GC CLBLEGLO JO ALISHAAINA > Ses O33 mea ies Soro ues’ = 45 a tyet- Se ss UNIVERSITY OF TORONTG . ‘OF FORESTRY ULTY * Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www. archive.org/details/forestproductsthOO0browuoft wae =< eee ua u —r. Se 2. ek Sr a ‘JJ9SIL JOquIN] ULYI s}seOF ULILIOULY INO UO puUUIApP JozvII3 v sayNysUOD “939 ‘poom UONe|[NSIP ‘s3Q0UdA ‘s}sod ‘sajod ‘4903s a8er9doo9 ‘poom jany ‘poomdyind ‘sar ssoid se yons sjonpoid ysa10j Jo UoNdumsuos sy J, ‘semper ino Aq syuguiaovjder pur yori} Mau Joy poambar Ajpenuue aie sory ssoid ooofooofohl yNoqY *JOAIVUL OF yzodsuez} 10} payid say ssoz Avmyrer ooo'S Ajayeunxoiddy *a2a1g SIJUOAT *antndas 48940. “SQ &9 Ysnsés0j04T FOREST PRODUCTS ~~ THEIR MANUFACTURE AND USE EMBRACING THE PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL FEATURES IN THE Propuction, MANUFACTURE, AND UTILIZATION OF THE Most Important Forest Propucrs OTHER THAN LumBerR, §§ THE UniTep STATES 3 ’ = } ) BY a. NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B.A., M-F. Professor of Forest Utilization, The New York State College of Foresiry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York; Trade CommisStoner, United States Lumber Trade Conimission to Europe, — Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. / ‘ey! 2 as FIRST EDITION A / NEW YORK aD JOHN WHLLEY: & SONS, Inc. Loxpon: CHAPMAN &- HALL, Limitep IQI9 PREFACE Tue object of this book is to present to the student or reader the chief commercial features involved in the manufacture and use of the princi- pal forest products except lumber, and to serve as a reference book for those interested in them. The treatment of the subjects, therefore, has necessarily been very brief. A book could easily be written on each sub- ject, but the curricula of the professional forest schools usually do not provide for extensive study and investigation of each product, unless special and separate courses are offered in such subjects as pulp and papermaking. It is impossible to include in a book of this kind some of the wood- using industries which are closely associated with lumber and its uses, such as the furniture industry, ship building ahd car construction, etc., because they belong in a separate category. The important problem has been to determine what to include in a book of this kind, and to discriminate and to exclude some of the less essential material. It is planned to make this volume a brief treatise preliminary to a more complete and exhaustive work or group of books to be written at some later date. Although there are more or less statistical data available on some of the industries treated in this book, there has been very little written in American forestry literature on the principles and practices followed in the production of materials other than lumber. From the viewpoint of invested capital, and value of products,they are of greater importance, collectively, than lumber. The values and conditions used in this book are largely given for the period prior to the participation of this country in the war. This has been deemed advisable because of the wholly abnormal and somewhat temporary conditions brought about by the war itself. Much of the data has been obtained as the result of personal investi- gation and inspection of operations in the South, the Lake States, the Northeast, and the Far West during the past ten years. Some mate- ill iv PREFACE rial has also been collected on trips during 1913, 1917, and 1918, to various European countries. Brief bibliographies are appended at the end of each chapter. These were used, to some extent, as sources of information and can be consulted for further study in each subject. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Hugh Potter Baker and members of the faculty of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse and to the United States Forest Service and various individual members of its staff for a number of excellent suggestions as well as material. I am also grateful to the Bureau of Chemistry, the Census Bureau, and Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, for statistical material. I wish to acknowledge my special gratitude to the following specialists in their respective fields for review of the various chapters: Mr. A. R. Joyce of the Joyce-Watkins Tie Co. for reviewing the text of the chapter on Cross Ties; Mr. Samuel B. Sisson of the S. B. Sisson Lumber Co., on Poles and Piling; Mr. J. C. Nellis, Assistant Secretary of the National Association of Box Manufacturers, on Boxes and Box Shooks; Mr. E. A. Brand of the Tanners’ Council of the United States and Mr. Henry W. Healey, formerly of the Central Leather Co., on Tanning Materials; Mr. Thomas J. Keenan, F. C. S., Editor of Paper, on Wood Pulp and Paper; the editorial staff of the India Rubber World on Rubber, and Mr. S. J. McConnell of the Keery Chemical Co., on Hardwood Distillation. The chapter on Softwood Distillation has been reviewed and corrected by a prominent operator in the South who requests that his name be with- held from publication. ; It was originally deemed advisable to include chapters on such other important materials as certain medicinal and chemical products of the forest, as well as camphor, palm oils and other foreign commodities, and to discuss the relation of the subjects treated to the present and future of forestry in this country. However, it was found that on account of the necessity for economy in space, it would not permit the inclusion of a more elaborate treatment. Many of the chapters have already been curtailed for this reason. NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN. JULY, 1919. CONTENTS Ra lies chip AS So hg ON nano eee eat Bay San oe & Wastage in production of forest products. ....-..-. 2-2-2. 22 sent eee s ewe cbeeeeeeens Se As SUNS IME ROPING a os wise cae sas es mec pe meso CG eek s oan en tins 9 Ue a A RUIN SIMIC RINT Ooo ss 2 cc wc ee ae bas 8 ons evn Nema ree eh ek sa a Wen ele Requirements of desirable pulp woods. ....... 2... 2.0222 e eer ace eweeenesscncescns IN ISONE I UNONES cr. bio = Gaintn lk mn d'o snc Seg demir ss 6c aces etnaeened Requirements for the establishment of a pulp mill. ..........-.- jigusdccsscusdercaswe mee manutacture of mechanical pulp. 05... on eos os a a See ee cee ene Preparation of the wood.............--- SE ne = Se ear ee oS ss ald 6 bow a 6 sek ow eb ow So 66 06 8h © 6 oe a6 0a. 6 © eles 6 ss Sn See e6 * & so oe Rene 6 6 60 Serene RINNE DENEIR CIE GUNTUR: PRINS a oc. cco 0 oo «0 x wile nawnncse Meee epineminee es ah eho secsss SEER REIOE Air SUEREO! FIND <5" ~ fw s.0\<> So's « een ceeg ewe GkeNo= veterns sees CitE 1 Me TH, o>... oc hac = cee een sabereietasssss en 82 Myrobalan nuts........ Deiat icies owas ST a i are ee x pa etek 84 BOIVEGIVG 5.6.55. Sone 4 0:4 6 bone g5ctte es Shn'g bin g9-0 <5.» oy lara aa ge we aareaeies Ien c a 84 Fmported sma. ooo aie eS oso tio s 2 keg 09.0 4.4 + ib eieketnd Mae ethinyl ae ee 85 Warlonnigns i555 circ ave Saco tpi 0 bow Wicked 0 8 in. dib 010. oid 0 a 15 ee Hla a oebt a TERS te eta nes a 85 Other foreign tanning materials. 0.0... 0jcecs sche csv ensedens usbiewseessan aie be 85 Imports,..... se olew¥. Bias lat etajoile in og ia dial’ O'% lohan, poy.) iby ails Wecatmeeth ToOe te) Slee NE Rie ee ee 86 CHAPTER IV. VENEERS \ General fac occa SS eEeE eS aa Lele we bg Eda o eel a See ae dL 89 Methods of making veneers 2\i.2 5.5.5.6. 556 6sa.6.c Ua dew deeee Dee 3 eae 90 Qualifications ‘desired in veneer woods; 3.5 6..0563.6s0 asc 0 00a baa cone Memenroien QI Woods tne. ooo fais. Sie s lot es Lane Get don dette dee de code een 92 Annwal production and ‘values... o50. fins 50s cada s seen s exe u der eee 94 Rotaty. colt Veneers ic. 5555 65s ciate pe Se phe ee kee GET ee ete as 9S vials ae en 95 SSURRIOEL WRTIOCTS «5.0 dss. osetia s'5/s.0. ose wim th dace wh aw AUIS Poles aig Stam ears 4 asi dt ee a 99 SRO, HOO oso 5S iin a on 0 a. 5i0 cw wine MUTA MAI nthe aD, wtlatesb aly SRNR cen ee nn IOI BOA BUNK oo Sis hos vce re io bth’ Bie F bade alles vigig fans ws eae 103 WtGiretion OF Veneers... is .05 oc .iag wisn te awanias Fa veep eo «hates tg ee eee eee 105 Rfilica tion ‘of wast 2.2196 Sie do oe beets ve aele a ola Sane Us ciaee Re eee ee eee 107 CRORE PUES ye 55.5.4 dino Sind SS ose piv idin's net eR iaib ua ieedeiea Wieeaelieee a ee ++ 109 CHAPTER V. SLACK COOPERAGE Meme rises. aia sina a haa eS wed ike ve oN ene CE Sik ae 4 DAE Oe ate eee IIs Annual production... 645 ees «dase ede cee Tc ele bs ple Aiviaei nie Rice gtd waa ee 116 Slack cooperage versus other forms of shipping containers..............00eeeeeeeeeee 117 Laws governing the industty oo. 0:5. sci F005 a5 so ais a vietive aie cb e'nle ipod ola ale aig eee gp een 118 Qualifications for slack cooperage Stock.....05.:. 6.6 siivose us sis ces vale oes ot «deni ae 119 WV OOS ISOC 555 soos 55. 5ia ss Sedigicta ohm wee ane a WEE A Sa sli hb eg Rupees ete te ne 119 Manufacture of slack cooperage Stock... 65:5 00.060 esc v2 ov ses tun aie sans eee 122 Manufactiire of staveses << esis ais yrds 6 Hal se ee baal eteld are aera is ae 123 Manufacture of heading :,<< i040 F525 45 sts Adee ale se nem ae mle ec 127 Manufacture of Roope) 0.065.612 6 eas es.c% sina 'eia ars a dk ve Relale egg seo pa aaa 131 SWE LOOK i08sk Wace vied a wSd n'v-06d o Ud RKEe TED ARE Me ea ae ee bona 132 Oe Se aE en TOE me wast hry TNE ree STS 132 PANG oo Sg Binds Vivid Figures 4a alin a's >) ak DK a aD ER eK ae a nT 134 RICSeBUIO OE WORE 5555 Gah Ive. d veda daa spawn les oie Seka ees 135 MOSTV AICI So asc on POY noe x SF Shp WE 8 acy dipcel lean 0 rs eth a EN eTe: teee are ay peels aE 137 SOOO TOV UUSECIADS 555.745.5005 bata (aFiapo 00) Fs cvesedaynvovesueecds iviecscon scatodcopBURRepabetehetieeivl «i atenat ins cele vc teen 137 CRETE NE Sy ross 15 ion totam wh 0S iad rehire doe saa ho bon 4, tsdlaome Do co aR GASRUR Senate NSE 2 a 140 CONTENTS . Vil CHAPTER VI. TIGHT COOPERAGE . PAGE NO es. eu |. ou teil iain nb Uae 8 aes Ga ht am ckteah Uden sheen eh adttegs es 143 ON SE et a eee rie ee eee ee eee eT eee 145 NN WM gin <5 5. CU oes sve © as ye aS aes RNs a owe Ube Ss <6 5 sip oo ares go rie eel nee ow 146 NE DMEOO. 5 o'r, Pec aa won So's wks RCO k Cae Cb oe pwEK SS dine Chee t eked ie gaz he 147 = SORES CE OEE ECE PEL TREE CTE Tees Pee EE eT 148 EMER ola’. <2 TS baw Ae ya se cen y Sa dbiewne Panes ong tiins dary Sah cican 149 IGS 5 iz. 50s SRMCELR OMe a erp vasa be Ge siewat.cap yeni ees wap 149 EMROR o.). .. cco COR Re lowes aan ot te wean an ne hnenth Gppmes Balers 149 RANI St CCUVOTING WORN rics a Ss. he's ce nica bso sietep este rete rete apndan 150 OE REE RIE Soe P88 0) PEE Maller EIA Sion Tg tL ey 152 wmmenriare Of staves and hesdine® si 6.2 oc 0's oo 5h Ske ose reese ase Sb andecwns 153 CN eR cans osu a bow Sb ar eae SERPS AO PREPRESS CURES PEP EE Sees 159 SeSY SUE TINCASIONNS SEMI TUES. 5 Io vn cls os ss de ok Chad epg eh See ee Nese een hawe 163 SEEM a5 G4 a div /o'y Gm «50 9 ov a,0 kK Salen page weawa ms Eee Kee eS kneA SRE eeee eC eSM ns oC Ree 164 CHAPTER VII. NAVAL STORES SEN a Sa Sid tk 7k 233 Future of industry........0s...e0805 PeawhUSESTS We Sale >» > oie Seen en 232 CHAPTER X. CHARCOAL Ome tA So ae Cae FSs a Chien Wowace wide 6 ROA HE be 9 64 ood 6 0 ee 235 Woods used and yields. ...............-5- eee ee 236 PrOCESSES USE os 65. cis.c!sa Adis sco ab dane aso ie bobeele 6-5 0,61216 0.05 Sse Re oot 238 Utilization and. prices ....660 ys ese eats od ass acy ae cane Re Ren Ona sare ae 245 CHAPTER XI. BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS Generals ooo. o sieie sone ob ibew oissecpie'e 6 vin 8 BGI 0% 5 on dla ceye aid Stoo an RES eRe ted ate Nanna 248 Qualities desired in woods used for boxes................ TUs oe ohn odes Celene 249 Species used and annual consumption... .... ...0../i-¢.ac teens acoete rs vauneewe ogee 250 Manufacture ois aiieia a's sos och ba wid oe win pub dor b 40) dae Sa SORERT oc ae 253 Sizes and specificAGiOnes 5... 6 ies deen 5's ve vin oe Ketamine eons a te aca ee 254 Export of ShooWgs..3. . 0 ssadiew cocks ac srees sca to cen amy ete 0 Bl de wig sept neee . 260 CHAPTER XII. CROSS TIES MOTTE ois i oan oa 'b Bins Fa "5 ding 9 0) danse dinlele s sauecn ita e/Sieee ta ast a cept gin ee acta . 263 SSDOCIOS UIBOD So 6.0 5icisin 5c 0.5 cielovese vein. diele o his 0:6 6150 y's "e-atatnatigh We 8 lehteeTa Cnr ts 264 Renuirements of & Zood tie... os... eee cde evo ,ssis sistwle ol eeN lee vamp leita te ne 267 Sayyed versus Rewed ties. oi. s ieee. 6 oie sie sale bye 3,5 0d 5 wraree bleyary, SORRCR Dalam papain anes he an aera 269 WPCCHICATIONS ANC PICES: 5. ie. 6 os kk a ese wind w store niptace ual d git eae ye ee ae 270 Makie and delivery to. market... 03.00.56. 600c ice nae usies. 1 1o]eR a ean eta 277 MSONOTAL Sooo esa si PIERS 6 oa ele boa oc was asd said aide © nea clatter 277 SOEWIMIDA GLE oe asiats 2s aiecs bars ee ee Ale, weve 8 © Alia Gadel Rane apeTe ee eee ee ee 277 Suitable sized timber for hewing:... <<... 5 65. os ccc sido eel be tee nian 278 Number of ties per thousand board feet... ........0. 022s sews ec eceresewemeas 279 BAS sn ok Sino go cars 0'e.0 worse acs wie phere us wildla’ cca 7k. Seer bi or ere ariel Ma at ete eae at na 280 SIMA 6 05 5 oss ae: eic bin oc Sin, a0). & 0 aielwiaie a ure wictas abate evel pe aueilene latent eee aia 283 BABU moan os enn 0st 20 0.558 00 0 0's nia o'e-0 bw yiniohal echiatey Oran eS es 283 Other forms of transportation... 66.6 c0kie aed sis oo nate eel en sae 284 Summary of operating costs................. Sealey abd chavs Sab Scaa oobea a adie nema 285 SOW OE TAS oligo cia aoe Ws 0 e's 8,015 Biase oa Wonrea.d one eae. FeO Os EES ONE cnet a 287 SCAM seksi c dah ek ceo aise s wast-o'e wibiolerdlg in toe > 6. « sal slate rele, GL enesete ean aan tec 289 Hele of Witten bed HEB... 6k. ice sca Lac ese Stork cee pea We nee ies che 201 The preservative treatment of ties... ..0.65 66 coos iva da cote ns cum edgle ee eee eee 293 The protection of ties against mechanical wear.............00eeeeeees + bee teen 2094 CHAPTER XIII. POLES AND PILING | BOE tT ET fo Ue PETE REE REN ET RAVE PEER E CUS Ey rie heh eo ey S 299 Qualifications desired in pole and pile timbers. .............2.00060cceuceeeeseeeees 209 Sache MIKE QIAOUNE TSE 65515 Fis debian s dha oc bkses aes Oa ood eee ee ee 300 CONTENTS Specifications and prices. ........-.----++-++++++++ PRA Ae Oe CT. Logging and production of poles and piles... ........- AE ts Pr General considerations... .....-....---- scene ce cens cece ere ee teeeee Hauling and other forms of transportation. .....-.-.-.-.-------+------ Yarding, seasoning and shipping... ....-.- SR ee PEE et see Length of service untreated. .....-..-.- +--+ ++ +0225 e erence ee eee eee e eters a ttleades: Sak tiirds and piling “S750. 40. es - sesh e-wokesctenese a eee I NN 5 eS os 2 oo 20% 5 vw tics ns vy es Bes a en SMILE BOIS WOUG POT CORN 5.8 8 85. oa cw soe oe ae bese pe eeee ve Cutting, hauling and delivering to market... .............------+------ee5: donee eee eesacansweokseceseceseswisentsevsaesesecaeteecasessacesasene Senses es EE a eae TER ENTE Pe BP a Durability and Nee OE CCRT ne eso aes iss fee ites dines ix PAGE 304 310 310 312 313 314 314 314 318 319 321 325 326 33° 331 333 x CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XVIII. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR History and developmen@®::. .. 2 s.ccced eee a eee ova s plane piys's » he hay meen 374 Species of maples Msed ho 5. i ocas Coase oe nen oeae ose ans « +9 eeenanene ‘378 Asmual production. ...3\.26) dei. Seg adeeb duces sslene oseaSlghe +” «3a geen ae 380 Conditions necessary for commercial operationS..........600.0cc cece ee eeeeeeeeeeune 381 SAD HOW AN SEASON: «0. 6s ines os ee seen Ree hs bee ea be o> 6 ps ee ie ta gon WV OOUS GPETAUIONS 655.5... boo: 0 vette SPR EA re e385 Tapping trees and distribution of buckets... ...........0:sceeeecseeeceuseenes 385 Collection of sap... ..c0 os eie ce ica bees on © o's » «pte ogame ate gear 388 Manufacture of syrup and stgats 6.06653. 66 65.6.00)6 + 0 i 5.09 staiilnle Olan etsy a> od ah 390 The sugar: Bouse.) 4.6 se naseae os ab oo oo o-alp adele aM Sc 390 (3) Sa e eeaee e e RM YS) 391 Equipment and Cost. 5.0062 c0a ence sce s ob oa emianen ates ye esa oes ae 391 PEOCORSS 655 1e lo 5B sipse ios SS iaye Gee 08 49s 62 0s) enka Fgh ame a TE INR igen Tee ase 304 Vields of sap, syrup. and Stgar. 3.00.6. ow ase seis e - eoo sate ea lage inate oie VSI oe 396 Uses and value OF PROGUCIS 4). os ne .1 06's 20.9004 epee 0 9.0 area eR rears Ribeetal leat 398 CHAPTER XIX. RUBBER MOTE RES ai gi res asin ee eed tee SiR Eloi Te ean se Beale ee ERS ae RE nas eee Pennines 401 Le 0) 9 an On ee ie ee mM revo e eft irre ae ee kr 402 Sources of supply and methods of production... 0.0.0... cscs eeec eee eee eee eeeeeseees 404 Rehber plantations sre odie. 5 wee bose + gous» ayes bce my Nie Map abvene Regt ew Ngo 407 Methods of mantfactures. icc. oo. o.65 ois vce» 6s assis 2 8 eeeiny ¢ Meteeleia toatl hepehaa cad eteeoaenanna 41t PPYRVICHAL USCS ine. 4 fore. 5.6.00’ 0.0 9-9 59010 a8 Che bv hw e818 Os alsa Naa rae et ctak ee 412 CHAPTER XX. DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS General description...) 5 003 se. d ees) dab es ha eee See ee 414 Manufacture of dyestuffs..... eet mere Pe era RNS tem re ekg 415 BAW matersals used 5c. 5 6 cs 5 56.5 55a oe a 6 Dos oO ole Cla a See Ee 416 TOR WOO 0555.5 305 Sb a 24 5 er yaa UIs Oa Td een ob POE Gee 416 WER ZI WOKS 5.4.0 656k ss obo gies 4 ota nls ibontuuerale yb a DI Rea ney eee ar ore ae 417 EASELS 5 5).6Sis-o 30h p state s-0 ewe ays Goes O¥ Deda Lie lee eel Ue ne ee 418 Red sandalwood «005.0... 55 adc s Hone See Wiaiwe Ue da a Ga ise ee 419 MET CLEXOI GE «5.5, scons, sso Biocais atae eee Saree tee Te eee pea ee 419 Venetian sumach 6 o..acc. so. sane 0s Pe he 5 Oe eee 419 BBR EPA CO se. Ss ase asic 5 Sh ae & eee TE bw Bee OTE ee ie ane ee 419 O11, 7 ul SRO rat eae Wear Se At a te ira RII RATE ap Poh rele acetate 421 OEE SHS sn 5k 5 0:55 Oe tle Coorg tba FUR ee ae oles Oe 421 Bomortation OF GVCStUGGi6 iis cee cee eee veeabyaevs oevoevevenevertreeoeeeeee veneer e 421 CHAPTER XXI. EXCELSIOR MRED ih 5 dena f Say 68S) ASA ves Seas bax) Bee een Ae eee bre eT eee ne 424 OGRE COS eG 555535 55 Gisays ja So Na a wah AN canes COREE Eee oe 424 GER BUI WATE OF CKCONBION So oes 5s. oss a dds Betea ac Th ee ee ae Oe 425 CONTENTS xi PAGE NN OEE) at ee ee Ren: en eens 427 eeementeoee mine Aint OF SAOe VRRCOCTAE Ss 5 is os ok pe Foe sabes SoC Sen tie 8 ee 427 Mn TIC ess 2s en eg Desa See eRe ce wisn d DARA Cb elaed oe woo 427 NENG. CSC ai ae con fabwind ss CAE On e\s Ree Eoiess Dak pen Labo obo EO we eeu A 427 MAY OE MEER 5 5 2 cet yas. Ox Analy ae kis ce penmeenees 441 Baled:cork scraps at.a cork factory. .2.\...... +. +s-sscsmw peta belees += 5s eee 442 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF NATIVE AMERICAN TREES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT * SOFTWOODS Arborvite—see northern white cedar. Cedar, eastern red or juniper (Juniperus virginiana, L.). Cedar, incense (Libocedrus decurrens, Torr.). Cedar, northern white or arborvite (Thuya occidentalis, L.)}. Cedar, southern white (Chamaecyparis thyoides, Britt.). Cedar, western red (Thuya plicata, D. Don.). Cypress, southern red or bald (Taxodium distichum, Rich.). Fir, balsam (Abies balsamea, Mill.). Fir, Douglas (Pseudotsuga taxifolia—also mucronata, Sudw.). Fir, noble (Abies nobilis, Lindl.). Fir, red (Abies magnifica, A. Murr.). Fir, white (Abies concolor, Lindl. and Gord.). Hemlock, eastern (Tsuga canadensis, Carr.). Hemlock, western (Tsuga heterophylla, Sarg.).t Hemlock, western or mountain (Tsuga mertensiana, Sarg.). Juniper—see Cedar. Larch, eastern or tamarack (Larix occidentalis, Nutt.). Larch, western (Larix americana, Michx.). Pine, Cuban or slash (Pinus heterophylla—also caribea, Morelet). Pine, Jack (Pinus divaricata, Du Mont de Cours). Pine, loblolly (Pinus teda, L.). Pine, lodgepole (Pinus contorta, var. murrayana, Engelm.). Pine, longleaf (Pinus palustris, Mill.). Pine, North Carolina—see shortleaf and loblolly pines; includes both. Pine, Norway or red (Pinus resinosa, Ait.). Pine, pitch (Pinus rigida, Mill.). Pine, shortleaf (Pinus echinata, Mill.). Pine, southern yellow—includes longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban pines. Pine, sugar (Pinus lambertiana, Dougl.). Pine, western white or Idaho white (Pinus monticola, D. Don.). Pine, western yellow or California white (Pinus ponderosa, sarg.). Pine, white (Pinus strobus, L.). Pine, Virginia or scrub (Pinus virginiana, Mill.). Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens, Endl.). *Scientific names of exotic species mentioned are generally given wherever found in the text. f Of the two western hemlocks, this is the only one of large present commercial importance. xvii xviii * This is the only birch of large commercial importance, and wherever the tree is referred to without COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES Spruce, black (Picea mariana, B. S. and P.). Spruce, Engelmann (Picea engelmanni, Engelm.). Spruce, red (Picea rubens, Sarg.). Spruce, western or Sitka (Picea sitchensis, Carr.). Spruce, white or cat (Picea canadensis, B. S. and P.), Tamarack—see Larch. - HARDWOODS Ash, black (Fraxinus nigra, Marsh). Ash, white (Fraxinus americana, L.). Aspen, large tooth (Populus grandidentata, Michx.). Aspen, quaking (Populus tremuloides, Michx.). Basswood or linden (Tilia americana, L.). Beech (Fagus americana, Sweet.). Birch, black or cherry (Betula lenta, L.). Birch, red or yellow (Betula lutea, Michx.)*. Box elder (Acer negundo, L.). : Buckeye (Aesculus glabra, Willd.). Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa, Engelm.). Cherry, black (Prunus serotina, Ehrh.). < Chestnut (Castanea dentata, Borkh.). Chittam or American fustic (Cotinus americana, Nuit.). Cottonwood (Populus deltoidea, Marsh). Cottonwood, black or western (Populus trichocar pa, Hook.). Cottonwood, southern or swamp (Populus heterophylla, L.)f. Cucumber (Magnolia acuminata, L.). Elm, rock or cork (Ulmus thomasi, Sarg.). Elm, white (Ulmus americana, L.). Gum, black (Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh). Gum, red or sweet (Liguidambar styraciflua, L.). Gum, tupelo (Vyssa aquatica, Marsh). Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis, L.). Hickory (Hicoria spp.). Locust, black (Robinia pseudocacia, L.). Locust, honey (Gleditsia triacanthos, L.). Maple, black (Acer nigrum, Michx.). Maple, mountain (Acer spicatum, Lam.). Maple, Oregon (Acer circinatum, Pursh.). Maple, red (Acer rubrum, L.). Maple, silver or soft (Acer saccharinum, L.). Maple, striped (Acer pennsylvanicum, L.). Maple, sugar, rock or hard (Acer saccharum, Marsh). Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora, DC.), Mulberry, red (Morus rubra, L.). Oak, black or yellow (Quercus velutina, Lam.). Oak, bur (Quercus macrocar pa, Michx.). Oak, chestnut or rock (Quercus prinus, L.). Oak, overcup (Quercus lyrata, Wallt.). naming the kind of birch, this is the one indicated. + The principal cottonwood cut for lumber, veneers, staves, etc. COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES Oak, pin (Quercus palustris, Muench.). Oak, post (Quercus minor, Sarg.). Oak, red (Quercus rubra, L.). Oak, swamp white (Quercus platanoides, Sudw.). Oak, tanbark (Quercus densiflora, also Pasania densiflora, Orst.). Oak, white (Quercus alba, L.). Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum, Raf.). Palmetto, cabbage (Sabal palmetto, R. and S.). Poplar, yellow or tulip (Liriodendron tulipifera, L.). Popple—see Aspen. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras, Karst.). Sumach, southern (Rhus cotinus, L.). Sumach, staghorn (Rhus hirta, Sudw.). Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis, L.). Tupelo—see Gum, Tupelo. Walnut, black (Juglans nigra, L.). Walnut, white or butternut (Juglans cinerea, L.), Willow (Salix spp.), xix FOREST PRODUCTS CHAPTER I GENERAL INTRODUCTION In ancient times the harvesting and use of the products of the forest constituted the entire practice: of forestry. Then no thought of the future was necessary and there was little discrimination as between the various species and the adaptability and suitability of each to its par- ticular and proper uses. As the raw products of the forest became scarcer and, therefore, more valuable in conformity with the law of sup- ply and demand, new methods were constantly devised, as a result of experimentation, to put our wood supplies to their most profitable use. As our most valuable trees became exhausted, others were required to take their places, and in spite of the rapid introduction of wood sub- stitutes, new uses are being constantly found for wood. Every species of wood is characterized by its individual structure, color, grain, etc., which serve to distinguish it from other species. It is these same characteristics which must be studied and investigated to determine their adaptability and value for the different wood uses. For example, longleaf pine is strong, stiff, durable and grows tall and straight and, therefore, makes an excellent construction timber; spruce has long, soft, strong and pliable fiber and is comparatively free from resin and, therefore, makes a splendid wood pulp; oak is hard, strong, durable and has a pleasing grain, so it makes an excellent furniture wood. Each kind of wood is especially useful and adaptable for certain specific arts and industries. Altogether, shelter, next to food is the most important commodity in human economy. According to Fernow, over one-half of our popula- tion live in wooden houses and two-thirds of the population use wood for fuel. Besides wood, which constitutes a large part of the total utilitarian value of our forests, they supply the following: 2 FOREST PRODUCTS Bark for tanning, medicines, mattings, etc. Resinous products, such as turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, etc. Chemical products, such as wood alcohol, pyroligneous acid, char- coal, creosote, etc. Seeds, oak and beech mast, walnuts, chestnuts, etc. Pasture, especially in the West. Game and fish (of great importance). Recreation and health, summer pleasure grounds, etc. Fruits and berries (of minor importance). Moderation of temperatures and climate. Regulation of the water flow, prevention of erosion, etc. ORIGINAL FORESTS Originally this country was endowed with greater and more varied forests than those of any other nation except Russia. The eastern forests stretched unbroken from the Atlantic Ocean to the treeless prairies of the Middle West. The Rockies and Pacific slope were densely forested except for desert plateaus and interior valleys and high mountain tops. The original area of forest in the United States has been estimated at 850,000,000 acres. The present area is approximately 545,000,000 acres. The original stand was estimated at 5,200,000,000,000 bd. ft. The present stand is estimated to be about 2,535,000,000,000 bd. ft. HISTORY OF LUMBER CUT In accordance with the best available historical reports, the first saw- _ mill erected in this country is generally attributed to Berwick, Maine, where it was erected in the year 1631. Various other mills have been reported as being erected in the old Jamestown Colony of Virginia in 1607 and another in the Plymouth Colony of Massachusetts in 1630, but these records are not as well substantiated as those regarding the saw- mill at Berwick. From the earliest days of the lumber industry in this country, Maine held first place in lumber production and developed a considerable trade with the West Indies and even with Europe in lumber, timbers and spars, etc. With the rapid development in population, and its extension west- ward, the lumber industry was moved in the same way. From Maine, the center of the lumber industry gradually moved to New York, which was the center of the country’s lumber production in 1850. By 1860, the center of production had shifted to Pennsylvania. For several decades following 1870, and, in fact, up to 1904, the center of lumber pro- duction was in the Lake states, Michigan holding first place for over SE a eee ¥ , 7 ‘GENERAL 3 twenty years, followed by Wisconsin, which also held the leadership in lumber production for a period of almost twenty years. Within the past two decades there have been rapid changes. Lumber production has increased rapidly and the center of the industry has shifted to the south- ern states, and now there is once more a period of migration: this time to the Far West. The following table visualizes the gradual development in the lumber industry from the northeast to the Lake states and then to the Far South and finally to the northwest. In the year 1890, lumber production was just beginning on a large scale in the Pacific northwest, and Wash- ington held sixth place in the order of production by states. By 1900 it had risen to fifth place, in 1904 it occupied second place, and ever since 1905 this state has held first place. LUMBER PRODUCTION BY STATES FROM 1850 TO 1916 1850 1860 1870 1880 New York Pennsylvania Michigan Michigan Pennsylvania New York Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Maine Michigan New York Wisconsin Ohio Maine Wisconsin New York Indiana Ohio Indiana Indiana Michigan Indiana Maine Ohio Massachusetts Wisconsin Ohio - Maine Tilinois California Missouri Minnesota 1890 1900 1910 1916 Michigan Wisconsin Washington Washington Wisconsin Michigan Louisiana Louisiana Pennsylvania Minnesota Mississippi Mississippi Minnesota Pennsylvania Oregon Oregon Indiana : Washington Wisconsin _ North Carolina Washington Arkansas Texas Texas New York Ohio Arkansas Arkansas .- Ohio Indiana North Carolina Alabama The great center of present production is in the South where over 15,- 000,000,000 bd. ft. of southern yellow pine, out of a total of about 40,000,- 000,000 bd. ft., or over 37 per cent of the total lumber production in the country is produced, principally in the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas, Arkansas and Alabama in order of importance. In the year 1899, only 1,736,570,000 bd. ft. of Douglas fir were pro- duced, whereas in 1905, 3,000,000,000 bd. ft. were produced, and in 1916 nearly 5,500,000,000 ft. of Douglas fir were produced. The production of oak has been fairly uniform during the past few decades, but the pro- 4 FOREST PRODUCTS duction of white pine, formerly the leading lumber tree cut in this coun- try, has fallen in production from over 7,742,000,000 bd. ft. in 1899 to 2,700,000,000 in 1916. Other species, such as cypress and yellow poplar, have shown a marked decrease in production during the past two decades, and other species, such as western yellow pine, red gum, birch, cedar, and maple have shown a marked increase in production. PRESENT FOREST RESOURCES Of the total stand of timber still uncut, about 75 per cent is in private hands and the remaining 25 per cent in Government hands. The dis- tribution of this timber is as follows, by regions: STAND OF TIMBER BY REGIONS! Per Cent Pacific northwest). .0o.ct is See ee 46.0 Southern pine: région’. 7.5.) + as create ep ee 29.1 Lake states: #0 sce SSP sie as Lit aoe ates 4.5 Other regione. 3.546 Ensen Pel eae be eee 20.5 Total acc ok Ateneo wc aca See ee 100.0 By species, the stand of 2,535,000,000,000 bd. ft. left standing in this country is divided as follows: STANDING TIMBER BY SPECIES! Species. ; Billion Bd. Ft. Dougiasiht. . ia Zoe ao ake x aaa in eae weet aes 525 Southern: yellow pitie = oyu. c.s Fie wat ee GAT t oan 325 Western: yellow ‘pines ec ein ee 275 Rédwood 35.01% hoes caewa es dae 100 Western cedar 0. Fis ae Gas ewes cer 160 Western hemlock 0.0. 225.34. wit ee ee ee 100 Lodgepole pine .... 2. ;..244.18..% .5 eee oe ee go White and Norway pine... ............0..--2+--+- 75 Eastern: hemlock. :.524<2.00e. unt ioe ee 75 Westen spruces Et Fr ee SER Le 60 Eastern ‘spritce: sy.2. 0.4.5 23:00 Si Be ep 50 Western f9sii sis). be Steeda eS eee 50 UAL PINE 0.6/1 Le ae Ray eee ee 30 CY PPOSS. © isc Ti aie Oaieeag yo Cage op eee 20 Other conilers... 32 oi. Fs ask eget eee 100 PATA WOOS, 6 FCP Yi nals 4 26 BU eee one eee 500 Potas ore Ask Sie so thas A Sin ae 2535 1 From “The Timber Supply of the United States,” by R. S. Kellogg, U.S. Forest Service Circ. 166, 1909. GENERAL 5 RATE OF CONSUMPTION In 1880 the annual consumption of lumber in this country was only 18,000,000,000 bd. ft.; now it is about 40,000,000,000 bd. ft. The present supply, at the present rate of consumption, but without allowing for the increase in population, will last about seventy years. (Increment in American forests is only about one-third of that in Europe, and in addi- tion we have about 200,000,000 acres of virgin timber where decay offsets APPROXIMATE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES! : - | Wastage ? in| Total Annual Products. Asoc ot irene” | peneceae | Coemitace ia Cubic Feet. | Cubic Feet. MAMICT PES AL.)s 20:5 sic 2a 45% 005.068 40,000,000,000 | 40,000,000 | 6,000,000 053332333 Fuelwood, cords................- 100,000,000 | 50,000,000 100,000 9,100,000 Fence posts, pieces.........-....- 500,000,000 | 2,500,000 50,000 800,000 Reine, TRCCES A... 555. ersiee = 150,000,000 | 4,950,000 350,000 762,000 Pulp wood, cords..............-. 6,000,000 | 3,000,000 60,000 600,000 Round mine timbers, cubic feet. . . 165,000,000 990,000 30,000 196,000 Shingles, pieces:...5..........-.- 12,000,000,000 | 1,200,000 100,000 160,000 Tannins—wood and bark, cords. . . 1,300,000 650,000 33,000 150,000 Distillation wood, cords.......... 1,500,000 750,000 12,000 147,000 Weneert. tals ito. oes Sk ccbs oo 500,000,000 500,000 60,000 143,000 Slack cooperage, staves..........-. 1,328,968,000 553,700 Slack cooperage, sets of heading.. . 106,000,000 117,000 70,000 127,000 Slack cooperage, hoops........... 353,215,000 265,000 | Tight rage, staves.......... 500,000,000 850,000 | Tight a otal sets of heading. . . 40,000,000 123,000 } iad faced | ta te! Poles and piling, pieces........... 8,000,000 800,000 20,000 116,000 MA MEET GAS Sth: 9s casey in graye oie 49s 3,163,000,000 632,000 10,000 63,000 anger, NG. Te... oa: . 2-5 - 100,000,000 100,000 1,000 9,333 Miscellaneous, including rails, house logs, grape stakes, logs used in round, hop poles, converter poles, props, vehicle stock, derrick Seen COC OR CME MOVES 1s 5. 6 5 So coe cfs eee scrptie's cf iiceaedves 3% 200,000 Me COMMUNION Ge hy Sanec cd sciee pelt adasecseaachy-besewe cis 22,029,666 Per capita consumption, estimating population at SaN NEM SIs a. im wrdita Coals ehiaghad

os 18.06}. 13.00] 12.25]. 12.46] 12.14] 11.87] 14.48} 3 4 TICRONG ice Spd sere 29.48) 23.84] 23.35| 22.47] 26.55] 30.80) 29.50) 23.94) 18.78 Wialnts cise: aes alae 72.99| 42.38] 48.37| 31.70] 34-91| 42.79] 43.41! 45.64) 36.49 SyCAHIOKess rors s ios care 18.68) 14.65] 13.86) 13.16] 14.10] 14.77| 14.58} + II.04 1 Data not obtained. GENERAL 11 USE OF THE LUMBER CUT Until recent times no investigations have been made to determine how our lumber cut was utilized. During the period 1909 to 1912, how- ever, the United States Forest Service, in co-operation with the various state agencies made a study of the annual consumption of lumber in nearly all of the states. A compilation of these statistics shows that our lumber cut is nor- mally used approximately as follows: Principal Uses. Per Cent. Planing mill products such as sash, doors, flooring and general mill Oe die NaS chao aka Rw ena ee aoc ee, Gees Bae os 34 Rough lumber and structural timbers ..............-..----2--+--- 33 SEES Pa ae ARs og Na ap Pens ae Sa ESA, aaa II REIAMIICY ANC LUIMDETS oo sg 5 iassit Spur e's ns wks ee wee eee 7 MMRURIC TIONS 5 Niere ped acts Alec MRD ke RO 2 Sind we lnk pment 3 EE car NEY BS sarc es PRPs et ge oR eer Oe ner ee IS ee 2 BRS SS ery Ee 2 INMINEIINTRN SPTMICOIOTN Bo ok wide b+ bc oc beige be 6 esa see Oye eee I MemutenwWate-and Novelties: 655 6.4. 6 oe Se I 94 ‘The remaining 6 per cent is made up of miscellaneous uses such as chairs, handles, musical instruments, tanks and silos, ship- and boat- building fixtures, etc. The following table shows the annual use of wood in the United States, with the exception of fuel wood and fence posts, according to U. S. Forest Service figures:! . Bd. Ft. Planing mill products, sash, doors, blinds and general ES ea gg ay eh ein ee 13,428,862 ,000 mougnh lumber and timbers...............-..2..+-.--: 13,000,000,000 TGs ar Sa a iy a nee eee 4,550,016,000 I dy i Saini) anne cgalele wisieaa 4,502,000,000 meeort tumber and timbers... ...............0...---- 3,000,000,000 1 Partly taken from “ Lumber Used in the Manufacture of Wooden Products,” by J. C. Nellis, U. S. Dept. of Agric., Bulletin 605, 1918. 12 FOREST PRODUCTS | Bd. Ft. Woo mals CronG) Me et a cw fa oo mea eee 2,635,000,000 Car COnsttHibhon. | cet eh tae oes ee oe 1,262,090,000 Shinwles (AGF). 0... occa aspera hy 5 Canon k Werte a I,211,387,000 PUERIOURE Bis aA cache cae ee ERR TORS Neepe y e 944,678,000 Vehicles and Vehicle narts,.. 2. 2. ys 0 8.) poss 739,145,000 Slack cooperage (1914). 4:2 $54.5 .%5 ss os Dw eS 655,603,000 Distillation (1911)........ Wich fA S p Biba Se 610,680,000 Lath (1959). os ee Lo en oe eee 594,222,000 Veneers’ (1015)... > - vo denaekces Poedece 333 6"X8" Xs’ SO MMREEERGR a Fog Me See attics 28 6”°X7" X83" CRMEIROW OOO). 50... .. cnc cdeace sends 21 6"X7"X6" SS Sine ot eee cee ha 373 7° X8"X3’ I a ca ty an onde ce cack ood teen's 42 7X9" X8’ RRS aa las Ga 3 ee 60 7" X30" Derrick set (11 pieces). ...........2.....-. 480 CI Saree CL Da tvs Stee eee 7O 10” X20" PERMPISNNET . 1G oa Gv so coca a saboucse as 20 X12" SEES Sere arch nis Re Aiea 30 8” X16’ RS oT Ore Teer ee Core 30 7 X16’ SUSE Sinus Coes ate oo Pace va 15 7” X10" 2 OS rn ey eee 10 6” X10" ‘ PEE wed Vag wig Sn'g Sere Pe ee bk he Sa 10 6” X10" CU a “A Oa een rr eee 10 4° X20" LRN eS fDi, Fo ode Deans cea 8 16’ Py Se a al ag gS Sag 10 4” X20’ MR NOTMOUES) . 0. 25 ake eee oe 10 3°Xe’ EMR CINIME) ooo a cons oso «os oak cm sce pe 6 NE Se ioe as ct ape ak wiles oon 5 3 pole EE aren Sek ok pe an owen wes oes 7 6"X7’ a SS el OE So 7 x7 ii SEA RAE ey as aa 2 2” X6" X16" (FARRIS 5 SY i a 7 6"°X7’ Post (circumference 18 in.)................ 6 CY ie, if EE noe a dw yas ok Lc ele be ti cence es 5 oxT PINES aioe 55a ls oe nee Reine oooh 3 10” X1’ MRE Me a ike code bree hss fe 2 4°Xo’ IED SY od a inte clard al dss 5s = SE B 2" X6" Nace ales ee id g ay ak 3 otc 2 4X6 ae ae at Seen 3 2" X6"X2" | hae ES AC aS ay eR eo Sage ah ene Cs I 3"Xs5" ea aaa Se ae ae ea I Cw od The following list shows the converting factors used in the inter- national timber trade with particular reference to European countries: ; Equivalents. Dee PCtEOMIN StMNORG. . 5c. eee c a ccceccace 165 cu. ft. 4.67 cu. meters NS tS aha g's < oehes ance ns vente es vdats 1320 bd. ft. 4.1 loads 16 Equivalents, Ree Ey ger eA ga ESR. Omar Pa it i an 1650 bd. ft. 3-3 loads BOGIGS «6. sis 5a 4 Lee Oe aa atiaaat s hae a ee © 1980 bd. ft. 3.3 loads Cubic meter, (stere) <6 ossan Hey oatg oo uw os Soe phen 35.3 cu. ft. 0.214 standard 8 standard railway cross ties 0.2758 cord of 128 cu. ft. ©.47-0.37 cord of solid wood OGSiask. vial scams. tees hee ae mA Ree 283 bd. ft. 0.882 load Squared Umber. 25 iss tes's at ae ewe eerie 353 bd. ft. 0.706 load BOATS. ccs ee aie Ricans Sao RE ae EE ee 424 bd. ft. 0.706 load DOL WOOdSa5 2. hicore see va apes ae eee 5.8 quintals FlarGwoods ic. vlpestatnk weer aeey tars coer 7.7 quintals " Cubie meter.“ au-reel 7is7=. alice oes no Pe es 0.20-0.30 cu. meters of sawed lumber Metric tons. .3.235 sc eee oat pen eis oe oe a 1000 kilos Io quintals 2204.6 lb. Logs: Soltwoods 2 sk Sreeer ae eee eae 490 bd. ft. Hardwoods ies. sa aktac ie: ce 367 bd. ft. Squared timber: Soltwoods +... 22. ots. Sage ken te ee aie 612 bd. ft. Hardwoods. 2d o-tae tee aes tees 459 bd. ft. Boards: SOL WOOUE..5. 7. si ccs Soh ote Oy are 753 bd. ft. Hard woods 35 sein demas ea eos cats eeiaiton 551 bd. ft. Quintals Sse Foran SES an alte ele Pa OEE es 100 kilos 220.46 lb. Logs: Boltwoods Sais s5.o0.c bene ne oe et 49 bd. ft Hardwoods). st \victcc ee tare ta oe emcees 37 bd. ft Squared timber: Softwoods >-si.jealices eeaaeh en anise Reon 61 bd. ft. Hardwoods....... Rsfisa-sateiind thane Serna 45 bd. ft Boards: Softwood." og ae oe ers ae 74 bd. ft PATAWOONS » 27 a ek ex Ce 55 bd. ft feo 0) 118 tye | COPE oe eee ee RRS cen eee. (crv ena Site one re 83.3 cu. ft TIES Gi Ss ek. a pee eo ane Ca Da 3-53 Cu. m. 31.125 loads 0.758 standard TOG CHNBEES 5 5s ita bod atsalig tis Same 2.83 cu. m. 2 loads 0.606 standard BOIS Soi 5 coins Vee eI ee ee oe 2.36 cu. m. FOREST PRODUCTS 1.666 loads 0.505 standard GENERAL ; 17 Equivalents. Load: OS RT Oe he ee ee 40 cu. ft. 1.133 cu. ft 320 bd. ft. 0.242 standard Behred tiriber.. . ..o6< .c cence ce wen ewww ss sanees 50 cu. ft. 1.416 cu. m. 500 bd. ft. c © 303 standard OS ORE SL err re yore re Poe ra § 50 cu. ft. 1.416 cu. m. - 600 bd. ft. 0.303 standaid Cubic foot: Ms. LAG, 9 os wg sinc at GA Me re eee ee a Se 6 bd. ft NS SE ease ea Pe ee Ne ae Py epee 12 bd. ft. wo Th EPS Te aa or ae en Spry anys aap a 12 bd. ft. MEN SION, 2S Day. ely an wees sors s Un ae oem 22 cu. m. EM alice. ce ph Seah Sethe vee 6226 bd. ft. ae ee ae ae Pere ee re ee eae 7766 bd. ft. PO ae eee ee Peer ee eine re geen 9328 bd. ft. Cord re SOs RES, 9 NR ee ah i er 128 cu ft. 3.624 cu. m., or steres EES ee Oe Oe i ee 40 cu. ft. (round timber) DMR ee oe hat tie ata gw Sale hes Da. wes 02.3 SSeS 2.47 acres ir nee She ee ent gin asa oa Male aie «ss ae 0.4047 hec RMS Ri Sreviy e Pee oes Ui aly eco pining <0 oe 25.4 mm Ma ere Pera) ails ee at maa nig vn coed aie wlecetners' «5 eae 304.8 mm 30.48 cm. ; PENI Sette oes nee ee Dc dile'a p.ve.ciecies wie cecess 13.12 in. (4 m.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Bureau of Corporations, Department of Commerce and Labor. The Lumber Indus- try, Parts I and II. Kettocc, R.S. The Timber Supply of the United States. Circ. 166, U. S. Forest Service, 1909. National Lumber Manufacturers Association, Chicago. Annual Proceedings, 1910- 1919. Price, O. W., R.S. Kettocc and W. T. Cox. U.S. Forest Service, Circ. 171, Wash- ington, 1908. SuitrH, Hersert K. Stand of Timber. Report of National Conservation Com- mission. Senate Doc. 676. Vols. I and II. 19009. CHAPTER II WOOD PULP AND PAPER GENERAL PAPER is a material composed of vegetable fibers formed artificially into thin sheets. The word paper comes from the Latin word papyrus, a name given to the Egyptian sedge and bulrushes of the Nile Valley. The plant is said to have been used by the Egyptians as early as 2400 B.C. to make sheets for writing purposes as well as for wrapping and other mechanical uses. ; Within the past ten to twenty-five years the manufacture of wood pulp has made tremendous strides. It is now one of the principal products derived from the forests aside from lumber. At the present time it is estimated-that there are about 6,000,000 cords of wood needed to supply the annual demands of the paper trade in this country. Assuming 500 bd. ft. to the cord, this amount is equivalent to about 3,000,000,000 bd. ft. In 1900 only about 2,000,000 cords were consumed for wood pulp and in 1911 about 4,500,000 cords. Zon estimates that in 1930 about 10,500,000 cords will be required and as high as 16,000,000 cords of wood will be demanded in 1950. The increase in the consumption of wood from 1900 to 1919 has been over 300 per cent. About 80 per cent to 85 per cent of all paper used in this country is now derived from wood, whereas before the middle of the 19th century, paper was entirely manufactured from other vegetable fibers. The industry is still in the evolutionary stage of development, both in the matter of kind and quantity of raw materials and in the processes of the manufacture of pulp and paper. At first, basswood was used in the earlier years of the industry in this country and then spruce became our leading pulp wood. Spruce still holds the pre-eminent position. The demands for pulp wood are increasing so rapidly that other processes are being constantly developed to utilize woods that are cheaper and more abundant than spruce. 18 ' ca ae ee WOOD PULP AND PAPER 19 Vast improvements have been made and are still being made, not only in the processes themselves but in the use of raw material, and in refine- ments in labor-saving machinery. Large amounts of capital are required for participation in the industry, due largely to the expensive forms of machinery required. According to the U. S. Bureau of Census for 1909 the industry employed a capital of over $409,000,000 and the manufactured products had an annual value of $267,000,000, giving employment to 81,000 persons. The amount of increase in capital in the decade prior to 1909 Was 144 per cent and 110.2 per cent in the value of products. Photograph by A. M. Richards. Fic. 1.—About 10,000 cords of pulpwood bolts, 90 per cent of which are peeled. The wood consists of mixed spruce, balsam fir and hemlock. Hinckley Fibre Co., Hinck- ley, N. Y. However, the increase in number of persons engaged in the industry was only 53 per cent, which is an indication of increase both in size of machin- ery used and in the number of labor-saving devices. Wood has been demonstrated to be the best available raw material. From time to time sporadic attempts are made to introduce other mate- rials, but they are too expensive to assemble and transport, are unavail- able in sufficient quantities, or do not make the desirable kinds of paper. Before wood was widely introduced about 1850, paper was entirely made from cotton and linen rags, esparto grass, hemp, straw and a number of other vegetable fibers. It is estimated that the annual value of our paper products is 5780,- 20 FOREST PRODUCTS 000,000. The principal forms are shown in a report of the War Indus- tries Board, as follows: RELATIVE VALUE OF KINDS OF PAPER PRODUCED Kind. 4 Value. Newsprint DRADER 5. < sichons waste ead oes av aie dls eee $1 36,000,000 Book: PAPOUS sass Bi Sa ccs RS tama Hane “125,000,000 Papershoanibs) cactus attae tae deicah aroma eens 156,000,000 Fine writing paper 6-5 3: sse.5-o60 «<0 so 3dips a ae eel 142,000,000 Wrapping papers............... “Phws.0ie oar errata 89,000,000 Miscellaneous papersis ic. i200% ois shes ote ole 132,000,000 Totals. oO. one oan eo ibe eee $780,000,000 ' In the production of paper and paper products we use annually, 9,230,000 tons of coal, 21,619,200 gal. of oil and 1,287,000 tons of chem- icals. The per capita consumption of paper in the United States is annually about roo lbs. HISTORY OF PULP AND PAPERMAKING Although the Egyptians are sometimes given credit for the earliest development in the manufacture of ‘paper, more recent research has developed the fact that the Chinese must be credited with the first man- ufacture of paper. The art of papermaking was known in China long before the Christian era. It is likely that the art of papermaking was transmitted from China across India to Persia and Arabia. It is known that the Saracens carried the practice of the art to Spain after their conquest of that country in the 8th century. The industry was gradually developed, but spread very slowly through Europe. From Spain it went to Italy where a paper mill was first operated at Fabriano in the year 1150. This became an important center for papermaking and it is said that paper is still made there at the present time. The first paper mill in France was established in 1189; in Ger- many in 1390; and the date of 1330 is given as the time of the first paper mill in England. The introduction and development of papermaking machinery was very slow, because of the current opposition to all forms of labor-saving machinery during the Middle Ages. Forms of paper made in the earliest paper mills in England are still extant and it is generally accepted that the very best kinds of paper were made on the old-fashioned hand presses in the earliest days. In this country early records show that the first paper mill was established in 1690 by William Rittenhouse near Phil- WOOD PULP AND PAPER 21 adelphia. The first paper mill in New England was built by a company which was granted the sole privilege in the vicinity of Massachusetts for ten years, following 1728. Until the early part of the 19th century, sheets of paper were made entirely by hand, sheet by sheet. Prior to this a device for making paper in an endless web was invented by Louis Nicolas Robert in France, but it was not put to practical use until developed in England by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, who perfected the machinery now universally known as the Fourdrinier wire, which is the basis of modern paper- making. This will be described later in this chapter. * It is said that the use of wood for making paper dates from as recently as 1840 when Keller patented his process in Germany for a wood-pulp grinding machine. It was not, however, until 1854 that the process was placed upon a commercial basis. It was introduced in this country by Warner Miller in 1866. The manufacture of so-called chemical pulp, which has a still greater possibility for the future than ground wood pulp, dates back to the year 1867. Tilghman is generally given credit for the discovery of the disin- tegrating action of sulphurous acid upon wood. This was the basis of the invention of making chemical wood pulp by the sulphite process. Within comparatively recent years the sulphate and soda processes of reducing wood fibers to the form of pulp have been developed. The sulphate process was first attempted in Sweden and has great possibilities before it in the utilization of woods and saw-mill waste in connection with the exploitation of some of our most abundant woods, such as southern yellow pine and Douglas fir. _ With the rapid increase in the demands for wood pulp for all grades of paper, other features including forms of machinery and processes of pulp making have been devised to keep pace with the situation. In 1879 the average price of all forms of paper was $122 per ton, whereas in 1909 it was only $56 per ton. _ To the development of engineering and chemistry is attributable More than to anything else, the remarkable progress of this industry. The discovery and improvements in the manufacture of paper pulp by the three chemical methods of reducing the wood fiber; the sulphite, soda and sulphate processes, and the use of the bleaching power of chlorine have made possible the use of a large variety of woods and the production of great quantities of pulp on a commercial scale. 22 FOREST PRODUCTS KINDS OF PAPER MANUFACTURED Generally speaking, there are two classes of paper in common use, as follows: first, papers for recording or printing; and second, papers for mechanical purposes. In the first group are found the fine linen ledgers and writing papers, printing paper for books, magazines and general printing purposes and news print used for newspaper. General printing papers require a white paper with filling and sizing material. Some grades of printing papers are given a smooth surface by special calendering instead of by loading with clay and sizing. Newspaper is the cheapest of all paper and mechanical wood pulp forms the greater part of its substance. Writing papers are largely sized papers in the best grades, in which only selected rags are used, though of late, chemical wood pulp is used even in the expensive writing papers, and it may be said that nearly all papers, excepting high-grade ledger, contain wood.. In the second group are the cardboards, pasteboards, papier-mache, wrapping papers, and blotting and tissue papers and those of the heaviest forms, such as building paper, carpet and wall paper, etc. Blotting paper is composed of short-fibered cotton and wood pulp cut fine in the beating engine. This paper is free from sizing of any kind and so is capable of absorbing water or other liquids. It can be dyed to any desired color without impairing its quality. Tissue papers are the thinnest of all papers and are generally made from rags or paper shavings, with varying quantities of wood pulp. Wrapping papers are partly sized papers of coarse material and are largely made from mixtures of sulphite pulp and ground wood, or wholly of sulphate pulp to form kraft paper. Straw, jute and mixtures of hard fibers are also largely employed. Card- board, pasteboard and other heavy forms of paper are generally made from a pulp formed of waste paper; as well as from sugar cane refuse, waste fiber boxes, etc. They are sometimes made by pressing a number of sheets of other paper together in powerful presses, with a suitable agglutinant. Papier-mache is made chiefly from old paper s.ock by boiling toa pulp. It is then mixed with glue and starch paste and pressed into moulds. THE REQUIREMENTS OF DESIRABLE PULP WOODS The principal requirements which paper manufacturers hold as desirable in woods for making paper pulp are summarized:as follows: 1. The wood should contain a long, strong and yet soft and tender — = WOOD PULP AND PAPER 23 fiber. Woods in which these characters stand out make the best paper and are used with comparative economy. 2. The wood should be relatively free from intercellular constituents, such as resins, gums, tannins, etc. Highly resinous woods and those containing large percentages of tannins, gums, etc., are converted into paper with considerable difficulty and are used only for the cheaper grades of paper. 3. The wood must be available in sufficient quantities, reasonably accessible and, therefore, fairly economical in price. Some woods are admirably adapted to the manufacture of pulp and paper, but are often eliminated because they are not sufficiently available or are in greater demand for other purposes. 4. White fibered woods are preferred since most papers are white or light in color. Bleaching at great expense is required to whiten some woods. Woods which are white or nearly so-are much more in demand than those of deep or dark colors. 5. The wood must be sound, reasonably clear of knots, free from rot, dote, bark, pitch pockets, and other defects. Sound wood, clear of all foreign matter or defects is especially required in certain processes of pulp manufacture. 6. The wood itself should contain large quantities of available cellu- lose. Most woods contain between 40 per cent and 60 per cent of cel- lulose. Since the basis of all paper is cellulose, it is desirable to select a wood for pulp that contains cellulose in a form that is readily separated without loss by the destructive action of chemicals which are used in cooking processes. ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF WOOD At the present time it is estimated that about 6,000,000 cords of wood are now annually used in this country for wood pulp. The latest avail- able accurate figures are those published by the United States Forest Service for the year 1916, when it was reported that 5,228,558 cords of wood were manufactured into pulp at 230 mills. Of this amount Canada - supplied about 700,000 cords, or 15 per cent of the total quantity. There has been a steady increase from year to year in the consumption of wood. While the number of mills has not increased !so rapidly from year to year there has been a strong tendency to increase the size of our American pulp mills. The average number of cords used annually in each pulp mill in 1911 was 16,149 and in 1916 was 22,735. Some mills consume as 24 FOREST PRODUCTS high as 60,000 cords annually. Some of our modern pulp mills consume between 200 and 250 cords per day. Assuming about 15 cords as the average cut per acre for pulp wood of all kinds, and a yearly consump- tion of 6,000,000 cords, 40,000 acres of forest are cut over every year for this country’s pulp wood supply. Woods Used. Nearly every native wood grown in this country is capable of being made into paper. Some woods are, however, obviously much more desirable, based upon the requirements outlined in the foregoing para- graphs. The softwoods are most amenable to treatment and are pre- ferred. In 1916 at least eighteen different kinds of native woods were used in the manufacture of paper pulp. Of all woods used, however, spruce holds the arcane position, since the quality and character of this wood is admirably fitted for use, both in the mechanical and chemical processes of pulp making. It is actually used in all of the modern processes. In 1916 it constituted over 59 per cent of the total quantity of wood used for pulp. There is a tendency to decrease the percentage of spruce, as compared with other woods, because of its growing scarcity, and the introduction of new processes which make possible the use of other woods heretofore seldom used for:this purpose. Most of the spruce used is the eastern red spruce (Picea rubens) although white spruce (Picea canadensis) is being used more and more, especially in eastern Canada. Western spruce (Picea sitchensis) is rapidly coming into prominence and is used on — the northern Pacific coast and in British Columbia. It is abundantly available in this section and it is likely that western spruce, together with other spruces in the Far West, which are available in large quan- tities will attract the location of many new pulp mills in that district. Spruée is an ideal pulp wood because it has long, strong fibers, which are comparatively free from resins, gums, tannins, etc.; it is light in color, is generally sound and is fairly free from knots, rot, and other defects. It also contains the maximum quantity of cellulose, which can be freed from other substances without great difficulty. Nearly one-fourth of all the spruce used for wood pulp in this country is imported from Canada. Hemlock ranks second among our leading pulp woods and in 1916 it averaged over 14 per cent of the total pulpwood supply. It is reduced almost entirely by the sulphite process and is very largely used in the Lake states, especially in Wisconsin. The wood is inferior to spruce, —— a WOOD PULP AND PAPER 25 since the fibers are much shorter and weaker. Inasmuch as the fibers easily become broken in grinding, it is not adapted for reduction by the mechanical process. However, hemlock is available in large quantities and can.be successfully reduced by the chemical process for news, wrap- ping and other cheaper grades of paper. Poplar, including the two aspens of the northeast and Canada, ranks third in importance as a pulpwood. It forms about 8 per cent of the total supply. The wood is soft, light in weight and color, but its fibers are short and comparatively weak. It is reduced almost entirely by the soda process and its pulp is mixed with sulphite pulp to give it sufficient strength for manufacture into grades of book paper. Photograph by A. M. Richards. Fic. 2—A pulp mill with a capacity of 60 tons of No. 1 and No. 2 bleached and natural spruce and hemlock sulphite pulp in twenty-four hours. The tall building on the right contains the digester and bleaching rooms. The building in the right foreground is the wood room for rossing, splitting, chipping and screening. Balsam fir is very commonly mixed with spruce and used as such for mechanically ground pulp. Purchasers of pulpwood: usually specify that no large per cent of the wood purchased shall be of balsam fir. The wood is light in color and weight, soft and comparatively free from resins, gums, and other objectionabie materials. Papermakers object to it, however, because it is said that the pitch from it covers the felts and cylinder faces making operations difficult. Balsam fir is available in fairly large quantities in the northeast and eastern Canada. It is largely reduced by the mechanical process, and finds a large market for news- paper stock; it is said, indeed, that balsam fir finds its greatest economic 26 FOREST PRODUCTS importance as a pulpwood. Papermakers aver that pulp which contains a large admixture of balsam fir lacks strength and character. Pine is being used more and more from year to year and is being reduced chiefly by the soda and the sulphate processes, especially southern yellow pine. In the statistical reports, pine includes principally southern yellow pine but nearly one-half is composed of jack pine. White pine is used to a small extent. White fir is rapidly coming into common use in the West. This and other firs, together with large quantities of spruce and hemlock, which are available on the northern Pacific coast, will tend to make that region a great center of the future pulp and paper industry. In 1916 more than 49,000 cords of white fir were used for paper pulp. Some hardwoods like beech, maple, chestnut and cottonwood are also used to some extent. They are largely reduced by the soda process. Large quantities are derived from the residue of chestnut pulp after the tannin has been removed at tannin extract plants in the South, notably at Canton, N. C. 7 Douglas fir is being used in the northern Pacific coast to some extent, — but it is more or less in the experimental stage of development. Other woods used for pulp are tamarack, elm, basswood, birch, gum, sycamore, cucumber and ash. Altogether there is.a strong undercurrent of desire among manu- facturers to experiment in the use of new woods. Spruce has risen so high in price that pulpmakers are generally looking for other sources of raw material and are developing processes which will be applicable to our most abundant kinds of woods, such as southern yellow pine, Douglas fir, western hemlock, redwood, western spruce, cedar and various hardwoods. It is estimated that there is a sufficient amount of sawmill waste that is burned up, or which serves no profitable or economical purpose, to meet all the demands for pulpwood. Upwards of 200,000 cords of sawmill waste in the form of slabs, edgings, etc., are now being utilized in pulpmaking. In Wisconsin especially, large quantities of hemlock waste from sawmills are converted into pulp. The following table! shows the quantity of wood consumed by kinds for 1916, 1911, and 1909. + Consumption by States. _ The wood pulp industry is centralized largely in the northeast. Many new mills have recently been erected over the Canadian line in the lower 1 Taken from statistical reports of U. S. Forest Service and U. S. Census Bureau. WOOD PULP AND PAPER 27 valley of the St. Lawrence River. The location of the industrial center of the manufacture of wood pulp is attributed directly to the fact that raw material is available in this section and the great paper mill centers have been developed there. : Quantity, Quantity, Quantity, Kind ot Wood. 1916. Igrt. 1909. - Cords. Cords. Cords. DUCES AMIRORING: O55...» Ss cea awk saws coe 2,300,003 1,612,355 1,653,249 PROT UR oe cass... sy ne eee ens we 701,667 903,375 768,332 oats ot ee eee ee ene eee 760,226 616,663 559,657 ae oe eee ee 320,370 | 333,920 302,876 Se ei escent. &. 82,326 34,205 25,622 MR Ween. eg einai y-s cian ven w dee 301,032 191,779 95,366 ME eS Se koe Dieta bandied ot 170,378 124,019 90,885 Meets. foo. 5. tear ee ee te ee tans ob cake ote ta ead 44,320 31,390 Seale a ae So asd tbe oe OR ba Pu 36,079 art. ona Sic Gkk oa canes € ue ce 49,425 36,4903 37,176 IE Pe sn nas ag unis Sae «bla Oke 22,211 25,043 36,898 CN RARE PET ee | 211,086 88,268 151,179 Slabwood and other mill waste. ............... | 200,844 280,534 248,077 REE wg chin Vitis cbse Sie x aaield | §,228,558 4,328,052 4,001 ,607 1 Included with all other species in 1916. New York occupies the commanding position in the manufacture of wood pulp and paper. It now has about seventy-five pulp mills and con- sumes more than 1,000,000 cords of wood annually. The centers of the industry in New York are in the upper Hudson River and Black River valleys, the latter centering around the cities of Watertown and Carthage. Maine is the leader in the consumption of wood, using over 1,198,000 cords of wood annually. In 1911 there were thirty-eight pulp mills in Maine and in 1916, thirty-two mills. Wisconsin is third in order of _ importance. é Owing to the decrease of available material in the northeast, the industry has exhibited a tendency to move to Canada, the Lake states and the northwest and it is estimated that in a few decades many new pulp mills will be located in the Lake states, the Far West and even in the South where new developments in the reduction of southern pine waste give excellent promist. Other leading states in order are New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Michigan, Oregon, West Vir- ginia, Virginia, Vermont, North Carolina and Massachusetts. Consumption by Processes. Most of the pulpwood is reduced by the sulphite process. In 1916 28 FOREST PRODUCTS of the total amount reduced—s5,228,558 cords—over one-half, or 2,856,122 cords, were reduced by the sulphite process. This process was applied chiefly to spruce, hemlock, balsam fir and white fir. The mechanical process was used with nearly 30 per cent of the total supply and was applied chiefly to spruce, and to a much less extent, to hemlock, balsam fir and pine and aspen. : The soda process is largely applied to poplar or aspen, pine and hard- woods. Of the total amount of pulpwood made in this country nearly 14 per cent is reduced by the soda method. Only about 3 per cent of our wood pulp is made by the.sulphate process. It has been introduced and passed the experimental stage in ‘ connection with Douglas fir on the Pacific coast and southern yellow pine in the South. It has enormous possibilities for the future and it is likely that it will be applied to a large number of woods now little used for pulp purposes. The table! on page 29 shows the quantity of wood consumed by species and processes of manufacture for 1916. RAW MATERIAL Raw material for the manufacture of pulp comes to the mill in a great variety of forms, chief of which are the following: | 1. Logs. In the past much of the raw material was delivered to the pulp mills in the form of logs, but this is being superseded by delivery in shorter lengths. 