posts by the open- tank method 328 91. Beech, birch and maple cordwood cut and stacked for seasoning in the woods. Delaware County, New York 337 92. Woodyard with a capacity of 5000 cords of fuel wood along the Potomac River Washington, D. C 341 93. Two cut-up saws operated by electric motor 346 94. Hauling cordwood near Custer City, Pennsylvania 347 95. About 500 cords of wood piled in the municipal yard of Columbia, South Carolina 349 96. Shingle packer or buncher 366 97. About 100,000 shakes made from five sugar pines in the Sierra National Forest, California : 371 98. The old primitive and wasteful method of tapping sugar maples used by the Indians 375 99. The old-fashioned method of reducing the sap to syrup by boiling down in copper kettles in the woods 377 100. Tapping a sugar maple in the Adirondacks 386 101. Modern tin pails with covers to keep the sap free of rain, bark, twigs and other impurities. Hardwick, Vermont 388 102. A recent development in the maple sugar and syrup industry 389 103. A typical sugar house in the "sugar bush" 390 104. Gathering the sap in a northern New York sugar bush 393 105. Interior of a sugar house showing the steaming evaporator at the left and the sugar- ing-off arch at the left 395 106. Ground plan of a i4-ft. by 2o-ft. foot sugar house equipped with a modern evapo- rator 397 107. A maple tree on the Spalding farm, Amsden, Vermont, with 32 buckets hung at one time 399 108. Two-year old rubber trees grown in plantation in Sumatra 402 109. Method of tapping rubber trees in plantation in Sumatra 407 1 10. Close view of tapping methods and cups used in collecting the latex 409 in. Curve representing the world's production of rubber from 1900 to 1918, inclusive. . 411 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 112. Raw material in the form of poplar bolts being placed in vertical excelsior machines 427 113. Vertical type of excelsior machines in operation at a factory in Union, New Hamp- shire 430 114. A good stand of cork oaks in Andalusia in southern Spain 434 115. Weighing pieces of cork in the cork oak forests of southern Spain, just after stripping and drying 436 116. Character of bark as it is brought to the factory from the forest 438 117. A large cork factory in Seville, Spain 439 1 1 8. Baling cork after boiling, scraping, grading and trimming 440 1 19. Sorting and trimming sheets of cork 441 1 20. Baled cork scraps at a cork factory 442 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF NATIVE AMERICAN TREES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT* SOFTWOODS Arborvitae — see northern white cedar. Cedar, eastern red or juniper (Jimiperus virginiana, L.). Cedar, incense (Libocedrus decttrrens, Torr.). Cedar, northern white or arborvitse (Thuya occidentalis, L.). Cedar, southern white (Chamaecy paris thy aides, Britt.). Cedar, western red (Thuya plicata, D. Don.). Cypress, southern red or bald (Taxodium distichum, Rich.). Fir, balsam (Abies balsamea, Mill.). Fir, Douglas (Pseudotsitga taxifolia — also mncronata, Sudw.). Fir, noble (Abies nobilis, Lindl.). Fir, red (Abies magnified, A. Mnrr.). Fir, white (Abies concolor, Lindl. and Gord.). Hemlock, eastern (Tsuga canadensis, Carr.). Hemlock, western (Tsuga heterophylla, Sarg.)J Hemlock, western or mountain (Tsuga mertensiana, Sarg.). Juniper — see Cedar. Larch, eastern or tamarack (Larix occidentalis, Null.). Larch, western (Larix americyna, Michx.). Pine, Cuban or slash (Finns heterophylla — also carib&a, Morelet). Pine, Jack (Finns divaricaia, Du Mont de Cours). Pine, loblolly (Finns tada, L.). Pine, lodgepole (Finns contorta, var. murrayana, Engelm.). Pine, longleaf (Finns palustris, Mill.). Pine, North Carolina — see shortleaf and loblolly pines; includes both. Pine, Norway or red (Finns resinosa, Ait.). Pine, pitch (Finns rigida, Mill.). Pine, shortleaf (Finns echinata, Mill.). Pine, southern yellow — includes longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban pines. Pine, sugar (Finns lambertiana, Dougl.). Pine, western white or Idaho white (Finns monticola, D. Don.). Pine, western yellow or California white (Finns ponderosa, sarg.). Pine, white (Finns strobus, L.). Pine, Virginia or scrub (Finns virginiana, Mill.). Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens, Endl.). * Scientific names of exotic species mentioned are generally given wherever found in the text, t Of the two western hemlocks, this is the only one of large present commercial importance. xviii COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES Spruce, black (Picea mariana, B. S. and P.). Spruce, Engelmann (Picea engelmanni, Engelm.}. Spruce, red (Picea rubens, Sarg.). Spruce, western or Sitka (Picea sitchensis, Carr.). Spruce, white or cat (Picea canadensis, B. S. and P.}. Tamarack — see Larch. » HARDWOODS Ash, black (Fraxinm nigra, Marsh). Ash, white (Fraxinus americana, L.). Aspen, large tooth (Popidus grandidentala, Michx.). Aspen, quaking (Populus tremuloides, Michx.). Basswood or linden (Tilia americana, L.). Beech (Fagus americana, Sweet.}. Birch, black or cherry (Betnla lenia, L.). Birch, red or yellow (Betula lutea, Michx.)*. Box elder (Acer negundo, L.}. Buckeye (Aesculus glabra, Willd.). Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa, Engelm.). Cherry, black (Primus serotina, Ehrh.). Chestnut (Castanea dentata, Borkh.). Chittam or American fustic (Cotinus americana^ Nutt.). Cotton wood (Populus delloidca, Marsh). Cotton wood, black or western (Populus trichocarpa, Hook.). Cottonwood, southern or swamp (Populus hcterophylla, L.}\. Cucumber (Magnolia acuminata, L.). Elm, rock or cork (Ulmus thomasi, Sarg.). Elm, white (Ulmus americana, L.). Gum, black (Nyssa sylvalica, Marsh). Gum, red or sweet (Liquidambar styracijlua, L.). Gum, tupelo (Nyssa aquatica, Marsh). Hackberry (Cellis occidentalis, L.). Hickory (Hicoria spp.). Locust, black (Robinia pseudocacia, L.}. Locust, honey (Gleditsia triacanlhos, L.). Maple, black (Acer nigrum, Michx.). Maple, mountain (Acer spicatum, Lam.}. Maple, Oregon (Acer circinatum, Pursh.). Maple, red (Acer rubrum, L.). Maple, silver or soft (Acer saccharimtm, L.). Maple, striped (Acer pennsylvanicum, L.). Maple, sugar, rock or hard (Acer saccharum, Marsh). Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora, DC.). Mulberry, red (Moms rubra, L.). Oak, black or yellow (Quercus vclutina, Lam.). Oak, bur (Quercus macrocarpa, Michx.). Oak, chestnut or rock (Quercus prinus, L.). Oak, overcup (Quercus lyrala, Walt.}. * This is the only birch of large commercial importance, and wherever the tree is referred to without naming the kind of birch, this is the one indicated. t The principal cottonwood cut for lumber, veneers, staves, etc. COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES xix Oak, pin (Quercus palustris, Muench.}. Oak, post (Quercus minor, Sarg.). Oak, red (Quercus r libra, L.). Oak, swamp white (Quercus platanoides, Stidw.). Oak, tanbark (Quercus densiflora, also Pasania densiflora, Or St.). Oak, white (Quercus alba, L.). Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum, Raf.). Palmetto, cabbage (Sabal palmetto, R. and S.}. Poplar, yellow or tulip (Liriodendron tiilipifera, L.). Popple — see Aspen. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras, Karst.). Sumach, southern (Rhus cotinus, L.}. Sumach, staghorn (Rhus hirta, Siidiv.). Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis, L.). Tupelo — see Gum, Tupelo. Walnut, black (Juglans nigra, L.). Walnut, white or butternut (Juglans clnerea, L.). Willow (Salix spp,). FOREST PRODUCTS CHAPTER I GENERAL INTRODUCTION IN ancient times the harvesting and use of the products of the forest constituted the entire practice of forestry. Then no thought of the future was necessary and there was little discrimination as between the various species and the adaptability and suitability of each to its par- ticular and proper uses. As the raw products of the forest became scarcer and, therefore, more valuable in conformity with the law of sup- ply and demand, new methods were constantly devised, as a result of experimentation, to put our wood supplies to their most profitable use. As our most valuable trees became exhausted, others were required to take their places, and in spite of the rapid introduction of wood sub- stitutes, new uses are being constantly found for wood. Every species of wood is characterized by its individual structure, color, grain, etc., which serve to distinguish it from other species. It is these same characteristics which must be studied and investigated to determine their adaptability and value for the different wood uses. For example, longleaf pine is strong, stiff, durable and grows tall and straight and, therefore, makes an excellent construction timber; spruce has long, soft, strong and pliable fiber and is comparatively free from resin and, therefore, makes a splendid wood pulp; oak is hard, strong, durable and has a pleasing grain, so it makes an excellent furniture wood. Each kind of wood is especially useful and adaptable for certain specific arts and industries. Altogether, shelter, next to food is the most important commodity in human economy. According to Fernow, over one-half of our popula- tion live in wooden houses and two-thirds of the population use wood for fuel. Besides wood, which constitutes a large part of the total utilitarian value of our forests, they supply the following: PRODUCTS Bark for tanning, medicines, mattings, etc. Resinous products, such as turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, etc. Chemical products, such as wood alcohol, pyroligneous acid, char- coal, creosote, etc. Seeds, oak and beech mast, walnuts, chestnuts, etc. Pasture, especially in the West. Game and fish (of great importance). Recreation and health, summer pleasure grounds, etc. Fruits and berries (of minor importance). Moderation of temperatures and climate. Regulation of the water flow, prevention of erosion, etc. ORIGINAL FORESTS Originally this country was endowed with greater and more varied forests than those of any other nation except Russia. The eastern forests stretched unbroken from the Atlantic Ocean to the treeless prairies of the Middle West. The Rockies and Pacific slope were densely forested except for desert plateaus and interior valleys and high mountain tops. The original area of forest in the United States has been estimated at 850,000,000 acres. The present area is approximately 545,000,000 acres. The original stand was estimated at 5,200,000,000,000 bd. ft. The present stand is estimated to be about 2,535,000,000,000 bd. ft. HISTORY OF LUMBER CUT In accordance with the best available historical reports, the first saw- mill erected in this country is generally attributed to Berwick, Maine, where it was erected in the year 1631. Various other mills have been reported as being erected in the old Jamestown Colony of Virginia in 1607 and another in the Plymouth Colony of Massachusetts in 1630, but these records are not as well substantiated as those regarding the saw- mill at Berwick. From the earliest days of the lumber industry in this country, Maine held first place in lumber production and developed a considerable trade with the West Indies and even with Europe in lumber, timbers and spars, etc. With the rapid development in population, and its extension west- ward, the lumber industry was moved in the same way. From Maine, the center of the lumber industry gradually moved to New York, which was the center of the country's lumber production in 1850. By 1860, the center of production had shifted to Pennsylvania. For several decades following 1870, and, in fact, up to 1904, the center of lumber pro- duction was in the Lake states, Michigan holding first place for over GENERAL twenty years, followed by Wisconsin, which also held the leadership in lumber production for a period of almost twenty years. Within the past two decades there have been rapid changes. Lumber production has increased rapidly and the center of the industry has shifted to the south- ern states, and now there is once more a period of migration: this time to the Far West. The following table visualizes the gradual development in the lumber industry from the northeast to the Lake states and then to the Far South and finally to the northwest. In the year 1890, lumber production was just beginning on a large scale in the Pacific northwest, and Wash- ington held sixth place in the order of production by states. By 1900 it had risen to fifth place, in 1904 it occupied second place, and ever since 1905 this state has held first place. LUMBER PRODUCTION BY STATES FROM 1850 TO 1916 1850 1860 1870 1880 New York Pennsylvania Michigan Michigan Pennsylvania New York Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Maine Michigan New York Wisconsin Ohio Maine Wisconsin New York Indiana Ohio Indiana Indiana Michigan Indiana Maine Ohio Massachusetts Wisconsin Ohio Maine Illinois California Missouri Minnesota 1800 1 900 1910 1916 Michigan Wisconsin Washington Washington Wisconsin Michigan Louisiana Louisiana Pennsylvania Minnesota Mississippi Mississippi Minnesota Pennsylvania Oregon Oregon Indiana Washington Wisconsin North Carolina Washington Arkansas Texas Texas New York Ohio Arkansas Arkansas Ohio Indiana North Carolina Alabama The great center of present production is in the South where over 15,- 000,000,000 bd. ft. of southern yellow pine, out of a total of about 40,000,- 000,000 bd. ft., or over 37 per cent of the total lumber production in the country is produced, principally in the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas, Arkansas and Alabama in order of importance. In the year 1899, only 1,736,570,000 bd. ft. of Douglas fir were pro- duced, whereas in 1005, 3,000,000,000 bd. ft. were produced, and in 1916 nearly 5,500,000,000 ft. of Douglas fir were produced. The production of oak has been fairly uniform during the past few decades, but the pro- 4 FOREST PRODUCTS duction of white pine, formerly the leading lumber tree cut in this coun- try, has fallen in production from over 7,742,000,000 bd. ft. in 1899 to 2,700,000,000 in 1916. Other species, such as cypress and yellow poplar, have shown a marked decrease in production during the past two decades, and other species, such as western yellow pine, red gum, birch, cedar, and maple have shown a marked increase in production. PRESENT FOREST RESOURCES Of the total stand of timber still uncut, about 75 per cent is in private hands and the remaining 25 per cent in Government hands. The dis- tribution of this timber is as follows, by regions: STAND OF TIMBER BY REGIONS 1 Per Cent Pacific northwest 46 . o Southern pine region 29 . i Lake states 4.5 Other regions 20.5 Total 100 . o By species, the stand of 2,535,000,000,000 bd. ft. left standing in this country is divided as follows: STANDING TIMBER BY SPECIES 1 Species. Billion Bd. Ft. Douglas fir 525 Southern yellow pine 325 Western yellow pine 275 Redwood 100 Western cedar 160 Western hemlock 100 Lodgepole pine 90 White and Norway pine 75 Eastern hemlock 75 Western spruce 60 Eastern spruce 50 Western firs 50 Sugar pine 30 Cypress 20 Other conifers 100 Hardwoods 500 Total 2535 1 From " The Timber Supply of the United States," by R. S. Kellogg, U. S. Forest Service Circ. 166, 1909. GENERAL RATE OF CONSUMPTION In 1880 the annual consumption of lumber in this country was only 18,000,000,000 bd. ft.; now it is about 40,000,000,000 bd. ft. The present supply, at the present rate of consumption, but without allowing for the increase in population, will last about seventy years. (Increment in American forests is only about one-third of that in Europe, and in addi- tion we have about 200,000,000 acres of virgin timber where decay offsets APPROXIMATE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES 1 Products. Amount of Product. Equivalent in Thousand Bd. Ft.* Wastage 3 in Production Thousand Cubic Feet. Total Annual Consumption Thousand Cubic Feet. Lumber, bd. ft 40,000,000,000 40,000,000 6,000,000 0,727,777 Fuelwood, cords. . IOO,OOO,OOO 50,000,000 IOO,OOO 9,IOO,OOO Fence posts pieces. 5OO,OOO,OOO 2,^00,000 CO.OOO 800 ooo Cross ties, pieces 150,000,000 4,950,000 3CO.OOO 762,000 Pulp wood, cords 6,OOO,OOO 3,000,000 6o,OOO 600,000 Round mine timbers, cubic feet . . . Shingles, pieces 165,000,000 12,000,000,000 990,000 I,2OO,OOO 30,000 IOO,OOO 196,000 160,000 Tannins — wood and bark, cords . . . Distillation wood, cords . I,3OO,OOO I,5OO,OOO 650,000 7CQ,OOO 33,000 12,000 150,000 147,000 Veneers, bd. ft 500 ooo ooo COO OOO 60 ooo 147 ooo Slack cooperage, staves 1,328,968,000 553,700 1 Slack cooperage, sets of heading. . . Slack cooperage, hoops. 106,000,000 3 s 7. , 2 1 s ,000 117,000 26^ ooo \ 70,000 J 127,000 Tight cooperage, staves 500,000,000 850,000 Tight cooperage, sets of heading. . . Poles and piling, pieces. . 40,000,000 8,000,000 133,000 800,000 90,000 20,000 122,000 Il6,OOO Lath, pieces 7 163,000,000 632 ooo 10,000 67 ooo Excelsior, bd. ft Miscellaneous, including rails, house logs, grape stakes, logs used in round, hop poles, converter poles, props, vehicle stock, derrick poles, etc., not included above . . . 100,000,000 100,000 1,000 9,333 200 ooo Total consumption 22,029,666 Per capita consumption, estimating population at 110,000,000 people. . . • 2OO.27 CU.ft. 1 Board feet of lumber have been converted to cubic feet at the rate of 12 bd. ft. =i cu. ft., round material at 6 bd. ft. = i cu. ft., cords to bd. ft. generally at 500 bd. ft. = i cord, and cords to cubic feet at i cord =90 cu. ft. For other conversion factors see tables ir Chapter I and various other chapters relating to subject. 1 It is obvious that certain forms of forest products could not be actually converted into bd ft., for example, fuelwood and pulp wood. The table is offered for the purpose of rough comparison The amounts expressed in thousand bd. ft. in this column have not been converted to cubic feet except in the case of lumber, veneers and excelsior. * This includes waste in logging such as tops, stumps and cull logs and waste in manufacturing such as bark, kerf, slabs, trimming and edging, etc., but does not include waste by fire, insects, decay, windfall, etc. 6 FOREST PRODUCTS growth.) We are using our forests three times as fast as they grow. We use about 200 cu. ft. per capita annually, which is more than that of any other nation. Germany normally uses only 37 cu. ft., France 25, Great Britain 14, and Italy 14. We use nearly twice as much wood per capita to-day as we did fifty years ago. We are now using distinctively different species from those ten, twenty, or fifty years ago. Hemlock now makes up the principal wood cut in Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, and New York. White pine, the former leading wood cut, is now fourth on the list of the country's lumber production. We are commonly using red gum, hemlock, tupelo, beech, sycamore, etc., which formerly were scarcely cut at all for lumber. The table on page 5 shows the estimated annual consumption of forest products in this country. It is based upon a large number of sources. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF LUMBER For the past decade, the annual production of lumber in this country has been about 40,000,000,000 bd. ft. It is likely that the peak of lumber production in this country was reached in 1909 when 44,500,000,000 bd. ft. of lumber were reported cut. Up to that time lumber produc- tion was on a steady increase. The tendency in the industry has been towards the centralization of production in the largest sized mills. Fifty years ago, few mills had a daily capacity of over 50,000 bd. ft. per day, whereas there are several mills in this country which now have a capacity of around 1,000,000 bd. ft. per day. It is an interesting fact that only 925 sawmills, or 3.08 per cent of the total number of mills operating in this country cut more than 23,000,000,000 bd. ft., or 58.56 per cent of the total pro- duction. Each of these mills cut 10,000,000 bd. ft. or more per year. About 70 per cent of the total number of all sawmills in this country, amounting to over 30,000 mills, cut only about 10 per cent of the total lumber product of the country. As our original virgin forests continue to be depleted, there will be a distinct tendency in the direction of a larger number of small sawmills, which will be operated to cut portions of the forest left by the larger operations, timber found unsuitable at the time of cutting or on second or even third growth which has sprung up after the last cutting or that pre- viously left by the larger companies. In the year 1916, for example, New York state reported 1121 mills, cutting from 50,000 to 500,000 bd. ft. annually in operation out of a total number of 1260 mills. Only one state, North Carolina, reported a larger number of mills than New GENERAL 7 York state. The virgin forests of these states have been heavily cut over many years ago. Washington, the state of the largest present lumber production, reported only 444 mills, 126 of which were mills cutting over 10,000,000 bd. ft. annually. Louisiana, the center of the yellow pine production in the South, reported only 329 mills in the year 1916, 121 of which cut over 10,000,000 bd. ft. each. The following table1 shows the estimated amount of lumber cut in the twenty-five leading lumber-producing states in this country, in the year 1916: LUMBER PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES States. 1916 (30.081 Mills) Bd. Ft. (31.833 Mills) Bd. Ft. Washington. . . 4,494,000,000 1,429,032,000 Louisiana. 4,200,000,000 ,115,366,000 Mississippi 2,730,000,000 ,206,265,000 Oregon 2,222,000,000 734,538,OOO Xorth Carolina. 2,100,000,000 ,286,638,000 Texas 2 IOO OOO OOO 232 4.O4. OOO Arkansas ,9IO,OOO,OOO ,623,987,000 Alabama ,72O,OOO,OOO ,IOI,386,OOO Wisconsin . . 6oO OOO,OOO 3 380 166 ooo Florida 4.2? OOO OOO 7OO 373 OOO California ,42O,OOO,OOO 737,03^,000 Virginia ,335,OOO,OOO 050,1 10 OOO Michigan 230 ooo ooo 3 018 338 ooo West Virginia 2 2O OOO OOO 778 o^i ooo Minnesota ,22O,OOO,OOO 2,342,338,000 Georgia I OOO OOO OOO 1,311 017 OOO Maine 935 ooo ooo 784. 64,7 ooo South Carolina 857,000,000 466,429,000 Idaho. ... 840,600 ooo 65,363 ooo Pennsylvania 750 ooo ooo 2 333 278 OOO Tennessee . 700,000,000 05O,0^8,OOO Kentucky 525,000,000 774 6? I OOO New York. . . 400 ooo ooo 878 448 ooo New Hampshire 385 ooo ooo S72 4.4.7 OOO Montana -183,000,000 255 685 OOO All other states 175,551 OOO 4 02 1 6o7 OOO Total (all states) 39,807,251,000 35,o84,l66,OOO The above table is interesting in showing how lumber production has varied in the different states during the seventeen years between 1899 and 1916. 1 From statistics published by the U. S. Forest Service. 8 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table1 shows the quantity of each kind of lumber cut in this country in the years 1916 and 1899. The change in the amount of each of the different species cut is brought out very strikingly in the interim of the seventeen-year period. It represents the decline of the more important species cut in the East and is not only a reflection of the conditions which have obtained in recent years in this country, but it also portends the developments which are likely to take place in this country in the next few years. Our virgin forests are being rapidly cut, and the center of lumber production is rapidly shifting from the yellow pine forests of the southeast to the heavy Douglas fir, spruce, pine and redwood forests of the Pacific Coast. LUMBER PRODUCTION BY SPECIES Kinds of Wood. 1916 (Bd. Ft). 1899 (Bd. Ft). Yellow pine. . 1 5 >°5 5 ,000,000 9*657,676,000 Douglas fir 5,416,000,000 I,736,SO7 OOO Oak 3,300,000,000 4,438,027,000 "White pine . . ~ 2,700,000,000 7,742,301,000 Hemlock 2,3^0,000,000 3,420,673 ooo Western yellow pine 1,690,000,000 94^,432,000 Spruce . . 1,250,000,000 1,448,091,000 Cypress 1,000,000,000 40^,836 ooo Maple 975,000,000 633,466,000 Gum 800,000,000 285,417,000 Yellow poplar 560,000,000 I ,UC ,24.2 OOO Chestnut 535,000,000 206,688,000 Redwood 490,850,000 360,167,000 Larch 455.000,000 ^O,6lQ,OOO Birch 450,000,000 132 601 ooo Cedar 410,000,000 232,978,000 Beech 360,000,000 i Tupelo 275,000,000 i Bass wood 27C.OOO OOO 308 069 ooo Elm . 24O,OOO,OOO 4^6,731,000 Ash 2IO,OOO,OOO 269,120,000 Cotton wood 2OO,OOO,OOO 41 s,1 24. OOO White fir I9O,OOO,OOO 1 Sugar pine 169,250,000 <3,?=c8 ooo Hickory I25,OOO,OOO 06 636 ooo Balsam fir 125,000 ooo 1 Walnut 90,000,000 38,681,000 Svcamore. 40,000,000 2O,7IC OOO Lodgepole pine. . 30,800,000 1 All other kinds 4.O,"?? I OOO ^14. 721 OOO Total 39,807,251,000 35,084 166,000 1 Not separately reported. 1 From statistics published by the U. S. Forest Service. GENERAL 9 In the above classification, yellow pine includes principally the three species of pine commonly found in the southeast; longleaf, (Pinus palus- tris), loblolly, (Pinus taeda), and shortleaf (Pinus echinata), pine. Lou- isiana is the present center of production of yellow pine. The other important yellow pine states, in order of production are Mississippi, Texas, North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas and Florida. Although the virgin forests of eastern North Carolina were cut over many years ago, yellow pine cut from the second and third growth of the forests there constitute an important contribution to her present output. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is the principal timber tree of the West, and more than one-half of its total production is now cut in Wash- ington. Oregon cuts almost one-third, while California, Idaho, and Montana cut the remainder. Oak is the third tree in order of lumber cut in this country, and is widely distributed over the entire eastern section of this country. The lumber cut of oak is steadily declining. It includes about twenty species of oak found in merchantable quantities in this country, although there are fifty botanical species recognized, which are divided into two broad classes of red and white oaks. The center of production of oak lumber is hi West Virginia, where over 13 per cent of the oak is produced. Arkan- sas, Tennessee, Kentucky and Virginia are other oak-producing states in order of their cut. For a long time, white pine held the leadership of lumber produc- tion in this country, but it now occupies fourth place and it includes in addition to the original eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) in the above statistics, Norway pine, or red pine (Pinus resinosa), western white (Pinus monticola) of western Montana and Idaho, and a small portion of jack pine (Pinus diiaricata) of the Lake states. Hemlock is the fifth tree of importance in this country's lumber cut, and is produced chiefly in Wisconsin and Michigan, which, together pro- duce about 43 per cent of the total product cut. Hemlock includes both the eastern (Tsuga canadensis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) . It formerly was produced chiefly in Pennsylvania, which now occupies fourth place. Washington occupies third place. It is also cut in con- siderable quantities in West Virginia, Maine, and New York. LUMBER VALUES Lumber values have not risen in the past few decades to the extent to which many other commodities have, particularly other building and structural material. On account of the over-production of lumber, the 10 FOREST PRODUCTS price level has been steadily held to comparatively low heights until the outbreak of the recent war. The over-production of lumber was particularly true in the case of southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, and the prices obtained for them in the various years reflect the situation very forcibly. The following table shows the average values of the different kinds of lumber cut in this country. The prices are given on the basis of per thousand bd. ft., values specified for the years from 1899 to 1917, as published by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletin No. 768, page 38. AVERAGE VALUE OF LUMBER PER THOUSAND FEET, BOARD MEASURE, BY KINDS OF WOOD, FOR SPECIFIED YEARS, 1899-1917 Kind of Wood. 1917 1916 1915 1911 1910 1909 1907 1904 1899 All kinds $20.32 $15-32 $14-04 $15-05 $15.30 $15.38 $16.56 $12.76 $11.13 Softwoods: Yellow pine • • 19.00 16.28 24.81 20.78 24.41 !9-59 23.92 21. OO 19.40 16.2-1, I7.l6 24.69 20.02 18.34 24.49 23.16 19.56 21-54 27.17 24.07 19.58 25.96 23.89 30.01 23.19 18.06 29.48 72.99 18.68 14-33 10.78 19.16 15-35 17-58 14-52 20.85 13-93 15-24 12.49 12.25 16.77 16.49 15-13 20.06 18.24 14.64 17-05 21.89 19-59 16.20 21.05 19. \6 23-85 17.42 13.00 23.84 42.38 14-65 12.41 10.59 17.44 13-14 16.58 14-32 19.85 13-54 16.10 10.78 10.94 17.40 13-79 13-57 i8.73 15.21 12.54 16.17 22.45 16.52 14.01 18.89 16.98 22.15 17.36 12.25 23-35 48.37 13-86 13-87 11.05 18.54 I3.59 16.14 13.62 20.54 13-99 13-86 11.87 10.64 I7-52 13-42 12.41 19.14 15-49 12. II 16.63 25.46 16.61 14.09 19. 20 17-13 21. 21 18.12 12.46 22.47 31.70 I3.I6 13.29 13.09 18.93 13.85 16.62 14.26 20.51 I5-52 15-53 I2-33 11.52 18.68 14.48 14.88 18.76 18.16 12.26 16.23 24.71 17-37 14-34 20.94 18.67 22.47 17.78 12. 14 26-55 34-91 14. 10 12.69 12.44 18.16 I3.95 16.91 15-39 20.46 14.80 19-95 12.68 13.10 18.14 13-99 16.25 20.50 15-77 13.20 16. 12 25-39 16.95 13-25 19.50 17.52 24.44 18.05 11.87 30.80 42.79 14.77 14.02 14.12 19.41 15-53 17.26 15-67 22. 12 17.70 19.14 13-99 15-54 19.84 16.16 1 21.23 16.84 14.10 17.04 24.91 17.37 14.30 20.03 18.45 25.01 18.42 14.48 29.50 43-41 14.58 9.96 9.51 14.93 11.91 14.03 11.30 17.50 12.83 14.35 n-39 i i i i 17-51 14.94 10.87 13-78 18.99 15-44 i 16.86 14-45 18.77 14.92 i 23-94 45-64 i 8.46 8.67 12.69 9.98 11.27 9.70 13-32 IO.I2 IO.9I 8-73 i 12.30 i i 13-78 11.83 9-73 13-37 14-03 12.50 12.84 11.47 14-85 10.37 i 18.78 36.49 11.04 Douglas fir White pine Hemlock Spruce Western yellow pine . . . Cvoress Redwood Cedar Larch (tamarack) . . . White fir Sugar pine Balsam fir ..... Lodgepole pine Hardwoods: Oak Maple Gum red and sap Chestnut Yellow poplar Birch Beech. Basswood Elm Ash Cottonwood . Tupelo. . Hickory , Walnut Sycamore 1 Data not obtained. GENERAL 11 USE OF THE LUMBER CUT Until recent times no investigations have been made to determine how our lumber cut was utilized. During the period 1909 to 1912, how- ever, the United States Forest Service, in co-operation with the various state agencies made a study of the annual consumption of lumber in nearly all of the states. A compilation of these statistics shows that our lumber cut is nor- mally used approximately as follows: Principal Uses. Per Cent. Planing mill products such as sash, doors, flooring and general mill work 34 Rough lumber and structural timbers 33 Boxes and crating 1 1 Export lumber and timbers 7 Car construction 3 Furniture 2 Vehicles and vehicle parts 2 Agricultural implements i Woodenware and novelties i 94 The remaining 6 per cent is made up of miscellaneous uses such as chairs, handles, musical instruments, tanks and silos, ship- and boat- building fixtures, etc. The following table shows the annual use of wood in the United States, with the exception of fuel wood and fence posts, according to U. S. Forest Service figures:1 Bd. Ft. Planing mill products, sash, doors, blinds and general mill work 13,428,862,000 Rough lumber and timbers 13,000,000,000 Boxes and crates 4,550,016,000 Cross ties 4,502,000,000 Export lumber and timbers 3,000,000,000 1 Partly taken from " Lumber Used in the Manufacture of Wooden Products," by J. C. Xellis, U. S. Dept. of Agric., Bulletin 605, 1918. 12 FOREST PRODUCTS Bd. Ft. Wood pulp (1916) 2,635,000,000 Car construction 1,262,090,000 Shingles (1911) 1,211,387,000 Furniture 944,678,000 Vehicles and vehicle parts 739,145,000 Slack cooperage (1914) 655,603,000 Distillation (1911) , 610,680,000 Lath (1911) 594,222,000 Veneers (1911) 444,886,000 Woodenware and novelties 405,286,000 Agricultural implements 321,239,000 Chairs 289,791,000 Handles 280,235,000 Musical instruments. . 260,195,000 Tanks and silos 225,618,000 Poles and piling (1911) 250,000,000 Ship and boat building (1915) 200,000,000 Fixtures 187,133,000 Excelsior 100,000,000 Miscellaneous industries and extract wood 1,486,121,000 WASTAGE IN PRODUCTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS Under conditions of a large virgin timber supply of comparatively low-stumpage value, there is inevitably a large wastage in its utilization. Much of the timber found in the virgin forests of this country is over- mature and defective and its conversion into the various forms of forest products naturally results in great loss. Fires and insects and fungi also destroy enormous quantities of timber in the forest, which otherwise might be profitably utilized. It is estimated that we use only from 30 to 50 per cent or less of the total amount of wood which is cut in our forests, and this does not take into account the loss by fire, wind, insects, decay, land clearing, etc. In the western and southern European countries, it is estimated that between 90 and 96 per cent of the total forest crop is utilized. Under the conditions obtaining in those countries there is no loss from over- maturity and defects due to that condition, and there is very little damage done by fire, insects and decay, which are the cause of such a tremendous amount of wood wastage in this country. Many of the trees GENERAL 13 are planted and all are cut before they are allowed to become over- mature. There is a large amount of waste in the production of lumber in this country as well as in the production of such forms of forest products as cross ties, shingles, slack and tight cooperage stock, veneers, etc. There is a much less comparative waste in the production of such forms as pulp wood, fuelwood, distillation wood, poles and piling and round mine timbers because there is little relative loss in reducing the original to the finished form. It is estimated that in the production of saw logs, there is a loss of wood in logging which amounts to from 15 to 20 per cent or more. This is largely composed of stumps, tops, broken and defective logs, limbs and timber which is undersized or undesirable on account of crooks or defects such as punk, shake, large knots, etc. In addition, moreover, mer- chantable trees are often overlooked or left lodged in the woods. In the manufacture of those saw logs which reach the mill, the loss is estimated to be from 40 to 57 per cent, depending upon the local effi- ciency in the methods of manufacture and the character of the timber, that is, the size of the individual logs, their freedom from defects, their straightness and regularity, the width of the bark, etc. The loss in manufacture may be divided approximately as follows: LOSS OF WOOD IN MANUFACTURE OF SAW LOGS Character of Loss. Percentage of Total Volume of Log. Bark Q— T C Saw-kerf io~i6 Edging and trimming 8-10 Slabs Q-II Inefficiency and careless manufacture including loss in handling . . . 4~ 5 4<>-57 The total loss in the production of lumber, therefore, including both log- ging and manufacturing, may be estimated to be from 55 to 77 per cent. At the present time little of this loss is salvaged, but as our raw wood supplies become further depleted and the various forms of forest products become more valuable, methods will be devised and found profitable to utilize considerable portions of this loss, whereas, under present com- mercial and economic conditions, it is not generally profitable to convert 14 FOREST PRODUCTS any large proportion of this waste into other forms. Considerable quan- tities of slab wood are being used for paper pulp in Maine, New York, and Wisconsin, where the manufacture of wood pulp is largely centralized, and in other sections certain forms are being used for box boards and a great variety of small wooden products which can use odd pieces of wood which would otherwise be wasted after logging or sawmilling operations. Under present conditions, however, a very large percentage of the wood's waste is left to rot in the woods and the sawmill waste is burned under boilers for the development of power or is consumed in burners especially designed to dispose of this waste. In Europe the woods waste is much less because of the customary practice of cutting the stumps close to the ground, the utilization of the tree trunk to a small diameter in the top, and the conversion of woods waste such as tops, limb wood, defective material, etc., into charcoal, or its direct utilization for fuel wood. In the sawmill operations it is a common practice to use a much thinner saw-kerf, sawing is done almost universally by the use of gang frame saws, there is an almost utter absence of waste of edging and trimming, and there are more efficient methods of handling and manufacture. Furthermore, there is a common willingness among the wood-using industries and the public at large to use waney-edged lumber, a factor which is of considerable importance. The bark is used for tanning purposes in case of spruce and oak, or used for fuel. Other sawmill waste is used for making briquettes in case of sawdust, or for fuel, charcoal and small wooden products such as novelties, woodenware, kitchen utensils, etc. There is a great amount of waste incurred in the production of cross ties in this country because a large percentage of them are hewn and this means considerable loss in their manufacture. The production of tight and slack cooperage stock involves enormous wastage, particu- larly in the case of the former. The details of the loss in the production and manufacture of these and other forest products are described in the chapters dealing with those subjects. CONVERTING FACTORS The following list of wood equivalents or converting factors have been followed in this book. There are exceptions, however, and additions in the various chapters. These converting factors are the ones used by the U. S. Forest Service. GENERAL 15 Products. Equivalent in Bd. Ft. Assumed Dimensions. Cord (shingle bolts) 000 A' XA' X8' Cord (fuel) 500 4.' X4.' X8' Load (in the rough). . • • 1016 IQI7 There is no import duty on quebracho logs coming to this country but prior to October 3, 1913, there was a small duty imposed on the extract. In 1912 the price of logs at South American ports was from $14 to $20 per long ton and for extract $80 to $85 per long ton. In 1915 the price of the extract had risen to $115 per long ton. MANGROVE BARK Mangrove bark has. come into great prominence in the tanning industry of this country. In the year 1915, 20,041 Ib. were imported at a value of $565,805, which represented a greater value than that of any other imported tanning material except quebracho. The Census of 1909 gives a consumption of $1,401,008 Ib. of mangrove bark. Within the past decade it is represented as increasing very materially. Mangrove bark formerly came principally from Portuguese East Africa, Madagascar, and the East Indies. Within recent years, however, large quantities have come from Venezuela and Colombia. Most of the mangrove bark consists of the so-called red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, Linn. This tree covers great areas of tidal swamp throughout the tropical regions of both the eastern and western hemis- pheres. Other varieties of rhizophora named black mangrove, of Avicennia nitida and white mangrove Amcennia tomentosa also pro- TANNING MATERIALS 83 duce bark of commercial importance in the tanning industry. Through- out the tropical regions, coasts, and river swamps of South America and Central America, the mangrove occurs in great abundance. All of the above three species of mangrove are also found in the swamps of southern Florida, but have not been developed on account of the excessive cost of cutting, transporting and delivering the product to market. The industry is being exploited especially in Colombia and Brazil, and to a lesser extent in the Guianas, Venezuela, and Trinidad. The yield varies considerably with the various regions. Altogether this variation is said to be from 5 to 45 per cent. The older the tree, however, the greater is said to be the tannin content. The mangrove cut and placed on the market in large commercial quantities usually produces a yield of tannin of from 22 to 33 per cent. The leaves of the mangrove also contain merchantable quantities of tannin and are fre- quently used in the tanneries of southern Brazil, particularly in Santos and Cartagena. The bark is exceedingly hard and heavy. When used locally the bark is employed directly by the tannery, and not used for extraction pur- poses. The methods for the extraction of tannin from mangrove bark have not been perfected to the same extent as for quebracho. Up to the present time, the process of extraction is somewhat similar to that employed for quebracho, but it is more difficult, and it is likely that the process will be still further developed in the future. It is said that extract from the mangrove forests of Africa contains from 60 to 70 per cent of tannin, whereas that produced in the Colombian factories con- tains about 48 to 50 per cent of tannin. The use of mangrove bark began in Europe in 1804, and it has only recently begun to enter this country on a large scale. It is generally regarded by the tanneries as one of the cheapest forms of tannin and this accounts largely for its general acceptance and its increasing use. Man- grove tannin is seldom used alone as it has the reputation of imparting an undesirable color to leather. In France, a mixture of one-third man- grove bark, about two-fifths hemlock, and the remainder of oak or mimosa bark, is commonly used. Owing to the various resources of mangrove forests found along the tidal shores of the tropics in nearly all parts of the world, this material constitutes a great asset for the future of the tanning industry. Its habit of growth renders it somewhat difficult to cut and transport to market, but improved methods are being constantly devised whereby it can be successfully produced. No estimates have been made of the 8-1 FOREST PRODUCTS quantities available, but they are believed to be very extensive; cer- tainly sufficient to last several hundred years at the present rate of con- sumption. Mangrove is said to constitute the greatest single source of tannin supplies for the future requirements of the world. MYROBALAN * NUTS " Myrobalans " is the trade name applied to several species of Indian trees of the Terminalia genus. The most common and the one which constitutes the great source of this supply is the Terminalia chebula, which is a tree usually from 40 to 60 ft. in total height, which is culti- vated in various districts of India, both for the timber as well as for the value of the nuts. The latter are harvested by the natives, placed in storage houses where the fruit shrivels up into irregular and wrinkled forms. The nuts in good condition should be hard and firm and should be completely free from moisture as their absorptive properties are very great. The tannin content of these nuts varies from 30 to 40 per cent, and is found chiefly in the outer layer. India exported 73,355 tons in 1910. In the year 1909 this country used 18,000 tons, valued at $30.00 a ton, and 1,000,000 Ib. of myrobalan extract, valued at $37,500. In 1915, 18,417,434 Ib. of myrobalan nuts, valued at $198,000 were imported. Used alone, myrobalans yield a light yellow tannin. The tannin penetrates the skins rapidly and produces a spongy leather so that the best effect is secured when blended with quebracho or hemlock bark. Mixed with these materials, myrobalans add weight, substance, and firmness as well as a fast color to the leather. It is used especially by tanners of calf, goat, and sheep skins. It can be used with harness and sole leather as well. DIVI-DIVI Divi-divi is the trade name applied to the seed pods of a small tree indigenous in the West Indies, Mexico, Venezuela and northern Brazil. Its scientific name is C&salpinia coriaria. The pods are about 3 in. long and f in. broad and very thin. On drying, they curl up. They contain from 40 to 45 per cent of tannin. They are commonly exported in their natural state in bags containing about no Ib. of pods. It is a very cheap form of tannin, and its use is not very extensive in this country. In 1918 this country imported 15,739,331 Ib. valued 1 This is also spelled myrobolan. TANNING MATERIALS 85 at $274,891 . A closely allied species from Chile called algarobilla (Casal- pinia brevifolia) is very rich in tannin. In 1915 the port of Curacao, West Indies, shipped 500 tons of divi-divi to the United States. Divi-divi is shipped principally from the ports of Caracas and Mara- caibo and brought about 1.6 cents per pound at these ports in 1914. Divi-divi has been used for over one hundred years but chiefly by the Germans. In use it is usually blended with certain tanbarks or other extracts. It readily adapts itself to separation into the extract form. IMPORTED SUMACH Sicilian sumach (Rhus coriaria), as it is known in tanning circles, contains from 20 to 35 per cent of tannin and is regarded as a valuable tanning agent in this country, where the importation has increased within recent years up to 1916. It grows chiefly in Sicily and southern Italy, where it is extensively cultivated although it is found in other sections of the Mediterranean basin as well. In the year 1916 this country imported 17,454,996 Ib. valued at $472,590. Owing to the war, its importation decreased during 1917 and 1918. Sumach tannin is used principally for tanning fine leathers such as glove and book leathers and, as a mordant, to fix the basic aniline dyes. VALONIA Valonia is the usual commerical name given to the acorn of the Turkish oak (Quercus cegilops), which grows chiefly in Asia Minor and to a less extent in the Grecian Archipelago. It is sometimes called, according to its origin, Smyrna valonia and Greek valonia. In 1915, this country imported 6,352,190 Ib. of valonia valued at $88.061 and only 244,000 Ib. in 1909. These acorn cups may contain up to 45 per cent tannin. The tannin is readily derived in the form of an extract. It is seldom used alone as it has an injurious effect on the leather, but excellent results are obtained when used with other tanning materials. It is in great demand in normal times in Austria and Russia for the tanning of fine leathers in those countries. OTHER FOREIGN TANNING MATERIALS Gambier is used for both tanning and dyeing purposes. It comes to this country from Singapore and in 1914, 16,450,000 Ib. costing $625,000 86 FOREST PRODUCTS were consumed for both these purposes. Gambier usually contains from 35 to 40 percent of pyrogallic tannin and comes from two species, namely Uncaria gambler and U. acida. It produces a brown tannin which is generally used in connection with other tanning agents. Kino is an astringent gum used in tanning and dyeing and for medi- cines. It is derived from African or Gambia kino, which may yield up to 75 per cent of tannin. Its imports to this country are not reported separately in the customs statistics. The name is also applied to a num- ber of tropical and sub-tropical plants. Wattle or mimosa is the trade name applied to several acacias of Australia, South Africa and Tasmania. The black wattle is the Acacia natalitia and it is also found in commercial quantities in the Acacia pycnantha. Both barks are very rich in tannin. Cutch (Acacia catechu] is imported in large quantities, but is used chiefly for dyeing purposes. It is occasionally used for tanning leathers in connection with the dyeing operation. There are many other vegetable products among the barks, leaves, twigs, roots, wood, fruit, etc., which are used occasionally as tanning agents, but none has assumed any commercial importance as yet in this country. Among them may be mentioned Mexican sumach, cas- calote, several oaks (bark), etc., which have varying percentages of tannin. IMPORTS The following table shows the amount and value of the imports of tanning materials to the United States for the years 1914-1918, inclusive: QUANTITY AND VALUE OF CRUDE TANNING MATERIALS AND TANNING EXTRACTS IMPORTED TO THE UNITED STATES FOR 1914 TO 1918, IN- CLUSIVE QUANTITY 1914. 1915- 1916. 1917. I9l8. Tanning materials, crude: Quebracho wood, tons. . 73,956 54,955 106,864 73,367 45,44<> Mangrove bark, tons. . . 7,689 8,096 21,186 10,565 3,529 Sumach, pounds 10,770.400 13,165,182 21,542,390 11,637,023 14,046,662 Gambier, pounds 14,936,129 14,169,490 12,819,859 10,133,625 8,964,832 Tanning extracts: Quebracho, pounds .... 93,329,087 120,450,283 81,501,952 59,808,734 101,523,282 All others 6 028 383 6 IOI 2^2 r A7I 2^1 2 as agreed, and to average in width when close jointed and free of sap not less than 19 staves to a half-barrel. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) Sawed Wine Barrel Staves. Shall be sawed with the grain from straight grain bolts and equalized, 34 in. long, and to be, when kiln-dried and planed on both sides, yj in. thick, and when planed on one side to be f in. scant thick; to average in width when close jointed, not exceed- ing 21 staves to the barrel. Slight defects not showing through on both sides admis- sible. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) TIGHT COOPERAGE 163 Red Oak Oil Barrel or Tierce Staves. Shall be equalized, 34, 35 or 36 in. long, as agreed, and to be, when thoroughly dry, f-in. thick, evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 22 staves to the standard barrel. To be free from seed holes, cat faces which show through on both sides, and rotten sap. (See notes following.) Turpentine Barrel Staves. Shall be equalized, 34 in. long, and to be, when thoroughly kiln-dried and planed, not less than f-in. thick, evenly sawed, and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 22 staves to the standard barrel. To be free from seed holes, cat faces, rotten sap, wood want or proof. (Notes I., IV7. and V.; also note II. as to length only.) Cuban Tierce Staves. Shall be equalized, 36 in. long, and, when thoroughly dry, to measure i in. thick, otherwise to grade same as f-in. oil or tierce; to average in width, when close jointed, including sap, not exceeding 21 staves to a barrel. (See notes following.) Pork Staves. Shall be equalized, 30 in. long, and, when thoroughly dry, to measure f in. thick, evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width, when close iointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 19 staves to the barrel. To be free from seed holes, cat faces, wind shakes and rotten sap. Slight defects not showing through on both sides of staves admissible. (See notes following.) Notes. NOTE I. All staves must be evenly equalized, so as to be square on the ends. NOTE II. Variations in staves. All staves must not be less than the standard measurement herein stated, but if | in. shorter or longer, or Ye in. over or under spe- cifications in thickness on one edge, will not affect the grade. NOTE III. Worm holes. Sound worm holes in sawed oil tierce, or pork staves not exceeding two in a straight line across the width of the staves within 12 in. of the center, not more than five worm holes in any one stave, and 10 per cent of the number of staves in carload will be admitted. NOTE IV. All staves must have a proper circle; no flat staves will be accepted. NOTE V. When not otherwise agreed, all staves over 30 in. in length shall be settled for on an average width basis of 4^ in., and all staves 26 to 30 in. in length, on an average width basis of 4! in. NOTE VI. Unless otherwise specified by the buyer, all oil barrel staves averaging 18 to 31 in. shall be jointed with a f-in. bilge, and for each stave in excess of 18 staves the bilge shall be reduced Y& of an inch. (Note that this does not prevent parties contracting for staves on basis of any other width if they prefer. These specifications are to apply where there is no spe- cific agreement.) 164 FOREST PRODUCTS EXPORTS The exports of staves from this country are shown in the following table. They are practically all tight barrel staves used largely in the wine trade of Europe: STAVES FROM THE UNITED STATES Year Ending June 30th. Number of Staves. Value in Dollars. 1914 77,150,535 $5,852,230 IQIS 39,297,268 2,481,592 1916 57,537,610 3,529,i8i 1917 61,469,225 3,921,882 1918 63,207,351 3,724,895 These staves go principally to Canada, France, Italy, Spain, Holland and England. CHAPTER VII NAVAL STORES GENERAL THE naval stores industry is one of the most important of all forest industries, excepting lumbering, measured in terms of the value of its products. It is also one of the oldest of the forest industries in this coun- try. The value of the products turpentine and rosin, in 1910, was over $35,000,000. The industry has been closely identified with the economic development of the South. The earlier colonists depended to a large degree on the products of the industry for their livelihood, particularly in North Carolina and South Carolina. The primary products of the earlier development of the industry, pitch and tar, were among the first exports from this country and were extensively used in wooden sailing vessels; hence the name naval stores. This name is still applied to the present products of the industry, which are confined to turpentine and rosin. The production of naval stores is a waning industry, due to the rapid depletion of the virgin timber supply and the failure to perpetuate the industry either by providing for the reproduction of the forests or by con- servative methods of tapping, which would at least continue to an appre- ciable extent the life of the industry. Until about 1890, lumbermen con- sidered timber bled for turpentine unfit for manufacturing into lumber and literally billions of board feet of valuable timber have been allowed to go to waste by windfall, insects and fire, especially in Georgia and the Carolinas, after the bleeding process had been completed. Until the introduction of various forms of cups in which to collect the resinous exudation from the trees, the method of boxing has been prac- tically the same for the past two hundred years. The gummy exudation from the tree is called crude turpentine or resin, and the final products of the industry as marketed are called spirits of turpentine or turpentine, which is the distillate of the resin, while the residue after distillation is called rosin. 165 166 FOREST PRODUCTS The question of the effect of turpentining on the strength and dura- bility of lumber and timbers has long been a debated subject. Investi- gations have proven that it has practically no deleterious effect of this kind; in fact, bled timber is more durable than " round " or unbled tim- ber, owing to the increased presence of resin. However, on account of the discrimination in the lumber grading rules against excessively resinous lumber and the fact that the wood back of the faces on turpentined timber Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 43. — Cutting a " box " in the base of a longleaf pine for the collection of resin as it exudes after each chipping. is generally heavily filled with resin to a depth of % to i£ in., the propor- tion of high-grade lumber contained in " round " or unbled timber is somewhat greater than that cut from turpentined or bled timber. This condition is minimized to a large extent by slabbing a butt log containing a turpentined " face " at the saw-mill, in order to remove all of the wood having a high resin content. NAVAL STORES 167 SOURCE OF PRODUCTS The naval stores industry is confined to eight states of the southeast, bordering the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico from North Carolina to Texas, inclusive. Probably at least 90 per cent of the total products is derived at present from the longleaf yellow pine (Pinus palustris). Cuban or slash pine (Pinus heterophylld) is also tapped. Other Southern pines such as the loblolly and shortleaf pines yield a resinous exudation when tapped, but there is not a sufficient quantity of resin available to make their exploitation for this purpose commercially profitable. Western yellow pine may be developed in the future in the southwest, California and in Oregon, and experiments have demonstrated that the resinous flow is sufficient to justify commercial development. However, there are many practical and commercial difficulties in the way of present development, particularly the labor question and a market for the products. Resin is stored in resin ducts which are peculiarly large and abundant in longleaf and Cuban pines. The resin ducts form in the region of the cambium layer. When exposed by a cut or chipping streak the exuda- tion of their resinous secretion is permitted. Each cut stimulates the formation and development of other resin ducts above the incision or cut and an area of from 2 to 3 in. above the cut is affected in this way. Experiments have shown that over 67 per cent of the total resin flow after each exposure or chipping occurs within the first twenty-four hours. Oxidation and crystallization of the resin at the mouths of the resin ducts causes them to be clogged, so it is necessary to make fresh cuts from time to time to renew the flow by opening new ducts. Chipping is consequently done every week. At the expiration of this period prac- tically all flow from the previous cut has ceased. If the weather suddenly turns cold it is likely to retard or even completely stop the flow of resin. ANNUAL PRODUCTION North and South Carolina were formerly and for a long time the most important centers of production of naval stores. When the virgin longleaf timber of these states was largely bled for turpentine, Georgia became the center of production. For the past two decades, Florida has been the great producing center of naval stores. The largest 168 FOREST PRODUCTS areas of forest still untapped are in Florida. The only other large areas of virgin forests still remaining unbled for turpentine and rosin are to be found in Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. According to Veitch, the following is an estimate of the production of turpentine and rosin for the calendar year 1918: PRODUCTION OF TURPENTINE AND ROSTN FOR 1918 State. Tuipentine, Barrels. Rosin Round Barrels. No. of Operations (Reported). Florida, IO4. 4.78 221 C.II Georgia C.4.IQ2 170,884. 373 Louisiana <2 636 j c. C 4O2 38 Alabama •22 O?6 TQC O2O Mississippi 31,217 O2 I4Q AH\> 4.O Texas. . . 23 086 67 5 C.2 8 North Carolina CCA 1, 0,8 1 17 South Carolina. ^ 42O 1,4.^8 1 7 Totals 299 668 OI ^ O4.6 087 There has been a great decrease in the production of turpentine and rosin during the recent years. There was a serious drop in production from 1917 to 1918. The industry is on the wane due to the rapid ex- haustion of the available timber supplies of the South. More than 50 per cent of the total amount of products are exported. The high peak in the value of the exports of naval stores was reached in 1912, when $26,754,987 worth were exported. In 1917 only $15,581,208 worth of naval stores were exported. This country is the great source of the world's supply of turpentine and rosin. In normal times the products were chiefly sent to Germany, the United Kingdom, the Nether- lands and Canada. The war has seriously interfered with the exports of naval stores from this country. The peak in the production of turpentine was reached in 1900, when 38,488,000 gal. were produced, and the greatest quantity of rosin was pro- duced in 1908, when 4,288,000 barrels were placed on the market. For the five-year period up to 1914 the average annual production was 31,800,000 gal. of turpentine and 3,700,000 barrels of rosin. The follow- ing table shows the quantity and value of turpentine and rosin produced according to the Census Bureau figures, from the years 1900 to 1913: NAVAL STORES 169 NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS AND QUANTITY AND VALUE OF TURPEN- TINE AND ROSIN PRODUCED— UNITED STATES (Figures taken from reports of the Bureau of the Census) Year. Number of Establish- ments. TURPENTINE. ROSIN. Combined Value of Turpentine and Rosin. Gallons. Value. Barrels. Value. 1 1913 1 1912 1 1911 1910 32,000,000 34,000,000 31,900,000 27,750,000 3,815,000 4,000,000 3,800,000 3,651,000 \ [• no data J $18,255,000 no data $35,935,ooo $17,680,000 1909 1,585 28,941,000 12,654,000 3,258,000 12,577,000 25,231,000 1908 1,696 | 36,589,0x30 14,112,000 4,288,000 17,795,000 31,007,000 1007 1,629 34,181,000 18,283,000 3,999,000 | 17,317,000 ! 35,600,000 1904 1,287 30,687,000 15,170,000 3,508,000 8,726,000 23,896,000 1900 1,503 38,488,000 14,960,000 2,563,000 5,129,000 20,090,000 1 According to " Naval Stores Review " of Apr. 4, 1914. The following table shows the quantity and value of turpentine and rosin exported from this country for the various years from 1860 to 1913: QUANTITY AND VALUE OF SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN EXPORTED, 1860-1913 (Figures from the Bureau of the Census) Year Ending June 30th. TURPENTINE. ROSIN. Gallons. Value. Barrels. Value. 1913 21,039,597 $8,794,656 2,806,046 $17,359,145 1912 19,599,241 10,069,135 2,474,460 16,462,850 1911 14,817,751 IO,/68,2O2 2,189,607 14,067,335 1910 15,587,737 8,780,236 2,144,318 9,753,488 1909 17,502,028 7,018,058 2,170,177 8,004,838 1908 19,532,583 10,146,151 2,712,732 11,395,126 1905 15,894,813 8,902,101 2,310,275 7,069,084 1903 16,378,787 8,014,322 2,396,498 4,817,205 1900 18,090,582 8,554,922 2,369,118 3,796,367 1890 11,248,920 4,590,931 1 1,601,377 1 2,762,373 • 1880 7,091,200 2,132,154 1 1,040,345 1 2,368,180 18/0 3,246,697 1,357,302 1 583,316 1 1,776,625 1860 4,072,023 1,916,289 1 770,652 1 1,818,238 1 Turpentine included with rosin. WOODS OPERATION For many years the unit of woods operation has been the " crop/' which consists of an orchard of 10,500 boxes or faces. The area included within the crop varies considerably with the density of the stand, the size of the individual trees and the intensity of the boxing (number of boxes 170 FOREST PRODUCTS per tree). This number has been determined upon as a result of experi- ence— it being found to be the most convenient in laying out a turpentine operation, collecting the products, supervision, etc. Subdivisions of the crop are called " drifts," which may follow topographic or other natural or artificial divisions. Boxing. After laying out the crop, the trees are boxed during the winter accord- ing to the old-fashioned system. This consists of chopping a cavity or " box " about 3 to 4 in. wide, 6 to 7 in. deep and 12 in. long near the base Photograph by U. 6'. Forest Service. FIG. 44. — "Cornering" a box to provide a smooth surface over which the resin is guided into the box. Photograph taken at Statesboro, Georgia. of the tree. This cavity will hold about ij qt. and is designed to catch the resin as it exudes from the surface, called the face, which is chipped periodically. The top edge of the box is generally from 5 to 12 in. from the ground. There may be from one to four or more boxes on every tree ; depending upon its size. Cornering. Cornering consists of removing a triangular-shaped chip above each NAVAL STORES 171 corner of the box. It is done to provide a smooth surface over which the resinous exudation may flow into the box and to expose two diagonal lines to guide the initial chipping. It is shown in the accompanying illus- tration. Chipping. This operation consists of re-exposing the cambium layer by cutting it periodically with a chipper or hack. This streak or chipping is done Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 45.— Chipping the fourth streak above a virgin box near Ocilla, Georgia. Chipping is usually done every week to induce new resin flow from March to October. every week during the warm season, generally from March to late in October, depending upon the season. The number of chippings per sea- son may vary from 28 to 40, and the average is about 32. The operation of chipping is shown in the accompanying illustration. For high faces, up to 8 ft., a long hack sometimes called a " puller " is used. A 5 to 7 Ib. weight on the end of the hack facilitates the work of cutting the 172 FOREST PRODUCTS streak, which is made by a sharp U-shaped blade made in three sizes (usually about i in. across the curvature). The gash is about | to i| in. in depth. Two cuts, forming a V at an angle of 90 to 100°, form the streak. Chipping continues through four seasons, at the end of which a height of about 7 to 8 ft. is attained. Shallow chipping has been found to yield better results and it is said that a depth of ^ in. is the best. Narrow chipping, around | in. in width, is also best. The present method is about i in. or more. This reduces the length of time the tree can be tapped. It is possible to improve the present methods vastly. An experienced laborer will chip from 8000 to 10,500 faces per week. Dipping. Dipping consists of removing the resin or gum from the box. A dipper with a long-handled, trowel-shaped blade is used. The gum is emptied into a small wooden bucket which the worker carries from tree to tree. Dipping is done every three to five weeks, depending upon the season and condition of the trees. Operators generally estimated that dipping is done from seven to eight times a season. Resin barrels, placed at convenient points through the drifts by a wagon, are used for collecting the gum as the buckets are filled. As these barrels are filled they are taken directly by wagon to the turpentine stills. One still will take care of the products of from 20 to 25 crops of 10,500 boxes each. Scraping. Owing to the gummy and sticky nature of the resin, considerable quantities of it adhere to the face and never reach the box at the base of the tree. Obviously, this condition is enhanced the higher the chipping occurs up the tree. Cold weather also affects it. This gum is scraped from the face at the end of each season by means of special tools called 11 scrapers " and it is caught at the base of the tree in a wooden receptacle called a " scrape box." The " scrape " yields very inferior products compared to the " dip." It is estimated that only 45 to 60 per cent of the normal quantity of turpentine is secured from the scrape and it produces a rosin of dark color and consequently of low grade. It gen- erally contains many impurities, such as pieces of wood, leaves, twigs, bark, bugs, etc. After the turpentine season is over the ground about the base of each tree is raked over for a distance of 3 to 4 or more feet to guard against fires. Inflammable material such as pine needles, particles of gum, sticks, NAVAL STORES 173 etc., are removed by this raking. The pine woods are then set fire, gen- erally speaking, to improve the grazing, keep down the brush, which would interfere with the turpentining operation, sand to prevent forest fires from starting from some accidental or intentional cause. When the woods burn in this way, after raking, there is little likelihood of fires getting into the highly inflammable boxes and doing irreparable damage 1 Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 46. — " Dipping " the resin from the old-fashioned box. This method is very wasteful compared to the cup systems. by burning out the boxes and resulting in the felling of the tree by wind- fall. CUP AND GUTTER OR APRON SYSTEMS Owing to the serious losses resulting from the wasteful process of turpentining by the old box system and the growing scarcity of virgin longleaf pine forests still untapped in the South and the consequent need for more conservative methods of tapping the trees, several 174 FOREST PRODUCTS processes were introduced from time to time which provided a substitute for the box as a method of collecting the resin. It is said that the first substitute was patented in 1868. In 1894 W. W. Ashe introduced the French cup and gutter system, which had proved to be such a success in the maritime pine forests in the Landes region of southwest France. Dr. C. H. Herty, however, is gen- erally credited with the successful introduction and commercial applica- Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 47. — Correct position of the Herty cup and gutters. This shows the condition of the face at the end of the first season after about thirty-five chippings have been made. tion of the cup and gutter systems in this country, and the Herty cup is now widely used throughout the South. Only within the past two decades, however, has this great improvement been generally adopted. The first large commercial use of the cup system was in 1904. It is said that at the present time as many cups are in use as boxes and on all new forests tapped, probably 75 to 80 per cent of all the trees are equipped NAVAL STORES 175 with cups, which have demonstrated a saving of 20 per cent in value of products over the old wasteful box method of turpentining. The principle of the cup and gutter systems lies in the substitution of two gutters or an apron and a cup for the box. The gutters or apron is used to guide the crude turpentine, as it exudes from the tree into a clay or galvanized iron receptacle, which is either hung from a zinc nail or the apron itself. The gutters or aprons can be elevated from time to time. This obviates the necessity of the gum or resin flowing over such a long-exposed face to the box; consequently the amount of scrape is reduced and both a greater quantity and higher quality of product are secured. The gutters are generally 2 in. wide and 6 to 1 2 in. long and are bent into the shape of an obtuse angle. The gutters are inserted in slits made by a broadaxe, one projecting about 2 in. beyond the lower end of the other in order to conduct all the resin into the cup, which is suspended from a nail. Both clay and galvanized iron cups holding i, ij and 2 qt. are commonly used. The position of the cup and gutters is shown in the accompanying illustration. In the case of the aprons, a flat piece of galvanized iron, nearly rectangular in shape and with one edge concave in order to conform with the shape of the tree, is inserted in a slit made with a broadaxe having a concave edge. The slit is almost horizontal and slopes slightly down- ward. The cup or receptacle used with this form is generally hung directly from the apron. As in the case of the other form of cup, it may be either of clay or galvanized iron, but it is generally made of the latter material. In shape it is rectangular, about 12 in. long, 3 in. wide and about 3 in. deep, and is smaller in both length and width at the bottom than at the top. The illustration shows the position, shape and method of use of this form. There are several other forms and adaptations of the forms described above and new variations are introduced to the industry nearly every year. In all cases, the cups are removed at the end of each season and are elevated together with the aprons or gutters to new positions higher on the tree at the beginning of each season. The advantages of the cup systems over the old box system may be summarized as follows: i . The yield of turpentine is considerably greater and the value of the rosin much higher. This is explained by the fact that the cups are raised 176 FOREST PRODUCTS each year and, therefore, there is more and cleaner resin and much less " scrape " which yields an inferior grade of rosin. 2. The danger from fire is greatly decreased. Formerly ground fires could easily get into the box cut in the base of the tree and would either ruin the face for further turpentining or completely burn away the base of the tree. The tree would then deteriorate and be unfit for lumber by the time logging operations could move it to the sawmill. r Photograph t>u U. S. Forest Service. . FIG. 48. — Method of collecting resin with the McKoy cup. A single apron is used to conduct the resin from the face to the cup. This is moved up the tree after each season's opera- tions. Walton County, Florida. 3. The use of cups does not injure the vitality of the tree as does the boxes. Often after severe boxing windfall results. The following Table l shows a comparison of the number of dead trees and those blown down 1 From the Naval Stores Industry, by Schorger and Betts, U. S. Dept. of Agric., Forest Service, Bulletin No. 229, page 26. NAVAL STORES 177 by the storm under the two systems in one season. It is conclusive evi- dence in favor of the cup system over the boxing method: TREES BLOWN DOWN. DEAD TREES. Boxed. Cupped. Boxed. Cupped. After 1 6 chippings 5 8 I 3 2 35 I .6 After 32 chippings. . . Specifications for turpentining recommended by Schorger and Betts are as follows: i. No trees under 10 in. in diameter shall be tapped; minimum diameter to carry two faces, 16 in. ; no tree shall carry more than two faces. Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. FIG. 49. — Western yellow pine tapped for naval stores products. Experimental area on Coconino National Forest, Arizona. 2. The faces on trees from 10 to 16 in. in diameter shall not exceed 12 in. in width, and the faces on trees above 16 in. in diameter shall not exceed 14 in. in width. 3. The height of the face shall not be increased by more than 16 in. each year the tree is tapped. 178 FOREST PRODUCTS 4. Each streak shall not exceed a width of ^ in. or a depth of ^ in.? the depth being measured from the dividing line between the wood and the bark. 5. Before the chipping season opens the rough outer bark shall be scraped off over the entire surface to be chipped for each season, care being taken not to penetrate the living bark. Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 50. — Tools and utensils used in the naval stores industry. From left to right, broadaxe used to cut slit for apron, cup and apron in place, hack used in chipping, broadaxe used in making "face," maul, and on right foreground cup and apron. Photograph taken on experimental area in western yellow pine timber on Sierra National Forest, California. 6. During the winter a space of at least i\ ft. shall be raked free of debris about each tapped tree. DISTILLATION As the resin is collected in buckets and then in barrels in the forest, it is transported on wagons to the still, located at a place convenient to several (20 to 25) crops and generally on a railroad, to facilitate the marketing of the products — spirits of turpentine and rosin. Copper stills have only been used since 1834. Prior to that time iron retorts were used and they were exceedingly crude and wasteful and produced a very inferior product. NAVAL STORES 179 The equipment and housing of a modern turpentine distilling plant usually consists of the following: i still house — a roughly constructed open shed containing the copper still, loading platform and " worm " for condensing the vapors. i storage shed, separate from the still, for storing the turpentine. It generally houses, as well, the kettle for heating the glue used in coat- ing the inside of the turpentine barrels. i cooperage shed for making rosin barrels. i rosin screen and rosin barrel platform. Photograph by {/'. 6*. Forest Service. FIG. 51. — Turpentine still at Clinton, Sampson Co., North Carolina. The capacity of the stills is generally from 15 to 20 barrels, but may be as high as 40 barrels. The barrels of crude gum are dumped into the still after removing the still head and gooseneck. The residue of gum, sticking to the inside of the barrels, is removed by introducing live steam or by allowing them to drain slowly. With " virgin " dip or the new fresh gum, the still is only filled to three-quarters its capacity, while with ordinary dip only about one-half the still is filled and with old scrape only about one-third the still is filled. This is done because of the danger of boiling up into 180 FOREST PRODUCTS the still head and the consequent fire hazard, which must be carefully watched in all still operations. After charging, the fire is started underneath the still. In the case of " scrape," several pails of water are added. The process of distilla- tion requires about 2 to 2\ hours. The operator or " stiller " watches his charge very closely and he can gauge the distillation by the sounds emitted from the still and by the relative proportions of water and tur- pentine in the distillate. When needed, additional quantities of water are run into the still, especially when distilling old dip and scrape. The operator can determine the end of the distilling process by the small proportion of turpentine in the distillate. It is never attempted to remove all of the turpentine because a better grade of rosin is secured in this way. The fire is then put out and the residue is skimmed to remove the waste and foreign material such as chips, bark, needles, etc., which collect on the surface. Sometimes skimming is done during the distilling process. After skimming, the hot residue is allowed to run out an aperture at the base of the still and through a short pipe and a set of three or four screens into a large metal vat. The screens are placed, one above the other and are of 6- to 8-, 14-, 32- and 6o-in. mesh from top to bottom. A piece of cotton cloth is generally placed on top of the lowest screen. After cooling in the vat for a period up to an hour, depending upon its temperature, it is dipped out into slack barrels which hold about 450 Ib. Upon cooling, it hardens in about twenty to twenty-five hours into rosin and is ready for shipment to market. Rosin is graded according to its color. Virgin dip yields the lightest colored and best rosin, called "W. W." or " water white," whereas the scrape yields the darkest and least valua- ble rosin. The following are the grades of rosin, in order of quality: WW, WG, N, M, K, I, H,G, F, E, D, B. As the distillate comes from the copper condenser or worm, it is col- lected in a barrel, the turpentine rising by gravity to the top. Near the top a spout permits the turpentine to run off into a second barrel, from which it is dipped into barrels of 50 gal. capacity and shipped to market. Savannah is the great naval stores market in this country, both for domestic and foreign consumption. Owing to the large foreign trade developed and its proximity to the Georgia and Carolina turpentine orchards, it has for a long time held a pre-eminent position and Savannah quotations are recognized as the standard in the industry. The Savannah Board of Trade has been very active in developing the industry along proper lines. As a result of some dispute and to NAVAL STORES 181 improve the standards of containers for naval stores, this Board issued in 1911 letters of instruction to the operators of stills, as follows: Turpentine Barrels. All barrels, whether new or second hand, should be kept absolutely protected from the elements, and not allowed to remain subject to rain and sunshine at way stations and river landings. Glue will not take on damp staves. Every barrel should be glued twice before being filled. Use only the best quality of glue, as it is the cheapest in the end. Before gluing, see that your pot is absolutely clean. Put into this 20 Ib. of good glue and 5 gal. of water, and allow it to soak overnight. On the fol- lowing morning apply sufficient heat to melt up to a temperature not exceeding 160° F. Under no condition whatever must glue be allowed to boil, as this causes decomposition to set in, which causes the bad smell usually noticed around glue sheds, and renders it utterly worthless. This amount of prepared glue will be sufficient for 20 barrels. After gluing, barrels should be taken off the trough and stood on the head for about one-half hour, after which time they should be reversed, so that the surplus glue will run down equally on both heads. The barrels should then be well and thoroughly driven, and, after standing for twenty-four hours should be given a second coat of glue, using the exact formula as before. They are then ready to be filled in forty-eight hours, and if treated in this way there should be no turning except for broken staves. Rosin. Rule No. 9 of the Savannah Board of Trade says in part: " Rosin barrels to be in merchantable order must have two good heads, not exceed- ing i^ in. in thickness, staves not to exceed i in. in thickness; the top well-lined." Too much stress, therefore, cannot be placed on the abso- lute necessity of carrying out this rule to the very letter, especially regard- ing the thickness of staves and heading, for rule No. 10 specifically instructs the inspector to make a proper deduction in weight in all rosin when the staves and headings are more than the prescribed thickness in rule No. 9. In such cases, therefore, the operator will lose, as in addi- tion to having the deductions made, for which he receives nothing, he must pay the full amount of freight to the railroad. Operators must see that every barrel is well coopered before shipment; see that all four hoops are nailed on the barrels, and the heads cut to fit close, and a good lining hoop as prescribed by rule No. 9 is in place. Staves must be properly equalized. Staves should be 40 in. long, and barrels built on a 22-in. stress hoop, which gives a well-shaped and easily handled barrel. 182 FOREST PRODUCTS YIELDS The Census Bureau of 1909 shows the following yields of turpentine per crop of 10,500 boxes for each of the principal states in the South producing naval stores: YIELD OF TURPENTINE PER CROP BY STATES Yield of Turpentine per State Crop of 10,500 Boxes. Barrels Alabama ............ ........................... 35 • 6 Florida ........................................ 29.8 Georgia ........................................ 26.5 Louisiana ...................................... 44-7 Mississippi .......... . .......................... 34-5 Texas ......................................... 43-5 The larger yields shown in the above table from the forests of Louisiana and Texas are undoubtedly explained by the fact that the timber in those states is much larger than the timber now being bled in the other states. Consequently, the yield would naturally be much larger per crop. From Schorger and Beits. FIG. 52. — Diagrammatic cross-section of a turpentine still. The barrels of resin are brought in from the forest and, after unloading on the platform on the right, are emptied into the kettle on removal of the cap. The turpentine is collected in the barrel at the right. A crop will generally yield from 29 to 46 barrels of turpentine and from 163 to 234 barrels of rosin, depending upon the year of tapping. It is obvious that the yield of turpentine will be much greater during the first year of tapping and the same is true of the yield of rosin. Con- siderable depends upon the method of tapping, that is, by the box or the cup system. The yield of crude turpentine or rosin is generally about 8 to 12 Ib. per box, or about 20 to 25 Ib. from a tree of average size where two faces are exposed. NAVAL STORES 183 One barrel of average crude turpentine will yield about 5 gal. of spirits of turpentine and from 60 to 65 per cent of its bulk in rosin. The bleeding of the first year produces a fine, light-colored rosin and this grows darker from year to year until at the end of the fourth year the scrape at the end of the season yields the poorest grade of rosin. The following tables show a comparison of yields of turpentine and rosin from bleeding by both the cup and box system : 1 SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE FROM HALF CROPS, SEASONS 1902-1904, GEORGIA Year. CUPS. BOXES. •a N'et Price :-j?±n Value of Excess from Dip. Scrape. Total. Dip. Scrape. Total. H»J °'°ra- Cupped Half Crop. First Second. . . . Third. Gal. I38S.3 1103-5 781 3 Gal. Gal. 205.01590.3 165.0 1268.5 1^6. O OI7. 3 Gal. II34-7 705.2 5^6 I Gal. 153-7 226.6 190. 5 Gal. 1288.4 931.8 726.6 Gal. Cents. 301 . 9 40 336.7 45 190 7 45 $120.76 I5L52 85.82 Total. . .'3270.1 506. o'3776. i 2376.0570.8 2946.8; 829.3 | $358.10 ! I : • • i ; I NET SALES OF ROSIN FROM HALF CROPS, SEASONS 1902-1904, GEORGIA Year. CUPS. BOXES. Value of Excess from Cupped Half Crop Dip. Scrape. Total. Dip. Scrape. Total. First $401.72 286.88 212.60 $47-72 58.24 61.65 $449.44 345-12 274-25 $328.40 132.42 124.76 $35 • 53 84.08 79.70 $363.93 216.50 204.46 $85-51 128.62 69.79 Second Third Total . ... $901 . 20 $167.61 $1068.81 $585-58 $199 31 $784-89 $283.92 UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS Turpentine. Probably the greatest quantity of turpentine is used for paints and varnishes. It has the power of thinning out these materials by its action as a solvent, as well as by its power of oxidation and evaporation. It is widely used in the cloth-printing industry, especially for woolens and cottons and it is extensively in demand as a solvent for rubber, gutta percha and like substances. Turpentine is also used in a great variety of chemicals, medicines and, in a number of industries, for many specialized purposes. 1 From The Naval Stores Industry by Schorger and Betts, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 229, page 23. 184 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table l shows the high and low prices, per gallon, at Savannah for turpentine for eleven years. PRICES OF TURPENTINE— PER GALLON Year. High. Low. 1917— l8 $ .405 $.36 IQl6~I7 . . CA 355 IQIC— 16 .56 .36 1014.— i c •47 .40! IOI 3—14 485 . 3^ IQI2— 13 .48 •35 IOII~I2 1 .02 •44i I9IO—II I O7 • S5i IOOQ— IO . .6of •35i I QO8—OQ .So£ . *c IOO7—o8 .60 .40 Rosin. The greatest single utility of rosin is in the manufacture of soap. It is combined with caustic soda and potash to form the various kinds of soap. It is also in great demand as a rosin sizing in the manufacture of paper. It gives certain kinds of paper a stiff coating or surface, making them adaptable for printing and writing purposes. Without this sizing it would be impossible for certain papers to take colors, inks, etc. "Brewer's pitch," made of rosin and a small admixture of turpentine, was widely used to coat the interiors of barrels and other containers of beer and malted liquors. This coating gives the liquors a better taste and renders the barrels easy to clean. Rosin is also in great demand for a wide variety of manufacturing enterprises, particularly in the making of linoleum, sealing wax, oilcloth, special flooring compounds and coverings, various kinds of inks, roofing materials, lubricating compounds, and a great variety of chemicals too numerous to mention. An important use for rosin is for resin driers, which are extensively used in the drying of oil paints and varnishes. Rosin soaps are com- bined with metallic salts to form metallic resinates, which are known in the trade as a Japan driers. " Rosin is distilled into rosin oils which are produced under several dif- ferent trade names. These oils are used in the manufacture of several greases and specialty lubricants, as well as solvents. 1 From the Naval Stores Review, Savannah, Ga., June 7, 1919, p. 10. NAVAL STORES 185 The following table l shows the range of prices from high to low for rosin in the Savannah market: ROSIN MARKET PRICES AT SAVANNAH. High and low prices per barrel for four-year period. Grade. 1914-15- I9I5-I6. 1916-17. 1917-18. Water white Window glass High. Low. $7 -50 % • SO 6 2S ^4O High. Low. $7-50 $5-5° 7 2S C 3S High. Low. $7.32! $5.20 7 IO S OS High. Low. $7-75 $5-90 7 6^ 5 7^ N 6 oo 5 oo 7OO 4 7O 7 Q2^ 4 7S 7c e C 7C M 5. 3O "?.CK 6. SO ^ Q5C 675 4. ^O 7 IO c. 7C K . ... 4 .90 3.05 6.50 4.10 66? -65 42-50 38-48 Birch, quartered wood Pine (Pinus maritima and P. syhestris) quartered wood . Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), quartered wood Norway spruce, stump wood Norway spruce, edgings and mill waste. . Mixed hardwood and softwood, mill waste (oak, birch, beech, pine and spruce) PROCESSES USED The process of manufacture of charcoal by the open-pit method consists generally of the following operation: Billets of wood from 2 to 4 ft. or more in length and from 2 to 6 in. in diameter, are piled on end in a conical form. There may be from 10 to 35 cords or more to the pile, and 1 See the " Hardward Distillation Industry in New York," by Nelson C. Brown, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 1916. 2 Taken from experiments by Marcus Ball, Philadelphia. CHARCOAL 239 O ^O M M O vooooo t^- ooo oo ooooo rJ-TtW Tf»-i rOfN^c^M ooooo o-a -S O M fO^ "8-3 "8 •3 8 S-g & i M iorl-O w ^ r-» fs o ^o ^ O ^" *"** ^ *^ ^* oo ^o M \o oo ro *o t^r^vO lotct^O O^O o->oOoo iN-t^vO IOT^^IOXO M ::::::'§:::: ::::'? : : : : I" -8 • £—"& •« • • . llilliill 240 FOREST PRODUCTS the form may vary from a regular cone to an .obtuse cone or a truncated cone. Openings are left at the base to serve as a draft, together with a central shaft to carry off the smoke running vertically through the middle of the pile. The sticks of wood are piled compactly together. The pile is first covered with grass, leaves, moss, branches, or needles, etc., depending upon the best available material, to a depth of from 3 to 5 in., and then with soil and turf to a depth of from 2 to 5 in. in addition. It is then FIG. 64. — A charcoal pit in the process of burning. An " explosion " has occurred and the burners are determining the extent of the cavity. The latter is filled with small pieces of wood which are held in readiness for this purpose. The framework in the exterior is used to hold the dirt in place. Photograph taken in Deerlodge National Forest, Montana. The wood used is lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana.) ignited by means of a torch at the base of the central flue, and the whole pile gradually chars upward and outward, great care being exercised not to burn the pile too rapidly, or to permit flames to burst out. The admission of only sufficient air to cause partial combustion is a most important feature of the burning process. The time required for burning depends upon the kind of wood and its size and dryness, the method of piling, size of pile, the temperature and weather, and the character of the ground, etc. In Montana the average-sized charcoal pit is about 40 ft. in diameter CHARCOAL 241 at the base, about 30 ft. across the top, and the pile usually assumes the shape of a truncated cone. This pit will yield about 2000 bu. of char- coal, and before burning, contains about 55 cords of lodgepole pine. Some pits in the lodgepole pine forest contain as high as 65 to 70 cords each. It requires about twenty-one days and nights of average weather conditions to complete the carbonization of an average pit of 55 cords. On these piles the wood is first covered with pine needles or grass or hay, and then covered with dirt and sod. In Sweden and Austria charcoal pits containing up to 80 cords of wood each are common ; in the Austrian Tyrol there are piles frequently containing up to 60 cords, while those in France, Spain and Italy contain only from 10 to 30 to 40 cords, or even less. In Austria there are several beech forests, which can be profitably utilized only by conversion of the wood into the form of charcoal, on account of the inaccessibility of these forests and the difficulty in transportation in the raw wood state. Mathey states that the time required for burning charcoal pits depends largely upon the volume of wood involved. Under average conditions, the following number of days are required for burning different sized pits:1 TIME REQUIRED FOR BURNING OAK AND BEECH CHARCOAL BY THE OPEN- PIT METHOD Number of Days. Volume of Wood, Steres. Volume of Wood, Cords (Approximately) . 2-3 7-8 2-2l 4-6 10-15 3-4 6-8 20-30 6-8 12-15 40-60 12-16 28-30 100-200 27^-55 It is claimed by experienced charcoal burners that new locations of pits do not give as good results as when old places are used. The accessi- bility and convenience to the wood supply generally governs the question of moving to new ground. The space chosen for burning should satisfy the following conditions: 1. It should require little work in clearing and preparation. 2. It should be accessible and convenient to the wood supply, as well as affording good means of transporting the product to market. 3. It should be near and convenient to a water supply. 4. It should be well protected from the wind. 1 See " Traite d'Exploitation Commerciale des Bois," by A. Mathey, Vol. II, p. 40. 242 FOREST PRODUCTS 5. Its location should be on soil which is rather dry and soft, and preferably clay or calcareous soil. Special kilns or ovens have been devised and have been used in con- nection with or near large iron furnaces. They did not seek at first the recovery of the volatile products of wood, but were the medium or step between the crude old-fashioned open-air charcoal pit and the modern wood distillation plant. They have largely gone out of existence at the present time, owing to the much greater profits to be derived by the construction and operation of the distillation plant. They were usually of conical shape, about 24 ft. in diameter, about 25 to 30 ft. in height Photograph by U. S. Forest Service FIG. 65. — Type of brick beehive kiln used for making charcoal for iron furnaces in northern New York. Photograph taken at Wolf Pond, Franklin Co., New York. These had a capacity of about 40 cords each. and had a capacity of about 40 cords of wood. They were commonly called " beehive " ovens. They were lined with fire brick up to 10 to 12 ft. on the inside, and were plastered on both inside and outside. Air holes were provided around the base of the kiln and at the top was an iron door which could be raised and lowered as desired. Another form of rectangular shape, about 40 ft. long, 16 ft. wide and 15 ft. high, usually held about 80 cords of wood at one charge, and pro- duced about 3000 bu. of charcoal at one time. The yield by both these forms is usually from 37 to 46 bu. of char- CHARCOAL 243 coal per cord of wood. The time required for filling, burning and empty- ing the charge in the case of the larger kiln of rectangular shape is about four weeks and for the smaller one about three weeks. About three weeks are required for the operation on the average outdoor pit containing about 25 to 30 cords of air-dry hardwoods. One man can usually tend two pits at a time if located close together. A crew of 5 or 6 men will look after 3 or 4 pits generally, while another crew chops, piles, transports the wood, and erects the piles, and bags and transports the charcoal to market. The location of the pits of the open-air style can be changed from place to place, convenient to the source of wood supply, all that is neces- sary being the leveling and clearing of the space 40 to 75 ft. in diameter. In the case of the brick ovens or kilns, the wood must be transported much greater distances. Although the yield from the old-style pit is not as great as that from the beehive or rectangular oven, it is claimed that the charcoal made in the open pits is superior to that made in the ovens. The conditions and the rate of burning in open-air pits depends upon the following factors: 1. The kind of wood. Dense hardwoods of high specific gravity are the best for making charcoal. The conifers are much inferior, dependent upon their weight. Heavy woods require much more time for burning. For the manufacture of certain kinds of charcoal iron, however, a mixture of hardwoods and soft woods is considered best. 2. The size of wood used including the length, thickness, regularity and straightness of the individual billets. Large pieces obvi- ously require much longer time for burning than thin, slender pieces. The best size is billets 3 to 4 in. in diameter, or billets from 6 to 9 in. in diameter that have been quartered. 3. Condition of the wood. It should be well seasoned, but never doty or partially decayed or rotten. Wood free of knots and other defects makes much better charcoal than that containing large knots and frequent defects. 4. Condition of the ground. It should be perfectly dry, solid, level and free from draft. The latter is very important. In a loose, sandy or gravelly soil, air may be drawn in from under- neath and, therefore, the draft may be beyond the control of the operators. 5. The time of year. The best time is from July to September or October, the wood having been cut the previous winter and 244 FOREST PRODUCTS piled for seasoning during the spring and early summer months. Under good weather conditions the operator can watch it night and day with least difficulty, and the summer and fall months offer the best conditions. The danger from forest fires is always present then, but with care this is of little consequence. 6. The condition of the weather and temperature. This is of great importance. The action of the wind and temperature seriously affects the rate of burning, and must be watched with great care. In rainy and humid weather the drafts must be opened much more than in clear, dry or windy weather. • ' .^1* «# ' vve"*' * •*p*'s*'''«B f-^^^0f^^ Photograph by Xekson C. Brown. FIG. 66. — A forest of beech (Fagus sylvatica) cut clean for charcoal in one of the State Forests of Tuscany in central Italy. From 140 to 200 cubic meters of wood were produced per acre from this area. Note the piling of both stem and limbwood as well as the smallest branches. The stumps are also grubbed out and converted into charcoal. In the forest of Camaldoli in central Italy, where the per capita con- sumption of charcoal is greater than in any other country, Dr. Ferrari made the following interesting determination1 of the division of time required for the operation of charcoal making under average conditions, by the open-pit method. The wood used was red oak (Quercus cerrus) 1 From " Prontuario del Forestale," by Dr. Egidio Ferrari. Milan, 1918. CHARCOAL 245 cut from coppice forests twenty to twenty-five years of age. About 90 kgm. (198 lb.) of charcoal was secured per stere 1 of wood. The basis is the time required per man per stere of wood. DIVISION OF TIME REQUIRED ON CHARCOAL OPERATIONS Operation. Hours per Man per Stere 1 of wood. Cutting trees . «; 60 Cutting wood to size q 60 Preparation of the ground . CQ Hauling wood 4. 80 Arranging the wood in pit I OO Covering the pit with dirt, etc I OO Burning 8.00 Extinction of fire, removal of cover and measuring charcoal. . . . 1-50 Total 28 oo 1 One stere =.276 cord or i cord (128 stacked cubic feet) =3.63 steres. Therefore, for a pit of 40 steres (about n cords) it would require one man 1120 hours or 2 men 560 hours for the complete operation. On a pit containing 200 steres (about 55 cords), it would require a crew of 10 men (28X200 -MO) 560 working hours, or 23! days of twenty-four hours each for the complete operation. UTILIZATION AND PRICES One of the most important uses of charcoal during the past few years was in the manufacture of gunpowder and explosives. It is also extensively used in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent. Its principal use from twenty to fifty years ago was for the production of charcoal or Swedish iron, but the introduction and wide use of coke and improvements in the methods of reducing iron ores have seriously dimin- ished the demand for charcoal. It is widely used as a filtrant, for medicinal purposes, and for fuel. In the copper smelters of Montana and Arizona charcoal is used in the smelters for testing the ore and for treating some ores. Some of the larger iron furnaces use as much as 750,000 to 1,000,000 bu. or more annually. It requires from 50 to 65 bu. of charcoal to reduce a ton of ore. This is equivalent to about 1 26 to 144 bu. to the ton of iron. These figures were obtained in New York and New England blast fur- naces. 246 FOREST PRODUCTS More complete discussion of the utilization of charcoal is found in the chapter on Hardwood Distillation. The price obtained for charcoal has been the determinant factor in the activity in the industry. For the past fifty years, the price, deliv- ered at the nearest railroad station, or at the point of consumption, has varied between 4 and 8 cents per bushel. Before the great European war it was a "drug" on the markets at 4 to 6 cents per bushel, but with the impetus given to the demand for all forms of fuel within recent years, it PhotograpJi by Nelson C. Brown. FIG. 67. — A view of the yard of a saw mill at Vallombrosa, Italy, where mill waste, including slabs, edgings and trimmings were converted into charcoal. The three pits in the foreground are almost ready to burn. The production of charcoal was greatly stimulated during the war owing to the price of coal having risen from $10 to $15 up to $80 to $140 per ton. The manufacture of charcoal is one of the most important uses for wood in Italy. Each pile contains about 40 cubic meters of wood. Before the war charcoal brought about $2 per quintal of 220 Ib. whereas in 1919 it brought about $8 for the same amount. These piles show the type of charcoal kiln commonly employed in Italy. has risen to 7 and 8 cents per bushel and even much higher in places in the years 1917 to 1919. Owing to the stimulation in the hardwood dis- tillation industry, however, during the war, the acid factories have increased their output of charcoal and the number of open-air pits have CHARCOAL 247 not greatly increased except in isolated forest regions where a special demand has arisen. BIBLIOGRAPHY Charcoal and its Value in Brass and Bronze Melting. Brass World. Vol. 9, 1913, pp. 231-236. FERRARI, DR. EcroiO; Prontuario del Forestale. Milan, 1918. MARILLER, C. La Carbonisation des Bois en France pendant la Guerre. Technique Moderne, Paris. Vol. 10, 1918. MAIHEY. A. Traite d'Expolitation Commerciale des Bois. Vol. 2. RYAN, V. H. The Manufacture of Charcoal. Adelaide, So. Australia, 1910. Intel- ligence Dept. SCHLICH, SIR WM. Manual of Forestry, Forest Utilization, London. SYLVAN, HELGE. Manufacture of Charcoal as an Economic Measure. So. American Supplement. Vol. 87, 1919. CHAPTER XI BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS l GENERAL THE manufacture of boxes, crating stock and shocks is one of the most important wood-using industries in this country. It is very closely associated with the lumber industry inasmuch as the raw material is usually supplied in the form of lumber. About 12 to 15 per cent of the total annual lumber cut of this country, amounting to from 4,800,000,000 to 6,000,000,000 bd.-ft.2, are consumed every year for boxes, box shooks, crates and fruit and vegetable packages. In spite of the introduction of a number of other materials to take the place of the wooden container the consumption of lumber for boxes has been on the steady increase. Great quantities of boxes are annually consumed for the packing and shipment of canned goods and vegetables, milk, fish, apples and other fruits, and a great variety of other products. Over 20,000,000 boxes are used annually for oranges and lemons alone in California. In addition this state consumes large quantities of box shooks for the shipment of melons and other fruits and vegetables. Probably the greatest single use is for canned goods, which, together with the demand for boxes for apples and other products, explains the fact that over 50 per cent of the total number of box boards are manufactured in the eastern section including New England, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia and North Carolina. For a long time white pine has been the wood most prominently in demand for the manufacture of boxes. This has been true not only on account of its availability and relative cheapness, but because of its soft- ness, workability and lightness in weight. 1 This is the only lumber-using industry described in this book. Owing to its importance and its development as a large and distinct industry, it was deemed advisable to include the major statistics and some of the more important facts. It is treated very briefly, however, owing to the necessity for economy in space. 2 The larger amount is based on an estimate by the National Association of Box Manu- facturers. 248 BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 249 Low grades of lumber are generally used for the manufacture of boxes because of their cheapness and because the defects, such as knots, can be readily cut out as in the use of shop grades of lumber for sash and doors, etc. Within recent years certain forms of veneers have been used in the manufacture of boxes, but the total percentage does not constitute more than 5 to 10 per cent of the total amount of wood used by the industry. QUALITIES DESIRED IN WOODS USED FOR BOXES The qualities desired in woods used for boxes may be summarized as follows: 1. Lightness in weight. This is exceedingly important, because practically all boxes are used for the shipment of commodities and the question of weights is vital. Many varieties of woods, although avail- able, are not used extensively because their weight prohibits their use. 2. Strength is of importance, but it has been determined that the use of more nails and strapping will greatly strengthen a box made of com- paratively weak wood. Where great strength is required, as in the shipment of iron and steel products and other heavy commodities, hard- woods are employed. 3. Nail-holding power is obviously of considerable importance. 4. A smooth and attractive surface, preferably light in color, should be offered for printing and labeling. 5. Softness and workability are desirable qualities which are some- times of determining influence hi choosing the character of woods used for box purposes.. 6. Sanitary qualities (odorless, tasteless, etc.) are needed for many food boxes. The pines, especially white pine, Norway pine, Idaho white pine, western yellow pine (western soft pine, California white pine), California sugar pine, shortleaf,1 and North Carolina pine, meet the above require- ments to the best advantage. Other woods of light weight and of work- able qualities which possess the other properties are red gum, spruce, cottonwood, hemlock and yellow poplar. 1 Including the Arkansas and Gulf States short leaf pine (Finns echinatd). 250 FOREST PRODUCTS SPECIES USED AND ANNUAL CONSUMPTION White pine formerly constituted a large share of the total amount of lumber consumed for box purposes in this country. About twenty- five years ago it is estimated that this species supplied from 50 to 60 per cent of all of the material consumed for boxes. At the present time, however, it furnishes only about 25 per cent of the total annual consump- tion. Nearly every species of wood of commercial importance in this country is now used for making box shooks and crating material. In many cases, locally produced woods are used because of their availability and relatively low cost. The use of yellow pine has advanced remarkably in the last few decades for the making of packing cases of all kinds and now constitutes from 20 to 23 per cent of the total amount of lumber used for boxes. A good share of the material classified as yellow pine is made of North Carolina pine and produced in the South Atlantic States from Maryland to South Carolina, inclusive. It is estimated that North Carolina pine consti- tutes about 70 per cent of the total amount of yellow pine used for boxes. Of the remaining 30 per cent a large share is made up of Arkansas and Gulf States shortleaf and loblolly pine and the remainder of longleaf, pitch and scrub pines. Red gum has recently entered prominently into the box-board industry. It is somewhat harder, stronger, and holds the nail better than the so-called soft pines and is extensively used in the Central West and lower Mississippi Valley. Of the total consumption of wood for the making of boxes eight kinds of wood constitute from 80 to 84 per cent of the whole. These include white pine, yellow pine, red gum, spruce, western yellow pine, cotton- wood, hemlock, and yellow poplar in order of importance. The principal states in the consumption of lumber for box shooks are Virginia, New York, Illinois, Massachusetts, California and Pennsyl- vania in order of importance. New York, Illinois and Massachusetts produce comparatively little lumber, but they are great manufacturing and industrial states and also produce commodities such as apples, canned goods of various kinds, and other foods which require wooden containers for shipment. The following table 1 shows the annual consumption of lumber by 1 This table has been compiled by J. C. Nellis from the various reports of the wood-using industries of each state carried on by the U. S. Forest Service in co-operation with the various state agencies. BOXES AND BOX SHOCKS 251 kinds of wood together with the total lumber production for the year 1916: BOXWOODS— CONSUMPTION BY BOX MANUFACTURERS AND TOTAL LUMBER PRODUCTION Kind of Wood. Quantity Used Annually by Box Manufacturers, 1912. Feet B. M. Total Lumber Pro- duction,1 1916, Feet B. M. White pine 1,131,060,04.0 2,600,000,000 Yellow pine (including North Carolina pine) . Red gum 1,042,936,123 401,735,300 14,975,000,000 850,000,000 Spruce 33^,935,643 1,200,000,000 Western yellow pine . .... 288,691,927 1 ,690,000,000 Cotton wood 2IO,8l9,^OO 2OO,OOO,OOO Hemlock 203, ^26 ooi 2,3\O 000,000 Yellow poplar 165,116,737 575,OOO,OOO Maple . . . 96.831,648 975,000,000 Birch 90,787,900 45O,OOO,OOO Basswood 86,979,611 270,000,000 Beech 77,899,280 360,000,000 Tupelo 74,982,910 26o,OOO,OOO Elm 63,726,4^8 235,000,000 Oak 56,362,111 3,500,000,000 Balsam fir 40,173,700 125,000,000 Cypress 38,962,89=: 1 ,000,000,000 Chestnut 36,216,700 32^,000,000 Sugar pine 24,686,000 169,250,000 Sycamore. . . . 16,4551,693 4O,OOO,OOO Ash 10,507,308 2IO,OOO,OOO Willow 10,004,600 I,6lO,OOO Larch (including tamarack) 7 47O 3OO 44O OOO.OOO Douglas fir 7,349,840 5,416,000,000 Noble fir . 6,6s3,SOO Included in white fir Magnolia S, 44Q ,OOO 1, 3SO,OOO Buckeye 3,174,028 3,161,000 White fir 3,142,080 189,660,000 Cedar. 2,512,150 425,000,000 Redwood 2,43Q,sOO 490,850,000 Red fir 1,328,330 Included in white fir All other woods 3,I2 7,365,673 5,243,516 787 247 1,565,352 4O,I22 cftec Beech.. Western pine 2 2,933,737 2,007,600 IOO,OOO I,7O2,l67 2,469,202 301X81 364,535 3,861 Tamarack 3. ....... 932,038 449,660 390,017 91,496 865 Gum. 27-7 886 204. 6 ^ 3 I 650 71 ^83 Birch .... 172,071 re I73,0l6 Elm . . . 58i 6,222 10,463 25,653 2,200,139 516,049 l6o,7O2 116,749 90,579 19,542 24,123 I3,o6l 18,109 8,088 42,367 1,998 10,224 27,424 2,109,477 630,282 76,450 155,960 100,368 15,919 13,884 31,469 5,962 10,646 38,925 .3,301 4,6/2 85,953 Chestnut Oak Pine Cvpress Douglas fir Tamarack Redwood Osage orange . ... Spruce Juniper Hemlock Locust 8,477 47,258 \11 other 9i,233 Total 4,077,964 I 3,418,020 3,870,694 3,738,740 3,249,154 3,283,268 i Included with all other. 304 FOREST PRODUCTS SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES For commerical purposes, poles are classified by 5-ft. lengths, top diameters, and sometimes by the diameter at a specified point, usually 6 ft. from the butt as in chestnut. The minimum length is generally regarded as 20 ft. and from the poles run in 5-ft. lengths up to 75 ft. or more for special purposes. Practically two- thirds of our poles are from 20 to 30 ft. in length as these are the sizes most in demand. Only about one-fifth are from 30 to 40 ft. in length, one-twentieth from 40 to 50 ft. and only i to 2 per cent exceed 50 ft. in length. The telegraph and telephone companies purchase about 75 per cent of all the poles used. A good share of the remainder are purchased by the electric railroad and the electric light and power companies. The steam railroads purchase only about 6 per cent of all the poles. Specifications are prepared by the pole associations or by the tele- phone, telegraph and other companies to classify the poles according to dimensions, shape, freedom from defects and appearance. The following are the latest specifications of the Western Red Cedar Association with headquarters at Spokane, Wash., for standard telephone, telegraph and electric light poles, 20 ft. long and with 4-in. top diameter and up. All poles must be cut from live, growing cedar timber, peeled, knots trimmed close, butts and to pssawed square; tops must be sound and must measure as follows in circumference; 4-in. top 12 -in. circumference 5-in. top 15 -in. circumference 6-in. top iS^-in. circumference y-in. top 22 -in. circumference 8-in. top 25 -in. circumference 9-in. top 28 -in. circumference loin, top 31 -in. circumference Crook. No pole shall have more than one crook, and this shall be one way only, the sweep not to exceed i in. to every 6 ft. in length. Same to be determined in the following manner: Measurement for sweep shall be taken as follows: That part of the pole when in the ground (6 ft.) not being taken into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch a tape line on the side of the pole where the sweep is greatest, from a point 6 ft. from butt to the upper surface at top, and having so done, measure widest point from POLES AND PILING 305 tape to surface of pole, and if, for illustration, upon a 3O-ft. pole said widest point does not exceed 5 in., said pole comes within the meaning of these specifications. Butt Rot. Butt rot in center, including small ring rot, shall not exceed 10 per cent of the area of the butt. Butt rot of a character which impairs the strength of the pole above the ground is a defect. Knots. Large knots, if sound and trimmed smooth, are not a defect. Dead or Dry Streaks. A perfectly sound, dead or dry streak shall not be considered a defect when it does not materially impair the strength of the pole. The following are the standard specifications of the Northwestern Cedarmen's Association of the Lake States covering the output of north- ern white cedar: Standard Telegraph, Telephone and Electric Poles. Sizes 4-in., 25 ft. and up- wards. Above poles must be cut from live growing timber, peeled and reasonably well proportioned for their length. Tops must be reasonably sound, must measure in circumference as follows: Seasoned 4-in. poles, 12 in.; 5-in. poles, 15 in.; 6-in. poles, i8| in.; 7-in. poles, 22 in. If poles are green, fresh cut or water soaked, then 4-in. poles must measure \2\ in.; 5-in. poles, 16 in.; 6-in. poles, IQ£ in.; y-in. poles, 22j in. in circumference at top end. Length may be \ in. scant for each 5 ft. in length and 6 in. long for any length from 20 ft. up. One-way sweep allowable not exceeding i in. for every 5 ft., for example, in a 25-ft. pole, sweep not to exceed 5 in., and in a 4O-ft. pole 8 in. Measurement for sweep shall be taken as follows: That part of the pole when in the ground (6 ft.) not being taken into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch a tape line on the side of the pole where the sweep is greatest, from a point 6 ft. from the butt to the upper surface at top, and having so done measure widest point from tape to surface of pole and if, for illustration, upon a 25-ft. pole said widest point does not exceed 5 in. said pole comes within the meaning of these specifications. Butt rot in the center includ- ing small ring rot outside of the center: Total rot must not exceed 10 per cent of the area of the butt. Butt rot of a character which plainly seriously impairs the strength of the pole above the ground is a defect. Wind twist is not a defect unless very unsightly and exaggerated. Rough, large knots if sound and trimmed smooth are not a defect. The following are the specifications of one of the largest purchasers of poles in this country as applied to chestnut. To determine the char- acter of poles to be used, pole lines are divided into the following classes: Class A. A 50, 60-, 70- or 8o-wire line, the heaviest used. Class B. Heavy trunk line with a capacity for 40 wires on four lo-pin cross arms. Ten of the wires may be No. 8 B. W. G. copper. 