2. Bolts. A large share of material is now delivered in a form of 4-{t. bolts, either in the peeled condition or with the bark still on. 3. Chips. For sulphite pulp some of the pulp mills are pressing their material in the baled form or in the loose state in carload lots. ; 4. Sawmill Waste. Considerable hemlock and spruce slabs ve q edgings are now being received in larger quantities from year to year. This is especially true in West Virginia, Maine, Pennsylvania and — Wisconsin. Logging and Transportation. It is estimated that about 80 per cent of the pulp companies own their own standing timber. Up to the present time, the conventional method ~ has been to send logging crews in the woods in the late summer or early fall to put up the annual supply of pulpwood. When logging is done — 1Taken from Pulpwood Consumption, etc., 1916, by Smith and Helphenstine, U. S, Forest Service, unnumbered circular. WOOD PULP AND PAPER in the spring, barking can be done to best advantage. 29 As soon as the snow comes to sufficient depth the snowhaul with the two-sled is em- ployed to bring the logs down to some drivable stream. This method is very commonly employed in Maine, northern New Hampshire, the Adirondacks and eastern Canada. In the spring the logs are floated down to the mill and held in large booms until required for use.! - PULPWOOD CON SUMPTION—QUANTITY OF WOOD CONSUMED BY KIND AND PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE—1916 REDUCED BY Kind of Wood. | Aggregate | Mechanical] Sulphite Soda Sulphate Quantity. | - Process. Process. 3 Process. ot Se a aaa 3,101,660 | 1,293,508. | 1,803,217 | 630 4,305 eee 760,226 | 84,116 | 647,738 | ..-....- 28,372 oe pe eee 411,696 14,733 2,323 | 304,577 63 MAMORINME Soe Qos. 2 301,032 77:313 | 213,569 | be aot 10,150 emoW PENG. 2... <5 ..- 225-54 90,310 15,663 8,209 | 29,727 36,711 } EI rae. 8 So ses Ss ee 80,068 54.0361 Cost. 61,145 4,988 ON a a ae 49,425 13,560 35,865 | Yellow poplar................ SIQITA Eh ooe 5501 WoC ee | 37,974 nea eee STII N epee Seo Waites | $7,392 0 eee 33,271 431 2 oe ee ee 29,065 0 SE eee eee 22,211 2,082 | 668 19,461 Basswood.... ot en Pee eee A | 11,481 EMO = 5 oe moo seine cs TIPO, Senco og aik gn © | 7,679 Of RS ae 2565'S SK DAIST oe ncs Cimete 1,072 OS ea eee 2,246 Fs i hee | 2,246 Re. ot oN oes eieg Up epi 600 MMos i i tce bea LOG oP ateces Gh eles nae 100 a ere 7 2a WEEP aris pe Uae sate 37 _ Beech, birch, and maple... . . - . 77;762 $82 2035. <: 77,751 Slabs and other mill waste. 200,844 7,551 140,758 | 26,620 25,905 Bo Se ee ee 5,228,558 | 1,524,386 | 2,856,122 | 707,419 140,631 | Use of Sawmill and Other Waste. Over 200,000 cords of sawmill waste in the form of slabs and edgings are now used for paper pulp. Many lumber companies operating in * For information regarding logging methods, costs, etc., see Logging, by R. C. Bryant John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 30 FOREST PRODUCTS spruce now convert their smaller and crooked logs into chips, which are used in some sulphite mills. In a large mill in the Adirondacks cutting 90,000 bd. ft. of lumber per day about 23 carloads of sulphite chips, which is equivalent to about 15 cords of chips, are secured from 1900 logs per day. All logs which are symmetrical and straight and which are over 6 in. in diameter at the small end are manufactured into lumber. All crooked logs above this diameter and all logs below 6 in. in size at the small end go into pulpwood. All balsam fir logs of the smaller diameters also go into pulpwood. Value of Pulpwood. There has always been a great variation in the price paid for pulp- wood at the mills. In 1916 the price generally varied for rough pulp- wood between about $4.00 and $11.00 per cord, for peeled wood between about $5.00 and $16.00 per cord and for rossed wood between $6.00 and $18.00 per cord. The average cost for wood of all forms in 1916 was $8.76 per cord, delivered at the mill. The price of pulpwood has steadily advanced during the past two decades, until in 1919 $16.00 to $18.00 was quoted. The total value of the raw material in the form of pulpwood delivered at the mills in 1916 was $45,785,682. In 1909 the total value of the pulp- wood consumed was $34,477,540. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PULP MILL The following are usually considered the principal requirements necessary for the location of a pulp mill. 1. A large initial investment. The machinery required for reduction of wood to the different forms of pulp is known to be the most highly specialized and one of the most expensive forms used in any of our industries. Not only is the machinery very specialized and expensive, but large and substantially constructed buildings are required to house it. Many of our pulp mills cost from $400,000 to $800,000 or more for the initial investment. 2. A large and continuous supply of wood of a desirable kind and. reasonably accessible so that it can be delivered sufficiently cheap. The average pulp mill in this country consumes about 22,700 cords per annum. 3. A plentiful supply of clean water. For washing the fibers and carrying the pulp to the machines, enormous quantities of clear, pure water are required. WOOD PULP AND PAPER 31 4. Adequate power. Most of the pulp mills have hydro-electric power developments in connection with them. 5. Accessibility to a good fuel supply. 6. Adequate transportation facilities for both the shipment of the raw material to the mill and the movement by rail or boat of the products to the consuming market. THE MANUFACTURE OF MECHANICAL PULP In the manufacture of ground wood or mechanical pulp the wood fibers are torn apart by mechanical abrasion, by compressing the billets of wood against a rapidly revolving grindstone. Spruce is better adapted for this process than any other wood. Other species used are pine, bal- sam fir, hemlock, aspen, poplar and a few other woods, but a very large per cent (about 85) of the total amount is made up of spruce. In 1916 1,524,386 cords of wood were reduced to pulp by the mechanical process. The cheaper grades of paper, chiefly news print, are formed of pulp made by the mechanical process. The intercellular substances of wood fibers, chiefly lignin, resins and tannins, are not removed, as in the chem- “ical processes, which dissolve out the undesirable constituents and leave a substance which is largely pure cellulose. In the mechanical process the wood is ground to a fine pulp. Preparation of the Wood. The raw material if it is brought to the pulp mill in the log form is - taken out of the booms and log storage in the river or mill pond and is carried up into the mill by means of a jacker chain which usually leads to a series of live rolls. The logs are then reduced to a uniform length usually 24 in. Very commonly, pulpwood comes to the mill in the form of 24-in. bolts, either in the peeled or rossed condition or with the bark still on the wood. The logs are reduced to the bolt length by means of a slasher made up of a series of circular saws against which the logs are conveyed. In some mills a large, circular, cut-off saw called a “ drop- saw’ is used. In the latter case the logs are brought into position by means of log rolls and the saw lowered until they are cut off to the proper length. One type of six-saw slasher has a capacity of handling 8000 logs up to 14 ft. in length every ro hours. Barking. If the bolts or logs come to the mill in the unbarked state they 32 FOREST PRODUCTS are conveyed in the bolt form to the barking or rossing machine which removes the wood. The modern barker consists of a heavy, circular, steel disk from 52 to 72 in. in diameter, inclosed in a heavy, iron frame. The steel disk has three knives inserted in it radially in such a manner that the knives cut away the bark as the blocks are held against the rapidly revolving surface. A log rolling attachment is provided to hold the logs in place after the operator has inserted them. The toothed chain revolving around two sprockets, turns the log and the sharp knives automatically remove the bark from the wood. When the logging of pulpwood is done in the spring or early summer, the bark can best be removed by the use of a bark spud or even an axe. When fall or winter logging is practised the logs are sent directly to the mill in the unbarked condition. There is very little loss of good wood by peeling in the woods, but there is a loss, estimated at 15 to 25 per cent of the solid wood, when the bark is removed by the barking machine. If the bolts were perfectly symmetrical there would be very little loss, but, owing to the unsymmetrical character of the bolts, together with seams, crotches, taper, knots, etc., considerable wood must be removed in order to cut off all the bark. The rapid revolving and rossing take off large quantities of wood along with the bark. Bolts of small diameter lose a greater percentage of wood than large bolts. A rotary or drum barker has been devised which minimizes this loss. The drum barker consists of a heavy, circular, iron cylinder made of angles or channels fitted with projections to scrape the bark from the logs. As the drum revolves the bark is removed partly by attrition - and direct contact with the projecting surfaces. It is estimated that from 10 to 20 per cent of solid wood is removed, but modern devices and improvements are correcting this difficulty. The wood enters the rotary or drum barker at one end and is discharged at the other, while pieces of bark which have been removed fall through the open spaces in the drum. In many pulp mills where both chemical and ground wood pulp are made the better classes of bolts, that is, those which are relatively free from dirt and contain few knots, are used for chemical pulp, while those of inferior quality are sent to the ground wood mill. Very often the barking process is catried on more rapidly than the grinding operation which follows it, so that the surplus blocks are carried out into the yard on a cable conveyor or a similar device and stored until needed. In winter, many of the bolts contain ice and dirt, accumulated in the woods. These are sent into a hot box or tub of water where WOOD PULP AND PAPER 33 the ice is melted and much of the dirt removed. The soaking they receive also facilitates the grinding process. In the case of the largest bolts a splitting machine is provided on one end of the barking room to reduce the largest bolts to a size that can be accommodated in the grinders. Cold and Hot Ground Wood Pulp. The most important part of making ground wood pulp lies in the grinding and screening methods which are employed. A great many experiments have been made, but each individual manufacturer generally follows his own ideas on the subject. There are two distinct kinds of ground wood pulp, namely, cold and hot ground pulp. These vary greatly in degree of coarseness, and in the length and strength of fiber. When wood is ground into fibers in the presence of large amounts of water a fine, even grade of pulp is produced. This is known, commercially, as cold ground pulp. Contrasted to this form the hot ground pulp is produced under conditions of high tempera- ture and comparatively little water. Hot ground pulp is coarse and contains long fibers. The operation of reducing wood to pulp is carried on in a separate part of the mill, in the grinding room where from 4 to 24 grinders or more are operated simultaneously. The wood is brought in on trucks and stacked up at some point convenient for the operator. The grinding machine consists of a strong, iron, circular box, inclosing a heavy grindstone mounted on a horizontal shaft. These grindstones are made of gritty sandstone and are largely imported from England for the purpose. Some artificial stones are also in common use. The surface of the stone is grooved and pitted to make it rough. In size these stones are usually from 54 to 60 in. in diameter with a 27-in. face. Around the circumfer- ence of the casing, openings or pockets are located in which 2-ft. or 4-ft. bolts of wood are placed and pressed against the rotating stone by means of hydraulic pressure. The stones revolve at the rate of about 240 revo- lutions per minute and from 200 to 400 horse-power are required to drive each grinder. The texture of the stone, the rapidity with which it turns and the rate of pressure of the wood against the stone determine in a large measure the character of the pulp made. A stone with an exceedingly rough surface will produce very coarse fibers, whereas if the stone is per- mitted to become too smooth or dull, the fibers will be too short and the resultant pulp too fine. Dull stones are sharpened while revolving, by pressing a “ burr ” or “ jigger ’’ made of especially hardened steel, against 34 FOREST PRODUCTS the surface. Some stones wear unevenly and must be ground, so that they will be perfectly symmetrical. The operator must give constant attention to the stones, so that the maximum quantity of the best quality of pulp may be produced. In the process of grinding, the door of the pocket is opened, the piston is raised and the pocket filled with blocks, the bolts- being placed flatly against the surface of the stone and at right angles to the direction of the revolutions, as shown in the illustrations. When the pocket is filled, the door is closed and the piston lowered. The pressure is exerted at the rate of about 70 Ib. per square inch. The temperature of the wood during the process of making cold ground pulp is about 60° F. The stones weigh Photograph by U. S. Forest Service Fic. 3.—A four-pocket grinder used to reduce the wood bolts to fiber by the mechanical process of making wood pulp. The bolts are pressed against a rapidly revolving stone. from about 2500 to 3500 lb. each and have an average life of only about six to eight months. Each grinder has a capacity of from 6 to 9 cords of wood per twenty-four hours. All water used in making cold ground pulp is first passed through filters in order that absolute purity may be insured. One man can tend a pair of grinders. The water carries the pulp away from the grinders and it is collected and carried off through a large pipe at the base of the grinder. In making hot ground pulp the water allowed to flow on the grind- stone during the process is reduced to a minimum. The friction causes the temperature to rise and the resultant pulp is of entirely different quality from that made by the cold ground process. In making hot “= setae WOOD PULP AND PAPER 35 ground pulp the fibers are torn away very readily so that the resultant pulp is very much coarser and the fibers longer. In this process, the grinding machine includes a grindstone mounted in a vertical position on a horizontal shaft and surrounded by a heavy iron casing. Pockets are provided and the pressure afforded in a way similar to that described for the other process. Even in the presence of sufficient water to prevent the pulp from burning, the temperature rises, commonly, to over 160° F. Hot ground pulp is used largely in the man- ufacture of newspaper. It runs freely on the Fourdrinier wire, since the coarse quality of the fiber permits the water to drain away quickly. Much higher yields are secured in the hot ground process owing to the fact that the wood is worn away more rapidly and to the use of coarse stones or stones which are finished to grind the maximum amount of pulp in a given period of time. In a few mills in this country and in Canada magazine grinders have been installed which take a charge of 12 cords of 4-ft. wood sticks. The grinding proceeds during a twelve-hour shift without any special atten- tion being necessary on the part of attendants. Screening. The pulp stock, after grinding, is run through a series of screens to remove chips, portions of knots and any foreign material from the pulp. There are many kinds of screens in common use, but they all follow the same general principle. In some stages of the process flat plates, per- forated with fine holes are used. This lets the water and fine pulp go through, but retains the coarse material. Revolving drum screens are also used. The latter are arranged in rows, and are 4 ft. by 4 ft. 6 in. with a 10-in. perforation, through which the pulp passes. The feed-pipe supplies the pulp at the end of each drum. In the case of the plates they are vibrated to do the work of screening. In the case of the centrifugal screens, which are the latest form, a cylin- der revolves at a high rate of speed, fine chips being forced through the slits by centrifugal force. After the pulp has been screened it is treated in a wet press or lap machine in order to remove the large amount of water with which it is mixed. The material which does not pass through the screens is pumped to a refiner where it is again ground up and submitted to the same screening process until reduced to a fine fibrous condition. 1See Paper, June 25, 1613. 36 FOREST PRODUCTS After screening, the pulp is treated in a wet press or lap-machine in order to remove the large quantities of water and leave a pulp suitable for shipment to the paper mill. The watery mixture is pumped contin- uously into a large receiving reservoir or vat in which a hollow drum rotates. The surface of this drum is made of fine wire gauze. The pulp in solution is caught by this fine gauze and adheres to it while the water passes through the gauze and out through the waste pipe. This thin layer of pulp is carried by the rotating drum up above the surface of the liquid in the vat and is picked off by a traveling felt which Photograph by A. M. Richards. Fic. 4.—Grinder room in a large pulp mill containing 24 wood grinders of the three-pocket type. The grindstones are 60 in. in diameter and have a 28-in. face or grinding surface. Pressure of wood is maintained against the stones at a rate of 70 lb. per square inch. Capacity of grinding room is 180 cords per day of twenty-four hours. passes over a roller and which comes into contact with the drum. The thin sheet of extracted pulp passes first between small rollers which press out most of the remaining water. From these rollers the sheet of pulp is wound up in a continuous sheet or roll on a large wooden drum until it is sufficiently thick to peel off. At various intervals, the operator cuts across this sheet with a wooden stick, removes the layers of pulp and folds them into convenient sizes for piling or for shipment or baling. When baled, it is commonly submitted to hydraulic pressure to remove all the WOOD PULP AND PAPER 37 moisture possible in order to reduce freight rates. Before hydraulic pressure is exerted, the sheets of pulp ooo contain from 50 to 75 per cent of moisture. Yield. - The following table shows the amount of pulp made by the mechanical process from a cord of the principal kinds of wood used. Species Pulp Produced in Pound BN er rc een eres ote ks oe ee b,c 8 ois 1600-2200 (a Sls a agi aay cee = 2S, Bsa gage bapa. ae Bae oy Wee 1400-2000 MUM PNG? coc. Sea acts fo a ee oa 1600-2000 Sg GE i Ren mie Fic. 11.—This shows the end of the drier (at left) the calender stack, reels, rewinder and cutter. On the right is a roll of paper which has been re-wound and cut. The calender irons out the wrinkles in the paper and surfaces it. Paper is re-wound to make neat and compact rolls and is cut to the desired length of roll. Drying Rolls or Driers. From the press rolls the sheet passes over the drying rolls which con- sists of a series of from 16 to 36 or more large heated steel drums. The WOOD PULP AND PAPER 57 number of drums used depends upon the speed of the machine and the weight of the paper. The felt is also used in connection with them to keep the sheet of paper pressed tightly against the hot rolls which are heated by steam introduced from one side. After passing through the long series of drying rolls, the paper is run through calenders to produce what is known in the trade as supercalen- dered paper. In this operation the surface of the paper is given a glazed finish. Cutting. As the paper goes from the driers it may vary from 60 to 156 in. or more in width. It is seldom that this width is desired commercially, so the sheets must be unwound and cut to the desired width and rewound once more. For this purpose a special cutter and winder is used. The paper is then sorted, tested, and wrapped for shipment. IMPORTS OF PULP WOODS AND WOOD PULP The following table shows the imports of pulpwoods and wood pulp to this country for the years 1914 to 1918, inclusive, according to the fig- ures of the Department of Commerce. Each year of these imports ends on June 30th. Practically all of the importation of pulpwoods is from Canada, whereas the wood pulp comes normally from Sweden and Nor- way as well as from other countries and Canada. The tables show how the war seriously interfered with the imports of wood pulp to this coun- try, since the total amount has decreased markedly from the importation in 1914. Most of the imports of pulpwood comes to this country in the peeled condition. The iinports of pulp wood have increased during the period of the war, particularly the wood brought in in the peeled condition. IMPORTS OF PULP WOODS, 1914 TO 1918; INCLUSIVE RovuGu, | PEELED. Rowunpb. Amount. | Value. Amount. Value. Amount. | Value. Conds... Cords. Cords. | IQI4 186,316 $1,063,721 630,863 $4,0€2,835 255,844 $2,118,910 1QI5 247,400 | 1,458,029 $51,293 3,516,460 187,047 | 1,597:750 1916 187,006 1,131,359 627,290 3,959,732 164,714 | 1,282,658 1917 | 214,180 | 1,307,884 639,816 4,285,282 162,818 1,295,957 | 1918 | 210,527 1,045,781 822,816 | 7,821,335 138,690 1,621,306 : | 58 IMPORTS OF WOOD PULP 1914-1918, INCLUSIVE FOREST PRODUCTS MECHANICAL PULP. CHEMICAL PULP. Amount. Value. Amount. Value. 1914 354,967,673 Ibs. $2,733,595 783,759,522 lbs. $14,289,743 IQI5 187,253 tons 3,141,119 400,669 tons 16,739,092 1916 186,406 tons 3,148,173 320,640 tons 13,719,077 1917 270,107 tons 7,018,404 420,368 tons 3514435390 1918 189,599 tons 6,138,831 314,553 tons 25,450,259 BIBLIOGRAPHY BEADLE CLayToN. Chapters on Papermaking. London: C. Lockwood & Son, 1907-08. 4 vols. ; BEVERIDGE, JAMES. Paper Makers’ Pocket Book. London. BLANCHET, AUGUSTIN. Essai sur l’histoire du papier et de sa fabrication. Paris: E. Leroux, 1900. 1 vol. (Exposition retrospective de la papeterie. Paris, 1900.) Butter, F.O. The Story of Paper-making. Chicago: J. W. Butler Paper Co., 1901. 136 pp. CLAPPERTON, GEORGE. Practical Paper-making. London: C. Lockwood & Son, 1894. 208pp. (Weale’s Scientific and Technical Series.) Cross, C. E. and E. J. BEvan. Cellulose. London: 1917. (4th edition.) Cross, C. F. and E. J. Bevan. Text-book of Paper-making. 1916. London: E. & J. N. Spon, 1916. 422 pp. Cross, C. F., E. J. BevAN and R. W. SINDALL. Wood Pulp and its Uses. London. Daten, G. Chemische Technologie des Papiers. Leipzig: J. A. Bart, hrsg. 1ort. 120 pp. (Einzelschriften zur chemischen Technologie, von Th. Weyl. (1 Bd. 1 Lieferung.) Davis, C. T. The Manufacture of Paper. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird & Co., 1886. 608 pp. Encianp, G. A. Paper Making from Wood Pulp. Van Norden Magazine, June, 1908. vol. 3: 51-58. Grirxin, R. B. and A. D. Littte. The Chemistry of Paper-making. New York: Howard Lockwood & Co., 1894. 517 pp. HupsparD, Ernst. Utilization of Wood Waste. London. HorMANNn, Cart. Practical Treatise on Paper-making. New York: H. Lockwood & Co., 1895-96. 6 parts. Hoyer, EBERT von. Die Fabrikation des Papiers. Braunschweig: F. Vieweg und Sohn, 1887. 485 pp. (Handbuch der chemischen Technologie . . . hrsg. von... Bolley . . . 6 Bd., 5. Gruppe, 1 Abt.) “Literatur;” pp. 492. WOOD PULP AND PAPER 59 Kiemm, Paut. Handbuch der Papierkunde. Leipzig, 1904. Kotter, THEODOR. The Utilization of Wood Waste. London: Translated from the German. Lawson, P. V. Paper-making in Wisconsin. Madison, Wis.: Wisconsin Historical Society, t910. 273 pp. From the Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1909. Miter, WARNER. American Paper-mills. (In Depew, C. M., ed. One hundred years of American Commerce. New York: 1895. vol. 1, pp. 302-307. Miscellaneous Articles in Paper Trade Journals such as Paper, The Paper Trade Jour- nal, The Paper Mill, etc. SINDALL AND Bacon. The Testing of Wood Pulp. London. SrypaLt, R. W. The Manufacture of Paper. London: A. Constable & Co., 1908. 275 pp. (The Westminster Series.) Bibliography: pp. 253-272. SmitH, A. M. Printing and Writing Materials: Their Evolution. Philadelphia: The Author, 1901. 236 pp. Smitru, F. H. and R. K. HELPHENSTINE, JR. Pulpwood Consumption and Wood Pulp Production, 1916. U.S. Forest Service in Coédperation with the News Print Manufacturers Association, New York. Smirg, J. E. A. A History of Paper. Holyoke, Mass.: C. W. Bryan & Co., 1882. 104 pp.. Spicer, A. D. The Paper Trade; a Descriptive and Historical Survey. London: Methuen & Co., 1907. 282 pp. Bibliography: pp. 261-265. STRACHAN, JAMES. The Recovery and Re-Manufacture of Waste Paper. Aberdeen: 1918. U. S. BurEAU OF THE CENSUS. Census of Manufactures, 1905. Paper and Wood Pulp. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1907. 43 pp. (Bulletin 80.) Veitcu, F. P. Paper-making Materials and their Conservation. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1908. 20 pp. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Chem- istry. Circular 41.) Watt, ALEXANDER. The Art of Paper-making. 3d ed. New York: D. Van Nos- trand Co., 1907. 260 pp. “List of books relating to paper manufacture,” Pp. 246. CHAPTER III TANNING MATERIALS GENERAL NEArty all plants of the vegetable kingdom contain an astringent principle known as tannin. This agent has the property of acting upon animal skins in order to make them strong, flexible, impervious to water, imputrescible, and resistant to decay and wear. Practically all of the commercial tannin, however, is derived from a relatively few species of plants and is secured from only small portions of these. The principal forms of tannin are derived from a variety of barks, woods, leaves, fruits, nuts, etc., which contain varying amounts of tannin and tannic acid. Tannin occurs chiefly in solution in the cell sap, as well as in tannin vesicles and the cortical cells of the bark. In this country, hemlock bark was, for a long time, the principal source of tannins. Some oaks also supply bark of sufficiently high tannin content to be of commercial interest. With the rapid cutting of our virgin forests and the gradual disap- pearance of hemlock, however, the principal source of supply has been seriously depleted, and the tanners have turned to a number of other materials such as chestnut wood and a variety of foreign products, the importation of which has been steadily increasing within the past few years, particularly, quebracho, gambier, mangrove bark, sumach, myrobolan nuts, valonia and several others. It is estimated that the total annual value of the vegetable tanning materials used by the tanners and dyers of this country is from $25,000,- 000 to $30,000,000. The harvesting, manufacturing, and importation of tanning materials constitute one of the most important of the forest product industries. Hemlock bark has been of the greatest economic value in the past because it occurred in comparatively large quantities and, therefore, was relatively cheap. It is also readily made available for use. As a result of this situation, the chief centers of the tanning industry have devel- oped, principally in the great hemlock regions, the obvious reasons being 60 TANNING MATERIALS ~ 61 it was easier to transport the lighter hides to the centers of tannin pro- duction, rather than the heavy barks. For several yeats past it has been customary to use tanning materials containing not less than 8 to 10 per cent of tannin, but a method has been devised whereby chestnut wood which has a very variable content of 3 to rr per cent can be utilized. This method consists of extracting the soluble matter from the wood and concentrating the extract in a vacuum to a very dense liquid or dry powder. This extract may contain, as a result of this process, as much as 30 to 70 per cent of tannin. With the exception of this wood and quebracho, tannin is a prod- uct found chiefly in the portions of a tree which are of little com- mercial importance otherwise, namely: in the bark, portions of the roots, the heartwood (only in case of quebracho and chestnut), the husk of the fruit and in a few other cases in the leaves and twigs. The tannins found in the various sources are not precisely the same in their chemical constituents. Two acids are formed, namely; gallic and pyrogallic. At the present time there are at least 600 consumers of tannin in the United States and aside from foreign materials, they use about 625,000 cords of hemlock bark, 290,000 cords of oak bark and 380,000 cords of chestnut wood. HISTORICAL Records of early civilization indicate that the tanning of leather to preserve it was practiced by the Chinese over 3000 years ago. It is said the Romans tanned their animal skins with oil and alum and occa- sionally with oak bark. The Indians of this country were found using bark to preserve buffalo skins. It is reported that the first tannery erected in this country was built in Virginia in the year 1630 but the industry developed most widely and successfully in Massachusetts. There were 51 tanneries in New England in 1650. Oak bark was used principally at first and was generally preferred to hemlock. The abun- dant supply of hemlock, however, brought it into early and prominent use. At this time, there was a strong demand for the export of skins and hides to Europe, and it is said by the year 1810 the value of the product of American tanneries was about $200,000,000. Salem and Peabody in Massachusetts became great centers of industry and Boston became the great leather market of the United States. About 40 to 50 years ago, owing to the rapid cutting of available oak and hemlock forests, the center of the production of tanning materials moved toward the 62 FOREST PRODUCTS West and South. Pennsylvania became the great center of bark produc- tion and many acres of virgin hemlock were cut down for their bark alone. Until 1895 to 1900 foreign tanning materials, on account of cost of transportation, could not be sold in this country in competition with the domestic supply. But, owing to the increase in wages and the decrease in the domestic supply and the fact that the forests are Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 12.—Peeling hemlock bark on the Cataloochee Tract, Haywood Co., North Carolina. The bark is removed in 4-ft. sections and, after drying, is piled ready for hauling to the railroad. This crew consisted of four men including the foreman. becoming more remote from the tanneries, entailing greater cost of transportation, the price of hemlock and oak bark delivered at the plants increased to such an extent that a great deal of foreign “leaf ” (meaning accrued and unextracted tanning materials) came into use. These could be imported great distances because the tannin content ranged from 23 to 4 or more times the content of hemlock and oak bark. The outbreak of the war in 1914, however, together with the scarcity of ocean tonnage, made more imperative the demand upon the domestic TANNING MATERIALS 63 supply of oak bark, hemlock bark and chestnut wood extract. In 1905 the average price paid per cord of 2000 lb. for hemlock bark in Penn- sylvania was $7.54 and for oak bark, $8.40. By 1915 the prices became stronger and values from $9.00 to $12.00 per cord were quoted f.o.b. cars at shipping points for hemlock bark and still better prices for oak bark. With the growing scarcity of the barks in the East, the California tan- bark oak which contains from 10 to 20 per cent or more of tannin was developed. In 1905 over 50,000 cords of an average value of $19.04 per cord were produced. In the northwest the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) began to be developed for its bark. Of the 2200 tons of bark used annually in the tanneries of Oregon and Washington, it is said that two-thirds are of western hemlock. The industry. is still in its infancy in the northwest and it is likely that western hemlock will supply a much larger share of the requirements there in the future. It contains from-to to 12 per cent of tannin. The most important development in the tanning industry within recent times in this country came with the discovery of a method to extract the tannin from chestnut wood on a commercial basis. This 7 phase of the industry has developed rapidly within the past twenty years, especially in North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee, where a plentiful supply of chestnut of sufficient tannin content is available in the moun- tainous portions of those states. In several of the chestnut extract fac- tories of the South, part of the residue left after the tannin has been removed from the chips is converted into paper. The future of the chestnut extract industry is not altogether assured, owing to the uncer- tainty of the ultimate effect of the blight or bark disease on the chestnut forests of this country. The entrance of foreign tanning materials in competition with those produced in this country has had a profound effect on the industry at large. As the demand for tanning materials increased in this country and the domestic supply became more limited, inaccessible and expensive, it became possible to import exotic tannins. Quebracho from the Argentine has been imported in steadily increasing amounts since 1900, when the important South American quebracho fields were developed and exported on an extensive scale. The value of quebracho wood and extract imported to this country in 1917 was about $6,575,000. Other foreign tanning materials that have entered our market and have been extensively used within the past two decades are gambier, - mangrove bark, myrobalan nuts, sumach and valonia. These and others are described later in this chapter. 64 FOREST PRODUCTS The world’s supply of tanning materials is apparently very abundant and it is estimated by authorities that many sources little developed at the present time may be depended upon for vast quantities in the future. Especially is this true of many tropical plants of Africa, the Far East and South America. The great hemlock forests of Washington and Oregon have been scarceiy touched in so far as their tannin resources are concerned, and they constitute an important storehouse of tannin for future use. Western hemlock bark has a higher tannin content than that of the eastern hemlock. At the present rate of cutting que- bracho in South America, which amounts to about 1,000,000 tons, and which supplies an important part of the tanning supplies of England, Germany, France and Italy, as well as the United States, it is estimated that the supply of this source alone will last 168 years | and the annual growth more than offsets the yearly cut. PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND TANNIN CONTENTS The following table shows the most commonly used domestic and foreign tuanthe materials with the percentage of tannin which they usually contain. These are the tannin contents as recognized by the Leather and Paper Laboratories of the Bureau of Chemistry: ? DOMESTIC Toanin.’ Tammie. Hemlock bark (Tsuga canadensis)... ..........00 000 ee cece eee 8-10% catechol Chestnut wood (Castanea dentata).........0.-.0 ee eee eee eens 4-10% catechol California tanbark oak (Quercus densiflora)...............6044- 10-29% catechol Chestnut oak bark (Quercus prinus)........0. 00.0 sce e ene 8-14% catechol Black oak bark (Quercus velutina).......... Bi Pe a Boat ghee ate 6-12% catechol Red oak bark (Quercus rubra)... 2.060250 obese een etn ta bw dec 4- 8% catechol White oak bark’ (Querctts: GlbG) 355.5. 5 conc vens weeece sees tmeree 4- 7% catechol Western hemlock bark (Tsuga helerophylla)...........000 000055 10-12% catechol American sumach (Rhus glabra) Southern States................ 25% pyrogallol “ Staghorn ” or “ Virginian ”’ (Rhus typhina).............-..+-. 10-18% pyrogallol FOREIGN Quebracho wood (Quebrachia lorentzii) South America........... 20-28% catechol Gambier (Uncaria gambier and U. acida) ...........0000002055 35-40% pyrogallol Myrobalans (Terminalia chebula) nuts...........6.00+5 0000 e ees 30-40% pyrogallol Valonia (Quercus egilops) acorn cups, Eastern. Mediterranean.. Up to 45% pyrogallol Sicilian sumach (Rhus coriaria) Italy. -.... SPANIEL aaah pea 20-35% pyrogallol Mangrove bark (Rhizophora mangle) tropics...........-.-+++-++ 15-40% catechol Divi-divi (Ce@sal pinia coriaria) Central America, pods........... 40-45% pyrogallol Golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha)..........00 ccc cence eens About 40% pyrogallol Kino (Pterocarpus senegalensis) Africa.....0...6.-000000 000s Up to 75% catechol Algarobilla (C@salpinia brevifolia) Chili............-+.-..+- Average 45% pyrogallol Pistacia lentiscus, Sicily, Cyprus, Algeria.........20......--+++- 12-19% catechol 1 From “ Tanning Materials of Latin America,” by T. H. Norton. ? Supplied by Dr. F. P. Veitch. le ik TANNING MATERIALS 65 The following table, furnished by the Tanners’ Council of the United States, shows the approximate eeey of tanning materials consumed annually in this country: TANNING MATERIALS CONSUMED CALENDAR YEAR 1918 ore Solid Extracts, | Liquid Extracts, | Chis Tanning oun Pounds. Pini. ES a eet Ser ate eed 48,148,878 316,220,621 74,794,423 UNIT oars 25 ke wns oa eh a 2,952,660 17,442,192 723,077,392 OR sn eS ns sn one ces ee eee ene 3,815,056 34,380,396 485,134,791 oo SEE ie per re eee es 79,137,089 04,371,395 2,989,851 WEEN isos cs Sein es SLs etnies 154,013 "36,792 2,200,452 Nee ee eee 1,405,265 45,891 5:764,495 WG IOSENNIS 2 5522 Pe ae ot tease ets 124,583 188,908 6,710,404 NINERS ey Sos nc ac oer 782,512 225,236 3,176,398 RPIPEMERE SS hee Gis ec rainas pers Fae ue 1,080,110 1,670,909 5:930,990 MNES BS Gace Os ee ee 10,120 100 7,008 MMM a cpt eae bat ise se ves Oey eee 500,514 89,101 13,217,926 IO eS Esc io nas tyne goo Se we 243,483 2,049,208 goo oo chin, oP ee Pe ey ae 3,726 18,722 10,433 ee Re pe og ene ane 1,950 MMR ES Orie ey pg aie Se 2,580 64,690 EC EMM 2 ire aoe Os Pag ine a, yo 3,048,623 28,464,866 523352272 Runaway or recovered extract ?......... 84,620 9,776,692 Blended (chestnut and oak only)?....... 17,000 4,938,616 1,018,824 ES CRISP 5S on os ne ce ots 194,004 | 6,185,361 1 Figures obtainable for January-May only. Other months probably included in “* Not specified.” * Figures cover July-December inclusive only. Other months probably included in ‘‘ Not Speci- 2 Pigures cover August-December inclusive only. Other months probably included in ‘“ Not CHROME TANNING MATERIALS ; Pounds. RR IROMTIRENDG So rs, whe Se a 13,344,547 Other chrome compounds. ..............-. 8,230,942 PRODUCTION OF HEMLOCK BARK Hemlock bark has for a long time constituted the principal source of tanning materials used in this country, and has been commonly employed in tanning leathers ever since the beginning of the industry in America. The nearest competitor was oak bark, the annual consumption of which, however, has been for many years less than one-half that of hemlock bark. Oak bark has been particularly preferred by some tanners from the earliest days of the industry largely because it has been associated in 66 FOREST PRODUCTS minds of tanners and the trade that it produced the best class of leather but tests in recent years show that the oak bark inherently gives no superior quality to the leather apart from appearance. Government tests show that harness leather made of hemlock is largely superior to oak. In 1900 hemlock led in the production of bark, with 1,170,131 cords, or 72 per cent of the total amount of bark produced in this country, and, in 1909, it still led, producing 698,335 cords, or 65 per cent of the total production of bark in the United States. The average price of hemlock bark per cord of 2240 lb.! in the United States has. risen from $6.28 in 1900 to $9.21 in 1909. Since the later year, however, the price has dropped off until the cutting of hemlock bark was almost abandoned except in the more accessible districts. On a large contract of 250,000 tons in West Virginia $8.00 per ton was paid in 1912 for hemlock bark delivered at the tannery. With the outbreak of the European War, however, the price rose rapidly. It is said that in Wisconsin only about 20,000 cords had been cut in 1915, whereas in 1916, Over 100,000 cords were estimated to have been cut. In 1917 prices of from $11.00 to $14.00 or more were paid per cord for hemlock bark in New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Wisconsin. The reason. for the small amount of bark produced in Wisconsin was because of the small yield of leather per 100 lb. of hide in comparison with Pennsylvania and Michigan bark. But it can be used advan- tageously with foreign tanning materials, the yield of leather being greatly increased by the blend so that it was profitable to use foreign tanning materials and extracts such as quebracho, for example, which cost more per unit of tannin than the Wisconsin bark did. The principal producing states were formerly Maine and Massachu- setts, and still later New York and Pennsylvania. Important hemlock regions like the Catskill Mountains of southern New York were largely cut out for their bark alone. The principal present producing centers in order of importance are Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, West Virginia, and Maine. These six states produce over go per cent of the total hemlock bark production of the country. Harvesting Hemlock Bark. The proper season for harvesting bark is, of course, when the bark will slip off most easily. The spring of the year when the sap is flowing freely and the leaves are breaking out is the very best time for removing 1Tn Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wisconsin, the ton is generally considered to be 2000 lb.; in the south it is generally 2240 lb. TANNING MATERIALS 67 the bark. In the northern portion of the hemlock region, that is, from Maine to Wisconsin, the season is often from early in May to early in July, or later, whereas in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia, the season may be from April to June. It is found that peeling is accom- plished much more rapidly during the warm damp weather within the peeling period, and even better, during the morning and evening than during the noon. Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 13.—Hauling and loading hemlock bark in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The bark is brought down the steep slopes on sleds, for a distance of from one to two miles and loaded on flat cars. The peeling crew is often organized to work on a piece basis, so much being paid for felling, peeling, stacking, hauling, and loading on the cars. The work is usually done in connection with the logging operation although it has been done very often for the bark alone. The bark formerly was stacked and measured by the full cord (128 cu. ft.), 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high, 4 ft. wide, but for many years it was paid for by weight— *““merchantably dry.” A rough conversion factor of one cord equal to 68 FOREST PRODUCTS one long ton, is commonly used. Wisconsin bark has the reputation of being somewhat thinner than Michigan bark and yielding less leather by weight and consequently brings a lower price. It is generally understood that about one-half a cord of bark can be secured from 1000 bd. ft. of standing timber. This; however, partic- ularly applies to trees of 20 in. and up in-diameter. A smaller tree, of course, yields more bark per tooo ft., than the larger treés. In some regions it is assumed that one acre of average hemlock timber will yield about 7 cords of bark. This factor is naturally a very variable one, but is commonly used in estimating the bark yield from a forest. With the increase in the value of bark, more careful methods are being used in bark peeling, and bark is removed to a much smaller diameter than here- tofore. Inthe Lake States, the volume of bark is said to be equivalent to about 19 per cent of the total cubic volume of the trees, and varies little with the size of the tree. _In the Southern Appalachian Mountains it is said that the volume varies from 15 per cent for 6-in. trees up to 19 per cent for trees 26 in. and over in diameter. The bark of the larger trees is often from 2 to 3 in. in thickness at the stump, and gradually grows thinner towards the tip of the trees. A peeling crew is commonly composed of four workers; one spudder, one fitter, and two log buckers. The fitter is usually in charge of the crew, and directs the activities. He first cuts two rings around the tree about 4 ft. apart, and then splits the bark from ring to ring. The spudder then proceeds to peel off the bark by inserting the spud between the bark and the wood, and gradually pries it off. The crew then fells the tree, and the bark is removed from the entire length of the bole by . cutting circular rings at 4-ft. intervals up the trunk and by prying off the bark with the spud as explained above. As the tree falls, the log cutters remove the limbs or any brushwood that may interfere with the work of sawing up the trunk or the removal of the bark. The pieces of bark as they are removed are leaned against the trunk to season. This process requires generally from one week to a month, depending upon the weather conditions. After the spudder removes the bark and the bole is sawed into log lengths, the crew proceeds to the next tree. The bark, when merchantably dry, in the summer or in the fall, is" hauled out by means of sleds or wagons to the nearest loading point on the railroad or “sleigh haul.’”’ Sometimes the bark is left until the winter when it can be hauled directly on sleighs. A whole cord is often loaded on a sleigh at one time. Sometimes log chutes are used to bring ~~ Ve TANNING MATERIALS 69 down the bark, but this method is only employed on the most moun- tainous topography. On some operations special sleds are constructed for carrying from 13 to 23 cords to the load. One crew of men will frequently fell the timber and peel enough bark to make from 3 to 4 cords per day. Four men will peel from 6 to 8 cords daily, and also cut the timber into saw logs. The latter sized crew is estimated to peel about 240 to 270 cords in a season. Seven men will often load four cars daily, each car having a capacity of from 6 to 7 cords of bark. See a ee * 3 rae * Nera gt ee Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 14.—Method of hauling hemlock bark from a mixed forest along the Castleman River “a Garrett Co., Maryland. From one to two cords or more are often hauled in each oad. The cost of producing hemlock bark may be summarized as follows: These costs were secured in 1914 as an average of several prominent bark- peeling operations. COST OF PRODUCING HEMLOCK BARK Operation. Cost per Cord. RMI AMME SMEs ons oe AE Ss ays a ais'a oe mcgiend 2 od os $2.30 to $2.60 EPMA ROARING Sone Ste cee Cs CSpot e Ss aie loipiceoes eae wanes. .go to 1:20 MMR IN eta tetas oo Sa wie Wee ce oniee Davembes «ces .50to .60 UWE AMIE Eco x 0c dt eee aks ae. ake seers 62 2% .20to .30 eM EIMONIS erate g Soe asd cs o's = v's Poe's dieten o Slab eae .25 to .40 $4.15 to $5.10 70 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table shows the number of cords of hemlock bark per 1000 bd. ft. for trees of different diameters in the southern Appalachian mountains. _The Doyle-Scribner rule was used.! NUMBER OF CORDS OF BARK FOR TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS D. B. H., Inches. Cords per M Bd. Ft. D. B. H., Inches.. Cords per M Bd. Ft. 12 2.8 22 8 13 2:3 23 =f 14 I.9 24 mf 15 1.6 25 6 16 Ti 26 6 17 %2 27 as 18 xt 28 = 19 1.0 29 *; 20 9 30 -4 2I 8 The following table shows the volume of hemlock bark in stacked cords, for:trees of various diameters.? VOLUME OF HEMLOCK BARK IN CORDS FOR TREES OF DIAMETERS FROM 8 TO 29 INCHES D. B. H., Inches. . Volume of Bark Cord. D. B. H., Inches. Volume of Bark Cord. 8 .03 19 .20 9° 05 20 ea 10 .06 21 525 II .07 22 . 28 12 .08 23 31 13 09 24 - 34 14 .10 25 387 15 ae 26 -40 16 14 27 43 17 . .16 28 .46 5B tak, .18 29 .50 PRODUCTION OF CHESTNUT OAK BARK The oaks have always held a very prominent position as a source of high-grade tanning materials because of the excellent nature of the effect on various skins. Oak bark is especially esteemed for sole leathers. The bark of chestnut oak is not only used directly in tanneries, but is also widely employed for making tannin extract. The two tannin- producing oaks are the chestnut oak and tanbark oak. The former is 1 From data secured by Walter Mulford, 1905-1906. © 2 From “ Hemlock in Vermont,” by A. F. Hawes. TANNING MATERIALS 71 found principally in the East along the southern Appalachian Mountain regions, while the latter is found entirely in southern Oregon and Cali- fornia. Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) is found most abundantly in Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky, and southern Pennsylvania, in order of importance. It seldom grows in pure stands but is associated with a number of other oaks and hardwoods. It grows chiefly on the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Its bark is exceedingly ridged, some indentations often being 3 in. deep. The peeling operations are carried on generally from late in March to middle of June or later, and the general plan of peeling the bark is very similar ~ with chestnut oak as with hemlock. The presence of considerable quantities of chestnut oak, together with the hemlock forests have established the location of many tanneries in western Virginia and in West Virginia. An increasing amount of chest- nut oak bark is being consumed from year to year. There is serious danger of the supply of this wood being exhausted if the present rate of consumption continues. Many of the chestnut oak forests grow in more or less inaccessible places, and in portions of northeastern Tennessee it was estimated that only 2 per cent of the entire cut of the chestnut oak was converted into lumber, whereas 75 per cent was cut exclusively for the bark alone. In northwestern Virginia a tannery which has been in operation for thirty years on chestnut oak bark alone, is now gradually accepting the bark of other oaks. The bark competes, moreover, with hemlock bark and chestnut extract. The managers of tanneries claim that hemlock bark is best employed by combining it with chestnut oak bark. Chestnut oak extract is also used with chestnut wood extract to give strength, tenacity, and greater impermeability to leather. In ror1 the ruling price in Virginia and West Virginia for chestnut oak bark was about $8.50 per cord delivered on cars. During the sum- mer of 1916 prices had risen to from $11.00 to $12.00 or more. During 1917 and 1918, it had risen to still higher figures. The average cost of harvesting chestnut oak bark prior to the war was about as follows: Operation. Cost per Cord. Cutting, peeling and stacking....................-..-.---- $1.00 to $1.35 Hauling to railway, average 6 miles..............-...------ 1.50 to 2.00 Loading on car, and supervision...............-.-.-------- .20to .40 fT Bitte 2k cies SIC o re Oi EAS Sun ee gk a dea eg $2.70 to $3.75 72 FOREST PRODUCTS In addition to the above charge the stumpage should be added, but it is frequently not taken into consideration as a stump charge is placed on the saw and tie logs. On an operation of over 3do0 acres, 10 miles from the railway in West Virginia, the method of procedure was as follows: In the early spring 30 men were engaged for the work which was well located in a side valley. The men worked together in sections laid off for them, and they were paid $1.00 per cord for cutting the tree into tie logs, with the exception of the better butt logs (used for saw logs), and for peeling and stacking the bark. One man can cut and peel from 1 to 2 cords a day, and buck up the tree. A gang of 30 men in this operation turned out about goo cords ina month. This is equivalent of 30 cords per man per month, or slightly more than an average of 1 cord per man per working day. A portable mill was then brought in and the ties and butt logs sawed up. The haul starts as soon in May as the condition of the roads permit, and continues until about the middle of August. A team will haul about a cord a load, and one load per day, on which the special contvact price was $3.50 per cord for hauling. The wagons are weighed at the railway with the load on, and, after the load is removed. Each teamster is credited with the number of pounds for each load. The bark is loaded into cars containing about 7 to 8 cords each, for which work a charge of $3.00 per car is paid. In this particular region it was estimated that it required about 4 trees averaging 16 in. in diameter at breast height to make a cord of bark. The cost on this operation, where a long haul was involved was as follows: Operation. Cost per Cord.. LAY Ect] 07:5. Sapie eeta Le Cua ape Spsloe-ec MUmERUGED ayo Sera g Mir ae $1.30 Peeling a5, Tonk oso ee a eee coe sae atie ances an I.00 SAMUI TOES i eek Se oie ogee aa Wee a be Meee Daa 3.50 Lopilivig On cars -15)) 45 ees he RT ON au ee .40 $6.20 Average prices f.o.b. cars $11.50 per cord. Profit $4.70 per cord, which includes overhead charges, depreciation, and some equipment. The following table shows the yield of chestnut oak bark in cords or Jong tons for a tree of average diameter in the southern Appalachian Mountains:! 1 From “ Chestnut Oak in the Southern Appalachians,” by H. D. Foster and W. W. Ashe, Forest Service, Circular 135. TANNING MATERIALS 73 AVERAGE YIELD OF CHESTNUT OAK BARK IN CORDS FOR TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS D. B. H., Yield of || D.B.R.. Wuidoe: +l 2-0. BH. Yield of Inches. Bark Cord. | Inches. Bark Cord. || Inches. Bark Cord. i 10 .06 17 -12 | 24 22 II .06 18 s¥3 | 25 ~24 12 -O7 19 -15 265: .26 13 -08 20 -16 27 .28 -. 14 .09 21 247 28 -30 15 .10 | 22 -19 29 .32 16 -II 23 .20 | 30 -34 CHESTNUT EXTRACT The discovery of a method whereby the tannin content of chestnut _ wood could be extracted and placed on the market to compete suc- cessfully with other tanning materials, has brought about many changes in the tanning industry, particularly within the past fifteen or twenty years. More than two-thirds of all the tannic acid products made in the United States is now derived from chestnut wood. The extract of tannin from chestnut wood is largely confined to the - southern states, particularly in Virginia and North Carolina. The wood in those localities contains from 6 to 11 per cent of tannin, whereas, although the chestnut tree is commonly found in the northern states as _ well, it does not contain a sufficiently high percentage of tannin to make its extraction as profitable as that in the South. -Chestnut extract is commonly used in mixture with other tannins. ; The growth of the chestnut wood extract business has been very rapid. In 1900 only 64,043 bbl. were used, whereas by 1906 the total value of this extract was over two-thirds of the value of all extracts used in the United States. : The process of manufacturing chestnut extract consists of chipping the wood ina “ hog.” These machines will grind around 5 cords per hour. Some plants use disk chippers similar to those used in a wood pulp reduction plant. There are several separate processes used in the extraction of tannin from the chestnut wood, but the following is probably the most common one employed. The finely ground chips are placed in large cylindrical wooden tanks. The tank is flooded then with weak liquor heated to a high temperature. The liquor is continually passed from extractor to extractor and the process continues from two to four days. The process is usually carried on in batteries of 10 extractors. 74 FOREST PRODUCTS The liquor is then filtered and evaporated to the desired density or con- centration. Multiple evaporators are used for this purpose and about 1400 gal. of water are evaporated for every cord of wood leached in open extractors. In a plant producing 250 bbl. of extract daily about 225,000 gal. of water must be evaporated. In the evaporation process the mini- mum temperature of the steam is said to be 220° F. The temperature in the other steps is still lower. Finally the concentrated liquor is pumped into a series of settling tanks. After settling and cooling, the concentrated liquor is placed into tank cars for shipment. Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 15.—A large leather tannery at Andrews, North Carolina. Two years’ supply of bark piled ready for use on the left. Hemlock bark has been the mainstay for tanning leathers until the advent, in recent years, of foreign materials such as quebracho, myrobalan nuts, sumach, valonia, mangrove bark, etc. The yield of 25 per cent tannin extract secured from a cord of chest- nut wood containing 160 cu. ft. is from 700 to goo Ib. The cost of chest- nut wood delivered at the plant varies from about $4.50 to $5.00 per cord of 160 cu. ft. before the war. The average price secured for extract of about 25 per cent strength was about $4.06 per unit of tannin in 1914. Consequently, the yield was from $8.00 to $9.50 per cord with a pro- ducing charge of about $7.50 to $8.00 per cord, the balance being interest and profit. The factories making chestnut extract are exceedingly complicated and specialized industries and considerable capital for investment is TANNING MATERIALS 75 required. The above figures of production, cost and yield are largely taken from Benson.! TANBARK OAK Tanbark oak (Ouercus densiflora) is a native of southern Oregon, and of California, where the harvesting of tanning bark has been an important industry for many years. Commercial tanning has been in progress on * the Pacific Coast ever since the gold wave of 1849-1850. As early as 1852 Sonoma County had a tannery producing $30,000 worth of leather per year, and by 1859 there were 29 tanneries. In the ten-year period 1881 to 1890, 240,000 cords were produced in California. Excellent prices have been obtained for this bark, which contains an exceedingly high tannin content—about 29 per cent. The tree ranges from southwestern Oregon along the coast range to Santa Barbara in southern California. It is commonly associated in its native habitat with the redwoods. The Santa Cruz district produces the largest present supply, and the source of supply is being rapidly exhausted. It is estimated that in 1900 about 75 per cent of the total available supply had been cut and peeled for the bark. Some second growth is appearing, but it is exceedingly slow in‘its development. A great deal of the oak has been cut for the bark alone. ' The largest remaining available supply is now found in northern Mendocino and Humboldt Counties. The relative inaccessibility of many of these forests, and the consequent long haul involved has been an important deterrent factor in preventing the cutting of a large portion of the remaining supply. It is estimated that the total remaining stand of tanbark is 1,425,000 cords, which, at the present rate of cutting is estimated to last about forty to forty-five years. The average yield is about 200 to 300 cords “ per claim ”’ of 160 acres, or from 1} to 23 cords peracre. In estimating the yield it is said that six average trees will make a cord of bark in the most important producing sections. The peeling season is from May 2oth to August roth, but varies with the weather, altitude, temperature, etc. This oak is extremely sensitive to heat and cold, and a cold spring will delay the opening of the peeling season, and cold weather will cause the bark to adhere closely to the tree. About one-half a day is required for two men to peel a large tree. The peelers never begin on a tree unless they can finish peeling during the day, as the 1From “ By-Products of the Lumber Industry,” by H. K. Benson, Department of Commerce, 1916. 76 FOREST PRODUCTS bark may tighten over night. The peelers work in pairs. The tree is first girdled and felled and the bark removed in 4-ft. sections in the very same way as has been described for hemlock bark. The bark is removed up to a point about 3 in. in thickness on the trunk. As the bark is removed, it is laid on the ground or stood against the trunk with the fresh side upward. Workmen commonly peel 2 cords a day on the average, and trees down to a diameter of 4 to 8 in. are stripped of their bark. Sometimes bark from standing trees is removed as far as it can be conveniently reached and the rest of the tree is left to die. This Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 16.—A peeling operation on tanbark oak near Sherwood, Mendocino Co., California. After the tree is felled and the limbs removed, circular rings are cut through the bark at 4-ft. intervals and the bark pried off with the axe as illustrated. wasteful method has seriously interfered with the future of the industry in California. Owing to the lack of railway facilities, considerable bark in this region is hauled to the coast and loaded on schooners. A schooner load is com- monly about 200 cords of bark. The future supply of tanbark oak in California must be obtained from forests now largely inaccessible and from second growth timber, and more conservative methods should be employed in the woods by TANNING MATERIALS 77 protection from fire, by leaving the smaller trees until they have acquired a larger size and by more complete utilization of the tree. The cutting of this oak commonly goes hand in hand with the lumbering of the red- woods. WESTERN HEMLOCK Although of little present importance as a source of tanning materials, the two species of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla and T. mer- tensiana) constitute an important resource of tannins. They have been little exploited up to the present time because the tanning industry has been little developed in the northwest where these trees are found. There are very great possibilities, however, for the future because of the fact that there are estimated to be 100,000,000,000 bd. ft. of hemlock still standing in the forests of western Washington and Oregon. This constitutes, therefore, a veritable store house of tanning materials which may be used in the future. At the present time the prohibitive cost of shipping western hemlock bark to the eastern tanning factories precludes its wide use throughout the country. The bark of the western hemlock is much thinner than that of the eastern hemlock but contains more tannin by weight. The western hemlock contains from 10 to 12 per cent against 8 to 10 per cent in case of the eastern species. Investigation of hemlock in the northwest indicates that the bark of trees in the Cascade Mountains contains a higher percentage of tannin than those in the coast region; furthermore, the percentage of tannin increases with the increase of elevation and the bark from the trees in Washington probably contains a higher tannin content than the same trees grown in Oregon. The following comparative analysis was made by H. C. Tabor to determine the tannic acid content of sample hemlock bark from Wash- ington, Pennsylvania and Quebec: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HEMLOCK BARK FROM WASHINGTON, PENNSYLVANIA AND QUEBEC | Tannin, Non-tannin. Reds. | Woed Fibers, | Per Cent. Per Cent. | PerCent. | Per Cent. ' ; i | OE eee i near 17.04 | 6.40 1.56 75.00 Pennsylvania... ............-.. 