306 FOREST PRODUCTS Class C. Light trunk line with a capacity for 20 wires on two lo-pin cross arms. Class D. Light line with a capacity of 12 wires on two 6-pin cross arms. Class E. Branch line with a capacity for 2 wires on brackets. CLASS A. CLASS B. Length of Pole. Ft. Circum- ference Top, In. Circum- ference 6 Ins. from Butt, In. Price f.o.b. Car Length of Pole, Ft. Circum- ference T-p, In. Circum- ference 6 Ins. from Butt, In. Price f.o.b. Car 25 24 36 $3-00 2O 22 31 $1-75 30 24 40 4.00 25 22 33 2.00 35 24 43 5-oo 30 22 36 3.00 40 24 45 6.00 35 22 40 4.OO 45 24 48 6.50 40 22 43 5.00 50 24 5i y.OO 45 22 47 6.00 55 22 54 IO.OO 5° 22 50 8.00 60 22 57 13-00 55 22 53 9-50 65 22 60 15.00 60 22 56 12.00 70 22 63 IQ.OO 65 22 59 14.00 75 22 66 24.00 70 22 62 17-50 75 22 65 22.50 CLASS C. CLASS D. Length of Pole, Ft. Circum- ference Top, In. Circum- ference 6 Ins. from Butt, In. Price f.o.b. Car Length of Pole, Ft. Circum- ference Top, In. Circum- ference 6 Ins. from Butt, In. Price f.o.b. Car 20 20 27 $1.50 2O 20 24 $1.25 25 20 30 1-75 25 2O 27 1-50 . 30 20 33 2.25 30 20 31 2.00 35 20 36 3-50 35 2O 35 3-25 40 20 40 4-50 40 2O 39 4-25 45 2O 43 5-50 45 20 43 5-25 50 2O 46 7.00 50 20 46 7.00 55 20 49 8.00 CLASS E. Length of Pole, Ft. Circum- ference Top, In. Circum- ference 6 Ins. from Butt, In. Price f.o.b. Car 2O »sJ 23 • $ .85 25 is! 26 I.OO 30 isi 29 i-75 35 20 34 2. IO 40 20 38 3.10 45 2O 42 4.OO 50 20 46 5-oo POLES AND PILING 307 All poles shall be of sound, live white chestnut, squared at both ends, reasonably straight, well proportioned from butt to top, peeled and knots trimmed to the surface of the pole. The dimensions of the poles shall be according to the following table: The " top " measurement being the circumference at the top of the pole, the " butt " cir- cumference being 6 ft. from the butt. The company reserves the right to make its own inspection and reserves the right to reject any poles which are defective in any respect. The prices set opposite the various dimensions in each class are the approx- imate average prices paid in 1917 for chestnut, loaded on cars, ready for shipment in New York State. (Shown on p. 306.) The sweep permissible in the above poles measured at the 6-ft. mark and at the top of the pole is as follows for the different sizes: Length of Pole, Ft. Maximum Permissible Sweep, Ins. 35 10 40 II 45 IO 50 II 55 60 65 12 13 14 70 15 In inspection work, the inspector usually carried the following equip- ment : 2 75-ft. waterproof tape lines. i 5o-ft. steel tape line (used in checking the accuracy of the waterproof tapes). 1 6-ft. brass safety chain, small size, with key ring or one end for measur- ing poles at 6-ft. mark. 2 iron prods for examining poles for bad tops, rotten knots, etc. i set of marking hammers. i timber scribe for marking poles 6 ft. from butt. The following are the specifications adopted by the Western Red Cedar Association for piling. STANDARD CEDAR PILING All piling must be cut from live, growing cedar timber, peeled, knots trimmed close, butts and tops sawed square. Top must be sound. Butts may contain rot, the average diameter of which is not over 10 per cent of the diameter of the butt. (This rot not to exceed i per cent of the area of the butt.) Length. All piling shall be furnished in the following lengths: 16 ft., 20 ft., and multiples of 308 FOREST PRODUCTS 5 ft., over 20 ft. Owing to the inaccuracies of cutting cedar in the woods by hand, a variation of 6 in. in length is allowable. Tops. Piling 30 ft. and shorter must measure at small end not less than 30 in. in circum- ference. Piling 35, 40, and 45 ft. must measure at small end not less than 28 in. in circum- ference. Piling 50 ft. to 70 ft., inclusive, must measure not less than 25 in. in circumference at small end. Butts Butts must measure not less than 14 in. of more than 20 in. in diameter the widest way. Crook. Piling may contain crook one way providing a line drawn from the center of the top to the center of the butt does not fall outside the body of the piling at any point Cat Faces and Dry Streaks. A sound cat face not to exceed 10 per cent of the length of a piling is permissible. A sound, dead or dry streak shall not be considered a defect when it does not materially impair the strength of the piling. In addition to red cedar, the following timbers are commonly used for piling purposes in the West: Douglas fir, western hemlock, western yel- low pine, redwood and, to some extent, eucalyptus. In the East, most companies classify piling as permanent or tem- porary. The former must be of white oak, chestnut or longleaf pine and must be peeled. The latter may be of almost any species that can be driven with a pile driver, but the following are generally used : Red and black oak, beech, maple, ash, hickory, elm, black gum or sycamore. They are used in the unpeeled condition. The following are customary dimensions: The diameter at the middle of the pile shall be not less than 12 in. and the diameter of the butt shall not exceed 20 in. The minimum diameter at the top for piles up to 30 ft. in length shall be 9 in.; for those from 30 to 50 ft., 8 in., and for those exceeding 50 ft., 7 in. A line from the center of the butt to the center of the top shall lie within the pile. Permanent piles usually command a price of from 14 to 20 cents or more per lineal foot, delivered at the railroad tracks, while temporary piling brings only from 8 to 15 cents per linear foot. The larger prices are paid for the longer pieces. POLES AND PILING 309 The following table shows the lengths and top diameters in which western red cedar is sold, the average weight for each size and the prices which obtained on board cars at a prominent pole shipping center in northern Idaho for the years 1912-1916, inclusive: Length in Feet. Top Diameter in Inches. Average Weight in Pounds. PRICES f.o.b. CARS, NORTHERN IDAHO. 1912. 1913. 1914- 1915. 1916. 20 4 IOO $ -55 $.60 $-55 $.55 $.60 2O 5 135 • 70 •75 -70 .65 •75 2O 6 190 .90 I . IO 1.05 I.OO I. 10 25 4 150 •75 .85 •75 •75 •85 25 5 2OO I.OO 1 . 20 I . IO I.OO I . 20 25 6 250 1-50 1-25 1-50 1.40 1.85 25 7 325 2.0O 2.25 1-85 1-75 2.25 25 8 400 2-50 3-oo 2-50 2.50 3-oo 30 6 350 2.0O 2.25 i-95 2.OO 2.25 30 7 4oo 2-75 3-75 2-50 3-00 3-75 30 8 500 3-25 4-50 3-25 .3-5= 4-50 35 6 400 3.00 4.00 3.00 3-50 4.00 35 7 5oo 3-50 4-75 3- 75 4.00 4-75 35 8 625 4.00 5-50 4-25 4-75 5-50 35 9 800 4-50 6.00 4.85 5-25 6.00 40 7 650 4.00 5-50 4-25 5-00 5-50 40 8 800 4-50 6.00 4-85 5-50 6.00 40 9 1000 5-oo 7.00 5-40 6.50 7.00 45 7 850 4-75 6.50 A 8- 4-°3 6.00 6.50 45 8 IOOO 5-50 7.00 5 40 6.25 7.00 45 9 !200 6.00 8.00 6.00 6-75 8.00 50 7 1050 5-50 7-50 5-40 6.25 7-50 50 8 I2OO 6.00 8.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 50 9 I4OO 7.00 9.00 6.65 8.00 9.00 55 8 I4OO 7.00 9.00 6.65 8.00 9.00 55 9 I6OO 8.00 10.00 7-25 9.00 IO.OO 60 8 I6OO 8.00 10. oo 7-25 9.00 10. OO 60 9 1850 9-OO 12. OO 8.25 ii .00 12.00 65 8 1850 9.00 12. OO 8-25 11.00 12. OO 65 9 22OO II .00 16.00 10. OO 14.00 16.00 70 8 220O II .00 16.00 10. OO 14.00 16.00 70 9 2600 14.00 21 .OO 12.50 18.00 21.00 75 8 26OO I4.0O 21. OO 12.50 18.00 21 .OO 75 9 3000 21. OO 28.OO 18.00 25.00 28.00 80 8 3000 21.00 28.00 18.00 25.00 28.00 80 9 35oo 30.00 35-oo 25.00 33-00 35-oo The prices that have obtained for northern white cedar during 1916 have been about as follows, on board cars in the pole yards in the Lake states: 310 FOREST PRODUCTS Length in Feet. Top Diameter in Inches. Prices f.o.b. Cars. 20 4 $-47 20 5 •57 2O 6 •65 2O 7 1-25 25 4 .60 25 5 •75 25 6 i. 60 25 7 2.50 30 6 3.00 30 7 4-75 35 6 5-50 35 7 8.50 40 6 8.50 40 7 10.50 45 6 10. 50 45 7 13.00 5° 6 13.00 50 7 16.00 - 55 6 16.00 55 7 18.00 60 7 25.00 65 7 30.00 70 7 40.00 LOGGING AND PRODUCTION OF POLES AND PILING General Considerations. The logging of cedar poles and piles in both the Lake States and in the Northwest is usually carried on as a systematic and separate operation, either before or after the logging of the saw timber. This is done in order to prevent unnecessary breakage of the lighter and weaker cedar by the heavy woods worked up into saw logs. A very large percentage of chestnut and oak poles are logged and de- livered to the pole yards or to the railroad by farmers and small woodlot owners, the work being done in the winter when other work is rather slack. Some of the northern white cedar and western red cedar is still cut by ranchers and those engaged in clearing land, but the production of poles is carried on as a separate industry more in northern Idaho and in northern Michigan and Minnesota than in any other centers. The sawing of long logs into tapered poles from redwood, pine and occasionally from a few other woods is rapidly going out of practice. Generally speaking, the logging consists of felling the tree close to the ground (as large butts are preferred), sawing off the top at even 5-ft. POLES AND PILING 311 lengths, trimming off the branches, peeling, skidding, and hauling to the railroad, driving or floating to the pole yard.1 Pole logging is the cheapest form of logging per unit of volume, since practically the whole tree trunk is taken out in one operation. The following table is interesting as showing the size of trees of various diameters, taken at breast height (4^ ft.) required to yield poles of specified lengths and top diameters. It was devised as a result of the measurement of 478 western red cedar trees in northern Idaho by officials of the Forest Service: Length in Feet. DIAMETERS AT BREAST HEIGHT IN INCHES. Number of Trees Used as Basis. S-in. Top. 6-in. Top. 7-in. Top. 8-in. Top. 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 8 95 10-5 II. 6 48 49 65 51 51 52 51 25 25 25 20 9 7 II. 8 13-0 14-7 l6.S 16.7 16.9 I4.8 14.9 16.7 17.9 18.4 18-7 19.8 21.8 23.2 24.3 25.7 The following table shows just the reverse of the above table in that it gives the sizes of poles that may be obtained from trees of different Diameter, Breast High in Inches. HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET. Number of Trees used as Basis. 50 60 70 80 90 Length of Poles in Feet. 13 25 25 25 25 •25 II 14 30 30 30 30 30 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 35 35 35 40 40 45 35 40 45 So 35 40 45 50 55 60 6 14 6 ii 6 4 1 For details regarding general logging methods see " Logging," by R. C. Bryant, John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 312 FOREST PRODUCTS diameters. It was made by E. H. Frothingham for chestnut in Connec- ticut.1 All poles are assumed to have a y-in. top. Stumpage Values. As in the case of all timber values, the value of pole stumpage depends upon the species involved, accessibility, quality of poles, difficulty of logging and marketing, supply and demand, etc. Cedar pole stumpage is practically the only pole stumpage traded in, since the other kinds of poles are largely cut and marketed by the owners or cut along with large logging operations, as is largely the case with such poles as cypress, pine, redwood, Douglas fir, etc. In the latter case they are purchased along with the saw timber and at specified values per thousand feet. Stumpage values in both northern white and western red cedar are based on the lineal foot and on the piece. It is customary in some local- ities to charge 2 cents per running foot for all poles up to and including 40 ft. in length, and 3 cents for all poles over 40 ft. in length. In other centers of operation, a separate stumpage value is placed on each pole of given length and top diameter. The following table shows the stumpage values for western red cedar STUMPAGE VALUE OF WESTERN RED CEDAR POLES IN NORTHERN IDAHO Length, Lineal Feet. Top Diameter, Inches. Board Measure per Pole. No. Poles per M.Ft. B.M. STUMPAGE VALUE. Per Pole. Per Linear Foot. Per M.Ft. BM. 20 5 20 50.00 $.09 $.005 $4-50 20 6 25 40.00 .12 .006 4.80 25 6 35 28.57 .19 .Ol 5-43 25 7 40 25.00 •29 .Ol 7-25 30 6 50 20.00 •30 .01 6.00 30 7 75 13-33 •44 • 015 5-87 30 8 90 II. II •59 .02 6-55 35 6 75 13-33 •54 •015 7.20 35 7 90 II . II .68 .02 7-55 35 8 H5 8.70 .90 .025 7-83 40 7 125 8.00 •93 .02 7-44 40 8 135 7.40 .12 •03 8.29 45 7 145 6.90 •03 .02 7.11 45 8 175 5-72 •34 •03 7.66 50 7 1 80 5-55 •50 •03 8.32 So 8 215 4-65 •50 •03 6.98 55 8 295 3.38 •93 •035 6.52 60 8 310 3-23 2. 10 •035 6.78 65 8 360 2.78 2.60 .04 7-23 70 8 390 2.50 2.80 .04 7.17 1 See " Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut,' E. H. Frothingham. Forest Service Bulletin No. 96, by POLES AND PILING 313 in northern Idaho expressed en the basis of each sized pole as well as by linear feet and by the thousand feet, board measure. It also shows the amount of board-feet in each sized pole and the average number of poles required to make a thousand board-feet. All figures are based on the Scribner Decimal C Scale and on measurements taken by 10- and 5~ft. sections. Both western and northern white cedar when found in good pole sizes bring much better stumpage values when sold in the pole form than as saw logs or for any other purpose. Felling and Peeling. Winter-cut poles are much more in demand than those cut at other seasons of the year. Peeling, of course, is more difficult and expensive at this season, but many specifications of purchasing companies call for winter-cut poles as they dry out much more readily in the following spring and summer. Many dealers claim that they are more durable and stronger, but there is nothing to support this contention other than the likelihood that winter-cut poles are less susceptible to checking and insect and fungous attack than those cut in the spring or summer. In making poles, one man usually works alone and is paid by the lineal foot. He uses an axe for undercutting and limbing and a one-man, 5-ft. saw for felling and sawing off the top. With the axe or broadaxe he peels off the bark by standing on the tree trunk and working backward, taking off a continuous strip 3 to 5 in. in width and turning the pole with a cant-hook until all the bark is removed. Peeling is done easiest from about May ist to August ist, but the same prices for felling and peeling usually prevail throughout the year on continuous jobs. The rates paid for felling, limbing, topping and peeling vary with the region, demand for labor and many other factors. On one large pole operation in northern Idaho, .8 cent was paid per foot for all poles up to 40 ft. in length, i cent for poles 40 to 60 ft. long, and i| cents for all poles 60 ft. and up in length. Sometimes a straight rate of i cent for felling and i cent for peeling is paid on the more difficult jobs. Since most of the poles are from 20 to 35 ft. in length the cost averages about i cent per ft. for both operations. Piling is seldom peeled for the reason that it seasons better with the bark on and checks less. When intended for preservative treatment, however, all piling is peeled. 314 FOREST PRODUCTS Skidding. This operation usually consists of dragging the pole, by using a team and tongs or choker, to the landing, chute or stream. It costs from f to if cents per lineal foot depending upon the usual factors of distance charges for teams and labor, topography, ground cover, size of poles, etc. On some operations 15 cents per pole is paid for all poles up to 35 ft. long. For those above this, i cent per lineal foot is paid. Hauling and Other Forms of Transportation. This is also a very variable charge. Hauling is done on sleighs in winter and on wagons in summer. On some of the larger logging opera- tions, skidding takes the poles directly to a railroad or to a drivable stream. On fair country dirt roads from 4 to 7 4O-ft. poles will be a good load for one team and wagon. On sleighs from 10 to 15 green poles, 30 to 40-ft. in length, may be handled in one load. Hauling costs on a large cedar operation, using wagon haul, were as follows for 30-ft. poles: i mile $ .15 per pole 1-2 miles 25 per pole 2-4 miles . .. 75 per pole 4-6 miles i . oo per pole For poles below and above this standard a proportionate reduction or increase was made. The cost of driving cedar poles and piles an average distance of 25 miles in Michigan was 5 cents each (average of all lengths). Rafting 30 miles varied in cost from 3 cents each for 2O-ft. poles up to 5! cents for 30-ft., 25 cents for 4o-ft., and 40 cents for 6o-ft. poles. The cost of driving and rafting rises very rapidly with the length. On narrow, winding streams poles are driven with great difficulty, as jams are frequent. Yarding, Seasoning and Shipping. Proper yarding and seasoning facilities are of great importance in the pole business. Up to the present time little attention has been paid to methods of seasoning and the poles have been piled on top of each other indiscriminately. If piled too closely and too high they are likely to be attacked by fungi before they season properly while, if exposed too much to the sun POLES AND PILING 315 Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 82. — Loading chestnut poles to be hauled to market at Allen s Cove, Perry Co., Pennsylvania. Photograph by E. T. Chapin Co. FIG. 83. — The beginning of a new pole yard in northern Idaho. These are western red cedar poles, which are produced in great quantities from this section. The poles are skidded by team from the woods to this landing, where they are loaded on cars and sent to the distributing yard. 316 FOREST PRODUCTS and the drying action of the wind, they may check seriously. If poles are to.be treated, they should be thoroughly seasoned. In any case, seasoning is of importance in saving freight charges. The decrease in weight in the seasoning process may be anywhere from 20 to 50 per cent according to Weiss, or 180 to 850 Ib. per pole. When the top diameter of green poles is measured, i in. is customarily allowed for shrinkage in circumference, although shrinkage in such species of low specific gravity as the cedars and chestnut would be much less than in oak, or the heavier pines. When end checking becomes evident, the poles should be protected from further deterioration by means of " S " irons. The best method of seasoning is to provide skids or stickers between the poles so that free currents of air may carry off the moisture. When once seasoned the poles should be shipped at once or a roof placed over them. All poles should be seasoned for four full seasoning months. In determining what should constitute an equivalent of this period, the calendar months have been rated as follows : January equals | seasoning month; February equals ^ seasoning month; March equals | seasoning month; April equals \ seasoning month; May equals f seasoning month; June equals i seasoning month; July equals i seasoning month; August equals i seasoning month; September equals i seasoning month ; October equals f seasoning month; November equals f seasoning month ; December equals -| seasoning month. Yarding, seasoning and loading costs from i to 2§ cents per lineal foot, depending upon yarding facilities, amount handled, labor costs, efficiency, labor-saving devices, etc. Heavy cranes, log loaders and gin poles are used for unloading, piling and loading. Loading alone costs about i cent per lineal foot. Poles over 40 ft. in length must be loaded on two flat cars. The following table shows the approximate number of western red cedar poles of each size used for single and double car-load lots: POLES AND PILING 317 : Photograph by E. T. Chapin Co. FIG. 84. — Method used in piling poles to facilitate drying. Nearly 5,000 ooo poles are annually required for our telephone and telegraph lines, electric light and power lines, etc. NUMBER OF POLES REQUIRED TO MAKE CAR-LOAD LOTS WESTERN RED CEDAR (Single Load — on One Car.) 6-in. top, 25 ft 175 to 225 poles 7-in. top, 25 ft 150 to 175 poles 8-in. top, 25 ft 120 to 140 poles 6-in. top, 30 ft 130 to 175 poles 7-in. top, 30 ft 120 to 150 poles 8-in. top, 30 ft 90 to 1 20 poles 6-in. top, 35 ft 120 to 150 poles 7-in. top, 35 ft 100 to 1 20 poles 8-in. top, 35 ft 90 to no poles 7-in. top, 40 ft 90 to 1 20 poles 8-in. top, 40 ft 85 to 1 10 poles (Double Load — on Two Cars.) 7-in. top, 45 ft 80 to 95 poles 8-in. top, 45 ft. 70 to 85 poles 7-in, top, 50 ft 70 to 85 poles 8-in. top, 50 ft 60 to 75 poles 8-in. top, 55 ft 55 to 70 poles 8-in. top, 60 ft 50 to 65 poles 8-in. top, 65 ft 45 to 60 poles 8-in. top, 70 ft 40 to 50 poles 318 FOREST PRODUCTS Summary of Costs. It is very difficult to give average costs which will obtain for any number of operations. Each logging chance presents its own difficulties and no two operations are identical in scarcely the smallest respect. The following are offered as being fairly representative of the average logging costs found in the western red cedar region of northern Idaho: Items. COST PER RUNNING FOOT. Low. Average. High. Stumpage $.01 .008 .005 .005 .01 .01 $.02 .01 .008 .01 .015 .015 $•03 .015 .01 .02 .02 .015 Cutting and peeling Skidding. ... Transportation. Storage and loading Sales and general expense. $.048 $.078 $.11 Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 85. — Loading southern white cedar telephone and telegraph poles at Wilmington, North Carolina. The swampy regions of eastern Virginia and the Carolinas contain some excellent stands of this cedar. The highest figures will hold for operations where long poles are being logged as a rule and where transportation is more expensive. The min- POLES AND PILING 319 imum estimates, on the other hand, are generally for shorter length poles and where conditions are more favorable for economical logging. In logging chestnut in eastern woodlots, the following are the approx- imate itemized costs per lineal foot: Items. 20-30 Foot Poles. 3S-SO Foot Poles. Stumpage , $.O2 $-03 Cutting and peeling. . OO7 QIC Skidding OO4. 008 Transportation 008 018 Storage and loading .OI QIC General expense QIC OI7 $.064 $-103 It does not generally pay to log and market chestnut poles in the 25- and 3o-ft. lengths according to many operators, as there are insuf- ficient profits. The shorter lengths are commonly sold as piling, which bring better prices as a rule. LENGTH OF SERVICE UNTREATED The length of service which untreated poles will give depends upon a number of factors. These are as follows: 1. Kind of wood. It is obvious that the cedars, chestnut, red- wood, white oak, cypress, etc., are preferred for pole purposes on account of their exceeding durability along with their other favorable qualifications. 2. Size of pole. Large poles will give much longer service than those of small diameter. Poles decay at the ground line first and therefore those with large butts which are of greatest diam- eter at the ground line are much preferred, other conditions being equal. 3. Climate, precipitation, etc. Poles placed in warm, humid climates will not last as long as those placed in arid or colder regions. 4. Local conditions of soil, drainage, moisture, etc. 5. Breakage due to sleet or ice storms, heavy winds, etc. Altogether, under average conditions, the principal woods used for poles will probably last as follows, in the untreated state: 320 FOREST PRODUCTS Species. Years. Northern white cedar 12-16 Western red cedar 12-16 Southern white cedar 11-15 Chestnut 8-12 White oak 7-11 Cypress 11-15 Longleaf pine 6-10 Loblolly pine 4-6 Redwood 12-15 Western yellow pine 2-4 Lodgepole pine ...........:......... 2-4 Douglas fir , 6-10 Photograph by E. T. Chapin Co FIG. 86. — Method employed in piling and loading poles on cars. The life of untreated piling depends upon a number of factors, chief of which are: (i) the kind of wood; (2) size; (3) amount of abrasion and wear and tear to which it is subjected; (4) damage by marine borers (teredo, limnoria, xylotrya, etc.) ; (5) exposure to elements which encour- age decay. Piles retained entirely underneath the surface of water or in the ground will last almost indefinitely. POLES AND PILING 321 Much of our piling is only temporary in its requirements, such, for example, as for temporary trestle and bridge construction, false work, etc. For such purposes almost any species may be used. For wharf, dock, trestle or other construction in the warmer salt waters (south of Delaware Bay on the Atlantic Coast and the entire Pacific Coast up to British Columbia) the danger from marine borers is so great that un- treated or unprotected piling may be riddled and rendered useless in from one to four years. White oak, Douglas fir and longleaf pine are the principal timbers used for piling purposes where great strength and durability are required. When exposed, untreated, to the usual conditions of decay, such, for example as wharf or dock piling, trestlework, etc., but without the pres- ence of marine borers, these woods should remain in service for from seven to eleven years. Other less durable species must be replaced in from four to seven years depending, of course, upon the local conditions of decay, abrasion, etc. THE PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF POLES AND PILING Consumers of poles and piles are actively taking up the work of pre- servative treatment to prolong their life in service. It has not only been demonstrated that the increased cost due to treatment is more than justified in the longer service rendered, but when the cost of taking out old poles, replacing them with renewals together with the cost of restring- ing the wires are taken into consideration, there is a great annual saving. Even the most durable poles are now being treated before placement. Within the past decade the amount of poles and piling that has been subjected to preservative treatment has more than doubled. Inasmuch as poles deteriorate from decay most rapidly at the ground line it is only necessary to treat that portion of the pole which extends from the butt up to a point about 6 in. above the surface of the ground. Many methods of artificially treating the pole or providing for its setting in the ground have been experimented with. Among these are: (a) charring by means of painting with crude oil and setting fire to it; (b) brush treatment or coating with creosote or other toxic preservative; (c) setting in a collar of concrete or crushed stones. The first two (a) and (b) will probably prolong the life of a pole from two to six years but the last named (c) does not justify the additional expense incurred. In all cases, poles should be thoroughly air seasoned before being subjected to any form of artificial preservative treatment. 322 FOREST PRODUCTS Probably 95 per cent or more of the poles that are treated in this country are given the open-tank treatment, whereby a penetration of from one-third to 3 in. or more of the preservative from the surface is secured on the butt of the pole. Many pole companies have recently installed open-tank plants in connection with their pole yards or dis- tributing depots, where the poles are raised by means of a derrick and stood on end in a hot bath of creosote at a temperature of about 215° F. Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 87. — Method of treating poles in an open tank to increase their length of service. The butts are treated up to a point above the ground level. Wilmington, Los Angeles Co., California. for about two hours. The creosote oil is then permitted to cool or cold oil is pumped in. The heating process causes the water and air in the wood to expand. The cool bath causes a contraction in the cells and intercellular spaces and the oil penetrates the partial vacuum caused by change in temperature. Experiments have shown that a penetration POLES AND PILING 323 of .3 in. for chestnut up to 3.1 in. for western yellow pine has been secured by this method. Absorption of from 20 to 50 Ib. of creosote oil per pole is usually secured.1 Kempfer has shown the possibilities, cost and annual saving in the treatment of poles by both the brush and open-tank methods in com- parison with the untreated condition of many of the kinds of timber used for pole purposes. ESTIMATED FINANCIAL SAVING DUE TO CREOSOTE TREATMENT OF POLES SIZE or POLE. Character Amt. of Preserv- Esti- mated Esti- mated Esti- mated Annual Annual Saving Species. Diam- eter, Ins. L'gth. Feet. of Treatment. ative Applied per Pole, Lb. Cost of Treat- ment. Cost of Pole in Place. Length of Life. Yrs. Cost. Due to Treat- ment. ( Untreated o |6.oo 10 Jo. 77 Chestnut 7 30 < Brush 7 $.020 6. 20 13 .66 $0.11 Open-tank 25 .75 6.75 16 .62 .15 f Untreated o S.oo 10 .65 Southern white cedar. 7 30 { Brush 5 . 20 5-20 '3 -55 .10 ( Open-tank 40 • 95 5-95 18 • 51 • 14 ( Untreated o 7.00 14 • 71 Northern white cedar. 7 30J Brush Open-tank £ . 20 1.05 7.20 8.05 17 22 .64 .61 .07 .10 f Untreated o 9.50 10 1.23 Western red cedar. . . 8 40 < Brush 8 • 30 9.80 13 1.04 .19 I Open-tank 40 1-35 10.85 20 .87 •36 f Untreated o 8 . oo 3 2 -94 Western yellow pine . 8 40! Brush 6 • 30 8.30 5 1.92 1.02 I Open-tank 60 1.90 9.90 20 • 79 2. IS Lodgepole pine. 7 35 1 Untreated o 7-00 5 1.62 03 I Open-tank 40 1-25 8.25 20 .66 .06 Untreated o 2.50 3 .92 Loblolly pine 6 35 Entire pole open-tank or pressure 200 2-45 4-95 20 .40 .52 In 1915, 2,512,780 cu. ft. of poles were treated. This is equivalent to 4, 282, 175 lineal feet. Assuming 7 ft. to be the average length of butt treatment, this means that 611,739 poles were treated during that year. The table on p. 324 shows the ground line and height of treatment for different-sized poles used by one of the large companies operating in western red cedar. More cubic feet of piling are now treated than of poles. It is prac- tically essential to treat all piling placed in waters containing marine borers as outlined above. Instead of treating only a portion of the stick, as in the case of poles, the whole pile is preserved. 1 For further information regarding this subject see " Preservative Treatment of Poles," by W. H. Kempfer, Bulletin 84, U. S. Forest Sendee 1911, also Proceedings, American Wood Preservers' Association, Baltimore, Md. 324 FOREST PRODUCTS GROUND LINE AND HEIGHT OF TREATMENT FOR WESTERN RED CEDAR POLES Length of Poles in Feet. Ground Line in Feet from Butt. Height of Treatment in Feet. 16 si 5 18 3l 5 20 3l 5 25 4* 6 30 Si 7 35 6 rf 40 6 rt 45 .6| 8 50 6* 8 55 6| 8 60 7 8^ 65 7^ 9 70 1\ 9 75 7i 9 80 7^ 9 Photograph by U. S. Forest Service . FIG. 88. — Pole yard and treating plant at Gaulsheim, Germany. Note the straight, uniform character of the poles. These are largely composed of spruce and lir. In 1915, 6,295,284 cu. ft. of piling were treated largely by creosote and the pressure process. This is equivalent to 9,352,778 cu. ft. of piling or 467,639 piles each of 2O-ft. length. It is very necessary that all bark be carefully peeled before treatment and that large amounts of creosote oil be forced into the wood. If the piles are subject to attack in salt waters, from 18 to 24 Ib. of creosote per cubic foot are advisable; if free from attack, from 10 to 14 Ib. of oil per cubic foot is regarded as sufficient to retard decay. The full cell or Bethell process of pressure treatment in large cylinders is the method POLES AND PILING 325 most commonly used in preserving piles. On account of their sus- ceptibility to treatment, reasonable cost, and other qualifications such as strength, shape and availability, the southern yellow pines, western yellow pine, and Douglas fir are preferred for treated piling. Properly preserved piles have been known to last from twenty-five to thirty-five years in waters containing marine borers. The cost of creosote treatment is usually from 3 to 7 cents per cubic foot. SUBSTITUTES FOR POLES AND PILING With the gradually increasing cost of wooden poles the large com- panies which use the greatest number have naturally investigated the pos- sibility of other materials. In many cities the telephone and telegraph lines are placed in underground conduits. The chief substitutes for overhead lines are concrete, reinforced con- crete, iron and latticed steel poles and steel towers, the last named being used to some extent for heavy transmission lines. Up to the present time these materials have not replaced the wooden pole to any great extent and it is not likely that they will for some time to come, for the following reasons: 1. High initial cost that is scarcely justified in service rendered. 2. Excessive weight and consequent difficulty and expense in handling and transportation. Concrete and reinforced concrete poles are still in the experimental stage of development, and all forms of substitutes lack sufficient length of service to draw definite conclusions. Reinforced concrete, wrought and cast iron and steel piling have been introduced to a much smaller extent than in the case of poles, so that little is known of their possibilities. It is likely, however, that difficulties of corrosion in case of iron and steel and cracking due to alternate freezing and thawing with concrete piles, together with the objections given above for pole substitutes, will render their introduction rather slow and doubtful. BIBLIOGRAPHY KEMPFER, W. H. Preservative Treatment of Poles. Bulletin 84, U. S. Forest Service, 1911. Proceedings, American Wood Preservers' Association. Annual, 1910-1919, inclusive. Baltimore, Md. SMITH, C. S. Preservation of Piling against Marine Wood Borers. Circular 128, U. S. Forest Service, 1908. Statistical Reports, U. S. Bureau of Census for 1905 to 1914, inclusive. WEISS, H. F. Preservation of Structural Timber. McGraw-Hill Pub. Co., New York City: 1915. CHAPTER XIV POSTS THERE are no government statistics available showing the annual production of fence posts in this country, but it is estimated that there are 500, ooo, ooo posts consumed annually. They are used chiefly on farms and by the railroads along rights of way, which are always inclosed by fencing. The posts used on farms are largely cut in local woodlots, generally on the farm woodlots, whereas those used by the railroads are generally produced in regions of an abundant supply of durable timber. In Cal- ifornia and the Southwestern States, redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is the particular species sued for posts. In the Northwestern States and on the western plains the principal wood used is western red cedar (Thuja plicatd). In the Central West and in the Lake States, the par- ticular species used for fence posts is northern white cedar (Thuja occi- dentalis) from Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan and locally pro- duced locust, white oak, catalpa, mulberry, hackberry, etc. In the Northeast common woods used for fence posts are northern white cedar and chestnut; in the East, chestnut, sassafras, catalpa, and white oak are the principal fence post woods and, in the South and Southeastern States cypress, southern white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) , juniper, or eastern cedar (Juniperus virginiana), and longleaf pine are used. Posts are generally cut in y-ft. lengths, although they may be cut for special purposes up to 20 ft. in length. Sometimes they are cut in multiples of 7 ft. or thereabouts and then cut into the desired lengths at destination. This is generally for convenience and economy in handling. Fence posts are generally used in the round, in which case they are usually from 4 to 6 m. in diameter at the top end. Most of the western red cedar, redwood posts, and frequently those of chestnut, northern white cedar, cypress and longleaf pine are split posts. Rail fences are rapidly disappearing from use, especially in regions where the native timber supplies and good split timber are being depleted. Consequently fence posts to be used with rails are seldom used any more. The old zigzag 326 POSTS 327 rail fence which did not require the use of ordinary posts is also fast dis- appearing on account of the labor involved in splitting out the rails, the disappearance of native forests, the economy in using the wire type of fence and the saving in ground space with the latter form. In many regions fence posts are pointed at the lower end and driven into the ground with a maul after preparing the hole with a crowbar or other similar tool. The requirements for desirable fence post woods are practically the same as those described in connection with poles.1 Briefly the principal Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FlG. 89. — Over 500,000,000 posts are used annually on the farms and along the railways of this country. qualifications are durability, lightness in weight, straightness and ability to hold the nail well. The paramount qualification, however, is dura- bility. The business of getting out posts assumes the character of an industry only in regions where pole production is carried on as a regular business. At many pole operations, all poles 20 ft. and less in length are some- times classified as posts and sold as such. The principal regions where posts are produced on a large scale are in the swampy sections of the 1 See Chapter on Poles and Piling. 328 FOREST PRODUCTS Lake States where the northern white cedar is cut, the redwood forests of northwestern California, the western red cedar forests of northern Idaho and western Washington, the southern white cedar swamps of eastern Virginia and North Carolina and the cypress belts of the Gulf Coast. In all of these sections posts constitute a by-product of the pole industry. All tops, small trees and defective poles are made into posts which are principally marketed for the railway trade. Few of these posts are in the round. Most of them are halved or quartered or split posts made from defective butts or crooked poles or tree trunks which will not make satisfactory poles. Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 90. — Preservative treatment of fence posts by the open-tank method. The fire heats the creosote in the two barrels through the connecting pipe. The development of the great agricultural sections of the central and Far West and the division of the larger farms and ranches into smaller units has greatly stimulated the production of posts on a large com- mercial basis. The subdivision of farms and ranches is still taking place in an important way throughout the West and requires immense quan- tities of fence posts, which often constitute an important part of the local retail lumber yard stock in each community. With the growing scarcity of posts and their rise in price the concrete and iron post has been introduced to some extent and will no doubt continue to be used on even a larger scale in the future, particularly in regions where there is a scarcity of good durable post material and on. POSTS 329 farms and about enclosures where the additional expense incurred in the use of these forms is a matter of little consequence to the purchaser. The gradual scarcity of good fence post material has caused the plant- ing of many wood lots primarily to supply fence posts. It has also caused the introduction and use of wood preservatives to treat woods which had formerly never been used for posts because of their perishability. Posts have been charred and the tops pointed to increase their life in service, but the most satisfactory method is to treat the portion of the post to be imbedded in the soil with creosote. This is usually done by the open- tank method of treatment.1 Such non-durable woods as red oak, Caro- lina poplar, box elder, white pine, spruce, loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, hemlock, yellow poplar, elm, basswood and other species which grow naturally or are planted can be made into excellent fence posts by a preservative treatment costing from 6 to 12 cents per post. 1 See the various publications of the Forect Service dealing with the preservative treat- ment of fence posts as well as miscellaneous articles in the annual proceedings of the American Wood Preservers' Association from 1910 to 1919, inclusive. CHAPTER XV MINE TIMBERS GENERAL IN the early history of this country comparatively little mining beneath the ground was carried on. However, with the development of coal mining, principally in Pennsylvania, a heavy demand was gradually created for mine timbers in both the sawed and round forms. At first the only means of support were " mineral pillars," which consisted of pillars of ore left in the chambers as a means of support. As the value of the minerals increased and the operations became enlarged and more systematized, wooden supports called props, caps and collars were substituted for the old mineral pillars. Wood has given great satisfaction and although it is possible that concrete and steel may, to a limited extent, replace the wooden supports in the various types of mines, their comparatively high cost and the dif- ficulty of installation will doubtless restrict their use to a considerable degree. It is estimated by the U. S. Geological Survey that there are approx- imately 50,000 mines in this country. However, probably only 5000 of these use timber for props, caps, collars, lagging, mine ties, shaft shoring, etc. There are many mining operations classified as mines according to the government statistics, but a large number consist of quarries, placer mines, oil and gas wells, salt works, clay pits and coal strippings, which use little wood. The only available complete figures showing the use of timber in mines were compiled by R. S. Kellogg in 1905 for the U. S. Forest Service. This compilation estimated that we use in round numbers about 200,000,- ooo cu. ft. or about 2,500,000,000 bd.-ft. of round and sawed timbers. At the present time (1919) this material would be valued at about $13,- 000,000. Of the total amount only about 17 per cent is composed of sawed timbers and lumber. Most of the mines gather the round timber material from the region about the mines. 330 MINE TIMBERS 331 Pennsylvania, with its important coal mines, both anthracite and bituminous, is the most important state in the consumption of lumber and timbers. This state probably purchases more than 50 per cent of the total value of mine timbers used in the entire country. KINDS AND AMOUNT OF WOODS USED The character of wood used in American mines is not highly spe- cialized. Generally speaking, almost any kind of wood which is suffi- ciently strong will meet the requirements. Altogether, durability is the most important single requirement and where woods of great durability are not available, woods of a more or less perishable nature can be treated to increase their life in service in the mines. Furthermore, in many of the mines of this country, the use of wood as a means of support and for mine ties, mine rails, etc., is only temporary, and after a period of service of from two to four years, they are either left to decay or removed and placed in service in some other location. Where woods are to be in ser- vice only two to four years, almost any species will serve the purpose, because even our most perishable woods will last, generally, from three to four years. The conditions found in most of our underground mines, however, are exceedingly favorable to decay because of the damp condition of the atmosphere and the relatively high temperatures involved. It has been determined that hardwoods constitute by far the most important source of supply for mine timbers. Of the total cubic footage of round timber, namely, 165,535,000 cu. ft., over 86,000,000 cu. ft. were of hardwoods, 38,000,000 of softwoods, and the remainder amount- ing to somewhat over 41,000,000 cu. ft. were not specified as to their character. The preponderating use of hardwoods can be probably attributed to the fact that the most important wood-using mines of the country are located in hardwood regions. For the purpose of classifying the utilization of wood, all mines have been divided into the following category, namely, bituminous, anthracite, precious metal, iron, and miscellaneous mines. Most of the wood-using mines of this country are found in the bituminous class and they are also the most prominent in the use of timbers. All of the anthracite mines are found in Pennsylvania and are also very important consumers of both round and sawed timbers. The precious metal mines are located principally in the West, in such states as Montana, California, Colorado, and Arizona, where generally speaking, there is a fairly good supply of 332 FOREST PRODUCTS timber, except in the last-named state. These mines use wood prin cipally in the sawed timber form. The following table from Kellogg shows the quantity and cost of tim ber used in mines in 1905: Mineral Product. Number of Mines. Round Timber, Cubic Feet. Sawed Timber, Board-feet. Total Cost. Bituminous coal 204.0 QI 3OQ 7OO 1 4O 7QO OOO $6 37O O3I Anthracite coal Precious metals ... 216 1718 43,676,000 i<, 282, ^oo IOI,2IO,OOO 164,956,000 4,433,125 4,4O^,60O Iron 143 I 3,484,000 I 3,020,000 OI4 44Q Miscellaneous 14.6 I 783 7OO I ^ OsO OOO 322 6Q2 Total 5163 i6\,s3- ooo 43^,044,000 $16,4^,887 The following table shows the kind and quantity of timber used in the 5163 mines of this country, according to the figures compiled by Kel- logg. Oak constitutes by far the most important species among the hardwoods and the pines constitute about one-half of all of the softwoods. Softwoods. Round Timber, Cubic Feet. Pine 19 IOO OOO 96 602 ooo Fir 4,360,000 78,772,000 Hemlock 4, 155, 8oO 60,802,000 Spruce I,IO4 2OO r 4.03 OOO Mixed softwoods 9 685 600 32 166 ooo Total .... 38,504,600 273,745 OOO Hardwoods Oak 28 174 4OO c8 603 ooo Chestnut I 543 8oO 908 ooo Beech 5 2 2, 900 1,597,000 Aspen I42,IOO Maple I36,6OO e 072 OOO Elm. . 117 2OO O32 OOO Hickory O4 4OO Poplar 475.OOO Mixed hardwoods 54, QI 5,5OO 60 333 OOO Total 86 646 500 128 911 ooo Not specified 41,483,800 33,288,OOO Grand total. . . . l65 535 QOO 43s 044,OOO Sawed Timber, Board-feet. MINE TIMBERS 333 SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES Sawed timbers and lumber which are used in the mines of this country are always purchased on the basis of the thousand board-feet and are bought in various sizes from the sawmills and local lumber yards. The specifications are not at all standardized and the prices obviously fluctuate with the lumber market. The round timbers are purchased largely from the local region. In Pennsylvania the sections about the anthracite and bituminous coal mines have been heavily cut off for mine ties, props, mine rails, and collar timber. The Butte mining district is dependent to a large extent on the lodgepole pine timber from the Deerlodge National Forest and to a less extent on the western yellow and lodgepole pine cut in western Montana. The Birmingham mining district of northern Alabama has been heavily cut off for the important iron and coal mines. Northern Michigan sup- plies a great many hardwoods for the copper districts of northern Mich- igan. The forests of the Arizona copper mining districts and the precious metal mines of California have also been depleted to some extent for mine timbers. However, California has such an abundant timber sup- ply that the demand for material for her mines represents but a small percentage of the total demands on the forests in that state. The mines of this country are not generally located immediately in or near abundant sources of forest wealth, except in California. The specifications and prices vary a great deal with the local condi- tions. Specifications for mines in Illinois and Indiana would not suffice for those in Pennsylvania, and the same would be true of the various metal mines of the West. The following are the standard mine timber specifications and prices for one of the most important mining companies in Pennsylvania which annually consumes large quantities of timbers. These prices were quoted in 1917. All mine material to be cut from sound, living timber, felled between August ist and March ist. Timber must be reasonably straight, have all knots trimmed even with the sur- face, and free from defects that impair the strength and durability for their intended use. All measurements to be made at the top end under the bark. Material to be inspected at point of loading unless otherwise advised. Xo shipments accepted unless covered by regu- lar order. Prices quoted are f.o.b. cars D., L. & \V. R.R. Prop Timber. Prop timber to be 10 ft. to 30 ft. (averaging 15 ft.) long, of any kind of hardwood, and including hemlock, pitch pine, spruce and chestnut, r 6 in. diameter top 2 cents per lineal foot. 8 in. diameter top 3^ cents per lineal foot. 334 FOREST PRODUCTS Collar Timber. Collar timber to be of hemlock, pitch pine, spruce or chestnut, 10 per cent oak permitted. 10 in. diameter top to be 10 ft. to 30 ft. (averaging 15 ft.) long. 12 in. and 14 in. diameter top to be 18 ft. to 30 ft. long. Price 10 in. diameter top, 6 cents per lineal foot. 12 in. diameter top, n cents per lineal foot. 14 in. diameter top, 14 cents per lineal foot. Mine Rails. Mine rails are to be 3 in. by 5 in. by 12 ft., and of hardwood, such as beech, birch, maple and oak. A small percentage of io-ft., i4-ft. and i6-ft. lengths will be accepted. To be edged to size and ends cut square. Rails containing any defects that would injure them for the purpose intended will not be accepted. Price, $13.00 per thousand board-feet. Flat Mine Ties. Flat mine ties are to be 5 ft. long, hewn or sawn on two sides, on an average 5 in» thick and 5 in. face. Nothing less than 4 in by 4 in by 5 ft. will be accepted. To be of oak or chestnut. A small percentage of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) will be accepted. Price 9 cents each. The manufacture of round mine timbers is almost entirely a woods operation.1 The trees are felled, bucked and swamped and then peeled. The following represents the costs involved on a winter operation on the Deerlodge National Forest where lodgepole pine stulls were produced for the Butte mining district:2 Operation. Cost per Thousand Feet. Shoveling snow i . 68 Felling trees 48 Trimming trees 19 Brush disposal (piling and burning) 73 Cutting into stull lengths 93 Peeling 1.55 $4.56 The use and life of mine timbers depend upon the local conditions. Where the various mine tunnels require more material for support and there is likelihood of a shifting in the strata of rock or soil, considerably larger quantities of material must be used. Furthermore, on account of 1 For further information regarding logging methods, see " Logging," by R. C. Bryant. John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 2 From " Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains," by D. T. Mason. U. S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 234. MINE TIMBERS 335 the warm moist air in most of the mines, the timber is readily subject to attack by decay and insects. In coal mines it very frequently happens in extreme cases that the timbers up to from 12 to 15 in. in diameter will become completely decayed in about three years if used in the untreated condition. The expense involved in resetting these timbers is very great, and furthermore, such replacements generally interfere with the working operations of the mines. Besides decay, other prominent reasons for the destruction of mine tmbers are wear and tear, breakage, fire and wastage. Taken all together, these represent about 50 per cent of the causes for the destruc- tion of mine timbers, the remaining 50 per cent being the result of decay and insect attack. Wooden rollers and drums must be frequently replaced on account of wear, and large amounts of timbers themselves destroyed by " crush " and " squeeze," or by " swelling ground " and a great deal of temporary timber is lost in mine workings which become filled with waste rock and dirt called " slush " after the coal and other ore has been mined. The relative importance of the various destructive agencies in the American mines is shown in the following table:1 Causes of Destruction. Percentage. Decay and insect attack 50 Waste from all causes 25 Breakage and fire 20 Wear % 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY BUREAU OF CENSUS. Forest Products of the United States, 1907. Washington, D. C. KELLOG, R. S. Timbers Used in the Mines of the United States in 1005. Forest Service Circ. No. 49. Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. Forest Service Bull. No. 77. MASON, D. T. Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Moun- tains. Forest Service Bull. No. 234. NELSON, JOHN M. Prolonging the Life of Mine Timbers. U. S. Forest Service Circ. in. PETERS, E. W. Preservation of Mine Timbers. Forest Service Bull. No. 107. WEISS, H. F. Preservation of Structural Timber. 1 From " The Preservation of Mine Timbers," by E. W. Peters, U. S. Forest Service Bull. 107, 1912, p. 6. CHAPTER XVI FUEL WOOD GENERAL WOOD furnishes fuel for a great variety of purposes. It is chiefly in demand on farms and in small rural communities for general heating purposes and for the preparation of food. It is also used as fuel in the generation of electric and steam power, electric lighting, in the manu- facture of brick, etc. Since wood is largely used on farms, it is prin- cipally cut from woodlots and small holdings. Cordwood cut for fuel also comes from material otherwise wasted, such as slabs from saw- mills, tree tops, branches and defective material left on the ground after logging operations, scrubby growth and inferior trees which are not in demand for any other form of product. The fuel cutter does not take what the sawmill or other wood using industries can use. If the demand for fuel wood were doubled in this country it could be easily taken care of without the use of good timber. Transportation is the chief problem in the further utilization of fuel wood in this country. The larger markets, aside from the farmers and the rural communities, are not in close proximity to the principal fuel wood supply so that at the present time enormous quantities of material are wasted and left to rot in the woods due to prohibitive transportation charges. There is approximately as much wood used at the present time for fuel as for lumber. It probably brings the lowest delivered market price of wood in any form. Its use is decreasing in this country due to the increasing introduction of the use of natural and artificial gas, coal, electricity and fuel oil. There is much less wood used at the present time for heat and power than formerly. In thirty years, the coal output has multiplied 6 times and many new natural gas and oil wells have been developed. The war greatly stimulated the use of wood fuel, particularly in 1918 and 1919, when there was a shortage of coal. 336 FUEL WOOD 337 AMOUNT USED It is estimated that, at the present time, about 100,000,000 standard cords of wood valued at $350,000,000 or about 83.50 per cord are used every year in this country. This amount would be equivalent, assum- ing that 500 bd.-ft. are equal to one cord, to 50,000,000,000 bd.-ft. of material or 9,000,000,000 cu. ft., assuming that there are 90 cu. ft. of solid wood per cord. Photograph by \elson C. Brown, FIG. 91. — Beech, birch and maple cordwood cut and stacked for seasoning in the woods, In the winter, this is hauled out on sleds. Photograph taken near Cadosia, Delaware Co., New York. Sargent estimated that in 1880 there were used in this country 146,000,000 cords valued at $322,000,000 or $2.21 per cord. At that time the population was only about 50,000,000, whereas it is now in excess of 100,000,000 people. In spite of the increase in population of over 100 per cent, therefore, the total amount of wood used for fuel has decreased very considerably, owing to the introduction of other forms of fuel such as gas, oil and coal as outlined above. 338 FOREST PRODUCTS From statistics 1 gathered by the U. S. Forest Service, the leading states in the consumption of wood fuel on our farms are Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, Arkansas and Texas in order. These eight states consume about 50 per cent of the total amount used on our farms in this country. The quantity of fuel wood used in any one locality depends very largely upon the following factors* 1. Climate. It is natural that more fuel wood will be used in colder climates than in the southerly ones unless near coal or oil fields. 2. Cost of other fuel. The use of wood is determined very largely in any given region by the cost of the available coal, oil and gas. 3. Transportation facilities. Very often wood is available in abundant quantities but transportation facilities are lacking. Several years ago considerable fuel wood was reduced in form to charcoal in isolated regions of long hauls to save transportation charges. The general use of charcoal for fuel purposes, however, has been reduced to a considerable extent and the old method of making charcoal has nearly gone out of existence, due to the introduction of modern methods of both hardwood and softwood distillation. There are great possibilities for closer utilization of our raw wood supplies in the development of wood for fuel. The value of fuel wood in many of our smaller towns and cities has risen so rapidly that it is now competing successfully with coal or other materials for fuel purposes, and although it will be a long time before fuel wood can be utilized in an intensive way as in the European nations, we shall undoubtedly save, in the future, enormous quantities of material now wasted in the woods in logging operations and poor and defective timber now left to decay. The following table 1 shows the amount and value of wood fuel used on the farms of this country during 1917: 1 From " The Use of Wood for Fuel," U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bull. 753, 1919. FUEL WOOD 339 WOOD FUEL USED ON FARMS Number of Farms 1917 (Esti- mated). Cords per Farm. Number of Cords per Stat2. VALUE OF WOOD USED ; VALUE PER CORD. ON BASIS OF DECEM- i , BER. 1917, VALUES. Decem- Decem- .ber. I9i7.|ber, 1916. Value per Farm. Total Value. Maine ... 60,000 27,000 33,000 37,000 5,000 27,000 215,000 33»ooo 218,000 11,000 50,000 190,000 99,000 259,000 185.000 300,000 55,ooo 271,000 215,000 250,000 209,000 180,000 157,000 215,000 275,000 90,000 90,000 135,000 180,000 265,000 250,000 270,000 285,000 122,000 430,000 210,000 225,000 35,ooo 15,000 55,ooo 45,ooo 12,000 23,000 3,ooo 36,000 65,000 50,000 95,000 13 12 IS IO 10 13 14 8 9 13 13 18 16 17 14 16 ii 13 12 9 13 13 ii 5 13 3 3 3 6 18 iQ 18 16 15 9 IO 19 IO IO 6 9 9 8 ii 9 ii 12 IO 780,000 324,000 495,000 370,000 50,000 351,000 3,010,000 264,000 1,962,000 143,000 650,000 3,420,000 1,584,000 4,403,000 2,590,000 4,800,000 605,000 3,523,000 2,580,000 2,250,000 2,717,000 2,340,000 1,727,000 1,075,000 3,575,000 270,000 270,000 405,000 1,080,000 4,770,000 4,750,000 4,860,000 4,560,000 1,830,000 3,870,000 2,100,000 4,275,000 350,000 I5O,OOO 330,000 405,000 IO8,OOO l84,OOO 33,ooo 324,000 715,000 600,000 950,000 $6.40 6.40 6.00 6-35 5-8o 6.00 4.60 5 10 3-50 4.20 4-i5 3.20 2.90 2.75 3-oo 2.50 3.10 3-6o 3-70 4.60 5-25 5-50 5-40 4-70 3.20 7.50 6. 20 4-25 4-25 2.20 2. 2O 2.00 2.30 2.50 3-40 3-10 2.35 4.80 4.50 4-50 4.20 5-75 5.00 7.00 5-00 5.20 4.70 7.40 $4-50 4.60 4 35 4.70 4.00 4-50 4.00 4.00 2.60 3.10 3-20 2.40 2.30 2.10 2.10 2.OO 2.60 3-00 3 30 3 40 4.00 4.20 4.30 4.20 2.60 6.40 6.00 3-90 3-30 1.70 1-75 i. 80 1.90 2.25 2.80 2-75 2.00 4-50 3.80 3-70 4.00 5-40 4.00 6.00 4.60 4-50 3-90 5.8o 2.75 $83.20 76.80 90.00 63.50 58.00 78.00 64.40 40.80 31.50 54.60 53-95 57.6o 46.40 46.75 42.00 40.00 34-10 46.80 44-40 41.40 68.25 71-50 59-40 23 50 41.60 22.50 18.60 12.75 25-50 39-6o 41.80 36.00 36.80 37.50 30.60 31.00 44-65 48.00 45-oo 27.00 37-80 51-75 40.00 77.00 45-oo 57-20 56-40 74-00 $4,992,000 2,074,000 2,970,000 2,350,000 290,000 2,IO6,OOO 13,846,000 1,346,000 6.867,000 6oi,OOO 2,698,000 10,944,000 4,594,000 12,108,000 7,770,000 12,000,000 I,876,OOO I2,683,OOO 9,546,000 10,350,000 I4,264,OOO I2,87O,OOO 9,326,000 5,052,000 11,440,000 2,025,000 1,674,000 1,721,000 4,590,000 10,494,000 10,450,000 9,720,000 10,488,000 4,575,000 13,158,000 6,510,000 10,046,000 1,680,000 675,000 1,485,000 1,701,000 621,000 920,000 231,000 1,620,000 3,718,000 2,820,000 7,030,000 New Hampshire . Vermont Massachusetts . . Rhode Island . . . Connecticut .... New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia. . . North Carolina. . South Carolina. . Georgia Florida Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. .. South Dakota. . . Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama . Mississippi Louisiana Texas Oklahoma . . . Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico .... Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon. . California United States. 6,562,000 12.6 82,777,000 3-42 43-13 282,915,000 340 FOREST PRODUCTS SOURCES OF SUPPLY As noted above, the farmers' woodlot and small scattered holdings are the principal sources of fuel wood at the present lime. Slab wood and other refuse from sawmills are used, to a considerable extent, in and near towns in which sawmills are located. Many areas that have been recently logged over are now being culled for fuel wood; choppers and in some cases, gasoline-driven cut-off saws being introduced to lower the cost of production. In the East, refuse from logging operations and sawmills are being sent to market in box cars up to distances of 300 miles. Wood is probably relied upon for fuel purposes more in the South and in the Far West than in any other sections, due both to the cheap and abundant supply of wood and the comparative remoteness of an avail- able supply of coal. In the central prairie region very little wood is used, due to the lack of native timber in that section. Coal is used to a very large extent. In an investigation carried on by the office of Farm Management in the U. S. Department of Agriculture covering 950 families living on farms in all parts of this country and with an average of 4.8 persons per family, the average annual consumption of wood per person was 2 cords or 9.6 cords per family. It was also shown that on the average farm the value of wood fuel is more than twice as much as the value of coal fuel used. In the Northeast, the oaks, maples, hickories, birches, beech, chest- nut and other heavy hardwoods are largely relied upon for fuel purposes. In the South, the southern pines, chiefly longleaf pine, is used almost entirely for fuel purposes. In some sections, hardwood such as oaks, hickories, ash and a few others are used, but the resinous hard pine is much preferred. In the Rocky Mountain region, Douglas fir and western yellow pine are relied upon very largely for fuel. Lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce are used to a limited extent, but they are very inferior for fuel purposes. Sage brush, greasewood and mesquite are also used in the treeless and desert regions of the southern Rocky Mountain region. In California, the live oaks, western yellow pine and Douglas fir are the principal woods used for fuel. In southern California and to a limited extent in other sections, eucalyptus is relied upon very largely for fuel. In the Northwest, Douglas fir, western larch and hemlock, furnish most of the wood fuel. It is estimated that about 4,000,000,000 cu. ft. of mill waste furnishes FUEL WOOD 341 power for the 30,000 sawmills in operation in this country. This is made up of slabs, edgings, trimmings, sawdust and defective material. FUEL VALUES The value of equal weights of dry wood for fuel purposes is practically the same with all species. According to this rule, therefore, specific gravity may be used as a direct means of comparing the heat values of the different species. This, however, does not hold with resinous woods. f Photograph by U. S. Forest Serrice. FIG. 92. — Woodyard with a capacity of 5000 cords of fuel wood along the Potomac River at Washington, D. C. Rivers afford cheap transportation for low-priced forest products such as fuel wood. This is mixed pine and hardwoods brought by small sailboats from forests along the lower Potomac. Aside from weight, however, other considerations often determine the value of different kinds or classes of wood for fuel purposes. The principal other considerations that may be mentioned are as follows : 1. The design, construction and regulation of furnaces, stoves and fire places all have an important bearing upon the question of getting the maximum fuel value out of any wood. Oak and hickory burn with practically a smokeless flame, whereas others often burn with more or less smoke due to improperly regu- lated flues, drafts, etc. 2. The degree of dry ness. Much heat is lost in driving the re- 342 FOREST PRODUCTS maining moisture from green wood. The following table shows the per cent of available heat given out by wood burned at different moisture contents: Condition of Wood. Per Cent of Water. Per Cent Heat Given Out. Kiln dry 2 IOO Air dry (split) IO oo Air dry (chunks) 2O 80 Half dry •it: 60 Green. . . 5° 40 3. The character of seasoning. Some woods decay if left in the open before they are thoroughly seasoned. This may hold true of beech, birch and other woods under certain conditions. 4. The rapidity of burning. When certain woods are burned too rapidly full heat values are not derived. The average heating value of dry wood has been determined to be 4600 calories per kilogram or 8028 British thermal units per pound. The following table1 shows the relative fuel value of non-resinous woods based upon their specific gravity. «. I Specific Gravity (Dry). Relative Fuel Value per Unit Volume (Dry Wood). Hickories, average .64 ICO Oaks, average. .58 01 Beech c6 80 Birch •55 87 Maple • 5"? 87 Ash C2 81 Elm r2 81 Tamarack •49 76 Chestnut . . . .42 65 Douglas fir .42 X6s Hemlock •39 61 Lodgepole pine • 37 58 \Vhite pine .36 56 Redwood. . •35 55 White fir . 35 55 Spruces, average ... . • 11 C2 Alpine fir • 11 48 In respect to resinous woods the fuel values can only be approxi- mated according to the resin content. It is said that the califoric value 1 From " Fuel Value of Wood," by H. S. Betts and E. Bateman, 1913. U. S. Forest Service. FUEL WOOD 343 of resin is about twice that of wood. Betts and Bateman have com- piled the following table, giving approximation of the fuel value of long- leaf pine of varying resin content compared to that of hickory. The fuel value of resin is taken as 9400 calories per kilogram. APPROXIMATE RELATIVE FUEL VALUE OF LONGLEAF PINE CONTAINING DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RESIN AND HICKORY Resin Contents, Per Cent. Specific Gravity (Dry). Relative Fuel Value Unit Volumes of Dry Wood, Hickory 100. o •44 69 IO •49 84 2O •55 103 30 •63 128 40 •73 160 50 .88 206 Other woods to which this table could be applied are the other pines such as shortleaf, loblolly, western yellow, pinon, pitch, lodgepole and jack pines and a few others such as the cedars, juniper, cypress, etc. It has been determined that i Ib. of good coal is equivalent to about 2 Ib. of seasoned wood in heating values. Assuming that there are 80 to 90 cu. ft. of solid wood to the average cord, the weight of a cord of medium, heavy and light woods would be approximately 4000, 3000, and 2000 Ib. respectively for seasoned sticks containing 15 to 20 per cent moisture. The following table shows the number of cords of different kinds of seasoned wood necessary to give approximately the same heating value of i ton of coal : i cord cords 2 cords Hickory Ash Oak Elm Beech Locust Birch Longleaf pine Hard maple Cherry (Shortleaf pine Douglas fir Western hemlock Sycamore Red gum Soft maple Cedar Cypress Redwood Basswood Poplar Spruce Catalpa White pine Norway pine Equivalent to i ton coal Equivalent to i ton coal Equivalent to i ton coal 344 FOREST PRODUCTS PRINCIPAL MARKETS It is estimated that at least 80 per cent of the total amount of fuel wood cut for that purpose is used on our farms. Ten per cent is utilized in the small towns of 1000 population or less and the rural communities scattered among these towns. Other principal markets are in mining and smelting mills, in the manufacture of brick and tile, and in the manufacture of salt and wool. Formerly great quantities of fuel wood were used for railroad locomotives, steamboats and general power purposes. At the present time, however, coal and oil have very largely supplanted wood for these purposes. In the smelting of copper, green wood is used in the refining process to remove the impurities. This is done by introducing compressed air beneath the surface of the copper and applying until the fracture of the sample of copper shows that sufficient copper has been oxidized to insure the removal of all impurities. Then converter poles are introduced beneath the surf ace of the molten copper, their action being to reduce the oxide of copper back to metallic copper. This is carried on until the sample shows that this result has been accomplished and the sample has acquired what is technically known as a " set." The best woods for smelting purposes are green hardwoods. AMOUNT OF SOLID WOOD PER CORD The standard cord is generally accepted as a pile of wood 4 ft. wide, 4 ft. high and 8 ft. long. This is a stack of 128 cu. ft. The amount of solid wood found in a standard cord of this size varies between 89 and 64 cu. ft. and depends upon such factors as the size, straightness and form of the sticks, split or round, etc., and the method of piling. The following table shows the volume of solid wood per cord for sticks of different length and diameter : VOLUME OF SOLID WOOD PER CORD1 DIAMETER AT SMALL END. Length of Sticks, Feet. Over 5.5 In. Cubic Feet. 5.5 to 2.5 In. Cubic Feet. 2.5 to i In. Cubic Feet. 2 91 84 65 4 89 82 64 8 84 77 59 12 78 7i 54 1 From " Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord," by R. Zon. Forestry Quar- terly, Vol. I, No. 4, 1903. FUEL WOOD 345 The converting factor of 90 cu. ft. per standard cord is generally adopted in those regions where fuel wood is commonly cut. The converting factor of 500 bd.-ft. per standard cord is also gener- ally accepted, although this factor depends upon a number of conditions. Ten per cent of the volume is generally allowed for shrinkage from the green to the dry condition of the sticks. According to Zon, green hard- wood in seasoning shrinks from 9 to 14 per cent, depending upon the species while softwoods shrink only 9 to 10 per cent.1 CUTTING, HAULING AND DELIVERING TO MARKET The following description and costs are given for the full standard cord of 128 cu. ft. capacity. Many other forms of stacked cordwood or units are commonly used in different parts of the country. For example, in portions of the Lake States and Far West, a long cord of 1 60 cu. ft. capacity is sometimes used. In other places the short cord is used or a face cord made up of a stack of wood 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high but instead of 4 ft. in length the sticks are 12, 16, 18, 24, 30, 37, 50, 56 in., etc., in length. These various face cords are used for special kinds of fuel wood and for marketing in small lots. The work of cutting, hauling, etc., is usually done by common labor, the men using the single-bitted splitting axe, cross-cut saw, wedges and on large operations, a double-bitted axe as well. Where consider- able fuel wood is cut the men usually work by contract, doing the cutting and hauling for a given amount per cord. Stumpage values vary considerably with the different regions. The price runs from about 25 cents to $1.00 or more per cord. This value depends upon the species, local demand, cost of cutting and hauling and placing on the market, etc. In the Northeast stumpage values of 50 cents to $1.00 per cord are common. In the South 25 cents per cord is an average price. In the Far West from 25 to 50 cents per cord is the usual prevailing stumpage value. The operations of cutting and stacking fuel wood in cord lots are generally done together and they usually cost from 90 cents to $1.45 per standard cord. Many contracts in favorably sized and located timber regions have been made for cutting and stacking for $1.00 to $1.10 per cord. Foreign laborers, skilled in this work, have been known to make from $3.00 to $5.00 per day at these prices. The cost usually depends upon the kind and condition of wood, its size, local charges for labor, location of timber and general working conditions. 1 See " Untersuchungen iiber den Festgehalt," by Franz Baur. 346 FOREST PRODUCTS Stacking is sometimes done in open crib fashion to facilitate season- ing, which requires from one to two months, depending upon the weather, size of individual sticks, method of piling, etc. When the individual sticks are more than 6 to 8 in. in diameter they are commonly split in two. When over 10 to 12 in. in diameter they are quartered. Gasoline engines equipped with a portable cut-off saw are commonly employed to buck up limbs, tops and defective trees into cordwood. About i\ cords per hour can be cut up by 2 men working with a 2 h.p. Photograph by U 5, Forest Service. FIG. 93. — Two cut-up saws operated by electric motor, cutting 23 to 35 cords per day each. The wood in lengths from 4 to 12 ft. is reduced to stove and fire-place sizes. Durham, North Carolina. engine. This same equipment and crew will cut up 4-ft. cordwood into i2-in. stove lengths at the rate of i to 2 cords per hour. Hauling includes loading of the cordwood on the wagon, hauling and unloading at the yard or into a freight car. In the North it is usually done on sleighs in the winter time. Otherwise the ordinary wagon haul is employed for this purpose. The usual wagon load will take from i to ij cords. Up to i\ cords or more may be taken on a sleigh. The cost depends upon the distance, the load, condition and grade of the road, cost of labor and team, working hours, and general efficiency. It is customarily considered that it does not pay to market cordwood when the haul is longer than 6 miles unless there is a favorable down-hill haul and the market demand offers suf- FUEL WOOD 347 ficiently high prices. Six trips per day are commonly made on a i-mile haul on the average country road, 4 trips on a 2-mile, 3 trips on a 3-mile and 2 trips on a 4-mile haul. The inconsistency apparent in these figures is explained by the fact that in the larger number of trips per day, Photograph by U- S. Forest Service. FIG. 94. — Hauling cordwood near Custer City, Pennsylvania. This load contains about i^ cord of beech and hard maple. About 100,000,000 cords of fuel wood are annually consumed in this country. relatively more time is taken up in loading and unloading. The follow- ing table shows the approximate total cost per cord of cutting and «8F'teftsr Total Cost with Interest, per Cord. ^S? wsfir Total Cost with Interest, per Cord. i cord. $- -o $6.89 4 cords $5.50 $2 52 5-00 6.36 S-oo f* 0 *• 2.39 4-50 5-83 4-50 2.26 4.00 5-3° 4.00 2. 12 2 cords 5-50 398 5 cords 5-5° 2.23 5.00 3 7i 5.00 2.12 4-50 3 45 4-5° 2.01 4.00 3.18 4.00 I.9I 3 cords 5 -5° 3.00 5-00 2.83 4-50 2.65 4.00 2.47 348 FOREST PRODUCTS delivering for various wage rates and hauling capacities including interest charges at 6 per cent for one year.1 Considerable fuel wood is hauled on our railroads, especially to all the larger cities. Cordwood takes the same freight rate, usually, as lumber, pulp wood and other forest products. From 12 to 18 cords are the usual capacities per car, depending upon the size of the box car, size of sticks, method of piling, etc. In many of the western cities and villages, 4-ft. cord wood is used for fuel in furnaces and much of this material is hauled in carload lots from nearby logging operations or cut-over timber. PRICES The cost of fuel wood varies considerably in the different regions. It depends upon the supply, demand, cost of other forms of fuel, cost of cutting, marketing, etc. In the Northeast the following prices usually prevailed before the war for the full cord delivered in town wholesale : Hickory $7 . oo to $10 . oo Beech, birch, ash, hard maple and oak . . 5.00 to 8.00 Soft maple, poplar, chestnut, etc 4.00 to 6.00 Mixed lots 4 . oo to 8 . oo Wood delivered to the consumer costs considerably more than these prices; usually from $2.00 to $3.00, depending upon the demand, desired length, character of wood, etc. It is commonly figured that it costs 50 cents per cord to buck up wood from the 4-ft. length to the 12- or 16- in. length for stove or fire-place use. In the South and West prices are generally much below these. Standard sized cords are delivered in town, wholesale, in the Southern pine belt, the Northwest and Lake State regions for from $3.00 to $5.00. depending upon local conditions. In portions of the Rocky Mountain regions where timber is very scarce sage brush is sometimes used for fuel. In Nevada the large, main stems are trimmed by Indians at $3.00 per cord and delivered to the user at about $6.50. Sage brush burns rapidly and does not hold heat very long. Around sawmills, excess slab wood, edgings, etc., are sold for prices less than round or split cordwood. In connection with one large saw- mill in the West i6-in. slab wood is sold for $3.50 a cord delivered at the 1 From " Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut," by E. H. Frothingham, U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 96, p. 24. FUEL WOOD 349 house. It is estimated that it cost $1.75 to handle and deliver this, but the profit, $1.75 per cord, is looked upon as so much salvage by the lum- ber company. When logs run about 5.2 per thousand feet for i6-ft. lengths, 1000 ft. log scale will yield about one- third of a cord aside from the lumber when slabs are cut thin. One large sawmill concern cutting ties figures that it cuts 30 ties and one cord of fuel wood per thousand feet of logs. This large comparative amount is explained by the fact that the logs are small and heavy slabbing is done in order to face the Photograph by U. S. Forest Serrtre. FIG 95. — About 500 cords of wood piled in the municipal woodyard of Columbia, South Carolina. The use of wood fuel was greatly stimulated during the war. ties properly. Other sawmills sell excess fuel wood for from 25 cents to $1.00 per load at the refuse pile, the consumer doing the loading and hauling. No measurements are taken; the buyer simply taking as much as his wagon will hold. After the entrance of this country into the war, the prices for wood fuel advanced, generally, throughout the country. Where coal was particularly difficult to secure, the price of wood fuel advanced to hitherto unquoted prices. 350 FOREST PRODUCTS BIBLIOGRAPHY BETTS, H. S. Wood Fuel Tests. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Service. Review of Forest Investigations. Vol. 2, pp. 39-42. BETTS, H. S. and BATEMEN, ERNEST. Fuel Value of Wood (unpublished), 1913. BROWN, NELSON C. Utilization at the Menominee Indian Mills. Forestry Quarterly, No. 3, Vol. 10, 1912. FISHER, W. R. Heating Power and Combustibility of Wood. In Schlich's Manual of Forestry. Vol. 5. FROTHINGHAM, E. H. Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96, 1912. pp. 19, 23, 29, 38. FUNK, W. C. Value to Farm Families of Food, Fuel and Use of House. Bulletin 410 of U. S. Dept. of Agric. Washington: 1916. KELLOCK, T. Efficiency of Wood in Stoves and Open Fireplaces. Forest, Fish and Game. Athens, Ga.: April, 1911. PIERSON. A. H. Consumption of Firewood in the United States. U. S. Forest Ser- vice, Cir. 181, 1910. RECORD, S. J. The Fuel Value of Wood. Hardwood Record. Oct. 10, 1912. SARGENT, C. S. Report on the Forests of North America, Vol. 9. Tenth Census, 1884. pp. 251, 252 and 489. SCHENK, C. A. Heating Power of Wood. Forest Utilization. Biltmore, N. C.: 1004. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. No. 753. The Use of Wood for Fuel. March, 1919. Various Reports, Bulletins, etc., of State Fuel Administrators, State Foresters and Others Advocating the Use of Fuel Wood during the War. ZON, R. Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord. Forestry Quarterly, No. 4. Vol. i, 1903. CHAPTER XVII SHINGLES AND SHAKES HISTORY SHINGLES have been used from the earliest historical times to protect buildings from the weather both as roofing and as siding. Up to com- paratively recent times they had been made by the slow process of hand work. The logs were cut into bolts, hand rived with a frow or broadaxe and the shingles were shaved with a drawing knife. Sometimes a "shav- ing horse " was used in early colonial times. A man who could rive 500 shingles in a day was considered an expert worker. Until a few decades ago, white pine, chestnut and southern white cedar were relied upon for the major portion of shingles used in this country. The rustic shingle maker was often able to tell from the general appearance of the tree whether it would rive properly or not. Fre- quently, however, a large block was cut out of the side of the large virgin white pine trees to test their splitting qualities. If the wood did not split well the tree was left a prey to the next forest fire, which quickly ignited the resin which had exuded from the exposed portion. This pioneer custom was very wasteful, since only the butt log was used for shingles and very frequently a tree that would now produce 30x20 shingles was made to produce only about 500 shingles. Hand-made shingles were generally of two kinds, known as " joint " and " lap." The latter were longer with one edge thicker than the other and nailed on the roof so that the edge of one lapped over the edge of the other like weather boards. The " joints " were nailed edge to edge like sawed shingles. Hand-made shingles called " shakes " are still made from sugar pine and redwood in California and will be discussed later in this chapter. The introduction of shingle machinery proved to be a great economy in saving the available raw material. With the shingle saws, shingles which included knots, cross grain, etc., could be made not only from butt logs of the best trees, but from the tops and partially decayed butts. 351 352 FOREST PRODUCTS Gradually the center of the shingle industry moved to the Pacific North- west, where the western red cedar, which grows so abundantly in that region, was found to be an ideal shingle wood. In the East, shingle mills are usually located in connection with sawmills, the shingles often being made of defective or misshapen portions of the butt logs of white pine, yellow pine, spruce, cypress, etc. Shingle machines were introduced on a commercial basis about 1880. Several years before that time western red cedar shingles were shipped around South America to the Atlantic seaboard. The shaved shingle industry had already assumed large proportions in the Puget Sound and Columbia River sections. With the opening of the Northern Pacific Railroad in 1883 came a great impetus in the manufacture of sawed shingles and their distribution not only in the Northwest, but throughout the prairie states. About the year 1892 and the year following came a rapid increase in production and several hundred million shingles were shipped to the Far Eastern markets. About 200 shingle mills were then in operation in western Washington. At the present time, western red cedar shingles are sent to every state in the Union and compete suc- cessfully with shingles made from all other species. There are approx- imately 350 shingle mills in Washington at the present time, most of which are operated as separate industries. There are probably fewer shingle mills to-day in the Pacific Northwest than a few years ago, but there is a much larger annual output, however, due to the larger capacity of the individual mill. Some of the larger shingle mills now have a daily capacity of from 100,000 to 250,000 shingles or more per day of ten hours. Some of the British Columbia mills exceed any of the Washing- ton mills in daily capacity. QUALIFICATIONS OF SHINGLE WOODS The qualifications that are demanded in a wood used for shingles are as follows: 1. Durability. Shingles must withstand varying conditions of moisture, the effects of weathering and the rapid changes of temperature. Non-durable woods are practically unused for shingle purposes. 2. Light weight. This factor is very important in transportation. In order to compete successfully, the wood must be light in weight in order to bear the heavy transportation charges incident to the shipping of shingles to great distances. Shingles are always thoroughly seasoned before shipment by rail. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 353 3. Nail-holding power. Shingles must retain nails without loosening. Zinc nails are commonly used in connection with many of our shingles, as they do not rust. 4. The shingle must not check, warp or twist out of shape when once placed flat on the roof. Prevention of leakage is of great importance. Shingles should preferably be straight and even grained. To meet the above qualifications, the western red cedar is an ideal shingle wood in addition to the fact that it is abundantly available. Other trees, such as the northern white cedar and the southern white cedar, make practically the same quality of shingles as the western variety of cedar, but they are more inclined to be knotty and narrower in width inasmuch as they are made from much smaller trees. Other species yielding shingles of very high quality are cypress and redwood. ANNUAL PRODUCTION About 8,000,000,000 to 12,000,000,000 shingles are produced annually in this country. The latter amount has been produced for some time, but for the last few years the production has decreased, due to numerous cities inaugurating fire laws which prohibit the use of shingles in new buildings within city limits. Of the total production, between 70 and 80 per cent is made up of western red cedar. These shingles are largely manufactured in the State of Washington, which alone produced 73 per cent of all the shingles made in this country in 1917. Oregon and northern Idaho also turned out large quantities of shingles and a few western red cedar shingles are also made in western Montana. Northern white cedar shingles are made largely in northern Michigan, Maine and in Minnesota. Southern white cedar shingles are produced chiefly in eastern Virginia and North Carolina. Next to cedar, cypress is the leading shingle wood, but only slightly over 600,000,000 cypress shingles are annually manufactured in this country. Next, in order, are yellow pine, redwood, spruce and chestnut. A few shingles are also made from hemlock, western yellow pine, white pine and a few others, but their total amount is of little comparative consequence in the shingle markets of this country. Western red cedar is practically the only kind that has a national market. The northern white cedar is consumed largely in the Central West and Northeast and southern white cedar in the Southeast and East. Cypress shingles are used throughout the East and southern pine shingles find their principal market in the South. All other shingles are used 354 FOREST PRODUCTS very largely in restricted local regions except redwood, which has devel- oped a wide market outside California as well as within that state. Next to Washington, which is pre-eminently the leading shingle manufacturing state, according to the government statistics for 1917 the following were the leading states in order of production: Oregon, cutting western red cedar; Louisiana, with its cypress and yellow pine shingles; California, cutting redwood; Maine, turning out large quan- tities of northern white cedar, and Michigan, with its great cedar output. RAW MATERIAL The material used for the manufacture of shingles comes to the mills in the form of bolts or logs. This material is usually logged in large lumber operations and sold directly to the shingle mills, which constitute a separate industry in the Northwest. Very often the poorer quality of logs are separated and sold to the shingle mills since very excellent shingles can be made from hollow butted logs. Ranchers and those clearing land commonly cut cedar trees into 52-in. bolt lengths and sell them directly to the mills. Logging of shingle logs is done largely by donkey engines and railroads, or by chutes, railroads, and by the use of drivable streams. The production of the raw material for the manu- facture of shingles is usually carried on by separate companies. Shingle logs cost between $8.00 and $15.00 or more per thousand board-feet delivered at the mill. Bolts in 52-in. lengths bring from $3.00 to $8.00 or more per cord at the mill. The cost depends upon the qual- ity of the timber and the local demand at the time of delivery. The market on shingles fluctuates rather rapidly, so that the value of the raw material fluctuates accordingly. In logging southern white cedar for shingle production, the trees are cut into 5 ft. 2 in. and 6 ft. 2 in. lengths, which will make 3 bolts for 2o-in. shingles out of 5 ft. 2 in. logs and 4 bolts for i8-in. shingles from 6 ft. 2 in. logs. A shingle cord in eastern Virginia and North Carolina in 1907 was considered to be a stack of bolts 4 ft. high by 5 ft. wide by 7 ft. long and contains 140 cu. ft. or 600 log feet. At the present time a shingle cord in this region is considered to be a stack of bolts 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high and 4 ft. wide and contains 128 cu. ft. This is considered equivalent to 500 ft., board measure, by the Doyle rule. In the manufacture of cypress, southern pine, and white pine shingles, defective or misshapen logs are commonly butted by means of a cut-off SHINGLES AND SHAKES 355 saw at the the top of the jack ladder in the saw mill and the short lengths sent down a chute to the shingle mill on the lower floor. The following shows the cost of logging shingle bolts on a typical opera- tion before the war in western red cedar in Washington : COST OF LOGGING SHINGLE BOLTS,1 WESTERN RED CEDAR Operation. Cost per Cord of Shingle Bolts. Cutting $1 50 Skidding CQ Loading. . . . 2C. Hauling I OO Yard expenses 2C Loading J Total $3 75 1 This cost was for the period of the winter of 1916-1917. The prices received for bolts on this operation varied from $4.75 to $5.50 per cord. Eight thousand Star A shingles were derived from each 1000 ft. of logs. Each cord of shingle bolts contained, on an average, about 850 bd.-ft. Each cord was made up of 25 to 40 bolts, each 52 in. in length. Generally, the shingle manufacturers prefer their shingle bolts in such sizes that from 20 to 30 make up a cord and it is commonly accepted that a cord of these bolts is equivalent to about 700 bd.-ft. No trees less than 15 in. at the butt are accepted for making shingle bolts. The western red cedar usually grows with a large flared butt, espe- cially in the oldest and biggest specimens. In these cases, the swollen butt- is cut up into shingle bolts and the upper part of the bole, which is less tapered, is utilized for saw-logs or for poles and piling unless too large. The best timber for shingle purposes and from which the best shingles are made are the trees with a straight, slightly tapering, and limbless bole, straight grain and as free as possible from such defects as rot, shake, checks, etc. The operation of taking out bolts for the shingle mills may either pre- cede or immediately follow the logging operation for saw-logs. The latter practice is more frequently followed and very close utilization is customary, even defective or hollow logs and high stumps being used where low transportation charges justify the expenditure. A few years ago, when all stumps were cut from 5 to 20 ft. high or more with the aid of spring-boards, shingle mills, moved from place to place, obtained their 356 FOREST PRODUCTS raw material at a relatively low figure and it generally was of such high quality that profits were excellent. The logging expense during 1916-1917 on a large operation in south- ern white cedar was as follows: COST OF LOGGING SHINGLE BOLTS, SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR » Operation. Cost per Thousand Bd.-ft.« Sawing. $4 67 Skidding i 02 Teaming 60 Railroad operation Freight paid other railroads, various distances. . . 1.88 •27 18.53 Data supplied by Reber F. Clark. As noted above each cord contains about 500 bd.-ft. by the Doyle rule. SHINGLE MACHINES There are various forms of shingle machines now placed upon the market. Formerly they were entirely of the horizontal variety with a provision to make the standard shingle with a thick butt and a thin tip. Machines used in the early days of the industry were devised to cut from i to 10 blocks at the same time. In recent years, the horizontal machines have been largely supplanted by the upright shingle machines. The equipment in a modern shingle mill usually consists of the fol- lowing machinery: (1) A drag or swinging circular cut-off saw, usually run by steam or electricity to cut logs or bolts to the desired length. Drag saws are generally preferred with large timber as they are adaptable to all sized logs. However, they are objectionable because they do not make a smooth cut and, therefore, result in rough butted shingles. Bolts are usually cut into shingle block lengths by means of small stationary circular saws. (2) A bolter or " knee bolter," a circular saw revolving in a hori- zontal plane and fed by a small carriage controlled by the knee of the operator. This saw is used to remove the bark and any exterior defects and cut the bolt into proper sizes for the shingle machine. (3) The shingle machines were formerly of the horizontal type, as stated above, but have been largely replaced by the upright machines which were introduced within recent years from the Lake States. All SHINGLES AND SHAKES 357 types are regulated to make the standard sized shingle having the thick butt and thin tip, and with provision for taking from i to 10 blocks at a time. The vertical type consists of a set of stationary circular saws revolving in a vertical plane. A vertical sash frame holds the block and operates with a longitudinal reciprocating motion. Attached to the frame are spur rolls, one above and the other below, which automatically alternate the butt cut from the top to the bottom of the block, with each backward stroke of the frame. This, of course, means a minimum of waste, which runs as low as 10 per cent of the raw material in the most modern mills using the upright machine. (4) The jointer or clipper consists of a single or double rip saw, or a wheel jointer. The latter is a rapidly revolving steel wheel carrying from 4 to 8 knives set in radial fashion. The jointer edges or " joints " the shingle, making the two sides parallel and trimming off wane or uneven edges. (5) The shingle packer. This consists of a bench frame and two slotted, overhanging steel rods. After the packer or operator places the shingles into the frame the rods are pressed down, packing the shingles tightly together, the thin tips overlapping, while the metal strips are nailed. Foot levers are used to draw the wooden cleats together and hold the shingles tight until the strips are fastened. The following table represents the average daily output of the various forms of shingle machines now in use in the Puget Sound region, based on a ten-hour working day: OUTPUT OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SHIXGLE MACHINES Type of Machine. Average Daily Output of Shingles. Ten. block 1 80 OOO— 2IO OOO Double block 1 10,000—130 ooo Single block 7^ OOO— OO OOO Hand machine . . 4^ OOO— ^ ^ OOO Upright . 2^ OOO— ^O OOO The minimum figures of output given in this tabulation would obtain for so-called combination mills where the better class of logs are sawed into lumber, whereas the maximum figures obtain in those mills where both the good and poor timber is run into shingles and where efficient men and methods are used. 358 FOREST PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE OF SHINGLES The following tables l will convey the best idea of the output, number and duties of men employed at a large shingle mill using logs for raw material in western Washington, where both day labor and piecework prevail as is the case with most of the large shingle mills. The daily output was rated at 200,000 shingles and the annual capacity at 50,000,- ooo. This is figured on the basis of 250 working days in the year. The output was evenly divided between the two popular grades of " stars " and " clears " and the average cost of the raw material in log form, deliv- ered at the mill, was $10.00 per thousand board-feet. The following day labor was employed at the rates given: Employee. Daily Wage. i engineer ..................................... $3 . 50 i filer ....................... .... .............. 6 . 50 i drag sawyer ................................. 3-5° i power bolter ............ . .......... ; ......... 3 . oo i deck man ................................... 2.75 i boom man ................................... 2 . oo i trimmer man ............................. ... 3 . oo i tally man ................................... 3 . oo i head loader. . ................................ 3 . 50 i second loader ............................... . 2 . 50 i wood man ................................... 2 . oo i band nailer .................................. i . 75 Total ................................... $37 . oo The following piecework charges were involved, the cost being ex- pressed per thousand shingles: Operation. Cost per M. Shingles Packing ....................................... $ . 090 Knot sawing .................................... 130 Sawing ......................................... 055 Knee bolting ...... . ..... ........................ 045 Total ................................... $.32 "Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest," by J. B. Knapp and A. G. Jackson. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 359 By dividing the daily labor charge ($37.00) by the daily output (200,- ooo shingles) the charge per thousand shingles is found to be $0.185. The fixed charges, including maintenance, interest, watchman, insurance, taxes, depreciation, office expenses and night watchman come to $0.16 per thousand and the raw material in the form of logs at $1.125 per thousand. The total charges, therefore, may be summarized as follows: Item. Cost per M. Shingles. Daily labor. • $0.185 Piece work 0.32 Fixed charges or overhead o. 16 Raw material (logs) delivered i . 125 Total cost of production $i . 79 The average selling price over a given period based upon 50 per cent " clears " and 50 per cent " stars " was $i.86| per thousand. This left, therefore, a net profit to the operator of $0.07! per thousand. The annual net earning on the 50,000,000 output would amount to $3750. The following is a summary of costs together with the number of men employed at a single mill in Washington where the raw material was received in the bolt form. The following itemized daily costs were observed at this mill: Item. Daily Charges. 8 cords of bolts at $6.00 per cord $48 . oo 2 knots sawyers at $4.50 per day 9.00 i shingle packer at $4.50 4 . 50 i sawyer and filer 10 . oo 3 laborers at $2.50 7 . 50 i engineer 2, 50 Depreciation and miscellaneous expenses 3 . oo Total daily charge $84 . 50 This mill received an average of about $2.00 per thousand for their shingles and the mill turned out 50,000 shingles per day, making the gross daily income $100. Deducting the above daily expense of $84.50, there was a net daily income of $15.50. The average cost of the manu- facture of shingles at this mill was, therefore, $1.69 per thousand shingles. The removal of the tariff on shingles by the Federal Government has 360 FOREST PRODUCTS seriously affected the manufacturers in Washington and Oregon. British Columbia manufacturers have the advantage of cheap, Oriental labor, better grades of raw material since the timber runs better in that section, and greater concentration of capital and industrial conditions. There were 115 shingle establishments in British Columbia in 1915, but the average mill has a much larger capacity than the average mill in Wash- ington, the largest mills turning out 700,000 shingles in a ten-hour day. In 1915 British Columbia exported over 1,259,000,000 shingles to the United States, leaving only 348,000,000 for domestic consumption. SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADING RULES The manufacturers of shingles have made many efforts to standardize mill grading by the organization of grading bureaus. The western red cedar shingle manufacturers are now well organized as a branch of the West Coast Lumbermens' Association. Some companies still determine their own methods of grading. The basis of all shingle grades is (i) size (including length, width, and thickness), and (2) freedom from defects. Practically all shingles are made in 16-, 18- and 2o-in. lengths and 4-, 5-, and 6-in. widths. Some are 24 in. in length in both the narrow and the larger widths. The larger shingles are from J to 3^ of an inch in thickness at the butt and the shorter ones f of an inch. The thin end or tip varies from ^ to J in. in thickness. Some grades permit " feather tips." The thickness of a shingle is a direct criterion of its length of service, other conditions being equal, since erosion and wearing due to rains and the weather will often determine its usefulness. Shingles must be thick enough to resist the stress induced by alternate moistening by rain and drying by the sun. Very wide shingles are not desirable, because they are very apt to warp and split as the result of alternate expansion and contraction with the weather. Western red cedar is commonly made into extra wide shingles, but those 10 in. wide and under are preferred. Some shingles are cut on the vertical or quarter grain and are much more desirable because they wear better, and are less likely to check and warp. At the present time, the standard sawed shingle of western red cedar is regarded as being 16 in. long. 4 in. wide, 3^ in. thick at the point and | in. thick at the butt end. The following are the official specifications of the shingle manufac- turers of the West Coast Lumbermens' Association in the Northwest as applied to western red cedar : SHINGLES AND SHAKES 361 Perfection-18 in. Variation of i in., under or over, in length, allowed in 10 per cent. Random widths, but not narrower than 3 in. When dry 20 courses to measure not less than 8f in. To be well manufactured. Ninety-seven per cent to be clear, remaining 3 per cent admits slight defects 16 in. or over from butt. Puget A-18 in. Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 20 courses to measure not less than 8^ in. Admits feather tips and i6-in. shingles resulting from shims, and other defects 8 in. or over from butt. Eureka-18 in. Variation of i in., under or over in length allowed in 10 per cent. Random widths, but not narrower than 3 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 9! in. To be well manufactured. Ninety per cent to be clear, remaining 10 per cent admits slight defects 14 in. or over from butt. Skagit A-18 in. Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 9^ in. Will admit feather tips, and i6-in. shingles resulting from shims, and other defects 8 in. or over from butt. Extra Clear-16 in. Variation of i in., under or over, in length, allowed in 10 per cent. Random widths, but not narrower than 2\ in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 95 in. To be well manufactured, 90 per cent to be clear, remaining 10 per cent admits slight defects 12 in. or over from butt. Choice A-16 in. Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 9 in. Admits wane and i2-in. shingles resulting from shims, and other defects 6 in. or over from butt. Extra *A*-16 in. Variations of i in., under or over, in length, allowed in 10 per cent. Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 7 1 in. To be well manufactured. Eighty per cent to be clear, remaining 20 per cent admits defects 10 in. or over from butt. If not to exceed 2 per cent (in the 20 per cent allowing defects 10 in. from butt) shows defects closer than 10 in., the shingles shall be considered up to grade. Standard A-16. Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 7^ in. Admits wane and i2-in. shingles resulting from shims, and other defects 6 in. or over from butt. Probably about 90 per cent of the shingles turned out in the North- west are made up of the " Extra Clear" and " Extra Star A Star" grades, about equally divided. The following are the official specifications of the Northwestern 362 FOREST PRODUCTS Cedarmen's Association as applied to the northern white cedar in the Lake States: Shingle Specifications. Extra Star A Star Shingles shall be manufactured as follows: Ten in. clear and better from butt, with all clears in: nothing narrower than 3 in. in width allowed. Five butts to measure 2 in. when sawed. All Extra Star A Star Shingles to be 16 in. in length. Standard Star A Star Shingles shall be 5 to 10 in. clear from butt, nothing narrower than 2 in. allowed: 5 butts to measure 2 in. when sawed. Ten per cent sap is allowed in this grade. The following are the specifications used for southern white cedar in eastern Virginia and North Carolina: Smooth Sawn Shingles. To be sawn on circular saws as smooth as possible. To be 4 in., 5 in. and 6 in. wide, and 16 in., 18 in. and 24 in. long. The i6-in. shingle to be f in. thick at butt, and YG m- thick at point. The 18 in. shingle to be \ in. thick at butt, ^ in. thick at point. The 24 in. shingle to be Y& in- thick at butt, and f in. thick at point. No. i Grade: To be all heart or to show one heart face, a little sap on reverse side will be admitted, in fact, if sap is barely visible on edge of face side it will be admitted, admits knots, but they must be sound and tight. "A" Grade: This grade compares with No. i grade in all respects, except that any amount of sap is admitted, they may be all sap, or part sap, or part heart. Will admit knots but they must be sound and tight. "Star" Grade: This shingle to take practically all shingles below Grade No. "A," will admit any amount wane edges, provided there is a full face for a length of 6 in. from butt. Bark to be removed from edges. Will admit any amount of knots, which do not have to be sound or tight. The 4-in. shingle will not admit any knot holes, especially if they are near the center of the shingle. The 5-in. and 6-in. shingles are not graded as closely in this respect and will admit small knot holes. No badly split or rotten shingles put in this grade. The following are the official grading rules of the Southern Cypress Manufacturers' Association as well as of the Hardwood Manufacturers' Association of the United States as applied to cypress shingles: Bests. A dimension shingle, 4, 5 and 6 in. in width, 16 in. long, each width packed sep^ arately, 5 butts to measure 2 in., to be all heart and free of shake, knots and other defects. Primes. A dimension shingle, 4, 5 and 6 in. in width, 16 in. long, each width packed sep- arately, 5 butts to measure 5 in., admitting tight knots and sap, but free of shake and other defects, but with no knots within 8 in. of the butts. This grade may contain shingles clipped two-thirds of the width and one-eighth of the length on the point. Star A Star. A random width shingle 3 in. and wider, 14 in. to 16 in. long otherwise the same as primes. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 363 Economy. Dimensions, 4, 5 and 6 in. each width separately bunched, admitting sap and sound knots, may have slight peck 5 in. from butts, imperfections on points no objection and admitting 14 in. shingles. Clippers. All shingles below the above grades which are sound for 5 in. from the butts, worm holes and slight peck excepted, random widths i\ in. and wider. The count of the manufacture of these shingles, of all grades, is based on 4000 lineal inches in width, making 1000 standard shingles, consequently there would be only 667 6-in. shingles packed and counted as 1000 standard shingles; 5 in. dimensions being counted in like proportion. In making reinspection of shingles, one bundle out of twenty bundles, taken at random, shall be cut open, the results of this investigation to form the basis of arriving at the grade of the entire shipment. The following table 1 shows the average selling prices of the two prin- cipal grades of western red cedar shingles. These two grades make up approximately 95 per cent of all western red cedar shingles made. Year. Grade. Average Price per Thousand. Year. Grade. Average Price per Thousand. 1893 Star A Star $1.39 1907 Star A Star $2.39 Extra Clears 1.61 Extra Clears 2.67 1894 Star A Star i . 10 1908 Star A Star 1.77 Extra Clears 1-25 Extra Clears 2.20 1895 Star A Star .90 1909 Star A Star i-75 Extra Clears 1-05 Extra Clears 2.10 1896 Star A Star .92 1910 Star A Star 1.69 Extra Clears 1.07 Extra Clears 2.14 1897 Star A Star i. 02 1911 Star A Star i-55 Extra Clears 1.16 Extra Clears 1.98 1898 Star A Star 1.15 1912 Star A Star i. 60 Extra Clears 1.29 Extra Clears 2.00 1899 Star A Star 1.22 1913 Star A Star 1.65 Extra Clears 1.36 Extra Clears 2.14 1900 Star A Star 1.25 1914 Extra Stars 1.65 Extra Clears 1.46 Extra Clears 2.14 1901 Star A Star i-37 1915 Extra Stars i . 43 Extra Clears 1.61 Extra Clears i .71 1902 Star A Star i 75 1916 Extra Stars i . 27 Extra Clears 1.99 Extra Clears 1.56 1903 Star A Star 1.50 1917 Extra Stars 1.55 Extra Clears 1.83 Extra Clears i .92 1904 Star A Star 1-36 1918 Extra Stars 2.19 Extra Clears i-59 Extra Clears 2 . 82 1905 Star A Star 1-36 1919 Extra Stars 2.23 Extra Clears 1.62 Extra Clears 2.80 1906 Star A Star 1.78 Extra Clears 2.12 : Taken from the " West Coast Lumberman," Seattle, as published in several issues. 364 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table shows the average selling price per thousand pieces of southern white cedar shingles for the past five years. The two grades quoted represent approximately 93 per cent of all southern white cedar shingles manufactured. Average Average Year. Grade. Price per Thousand Year. Grade. Price per Thousand Pieces. Pieces. 1916 "A" $4-5° 1918 "A" $8.25 Star 3-50 Star 6-75 1917 "A" 8.00 1919 "A" 8.50 Star 6.50 Star 7.00 THE LAYING OF SHINGLES Shingles are used for both roofing and siding and in certain architec- tural designs lend a very attractive appearance to the structure. Stained shingles are especially coming into favor for siding either all or part of the building. The placing of shingles does not always receive the attention commen- surate with the cost of the work and the length of service expected. Improper nailing or carelessly laid joints often result in leakage. Shin- gles which are 6 in. wide (or wider) should have 3 or more nails. Those from 3 to 6 in. in width should be fastened with 2 to 3 nails. The kind or form of shingle nails has a direct bearing on the length of life of any shingle. Those made of zinc, copper, or galvanized wire are much preferred to cut iron or wire shingle nails. The pitch of a roof also has a direct bearing on the life of the shingle. Those on nearly flat roofs deteriorate much more quickly than those on steep roofs or those used for siding. The following table shows the covering capacities of shingles and shakes when laid at varying exposures to the weather. It is based on 4 in. as the average width of shingles and 5 in. as the average width of shakes. COVERING CAPACITIES OF SHINGLES AND SHAKES Kind. Inches to Weather. Number Required to Cover 100 Sq. Ft. Number Square Feet Covered by 1000. Shingles. 4' 1080 93 Shingles 4J IOOO IO^ Shingles c 790 133 Shakes Shakes 7 10 400 290 280 345 SHINGLES AND SHAKES 365 Shakes are commonly 24 and 32 in. long. The former are laid 7 in. to the weather and the latter 10 in. Shingles 20 and 24 in. in length, made of southern white cedar are often laid 5, 6 and 7 in. to the weather. Southern white cedar shingles, 4 in. in width by 20 in. in length are usually laid 6 in. to the weather. Laid in this manner their length will admit of three laps, which are essential to a tight roof and make pos- sible a four-ply shingle roof with a 2-in. under extension. Southern white cedar shingles have a covering capacity as follows: Width. Length. Number of Pieces to 100 Sq. ft. Laid 6 In. to Weather. Number of 100 ft. Square to M Shingles. 