13.28 7.52 eames BY.’ 75-72 WIMEING Ste has oS since duiet « 10.16 4-56 | 1.92 83.36 The peeling season for western hemlock is much earlier than for eastern - hemlock and the bark is often harvested as early as February. However, 78 FOREST PRODUCTS the season usually runs from May to August of each year. The process follows along the same general plan of that described for eastern hemlock. There are several difficulties, however, in harvesting western hemlock bark which do not occur in the eastern states. The timber, being of much larger size, presents difficulties in getting out the bark, and loggers who operate largely with steam logging devices do. not care to bother with bark as a by-product. Owing to the very rainy climate, the bark seasons out with some difficulty. It is handled, treated, and used in the same way as the eastern hemlock. | There are no accurate statistics of the present annual production of western hemlock bark, but it has been estimated that it supplies about two-thirds of the present annual requirements of the tanneries in the northwest. With the further development of that rapidly growing sec- tion, and the installation of more and larger tanneries, it is believed western hemlock will assume greater importance as a source of tanning materials. BLACK OAK BARK AND OTHER DOMESTIC MATERIALS Black oak (Quercus velutina) or yellow oak has recently come into some prominence as a source of tanning materials, especially by the manu- facture of a certain extract which is-called “ Quercitron.” Its center of production is in Pennsylvania and the southern Appalachians. These trees yield a fairly thick bark, and have a tannin content of from 6 to 12 per cent. It is produced in the same manner as has been described for the bark of the chestnut oak. Its principal drawback is that it mildews rather easily and care must be exercised, therefore, in the drying process and in stacking in the woods. Leather made from it has a violent yellow color. The price ranges somewhat below that for chestnut oak. In West Virginia in 1910 it brought the high figure of $10.30 per cord f.o.b. cars. Since then its price has risen still higher on account of the demand for tanning materials during the war. There are no figures available as to the total output, but it is relatively small as compared to other barks. . Other barks and materials produced in the United States are as follows: White oak bark is used to a limited extent in the eastern and south- eastern states. Its tannin content is from 4 to 7 per cent. The bark is rather thin, however; and it is not believed that its use will increase very much in the future. Sumach leaves, when dry contain a large percentage of tannin; from ro to 25 per cent. There are two tannin producing varieties of native TANNING MATERIALS 79 sumach, namely, Rhus typhina and Rhus glabra. The principal source of these species is in Virginia and the southeastern states. Both grow farther north, but the tannin content.of the sumach from the north is so much lower that it is not commercially profitable to harvest it. In the south the leaves are collected in the fall just before they turn red as the tannin content is dissipated from the leaves as they turn color in the fall. The leaves are then dried and ground into a powder in which form they are shipped to the tannery. The price on native sumach varies from $.90 to $1.40 per hundred pounds in carload lots at the shipping point. Palmetto extract is secured from the root of the cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto). These roots contain about 10 per cent of tannin. It has not been developed to any large extent commercially, but it has possibilities for the future. Large quantities of palmetto are found along the shores of the southeastern states. Canaigre is the common name of the species of Rumex which con- tains around 30 per cent of tannin. It occurs extensively in the south- west, but the cost of producing and hauling it to market is so excessive that it can not enter into competition with the other native grown or imported tanning materials. QUEBRACHO There are several trees which go by the name “ Quebracho ” but the real quebracho (Quebrachia lorentzii) is now regarded as the most impor- tant source of tanning materials in the world, and, according to the figures _ of importation for the year ending June 3oth, 1914, furnished 87 per cent of the total value of tanning agents brought to this country, amounting in all to $3,864,000. In 1909 it supplied 38 per cent of all the tanning extract used in the United States. The native habitat of quebracho is along the water courses and plains of Central South America, embracing Southern Brazil, Southeastern Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Argentina. It is included within a district of about 300,000 square miles. Its present commercial exploitation is limited to northern Argentina und the province of Chaco in Paraguay where the work is carried on largely by German-Argentine companies and one American firm. The quebracho industry dates from about the year 1888 when exports were first made from Argentine on a large scale. The first wood came to this country in 1897. The name is derived from the Portuguese meaning “ axe breaker.” The wood is one of the hardest and heaviest known, the specific gravity being about 1.30 to 1.40. A cubic foot of wood weighs from 75 to 78 Ib. 80 FOREST PRODUCTS It is extensively used for railway cross ties in Argentine where it is said to resist decay for over fifty years. The tree is generally small and poorly shaped; the quebracho forests resembling the live-oak stands of the southeast and southern California. Individual trees are generally only from 15 to 30 in. in diameter and 20 to 40 ft. in total height. Its center of production is now in rather remote districts along the Parana River, where the forests are very scattered and open. When seasoned, the wood is cut and converted into logs for shipment with great difficulty on account of its exceeding hardness. The tannin is found chiefly in the heartwood, although the sapwood and the bark as well contain small percentages of it. Excepting chestnut, it is the only wood which has been developed and used on a large scale for this purpose, all the other materials consisting of bark, leaves, or other parts of the tree. A number of analyses of the percentage of tannin contained i In que- | bracho wood give the following results:! QUEBRACHO TANNIN CONTENTS Portion of Tree. Percentage of Tannin. ACBVUWOOE so5 ce os Re de Re are 20.24 SAP WOO oot mitvs cheek acim richer an as 3-4 BAEK Si i cies ate odin Sea se eo Wee a NY 6.84 The wood is generally accredited with 20 to 28 per cent of tannin. One analysis of the wood gave the following results:! Material. Per Cent of Total. Tanna.’ see, oko Pea ee oe 28.20 Foreign substances 3.5.2 bir chie exp pce 1.70 Extract-AShin ss cota fu es eee oe itine .40 Watemis. cocci sco ke cm cain apa Mite 11.85 Insoluble matter. .-5. fe iw Tee ke we 57.85 LOtaleccic sacs Sine scones ian oe Rie 100.00 The first of the above tables indicates that the tannin content of the sapwood and bark is so Jow, and the weight of the wood so great, that it is only profitable to transport the heartwood long distances to market. 1 From “ Tanning Materials of Latin America,” by T. H. Norton, Department of Com- merce, 1918. TANNING MATERIALS 81 Consequently, the bark and sap are removed from logs in the forest. Furthermore, the great weight of the heartwood causes a large portion of the product to be shipped to Europe and this country in the form of extract, rather than in the log. The trees after felling and the removal of bark, branches and sapwood are bucked into logs of from 4 to 16 ft. in length or more and then hauled by oxen to the nearest railway. They are transported in some cases, several hundred miles to Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the great que- bracho wood markets. Some companies have a monthly output of from 500 to 1000 tons of wood. There are five factories for the con- version of the wood into extract on the upper Paraguay River. Some companies which cut quebracho for cross ties, selling at $1.50 to $2.50 apiece, have found that there is more profit in getting out wood for extract or for direct export than for the local railways. The industry has devel- oped so widely that the quebracho forest region has contributed an important source of income to Argentine and Paraguay. In the process of extraction, the wood is reduced to small chips or shavings and then placed into closed copper extractors with a capacity of about 530 cu. ft. each. Steam is admitted and the leaching process is consummated rapidly. Consequently very concentrated liquors are secured. These are cooled and clarified in the dark to prevent oxidation. The extract is then evaporated in vacuum pans to a rather thick con- sistency until only 20 to 25 per cent of water remains. This extract on cooling, becomes solid. Analysis of quebracho extract shows about 65 per cent of soluble tannin content, 8 per cent insoluble tannin and 7 per cent of non-tannins. The industry has assumed large proportions in the Argentine and the war has greatly stimulated prices. Since the year 1900, the value of the exports of logs has increased over roo per cent up to 1913 and the value of extract over 800 per cent. In the year 1913 the Argentine statistics show that the total export of logs and extract was 463,648 metric tons. The principal countries which received this material were as follows: Countries. Metric Tons. ALO RINPOONIT Sook cicsu vceaee so 83,035 MITEL SEMEOS os net Sic tke ak aale so 37;835 BEANS arcs ec e so See OU ea eee Sete 30,144 TO ce ae ee, Somat ee sr eRe 27,212 NEMMES Pok i OK, crea oe See eR eaats 8,605 82 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table shows the imports of quebracho wood and extract into the United States for the ten-year period 1907 to 1917. It shows the effect of the lack of tonnage due to the war on the imports. IMPORTS OF QUEBRACHO WOOD AND EXTRACT INTO THE UNITED STATES 1907 TO 1917 QUEBRACHO Woop. QUEBRACHO EXTRACT. Fiscal Year. Tons, Long. Value. Pounds. Value. FOOT ods ewe Bae 66,810 $840,770 76,034,000 $2,320,000 TOO As cuatnan eee 40,871 612,971 79,187,000 2,260,000 TOOOL coat oetee 66,113 731,795 102,005,000 _ 2,741,000 TOROS owe eee 80,210 1,058,647 87,531,000 2,796,000 TOLIRS Vil deeawes 66,617 984,841 85,721,000 2,894,000 : Cat bees ahead rine 68,174 982,315 67,281,000 2,223,000 TOUI + 6): oro OE 102,766 1,299,905 74,545,000 1,903,000 TOTAP es ee - 73,911 899,603 88,589,000 2,441,000 IQT§ cess eens 54,995 753,981 120,450,283 3,676,749 TOLGs co wiceye 106,864 1,598,465 81,501,952 5,432,468 EOL]. - S40 eee 73,307 1,274,600 59,808,734 5,198,904 There is no import duty on quebracho logs coming to this country but prior to October 3, 1913, there was a small duty imposed on the extract. In 1912 the price of logs at South American ports was from $14 to $20 per long ton and for extract $80 to $85 per long ton. In 1915 the price of the extract had risen to $115 per long ton. MANGROVE BARK Mangrove bark has come into great prominence in the tanning industry of this country. In the year 1915, 20,041 lb. were imported at a value of $565,805, which represented a greater value than that of any other imported tanning material except quebracho. The Census of 1909 gives a consumption of $1,401,008 Ib. of mangrove bark. Within the past decade it is represented as increasing very materially. Mangrove bark. formerly came principally from Portuguese East Africa, Madagascar, and the East Indies. Within recent years, however, large quantities have come from Venezuela. and Colombia. Most of the mangrove bark consists of the so-called red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, Linn. This tree covers great areas of tidal swamp throughout the tropical regions of both the eastern and western hemis- pheres. Other varieties of rhizophora named black mangrove, of Avicennia nitida and white mangrove Avicennia tomentosa also pro- es TANNING MATERIALS 83 duce bark of commercial importance in the tanning industry. Through- out the tropical regions, coasts, and river swamps of South America and Central America, the mangrove occurs in great abundance. All of the above three species of mangrove are also found in the swamps of southern Florida, but have not been developed on account of the excessive cost of cutting, transporting and delivering the product to market. The industry is being exploited especially in Colombia and Brazil, and to a _ lesser extent in the Guianas, Venezuela, and Trinidad. The yield varies considerably with the various regions. Altogether this variation is said to be from 5 to 45 per cent. The older the tree, however, the greater is said to be the tannin content. The mangrove cut and placed on the market in large commercial quantities usually produces a yield of tannin of from 22 to 33 percent. The leaves of the mangrove also contain merchantable quantities of tannin and are fre- quently used in the tanneries of southern Brazil, particularly in Santos and Cartagena. The bark is exceedingly hard and heavy. When used locally the bark is employed directly by the tannery, and not used for extraction pur- poses. The methods for the extraction of tannin from mangrove bark have not been perfected to the same extent as for quebracho. Up to the present time, the process of extraction is somewhat similar to that employed for quebracho, but it is more difficult, and it is likely that the process will be still further developed in the future. It is said that extract from the mangrove forests of Africa contains from 60 to 70 per cent of tannin, whereas that produced in the Colombian factories con- tains about 48 to 50 per cent of tannin. The use of mangrove bark began in Europe in 1804, and it has only recently begun to enter this country on a large scale. It is generally regarded by the tanneries as one of the cheapest forms of tannin and this accounts largely for its general acceptance and its increasing use. Man- grove tannin is seldom used alone as it has the reputation of imparting an undesirable color to leather. In France, a mixture of one-third man- grove bark, about two-fifths hemlock, and the remainder of oak or mimosa bark, is commonly used. Owing to the various resources of mangrove forests found along the tidal shores of the tropics in nearly all parts of the world, this material constitutes a great asset for the future of the tanning industry. Its habit of growth renders it somewhat difficult to cut and transport to market, but improved methods are being constantly devised whereby it can be successfully produced. No estimates have been made of the 8-4 FOREST PRODUCTS quantities available, but they are believed to be very extensive; cer- tainly sufficient to last several hundred years at the present rate of con- sumption. Mangrove is said to constitute the greatest single source of tannin supplies for the future requirements of the world. MYROBALAN ! NUTS ‘“‘Myrobalans ”’ is the trade name applied to several species of Indian trees of the Terminalia genus. The most common and the one which constitutes the great source of this supply is the Terminalia chebula, which is a tree usually from 4o to 60 ft. in total height, which is culti- vated in various districts of India, both for the timber as well as for the value of the nuts. The latter are harvested by the natives, placed in storage houses where the fruit shrivels up into irregular and wrinkled forms. The nuts in good condition should be hard and firm and should be completely free from moisture as their absorptive properties are very great. The tannin content of these nuts varies from 30 to 4o per cent, and is found chiefly in the outer layer. India exported 73,355 tons in 1910. In the year 1909 this country used 18,000 tons, valued at $30.00 a ton, and 1,000,000 lb. of myrobalan extract, valued at $37,500. In 1915, 18,417,434 lb. of myrobalan nuts, valued at $198,000 were imported. Used alone, myrobalans yield a light yellow tannin. The tannin penetrates the skins rapidly and produces a spongy leather so that the best effect is secured when blended with quebracho or hemlock bark. Mixed with these materials, myrobalans add weight, substance, and firmness as well as a fast color to the leather. It is used especially by tanners of calf, goat, and sheep skins. It can be used with harness and sole leather as well. DIVI-DIVI Divi-divi is the trade name applied to the seed pods of a small tree indigenous in the West Indies, Mexico, Venezuela and northern Brazil. Its scientific name is Cesalpinia coriaria. The pods are about 3 in. long and ¢ in. broad and very thin. On drying, they curl up. They contain from 40 to 45 per cent of tannin. They are commonly exported in their natural state in bags containing about 110 lb. of pods. It is a very cheap form of tannin, and its use is not very extensive in this country. In 1918 this country imported 15,739,331 Ib. valued 1 This is also spelled myrobolan. TANNING MATERIALS at $274,891. Aclosely allied species from Chile called algarobilla (Ce@sal- pinia brevifolia) is very rich in tannin. In 1915 the port of Curacao, West Indies, shipped 500 tons of divi-divi to the United States. Divi-divi is shipped principally from the ports of Caracas and Mara- caibo and brought about 1.6 cents per pound at these ports in 1914. Divi-divi has been used for over one hundred years but chiefly by the Germans. In use it is usually blended with certain tanbarks or other extracts. It readily adapts itself to separation into the extract form. IMPORTED SUMACH Sicilian sumach (Rhus coriaria), as it is known in tanning circles, contains from 20 to 35 per cent of tannin and is regarded as a valuable tanning agent in this country, where the importation has increased within recent years up to 1916. It grows chiefly in Sicily and southern Italy, where it is extensively cultivated although it is found in other sections of the Mediterranean basin as well. In the year 1916 this country imported 17,454,996 lb. valued at $472,590. Owing to the war, its importation decreased during 1917 and 1918. Sumach tannin is used principally for tanning fine leathers such as glove and book leathers and, as a mordant, to fix the basic aniline dyes. VALONIA Valonia is the usual commerical name given to the acorn of the Turkish oak (Quercus egilops), which grows chiefly in Asia Minor and to a less extent in the Grecian Archipelago. It is sometimes called, according to its origin, Smyrna valonia and Greek valonia. In 1915, this country imported 6,352,190 lb. of valonia valued at $88,061 and only 244,000 lb. in 1909. These acorn cups may contain up to 45 per cent tannin. The tannin is readily derived in the form of an extract. It is seldom used alone as it has an injurious effect on the leather, but excellent results are obtained when used with other tanning materials. It is in great demand in normal times in Austria and Russia for the tanning of fine leathers in those countries. OTHER FOREIGN TANNING MATERIALS Gambier is used for both tanning and dyeing purposes. It comes to this country from Singapore and in 1914, 16,450,000 Ib. costing $625,000 86 FOREST PRODUCTS were consumed for both these purposes. Gambier usually contains from 35 to 40 percent of pyrogallic tannin and comes from two species, namely Uncaria gambier and U. acida. It produces a brown tannin which is generally used in connection with other tanning agents. Kino is an astringent gum used in tanning and dyeing and for medi- cines. It is derived from African or Gambia kino, which may yield up to 75 per cent of tannin. Its imports to this country are not reported separately in the customs statistics. The name is also applied to a num- ber of tropical and sub-tropical plants. Wattle or mimosa is the trade name applied to several acacias of Australia, South Africa and Tasmania. The black wattle is the Acacia natalitia and it is also found in commercial quantities in the Acacia pycnantha. Both barks are very rich in tannin. Cutch (Acacia catechu) is imported in large quantities, but is used chiefly for dyeing purposes. It is occasionally used for tanning leathers in connection with the dyeing operation. There are many other vegetable products among the barks, leaves, twigs, roots, wood, fruit, etc., which are used occasionally as tanning agents, but none has assumed any commercial importance as yet in this country. Among them may be mentioned Mexican sumach, cas- calote, several oaks (bark), etc., which have varying percentages of tannin. IMPORTS The following table shows the amount and value of the imports of tanning materials to the United States for the years 1914-1918, inclusive: QUANTITY AND VALUE OF CRUDE TANNING MATERIALS AND TANNING EXTRACTS IMPORTED TO THE UNITED STATES FOR 3914 TO 1918, IN- CLUSIVE QUANTITY IQI4. IQI5. 1916. 1917. 1918. Tanning materials, crude: Quebracho wood, tons.. 73,956 54,955 106,864 73,307 45,440 Mangrove bark, tons... * 7,689 8,096 21,186 10,565 3529 Sumach, pounds....... 10,770,400 | 13,165,182 | 21,542,390 | 11,637,023 | 14,046,662 Gambier, pounds...... 14,930,129 | 14,169,490 | 12,819,859 | 10,133,025 8,964,832 Tanning extracts: Quebracho, pounds... .| 93,329,087 |120,450,283 | 81,501,952 | 50,808,734 |101,523,282 PU GENCE: tiaras cave als 6,028,383 | 6,191,232 5,471,251 2,500,854 4,573)925 TANNING MATERIALS 87 VALUE Igt4. IgI5. 1916. Igt7. 1918. Tanning materials, crude: Quebracho wood, tons..| $900,880"} $753,981. | $1,598,465 | $1,274,660 $718,567 Mangrove bark, tons.. . 196,891 218,952 582,922 299,807 72,956 Sumach, pounds....... 258,736 323,448 555,276 365,173 467,663 Gambier, pounds...... 571,067 542,200 928,924 859,873 0553352 All others. ........... 468,230 370,133 668,166 792,064 496,070 Tanning extracts: 5 Quebracho, pounds....| 2,543,302 | 3,676,749 | 5,432,468 | 5,198,904 | 4,917,212 All others, pounds... .. 198,073 202,675 382,880 152,619 219,993 BIBLIOGRAPHY BALpERSTON, L. The Extraction of Valonia. Leather Manufacturer. Boston: 1915. Vol. 26, p. 290. Bennett, H.G. The Analysis of Tanning Materials. BrackeEy, J. R. The Extraction of Tanning Materials. Leather Manufacturer. Vol. 22, p. 47. — Census Bureau, Washington. Tanbark and Tanning Extract. Forest Products. No. 4. Development of the Tanning Industry in the United States. Leather Manufacturer. Boston, 1914. Vol. 25, pp. 297, 377. Gannon, Frep. A. The Development of the Tanning Industry. Leather Manu- facturer. Vol. 22, pp. 22, 213, 253, 301, 341, 381, 421, 475. Jepson, W. L. and others. California Tanbark Oak. U.S. Forest Service. Bull. 75, 191. Journal, American Leather Chemists’ Association. Easton Pa. Wattle Bark as a Tanning Agent. Vol. 11, p. 535. : Kerr, Georce A. The Principles of Tanning Extract Manufacture. Leather Manu- facturer. Vol. 24, pp. 197 and 235. Mett,C.D. Tanbark Oak, Leather Manufacturer. Vol. 22, pp. 373, 374- Miscellaneous Articles in Journal of American Leather Chemists’ Association, Easton, Pa. Miscellaneous Articles in Leather Manufacturer, Boston. Miscellaneous Articles in Journal, Society of Chemical Industry, London. Miscellaneous Articles in Chemical Engineer, Chicago. Miscellaneous Articles in The Leather World, London. 88 FOREST PRODUCTS NIERENSTEIN, M. Chemie der Gerbstoffe. Stuttgart: F. Enke, rozo. Norton, T. H. Tanning Materials of Latin America. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington. Special Agents Series, No. 165, 1918. Proceedings, American Leather Chemists’ Association. Proceedings, Tanners’ Council of the United States. New York. ProcTeR, HENRY RICHARDSON. Leather Industries Laboratory Book of Ana- lytical and Experimental Methods. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. London: E. & F. N. Spon, Limited; New York: Spon & Chamberlain, 1908. Procter, HENRY RICHARDSON. ‘The Principles of Leather Manufacture. Lon- don: E. & F.N. Spon, Limited; New York: Spon & Chamberlain, 1903. Recorp, S. J. Our Present and Future Sources of Vegetable Tannins. Scientific American. New York, 1916. Vol. 114, pp. 580-581. CHAPTER IV VENEERS GENERAL VENEERS are thin slices or sheets of wood. They were at first only made from beautifully grained and handsomely figured woods which, owing to their extreme cost, wereseldom used in the form of solid boards. The veneer industry has increased in importance in great strides within the past quarter of a century. It is generally considered a phase of 19th-century industrialism, but historically veneers were used even in early Roman times. Pliny, the younger, records how the Romans went to Greece to buy great tables with veneered tops in the manufacture of which the Grecians had attained great proficiency. It is said that the wealthy Romans paid very high prices for these tables faced with veneer of rare Eastern and tropical woods. Pliny does not record how .these veneers were made or what species were used and the industry was practically a lost art until the early part of the last century. The principal reason why veneers have not come into more common use until the last twenty to thirty years is the great wealth and com- parative cheapness of native species, including an excellent selection of cabinet woods. With the gradual depletion of our timber supply, espe- cially of the more valuable woods, it is a natural consequence that much of our high-grade furniture, interior finish, doors, etc., should be made with the veneer face, and the centers or cores composed of mediocre woods or low-grade stock. This situation, of course, contributes to the more efficient utilization of our timber supplies, since the best woods or best quality of our more valuable woods can be reserved for the exterior faces and the interiors made up of the cheaper woods and lower grades. Until comparatively recent years veneers found their principal use for fine furniture and cabinet work. Within the past decade the demands for veneers have increased remarkably and most of our veneers are not used now for strictly veneer purposes in the original sense, but are utilized for a great variety of comparatively new uses, such, for example, 89 wy 90 FOREST PRODUCTS as built-up stock, berry and fruit baskets, cheese boxes, crates and pack- ing boxes, drawer bottoms, trunk stock, mirror backing, panels, etc. The veneer industry has consequently come into a position as parent organization to a large number of subsidiary wood-working and using industries which are dependent upon it for the source of their working material. Methods of Making Veneers. The modern use of fine-faced. veneers in cabinet work is said to have been started by Sir Ishambard Brunel at the Chatham Dock Yards, England, in r799. Here was also the first steam sawmill used in England. A shop was equipped in 1805 in Battersea, England, and veneers were made from mahogany and rosewood. It is said that the first circular veneer saw was invented in 1805 which cut veneers as thin as ;; of an inch. Soon after veneers were also made by slicing, which is the forerunner of the present: methods of cutting and slicing veneers. It was not until 1896 that’ the rotary method of cutting veneers‘came into commercial importance. © | brah: > At the present time the following methods are used in making veneers: 1. The rotary cut process, which consists of turning a log on a heavy lathe against astationary knife, is the method by which about 90 per cent of all*of our veneers are made: Continuous sheets of veneer are cut off down to a 6- to’ ro-in. core. Generally speaking, our lowest priced veneers are made by this process as it is a very cheap method of manu- - facture. Since it is a rotary process, cutting with the rings of annual growth, it does not bring out the quarter grain or figure of the wood as well as the other processes by which cuts can be made along the medullary rays. Most of the native black walnut and Circassian walnut veneers are made by the rotary method. Walnut stumps and burls are also cut by this method in connection with a stay log. More waste is occasioned by this process than the others, due to the core left after cutting and the large amount of waste in clipping and trimming. 2. The slicing process, which consists of rapidly moving a flitch of wood vertically downward against a cutting knife, isthe method by which much of our quarter-cut oak veneers are made. Mahogany, Spanish cedar, rosewood and other foreign woods showing a pleasing figure on the quarter grain are commonly sliced by this method. This method is least wasteful of the raw material of the three processes. 3. Sawed veneers are considered most: valuable because this process tears the wood fiber less than the other processes and they can be worked VENEERS 91 up and finished to better advantage. Our most valuable mahogany and other foreign woods, especially those presenting a fine figure when cut on the quarter, are sawed. The method consists of moving a flitch of wood on a Carriage against a circular saw which cuts a kerf of about 25 of an inch. It is Capcity a very wasteful process. Most of our sawed veneers are about z'5 of an inch in thickness. Details of the sickest of veneers by each of these processes are taken up later. east Y From Coe Manufaciuring Compeny. Fic. 17.—Rotary veneer machine in operation. A continuous sheet is cut off by revolving the log against a sharp stationary knife. Qualifications Desired in Veneer Woods. The veneers desired for facing table tops, fine furniture, cabinet work and similar uses demand a pleasing grain and figure. Other than this, however, the qualifications desired in veneer woods are not so particular. They may be summed up as follows: 1. Veneer woods should be reasonably low in price because the ulti- mate products for which veneers are largely used, such as berry and fruit baskets, crating, cooperage, novelties, packing boxes, cheese boxes, etc., bring a comparatively low price on the market. 2. The woods must be available and readily accessible. There must be sufficient quantities to make a uniform product. 92 FOREST PRODUCTS 3. The particular species should grow to a comparatively large size and must be symmetrical in shape. 4. The species in common demand must be reasonably free from defects such as various forms of checks, shake, frost cracks, rot, pitch streaks, “‘ cat faces,’’ etc. 5. The grain and fiber of the woods should be of such a nature that it readily adapts itself to manufacture. This, however, is of compara- tively little importance as practically any wood can be made into veneers. Some, however, lend themselves to certain processes of manufacture better than others. ; Woods Used. Although red gum is pre-eminently the most important wood used for veneer, nearly all of the commercially important species used for lumber and other forest products in this country are used to some extent for this purpose. Altogether 37 separate native species and 13 foreign woods | were mantfactured into veneers according to the figures of the Census Bureau for 1911, which are the latest available statistics. With the advent of the heavy demand for veneers about 1900, red gum took its place as the leading veneer wood and for the past decade it has furnished about one-third of all the veneers cut in the country by all processes. It is now used for some of the most expensive veneers as well as the most ordinary lines of usage. When cut on the quarter grain it offers a most pleasing figure and grain, and it has entered very prominently into the market for high-grade cabinet and finishing veneers. Over 136,000,000 bd. ft. of red gum logs are used every year for veneers. Owing to the extensive available stands of red gum in the lower Mississippi Valley, its low-priced stumpage, the tall, large sym- metrical stem which is ordinarily free from defects, and its compara- tively soft, even and attractive grain, it meets very satisfactorily the requirements for a desirable veneer wood. It is likely that it will hold its commanding position for a long time to come. Red gum is largely produced in Arkansas. Missouri and the other states in the lower Mis- sissippi Valley also contribute to its production. Veneer logs of this species bring from $9.00 to $14.00 delivered at the mill, per thousand board feet. White oak is next in importance as a veneer wood, and it comprised 9 per cent of the total amount of veneer produced in 1911, when over 41,000,000 bd. ft. of white oak were used for this purpose. Probably 75 to 80 per cent of all sawed veneers and nearly this percentage of sliced VENEERS 93 veneers are of quartered oak. It is estimated that approximately two- thirds of all white-oak veneers are manufactured either by the slicing or sawing process. Quartered white oak has, for a long time, been a stand- ard veneer, especially for table tops and general cabinet and furniture purposes. It is chiefly manufactured in Indiana. Logs of this species bring from $25.00 to $50.00 delivered at the mill, per thousand board feet. Yellow pine veneers are next in order of importance. Over 35,000,000 bd. ft. were used in 1g11r for the inexpensive lines of usage. They make excellent berry, fruit and vegetable baskets and packages and they are also used for slack cooperage, crates and boxes and core material. Its use for door and interior finish panels is on the rapid increase. When stained it presents a most attractive finish. Yellow pine is cut almost entirely by the rotary process in the South, where logs bring from $8.00 to $12.00 or more per thousand board feet, delivered at the mill. Hard maple is the most important wood used for veneer in the Northern States, where it isused for both theinexpensive lines of usage as well as for the finest of finishing purposes. The well-known bird’s-eye » and curly maple have always held a position of high esteem in the trade. Maple veneers are chiefly made by the rotary process in Michigan, Wis- consin and New York, where log prices range from $16.00 to $23.00 per thousand board feet, at the mill. Cottonwood makes an excellent veneer because of its soft, light and even-textured wood, which brings it into special demand for many pur- - poses. It cuts very smoothly and evenly on the rotary lathes and along with basswood is one of the few woods which do not require any pre- liminary steaming or boiling to soften the fiber before cutting. Prac- tically all cottonwood veneer is made by the rotary process in the lower Mississippi Valley states. Owing to its limited amount in the remaining forests its importance as a veneer wood in the future is not bright. Pres- ent prices of $13.00 to $20.00 per thousand board feet obtain at the mill for cottonwood logs. Yellow poplar is one of the most desirable veneer woods available on account of its soft, even fiber, pleasing grain, freedom from defects and large symmetrical sizes. However, its wider use is precluded by its com- parative scarcity and high price on the market. It yields a very high grade of crossbanding or core stock and it is commonly used for this purpose in high-grade panel, finish and cabinet work. In fact, yellow poplar and chestnut are our two most highly regarded core woods. » Pop- lar veneers are principally made in Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina 94 FOREST PRODUCTS and West Virginia. Log prices vary from $18.00 to $30.00 per thousand board feet or more at the veneer mill. Basswood is in strong demand for door and panel purposes, but it is very limited in its available supply. Birch is commonly used in the North for all kinds of veneers. Curly birch brings excellent prices. Elm is cut almost entirely for cheese boxes and for hoops and crates. Chestnut, especially the ‘‘ sound wormy ” variety, is widely used in built-up stock. Other woods frequently used for veneers are Douglas fir, which is coming into well-merited prominence, together with western yellow pine, on the Pacific coast. ‘Tupelo, beech, ash, red oak, cypress, sycamore, white pine, spruce and many others are also used. Mahogany, Circassian walnut, Spanish cedar, the native black walnut and cherry and a few other valuable foreign woods such as rose- wood, satinwood, English and Japanese oak, vermilion, padouk, etc., are usually made by the slicing or sawing process. Altogether they do not comprise more than 18,000,000 to 20,000,000 bd. ft. annually. Much of the black walnut and some of the mahogany is cut by the rotary process. More walnut is used for veneers than for any other purpose. About 5,000,000 ft. each of mahogany, black walnut and Spanish cedar logs are annually made into veneers. Mahogany logs are worth from $120 to $160, black walnut from $75 to $150 and Spanish cedar from $100 to $135 per thousand board feet in the log, delivered at the mills. Annual Production and Values. As mentioned above, over 500,000,000 bd. ft. of forest material, in the form of logs and flitches, are annually manufactured into veneer in the United States. It is estimated that there are over 1000 firms now engaged in the industry scattered over 35 states. In 1905 only 181,- 000,000 bd. ft. of logs were manufactured into veneers, and yet there is a general feeling in the industry that the demands for the output of the mills in their present capacity are far from stabilized. It is likely that Over 1,000,000,000 ft. of logs will be annually consumed for veneers in this country within a few years. Veneers may be cut in any thickness from s¢o up to 4 an inch or more. For commercial purposes, thicknesses of less than str of an inch or more than ¢ in. are seldom cut. Spanish cedar for cigar boxes are the thinnest veneers found on the market. Rotary cut veneers are commonly cut from 7 to § in. in thickness, but those from zy to sz in. constitute the largest amount. Sawed veneers VENEERS 95 are usually cut 25 of an inch in thickness. Sliced veneers are often cut from #5 to zo of an inch. The relation between the contents of a log in board feet and the square feet of veneers produced depends obviously on the method of cutting, the thickness of the veneer, the soundness of the log and the care in clipping and drying the product. These factors vary with almost every mill, so it is exceedingly difficult to standardize the amount of veneers of a given thickness to be expected from a thousand board feet log scale by a given process. In a rotary veneer mill in Michigan where 16-ft. logs ran about twelve to the thousand by the Doyle rule and a 6- to 7-in. core was ordinarily left, 1000 bd. ft. of No. 1 logs yielded about 10,000 sq. ft. of xs in. stock, or about 13,000 sq. ft. of 2'5-in. stock, on an average. Veneers are sold by the square foot, surface measurement, the price varying with the species, the thickness of veneer, the character of the grain (curly, bird’s-eye, quartered, crotch, etc.) and method of cutting, drying, etc. The following list was obtained at a large mill dealing in some of the better grades of veneers. The prices are given, wholesale, delivered in New York State for the year 1917. Prices have ad- vanced very materially since the fall of 1918. Wood. a erg Thickness. sauare Poot Plain mahogany........... Ae pe re Sawed 1/16 3-33 Striped or fancy mahogany............. Sawed 1/28 6-8 REET MODI ors nica ce yes cain ve co Se Sawed 1/28 8-12 MENIERESISTOWOINUU. = 0's 5 2 cece newest ee Sawed 1/28 6-10 TAC ST SI Pale ee aan ga a eee Rotary cut 1/20 13-2 Quartered red gum. ................ ...| Sliced 1/28 3-4 MARGU SWAIN res "a 2 CR goats «ida 2 8 wos Rotary cut 1/20 23-5 Red birch....... Dee he tee ae Rotary cut 1/20 1-1} Reanpnte ORK bess seed ke. ek. Rotary cut 1/20 13 Quartered white oak................... Sliced 1/20 2 Quartered white oak.................-- Sawed 1/20 2} ROTARY CUT VENEERS Rotary veneer mills are located with reference to a continuous supply of raw material in the form of logs and along some railroad offering facilities for shipment of the product to market. Veneer mills may be located in connection with furniture or cabinet factories, door mills, cheese-box factories, basket mills, etc., or they may be independent of them and sell the bundled product to the various subsidiary industries 96 FOREST PRODUCTS which consume it. Few mills are supplied by the company’s own logging operations. Logs are customarily purchased in carload lots from logging operations or from wood lots in the vicinity. As only the better class of logs are used, logging companies frequently set aside their veneer logs until they have a sufficient supply for a special shipment. There are no universally adopted rules for grading logs accepted at veneer mills. Individual mills have their own rules and uniformity in them is now being considered in the industry. As the logs are unloaded at the plant they are left in an opea yard just outside the mill and rolled in as needed. A few of the largest mills have storage ponds similar to those in use in connection with saw mills. The advance supply kept on hand is often so large that serious deterioration takes place due to checks, rot and insect attack. Seasoning is not neces- sary; in fact, green logs are preferred. The machinery and equipment usually found in the moder rotary veneer plant censists of a drag-saw or cut-off saw to cut the logs into desired lengths, a vat for boiling or steaming, the rotary veneer machine or lathe, a clipper to trim the veneer into the desired sizes, conveyors, a wringer, a die cutter, a dryer and a knife grinder. When built-up stock is made, power or hand presses and glue-room equipment are added. The following is a brief description of the usual method followed: The logs come in even lengths up to 16 to 20 ft. long, and must be cut down to from 38- to 52-in. logs, which are the lengths usually used on the veneer lathe, or to 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 ft. in length depending upon the width of veneer desired. They are rolled into the mill by hand or by the use of heavy cranes, or on a log hoist when a mill pond is used for storage purposes. The cut-off saw, either of the drag, horizontal band or circular type, cuts the logs into the desired bolt lengths, which are conveyed to the steaming or boiling vats in order to soften the fibers for cutting. In the former, live steam is turned into the pits but no pressure applied. Boil- ing is the favored method because it heats the logs more evenly and the logs remain in good condition for cutting for hours, whereas steamed logs should be cut immediately after heating or they become hard and brash. There has been no determination and common acceptance of the length of time or degree of temperature to be followed in boiling. Many mills fill the pits each morning. with sufficient bolts for the next day’s. run and leave them there overnight. The usual size pit will hold from 600 to 1000 ft. board measure of bolts. Heat is applied by means of steam pipes. VENEERS 97 The degree of heat and length of the boiling period should be governed by the hardness of the wood, its degree of dryness, porosity, toughness of the fiber, size of logs, etc., but little attention has apparently been paid to these matters. In practice, the following periods of boiling are commonly used: From one to two days or up to forty-eight hours for the oaks, fifteen to eighteen hours for yellow poplar, from twelve to twenty-four hours for red and black gum, from twenty-four to thirty-six hours for elm, ash, birch and maple, Douglas fir and western pine. Temperatures of from 7 w,” 3 yy Vs v4 : = Te Photograph by Nelson C. Brown Fic. 18.—A rotary veneer machine showing the lugs on which the log is turned and the veneer knife immediately back of the man. Photograph taken in a California veneer mill cutting western pine (Pinus ponderosa). 160° to 220° F. are maintained. If oak is boiled too long it becomes so hard that it is very difficult to cut it. Yellow ponlar when over-boiled produces a rough veneer, showing that the fibers have been crushed too much rather than being cut sharply. Cottonwood and basswood do not require boiling. After boiling, the bark is removed. This is done by splitting the bark lengthwise. The bark then drops off easily after being loosened in the boiling process. The bolts are taken over to the veneer lathe,which has two large drive 98 FOREST PRODUCTS wheels and a spindle with chucks to hold the log in position. The machines are graded by the length of the knives, which are usually made in the following lengths: 24, 30, 50, 60, 65, 76, 90 and 124 in. They are 63 in. wide, 3 in. thick and made of the finest cutting steel. The logs are centered on the chucks and cutting is done by revolving them against the stationary knife, the veneer coming over in long con- tinuous sheets. An automatic geared device feeds the knife toward the log so that at each revolution it approaches the log nearer by the thick- ness of the veneer. The knife is usually sharpened after every thirty- five to forty hours of cutting. It must be changed more frequently with thick than with thinner veneers. It must be very sharp and uniformly so or a poor grade of veneer results. The shafts which hold the logs can be regulated to hold a short or a long log. Generally 24 to 28 revo- lutions are made per minute except on the very largest logs and con- tinuous sheets are cut off down to a core of from 6 to 10 in. As the veneer comes from the cutting lathe it is conveyed to the clipper, a machine which trims off defective portions and cuts the veneer to the desired sizes. This consists of a sharp knife from 5 to 10 ft. in length, worked by steam or foot power, extending across the conveyor table. The knife descends directly to the veneer and clips it in rectangular sections. A straight edge on one side imsures a right angle in clipping. In some mills, a wringer located back of the clipper eliminates any superfluous water in the veneer. A die-stamping machine is sometimes used to stamp out chair or drawer bottoms, covers, berry-box patterns or tapered peach-basket staves, etc. This machine will make from 20 to 30 strokes per minute and will stamp out from 52,000 to 400,000 pieces per day depending upon the thickness of the stock turned out. Next the veneer goes through an automatic dryer. It is necessary to dry it artificially, as it warps, twists, checks and curls very badly when air dried. Although several types of dryers are on the market one of the most common types is described as follows: The veneer is slowly passed on revolving rolls through a long roller dryer which is steam heated and from which the moist air is carried off in hot blasts. One of the larger driers is 130 ft. long, 12 ft. wide and 5 rolls high. From fifteen to forty- five minutes are required for passing through the rolls, depending upon the thickness and kind of wood and the veneer is thoroughly dry when taken out. For example, in one mill it required forty minutes for § in. veneer to pass through while with z'5-in. stock only twenty minutes were required. Five tiers of 1-in. steam pipes, 44 pipes in each tier are used VENEERS 99 and temperatures of from 200° to 260° F. are maintained. The drier box is covered with sheet iron and asbestos. From the drier the sheets of veneer go to the glue room or to the bun- dling room, from which they are shipped. The cost of manufacturing rotary cut veneers varies considerably. The chief factors which influence this cost are the size of the mill, labor charges, efficiency of the operation, thickness of veneers produced, kinds of woods used, type of machinery and equipment, etc. Costs are fig- - ured on the basis of rooo sq. ft. of surface measurement. The cost may ordinarily be found within the following figures: Cost per Thousand Square Feet Labor and superintendency.................. $ .75-1.35 NE hin Pe cyt Ng, oN os ase ai od ears IW a ne 25 = 75 Overhead, including depreciation, interest, CROs SIIOTANN So nd on ce oes Hee ees oe . 50-1.20 $1.45-3.30 These figures are exclusive of the cost of logs, selling and office charges. SLICED VENEERS Although the least important of the three methods of making veneers, from the standpoint of production, and, therefore, of little comparative importance, the slicing process of veneer manufacture has taken material strides within the past decade or so. It is likely that it may surpass the sawing process in production. Slicing machines are almost always found in use in the same mills where veneer saws are used. The cost of making sliced veneers is considerably less than by the sawing process and there is much waste of material in the latter method due to saw kerf. White oak is the principal wood used in slicing veneers and practically all of it is in the form of quartered flitches that have been cut out in saw- mills. Quartered sycamore, red gum and red oak and some mahogany, Circassian walnut and Spanish cedar, together with a few other foreign woods are also cut. Only the finer furniture, cabinet and finish veneers are manufactured by this and the sawing procees. Indiana is the cen- ter of production of sliced veneers. _ The slicing process aside from the actual cutting follows the same gen- eral methods as the rotary process, except that flitches instead of logs are used and steaming is customarily used instead of boiling, especially when mahogany and Spanish cedar are used. In some mills, the flitches are 100 FOREST PRODUCTS first steamed for a few hours and then soaked in hot water for about twelve hours before slicing. The question of the best preliminary method to be followed in softening the fibers for slicing is still an opén one. The present slicer in common use is a very ingenious mechanical device and has been evolved as a result of much experimentation. Sev- eral different types are on the market but the same general principle is followed in all. The accompanying illustration shows the general features of the machine. The flitches are fastened against the dog plate in a heavily constructed steel stay log, by means of screw dogs placed at Fic. 19.—A veneer-slicing machine in operation, cutting Circassian walnut veneers. Note the veneer flitch fastened above. This is dropped vertically against a sharp knife. The men are engaged in piling the sliced veneers as they emerge at the base of the machine. { intervals of about 1 ft. The dogs hold the flitch in place both on the top and bottom. In slicing, the flitch is moved downward against a station- ary knife which slices off a veneer of the desired thickness at each stroke. When the flitch moves upward, the knife automatically recedes suffi- ciently to clear the upward motion and then advances in a position to slice another sheet. Thus the flitch moves upward and downward in the same vertical plane, the knife being moved forward and backward at each stroke to cut each new slice until the flitch is largely used up. VENEERS 101 As each slice is removed, it falls through the knife slots onto a platform. - Two men, one at either end, pile them up in the same relative position as they appeared in the flitch. They are usually kept together and sold in this fashion. The drawbacks to this process are: 1. It is a slow method of manu- facture and 2, the veneer has only one face side and is not reversible. Mills using one machine have a daily capacity of about 50,000 to 80,000 _ sq. ft. Sliced veneers are dried in many different ways but the most accepted procedure is the roller dryer as explained in connection with the rotary process. The old-fashioned hot room is occasionally employed as well as suspension in long sheets from the ceiling, but unsatisfactory results are generally the rule. Owing to the fact that veneers from one flitch are kept and sold together, they are seldom trimmed on the clipper, as ex- plained in connection with rotary cut veneers. . SAWED VENEERS Veneers were first made by hand sawing, the process being very labo- rious and expensive. They were only made of rare woods of highly attract- ive figure and consequently their use was very limited. For a long time sawing was the only process used. Now only the highest grade finish and cabinet veneers are sawed. It is a very simple method of man- ufacture, but it is the most wasteful of the three methods and the most expensive as well. Sawed veneers are usually cut ='5 in. in thickness and a kerf of equal thickness is made. This means that as much wood is wasted as is ulti- mately used. They are preferred, however, to sliced or rotary cut veneers because in the case of the latter two the wood fibers are crushed by the knives, and the thinner the veneer the more serious is likely to be the result. On the other hand, with sawed veneers, the fibers are torn, but those only which come into contact with the saw. Consequently sawed veneers are stronger and are less likely to show up defects after being used for some time. It is also said that sawed veneer more closely resembles solid wood than any other kind. One great advantage in favor of sawed veneer is that it is reversible and either side may be used as the face. It is estimated that at least 75 per cent of all sawed veneers are made of quartered white oak. In general, the same woods are used for both the sliced and sawed veneers. Considerable mahogany of the finest grades and special figure and grain such as ribbon mahogany as 102 FOREST PRODUCTS well as a limited amount of Circassian walnut, vermilion, Spanish cedar, teak, rosewood, and other expensive woods are sawed into veneers which bring exceptionally high prices as compared with the rotary cut veneers. Most of the high-priced foreign woods which do not show an especially pleasing grain on the quarter are cut, however, by the rotary method, by using a stay log for flitches, crotches, burls, etc. About 10,000 sq. ft. of sawed veneer z'5 in. in thickness can be cut from 1000 bd. ft. of flitch material. In the manufacturing process flitches are usually used, and they are preferred in the green state. No preliminary steaming or boiling is prac- Fic. 20.—Making sawed veneers. Many of the finest veneers are made by this method. ticed to prepare the flitches for sawing. The flitches are either cut at the veneer mill or purchased from some sawmill, and kept in a covered shed preparatory to manufacture to prevent undue checking. As wanted, they are conveyed to the mill and mounted on a stay log by screw dogs on a vertical saw carriage. In the most up-to-date mills, the feed is automatic, the carriage being set up nearer the saw after each cut, to correspond with the desired thickness of veneer. The sawed sheets fall on the platform and are stacked up in the same position as they were found in the flitch. They are kept together and sold in this way the same VENEERS 103 as described in connection with sliced veneers. Drying is practiced in the same manner as that followed with sliced veneers. BUILT-UP STOCK The manufacture of built-up stock made of 3-, 5- or 7-ply material has really become a separate industry of great magnitude within compara- tively recent years. Its demands on veneer as its raw material have increased very rapidly and explain to some extent the greatly increased production of rotary cut veneers. Plants turning out various forms of Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 21.—Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels. These are piled for cooling after drying and are then taken to the glueing room. Poplar Bluff, Missouri. built-up material may be found in connection with rotary veneer mills or in operation entirely independent of the veneer factory. The principal fields of usefulness for built-up! or laminated stock are the following: panels, doors, aeroplanes, furniture, trunk stock, interior finish and many articles of botha utilitarian and an ornamental nature. It is even coming to beastrong competitor of lumber for many of its common 1The U. S. Forest Service laboratory at Madison, Wis., has made great strides during the war in the perfection of built-up stock and glues used in aeroplanes and hydroplanes. 104 FOREST PRODUCTS lines of usage. By using successive layers of veneer, with the grain of each board running at right angles to the grain of the board adjoining it, many advantages over equal grades of lumber are claimed for it, the chief among them being the following: . (a) It is comparatively free from such common disagreeable effects such as warping, checking, twisting out of shape, etc., in the presence of changing temperature and atmospheric moisture. (b) It is stronger for general purposes. (c) It is relatively light in weight. (d) Its low comparative cost. (e) Its efficient use of wood, in that the core or crossbanding may be made of cheaper woods or those containing minor defects. When making 3-ply stock, glue is applied only to both sides of the core or center ply. The back of the panel or other built-up stock is first laid on a truck, then the glued core is laid down and finally the top or face side, the direction of the grain of the core always running at right angles to that of the top and bottom pieces. The same principle is followed out in making 5-ply or 7-ply stock. The glue is applied hot and as soon as a truck load is completed it is moved at once to the press. Both animal and vegetable glues are com- monly used by the manufacturers of built-up stock, furniture, etc. More animal glue is undoubtedly used, however, than vegetable glue. Each individual operator, however, decides this for himself, and the question will be an open one for some time to come. Many kinds of veneer presses have been developed, and at many of the mills home-made or locally contrived devices have been found in common use. The old hand screw press has been determined to be very efficient and is still in common use in some of our most modern and progressive plants. However, the hydraulic press is probably used to a greater extent at this time than any other. As soon as a load is placed in the press a pressure of from 100 to 200 lb. per square inch is exerted, depending upon the nature of the work, the thickness of the built-up stock, species involved, etc. As soon as the maximum load is applied, retaining clamps are placed on and the whole set is removed from the press to make way for another set. The clamps are customarily left on for varying periods up to ten to twenty-five hours. In a large veneer plant in Wisconsin using mixed hardwoods native to the state, the clamps were retained for from twenty to twenty-five hours. In a large veneer mill in northern California which cuts western yellow pine by the rotary process, 36 courses of 3-ply stock were left in the ~ VENEERS 105 clamps for from eight to twenty-four hours under a. pressure of 125 lb. per square inch. It was said that eight hours was sufficient, but that for convenience they were released the day following and new courses were placed in the clamps. As a matter of fact, convenience in organization is the determinant factor in this time element. Leaving. courses in clamps longer than the required time does not injure the stock. After release from pressure the panel or other built-up stock is trimmed to even off the edges. It is then sanded or scraped and shipped to des- - tination. UTILIZATION OF VENEERS There has never been any attempt at an accurate compilation of figures or statistics showing how our various kinds of veneers are used in this country. The different uses that have come into existence for veneers have broadened very greatly within the last few years. At the present time it is estimated that more than one-half of our veneer logs is cut into veneers for purposes other than the original use of veneers which was to cover less valuable woods especially when the figure and grain of the veneer woods were to be brought out to best advantage, as exemplified in furniture, cabinet work and similar lines of usage. At the present time the cheaper veneers are most in demand especially for such materials as shipping containers, boxes, fruit and berry baskets, etc. The following list shows the approximate order in which our veneers are used. A few years ago it was estimated by the Census Bureau that, under average conditions, 6 sq. ft. of surface veneers were produced from each board foot as measured in the log. When veneers are sliced each board foot should produce 12 sq. ft. of surface veneer if cut +: of an inch in thickness. Six square feet, however, is a good average because of the great amount of waste occasioned in the manufacture of veneers, especially in the form of cores, trimming, and loss in the form of defects, checks, etc. Using 6 sq. ft. of surface veneer as an average from each board foot, an annual consumption of 500,000,000 bd. ft. of logs would yield 3,000,000,000 surface feet of veneers annually consumed in this country. The following table has been made up as a result of visits made to a large number of veneer mills and data secured from men engaged in the industry. The most important fields for the utilization of veneers are taken up in the order of quantity consumed: 1. Furniture, including tables of all kinds, beds, dressers and other 106 FOREST PRODUCTS bedroom furniture, cabinets, pianos and other musical instruments, book cases, etc. Veneers were originally used entirely for furniture purposes and it still constitutes the principal demand for. veneers, and particu- larly those made from quartered oak and red gum, mahogany, black walnut, Circassian walnut, cherry, hard maple, birch, etc. 2. Doors and door panels. There are many.veneer mills in this country which operate entirely for the production of veneer and veneer ned Fic. 22.—A hollow-die stamping machine used for making fruit-basket tops, novelties, etc. core stock used for the production of doors and door panels. The largest door factory in this country, in fact, depends upon its veneer mill for a good share of the material that goes into its product. Veneers intended for use in door panels as well as for door stiles, rails and muntins are usually cut into 3% in. thickness. The species used are oak, red gum, birch, Douglas fir, western pine, and Southern yellow pine. 3. Shipping containers, including packing boxes, cheese boxes, crating materials, veneer barrels, etc. It is very likely that in the future VENEERS 107 a large share of our packing boxes, slack barrels and all of our cigar boxes will be made from veneer stock. Cigar boxes were formerly made entirely of Spanish cedar but, owing to the high cost of this material, the cheaper cigar boxes are made of veneer sliced to rs and ras of an inch in thickness and glued upon a basswood, yellow poplar or tupelo gum core. Veneers used for packing boxes, crates, etc., are cut in thicknesses of from 3s to 2 in. The species used are yellow pine, red gum, cot- _ tonwood, spruce, basswood and chestnut. 4. Fruit containers, including such products as berry cups, berry and fruit baskets and many forms of vegetable boxes. In some sections of the country, peaches, apples, potatoes, grapes and all forms of berries and vegetables are shipped in containers made entirely out of veneer material. Basket veneers are customarily cut to 7; in. The principal species used are yellow pine, tupelo, elm, maple, basswood, oak and red gum. 5. Drawer bottoms, chair seats and mirror backing, which are usually classed together in the manufacture of veneers. This has opened up a new trend in the veneer trade and it is likely that the demand for these materials will increase very considerably in the future. They are cut in thicknesses of from 7's to 2 in. Yellow poplar, hard maple, red gum, cottonwood, birch and tupelo are the principal species used for these Purposes. 6. Novelties and sporting goods. There is a great variety of novel- ties and articles made in the sporting goods factories which demand con- siderable quantities of veneers. 7. Miscellaneous, including such articles as automobile tops, egg cases, wooden dishes, hoops, hampers, toys, trunks and a great number of other uses which could be mentioned. _ UTILIZATION OF WASTE There is a great amount of waste occasioned in the manufacture of veneers before the product is ultimately used in one way or another. The following table is a rough estimate of the amount of waste that is to be expected under average conditions. Since rotary cut veneers make up go per cent of all the veneers turned out in the country, most of this table is based upon the manufacture and use of this particular kind. There is very little waste incurred in the manufacture of sliced and sawed veneers with the exception of the saw kerf lost in connection with the latter. 108 FOREST PRODUCTS Per Cent Trimming, including the cutting off of defective ends and trimming around ‘defects -knhoteyete. <3 ava. Gea ea ee 5.5 Loss through checks and cracks which occur in prs! logs before mantifactared es tos. By Used oP eee 6 Loss through damaged sap or in cutting around sap to bring out the best colonia c s03'5 iia 4 2 acetate lea ee a 378 Loss in cores, which vary in diameter from 6 to 12 in. depending upon the'size-ol the log. 5.35 ¢ ..4:3.! «-Canvas Curtain Door a E .Dry Kiln Channel 18 x 100 ft. E r Canvas Curtain Door- z Canvas Curtain Door : 4AN0-£+. _ > E i Return Track for Kith Cars Sorting FI Room é g 26 x 28 ft, 8 ba Stack ty C) Stand 28 Wate ‘ =m @ ater & Heater ||) @ES) Heading Planer ie d 49! ENA , oe Jointer — Press bee nm}, © 16 Rm g| Pergagt. Argh Tdp Tsk 1s tt, [)S () ChTurner L| a Line Shaft Overhead Te tke katte T_Besting Finishing Dope sees x 4}ft.| | : Stee} Fl Bolting and Headin; jawing Dep’t | = 234"Plank_Floor 3 GROUND PLAN Ye ech OF Stave Bolt SLACK COOPERAGE T Equalizer bal PLANT SLACK COOPERAGE 123 The raw material is preferred in the green state as it is manufactured much more readily and is delivered to the mill in the form of logs or bolts. They are accepted down to 8 in. at the small end at some of the plants. A mill pond to clean the logs, thaw frozen logs in winter, serve for storage purposes and to soften the wood for slicing and sawing is in common practice. A log hoist serves to elevate the logs to the main floor, from which point the material gravitates to constantly lower elevations. In some mills the logs are rolled on to a deck; in others they are taken directly to a cut-off saw. In either case, they are inspected and desig- nated for their proper use, the better grade of logs going into staves or ‘hoops, while those containing crooks, knots, checks, and other defects are set aside for heading. Following this inspection they are bolted into the proper length by a drag saw or drop circular saw. The former is used in mills where large logs are the rule and the latter for mills in which the run of logs is small. In one large mill, all bolts for staves are cut into 32-in. lengths, while those for headings are cut into 22-in. lengths. From this point in the process of manufacture the bolts are con- ducted on transfer chains or other carriers to the different parts of the mill. Manufacture of Staves. The larger bolts designated for staves are quartered or halved, depend- ing upon their size, and, if necessary, cut in smaller flitches sufficiently large to yield staves 4 to 5 in. in width. Formerly stave bolts were rived with a maul and wedge, but this method is so wasteful that saws are almost universally used at the present time for this purpose. The flitches or bolts are next put through a process to soften the fiber sufficiently to shear into staves. Steaming has been found to be the best method. Well-steamed wood shears about one-third more easily than green or wet wood and yields a brighter and much smoother stave. Wood that is not sufficiently steamed will produce rough, uneven staves that are likely to stain, whereas over-steaming deadens the fiber and, therefore, impairs its life and strength. Elm, cottonwood, soft maple and basswood require much less steaming than gum, beech, hard maple, birch and sycamore. In a mill cutting staves of the last four-named species, the wood was subjected to steaming for twenty-four hours under a-pressure of from 100 to 110 Ib. In some mills boiling the bolts for seven hours is practiced instead of steaming. There is a difference of opinion as to whether boiling or the use of live or exhaust steam is-best, but steaming is the most common practice. 124 FOREST PRODUCTS The usual procedure is to load the bolts on cars 55 by 53 in. in size, which are rolled into steam tunnels about 45 ft. in length. The tunnels may be constructed either of wood or concrete. One mill has 15 of these tunnels arranged side by side with a capacity of 9 cars, ora total capacity of 135 cars, which contain the equivalent of about 100,000 staves 284 inches in length. From the steam boxes the bolts go to the stave bolt equalizer, located conveniently to the stave cutter (to the left of it and about 3 ft. from it). The bolts are first peeled of all bark. The equalizer cuts off both ends of the bolt to insure the desired length and make them smooth and square. Fic. 29.—The Trevor stave bolt equalizer. It is provided with two circular cut-off saws about 32 in. in diameter, of 11-gauge, having 64 teeth and run at a speed of about 1800 R.P.M. Each equalizer can turn out enough bolts for 50,000 staves daily. Next the bolts are cut into staves on a stave-cutter. This machine has a knife usually 36 in. long and 63 in. wide, with a face ground to a circle of 20 in. The bolts fit in a tumbler and at each stroke against the knife a stave of any desired width is sliced off. The speed of the machine is regulated as fast as the operator can feed it, 150 to 170 strokes per min- ute being the usual practice. With even, straight bolts the work is much easier than with split or uneven pieces. This work demands the con- SLACK COOPERAGE 125 stant and most careful attention of the operator since the cut should be made on the quarter-grain in so far as possible in order to produce the strongest stave. It should always be of even thickness and smooth. This work is of such exacting nature combined with the danger of cutting one’s fingers that stave cutters are usually required to work every other hour, or altogether only five hours on duty ina ten-hour day. One stave- cutting machine will turn out about 30,000 to 60,000 staves in a ten-hour day. In working up the softwoods into staves, such as white and yellow pines, hemlock, spruce, tamarack, etc., the steaming process is not Photograph by U. S. Forest Sertce. Fic. 30.—Barrel stave saw and stave bolts ready to be sawn at mill of Mt. Olive Stave Co., Batesville, Independence Co., Arkansas. Both slack and tight staves are made on this type of saw. resorted to. These woods, particularly the Southern pines, seem to be so shattered in the steaming and cutting process that the staves check and splinter up very seriously upon drying. The usual practice with these woods, therefore, is to cut them on a cylinder stave saw which is shown in the accompanying illustration. The speed of these saws is usually maintained at about 1800 R.P.M. The cylinder or drum saw is most commonly found in the South. As soon as the staves are made on the drum saw or the stave cutter, they are received by a helper who loads them on carts, .cars or sleighs, according to the season and location of the mill, and are transported to the dry shed for seasoning. Four to six staves are laid on top of one 126 . FOREST PRODUCTS another, the curved sides fitting into each other. The ends of another similar bundle rest on the ends of other bundles and thus the piling con- tinues making a sort of crib work construction. es piles are separated by a space varying from 14 to 24 in. Seasoning is usually carried on in open-air sheds abou 20 ft. wide and 100 to 150 ft. in length. The piles should be elevated about 10 to 16 in. from the ground and every opportunity offered to facilitate the drying out of the staves. The seasoning of hardwood staves requires from one to three months, depending upon the time of year. It is estimated that beech, birch and maple staves 28} in. in length should weigh about 1 lb. apiece when properly dried. Just before the-staves are shipped to the cooperage shop where the staves, heading and hoops are assembled into barrels, they are jointed. The jointing machine is brought to the staves in the dry sheds and operated there either by hand or power. The hand jointer is the more common form in use at the present time. The function of the jointer is to shape the staves so that the finished barrel will have the required bilge. Staves with a three-quarter bilge joint means that the ends of the staves are $ in. narrower than'the center. It is‘very important that a careful man and one who understands zrades is employed on the jointing machine. Current opinion in the trade now favors the bevel as against the square joint. At each downward stroke of the knife, narrow strips called listings are removed. Each stave jointer has an average capacity of about 10,000 staves in a ten-hour day. : For the purposes of shipping, staves are bundled in a stave press which is very similar to a shingle, excelsior or hay press in principle. Several different types are on the market. Staves are packed with alter- nating wide and narrow ones, and so arranged that about 200 in. in total width, are in one bundle. This is estimated on the basis of 50 staves to the bundle and that the width of the average stave is about 4 in. This method of packing is standard throughout the slack cooperage industry. The crew of the stave department in a typical cooperage mill making both heading and staves of the Northern hardwoods is as follows. This mill runs eleven months in the year, during which it manufactures about 25,000,000 staves and 600,000 to 800,000 sets of heading: 2 men who load bolts. 2 men in feeding steam tunnel I man in pulling tunnel. 2 bark peelers. SLACK COOPERAGE 127 3 equalizers—these men work one hour on and one-half hour off. 4 stave cutters—these men only work every other hour. 2 stave cullers. 2 loaders—on trucks that take them to the dry sheds. 2 drivers—to transport the trucks to the yards. 8 pilers in the yard. 4 stave jointers. Stavers get $3.00 to $3.25 per day. Common labor received $1.75 per day of ten hours before the war. Manufacture of Heading. After the bolts designated for heading stock are cut off in proper lengths (22 in. for sugar barrel heads) by the main cut-off saw, they are first rossed to remove the bark and any accumulated sand, grit, etc. One man can remove the bark fast enough to keep two heading saws busy, when sawing 24,000 to 30,000 pieces of heading boards per day. Then each bolt is transferred on live rolls to the heading saw, the largest bolts being quartered or halved. One large mill observes the rule that bolts 12 in. and over in diameter must be halved; those over 16 in. are quar- tered. The heading saw is also called an upright pendulous-swing saw. The larger this saw with greater rim speed, the greater will be the ease in cutting and, therefore, its capacity. The hardness and character of the wood sawed will govern, of course, the gauge and number of teeth in the saw. With beech, maple, birch, sycamore and oak a 56-in. saw with 80 teeth, 15 gauge at the rim and 6 gauge at the eye running 1500 R.P.M. will give the best results. With red gum, cottonwood, and basswood, a 50-in. saw with 64 teeth, 15 gauge on the rim and 10 gauge at the eye and running 1500 R.P.M. gives the most satisfactory results. A horizontal - hand-feed heading saw is also used to some extent and has certain advan- tages. The heading saw usually cuts the heading stock about +5 of an inch in thickness. When surfaced and kiln dried it makes heading ;; or 4 in. in thickness. Surfacing is usually done only on one side. The boards are then stackea on trucks which hold from 4500 to 5000 Pieces and conveyed to the dry shed where they are left from ten to thirty days with stickers between the layers. From the dry shed the heading boards are rolled on trucks into the dry kilns, of which there are many types. One mill which turns out 3500 to 4000 sets of heading per day has two channels in its dry kiln which are 128 FOREST PRODUCTS each 100 ft. by 18 ft. in dimension. Until within recent years, air drying was resorted to entirely to properly season the heading boards. Kiln drying has the advantages of saving in time and the control of the dry condition of the boards. Softwoods may be kiln-dried directly from the heading saw and planer, but hardwoods should first be air dried for from ten to thirty days, depending upon the kind of wood and the season. Fic. 31.—Heading sawing machine. In a heading mill, which turns out from 2500 to 4ooo sets of beech, birch and maple heading per day, there are two dry kilns 128 ft. long, 18 ft. wide and ro ft. in height. Each kiln has a capacity of 20 cars, each of which holds from 4500 to 5000 pieces. Every effort is made to dry all the boards, which are separated by stickers, at the same rate, to prevent warping, checking and case-hardening. Many plants use a series of steam pipes to secure and regulate the proper amount of heat and a forced draft over the cars is provided by a large fan. At one mill, at the SLACK COOPERAGE 129 wet end of the kiln (where the highest humidity is maintained) the temperature is maintained from go° to 130° F. At the dry end the temperature may be 150° or over. The period of kiln-drying is about ten days for Northern hardwoods, during which the heading blanks slowly pass from the wet to the dry end of the kiln as fresh material is put in and the dried boards are conveyed to the heading mill. Although kiln-drying is in common practice, at some mills the heading stock is merely air dried in a shed. Within the heading mill are the three machines—the jointer, the head- ing turner and the heading press or baler. In some mills the heading boards are planed before they reach the jointer. The heading room should have ample space for the various operations and should be well above the level of the ground in order easily to carry out the refuse to the boiler room and to load the baled heading on the cars with the least effort. As the trucks containing the dry boards are unloaded from the dry kiln, the heading pieces are jointed. This consists of removing any bark or rough or uneven edges and making them smooth and even, so there will be a tight joint or “ fit” when the heading pieces are placed together to form the barrel head. This is done either by a saw or a large rotary wheel provided with knives against which the boards are shoved by the jointer until a Smooth edge is secured. Experience in the trade, how- ever, has shown that a 5-{t. wheel jointer running 650 R.P.M. and with a 21-in. knife, will give the best satisfaction. An operator well versed in the work can joint 3500 to 4000 sets of heading in a day of ten hours. The heading board should be held firmly and evenly against the jointer to make the best joint. The edge should also be along the grain in so far as possible. If these precautions are not observed the joint is likely to be shattered or rough or uneven. There is a strong tendency to cause unnecessary waste which only an experienced man can avoid to best advantage. The pieces next go to the matchers, of whom there are usually two, to keep one jointer and one heading turner busy. These men assemble the heading pieces into sizes approximately of the same diameter as the fin- ished barrel head. From five to six pieces are used for sugar-barrel heading 19g in. in diameter. Assuming that the heading turner properly centers the pieces, an allowance of 1 in. is usually made for trimming. The *‘ goosenecks ”’ or “‘ bats ” left after trimming are a good guide to the matchers as to unnecessary waste in matching up boards for the heading turner. The boards are stacked up to a convenient height on a bench 130 FOREST PRODUCTS near the heading turner and as he finishes one pile another is moved up close to avoid loss of time. Piles of about 20 sets are customary. The heading turner is probably the most interesting machine in a cooperage mill. Its function is to circle a finished barrel heading with a beveled edge out of each course of heading boards. The jointed and matched boards are placed into a form or clamp which holds the pieces firmly together; the operator, with a foot lever, releases the turner and the boards are swiftly revolved against a combination saw and knife. The saw which is concave in shape cuts the boards in a circle on a bevel aie Fic. 32.—First step in assembling a barrel. while the knife cuts the other bevel to meet it. Immediately the heading is turned, the machine automatically throws itself out of gear, discharges the heading pieces and assumes a position ready to receive another course. The speed of the turner saw is about 5000 R.P.M. In some mills the operator works only every other hour. As each head is made, it drops down a chute with the waste to a pick-up.or assembly man. He sets aside the waste and assembles the boards into regular piles. When enough sets have been piled up, they are carried or sent on live rolls to the baler. It is customary to pack 20 sets (40 heading) to the bundle which are baled with 3 wire ties of 11 gauge wire and loaded directly into the freight cars. SLACK COOPERAGE 131 The manufacture of heading does not require skilled labor of any particular or exacting nature. A mill having a capacity of about 4000 sets of heading in a ten-hour day, but actually turning out about 3500 sets per day, has the following crew in the heading mill alone. About 100 h.p. was required to drive the heading machinery. 2 men or boys called “‘ tads ” to take the boards from the dry-kiln trucks and place them within convenient reach of the jointers. 2 jointers to feed the jointing machines. 2 matchers to put those boards together that will fit and make the proper width for a head. 2 turners—these men only work every other hour. I pick-up or assembly man to put the pieces together after coming from the heading turner. 1 baler who takes the assembled heads and fastens them with wire into bundles of 20 sets each. ; t boy who picks up the “ goosenecks ” and ties them together. 1 general utility man to assist anyone who becomes overrushed with work, look after breakdowns, clean-up congested parts of the mill, assist in loading baled heading, etc. 1 plant foreman. MANUFACTURE OF HOOPS Elm has always been the leading hoop wood on account of its tough- ness, strength, and ability to retain these qualities when steamed or boiled and bent. It makes up practically all of the material used for hoops, although oak, hickory, ash, birch, and maple are occasionally used. In the far South, pine, cypress and red and black gum are sometimes used, but the total amount is almost negligibl ecompared to elm. Wooden hoops are not as important a forest product as formerly, due to heavy competition from wire and flat steel and iron hoops, which are gradually displacing the wooden variety. Hoops are generally made in separate mills which move from place to place as the scattering local supply of elm and other species-are ex- hausted. Green timber which is sound and straight-grained and free from knots, shakes and other defects is the best material. It is generally felt that second growth rock elm makes a very poor and unsatisfactory hoop. The standard barrel hoop should be 13 in. wide, 4 to 7 ft. long and with one edge about twice as thick as the other. Usually the thicker edge is i in. wide and the other 3; in. in width. Both edges are rounded. On 132 FOREST PRODUCTS finishing the hoops, one end is pointed while the other is “ lapped ” or thinned down to a fine edge like a wedge. There are two methods of manufacturing coiled hoops and although certain variations in the two processes may be found. in different parts of the country, they may be described as follows: Sawed Hoops. The timber for hoops is sawed into planks at a sawmill. They are ripped on a self-feed gang rip-saw into hoop bars 17% by #4 in. in cross- section, each bar being large enough to turn out two hoops. The length may vary from 4 to 7 ft., depending upon the size of barrels they are intended for. Rip saws 16 in. in diameter and running at a speed of 3000 R.P.M. have proven to give excellent satisfaction. The other machinery required for the manufacture of sawed hoops includes a combined planer and a jointer or lapper, and in addition a coiler. A great improvement over the old method is found in the Traut- man sawed hoop machine which saws the hoop bar in two and planes, points and laps the hoop in one complete operation. The process is, briefly, as follows: One end of the bar is pointed by a revolving cutter head and is then started through the feed rolls. A saw placed at the necessary angle to produce the proper bevel, divides the bar into two hoops while a planer surfaces the opposite sides of the hoops. As they pass out, each hoop is lapped. Two operators are sufficient to run the machine, which has a rated capacity of 15,000 hoops per day. The Ket- tenring machine is another in common use. The hoops are conveyed to a boiling vat or tank made of wood, which is about 7 ft. long, 5 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep. Here they are soft- ened in the hot water which is heated by exhaust steam. They are then taken to the coiling machines. Cut Hoops. The timber is sawed into planks of the same width as the hoop and cross-cut into the desired length. In the cutting process, the following machines are required—a hoop cutter, a lapper or jointer, a hoop planer and a coiler. Before cutting the planks are steamed or boiled. For a long time there was some discussion as to whether steaming or boiling was better, but there is a general opinion among manufacturers that boiling is more efficient and cheaper in the end. The size of the vat depends upon the capacity of the mill. For a plant with a capacity of 40,000 to 50,000 hoops per ten-hour day the vat SLACK COOPERAGE 133 should be about 45 to 60 ft. in length, 8 to 10 ft. wide, and 5 to 7 ft. deep and made of concrete or yellow pine. Some plants boil their hoop plank standing on end, as they claim that best results are secured when each plank is separated from the others, which is difficult or impossible when the planks are laid flat in the horizontal tanks. The heat applied and length of boiling depend upon the condition of the stock. All that is required is to soften up the fibers so they will cut easily. While still hot the planks are taken to the hoop cutter, which should be adjusted to cut the hoops slightly thicker than the finished size to allow for planing. Hoop-cutting machines are usually run at a speed of 200 R.P.M. and have a capacity of 60,000 to 75,000 cut and beveled hoops in ten hours. Next the hoops are planed in special machines that dress three hoops at a time and have a capacity of 30,000 to 35,000 hoops per day of ten hours. They are then pointed and lapped on other special machines and sent to the coiling machine. As to the relative advantages of cut and sawed hoops there has been much discussion. Many more hoops can be made from a given amount of timber by the cut process than by the sawed process for the reason that with cut hoops there is no loss in sawdust. It is estimated, for © example, that 1000 bd. ft. of elm logs will make 4000 cut hoops as against 3000 sawed hoops. Hoop-cutting machines will turn out from 40,000 to 60,000 hoops per day as against 15,000 sawed hoops per day. However, the machinery used in sawing hoops is much more portable than the other, it requires much less capital and skill for equipment and maintenance and the sawed hoop is generally considered in the trade to be superior. The last argument seems to be true, because in the cutting process the knife is inclined to shatter the wood in forcing its way through the fibers which results in materially weakening the hoop. The hoop-coiling machine is an ingenious device to coil the hoops while still hot from the vat whether made by the cutting or sawing process. Several makes have a capacity of from 15,000 to 20,000 or more per day. If the hoops are not hot when coiled, there will be much breakage and splintering in consequence. After coiling the hoops are carefully stacked in an open air shed and thoroughly dried before ship- ment. Coiled elm hoops are made in many dimensions, varying in finished lengths from 3 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft. 6 in. 134 FOREST PRODUCTS ASSEMBLING The assembling of the various parts of slack cooperage into the fin- ished barrel is accomplished in shops at or near the point where the barrel is filled with its contents. For example, sugar refineries, flour and cement mills, fruit and other storage warehouses usually have shops in connection with them where great quantities of staves, heading and hoops are brought in carload lots and assembled into the barrel of the desired size. Formerly small cooperage shops were commonly found where barrels were largely assembled by hand, but the tendency in the business is to centralize the assembling of barrels in large shops where recently improved machinery is introduced to turn out great quantities of barrels at a lower cost. . The process of putting together ‘the barrels generally consists of the following distinct operations: 1. Putting the required number of staves together in a form. This operation is commonly called “ raising ” or ‘‘ setting up.” 2. Heating over a stove or patent heater to dry out the wood, increase the flexibility of the staves and make a closer fit. 3. Bending or forcing the staves together in a bending press or by means of a windlass and rope. This operation is often called wind- lassing. ) 4. Crozing, which consists of making a groove in which the heading fits. ; 5. Chiming or chamfering down the ends of the staves on a bevel from the groove to the end. The following is a brief description of the process of making apple barrels as carried out in the old-fashioned cooperage shop. The cooper sets up, on an average, 16 staves inside a wooden hoop 64 in. in circum- ference, inside measurement, on a platform in front of his work bench. The ends of the barrel are then drawn together by placing a rope over the end of the barrel and drawing it tight by means of a foot lever and pulley. A small regulation hoop is placed over each end as the staves are drawn together. The cooper then places the barrel over a small coal stove or heater and a metal cover or hood is let down over the barrel to retain the heat. Here it is left until it begins to steam or smoke. Meanwhile the cooper starts the assembling of a new barrel as just described. The heated barrel is taken back to the work bench where the quarter hoops and second hoops are fitted on, the ends of the staves are pounded to SLACK COOPERAGE 135 even them off and planed. Next the croze or groove is made followed by the chiming operation. The heads are set in the groove at each end and the first hoops are fitted on and nailed. When used immediately one head is left off until filled with apples or other contents. In the average small cooperage plant, coopers are paid from 5 to 8 cents apiece for the work of assembling the parts. A good cooper will average 80 barrels a day. Exceptional coopers will put out from go to 100 apple barrels in a day. These barrels sell at the shop for from 35 to 43 cents or more per barrel, depending upon size, quality and local demand. In the larger and more modern cooperage shops, instead of one cooper doing the whole operation several men are employed and each man tends a machine or looks after only one particular task. Very little hand work is done. The staves are first put together in a “ raiser” by means of which one man will “ raise ” from 75 to 100 barrels in one hour. The other ends of the staves are cramped together by a windlass, an ingenious mechanical device operated either by power or by hand. The barrel is rolled down an incline to the heater, where it remains for about thirty seconds and goes on to the hoopers and trimmers, who fit the hoops, trim up the ends of the staves and another machine in one revolving motion cuts the bevel and groove in the staves, noted above as the chime and the croze. There is a continuous progressive movement of the barrel from the first to the last operation with the minimum loss of time and effort. From the crozer the barrel goes to the “ header,” who stands it on a metal base, the heads are put into position and the “ rebutter ” forces the last hoops into place. The barrel is then ready for shipment. UTILIZATION OF WASTE The slack cooperage industry offers many opportunities for saving woods waste. After logging has progressed over an area, the remaining small trees, tops (crooked and otherwise) and defective logs are often worked up into heading and staves, particularly the former. On many operations, all 4-ft. bolts down to 8 in. in diameter at the small end are taken for slack stock. At some of the larger hardwood sawmills, defective ends, slabs and the smallest logs are sent over to a heading mill erected in connection with the sawmill. The manufacture itself of heading, staves and hoops necessitates the loss of considerable wood. In the making of staves and hoops, it is esti- mated that from 40 to 50 per cent of the contents of logs are lost in the 136 FOREST PRODUCTS process. The loss in the manufacture of heading is even much greater, the waste commonly reaching 60 or 70 per cent of the original logs or bolts. A good portion of this waste is frequently unpreventable. The chief sources of waste are as follows: 1. Severely checked logs and bolts resulting from too long exposure in the woods or in the yard. Green material brought directly from the woods and used immediately makes the best stock. 2. Logs suitable only for heading are cut up into stave lengths or multiples thereof and later found to be only useful for heading. This results from careless or incompetent inspection of the raw material. 3. Logs are frequently bolted into lengths suitable for making a certain sized heading or staves and later used for shorter staves or smaller heading. In the making of many thousand staves and sets of heading daily the loss in trimming, due to this carelessness, may determine to a considerable degree the character of the profits. In some mills head- ing bolts are cut 21 in. long when only 17§ or smaller heading will be circled out of them. Bolts for 32-in. staves are often cut into 283-in. staves, etc. . 4. Faulty or careless manufacture, such as in handling the stock, useless waste in jointing both staves and heading, and in bolting and quartering the stock are common sources of waste. Only too often care- less methods of piling staves for seasoning result in a serious loss. Although considerable loss is occasioned in the manufacture of slack-barrel stock, up-to-date plants utilize practically all of the waste material. The sawdust and some of the smaller pieces go to the furnaces in the power plant, the ashes being sold for fertilizer. Some of the larger material is utilized for trunk slats, crate stock, furniture parts, chair rungs, toy stock, etc. The principal forms of waste occurring in the process of manufacture aside from those mentioned above, are as follows: (a) “‘ Goosenecks,” the waste from the heading turner. (b) “ Listings,” narrow strips removed by the stave jointer. (c) Corner wood—odd corners left after staves are made from the stave bolts. (d) Culled staves and blockwood consisting of culls from heading material. One of the largest cooperage mills in the country sends all of its waste wood to a wood distillation plant for which $2.75 is secured per cord f.o.b. cars at the cooperage mill. SLACK COOPERAGE 137 EQUIVALENTS There are no universally adopted figures of the number of hoops, staves and heading of given sizes that may be cut from 1000 bd. ft. of logs or from a cord of bolts. However, the following apna are accepted by a large number of companies: For an average run of logs, about 2400 staves 30 in. in length and 4 in. in width may be cut from 1ooo bd. ft. of logs measured by the Doyle tule. It is said that in Arkansas 1 cord of bolts 32 in. in length measured with the bark will yield 1000 staves or without bark 1200 staves. Bolts of this length are usually stacked 4 ft. and 12 ft. long, which makes the standard cord of 128 cu. ft. When the dry thickness of heading is ;4 in. and 19} in. in diameter, tooo bd. ft. of logs, Doyle rule, will yield 2000 pieces of heading, or about 400 sets. Measured by the same rule, 1000 bd. ft. will yield-4000 cut hoops or 3000 sawed hoops. STOCK WEIGHTS The following is a list of weights adopted by the National Slack Coop- erage Manufacturers’ Association in 1915. The heading is kiln-dried; the staves are thoroughly air-dried, and the hoops are in the usual air- dried condition for shipment. STAVES Elm, North of the Ohio River. Weight Per Thousand Pieces 28} in. staves, cut 5 to 1% in., avg: 4 in. wide..................2-..------ 780 Ib. mr staves, cuts to rf m., avg. 4M. wide... .-... 2... 2-22. bonne seas 830 lb. aa ms Staves, Cuts tO 14 in., ave. 4m. Wide... 2.52.5 k ce sees ceeee 885 Ib. 34 in. staves, cut 5 to 1} im., avg. 4 im. wide........... 2.2.2 ..2. eee cence 945 lb. 33 im. staves, cut 5 to 1j in., avg. 4 in. wide..............05.. 5.6.0. eee 915 lb. 284 in. staves, cut 6 to 2 in., avg. 4 in. wide. .-..- 22... ee cee cee eeeeseee 680 Ib. Elm, South of the Ohio River. 283 in. staves, cut 5 to 1} im., avg. 4 in. wide... .............0..0e-- eee 800 Ib. mona staves, Cut s to 17 in., avg. 4 in wide... 0.02 -< 5. cic ec cc cok 840 lb. 32 im. staves, cut 5 to 1% in., avg. 4 in. wide..............2.022.2.4.6.. 925 lb. 34 in. staves, cut 5 to 1} in., avg. 4 in. wide....................0..-... 1000 Ib. 28% mn. staves, cut 6 to 2 in., avg. 4 in. wide... ...... 2.2... eee eee eee 700 Ib. Gum, Mixed Staves. es in. Staves, cut 6 to 2 in., avg. 4 in. wide... . 222.22. 2.22. cece coca vee 700 Ib. 138 FOREST PRODUCTS Hardwood Staves (beech, birch, maple). Weight Per Thousand Pieces 283 in. staves, cut 6 to 2} in., avg. 4 in. wide... . 2... 22s vicee ccs es¥ vive 950 lb 30 in. staves, cut 6 to 2% in., avg. 4 in. wide............ Fe fe ee La 1000 Ib Cottonwood Staves. 28% in. staves, cut 5 to 13% in., avg. 4 in, wide.............0ceceeeceeeee 650 lb Gum Staves. 23% in. staves, cut 5 to 132 in., avg. 4 in. wide...............-0-..0eceee 600 Ib 28% in. staves, cut 5 to 14% in., avg. 4 in. wide... 6.00.0... 000... eceeeneee 800 Ib 30 in. staves, cut 5 to 14% in., avg. 4 in. wide..................:..-000 840 lb 32 in. staves, cut sto 244.in., avg-4in: wide... 1. .....:3..05sceaeee 925 lb 34 in. staves, cut 5 to 17¢@ im., avg. 4 in. wide.......................:.. 1000 lb 36 in, staves, Cut-§ to0/2: - In., Aavg.'4.m, Wide: .2..... fal hud ee ee 1100 lb 40 in. staves, cut 5 to 27g in., avg. 4 in. wide..................-..000ee 1200 lb 23% in. staves, cut 6 to 2‘ in., avg. 34 in: wide... .. 2... 0. eee ew ce teas 500 lb 24 in. staves; cut 6:16°9.7 1n., avg. 94 in. wider. .6053 4. so. aa eee 525 lb Eim Hoops 3 ft: 8 in; hoops, ye ye XE i. ves. vce. vos ce wpa anes eee eee 275 lb 4 it: hoops, Fut Pe TE. thee ead. wh oem ee. ee 300 Ib aft. 4 in. hoops, Pes ye Kid ae ik hee 1 Og 350 lb 5. ft. hoops, se X Fe AS Theor oasis deine > ovale ea ae 400 Ib 5 ft. 6 in: hoops, a a's X14 I, 22554 ook Sokew phones ane 460 ft 6 ft: hoops, se ee NUE 1 ec ors S leo cs ee ni ed eee cae 500 Ib 6 ft..6:in. hoops, eX xfe % TF in, 2 sec oso 3 oO oe he ee ee 545 lb 6 ft. 8 in. hoops, sae X TE in. 335 os eee he ea ee 570 lb 9 ft. Woops; vex fe Xd ss Soe AL OA eee . 600 Ib » ft. 8 invhoops, yee TE AD. sess, on oes nose ey Caw le ee ee ee 650 lb 8:ft. hoops, eX Te EBD i ss dae hie a on ae a eae a 700 Ib HEADING Gum. Weight Per 100 Sets 15% in. heads, $i. thick: 05. odiccvci Joe cy ees 1 anes ae ne 360 Ib 574 in. heads, $.in. thick: oa scenes ls ce see ob cos ne ee 435 |b 184 in: heads, 4-in: thick: : 220... Gat ca ee oe nab Na oar ee 500 lb Tok in. heads, 4 in: -thick:... ..535ccceis en oe sane wees ee ee eee 550 lb aon, heads, 4 in, thick ss siecle ak wa ee eee eee Cer 600 Ib au is deads; 4 in. thick) 5.0:55.55 sac. ga aN oa seca eee eek ee ee 650 Ib aoe in. beads, 4 ‘im. thick... 30.0 53 decease eee ee ee ee 725 |b wa8 in heads 4} i. thick. 0°. 27005. ss ye eae es oe eae ee gee 825 Ib Sa sit heads, 4 iN; thick. sew sew aah ts 9d ae orate ae 875 lb. Cottonwood. 19% in. heads, 3 in. thick........... PY LEU i ee OS Ce ry nt 450 lb. ee ee a nT SLACK COOPERAGE Basswood. Weight Per 100 Sets RenaNCM ty & 80s, CCI os eg ti Fee pa nce Ss oo cet Ss ow U ey te de SERS 240 lb PURMMOE: S0k: CHM Sp ae Sc eos se totes g Pa Fe ae newb cee west 250 |b Sent 301 CRS = hoa ey oe Plo ig Boe eae Se te Dew ne SERS Ree 260 Ib Mee eeenns. -& ti. Ce Oe isa. oat cee ee es oe Pe Ae eepts eee 300 Ib RE MCNEMCRS gear d Cus te he ea cat tee ne eo) en ES 340 Ib CPM BMA RMR S OS Se te 8s ES wc gele 6 Oh eit a 5.08 coe ae 400 Ib Hardwood (beech, birch, maple). Serene, se 10 CICK a go. ons eae tenes pees Vac Sa ees oe 310 |b CNN as BD EMM yo wc relate een PEO Kapkee Lee 340 Ib 153 in. heads, 7% in. thick... .. Wales 5 nie tee Aa er eeu teat aoe’ 360 Ib RSS geese ASE Pe Ane Pe de hepa Wee -.-+ 400 Ib ee RENEE, Ser ME TUCK: Sand. eS hace ence tk hy ace Sy ee gan Wee eee 440 Ib IEMNCMIES ols Iie CHEK a5 2. ds cc Ee Laos Gap elation ee ee ads 500 Ib Sona emes, sen THK. |e ak SA kG PR aars 600 Ib SOUND Ag Ns Sa ape ae qe cor Rama ar eg gry Gar, 675 Ib enema: Shs COCR oe as = oa cleo «ae ee wee eo Se ee te oes 750 Ib SECM, BN CM ss os sivien ee odia tinea aw tor wane cnn Meee G 800 Ib PeremGMen a he PRIOR OR Stats SS ck ctv e ov eae ae ase aU ne tees eo goo Ib Sema weeeine @ Ott. AGHCK. «Oo 25S. w1o 3. a ob bs poe b ae Sey Tees oeeeeee es! 970 lb Seemeaeaee eth. tacks 2 5 jo eS 1030 Ib ee ee Old, CICK es Ss hoe cl eis ois 0 Sv ow ee Oe oe r100 lb Yellow Pine. MN as 8 SOGGY aici Clara cg nud Ae he aad ¥ de Me stn hl alg gee So Mdkeed 2 t10 Ib. MIB T hose: Lows cae sch ws bee Sos wea indian ag alee gees aes 125 lb MM oe el eek ons OG o's Xo EN end Gd 8 wie OAS fea ks d hoo 135 lb EE Serco se. og ae Geos et ais Vata obigdgee eS ae iy wo 150 lb ATE RE SESE TA ih oe Pane en GAT RAE Ree [Rate 180 Ib INN sto tancd PNG Sacha Sorat as Sig's aw y Se BS EAE Sw eeeee nd 200 Ib ED aries ns AW Femi, J Airity wars wake Kon dr ashe eee oe 220 Ib a iD DS atc ts Be re 9 2.P alo nid mide ws Bom URAC ae 240 lb a SE Si ee On nS PPD Se A” ee eRe RL IN een Pees Sey Die 260 Ib III ES Wes oy Moe Re oc Bes Ssh ene sl me ake Shee 280 Ib NN asc 2 54°50 Se WERE 5 Spiviels PTS Gnawa». oi bea sl glee aaa T. 300 Ib MM re cri Behe ste orp 'n Sate ta gaeek a J xs nae a hie a Oo 320 lb EN a Nace Dare ai, MOI 5 ak a. ha Cais wa a Oe ee ae 345 |b NE Hess eh RS a ah ck ae eee a ek Sela Fa RE heat ch Ae 370 lb MI ei Oreo vo gee PRS et Seis od were Fa he 395 lb IERIE FN So fo TS sty ae A ee ae, 420 lb MM ME eh! Sealey aot, ee Sa psec shoe POT Ghote Deke ws 435 lb DE i oT oT rhs TPS ye st epee ai at beeen 475 lb I as rete ee ee ees pee 485 lb eS OR RR ae ee, cc 500 Ib I eR te ad Late eck k hci es cdc ccenbéahan 530 lb TE Cot hc es lati ve Ra tg bd sche ese 540 Ib 140 FOREST PRODUCTS Weight Per 100 Sets top tn heads 5 poh eee awa eka chee yeas ee ee eee 550 lb. 20° INheads. 655 aes Os wi ew ie ba tle eek eae ae 610 lb. ar in. Heady, : ieee etl dak Sls eRe aaa oe 675 |b. 214 ity heads. 3 .goyapsoee Rieke ee 8 ca aR ee eee 710 tb. 22! ga heads. yi ic vs dca Hele ee ed ba dae 755 lb. ag In. Hewes. Ae Se ie iat baa wh apaiee ol Oege Se Cee 840 Ib. 23H iv heads yes PS Se ate tc a beans cee A 890 Ib. 24 in. heads........ Sage Mattias Aiea k ate ea ee oe eh eM be eee ae 930 Ib. GRADING RULES The following grading rules were adopted by the National Slack = Man- ufacturers’ Association on May 14, 1915. Staves. 1. Elm and gum staves 283 in. and longer shall be cut five staves to 17 in. in thick- ness. 2. Cottonwood and basswood staves 21} in. and longer shall be cut five staves to 17¢@ in. in thickness. 3. Elm, gum, cottonwood and basswood staves 24 in. and shorter shall be cut six staves to 2 in. in thickness. 4. Hardwood staves, oak, beech, and maple 28} in. and longer shall be cut six staves to 2} in. in thickness. 5. Hardwood staves, oak, beech and maple, 24 in. and shorter, shall be cut six staves to 2 in. in thickness. 6. White ash staves shall be cut five staves to 2§ in. in thickness. 7. No. 1 staves shall be of uniform thickness, free from knots, slanting shakes, dozy wood, badly stained with black and blue mildew, or other defects making stave unfit for use in a No. r barrel. 8. Meal barrel staves shall be free of slanting shakes over 1} in. long, knot holes and unsound knots (but sound knots not over 2 in. in diameter shall be allowed), and shall consist of good, sound, workable staves. Moderate stain, mildew or discolora- tion no defect. 9. Mill run staves shall consist of the run of the knife, made from regular run of stave logs, and shall contain 40 per cent or more of No. 1 staves. All dead culls out. 10. No. 2 staves shall, unless otherwise specified, contain the meal barrel grade and be free from dead culls. Mildew and stain no defect. 11. Standard bilge on staves, unless otherwise specified, shall be as follows: 18 in. to 22 in. in length both inclusive, 3 in. bilge; 23 in. to 284 in. in length, both inclusive, 3-in. bilge; 30 in. in length, 3-in. bilge; 32 in. and 34 in. in length, -in. bilge. 12. Standard quarter shall be 9 in. for flour barrels and 83 in. for sugar barrels. 13. No. 1 staves longer than 24 in. shall not be less than 2 in. nor exceed 5} in. in width, measuring across the bilge. No. 2 staves of same lengths may be from 2 in. to 6 in. in width. 14. All barrel staves 283 in. and longer to average in measurement, after being jointed, 4 in. per stave or 4000 in. per thousand staves. SLACK COOPERAGE 141 15. Half barrel staves, 23 in., 233 in. or 24 in., 33 in. to the stave, or 175 in. to the bundle of 50 staves. 16. Keg staves to measure 160 in. to the bundle of 50 staves. 17. All staves shall be thoroughly air dried before jointing and shall be measured across the center of the bilge. Unless otherwise specified, it will be presumed that staves are to be air dried. 18. No. 1 white ash staves shall be of uniform thickness, smoothly cut, free from knots, slanting shakes, dozy timber, worm holes, stains or mold of any kind which makes the stave unfit for use in the manufacture of No. 1 butter tubs and to average not less than 85 per cent white. 19. No. 2 ash staves—same specifications as No. 2 gum and elm. 20. All ash staves shall be jointed with 3-in. bilge unless otherwise specified. 21. Mill run apple barrel staves, unless otherwise specified, shall be cut six staves to 2 in. in thickness and shall consist of the run of the mill from the regular run of stave logs. An average of not less than 60 per cent of the staves in each bundle to be bright on the outside. At least 40 per cent of all staves to be No. 1. Mold on No. 1 staves no defect. All mill run apple barrel staves, unless otherwise specified, shall be jointed with ;%-in. bilge. 22. Cement barrel and all other staves not specifically mentioned should be sold according to the local custom or by special agreement. Same will apply as well to bilge of such staves. Dead Cull Staves. 23. Dead cull staves are staves containing knotholes of over 1 in. in diameter; staves with large, coarse knots or badly cross-grained near quarter preventing staves being tressed in barrels; staves under }-in. thick; staves with bad slanting shake ex- . ceeding 6 in. in length, or with rot that seriously impairs strength. Hoops. 24. Standard dimensions of coiled elm hoops, 5 ft. 6 in. and longer, to be, when finished and seasoned, 3°; X 335 X 12 in. 25. Dimensions of keg hoops, 5 ft. and shorter, may be 74g X75 X 15 in., or standard dimensions, as provided in Section 24. 26. No. 1 hoops shall be of good sound timber, up to specifications, well finished and free from broken and other defective hoops, in the coil in excess of 3 per cent of hoops over 5 ft. in length, 5 per cent of 5-ft. hoops and 8 per cent of hoops less than 5 ft. long, which are unfit for use on a barrel, and to be dry when shipped. Heading. 27. No. 1 basswood, cottonwood or tupelo gum heading shall be manufactured from good, sound timber, thoroughly kiln-dried, turned true to size, and shall be 3 in thickness after being dressed on one side, and free from all defects making it unfit for use in No. 1 barrels. Stain or discoloration or under side no defect. To be jointed straight unless otherwise specified. 28. No. 1 hardwood and red gum heading shall be of the same specifications as in Paragraph 27, excepting that the thickness after being dressed shall be 7% in. 29. Mill-run heading shall consist of the run of the saw from the regular run of the heading bolts or logs, without any previous culling to select out the better grade, 142 FOREST PRODUCTS well manufactured of standard thickness and kiln dried. All dead culls out and to contain not less than 50 per cent No. 1 pieces or carits. 30. Pine heading, all sizes over 12} in. in diameter to 163 in. inclusive,shall be 7 in. in thickness after being dressed on one side; larger sizes shall be 3 in. in thickness after being dressed on one side. Specifications otherwise to be the same as provided in Paragraphs 27 to 36, both inclusive, except as to thickness. 31. No. 2 heading shall be manufactured from heading blanks culled in the process of manufacturing No. 1 heading and shall be workable free from dead culls. 32. All heading to be well bundled, 15 sets to the bundle, sizes 14} in. to 193 in., inclusive; 2 wires to the bundle, sizes under 109% in.; 3 wires to the bundle, sizes 19% and over. Number of pieces to the head not to exceed the following: 33. No. rand M. R. grades, above 133 in. and to 17} in., inclusive, three and four pieces, at least 50 per cent to be three piece, or less. 34. No. 1 and M. R. grades, 18 to 193 in., inclusive, three-, four- and five-piece, at least 50 per cent to be four-piece, or less. 35. Heading that contains knotholes of over 1 in. diameter, bad slanting shakes, rotten timber or other defects that make it unworkable, shall be considered as dead culls. BIBLIOGRAPHY Statistical Reports—U. S. Bureau of Census. Miscellaneous Articles in Barrel and Box. Miscellaneous Articles in Packages. Miscellaneous Articles in National Coopers’ Journal. United States Forest Service, Washington. Production of Slack and Tight Cooperage in IgIt. WAGNER, J. B. Cooperage, 1910. CHAPTER VI TIGHT COOPERAGE GENERAL TIGHT cooperage refers to barrels and containers made of staves and heading for liquid contents. As contrasted, therefore, with man- ufacturing methods and woods used for slack cooperage barrels, a much more carefully manufactured article must be produced and it must be made of woods which are practically impermeable in their wood structure. On account of its impermeable nature together with the fact that it does not tend to discolor or lend a disagreeable odor to the contents, its hard- ness, workability, excellent seasoning qualities, etc., white oak is pre- eminently our best tight cooperage wood. In the early days of tight cooperage mariufacture, white oak constituted the only wood used. This species also contributed a large portion of the raw material used for slack cooperage purposes. Outside of-the fact that white oak meets the requirements for tight barrels better than any other wood, only the best quality of white oak can be used. Ordinarily trees less than 18 in. in diameter at 43 ft. above the ground are seldom used. In addition to this minimum size, the trees must be straight-grained and sound and comparatively free from knots, rot, shake, or other defects. : Where the seasoning of contents is involved, such, for example, as in the case of wines, whisky, beer and other spirituous liquors, the wood composing both staves and heading must be only of an excellent grade of white oak. When tight barrels are used for purposes where the season- ing of the contained liquid is not involved, such, for example, as mineral oils, lard, chemicals, pork, turpentine, molasses, syrup, etc., a limited ’ amount of other species such as red oak, red gum, white ash, and a few other species have come into use. Owing to the curvature of the staves which are largely sawed now it is very important that these be of more impermeable wood than the heading. However, all woods which are used as substitutes for white oak are paraffined or otherwise coated on the interior to protect them against leakage. Red oak is much : 143 144 FOREST PRODUCTS more susceptible to leakage than white oak owing to its open pores. (In white oak the pores are closed by means of tyloses.) There is a growing tendency to use more and more substitute woods in the cheaper grades of tight cooperage staves and heading. This condition, more- over, is being aggravated by the growing scarcity of high-grade white oak stock, the increasing demands for white oak for tight cooperage barrels and the consequent rise in prices. Photograph by U.S. Forest Services Fic. 33.—This shows a method sometimes employed in riving sections of white oak logs into stave bolts. Houston Co., Tennessee. Where the seasoning and aging of the contained beverages are in- volved, as mentioned above, all white oak barrels are charred on the inside to an average depth of § to 4 of aninch. This has been univer- sally the custom for a long time, especially with whisky barrels. The pure food laws passed by Congress and the increase in petroleum and turpentine production greatly stimulated the demand for tight bar- rels. As soon as these laws went into effect, there was a very strong TIGHT COOPERAGE 145 demand upon the distillers and others for considerable quantity of bonded goods resulting in an increased demand for raw materials for staves and heading. The great increase in the production of petroleum and, to some extent, of cotton seed oil and turpentine, have also tended to enlarge the demand upon white oak and other species used for these barrels. The prohibition laws have not materially decreased the output of tight cooperage stock because the demand for oil staves and heading has increased to such a large extent. SPECIAL FEATURES Altogether the tight cooperage industry is distinguished by the follow- ing outstanding features: 1. The steadily increasing demands for stave and heading stock attended by the rapidly rising stumpage values and prices demanded for the product. 2. Great waste in the erdaction and manufacture of both staves and heading. In the early days, staves were almost entirely rived in order to insure straight grain in the finished stave. At the present time, only a small portion of our tight staves are bucked, and split, and hewed, and these are turned out almost entirely for foreign consumption. They bring unusually high prices compared to the sawed staves. It is esti- mated that from 50 to 70 per cent of the raw material as it stands in the woods is lost in the manufacture of staves even under the present methods pursued in the industry and from 40 to 60 per cent of the raw material is lost in the manufacture of heading. Only trees above 16 in. in diam- eter at breast height can be used and the heart of the largest trees up to a diameter of from 4 to 8 in. is usually left in the woods together with all sap wood, tops, cross grain and knotty or otherwise defective material. Only rarely is material less than 12 in. in diameter at the top taken, thus leaving a long, clear top frequently in the woods. This top is sometimes utilized for ties or for wagon and chair stock. 3. There is a very heavy drain upon one species which lends itself most admirably for the purpose of tight cooperage stock and for. which there are no apparent satisfactory substitutes. It is estimated that from 12 to 16 per cent of all oak cut for lumber and all other purposes goes into tight cooperage stock. ' 4. Production by means of small portable mills, which are frequently moved from place to place near the source of supply, and long hauls of the rough product to the nearest railroad point or shipping wharf along the river. Some companies own from 20 to 40 or more of these small port- 146 FOREST PRODUCTS able mills, which are scattered over the white oak regions of Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Missouri and other states from five to twenty-five or more miles from the nearest shipping point. 5. The industry is highly specialized in that few local mills or plants make more than two kinds of staves or heading for the market. The manufacture of beer and ale staves constitutes a separate branch of the industry. SPECIES USED White oak comprises from 75 to 85 per cent of all the material used for tight cooperage staves and from 65 to 70 per cent of all the material used for heading. Other species used for staves are red oak, red gum and ash. Ash makes up about 75 per cent or more of all of the heading used in pork barrels. Red oak constitutes about 14 per cent of all the material used for tight cooperage heading. Other species used for heading purposes in order are red gum, white pine, white ash, basswood and cypress. Other species occasionally used which are coming into greater prom- inence from year to year, are beech, birch, chestnut, Douglas fir, hard maple and spruce. Most of the white oak is the true white oak (Quercus alba). Some of it is post oak (Q. minor) and some of the other white oaks, such as over- cup oak (Q. acuminata) bur oak (Q. macrocarpa) and swamp white oak (Q. platanoides) are used to a limited extent. There is very little differ- ence in the character of the wood produced by these various white oaks and they are usually accepted without discrimination by the manufac- turers and purchasers of stumpage under the single head of white oak. The highest grade of staves are called Bourbon staves, which are known as “ whiskies”’ in the trade. These barrels are made entirely, that is, including both staves and heading, of white oak. The grade of tight staves which brings the next highest price on the market are the spirit and wine staves, which are colloquially known as “‘ wines ” in the trade. These also are made entirely of white oak. The next grade are the oils and tierces, which are known as “ oils’ and which are largely made up of white oak, but red oak and red gum are used to some extent. The least expensive staves are those used in pork barrels and are called “porks.” White ash furnishes a large amount of material for these barrels and white oak is also used to a large extent as well as red oak, red gum, Douglas fir, birch and hard maple. Although these four kinds of staves constitute the large majority of TIGHT COOPERAGE 147 staves turned out for tight cooperage, there are also a large number of other specialized products, such, for example, as beer barrels and special barrels for the West Indian liquor trade, for claret, turpentine, molasses, tank staves and other special sizes such as half beer barrels, quarter barrels, sixth barrels, eighth barrels, ale hogsheads, etc. In order of quantity, oil and tierce staves come first. Next, in order, are the “ wines,” then the “ whiskies,” the “‘ porks,” etc. With the advent of prohibition, there has been a decrease in the production of wines and whiskies and a great increase in the making of oil barrels. ANNUAL PRODUCTION It is estimated that at the present time between 450,000,000 and 500,000,000 staves are annually produced together with about 40,000,000 sets of heading for the tight-cooperage industry. ~ According to the latest available government statistics! published for the year 1911, there were over 357,000,000 staves produced during that year and over 30,000,000 sets of heading. Although the production of both staves and heading are distributed over 25 different states, nearly one-third of all staves were produced in Arkansas where more than twice as many were cut than in the state next in order of production. Other important states producing staves are Tennessee, West Virginia, Mississippi and Kentucky. New Hampshire is classified as an important tight cooperage state, but this produces chiefly white pine stock for fish and pickle buckets, mince-meat pails, etc. Sometimes these are classified with the slack cooperage stock. 7 Arkansas furnishes 40 per cent of the heading and nearly three times more than Tennessee, its nearest competitor. Other important states producing heading are Mississippi, Kentucky, Missouri and Louisiana. It is apparent, therefore, that the industry is centralized in Arkansas and a few other states bordering on the Mississippi River south of the mouth of the Ohio River. As contrasted with the production of 1911, in 1905 there were pro- duced only about 241,000,000 staves and about 13,000,000 sets of head- ing, nearly all of which was made up of white oak. ° About 25 per cent of our tight cooperage stock is exported under normal conditions, New Orleans being the principal exporting center. Hewed staves are manufactured almost entirely for the foreign market, most of the work being done by expert foreign laborers. Most of the exported material goes to Europe, and France is the leading nation which 1U. S. Bureau of the Census and U. S. Forest Service. 148 FOREST PRODUCTS imports American tight cooperage stock. Most of the exported material is used for the wine trade. About 87 per cent of the staves manufactured in 1911 were sawed. About 94 per cent of the heading was sawed. Others were bucked and split or hewed. There are about 500 active establishments pro- ducing tight cooperage staves and heading in this country. VALUE OF PRODUCTS In 1909 the value of tight staves produced was estimated to be $9,201,964; or an average of $24.26 per thousand for the 379,000,000 staves produced in that year. In the same year there were 20,691,000 sets of heading produced having a total value of $3,716,000.’ In addi- » tion to this there were 16,547,000 beer and ale staves produced for which no available figures are obtainable regarding value. More recent data relating to total production and values are not available, but market quotations show a tremendous increase in prices. For instance, early in 1915 Bourbon staves were selling in the Ozark region for $52 per thousand f.o.b. car, while, in December, 1916, this grade brought $77. In 1916 the number of finished barrels produced for malt liquors amounted to 58,634,000. Their output has not varied greatly during the past ten years. Since the average price of a barrel was about $2 f.0.b. central markets, in 1917, the total value of finished high-grade stock produced annually amounts to over $177,000,000.! WOODS OPERATIONS In contrast with the general policy followed in the slack cooperage industry where the logs and bolts or other raw material are brought to the mill, in the tight cooperage industry it is the general custom to use small portable mills, which are set up in the woods near the source of the raw material and are frequently moved about from place to place. This means a much shorter haul of the bolts, which are the form of the raw material used customarily in the manufacture of tight cooperage stock. Formerly a good share of the tight staves were rived, but this method was so very wasteful and the supply of raw material became relatively so limited that most of the tight cooperage staves are now split into bolts and then sawed into staves at small portable mills located at convenient accessible points throughout the forest. Beer staves and a very few whisky and wine staves are still split out. It is also the custom to rive isolated timber more commonly than accessible timber because there is 1 From data supplied by the U. S. Forest Service. TIGHT COOPERAGE 149 less waste material to be hauled in with rived staves and, therefore, the haul can be done cheaper. In Germany, the proper bilge of rived staves _is secured by hewing, whereas bending is secured in the United States in a finishing plant by end pressure. Stumpage. Within recent years, stumpage values in Arkansas have averaged from $2.50 to $5.50 or more per thousand board feet, depending upon (a) quality and size of the trees; (6) location, that is, the topography and its relation to the nearest available haul-roads; (c) accessibility or distance to the mill or shipping point. The nature of the haul-road, including its grade and the character of its surface, have a strong bearing on the value of stumpage. Only the best white oaks are taken. They must be tall, straight, cylindrical, free from large limbs for a good height and at least 16 in. in diameter at breast height. Under average conditions, only about 500 to 1000 bd. ft. of desirable white oak material are found per acre in the Arkansas forests. Stumpage is higher for good stave stock than for heading because better quality is demanded for stave stock, and it is possible to use a greater portion of the tree with heading on account of the bolts being shorter. Sometimes the same tree is used for both stave and heading bolts, but with the majority of operations the work is limited to either the cutting out of one or the other product. Very commonly the defects are not visible until the tree has been opened up, so that there is a large amount of waste attendant upon most of these operations. There is, of course, a great deal more waste with rived staves than with sawed staves because the former must be of absolutely straight-grained mate- rial. There is also much more waste with whisky staves than in the case of “oils.” ‘“‘ Oils,” on the other hand, require considerably more waste than pork staves. It is the general practice in purchasing stumpage to pay for only the scale of the quartered sections which come up to grade. Stumpage is paid for on the basis of per thousand board feet, bolt scale. There is considerable agitation now in the Forest Service to pay for stumpage on. the basis of cubical contents regardless of board measure actually used. Rived Staves. Only the finest white oak timber is selected for rived staves, as it must be wholly free from defects and, in addition, it must be straight-grained in order to split out properly. 150 FOREST PRODUCTS The white oaks are felled and sawed by cross-cut saws into blocks which are 2 in. longer than the intended staves. The sap line is demarked with a pencil and inside the sap line with the help of a pattern showing the cross-section of the staves, as many staves as-possible are pencil marked. By the use of axes, wedges and wooden mauls, the block is then halved, quartered and split out along the pencil marks. Staves are split out along the medullary rays in order to insure the greatest impermeability. The core of at least 4 in. in diameter containing the ‘small limb stubs is usually thrown away. The rough staves are inspected, sorted and piled in a hollow square or ‘‘ hog-pen fashion ” for air dry- ing. As arule, woodsmen do this work by con- tract, supplying their own tools. The rough staves after being thoroughly air dried are run through the stave bucker, by which three- quarters of all the rived staves are made in Fic. 34.—Diagram showing the United States. This machine dresses and SRR ORE oa tae planes both sides of the stave to proper cur- the sap and heart are com- Vature and thickness. A rack forces the rough monly wasted.” - staves through the narrow space left between two knives which are fastened in a rocking frame. The knives are either straight or curved to correspond to the periphery of the ‘barrel. Sometimes the staves are run through a stave dresser instead of through:the bucker. The dresser carries knives on two cutter heads, dressing and shaping the staves on both sides to proper thickness and leaving either an abrupt or gradual shoulder. Rived staves finished in this way are much less permeable than staves cut out on the circular drum saw, because the latter does not always follow the grain of the wood. ; Logging and Delivering Bolts. In logging- bolts for sawed staves, woodsmen fell the trees and cross- cut them into bolts which vary in length from 18 to 38 in. Those for heading are usually 22 in. long while those for staves are 37 to 38 in. long, depending upon the economy of waste. «ida aw eae see gee 400 OCA cas Heal coca Sak deck ROE Gee eee ee De ae $3275 This equipment is capable of turning out about bodes 2,000 whisky staves per day of ten hours. The cost of staves per thousand on the stave mill yard may be esti- mated as follows: Cost per M Staves Stumpage at $4.00 per thousand board feet................... $7 .00 Logging cost; felling, bolt making, road making and hauling... 12.06 Milling. costs 25 8223 ASE aa ha et na as ean a eee 3.00 General expense 270 Sin. fi eons ets ee ee gi SHSUTANCE ANG Takes yo Ss ona us yee eee Se 62 Petal cosh. oa. ie one ee ee ee ee ee $23.59 In addition to these costs, the stave haul to the railroad averages from $6.00 to $9.00, depending upon distance, character of haul, finish of timber, labor, etc. Inspection, grading and loading costs about 75 cents per thousand staves. The total cost, therefore, delivered at the shipping point runs between $28 and $33 per thousand staves. TIGHT COOPERAGE 157 On many of these operations, an estimate that 60 per cent of the staves are sufficiently good for “‘ wines” and 40 per cent for “ oils’ is made. The former bring about $50 per thousand and the latter $25 per thousand. The selling price runs, therefore, about $40 per thousand staves, leaving a profit of from $7.00 to $12.00 on each thousand staves marketed. a yy to Na ns ae tae - ) =e. ( Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 39.—About 1,000,000 tight cooperage staves piled for seasoning in Quitman Co., Mississippi. Heading mills are operated along the same lines as described for tight staves, and the stock is always sawed in 1-in. thicknesses from bolts cut about 2 in. longer than the diameter of the finished heading. The machines commonly used in these small portable heading mills are a heading bolter, a heading saw, a heading jointer and doweler, a heading planer and a heading rounder together with a baler or baling press. 158 FOREST PRODUCTS In the manufacture of heading, the same general method is followed as described in the chapter on slack cooperage heading except that the machinery is much more specialized and expensive. The power required at one of these portable heading mills is about 25 to 30 h.p. It is esti- mated that at each location of the mill about 200,000 sets of heading are turned out. About 8000 to 10,000 headings are completed per day of ten hours. Most of the heading turned out for tight barrels is doweled to insure a tighter fit and to prevent loosening of the joints in any way. These dowels are customarily ;; of an inch in diameter. Many plants have Fic. 40.—Stave jointer in operation in a large cooperage assembling plant. their own machines to make dowel pins. One machine in common use splits the material into proper thickness for the pins, then forces it through the dies and delivers the pins separate from the waste. The machine makes 3 pins at a stroke and will turn out several bushels of about 5000 pins each, in a day of ten hours. The final finishing of staves and heading, including dressing, dry- kilning, bending, packing, etc., is accomplished at large plants which are chiefly centralized in large centers within or contiguous to the producing regions such as Memphis, Louisville, Peoria, St. Louis and other points on the lower Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. TIGHT COOPERAGE 159 Bending was formerly accomplished by steaming and drying on a form. It is now done almost entirely by end pressure on a stave-bending ma- chine and held in shape by iron holders called “ span dogs,” which are released when the staves are assembled in the finished container. Bend- ing is used for beer staves and those intended for packages of considerable bilge. Otherwise there would be a serious loss from breakage in wind- lassing when the unbent staves are forced together for the upper truss hoop. ASSEMBLING As a rule the assembling of tight cooperage stock into barrels, kegs, etc., is done at or near the plant where the contents are put into them, as was found to be the case in connection with the assembling of slack cooperage stock. It is true, however, that more tight barrels are made and shipped from large central cooperage plants to points of destination where they are to be filled than in the case of slack barrels. This is notably true in the case of turpentine barrels and to some extent with beer kegs, whisky barrels and others. The assembling of tight cooperage stock demands the greatest care and skill for the apparent reasons that (a) the finished barrel must be sufficiently tight to prevent leakage, (6) the vessel must withstand trans- portation to great distances together with considerable rough handling, and (c) the barrel must often resist great internal pressure from fer- menting liquors. *. The machinery, therefore, must be of the most elaborate, exacting ’ and specialized design. Special types of assembling machinery have recently been invented and placed on the market which are vast improve- ments over the old hand cooper or even the machinery in use ten and twenty years ago. Most of them are great labor-saving devices. The machinery usually found in a modern up-to-date tight cooperage shop consists of the following: A setting-up form with necessary truss hoops, a power windlass, a heater, a trusser, a crozer, a head-setting form, a lathe, a thin hoop driver, a heading-up machine, a bung borer and a barrel tester. When the steel hoops are made in the plant it is essential to have, in addition, a hole-punching machine, a riveter and a hoop flarer. In many of the plants the stock is brought in in bundles, enough staves (usually 18) in one bundle for one barrel. First the staves are set up in a form by a “ raiser ” or “setter up,’’ who sends them directly to the steamers, where they are heated or steamed for from three to five minutes to increase the flexibility of the staves. Then they are “ wind- 160 FOREST PRODUCTS lassed ’’ by power which consists of throwing a wire rope over the loose ends and drawing them together until the head truss hoop can be thrown over them. The power is then released and the barrel rolled or conveyed to the trusser after leveling the staves by slamming the barrel on end on the floor. When steamed, the barrels, after windlassing, are sometimes sent to the heaters to dry them out. The function of the trusser is to force the hoops well down on the barrel. The barrel next goes to the crozing machine which crozes, chimes and howels the staves in one oper- Fic. 41.