4 20 600 1.67 5 20 480 2.08 6 20 576 2.50 PACKING AND SHIPPING Shingles are packed in regulation frames of standard length, thick- ness and width. All packing is done by hand and each grade is kept separate, the packer usually being paid by the piece. ' In Washington all shingles are cut in random widths from 2\ in. and up, the average being about 4 in. A standard bundle of i6-in. western red cedar shingles containing 250 pieces is 20 in. wide and has 24 tiers. The shingles overlap with the thin ends at the center. Foot levers are used to draw the center together while wood strips across the face and metal strips at each side bind the bundle in a compact manner. Shingle packers or " weavers," as they are called, will pack from 30,000 to 80,000 shingles in a ten-hour day, while the average is around 45,000 a day. This capacity is determined largely by the ability and deftness of the weaver, and the average width and quality of the shingles. The cost of packing ranges from about 7 to 12 cents per thousand shingles. Figuring 4 bundles to the thousand shingles, there are about 880 bundles or about 220,000 shingles per car, of the larger sizes. The following are the accepted rules for packing in the Northwest: All shingles are to be packed in regulation frames, 20 in. in width. Openings shall not average more than \\ in. to the course. Perfection and Puget A shall be packed 20-20 courses to the bunch and 5 bunches to the thousand. All others shall be packed 25-25 courses to the bunch, 4 bunches to the thousand. Every bundle is branded with the full name of the grade. Color of wood and sound sap are not considered as defects. 366 FOREST PRODUCTS Some of the southern white cedar shingles are packed 50 to the bundle, this requiring 20 bundles to make a thousand. In this case each sepa- rate width is bundled separately. A carload of these shingles will con- sist of between 60,000 and 125,000, depending on the sizes. The popular sizes are the 18- and 2O-in. shingles, whereas the i6-in. shingle is the popular size with western red cedar. In the Northwest shingles are usually kiln dried at temperatures of from 150 to 200° F., for from five to twelve days to reduce freight charges FIG. 96. — Shingle packer or buncher. as much as possible. Many manufacturers have been somewhat over- zealous in reducing the weight of their product by extreme artificial drying and have injured the durability of the shingles. This has been rapidly overcome, however, since the serious depression in the price of shingles during the year 1915. Air seasoning has given much better results from the standpoint of durability, but it is so expensive as to be almost prohibitive in the case of western red cedar. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 367 Water shipment charges are based upon the number of shingles rather than on weight, so that shingles shipped on vessels are often in the green condition and partially air-seasoned before reaching their destination. The following standard shipping weights are recognized in the North- west and delivered prices are customarily figured on this basis (see grading rules for further description of grades) : Grades. Weight in Pounds per M Shingles. Extra Star A Star, 16 in 160 Standard A-i6 in. . 160 Extra clear- 1 6 in . 180 Choice A- 1 6 in 180 Eureka-i8 in . . 200 Skagit A- 1 8 in. . . 200 Perfections and Puget A-i8 in 200 The weights of southern white cedar shingles are as follows : Length, Inches. Width, Inches. Weight in Pounds per M Shingles. 20 4 400 18 4 375 16 4 300 No artificial method of seasoning is generally applied to these shingles, which accounts for their relatively high weights. They are commonly shipped with little or no air seasoning as the wood contains a low per cent of moisture. SHINGLE SUBSTITUTES The competition of substitute materials for roofing purposes has become a serious problem with shingle manufacturers. Those pro- moting the use of substitutes for wood shingles have used the fire hazard as their great argument. The modern movement in favor of better fire protection in our cities has been used to favor the passage of ordinances in many cities prohibiting the use of wooden shingles in congested centers and restricting their use generally. The forms of substitutes for wooden shingles include a great variety principal among which are asphalt, asbestos and combination shingles, tar roofing, slate, tile, various metal forms and several patent materials. The widespread demand for fireproof construction as applied to all kinds 368 FOREST PRODUCTS of structures and buildings, as a result of the great annual loss of life and property and the decreased insurance rates offered in conformance with fire underwriters' specifications have greatly stimulated the intro- duction and use of these substitute materials. The best indication of this condition is found in the statistics showing annual consumption of wooden shingles. It has remained about stationary in the past four years, whereas the demands for roofing materials of all kinds have been increasing from year to year. Very little has been done until recently in the way of concerted effort to meet this competition. Efficient and widespread advertising, more careful methods of manufacture and the adoption of and adherence to stricter standards should be of material assistance in maintaining the demands for the wooden shingle. Most of the substitutes are much more expensive and in addition require heavier construction in the building because of their additional weight. Moreover, wooden shingles, particularly cedar, cypress and redwood, are more durable as a rule than the other materials. Probably the most effective means of combating this question is the fireproofmg of the wooden shingle. Many experiments have been car- ried out .with this purpose in view; but no method has been generally adopted as yet in the commercial field. The U. S. Forest Products Laboratory has developed experimentally a method which may prove to be commercially practicable. Air-dried shingles are subjected to a treatment with a solution of borax in water. The shingles are kiln dried to a moisture content of 10 per cent and then treated with a solution of zinc chloride and dried. It has been determined that shingles subjected to this treatment still retain their fire-resistant qualities after soaking them in running water for two weeks. Wooden shingles have the following distinct advantages : They are durable, relatively cheap, light in weight and therefore require only light support ; they do not rust or corrode ; wood is an excellent non-conductor of heat; they are not affected by the wind if laid and nailed properly; they present a pleasing appearance and are easily laid. DURABILITY AND PREVENTION OF DECAY The value of any shingle wood depends very largely upon its durabil- ity. The durability in turn of shingles is dependent upon a number of factors, the chief of which are the species of wood, climate in which they. are in service, pitch of the roof, size of the face of the shingles SHINGLES AND SHAKES 369 exposed to the weather, the thickness of the shingle, the method of laying, and last, but very important, the fire hazard involved. The length of service varies considerably with the different species of woods used for shingles. The following shows the approximate service that the principal shingle woods should give under average con- ditions: Species. Length of Life. Cedar (western red and northern and southern white) 1 5 to 30 years Cypress 15 to 30 Southern yellow pine 6 to 1 2 Redwood 12 to 25 White pine 12 to 20 Chestnut 15 to 25 Western pine 8 to 12 Hemlock 7 to 12 " Spruce 7 to 1 1 Shakes, which, as a rule, are much thicker than shingles, will last much longer than the periods given above. Split or cut shingles always last longer than sawn shingles. Instances are on record of cedar, cypress, and redwood shingles lasting for from thirty to fifty years or more, but this is an unusual exception. Decay is caused chiefly by water, the accumulation of moss and debris on the rqof, splitting, warping, etc. The use of preservatives has been widely introduced to prevent decay. The following methods, briefly enumerated, are the principal processes of preventing decay. Along with the prevention of decay various stains and preservatives are used to lend attractiveness to the appearance of the structure when used with various coloring agents. 1. Dipping. This is the most common method, the shingles being merely dipped in the preservative, and nailed to the roof. The shingles should be thoroughly air dried before dipping, and the preservative should be applied warm or hot. The exposed part of the shingle only, is clipped. They are usually given a final coating of preservative after being laid. Preservatives used are creosote, carbolineum and various patent forms. 2. Brush treatment. This is a cheap and less efficient method in which the shingles are merely painted with a preservative, after being laid. Paint aids chiefly in keeping shingles flat and preventing leaks. 3. Impregnation. This is the most efficient method, in which the 370 FOREST PRODUCTS shingles are treated by the open tank process, about 10 Ib. of preserva- tive being applied to each bundle of shingles. The absorption should not be so great as to cause the running of preservative oil from the shingle on unusually warm days. 4. Staining. Stains are usually some compound of creosote applied to the shingle. They are not very efficient and also have a strong objec- tionable odor. The following costs are customarily involved in the preservative treatment of shingles: Impregnation with creosote (open tank or pressure treat- ment), per thousand $i . 25 to i . 75 Dipping in creosote, per thousand 60 to i . 50 Shingle stains, per gallon , .. .40 to i .00 Brush treatment, once after laying, per 100 sq. ft . 60 to i . oo Brush treated, twice after laying, per 100 sq. ft .4° to .90 SHAKE MAKING Shakes are split shingles and were in very common use up to the advent of the sawed shingle. In remote forest regions shakes are still made and used for roofing and siding mountain cabins and other build- ings. Wherever transportation facilities are provided, sawed shingles compete successfully with shakes as they can be produced much cheaper. Shakes are now made in isolated mountain regions in California, the Northwest, and in the southern Appalachian Mountains. In Cal- ifornia many shakes are now made for tray bottoms, used in the drying of fruits such as raisins, prunes, and apricots. The practice is rapidly going out of existence, however. Shake making is generally condemned because it is extremely wasteful of timber. Only the very best and most straight-grained trees which are free from knots and other defects will rive. The shake maker, therefore, often lowers the value of a forest stand in a serious way by taking out only the largest and clearest timber of which only a small portion is utilized. The experienced shake maker looks over the best trees and takes a test chip or block out of one side of a tree. He continues this until he finds a tree of the proper riving qualities. Sugar pine, redwood, and western red cedar make excellent shake timber and all are commonly used in inaccessible districts of the West where these trees are found. In the Southern Appalachians, chest- SHINGLES AND SHAKES 371 nut, white oak and red oak are sometimes used, but the industry is rapidly diminishing both because of the development of the country and the lack of suitable and cheap timber. When a tree is found that will rive, it is felled, swamped and bucked up into blocks the length of the shakes. The blocks are next set on end for bolting. Circles the width of the shake are marked out on the face of the block, the center which has a diameter of from 3 to 6 in., being culled as it is too knotty. Next, the shakes are marked out in outline form so that they can be split out along the radius. Shakes split out along the quarter grain in this fashion are much stronger and more durable. The sapwood is usually trimmed off and only the heartwood taken. Photograph by U. S. forest St FIG. 97. — About 100,000 shakes made from five sugar pine trees in the Sierra National Forest, California. These sold at $4.00 per thousand. Shake making is exceedingly wasteful and is rapidly going out of practice. After the shakes are diagrammed on the face of the block they are split out. The shake maker uses the following tools: A cross-cut saw, axe, maul or mallet, i or 2 wedges, and a frow. The frow consists of a steel blade 6 to 10 in. long with a wooden handle at right angles to the blade. It is usually made locally in a blacksmith shop and has a rather thick wedge edge. They cost from $.75 to $1.00 or more. With a frow and a wooden maul the bolts are first quartered, and then split up into suitable sized bolts for riving into shakes. Immediately after splitting the 372 FOREST PRODUCTS shakes are piled in fours, crib fashion and thoroughly seasoned before being used or hauled to the market. As a rule, roof shakes are 32 in. in length, 5 in. wide and YQ °f an inch thick. Tray shakes are generally 2 ft. long, 6 or more inches in width, and | in. thick. In California, it is estimated that each roof shake con- tains about A ft., board measure, and each tray shake about \ ft., board measure. Only about 4000 roof shakes are made from each thousand board-feet of the tree actually used. About 25 per cent of the available saw timber of the trees taken for shake making is wasted. This por- tion is not used because of knots, cross-grain, sap wood, and defects of various kinds. The following costs of production have been observed in California. The usual selling price for roof shakes sold at the point of making runs between $6.00 and $8.00 per thousand shakes. Operation. Cost per M Shakes. Felling and trimming $o. 10 to $o. 12 Bucking i . 25 to i . 60 Riving i . 80 to 2 . 10 Piling . 10 to .10 Baling (including wire) 15 to . 15 Piling debris ... . 15 to . 22 Stumpage i 25 to i . 60 Total per thousand $4 . 80 to $5 . 89 Tray shakes for use in the California valleys are commonly split out, but they are also sawed out at so-called tray mills. The operation is practically the same as in making roof shakes, but the operator is not so particular about the type of timber taken. Tray shakes are, as a rule, much longer, wider and thicker than roof shakes, and are sometimes graded into first and second classes. Tray mills which saw their product sometimes turn out from 12,000 to 16,000 tray boards per day. They bring from $13.00 to $15.00 or more per thousand delivered at the rail- road. BIBLIOGRAPHY BERRY, SWIFT. Shake Making and Tray Mills in California National Forests. Forestry Quarterly, No. 3, Vol. n, 1913. KNAPP, J. B. and A. G. JACKSON. Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest. Reprint from the West Coast Lumberman, 1914. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 373 MATTOON, W. R. The Southern Cypress. U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 272. National Lumber Manufacturers' Association. Conference with the Federal Trade Commission. December, 1915. Miscellaneous Articles in the Timberman, the West Coast Lumberman, the Lumber World Review, the American Lumberman and the Canada Lumberman. SHIXX. C. H. Shakes and Shake Baking in a California National Forest. No. 2, Vol. 4, Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. U. S. Bureau of Census. Lumber, Lath and Shingles, 1912. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Production of Lumber. Lath and Shingles in 1917. Bull. 768. WEISS, H. F. Preservation of Strcutural Timber. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. Chap. 14. CHAPTER XVIII MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT THE making of syrup and sugar from the sap of the maple trees was discovered and developed in a very crude way by the Indians long before the first white settlers came to this country. Interesting passages from the journals of early explorers refer to the tapping of the maple trees in the early spring throughout the St. Lawrence Valley and the northeastern part of this country. The earliest extant written record seems to be in 1673. Many legends have been handed down to the white settlers concerning the first discovery of the use of the maple sap by the Indians. They tapped the tree by making a sharp incision in the bark or in one of the larger roots and collected the sap by conveying it by means of a reed or a curved piece of bark into a receptacle made of clay or bark. The journal of a white settler captured by the Indians in 1755 tells of a large trough of 100 gal. capacity made of elm bark which was used for the collection and the storage of maple sap. The early settlers quickly took up the process and made many improvements in the way of receptacles and utensils. The Indians had boiled down the sap by repeatedly dropping hot stones into it. They had also learned to convert the sap into sugar by allowing it to freeze in shallow vessels, the ice being skimmed off and thrown away and this process continued until the sap was sufficiently refined to crystallize. Although the same general method was followed, little marked improve- ments were made by the early colonists. The axe was used to cut a diagonal notch in the tree and later a circular hole was cut, followed by the use of the spile or spout to convey the sap into a bucket. Iron or copper vessels were substituted for the crude bark or wooden troughs or hollowed logs. Still later the trees were tapped by the use of an auger, holes being bored an inch or more in diameter in which were inserted hollow or half round spiles of sumach or alder. The sap was collected in wooden buckets, and more recently galvanized iron and tin buckets came into common use. 374 MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 375 The " boiling down " or evaporation process in the early days was also very crude. It was done in the open woods with no shelter from sun, wind, rain or snow. The resultant impurities from this lack of pro- tection meant a very inferior grade of product. Frequently a pole was stretched between two forked posts and from this an old-fashioned potash kettle was suspended over an open fire. Sometimes a long, heavy pole supported by a post or the crotch of a tree and balanced at the other end with weights was used. The latter method permitted the kettle to be swung over or away from the fire. As the sap was boiled down the impurities were skimmed off. When it was boiled down to the Photoyraph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 98. — The old primitive and wasteful method of tapping sugar maples used by the Indians and sometimes by the early settlers. The rough-hewn receptacle and wooden trough have been replaced by the covered bucket and the iron spout. proper consistency, or to a thin syrup, it was stored in a vessel and the process repeated with fresh sap. Very often the syrup resembled a tarry mass; dark, heavy, and exceedingly inferior in quality in com- parison to the modern product. The work of making the syrup into sugar is known as "sugaring off." This was accomplished by continued boiling until the syrup attained a waxy consistency when dropped in the snow. It was then poured immediately into small moulds where it crystallized into sugar. 376 FOREST PRODUCTS Succeeding the suspended iron kettle came the open furnace, built of flat stones or brick with grates placed over them and space provided for from four to six kettles. The next step was the use of the boiling pans which varied in width from 30 in. to 3 ft., in length from 6 to 10 ft., and only about 6 in. deep. These pans came into use about the middle of the last century. In 1865 pans with partitions to produce an alter- nating flow of sap were introduced and rapidly adopted. The latter made possible the gradual flow of sap from one side to the other through succeeding compartments until it finally emerged in the form of syrup. This principle is incorporated in the modern evaporators, which have been in common use for the past forty years and which are used in con- nection with all of the larger commercial sugar orchards. They have a capacity of converting from 25 to 400 gal. of sap into syrup in an hour. The modern evaporators are usually from 2 to 6 ft. in width, 4 to 8 in. deep, and from 6 to 24 ft. long with corrugated bottoms to increase the heating surface. The rate of flow through the compartments is obvi- ously of the greatest importance. Most of the present models use automatic regulators by which the flow of sap from the tank or reservoir increases or diminishes with the heat underneath the pan. The evap- orator is always operated now in a sugar house conveniently located to the maple orchard. Its use will be more fully explained later in this chapter. As the evolution of the modern evaporator came about in gradual improvements, so the methods of collecting the sap and maintaining the sugar grove progressed from time to time. At first the sap was gath- ered in wooden buckets and carried by hand to the kettle or sugar house. Then a barrel on a sled drawn by horses or oxen was used as larger groves were tapped. The most modern improvements are exemplified in a system of pipes which convey the sap directly by gravity to the storage tanks along the roadside or to the sugar house. One large Adirondack sugar bush used a narrow gauge railway for bringing the sap from the woods to the sugar house. Another great advance in the industry has been in the cleanliness of the methods of tapping, gathering and manufacturing of both syrup and sugar and, therefore, in the purity of the product. At the present time, covers or lids are used on the pails hung on the trees on most of the up- to-date operations. Formerly rain, snow, leaves, twigs, pieces of bark, etc., fell in. Boiling was practiced in the open and here the same oppor- tunity was afforded for impurities to fall in. The lightest colored sugar and syrup are only derived from the purest sap and by the use of the most MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 377 sanitary utensils and methods. The purest product secures the best prices on the market so it is considered of the highest importance to use the most sanitary methods in every respect. It must not be assumed from the foregoing that all our maple sugar and syrup are made with the use of the evaporator and other up-to-date methods. Only the larger commercial operations tapping from 50 or 100 up to several thousand trees every year can afford these improve- ments. Both products are made on most of the farms in the Northeast where sugar maples are available, but on many places only a compara- Phvtograph t>jt U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 99. — The old-fashioned method of reducing the sap to syrup by " boiling down " in copper kettles in the woods. The modern evaporator has replaced this method in large sugar bushes because it is more efficient and sanitary. lively few trees are tapped and the syrup and sugar made in the home kitchen and only for home use. In the early colonial days, maple sugar was made as an article of food. With the advent of cane sugar, it ceased to be an important necessary commodity on the markets and is now classed as a luxury. The demand for both sugar and syrup as luxuries has kept the industry alive and it is on the steady increase. However, in spite of the strong demand, the production has remained about stationary for the past two decades or more because of the large amount of adulteration. It is estimated that approximately seven-eighths of the total product is adulterated before it reaches the ultimate consumer. The increase in demand, therefore, 378 FOREST PRODUCTS results in the use of more adulterants so that the producers do not profit from this strong demand. Organizations to combat this evil and to place their product directly in the hands of the consumer, as well as to standardize and advertise their product, have done much good work, notably among them being the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers' Associa- tion, organized in 1893. The growers, consequently, do not like to sell their product to these " mixers," as they are called, and prefer to sell the sugar and syrup direct. This results both in protecting the trade against a spurious product and in bringing in more returns for their work. SPECIES OF MAPLES USED There are about 70 species of maples distributed over the world, of which Sargent recognizes 13 species or varieties as growing in the United States. The most important in the making of sugar and syrup is the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) which also goes by the names of hard or rock maple. Probably between 80 and 90 per cent of all the maple sugar and syrup is made from this tree. All of the other native maples yield a sweetish sap, but only a few of them are capable of producing sugar on a commercial scale. Sugar Maple. The sugar maple is found throughout the eastern part of the United States, but for the production of sugar and syrup it does best in western New England, New York, Pennsylvania, the northern Appalachians, northern Ohio and the Lake States. The southern varieties of sugar maple, namely, A. jloridanum and A. leucoderme, do not yield sugar or syrup. Throughout its northern habitat, the sugar maple is one of the most prominent trees in the forest, growing in mixture particularly with yellow birch and beech and on the higher elevations with spruce. It has a very wide range of soil requirements and is found both on moist, well- drained soils as well as on gravelly, dry hillsides. It is classed as a tolerant tree so that its crown is rather deep and broad even when growing in close association with other trees or under the shade of other dominant specimens. Sugar maple sometimes reaches a height of from 100 to 120 ft. although it commonly grows to a height of from 60 to 80 ft. Its diameter averages between 14 and 24 in. and it is said to occasionally reach 4 ft. in diameter. It is a very slow growing tree and frequently reaches an age of between three hundred and four hundred years. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 379 This tree is readily planted in the form of new groves and it is easily reproduced naturally so that, in spite of its slow rate of growth, there will always be little difficulty in maintaining sugar groves for the future of this industry. Black Maple. The black maple (Acer nigrum) which is sometimes recognized as a variety of sugar maple, also occurs throughout the North and Ejist, but commercial production of maple sugar and syrup is limited to the Northeast as in the case of the true sugar maple. In Vermont the black maple is commonly considered superior to the sugar maple as a pro- ducer of high quality as well as large quantity of sap. In general appear- ance .and characteristics, it is very similar to the sugar maple and is usually found on lower elevations and along the banks of streams and in the lower valleys. Red Maple. This maple (Acer rubrum) has a wider natural range than any of the other maples found in this country. It grows best along the borders of streams and in swampy soils. It is a much more rapidly growing tree but does not reach the size, either in height or diameter, of the sugar maple. It is used for sugar production in the Middle and Western States to a limited extent, but its sap is very low in yield of both syrup and sugar. Silver Maple. The silver maple (Acer saccharinuni) is found from New Brunswick to Florida and west to the central prairies. It commonly grows along with the sugar maple, but altogether prefers the low lands bordering swamps and streams. It yields a plentiful flow of sap, but it is very likely to discoloration and its season is very short and uncertain. It is seldom used when sugar or black maples are available. It grows to a good size, but does not occur as frequently as the three maples mentioned above. It is not likely that it will ever be an important source of syrup and sugar production. Other Maples. The other maples, such as the Oregon maple (Acer circinatum), mountain maple (Acer spicatum), striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum) , box elder (Acer negundo), etc., are of no importance in this industry. It is of the greatest importance that the best forest conditions are maintained in the sugar grove. The sap and sugar production is directly 380 FOREST PRODUCTS proportionate to the leaf area of the trees and it is said that this leaf area is of greater importance than the amount of light the leaves receive. Each tree, therefore, should have full room for development consistent with the largest available number of trees per acre. At the sample time the crown canopy of the trees should be sufficiently dense to prevent the growth of grass underneath and to maintain a good covering of humus and leaves on the ground. The gradual northern spring with cold nights, warmer days and slow yield of frost from the ground are conducive to a long and continuous flow of sap. Sudden thaws and rapid changes of temperature are injurious to this flow. The ground should be kept as moist as possible under the humus covering. A good blanket of snow gradually melting off helps very materially to keep the soil moist and, therefore, to induce the maximum flow of sap. The careful nurturing of the young maples, the thinning and improve- ment of the grove, etc., are silvicultural problems which are deserving and receiving more and more attention from the sugar makers. Some growers even advise the sowing of 500 Ib. of nitrate of soda per acre to induce vigorous leaf growth and, therefore, sweeter and more sap during the following spring. ANNUAL PRODUCTION It is estimated that an equivalent of about 45,000,000 Ib. of maple sugar are annually made in this country. This is based upon the assump- tion that all sap is made into sugar. The annual production of maple sugar and syrup reached the height of its importance in 1860. At this time the cane sugar came into com- petition with it as a food commodity. In 1870, as a result of this com- petition, the production fell heavily but rose again in 1880 and remained about the same in 1890. About this time both syrup and sugar came into strong demand as table luxuries and this demand stimulated its production very materially. In 1900 there were produced about 12,000,000 Ib. of sugar valued at $1,074,260 and 2,056,611 gal. of syrup valued at $1,562,451. In 1909 the value of the sugar and syrup crop was $2,541,098. There has been a distinct tendency in the production to fall off in those parts of the country where sugar was produced for home consumption only, whereas in regions where the industry is of larger commercial importance, it has increased in considerable amounts. For example, in Vermont, New York and northern Ohio, the industry has made rapid strides within the MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 381 past five years through a strong demand for the products, organization of the growers and more stringent laws to prevent adulteration without proper labeling. In 1909 there were produced 14,060,206 Ib. of sugar and 4,106,418 gal. of syrup. The great majority of these products are made in Vermont, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan and New Hampshire, listed in order of importance. These states supply about 95 per cent of the sugar and over 80 per cent of the syrup. Vermont is said to specialize more in sugar while Ohio turns most of its production into syrup. New York engages in the production of both syrup and sugar without dis- crimination. Other states passively engaged in the work are Indiana, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Maine, West Virginia and Maryland. The census for 1909 shows a number of other states such as Iowa, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Illinois, Nebraska, North Carolina , Virginia and others, but the total number of trees tapped and products made in them are of very little importance. . In 1909 there were over 18,899,533 trees tapped valued at $5,177,809. A census of the more important sugar orchards in Vermont showed the average orchard to contain a little over 1000 trees. It is generally understood that by a sugar bush one means a grove where at least 100 buckets are installed. In New York some of the sugar groves contain between 8000 and 17,000 buckets, although the usual sugar orchard runs between 300 and 1500 buckets. Practically every county in Vermont engages in the industry on a commercial scale. The leading counties in order of production in this state in 1914 were Orleans, Franklin, Caledonia, Lamoille, Windham, Washington and Orange. The leading centers in New York are in St. Lawrence and Franklin and Lewis Counties, the Sara toga- Warren County section, the Delaware-Schoharie County unit and Cattaraugus- Chautauqua County unit. Geauga County is the center of production in Ohio. CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS In the establishment of an operation for making syrup and sugar within the natural range of sugar and black maple, where sap flows in commercial quantities, there are several considerations which should be kept in mind. It is assumed that in engaging in the work on a com- mercial scale the purchase of modern equipment such as evaporator, sugaring-off arch, tin buckets and covers, etc., is included. 382 FOREST PRODUCTS These considerations may be summarized as follows: 1. There should be trees enough for at least 100 buckets. The larger the number of buckets above this minimum the greater is the profit per bucket. 2. There should be at least from 60 to 80 trees or more per acre large enough to be tapped. The individual tree should be preferably well formed, with deep crowns and of good size. 3. The trees should lie on gentle or sloping topography from which the sap can be collected on a sled with little difficulty. Although trees on southerly slopes run earliest in the season, there is no indication that they yield more sap than trees on other exposures. 4. Very little capital is necessary to engage in the work, as the manu- facturers of equipment usually allow the growers to pay for this invest- ment out of the annual profits of the business. Other important considerations bearing upon the financial aspects of the making of syrup and sugar are: (a) No skilled labor of any kind is required; the work being done by the farmer and his family and hirec} help unless the groves are of the largest sizes. Three men can look after the work of tapping the trees and gathering the sap on an orchard of 2000 trees or less, while it requires only one man to look after the evap- orator, (b) The sugar season comes at a time of the year when the regular work of the farm is least active, thus giving the men an oppor- tunity to give most of their time to it. Under average conditions the gathering of the sap is finished by the middle of the afternoon and one man is left to complete the work of making syrup or sugar until the last of the day's sap is run through the evaporator. SAP FLOW AND SEASON The flow of sap from the maple tree has not been thoroughly under- stood until comparatively recent years. Many investigations have been carried on by the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station which thor- oughly cleared up a number of doubtful points. Maple sap ordinarily contains from 2 to 6 per cent of sugar with an average, under all conditions, of about 3 per cent. The sap is composed largely of water, and the other component part sbesides sugar are various mineral ingredients such as lime, potash, iron, magnesia and certain vegetable acids. It is the alternate freezing and thawing, peculiar to the climatic conditions in the early spring throughout the Northeast, that is most conducive to commercial sap flow. Moderately warm days and cold MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 383 nights below the freezing point are considered best in Vermont, and it is current opinion that a temperature of 25° F. during the night and a maximum of 55° F. during the day, with damp, northerly or westerly winds are the conditions under which the best flow is obtained. These changes of temperature cause a certain expansion and contraction of the gases within the cells and intercellular spaces in the wood which results in an alternate pressure and suction. During the sugar season this force varies from a suction of 2 Ib. per square inch at night to a pressure of about 20 Ib. per square inch during the day. The commercial flow of sap ordinarily runs from about the middle of March until about the middle of April in the region from Vermont to northern New York, inclusive. In Ohio and western New York the season is usually from late in February to early in April. The beginning of the sap season, of course, is determined wholly by the weather and the latitudes. Records show that the flow has commenced as early as the first of February and as late as the early part of April in the Northeast. The following records were obtained in Ohio from 1880 to 1912 by a sugar grower who kept an actual record of the opening and closing date of each season:1 Year. °8gg« Closing Number Date. of Days. Year. Opening Date. Closing i Number Date. of Days. 1880 Feb. 24 Apr. i 37 1897 Mar. 9 Mar. 9 23 1 88 1 Mar. 9 Apr. 16 38 1898 Mar. 3 Apr. ii 39 1882 Mar. 2 Apr. i 30 1899 Feb. 20 Apr. ii 50 1883 Mar. i Apr. 10 41 1900 Mar. 8 Apr. . 14 37 1884 Mar. 12 Apr. 14 33 igoi1 1885 Mar. 27 Apr. 18 22 1902 Mar. 7 Apr. 6 30 1886 Mar. 15 Apr. n 27 1903 Feb. 26 Mar. 15 17 1887 Mar. 2 Apr. 9 38 1904 Mar. 2 Apr. 6 34 1888 Feb. 21 Apr. 10 50 1905 Mar. 16 Mar. 29 13 1889 Mar. ir Apr. 9 29 1906 Feb. 13 Apr. 2 48 1890 Feb. 17 Apr. 7 49 1907 Mar. 14 Mar. 23 9 1891 Feb. 13 Apr. 1 1 57 1908 Mar. 5 Mar. 26 21 1892 Feb. 22 Mar. 30 37 I9091 i893 Mar. 7 Apr. 3 27 igio1 . 1894 Feb. 27 Apr. 7 39 1911 Feb. i 6 Apr. 4 47 i895 Mar. 23 Apr. 12 20 1912 Mar. 17 Apr. 9 24 1896 Feb. 27 Apr. 10 43 1 No records were taken in this year. The longest run on this record is fifty-seven days and the shortest only nine days. The average is thirty-four days. The season ends 1 See " The Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar," by A. H. Bryan and W. F. Hubbard, Farmers' Bulletin 516, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1912, p. 20. 384 FOREST PRODUCTS when the leaf buds begin to swell. The season, of course, begins earlier in the South than in the North. Professor J. L. Hills, Director of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, has determined in his inves- tigations of sap flow many interesting findings, the chief of which may be summarized as follows: 1. The amount of sap flow from a tree under given conditions is directly in proportion to the leaf area and the amount of sunshine it receives. The starch is stored in certain sap wood cells during the preceding summer and through the action of enzymes is transformed from starch into sugar. The alternate freezing and thawing causes expansion and contraction which, with the large amount of moisture drawn up from the roots, excites pressure at the tap hole. Trees in the open with wide, deep crowns, therefore, give much more and richer sap than forest grown specimens with long, straight boles and small shallow crowns. A tree 15 in. in diameter and 50 ft. in height was determined to have 162,000 leaves. This leaf space is equivalent to 14,930 sq. ft. in area representing about one-third of an acre. The weight of the water in the leaves in this tree is estimated to be 242.2 Ib. and the total water content of the tree is set at 1220.57 Ib. 2. No more sugar or syrup is obtained by tapping on the branchy or south side of the tree. The compass direction makes no apparent difference in the yield of sap, sugar or syrup. A healthy and fresh por- tion of the bark indicates the best place in which to tap a tree. 3. Most of the sap flow comes from the first 3 in. of sap wood. Deep tap holes, therefore, are not considered best. Tapping is seldom done now to a depth of more than i\ in. It was determined that in a tap hole 6 in. deep, four-fifths of the sugar came from the first 3 in. Deep tap- ping does not compensate for the extra labor of boring and increased injury to the tree. 4. The best point at which to tap a tree is about 4 ft. from the ground. This point yields both more sap and better quality sap than lower or higher elevations. An experiment showed that 51 per cent of the total yield of sugar came from a tap 4 ft. from the ground, whereas only 27 per cent came from a root tap and only 22 per cent from a higher tap hole. 5. The best size of tap hole is from f to f of an inch. Seven-eighths of an inch is the size most commonly in use to-day. Generally speaking, the larger the tap hole the more sap and sugar for the time being will be yielded. However, the smaller size holes yield practically as much sap and the hole will rapidly heal over so that the tree is not materially injured. In all cases the tap hole should be cut by a short bit, should MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 385 be cleaned of all shavings and borings before the spout is inserted and the bark should be left intact. 6. Sap pressure exists on all sides of the tap hole. That is, the pres- sure from above and below is the same and the flow of sap from the side also shows the same amount of pressure. 7. Most of the sap flow occurs between the hours of 9 A.M. and noon. Over an extended period 63 per cent of the total sugar was con- tained in the sap which ran before noon. After 3 P.M. there is very little flow if any at all. 8. The removal of the sap from the tree does not seem to have any material effect on its growing ability or general health conditions. Assuming that 3 Ib. of sugar are made to the tree, only from 4 to 9 per cent, according to the size of the tree, of the total sugar contained is removed. 9. Buddy sap, which is the common term applied to the green sap collected toward the end of the season and from which a resultant red- dish syrup is made, is commonly attributed to the swell of the buds. Investigation shows that this is caused by the development of a certain group of bacteria. These micro-organisms infect the sap as it flows out of the tap hole and while in the spouts and buckets. This infection increases with the sugar season and is the cause of the souring of sap and the buddy flavors which are common in syrups made at the termina- tion of the season. This tendency may be eliminated and the quality of the product much improved by observing the following: (a) By keeping the spouts and buckets thoroughly clean by wash- ing often and regularly. (b) By using metal spouts and buckets instead of wooden ones. (c) By collecting the sap frequently and boiling it as soon as pos- sible after collection. WOODS OPERATIONS Tapping Trees and Distribution of Buckets. Tapping should take place just before the season opens. A sharp bit should be used since a dull, rusty one leaves the hole rough. Smooth- surfaced cuts always give best results. The tap hole should not be over 3 in. deep and a depth of from 2 to i\ in. is considered best since this depth will completely grow over in a year and heal itself. The best diameter is now considered to be YS m-> although holes of from } to f of an inch or more are used. 386 FOREST PRODUCTS Immediately after tapping, the spout is inserted. Care should be used to remove all chips, bark, etc., from the hole, before inserting the spout. It should be done immediately, followed by the hanging of the pail. In long or intermittent flowing seasons, when the tap holes are likely to be contaminated, the holes should be reamed out once, using a reamer Photograph by U. 'S. Forest Service. FIG. 100. — Tapping a sugar maple in the Adirondacks at Horseshoe, New York. Y§ in. larger than the original tap hole. This cleans the exposed surface of all slimy substance and induces stronger flow. There has been considerable discussion regarding the number of taps per tree. There is no question but that overtapping not only impairs the life of the tree, but seriously interferes with tapping during suc- ceeding years. The writer knows of one very large tree on which 30 buckets were hung in one year. The ensuing year the tree sickened MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 387 and died. The following table shows the number of taps that should be used, depending upon the size of the tree: Diameter of Tree in Inches. Number of Taps. 8 to 12 I 12 to 16 2 16 to 24 3 24 and up 4 or more Some prominent owners of large sugar groves advocate the tapping of only one hole in each tree during a season. Tapping should be done in the thrifty part of the tree where the bark looks best. It is commonly done on the southern side of the tree because that side warms up the earliest in the season and the first sap flow is considered best, but experiments show that under average weather condi- tions, the flow of sap is equal on all sides. It is always advisable to avoid tapping near an old tap scar. Two men working together will tap and hang about 400 to 500 buck- ets per day working from eight to nine hours per day. The cost, there- fore, of the distribution of buckets and of tapping is about i cent per bucket. There are at least twelve different kinds of metal sap spouts or spiles on the market. They cost from $2.00 to $3.00 per hundred and for each particular brand there are special advantages claimed. They have displaced the old sumach or alder or half round wooden spiles except on the smallest and most inaccessible orchards. The general principles involved in the selection of a satisfactory spout may be summarized as follows: 1. It must provide for an easy and maximum flow of sap. 2. It must hold firmly in the tree and not only support the bucket and cover but it must be attached and removed easily and the bucket must be held in such a position that it may be emptied without unhooking it from spout. Buckets should never be hung from a nail. 3. It should be placed in the hole in a level position and must not be driven in deep enough to split either bark or wood, and yet it must pre- vent leakage. 4. It should exclude the air and prevent drying out at the end of the first run of sap. 5. It must be inserted in and withdrawn from the tap hole with the least difficulty. 388 FOREST PRODUCTS On many of the most modern operations, after the spout is taken out at the end of the season, the tap holes are plugged with cork stoppers. During the following growing season the hole readily heals over with a fresh layer of wood and bark. The flaring rust-proof tin buckets of 13- and i6-qt. capacity are rapidly superseding the old wooden bucket. They are hung, together with the covers, directly on the spout. The flare shape is used to prevent ice from breaking them. Galvanized iron is never used because of the ooisonous nature of the metals used in galvanizing. The advantages of the tin over the wooden buckets are: 1. They do not dry up and leak. 2. They can be easily rinsed and cleaned after each run. FIG. 101. — Modern tin pails with covers to keep the sap free of rain, bark, twigs, and other impurities. Photograph taken at Hardwick, Vermont. 3. They do not soak up sap and sour the contents as the wooden buckets do, unless frequently scalded. 4. The tin bucket is durable, light in weight and when nested they are compactly stored. The i3-quart rust-proof tin buckets cost from $25 to $30 per hundred depending upon the number purchased. The covers cost about $8.00 to $9.00 per hundred. Collection of Sap. Preliminary to the work of tapping the trees, setting the buckets and the gathering of the sap, haul roads are customarily broken through the snow so that as soon as tapping is commenced, preparations can be made to bring in the sap immediately. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 389 Gathering was formerly done entirely by hand, the men going from tree to tree with buckets into which the new sap was poured from the pails hanging on the trees. This was a slow and laborious method and with the development of larger commercial operations, especially in sugar groves where the number of trees tapped range from 1000 or more, a gathering tank of from 25 to 160 gal. capacity is placed on a sled which Photograph by U. S. forest Scrticc. FIG. 102. — A recent development in the maple sugar and syrup industry — a pipe line to conduct the sap directly from the forest to the sugar house. Note also the modem covered buckets. is drawn about by a team. The gathering tank should be of metal, preferably of tin or galvanized iron and provided with some form of strainer at the top to keep out such impurities as leaves, twigs, etc., and also to prevent the contents from spilling out. Haul roads are laid out on a systematic basis with reference to reaching the largest number of trees from the coves and draws and with reference to the location of the sugar house. Pipe lines are now used to some extent in the larger 390 FOREST PRODUCTS sugar orchards under such favorable conditions as large numbers of trees, rather steep topography and a central location for the sugar house. Narrow gauge railroads have been used, but this is an extreme refinement which will never be adopted to any extent. Under ordinary conditions two men and one team work together. This crew will gather the sap from 500 buckets per day, making two col- lections during the day. The men pour the sap directly into gathering buckets which are emptied into the tank on the sled. Gathering should be done as frequently as possible and the sap should always be taken up after from 2 to 4 qt. of sap flow. The leaving of sap in buckets too long results in discolored sap, which means a low grade of syrup. It costs about $50 per season for gathering sap on a bush of 500 buckets. MANUFACTURE OF SYRUP AND SUGAR The Sugar House. In laying out a new operation, the first consideration is the location, size and equipment of the sugar camp or sugar house and its cost. These FIG. 103.— A typical sugar house in the "sugar bush." A large pile of dry wood is available for heating the evaporator under the shed at the right. are determined, in turn, by the number of trees to be tapped. In an orchard containing 500 buckets or more, it must be located with refer- ence to the minimum length of sap haul on one of the principal woods roads. The house should be placed on a well-drained slope to permit the emptying of the gathering tank by gravity into the storage tank. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 391 It should never be built in a cold, damp hollow where a poor draft will be afforded the chimney. For a camp of 500 buckets, the house should be about 14 by 20 ft. in ground plan, with 8-ft. posts, rough siding, ventilator at the ridge and paper roofing. This may be constructed for from $75 to $150, depending upon cost of materials and labor and method of construction. This will provide nicely for a 3 by 1 2 ft. evaporator. For larger operations and where further refinements are justified, a house with two compartments and a separate woodshed, with brick or concrete paving on the floor, a well-equipped work bench and provision for maintaining an even temperature and avoiding drafts are considered advisable. Where sugaring-off is practiced a two-compartment house is usually required. The primary requisites in the construction and oper- ation of the sugar house are comparative inexpensiveness, convenience and cleanliness. FueL Well-seasoned wood, split rather fine and prepared well in advance, should be kept stacked in the woodshed adjoining the evaporator room. Some makers use the old fence rails and odd pieces of wood picked up in the grove. It should preferably be cut in the spring so it will have a whole summer season in which to thoroughly dry out. It usually requires about 8 face cords of 2-ft. wood or 4 full cords (of 128 cu. ft. each) to evaporate the sap from about 500 buckets, or expressed in other words, about 6400 gal. On many of the Vermont operations it is commonly considered that it requires i cord of wood to provide suf- ficient heat to make 300 Ib. of sugar. For the larger evaporators, some of the operators estimate that they use a full cord every day. The cost of cutting, hauling and ricking the fuel wood in the wood- shed is usually figured at from $2.00 to $2.75 per full cord. Equipment and its Cost. Many of the smallest groves operated for home consumption still use the old-fashioned methods such as wooden buckets and spouts and boil down the sap in a kettle on the kitchen stove. The minimum number of buckets with which modern equipment is used is about 40. It is doubtful, however, if such a small operation would ordinarily justify the rather large initial expenditure involved. For this work the following equipment is recommended: 392 FOREST PRODUCTS A sugaring-off arch and pan which serves the purpose of an evaporator as well $27 . oo 40 sap spouts with hooks at $2.75 per hundred i . 10 40 i6-qt. buckets at $29 per hundred 1 1 . 60 40 bucket covers at $8.75 per hundred 3-5° i thermometer 1.25 i strainer i . 50 One TS-in. tapping bit .25 One ^-in. reamer .- .• .50 Total $46. 70 Gathering and storage tanks are not usually used in such small outfits as this. It is generally considered in the industry that it scarcely pays to engage in the work with modern equipment unless one has a bush of at least 100 buckets. The necessary outfit required for a 5oo-bucket sugar bush equipped only for making syrup is as follows: COST OF EQUIPMENT Evaporator — capacity 90 gal. sap per hour $145 .00 500 buckets — rust proof at $27.00 per hundred 135 .00 500 bucket covers at $8.00 per hundred 40.00 500 spouts at $2.75 per hundred 13 . 75 Gathering tank at i6o-gal. capacity 20.00 i lo-bbl. capacity storage tank 15 .00 Thermometer, dipper, skimmer, strainer 3-25 One pair of gathering pails 2 . 50 200 i-gal. syrup cans 24 . oo Total $401 . oo With good care this equipment should last twenty years or more. It is at once evident that the cost of operation and equipment per bucket decreases as the number of buckets increases. For example, in the above estimate, by dividing the total cost of initial equipment by the number of buckets, the cost per bucket is $.802 ($40 1-^-500 = $.802 per bucket), whereas in an orchard of 2000 trees where the total cost of initial equipment is about $1170, the cost per bucket is only $.585 MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 393 The cost of labor per bucket is also less because while two men with one team can take care of 500 buckets, with the above equipment, three men with two teams could easily handle 2000 buckets. Manufacturers of evaporators, sugaring-off arches and other sugar makers' utensils usually provide for the payment of the initial equip- ment out of the profits of the business from year to year. It is^esti- mated that the average annual gross income from each bucket in the bush varies from 25 to 40 cents. The average cost of operations, including interest on equipment, depreciation of utensils and tools, labor taxes, etc., will total about 15 cents per bucket in a sugar bush of 500 buckets. MB Photograph by U. S. Forest Sercice. FIG. 104. — Gathering the sap in a northern New York sugar bush. Sufficient snow is still on the ground when the sugar season is on to require the use of snowshoes. The expense per bucket decreases directly as the number of trees increases. From the profits of from 10 to 15 cents per bucket, therefore, together with the depreciation charges, this initial cost of equipment can be readily paid off. There are several types of evaporators or " arches," as they are called, on the market. Each make has certain advantages claimed for it but in general the same principle is followed in all. As mentioned before they vary in width from 2 to 6 ft., and from 6 to 24 ft. long. They cost from about $40 for a small capacity type for a 5o-bucket bush up to around $500 for the largest size, which has a capacity of from 350 to 500 gal. of sap per hour. The latter are only used in the largest sugar 394 FOREST PRODUCTS orchards. All the evaporators are divided into compartments through which the sap passes in the evaporation process. Underneath, a fire, with flues leading the length of the pan, furnishes the necessary heat. In the selection and use of an evaporator the following general prin- ciples should be followed: 1. The capacity should be sufficient to handle the sap from the num- ber of trees tapped without night work. In no case should sap be left over for the next day's run. 2. The sap should be converted into syrup as soon as possible after leaving the tree. In the conversion process, a large heating surface covered by shallow sap is used to reduce the sap to syrup in the shortest time. 3. As the sap enters the evaporator, it should be kept constantly moving through the various compartments until it finally comes out as syrup. The light and heavy sap should never be allowed to mix as in the old kettles or pans. When the sap reaches a temperature of 219° F., it should weigh n Ib. to the gallon in conformance with the law. When it is desired to make sugar from the syrup, a sugaring-off arch and pan are set up, usually in another room of the sugar camp. For the smallest orchards, this can be used instead of an evaporator for making syrup, but where 50 trees or more are tapped a small evaporator is advis- able. The accompanying illustration shows the firebox underneath and the general manner of construction. They cost about $30 for a 5o-gal. capacity size. In dimension, this is 23 in. long by 45 in. wide and ii in. deep. This will sugar-off syrup in about- one-half hour. Another important feature of every sugar camp is the storage tank into which the sap is emptied when brought from the trees. This should be located outside the main house in order to be kept as cool as possible and elevated so that the bottom of the tank will be at least 12 in. above the level of the evaporator so that the sap will flow by gravity to the regulator which governs the rate of flow. It is very essential to have a large capacity storage tank to take care of from 8 to 15 bbl. of sap or more. Other important items of equipment for the sugar camp are a good weighing scales, a thermometer, a saccharometer for testing the density of syrup, a skimmer, a felt strainer, sugar molds, funnel and sugar cans. Process. Many of the details of syrup and sugar making have already been covered or at least touched upon in a brief way. By the time the sap MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 395 first comes in from the bush, all the utensils should be thoroughly cleaned and scalded, the sugar house carefully swept and dusted out and the firebox prepared for the fire. The automatic feeder or regulator is then opened and the sap allowed to flow from the storage tank into the evap- orator until it covers all the corrugations. As the sap heats up, the first part to reach the syrup end is dipped back until the proper density is reached. Many of the modern evaporators have a heater in connection with them wjiich warms up the sap from the waste heat so that it evap- orates much more quickly. FIG. 105. — Interior of a sugar house showing the steaming evaporator at the left and the "sugaring-off " arch at the right. The sap is maintained just as shallow as possible without danger of burning as this method permits the most rapid evaporation. When the fire gets hotter, a greater flow of sap is induced through the regulator, or, if scorching is likely, the fire is checked by means of dampers or other patent devices. As impurities or scum come to the surface, they are skimmed off. The sap gradually turns an amber color as it reaches the syrupy stage and deposits of malate of lime (called niter in Vermont and silica in Ohio) are noted on the bottom of the evaporator as the current reaches the end of the pan. Many devices, such as siphons, interchange- able pans, reversing the current, etc., are used to obviate this precipitaT 396 FOREST PRODUCTS tion. It is estimated that on the average evaporator used, the sap covers about 50 ft. of surface through the various compartments before it finally emerges as syrup. It has been determined that sap boils at 213° F. At 219° F. (at 500 ft. in elevation above sea level) the syrup will have attained a specific gravity of about 1.325 and weigh n Ib. to the gallon, a point at which it will not granulate. At the beginning of the season sap ordinarily con- tains about 6 per cent of malate of lime; later in the season it may con- tain from 25 to 30 per cent of the total dry matter of the sap. If the malate of lime is not removed before the syrup is taken off, tempera- tures should run about 221° F. An increase or decrease in the altitude of 500 ft. affects the thermometer i° F. for the purpose of boiling. Every few minutes the syrup is run off and strained through felt to remove any malate of lime not already eliminated or any impurities of any kind. It is then put up when still hot into tin cans or glass jars, the former usually of i or J gal. size and the latter of i or 2 qt. capacity. Care must be taken to observe that the containers are absolutely clean and when filled are made airtight and kept in a cool place. When sugar is to be made, the syrup is placed over the sugar ing-off arch and heated until it is so thick that it pours slowly or becomes waxy in the snow or in cold water. This occurs at a temperature of about 230° F. It is then turned into molds. Experienced sugar makers can readily tell when the syrup has sugared-off , but some operators use a saccharometer or thermometer to determine this. When hard, the sugar is wrapped in wax paper. The first run of sap always makes the best sugar. In fact, that from the last of the season will sometimes fail to " cake." YIELDS OF SAP, SYRUP AND SUGAR The yield of products in this industry varies considerably with the season, size of the tree, character of tapping and many other conditions which have been covered under the subjects of sap flow, tapping, etc. Yields are often expressed on the basis of the individual tree. However, this is not a satisfactory basis, because much depends upon the size of the tree, the number of buckets hung, its past and present condition, etc. A general figure for all trees, an average of 3 Ib. of sugar per season per tree is sometimes used. This varies, however, from i to 7 Ib. per tree. The most satisfactory basis of determining the yields is expressed in terms of the individual bucket. Both costs and yields are now coming to be expressed in terms of buckets rather than the individual tree. By MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 397 a sugar bush is usually meant a unit of 100 buckets or more regardless of the number of trees. The following average figures have been derived as a result of investi- gation covering conditions in New York, Vermont and Ohio : From a standard bush of 500 buckets, there is an average yield under all conditions, of about 6400 gal. of sap. This will be equivalent to about 200 gal. of syrup or 1500 Ib. of sugar. These equivalents are based upon a determination that 32 gal. of sap under average conditions are required to make i gal of syrup and that 4! gal. of sap are required for i Ib. of sugar. Storage Tank on Brackets with Shed Roof \ AVood Shed 10 'x 12' IP t 1 Evap< aporator LU liU — LIU U Draw off" Working Floor Raised 12 in. Work Bench 30" wide 15 'long FIG. 106. — Ground plan of a 14- by 2o-ft. sugar house equipped with a modern evaporator. An average of 12.8 gal. of sap are secured from each bucket in the average bush. Each bucket, therefore, yields about f gal. of syrup or about 3 Ib. of sugar. The number of buckets on each tree, of course, is determined by its size, as explained under the subject of tapping. There are extreme instances on record of groves which averaged 19 gal. of sap per tree per season and of one tree which actually produced enough sap to make 30! Ib. of sugar in one season. One maple tree in Vermont yielded 175 gal. of sap in a single season.1 Usually from 5 to 40 gal. of sap are obtained from each tree. A gallon of good syrup will make about 7! Ib. of sugar testing 80 per cent. 1 See Proceedings of the Vermont Sugar Makers' Association for 1906. -398 FOREST PRODUCTS There is a variation of between 28 and 40 gal. or more of sap to an average gallon of syrup. A standard gallon of syrup will weigh about ii Ib. net. USES AND VALUE OF PRODUCT Formerly, the country merchant usually set the price for both syrup and sugar because he took them in trade from the farmer and sold them at the best prices he could obtain. The Sugar Makers' Association in Vermont has done a great deal to develop and broaden the market and, as a result, the makers are coming more and more to sell their product directly to the consumer. It is now shipped and sold directly to individuals and stores all over the country. The far-reaching possi- bilities of successful marketing have> however, scarcely been touched. In marketing, lies the success of the whole operation to a marked degree, as it does in fact with most commodities. A few years ago, maple sugar could be purchased in gallon cans for from 75 cents to $1.00 per can. The same product is now worth from $1.25 to $2.75 per gallon can, delivered to the consumer. Fairly good profits can be made at $1.25 per gallon, retail, but much of the product is still sold wholesale, especially the inferior grades at prices varying from 70 cents to $1.10 per gallon, depending upon the quality of the product and the season. There are no uniform grades adopted. Each maker decides upon his own system of grading and some- times there are four grades based on flavor and color. In fancy, nicely labeled cans or jars, some of the best syrup brings as high as $3.00 or more per gallon, retail. It is said that the best average prices are received in Michigan for the reason that the makers have a common understanding that syrup Js always worth at least $1.25 a gallon and that this should be the lowest possible figure in order to make a reasonable profit. A few years ago, sugar brought from 8 to 1 2 cents per pound depend- ing upon its quality, size of cake and kind of package. Now it brings from i2 to 20 cents per pound and the very best sugar, put up in small cakes and nicely packed and labeled, brings from 20 to 30 cents per pound. " Stirred sugar," a special product, brings from 20 to 25 cents per pound. As to whether there is greater profit in syrup or sugar has long been an open question. As noted before, Vermont has heretofore specialized more in sugar than any other section and Ohio turns out syrup for the market almost entirely. Probably not one-tenth of the sugar made MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 399 twenty years ago in Vermont is now produced in that state. It is likely that about 75 per cent of all the sap that is harvested is turned into sugar. Comparing prices, it is very evident that sugar must be worth more than 1 6 cents a pound, with 7! Ib. of sugar equivalent to a gallon of syrup, to compete with syrup at $1.25 a gallon. Then, too, the added cost of manufacturing sugar must be offset by still higher prices. FIG. 107. — A maple tree on the Spalding farm, Amsden, Vermont with 32 buckets hung at one time. Excessive tapping is injurious to the tree. As noted before, probably seven-eighths of all syrup and sugar sold on the market is adulterated and sold under another name resembling or implying the pure product. Most of it is used as a table luxury and for use in flavoring preparations, confections, etc. The inferior sugar and poorest syrup, sometimes called " black-strap," is utilized for sweet- ening chewing tobacco. Since the war, the value of maple sugar and syrup has advanced 400 FOREST PRODUCTS markedly and many orchards heretofore tapped little or not at all have been brought into production. BIBLIOGRAPHY BRYAN, A. H. and HUBBARD, W. F. The Production of Maple Syrup and Sugar Farmers Bulletin 516. U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1912. COOK, A. J. Maple Sugar and the Sugar Bush. Medina, Ohio: 1887. COOKE, W. W. and HILLS, J. L. Maple Sugar. Bulletin No. 26. Vermont Agricul- tural Experiment Station. Burlington, Vt.: 1891. CROCKET, W. H. How Vermont Maple Sugar is Made. Bulletin No. 21. Vermont Department of Agriculture, 1915. Fox, WILLIAM F. and HUBBARD, W. F. The Maple Sugar Industry. Bulletin No. 59. Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. HILLS, J. L. The Maple Sap Flow. Bulletin No. 105 of The Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. Burlington: 1904. HILLS, J. L. Buddy Sap. Bulletin No. 51 of The Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. Burlington: 1910. HUBBARD, WILLIAM F. Maple Sugar and Syrup. Farmers Bulletin No. 252. U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1906. McGiLL, A. A Study of Maple Syrup. Bulletin No. 228 of the Laboratory of the Internal Revenue Dept. Ottawa, Can.: 1911. Proceedings of the Annual Meetings of the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers' Associa- tion, 1909-1917, inclusive. CHAPTER XIX RUBBER GENERAL RUBBER — also commonly called India rubber and caoutchouc in the trade — is the product of the milky juice or latex found in a variety of trees, vines and shrubs of the tropics. The true function of latex in the life and development of the tree has not been fully determined as yet. It is found secreted in the vessels and small sacs in the cortical tissue between the outer bark and the wood. It also occurs in the leaves, roots and other parts of certain tropical plants. The latex is derived from the bark by making an incision at regular intervals through the outer layers of bark. This milky fluid contains from 20 to 50 per cent of crude rubber. Rubber is one of the most important forest products used by man- kind. The value of rubber imported to this country is more than twice the total value of all other forest products brought to this country from foreign sources, including lumber, tanning materials, dyewoods and materials, pulpwood, wood pulp, etc. In 1917 the value of rubber imported to this country was $233,220,904. The rubber industry has made greater advances, measured both in the quantity and value of its product, than any other forest industry in the world. The demands of the automobile industry for rubber tires have been enormous, and the production of crude rubber has been equal to the demand. Little rubber of any kind was used fifty years ago and the process of making crude rubber available for modern arts and indus- tries was only discovered less than one hundred years ago. In the year 1900 the total world's production of rubber was only 120,713,600 lb.; in 1910 the total output was 157,920,000 lb., but in 1915 the production rose rapidly with the increased demands for rubber tires for automobiles, and in that year the output was 355,492,480 lb. More- over, the demand was not satisfied even with that enormous yield and in 1918 the world's production had risen to the enormous total of about 600,000,000 lb. 401 402 FOREST PRODUCTS Had the native resources of the various rubber trees been depended upon, it would have been quite impossible to meet the heavy demands. Prior to 1900 the wild rubber trees supplied practically all the world's supply of rubber. Since that date, however, the production of rubber from planted trees in the Far East has made remarkable strides and in 1918 furnished over 83 per cent of the world's supply. The successful attempts to transplant the principal original source of rubber, which is generally called Para rubber ( Hevea braziliensis) , from its native habitat in Brazil to the Far East has revolutionized the entire industrv. Photograph by U. S. Rubber Company. FIG. 108. — Two-year-old rubber trees grown in plantation in Sumatra. 70 square miles of planted rubber trees. One company has The total annual value of rubber products in this country is estimated (1919) at over $1,000,000,000. The United States consumes about 70 per cent of the total world's rubber production. HISTORY The history of the production and manufacture of india rubber has been full of interest. Although rubber, as a material, has been known for many centuries, its development and extensive use has taken place within the past century. The development of the automobile industry has been the impetus which has created an enormous demand for rubber RUBBER 403 and within the past five years the demand has increased over 250 per cent. The history of india rubber dates from Columbus' second voyage to the Western Hemisphere. One of his recorders, Herrera, described the use of rubber balls made of the latex of certain trees by the natives of Haiti. They were used entirely for amusement purposes. A book published in Madrid in 1615 refers to certain trees in Mexico which produced a crude form of rubber. It is said, however, that india rubber was first studied scientifically by a French scientist named Le Con- damine, who sent samples of the crude rubber product to the French Academy in Paris in 1736. The name india rubber was suggested by a chemist named Priestley about the year 1770. At that time the only use developed for rubber, which was in an exceedingly crude state, was for the purposes of erasure. The first rubber is said to have been brought to this country about 1800! In that year Charles Goodyear, the man whose inventions and experiments made possible the extensive use of this product, was born. The manufacture of some crude forms of rubber began in 1820 in this country, when a few establishments were created in New England to import and make rubber for erasing purposes. At that time it was an exceedingly coarse and hard material, full of foreign matter and very expensive. It remained for Charles Macintosh, a Scotch chemist, to develop a method for waterproofing cloth in the year 1823 and the name still obtains for certain forms of waterproof garments. In 1852 an American sea captain brought to Boston 500 pairs of rubber boots which he had secured in Brazil. These sold readily and brought from $3.00 to $5.00 or more per pair. The rubber industry in this country, however, in its broader sense, really dates from the work of Charles Goodyear, who first succeeded in making rubber less susceptible to the influence of changing conditions of heat and cold. It had been determined that the admixture of sulphur rendered the rubber less sticky, but it is said that the art of vulcanizing was learned purely through accident, Goodyear having dropped some of the rubber admixture by accident on a hot stove without the usual melting result. He first patented his process in 1844, which really marks the beginning of the great industry in this country. Generally speaking, vulcanizing consists in mixing sulphur with rub- ber and then submitting the admixture to heat up to about 250° to 320° F for from one to three hours depending on the thickness of the goods. This renders it elastic, impervious and unchangeable in various ordinary. 404 FOREST PRODUCTS temperatures. Commercial rubber hardens at the freezing point (32° F.) and temporarily loses its elasticity but, on the other hand, it does not become brittle. The center of the American rubber industry is at Akron, Ohio, to which many large automobile tire concerns have gravitated within the past decade. Had it not been for the development of a successful method of arti- ficially growing rubber trees, particularly in the Far East, rubber would be exceedingly expensive on account of the tremendous demands for it. Methods have been developed for the manufacture of rubber by syn- thetic processes, but no methods have been evolved to manufacture it on a basis to replace the natural rubber. Great strides have been made in the past decade, not only in the amount of imports of rubber to this country, but in the manufacture of the crude form, as well as in the han- dling of rubber plantations, the tapping of the trees and the reduction of the milky fluid or latex into the crude rubber state. SOURCES OF SUPPLY AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION Up to 1914 the principal source of india rubber was Brazil, where the province of Para was the center of production. The so-called Para rubber is the standard by which all rubbers have been judged. Since that year, the principal source of supply has been the plantations of the Malaya and the surrounding sections of the Far East and for the past five years the production of plantation rubber has had a most remarkable development. Wild rubber is also produced in nearly all sections of the tropics. Aside from the regions mentioned above, considerable quantities of rubber are produced from a variety of plants in Central America, Africa, Mexico, the northern countries of South America and the West Indies. The following species are the principal sources of rubber supply, in the approximate order of commercial importance: i. Para rubber occupies the pre-eminent position in the world's rubber markets. It is derived from several species of Hevea, principally Hevea braziliensis (Mull, Arg.) which, in both the wild and planted forms, supplies about 80 per cent of the world's rubber production. There are extensive forests in the valley of the Amazon River, especially in the province of Para, but it also extends along the tributaries of this river to Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela and the Guianas. The rubber area in Brazil alone is said to cover 1,000,000 square miles. The Para rubber RUBBER 405 trees frequently reach a height of 60 to 80 ft. and a diameter of 12 to 30 in. The tree flourishes best in damp, rich soil and where the temperature ranges from 89° F. to 94° F. at noon and never falls below 73° F. at night. The trees are seldom tapped until they are twelve to fifteen years of age, because they yield an inferior grade of rubber if tapped earlier. The rubber fluid or latex is collected during the dry season from June to February and, if properly carried on, the tapping is not injurious. Great efforts have recently been made to conserve the rubber forests, and prac- tices which are destructive to the trees are being abandoned. It has been determined that the latex runs most freely in the early morning. The " seringuero," or rubber tapper, equipped with a small basket and a quantity of tin latex cups, goes out along the " estradas " or pathways cut through forest to each rubber tree. He makes a blow or incision with a hatchet and attaches the cup to the bark at the base of the incision to receive the latex, by either using clay as a plaster or by slipping the cup underneath the bark. The tapper uses his judgment as to how many cups each tree should carry. There may be up to 20 cups on each tree. The cups hold only a few ounces each. The tapper comes back to empty the cups into a pail the same day or next day, depending on how rapidly the trees are flowing. The latex secured from this tapping contains about 30 per cent of rubber and the average sized tree will yield about 10 Ib. of rubber per year. The latex is collected, brought to camp and con- verted to the crude rubber state in the following manner. A fire is built of dry sticks and oily palm nuts (Attalea excelsa) and the natives make a piece of wood about 3 ft. long fashioned like a paddle, which is dipped in the latex and held over and revolved in the smoke of the fire. The smoke of the fire is usually controlled through a narrow bottle-like neck. As the milky fluid becomes dried and hardened on the paddle, the process is continued until a large ball or " biscuit " weighing 5 to 6 Ib. or more is formed. The smoke has the peculiar property of firming and curing the latex. A skilled native is said to make from 4 to 6 Ib. of rubber per hour by this method. Other forms of sticks are commonly used as well as the paddle-like form. This " wild " Para rubber, although containing many impurities and 15 per cent of moisture, is said to be the finest rubber product obtainable. The scrapings from the tree are mixed with the residue from the fire pots and collecting receptacles and made into large balls called " negro-heads." These contain from 20 to 35 per cent of impurities such as chips, bark, water, twigs, etc. 2. The " ule " or " caucho " rubber of Central America and Peru, generally called " centrals " in the trade is derived from Castilloa elas- 406 FOREST PRODUCTS tica (Cerv.) which grows principally in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Southern Mexico and in northern South America west of the Andes. The same general method of collecting and treating the latex as described for the Hevea is followed, although there are many variations. 3. Guayule is the trade name applied to rubber from Parthenium argentatum from Mexico, which has entered the rubber markets in a prominent way during the past decade. It does not command the high price which Para rubber does. 4. The principal rubber plant of the African tropics is the Funtumia elastica, called " Africans "or " logos " in the trade. The rubber is of excellent quality, but it generally contains considerable impurities. 5. The climbing vines of Africa have entered prominently in the rubber trade, especially in Sudan, Congo and Mozambique. The vines are generally destroyed in the process of collecting the latex. They consist largely of several species of Landolphia, especially L. owariensis. The Kickxia elastica is also closely associated in this group and enters the trade under the name of " Africans." 6. The rubber tree commonly planted as an ornamental tree is the Ficus elastica, which produces the Assam or Rambong rubber of com- merce, which is known in the American rubber trade as " East Indian." It attains a large size in Ceylon, India and Malaysia. Owing to the crude methods of collection it does not command a very high price. It fur- nishes much of the native wild rubber of India, Sumatra and Java. 7. Jelutong or Pontianak is the name of an East Indian rubber derived Dyer a costulata. 8. The manihots or " manicobas," which is the common trade name, come largely from Manihot glaziovii, a native of Brazil, and a close rela- tive of the tapioca plant. It grows at elevations up to 4000 ft. along the Andes Mountains. 9. Mangabeira is the trade name of the rubber derived from Han- cornia speciosa, a native tree of Brazil. It is also called Pernambuco rubber. 10. Balata is the rubber from Mimusops balata, which grows in Brit- ish and French Guiana. 11. Gutta percha is largely derived from a species called Palaquium gutta. Inferior guttas called gutta siak are secured from several species. Many other plants yield a latex or rubber-bearing fluid and it is said that large forests of rubber plants are still undeveloped owing to their inaccessibility in the remoter districts of the tropics. However, the above represent practically all that are of present commercial importance. RUBBER 407 RUBBER PLANTATIONS Prior to the year 1900 oractically all rubber was of the " wild " variety and largely produced in Brazil. Owing largely to the enhancing cost of rubber, due to its ever-increasing inaccessibility and remoteness, the cost of transportation to market, the lack of good labor in the upper Amazon districts and the restriction of production to the dry season of six months in each year, many attempts were made to grow several varieties of the rubber trees in artificial plantations. In 1873 an Englishman, H. A. Wickham, was commissioned by the Government India Office, to attempt the introduction of rubber trees in India. In June, 1876, there were 70,000 young seedlings growing in the Copyright by U. S. Rubber Company. FIG. 109. — Method of tapping rubber trees in plantation in Sumatra. The most successful tree for planting and the only one now being planted is the Hevea braziliensis , which has been the main source of wild rubber known as Para rubber. Botanic Gardens of England. In the same year 2000 young plants were sent to Ceylon, but the trees did not flower until 1884. The year 1888 was a turning point in the attempt to grow rubber in plantations, as the plants were introduced in Malaya, particularly in the region ?.bout Singapore, where the rubber plants were found to do much better than in Ceylon or India. Tapping experiments were also begun in 1888 and it was learned that the trees could be tapped every day except when they shed their leaves in February and March. Rubber 408 FOREST PRODUCTS plantations, however, were not made on any important scale until 1898 and it was not until 1905 that any extensive developments were made. In the latter year, it is estimated that there were 16,000 acres in plan- tations. The Dutch and later the French and Americans followed the example of the English. Since 1905 the development of rubber planta- tions has been remarkable. Many species were tried, including the Ficus elastica, the Castilloas and others, but it remained for the Para rubber tree ( Hevea braziliensis) to be the most successful as well as the first to be tried by Wickham in his experimental plantations. It is the only one now used on new plantations. Over 35,000 acres of other species have been planted. At the present time there are about 500,000 acres of rubber trees under cultivation in the Dutch East Indies alone and about 250,000 acres in Ceylon. The English have invested $36,000,000 in Dutch plantation properties, the French about $8,000,000, the Americans $9,000,000 and the Dutch about $7,000,000. By the end of 1907 only about i| per cent of the world's rubber supply had been produced from plantation rubber. At that time, about $1.00 per pound was secured for this rubber at the plantations, which was con- sidered a satisfactory price. By 1910 the price had risen to $2.50 per pound and a great boom was created in plantations. The present area (1919) of rubber plantations of all kinds is estimated at nearly 2,000,000 acres and new areas are being constantly planted. The soil and climate of the Far East seem to be peculiarly suited to the successful growing of the Para rubber in plantations. The following table shows the dis- tribution of the planted areas in the Far East : RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN THE FAR EAST Region. Area in Acres. IVlalay Peninsula. I ,O3 3 060 Sumatra 2^,0,388 Java 240,326 Ceylon . .... 240,000 Burma India . • e8 OOO Southern India 44,OOO Cochin China. 42, COO British North Borneo . ... 71 CQO Other Dutch Indies 20 008 New Guinea I3,3OO Total . . . . I OO2 C.82 RUBBER 409 There are said to be over $400,000,000 invested in rubber plantations and they supply (1919) about 83 per cent of the total world's require- ments. The trees in plantation are planted about 150 trees per acre (20X15 ft.) and do not become productive until four to seven years of age, when they are 5 to 7 in. in diameter at breast height. If tapped before this age the rubber yield is inferior. At seven years of age, the annual yield is only about \ Ib. per tree per annum. The average at twelve to fifteen years of age is about i^ Ib. per tree. At first all the brush and weeds were removed from an area to be planted at great expense, but it was found that the hot t-opical sun Copyright by U. 5. Xubbtr Company. FIG. 1 10 . — Close view of tapping methods and cups used in collecting the latex. baked out the soil too readily and until the plants reached a size sufficient to shade the soil, it was necessary to grow some leguminous plants to both shade and enrich the soil. The methods of tapping and reducing the latex have been greatly improved over the systems in vogue with wild rubber, although it cannot be said that they have reached a finality of development. A common method is to make a series of V-shaped incisions on four sides of the tree up to a height of 5 to 7 ft. from the ground. The latex is collected in a cup hung at the apex of each V. The " herring-bone " plan with a ver- tical incision and lateral channels on either side is used as well as the spiral 410 FOREST PRODUCTS system. Daily incisions are made at 45° until the trunk is nearly covered with scars. When the bark of the trunk is almost completely covered with cuts to induce the flow of latex, a period of years is generally allowed to elapse before beginning to retap the tree. Small sharp knives are employed in making the incisions instead of the axes or large cutters used in Brazil. Instead of the primitive and wasteful method of reducing the latex to crude rubber, as followed in the forests of Brazil, the fluid is collected in large tanks or casks. It is coagulated by the admixture of an acid, usually acetic acid or lime juice. The coagulation gradually separates as a soft, white, or yellowish mass. This is washed by first passing through washing machines, and then through other machines, which compress it in thin sheets or long ribbons called crepe. These are hung up and dried. Plantation rubber enters the market either in the form of crepe in sheets or biscuits or in the form of large blocks made by com- pressing the sheets of crepe together. Plantation rubber formerly did not bring the same prices on the English and American markets as that commanded by the Para or " wild " rubber, but it now brings about the same or even slightly better price. It is much cleaner and freer from impurities than the wild rubber and contains only i per cent of water as against 15 per cent for the latter. It is generally regarded, however, that plantation rubber has not the tensile strength of the Para rubber. This may be due to the fact that the plantation rubber is generally procured from much younger trees. The following table shows the relative importance of plantation rubber and the product of native forests of Brazil and other portions of the tropics: PRODUCTION OF RUBBER FROM PLANTATION AND NATIVE SOURCES IN TONS FROM 1911 TO 1918, INCLUSIVE Year. Product from Plantations. Tons. Product from Brazil, Tons. Product from other Tropical Regions, Tons. Total Production. Tons. IQII 14,419 37,730 23,000 75,149 1912 28,518 42,410 28,000 98,928 1913 17,618 39,370 21,452 78,440 1914 71,380 37,000 I2,OOO 120,380 IQIS 107,867 37,220 I3,6l5 158,702 1916 152,650 36,500 12,448 201,598 1917 204,348 39,370 13,258 256,976 1918 240,000 38,000 I2,OOO 290,000 RUBBER 411 The above table shows the tremendous strides in production of plan- tation rubber, the almost stationary production of wild rubber from Brazil and the falling off in the product from all other sources, such as Central America, Mexico, Africa, the Guianas, etc. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE1 Wild rubber contains many impurities such as dirt, stones, bark, leaves, chips, etc., as it comes to this country in its crude state in the form of biscuits or balls. The first process, therefore, in the manufacture of the various finished forms of rubber is thoroughly to cleanse it of all foreign matter. Wild rubber, which is generally called Para rubber from Brazil, contains a great many more impurities than the plantation rubber. - Hi F 1900 1902 1904 1906 1908 1910 1912 Years 1914 1916 1918 FIG. in. — Curve representing the world's production of India rubber from 1900 to 1918, inclusive. The latter comes to this country in sheets or packages and is much more free from impurities on account of the greatly improved methods of col- lecting and coagulating the latex. The process of cleansing consists of washing the crude rubber in hot water for a period of about twenty-four hours. It is then passed through corrugated rollers in the presence of large quantities of water. This process removes the impurities and gives the rubber a more homo- geneous structure. It is then placed in the drying rooms ;n sheets and after a thorough drying it is stored until desired for further use. 1 The methods of rubber manufacture is a large and involved subject and can be cov- ered only in a most brief and suggestive fashion in this work. For further reading on the manufacture and the chemistry of rubber it is suggested that several references in the bibliog- raphy at the close of this chapter be consulted. 412 FOREST PRODUCTS Various methods of vulcanizing rubber are in common use at the present time. The method generally followed consists of kneading the crude rubber after it is washed and dyed with varying amounts of sulphur. It is later reduced to proper shape by cutting into small pieces and then running it through rollers. In general, there are two kinds of rubber, naturally hard and soft rubber. Hard rubber is often called " ebonite " in the trade. There are many classes of finished forms of rubber, each of which requires a different kind of treatment and a distinctive process of manufacture. The principal classes of rubber may be divided as follows : 1. Footwear. 2. Waterproof garments. 3. Mechanical goods, such as tires, belts, etc. 4. Electrical and scientific apparatus and articles. 5. Medical and surgical appliances. 6. Liquid or semi-liquid goods, such as varnishes, cements, etc. PRINCIPAL USES There are no statistics available to show the utilization of rubber in this country. An authority on rubber and its uses estimates the value of the different forms of rubber products as follows : USES OF RUBBER Uses. . Value. Automobile tires $250,000,000 Mechanical goods 200,000,000 Solid tires 1 75,000,000 Boots and shoes 100,000,000 Clothing, auto topping and similar goods. . 75,000,000 Automobile tubes 70,000,000 Rubber insulated wire and insulation 65,000,000 Druggists' sundries 30,000,000 Miscellaneous 30,000,000 Hard rubber 15,000,000 Motor cycle, bicycle tires, etc 10,000,000 Rubber cements 5,000,000 Total annual value $1,025,000,000 RUBBER 413 BIBLIOGRAPHY AKERS, C. E. The Rubber Industry in Brazil and the Orient. London: Methuen & Co., 1914. BEADLE, CLAYTON and STEVENS, H. P. Rubber; Production and Utilization of the Raw Produce. London: Sir I. Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1911. BROWN, HAROLD. Rubber, Its Source, Cultivation and Preparation. London: J. Murray, 1914. CAVADIA, T. G. Les Plantations de caoutchouc leur developpement, leur avenir Paris: Kugelman Printing Co., 1911. CLOUTH, FRANZ. Rubber, Gutta Percha and Balata. London: Maclaren & Sons, 1903. FARMER, J. B. The Rubber Industry, etc. Scientific American. 1918. Vol. 86, p. 178. Fox, WALTER. Notes on the Cultivation of Para Rubber. International Rubber Congress II. London, 1911. HORTER, JOHN C. Cultivated Rubber. American Geographical Society. Vol. 37, pp. 720-724. Great Britain. Imperial Institute. Rubber and Gutta Percha. London: Darling & Son, 1912. India Rubber World. Miscellaneous Articles. New York. International Rubber Congress. Proceedings. Miscellaneous Articles. London. International Bureau of American Republics. Rubber and its Relatives. Wash- ington, 1909. POTTS. HAROLD E. The Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. London: Constable & Co., 1912. SEELIGMAN, T. India-rubber and Gutta Percha. London: Scott, Greenwood & Co., 1910. CHAPTER XX DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS GENERAL DESCRIPTION FROM the earliest times various forms of natural dyestuffs have been used for coloring purposes. The principal sources of these vegetable dyes have been the roots, bark, leaves, fruit and the wood of trees and other forest-grown material. Until the Civil War and shortly thereafter practically all of our dyestuffs came from some form of vegetable origin. Later the aniline dyes were introduced and came into prominent use. Many of our important industries are dependent upon these dye- stuffs and their consumption has increased very rapidly within the past decade. The industries consuming the largest quantities of dyestuffs are the textile for cotton, silk, wool, etc., paint, varnish, ink, leather, paper, wood, etc. At the present time aniline dyes compose a large percentage of all the dyeing materials used. For certain purposes, however, a few dye woods are still held in high esteem in the textile and leather trades and other fields which consume large quantities of dyeing materials. For the fiscal year 1913 this country expended over $12,000,000 for foreign artificial dyestuffs imported to this country and only $961,534 for for- eign importations of natural dyestuffs. Germany has been the principal source of artificial dyes and before the war produced about 90 per cent of the dyestuffs consumed in the world's markets. These were manufactured from coal tar products made in Germany. Since 1914 there has been a great impetus in the importation of natural dyes and in the introduction of new sources, notably osage orange which, before the coming of the white race to this country, was exten- sively used by the Indians to decorate their war bonnets, bows, arrows, etc. This and many other natural coloring agents were adopted from the Indians by the early colonists in the dyeing of their homespuns, etc. It is said that even during the Civil War, butternut dyes obtained from the husk of the nut were used to color the dull yellow suits worn by the Confederate soldiers. 414 DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 415 MANUFACTURE OF DYESTUFFS Most of the natural dyes are now produced from imported woods from Central and South America and the West Indies, the coloring matter being obtained from the parenchyma cells by extraction after reducing the wood to the powdered or chipped form. Dye woods generally con- tain only from 5 to 10 per cent of their weight in true dye color. The principle of wood dye extract operations consists first hi removing the coloring material by lye washing made with the help of a suitable sol- vent, which differs with each wood to be treated, and then by concen- trating the solution to the crystal, liquid or powdered form. The process employed in deriving these extracts varies with most of the large manufacturing concerns and the details are held with the greatest secrecy. However, the following is a very brief description of the process generally used in the reduction of our principal dye woods. The wood is first run through a grinder or a very fine chipper or " hog." In the case the latter is used the chips are again shredded. The principle involved in reducing the wood to such fine proportions is to make the coloring material more readily available to the effects of the solvent which is used to separate and carry off the desired color from the wood cells. The chips or shredded wood are then submitted to a curing process, which consists of leaving them piled up in heaps 4 or 3 ft. in height in the open air. The piles are moistened with water from time to time and left in this condition for from four to six weeks. They are occasionally worked over with shovels to prevent heating and to allow full access to the air. The wood gradually turns to a deep color and sometimes certain chem- icals are used to hasten the curing process. However, there is danger of over-oxidation. Extraction and concentration are next followed out. Extraction is accomplished in diffusion batteries consisting either of a set of open tanks or of closed copper extractors arranged in series. Ordi- narily there are eight or ten of these batteries, the liquor from one cell being used as a solvent for the material in the next cell so that as con- centrated a liquor as possible is obtained with a minimum amount of extracting water. The liquid extract is then evaporated in multiple- effect vacuum evaporators made expressly for this purpose. In this way an extract is obtained containing about 25 to 30 per cent of total solids at a temperature which is not injurious to the extract. All natural dyestuffs require a mordant, such as a solution of chrome for their proper fixation on fibers. 416 FOREST PRODUCTS RAW MATERIALS USED A very large share of our natural dyestuffs is made from West Indian and Central American woods. They are received in the log form from 3 to 8 ft. long and are sold entirely by weight. To be acceptable to the dye manufacturers, the logs must be thoroughly trimmed of all bark and sap wood and free from any dirt or other foreign material. Extracts from these dye woods are imported to a small extent, but they are con- sidered inferior to those made in the extract manufacturing plants in this country. Logwood or Campeachy wood constitutes about 75 per cent of all dye extract materials imported into this country. Fustic is next in importance; then there is a great variety of foreign woods occasionally used such as the Brazil-wood and other redwoods, sandalwood, etc. Other forest-grown materials used for dyeing purposes are catechu or cutch, sumach, gambier, etc. Other sources of natural dyes such as cochineal, indigo, turmeric and madder are not classified as forest products. Osage orange is coming into use as the principal native dyeing mate- rial. Quercitron, the crushed bark of the black or yellow oak (Quercus velutina) is another important native source of dyes. Other native materials used to a vary limited extent are black walnuts and butter- nuts, sumach, yellow wood, mesquite, alder, red gum, bluewood and dogwood. The following is a brief description of the principal forest-grown materials used for dye extracts in one form or another : Logwood. Logwood (Hamatoxylon campechianum, L.) also called Campeachy wood, bois de sang, etc., is a thorny tree of the family Leguminosea. It is one of the oldest dye woods in common use and is now used more than all other woods together for coloring purposes. Its principal source is in Jamaica, Haiti and the Bay of Campeachy in Mexico, where it grows abundantly, but it is also exported from most of the Central Amer- ican countries and many of the West Indies. It has been successfully introduced and grown in India. Varieties of logwood are sometimes rec- ognized according to their source, but they are all generally accepted to be of one species. The wood is very heavy, non-porous, coarse-grained and yellowish in color, which rapidly turns to a rich red on exposure to the air. It has a very pleasing odor, resembling the violet. DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 417 Logwood contains from 9 to 1 2 per cent of the coloring essence called haematoxylin, from which is derived haemitin, the true dye color. Log- wood is chiefly used for the black colors and it is considered superior to the aniline blacks. It is also used, to some extent, for blues and other dark colors and with other dye materials for composite colors. Its principal use is on silks and wool. When acids are likely to come into contact with it, logwood black is not considered so very good, but these cases are exceptional. It is also used on leather and to a limited degree on cotton. Under normal conditions, logwood brings from $20.00 to $25.00 per ton delivered at our Atlantic ports, but since the war prices have risen enormously and have become very unstable due to over-speculation, the elimination of the German supply of aniline dyes and the exceptionally high ocean freight rates. Maximum prices of $110 per ton have been quoted and many sales have been made at from $55.00 to $80.00 per ton at New York and other ports. The importations of logwood increased from 30,062 tons for the year ending June 30, 1914, to 122,794 tons for the year ending June 30, 1917. Brazil-woods. Brazil-woods or the soluble redwoods include a variety of woods of the genus Casalpinia used for red dyes, which appear on the market under a great confusion of trade names. Although of the same genus they vary considerably in their value for dyeing purposes. The coloring matter braziline is found in varying quantities in all these woods, which are hard, heavy, durable and even grained in all species. Hypernic is the trade name applied to the extract obtained from the soluble redwoods. Pernambuco-wood from C. crista L. is recognized as the most valuable of these woods and grows largely in Brazil and Jamaica. The wood is yellowish-red with a distinct brown or brownish red on the surface. Brazil-wood from C. braziliensis Sw. comes from Brazil and generally throughout the West Indies and Bahamas. Sappan-wood from C. sappan L. comes from Siam, China, Japan, Ceylon and the East Indies. Its wood is somewhat lighter in color than the other redwoods of this genus. Lima-wood or Nicaragua wood from C. bijuga Sw. comes from the Central American countries and the northern countries of South Amer- ica. Other trade names used for these and other species of Ccesalpinia are braziletto, peach wood, South American basswood, etc. Brazil-wood normally brings from $23.00 to $26.00 per ton at the Atlantic seaboard ports. Since the outbreak of the European war it 418 FOREST PRODUCTS brought from $35.00 to $46.00 or more per ton. Extracts from the Brazil-woods are chiefly used in wool and cotton dyeing. Fustic. Fustic is the principal source of natural yellow dyes and has been in common use for a long time. Next to logwood it is the most important dye wood imported into this country. Owing to its comparative scarcity many substitutes have been used to displace it and osage orange is becom- ing a prominent competitor for yellow colors. True fustic comes from the fustic tree of the West Indies and tropical America. The scientific name of the tree is Chlorophora tinctoria, Gaud. (also described as Madura tinctoria, D. Don and Morus tinctoria L.). Fustic is sold under a variety of trade names such as old fustic, fustic mulberry, yellow wood, Cuba wood and mora. It contains two color- ing principles, morin or moric acid and maclurin or moritannic acid, both of which are used for yellow dyes and are found in the commercial extract. The fustic tree reaches a size of only about 2 ft. in diameter and about 50 ft. in height in its native habitat. The wood is fairly hard and heavy. The heartwood is a light-colored yellow which rapidly becomes a yellow- ish brown on exposure to air and light. The sap is white and very thin. It is always trimmed off before shipment to save freight as it does not contain sufficient coloring matter. Fustic is usually imported in the form of logs from 2 to 4 ft. long and from 3 to 12 in. in diameter. It is sometimes brought to this country in the form of chips, powder, liquid extract and paste. The wood ordinarily brings from $18.00 to $22.00 per ton on the docks in this country. Since 1914 and during the heavy speculation in dyewoods it brought as high as $45.00 per ton, but seldom ran over $35.00 to $40.00 per ton. Fustic dyes are largely used for yellows, browns and olives and in connection with logwood dyes for toning the darker colors, especially on woolens. Red Sandalwood or Saunderswood. Pterocarpus santalinus L. is used to some extent for red dyes through its coloring principle called santaline, of which it is said to con- tain 1 6 per cent. It grows in Java and the East Indies as well as in China and yields a very hard, heavy and slightly resinous wood which is described as being a deep orange-red with lighter zones running through it. On exposure it turns a very deep red. A number of other woods DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 419 such as barwood (Pterocarpus santalinoides , Vher) and camwood (Baphia iiitida, Afzel), which ^closely resemble it are sold as red sandalwood. All of these woods are commonly referred to in dyestuff circles as the insol- uble redwoods. Quercitron. This is the crushed or ground bark of the black or yellow oak (Quercus velutina, Lam.) which is found throughout the East and particularly in the Middle Atlantic States and the southern Appalachian Mountains. The coloring matter is contained in a thin layer in the inner bark. The bark is usually crushed into a fine brownish-yellow powder, the coloring principle of which is quercitrin. This may be decomposed, by using a dilute sulphuric acid, into quercitrin. Flavine is the trade name applied to a preparation of quercitron obtained by acting upon the bark first with alkalies and treating this extract with sulphuric acid. Both the liquid and solid extracts are used commercially for dyestuffs. Flavine and quercitron find their principal use in dyeing cottons and woolens with tin mordants. Flavine is commonly used with cochineal or lac-dye for producing scarlet. Venetian Sumach. Venetian sumach, also called young fustic, wild-olive, smoke tree, wig tree, etc. (Rhus cotinus L. also called Cotinus cotinus (L) Sarg.) is imported to a limited extent from Hungary, Greece, Italy and other European countries. It produces a yellow dye called fustine, used chiefly in coloring glove leather and wool. It is sold very commonly as a sub- stitute for the true fustic, although it is produced by a small tree or shrub which yields sticks up to 4 in. in diameter and 4 to 6 ft. in length. The heartwood is greenish-yellow and hard. This tree is not related botan- ically to the true fustic. The coloring matter yields a fine orange color with alkalies and bright orange precipitates with lime and lead acetate. Sumachs native to America, especially the staghorn sumach (Rhus hirta) , which grows throughout a large part of the East, are used to a very limited extent in coloring cloth and fine leather. The leaves, leaf stalks and smaller twigs yield a yellow dye. A close relative of the sumachs, called chittam or American fustic (Cotinus americanus, Nutt), grows throughout the lower Mississippi Valley and yields a clear orange colored dye. Osage Orange. This tree is commonly found in the rich bottom lands of southern 420 FOREST PRODUCTS Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas. It is most abundant in the valley of the Red River. Its scientific name is Toxylon ppmiferum, Raf., and, besides osage orange it is commonly called bow-wood, mock orange, bodock, bois d'arc, yellow wood and hedge tree. It is frequently planted throughout the East both for its wood and as a decorative and hedge tree. The tree is rather poorly shapen as a rule and seldom grows to be over 50 ft. in height and 2 ft. in diameter. The wood is exceptionally hard, heavy, strong, durable and coarse grained. It is a bright orange in color, which on exposure turns to a deep yellowish brown. The wood is in high demand for use as wagon and vehicle stock, especially for felloes and spokes and for cross ties, fence posts, handles and other specialized purposes. It was highly prized by the Indians as a material for bows and arrows, hence the name bois d'arc. Osage orange, even in the time of the Indians, was used for dyeing pur- poses, and in the region of its natural growth has been used to a limited extent as a coloring matter. Since the outbreak of the European War, however, it has been extensively experimented with and is coming into commercial use as a substitute for fustic. The dyeing principles found in osage orange are morin or moric acid and moritannic acid or maclurin, as is the case with fustic. The extract from this wood is now manu- factured and sold under the trade name of aurantine. The roots and bark also contain coloring principles which have been extracted by boiling. This practice, however, is limited to a very small local custom in the Southwest. Results of experiments show that with iron and chrome mordants, osage orange dyes are satisfactorily fast to light, water and washing, especially when used on wools, and that they may be employed wherever dyes from fustic wood are used. Osage orange is also used on leather, wood, paper and, to small extent on cotton. It is especially effective for orange-yellows, old gold, deep tan, olive and chocolate shades. It is, moreover, used as a base for greens and grays in combination with other colors and with aniline dyes. In comparison with fustic, the advan- tages claimed for it are that it is cleaner, more uniform, yellower, faster and cheaper. It is estimated by Kressman of the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., that over 25,000 tons of waste material are now available annually from the manufacture of osage orange for various wood products and that altogether from 40,000 to 50,000 tons of osage orange could readily be shipped yearly from Texas and Oklahoma. In 1915 about 14,000 tons of fustic were imported to this country instead of the usual DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 421 yearly importation of about 4500 tons prior to this date and it is likely that osage orange will gradually displace, to some degree, at least a good share of this material. The latter can be purchased in Texas and Okla- homa for about $5 to $8 per ton. It brought from $12.00 to $15.00 per ton delivered on the Atlantic seaboard in 1916 under the name of Amer- ican fustic. Cutch. Cutch or catechu is used principally as a tanning agent and has been briefly described in the chapter devoted to tanning materials. It is the name applied to the dried extract derived from Acacia catechu, which is produced largely in India and Burmah. It is used somewhat exten- sively for brown dyes. With copper, tin and alumina mordants it yields a yellow dye principle called catechin. It also yields another dyeing principle known as catechutannic acid. The best varieties of cutch are said to come from Pegu. Bombay and Bengal cutch are also held in high esteem. They are used in cotton and silk dyeing for browns and composite shades. Catechu is frequently adulterated with starch, sand, clay and blood. Gambier. Gambier is also a dried extract used chiefly for tanning purposes in this country. It also goes under the names of gambier and pale catechu and is derived from the leaves of two species of the same genera, namely Vncaria gambier and U. acida. IMPORTATION OF DYESTUFFS The following table secured from records of the U. S. Department of Commerce shows the value of dy woods imported for each year by decades since 1860 and also the years 1917 and I9I8:1 IMPORTATIONS OF DYEWOODS Year. Total Value. i860 $ 838,186 1870 i<337,°93 1880 1,808,730 1890 1,725,167 1900 862,462 1910.. 566,377 1917. . 4,326,576 1918 2,018,122 1 The values given for the years 1917 and 1918 are those for the period ending June 3oth in each of these vears. 422 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table shows the importations of dyewoods and dye- wood extracts into the United States for the years 1906 to 1910, inclusive: IQ( )6. 