—Method of heating the staves preliminary to placing them in a power windlass for final assembling. ation, finishing both ends at the same time. To accomplish this, the three tools are placed in one head, which, revolving at high speed inside of the package insures a uniform thickness and depth of chime. Mean- while stationary cutters level the barrel. The bung hole is then bored and the barrel goes to the heading-up machine, where the heading is inserted by releasing the head truss hoops. Many of the tight barrels are inserted in a lathe and turned at a rate of from 100 to 150 R.P.M. against a smoothing plane to give them a better finish. The barrels then go to the thin hooper, where the steel hoops are driven down in final shape. The last operation consists of testing the permeability of the vessels, after which all cracks or leaks are repaired and it is inspected and stored until needed. TIGHT COOPERAGE 161 In finishing tight cooperage barrels, flat steel or iron hoops are used almost entirely, as they are stronger and less liable to breakage and dam- age than wooden hoops. They are, however, much more expensive than the wooden hoops. Fic. 42.—Machine for chamfering, howeling and crozing tight barrels. Many of the tight-barrel plants assemble from 300 to 1000 or more packages per day of ten hours. In a plant turning out from 500 to 800 barrels formed of 34-in. staves and 203-in. heading the following labor was employed. All of the men excepting the foreman received ordinary day wages running from $1.75 to $2.25 per day before the war: 1 man to bring in the bundles of staves. I man raising and setting up the staves. 1 man to steam the barrels and to operate the windlass to bring the staves together with the top hoop. . 1 man looking after the stoves or heaters. r man to level up the barrels. r man to run the trusser. r man to croze the barrels. 1 man to bore bung holes. I man operating the heading-up machine. 1 man at the thin hooper. 1 man testing barrels. rt man making hoops. I man inspecting and repairing barrels. 1 foreman. 162 FOREST PRODUCTS STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND RULES These rules govern the sales and arbitrations dealing with the market- ing of tight cooperage stock and have been adopted by the National Coopers’ Association, 1916. Bucked Bourbon Barrel Staves. Shall be equalized, 34, 35 or 353 in. long, as agreed, to be, when thoroughly kiln- dried, j in. thick, and to average in width when close jointed, free of sap, not exceeding 21 staves to the barrel, and to be free of seed or worm holes of any kind, cat faces or checks, and crooks inside or outside. (A twist, not varying to exceed 3-in. from a straight line shall be allowed.) Crooks with hollow to back of stave, not exceeding 3 in. in variation to 12 in. in length, shall be allowed. Reverse crooks not admitted. Sound streaks that do not go through stave will be admitted, provided they are on inside of stave and over 6 in. from ends. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) Bucked Alcohol and Whisky Barrel Staves. Same specifications as bucked Bourbon staves, except length is to be 33 or 34 in., and thickness # in. after being thoroughly kiln-dried. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) Sawed Alcohol, Bourbon and Rye Whisky Barrel Staves. Shall be sawed with the grain from straight-grain bolts, and equalized 33 or 34, 35 or 36 in. long, as agreed, to be evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout, and when thoroughly kiln-dried to be full #, 3 or 1 in. thick, respectively, when planed on inside or outside; and full +3, +2 and 135 in. thick, respectively, when not planed. To average in width when close jointed, free of sap, not exceeding 21 staves to the barrel, and to be free of seed or worm holes of any kind, cat faces or checks. Sound streaks that do not go through staves will be admitted, provided they are on inside of stave and over 6 in. from ends. The grain of the stave must be such that a straight line, drawn at right angles, across the thickness at the ends of a stave must pass through not less than three lines of grain at any one place. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) Bucked or Sawed Half Whisky and Alcohol Staves. Same specifications as above, length 26 to 30 in., as agreed, thickness }4 or 3 in., as agreed, and to average in width when close jointed and free of sap not less than 19 staves to a half-barrel. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) Sawed Wine Barrel Staves. Shall be sawed with the grain from straight grain bolts and equalized, 34 in. long, and to be, when kiln-dried and planed on both sides, 7% in. thick, and when planed on one side to be 3 in. scant thick; to average in width when close jointed, not-exceed- ing 21 staves to the barrel. Slight defects not showing through on both sides admis- sible. (See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) TIGHT COOPERAGE | 163 Red Oak Oil Barrel or Tierce Staves. Shall be equalized, 34, 35 or 36 in. long, as agreed, and to be, when thoroughly dry, 3-in. thick, evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 22 staves to the standard barrel. To be free from seed holes, cat faces which show through on both sides, and rotten sap. (See notes following.) Turpentine Barrel Staves. Shall be equalized, 34 in. long, and to be, when thoroughly kiln-dried and planed, not less than 3-in. thick, evenly sawed, and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 22 staves to the standard barrel. To be free from seed holes, cat faces, rotten sap, wood want or proof. (Notes I., IV. and V.; also note IL. as to length only.) Cuban Tierce Staves. Shall be equalized, 36 in. long, and, when thoroughly dry, to measure 1 in. thick, otherwise to grade same as 3-in. oil or tierce; to average in width, when close jointed, including sap, not exceeding 21 staves to a barrel. (See notes following.) Pork Staves. "Shall be equalized, 30 in. long, and, when thoroughly dry, to measure $ in. thick, evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width, when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 19 staves to the barrel. To be free from __ seed holes, cat faces, wind shakes and rotten sap. Slight defects not showing through on both sides of staves admissible. (See notes following.) Notes. Nore I. All staves must be evenly equalized, so as to be square on the ends. Nore II. Variations in staves. All staves must not be less than the standard measurement herein stated, but if } in. shorter or longer, or ;g in. over or under spe- cifications in thickness on one edge, will not affect the grade. Note III. Worm holes. Sound worm holes in sawed oil tierce, or pork staves not exceeding two in a straight line across the width of the staves within 12 in. of the center, not more than five worm holes in any one stave, and 10 per cent of the number of staves in carload will be admitted. Norte IV. All staves must have a proper circle; no flat staves will be sine. Note V. When not otherwise agreed, all staves over 30 in. in length shall be settled for on an average width basis of 4} in., and all staves 26 to 30 in. in length, on an average width basis of 4} in . Nore VI. Unless otherwise specified by the buyer, all oil barrel staves averaging 18 to 31 in. shall be ager with a 3-in. bilge, and for each stave in excess of 18 staves the bilge shall be reduced 3 of an inch. (Note that this does nae prevent parties contracting for staves on basis of any other width if they prefer. These specifications are to apply where there is no spe- cific agreement.) 164 FOREST PRODUCTS EXPORTS The exports of staves from this country are shown in the following table. They are practically all tight barrel staves used largely in the wine trade of Europe: STAVES FROM THE UNITED STATES i eae Number of Staves. . Value in Dollars. 1914 775150;535 $5,852,230 1915 39,297,268 2,481,592 1916 57,537,010 3,529,181 IQI7 61,469,225 3,921,882 1918 63,207,351 3,724,895 These staves go principally to Canada, France, Italy, Spain, Holland and England. CHAPTER VII NAVAL STORES GENERAL THE naval stores industry is one of the most important of all forest industries, excepting lumbering, measured in terms of the value of its products. It is also one of the oldest of the forest industries in this coun- try. The value of the products turpentine and rosin, in 1910, was over $35,000,000. The industry has been closely identified with the economic development of the South. The earlier colonists depended to a large degree on the products of the industry for their livelihood, particularly in North Carolina and South Carolina. The primary products of the earlier development of the industry, pitch and tar, were among the first exports from this country and were extensively used in wooden sailing vessels; hence the name naval stores. This name is still applied to the present products of the industry, which are confined to turpentine and rosin. The production of naval stores is a waning industry, due to the rapid depletion of the virgin timber supply and the failure to perpetuate the industry either by providing for the reproduction of the forests or by con- servative methods of tapping, which would at least continue to an appre- ciable extent the life of the industry. Until about 1890, lumbermen con- sidered timber bled for turpentine unfit for manufacturing into lumber and literally billions of board feet of valuable timber have been allowed to go to waste by windfall, insects and fire, especially in Georgia and the Carolinas, after the bleeding process had been completed. Until the introduction of various forms of cups in which to collect the resinous exudation from the trees, the method of boxing has been prac- tically the same for the past two hundred years. The gummy exudation from the tree is called crude turpentine or resin, and the final products of the industry as marketed are called spirits of turpentine or turpentine, which is the distillate of the resin, while the residue after distillation is called rosin. 165 166 FOREST PRODUCTS The question of the effect of turpentining on the strength and dura- bility of lumber and timbers has long been a debated subject. Investi- gations have proven that it has practically no deleterious effect of this kind; in fact, bled timber is more durable than “ round ” or unbled tim- ber, owing to the increased presence of resin. However, on account of the discrimination in the lumber grading rules against excessively resinous lumber and the fact that the wood back of the faces on turpentined timber Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 43.—Cutting a “ box ” in the base of a longleaf pine for the collection of resin as it exudes after each chipping. is generally heavily filled with resin to a depth of } to 1 in., the propor- tion of high-grade lumber contained in “ round” or unbled timber is somewhat greater than that cut from turpentined or bled timber. This condition is minimized to a large extent by slabbing a butt log containing a turpentined “‘ face ” at the saw-mill, in order to remove all of the wood having a high resin content. ; NAVAL STORES 167 SOURCE OF PRODUCTS The naval stores industry is confined to eight states of the southeast, bordering the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico from North Carolina to Texas, inclusive. Probably at least 90 per cent of the total products is derived at present from the longleaf yellow pine (Pinus palustris). Cuban or slash pine (Pinus heterophylla) is also tapped. Other Southern pines such as the loblolly and shortleaf pines yield a resinous exudation when tapped, but there is not a sufficient quantity of resin available to make their exploitation for this purpose commercially profitable. Western yellow pine may be developed in the future in the southwest, California and in Oregon, and experiments have demonstrated that the resinous flow is sufficient to justify commercial development. However, there are many practical and commercial difficulties in the way of present development, particularly the labor question and a market for the products. _ Resin is stored in resin ducts which are peculiarly large and abundant in longleaf and-Cuban pines. The resin ducts form in the region of the cambium layer. When exposed by a cut or chipping streak the exuda- tion of their resinous secretion is permitted. Each cut stimulates the formation and development of. other resin ducts:above the incision or cut and an area of from 2'to 3m. above:the cut is affected in this way. Experiments have shown that over 67 per cert of the total resin flow after each exposure or chipping occurs within the first twenty-four hours. Oxidation and -crystallization of the resin at’the mouths of the resin ducts causes them to be clogged, so it is necessary to make fresh cuts from time to time to renew the flow by opening new ducts. Chipping is consequently done every week. At the expiration of this period prac- tically all flow from the previous cut has ceased. If the weather suddenly turns cold it is likely to retard or even completely stop the flow of resin. ANNUAL PRODUCTION North and South Carolina were formerly and for a long time the most important centers of production of naval stores. When the virgin longleaf timber of these states was largely bled for turpentine, Georgia became the center of production. For the past two decades, Florida has been the great producing center of naval stores. The largest 168 FOREST PRODUCTS areas of forest still untapped are in Florida. The only other large areas of virgin forests still remaining unbled for turpentine and rosin are to be found in Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. According to Veitch, the following is an estimate of the production of turpentine and rosin for the calendar year 1918: PRODUCTION OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN FOR 1918 State i tee hae rays eg = ape Flonda. (ic eee REF ag Dye 104,478 321 SII 349 GeOrgid As. cee OR pL aloe ee 54,192 170,884 Beery i Léntisiana, 2 igs earnest ees, hes 52,636 155,402 38 Alabama . viene ss apie eae 33,076 105,029 145 Missiesip pi ots scttp.see > Seed nated 31,217 92,149 40 "Texas? sg ee eal isiarome asia 23,086 67,552 8 North Carolina. .\.)5 5.06.5 ween + 554 1,981 17 South Carolinirecic, sesh tic tateren 429 1,438 17 POA Secs es ok seer ee Ae 299,668 915,946 987 There has been a great decrease in the production of turpentine and rosin during the recent years. There was a serious drop in production from 1917°to 1918. The industry is on the wane due to the rapid ex- haustion of the available timber supplies of the South. More than 50 per cent of the total amount of products are exported. The high peak in the value of the exports of naval stores was reached in 1912, when $26,754,987 worth were exported. In 1917 only $15,581,208 worth of naval stores were exported. This country is the great source of the world’s supply of turpentine and rosin. In normal times the products were chiefly sent to Germany, the United Kingdom, the Nether- lands and Canada. The war has seriously interfered with the exports of naval stores from this country. The peak in the production of turpentine was reached in 1900, when 38,488,000 gal. were produced, and the greatest quantity of rosin was pro- duced in 1908, when 4,288,000 barrels were placed on the market. For the five-year period up to 1914 the average annual production was 31,800,000 gal. of turpentine and 3,700,000 barrels of rosin. The follow- ing table shows the quantity and value of turpentine and rosin produced according to the. Census Bureau figures, from the years 1900 to 1913: Lea ee SC NAVAL STORES 169 NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS AND QUANTITY AND VALUE OF TURPEN- TINE AND ROSIN PRODUCED—UNITED STATES (Figures taken from reports of the Bureau of the Census) | r TURPENTINE. Rosin. Combined < Ne mber of URPENTINE OSIN Se a =: 3 = l Turpentine a Gallons. Value. Barrels. | Value. and Rosin. Te ey ae 2 OOO OOS: foo aiss -ckes3 3,815,000 | US 1) age Be 34,000,000 | ....--...- 4,000,000 | } no data no data Le Oe 8 EU et BE MOO 000 Po gene coos ue 3,800,000 ) TAG ee) eee eee 27,750,000 | $17,680,000 | 3,651,000 $18,255,000 $35,035,000 1909 1,585 28,941,000 | 12,654,000 | 3,258,000 | 12,577,000 | 25,231,000 1908 1,696 36,589,000 | 14,112,000 | 4,288,000 | 17,795,000 | 31,907,000 1907 1,629 34,181,000 | 18,283,000 | 3,999,000 | 17,317,000 | 35,600,000 1904 1,287 30,687,000 | 15,170,000 | 3,508,000 | 8,726,000 | 23,896,000 1900 1,503 38,488,000 | 14,960,000 | 2,563,000 | 5,129,000 | 20,090,000 1 According to ** Naval Stores Review "’ of Apr. 4, 1914. The following table shows the quantity and value of turpentine and rosin exported from this country for the various years from 1860 to 1913: QUANTITY AND VALUE OF SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN EXPORTED, 1860-1913 (Figures from the Bureau of the Census) TURPENTINE. Rosin. Year Ending é June 30th. j Gallons. | Value. Barrels. Value. IgI3 21,039,597 $8,794,656 2,806,046 $17,359,145 1gI2 19,599,241 10,069,135 2,474,460 16,462,850 IQII 14,817,751 10,768,202 2,189,607 14,067,335 1910 15,587,737 8,780,236 2,144;318 9;753,488 1909 17,502,028 7,018,058 2,170,177 8,004,838 1908 19,532,583 10,146,151 2,712,732 11,395,126 1905 15,894,813 8,902,101 2,310,275 ~ 7,069,084 1903 16,378,787 8,014,322 2,396,498 4,817,205 1900 18,090,582 8,554,922 2,369,118 3,796,367 1890 11,248,920 4,590,931 * 1,601,377 ? 2,762,373 1880 7,091,200 2,132,154 ? 1,040,345 *2,368,180 1870 3,246,697 1,357,302 * 583,316 * 1,776,625 1860 4,072,023 1,916,289 1 770,652 1 7,818,238 1 Turpentine included with rosin: WOODS OPERATION For many years the unit of woods operation has been the “ crop,” which consists of an orchard of 10,500 boxes or faces. The area included within the crop varies considerably with the density of the stand, the size of the individual trees and the intensity of the boxing (number of boxes 170 FOREST PRODUCTS per tree). This number has been determined upon as a result of experi- ence—it being found to be the most convenient in laying out a turpentine operation, collecting the products, supervision, etc. Subdivisions of the crop are called “ drifts,” which may follow topographic or other natural or artificial divisions. Boxing. After laying out the crop, the trees are boxed during the winter accord- ing to the old-fashioned system. This consists of chopping a cavity or “box ” about 3 to 4 in. wide, 6 to 7 in. deep and 12 in. long near the base ' thas usltiiil Res it ps eI Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 44.—‘‘Cornering” a box to provide a smooth surface over which the resin is guided into the box. Photograph taken at Statesboro, Georgia. of the tree. This cavity will hold about 13 qt. and is designed to catch the resin as it exudes from the surface, called the face, which is chipped periodically. The top edge of the box is generally from 5 to 12 in. from the ground. There may be from one to four or more boxes on every tree; depending upon its size. Cornering. Cornering consists of removing a triangular-shaped chip above each NAVAL STORES 171 corner of the box. It is done to provide a smooth surface over which the resinous exudation may flow into the box and to expose two diagonal lines to guide the initial chipping. It is shown in the accompanying illus- tration. Chipping. This operation consists of re-exposing the cambium layer by cutting it periodically with a chipper or hack. This streak or chipping is done Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 45.—Chipping the fourth streak above a virgin box near Ocilla, Georgia. - Chipping is usually done every week to induce new resin flow from March to October. every week during the warm season, generally from March to late in October, depending upon the season. The number of chippings per sea- son may vary from 28 to 40, and the average is about 32. The operation of chipping is shown in the accompanying illustration. For high faces, up to 8 ft., a long hack sometimes called a “ puller’ is used. A 5 to 7 Ib. weight on the end of the hack facilitates the work of, cutting the 172 FOREST PRODUCTS streak, which is made by a sharp U-shaped blade made in three sizes (usually about 1 in. across the curvature). The gash is about 3 to 13 in. in depth. Two cuts, forming a V at an angle of go to 100°, form the streak. Chipping continues through four seasons, at the end of which a height of about 7 to 8 ft. is attained. Shallow chipping has been found to yield better results and it is said that a depth of } in. is the best. Narrow chipping, around 3 in. in width, is also best. The present method is about r in. or more. This reduces the length of time the tree can be tapped. It is possible to improve the present methods vastly. An experienced laborer will chip from 8000 to 10,500 faces per week, Dipping. Dipping consists of removing the resin or gum from the box. A dipper with a long-handled, trowel-shaped blade is used. The gum is emptied into a small wooden bucket which the worker carries from tree to tree. Dipping is done every three to five weeks, depending upon the season and condition of the trees. Operators generally estimated that dipping is done from seven to eight times a season. Resin barrels, placed at convenient points through the drifts by a wagon, are used for collecting the gum as the buckets are filled. As these barrels are filled they are taken directly by wagon to the turpentine stills. One still will take care of the products of from 20 to 25 crops of 10,500 boxes each. Scraping. Owing to the gummy and sticky nature of the resin, considerable quantities of it adhere to the face and never reach the box at the base of the tree. Obviously, this condition is enhanced the higher the chipping occurs up the tree. Cold weather also affects it. This gum is scraped from the face at the end of each season by means of special tools called “scrapers ” and it is caught at the base of the tree in a wooden receptacle called a “scrape box.” The “scrape” yields very inferior products compared to the “dip.” It is estimated that only 45 to 60 per cent of the normal quantity of turpentine is secured from the scrape and it produces a rosin of dark color and consequently of low grade. It gen- erally contains many impurities, such as pieces of wood, sci twigs, bark, bugs, etc. After the turpentine season is over the ground about the base of each tree is raked over for a distance of 3 to 4 or more feet to guard against fires. Inflammable material such as pine needles, particles of gum, sticks, NAVAL STORES 173 etc., are removed by this raking. The pine woods are then set fire, gen- erally speaking, to improve the grazing, keep down the brush, which would interfere with the turpentining operation, sand to prevent forest fires from starting from some accidental or intentional cause. When the woods burn in this way, after raking, there is little likelihood of fires getting into the highly inflammable boxes and doing irreparable damage Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 46.—* Dipping ” the resin from the old-fashioned box. This method is very wasteful compared to the cup systems. by burning out the boxes and resulting in the felling of the tree by wind- fall. CUP AND GUTTER OR APRON SYSTEMS Owing to the serious losses resulting from the wasteful process of turpentining by the old box system and the growing scarcity of virgin longleaf pine forests still untapped in the South and the consequent need for more conservative methods of tapping the trees, several 174 FOREST PRODUCTS processes were introduced from time to time which provided a substitute for the box as a method of collecting the resin. It is said that the first substitute was patented in 1868. In 1894 W. W. Ashe introduced the French cup and gutter system, which had proved to be such a success in the maritime pine forests in the Landes region of southwest France. Dr. C. H. Herty, however, is gen- erally credited with the successful introduction and commercial applica- Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 47.—Correct position of the Herty cup and gutters. This shows the condition of the face at the end of the first season after about thirty-five chippings have been made. tion of the cup and gutter systems in this country, and the Herty cup is now widely used throughout the South. Only within the past two decades, however, has this great improvement been generally adopted. The first large commercial use of the cup system was in 1904. It is said that at the present time as many cups are in use as boxes and on all new forests tapped, probably 75 to 80 per cent of all the trees are equipped NAVAL STORES 175 with cups, which have demonstrated a saving of 20 per cent in value of products over the old wasteful box method of turpentining. The principle of the cup and gutter systems lies in the substitution of two gutters or an apron and a cup for the box. The gutters or apron is used to guide the crude turpentine, as it exudes from the tree into a clay or ga!vanized iron receptacle, which is either hung from a zinc nail or the apron itself. The gutters or aprons can be elevated from time to time. This obviates the necessity of the gum or resin flowing over such a long-exposed face to the box; consequently the amount of scrape is reduced and both a greater quantity and higher quality of product are secured. The gutters are generally 2 in. wide and 6 to 12 in. long and are bent into the shape of an obtuse angle. The gutters are inserted in slits made by a broadaxe, one projecting about 2 in. beyond the lower end of the other in order to conduct all the resin into the cup, which is suspended from a nail. Both clay and galvanized iron cups holding 1, 13 and 2 at. are commonly used. The position of the cup and gutters is shown in - the accompanying illustration. In the case of the aprons, a flat piece of galvanized iron, nearly rectangular in shape and with one edge concave in order to conform with the shape of the tree, is inserted in a slit made with a broadaxe having a _ concave edge. The slit is almost horizontal and slopes slightly down- ward. The cup or receptacle used with this form is generally hung directiy from the apron. As in the case of the other form of cup, it may be either of clay or galvanized iron, but it is generally made of the latter material. In shape it is rectangular, about 12 in. long, 3 in. wide-and about 3 in. deep, and is smaller in both length and width at the bottom than at the top. The illustration shows the position, shape and method of use of this form. There are several other forms and adaptations of the forms described above and new variations are introduced to the industry nearly every year. : In all cases, the cups are removed at the end of each season and are elevated together with the aprons or gutters to new positions higher on the tree at the beginning of each season. The advantages of the cup systems over the old box system may be summarized as follows: 1. The yield of turpentine is considerably greater and the value of the rosin much higher. This is explained by the fact that the cups are raised 176 FOREST PRODUCTS each year and, therefore, there is more and cleaner resin and much less “* scrape ” which yields an inferior grade of rosin. 2. The danger from fire is greatly decreased. Formerly ground fires could easily get into the box cut in the base of the tree and would either ruin the face for further turpentining or completely burn away the base of the tree. The tree would then deteriorate and be unfit for lumber by the time logging operations could move it to the sawmill. Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 48.—Method of collecting resin with the McKoy cup. A single apron is used to conduct the resin from the face tothe cup. This is moved up the tree after each season’s opera- tions. Walton County, Florida. 3. The use of cups does not injure the vitality of the tree as does the boxes. Often after severe boxing windfall results. The following Table! shows a comparison of the number of dead trees and those blown down 1 From the Naval Stores Industry, by Schorger and Betts, U. S. Dept. of Agric., Forest Service, Bulletin No. 229, page 26. NAVAL STORES 177 by the storm under the two systems in one season. It is conclusive evi- dence in favor of the cup system over the boxing method: TREES Blown Down. DeaD TREES. Boxed. | Cupped. Boxed. Cupped. After 16 chippings............... 5 2 I Alter 32 chippings. <2 22s. 2225.8 8 3 35 16 Specifications for turpentining recommended by Schorger and Betts are as follows: 1. No trees under to in. in diameter shall be tapped; minimum diameter to carry two faces, 16 in.; no tree shall carry more than two faces. Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. Fic. 49.—Western yellow pine tapped for naval stores products. Experimental area on Coconino National Forest, Arizona. 2. The faces on trees from ro to 16 in. in diameter shall not exceed 12 in. in width, and the faces on trees above 16 in. in diameter shall not exceed 14 in. in width. 3. The height of the face shall not be increased by more than 16 in. each year the tree is tapped. 178 FOREST PRODUCTS 4. Each streak shall not exceed a width of $ in. or a depth of # in., the depth being measured from the dividing line between the wood and the bark. 5. Before the chipping season opens the rough oufer bark shall be scraped off over the entire surface to be chipped for each season, care being taken not to penetrate the living bark. Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 50.—Tools and utensils used in the naval stores industry. From left to right, broadaxe used to cut slit for apron, cup and apron in place, hack used in chipping, broadaxe used in making “face,” maul, and on right foreground cup and apron. Photograph taken on experimental area in western yellow pine timber on Sierra National Forest, California. 6. During the winter a space of at least 23 ft. shall be raked free of debris about each tapped tree. DISTILLATION As the resin is collected in buckets and then in barrels in the forest, it is transported on wagons to the still, located at a place convenient to several (20 to 25) crops and generally on a railroad, to facilitate the marketing of the products—spirits of turpentine and rosin. Copper stills have only been used since 1834. Prior to that time iron retorts were used and they were exceedingly crude and wasteful and produced a very inferior product. NAVAL STORES 179 The equipment and housing of a modern turpentine distilling plant usually consists of the following: r still house—a roughly constructed open shed containing the copper still, loading platform and “ worm ” for condensing the vapors. storage shed, separate from the still, for storing the turpentine. It generally houses, as well, the kettle for heating the glue used in coat- ing the inside of the turpentine barrels. cooperage shed for making rosin barrels. rosin screen and rosin barrel platform. - = | ~ . a na’ Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 51—Turpentine still at Clinton, Sampson Co., North Carolina. The capacity of the stills is generally from 15 to 20 barrels, but may be as high as 40 barrels. The barrels of crude gum are dumped into the still after removing the still head and gooseneck. The residue of gum, sticking to the inside of the barrels, is removed by introducing live steam or by allowing them to drain slowly. With “ virgin” dip or the new fresh gum, the still is only filled to three-quarters its capacity, while with ordinary dip only about one-half the still is filled and with old scrape only about one-third the still is filled. This is done because of the danger of boiling up into 180 FOREST PRODUCTS the still head and the consequent fire hazard, which must be carefully watched in all still operations. After charging, the fire is started underneath the still. In the case of “scrape,” several pails of water are added. The process of distilla- tion requires about 2 to 2} hours. The operator or “ stiller’ watches his charge very closely and he can gauge the distillation by the sounds emitted from the still and by the relative proportions of water and tur- pentine in the distillate. When needed, additional quantities of water are run into the still, especially when distilling old dip and scrape. The operator can determine the end of the distilling process by the small proportion of turpentine in the distillate. It is never attempted to remove all of the turpentine because a better grade of rosin is secured in this way. The fire is then put out and the residue is skimmed to remove the waste and foreign material such as chips, bark, needles, etc., which collect on the surface. Sometimes skimming is done during the distilling process. After skimming, the hot residue is allowed to run out an aperture at the base of the still and through a short pipe and a set of three or four screens into a large metal vat. The screens are placed, one above the other and are of 6- to 8-, 14-, 32- and 60-in. mesh from top to bottom. A piece of cotton cloth is generally placed on top of the lowest screen. After cooling in the vat for a period up to an hour, depending upon its _ temperature, it is dipped out into slack barrels which hold about 450 lb. Upon cooling, it hardens in about twenty to twenty-five hours into rosin and is ready for shipment to market. Rosin is graded according to its color. Virgin dip yields the lightest colored and best rosin, called “W. W.” or “ water white,” whereas the scrape yields the darkest and least valua- ble rosin. The following are the grades of rosin, in order of quality: WW, WG, N, M, K, I, H,G, F, E, D, B. As the distillate comes from the copper condenser or worm, it is col- lected in a barrel, the turpentine rising by gravity to the top. Near the top a spout permits the turpentine to run off into a second barrel, from which it is dipped into barrels of 50 gal. capacity and shipped to market. Savannah is the great naval stores market in this country, both for domestic and foreign consumption. Owing to the large foreign trade developed and its proximity to the Georgia and Carolina turpentine orchards, it has for a long time held a pre-eminent position and Savannah quotations are recognized as the standard in the industry. The Savannah Board of Trade has been very active in developing the industry along proper lines. As a result of some dispute and to NAVAL STORES 181 improve the standards of containers for naval stores, this Board issued in 1911 letters of instruction to the operators of stills, as follows: Turpentine Barrels. All barrels, whether new or second hand, should be kept absolutely protected from the elements, and not allowed to remain subject to rain and sunshine at way stations and river landings. Glue will not take on damp staves. Every barrel should be glued twice before being filled. Use only the best quality of glue, as it is the cheapest in the end. Before gluing, see that your pot is absolutely clean. Put into this 20 Ib. of good glue and 5 gal. of water, and allow it to soak overnight. On the fol- lowing morning apply sufficient heat to melt up to a temperature not exceeding 160° F. Under no condition whatever must glue be allowed to boil, as this causes decomposition to set in, which causes the bad smell usually noticed around glue sheds, and renders it utterly worthless. This amount of prepared glue will be sufficient for 20 barrels. After gluing, barrels should be taken off the trough and stood on the head for about one-half hour, after which time they should be reversed, so that the surplus glue will run down equally on both heads. The barrels should then be well and thoroughly driven, and, after standing for twenty-four hours should be given a second coat of glue, using the exact formula as before. They are then ready to be filled in forty-eight hours, and if treated in this way there should be no turning except for broken staves. Rosin. Rule No. 9 of the Savannah Board of Trade says in part: “ Rosin barrels to be in merchantable order must have two good heads, not exceed- ing 1} in. in thickness, staves not to exceed 1 in. in thickness; the top well-lined.”” Too much stress, therefore, cannot be placed on the abso- lute necessity of carrying out this rule to the very letter, especially regard- ing the thickness of staves and heading, for rule No. 10 specifically instructs the inspector to make a proper deduction in weight in all rosin when the staves and headings are more than the prescribed thickness in rule No. 9. In such cases, therefore, the operator will lose, as in addi- tion to having the deductions made, for which he receives nothing, he must pay the full amount of freight to the railroad. Operators must see that every barrel is well coopered before shipment; see that all four hoops are nailed on the barrels, and the heads cut to fit close, and a good lining hoop as prescribed by rule No. 9 is in place. Staves must be properly equalized. Staves should be 4o in. long, and barrels built on a 22-in. stress hoop, which gives a well-shaped and easily handled barrel. 182 FOREST PRODUCTS YIELDS The Census Bureau of 1909 shows the following yields of turpentine per crop of 10,500 boxes for each of the principal states in the South producing naval stores: YIELD OF TURPENTINE PER CROP BY STATES Yield of Turpentine per State Crop of 10,500 Boxes. Barrels ABD AM oe ciccetgl ocd ces HO ne ek eee ee 35.6 Blorida: tsa ate os SP ee ee ae 29.8 CSCDERIR Ss soar oat a Coe as Aga 6 58 a peed geen 26.5 L/OURNMRER OS iy. oeeretae Tors Poe ee aaa 44.7 MiiasisSi oo ox ona cee Se a ae Te 34.5 BS A»: © Saierteany eg Sy ph pA A Se MCT ys 29) Ske Tamar 43.5 The larger yields shown in the above table from the forests of Louisiana and Texas are undoubtedly explained by the fact that the timber in those states is much larger than the timber now being bled in the other states. Consequently, the yield would naturally be much larger per crop. Arm Water Inlet Tank i— Overflow Worm Trough Cap Funnel~ (¥-~ Charging Platform Tail Pipe | Kettle From Schorger and Betts. Fic. 52.—Diagrammatic cross-section of a turpentine still. The barrels of resin are brought in from the forest and, after unloading on the platform on the right, are emptied into the kettle on removal of the cap. The turpentine is collected in the barrel at the right. A crop will-generally yield from 29 to 46 barrels of turpentine and from 163 to 234 barrels of rosin, depending upon the year of tapping. It-is obvious that the yield of turpentine will be much greater during the first year of tapping and the same is true of the yield of rosin. Con- siderable depends upon the method of tapping, that is, by the box or the cup system. The yield of crude turpentine or rosin is generally about 8 to 12 |b. per box, or about 20 to 25 lb. from a tree of average size where two faces are exposed. ee NAVAL STORES 183 One barrel of average crude turpentine will yield about 5 gal. of spirits of turpentine and from 60 to 65 per cent of its bulk in rosin. The bleeding of the first year produces a fine, light-colored rosin and this grows darker from year to year until at the end of the fourth year the scrape at the end of the season yields the poorest grade of rosin. The following tables show a comparison of yields of turpentine and rosin from bleeding by both the cup and box system: ! SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE FROM HALF CROPS, SEASONS 1902-1904, GEORGIA | | Net Pri Value of Cor, | Boxes. «| toes | NES | “aces Year. i Cup we Pan r | | o Ta- | wy Dip. ‘Scrape. Total. Dip. ‘Scrape.| Total. | Half Crop. | °" tiga” | Half Crop. Gal. | Gal. | Gal. | Gal. |-Gal. | Gal. Gal. Cents. First... . - “.|1385.3| 205.0,1590.3 |1134.7) 153-7,1288.4 301.9 40 $120.76 Second... .|1103.5| 165. 0/1268. 5| 705-2) 226.6, 931.8 336.7 45 ele se Third... ..| 781. 3) 136. ° O17. 3) 536.1 190.5, 726.6 190.7 | 45 -| 85.82 Total. . 3270. , 506. 013776. I fe 6. 057 70.8 jpoae 8 226. 3 Se ees | $358.10 NET SALES OF ROSIN FROM HALF CROPS, SEASONS 1902-1904, GEORGIA } | Cups. Boxes. | Value of | | Excess Year. : from ‘ | Cup Dip. Scrape. | Total. Dip. Scrape. Total. |Half Crop Fg Se dae ae allan ae $401.72 | $47.72 | $449.44.$328.40 | $35.53 [$363.03 | $85.51 Second... .. Se cee Res .| 286.88 58.24 | 345.12) 132.42 | 84.08 | 216.50 | 128.62 SPANO oe sede kc ste 212.60 | 61.65 | 274.25) 124.76 | 79-70 204.46 | 69.79 ORB foc ar sintiyn aces $q01.20 $167.61 $1068.81/$585.58 ‘$199.31 $784.89 $283.92 UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS Turpentine. Probably the greatest quantity of turpentine is used for paints and varnishes. It has the power of thinning out these materials by its action as a solvent, as well as by its power of oxidation and evaporation. It is widely used in the cloth-printing industry, especially for woolens and cottons and it is extensively in demand as a solvent for rubber, gutta percha and like substances. Turpentine is also used in a great variety of chemicals, medicines and, in a number of industries, for many specialized purposes. 1 From The Naval Stores Industry by Schorger and iene U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 229, page 23. 184 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table! shows the high and low prices, per gallon, at Savannah for turpentine for eleven years. PRICES OF TURPENTINE—PER GALLON Year. High. Low. FOTIMNEB ES Sos Vee aa eae ad $ .403 $. 36 TOUGHT] 34h. Aenea eG woe 54 354 TOISAIG bs Sain cts wee ae .56 36 THERES EN he BO a ee .47 .40% TOLGH=14s Sa GA en ook . 483 ae TS NODFSR a ce hoe oie ca) pales .48 -35 EQEIAT Oe oa teens Kee ese 1.02 44% TOLQPET Co Cooke oan: Shine ce eat 1.07 552 TOOUS TOs is ti aa eras eh Mee 3 35% EQOS-GO os Fs dae 2s See ees Pee 503 35 IQOPTOB Ls aS scien Se eee ae avers 69 4° Rosin. The greatest single utility of rosin is in the manufacture of soap. It is combined with caustic soda and potash to form the various kinds of soap. It is also in great demand as a rosin sizing in the manufacture of paper. It gives certain kinds of paper a stiff coating or surface, making them adaptable for printing and writing purposes. Without this sizing it would be impossible for certain papers to take colors, inks, etc. “‘Brewer’s pitch,” made of rosin and a small admixture of turpentine, was widely used to coat the interiors of barrels and other containers of beer and malted liquors. This coating gives the liquors a better taste and renders the barrels easy to clean. Rosin is also in great demand for a wide variety of manufacturing enterprises, particularly in the making of linoleum, sealing wax, oilcloth, special flooring compounds and coverings, various kinds of inks, roofing materials, lubricating compounds, and a great variety of chemicals too numerous to mention. An important use for rosin is for resin driers, which are extensively used in the drying of oil paints and varnishes. Rosin soaps are com- _ bined with metallic salts to form metallic resinates, which are known in the trade as “ Japan driers.” Rosin is distilled into rosin oils which are produced under several dif- ferent trade names. ‘These oils are used in the manufacture of several greases and specialty lubricants, as well as solvents. 1 From the Naval Stores Review, Savannah, Ga., June 7, 1919, p. 10. NAVAL STORES 185_ The following table ! shows the range of prices from high to low for rosin in the Savannah market: ROSIN MARKET PRICES AT SAVANNAH. High and low prices per barrel for four-year period. Grade. 1914-15. 1915-16. 1916-17. 1917-18. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. | High. Low. Jater white....... .... $7.50 $5.50 | $7.50 $5.50 | $7.323 $5.20] $7.75 $5.90 Window glass........... G.08° (8340: 1-77 384 5-35 7-10 5-05] 7-65 5.75 Meee ve aiae sale d 2 se 6.00 5.00] 7.00 4.70 | 7.02$ 4.75| 7-55 5-75 (7 eee Pee eee 5-30 3.95} 6.50 3.95 | 6.75 4-50} 7-10 5§.75 Beet ie 5 osc Reina 4-553 3-20| 6.15 3.25 | 6.62 4.20] 6.95 5.20 Beir DS = nin's ie Sak sees 4-35 3-05 | 5-90 3.10] 6.50 4.20] 6.70 5.15 Eee aan pe pia cere 4-35 3-05 | 5-90 3-05] 6.50 4.10} 6.65 5.15 eae ee ee 4.20 3.05 | 5-90 3.05 | 6.45 4.10] 6.60 5.10 7 5S SNES eee 4-15 3.05 5-90 3.00] 6.40 3.95] 6.60 5.05 (LE te ea Wales | 4.02} 3.023] 5.85 2.95 | 6.35 3.90] 6.60 5.05 1 EO ee a pea ec rays | 4.05 3.00] 5.85 2.85 | 6.35 3.85} 6.60 5.02} ESE Ree ea ge | 4.00 2.90] 5.85 2.70} 6.35 3-75| 6.60 5.00 | i FRENCH METHODS Turpentine and rosin are produced in large commercial quantities in various European countries, particularly France, Spain and Russia, but the total production in all Europe is exceedingly small by comparison with that in this country. The industry has been highly developed in France, where it is cen- tralized in the Landes, a region of about 2,000,000 acres in southwest France from Bordeaux to the Spanish frontier. The forests of the Landes are composed of almost pure maritime pine (Pinus maritima) and, in the period before the great war, the value of the yield of naval stores products was greater than the value of the timber when cut. The maritime pine trees are much smaller than the longleaf pine cf the South, since most of the trees are planted and are cut when from sixty to seventy-five years of age. Many of these trees are continually bled for turpentine from fifteen years of age until they are cut. ! The French turpentine operators chip the trees by slicing off a new shaving each time the resin flow is to be renewed. The face is only about 33 in. wide instead of 12 to 14 in. in this country. Chipping is done every eight days, and during the first season the height of chipping is only carried about 24 in. up the tree. The depth of chipping is only 1 From the Naval Stores Review, Savannah, Ga., June 7, 1919, pp. 24-27. 186 FOREST PRODUCTS about 3 in. and is done with a concave gouge instead of a semi-round or circular hack as in this country. A single zinc apron or gutter is used to guide the resin into an earthen- ware cup hung below it. The apron is inserted in a slit made by a chisel specially designed for the purpose. The cup contains about 1 qt. and is supported by a nail at the base and the apron at the top. The aprons and cups are raised each year. Only two faces are generally permitted Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. Fic. 53.—Method of tapping maritime pine near Arres in the Landes region of France. A narrow “face” is chipped. and the apron and cup moved up each, year. Trees are frequently bled for thirty years or more. The faces heal over and are changed to different parts of the trunk. on each tree at one time. Chipping is done up to 12 to r5 ft. in height or more. The worker uses stilts to chip at the higher levels. After bleeding, these narrow faces heal over so that the face can be moved to different parts of the tree from time to time and the tapping continued for a period of thirty to forty years or more. This is in sharp irra ere NAVAL STORES 187 contrast to the practice in this country, where the period of tapping seldom exceeds four years. Distillation follows the same general lines as those described for this country, but there are several preparatory measures such as clarification and steaming and distillation by steam is used as well as direct distillation. It is unsatisfactory to compare the yields of maritime and longleaf pines because of the different sized trees, different methods of bleeding, chipping, etc. However, it may be said that the resin content of the long- leaf pine is much greater for similar sized trees than is the case with the maritime pine. BIBLIOGRAPHY AsHE, W. W. The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Products of Eastern North Carolina. Bulletin 5, North Carolina Geological Survey, 1894. Bert. Note sur les dunes de Gascogne. 1go0. Betts., H. S. Possibilities of Western Pines as a Source of Naval Stores. Bulletin 116, Forest Service, 1912. Bopre. Cours de technologie forestiére. 1887. Bureau of the Census. Turpentine and Rosin. Bulletin 126, 1902. Bureau Turpentine and Rosin. Census of Manufactures. Bulletin 85, 1905. DRoMART. Etude sur les Landes de Gascogne. 1808. Fernow, B. E. Strength of “Boxed” or “Turpentine” Timber. Circular 8, For- > est Service, 1892. ‘ Fernow, B. E. Effect of Turpentine Gaikering ot on the Timbér of Longleaf Pine. Circular 9, Forest Service, 1893- Fernow, B. E. Timber Physics. Part II. Bulletin 8, padtsi Service, 1893. Fernow, B. E. Report of the Chief of the Division of Foréstry for 1892. 1893. Great Britain. Report on the Turpentine Industry in the United States. Consular Report No. 647, 1906. Great Britain. Pine Cultivation and Turpentine Production in France, Russia, Greece, and the United States. -Consular Report, 1906. Herty, C. H. A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. Bulletin 40, Forest Service, 1903. Herty, C. H. Practical Results of the Cup and Gutter System. Circular 34, Forest Service, 1905. Herty,C.H. Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of Naval Stores. Bulletin 90, Forest Service, 191r. *Hovucu, F.B. Report on Forestry, 1877. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 137-144. 188 FOREST PRODUCTS Mour. The Timber Pines of the Southern United States. Bulletin 13, Forest Service, 1897. Pincuot, G. A New Method of Turpentine Schein Circular 24, Forest Service, 1903. RABATE. L’industrie des résines. 1902. RaBATE. Le pin maritime et son gemmage. 1902. ScHorGerR, A.W. An Examination of the Oleoresins of some Western Pines. Bulle- tin 119, Forest Service, 1913. TALLoN. Du pin maritime et des produits du pin d’Austriche de Joseph Mack. 188s. United States. Inspection of Naval Stores. Hearing before a Subsontasie tee on Interstate Commerce, United States Senate, S. 7867. 1909. United States. Inspection of Naval Stores. Hearing before a Subcommittee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. H.R. 24482. 1909. VerItcH and Donk. Commercial Turpentine: Their Quality and Methods for Their Examination. Bulletin 135, Bureau of Chemistry, 1g1t. VEITCH AND SAMMET. Grading Rosin at the Still. Circular 100, Bureau of Chem- istry, 1912. ; ll th er CHAPTER VIII HARDWOOD DISTILLATION ! HISTORY Introduction. The heating or carbonizing of wood for the purpose of manufacturing charcoal has been in practice as long as history is recorded. It is believed that it is as old as civilization itself. In the manufacture of charcoal by the old process, the wood is heated to such temperatures that it is carbonized while the gases that pass off in the form of dense, heavy, black smoke have given rise to the modern processes of distilling wood. Altogether two distinct branches of the industry have been developed in this country. The most important branch is devoted to the utilization of the denser and heavier hardwoods and seeks the recovery of the follow- ing commercial products—wood alcohol, acetate of lime, and charcoal. In addition the minor products are wood tar and wood gas, both of which are at the present time usually utilized as fuel in the heating process. Only those hardwoods that are comparatively free from an excessive content of gums, tannins, resins, etc., are desirable. The so-called Northern hardwoods, such as maple, birch and beech, are considered the most desirable. Hickory and oak are also considered of almost equal value. The other branch of the wood-distillation industry requires resinous woods, and the objective products are, on the other hand, turpentine, tar, wood oils, and charcoal. The southern longleaf pine is the best wood for this kind of distillation and, up to the present time, has been prac- tically the only one used for this purpose. Early Practices. The first record of the distillation of wood on a commercial scale in this country was in 1830, when James Ward began the manufacture of pyroligneous acid at North Adams, Mass. This is the raw liquor 1 This chapter is largely taken from The Hardwood Distillation Industry in New York, by ~ the author, bulletin of the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 1916. 189 190 FOREST PRODUCTS distilled from the condensed vapors that pass off in heating the wood. So far as can be learned from records, it was not until 1850 that the distillation of wood for the production of volatile products and semi- refined products was begun. According to the most authentic records the first successful wood distillation plant in this country was estab- lished in New York State in 1850, when John H. Turnbull, of Turn- bull & Co., Scotland, who had for some time been connected with the industry, came to this country and erected at Milburn, Broome Co., New York (now Conklin on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Photograph by Nelson C. Brown Fic. 54.—Beech, birch and hard maple cut in 50-in. lengths for conversion by dry distillation into wood alcohol, acetate of lime and charcoal. This wood is always seasoned about one year before it is used. Railroad) a small chemical plant. The copper and steel castings were brought from Scotland. There were eight cast-iron retorts, 42 in. in diameter and about 8 ft. long, and the necessary copper stills, copper log condensers, etc. A number of men experienced in the industry were brought over by Turnbull from Scotland and many of these men and their sons became managers of plants which soon after sprang up in southern and southeastern New York. : The retorts were charged each twelve hours with wood cut in 8 ft. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 191 lengths. The vapor was condensed in a copper log condenser and the liquid recovered was pumped into settling tanks, from which it was drawn to the copper stills for distillation. The settled tar was drawn off from these settling tanks each day, and spread, with a ladle, over the charcoal, which was burned under the retorts, the copper and lime stills, and the pans—all distillation being accomplished by this direct method. Little or no effort was made to save the wood spirit, the main object being to produce acetate of lime, for which a high price was obtained both in n the home and Scotch markets. The methods followed in operating the plant demanded a large amount of hand labor, and sturdy men of experience were needed to carry the work forward.’ These men with their families came from time to time from Scotland. In a short time Milburn became known as the Scotch Settlement, and it was famous for the number of trained men who, after getting their experience here, were called upon to take charge of distilla- tion plants not only in New York, but in Pennsylvania, Michigan, Canada and other centers as well. About 1865 (or soon after), a Mr. Pollock, a chemist, of Morrisania, New York, began refining wood spirit in a small way. The market developed rapidly. Shortly after the Burcey Column was introduced to the crude plants, thereby adding to the power of the stills to recover wood spirit of 82 per cent test. The production of wood spirit being greatly increased, it became desirable to install a central refining station, and the Burcey Chemical Co., with a refinery at Binghamton, New York, resulted. A refinery was also started’3 in Brockton, Mass., in 1877. For a long time the sale of charcoal was Binited, the greater part being consumed as fuel in the plants. Slowly the market developed, until © to-day practically the entire output is shipped, hard and soft coal taking its place under the boiler and retorts, and live steam being used in the stills (now fitted with coils), and in the pans, which have steam jackets at the bottom. At the present time plant operation is along efficient lines. Old-time methods have been discontinued, and the manual labor is now greatly reduced. In the woods there is also a notable improvement. Cord wood is now, to some extent, cut from the limbs and refuse tree trunks, after the lumberman has taken out the best timber in the shape of logs. Thus the danger of fire is reduced and the ground, which, otherwise would be covered with scattered brush, is free for new seedlings to take root without delay, or the stumps ieft to sprout up with a new wood crop. 192 FOREST PRODUCTS UTILIZATION OF WOOD IN THE INDUSTRY Favorable Conditions. The Northern hardwood forests, chiefly in Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York and Wisconsin, are very fortunately located for engaging in the wood-distillation industry. There are three very necessary condi- tions for successful operation, namely: (1) a plentiful and, therefore, a relatively cheap wood supply; (2) comparatively near a good fuel supply, such as natural gas and coal;! (3) reasonably accessible to a market for the products of the industry. The only desirable condition that is not generally present is that of large iron furnaces where the charcoal can be utilized to the best advantage. In Wisconsin and Michigan, however, are large iron furnaces which have been largely responsible for the devel- opment of large distillation plants in those states. Desirable Species. Woods that are hard and heavy are the most suitable for the wood- distillation industry, especially those that are, in addition to the above qualifications, free from tarry and resinous products. As a rule, heart- wood is considered much more desirable than sapwood and there is an almost uniform opinion among manufacturers to the effect that hard maple is considered best and that beech and birch follow in order. Chest- nut contains too much tannin for successful production of distillates. Ash, oak and hickory are considered almost as good as the so-called northern hardwoods, namely beech, birch and hard maple. Cherry and elm contain too much tarry material and, consequently, the distillate results in an excessive amount of wood tar which has very little com- mercial value and, in addition, there is an insufficient yield of alcohol and acetate of lime. Basswood, popple, cottonwood and the soft woods or conifers are entirely too soft and light. The conifers such as spruce, white pine, balsam, fir, hemlock, etc., are undesirable on account of the resinous nature of their wood and their light weight. Other native species found in the Northern hardwood forests do not grow in sufficient quan- tities to make them of any importance for use in the industry Stumpage Values. The value of the timber on the stump varies considerably. On large logging operations. where the tops, limbs, defective trees and brashy material are utilized, practically no stumpage value is used, 1 This is especially true of plants located in Pennsylvania and New York. y ogre HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 193 because the utilization of this material is considered as salvage. On most of the New York and Pennsylvania operations steep, rocky hill- sides, covered by the desirable hardwoods, are anywhere from one-half mile to several miles from the plant or shipping point. Stumpage on these operations, particularly in Delaware County, which is the center of the industry in New York State, runs about 75 cents per cord. Alto- gether they vary between 25 cents to $1.00 per cord. There is a general tendency for stumpage values to rise. This has been especially true during the past decade. Since the European War broke out, the stumpage values have been inflated to a considerable extent above these figures. Cutting and Delivering to the Factory. Cutting is done by choppers who, in many sections, look upon getting out the annual cord-wood supply in the winter as a lucrative means of winter employment. The trees are cut up in 5o0-in. lengths and hauled on sleds when snow is on the ground or on wagons directly to the acid plant. Hauls up to 8 to 10 miles are fairly frequent. For cutting and stacking, the usual figure is about $1.25 to $1.40 per cord. Cutting is usually done by contract and where the wood is favor- ably sized and located for chopping and the ground fairly level, cutting and stacking can be dione as low as $1.00 to $1.10 per cord by experienced choppers. The maximum figure is about $1.50 per cord. The cost of hauling varies with the distance and the character of the ground and the road over which the load is hauled. One and one-half to two cords are usually considered the maximum load under the most favorable condi- tions. The total cost of wood delivered at the commercial plants is about $4.00 percord. Estimates obtained from all the New York plants show that the average value of cordwood delivered at the plants in 1916 was $4.06 per cord. The maximum cost was estimated to be $5.00 per cord at one plant. At another plant, the cost was estimated to be $3.25 per cord which was the minimum estimated cost in the State. Seasoning and Weights. ; In all cases the wood must be seasoned for at least one year before being used in the ovens or retorts. If used green, the high-moisture con- tent is excessive and too much heat is required to derive the product. At many of the plants it is estimated that before seasoning, the average cord of mixed beech, birch and maple weighs in the neighborhood of 6200 lb. After seasoning the average cord weighs about 3800 lb. The wood . is used in the process with the bark on. All forms of limb and body wood 194 FOREST PRODUCTS down to 2 in. in diameter are utilized. When over 8 in. in diameter, the wood is commonly split. Body wood is much preferred to limb wood because the latter contains too much sapwood and, consequently, more moisture. As mentioned previously, yields from heartwood are much greater than those from sapwood. Opportunities for Utilization of Sawmill and Woods Waste. Some of the most successful plants in this country are operated where woods waste consisting of tops, limbs, crooked trees, defective logs and broken material in the woods can be utilized to advantage. Haul roads, Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. Fic. 55.—General view of the Maryland Wood Products Co. plant at Maryland, Otsego Co., New York. The trucks loaded with hard maple, beec': and birch on the left are ready to be moved into the retorts in the oven house. skidways and railroads maintained and operated for the purpose of get- ting out logs can be utilized to excellent advantage in getting out the other material for distillation purposes, and under these conditions the wood can be delivered at the factory at a very low comparative cost. This is the method usually followed in connection with large distillation plants in Michigan and Wisconsin and is also followed to some extent in the Adirondacks. Where the larger logs are utilized for lumber, the material that would otherwise be wasted is used for wood distillation a EE —- = HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 195 purposes. This feature constitutes an important contribution to the cause of forest conservation. The removal of all of this material from the forest also means that the fire danger is greatly lessened. The larger refuse from the manufacture of lumber in sawmills is used to advantage in the largest plants in this country in Michigan. It is believed that this form of utilization of sawmill waste will come into greater prominence in the industry in the future. Only the larger forms of sawmill waste, such as slabs, edgings, trimmings, and similar material can be utilized to commercial advantage. The sawdust, shavings and similar material usually cut up by the slasher cannot be utilized profit- ably except as fuel, but experiments are now being undertaken which may permit of the utilization of sawdust and shavings for distillation within a short time or as soon as some promising experiments can be per- fected on a commercial basis. Management of Timber Lands. Several of the wood distillation companies in New York and Pennsyl- vania own tracts as large as 50,000 acres each or lease tracts nearly as large. These are managed on a permanent basis and carefully protected from the annual fire hazard during the dangerous dry seasons. These companies are practicing one of the best forms of forestry because they - utilize the products of the forest most completely, the maximum growth of the forest is stimulated, and forest fires, the greatest enemy of the forest, in so far as practicable, are eliminated. The rougher and more mountainous portions of the forest are admirably suited to forest culture on account of the steep, rocky hillsides which contain many springs and seepage flows, thus permitting the most rapid growth of timber and stimulating the sprouting capacity in all of the larger trees. The cutting is usually done in the winter time. The following spring the stumps sprout up thriftily and vigorously to a height of from 5 to 10 ft. the first year. After a period of from twenty to thirty years the stand is cut over and the same process is repeated. In one section, four different age classes of timber were noted where average yields of one cord per acre per year had been obtained after the original forests were cut over. These tracts are in much better condition than they would be under ordinary conditions of lumbering because the forest is renewed both from sprout and from seed. The vigor of the forest is, therefore, maintained, forest fires are kept out and all of the available wood product is utilized. It would be a highly desirable situation if all forest industries could be run _on the same basis. 