190 7. 190 8. Amount. Value. Amount. Value. Amount. Value. Logwood, tons . . . 36,624 408,602 37.QOI 478 6^6 21 800 2^8 "78 Logwood extract and other extracts, Ibs 3,44 3, 6 76 295,188 4,542,2«;7 368,704 * L JOUV •7 ^76 6?6 "S4°55/0 23O 47 ^ Fustic, tons ^,783 8o,<;i3 3,483 ?A 76^ 4 4?2 t-5 ggi Gambier Ibs. 31,478 837 i, 118,010 28 8°59 13,361 14,169,490 742,264 197,122 542,200 134,629 24,592 12,819,859 3,437,698 468,669 928,924 Other dyestuffs l . . . Gambier, Ibs.2. 1917. 1918. Amount. Value. Amount. Value. Logwood, tons , 122,794 8,895 10,133,625 4,137,400 4,189,176 859,873 52,027 35,449 8,964,832 1,066,455 951,667 955,352 Other dyewoods, ton Gambier, Ibs.2. 1 A large portion of the classification " Other Dyewoods " is composed of fustic wood. 2 Gambier is used for tanning purposes as well as for dyeing. BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPIN, EDWARD S. The Revival of the Use of Natural Dyestuffs. 1915. CHAPIN, EDWARD S. Turning to Logwood. Textile Colorist for February to May, 1910. CHAPIN, EDWARD S. Reconstruction in Dyeing. 1916. DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 423 CHARPENTIER, PAUL. Timber, pp. 406-417. KRESSMAN, F. W. Osage Orange Waste as a Substitute for Fustic Dyewood. From Yearbook of U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington: 1915. KRESSMAN, F. W. Osage Orange — Its Value as a Commercial Dyestuff. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Vol. 6, No. 6, p. 462. June, 1914. KRESSMAN, F. W. Osage Orange — A New Substitute for Fustic. Journal of Amer- ican Leather Chemists' Association. July, 1915. NORTON, THOMAS H. Dyestuffs for American Textile and Other Industries. Spe- cial Agents Series No. 96. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1915. SADTLER, SAMUEL P. Industrial Organic Chemistry. J. B. Lippincott Co. Phil- adelphia: 1912. SUDWORTH, G. B. and MELL, C. D. Fustic Wood — Its substitutes and adulterants. U. S. Forest Service Circular 184, 1911. CHAPTER XXI EXCELSIOR GENERAL EXCELSIOR consists of thin, curled strands or shreds of wood made by rapidly moving knives and spurs or fine steel teeth against a wood bolt. The spurs slit the wood and are followed by a knife which pares this slitted material off the bolt. Excelsior first found its principal use as mattress stuffing, but has come into demand for a great variety of uses. The excelsior industry is about fifty years old in this country'1 where it was first developed. The finished product first appeared on the market about 1860. The term excelsior was first used as a trade name in advertising the product, by a single company, for upholstering purposes. For a long time it had been called wood fiber. Due to wide advertising by this indi- vidual concern, the name excelsior has been applied to all grades of the product. Although an American invention, the finished product has been greatly improved upon in European countries, where it has been largely used for filtering and other specialized purposes. At the present time the industry consumes over 100,000,000 bd.-ft. of forest material in this country every year. Qualities Desired. The qualities most desired in woods used for manufacturing excelsior are lightness in color and straight grain, together with tough but soft resilient fiber. It should also be light in weight, free from any dis- agreeable odor, and not brittle when the wood is manufactured in the air-dried form. It should preferably be free from resins or gums which are likely to discolor or taint any material with which it comes in contact. The best all-around wood which meets these desirable qualities is basswood. Basswood excelsior always brings the very best prices on the market, but owing to its limited supply, and demand for other purposes, only a small portion of the total amount of excelsior produced annually in this country is made of basswood. In fact, basswood constitutes only 424 EXCELSIOR 425 about 14 per cent of the total supply, being exceeded by the various pines and cottonwood. Uses and Value of Excelsior. Excelsior is a staple article used by upholstery, carriage, automobile, mattress and furniture manufacturers and for packing miscellaneous articles which are susceptible to breakage. It is commonly used for packing glassware, china, druggist's and confectioner's goods, toys, hard- ware and other miscellaneous articles. It is much preferred to other materials used for similar purposes such as shavings, sawdust, straw or hay, because it is free from dust and dirt, it is elastic, light in weight and odorless. Packing purposes consume the bulk of excelsior manufactured. In making excelsior mat- tresses the inner portion is usually filled with excelsior cut from ^ to | in. wide. Over this is spread a finer grade or wood wool to give a softer surface near the ticking. The fine grade called wood wool, which is from TQTO to 5-5-^ of an in. in thickness and about A of an in. wide, is used for filtering purposes and for the manufacture of better grades of mattresses and other specialized products. Probably from 80 to 90 per cent, however, is made from the medium and coarse grades, which go chiefly for upholstering and for packing. These grades are from ^V to rio" of an inch in thickness and from ^ to | of an inch in width. One large department store in New York uses over $500 worth of excelsior per month, for which is paid around $16 per ton. A large toy company uses every day from 30 to 40 bales weighing 125 Ib. per bale. Dyed excelsior is used for packing fancy goods. Aniline dyes have been found to stain excelsior to excellent advantage. More recently the finer grades of excelsior have been woven into mats and floor cover- ings. In Europe it is very largely used for absorbent lint in hospitals and for filtration purposes. Its lightness and elasticity make it espe- cially valuable for packing. Its resiliency makes it valuable for uphol- stering and mattresses, while its softness and ability to absorb liquid make it valuable as an absorbent lint. Long excelsior is used for twisting into rope for use in winding core barrels in making cast-iron pipes in large pipe foundries. This takes the place of marsh hay and is con- sidered much superior. Excelsior is sold by the weight. The market for the various grades is exceedingly unstable and prices fluctuate very widely and rapidly. The major portion of excelsior placed on the market, which is used for mattress 426 FOREST PRODUCTS stock and packing (common fine grade), sells for $8.00 to $22.00 per ton f.o.b. cars at the mill. The average price would probably be around $i 2.00 per ton before the war. The coarser grade of excelsior brings from $1.00 to $2.00 per ton below the common fine. Wood wool, the finest grade of excelsior, brings from $24.00 to $35.00 per ton f.o.b. cars at the mlli. There is a general belief in the industry, however, that it does not pay to manufacture wood wool. It is only a question of difference in " feed " at the machines. Woods Used and Annual Consumption. Cottonwood, including the southern cottonwood and northern aspens or popple, make up over one-half of the total supply of wood used for excelsior in this country. Yellow pine comes next in order. The softer and less resinous varieties of yellow pine, particularly loblolly pine, Vir- ginia scrub pine and shortleaf pine, are used to a large extent in Vir- ginia and Georgia. Basswood constitutes about 14 per cent of the total supply and is manufactured throughout the Northeast and Lake States, but particularly in New York, Wisconsin, New Hampshire and Michigan. Other woods commonly used are willow, yellow poplar, white pine and buckeye. In Washington the black cottonwood is used. All of these woods are valuable for excelsior purposes on account of their soft wood, straight grain and resilient fiber. Red gum, soft maple, spruce, chest- nut, hemlock, white cedar and cypress are used to some extent. On the Pacific coast, western yellow pine and Douglas fir are coming into use for the manufacture of excelsior. The industry is scattered throughout the eastern part of the country. New York has the largest number of manufacturing plants, namely 29, but Wisconsin with 12 plants consumes the largest amount of wood annually. Other leading states are Virginia, New Hampshire, Georgia and Michigan. Government statistics for 1911 show that during that year over. 139,000 tons of excelsior were produced in 122 plants, which means that the average plant produced about 1150 tons annually. Over 142,000 cords of wood were consumed in 1911 for excelsior and it is estimated that over 200,000 cords of wood are now used annually for this purpose. MANUFACTURE Excelsior plants are located with reference to a good supply of raw material and near the market with favorable shipping facilities. They EXCELSIOR 427 do not require a very heavy investment. Many companies which use considerable quantities of excelsior for packing purposes operate one or more machines solely for their own requirements. The initial invest- ment of a twenty-machine plant turning out daily from 60 to 100 bales of excelsior weighing about 200 Ib. per bale and run independently of other operations is about $10,000, which sum will serve as a criterion for the cost of larger plants. Single upright machines alone cost from $150 to $200 installed. Single horizontal eight-block machines cost $1200 to $1600 installed. Excelsior plants are sometimes operated in connection with rotary veneer mills where the circular cores left after cutting veneer are utilized for the manufacture of excelsior. Preparation and Cost of Raw Material. Wood used for excelsior should be thoroughly air seasoned for at least a year. It is usually brought to the mill in bolts 37 or 56 in. long and Photograph by U. 8. Forest Service. FIG. 1 1 2.— Raw material in the form of poplar bolts being placed in vertical excelsior machines. Photograph taken at Melvin Mills, New Hampshire. piled in ricks either in the open or in sheds. Excelsior stock is always peeled and when over 6 in. in diameter it is customarily split into smaller billets. Many of the mills in the North bring in bolts in carload lots from a radius of from 50 to 100 miles. Before going to the machine each bolt is cut up into lengths of from 15! to 24 in., with square ends. Each stick must be free from defects 428 FOREST PRODUCTS and reasonably straight. Bolts less than 4 in. in diameter are not desirable. Prices for the raw material vary with the species, transportation and labor charges and local supply and demand. In Virginia, yellow pine cordwood is delivered at the mills for from $2.50 to $4 per full cord. Bass wood brings from $4 to $7 per cord delivered at the mill in the North. Cottonwood, including popple or aspen, and other species bring from $3 to $5 per cord. The factors affecting the amount of excelsior produced per cord are: (a) Size and quality of the bolts, whether round or split, etc. (b) Size or coarseness of the strands. (c) Kind of wood. The heavier yellow pine will yield more than basswood or aspen. (d) Amount of waste. The size of the " spalt " or the remainder of the bolt after cutting determine to a large extent the amount of excelsior produced. Under average conditions it is considered that one cord of wood will produce about 2000 Ib. of excelsior. This may vary, however, from 1650 Ib. up to over 2300 Ib. per cord, depending upon the above factors. Excelsior Machines. A complete plant consists of a battery of machines (up to 24 upright machines or from one to six horizontal 8-block machines), a wood splitter, a cut-off saw, a barker, knife and spur grinder, a baling press, a set of scales and necessary power together with shafting, hangers, pulleys, belting, tools, etc. About 5 h.p. is required to run each upright excelsior machine. One horizontal 8-block machine is equivalent in capacity to 10 to 12 upright machines. This plant, using 24 upright machines would cost from $9000 to $12,000 depending on such factors as labor charges, freight, character of equipment, etc. Excelsior machines are of two designs : (a) upright or vertical, and (b) horizontal. The following is a brief description of common forms of each type: (a) Vertical or upright excelsior machine. The vertical or upright machines are usually set up in multiples of 6 since one operator can look after six machines. Batteries of 18 or 24 machines are fairly common. The frame of each machine is 10 ft. high, and it occupies a floor space 4 ft. 2 in. by 12 in. Two vertical guides support a horizontal crankshaft bearing an i8-in. flywheel. To this wheel is attached a connecting rod which reciprocates vertically between EXCELSIOR 429 the two guides and supports a steel frame. The spurs or teeth which cut the excelsior are attached to this steel frame. The spurs are flat pieces of steel 3! in. long, j^ in. thick and f in. wide at the base and taper to a point. The number of these points determines the grade of excelsior. They vary from 35 to 205 in number. Just above the steel frame is fastened a wide knife which follows the points and cuts off the scorings made by them. Two horizontal, corrugated feed rolls actuated in oppo- site directions serve to advance the bolt as fast as the cutting requires and can be easily regulated according to the fineness of the desired product. It ordinarily requires four to six minutes for a 2-ft. bolt to pass through one of these machines, each of which is capable of producing about 500 Ib. of excelsior of medium grade in a ten-hour day. (b) Horizontal excelsior machine. A common form of the horizontal type is an 8-block machine con- sisting of 2 sliding steel frames, carrying 8 toolheads into which the knives and comb-like spurs are spanned. The sliding frames are moved with powerful cranks and pitmans on hard maple slides. Above these sliding frames are 2 stationary frames, each of which has 4 sets of rolls. The latter by their rotation press a wood block downward against the knives. This 8-block machine requires from 25 to 35 h.p. to operate it, depending on the grade of excelsior. Fine grades of wood wool require more power than the manufacture of coarser grades. One man can tend the machine and keep it supplied with blocks. It will turn out about 2 tons of wood wool or from 5 to 6 tons of packing or mattress stock in a day of ten hours. Baling Press. There are two common types of baling presses on the market. In general they follow the same principles as employed in hay or shaving presses. The following are two representative types: The horizontal press has a steam cylinder mounted in a direct line with the plunger and the body of the press. The stroke of the plunger is central. The excelsior is placed in a hopper in front of the press and at each thrust the plunger forces the hopper-full into the press. This process is repeated until the bale is completed when it is wired and pushed out. The wire is first placed in grooves in the bottom and sides. Bales made by this type of press are 18 in., by 22 in. but they can be made 14 by 1 8 in. or 16 by 20 in. The bales of the first size weigh from 90 to no Ib. each. This press requires 5 h.p. of steam when it is operated continuously. The diameter of the cylinder is 10 in., length of stroke 36 in., and extreme length of press 1 5^ ft. The list price of this press is $380. 430 FOREST PRODUCTS The other common type is an upright form in which the excelsior is collected directly in the press and the top is forced down and com- presses the contents by a rack and pinion operated vertically. The common size of bales made by this form is 26 by 28 by 56 in. They weigh from 175 to 240 Ib. each. Description of Operation. The wood is brought in from the storage shed or yard with a one-horse wagon or by a hand truck and unloaded near the cut-off or push saw. Here the operator cuts the 56-in. bolts in thirds, squares the ends, and his helper piles them in a place convenient for the men who feed the excel- Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. FIG. 113. — Vertical type of excelsior machines in operation at a factory in Union, New Hampshire. At each downward stroke, a sharp steel spur removes a thin strand of wood from the block. sior machines. All the bolts must be squared so they will go through the machines evenly. Bolts over 6 in. in diameter are usually halved or quartered either by hand or by a bolt splitter in the larger mills. The bolts are fed into the excelsior machines as fast as desired, the " spalt " or waste being thrown on a pile to one side and used 'on the bales or sold for fuel. Any grade of excelsior can be made, from the finest wood wool to the coarsest mattress stock, by an adjustment of the feed and different thickness of spurs. The capacity of each machine depends upon the feed, speed, kind of wood and attention of the opera- tor. The excelsior drops to the floor and is collected on the other EXCELSIOR 431 side of the machines. It is either moved by hand to the baling press or carried on a belt conveyer directly to the press. Two men are usually employed to operate the press and weigh the bales. They are then rolled on trucks directly into the freight car or to a shed for storage. The minimum car load is usually 10 tons. From 100 to 125 bales weighing from 175 to 240 Ib. apiece make up the average carload. Labor employed at an excelsior mill is entirely unskilled and, there- fore, only comparatively low wages are paid. In the South the men receive from $1.25 to $1.50 per day. In the North the prevailing wages are from $1.50 to $2.50 per day. A ten-hour day is usually observed and night shifts are used when the demand for the product justifies them. Depreciation and insurance charges are usually heavy. The former is written off at the rate of about 10 per cent per annum. Owing to the highly inflammable nature of the product and the generally cluttered con- dition of the mills, the fire risk is rather high. Some companies pay $1.75 insurance per $100 valuation even when equipped with automatic sprinklers. The following is an approximate estimate of daily labor and other expenses incurred at a plant equipped with four 8-block horizontal machines as manufactured by the Kline Co. of Alpena, Mich, This plant will use between 20 and 24 cords of wood per day and turn out about 20 tons of common fine grade or mattress stock in ten hours. 4 machine operators at $1.50 each $6.00 2 balers at $1.50 3-co 2 helpers (boys) at $1.00 2 .00 2 tyers and weighers 3 . oo i sawyer to square blocks i . 50 i assistant sawyer 1.25 i assistant to pile bolts 1.25 i grinder to sharpen knives and spurs 2 . oo i assistant to grinder i . 50 i foreman to look after machinery 3 . oo i cart driver to bring in bolts i . 50 i man to load cars or pile goods in warehouse .... i . 50 i fireman and engineer 2 . 50 fuel 7 . oo i general helper i . 50 oil and repairs 2 . 50 $41.00 432 FOREST PRODUCTS To the above figures must be added those for taxes, insurance, inter- est, depreciation, superintendency, selling charges, etc., which are very variable factors and which altogether should not total more than $3.50 per day. The cost of wood is roughly figured at one- third to one- half the total cost and varies considerably with the species, location, etc. This represents one of the largest of the excelsior operations, which can be run on a much more economical basis per ton of product than can the smaller operations. In another mill using from 6 to 10 cords of bass wood, poplar and wil- low per day and where the output is from 6 to 10 tons of excelsior of the medium grade, the following labor charges were incurred. This mill was equipped with 20 upright excelsior machines. i mill foreman $ 2 . 50 i teamster to bring in the wood from the yard .... i . 50 i assistant to work with teamster i . 50 i operator at the cut-off saw 2 . oo 1 wood piler to carry blocks from saw to a point convenient to the excelsior machines i . 50 3 operators to feed excelsior machines and look after them generally at $1.75 5.25 . 2 men picking up excelsior at $1.50 3 . oo 2 men to operate baling press, and tie and weigh bales at $1.50 3.00 i assistant to truck bales to car or shed i . 50 i grinder or filer i . 75 i engineer and fireman 2 . oo $25.50 CHAPTER XXII CORK GENERAL CORK is the outer layer of the bark of an evergreen oak (Quercus suber) . Although the tree grows over a wide territory, the commercial production of cork is restricted to a comparatively small area bordering the western Mediterranean Sea, between the 34th and 45th degrees of latitude, North. The Iberian peninsula is the great center of cork production and pro- duces nearly two-thirds the world's supply of cork. It also grows widely in southern France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Morocco, Algiers and Tunis, and, to a limited extent, in Greece, the Dalmatian Coast, Tripoli, and Asia Minor. Portugal probably produces more cork than any other country, but Spain is regarded as the center of the cork industry because it imports large quantities from Portugal and re-exports it together with the Spanish product in the various manufactured forms. The Tagus River Valley in Portugal and the provinces of Catalonia, Andalusia and Estremadura in Spain are the great sources of the world's cork supply. There are 400,000 acres of cork forest in France, 818,000 acres in Portugal, about 850,000 acres in Spain, 1,000,000 acres in Algeria, and 200,000 to 250,000 acres in Tunis. The total area of cork oak forests is estimated to be betweeen 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 acres. The richest and most productive forests are in Portugal and Spain. Cork has played an important part in civilization since the days of the ancient Greeks of the 4th century B.C. and the Roman Empire, for it is mentioned by Horace and Pliny as well as by Plutarch and an early Greek writer. Even in those early days cork was used both for bottle stoppers and for buoys for fishermen's nets. The introduction of glass bottles in the i5th century gave a great impetus to the industry and the importance of cork gradually increased until modern times. In 1914 this country imported over $6,400,000 worth of cork in its various forms, and even in 1918 the value was over $5,000,000 in spite of the lack of ocean tonnage. In 1916 Spain exported cork and cork prod- 433 434 FOREST PRODUCTS ucts to the value of about $6,900,000. The annual production of cork from all sources is estimated to be between 50,000 and 60,000 tons. THE CORK OAK The cork oak is generally a small, irregular tree from 25 to 50 ft. in height and from 8 to 18 in. in diameter, at breast height. The clear trunk is seldom over 12 to 15 ft. in height and the crown is usually some- what dense and spreading. The cork oak forests resemble to some degree the live oak groves of the southeast and California, with the exception that individual cork oaks do not generally reach such a large size as the live oaks of this country. FIG. 114. — A good stand of cork oaks in Andalusia, the province of southern Spain which is the center of production of that country. The trunk of the tree on the left including the lower branches is being stripped. Note the hatchet used to girdle and pry off the bark. The trees are usually stripped of bark every eight or nine years. The forests are very open and there are ordinarily only from 30 to 60 trees per acre. All the trees are of native origin and grow wild and there are no extended attempts at artificial regeneration in its native habitat. The trees are very slow growing and generally do not attain a size suitable for stripping until about twenty to thirty years of age or more. In Spain practically the only important government regulation govern- ing the conduct of this industry, is the stipulation that no trees under 40 cm. in circumference (about 5 in.) at a point if meters above the CORK 435 ground can be stripped for their bark. Trees commonly attain an age of from 100 to 500 years or more. They generally grow on the lower slopes of mountains and on the poorer and more rocky soils which are unsuit- able for agriculture. The best cork is said to be produced from the drier and more rocky soils. In 1858 several cork oaks were introduced in this country and have grown well in the Southeastern States. The experiments were not suffi- ciently extensive, however, to determine any positive results regarding the possible introduction and growth of the tree in America. There has not been any disposition evidenced either by the cen- tralized or, local governments in Spain to exercise any supervision over the cork forests except as noted above. They are such an important factor in producing wealth that the owners of cork oak forests realize their importance and give them excellent care. The general method of handling has been practically the same for the past several centuries and it is not likely that there will be any marked changes in the general methods either of cultivation of forests or in the methods of stripping. » HARVESTING THE BARK All trees that are vigorous and healthy, from 5 to 6 in. and up in diam- eter, are stripped. Trees are stripped of their bark every six to eleven years, with an average of about eight to nine years. In the lowlands, where the soil is richer, the cork is thicker and more spongy and, there- fore, of less value. The firm and heavier cork, which is much more desirable, is produced only on higher and drier soils in very open groves. This product is considered to be of superior quality even though much thinner. Young trees, generally speaking, produce the best quality of cork, although the first stripping, called ",virgin " cork, is of very inferior grade and is used only for granulated cork. It is usually hard, thin, dense and tough, and very irregular. Trees as young as twenty years of age have, in special cases, been subjected to the stripping of their bark, but, ordinarily, the age of first stripping is much older than this, as the trees in Spain grow very slowly, and it is often from thirty to fifty years before trees will attain a diameter of 6 in. The first stripping does not injure the growth; on the other hand, it seems to stimulate further development of both the bark and wood growth. There is no definite rule regarding the age at which trees no longer continue to yield commercial cork. Growers in Spain estimate that commercial cork is produced from trees up to three hundred to five hun- 436 FOREST PRODUCTS dred years of age. The most valuable cork is generally about an inch in thickness and this is produced from rather young, vigorous trees, about forty to fifty years of age, and from the lower branches of the older trees. The bark is stripped according to the vigor displayed. This is gauged by men long experienced in the business. All stripping is done by skilled workmen who decide for each tree how high the bark should be removed. A young, vigorous tree with thick bark can be stripped higher than one with thin bark, or one which presents a rather unprom- FIG. 115. — Weighing pieces of cork in the cork oak forests of southern Spain, just after stripping and drying. Raw cork is usually purchased on the basis of weight before it is sent to the factory for manufacture. ising or unhealthy appearance. On old trees the best cork is found on the lower portions of the larger branches. In stripping the bark, a ring is customarily cut completely around the top and the bottom of the trunk ; then a vertical cut is made up the trunk and as many other horizontal rings around the tree as seem necessary in order to facilitate the removal of the bark. The wedge-shaped handle of the hatchet is then inserted and the bark pried off. Each tree presents a different problem. On small trees one may often take off the whole bark in one section. On larger trees 2 to 4 vertical cuts up the tree may be necessary. There is no uniformity either in the length or width of CORK 437 the sections removed from the different trees. The stripping is done entirely with a hand-axe or hatchet especially designed for the purpose. The strippers are always careful not to injure the inner bark at any point, because if broken or disturbed this point becomes scarred and successive removals of bark are rendered much more difficult. On the old trees, stripping from the larger branches is done with the assistance of ladders. One can always tell freshly stripped trees by the dull, red appearance of the inner bark. The cambium layer turns a rich dark red shortly after stripping and remains in this condition until the next year's growth. This is a characteristic sight throughout the cork oak districts. The time of stripping varies in different parts of the cork region. The general rule followed is that it should be done when the sap is run- ning freely. In Andalusia, in southern Spain, it is customarily done from June ist to early in September, but the busiest season is in July. The operation may start early one year and the next year much later, as the season varies considerably. It is said that hot weather, following a good rainfall, is the most opportune time to strip the bark during the removal season. As the strips and slabs are removed from the tree, they are piled up at a convenient point in the forest and later tied in bundles and con- veyed on donkey-back to the nearest shipping station or bark scraping establishment. In Algeria and Tunis the strippers customarily use a crescent-shaped saw for stripping, whereas in Spain and Portugal a hatchet with a long handle, wedge-shaped at the end is the only implement used in the stripping process. YIELD AND VALUE The thickness of the bark varies from ^ to 2\ in., depending upon the size and age of the tree, the part of the tree, its condition, the character of the soil, etc. Each tree will yield from 45 to 500 Ib. of cork, depend- ing upon these same factors. Ordinarily the bark is allowed to season from three to eight days in the forest, then it is weighed and sent to some central point to be scraped. The scraping process may be done either in the forest or at the shipping station. In the case of large operations, it is done at some large, central manufacturing point. Purchases are ordinarily made on the basis of weight. Frequently buyers inspect the cork on the ground and count the strips by the dozen, 438 FOREST PRODUCTS the larger pieces being separated from the small ones. Generally speaking, it is estimated that on the average there are two pieces obtained from each tree. In Andalusia, in Spain, it is usually purchased by the quintal of 46 km. Whole forests or orchards are sometimes purchased at a fair price, the buyer occasionally doing the stripping himself. The price by weight may be figured either at the station or at the manufac- turing or shipping point. Prices prior to the war have been very variable. It is seldom graded aside from the general classification as noted above. Prices range from Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. FIG. 1 16. — Character of bark as it is brought to the factory from the forest. On the right is a piece about 4 ft. in length, stripped from the tree in one section. It is first boiled, then scraped and sorted by thickness and quality. Photograph taken at a large cork factory in Seville, Spain. 7 to 9 pesetas (roughly, from $1.40 to $1.80), per quintal, up to 20 or 25 pesetas (roughly, $4.00 to $5.00), according to the quality, classifi- cation, condition, size, thickness, and location. MANUFACTURE In the manufacturing process, the raw bark as it comes from the trees and after drying is first boiled in large copper vats for about three- quarters of an hour. The purpose of boiling in water is to soften the CORK 439 bark, and increase its volume and elasticity, to remove the tannic acid, and straighten out the curvature of the individual pieces for convenience in packing. The boiling is done by placing the pieces close together, one on top of another, and compressing by a heavy weight to keep them flat- tened out. Boiling softens the outer bark so that it may be scraped to remove the coarse and hard outer layer called " hardback." This layer may vary from ^ to f in., depending upon the nature and character of the bark. It is done by hand with hand rasps in most cases, and reduces the weight of the bark about 20 per cent. Efforts have been made to do the scraping by machinery, but it is generally agreed that the hand work Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. FIG. 117.— At a large cork factory in Seville, Spain. Under the open sheds on the right the crude cork is boiled and scraped. The best cork is made into wine stoppers. is better, because the worker can better judge the character and require- ments of the individual piece and rasp accordingly. Some pieces of bark are exceedingly rough and irregular and require much more scrap- ing and individual attention than others. Some parts of one piece of bark may also be much more irregular than other parts. After scraping the bark, it is trimmed with a knife either by hand or by machine, and sorted into grades. It is sorted first for thickness and then for quality. There are customarily from four to five grades of thickness and there are usually four sub-grades of quality to each thick- 440 FOREST PRODUCTS ness. There are no standard methods of grading requirements for either the thickness or quality among the various companies. All cork after manufacture is sold on the basis of samples. The slabs of cork to be shipped are then baled in hydraulic presses, and tied up with wire. FIG. 1 1 8. — Baling cork after boiling, scraping, grading and trimming. Considerable cork is shipped to this country in this form. Photograph taken at a large cork factory in Seville, Spain. UTILIZATION OF CORK Cork possesses a number of properties which distinguish it and render it adaptable for use in a great diversity of ways. Its principal features are: 1. Lightness in weight. 2. Compressibility and elasticity. 3. Comparative imperviousness to liquids as well as to air. 4. Comparative strength and durability in relation to its other properties. 5. Low conductivity of heat. The combination of these characteristics renders it invaluable for many specialized purposes. Its low specific gravity combined with its CORK 441 strength, toughness and durability, cause it to be in great demand for life- belts, buoys, floats, and for several special devices for the prevention of drowning. Its impervious and compressible qualities bring it into wide use for bottle stoppers, which have been, for a long time, the principal use for the better classes of cork. Champagne and fine wine stoppers require the very highest grades of cork. Its lightness in weight, softness and low conductivity of heat render it an excellent lining for hats and for soles of shoes. The demands upon cork products have greatly increased during the last few decades. It is estimated that in the manufacture of solid articles FIG. 1 19. — Sorting and trimming sheets of cork. The best grades are used for bottle stoppers. from cork, there is a primary waste of from 55 to 70 per cent. This waste, however, is always collected, ground up and ultimately used for a great variety of purposes. On account of its being a poor conductor of heat — exceeding most materials in this quality — its use for cork insulation in refrigeration has developed very broadly in the past twenty years. Probably about 50 per cent of the total cork product of the world, measured by weight, is used now for refrigeration. The American, Argentine, and Brazilian meat packers purchase vast quantities of cork boards composed of odd pieces of cork waste compressed together. 442 FOREST PRODUCTS Large quantities are also used for heat insulation, either in the form of cork boards or for loose filling in the walls of ice boxes, cold-pipe lines, water coolers, cold storage rooms, and about the sides of freezing tanks in ice factories. Fur storage vaults, creameries, bakeries, candy factories, and breweries use it for insulation and it is extensively used on ships, clubs, hotels, etc., for the same purpose. When used in the board form, the sheets usually measure 12 by 36 in. and vary in thickness, depending upon the local requirements. Cork flour is a prominent product. This is made entirely from cork waste and is one of the principal constituents of linoleum and cork floor tiling; cork shavings are used to stuff mattresses and boat cushions. Other common uses are table mats for hot dishes, pin cushions, entomo- FIG. 120. — Baled cork scraps at a cork factory. Used principally for insulation at refriger- ating plants. logical cork for mounting insects, bath mats, washers, penholder tips, carburetor floats, churn lids, cork balls, gaskets, instrument and fishing- rod handles, etc. Recently it has come into greater use for cigarette tips and cork paper from ws to -5^0 of an inch in thickness. Spain, the most important country in the exportation of cork and cork products, has an export tariff of five pesetas (roughly, $1.00), per loo km. or 220 Ib. of cork in lumps and sheets. This duty has been the same for a number of years. There is no import duty in the United States for bark, but there is a large duty for manufactured cork, stoppers paying from 12 to 15 cents per pound, depending upon size, while other forms pay about 30 per cent of their value. CORK 443 In 1916 the total exports of cork from Spain were as follows: Form. Number of Kilograms Stoppers 26,471,820 Waste 4,231,885 Squares 1,726,123 Sheets and lumps 1,200,440 Other forms 344,870 Spain ordinarily imports over 4,500,000 kg. of cork from Portugal and after manufacture re-exports it. Most of the stoppers go to France, with a considerable quantity to the United States and Great Britain as well. The squares go chiefly to Argentina, France, and Italy, while, of the cork waste, nearly one-half goes to the United States and a good share of the remainder to Great Britain. Before the war, Germany was an important market for cork and cork products, so that there has been a general decrease in total exports since 1914. The following table shows the value of the importation to this coun- try of cork bark and manufactures of cork from all sources during the years 1914 to 1918, inclusive, each year ending June 30th: IMPORTATION OF CORK TO THE UNITED STATES Years. Cork Bark. Value in Dollars. Manufactures of Cork. Value in Dollars. 1914 $3^51,794 $2,647,838 IQIS 2,762,895 2,024,059 IQl6 3,134,884 941,243 1917 3,870,389 2,158,447 1918 3,061,829 2,017,146 BIBLIOGRAPHY ARMSTRONG CORK Co. Cork and Its Uses, and Miscellaneous Leaflets and Circulars. Pittsburg. EL ALCORNOQUE. Ministero de Fomento. Madrid, 1911. LAICHINGER, PAUL. The Cork Insulation Industry Refrigeration. Atlanta, 1919. Vol. 24, pp. 36-40. MARQUIS, RAOUL. Le Liege et ses Applications. Paris: Jouvet et Cie. PRENTICE, H. W., Jr. History of Cork. Automobile. New York, 1917. Vol. 36, p. 424. RECORD, S. J. Possibilities of Cork Oak in the United States. Hardwood Record. Chicago. Vol. 35, No. 5, p. 29. STECHER, G. E. Cork: Its Origin and Industrial Uses. New York: D. Van Nostrand & Co., 1914. INDEX Acacia catechu, tannin, 86 — , dye woods, 421 — natal ilia, 86 — pycnantha, 86 Acetate of lime, drying floor for, 212 , — over ovens, illustration of, 220 — , price of, 218 , uses of, 220 — , value of yield per cord, 219 — , yield per cord, 219 — , yields of, in distillation, 217 Acid factories, see Distillation, Hardwood — manufacture and storage in sulphite pro- cess of pulp manufacture, 40 — , pyroligneous, 204, 205 Acre, equivalent, 17 Acreage of cork forests, 433 — rubber plantations, 408 Adirondacks, practice of making pulpwood in mill in, 30 Africa, mangrove in, 83 African rubber, 406 Agents, sizing and loading in papermaking, 53 — , tanning, 60 Agricultural implements, n Akers, C. E., on rubber industry, 413 Akron, center of rubber industry, 404 Alabama, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Alcohol, refining, 212 — , wood, price of, 218, 219 — , — , uses of, 221 — , — , yield per cord, 219 Algarobilla for tanning, 64, 85 — , tanning contents of, 64 Amazon, rubber in, 407 American fustic, 419 — Leather Chemists' Association, reference, 8/ Andalusia, cork in, 433, 434, 435 Andes Mountains, 406 Annual consumption of excelsior, 426 — wood for boxes, 250 - production, maple sugar and syrup, 380, 38i — use of wood, ii Anthracite mines, timber used in, 332 Appalachians, southern chestnut oak in, 71, 72 Apple Growers' Congress, decision in favor of barrel, 118 Apron systems of collecting resin, 173 Arabia, 20 Area of original and present forests, 2 Argentina, production of quebracho in, 79, 80 Arizona and New Mexico, box lumber con- sumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Arkansas, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — National Forest, cooperage sales on, 152 — , wood fuel used, 339 Armstrong Cork Co., on cork, 443 Ash, amount for boxes, 251 — , charcoal yield, 239 — , for pulp, 26 — , fuel value, 342 — hoops, 131 — lumber cut, 8 — , lumber value, 10 — staves, sizes, 140 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — distillation, 192 — , white, used for tight cooperage, 143 445 446 INDEX Ashe, W. W., on forests of North Carolina, 187 — , — , introduction of cup systems by, 174 Aspen for pulp, 25, 29, 31, 37, 48 — used in mines, 332 — , yield in pulp, 37 Assam rubber, 406 Assembling slack barrels, 134 — tight cooperage, 159, 160 Attalca excels a, 405 Atlantic coast, south, distillation in, 227 228 Austria, charcoal methods in, 236 Avicennia nilida, 82 — tomentosa, 82 B Balata, rubber, 406 Balderston, L., on valonia, 87 Ball, Marcus, data and experiments by, 238 Baling cork, illustration of, 440 - — press, excelsior, 429 Balsam fir for pulp, 19, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 38,47 — , time of cooking for sulphite pulp, 43 Baphia nitida, 419 Bark, black oak, 78, 79 — , chestnut oak, cost of producing, 71, 72 — , , price of, 71, 72 — , , yield of, in cords, 73 — , hemlock, analysis of, 77 — , — , cost of producing, 69 — , — , equivalents, 68 — , — , for tanning, 60, 61, 66, 67, 68 — , — , harvesting, 66, 67, 68 — , — , hauling and loading, illustration of, 67 — , — , method of hauling, illustration, 69 — ,— , peeling, 62 — , — , price of, 66 — , — , production of, 65, 66, 67, 68 ^-, — , volume of, for trees of different diameters, 70 — , mangrove, 82 — , — , use of, 82, 83 — , number of cords of, for trees of different diameters, 70 Barking bolts or logs for paper pulp, 31, 32 Barrel, assembling a slack, 130 — , legal sizes of, 118 Barrels, (other) see cooperage, slack and tight Barker, rotary or drum, used in making pulp, 32 Barwood, 419 Basswood, amount for boxes, 251 — for pulp, 18, 26, 29 — , heading sizes, 141 — , weights, 139 — lumber cut, 8 — value, 10 — posts, 329 — , South American, 417 — staves, sizes, 140 — used for excelsior, 424 slack cooperage, 121 — tight cooperage, 146 — veneer cores, 108 — veneers, use of, 107 Bateman, E., on fuel value of wood, 342, 343 Bath process of distillation, 231 Batteries of ovens in distillation plant, 209 Baur, F., on wood shrinkage, 345 Beadle, C., on papermaking, 58 — , on rubber, 413 Beating engines, 52, 53 — machines, photograph of, 52 — pulp, process of, 52, 53 Beech, amount for boxes, 251 — , charcoal yield, 238 — cross ties, amount, 267 — , European, illustration of, 243 — for charcoal, 236 — pulp, 26, 27, 29, 48 — , fuel value, 342 — lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 — staves, sizes, 140 — ties, durability, 292 — , time for burning charcoal, 241 — used in mines, 332 for distillation, 192, 193, 217 — slack cooperage, 121 tight cooperage, 146 — , weight, 193 Beehive kilns, illustration of, 242 Bennett, H. G., on tanning materials, 87 Benson, H. K., data from, on chestnut ex- tract, 74 and 75 — , , on by-products of the Lumber Industry, 234 Bergil, charcoal investigations by, 238 Berry, S., on shake making, 372 Berwick, Maine, first sawmill at, 2 Bethell process of treating piling, 325 INDEX 447 Belts, H. S. and A. W. Schorger, data from, 176, 177, 183 — , , on fuel value of wood, 342, 343, 350 — , , on possibilities of Western pines for naval stores, 187 Betula, Pa., distillation plant, illustration of, 220 Bevan, E. J., on wood pulp and papermaking, 58 Beveridge, James, on pulp and papermaking, 58 Bichromates for tanning, 65 Bighorn National Forest, tie chance on, 286 Birch, amount for boxes, 251 — , boiling for veneers, 97 — , charcoal yield, 238 — cross ties, amount, 267 — for charcoal, 236 — pulp, 26, 29, 48 — , fuel value, 342 — hoops, 131 — , lumber cut, 4, 8 — , — value, 10 — ties, durability, 292 — used for distillation, 192, 193, 217 — tight cooperage, 146 — , veneer, prices, 95 — , veneers, use, 106, 107 — , weight, 193 Bitting, A. W., on box specifications, 260 Bituminous mines, timber used in, 332 Board feet, equivalents, 15, 16, 17, 18 Bodock, 420 Bois d'arc, 420 Bolts, shingle, logging, 354, 355, 356 — , stave, logging and delivering, 150 — , tight stave, method of cutting, illustra- tion of, 151 Boringdon, John, on the art and practice of veneering, 114 Bow- wood, 420 Boxed heart tie, 264 Box elder posts, 329 Boxes and box shocks, general, 248 — crating, 1 1 — crates made from veneers, 106, 107 Boxes, desirable qualities in woods, 249 — , hardwoods used for, 249 — , lumber used for, 248 — , manufacture, 253 — , principal states, 250, 252 — , sizes and specifications, 254 Boxes, species used, 250 — , veneer, 257 — , wire bound, 258 Box grades of lumber, 253 Boxing a longleaf pine for resin, illustration of, 166 — trees for resin, 170 Box lumber consumption by species, 251 — lumber consumption by states, 252 — shocks, cost of making, 254 Blackey, J. R., on tanning materials, 87 Blanchet, A., on history of papermaking, 58 Brace, equivalent, 15 Braziletto, 417 Brazil, mangrove in, 83 — , rubber, 406 Brazil-woods, 417 Bryan, A. H., on production of maple syrup, 383, 400 Bryant, R. C., reference to book on Logging, 29, 3", 334 Brown, Harold, on rubber, 413 — , Nelson C., on hardwood distillation industry, 223 — , , on utilization at Menominee Mills, 350 — , , cork bark, photograph by, 438 — , , — factory, photograph by, 439 — , , cordwood, photograph by, 337 — , , photograph of cars loaded with charcoal, by, 238 — , , - - Cobbs-Mitchell Co. plant, by 202 — , , — — cooling ovens, by, 203 — , , distillation wood, by, 190 — , , — — Italian saw mill, 246 — , , — — hardwood distillation plant, by, 194 — , , — — veneer machine by, 97 — , , — — maritime pine in France by, 1 86 — , , — — Western yellow pine by, 177 Buckeye, amount for boxes, 251 Buckeye, for pulp, 29 Built-up stock, manufacture of, 103, 104 Burcey column, introduction and use of, 191 Bureau of Explosives, on shipping containers, 260 Burning charcoal, rate of, 243 Butler, F. O., on papermaking, 58 Butte mining districts, timbers used in, 333 448 INDEX Butterick, P. L., on making box boards, 261 Butternut dyes, 414 Cadillac, Mich., Cummer-Diggins distillation plant, 208 — , — , distillation plant, 202 Casalpinia cor i aria, 84 — , dyes, 417 California, box lumber consumption, 252 — , fuel in, 340 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , mine timber supply in, 333 — , number of boxes used in, 248 — , shakes in, 351, 370, 371 — , wood fuel used, 339 Camaldoli, Italy, charcoal burning, 243 Campbell, C. L., on wood distillation, 223 Campeachy wood, 416 Camwood, 419 Canada, supply of pulp wood, 23 — , tendency of wood pulp industry to move to Canada, 27 Canned food boxes, specifications, 255 Cans, sizes of, used in boxes, 259 Capacity of charcoal pits in Europe, 241 — distillation cars, 209 storage yards for hardwood distillation, 206 Car construction, n Car-load lots of poles, 317 Card process, 293 Cars and trackage, hardwood distillation, 207 — , distillation, capacity of, 207, 208 — , — , cost of, 208 — loaded with charcoal after distillation, 208 Cascade Mts., hemlock bark in, 77 Cascalote, 86 Caslilloa clastica, 405 Catalpa posts, 326 Catechin, 421 Catechu dye woods, 421 Cavadia, T. G., on rubber, 413 Cedar, amount for boxes, 251 — , annual production, 8 — , cross ties, amount, 267 — , eastern red, posts, 326 — , , ties, durability, 292 — , lumber cut, 4, 8 — , — value, 10 — , northern white, pole prices, 310 — , , posts, 326 Cedar, northern white, shingles, 353 — , , ties, durability, 292 — , poles, 300, 301 — , amount, 303 — , durability, 320 — shingles, durability, 369 — , southern white, 326, 353, 362, 364 — , Spanish, sawed veneers, 102 — , — , sliced veneers, 99 — , -- , used for veneers, 90, 94, 99 — , western red, shakes, 370 — , , shingles, 352, 353, 360, 361, 633 — , , pole prices, 309 — , , posts, 326 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , white, excelsior, 426 Cellulose, in paper making, 51 — , sulphite, used for tanning, 65 Ceylon, rubber experiments, 407 Chamaccyparis thyoidcs, poles, 300 Chamfering barrels, 134 Chapin, E. S., on dycstufTs, 422 — Co., E. T., photograph by, 315, 317, 320 Charcoal, annual production of, 236 — burning illustration of, 240 — in beehive kilns, 242 — , cooling, after distillation process, 209,. 