196 FOREST PRODUCTS i Statistics of Wood Consumption. For a long time New York was the leader in the consumption of wood in the hardwood distillation industry. In the early nineties, however, the industry spread into Pennsylvania and the greatest consumption at present is found in Michigan where, although there are comparatively few plants, the total consumption of wood exceeds that of any other state. From an investigation carried on in the spring of 1916, the New York State College of Forestry has determined that the annual consumption of hardwood for the industry in New York at that time was 192,330 cords. The daily capacity as reported by these plants was 643% cords. These figures have been compiled as a result of both the daily and annual capacities of the twenty-five plants in the state, as estimated by the plants themselves. The latest available statistics as compiled by the Bureau of Census at Washington, D. C., for the consumption of hard- woods in New York State in this industry was for 1911, for which year it was announced that 132,400 cords were consumed. The largest plant in the state in the spring of 1916 consumed 80 cords per day. This was an 8-oven plant located in Delaware County. The smallest plant in the state was one consuming only 12 cords per day in Sullivan County. This was an old cylinder retort plant containing 8 pairs of retorts. The average daily capacity of the individual New York plant is 25.74 cords and the average annual capacity is 7691 cords. As a rule the oven retort plants are much larger in daily capacity than the round retort plants. The smallest oven retort plant is a 2-oven affair consuming 16 cords per day with an 80-cord plant per day the largest. The smallest round retort plant also consumes 12 cords per day with the largest one consuming 30 cords per day. ; The latest available statistics of wood consumption in the hardwood distillation industry in the United States were for 1911, when it was reported that 1,058,955 cords were consumed. Of this amount Michi- gan with 13 plants led with 396,916 cords; Pennsylvania was second with 50 plants consuming 364,539 cords and New York third with 25 plants consuming 132,400 cords. Seventeen other plants scattered in 11 - different states, chiefly in the northeast, reported a consumption of 165,100 cords. It is very likely that with the stimulation of high prices for products of the wood distillation industry, due to the European War, the total consumption in the whole country in hardwood distillation amounts to at least 1,200,000 cords, although this is a very rough estimate. The following table shows the statistics of wood consumption for the United a ee HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 197 States as compiled by the U. S. Bureau of Census from the years 1goo to IQII: ‘ Number of Cords Number of Year. Est thubaicats. yj sence se 1890 53 600,000 * 1900 93 800,000 ! 1907 100 1,219,771 1908 Ior $78,632 1909 116 1,149,847 IgIo 117 1,257,917 IgttI 105 1,058,955 1 Estimated. This table shows how the consumption of the wood in the industry dropped off after the enactment of the Federal Law in 1907 which resulted in the serious drop of prices obtained for the crude wood alcohol. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE INDUSTRY Up to nearly 1860 practically all of the acetate of lime used in the dye business in this country had been imported from Europe. Acetate of lime was the principal product sought after in wood distillation in the early developments of the industry. The distillate was not utilized for wood alcohol or for any other purpose than for lime acetate, and the char- coal was used, when convenient, for fuel for manufacturing pig iron and for other purposes. Acetate of lime was commonly used even in the wet condition before it had been thoroughly dried out. In the early days of the industry it brought as high as 18 cents a pound even in the wet con- dition. In October, 1916, dry gray acetate of lime brought 33 cents a pound whereas in the fall of 1914 it was bringing only 14 cents a pound. In the spring of 1916 it brought 7 cents per pound. During 1917 and 1918 the price dropped back to between 1} and 23 cents per pound. Mr. Patterson was one of the first men to establish a plant in New York, located at Kirkwood, near Binghamton. Mr. Thomas Keery entered the business with him at Keeryville, between Cadosia and Apex in Delaware County, and this firm has been in the business ever since. At that time the brown acetate of lime was full of tar and nct nearly equal to the present refined product. The charcoal and alcohol were usually allowed to go practically to waste. Enormous prices were ob- tained for acetate of lime, so that interest was greatly stimulated in the industry. 198 FOREST PRODUCTS About 1885 the raw form of wood alcohol was developed and an attempt was made to sell it to the hat manufacturing industries at Dan- bury, Conn. This was one of the very first large fields for the use of wood alcohol and it brought high prices. Formerly grain alcohol had been used to stiffen hats and the use of wood alcohol rapidly came into common practice. At first as high as 70 cents a gallon was paid for this wood alcohol. Charcoal developed as the price of acetate went down. Acetate of lime was used to fix the color in dyes. particularly in Fall River, Mass. | J Fic. 56.—General view of hardwood distillation plant at Betula, Pennsylvania. On the left is the wood yard, in the center the oven house and still house and on the right, the char- coal storage warehouse. Immediately to the right of the oven house are the two sets of cooling ovens, Gradually a big influx of wood distillation plants came in and the prices gradually dropped. Around 1885 to 1900 there were a great many small capacity plants and most of them followed very rough and crude methods. All of them used the cylinder retort process. These plants, however, were gradually replaced by the larger modern plants using the long oven instead of the old retort. There is now a much smaller number of plants than formerly, but on the other hand there is a much greater annual con- HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 199 sumption of wood in the industry, due to the economy in plant operation with the advent of the oven in the early nineties. Up to 1900 the industry was almost wholly centralized in the state of New York. At that time a few plants were started in Pennsylvania. just over the border from the southern tier of counties in New York. About 1902 to 1906 the industry was further developed in Michigan, where the largest wood distillation plants, some of them utilizing as much as 110 to 200 cords of wood per day, are now located. Ideal conditions are present for the successful manufacture of wood distillation products in Michigan because of the availability of the raw material in connection with hardwood, saw and planing mills, together with the fact that iron furnaces are maintained in connection with them where the charcoal can be used to the best economical advantage. In addition, the raw material is secured from the waste of sawmills and logging operations, and one of the principal products can be utilized on the ground without exces- sive shipping rates. Before 1907 wood alcohol had been bringing from 38 to 40 cents per gallon wholesale for the crude product, that is, the 82 per cent crude alcohol. When the Federal Internal’ Revenue Department. removed the tariff on grain alcohol, which took effect September 1,.1907, the price of crude wood alcohol dropped to about 16 cents per gallon and gradually came. back to 26 cents. The approximate price in 1916 was 45 cents per gallon, and in March, 1917, was 65 cents, a price stimulated largely by the European War conditions. Before the war in 1914, the price was about 25 cents to 28 cents per gallon of crude 82 per cent alcohol. PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE Within the past fifty years the developments in the processes of man- ufacture followed in hardwood distillation have been remarkable. The history of the industry represents an evolution from the old wasteful charcoal pits. To recover the condensable gases lost in making charcoal by the old pit process, brick kilns were used. This was a very crude process, but represented a great step in advance. Next came the round iron retorts placed in “ batteries ’’ of two each in long bricked-up rows, and within comparatively recent years the steel oven which is a great labor- and time-saving device. The following are brief descriptions of these three processes which followed each other in rapid chronological order: 200 FOREST PRODUCTS Brick Kilns. The brick kilns supplanted the old charcoal pit as a means of manu- facturing charcoal when the iron industry in this country assumed large proportions. Brick was substituted for the open-air or clay-covered pit because manufacture was simplified, the loss of carbonization was mini- mized and burning, therefore, could be carried on with greater safety. However, a good portion of the vapors are lost with the brick kilns, as they are with the old open-air pit, since the yield is only about 40 per cent to 50 per cent of the yield from the oven process. These brick kilns are made with a circular base, with holes in the base for drafts of air regulated by special doors and the vapors are drawn off by exhausters through wooden ducts. This practice was followed especially in Penn- sylvania and in Wisconsin, where an abundant supply of the desirable hardwoods was found in a location near blast furnaces where pig iron was produced. Pig iron, manufactured by the use of charcoal, is considered far superior to that made by coke. The pig iron made with charcoal commonly brings about $5.00 a ton more than that manufactured with coke. The brick kilns were usually built to hold 50 to go cords each and were charged and discharged by hand. The complete manufacture of charcoal by the brick kilns, including charging and discharging, required from fifteen to twenty-five days. The heating necessary to distill the wood is supplied by the combustion of part of the charge within the appa- ratus, in the same way that charcoal is made in the open-ai- pit. The yield of charcoal by this method is somewhat below that manufactured in the retorts or ovens and is generally considered inferior in grade. The brick kiln is desirable only when the chief product is charcoal and transportation facilities are not available or the market is too distant for the other products of wood distillation, such as wood alcohol and acetate of lime. Where other forms of fuel, such as natural gas and coal, are out of the question and the manufacture of charcoal is desired, it is also commonly used. Most of the brick kilns were in operation in Michigan and Wisconsin, where charcoal was in great demand in connection with iron furnaces. Iron Retorts. The iron retort followed the brick kiln and was the first device in- vented whereby the vapors from the carbonization of wood are collected on an efficient basis and distilled in the form of pyroligneous acid and later refined into wood alcohol, acetate of lime, etc. The yields, how- ever, are much lower on account of slow firing. These retorts were small. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 201 cylindrical vessels originally of cast iron and later steel cylinders 50 in. in diameter by 9 ft. in length. They were placed horizontally in pairs, and batteries of 10 to 15 pairs were common in long brick rows in the earlier plants. Each retort was sufficiently large to hold about five- eighths of a cord of wood. Heating was provided externally by a fire box located underneath the retort. For fuel, coal, charcoal, wood gas, wood oil, wood tar, and wood itself, have been used. The retorts are built and discharged from the single door in front which can be fastened tightly and sealed with clay to prevent the entrance of oxygen after the heating process is started. Along the top of these rows of retorts the surface is bricked over and serves as a drying floor for the acetate of lime. Arun, that is the period from the first charging of the retort to the removal of the charcoal after the process, usually requires from twenty-two to twenty-four hours. Oven Retorts. The small round retort is now being rapidly replaced in the larger and more progressive plants by the large rectangular retort or oven retort. This is also known as an oven. Until about 1900 a large number of these round retort plants were in operation, but about 1895 the oven retort came in, which provides for loading and unloading the retort by the use of cars which are run directly into the chamber. This resulted in a considerable saving of labor charges so that all of the new plants now being constructed are introducing the ovens. In ‘several of the states there are not as many plants active now as there were twenty years ago, but there is a vastly larger amount of wood being consumed per plant, due to the fact that the oven retorts can consume as high as 10 to 12 cords in a single oven, whereas the old round retort held only about 3 to 1 cord of wood. The modern hardwood distillation plant, therefore, is usually the . oven retort plant. This was a decided advance in the manufacture of wood distillation products. As noted above, it is largely a labor-saving device and, although the initial cost is considerably greater the operating charge per cord is so much smaller than with the round retort that it is being universally introduced. The ovens are rectangular in cross- section and may be anywhere from 25 to 56 ft. in length: The common form is an oven 52 ft. in length, 8 ft. 4 in. in height and 6 ft. 3 in. in width. These ovens are usually arranged in pairs similar to the process followed with the round retort. The cars, each loaded with about 2 cords of wood, are run in on standard or narrow gauge tracks.directly into the ovens. 202 FOREST PRODUCTS They are heated in a manner similar to the round retorts, that is, by means of a fire box underneath, although there may be fire boxes at one or both ends, and the fuel in the Pennsylvania and southern New York regions is usually either coal or natural gas. In the Delaware County section the fuel consists of coal from the Scranton region. The vapors pass out from one or two large openings at the side or at the end and are condensed through a large copper condenser. The process of distillation requires from twenty-two to twenty-four hours with the oven retorts, and when the doors are unsealed and opened a:cable is attached to the first TES Fie et a tee ae aI v gee Sans Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. Fic. 57.—The wood distillation plant of the Cobbs-Mitchell-Co. at Cadillac, Michigan, showing the oven house, the first and second sets of 52-ft. cooling ovens and on the left the trucks of charcoal which have just been released from the second cooling ovens. This plant has a capacity of 96 cords per day. Hardwood sawmill and woods waste is used. car and they are drawn from the ovens directly into the first cooling oven, which is of the same type of construction and shape as the heating oven. The capacities of the oven plants vary with the number and size of the ovens. There are some oven plants that now consume as high as 200 cords a day in the Lake States. The largest plant in New York State has eight ovens; it consumes 80 cords of wood per day and has an annual capacity of 24,000 cords. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 203 Whereas the charcoal is*emptied from the round retorts into round containers, sealed tightly to cause the slow cooling of the charcoal with- out admission of oxygen, the charcoal, after the heating process is com- pleted in the oven retorts, is left in the cars and drawn into the first cooling oven and left for twenty-four hours. This is of the same type and con- struction as the charring oven. The cars containing charcoal are then drawn into second coolers, where they remain for twenty-four hours; then left in the open air forty-eight hours, so that there is a period of ninety-six hours which elapses between the time of the completion of the heating process and the time when the charcoal is loadedon the cars. It | Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. Fic. 5$.—Alley between first and second sets of cooling ovens, showing the character of doors and method of banking around the base. The trucks of charcoal are retained in each of these ovens about twenty-four hours. must remain on the freight cars at least twe:ve hours before shipment, so that 108 hours elapse to the time of final shipment. This precaution is taken to prevent fire, which otherwise sometimes causes the loss of charcoal and cars in transit.’ Distillation. Although many changes have been introduced in the manner in which the wood is heated for distillation purposes, very few changes have been made within the last twenty years in the refining of the crude distillate. 204 FOREST PRODUCTS In the modern oven retort operation the process requires from twenty- three to twenty-six hours for completion. When the wood is rolled in trucks into the ovens, the doors are hermetically sealed and the fires are started underneath. In from one to two hours the wood is sufficiently heated up so that water distillation takes place. This distillate contains about 2 per cent acid. Then the green gas comes free for about five to six hours. It is considered desirable to heat up the wood gradually and also to let it cool off gradually at the end of the process. The exothermic process, that is, that part of the process in which the wood fibers break down under the intense heat, does not take place until the temperature is run up to about 300° F. In about six hours after closing the doors the tem- perature attains an average of about 450° F. It is then maintained between 450 and 600° F. Temperatures of over 600° F. are considered undesirable. After about six hours of heating the pyroligneous acid begins to flow, and the best average is maintained up to about the eighteenth hour. An operator can determine from the color of the pyro- ligneous acid whether there is too much heat maintained, and if the wood fibers have broken down sufficiently. At the end of the heating proc- ess, the distillate forms tar to a large extent. After the eighteenth hour the iatent heat in the oven settings is sufficient to complete the process to the end, but the heat is gradually decreased until the charcoal is withdrawn. As the gases and vapors pass out through the nozzle of the oven, they are condensed into a yellowish green, ill-smelling liquor called pyrolig- neous acid. A copper run takes this condensate to the raw liquor “ sump,”’ a tank in the ground and so placed that the liquor will run into it by gravity. Meanwhile, the “fixed” or non-condensible gas is trapped and taken off at the outlet of the condenser and used for fuel underneath the boilers or ovens or perhaps both. A simple gooseneck is used to trap off the gas. The pyroligneous acid is next pumped from the “sump” in the ground to a series of wooden settling tubs, of which there should be at least five in number. These tubs are usually from 5*o 8 ft. in diameter and 6 to 8 ft. in height. The purpose of these tubs is to settle the tar and heavy oils. The heavy tar is taken to a wood tar still equipped with a copper condenser. This tar still is of wooden construction because the tar would “‘eat up” the copper in about a year. The residue remaining in the tar still is utilized together with residue from primary stills as boiler fuel. | ‘ 7 aes HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 205 The pyroligneous acid is then run by gravity to the primary steam- heated copper stills equipped with automatic feed in order to supply the still continuously. The residue or boiled tar, which gradually fills up in the still from the bottum, is distilled by itself and run off at intervals of a few days or whenever the deposit reduces the flow of distillate from the still. During this process, which is known as “ tarring down,” the dis- tillate is run into a separate tank and the light oils which rise to the top are drawn off. The acid liquor is then piped to storage tanks or tubs with the regular run from this still. These copper stills are made in any size which will give them the most flexible operation, that is, the size is determined by the question of economy in operation in labor cost. This, in turn, depends upon the capacity of the plant in cords of wood. The vapors from the copper still are conveyed through a large copper neck to an all copper tubular condenser encased in a steel water jacket. The flow of distillate from these condensers is piped to storage tubs. From the storage tubs the acid liquor goes to the liming or neutraliz- ing tubs. These are wooden tubs 12 ft. to 14 ft. in diameter about 4 ft. high. and provided with an agitator operated by a shaft and bevel gear from the top. The liquor is neutralized by adding slaked lime, a small quantity at a time. The proper quantity of lime is commonly deter- mined by the color of the liquor, which changes at the neutral point between an acid and alkaline substance to a wine color, followed by a straw color and the appearance of beads on the surface. From the neutralizing tubs the liquor is pumped or forced by means of a steam ejector to the “lime lee ”’ stills. These stills are constructed of steel plate, the heat being applied by copper steam coils. The alcohol vapors pass off through an iron or copper neck, and are condensed in a copper condenser, and piped to storage tanks. When the alcohol has been distilled off in the lime lee stills, the residue or acetate solution is forced by steam or air pressure to a settling pan located over carbonizing ovens. After the impurities settle and are drawn off the acetate liquor is run into a large shallow steam-jacketed steel pan, and boiled down to the consistency of mortar; it is then shoveled out and spread on brick, steel or concrete kiln floors over the ovens and thoroughly turned and dried; it is then shoveled into sacks for shipment as acetate of lime. _ The alcohol liquor from the lime lee still is drawn from the storage tanks previously mentioned into a steel alcohol still provided with copper steam coils, and distilled off through a copper fractionating column consisting of a series of baffling plates having a tubular water- 206 FOREST PRODUCTS cooled separator at the top. By this process the lower proof products are thrown back for further distillation, while the more volatile vapors pass over through a condenser, the distillate being sold to the refin- eries as finished crude alcohol of 82 per cent proof. PLANT EQUIPMENT The equipment of a modern hardwood distillation plant demands a comparatively large initial investment. They are usually located with reference to a large available supply of hardwoods which can be brought to the factory at a comparatively low cost per cord. From 10 to 40 acres are usually required for the plant and its adjoining storage yards and trackage facilities. The modern plant has from 2 to § oven retorts which are usually 52 ft. long and housed in a retort house; open space for two sets of cooling ovens; a shed for the cooling and shipping of charcoal, and the still house and power plant, which are usually separate from the retort house. Most of the modern wood distillation plants in New York cost from $59,000 to $500,000 for the initial investment. Before the European War it was usually estimated that a complete plant aside from timber lands and the wood-yard would cost $2000 per cord of daily capacity. Since the war thisjaverage has risen to $2500 per cord. However, this may vary between about $2000 and $3000 per cord, depending upon the degree of completeness, cost of transportation, labor costs, character of the machinery and materials installed, etc. This means that an 8-oven plant with approximately an 80-cord daily capacity will cost in the neighborhood of $200,000. Using these same figures, the smallest modern oven plant with only 2 ovens, and with a daily capacity of 20 cords, will cost in the neighborhood of $50,000. A plant with seven 25-ft. ovens built about 1902 cost in the neighbor- hood of $125,000 fully equipped. The following is a brief description of the principal features of equip- ment that are usually found in the hardwood distillation plants: Storage Yards. The storage yards should be in the close vicinity of the retort house and connected with it by standard gauge tracks running through the stacks of piled cordwood. The storage yards should consist ef between 5 and 20 acres, depending upon the capacity of the plant, and should be slightly raised in elevation above the retort house so that the loaded cars can be rolled easily into the ovens as needed. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 207 Inasmuch as the wood must be seasoned for between one and two years, it is necessary to have a large, convenient and well-located wood yard so that there should be at least six months’ seasoned supply on hand all the time. At a 35-cord capacity plant it is planned to have 10,000 cords of wood as an advance supply continually on hand. The wood is usually cut in 50-in. lengths and stacked in long piles up to 12 ft. in height on either side of the standard guage tracks from which the unseasoned wood is unloaded from freight cars. In other cases parallel roadways are left open for the wagons to unload directly from the woods. Parallel tracks between these roadways are then provided to load the wood cars for the ovens after seasoning. In cylindrical retort plants the wood is commonly rolled in on wheelbarrows or open trucks and loaded by hand. Retort House. The retort house is the largest building in the plant. It houses the cylindrical retorts or oven retorts and, in some cases, the stills and appli- ances for treating the pyroligneous acid as well. However, in the most modern plants, the still house is a separate building. The principal requisite of a retort house is that it should be of fire- proof construction on account of the very inflammable nature of charcoal and wood alcohol. One retort house at a plant having a daily capacity of 38 cords is 60 ft. in width by 240 ft. long, 20 ft. high to the eaves and 40 ft. to the peak of the roof. Steel beams and supports are used through- out with sheet-iron roof and siding. Other retort houses are either built of stone or brick in order to reduce the fire hazard and, therefore, obtain low insurance rates. Many plants are poorly arranged because of their enlargements from rather modest beginnings, and no definite plan seems to have been followed in the arrangement of the plant. Trackage and Cars. The tracks are usually standard gauge with the rails from 40 to 75 Ib. in weight, and are so arranged as to bring the wood from the storage yards to the retort house and then to conduct the cars loaded with charcoal through the two sets of cooling ovens and out to the charcoal shed, where the charcoal is loaded on freight cars. The most modern plants have the progressive arrangement, that is, the loaded cars come from the storage yards directly to the retort house; follow through in one continuous direction to the first cooling oven and then to the second and 208 FOREST PRODUCTS on out to the charcoal sheds, where the charcoal is shipped. The return tracks take the empty cars back to the storage yards, where they are re- loaded and the same process followed out. The cars are all of steel construction and hold from 2 to 23 cords of 50-in. wood. A 50- to 54-ft. oven will hold four of these cars in one charge. A 25-ft. oven will hold two cars. They are built in different sizes, but the usual style of car is 52 in. wide, 6 ft. 6 in. high and 12 ft. 6 in. long with four small wheels. They first came into use about 1895 and have proven to be a great success. ere : 4 - a4 Photograph by Nelson C, Brown Fic. s59.—Cars or trucks loaded with charcoal after heating in ovens. Each truck contains about 2 cords of 5o0-in. billets of beech, birch and maple wood. Photograph taken at the Cummer-Diggins plant, Cadillac, Michigan. The cars cost from $80 to $140 apiece, f.o.b. at Warren, Pa. They last indefinitely according to most of the operators, so that there is very little depreciation charge on them. Both sides of the car are detachable to facilitate the loading and emptying of the cars. Retorts. The old iron retort was a cylindrical vessel holding about five-eighths of a cord. The standard size was 50 in. in diameter by g ft. in length. Cordwood 48 in. in length was used instead of the 50 in. length commonly HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 209 used in the oven retorts. The retorts are set in brickwork in pairs, each pair forming a battery and heated directly from beneath. They are charged and discharged from a single door in front which can be hermetically sealed. Considerable labor is involved in the charging and discharging of these retorts, and the ovens with the cars running directly into them on tracks are a great improvement. With the inven- tion of the ovens in the early nineties very few of the old, round retorts were installed. In fact, all of the new plants being installed are equipped with the long oven retorts. Ovens. The oven or oven retort is a vast improvement over the round retort, the chief advantages being that a large amount of wood can be distilled at one time and considerable labor is saved in charging and discharging the ovens, the loaded wood cars being run directly in from one end on tracks and hauled out by means of a cable on the other end to the first cooling oven. These ovens in cross-section are 6 ft. 3 in. wide and 8 it. 4 in. high. In length they vary from 25 ft. to 50 ft., although the usual length used at the present time is a 52-ft: oven which holds 4 cars. These ovens are usually installed in batteries, that is, 2 ovens being placed close together and called a battery. In Michigan there are as many as 7 to 10 batteries in a single plant. The largest New York plant contains 8 ovens and is located at Corbett in Delaware County. Altogether in New York State there are 46 ovens distributed over 10 plants. These ovens have air-tight doors on one or both ends, depending upon whether the charcoal is to be taken out in the same direction as it entered. or sent out through the progressive form of trackage arrangement. ‘The ovens are of steel, usually three-eighths of an inch in thickness, while the bottoms and backs are of }-in. material. The oven is sustained by means of angle irons riveted perpendicularly on the sides and on one side near the top are riveted cast-iron nozzles, usually two in number, which are attached to the condensers. In the heating process it is said that the 52-ft. oven will expand 4 in. in length due to the tremendous heat applied during distillation. These ovens last only from three to twelve years, so that the depreciation charge is very high. The 52-ft. oven costs about $1800 apiece and approximately an equal amount is required to install and set it up ready for operation. Cooling Ovens. In every oven retort plant the charcoal is gradually cooled by being 210 | FOREST PRODUCTS run into cooling ovens located immediately in front of the retort house in the open air. The first cooling oven is about 8 to 10 ft. from the charring oven and the second cooling oven about an equal distance beyond thé first cooling oven. The accompanying photographs show the arrange- ment of the cooling ovens in relation to the retort house. The cooling ovens appear to be the same in size, shape and construction as are the ovens themselves. However, the sides are only of 33-in. steel and usually there are doors at both ends. There are no bottoms to these cooling ovens as they rest directly on the ground. Dirt is piled around the base to prevent the admission of air. The cars with the heated charcoal, after the distilling process, are rolled directly into the first cooling oven. As soon as the air is admitted on the opening of the doors, the charcoal bursts in flame and as soon as possible after the cars are rolled into the cooling oven the doors are hermetically sealed, so that the charcoal will cool slowly. The charcoal is left for twenty-four hours in the first cooling oven, twenty-four hours in the second cooling oven, then is left at least forty-eight hours in an open shed or in the open air, and after being loaded on the freight cars it is left standing for at least twelve hours before shipping. This means a total of one hundred and eight hours from the time of heating to the time of leaving the yard. A government regulation prescribes this pro- cedure because ‘‘ punky ” knots hold fire for a long time in the charcoal and it.is necessary that these extreme precautions be taken to prevent burning of the cars. | In some of the plants, an outlet pipe is used near the top of the cooling oven to permit the escape of the acid fumes. It is claimed by ‘some that this saves the eating of the iron by these fumes. Still House. The provision for re-distilling the pyroligneous liquor is usually housed in the old plants along with the cylindrical retorts, but in the more modern oven plants the apparatus is placed in a separate fire- proof building, usually in close proximity to the power-house or in con- nection with it. The equipment of the still house consists principally of the settling tubs, neutralizing tubs, storage tubs, steam pans, copper and iron stills, condensers, fractionating column, etc., required for the three principal distillations previously described. Although the equipment in some small details may vary in each plant, the general process of separating HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 211 the acetate of lime and the wood alcohol, as well as the wood tar, is the same as was in common practice about twenty years ago. For each separate plant, however, individual plans are drawn up to meet the requirements of local conditions. ‘Altogether it is estimated that the equipment of the still house costs between $430 and $500 per cord of daily capacity. In the description of processes of manufacture, the function of the various equipment in the still house is described. Fic. 60.—Interior of the still house at a hardwood distillation plant in Pennsylvania. The following is the usual equipment used or recommended for a hardwood distillation plant consuming 30 cords of wood per day: Retort condensers including tubs and outlet connections, number and size depending upon style of retort or oven installed. Copper liquor run for conducting raw liquor from condenser outlets to storage tub. Copper gas main and connection for conducting wood gas from condenser outlets to boiler for fuel. 5 wooden settling tubs for raw liquor from storage tank above mentioned. 1 copper still complete with copper steam coils, neck and condenser for first distilla- tion of raw liquor. Wooden storage tubs for liquor from copper still. Wooden liming tub with power agitator for neutralizing liquor from storage tubs above mentioned. 1 iron lime lee still fitted with copper steam coils and condenser (an iron neck may be used on this still). 212 FOREST PRODUCTS I or 2 steel storage ranks for lime lee liquor. 1 steel alcohol still with copper steam coils, column, separator and condenser for producing 82 per cent crude alcohol from lime lee liquor above mentioned. Steel storage tank and one large steel shipping tank for raw liquor. The residue from lime lee stills (acetate of lime) would be piped to the open’steel settling tank and then to steam pan. ‘The acetate of lime would then be shoveled from steam pan to drying floor on top of ovens if possible in order to utilize waste heat from ovens. The use of a small wooden tar still with copper neck and condenser for distilling raw tar from settlers which contain a considerable quantity of alcohol is also recommended. For refining the crude alcohol further one would require one steel still with copper steam coils, refining column, separator and condenser for first distillation; one steel still with copper steam coils, column of different type than used in first dis- tillation including separator and cooler for second distillation. The alcohol in first and second distillation is treated with caustic soda. A steel tank graduated in inches or gallons should be provided for caustic soda storage and charging stills. 2 steel storage tanks would be required for each still each tank having the capacity equal to still. An all: copper still with copper steam coils, refining column cf special type, including separator, cooler, hydrometer jar, necks, etc., complete would be required for third distillation. The alcohol would be treated with sulphuric acid in this distillation. Suitable storage and shipping tanks which may be of steel to be provided for fin- ished goods. This latter outfit would produce commercial refined alcohol of 95 per cent to 97 per cent purity. Drying Floor. The drying floor is a flat, level space surfaced with cement or concrete usually placed over the ovens. The heat of the ovens furnishes the necessary temperature to dry out the acetate of lime. After being dried it is bagged up and shipped directly in freight cars. Charcoal House. The charcoal house is usually an open-constructed affair slightly elevated above the level of the oven house, so that the cars containing charcoal can be unloaded directly into box cars or into charcoal bins. The trucks containing charcoal must be left either in the open air or standing in the charcoal house at least forty-eight hours before the charcoal can be dumped into the box cars. Most of the charcoal is shipped in the loose state. Sometimes it is separated into as many as five grades, the finer product being bagged and shipped in sacks con- taining 25 or so lb. each. In all cases the charcoal house is well removed HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 213 from the oven house to decrease the danger from fire. It is also well protected by means of hose, water pails, fire extinguishers, etc., to min- imize the fire hazard. Cost of Plant and Equipment. As outlined before, the initial cost of a modern complete wood dis- tillation plant is very large. It is estimated that, under present market conditions, an investment of $2500 should be provided for each cord of capacity. That is, if a plant is so designed to be of 50 cords capacity, the initial investment required would probably be about $125,000. Before the great European War, it was generally estimated that a complete plant would cost about $2000 per cord of capacity. The dif- ference in the above estimates is due to the fact that the cost of iron, steel, copper and other materials used in the manufacture of wood distillates has risen tremendously as a result of the competition to better condi- tions in this country, together with a demand for supplies from European countries. The old-fashioned cylindrical retort plant is much less expensive for the initial expense, but the heavy charges due to labor result in excessive operating charges. A 24-round retort plant, that is, one containing a battery of 12 pairs with each pair of retorts holding about 13 cords, costs $75,000 for the entire plant. When it is figured that the modern plant costs $2500 per cord of capa- city, it is estimated that one-third of this charge is for building, while the apparatus costs about two-thirds. PLANT OPERATION The following are the principal features of plant operation. Each is briefly described, giving the principal commercial features involved, such as costs, per cord charges, and other commercial features involved in the operation of a wood distillation plant. Altogether there are six forms of fuel commonly used in the hardwood distillation industry. They are as follows: Coal, natural gas, charcoal, wood, wood tar and wood gas. Altogether coal is most commonly used. In the district centering around Olean, New York, many of the plants use natural gas. Most of the plants in the Olean district, however, are just over the New York line in Pennsylvania. Both hard and soft coal are commonly used for the purposes of direct heating and the production of steam. Practically all plants use the wood tar and wood gas, which 214 FOREST PRODUCTS are products of the distillation process, directly under the ovens or retorts or under the boilers. The estimates regarding the cost of fuel vary considerably. Alto- gether estimates were received from $1.15 to $2.00-per cord. The cost will naturally vary with the kind of fuel used, the distance from source of supply, efficiency of boilers and steam pipes and other correlated factors. In one of the larger plants of the state which has seven 25-ft. ovens, it was estimated that 300 bu. of charcoal, 300 gal. of wood tar and all of the available wood gas were used for each charge of seven ovens. Ata prominent plant in New York it was estimated that 300 lb. of soft bituminous coal were used for the distillation of 1 cord of wood. In an oven containing 10 cords, therefore, this would require 3000 lb. of soft coal for one charge. It is estimated that the fuel value-of wood tar is at least twice as much as that of coal for a given weight Labor. Labor is a very important item in the cost of production. Altogether the labor is unskilled at all of the plants with the exception of the plant superintendent or manager, and, in the case of the largest plants, there is a chemist or expert engineer employed who receives more than the ordinary day wages. ‘There is a distinct tendency to raise wages at the various plants. During 1916 these varied between $1.50 per day to $1.60 at one plant up to $2.00 per day at others. All plants, of course, run night and day, but there is a very small force engaged in the work during the night time. At most of the plants there is a given piece of work to be done each day and when this is completed the men are free for the rest of thé time. For instance, in the wood yard, the day’s work may consist of loading so many cars of wood. When this particular work is completed, the men are through for the day. Altogether the larger the plant the greater is the economy in labor, The greatest saving in labor in the development of the industry has been the change from the old round retort plant to the modern oven plant. Owing to the fact that the trucks are pulled in and out of the oven by means of a power cable, there is a great saving in labor over the old round retort plants where the retorts had to be loaded and discharged by hand. At a 4-oven plant having a capacity of 40 cords per day, there were the following employees: 2 firemen at the boilers. 2 men in the still house. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 215 2 firemen for the ovens. 4 men in the dry kiln. 4 men to charge and draw trucks or cars. 1 extra man about the piping. 2 men in the wood yard handling wood. 1 foreman. This makes a total of 18 men on the 24-hour shift, that is, there are 13 men on during the day and 5 during the night. This list does not include the teamsters used in drawing the wood from the chopping area to the storage yards. At a 2-oven plant there were 12 men employed beside the superintend- ent. All of these men were common labor paid in 1916 at the rate of $1.50 per day. The firemen were on eight-hour shifts and all others were on ten-hour shifts. The following shows the number of men re- quired on this particular operation: 2 still house men, 1 on the night and the other on the day shift. 2 kiln men, 1 on the night and 1 on the day shift. 3 firemen in eight-hour shifts each. 3 oven men to load wood on cars or coal screener. 3 extra handy men. The labor cost per cord varies very much. In two plants the costs were $1.15 and $1.18 per cord, respectively. At other plants the labor cost is sometimes as high as $1.50 to $1.70 per cord. The labor charge is considerably higher, of course, in the cylindrical retort DES than in the oven peas due to the reasons given above. Depreciation Charges. Owing to the intense heat required to distill the wood, and the acid nature of the products, depreciation charges on the ovens, retorts, cars and distilling apparatus are very heavy. Ovens usually last only from three to twelve years. The coolers last much longer as a rule, and the wood cars last from twelve to twenty years. Altogether a depreciation charge of from 50 cents to $1.00 per cord is customary at most of the plants. However, the usual charge is likely to be nearer $1.00 than the lower figure. The life of the copper apparatus is about ten to twelve years and there is considerable salvage on old copper. 216 FOREST PRODUCTS Cost of Operation. The cost of operation depends on a large number of factors, the chief of which are the charges for wood, fuel and labor. Transportation charges for material such as fuel, supplies, etc., aré also an important consideration. It is very difficult to say what the average costs of operation should be. They are usually figured or based on the charges per cord. At the various plants, the method of cost computation varies considerably, so that it is very difficult to compare one with another. The degree of efficiency also varies considerably, so it is very difficult in this respect to compare them. At an oven retort plant that has been run for several years, the costs per cord in 1916 were figured as follows: WOE 625556550695 Tis tages Sie os eee ee $4.00 EB DOE 6s Ain 2 ire Daa ee ay Beare Bee 1.50 Bel icc ks Figo bee oe Egos on Cee Oe ee ee 1.39 TAGS cies: 2eeP cate BGS Pe ne Re Ta ea oes 19 Supplies: oils;etes 92 ieee Ee eae .32 General expenses: .).)55650) 2). 8b hr eee ee ee 51 Depreciation ..ii0t/u< deel uceins Rie eee .58 ANGUTANER feet Sk Pee ie routes du ee ee ae cee .08 Wasess.. 2b eee acceler eel EGP are 22 OLA cs VS iy 58s FA SAE COs eee $9.17 The above computation was based on a month’s run and a very care- ful record was kept of all costs. There were 16 men employed at this factory, not including the men engaged in cutting and hauling the wood, nor the office force. The standard wage scale was $1.60 per day.and the factory was located in the region in which a plentiful supply of wood could be obtained. At another oven plant the following costs were observed. These are also given per cord of wood: Wood i. BeAr ee Ee ea ee $4.00 tS Ee Peer ea eR a 2 RE ie Pan eS gr 0 Xt 1.50 LAWOR SN VES OOS Sp aa RS ee een a 2.00 Depreciation; ete: rok aie eae eee 1.00 Marketitio ss. woiic sis Tees Eee ee nee 1.47 HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 217 Yields. The yield of products at hardwood distillation plants varies considera- bly. The yield at any particular plant depends upon the following factors: 1. Temperature, that is, the maximum and minimum temperatures used during the exothermic process. 2. The rapidity of heating. Too rapid heating will cause a much smaller and lower grade of product. Usually about ten hours is the time required to get wood up to the highest temperatures. If heating is done too rapidly the color of the pyroligneous acid is much darker and the yields are consequently much lower. 3. The species of wood. There is a general consensus of opinion among the New York plants that maple is the best wood with beech next and birch third. Oak and hickory are also desirable species, but if there is too much soft maple, basswood, poplar, gray birch or other inferior species, the yields will be lowered. . 4. The condition of the wood. It is generally assumed that the dryer and more thoroughly the wood is seasoned, the better will be the product. It is also true that heartwood yields much larger and better products than sapwood, and body wood is much more desirable than limb wood. 5. Efficiency of the plant. This is determined by the character of the machinery and equipment, arrangement of the apparatus and many other factors connected with the efficiency of an operation. The products of hardwood distillation are as follows: Wood alcohol, acetate of lime, charcoal, wood tar and wood gas. The latter two are practically always used as fuel under the boilers or retorts. From an investigation of the 25 plants in New York State it was determined that an average yield of 42.7 bu. of charcoal are obtained per cord of wood from all of the plants. There was a maximum yield of 50 bu. of charcoal per cord and a minimum yield of 38 bu. The average estimated yield of acetate of lime was 199.47 lb. per cord of wood. The minimum was 171 Ib. and the maximum 220 Ib. In wood alcohol the average yield was 9.9 gal. of 82 per cent wood alcohol per cord of wood. The minimum was 8 gal. and the maximum 11 gal. per cord. It is estimated that between 23 and 28 gal. of wood tar are secured per cord with an average of about 25 gal. It is estimated that about 11,500 cu. ft. of gas are secured per cord of wood. These figures are based upon the individual estimates of the various wood distillation plants of the state. Altogether much better yields are secured from the oven plants than from the cylindrical retort plants. 218 FOREST PRODUCTS Value of Products. One of the greatest drawbacks to engaging in the wood distillation business has been the great fluctuation in the price levels for all of the principal products, namely, acetate of lime, wood alcohol and charcoal. In the early days of the industry charcoal was the principal product, and it brought from ro to 20 cents a bushel or more. Then acetate of lime became the principal product sought after and finally the wood alcohol. Before the Federal legislation, the profits were excellent and attractive, but since 1907 and up to the outbreak of the great Euro- pean War on August 1, 1914, price levels were very uncertain and several of the concerns were driven out of business. Up to the time of this war the prices obtained for acetate of lime varied between $1.25 to $2.00 per hundred pounds. Since August 1, 1914, the following price levels have been obtained: August to October, TORE wo. halts 5 sh acne ret one wane $1.50 per 100 lb. NOVeRARET, “FORA eo ohn hal ck Ay eae clues te ee oe 1.75 per 100 lb. Deceniper, TOS 6s os oe hs se vee a 2.00 per 100 lb. JODUAEY 2 TEES Sok cess anck = aby Ses kn ae SS 2.00 per 100 lb. February 10 May, 1086 6 6.25 GAG es Sr a ee 2.50 per too lb. JURC COWARBMEE ROE Ts os 5 gcccs ines Fnie a dha oe ents 3.50 per 100 lb. September ‘to October, 3015. ss. s wes chs wae 4.00 per 100 lb. November to December, 1915........... 00s eeeeee 5.00 per 100 lb. January, 1916.......... Rain nly Bean Pere tet ey Or 6.00 per roo lb. February to August, 1916... .....6...5..5. aire ats 7.00 per 100 lb. SURUEIIVEE, FORO. woke ae ny ak a Cu teats 5.00 per 100 lb. October, 19902. 5.G ar vet ee Ger y Cee h aheeeens 3.50 per 100 lb, In regard to wood alcohol, the prices have also fluctuated considerably. Quotations varied between 30 cents and 45 cents per gal. for the crude 82 per cent alcohol. Since the outbreak of the war, however, the use of both wood alcohol and acetate of lime have been greatly stimulated for their use in the manufacture of certain war munitions and the prices have steadily advanced. During the year 1914 the market price of 82 per cent crude wood alcohol was 25 cents per gallon delivered to the refineries in tank cars and the price of 95 per cent refined delivered to buyers in free wooden barrels to points east of the Mississippi River, 45 cents per gallon for 1 to 10 bbl. lots and a small discount in carloads. Prices held at these figures until October, 1915, when the price of 95 per cent refined good alcohol began to advance first to 50 cents, later to 55 cents, then on HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 219 February of 1916 to 65 cents and on October 1, 1916, to 7o cents. These advances were made possible by the rapid increase in the price of de- natured alcohol, this material now being 60 cents per gallon. There is every indication that the price of both alcohols has gone sufficiently high for some time to come. In the spring of 1916, 97 per cent refined alcohol brought 70 cents per gallon. Methyl acetone was worth go to g5 cents per gallon and pure methyl or columbian methanol was worth $1.00 a gallon. With the increased use of both acetate of lime and wood alcohol, the demand for charcoal has not kept pace with these other two products, and consequently prices have suffered very materially. In 1917 charcoal was only bringing around 5 to 6 cents per bushel. In 1914 it was bring- ing 7 cents a bushel wholesale at the acid factory. The estimated pro- duction of charcoal in this country before the war broke out was about 5,000,000 bu. a month and the iron furnaces took by far the greatest proportion of this. Practically all of the products of the wood distillation industry are sold wholesale in carload lots at the factory. The wood alcohol is shipped in tank cars or in tight barrels. Charcoal is shipped in sacks and the acetate of lime is also shipped in sacks or bags. Up to the present time no regular market has been developed either for the wood gas cr wood tar. ‘Both of these are usually now consumed as fuel underneath the retorts. It is very likely that some time in the future a definite market will be developed for the utilization of wood oils and wood tar. It can be made into creosote, but the process is so expensive that this form cannot com- pete successfully with coal-tar creosotes. The following table shows a comparison of values of products per cord under conditions prevailing in 1914, and those occurring in 1916. This table is based upon the average of yields of acetate of lime, wood alcohol and charcoal per cord. The values are those described before. The table shows that the operators were receiving more than twice as much for their products under market conditions in the spring of 1916 as they did under those prevailing before the war: Yield Val Val Val Val | Cord. | Unit; 1916: | Cord: 1916. -| Unit, 1914. | Cond. 1914: Acetate of lime..... 199.47 lbs. $.07 $13.97 $r-7 $3.30 Wood alcohol...... 9.9 gals. 37 3.66 .25 2.48 Charcoal... s423 5.2: 47-7 bu. .6 2.86 22 3-34 $20.49 $o.21 220 FOREST PRODUCTS UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS The utilization of the products of the hardwood distillation industry has been a great problem, especially since the Federal law of 1907 went into effect. The greatest money return is received from disposal of the acetate of lime, and the prices received for this product have undergone great fluctuation. Altogether there are three primary products derived from the process, namely, the raw pyroligneous acid, the wood gas and the charcoal which remains as a residue from the distillation of the wood. The secondary Fic. 61.—Acetate of lime drying over the retorts in the oven house at a large plant at Betula, Pennsylvania. products as a result of the separation of the tar from the pyroligneous acid and the further distillation of the pyroligneous acid are, first, wood tar, second, acetate of lime, and third, wood alcohol. The utilization of the five derived products of this industry, therefore, are described:as follows: Acetate of lime, wood alcohol, charcoal, wood tar and wood gas. Acetate of Lime. It is estimated that approximately 100,000 long tons of acetate of lime are produced every year in this country. Under normal conditions, HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 221 that’ is, before August, 1914, only about 75,000 long tons were pro- duced. Under normal conditions the export and domestic consumption of acetate of lime about equaled each other. Now this product is chiefly consumed in this country. Probably 75 per cent of the acetate of lime produced in this country is used as the raw material for the acetic acid industry. More recently, _ there has been a heavy demand for the use of acetate of lime as a source of acetone. About 100 lb. of 80 per cent acetate of lime are equivalent to 50 to 60 Jb. of refined acetic acid or 20 lb. of acetone. Acetic acid is used chiefly for the manufacture of white lead acetone in the textile and leather industries and in a great variety of other commercial manu- factures. One-of the most important present uses is in the manufacture of cordite and lyddite, two high explosives. Acetone is also used largely as a solvent for the cutting of gun cotton and in the manufacture of smoke- less powder. In many of the European countries, acetic acid or wood vinegar is a common product on the market. However, the manufacture of wood vinegar from acetic acid is prohibited in this country. Wood Alcohol. It is estimated that between 10,000,000 and 11,000,000 gal. of wood alcohol are produced every year in this country. Its greatest single use is asa solvent. Probably go per cent of all the wood alcohol used is for this purpose in one way or another. Its greatest consumption is probably in the paint and varnish industry, in which about 35 to 50 per cent is utilized. Practically no wood alcohol is used in the raw 82 per cent state. Itis all refined to a higher state of purity before being utilized. One concern refines a good share of the total product of the country. Wood alcohol is used very largely in aniline dye factories to make colors, especially greens, purples and light blues. It is also used in the manufacture of formaldehyde, photographic films and in stiffening hats. Refined wood alcohol of high purity or methyl alcohol, that is, of 99 to 100 per cent purity, is sold under a great variety of trade names, such as columbian methanol, colonial methyl, diamond methyl, etc. As an extraction agent wood alcohol is used in the manufacture of smokeless powder, nitrocellulose and other explosives. Gun cotton, for example, is freed from cellulose nitrates by extraction with wood alcohol. Other common uses are as follows: As fuel, as an illuminant, as a denaturant and in various chemical and medicinal preparations. 222 FOREST PRODUCTS Charcoal. Until about 1905 the great market for charcoal was in the reduction of iron ores. Important methods of steel production within recent years, however, have gradually eliminated the strong demand for charcoal for this particular purpose. Charcoal iron or Swedish iron, as it is often called in the trade, is still in demand for certain specialized uses, espe- cially for high-grade steel used for tools, instruments, car wheels, etc. Pig iron reduced with charcoal commonly brings $5.00 a ton more than coke iron. A single blast furnace uses between 10,000 and 12,000 bu. of charcoal a day. Where there are from 5 to 10 blasting furnaces at a single ore-reduction plant, it is easily seen that the consumption of char- coal may be very large. A great many of the hardwood distillation plants in Michigan and Wisconsin have ore-reducing plants in connection with them. These are the conditions under which the greatest economy in charcoal utilization is practiced. Muchof thecharcoal for these plants, however, is made by the open-pit or bee-hive kiln as well as by the oven plants. An investigation carried on by the U. S. Forest Service showed the consumption of charcoal in this country to be as follows: 76 per cent went to blast furnaces; 19.5 per cent is utilized in domestic uses; 1.9 per cent is used for chemical purposes; 1.03 per cent is used for powder mills and the remainder went to smelters, railroads, etc. However, replies from only 60 per cent of the plants were received, so that it is not likely that a large number of plants throughout New York and Pennsyl- vania are properly represented by this estimate. Charcoal from the New York plants is probably used in a greater va- riety of ways than from those in other states. There is no question but that the major portion of charcoal produced in this country is still used in blast furnaces and for the manufacture of gunpowder. One New York plant screens it and ships it in five different grades. When the charcoal is shipped, it is screened to remove the finer pieces. This is ground up in some cases and pressed into briquettes and used for fuel. Other common uses for charcoal are for medicinal purposes, for poultry and cattle food, in chemical manufacture and for fuel in a great variety of ways. Wood Tar. At the present time practically all of the wood tar is used for fuel under the ovens or boilers. Throughout the country it is estimated that between 30,000,000 and 40,000,000 gal. of wood tar are used in this way. In some cases, prices of between 4 and 83 cents have been received per HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 223 gallon for the use of this material in chemical manufactures, but its use is very limited. It is believed that sometime in the future a method will be found for using this wood tar as a basis of creosote on a commercial scale. A good share of our creosote at the present time is made from coal tar and a large part of it is imported. There is no question that sometime in the future this material will be used for the preservation of wooden material, such as ties, poles, mine timber, etc. Wood Gas. Wood gas is used entirely as a fuel underneath the ovens at the present time. In some localities in Germany and Austria wood gas has been used for illuminating purposes, and it is very possible that at some time in the future this may be used for a much more economical purpose than as a fuel underneath the ovens. This, however, is looking a long way in advance and it is probable that for some time at least it will continue to serve the purpose of fuel along with the wood tar and coal or other fuel brought in to supply the necessary amount of heat. BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, Netson C. The Hardwood Distillation Industry in New York. The New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. ¥Y. 1916. CAMPBELL, C. L. The Wood Distilling Industry. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering. March, rg1o. Dumesny, PAuL and Moyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates and Extracts. Scott, Greenwood & Co. London: 1908. Frencu, E. H. and Witnrow, J. R. The Hardwood Distillation Industry in Amer- ica. Ohio State Universtiy, 1914. GEER, W.O. Wood Distillation. U.S. Forest Service. Circular 114. Harper, W.B. The Destructive Distillation of Wood, 1912. Industrial Chemistry, PP- 539-544- Haw ey, L. F. and Parmer, R. C. Distillation of Resinous Wood by Saturated Steam, 1912. U.S. Forest Service. Bulletin roo. — Martin, GEOFFREY. The Charcoal and Wood Distilling Industries. Industrial and Maufacturing Chemistry. Crosby, Lockwood & Son. London: 1918. Miscellaneous Articles in Chemical Engineer, Chicago. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, New York. Chemical Trade Journal, London. Journal of In- dustrial of Engineering Chemistry, Easton, Pa. Journal, Society of Chemical Industry, London, England. Oil, Drug and Paint Reporter, New York. PALMER, R. C. Yields from Destructive Distillation of Certain Hardwoods, 1917. U. S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 508. 294 FOREST PRODUCTS PALMER, R.C. A Statistical Study of the Growth of Hardwood Distillation Industry, etc. Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, March 9, 1914. PALMER, R. C. The Effect of Incomplete Distillation on the Yield of Products, etc. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1918. Vol. 10, p. 260. TEEPLE, JOHN E. Waste Wood Distillation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, November, 1915. VertcuH, F. P. Chemical Methods for Utilizing Wood. U.S. Bureau of Chemistry. Circular 36, 1907. CHAPTER IX SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION GENERAL THE distillation of soitwoods in this country is an outgrowth of the hardwood distillation industry as developed in its earlier days in New York and Pennsylvania.! Owing to the radically different kind of woods available in the South, consisting largely of pines of a highly resinous nature, a different process than that evolved for the dense hardwoods of the North was found necessary. The distillation of softwoods has not developed to the extent that has been the case with the northern hardwoods. Two distinct methods of distillation have been evolved, namely, destructive or dry distillation and steam distillation with its later development called the extraction or solvent process. The industry is still in its infancy, however, since no standard method of production has been generally adopted as has been the case with the hardwood distillation industry, and each plant follows a method which is usually quite different from that of the others. There are great possibilities in this industry, however, for the utiliza- tion of wood products which otherwise are wasted. At a meeting of the American Society of Chemical Engineers in Baltimore in 1916, Mr. Arthur D. Little expressed a very apt viewpoint of the industry: When the real work of wood waste utilization has once begun and attention of chemical engineers and financial men has been drawn more generally to the huge potential values now ignorantly thrown away, we may expect the rapid development of these by-product industries and an initiation of many new ones to the great enrich- ment of the South and in somewhat less degree that of the Northwest. The crude beginnings of softwood distillation were not in common use in the South until about 1885, but it was not until about 1905 that any marked improvements had been made in solving even some of the ele- mentary problems in the industry. At the present time there is a vast *See Chapter on Hardwood Distillation. For details regarding Process of Dry Distilla- tion, also consult same chapter. 225 226 FOREST PRODUCTS amount of work and an unusually large opportunity for the skilled wood chemist and engineer to develop a satisfactory solution to the many problems. The material collected and made available up to the present time on the industry illustrates what not to do rather than what should be followed. The industry is characterized by a great number of com- mercial failures due to fluctuations in market conditions and mistakes in both chemical and commercial aspects. The first improvement in the industry was the introduction of iron retorts to replace the open-air charcoal pit. This improvement made possible the recovery of turpentine, a little of the pine oils, considerable tar oil, creosote oil, pitch and pyroligneous acid in addition to the tar and charcoal which were the only products of the old-fashioned charcoal pits. The quality of these products was exceedingly poor and there was but little demand for them during the earlier days of the industry. The turpentine was of exceedingly poor quality but could be further refined at some expense. The tar product was in less favor than the product from the kilns and could be marketed only at a rather low price. The market for charcoal was also poor and considerable quantities of it were used to fire the retorts. The gas product was also used directly for fuel. The pitch, if no market existed, was disposed of in accordance with the ingenuity of the producer. It was sold in the solution of tar oils or creosote oils or even sold as tar. The solutions gradually grew toa large number and were marketed as oils, paints, insecticides, disin- fectants, medicinal products, etc., under a large variety of trade names. Many improvements have been made in the retort process within the past two or three decades, until at the present time a high grade of turpentine and tars much superior to the kiln tars are produced. Practically the only commercial success has been attained by the manu- facturer who has developed a special ability to market his products, particularly the oils, as specialties under established trade names. This practice tended to decrease the keen competition which heretofore had been very destructive to the successful marketing of the products. The production of acetate of lime from the pyroligneous acid is a still more recent development and was made possible through the increased: de- mand for acetones. During the war acetate of lime commanded a price as high as 7 cents per pound and its production was greatly stimulated. After the war, the price, however, dropped to about 2 cents per pound. Up to a comparatively recent date it is doubtful whether the greater measure of success is to be attributed to the chemical engineer in charge of the individual plant or the ability of the manufacturer as a business SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 227 man to anticipate the demand and to develop a special market for his products, which are sold to a large extent as specialties. At the present time there is a gradually increasing belief among chemical engineers that the destructive method of distillation is wrong to a large extent in its fundamental principles. This belief has caused the development of many new processes. However, the plants operating by the destructive method have been and are still operating on a com- mercial basis, whereas, those based upon the distillation of steam and, to a less extent, those using extraction by solvent baths, have largely failed to survive the fluctuating market conditions. Many of the failures are no doubt due to the lack of real knowledge of the possibilities of each system followed, a lack of knowledge of the market possibilities and the failure to keep accurate cost data. With the development of the softwood alaiittation industry, there has been a gradual sorting out of the species which can be profitably utilized on a commerical scale. The principal requirement is that the wood be sufficiently rich in resin and that there be as much “ lightwood ” as possible. Lightwood generally consists of stumps and logs after the bark and sapwood have rotted off and is characterized by high resin content. Longleaf pine is the most satisfactory species used and is the same tree which is tapped for rosin and spirits of turpentine as described in the Chapter on Naval Stores. Cuban (Pinus heterophylla) and short- leaf (Pinus echinata) pines are also used, but only to a limited extent. Several experimental and commercial plants have been constructed to utilize Norway pine in the Lake States and Douglas fir and western yellow pine and larch in the West. These have generally proven unsat- isfactory, however, for general commercial development because the low average resin content, the comparatively high cost of obtaining the raw material, and the fluctuations in the values for the products did not permit a sufficient latitude for profitable development. Many of the experiments on these woods have been tried out with specially selected specimens and although these experiments have in some cases proven that the products could be extracted on a commercially profitable basis, in actual practice on large operations it has been impossible to secure a sufficient quantity of wood of equally high resinous or “ fatty” con stituents. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION The destructive distillation of resinous woods is carried out at the present time chiefly in the South along the South Atlantic and Gulf - 228 FOREST PRODUCTS Coasts. In this region there is a comparatively plentiful and cheap supply of raw material, such as longleaf, Cuban and shortleaf pines. The process briefly consists of heating the wood in retorts in the absence oi air and the condensation of the gaseous products as has been described in connection with the hardwood distillation industry. Retorts of cylindrical shape containing from one to four cords are used. They are usually placed in horizontal fashion in rows or batteries over a bricked-up furnace. The fire-box may be arranged to heat either one or two retorts. The wood is charged and drawn from doors at either Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 62.—General view of destructive distillation plant of the Pine Products Co., in Georgia. This plant uses longleaf yellow pine. The retorts are loaded with the wood shown in the foreground. In the rear are the stills, settling and storage tanks, etc. one or both ends of the retort. Within the past few years, cars loaded with wood and run directly into long ovens, as has been described in the case of the hardwood distillation industry, have been used to a limited extent. The distillation process usually requires about twenty-four hours as is true of the hardwoods.. The furnace fires are then drawn and the charcoal allowed to cool for twenty-four hours. The gases are condensed through copper condensers and the usual products are, aside from char- SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 229 coal and the non-condensing gases, light oils, tar and pyroligneous acid. The yields are generally about 7-10 gal. of refined wood turpentine, 1} gal. of pine oil, 50 gal. of tar, and 800 to goo Ib. of charcoal per cord of fat pine weighing about 4000 Ib. Light oils and tar are very complex and are usually separated into a variety of products depending upon the current market conditions. Very little has been done commercially in this field, however, and a great opportunity exists for further investi- gation and research. The light oils are obtained in two fractions, the one containing turpentine being condensed from a low temperature in separate tanks. In some plants the volatile products are mixed in one condenser. The pyroligneous acid contains the same ingredients as has been described in the case of hardwoods, but in such small amounts that it is not commercially profitable to refine it further, and it is usually allowed to run to waste. The tar is refined to produce oils and a good grade of retort tar may be sold in its original state. The turpentine is of good color, but has a characteristic odor, and is considered somewhat inferior to the spirits of turpentine secured by tapping the trees as described in the Chapter on Naval Stores. It is impossible to state the average costs involved or to even approx- imate an estimate of the number of men employed, kinds of equipment used, etc., because each plant differs from the other and the standardiza- tion in this industry is probably less than can be found in almost any other. Lightwood is generally secured at about $3.00 to $4.75 per cord f.o.b. plant. At one of tke most important dry distillation plants in the Southeast the following production was secured. - This is based on a six-months’ run in which 8690 cords of longleaf pine were utilized. Each cord (128 cu. ft.) of lightwood weighed between 3500 and 4000 |b. PRODUCTION BY THE DRY DISTILLATION SYSTEM Products. | Number of Gallons per Cord of Wood. USI MNNNMR ass DOC arin od ain hihi dS ed Cra eioeislaeta welbeyee O50 7 jE ea a Ae IAP a tea NO ne gee gr ne 2 CTS S| PS ES rele Sor ie a dg nr 32 MIE NG SOR e ecg cr ke Cea es aes ae eden 41 OP RPRMR Nod cate erate Nala 2 oes Sa ZA PRR CRS As eras 82 In addition to the above products, 39 bu. of charcoal were secured from each cord, on an average. 230 FOREST PRODUCTS The prices secured for the products of dry distillation are shown as follows: They are given f.o.b. plant for the month of May for both 1914 and 1919. < PRICES OF DRY DISTILLATION PRODUCTS | Products. Unit. Value May, 1914. | Value May, rg19. PUMPCOUNEs 655 ct ch Wash kde te Gallon $.33 $.60. Pine oli 24 cathe Attereuten eno Gallon . 30 65 Tar os, tebe sca heree ous Gallon .18 35 Tar ois; Crudécs sioeictnds one Gallon ie .24 TODAYS 3 éca'e + oa shaggy arate tb otaate raya Male Barrel 8.00 12.00 PHGHS Lochotisc ons ee teed een Pound .O15 .03 Charcoal yoke sie coe enh Bushel .09 -55 50 -35 Oeste Tas COs thin Sein s tance boos ¥9 ve 65 .60 -35 The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad paid the following prices in 1917: Species. Number 1. | Number 2. | Number 3. White oaks, cherry, mulberry, black locust or black SMM: oo oes ae OS es TRAIN SDRC noe Si aa $.65 $.50 $.25 TS Se eae ee Sie Rl ee ape gS -45 30 not taken The only specifications that do not conform in general to the above “squared” and “pole” ties in this country are the rectangular ties adopted several years ago and still used by the Great Northern Railway. At Somers, in western Montana, these are sawed out of western larch and Douglas fir by special machinery. The ties are 8 ft. long, 12 in. across the upper face and 8 in. deep from the face to the lowest point of the angle. They contain approximately 40 bd. fit. each. The fol- lowing are the advantages claimed for the Great Northern triangular tie: 274 FOREST PRODUCTS 1. It is a self-tamping tie. It embeds itself easily and firmly on the road bed and will not ‘‘crawl.” 2. It gives an even 12-in. surface to the rail with its-attendant advantages. _ ; 3. The ties are replaced more readily and, therefore, more cheaply. 4. More ties and lumber can be cut out of the various-sized trees than other accepted forms. The following are the disadvantages of the triangular form: 1. It gives a less satisfactory bearing surface on the ballast. 2. The ties are likely to check and split off on the edges. 3. The spike must be driven in the exact center. E> SES wy % i is TH +! BURBS , ET wy Fic. 71.—Triangular tie used by Fic. 72.—Method of sawing triangular ties the Great Northern Railway. from tie logs. These ties cost the Great Northern about 56 cents apiece. There are 25 ties per thousand board feet and they were sold on the basis of $14.00 per thousand board feet for Douglas fir and Western larch ties in 1917. The following specifications are those issued by the United States Railroad Administration under date of June 11, 1918: UNITED STATES RAILROAD ADMINISTRAION SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS TIES Kinds of Wood. Before manufacturing ties, producers should ascertain from the railroad to which they contemplate delivering them just which of the following kinds of wood suitable for cross ties will be accepted: Ash, beech, birch, catalpa, cedar, cherry, chestnut, cypress, elm, fir, gum, hackberry, hemlock, hickory, larch, locust, maple, mulberry, oak, pine, redwood, sassafras, spruce, sycamore, and walnut. Others will not be accepted unless specially ordered. Quality. All ties shall be free from any defects that may impair their strength or durability as cross ties, such as decay, splits, shakes, or large or numerous holes or knots. a Ce ee. | CROSS TIES 275 Ties from needleleaved trees shall be of compact wood, with not less than one- third summerwood when averaging five or more rings of annual growth per inch, or with not less than one-half summerwood in fewer rings, measured along any radius from the pith to the top of the tie. Ties of coarse wood, with fewer rings or less summerwood, will be accepted when specially ordered. Ties from needleleaved trees for use without preservative treatment shall not have sapwood more than 2 in. wide on the top of the tie between 20 in. and 40 in. from the middle, and will be designated as “heart” ties. Those with more sapwood will be designated as “‘sap”’ ties. Manufacture. Ties ought to be made from trees which have been felled not longer than one month. All ties shall be straight, well manufactured, cut square at the ends, have top and bottom parallel, and have bark entirely removed. Dimensions. Before manufacturing ties, producers should ascertain from the railroad to which they contemplate delivering them just which of the following lengths, shapes and sizes will be accepted. All ties shall be 8 ft. or 8 ft. 6 in. long. All ties shall measure as follows throughout both sections between 20 in and 40 in. from the middle of the tie: ets Top, Betton, and Sides. Top and Botton. 6” nf None ee oe ng’ rT 2 6 € | 8° oe i ety CC) 2° 8” 9° 9° met} CC) The above are minimum dimensions. Ties over 1 in. more in thickness, over 3 in. more in width, or over 2 in. more in length will be degraded or rejected. 276 FOREST PRODUCTS The top of the tie is the plane farthest from the pith of the tree, whether or not the pith is present in the tie. Delivery. : All ties ought to be delivered to a railroad within one month after being made. Ties delivered on the premises of the railroad shall be stacked not less than 10 ft. from the nearest rail of any track at suitable and convenient places; but not at public crossings, nor where they will interfere with the views of trainmen or of people ap- proaching the railroad. Ties should be stacked in alternate layers of two and seven, the bottom layer to consist of two ties kept at least 6 in. above the ground. The second layer shall consist of seven ties laid crosswise of the first layer. When the ties are rectangular, the two outside ties of the layers of seven and the layers of two shall be laid on edge. The ties in layers of two shall be laid at the extreme ends of the ties in the layers of seven. No stack may be more than twelve layers high, and there shall be 5 ft. between stacks to facilitate inspection. Ties may be ranked like cordwood, in which case the owner shall rehandle them while inspection is being made. Ties which have stood on their ends on the ground will be rejected. All ties at the owner’s risk until accepted. All rejected ties shall be removed within one month after inspection. Ties shall be piled as grouped below. Only the kinds of wood named in the same column may be piled together. CLASS U—TIES WHICH MAY BE USED UNTREATED Group Ua. Group Ub. Group Uc. Group Ud. Black Locust “ Heart ” Pines “ Heart ” Cedars _ Catalpa White Oaks “ Heart ” Douglas Fir “ Heart ” Cypress Chestnut Black Walnut Redwood Red Mulberry Sassafras CLASS T—TIES WHICH SHOULD BE TREATED Group Ta. Group Tb. Group Tc. Group Td. Ashes “ Sap ” Cedars Beech Elms Hickories “Sap ” Cypress Birches Hackberry Honey Locust “Sap ” Douglas Fir Cherry Soft Maples Red. Oaks Hemlocks Gums Spruces Larches Hard Maples Sycamore “Sap ” Pines White Walnut Shipment. Ties shall be separated in the car according to the above groups and sizes as far as practicable. Approved, Washington, D. C., June 11, 1918. JOHN SKELTON WILLIAMS, C. R. GRAY Director of Finance and Purchases. Director of Operation. The following prices were paid during the winter of 1919 by a prominent eastern railroad for the species as listed: Sa. * SEV CROSS TIES 277 Crass U Woops. Crass T Woops SIZES. Grave. 5 polaced Fotis FOR TREATMENT. } Sawed or Hewed | Sawed cr Hewed | Top. Bottom, | Top or Bottom. No. Ua Vos Ts Tc Tp and Sides, Ins. Ins. i None 6X6 I $.85 $.65 || $.75 $.65 $.65 6X7 6X7 2 I.00 -75 || <90 -75 -75 6X8 6X8 or 7X7 3 1.20 265. Hl 1.10 -95 -95 7X8 7X8 4 ‘35 tie - || P.25 1.10 1.10 7X9 7X9 5 1.50 1.25 || 1.40 1.25 | 1.25 Hack. Black Ashes Beech ae Locust [anes ||Hickories | Birches bests Ties should be piled as White Red. || Honey | Cherry | ygoties grouped in classes. Oaks Matheny ocust Gums S et ae Black Sas eae i} Hard S a cores Walnut ssatras || Oaks | Maples | "Yop i ite | Walnut The above are minimum dimensions. Ties over 1 in. more in thickness, over 3 in. more in width, or over 2 in. more in length will be degraded or rejected. The top of the tie is the plane farthest from the pith of the tree, whether or not the pith is present in the tie. MAKING AND DELIVERY TO MARKET General. The hewing of ties is done either by owners of small holdings, such as woodlots, or by contractors who buy stumpage by the acre or area or still more commonly by the tie. Throughout the country the work is usually done between October 1st and April 1st, both because many of the rail- roads require in their specifications that the timber be cut during that period and because other work is less active in the fall and winter. Then, too, hauling can usually be done more cheaply in the winter, especially with snow or the ground. On many of the larger logging operations, tie cutters follow up the work after the saw logs are removed and hew the ties from the remaming tops, smaller trees of insufficient size for saw logs and cull trees too defective, knotty or crooked to make good lumber. In the woodlots of the East and central hardwood region, many farmers look upon the getting out of a few hundred ties during the winter as a regular source of employment and income. Stumpage. . As in the case in all timber values expressed as stumpage, the value of ties in the tree varies with their kind and quality, accessibility and dif- ficulty of logging and transportation to market. The following stumpage values are those which prevailed prior to 1917: 278 FOREST PRODUCTS In the prominent tie-producing sections of: Kentucky and West Vir- ginia, well-located white oak stumpage involving a haul of from 1 to 6 miles was worth from 10 to 20 cents per tie. Many sales have been made for about 16 cents or more. Southern yellow pine stumpage is worth from 6 to 14 cents with an average of about ro cents. Douglas fir and western larch stumpage brought from 4 to 1o cents per tie; western pine from 4 to 8 cents per tie. Red oak and chestnut stumpage brought from 8 to 15 cents per tie, depending upon quality and location. _ Hardwood ties, such as beech, birch, maple, elm and red gum were worth, on the stump, from 5 to 12 cents apiece. Suitable Sized Timber for Hewing. The best sized trees from which ties are made by hewing are those from 11 to 15 in. in diameter at breast height, although trees from ro to 17 in. are customarily taken. Lodgepole pine, as it grows throughout the northern Rocky Moun- tains, is naturally most suitable in size for hewing into ties since most of the merchantable stands of this timber contain from 75 to 200 trees, 10 to 16 in. in diameter. They are tall and straight and free from exces- sive taper. Hewed ties seldom conform to the dimensions specified by the rail- roads, other than length. As a general rule, tie inspectors do not care how large the ties are, as long as they are at least large enough to meet the specifications. Therefore tie cutters prefer those trees which will yield No. 1 ties with the least effort on their part. In investigating the average number of ties that can be cut from trees of different diameters, Zon has prepared the following table! as a result of measuring 996 loblolly pine and hardwood ties in eastern Texas: l , Average Number of : : Number of Trees : Diameter Breast High. Ties Cut from Each sis Measured. Diameter Class. II 77 2.4 12 236 S00 13 257 3-9 14 231 4.8 15 140 E.2 16 53 5-7 17 2 6.0 1See “ Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas,” by R. Zon. Forest Service Bulletin No. 64, 1905, p. 36. ; - - CROSS TIES 279 By counting the number of trees per acre of each diameter and mul- tiplying this by the average number of ties per tree the yield of ties per acre can be easily derived. In western yellow pine, suitable for hewing into ties in the Southwest, the averag= number of ties per tree is only 2.7, but here the trees do not grow to a very good height. Tie hackers do not like trees of too small diameter because an insuf- ficient number of No. 1 ties can be cut from them for the labor involved in felling, limbing, etc., whereas in trees of 16 in. or over in diameter the hewing is more difficult and the ties are difficult to handle on account of their large size. The following table is interesting in that it shows the minimum diam- eter of logs from which the various-sized pole ties may be hewed together. with the cubic feet contained in the pole tie that conforms to the exact specifications of 1917. They are given for some of our larger railroad systems. A length of 8 ft. is used for all. HeEWED Pote TIEs. = | Railroad. ) Diameter of | Cubic Peet Face, Ins. | Thickness, Ins. Log in Inches. “ C., B. & Q. (Burlington)......... 7-5 6.5 Io 3.34 WOM PRIN. 83 els ou ela 6.5 7 9.6 3-38 Great Northern: ................ 7 7 o25- ~ RE EET = w =s Soy Photograph by Joyce-Watkins Co. Fic. 76.—Loading ties from barges to cars at Metropolis, Ill. Large quantities of ‘ties pro- duced along the tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers are sent by barge or raft to a convenient point for loading, inspection and acceptance by the railroad companies. Sawed Ties. The subject of sawed ties has been briefly touched upon from time to time in the above discussion. They constitute but a small portion of the total number of ties produced (about 20 per cent) and are made chiefly on the Pacific Coast of hearts of logs, where the most knots are found. ‘They bring from 32 to 4o cents per tie for Douglas fir or 60 to 70 cents for white oak or more, depending upon such factors as species, specifica- tions, etc. Very commonly they are sold by the thousand board feet. " Switch ties, which are much longer, are practically always sawed and sold by the thousand board feet. Knots do not detract from the value of a tie if they are sound and not so placed as to lessen its strength or life. 288 FOREST PRODUCTS Some sawed ties are made in the East in portable mills and in double or twin-circular mills, by slabbing either 2 or 4 sides. Generally speaking it costs more to deliver sawed ties on the market than hewed ties. In the central hardwood region it is commonly under- stood that it costs about 5 cents per tie more to deliver sawed white oak ties on the market than hewed ties, with the same given conditions of timber, accessibility, specifications, etc. In this region the cost of sawing ties on four sides is 10 cents apiece for ties 7 in. in thickness, 8 in. in width and 83 ft. long and 8 cents apiece for ties 6 in. in thickness, 8 in. in width and 8 ft. long. Felling and logging of timber to the sawmill is about 12 cents per tie for the first-named size and 1o cents for the latter size. The added cost of sawed ties over hewed ties is due usually to the increased logging expense of hauling the log and waste slabs to the mill. In hewing, the tie is made on the ground, skidded to the haul-road and then aaa directly to the railroad. A typical example of the cost of producing sawed ties 7 in. X8 in. x8 ft. long along the Ohio River was as follows: Cost per 1000 Feet, Cost per Tie at 30 Ties Board Measure. per 1000 Bad. ft. Stumpage....... Sage partes Wels wee $6. 0o-$10.00 $. 200-$. 333 Polling... Senta he) eeeoun horn oan D.25= 1 25 .O4I-— .O41 Logeite acniiestrr ats saan sar are ate I.50- 2.00 .050- .067 Sawing, yarding, etc............... 4.00- 5.00 .133- .167 Hauling (2-6 miles)................ I1.00- 2.50 .033- .083 Potadessckeoee ek cna ks baie $13. 75-$20. 75 $.457-$. 6091 As noted before, where sawlogs run about ten to the thousand board- feet, about 30 ties, 7 in. x8 in. <8 ft. can be sawed from each thousand board-feet. The cost of sawing Douglas fir ties in the Northwest was found to be as follows, at one mill. Lumber was the main product and only the smaller logs and hearts of larger logs were sawed into ties: Cost per 1000 Cost per Tie at Feet, Board 30 Ties Pat 1000 Measure. Stlmpage: 5... .dsavcsecades Retin OAT ee $2.00 $.067 Cutting logs (felling and bucking).................... .60 .020 SOUTER ei AGRI RSS BRA wrt t ASR ie Me iy set Daas .O4 Penge COO 26s ees 2 Ea Ui acer eee te eee 2545 .OOL SAAMI D cree ie eee FGA hole depute as WE Oe ON eR 2.00 .067 Overhead: depreciation, interest, taxes, sales expense... . 1.25 .O4L $9.85 $.327 mF pm ace a gee RU le” SUI Ligeia mg et mrt etm, a A ee n,n ie eT mal alk i emit tae a i eel ea oi hes eee ek Maes ‘ —— CROSS TIES 289 SEASONING Cross ties are always seasoned before being placed in service on the track or before preservative treatment for the following reasons: 1. Seasoned ties as in the case of all timbers are more durable than in the green state because the water content is reduced and the likelihood of attack by fungi lessened. = 7) Lb Sab Pied att) Wir ae Photograph by A. R. Joyce. Fic. 77.—Conventional methods of piling cross ties. On tne right, softwood ties are piled by the open method; on the left, the hardwood ties are piled by the alternate method in order to season more slowly and prevent excessive checking. 2. Seasoning increases the effectiveness of preservative treatment. 3. A decrease of from 30 to 40 per cent of the weight of ties by season- ing means a corresponding decrease in hauling charges and freight rates. 4. Proper seasoning prevents serious or unnecessary checking and splitting. The rate of seasoning is determined largely by the structure of the wood, the season of the year, general climatic conditions, methods of piling and location of the ties. Hardwoods such as oak, gum, maple, beech, etc., season slowly and with difficulty as compared to such softwoods as the pines, firs, cedars spruces and redwood. Winter-cut ties are less likely to fungus and insect attack and when properly piled will season out sufficiently during the following spring and summer. In all cases, ties should be peeled as soon as cut in order to facilitate the most rapid seasoning. Some ties such as gum and beech 290 FOREST PRODUCTS season with difficulty and if piled too open and exposed to the sun’s ray may split and check very seriously. The following table shows the rate of seasoning for peeled hemlock ties, stacked in 7 by 2 forms and surrounded by other piles. They were cut in the winter, but showed no apparent loss in weight up to the time of initial weighing: ! Date of Weighing. | “fom Fist a Das Weighing: por eekied fet Days. Per Cent. Pounds. April 1977230. 454 ponebaceensas | ° 129 55-0 MSV EA RSs oslo a tits oe eae a ee | 30 95 46.8 JUNG TSA eu sen ae Sere es 60 fn 82 ri ey, JOlyet Soo Awiseer oe tenes go 72 41.3 AUGUST IES iV as Pino edie orn ete eaes 120° 65 39.6 September 13.0.2 .2ssec2 ost oenes 150 60 - 38.4 October 13 eo ssi aries 180 56 37.4 Noévembel 135 acsiiewe dt tok este 210 53 36.8 The warmer and drier the air and the greater the circulation of air currents, the more rapid will be the loss of water from the ties and con- sequently its rate of seasoning. Ties, therefore, season more quickly in the South than in the North and more rapidly in summer than in winter. Ties should never be piled to season on low, swampy ground, or where there is not a good circulation of air currents. Piling in or near a rank growth of grass or weeds should always be avoided and piles should be elevated above the ground on two cull ties or by some other means to permit freedom of air currents underneath. There are many forms of piles in common use. Some are shown in the accompanying illustration. The following are the principal forms used by our railroad systems: ; (a) Solid piling, arranging 7 to 9 ties each way, with no spacing and, therefore, little chance for circulation of air. This is rapidly going out of practice, as it results in too slow a rate of seasoning. (b) Half-open piling, in which about 4 in. of spacing is allowed beewee the ties, which are placed seven in a tier, each way. Not advocated, as it is still too close for proper seasoning. (c) Triangular piling. Advocated where most rapid seasoning is desirable and where plenty of piling space is available. Costs more than other forms and is little used. 1See “The Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock and Tamarack Cross Ties,” by W. F. Sherfesee, U. S. Forest Service Circular 132, p. 11. CROSS TIES 291 (d) Open-crib piling, where ties are placed in alternate layers 7 one way and 2 the other. This is known as 7 by 2 piling. Variations of it, such as the g by 2 and 7 by 1, 8 by 1, and 8 by 2 are also used. This is the most common form and is now specified by most of the progressive railroad systems of the country. Ten tiers or layers of ties resting on stones or cull ties, with 45 ties to the pile is a common form. It permits of free circulation of air and experiments have shown it to give the best results. The 7 by 1 method is commonly used with hardwoods whereas the 7 by 2 method is used with softwoods.. When green ties or those that have been in the water are exposed to too rapid drying by warm temperatures, direct rays of the sun and strong wind currents, the ends of the ties, due to more rapid evaporation of moisture, are likely to shrink and check. Many ties are culled on inspection when checked too severely. Close piling will tend to decrease the checking, together with piling in the shade and other simi- lar precautionary measures. However, in all cases, a few ties, especially those of certain species which season with difficulty, will split and check. Many railroads are now following an old European practice, which consists of driving “‘S ” irons ‘n the ends of the ties, across the incipient check to prevent further opening. Their use is shown in the accompanying diagram. Oak ties should be given a minimum period of seasoning of eight months after cutting in the late winter, but they should preferably be exposed under favorable conditions of seasoning for fully twelve months. Other dense and heavy hardwood ties, such as beech, birch, maple, sycamore, and locust should receive the same length of seasoning period. Yellow pine, Douglas fir, western larch, and tamarack ties should be seasoned from five to eight months; hemlock, jack pine, cedar, cypress, redwood and chestnut ties from four to six months. If accurate moisture determinations cannot be conveniently made, seasoning should be con- tinued until their weight is constant. Fic. 78.—Method of using “S” irons to prevent the further opening of checks in cross ties. LIFE OF UNTREATED TIES Until comparatively recent years, nearly all cross ties were placed in service in railway tracks in the untreated condition. White oak, chest- 292 FOREST PRODUCTS nut and longleaf pine were practically the only species used and they gave satisfaction until higher prices were demanded with the decreasing avail- able supply. The life of untreated cross ties depends upon a number of factors, principal of which is the durability of the species involved. However, the length of service is determined by the following factors aside from natural durability: 1. Size of tie, including both thickness and face. Small ties rot away or shatter under heavy rolling stock much faster than larger ones. 2. Amount of sapwood. Even the sap of white oak rots away much faster than the heartwood. 3. Degree of seasoning. It has already been explained that thor- oughly seasoned ties are much more durable than those in a green or partially seasoned state. 4. Climatic conditions. It has been demonstrated that white oak ties in a warm, humid climate will not last more than from five to six years, whereas in a colder and dry climate they may last from eight to twelve years. ‘Ties resist decay if the climate of the West much better than in the East. 5. Condition of the road bed, such as character of the ballast, drainage facilities, etc. 6. Weight of rolling stock, frequency of trains, and whether on main or branch lines, sidings, etc. 7. Protection against mechanical wear. The use of tie plates, screw spikes, dowels, etc., is of material assistance in adding to the length of service of all forms of cross ties. It is obvious from the above, therefore, that it is impossible to fore- cast the life of untreated ties in the track. The variation within the individual species is very great, depending upon these factors. The following is offered as a rough guide in estimating the life of the prin- cipal species used for ties in the untreated condition.! Species Length of Life in Years. Bepeb so 5 ii nl otigtartint is sels bao eae oe 2- 4 Birch, yellow orveds..s.:..-assaame ee -aaeeee 2+ 4 Cedar; eastern Ted's 3:0). ::..cicapteniy on srebeeatigasins 12-15 Cedar, northern white..0 5 65.6 504) menus aoe. IO-I5 A ORLSANG. 2 a. Eneatin ov ton etOa oie ee iets 5 8 1For further data see “‘ Durability Records of Cross Ties,” by C. P. Winslow and C. H. Teesdale in Proceedings, American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1916. 4 4 - z t 3 ‘ CROSS TIES 293 Species Length of Life in Years. PPR iiconate Sons vi. Gia ASA 3 Sis va stele 9-14 RN OTM ES, Se arya ae Re tind ioe Re Saw ebm 3- 5 MAGS BMI TES 35 teoye gic oe kine oie sued Ae. ga 6-9 BR Et a Ree Sees 7 9 A Ee eee ee oy 031111 0) C:\e aun se vente egy ba a hae Sis 2-4 PICHIMICK/ COSECRM 15 sks hove arcsec sss -3- Yo PROIICK, WESIOI 3 i chess oo. pang rene oe 4-7 TS JOE ee De 2 ee Ae ee re oe ee pe 2-5 WMEOCTN MISE GUN oo et cethe eo laig 5 ik bate ae. oa ei ewe. 6- 8 AME UN eS ose SATS Mane iS oe eeeie Ws 12-20 ca He a ere es peerage te eres 2-4 SR Re ea a ah Bae tein a 7-11 MRS NS dear de Sate 2 ie eI Ae 3 o's Pain dhe BaG MUL WMI fe eek 2 hrc sod oe tee bee aes 2 4 MD MOORE ie od 5 sca Rie a cal ele ath 4a bs, 2-5 . Rem MNOMMEER isc. )3 phn sv, Pee Sean S wires 6- 9 Rt, MOMAE ENON clea Sinks as ao Saiengie SE Ste hans 25 Pie, western yellow... eee ke 4-7 PAs, WAN tA, Sper e ey dR ee

-2-| 651,643 | 693,489 |: 677,517 | - 608,066 - * 516,049 630,282 a eae Eee 199.442 | 199,590 | 265,290 | 236,842 160,702 76,450 Pine. ....--24>--»- 546,233 | 161,690 | 184,677 | 179,586 | 116,749 | 155,960 CAINE ee ass 67,644 | 72,005 | 75.459 77,677 90,579 | 100,368 Douglas fir........ ~-cthnes |» 24,833 | - 56,732 |. 24,877 19,542 15,919 Tamarack......... I 24,543 | 30,964 29,889 | 24,123 13,884 Redwood. .......-- 1 26,887 30,421 | 23,145 | 13,061 | 31,469 Osage orange.....- Sa semeeae 21,101 23,221 | © 21,401 | 18,109 | 5,962 SRNEIME 3 Ses eee oe aes Tas 10,166 | 22,929 | 11,423 8,088 10,646 Jeniper 22/0035. <: : 27,847 | 20,042 | 43,581 42,367 38,925 Hemlock .........- 1 Eee 90,793 | 6,222 1,998 3,301 PACE Fees) o 0s at pee oe ae 8,477 °9,030 | 10,463 10,224 4,672 ee ee 91,233 | 47,258 | 30,073 | 25,653 27,424 85,9053 i eee 4,077,964 | 3,418,020 | 3,870,604 | 3,738,740 | 3,249,154 | 3,283,268 1 Included with all other. 304 FOREST PRODUCTS SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES For commerical purposes, poles are classified by 5-ft. lengths, top diameters, and sometimes by the diameter at a specified point, usually 6 ft. from the butt as in chestnut.: The minimum length is generally regarded as 20 ft. and from the poles run in 5-ft. lengths up to 75 it. or more for special purposes. Practically two-thirds of our poles are from 20 to 30 ft. in length as these are the sizes most in demand. Only about one-fifth are from 30 to 4o ft. in length, one-twentieth from 40 to 50 ft. and only 1 to 2 per cent exceed 50 ft. in length. The telegraph and telephone companies purchase about 75 per cent of all the poles used. A good share of the remainder are purchased by the electric railroad and the electric light and power companies. The steam railroads purchase only about 6 per cent of all the poles. Specifications are prepared by the pole associations or by the tele- phone, telegraph and other companies to classify the poles according to dimensions, shape, freedom from defects and appearance. The following are the latest specifications of the Western Red Cedar Association with headquarters at Spokane, Wash., for standard telephone, telegraph and electric light poles, 20 ft. long and with 4-in. top diameter and up. All poles must be cut from live, growing cedar timber, peeled, knots trimmed close, butts and to pssawed square; tops must be sound and must measure as follows in circumference; 4-in. top 12 -in. circumference 5-in. top 15 -in. circumference 6-in. top 183-in. circumference 7-in. top 22 -in. circumference 8-in. top.25 -in. circumference g-in. top 28 -in. circumference 1o-in. top 31 -in. circumference Crook. No pole shall have more than one crook, and this shall be one way only, the sweep not to exceed 1 in. to every 6 ft. in length. Same to be determined in the following manner: Measurement for sweep shall be taken as follows: That part of the pole when in the ground (6 ft.) not being taken into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch a tape line on the side of the pole where the sweep is greatest, from a point 6 ft. from butt to the upper surface at top, and having so done, measure widest point from POLES AND PILING 305 tape to surface of pole, and if, for illustration, upon a 30-ft. pole said widest point does not exceed 5 in., said pole comes within the meaning of these specifications. Butt Rot. Butt rot in center, inciuding small ring rot, shall not exceed to per cent of the area of the butt. Butt rot of a character which impairs the strength of the pole above the ground is a defect. Knots. Large knots, if sound and trimmed smooth, are not a defect. Dead or Dry Streaks. A perfectly sound, dead or dry streak shall not be considered a defect welbe it does not materially impair the strength of the pole. The following are the standard specifications of the Northwestern Cedarmen’s Association of the Lake States covering the output of north- ern white cedar: Standard Telegraph, Telephone and Electric Poles. Sizes 4-in., 25 ft. and-up- wards. Above poles must be cut from live growing timber, peeled and reasonably well proportioned for their length. Tops must be reasonably sound, must measure in circumference as follows: Seasoned 4-in. poles, 12 in.; 5-in. poles, 15 in.; 6-in. poles, 18} in.; 7-in. poles, 22 in. If poles are green, fresh cut or water soaked, then 4-in. poles must measure 12} in.; 5-in. poles, 16 in.; 6-in. poles, 193 in.; 7-in. poles, 222 in. in circumference at top end. Length may be } in. scant for each 5 ft. in length and 6 in. long for any length from 20 ft. up. One-way sweep allowable not exceeding 1 in. for every 5 ft., for example, in a 25-ft. pole, sweep not to exceed 5 in., and in a 40-ft. pole 8 in. Measurement for sweep shall be taken as follows: That part of the pole when in the ground (6 ft.) not being taken into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch a tape line on the side of the pole where the sweep is greatest, from a point 6 ft. from the butt to the upper surface at top, and having so done measure widest point from tape to surface of pole and if, for illustration, upon 2 25-ft. pole said widest point does not exceed 5 in. said pole comes within the meaning of these specifications. Butt rot in the center includ- ing small ring rot outside of the center: Total rot must not exceed ro per cent of the area of the butt. Butt rot of a character which plainly seriously impairs the strength of the pole above the ground is a defect. Wind twist is not a defect unless very unsightly and exaggerated. Rough, large knots if sound and trimmed smooth are not a defect. The following are the specifications of one of the largest purchasers of poles in this country as applied to chestnut. To determine the char- acter of poles to be used, pole lines are divided into the following classes: Class A. A 50-, 60-, 70- or 8o-wire line, the heaviest used. Class B. Heavy trunk line with a capacity for 40 wires on four 10-pin cross arms. Ten of the wires may be No. 8 B. W. G. copper. 306 FOREST PRODUCTS Class C. Light trunk line with a capacity for 20 wires on two 10-pin cross arms, Class D. Light line with a capacity of 12 wires on two 6-pin cross arms. Class E. Branch line with a capacity for 2 wires on brackets. = Crass A. Crass B. Length of acc Eee - tice Length of Circum- ae Price erence -0.b. ference f.o.b Pole, Ft. Top, In. oa aoe Car Pole, Ft. To, Tn: bP er Car 25 24 36 $3.00 20 22 31 $1.75 30 24 40 4.00 25 22 33 2.00 35 24 43 i 5-00 30 22 36 3.00 40 24 45 | 6.00 35 22 40 4.00 45 24 48 6.50 40 22 43 5.00 50 24 51 y.00 45 22 47 6.00 55 22 54 10.00 50 22 50 8.00 60 22 57 13.00 55 22 53 9.50 65 22 60 15.00 60 22 56 12.00 70 22 63 19.00 65 legg 59 14.00 75 22 66 24.00 70 22 62 17.50 75 22 65 22.50 Crass C. Crass D. : Ci - : . Circum- . Length of | ircum- | terence. | Price || tength of | Circum- | ference | Price ole, Ft. Top, In. | a a ae Car Pole, Ft. Top, In. oes Car 20 20 27 $1.50 20 20 24 $1.25 25 20 30 1.75 25 20 27 1.50 30 20 33 2.25 30 20 31 2.00 35 20 36 3-50 35 20 © 35 3-25 | 40 20 40 4.50 40 20 39 4.25 | 45 20 43 5.50 45 20 43 5-25 50 20. 46 7.00 50 20 46 7-00 55 20 49 8.00 Crass E. Length of Pathan eae i é nee erence .O. Pole, Ft. Top, In. ee Car 20 154 23 $ .85 25 153 26 1.00 30 153 29 1.75 35 20 34 2.10 4° 20 38 . 3.10 45 20 42 4.00 5° 20 46 5.00 i> POLES AND PILING 307 All poles shall be of sound, live white chestnut, squared at both ends, reasonably straight, well proportioned from butt to top, peeled and knots trimmed to the surface of the pole. The dimensions of the poles shall be eeaeae to the following table: The “top ” measurement being the circumference at the top of the pole, the “butt” cir- cumference being 6 ft. from the butt. The company reserves the right to sae; its own inspection and reserves the right to reject any poles which are defective in any respect. The prices set opposite the various dimensions in each class are the approx- imate average prices paid in 1917 for chestnut, loaded on cars, ready for shipment in New York State. (Shown on p. 306.) The sweep permissible in the above poles measured at the 6-ft. mark and at the top of the pole is as follows for the different sizes: Length of Pole, Ft. | Wasim Permienibhe Sweep: You 35 10 40 Ir 45 10 50 II 55 I2 60 13 65 14 jo 15 In inspection work, the inspector usually carried the following equip- ment: 2 75-{t. waterproof tape lines. 1 50-ft. steel tape line (used in checking We accuracy of the waterproof tapes). 1 6-ft. brass safety chain, small size, with key ring or one end for measur- ing poles at 6-ft. mark. 2 iron prods for examining poles for bad tops, rotten knots, etc. 1 set of marking hammers. 1 timber scribe for marking poles 6 ft. from butt. The following are the specifications adopted by the Western Red Cedar Association for piling. ‘ STANDARD CEDAR PILING All piling must be cut from live, growing cedar timber, peeled, knots trimmed close, butts and tops sawed square. Top must be sound. Butts may contain rot, the average diameter of which is not over 10 per cent of the diameter of the butt. (This rot not to exceed 1 per cent of the area of the butt.) Length. All piling shall be furnished in the following lengths: 16 ft., 20 ft., and multiples of 308 FOREST PRODUCTS 5 ft., over 20 ft. Owing to the inaccuracies of cutting cedar in the woods by hand, a variation of 6 in. in length is allowable. Tops. Piling 30 ft. and shorter must measure at small end not less than 30 in. in circum- ference. Piling 35, 40, and 45 ft. must measure at small end not less than 28 in. in circum- ference. Piling 50 ft. to 70 ft., inclusive, must measure not less than 25 in. in circumference at small end. Butts Butts must measure not less than 14 in. of more than 20 in. in diameter the widest way. ; Crook. Piling may contain crook one way providing a line drawn from the center of the top to the center of the butt does not fall outside the body of the piling at any point Cat Faces and Dry Streaks. A sound cat face not to exceed 10 per cent of the length of a piling is permissible. A sound, dead or dry streak shall not be considered a defect when it does not materially impair the strength of the piling. In addition to red cedar, the following timbers are commonly used for piling purposes in the West: Douglas fir, western hemlock, western yet low pine, redwood and, to some extent, eucalyptus. In the East, most companies classify piling as permanent or tem- porary. The former must be of white oak, chestnut or longleaf pine and must be peeled. The latter may be of almost any species that can be driven with a pile driver, but the following are generally used: Red and black oak, beech, maple, ash, hickory, elm, black gum or sycamore. They are used in the unpeeled condition. The following are customary dimensions: The diameter at the middle of the pile shall be not less than 12 in. and the diameter of the butt shall not exceed 20 in. The minimum diameter at the top for piles up to 30 ft. in length shall be 9 in.; for those from 30.to 50 ft., 8 in., and for those exceeding 50 ft., 7 in. A line from the center of the butt to the center of the top shall lie within the pile. Permanent piles usually command a price of from 14 to 20 cents or more per lineal foot, delivered at the railroad tracks, while temporary piling brings only from 8 to 15 cents per linear foot. The larger prices are paid for the longer pieces: POLES AND PILING 309 The following table shows the lengths and top diameters in which western red cedar is sold, the average weight for each size and the prices which obtained on board cars at a prominent pole shipping center in northern Idaho for the years 1912-1916, inclusive: Prices f.o.b. Cars, NORTHERN IDAHO. begs in Dasaetes Woske a j 5 in Inches. Pounds. 1912. 1913. | 1914. | 191s. 19016. 20 4 100 Feet S60 1. S65: Sigs Ae Sr6e 20 5 135 .70 Sy ES ety «ie eee Lae es 20 6 190 .go PAG. Sei eos) E:60- tS eiie 25 4 150 -75 x eve ees | od ee ee gee 25 5 200 I.00 E2004 fe (21002 | F300: 3 1.20 25 6 250 1.50 1.25 | 1.50 1.40 1.85 25 7 325 2.00 fo, ee Gee yo eM (ee ee TS 2.25 25 8 400 2.50 3.00 2.50 2.50 | 3-00 30 6 350 2.00 2.25 1.95 2.00 2.25 30 bat Diyos Khoa 2.75 3-75 2.50 3:00.15. 3075 3° 8 | 500 3-25 4.5° 3-25 | 3-35 | 4.50 35 6 see 3-00 | 4.00 3-00 | 3.50 | 4.00 35 7 500 3-50 |. 4.75 3-75. | 4-00 | “4.75 35 8 625 4-00 5-50 4-25 | 4:75 | §-50 35 9 | 800 4.50 6.00 4-85 |. 5.25 6.00 4o 7 650 4.00 5-50 | 4-25 | 5.00 5.50 40 8 800 4.50 6.00 | 4.85 5.50 6.00 40 rs) 1000 5-00 7.00 5-40 | 6.50 7.00 45 7 850 4-75 O50 NY 4.88" 1 co | 26. ge 45 8 1000 5.50 7.00 5240 1.6.25) lp 7.00 45 9 1200 6.00 8.00 6.00 | 6.75 8.00 5° 7 1050 5-50 | 7.50 5-40 | 6.25 | 7.50 50 8 1200 6.00 | 8.00 6.00 7-00 | 8.00 50 9 1400 SIOON 9 @.00'2).-.6.65 2.00.0 9.00 Bales 8 1400 7-00 | 9.00 | 6.65 8.00 -| - 9.00 55 9 1600 8.00 | 10.00 7.25 9.00 10.00 60 8 1600 8.00 | 10.00 T7325 9.00 10.00 60 9 1850 9.00 .| 12.00 8.25 II.00 12.00 65 8 1850 9.00 | 12.00 8.25 II.00 12.00 65 9 2200 II.00 | 16.00 10.00 14.00 | 16.00 70 8 2200 II.00 | 16.00 10.00 14.00 16.00 7o. Co! 9 | 2600 14.00 | 21.00 12.50 | 18.00 _| 21.00 6254 8 2600 14.00 | 21.00 12.50 | 18.00 21.00 y eee 9 | 3000 21.00 28.00 | 18.00 25.00 28.00 80 8 3000 21.00 | 28.00 18.00 — | ©2500 28.00 80 9 |. 3500 30.00 | 35-00. =|. 25:00 33-00 35-00 The prices that have obtained for northern white cedar during 1916 have been about as follows, on board cars in the pole yards in the Lake states: 310 FOREST PRODUCTS Length in Feet. Top a spice in Prices f.o.b. Cars. 20 4 $.47 20 | 5 -57 20 6 65 20 7 1.25 25 4 .60 25 5 -75 25 6 1.60 25 7 2.50 30 6 3.00 3° 7 4.75 35 6 5.50 35 7 8.50 40 6 8.50 40 7 10.50 45 6 10.50 45, 7 13.00 50 6 13.00 50 7 16.00 55 6 16.00 55 7 18.00 60 7 25.00 65 7 30.00 70 7 40.00 LOGGING AND PRODUCTION OF POLES AND PILING General Considerations. The logging of cedar poles and piles in both the Lake States and in the Northwest is usually carried on as a systematic and separate operation, either before or after the logging of the saw timber. This is done in order to prevent unnecessary breakage of the lighter and weaker cedar by the heavy woods worked up into saw logs. A very large percentage of chestnut and oak poles are logged and de- livered to the pole yards or to the railroad by farmers and small woodlot owners, the work being done in the winter when other work is rather slack. Some of the northern white cedar and western red cedar is still cut by ranchers and those engaged in clearing land, but the production of poles is carried on as a separate industry more in northern Idaho and in northern Michigan and Minnesota than in any other centers. The sawing of long logs into tapered poles from redwood, pine and occasionally from a few other woods is rapidly going out of practice. Generally speaking, the logging consists of felling the tree close to the ground (as large butts are preferred), sawing off the top at even 5-ft. POLES AND PILING 311 lengths, trimming off the branches, peeling, skidding, and hauling to the railroad, driving or floating to the pole yard. Pole logging is the cheapest form of logging per unit of volume, since practically the whole tree trunk is taken out in one operation. The following table is interesting as showing the size of trees of various diameters, taken at breast height (43 ft.) required to yield poles of specified lengths and top diameters. It was devised as a result of the measurement of 478 western red cedar trees in northern Idaho by officials of the Forest Service: DIAMETERS AT BREAST HEIGHT IN INCHES, Number of Length in Feet. Trees Used : s-in. Top. | 6-in. Top. | 7-in. Top. 8-in. Top. as Baum 20 8 GS ria eas eh os te eas 48 es Tebewasd sess <5 10.5 Pee es see Ss 49 cle) Tarde SPARS See rears 11.6 13.0 14.8 65 Bes ON sieciw rece Sepee are Ss 14.7 14.9 51 VS at bles ae eee i ee pa ae 16.5 16.7 51 MPPs wan eere binned s< ase 16.7 17.9 52 [SO RSE err: bert ener | 16.9 18.4 5I ony 3 hed BR ee ros ran COS eC el Seeieirer em 18.7 25 Ret era fr ae Bore toi Py ste ee oles 19.8 25 DEO) bale le aeses 2 ft ca toate at posse eee eeee 21.8 25 5 a ay Se ET Pe eR ar een pote tee 23.2 20 75 Te eee es oe oe eee ere 24.3 9 CS OS ae OSE ie rae barr eetiaa wee 25.7 7 The following table shows just the reverse of the above table in that jt gives the sizes of poles that may be obtained from trees of different HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET. | Diameter, | l | Breast High 50 60 70 } 80 90 | Number of Trees in Inches. | _ used as Basis. Length of Poles in Feet. | ' 13 25 25 25 25 25 | II 14 30 30 30 30 30 17 15 35 35 35 SG ee Sere 6 ae ter] eee nere eae Gaara ere: 40 40 40 14 ER ae ae Sas bocce a ee Ss 40 45 45 | 6 BOT he es ase Los Saas 45 50 50 II Pee re Oe nee ec tea ics secre eh: cS ews 55 6 See Menara p a) ralsmis ait escalate ae TPs osic Secs 60 4 ? For details regarding general logging methods see “ Logging,” by R. C. Bryant, John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 312 FOREST PRODUCTS diameters. It was made by E. H. Frothingham for chestnut in Connec- ticut.! All poles are assumed to have a 7-in. top. Stumpage Values. ‘ As in the case of all timber values, the value of pole stumpage depends upon the species involved, accessibility, quality of poles, difficulty of logging and marketing, supply and demand, etc. Cedar pole stumpage is practically the only pole stumpage traded in, since the other kinds of poles are largely cut and marketed by the owners or cut along with large logging operations, as is largely the case with such poles as cypress, pine, redwood, Douglas fir, etc. In the latter case they are purchased along with the saw timber and at specified values per thousand feet. Stumpage values in both northern white and western red cedar are based on the lineal foot and on the piece. It is customary in some local- ities to charge 2 cents per running foot for all poles up to and including 40 ft. in length, and 3 cents for all poles over 4o ft. in length. In other centers of operation, a separate stumpage value is placed on each pole of given length and top diameter. The following table shows the stumpage values for western red cedar STUMPAGE VALUE OF WESTERN RED CEDAR POLES IN NORTHERN IDAHO STUMPAGE VALUE. kcagthe., | Diameter, | Measure | per MI, a ee Inches. per Pole. B.M. Per Pole. yg a: o 20 5 20 50.00 $.09 $.005 $4.50 20 6 25 40.00 “22 006 4.80 25 6 35 28.57 .19 .O1 5-43 25 7 40 25.00 29 OL aoe 30 6 5° 20.00 30 .Or 6.00 30 7 75 13-33 44 O15 5-87 30 8 go II.11 59 02 6.55 35 6 75 13-33 -54 O15 7.20. 35 7 90 TDi .68 02 TY 35 8 115 8.70 Moye) 025 7.83 40 ‘4 125 8.00 .93 02 7.44 40 8 135 7.40 1.12 03 8.29 45 7 145 6.90 1.03 02 yee eS 45 8 175 5.72 1.34 .03 7.66 50 7 180 5.55 1.50 .03 8.32 50 8 215 4.65 1.50 .03 6.98 55 8 205 3.38 1.93 035 6.52 60 8 310 3.23 2.10 .035 6.78 65 8 300 2.78 2.60 -04 7.23 70 8 390 | 2.50 2.80 .O4 7.17 1 See “ Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut,’”’ Forest Service Bulletin No. 96, by E. H. Frothingham. c POLES AND PILING 313 in northern Idaho expressed cn the basis of each sized pole as well as by linear feet and by the thousand feet, board measure. It also shows the -amount of board-feet in each sized pole and the average number of poles required to make a thousand board-feet. All figures are based on the Scribner Decimal C Scale and on measurements taken by 1o- and 5-ft. sections. Both western and northern white cedar when found in good pole sizes bring much better stumpage values when sold in the pole form than as saw logs or for any other purpose. Felling and Peeling. Winter-cut poles are much more in demand than those cut at other seasons of the year. Peeling, of course, is more difficult and expensive at this season, but many specifications of purchasing companies call for winter-cut poles as they dry out much more readily in the following spring and summer. Many dealers claim that they are more durable and stronger, but there is nothing to support this contention other than the likelihood that winter-cut poles are less susceptible to checking and insect and fungous attack than those cut in the spring or summer. In making poles, one man usually works alone and is paid by the lineal foot. He uses an axe for undercutting and limbing and a one-man, 5-ft. saw for felling and sawing off the top. With the axe or broadaxe he peels off the bark by standing on the tree trunk and working backward, taking off a continuous strip 3 to 5 in. in width and turning the pole with a cant-hook until all the bark is removed. Peeling is done easiest from about May 1st to August 1st, but the same prices for felling and peeling usually prevail throughout the year on ~ continuous jobs. ; The rates paid for felling, limbing, topping and peeling vary with the region, demand for labor and many other factors. On one large pole operation in northern Idaho, .8 cent was paid per foot for all poles up to 40 ft. in length, 1 cent for poles 40 to 60 ft. long, and 13 cents for all poles 60 ft. and up in length. Sometimes a straight rate of 1 cent for felling and 1 cent for peeling is paid on the more difficult jobs. Since most of the poles are from 20 to 35 ft. in length the cost averages about 1 cent per ft. for both operations. Piling is seldom peeled for the reason that it seasons better with the bark on and checks less. When intended for preservative treatment, however, all piling is peeled. 314 FOREST PRODUCTS Skidding. This operation usually consists of dragging the pole, by using a team and tongs or choker, to the landing, chute or stream. It costs from } to 13 cents per lineal foot depending upon the usual factors of distance charges for teams and labor, topography, ground cover, size of poles, etc. On some operations 15 cents per pole is paid for all poles up to 3 5 ft. long. For those above this, 1 cent per lineal foot is paid. Hauling and Other Forms of Transportation. . This is also a very variable charge. Hauling is done on sleighs i in winter and on wagons in summer. On some of the larger logging opera- tions, skidding takes the poles directly to a railroad or to a drivable stream. On fair country dirt roads from 4 to 7 40-ft. poles will be a Pet load for one team and wagon. On sleighs from io to 15 green poles, 30 to 40-ft. in length, may be handled in one load. Hauling costs on a large cedar operation, using wagon haul, were as follows for 30-ft. poles: LEGS Oe se A ee ei $ .15 per pole ToS MUSES eS ea ee es .25 per pole Be TUBS SS os iss a ee os .75 per pole GOMES Pee ee cee Ae 1.00 per pole For poles below and above this standard a proportionate reduction or increase was made. The cost of driving cedar ral and piles an average distance of 25 miles in Michigan was 5 cents each (average of all lengths). Rafting 30 miles varied‘in cost from 3 cents each for 20-ft. poles up to 53 cents for 30-ft., 25 cents for 40-ft., and 40 cents for 60-ft. poles. The cost of driving and rafting rises very rapidly with the length. On narrow, winding streams poles are driven with great difficulty, as jams are frequent. Yarding, Seasoning and Shipping. Proper yarding and seasoning facilities are of great importance in the pole business. Up to the present time little attention has been paid to methods of seasoning and the poles have been piled on top of each other indiscriminately. If piled too closely and too high they are likely to be attacked by fungi before they season properly while, if exposed too much to the sun POLES AND PILING 315 Som “EBS ve + Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 82.—Loading chestnut poles to be hauled Pennsylvania. ‘ RAS . WAN SS Photograph by E. T. Chapin Co. Fic. 83.—The beginning of a new pole yard in northern Idaho. These are western red cedar poles, which are produced in great quantities from this section. The poles are skidded by team from the woods to this landing, where they are loaded on cars and sent to the distributing yard. 316 FOREST PRODUCTS and the drying action of the wind, they may check seriously. If poles are to be treated, they should be thoroughly seasoned. In any case, seasoning is of importance in saving freight charges. The decrease in weight in the seasoning process may be anywhere from 20 to 50 per cent according to Weiss, or 180 to 850 lb. per pole. . When the top diameter of green poles is measured, 1 in, is customarily allowed for shrinkage in circumference, although shrinkage in such species of low specific gravity as the cedars and chestnut would be much less than in oak, or the heavier pines. When end checking becomes evident, the poles should be protected from further deterioration by means of “S”’ irons. The best method of seasoning is to provide skids or stickers between the poles so that free currents of air may carry off the moisture. When once seasoned the poles should be shipped at once or a roof placed over them. All poles should be seasoned for four full seasoning months. In determining what should constitute an equivalent of this period, the calendar months have been rated as follows: January equals § seasoning month; February equals § seasoning month; March equals {4 seasoning month; April equals 4 seasoning month; May equals 4 seasoning month; June equals 1 seasoning month; , July equals 1 seasoning month; August equals 1 seasoning month; September equals 1 seasoning month; seasoning month; seasoning month; seasoning month. October equals November equals December equals Qi coles paleo Yarding, seasoning and loading costs from 1 to 23 cents per lineal foot, depending upon yarding facilities, amount handled, labor costs, efficiency, labor-saving devices, etc. Heavy cranes, log loaders and gin poles are used for unloading, piling and loading. Loading alone costs about 1 cent per lineal foot. Poles over 40 ft. in length must be loaded on two flat cars. The following table shows the approximate number of western red cedar poles of each size used for single and double car-load lots: POLES AND PILING 317 Photograph by z. T. Chapin Co. Fic. 84.—Method used in piling poles to facilitate drying. Nearly 5,000.000 poles are ’ annually required for our telephone and telegraph lines, electric light and power lines, etc. NUMBER OF POLES REQUIRED TO MAKE CAR-LOAD LOTS WESTERN RED CEDAR (Single Load—on One Car.) DE te acd 4 creates ely oe oe re ER oie oie a wR Baie 175 to 225 poles 0 RE A eas Sete ga alge Oa a a RA ae? Pk Ge anv 150 to 175 poles 8-in. top, 25 ft... ReneS: are Pea ee mee 120 to 140 poles Gathers so seo tase. 5. ee its ONG tA Se ee tae ae 130 to 175 poles SPE MITES eo 2 os ithe oe O atahe 2 ends Ot OR Se ee 120 to 150 poles ro Soa | SS ta ely Be gS et a go to 120 poles Wena, Rr ee EE ey Sie ies eg ne eS oe an Se a 120 to 150 poles SU RMN Fe Sit Pe a ca LM ans ce ngs Shak, ay ny ee 100 to 120 poles Wea Uae R ENE Mee AT ts ccmece Oe te nce AOE ay ts Me ee go to r10 poles Sol. Sai Re se ene es i iC ate Pear ce go to 120 poles Rae NE IE re or ye kg Soe ea Ge Coe 85 to r10 poles (Double Load—on Two Cars.) UME RN oa a ae Mena eg i cckp ate geist net Cle 80 to 95 poles REE ee Rota Nene gin ped Se as, sheen agasWackas 26 7° to 85 poles MN ene tt ihe Aarne nc PO nry Lc oa cet eet amene te 7° to 85 poles LENG OT SE ER 7 Bie aan See tan Ba ae. tk eS ae nA 60 to 75 poles ROM RE Siu Prema Alo nat Omens IAS Sos Caice coe kiuien 55 to 70 poles en TURNED Were Ure Fog Toe ate Sra ad cok aah Lose ie aoe Ts 50 to 65 poles eT BR ERRY Tah peo dine east Sie ve Oa Ae Re 41,483,800 33,288,000 tse Cc Ys 4} 70,54 PR ea aS ipa a AN AREREIEE ning ach 2 165,535,900 435,944,000 te ate el MINE TIMBERS 333 SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES Sawed timbers and lumber which are used in the mines of this country are always purchased on the basis of the thousand board-feet and are bought in various sizes from the sawmills and local lumber yards. The specifications are not at all standardized and the prices obviously fluctuate with the lumber market. The round timbers are purchased largely from the local region. In Pennsylvania the sections about the anthracite and bituminous coal mines have been heavily cut off for mine ties, props, mine rails, and collar timber. The Butte mining district is dependent to a large extent on the lodgepole pine timber from the Deerlodge National Forest and to a less extent on the western yellow and lodgepole pine cut in western Montana. The Birmingham mining district of northern Alabama has been heavily cut off for the important iron and coal mines. Northern Michigan sup- plies a great many hardwoods for the copper districts of northern Mich- igan. ‘The forests of the Arizona copper mining districts and the precious metal mines of California have also been depleted to some extent for’ mine timbers. However, California has such an abundant timber sup- ply that the demand for material for her mines represents but a small percentage of the total demands on the forests in that state. The mines of this country are not generally located immediately in or near abundant sources of forest wealth, except in California. The specifications and prices vary a great deal with the local condi- tions. Specifications for mines in Illinois and Indiana would not suffice for those in Pennsylvania, and the same would be true of the various metal mines of the West. The following are the standard mine timber specifications and prices for one of the most important mining companies in Pennsylvania which annually consumes large quantities of timbers. These prices were quoted in 1917. All mine material to be cut from sound, living timber, felled between August rst and March 1st. Timber must be reasonably straight, have all knots trimmed even with the sur- face, and free from defects that impair the strength and durability for their intended use. All measurements to be made at the top end under the bark. Material to be inspected at point of loading unless otherwise advised. No shipments accepted unless covered by regu- lar order. Prices quoted are f.o.b. cars D., L. & W. R.R. Prop Timber. Prop timber to be to ft. to 30 ft. (averaging 15 ft.) long, of any kind of hardwood, and including hemlock, pitch pine, spruce and chestnut. Price { 6 in. diameter top 2 cents per lineal foot. mee’ 8 in. diameter top 33 cents per lineal foot. 334 FOREST PRODUCTS Collar Timber. Collar timber to be of hemlock, pitch pine, spruce or chestnut, 10 per cent oak permitted. 10 in. diameter top to be to ft. to 30 ft. (averaging 15 ft.) long. 12 in. and 14 in. diameter top to be 18 ft. to 30 ft. long. Price { 10 in. diameter top, 6 cents per lineal foot. 12 in. diameter top, 11 cents per lineal foot. . 