210 — , general, 235 — house in hardwood distillation plant, 212 — making in Italy, 244, 245 — , processes used, 238 — operations, division of time on, 245 — pit, illustration of, 237 — , prices, 245 — , rate of burning, 243 — trucks after distillation, illustration of, 208 — used in Europe, 235 — smelting copper, 245 — , uses of, 222, 232 — , utilization, 245 — , value of yield, per cord, 219 — , volume of, 237 — yield by species, 239 — in New York, 237, 238 — yields of, 236 — , , from hardwood distillation, 217 — , yield per cord, 219 Charpentier, P., on dyestufifs in "Timber," 423 Chemical Engineer, Chicago, reference to, 87 Cherry used for veneers, 94, 106 INDEX 449 Cherry veneers, use, 106 Chestnut, amount for boxes, 251 — bark disease, 301 — , charcoal yield, 239 — cross ties, amount, 267 — excelsior, 426 — extract, 73 — for pulp, 26 — fuel valve, 342 — , lumber cut, 8 — , lumber value, 10 — oak, 64, 70, 71, 72 — bark, tannin contents of, 64 — poles, 300-301 — , amount, 303 — , durability, 320 — posts, 326 — shingle, durability, 369 — ties, durability, 292 — used for distillation, 192 — slack cooperage, 121 — tight cooperage, 146 — in mines, 332 — wood for tanning, 60, 65, 73 — wood, tannin contents of, 64 Chiming barrels, 134 China, 20 Chinese, tanning by, 61 Chipping, illustration of, 171 — pulp bolts, 39 — wood, description of operation, 39 — trees for resin, method of, 171, 172 Chlorophora tinctoria, 418 Chrome compounds for tanning, 65 — tanning materials, 65 Chutes, log, 68, 69 Clapperton, G., on paper making, 58 Clark, R. F., data by, 356 Clouth, F., on rubber, 413 Coal, fuel value, compared to wood, 343 Cobbs-Mitchell distillation plant, 202 Coconino National Forest, illustration of naval stores experiment on, 177 Coe Manufacturing Co., illustration by, 91, in Colorado, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Coloring paper pulp, 54 Collection of sap, maple, 388 Common forms of cross ties, 264 Condensers, copper, in softwood distillation, 228 Conditions determining cost of making mechanical pulp, 37, 38 — for burning charcoal, 241 Congo rubber, 406 Connecticut, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Construction of distillation ovens, 209 Consumers of tannin, 61 Consumption, annual, of lumber and wood products in the United States, 5 — , — , excelsior, 426 — of paper, per capita in United States, 20 — wood by process of pulp manufacture, 27,28 — fuel, leading states in, 339 — products, per capita, 5 - woods for boxes, 250 — , per capita, of forest products, 5, 6 Contents of tannin in principal materials, 64 Conversion factors in tight cooperage indus- try, 152 — or equivalents, slack cooperage, 137 Converter pole, equivalent, 15 Converting factors, 14, 15, 16, 17 Cooke, W. W., on maple sugar, 400 Cooking soda pulp, 49 — sulphite chips, length of time required, 43 - pulp, 41, 42 Cooling oven in hardwood distillation plant, 203 — ovens, 209 Cooperage mill, slack, crew of, 126, 127 — . slack, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , — , — production of, 116 — , — , assembling, 133 — , — , general, 115 — , — , grading rules for, 140 — , — , laws governing, 1 18 — , — , stock weights, 137 — , — , utilization of waste, 135 — , — , versus other forms of shipping con- tainers, 117 — , — , wastage, 5 — , — , woods used for, 119, 120, 121 — stock, slack, qualification for, 119 — , tight, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , — , annual production of, 147 — , — , assembling, 159, 160 — , — , general, 143 — , — , labor employed in assembling, 161 — , — , special features of, 145 — , — , species used for, 146, 147 450 INDEX Cooperage, tight, standard specifications and rules of, 162 — , — , stumpage value of, 149 — , — , wastage, 5 — , — , waste in production of, 145 — , — , value of products, 148 — , — , varieties of white oaks used, 146 Cord, amount of solid wood per, 344 — , cost of labor per, at acid factories, 215 — , equivalent of, 17 — , (fuel), equivalents, 15 — , (shingle bolts), equivalents, 15 Cords, number of hemlock bark, for different sized trees, 70 Cordwood, beech, birch, and maple, illus- tration of, 337 — , hauling, illustration of, 347 Cores, sawing up rotary veneer, illustration of, 109 — , veneer, use of, 107, 108, 109 — , — , used in mines, 108, 109 Cork, baling, 440 — flour, 442 — forest, illustration of, 434 , acreage, 433 — , general, 433 — , harvesting bark, 435 — imports, 443 — manufacture, 438 — oak, 434 — , properties, 440 — scraps, illustration of, 442 — , sorting and trimming, 441 — , uses of, 440 — , value, 437 — , weighing, illustration of, 436 — , yields, 437 Cornering a box, illustration of, 170 Cost, cutting fuel wood, 345 — , hardwood distillation plant equipment, 2 1 3 — , manufacturing box shocks, 254 — of cutting and delivering distillation (hardwood) wood, 193 equipment for still house, 211 of tight stave mill, 156 fuel in hardwood distillation plants, 214 labor in acid factories, 213 - logging shingle bolts, 355, 356 — making and delivering tight stave bolts, 152 mine timbers, 334 — manufacturing tight staves, 155 Cost of operation, hardwood distillation plants, 216 - plant and equipment, hardwood dis- tillation plant, 213 producing hemlock bark, 69 mechanical pulp, 37, 38 sulphite pulp, 45, 46 production in softwood distillation, 230 treating posts, 329 Costs, depreciation at acid factories, 215 — , summary of, pole production, 318 — , ties, summary of, 285 Cotinus americanus, dye wood, 419 Cottonwood, amount lor boxes, 251 — , black, used for excelsior, 426 — for pulp, 26, 27, 48 — heading, sizes, 141 , weights, 138 - logs, prices, 93 — lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 — staves, sizes, 140 — , weights, 138 — used for excelsior, 425, 426 slack cooperage, 121 — veneer coves, use of, 108 — , yield in pulp, 37 Creosote treatment of poles, saving in, 323 Crocket, W. H., on maple sugar, 400 Cronstrom, Hendrix, on Russian veneer, industry, 114 Crop, description of, in gathering resin, 169, 170 Cross, C. F., on cellulose and pulp and paper making, 58 Cross tie dimensions, illustration of, 275 piles forms of, 290, 291 specifications, U. S. Railroad Adminis- tration, 274 — ties, annual consumption in board feet, 1 1 , average life, 263 , common forms, 264 , delivery of, 276, 277 — , general, 263 , hauling, 283 , hewed, percentage of, 266 , hewing, 280 , history, 263 , life of untreated, 291 , loading illustration of, 287 , making and delivery, 277 , making, illustration of, 281 INDEX 451 Cross ties, mechanical value, 294, 295 , method of piling, illustration of, 289 — , number per thousand board feet, 279 , — purchased, 267 , number used, 263, 264, 265, 267 , preservative treatment, 292, 293 , price levels, graphic representation of, 294 , prices of, 270 , prices paid by Penna. Railroad, 273 , requirements of good, 267 — requiring treatment, 276 — , sawed, 287 — , sawed versus hewed, 269 — , seasoning, 289 — , suitable timber for hewing, 278 — , specifications, 270 — , species used, 264 — , stumpage values, 277, 278 — treated, number, 294 — , triangular, 274 — , triangular, advantages and disad- vantages of, 274 — , — , illustration of, 274 — used untreated, 276 Crozing barrels, 134 Cuba wood, 418 Cuban pine for distillation, 227 Cubic foot, equivalents, 16, 17 — , (round) equivalent, 15 — meter "au reel," 16 — meter, equivalent of, 16 Cucumber for pulp, 26, 29 Cummer-Diggins plant, distillation at Cadil- lac, Mich., 208 Cup and gutter systems, advantages of, 175, 176 of collecting resin, 173 — , Herty, illustration of correct posi- tion of, 174 Cutch, 86 — dye woods, 421 Cutting a box for collection of resin, illus- tration of, 1 66 — paper, 57 Cylinder stave saw, speed of, 125 Cypress, amount for boxes, 251 — cross ties, amount, 267 — excelsior, 426 — hoops, 131 — lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 Cypress poles, 301 — poles, amount, 303 — , durability, 320 - posts, 326 — shingles, 553 — , durability, 369 — , standing timber, 4 — ties, durability, 293 — used for tight cooperage, 146 Dahl, introduction of process by, 47 Dalen, G., on paper technology, 158 Davis, C. T., on the manufacture of paper, 58 Decay in mine timbers, 335 Deerlodge National Forest, burning char- coal, 240 — , mine timbers, cost of producing, 334 — , mine timbers from, 333 Delaware, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 — , Lackawanna and Western Railroad, mine timber specifications, 333 Depreciation charges at hardwood distilla- tion plant, 215 softwood distillation, plant, 230 Derrick pole, equivalent, 15 — set (i i pieces) equivalents, 15 Destructive distillation softwood, 227 Developments in distillation industry, 197 Digesters used in making soda pulp, 48 — to cook chip in making sulphite pulp, photograph of, 42 Dimensions of cross ties, illustration of, 275 Dipping from turpentine boxes, 172 — resin from box, illustration of, 173 Distillation, beech, birch and maple used for, illustration of, 190 — , description of, 203 — , destructive, softwood, 227, 228 — plant, hardwood, illustration of, 194, 198 — , hardwood, cooling ovens, 209 — , — , cost of operation, 216 — , — , plant and equipment, 213 — , — , depreciation charges, 215 — , — , desirable species for, 192 — , — , early practices of, 189 — , — , favorable conditions for, 192 — , — , history of, 189 — , — , illustration of Cadillac, Mich., plant, 202 — , — , oven and iron retorts used in, 200, 201 452 INDEX Distillation, hardwood, ovens, 209 — , — , plant equipment — , — , processes of manufacture in, 199 — , — , retort house, 207 — , — , seasoning and weights of wood used in, iQ3 — , — , storage yards, 206, 207 — , — , time required for, 204 — , — , trackage and cars, 207 — , — , use of sawmill and woods waste, 194 — , — , utilization of products, 220 — , — , — — wood for, 192 — , — , wood consumption for, 196 — , — , yields, 217 — of naval stores, 178 — , softwood, development of, 225, 226 — , — , future of, 233 — , — , general, 225 — , — , light wood used for, 227 — , — , prices of products, 230 — , — , process, 228 — , — , utilization of products, 232 — , — , yields from 228 — , steam, and extraction, 230 — wood, wastage, 5 District of Columbiar box lumber con- sumption, 252 Divi-divi, for tanning, 64, 84, 85 — , production and use of, 84 — , tannin contents of, 64 Division of time in making charcoal, 245 Doyle rule used in measuring heading and stave logs, 137 Douglas fir ties, hauling, 283 Driers, paper, 56 Drop-saw used in pulp mills, 31 Drums, cylindrical, used in drying pulp, 45 Drying floor for acetate of lime, 212 — sulphite pulp, 45 Dumesny, Paul, on wood distillation, 223 Durability of shingle, 368 species used for cross ties, 293 Dyera coslulla, 406 Dyes, butternut, 414 — , raw materials, 416 Dyestuff, manufacture, 414 Dye woods, general, 414 -— , imports, 421 £ Ebonite or hard rubber, 412 Economic value of tanning materials, 60 Elm, amount for boxes, 251 — for pulp, 26 • — , fuel value, 342 — hoops, 131, 132 — , weights, 138 — , lumber, cut, 8 — , — value, 10 -posts, 329 - — staves, sizes, 140 — , weights, 137 — used for slack cooperage, 119, 120 — in mines, 332 — veneers, use of, 107 — , white, charcoal yield, 239 — , — , ties, durability, 293 Employees required in hardwood distillation plant, 214, 215 Endothea parasitica, 301 England, G. A., on papcrmaking, 58 Equalizer, Trevor stave bolt, 124 Equipment, distillation plant, cost of, 206 — for syrup and sugar making, 391 — in still house, cost of, 211 — of still house, 210, 211, 212 — tight stave mill, cost of, 156 — , plant in hardwood distillation, 206 Equivalents, fuel value, wood and coal, 343 — , list of, 14, 15, 16, 17 — , slack cooperage, 137 — used in tight cooperage industry, 152 Eucalyptus fuel wood, 340 European countries, waste in, 12 — species, yield in charcoal, 238 Evaporators used in making maple syrup, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394 Excelsior, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , baling press, 429 — , cost of raw material, 427 — , general, 424 — machines, 428 — machines in operation, illustration of, 430 — , manufacture, 426 — , — , illustration of, 427 — , specifications, 425 — , uses of, 425 — , wastage, 5 — woods, qualities desired, 424 Exothermic process in hardwood distillation, 204 Export boxes, 260 INDEX 453 Export lumber and timbers, amount, 1 1 — staves, countries of destination^, 164 Exports of box shooks, 260 — tight staves, 164 — turpentine and rosin, 169 Extract, chestnut, 73 • — , recovered, for tanning, 65 Extraction process in distillation, 230 Farmer, J. B., on rubber, 4J3 Factories, acid — see distillation, hardwood Factors, converting, 14, 15, 16, 17 - determining yields from hardwood dis- tillation, 217 — influencing the volume of solid wood per cord, 344 Federal Internal Revenue act, influence of, on hardwood distillation products, 189 Felling poles, 313 Fence posts, wastage, 5 Fernow, B. E., on strength of boxed timber, etc., 187 — , , on use of wood, i Ferrari, Egidio, en charcoal making, 244, 247 Fir, alpine, fuel value, 342 — , balsam, amount for boxes, 251 — , — for Pulp» iQ> 25> 26, 27, 29, 31, 38, 47 — , — , lumber cut, 8 — , — , — value, 10 — , — , used for paper pulp, 25, 26 Fir, Douglas, amount for boxes, 251 — , — , boiling for veneers, 97 — , — , cross ties, amount, 267 — , — , excelsior, 426 — , — , for distillation, 227 — ,— , for pulp, 21, 29, 47 — , — , fuel value, 342 — , — , lumber production, 3, 4, 8, 9 — , — , — value, 10 — , — , poles, 302 — , — , — , amount, 303 — , — , — , durability, 320 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for tight cooperage, 146 — , — , veneers, use, 106 — , noble, amount for boxes, 251 — , red, amount for boxes, 251 — used in mines, 332 — , western, standing timber, 4 — , white, amount for boxes, 251 Fir, white, for pulp, 26, 27, 29, 38 — , — , fuel value, 342 — , — , lumber cut, 8 — , — , — value, 10 Fisher, W. R., on heating power of wood, 350 Florida, box lumber consumption, 252 — , importance of, in naval stores, 167, 168 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Fluming ties, illustration of, 285 Food Administration, U. S., box, specifica- tions, 254 Foreign tanning materials, 60 Forest cork, illustration of, 434 — of Italian beech, illustration of, 243 — products laboratory, 420 — , box tests at, 255 — , wastage in products of, 12 — resources, by regions and species, 4 — Service, U. S. photographs by, 34, 42, 44, 52, 103, 125, 144, 151, 153, 154, 155, 157, 166, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 228, 237, 242, 265, 268, 281, 283, 285, 302, 315, 318, 322, 324, 327, 328, 341, 346, 347, 349, 371, 375, 37,, 386, 389, 393, 427, 430 Forestry, ancient practice of, i Forests, American increment in, 5 — , area of original and present, 2 — , cork, acreage, 433 — , original and present area and stand of, 2 — , used for tanning, 60, 61, 62 — , utilitarian value of, i, 2 Forms of cross ties, 264 — tie piles, 290 Foster, H. D., table on yield of chestnut oak bark from, 73 Fourdrinier wire, 21 — , description of, 54, 55, 56 — , development of, 21 — , illustration of, 54 Fox, Walter, on rubber, 413 France, charcoal used in, 235 — , first paper mill in, 20 — , naval stores industry in, 185 — , per capita consumption in, 6 French, E. H., on hardwood distillation, 223 — foot, equivalent, 17 — methods of naval stores collection, 185 Frothingham, E. H., on hardwoods in Con- necticut, 348, 350 — , , on sizes of poles, 311, 312 454 INDEX Fruit containers made from veneers, 107 Fuel, cost of, in hardwood distillation fac- tories, 214 — used in hardwood distillation plants, 213 — value, coal and wood, 337, 339 348 — used in making maple syrup, 390 , of various woods, 342 , relative, of longleaf pine and hickory, 343 — values, 341 — wood, amount used, 337 , annual consumption and wastage, 5 , cost of production, 345 , cutting by motor saw, illustration of, 346 , cutting, hauling and delivering to market, 345 , effect of war on use of, 336 — , general, 336 — , prices, 348 — , principal markets, 344 — , sources of supply, 340 — , stacked for seasoning, illustration of, 337 — , stumpage values, 345 — , value of, 337, 339 — , per cord, 339 — , wastage, 5 Funk, W. C., on value and use of wood fuel, 350 Funtumia elastica, rubber, 406 Furniture, n — , amount of lumber, 1 1 Fustic dye wood, 418 — mulberry, 418 Fustine, 419 Future of softwood distillation, 233 Gallatin National Forest, cutting ties on, 265 Gambier, dye wood, 421 — , for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 85, 86 — , tanning contents of, 64 — , use and production of, 85, 86 Gannon, Fred A., on tanning industry, 87 Gas, wood, uses of, 223 — , wood, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 217 Gasoline engines used to cut up wood fuel, 346 Gathering sap in sugar bush, illustration of 393 Geer, W. C., on destructive distillation, 234 — , , on wood distillation, 223 Geological Survey, U. S., on mine timbers, 330 Georgia, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Germany, per capita consumption in, 6 Gibson, H. H., on future tie materials, 298 Glue used for ply-wood, 104 Goltra, W. F., data supplied by, 285 Goodyear, Charles, inventor of rubber, 402 Grades, box, 253 — , of rosin, prices of from 1914-1917, 185 — , of shingles, 361, 362, 363 Grading rules, slack cooperage, 141 Great Britain, per capita consumption in, 6 Great Northern Railway, triangular ties used by, 273, 274 Griffin, R. B., on chemistry of papermaking, 58 Grind-stones used in making pulp, 33, 34 Ground wood pulp, cold and hot, 33 Guatamala, rubber, 406 Guayule, rubber, 406 Guiana, rubber, 406 Gum, black, hoops, 131 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , boiling for veneers, 97 — , cross ties, amount, 267 — , for pulp, 26, 48 — , heading, sizes, 141 — , heading, weights, 138 — , lumber cut, 8 — , red, amount for boxes, 251 — , — , excelsior, 426 — , — , charcoal yield, 239 — , — , and sap, lumber value, 10 — , — , hoops, 131 — , — , lumber cut, 4 — , — , sliced veneers, 99 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for slack cooperage, 120 — , — , used for tight cooperage, 143 — , — , veneers, amount used, 92 — , — , — , prices, 95 — , — , — , use of, 106, 107 — , staves, sizes, 140 — , — , weights, 137, 138 Gutta percha, source, 406 — , siak, 406 INDEX 455 Hackberry posts, 326 H&maloxylon campechianum, dyes, 416 Half moon tie, 264 Hancornia speciosa, rubber, 406 Hardwood distillation, 189 — , see distillation, hardwood — , fuel, prices, 348 — , heading, sizes, 141 — , mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 — , staves, sizes, 140 — , — , weights, 138 — , ties, seasoning ,289 Hardwoods, for pulp by soda process, 48 — , lumber value, 10 — , standing timber, 4 — , undesirable for distillation, 192 — , used for boxes, 249 — , — — distillation, 189 — , — in mines, 331, 332 Harper, W. B., on destructive distillation, 223 Harvesting cork bark, 435 Halt, W. K., on holding force of railroad spikes, 296 — , , — strength of packing boxes, 261 Hauling, capacities of wood fuel, 347 — , Douglas fir ties, illustration of, 283 Hawes, A. F., data on volume of hemlock bark, 70 Hawley, L. F., on distillation of woods, 223 — , , on steam distillation, 234 Heading, and staves, tight, manufacture of, 153 — , sawing machine, illustration of, 128 — , slack, annual production of, 116 — , — , grading rules for, 141 — , — , manufacture of, 127 Heart and back or wing tie, 264 Heat, required for hardwood distillation, 204 Heating, rapidity of, in distillation, 217 — , staves, illustration of, 160 Hectare, equivalents, 17 Hedge tree, 420 Helphenstine, R. K., on statistics of pulp- wood consumption, 28, 59 Hemlock, amount for boxes, 251 — , bark for tanning, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74 — , — , harvesting, 66, 67, 68 — , — , tannin contents of, 64 — , cross ties, amount, 267 Hemlock, eastern for tanning, 64, 65 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , excelsior, 426 — , for pulp, 19, 24, 27, 29, 31, 38, 47 — , fuel value, 342 — , lumber cut, 8, 9 — , — , value, 10 — , poles, amount, 303 — , posts, 329 — , principal wood cut in Wisconsin, Penn- sylvania, Michigan and New York, 6 — , pulp, price, 45, 47 — , shingles, durability, 369 — , staves, slack, 125 — , tissue of cooking for sulphite pulp, 43 — , used in mines, 332 — , use of, for pulp, 24, 25 — , western, as source of tanning material, 77 — , — , bark, tannin contents of, 64 — , — , for tanning, 63, 64, 65, 77, 78 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , yield in pulp, 37 Herty cup and gutters, illustration of correct position of, 174 — , C. H., introduction and application of cup systems by, 174 — , , on naval stores, 187 Hcvea braziliensis, 402, 404, 405 Hewed ties, factors in favor of, 269 — , percentage of, 266 Hewing cross ties, cost, 282 Hickory, charcoal yield, 239 — , for charcoal, 236 — , fuel value, 342 — , — , wood, value, 348 — , hoops, 131 — , lumber cut, 8 — , — , value, 10 — , ties, durability, 293 — , used for distillation, 192, 217 — , — in mines, 332 Hills, J. L., on maple sugar industry, 384, 400 Hinckley Fiber Co., 19 History of softwood distillation, 225 Hoffman, Carl, on papermaking, 58 Hoops, annual production of, 116 — , barrel, grading rules for, 141 — ,cut, 132 — , manufacture of, 131 — , sawed, 132 456 INDEX Horter, J. C., on rubber, 413 Hough, F. B., report on forestry, 187 House, charcoal, 212 — , log, equivalents, 15 — , retort, 207 — , still, in hardwood distillation plant, 2ic Hoyer, E., on papermaking, 58 Hubbard, Ernst, on utilization of wood waste for wood pulp, 58 — , W. F., on production of maple syrup, 383, 400 Idaho, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 7 — , poles produced in, 300, 301 — , wood fuel used, 339 Increment of American and European forests, 5 Illinois, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3 — , wood fuel used, 339 Imports of cork, 443 , dyewoods, 421 — , pulpwoods and wood pulp, 57 — , tanning materials, 86, 87 Inch, equivalent, 17 Insulation cork, 441, 442 India, 20 Indiana, lumber cut, 3, 7 — , box lumber consumption, 252 — , quartered white oak veneeers in, 93 — , wood fuel used, 339 India rubber— see rubber India Rubber World, 413 Iowa, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Iron mines, timber used in, 332 Irons, "S," used to prevent checking in poles, 316 Italy, 20 Italian beech forest, cut-over, illustration of 244 Italy, charcoal making, 244, 245 — , — used in, 235 — , per capita consumption in, 6 Interior oi still house at distillation plants, illustration of, 211 Jackson, A. G., on western red cedar, 372 Java, acreage of planted rubber trees, 408 Jelutong rubber, 406 Jepson, W. L., on California tanbark oak, 87 Jointer, tight stave, illustration of, 158 Joyce, W. R., photograph of ties, by, 289 Joyce-Watkins Co., photograph of ties, by, 287 Juniper poles, amount, 303 — , posis, 326 Kaniksu National Forest, peeling poles, 302 Kansas, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Keller paterit for grinding wood pulp, 21 Kellock, T., on use of wood fuel, 350 Kellogg, R. S., on mine timbers, 330 Kempfer, W. H., on preservative treatment of poles, 323 Kentucky, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Kerr, G. A., on tanning extract manufacture, 87 Kickxia elastica, rubber, 406 Kilns, charcoal, illustration of, 242 Kiln drying slack heading, 127, 128, 129 Kilns, brick, used in making charcoal, 200 Kinds of paper, manufactured, 22 — , relative value of, 20 — wood, prices by, 10 Kino, for tanning, 64 — , production and use of, 86 — -, tannin contents of, 64 Klemm, Paul, handbook on papermaking, 59 Kline Company, excelsior machines, 431 Knapp, J. B., on western red cedar, 372 — , , on world's box shook industry, 261 Koller, T., on wood waste, 59 Koch, on cross tie investigation, 279, 280 Kraft paper, 47, 48 Kressman, on dye woods, 420 — , F. W., on osage orange, 423 Labor, cost of, in hardwood distillation, 213 Labor in acid factories, 213 Lagging, (6 pieces) equivalent, 15 Laichinger, P., on cork, 443 Lake states, distillation plants in, 202 — , posts cut in, 326, 328 — , stand of timber in, 4 Landolphia, spp., 406 INDEX 457 Larch, distillation, 227 — , (including tamarack), amount for boxes, 251 — for tanning, 65 — , lumber cut, 8 — , (tamarack), lumber value, 10 — , western, cross ties, amount, 267 — , — , ties, durability, 293 Latex, collecting, 409, 410 — , source of rubber, 404, 405 Lath, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , wastage, 5 Lawson, P. V., on papermaking in Wiscon- sin, 59 Leather, manufacturer, reference, 87 — World, reference to, 87 Leaver, J. M., on box estimator, 261 Life of mine timbers, 334, 335 Lightwood used for distillation, 227 Lima- wood, 417 Lime, acetate of, — see acetate of lime Limestone used in making sulphite acid, 41 Limnoria, damage to piling, 320 Linear foot, equivalent, 15 Liquors, spent, recovery of, 50 Little, A. D., on chemistry of papermaking, 58 — , , — softwood distillation, 225 Load, equivalents, 17 — , (in the rough), equivalents, 15 Loading, chestnut poles, illustration of, 315 — , southern white cedar poles, illustration of, 3i8 Locust, black, ties, durability, 293 — , poles, amount, 303 — , posts, 326 Log chutes, 68, 69 Logging, poles and piling, 310 — , shingle bolts, 354, 355, 356 — , waste in, 1 1 Logos rubber, 406 Logwood, 416, 417 — , prices of, 417 Louisiana, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Loss of wood in manufacture of saw logs, 13 Lumber and timbers, n — , export, ii — , annual production of, 6 — , cut, history of, 2 — , — , use of, 1 1 Lumber, production, by states, 3, 7 — , — , changes in, 3 — , quality of, used for lumber, 249 — , used for boxes, 248 — , values, 9, 10 — , wastage in producing, 5 McGill, A., on maple syrup, 400 McKoy cup, illustration of collecting resin with, 176 Machine, die stamping, 98 — , for chamfering, howeling and crozing tight barrels, illustration of, 161 Machines, excelsior, 428 — , listing, illustration of, 155 — , shingle, 356 Madura tinctoria, 418 Magnolia, amount for boxes, 251 Mahogany, sawed veneers, 101 — , sliced veneers, 99 — , used for veneers, 90, 94, 95, 99, 106 — , veneer, prices, 95 — , veneers, use, 106 Maine, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Malaya rubber plantations, 407 Management of timber lands for hardwood distillation, 195 Mangabeira, rubber, 406 Mangrove bark, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 82, 83, 84 — , production of, 82 — , use of in Europe, 83 — , tannin contents of, 64 Manicobas, rubber, 406 Manihot glaziovii, rubber, 406 Manihots, rubber, 406 Manufacture of boxes, 253 — cork, 438, 440 — dyestuffs, 415 — maple syrup and sugar, 390 mechanical pulp, 31 paper from wood pulp, 50 — slack cooperage stock, 122 — soda pulp, 48 — sulphate pulp, 47 — sulphite pulp, 38 — tight staves and heading, 153 Manufacturing tight staves, cost of, 155 458 INDEX Maple, amount for boxes, 251 — , black, used for syrup, 379 — , boiling for veneers, 97 — cross ties, amount, 267 — for pulp, 26, 27, 29, 48 — , fuel value, 342 — , hard, charcoal yield, 239 — , hard, for charcoal, 236 — , hard, ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for distillation, 192, 193, 217 — , — , tight cooperage, 146 — , — , veneers, amount used, 93 — , — , veneer logs, prices, 93 — , — , — , use, 106, 107 — hoops, 131 — , lumber cut, 4, 8 — , lumber value, 10 — , Oregon, 379 — , red, used for syrup, 379 — , silver, used for syrup, 379 — , soft, charcoal yield, 239 — , soft, excelsior, 426 — , staves, sizes, 40 — sugar orchard, conditions for commercial operations, 381 — syrup and sugar, making process, 394 — , sugar, used for syrup and sugar, 378 — syrup and sugar, uses of, 398 — , value of product, 398 — , woods operations, 385 , yields of, 396 — , history, 374 — , sap flow and season, 382 — tree with 32 buckets, illustration of, 399 — used in mines, 332 — , weight, 193 Maples, species of, used for syrup and sugar, 378 Mariller, C., on charcoal making, 247 Marine borers, damage by, 320 Maritime pine, 185, 186 — , illustration of tapping, 186 — used for naval stores, 185, 186 Marquis, R., on cork, 443 Martin, Geoffrey, on charcoal and wood dis- tillation, 223 Maryland, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 - Wood Products Co. plant, illustration of 194 Mason, D. T., on utilization of lodgepole Pine, 334, 335 Massachusetts, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3 — , wood fuel used, 339 Material, raw, used for paper pulp, 28 Mathey, on charcoal burning, 241 Mattoon, W. R., on southern cypress, 373 Maxwell, H., on wooden and fiber boxes, 261 Mechanical process of pulp making, woods used in, 29 pulp, cost of producing, 37, 38 — value of ties, 295 Mell, C. D., on fustic wood, 423 — , — tanbark oak, 87 Method of piling poles, 320 — using "S" irons, 291 Methods of making veneers, 90 — manufacture, rubber, 411 rubber production, 404 — tapping rubber trees, illustration of 409 Metric ton, equivalents, 16 Mexico, rubber, 406 Michigan, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Mileage, railway, 263 Mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 — used for fuel, 340, 341 Miller, W., on American Paper-mills, 59 — , Warner, 21 Mimosa, 86 Mimnsops balata, rubber, 406 Mine timbers, amount used, 330, 331, 332 — , annual consumption, 5 — , causes of destruction, 335 — , cost of making, 334 — , durability, 334, 335 — , general, 330 — , kinds, 330, 331, 332 — , prices of, 332, 333 — , specifications, 333 — , value of, 332 , wastage, 5 Mining timber, equivalent, 15 Mines, number, 330 Minnesota, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Mississippi, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — River, barging ties on, 285 — , wood fuel used, 339 INDEX 459 Missouri, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3 — , wood fuel used, 339 Mock orange, 420 Moe, Carl, on making sulphate pulp, 48 Mohr, on southern timber pines, 188 Montana, box lumber consumption, 252 — , burning charcoal, 240, 241 — , lumber cut, 7 — , tie study in, 279, 280 — , wood fuel used, 339 Mora, dye wood, 418 Moms tinctoria, 418 Mover, J., on wood distillation, 223 Mozambique rubber, 406 Mulberry posts, 326 Mulford, Walter, data on volume of hemlock bark, 70 Myrobalan nuts, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 84 — , production of, 84 Myrobalans, tannin contents of, 64 N Nail spikes, 295, 296, 297 National Association of Box Manufacturers quoted, 248 — Box Manufacturers, specifications, 255 — Canners' Association, specifications, 255 — Coopers' Association, rules and specifica- tion of, 162 — Lumber Manufacturers' Association, con- ference of, 373 - Slack Cooperage Association, grading rules, 140 — , weights adopted by, 137 - Veneer and Panel Manufacturers' Asso- ciation, rules of, 109 Naval stores, annual production of, 167, 168 — , boxing trees in collecting, 170 — , chipping, 171 — , dipping, operation of, 172 — , distillation of, 178 — experiment in Arizona, illustration of 177 , French methods of, 185 — , general, 165 — industry, tools and utensils used in, illustration of, 178 — , quantity and value of, 169 — , — — exports of, 169 Naval stores Review, data from, 169, 184, 185 — , scraping faces, 172 — , source of products, 167 — , table of production in 1918, 168 — , utilization of products of, 183 — , woods operation, 169 — , yields of, 182 Nebraska, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Nellis, J. C, data by, n — , — — , on woods used for boxes, 250, 251, 252, 261 , Nelson, John M., on mine timbers, 335 I New England, cost of boxes in, 254 New Hampshire, box lumber consumption 252 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 New Jersey, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Newlin, J. A., on tests of packing boxes, 261 New Mexico, wood fuel used, 339 Newsprint Service Bureau, report to, 38 New York, box lumber consumption, 252 , hardwood distillation in, 190, 191, 192, 202 — , importance of in manufacture of wood pulp and paper, 26, 27 — , lumber cut, 3. 7 — , production of sugar and syrup, 380, 381, 383, 397 - State College of Forestry, bulletin issued by, 189 — , investigation by, 196 — , wood fuel used, 339 Nevada and Utah, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Nicaragua, rubber, 406 — wood, dyes, 417 North and South Dakota, box lumber con- sumption, 252 North Carolina, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 North Dakota, wood fuel used, 339 Northwest, fuel in, 340 Northwestern Cedarmen's Association, pole specifications, 305 Norton, T. H., on dyestuffs, 423 460 INDEX Norton, T. H., on tanning materials, 88 — , , reference to, 64 Novelties, n Number of cross ties purchased, 267 tanning consumers, 61 ties per thousand board feet, 279 Oak, amount for boxes, 251 — bark for tanning, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 78 — , black, bark, contents of, 64 — , — , for tanning, 64, 78 — , boiling for veneers, 97 . — , charcoal yield, 239 — , chestnut, for tanning, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73 — , cork, 433, 434 — cross ties, amount, 267 — for charcoal, 236 — , fuel value, 342 — hoops, 131 — , Japanese, used for veneers, 94 . — , lumber cut, 8, 9 — , lumber value, 10 — poles, 301 , amount, 303 • — , properties of, i — , quartered, veneers, prices, 95 — , — white, used for veneers, 90, 93, 95, 106 — , red, bark, tannin contents of, 64 — , — , for tanning, 64 — , — , sliced veneers, 99 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for tight cooperage, 143 — staves, slack, sizes, 140 — , tanbark, for tanning, 64, 75, 76 — , — , harvesting, 75 ^, — , peeling, illustration of, 76 — , time for burning charcoal, 241 — used for distillation, 192, 217 — slack cooperage, 119, 121 — in mines, 332 — veneer cores, use of, 108 — , veneers, prices, 95 — , use, 106 — , white, bark, tanning contents of, 64 — , white, drain on, for tight cooperage, 144 145, 148, 149, 150 — , — , for tanning, 64, 78 — , — , poles, durability, 320 — , — , posts, 326 — , — , quartered, sawed veneers, 101 — , — , sliced veneer, 99 Oak, white, ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for tight cooperage, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147 — , — , varieties of, used for tight cooperage, 146 — , — , veneers, amount used, 92 Ohio, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3 — , maple sugar and syrup production, 380, 381, 383, 397 — , wood fuel used, 339 Oklahoma, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Open pit method, yield by, 238 Operating costs, ties, 285 Operation, cost of, hardwood distillation plants, 216 — of hardwood distillation plant, 216 Opportunities of waste utilization in dis- tillation, softwood, 225 Oregon, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Osage orange, 416 , dye wood, 419 poles, amount, 303 Ovens, cooling, 209 — , — , illustration of, 203 — , distillation, 209 Pacific northwest, stand of timber in, 4 Packing shingles, 365 Padouk used for veneers, 94 Pails used to collect maple syrup, illustration of, 388 Palaqnium gittta, rubber, 406 Palmer, R. C., on distillation of resinous woods and hardwoods, 223, 224 — , , woods, 231, 232, 234 Palmetto used for tanning, 79 Paper, kinds of manufactured, 22 — machine, description of, 54, 55 — , manufacture of from wood pulp, 50 — mill, first in United States, 20 in Italy, first, 20 Paper Mill, The, reference to, 59 — , reference to, 35, 48, 59 — Trade Journal, reference to, 59 Papier-mache, 22 Para rubber, 402 INDEX 461 Para rubber in plantations, 408 Parthenium argentatum, 406 Peach wood, 417 Peeling cross ties, illustration of, 268 — hemlock bark in North Carolina, illustra- tion, 62 — , season for, 67 - poles, 313 . Pennsylvania, box lumber consumption, 252 — , charcoal making in, 237 — , importance in use of mine timbers, 331 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , mine timber specifications, 333 — , wood fuel used, 339 Per capita consumption of forest products, 5,6 Percentage of loss in manufacture of saw logs, j 13 Pernambuco-wood, 417 Persia, 20 Peters, E. W., on preservation of mine tim- bers, 335 Picca canadensis, 24 — excelsa, charcoal yield, 238 — riibens, 24 — sitchensis, 24 Picket, equivalent, 15 Piece, equivalent, 15 Pierson, A. H., on consumption of firewood, 350 Pile, equivalents, 15 Piling, 209 — , annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , danger from marine borers, 321 — , life of, untreated, 320 — , logging, 310 — method, illustration of, 317 — , preservative of, 321 — , specifications, 307 — , substitutes for, 325 — ties, method of, 289 — , wastage, 5 Pinchot, G., on turpentine orcharding, 188 Pine, Cuban, for distillation, 227 — , — , used for naval stores,. 167 — for pulp, 26, 27, 31, 48 — , jack for pulp, 26, 29 — , loblolly, poles, durability, 320 — , — , posts, 329 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , lodge pole, charcoal, 240 — , — , cross ties, amount, 267 — , — , fuel value, 542 Pine, lodgepole, lumber cut, 8 — , — , — value, 10 — , — , poles, durability, 320 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , longleaf, characters of, i — , — for distillation, 227 — , — , poles, durability, 320 — , — , posts, 326 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for naval stores, 167 — , Norway for distillation, 227 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , pitch, charcoal yield, 239 — poles, 301 — , amount, 303 — Products Co., Ga., view of plant, 228 — , shortleaf, for distillation, 227 — , — , posts, 329 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , slash, used for naval stores, 167 — , southern, cross ties, amount, 267 — , — , hoops, 131 — , — , shingles, 353 — , — yellow, for pulp, 21, 26, 29, 47 — , — — , lumber production, 3, 8, 9 — , , shingles, durability, 369 — , , standing timber, 4 — , , veneers, use, 106, 107 — , sugar, amount for boxes, 251 — , — , lumber cut, 8 — , — , — value, 10 — , — , standing timber, 4 — staves, stack, 125 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — in mines, 332 — veneer cores, 108 — , western, boiling for veneers, 97 — , — , shingles, durability, 369 — , — , veneers, use, 106 — , — yellow, amount for boxes, 251 — , , cross ties, amount, 267 — , , excelsior, 426 — , , for distillation, 227 — , , for naval stores, 167, 177 — , , lumber value, 10 — , , poles, durability, 320 • — , , tapped for naval stores, 177 — , , ties, durability, 293 — , white, amount for boxes, 251 — , — , charcoal yield, 239 — , — , excelsior, 426 462 INDEX Pine, white, for boxes, 248 — , — , for pulp, 26, 29 — , — , fuel value, 342 — , — , lumber cut, 4, 8, 9 — , — , — value, 10 — , — , posts, 329 — , — , shingles, durability, 369 — , — , standing timber, 4 — , — , ties, durability, 293 — , — , used for tight cooperage, 146 — , — , yield in pulp, 37 — , yellow, charcoal yield, 239 — , — , heading, weights, 139 — , — , (including North Carolina pine), amount for boxes, 251 — , — , lumber value, 10 — , — , veneers, amount used, 93 Pines, resinous, for distillation, 225 — used for boxes, 249 Pinus echinata, 9, 227 — divaricata, g — heterophylla, 167, 227 , used for naval stores, 167 — maritima, 185 , charcoal yield, 238 , used for naval stores, 185 — monlicola, 9 — palustris, 9, 167 , used for naval stores, 167 — ponder osa, 97 , veneers, 97 — resinosa, 9 — strobus, 9 — sylvestris, charcoal yield, 238 — - taeda, 9 Pipe line to collect maple sap, illustration of, 389 Pistacia lenticus, 64 Planing mill products, n Plant and equipment, cost of, 213 — equipment, hardwood distillation, 206 — , distillation, cooling ovens used in, 203 — , — , cost of, 206 — , largest New York distillation, 209 — operation, hardwood distillation, 213 — , slack cooperage, ground plan of, 122 — , softwood distillation, illustration of, 228 — , wood distillation, Cobbs-Mitchell Co., illustration of, 202 Plantations, rubber, 407 — , — , acreage, 408 Planted rubber, method of tapping, 409 Plate screen, diaphragm, illustration of, 55 Pole and pile timbers, qualifications desired in, 299 — , (fence), equivalent, 15 — , (telephone) equivalents, 15 — production, summary of costs, 318 - tie, 264 — yard in Idaho, illustration of, 315 Germany, illustration of, 324 Poles, amount treated, 323 — , amount used, 300 — and piling, general, 299 — , annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , cedar, weights, 309 — , chestnut, loading, illustration of, 315 — , — , prices of, 306 — , felling and peeling, 313 — , length of service, 319 — , logging, 310 — , method of piling, illustration of, 320 — , number of, used, 299 — , peeling, illustration of, 302 — , preservative treatment, 321 — , prices, 304 — required for car-load lots, 317 — , seasoning, 314, 315 — , — months, 316 — , shipping, 314 — , skidding, 314 — , southern white cedar, illustration of loading, 318 — , specifications, 304 — , stumpage value, 312 — , substitutes for, 325 — , treating, illustration of, 322 — , value of, 299 — , wastage, 5 — , western red cedar, height of treatment, 324 — , yarding, 314 Pontianak rubber, 406 Poplar, Carolina, posts, 329 — for pulp, 25, 27, 31 — used for wood pulp, 25 — in mines, 332 — , yellow, amount for boxes, 251 — , — , boiling for veneers, 97 — , — , charcoal yield, 239 — , — , for pulp, 29, 48 — , — , logs, prices, 93, 94 — , — , lumber cut, 8 — , — , — value, 10 INDEX 463 Poplar, yellow, posts, 329 — , — , veneer cores, use of, 108 — , yield in pulp, 37 Portugal, cork production in, 433 Post, cost of treating, 329 — , (circumference 18 in.), equivalent, 15 — , equivalent, 15 — , fence, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , — , wastage, 5 — , general, 326 — in place, illustration of, 32; — , number used, 326 —^preservative treatment, 328, 329 — , principal sources of, 328 — , requirements for desirable, 327 Potts, H. F., on rubber, 413 Power used in pulp mill, 45 Precious metal mines, timber used in, 332 Prentice, H. W., on cork, 443 Preservative treatment of poles and piling, 321 — posts, illustration of, 328 — , shingles, 369, 370 Preservatives, kinds of, 294 Press rolls, paper, 56 Prices, excelsior, 425 — of charcoal, 245 — dry distillation products, 230 — fuel wood, 348 — per thousand board feet, lumber, 10 Pritchard, T. W., on wood distillation, 234 Process, distillation of, hardwood, 203, 204, 205 — of making maple syrup and sugar, 394 — wood pulp manufacture, 27 — , softwood distillation, description, 228 Processes used in making charcoal, 238 Producing hemlock bark, cost of, 69 Production, annual, of lumber, 6 — , — , — veneers, 94 — by dry distillation system, 229 — , cost of by softwood distillation, 230 — , lumber, by states, 7 — of charcoal, annual, 236 — poles and piling, 310 — rubber, 410 — , methods, 404 — sugar maple and syrup, 380 — , shingles, annual, 353 Products, forest, wastage in production of, 12 — , utilization of hardwood distillation, 220 Products, utilization of, in softwood distil- lation, 232 — , value of, in hardwood distillation, 218 Prop, equivalent, 15 — timber, 333 Protection of ties against mechanical wear, 294 Pseiidotsuga taxifolia, 9 Pterocarpus santalinoides, 419 — santalinus, 418 Pulp and papermaking, history of, 20 — , bleaching, 51 — , collecting (soda), 50 — , — of, on lap or press machine, 44 — , coloring, 54 — , drying, 45 — , mechanical, the manufacture of; 31 — mil!, photograph of, 25 — , power required in, 45 — , requirements for the establishment of, 31,32 — , sizing and loading, 53 — , soda, manufacture of, 48 — , — , washing, 49 — stock, screening of, 35 — , sulphate, manufacture of, 47 — , — , cost of producing, 45, 46 — , — , manufacture of, 38 — , yield of, from different woods, 37 Pulpwood, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , of, 23 — , consumption by states, 26, 27 — , table of, 29 — , forecast of future requirements, 18 — , logging and transportation, 28 — , value of, 30 — , wastage, 5 Pulpwoods, imports of, 57 — , requirements of desirable, 22 Pusey- Jones Co., photograph by, 39 Qualities desired in box woods, 249 — cross ties, 267, 268 Quebrachia lorentzii, 79 Quebracho, description and production of, 79 — , export of from Argentina, 81 — for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 79, 80, 81, 82 — , imports to United States of, 82 — , tannin contents of, 64 — , weight of, 79 464 INDEX Quercitron, 65, 78, 79 — , dye wood, 419 Qaercus acuminaia, 146 — alba, 146 — agilops, 85 — cerrus for charcoal, 244, 245 — den si flora, 75 — macrocarpa, 146 — minor, 146 — plaianoides, 146 — Prinus, 71 - sitber, 433 — vein Una, 78 , dyes, 416 Quermos for tanning, 65 Quintal, equivalents, 16 R Rabate on French naval stores industry, 188 Rail, (split), equivalent. 15 Railroad Administration, U. S., tie specifica- tions, 274 — tie specifications, 271, 272 Railway mileage in United States, 263 Rambong rubber, 406 Rate of consumption of lumber, 5 Raw material, excelsior, 427 Raymond, W. C., on cross ties, 298 Record of sap seasons, 383 — , S. J., on cork oak in the United States, 443 — , , — fuel value of wood, 350 — , , — sources of vegetable tannins, reference, 88 Recovery of spent liquors, 50 Red spruce — see eastern spruce Redwood, amount for boxes, 251 — cross ties, amount, 267 — fuel value, 342 — , lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 — poles, amount, 303 — , durability, 320 — posts, 326 — shakes, 370 — shingles, durability, 369 — , standing timber, 4 — ties, durability, 293 Reed, I.. J., on storage of ship cargoes, 261 Refrigeration, cork for, 441 Refining crude alcohol, 212 Rehm, N. F., on ties and tie plates, 298 Requirements of a good tie, 267 — desirable pulp woods, 22 — for establishment of a pulp mill, 30 Retort house for distillation, hardwood, 207 Retorts, distillation, 208 — , iron, used in hardwood distillation, 200 — , oven, used in hardwood distillation, 201 — used in cooking sulphite pulp, 41, 42 Resin flow in tapping for naval stores, 167 Resinous woods, fuel value, 343 Rhizophora mangle, Linn., 82 Rhode Island, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 Rhus coriaria, 85 — glabra, 79 — typhina, 79 Richards, A. M., photograph by, 19, 25 Rifle tie, 264 Rocky Mountains, fuel in, 340 Rolls, drying, paper, 56 Rosewood sawed veneers, 102 — used for veneers, 90 Rosin and turpentine, production of, 168, 169 — barrels, 181 — , grades of, 180 — market prices at Savannah, 185 — sizing, 53 — , uses of, 232 — , utilization of, 184 Rotary veneer machine, illustration of, 91 Rubber, African, 406 — , collecting, illustration of. 409 — Company, U. S., illustration by, 407, 409 — , general, 401 — , history, 402 — , methods of manufacture, 411 — , production, 404 — , Para, in plantations, 408 — plantation, illustration of, 402 — plantations, 407 — , acreage, 408 — , investments in, 408, 409 — , spacing trees, 409 — production, 401, 410 — , sources of supply, 404 — , uses, 412 — , values, 401, 402, 412 — vulcanizing, 403 Rule, Doyle, used in measuring stave and heading logs, 137 Rules, grading, shingle, 360 Russia, 2 INDEX 465 Ryan, V. H., on the manufacture of charcoal, 247 S Sabal palmetto, 79 Sackett, H. S., on wooden and fiber boxes, 261 Sadtler, S. P., on dyestuffs, 423 Sandalwood, 418 Sap flow and season, maple syrup, 382 — , maple, conditions of, 383, 384 Sappan-wood, 417 Sargent, C. S., on forests of North America 350 — , — — , — fuel wood, 337 Sassafras posts, 326 Satinwood used for veneers, 94 Saunderswood, 418 Savannah, rosin market prices at, 185 Sawed versus hewed ties, 269 — ties, factors in favor of, 270 Saw kerf, width of, 14 — logs, loss of wood in manufacture of, 13 Sawmill, first, at Berwick, Maine, 2 — , — steam, 90 Sawmills, capacity of, 6 — , wood fuel used by, 341 Schenck, C. A., on heating power of wood 350 Schlich, Wm., on utilization, 247 Schorger, A. W., and H. S. Betts, data from, 176, 177, 183 — and Betts, diagram of still by, 182 — , , on oleoresins, 188 Scraping turpentine faces, 172 Screening pulp stock, 35 — sulphite ships, 40 - pulp, 43 Screw spikes, 205, 296, 297 Season for pe ling hemlock bark, 67 Seasoning and weights of hardwood used for distillation, 193 Seeligman, T., on rubber, 413 Sequoia sempervirens, 326 Seville, Spain, cork factory in, 438, 439 Shake, equivalent, 15 — making, 370 Shakes, cost of, 371, 372 — , history, 351 — , illustration of, 371 — , redwood, 351, 370 —, sugar pine, 351,370 Sheds, charcoal, 208 Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels, illustration of, 103 Sherfesee, \V. F., on seasoning ties, 291 Shingle bolts, logging, 354 — machines, 356 — packer, illustration of, 366 — substitutes, 367 — weights, 367 — woods, qualifications of, 352 Shingles, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , annual production, 353 — , covering capacities, 364 — , durability, 352. 368 — , history. 351 — , laying, 364 — , packing and shipping, 365 — , preservative treatment, 368, 369 — , prices, 363, 364 — , raw material, 354 — , specifications and grading rules, 360 — , wastage, 5 Shinn, C. H , on shake making, 373 Shipping shingles, 365 — ton, equivalents, 17 Shocks, amount, 248 — , export, 260 Shrinkage in wood, 345 Sierra National Forest, California, illustra- tion of tools and utensils used on naval stores experiment, 178 Sindall and Bacon, on testing of wood pulp, 59 Singapore, rubber experiments, 407 Sitka or western spruce for pulp, 24 Size of pulp mills, 23, 24 Sizes of boxes, 254 — cans used in boxes, 259 ^ Skidding poles, 314 - ties, 283 Slab, equivalent, 15 Slabs, amount used for pulp, 27, 29 Slabwood used for fuel, 340, 341 — paper pulp, 14 Slack cooperage — see cooperage, slack — stock, manufacture of, 122 Slasher used in pulp mills, 31 Smith, A. M., on printing and writing materials, 59 — , C. S., on preservation of piling, 325 — , Franklin H., on statistics of pulpwood consumption, 28, 59 466 INDEX Smith, J. E. A., on history of paper, 59 Society of Chemical Industry, Journal, ref- erence to, 87 Soda process of pulp making woods used in, 29 — pulp, cooking, 49 , manufacture of, 48 — , washing, 49 Softwood distillation — see distillation, soft- wood — mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 — ties, seasoning, 289 Softwoods for paper pulp, 22 — , lumber value, 10 — too light for distillation, 192 — used for staves, unsteamed, 1 25 — in mines, 331, 332 Solvents used in extraction process, 231 Somers, Montana, sawing ties at, 273 Sorting cork, illustration of, 440 Sources of rubber supply, 404 — supply, fuel wood, 340 South Carolina, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 — , cross tie production, 266 — Dakota, wood fuel used, 339 Southern pine for pulp, 21, 26, 29, 47 — regions, stand of timber in, 4 — Cypress Mfrs. Assoc., shingle grades, 362 Spain, 20 — , charcoal used in, 235 — , cork production in, 433 — , exports of cork, 443 Species used for boxes, 250 Specific gravity of charcoal, 239 — , various species, 342 — , woods used for charcoal, 239 Specification of mine timbers, 333 Specifications and rules for tight cooperage stock, 162 — , box, 254 — , piling, 307 — , poles, 304 — , shingle, 360 Spicer, A. D., on the paper trade, 59 Spikes, effect of, on ties, Spruce, amount for boxes, 251 — , eastern standing timber, 4 — excelsior, 426 Spruce for pulp, 18, 19, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31, 38 — fuel value, 342 — , kinds of, .used for pulp, 24 — , length of cooking for pulp, 43 — lumber cut, 8 — , lumber value, 10 — , Norway, charcoal yield, 238 — poles, amount, 303 — posts, 329 — pulp, price, 45, 47 — shingles, durability, 369 — staves, slack, 125 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — tight cooperage, 146 — in mines, 332 — veneers, use, 107 — , western, standing timber, 4 — , yield in pulp, 37 Squared pole tie, 264 Stake, (fence), equivalent, 15 Standard, St. Petersburg, 15 States, consumption of pulp wood by, 26, 27 — , wood fuel by, 339 — , important lumber producing, 7 — , lumber production by, 3 — , principal, using boxes, 250, 252 Stave bolts, method of cutting logs into, illustration of, 120 , tight, method of riving, illustration of, 144 — cutter, illustration of, 116 — jointer, illustration of, 158 — jointers, illustration of, 155 — mill, bolt equalizer in, illustration of, 153 , tight, cost of equipment of, 156 — , patent elm, 119 — saw, illustration of, 125 — , split, emerging from bucker knives, illustration of, 154 Staves and heading, tight, manufacture of, 153 — , Bourbon, 148 — , heating tight, illustration of, 160 — , method of riving tight, diagram showing, 150 — , rived, 149 — , seasoning of, 126 — , slack, grading rules for, 140 — , — , manufacture of, 123 — , — , production of, 116 — , tight, cost of manufacturing, 155 INDEX 467 Staves, tight, exports of, from the United States, 164 — , — , piled for seasoning, illustration of, 157 Stay, equivalent, 15 Steam distillation, 230 Stecher, G. E., on cork, 443 Stere, equivalents, 16 Stevens, H. P., on rubber, 413 Stick, equivalents, 15 Still house, 210 , interior, illustration of, 211 Stills, hardwood distillation, 205 — , lime lee, 205 Storage tubs in hardwood distillation, 205 — yards for hardwood distilling, 206 Strachan, James, on waste paper, 59 Stripping cork bark, 435, 436, 437 Stryker, J. B., on foreign veneer and panel manufacture, 114 Stull, equivalents, 15 Stumpage value of cross ties, 277 — values of hardwood distillation wood, 192, iQ3 — poles, 312 Substitutes for poles and piling, 325 — , shingle, 367 Sudan, rubber, 406 Sudworth, G. B., on fustic wood, 423 Sugar house, 390 — , ground plan, 397 — , illustration of, 390 — , interior, illustration of, 395 — , maple — see maple sugar — , tapping, photograph of, 375 — pine shakes, 370 Suitable timber for hewing ties, 278 Sulphate process of pulp making woods used in, 29 — pulp, description of process of making, 47, 48 — , imports of from Scandinavia, 47 — , manufacture of, 47 Sulphite cellulose for tanning, 65 — process of pulp making, woods used in, 29 — pulp, collection of, on lap or press machine, 44 — , cost of producing, 45, 46 — , manufacture of, 38 — , screening, 43 — , washing, 43 Sumach, American, for tanning, 64, 78, 79 — , — , tannin contents of, 64 Sumach for tanning, 60, 63, 65 — , imported, 85 — , Mexican, 86 — , production of, 78, 79 — , Sicilian for tanning, 64, 85 — , — , tannin contents of, 64 — , staghorn, dye wood, 419 — , Venetian, 419 Sumatra rubber plantation, illustration of, 407 — , in, 402 Sump, in distillation plant, 204 Supply of tanning materials, world's, 64 Sweden, charcoal methods in, 235, 236 — , sulphate process in, 21 Sycamore, amount for boxes, 251 — , charcoal yield, 239 — for pulp, 26, 29 — lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 — , sliced veneers, 99 Syrup and sugar making, cost of equipment, 392 — , boiling down, illustration of, 377 — , maple — see maple syrup Sylvan, Helge on charcoal making, 247 Table of charcoal yields, 239 Tabor, H. C., analysis of hemlock bark by, 77 Tamarack, eastern, cross ties, amount, 267 — for pulp, 26, 29, 47 — , fuel value, 342 — , poles, amount, 303 — , see also larch — staves, slack, 125 — ties, durability, 293 • Tanbark oak, harvesting, 75, 76 — , tannin contents of, 64 Tanneries in United States, 61 Tanners' Council of the United States, table on tanning materials, supplied by, 65 Tannery, leather, illustration of, 74 Tannin contents of principal sources, 64 — , forms of, 60 Tanning by Chinese, 61 — materials, 60 — , annual consumption of, 1918, 65 — , chrome, 65 — , foreign introduction of to United States, 62, 63 — , history of, 61, 62, 63, 64 468 INDEX Tanning materials, imports of, 86, 87 Tannins, wood and bark, annual consump- tion and wastage, 5 — , , wastage, 5 Tapping rubber trees, 404, 405 — , illustration of, 407 — sugar maple with bit, illustration of, 386 — trees, maple, 385 Tar oils, uses of, 232 — , wood, uses of, 222 — , — , yield of, in hardwood distillation, 721 Teak sawed veneers, 102 Teeple's experiment in softwood distillation, 233 Teeple, John E., on waste pine wood utiliza- tion, 234 — , J. E., on waste wood distillation, 224 Temperatures used in boiling logs for cutting veneers, 97 Tennessee, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Terminalia chebula, 84 Teredo, damage to piling, 320 Texas, box lumber consumption, 252 • — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Thuja occidentalis^ poles, 300 plicata, poles, 300 Tie, equivalents, 15 — , (2d class), equivalents, 15 — , (narrow gauge), equivalents, 15 — , (standard), equivalents, 15 — hacker making ties, illustration of, 265 — plates, use of, 297 Ties, cross, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , — , wastage, 5 — , — see cross ties. Tilghman, discoverer of chemical pulp. 21 Tight cooperage — see cooperage, tight, etc. Timber lands, management of, for hardwood distillation, 195 — owned by government, 4 — , standing, owned by pulp companies, 28 — , stand of, by regions and species, 4 Timbers, mine — see mine timbers — used for piling, 321 Time required for charcoal burning, 241 — hardwood distillation, 204 Tower system of making acid, 40, 41 Toyylon pomiferum, 420 Trackage and cars, distillation, 207 Treated ties, number, 294 Treating posts, cost, 329 Trevor stave bolt equalizer, 124 Trestle timber, equivalents, 15 Triangular cross ties, 273, 274 — ties, advantages of, 273, 274 — , disadvantages of, 274 Trucks, distillation, cost of, 208 Tsuga canadensis, 9 — heterophylla, 9, 63. 77 — merlensiana, 77 Tupelo, amount for boxes, 251 — , lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — veneers, use, 107 Turnbull, John H., distillation plant by, 190 Turpentine and rosin, exports of, 169 — , production of, for 1918, 168 — barrels, 181 — , prices of, 184 — still, diagrammatic cross-section of, 182 — , illustration of, 179 — , utilization of, 183 — , yield per crop of, 182 Turpentining, effect of, on strength and durability of lumber, 166 — , French methods of, 185, 186 Uncaria acida, 86 — gambier, 86 Use of lumber cut, n — sawmill and other waste for paper pulp, 29, 30 — wood, annual, n Uses of cork, 440 — excelsior, 425 — maple syrup and sugar, 398 — , rubber, 412 Utah, wood fuel used, 339 Utilization in European countries, 12 — of charcoal, 245 — cork, 440 — products, hardwood distillation, 220 of naval stores industry, 183 sawmill and wood's waste for hard- wood distillation, 194 softwood distillation products, 232 — veneers, 105, 106, 107 INDEX 469 Utilization of waste in manufacture of slack cooperate, 135, 136 — wood in hardwood distillation, 192 Yallombrosa, Italy, charcoal pits, illustration of, 246 Volonia for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 85 — , production and use of, 85 — . tannin contents of, 64 Van Metre, R., on woods suitable for cross ties, 295 Varieties of white oak used for tight cooper- age, 146 Value of export shooks, 260 — fuel wood, 337, 339, 348 — per cord, 339 — : — kinds of paper, 20 — maple syrup and sugar, 398 — mine timbers, 332 — natural dyes tuffs, 414 — poles used, 299 — principal uses, rubber, 412 — products, hardwood distillation, 218 — pulpwood, 30 — tanning materials, 60 — , stumpage, cross ties, 277 — tight cooperage products, 148 Values, fuel, 341 — , lumber, per thousand board feet, 9, 10 — , stumpage, poles, 312 Vehicles, amount, 1 1 — and vehicle parts, 1 1 Veitch, F. P., on chemical methods of utiliz- ing woods, 224 — , — — , — commercial turpentine, 188 — , , — on estimate of naval stores production 168 — , , — papermaking materials, 59 — , — — , reference to, 64 Veneer flitches, diagram of, 113 — grading rules, 109, no, in — logs, prices of, 93, 94 — machine, rotary, illustration of, 91, 97 — mill, the "U" plan of, in — , plywood or built-up stock, 103 — woods, qualifications desired in, 91, 92 — , slicing machine in operation, illustration of, 100 Veneers, annual consumption and wastage, 5 — , — production of and values, 94 — , cost of making, 99 Veneers, general, 89 — , history of, 89 — , making sawed, illustration of, 102 — , methods of making, 90 — , prices of, 95 — , rotary cut, description of process of making, 95, 96, 97 — , sawed, process of making, 101 — , sliced, process of making, 99 — , table showing percentage of waste in making, 108 — , thickness of, 94 - used for cooperage, 93 — , utilization of, 105, 106, 107 — , — — waste in making, 107, 108 — , wastage, 5 — , wood used for, 92 Venetian sumach, 419 Vermilion sawed veneers, 102 — used for veneers, 94 Vermont Agric. Exp. Station, investigations by, 382 — , box lumber consumption, 252 — , production of maple sugar and syrup, 380, 381, 383, 397 — Sugar Makers' Assoc., proceedings, 397, 400 — , wood fuel used 339 Virgin cork, 435 Virginia, box lumber consumption, 252 — , charcoal making, 237 — , lumber cut, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Volume of solid wood for cord, 344 — , original and present of forests in U. S., 2 Von Schrenk, H., on cross tie forms and rail fastenings, 298 Vulcanizing rubbers, 403 W Wagon or carload equivalents, 17 Walnut, black, used for veneers, oo, 94, 95, 106, 109, — , — , veneer cores for gun stocks, 109 — , — , — , prices, 95 — , — , veneers, use, 106 — , Circassian, sawed veneers, 102 — , — , sliced veneers, 99 — , — , used for veneers, 90, 94, 95, 99, 100, 106, 109 — , — , veneer, prices, 95 — , — , veneers, use, 106 470 INDEX Walnut, lumber cut, 8 — , — value, 10 Ward, James, beginning of hardwood dis- tillation by, 189 War Industries Board, Report of, 20 Washing soda pulp, 49 — sulphite pulp, 43 Washington, box lumber consumption, 252 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , shingle making in, 352, 354, 365 — , wood fuel used, 339 Wastage, comparison of American and European conditions, 12 — in production of forest products, 12 wood production, 5 Waste in European countries, 12 — logging, 13 — , mill, charcoal yield, 238 — , — , used for pulp, 27, 29 — , sawmill and woods, used for hardwood distillation, 194 — , — , used for paper pulp, 26, 28, 29, 30 — , utilization of, in manufacture of slack cooperage, 135 — wood used for fuel, 340, 341 Watt, Alexander on the art of papermaking, 59 Wattle, 86 — , golden for tanning, 64 — , — , tannin contents of, 64 Weed Lumber Co., 109 Weiss, H. F., on preservation of timbers, 293 — , , — seasoning poles, 316 Weights of wood used for hardwood dis- tillation, 193 — , shingle, 367 — , stock, slack cooperage, 137 Wentling, J. P., on woods used for packing boxes, 262 — Coast Lumberman on shingle prices, 363 Lumbermans' Association, shingle branch, 360 West Indies, lumber trade with, 2 - Virginia, box lumber consumption, 252 , lumber cut, 7 , wood fuel used, 339 Western Red Cedar Association, pole speci- fications, 304 — spruce for pulp, 24 Wet machine, photograph of, 44 Wickham, H. A., rubber plantations, 407 Willow, amount for boxes, 251 - Willow excelsior, 426 — , used for pulp, 29 Winslow, C. P., on grouping of ties for treat- ment, 298 Wire bound boxes, 258 Wisconsin, box lumber consumption, 252 — , excelsior made in, 426 — , lumber cut, 3, 7 — , wood fuel used, 339 Wi throw, J. R., on hardwood distillation, 223 Wood alcohol, price of, 218, 219 — , refining, 212 , uses of, 221 — , yield of, 217 — , — per cord, 219 — , annual consumption of for pulp, 23 — , — use of, ii — , best, for charcoal, 236 — chipper, photograph of, 39 — consumption statistics of, for hardwood distillation, 196 — , distillation, cutting and delivering to the factory, 193 — dyes, 414 — , excelsior, value of, 428 — fuel, hauling, illustration of, 347 see fuel wood — , — value compared to coal, 343 — gas, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 217 — , uses of, 223 — , loss of, in manufacture of saw logs, 13 — , preparation of wood for paper pulp, 31 — pulp and paper, 18 — , capital employed by, 19 — , cold and hot ground, 33 — and paper, history of, 18, 20 — , imports of, 57 -, , 58 — , yield of from different woods, 37 — industry, tendency to move to Canada, 27 — , shrinkage, 345 — , solid, amount per cord, 344 — tar, uses of, 222 — , yields of, in hardwood distillation, 217 — used for making brick, 344 — to smelt copper, 344 — , utilization of for hardwood distillation, 192 Wooden ware, 11 — and novelties, 1 1 Woodlot, source of fuel, 336, 340 INDEX 471 Woods used for paper pulp, 24, 25, 26, 27 — consumed by processes of pulp manufac- ture, 29 — , fuel value of, 341, 342 — operation in naval stores industry, 169, 170 — , resinous, fuel value, 343 — used for boxes, qualities desired, 249 charcoal, 236 — excelsior, 424, 425, 426, 427 — mine timbers, 332 Woods used for slack cooperage, 119, 120, 121 Woodyard in Washington, illustration of, 341 — , municipal, illustration of, 349 World's production of rubber, 41 1 — supply of tanning materials, 64 Wyoming, box lumber consumption, 252 — , wood fuel used, 339 X Xylotrya, damage to piling, 320 BOOKS ON FORESTRY PUBLISHED BY JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. 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