14 in, diameter top, 14 cents per lineal foot. Mine Rails. Mine rails are to be 3 in. by 5 in. by 12 ft., and of hardwood, such as beech, birch, maple and oak. A small percentage of 10-ft., 14-ft. and 16-ft. lengths will be accepted. To be edged to size and ends cut square. Rails containing any defects that would injure them for the purpose intended will not be accepted. . Price, $13.00 per thousand board-feet. Flat Mine Ties. Flat mine ties are to be 5 ft. long, hewn or sawn on two sides, on an average 5 in- thick and 5 in. face. Nothing less than 4 in by 4 in by 5 ft. will be accepted. To be of ,oak or chestnut. A small percentage of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) will be accepted. Price 9 cents each. The manufacture of round mine timbers is almost entirely a woods operation.! The trees are felled, bucked and swamped and then peeled. The following represents the costs involved on a winter operation on the Deerlodge National Forest where lodgepole pine stulls were produced for the Butte mining district :? Operation. Cost per Thousand Feet. ShOveling SNOW. 4 ii Pins: ae ties Seca eee 1.68 Felling trees... 3°) 6st svelte sk) ake eae eee .48 Trimming trees. 200 oNGA a Sate eee .19 Brush disposal (piling and burning).............. ay Cutting into stull lengths... 2. 2.4.4 .009 SAS). 93 Peeling 00 ob asic eee oats eee ae 1.55 $4.56 The use and life of mine timbers depend upon the local conditions. Where the various mine tunnels require more material for support and there is likelihood of a shifting in the strata of rock or soil, considerably larger quantities of material must be used. Furthermore, on account of 1 For further information regarding logging methods, see “‘ Logging,” by R. C. Bryant. John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 2 From “ Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains,” by D. T. Mason. U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 234. ee MINE TIMBERS 335 the warm moist air in most of the mines, the timber is readily subject to attack by decay and insects. In coal mines it very frequently happens in extreme cases that the timbers up to from 12 to 15 in. in diameter will become completely decayed in about three years if used in the untreated condition. The expense involved in resetting these timbers is very great, and furthermore, such x epee generally interfere with the working operations of the mines. Besides decay, other prominent reasons for the destruction of mine tmbers are wear and tear, breakage, fire and wastage. Taken all together, these represent about 50 per cent of the causes for the destruc- tion of mine timbers, the remaining 50 per cent being the result of decay and insect attack. Wooden rollers and drums must be frequently replaced on account of wear, and large amounts of timbers themselves destroyed by “ crush ” and “ squeeze,” or by “ swelling ground ” and a _ great deal of temporary timber is lost in mine workings which become filled with waste rock and dirt called “‘ slush’ after the coal and other ore has been mined. The relative importance of the various destructive agencies in the American mines is shown in the following table:! Causes of Destruction. Percentage. Bretcay: anid meacct attack o.% 00552 ooo ae eet 50 Pynsre trea al tases = 30 ot oe heen 25 PPAR UUC UME OIG... 270 sh toes See eS kere es Lae yaks 20 SRS Ser eR a et ue cass Ene eee ee ee 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY BurEAu OF Census. Forest Products of the United States, 1907. Washington, BC. Kettoc, R. S. Timbers Used in the Mines of the United States in 1905. Forest Service Circ. No. 49. Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. Forest Service Bull. No. 77. Mason, D.T. Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Moun- tains. Forest Service Bull. No. 234. NELSON, JOHN M. Prolonging the Life of Mine Timbers. U. S. Forest Service Cire. 111. PETERS, E. W. Preservation of Mine Timbers. Forest Service Bull. No. 107. Weiss, H. F. Preservation of Structural Timber. 1 From “ The Preservation of Mine Timbers,” by E. W. Peters, U. S. Forest Service Bull. 107, 1912, p. 6. CHAPTER XVI FUEL WOOD GENERAL Woop furnishes fuel for a great variety of purposes. It is chiefly in demand on farms and in small rural communities for general heating purposes and for the preparation of food. It is also used as fuel in the | generation of electric and steam power, electric lighting, in the manu- facture of brick, etc. Since wood is largely used on farms, it is prin- cipally cut from woodlots and small holdings. Cordwood cut for fuel also comes from material otherwise wasted, such as slabs from saw- mills, tree tops, branches and defective material left on the ground after logging operations, scrubby growth and inferior trees which are not in demand for any other form of product. The fuel cutter does not take what the sawmill or other wood using industries can use. If the demand for fuel wood were doubled in this country it could be easily taken care of without the use of good timber. Transportation is the chief problem in the further utilization of fuel wood in this country. The larger markets, aside from the farmers and the rural communities, are not in close proximity to the principal fuel wood supply so that at the present time enormous quantities of material are wasted and left to rot in ig woods due to prohibitive transportation charges. There is approximately as much wood used at the present time for fuel as for lumber. It probably brings the lowest delivered market price of wood in any form. Its use is decreasing in this country due to the increasing introduction of the use of natural and artificial gas, coal, electricity and fuel oil. There is much less wood used at the present time for heat and power than formerly. In thirty years, the coal output has multiplied 6 times and many new natural gas and oil wells have been developed. The war greatly stimulated the use of wood fuel, particularly in 1918 and 1919, when there was a shortage of coal. 336 FUEL WOOD 337 AMOUNT USED It is estimated that, at the present time, about 100,000,000 standard cords of wood valued at $350,000,000 or about $3.50 per cord are used every year in this country. This amount would be equivalent, assum- ing that 500 bd.-ft. are equal to one cord, to 50,000,000,000 bd.-it. of material or 9,000,000,000 cu. ft., assuming that there are go cu. ft. of solid wood per cord. Photograph by Nelson C. Brown, Fic. 91.—Beech, birch and maple cordwood cut and stacked for seasoning in the woods, In the winter, this is hauled out on sleds. Photograph taken near Cadosia, Delaware Co., New York. Sargent estimated that in 1880 there were used in this country 146,000,000 cords valued at $322,000,000 or $2.21 percord. At that time the population was only about 50,000,000, whereas it is now in excess of 100,000,000 people. In spite of the increase in population of over 100 per cent, therefore, the total amount of wood used for fuel has decreased very considerably, owing to the introduction of other forms of fuel such as gas, oil and coal as outlined above. 338 FOREST PRODUCTS From statistics 1 gathered by the U.S. Forest Service, the leading states in the consumption of wood fuel on our farms are Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, Arkansas and Texas in order. These eight states consume about’ 50 per cent of the total amount used on our farms in this country. The quantity of fuel wood used in any one spec depends very largely upon the following factors: 1. Climate. It is natural that more fuel wood will be used in colder climates than in the southerly ones unless near coal or oil fields. 2. Cost of other fuel. The use of wood is determined very largely in any given region by the cost of the available coal, oil and gas. 3. Transportation facilities. Very often wood is available in abundant quantities but transportation facilities are lacking. Several years ago considerable fuel wood was reduced in form to charcoal in isolated regions of long hauls to save transportation charges. The general use of charcoal for fuel purposes, however, has been reduced to a considerable extent and the old method of making charcoal has nearly. gone out of existence, due to the introduction of modern methods of both hardwood and softwood distillation. There are. great possibilities for closer utilization of our raw wood supplies in the development of wood for fuel. The value of fuel wood in many of our smaller towns and cities has risen so rapidly that it is now competing successfully with coal or other materials for fuel purposes, and although it will be a long time before fuel wood can be utilized in an intensive way as in the European nations, we shall undoubtedly save, in the future, enormous quantities of material now wasted in the woods in logging operations and poor and defective timber now left to decay. The following table 1 shows the amount and value of wood fuel used on the farms of this country during 1917: 1 From “‘ The Use of Wood for Fuel,” U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bull. 753, roro. FUEL WOOD WOOD FUEL USED ON FARMS 339 Number : VALUE OF Woop USED of Farms Cords Numbe: ; VALUE PER Corp. ! on Basis oF DECEM- dant. —— Ba fees 1 _ oer: 1917, VALUES. eaten: 2 hoe yong er: ers. |per Farm.| Total Value. Maine......... 60,000 137 780,000) $6.40 | $4.50 | $83.20 | $4,992,000 New Hampshire. 27,000 12 324,000; 6.40 4.60 76.80 2,074,000 Vermont....... 33,000 I5v 495,000) 6.00 4.35 90.00 2,970,000 Massachusetts. . 37,000/ 10 370,000! 6.35 4.70 63.50 2,350,000 Rhode Island. . . 5,000 10 50,000! 5.80 4.00 58.00 290,000 Connecticut... . 27,000! 13 351,000} 6.00 4-50 78.00 2,106,000 New York... ... 215,000 14 3,010,000} 4.60 4.00 64.40 | 13,846,000. New Jersey 33,000 8 264,000} 5.10 4.00 40.80 1,346,000 Pennsylvania 218,000 9 1,962,000} 3.50 2.60 31.50 6.867,000 Delaware....... 11,000 13 143,000} 4.20 3.10 54.60 601,000 Maryland...... 50,000| 13 650,000} 4.15 3.20 53-95 2,698,000 Virginia........ 190,000 18% | 3,420,000] 3.20 2.40 57.60 | 10,944,000 West Virginia 99,000, 16% | 1,584,00c] 2.90 | 2.30 | 46.40} 4,594,000 North Carolina 259,000 | 17V 4;403,000; 2.75 2.10- 46.75 | 12,108,000 South Carolina 185,000 14 2,590,000! 3.00 2.10 42.00 7;770,000 Georgia........ 300,000 «16. 4,800,000; 2.50 2.00 42.00 | 12,000,000 Plorwiac 65: 55,000} II 605,000! 3.10 2.60 34-10 1,876,000 Ohi Po 0555)22-- 271,000! 13 3,523,000} 3.60 3.00 46.80 | 12,683,000 Indiana........ 215,000, 12 2,580,000! 3.70 3.30 44.40 9,546,000 Lo. aie 250,000, 9 2,250,000! 4.60 3.40 41.40 | 10,350,000 ‘Michigan....... 209,000! , 13 2,717,000! 5.25 4.00 68.25 | 14,264,000 Wisconsin... ... 180,000! 13 2,340,000| 5.50 4.20 71.50 | 12,870,000 Minnesota... .... 157,000' II 1,727,000} 5.40 4-30 59.40 9,326,000 POWERS ss creeks 215,000) 5 1,075,000} 4.70 4.20 23.50 5,05 2,000 Missouri... .... 275,000 13 3:575,000| 3.20 2.60 41.60 | 11,440,000 North Dakota 90,000 3 270,000} 7.50 6.40 22.50 2,025,000 South Dakota 90,000) 3 270,000! 6.20 6.00 18.60 1,674,000 Nebraska... .... 135,000, 3 405,000! 4.25 3-90 12.75 1,721,000 Kansas......... 180,000 6 1,080,000} 4.25 3-30 25.50 4,590,000 Kentucky...... 265,000, 18% 4:770,000} 2.20 1.70 39.60 | 10,494,000 Tennessee. ..... 250,000, 19 \ 4,750,000} 2.20 1.75 41.80 | 10,450,000 Alabama....... 270,000 18 y 4,860,000} 2.00 1.80 36.00 9,720,000 Mississippi. . . . . 285,000 16 4,560,000} 2.30 1.90 36.80 | 10,488,000 Louisiana....... 122,000} 15 1,830,000} 2.50 2.25 37-50 4,575,000 Yo. yes Sepa 430,000 9 3,870,000} 3.40 2.80 30.60 | 13,158,000 Oklahoma... ... 210,000! 10 2,100,000} 3.10 2.75 31.00 6,510,000 Arkansas. ...... 225,000 19v 4,275,000] 2.35 2.00 44.65 | 10,046,000 Montana....... 35,000 b fo) 350,000} 4.80 4.50 48.00 1,680,000 Wyoming....... 15,000 10 150,000} 4.50 3.80 45-00 675,000 Colorado....... 55,000 6 330,000] 4.50 3.70 27.00 1,485,000 New Mexico. 45,000 9 405,00G} 4.20 4.00 37-80 1,701,000 ANZONS > oS 5 55. 12,000 9 108,000] 5.75 5.40 SE. 75 621,000 Utah sc See 23,000 8 184,000} 5.00 4.00 40.00 920,000 Nevada... ....:. 3,000} II 33,000} 7.00 6.00 77.00 231,000 Wdaho:s 45.6.5 36,000 9 324,000} 5.00 4.60 45.00 1,620,000 Washington 65,000 II 715,000} 5.20 4.50 57-20 3,718,000 Oregons 3. oS. 50,000! 12 600,000) 4.70 3-90 56.40 2,820,000 California...... 95 ,000| 10 950,000} 7.40 5.80 74.00 7,030,000 United States. 6,562,0001 12.6 | 82,777,000 3.42 2.75 43-13 | 282,915,000 340 FOREST PRODUCTS SOURCES OF SUPPLY As noted above, the farmers’ woodlot and small scattered holdings are the principal sources of fuel wood at the present time. Slab wood and other refuse from sawmills are used, to a considerable extent, in and near towns in which sawmills are located. Many areas that have been recently logged over are now being culled for fuel wood; choppers and in some cases, gasoline-driven cut-off saws being introduced to lower the cost of production. In the East, refuse from logging operations and sawmills are being sent to market in box cars up to distances of 300 miles. Wood is probably relied upon for fuel purposes more in the South and in the Far West than in any other sections, due both to the cheap and abundant supply of wood and the comparative remoteness of an avail- able supply of coal. In the central prairie region very little wood is used, due to the lack of native timber in that section. Coal is used to a very large extent. +e In an investigation carried on by the office of Farm Management in the U. S. Department of Agriculture covering 950 families living on farms in all parts of this country and with an average of 4.8 persons per family, the average annual consumption of wood per person was 2 cords or 9.6 cords per family.. It was also shown that on the average farm the value of wood fuel is more than twice as much as the value of coal fuel used. In the Northeast, the oaks, maples, hickories, birches, beech, chest- nut and other heavy hardwoods are largely relied upon for fuel purposes. In the South, the southern pines, chiefly longleaf pine, is used almost entirely for fuel purposes. In some sections, hardwood such as oaks, hickories, ash and a few others are used, but the resinous hard pine is much preferred. In the Rocky Mountain region, Douglas fir and western yellow pine are relied upon very largely for fuel. Lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce are used to a limited extent, but they are very inferior for fuel purposes. Sage brush, greasewood and mesquite are also used in the treeless and desert regions of the southern Rocky Mountain region. In California, the live oaks, western yellow pine and Douglas fir are the principal woods used for fuel. In southern California and to a limited extent in other sections, eucalyptus is relied upon very largely for fuel. In the Northwest, Douglas fir, western larch and hemlock, furnish most of the wood fuel. It is estimated that about 4,000,000,000 cu. ft. of mill waste furnishes —— en ee ee FUEL WOOD o41 power for the 30,000 sawmills in operation in this country. This is made up of slabs, edgings, trimmings, sawdust and defective material. FUEL VALUES The value of equal weights of dry wood for fuel purposes is practically the same with all species. According to this rule, therefore, specific gravity may be used as a direct means of comparing the heat values of the different species. This, however, does not hold with resinous woods. Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 92.—Woodyard with a capacity of 5000 cords of fuel wood along the Potomac River at Washington, D.C. Rivers afford cheap transportation for low-priced forest products such as fuel wood. This is mixed pine and hardwoods brought by small sailboats from forests along the lower Potomac. Aside from weight, however, other considerations often determine the value of different kinds or classes of wood for fuel purposes. The principal other considerations that may be mentioned are as follows: 1. The design, construction and regulation of furnaces, stoves and fire places all have an important bearing upon the question of getting the maximum fuel value out of any wood. Oak and hickory burn with practically a smokeless flame, whereas others often burn with more or less smoke due to improperly regu- lated flues, drafts, etc. 2. The degree of dryness. Much heat is lost in driving the re- 342 FOREST PRODUCTS maining moisture from green wood. The following table shows the per cent of available heat given out by wood burned at different moisture contents: Condition of Wood. Per Cent of Water. Re et eet Kal drys)... cowide toaesas veeven ee 2 100 Aly dry (emit)... Dacons seed cies eae es 10. 90 Air dry {ebunks) 5.7 Gocae eee a oe 20 80 Half diye oye tage ere es ae ee ln 35 60 Greeny. 5 aa aie Ae Se Fee 50 40 3. The character of seasoning. Some woods decay if left in the open before they are thoroughly seasoned. This may hold true of beech, birch and other woods under certain conditions. 4. The rapidity of burning. When certain woods are burned too rapidly full heat values are not derived. The average heating value of dry wood has been determined to be 4600 calories per kilogram or 8028 British thermal units per pound. The following table! shows the relative fuel value of non-resinous woods based upon their specific gravity. ; Specific Gravity (Dry). [yx Volume (Dry Weed). Hickories, average:..:. Vou caasaed dees eve 5 64 Ico Oaks, average... so. c bse e re neuer enase sss .58 or Beéchue Site can eee bie pay aad eae 56 89 Birch ikea Sere eet wert rie -55 87 Maple i: 37. cst aes silo Merwe mai Sree ee 55 87 PAI car Ries eal ety Ree eesie hee eae 52 81 FS a an uot peed ee eke ey ee ro Sere 52 81 "ESMmarack (choc oh cece ec tree rere ones -49 76 estnnte se coe a tele aiketes een eee 42 65 Wousae Be sie eS whe een ies coe 42 65 Hemlock ss. ose ere eee a oe eas 39 61 LOUgeDnOl® PINE. 2.2. vgs ps. 35.455 ewan ey 287 58 Wate Nine, ioc uit erite eR ese ees 36 . 56 ee aaa par er SS bad 35 4 55 WY Hate Ait oi G5 ci de beh vain catiips yee 35 55 SPUCESy(AVETROC Li st ais coisa. 810 2 obit ee ncs wall 33 52 PIWIS TE Sts s osc tees rete seen 31 48 In respect to resinous woods the fuel values can only be approxi- mated according to the resin content. It is said that the califoric value 1 From “ Fuel Value of Wood,” by H. S. Betts and E. Bateman, 1913. U. S. Forest Service. FUEL WOOD 343 of resin is about twice that of wood. Betts and Bateman have com- piled the following table, giving approximation of the fuel value of long- leaf pine of varying resin content compared to that of hickory. The fuel value of resin is taken as 9400 calories per kilogram. APPROXIMATE RELATIVE FUEL VALUE OF LONGLEAF PINE CONTAINING DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RESIN AND HICKORY Relative Fuel Value Unit Resin Contents, Per Cent. Specific Gravity (Dry). Volumes of Dry Wood, Hickory 100. ° -44 69 10 -49 84 20 -55 ts 30 -63 128 40 -73 160 50 .88 206 Other woods to which this table could be applied are the other pines such as shortleaf, loblolly, western yellow, pifion, pitch, lodgepole and jack pines and a few others such as the cedars, juniper, cypress, etc. It has been determined that 1 Ib. of good coal is equivalent to about 2 lb. of seasoned wood in heating values. Assuming that there are 80 to go cu. ft. of solid wood to the average cord, the weight of a cord of medium, heavy and light woods would be approximately 4000, 3000, and 2000 Ib. respectively for seasoned sticks containing 15 to 20 per cent moisture. The following table shows the number of cords of different kinds of seasoned wood necessary to give approximately the same heating value of 1 ton of coal: Hickory Ash Oak Elm 1 cord Beech Locust Equivalent to 1 ton coal Birch Longleaf pine Hard maple Cherry Shortleaf pine Douglas fir 13 cords Western hemlock Sycamore Equivalent to 1 ton coal Red gum Soft maple” Cedar Cypress Redwood Basswood 2 cords Poplar Spruce Equivalent to 1 ton coal Catalpa White pine Norway pine 344 FOREST PRODUCTS PRINCIPAL MARKETS It is estimated that at least 80 per cent of the total amount of fuel wood cut for that purpose is used on our farms. Ten-per cent is utilized in the small towns of 1000 population or less and the rural communities scattered among these towns. Other principal markets are in mining and smelting mills, in the manufacture of brick and tile, and in the manufacture of salt and wool. Formerly great quantities of fuel wood were used for railroad locomotives, steamboats and general power purposes. At the present time, however, coal and oil have very largely supplanted wood for these purposes. In the smelting of copper, green wood is used in the refining process to remove the impurities. This is done by introducing compressed air beneath the surface of the copper and applying until the fracture of the sample of copper shows that sufficient copper has been oxidized to insure the removal of all impurities. Then converter poles are introduced beneath the surface of the molten copper, their action being to reduce the oxide of copper back to metallic copper. This is carried on until the sample shows that this result has been accomplished and the sample has acquired what is technically known as a “ set.” The best woods for smelting purposes are green hardwoods. AMOUNT OF SOLID WOOD PER CORD The standard cord is generally accepted as a pile of wood 4 ft. wide, 4 ft. high and 8 ft. long. This is a stack of 128 cu. ft. The amount of solid wood found in a standard cord of this size varies between 89 and 64 cu. ft. and depends upon such factors as the size, straightness and form of the sticks, split or round, etc., and the method of piling. The following table shows the volume of solid wood per cord for sticks of different length and diameter: VOLUME OF SOLID WOOD PER CORD! DIAMETER AT SMALL Enp. Length of Sticks, Feet. Over 5.5 In. 5.5 to 2.5 In. 2.5to1In. Cubic Feet. . Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. 2 gl 84 65 4 89 82 64 8 84 77 59 12 78 71 54 1 From “ Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord,’’ by R. Zon. Forestry Quar- terly, Vol. I, No. 4, 1903. FUEL WOOD 345 The converting factor of go cu. ft. per standard cord is generally adopted in those regions where fuel wood is commonly cut. The converting factor of 500 bd.-ft. per standard cord is also gener- ally accepted, although this factor depends upon a number of conditions. Ten per cent of the volume is generally allowed for shrinkage from the green to the dry condition of the sticks. According to Zon, green hard- wood in seasoning shrinks from g to 14 per cent, depending upon the species while softwoods shrink only g to ro per cent.! CUTTING, HAULING AND DELIVERING TO MARKET “The following description and costs are given for the full standard cord of 128 cu. ft. capacity. Many other forms of stacked cordwood or units are commonly used in different parts of the country. For example, in portions of the Lake States and Far West, a long cord of 160 cu. ft. capacity is sometimes used. In other places the short cord is used or a face cord made up of a stack of wood 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high but instead of 4 ft. in length the sticks are 12, 16, 18, 24, 30, 37, 50, 56 in., etc., in length. These various face cords are used for special kinds of fuel wood and for marketing in small lots. The work of cutting, hauling, etc., is usually done by common labor, the men using the single-bitted splitting axe, cross-cut saw, wedges and on large operations, a double-bitted axe as well. Where consider- able fuel wood is cut the men usually work by contract, doing the cutting and hauling for a given amount per cord. Stumpage values vary considerably with the different regions. The price runs from about 25 cents to $1.00 or more per cord. This value depends upon the species, local demand, cost of cutting and hauling and placing on the market, etc. In the Northeast stumpage values of 50 cents to $1.00 per cord are common. In the South 25 cents per cord is an average price. In the Far West from 25 to 50 cents per cord is the usual prevailing stumpage value. The operations of cutting and stacking fuel wood in cord lots are generally done together and they usually cost from go cents to $1.45 per standard cord. Many contracts in favorably sized and located timber regions have been made for cutting and stacking for $1.00 to $1.10 per cord. Foreign laborers, skilled in this work, have been known to make from $3.00 to $5.00 per day at these prices. The cost usually depends upon the kind and condition of wood, its size, local charges for labor, location of timber and general working conditions. 1 See “ Untersuchungen iiber den Festgehalt,” by Franz Baur. 346 FOREST PRODUCTS Stacking is sometimes done in open crib fashion to facilitate season- ing, which requires from one to two months, depending upon the weather, size of individual sticks, method of piling, etc. When the individual sticks are more than 6 to 8 in. in diameter they are commonly split in two. When over 10 to 12 in. in diameter they are quartered. . . Gasoline engines equipped with a portable cut-off saw are commonly employed to buck up limbs, tops and defective trees into cordwood. About 25 cords’per hour can be cut up by 2 men working with a 2 h.p. Photograph by U Sz Forest Service. Fic. 93.—Two cut-up saws operated by electric motor, cutting 23 to 35 cords per day each. The wood in lengths from 4 to 12 ft. is reduced to stove and fire-place sizes. Durham, North Carolina. engine. This same equipment and crew will cut up 4-ft. cordwood into 12-in. stove lengths at the rate of 1 to 2 cords per hour. Hauling includes loading of the cordwood on the wagon, hauling and unloading at the yard or into a freight car. In the North it is usually done on sleighs in the winter time. Otherwise the ordinary wagon haul is employed for this purpose. The usual wagon load will take from 1 to 13 cords. Up to 23 cords or more may be taken ona sleigh. The cost depends upon the distance, the load, condition and grade of the road, cost of labor and team, working hours, and general efficiency. It is customarily considered that it does not pay to market cordwood when the haul is longer than 6 miles unless there is a favorable down-hill haul and the market demand offers suf- FUEL WOOD 347 ficiently high prices. Six trips per day are commonly made on a 1-mile haul on the average country road, 4 trips on a 2-mile, 3 trips on a 3-mile and 2 trips on a 4-mile haul. The inconsistency apparent in these figures is explained by the fact that in the larger number of trips per day, Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. ‘ Fic. 94.—Hauling cordwood near Custer City, Pénnsylvania. This load contains about 1} cord of beech and hard maple. About 100,000,000 cords of fuel wood‘are annually consumed in this country. relatively more time is taken up in loading and unloading. The follow- ing table shows the approximate total cost per cord of cutting and Daily Hasting | Teaming Wage | y fot Cost, || Rally Hacling | Teaming Wage | whitincrte, One Team. per Cord. One Team. Located per Cord. ie Mery er $5.50 $6.89 4cords...:.. $5.50 $2.52 5.00 | 6.36 5.00 2.39 4.50 5.83 4-50 2.26 4.00 5.30 i] 4.00 2.12 2 CORES. i. o66s 5.50 3.98 | 5 cords......| 5-50 2-23 5.00 3-71 5.00 2.12 4.50 3-45 4.50 2.01 4.00 3.18 4.00 1.91 + CONS. Sos 5.50 3.00 5:00 2.83 4.50 2.65 4.00 2.47 | 348 FOREST PRODUCTS delivering for various wage rates and hauling capacities including interest charges at 6 per cent for one year.! Considerable fuel wood is hauled on our railroads, especially to all the larger cities. Cordwood takes the same freight rate; usually, as lumber, pulp wood and other forest products. From 12 to 18 cords are the usual capacities per car, depending upon the size of the box car, size of sticks, method of piling, etc. In many of the western cities and villages, 4-ft. cordwood is used for fuel in furnaces and much of this material is hauled in carload lots from nearby logging operations or cut-over timber. PRICES The cost of fuel wood varies considerably in the different regions. It depends upon the supply, demand, cost of other forms of fuel, cost of cutting, marketing, etc. In the Northeast the following prices usually prevailed before the war for the full cord delivered in town wholesale: HICKOLY 3 secant eee $7.00 to $10.00 Beech, birch, ash, hard maple and oak... 5.00 to 8.00 Soft maple, poplar, chestnut, etc........ 4.00 to 6.00 BE Ws We a6 Cc A ROMO pate Feat So teh ao nay 4.00 to 8.00 Wood delivered to the consumer costs considerably more than these prices; usually from $2.00 to $3.00, depending upon the demand, desired length, character of wood, etc. It is commonly figured that it costs 50 cents per cord to buck up wood from the 4-ft. length to the 12- or 16- in. length for stove or fire-place use. In the South and West prices are generally much below these. Standard sized cords are delivered in town, wholesale, in the Southern pine belt, the Northwest and Lake State regions for from $3.00 to $5.00, depending upon local conditions. In portions of the Rocky Mountain regions where timber is very scarce sage brush is sometimes used for fuel. In Nevada the large, main stems are trimmed by Indians at $3.00 per cord and delivered to the user at about $6.50. Sage brush burns rapidly and does not hold heat very long. Around sawmills, excess slab wood, edgings, etc., are sold for prices less than round or split cordwood. In connection with one large saw- mill in the West 16-in. slab wood is sold for $3.50 a cord delivered at the 1From “ Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut,” by E. H. Frothingham, U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 96, p. 24. FUEL WOOD 349 house. It is estimated that it cost $1.75 to handle and deliver this, but the profit, $1.75 per cord, is looked upon as so much salvage by the lum- ber company. When logs run about 5.2 per thousand feet for 16-ft. lengths, 1000 ft. log scale will yield about one-third of a cord aside from the lumber when slabs are cut thin. One large sawmill concern cutting ties, figures that it cuts 30 ties and one cord of fuel wood per thousand feet of logs. This large comparative amount is explained by the fact that the logs are small and heavy slabbing is done in order to face the + ——— SP) aa Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic 95.—About 500 cords of wood piied in the municipal woodyard of Columbia, South Carolina. The use of wood fuel was greatly stimulated during the war. ties properly. Other sawmills sell excess fuel wood for from 25 cents to $1.00 per load at the refuse pile, the consumer doing the loading and hauling. No measurements are taken; the buyer simply taking as much as his wagon will hold. After the entrance of this country into the war, the prices for wood fuel advanced, generally. throughout the country. Where coal was particularly difficult to secure, the price of wood fuel advanced to hitherto unquoted prices. 350 FOREST PRODUCTS BIBLIOGRAPHY Betts, H. S. Wood Fuel Tests. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Service. Review of Forest Investigations. Vol. 2, pp. 39-42. Betts, H. S. and BATEMEN, ERNEST. Fuel Value of Wood (unpublished), 1913. Brown, NEtson C. Utilization at the Menominee Indian Mills. Forestry Quarterly, No. 3, Vol. 10, 1912. _Fisner, W.R. Heating Power and Combustibility of Wood. In Schlich’s Manual of Ferestry. Vol. 5. FROTHINGHAM, E. H. Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96, 1912. pp. 19, 23, 29, 38. : Funk, W.C. Value to Farm Families of Food, Fuel and Use of House. Bulletin 410 of U. S. Dept. of Agric. Washington: 1916. Kettock, T. Efficiency of Wood in Stoves and Open Fireplaces. Forest, Fish and Game. Athens, Ga.:. April, ror. Prerson. A. H. Consumption of Firewood in the United States. U.S. Forest Ser- vice, Cir. 181, 1910. ReEcorD, S. J. The Fuel Value of Wood. Hardwood Record. Oct. 10, 1912. SARGENT, C. S. Report on the Forests of North America, Vol. 9. Tenth Census, 1884. pp. 251, 252 and 489. ScHENK, C. A. Heating Power of Wood. Forest Utilization. Biltmore, N. C.: 1904. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. No. 753. The Use of Wood for Fuel. March, 1919. Various Reports, Bulletins, etc., of State Fuel Administrators, State Foresters and Others Advocating the Use of Fuel Wood during the War. ZON, R. Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord. Forestry Quarterly, No. 4. Vol. 1, 1903. a — CHAPTER XVII SHINGLES AND SHAKES HISTORY SHINGLES have been used from the earliest historical times to protect buildings from the weather both as roofing and as siding. Up to com- paratively recent times they had been made by the slow process of hand work. ‘The logs were cut into bolts, hand rived with a frow or broadaxe and the shingles were shaved with a drawing knife. Sometimes a “shav- ing horse ” was used in early colonial times. A man who could rive 500 shingles in a day was considered an expert worker. Until a few decades ago, white pine, chestnut and southern white cedar were relied upon for the major portion of shingles used in this country. The rustic shingle maker was often able to tell from the general appearance of the tree whether it would rive properly or not. Fre- quently, however, a large block was cut out of the side of the large virgin white pine trees to test their splitting qualities. If the wood did not split well the tree was left a prey to the next forest fire, which quickly ignited the resin which had exuded from the exposed portion. This pioneer custom was very wasteful, since only the butt log was used for shingles and very frequently a tree that would now produce 3000 shingles was made to produce only about 500 shingles. Hand-made shingles were generally of two kinds, known as “ joint” and “lap.” The latter were longer with one edge thicker than the other and nailed on the roof so that the edge of one lapped over the edge of the other like weather boards. The “ joints ” were nailed edge to edge like sawed shingles. Hand-made shingles called “ shakes ” are still made from sugar pine and redwood in California and will be discussed later in this chapter. The introduction of shingle machinery proved to be a great economy in saving the available raw material. With the shingle saws, shingles which included knots, cross grain, etc., could be made not only from butt logs of the best trees, but from the tops and partially decayed butts. 351 352 FOREST PRODUCTS Gradually the center of the shingle industry moved to the Pacific North- west, where the western red cedar, which grows so abundantly in that region, was found to be an ideal shingle wood. In the East, shingle mills are usually located in connection with sawmills, the shingles often being made of defective or misshapen portions of the butt logs of white pine, yellow pine, spruce, cypress, etc. Shingle machines were introduced on a commercial basis about 1880. Several years before that time western red cedar shingles were shipped around South America to the Atlantic seaboard. The shaved shingle industry had already assumed large proportions in the Puget Sound and Columbia River sections. With the opening of the Northern Pacific Railroad in 1883 came a great impetus in the manufacture of sawed shingles and their distribution not only in the Northwest, but throughout the prairie states. About the year 1892 and the year following came a rapid increase in production and several hundred million shingles were shipped to the Far Eastern markets. About 200 shingle mills were then in operation in western Washington. At the present time, western red cedar shingles are sent to every state in the Union and compete suc- cessfully with shingles made from all other species. ‘There are approx- imately 350 shingle mills in Washington at the present time, most of which are operated as separate industries. There are probably fewer shingle mills to-day in the Pacific Northwest than a few years ago, but there is a much larger annual output, however, due to the larger capacity of the individual mill. Some of the larger shingle mills now have a daily capacity of from 100,000 to 250,000 shingles or more per day of ten hours. Some of the British Columbia mills exceed any of the Washing- ton mills in daily capacity. QUALIFICATIONS OF SHINGLE WOODS The qualifications that are demanded in a wood used for shingles are as follows: 1. Durability. Shingles must withstand varying conditions of moisture, the effects of weathering and the rapid changes of temperature. Non-durable woods are practically unused for shingle purposes. 2. Light weight. This factor is very important in transportation. In order to compete successfully, the wood must be light in weight in order to bear the heavy transportation charges incident to the shipping of shingles to great distances. Shingles are always thoroughly seasoned before shipment by rail. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 393 3. Nail-holding power. Shingles must retain nails without loosening. Zinc nails are commonly used in connection with many of our shingles, as they do not rust. 4. The shingle must not check, warp or twist out of shape when once placed flat on the roof. Prevention of leakage is of great importance. Shingles should preferably be straight and even grained. To meet the above qualifications, the western red cedar is an ideal shingle wood in addition to the fact that it is abundantly available. Other trees, such as the northern white cedar and the southern white cedar, make practically the same quality of shingles as the western variety of cedar, but they are more inclined to be knotty and narrower in width inasmuch as they are made from much smaller trees. Other species yielding shingles of very high quality are cypress and redwood. ANNUAL PRODUCTION About 8,000,000,000 to 12,000,000,000 shingles are produced annually in this country. The latter amount has been produced for some time, but for the last few years the production has decreased, due to numerous cities inaugurating fire laws which prohibit the use of shingles in new buildings within city limits. Of the total production, between 70 and 80 per cent is made up of western red cedar. These shingles are largely manufactured in the State of Washington, which alone produced 73 per cent of all the shingles made in this country in 1917. Oregon and northern Idaho also turned out large quantities of shingles and a few western red cedar shingles are also made in western Montana. Northern white cedar shingles are made largely in northern Michigan, Maine and in Minnesota. Southern white cedar shingles are produced chiefly in eastern Virginia and North Carolina. Next to cedar, cypress is the leading shingle wood, but only slightly Over 600,000,000 cypress shingles are annually manufactured in this country. Next, in order, are yellow pine, redwood, spruce and chestnut. A few shingles are also made from hemlock, western yellow pine, white pine and a few others, but their total amount is of little comparative consequence in the shingle markets of this country. Western red cedar is practically the only kind that has a national market. The northern white cedar is consumed largely in the Central West and Northeast and southern white cedar in the Southeast and East. Cypress shingles are used throughout the East and southern pine shingles find their principal market in the South. All other shingles are used 354 FOREST PRODUCTS very largely in restricted local regions except redwood, which has devel- oped a wide market outside California as well as within that state. Next to Washington, which is pre-eminently the leading shingle manufacturing state, according to the government’ statistics for 1917 the following were the leading states in order of production: Oregon, cutting western red cedar; Louisiana, with its cypress and yellow pine shingles; California, cutting redwood; Maine, turning out large quan- tities of northern white cedar, and Michigan, with its great cedar output. RAW MATERIAL The material used for the manufacture of shingles comes to the mills in the form of bolts or logs. This material is usually logged in large lumber operations and sold directly to the shingle mills, which constitute a separate industry in the Northwest. Very often the poorer quality of logs are separated and sold to the shingle mills since very excellent shingles can be made from hollow butted logs. Ranchers and those clearing land commonly cut cedar trees into 52-in. bolt lengths and sell them directly to the mills. Logging of shingle logs is done largely by donkey engines and railroads, or by chutes, railroads, and by the use of drivable streams. The production of the raw material for the manu- facture of shingles is usually carried on by separate companies. Shingle logs cost between $8.00 and $15.00 or more per thousand board-feet delivered at the mill Bolts in 52-in. lengths bring from $3.00 to $8.00 or more per cord at the mill. The cost depends upon the qual- ity of the timber and the local demand at the time of delivery. The market on shingles fluctuates rather rapidly, so that the value of the raw material fluctuates accordingly. | In logging southern white cedar for shingle production, the trees are cut into 5 ft. 2 in. and 6 ft. 2 in. lengths, which will make 3 bolts for 20-in. shingles out of 5 ft. 2 in. logs and 4 bolts for 18-in. shingles from 6 ft. 2 in. logs. A shingle cord in eastern Virginia and North Carolina in 1907 was considered to be a stack of bolts 4 ft. high by 5 ft. wide by 7 ft. long and contains 140 cu. ft. or 600 log feet. At the present time a shingle cord in this region is considered to be a stack of bolts 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high and 4 ft. wide and contains 128 cu. ft. This is considered equivalent to 500 ft., board measure, by the Doyle rule. In the manufacture of cypress, southern pine, and white pine shingles, defective or misshapen logs are commonly butted by means of a cut-off SHINGLES AND SHAKES 3590 saw at the the top of the jack ladder in the saw mill and the short lengths sent down a chute to the shingle mill on the lower floor. The following shows the cost of logging shingle bolts on a typical opera- tion before the war in western red cedar in Washington: COST OF LOGGING SHINGLE BOLTS,' WESTERN RED CEDAR Operation. Cost per sa of Shingle ARN hare oo pecan ba DO a ee $1.50 SEMMMOS so %a-2,. x c's Daas pew aera ere -5° EC OMINE ay 27s gain a caw oe cee ee .25 RUROIM ois ico cde ce acs KN awe ewes 1.00 VAP CRDONBES «60. Ste As Cairne S25 RBS | oC see de ss aig ee tedie ee =25 Cs | operate erie ara: Spee $3.75 1 This cost was for the period of the winter of 1916-1917. The prices received for bolts on this operation varied from $4.75 to $5.50 per cord. Eight thousand Star A shingles were derived from each 1000 ft. of logs. Each cord of shingle bolts contained, on an average, about 850 bd.-ft. Each cord was made up of 25 to 40 bolts, each 52 in. in length. Generally, the shingle manufacturers prefer their shingle bolts in such sizes that from 20 to 30 make up a cord and it is commonly accepted that a cord of these bolts is equivalent to about 7oc bd.-ft. No trees less than 15 in. at the butt are accepted for making shingle bolts. The western red cedar usually grows with a large flared butt, espe- cially in the oldest and biggest specimens. In these cases, the swollen butt is cut up into shingle bolts and the upper part of the bole, which is less tapered, is utilized for saw-logs or for poles and piling unless too large. The best timber for shingle purposes and from which the best shingles are made are the trees with a straight, slightly tapering, and limbless bole, straight grain and as free as possible from such defects as rot, shake, checks, etc. . The operation of taking out bolts for the shingle mills may either pre- cede or immediately follow the logging operation for saw-logs. The latter practice is more frequently followed and very close utilization is customary, even defective or hollow logs and high stumps being used where low transportation charges justify the expenditure. A few years ago, when all stumps were cut from 5 to 20 ft. high or more with the aid of spring-boards, shingle mills, moved from place to place, obtained their 356 FOREST PRODUCTS raw material at a relatively low figure and it generally was of such high quality that profits were excellent. The logging expense during 1916-1917 on a large operation in south- ern white cedar was as follows: ; COST OF LOGGING SHINGLE BOLTS, SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR ! Erase ct ; ae Operation. Cost nits SA Wi Kk Aart esis ails Artemis $4.67 SkiIddin et Rl gecko oh oid eee ae 1.02 fi” ieee RN ae ee fe iy RSNA ory x oar 69 RailtGad Operauion, cro os Vhs Soe is a el ers 1.88 Freight paid other railroads, various distances... +27 $8.53 1 Data supplied by Reber F. Clark. 2 As noted above each cord contains about 500 bd.-ft. by the Doyle rule. SHINGLE MACHINES There are various forms of shingle machines now placed upon the market. Formerly they were entirely of the horizontal variety with a provision to make the standard shingle with a thick butt and a thin tip. Machines used in the early days of the industry were devised to cut from 1 to 10 blocks at the same time. In recent years, the horizontal machines have been largely supplanted by the upright shingle machines. The equipment in a modern shingle mill usually consists of the fol- lowing machinery: (1) A drag or swinging circular cut-off saw, usually run by steam or electricity to cut logs or bolts to the desired length. Drag saws are generally preferred with large timber as they are adaptable to all sized logs. However, they are objectionable because they do not make a smooth cut and, therefore, result in rough butted shingles. Bolts are usually cut into shingle block lengths by means of small stationary circular saws. (2) A bolter or “ knee bolter,’”’ a circular saw revolving in a hori- zontal plane and fed by a small carriage controlled by the knee of the operator. ‘This saw is used to remove the bark and any exterior defects and cut the bolt into proper sizes for the shingle machine. (3) The shingle machines were formerly of the horizontal type, as stated above, but have been largely replaced by the upright machines which were introduced within recent years from the Lake States. All SHINGLES AND SHAKES 357 types are regulated to make the standard sized shingle having the thick butt and thin tip, and with provision for taking from 1 to 10 blocks at a time. The vertical type consists of a set of stationary circular saws revolving in a vertical plane. A vertical sash frame holds the block and operates with a longitudinal reciprocating motion. Attached to the frame are spur rolls, one above and the other below, which automatically alternate the butt cut from the top to the bottom of the block, with each backward stroke of the frame. This, of course,means a minimum of waste, which runs as low as 10 per cent of the raw material in the most modern mills using the upright machine. (4) The jointer or clipper consists of a single or double rip saw, or a wheel jointer. The latter is a rapidly revolving steel wheel carrying from 4 to 8 knives set in radial fashion. The jointer edges or “ joints ” the shingle, making the two sides parallel and trimming off wane or uneven edges. (5) The shingle packer. This consists of a bench frame and two slotted, overhanging steel rods. After the packer or operator places the shingles into the frame the rods are pressed down, packing the shingles tightly together, the thin tips overlapping, while the metal strips are nailed. Foot levers are used to draw the wooden cleats together and hold the shingles tight until the strips are fastened. The following table represents the average daily output of the various forms of shingle machines now in use in the Puget Sound region, based on a ten-hour working day: OUTPUT OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SHINGLE MACHINES | Type of Machine. Average et utput of Sete DMGK ane ieaals vs. Joue too ee ss 180,000-—2 10.000 Poeile block tess 2.2 ty. ks I 10,000—1 30,000 Giiuile DAE: cs Sadly occas nes. 75,000- 90,000 RTRRG TIMOR sos ie ae ee | 45,000- 55,000 WWMENE Cos cos Sisco ecco tt 25,000- 30,000 ' The minimum figures of output given in this tabulation would obtain for so-called combination mills where the better class of logs are sawed into lumber, whereas the maximum figures obtain in those mills where both the good and poor timber is run into shingles and where efficient men and methods are used. 358 FOREST PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE OF SHINGLES The following tables 1 will convey the best idea of the output, number and duties of men employed at a large shingle mill ‘using logs for raw material in western Washington, where both day labor and piecework prevail as is the case with most of the large shingle mills. The daily output was rated at 200,000 shingles and the annual capacity at 50,000,- ooo. This is figured on the basis of 250 working days in the year. The output was evenly divided between the two popular grades of “ stars ” and “ clears ” and the average cost of the raw material in log form, deliv- ered at the mill, was $10.00 per thousand board-feet. The following day labor was employed at the rates given: Employee. Daily Wage. EEN BITICET, of Cw Rie Bn cee a aes ral aoe eat ae $3.50 Phere es SAID aris FETs ye oS 6.50 ft GIRG SAWYER nc vate wien is yc Mes Re 3.50 rpower Bolter sis PA Fe ee eee 3.00 TACK NEN Se eles ce eae eer ae My ee sj poor: Man. nol eas cE Re 2 $ Sremmper MAN os A hs Sa ae Ra ree ee 3.00 x tally -qaanns, S569 nies 3 with aetog Shae eonteee e 3.00 zt headlosders )3 02a ss ee ee 3-50 z second: loader? 55.55 sowie Sa SA ae 2.50 Faved Maa SE ke nate ae 2.00 ¥ Wand Baer es ee Nee 1.75 Totals Sa ee RS en See ieee $37.00 The following piecework charges were involved, the cost being ex- pressed per thousand shingles: Operation. Cost per M. Shingles PaCking baie Bk ach 4 vow Fe seg k tad A eae $.0g0 Kitot Sawai. ooo4.9 ss cass oe a ee ee .130 SAWIIE hasc fot e.ely's bias Biss OR ody eave ee .055 Knee. bolting... 2... Atk is seid ees 045 TOtah ss ois as einen mnie Ses a eee $. 32 1From “ Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest,” by J. B. Knapp and A, G. Jackson. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 359 By dividing the daily labor charge ($37.00) by the daily output (200,- ooo shingles) the charge per thousand shingles is found to be $0.185. The fixed charges, including maintenance, interest, watchman, insurance, taxes, depreciation, office expenses and night watchman come to $0.16 per thousand and the raw material in the form of logs at $1.125 per thousand. The total charges, therefore, may be summarized as follows: © Item. Cost per M. Shingles DIMURRIIOR Soren So See aS coe Sains a hee $0. 185 MRL WOENS ) Extra Clears 2.82 ‘1905 Star A Star 1.36 IgI9 Extra Stars | 2.23 Extra Clears 1.62 | Extra Clears 2.80 1906 Star A Star 1.78 Extra Clears 2.12 1 Taken from the ** West Coast Lumberman,” Seattle, as published in several issues. 364 FOREST PRODUCTS The following table shows the average selling price per thousand pieces of southern white cedar shingles for the past five years. The two grades quoted represent approximately 93 per cent of all southern white cedar shingles manufactured. } Average Average Year. Grade. ape Bee Year. | Grade. Psst Pieces. Pieces. 1 1916 cA” $4.50 | 1918 Ave $8.25 ; Star 3.50 | Star 6.75 1917 “A 8.00 { 1919 eA? 8.50 Star 6.50 | Star 7.00 i| . THE LAYING OF SHINGLES Shingles are used for both roofing and siding and in certain architec- tural designs lend a very attractive appearance to the structure. Stained shingles are especially coming into favor for siding either all or part of the building. The placing of shingles does not always receive the attention commen- surate with the cost of the work and the length of service expected. improper nailing or carelessly laid joints often result in leakage. Shin- gles which are 6 in. wide (or wider) should have 3 or more nails. Those from 3 to 6 in. in width should be fastened with 2 to 3 nails. The kind or form of shingle nails has a direct bearing on the length of life of any shingle. Those made of zinc, copper, or galvanized wire are much preferred to cut iron or wire shingle nails. The pitch of a roof also has a direct bearing on the life of the shingle. Those on nearly flat roofs deteriorate much more quickly than those on steep roofs or those ysed for siding. The following table shows the covering capacities of shingles and shakes when laid at varying exposures to the weather. It is based on 4 in. as the average width of shingles and 5 in. as the average width of shakes. COVERING CAPACITIES OF SHINGLES AND SHAKES Kind Taches to Weather, | Namber Required to | Number Square Feet i SEN aE 4 1080 93 SPHMMES ashe re ere 43 1000 105 SINE Sys is oe oe 5 790 133 Shakese ss. 4.050 se: 7 400 280 Re Franc nelak 2 10 290 345 SHINGLES AND SHAKES 365 Shakes are commonly 24 and 32 in. long. The former are laid 7 in. to the weather and the latter ro in. Shingles 20 and 24 in. in length, made of southern white cedar are often laid 5, 6 and 7 in. to the weather. Southern white cedar shingles, 4 in. in width by 20 in. in length are usually laid 6 in. to the weather. Laid in this manner their length will admit of three laps, which are essential to a tight roof and make pos- sible a four-ply shingle roof with a 2-in. under extension. Southern white cedar shingles have a covering capacity as follows: ; Number of Pieces to | - 2 : Number of roo it. Wats. heath: | 100 Sq. ft. Laid 6 In. | square to M Shingles. 4 20 600 ¥.67 5 20 480 2.08 6 20 576 2.50 PACKING AND SHIPPING Shingles are packed in regulation frames of standard length, thick- ness and width. All packing is done by hand and each grade is kept separate, the packer usually being paid by the piece. In Washington all shingles are cut in random widths from 2} in. and up, the average being about 4 in. A standard bundle of 16-in. western red cedar shingles containing 250 pieces is 20 in. wide and has 24 tiers. The shingles overlap with the thin ends at the center. Foot levers are used to draw the center together while wood strips across the face and metal strips at each side bind the bundle in a compact manner. Shingle packers or “‘ weavers,” as they are called, will pack from 30,000 to 80,000 shingles in a ten-hour day, while the average is around 45,000 a day. This capacity is determined largely by the ability and deftness of the weaver, and the average width and quality of the shingles. The cost of packing ranges from about 7 to 12 cents per thousand shingles. Figuring 4 bundles to the thousand shingles, there are about 880 bundles or about 220,000 shingles per car, of the larger sizes. The following are the accepted rules for packing in the Northwest: “ All shingles are to be packed in regulation frames, 20 in. in width. Openings shall not average more than 13 in. to the course. Perfection and Puget A shall be packed 20-20 courses to the bunch and 5 bunches to the thousand. All others shall be packed 25-25 courses to the bunch, 4 bunches to the thousand. Every bundle is branded with the full name of the grade. Color of wood and sound sap are not considered as defects. 366 FOREST PRODUCTS Some of the southern white cedar shingles are packed 50 to the bundle, this requiring 20 bundles to make a thousand. In this case each sepa- rate width is bundled separately. A carload of these shingles will con- sist of between 60,000 and 125,000, depending on the sizes. The popular sizes are the 18- and 20-in. shingles, whereas the 16-in. shingle is the popular size with western red cedar. In the Northwest shingles are usually kiln dried at temperatures of from 150 to 200° F., for from five to twelve days to reduce freight charges » Fic. 96.—Shingle packer or buncher. as much as possible. Many manufacturers have been somewhat over- zealous in reducing the weight of their product by extreme artificial drying and have injured the durability of the shingles. This has been rapidly overcome, however, since the serious depression in the price of shingles during the year 1915. Air seasoning has given much better results from the standpoint of durability, but it is so expensive as to be almost prohibitive in the case of western red cedar. SHINGLES AND SHAKES 367 Water shipment charges are based upon the number of shingles rather” than on weight, so that shingles shipped on vessels are often in the green condition and partially air-seasoned before reaching their destination. The following standard shipping weights are recognized in the North- west and delivered prices are customarily figured on this basis (see grading rules for further description of grades): Grades: Weight in ron per PREM RII SEE EO WD Sass bien ee et SS 160 Pe ROE, Ctr facsien ster cnae douleet dosh 3 160 SEM NIM CRO NER EOS SIN eres fae i idle a. ore os Oe scies os Und 180 ET ESOT pee ee ne ras ae ne eB ee ea i 180 MRROM CRN IIE oo Sia ald oe ag Peitics ie Se hase eu ae iat Besta 200 ES SE ie Es on, eae a Rae ele ee oe 200 Perfections and Puget A-18 in..................-....---- 200 The weights of southern white cedar shingles are as follows: Length, Inches. Width, Inches. Pew is Foonis pec 20 4 400 18 4 375 16 4 300 No artificial method of Seasoning is generally applied to these shingles, which accounts for their relatively high weights. They are commonly shipped with little or no air seasoning as the wood contains a low per cent - of moisture. SHINGLF SUBSTITUTES The competition of substitute materials for roofing purposes has become a serious problem with shingle manufacturers. Those pro- moting the use of substitutes for wood shingles have used the fire hazard as their great argument. The modern movement in favor of better fire protection in our cities has been used to favor the passage of ordinances in many cities prohibiting the use of wooden shingles in congested centers and restricting their use generally. The forms of substitutes for wooden shingles include a great variety principal among which are asphalt, asbestos and combination shingles, tar roofing, slate, tile, various metal forms and several patent materials. The widespread demand for fireproof construction as applied to all kinds 368 FOREST PRODUCTS of structures and buildings, as a result of the great annual loss of life and property and the decreased insurance rates offered in conformance with fire underwriters’ specifications have greatly stimulated the intro- duction and use of these substitute materials. The best indication of this condition is found in the statistics showing annual consumption of wooden shingles. It has remained about stationary in the past four years, whereas the demands for roofing materials of all kinds have been increasing from year to year. Very little has been done until recently in the way of concerted effort to meet this competition. Efficient and widespread advertising, more careful methods of manufacture and the adoption of and adherence to stricter standards should be of material assistance in maintaining the demands for the wooden shingle. Most of the substitutes are much more expensive and in addition require heavier construction in the building because of their additional weight. Moreover, wooden shingles, particularly cedar, cypress and redwood, are more durable as a rule than the other materials. Probably the most effective means of combating this question is the fireproofing of the wooden shingle. Many experiments have been car- ried out with this purpose in view, but no method has been generally adopted as yet in the commercial field. The U. S. Forest Products Laboratory has developed experimentally a method which may prove to be commercially practicable. Air-dried shingles are subjected to a treatment with a solution of borax in water. The shingles are kiln dried to a moisture content of 10 per cent and then treated with a solution of zinc chloride and dried. It has been determined that shingles subjected to this treatment still retain their fire-resistant qualities after soaking ~ them in running water for two weeks. Wooden shingles have the following distinct advantages: They are durable, relatively cheap, light in weight and therefore require only light support; they do not rust or corrode; wood is an excellent non-conductor of heat; they are not affected by the wind if laid and nailed properly; they present a pleasing appearance and are easily laid. DURABILITY AND PREVENTION OF DECAY The value of any shingle wood depends very largely upon its durabil- ity. The durability.in turn of shingles is dependent upon a number of factors, the chief of which are the species of wood, climate in which they are in service, pitch of the roof, size of the face of the shingles SHINGLES AND SHAKES 369 exposed to the weather, the thickness of the shingle, the method of laying, and last, but very important, the fire hazard involved. The length of service varies considerably with the different species of woods used for shingles. The following shows the approximate service that the principal shingle woods should give under average con- ditions: Species. Length of Life. Cedar (western red and northern and southern white)... .. 15 to 305 years NNN scan ors 03s o's cA tole PEE Sees Ge ees hol a et 15 to 30 SAL MET IE VOUMPW PRUE 3h ins SA fs oc Seer aes 6 to 12 0S TD SE pe a ae ak aarp are OMICS 30m) eer ra 12 to 25 STR eae es 2 Cas ay ape a ee oe SR 12to20 “* REM np RGR EAE oe iS pene Te Bea erat 1sto25 “ IEE PANO 0 ack vias a oc eR Oe cee anes 8to12 “ gs SAR eae oan pe mr een Min ee ice tener roms ales 7to12 “ yn eR iy ate Bet ae A ep tn tg Le ever rye, oT ee Pinas Shakes, which, as a rule, are much thicker than shingles, will last much longer than the periods given above. Split or cut shingles always last longer than sawn shingles. Instances are on record of cedar, cypress, and redwood shingles lasting for from thirty to fifty years or more, but this is an unusual exception. Decay is caused chiefly by water, the accumulation of moss and debris on the roof, splitting, warping, etc. The use of preservatives has been widely introduced to prevent decay. The following methods, briefly enumerated, are the principal processes of preventing decay. Along with the prevention of decay various stains and preservatives are used to lend attractiveness to the appearance of the structure when used with various coloring agents. 1. Dipping. This is the most common method, the shingles being merely dipped in the preservative, and nailed to the roof. The shingles should be thoroughly air dried before dipping, and the preservative should be applied warm or hot. The exposed part of the shingle only, is dipped. They are usually given a final coating of preservative after being laid. Preservatives used are creosote, carbolineum and various patent forms. 2. Brush treatment. This is a cheap and less efficient method in which the shingles are merely painted with a preservative, after being laid. Paint aids chiefly in keeping shingles flat and preventing leaks. 3. Impregnation. This is the most efficient method, in which the 370 FOREST PRODUCTS shingles are treated by the open tank process, about 10 lb. of preserva- tive being applied to each bundle of shingles. The absorption should not be so great as to cause the running of pevpenvatiye oil from the shingle on unusually warm days. 4. Staining. Stains are usually some compound of creosote applied to the shingle. They are not very efficient and also have a strong objec- tionable odor. The following costs are customarily involved in the preservative treatment of shingles: Impregnation with creosote (open tank or pressure treat- ment), per thousand.......... Se Sahai be eee nem $1.25 to1.75 Dipping in creosote, per thousand...................... .60t01.50 Shingle stains, per gallon.......... eras Red Gap eet . .40 to 1.00 Brush treatment, once after laying, per 100 sq. ft........ .60 to 1.00 Brush treated, twice after laying, per 100 sq. ft...... irae: be DGS SHAKE MAKING Shakes are split shingles and were in very common use up to the advent of the sawed shingle. In remote forest regions shakes are still made and. used for roofing and siding mountain cabins and other build- ings. Wherever transportation facilities are provided, sawed shingles compete successfully with shakes as they can be produced much cheaper. Shakes are now made in isolated mountain regions in California, the Northwest, and in the southern Appalachian Mountains. In Cal- ifornia many shakes are now made for tray bottoms, used in the drying of fruits such as raisins, prunes, and apricots. The practice is rapidly going out of existence, however. Shake making is generally condemned because it is extremely wasteful of timber. Only the very best and most straight-grained trees which are free from knots and other defects will rive. The shake maker, therefore, often lowers the value of a forest stand in a serious way by taking out only the largest and clearest timber of which only a small portion is utilized. The experienced shake maker looks over the best trees and takes a test chip or block out of one side of a tree. He continues this until he finds a tree of the proper riving qualities. Sugar pine, redwood, and western red cedar make excellent shake timber and all are commonly used in inaccessible districts of the West where these trees are found. In the Southern Appalachians, chest- SHINGLES AND SHAKES 371 nut, white oak and red oak are sometimes used, but the industry is rapidly diminishing both because of the development of the country and the lack of suitable and cheap timber. When a tree is found that will rive, it is felled, swamped and bucked up into blocks the length of the shakes. The blocks are next set on end for bolting. Circles the width of the shake are marked out on the face of the block, the center which has a diameter of from 3 to 6 in., being culled as it is too knotty. Next, the shakes are marked out in outline form so that they can be split out along the radius. Shakes split out along the quarter grain in this fashion are much stronger and more durable. The sapwood is usually trimmed off and only the heartwood taken. Photograph by U.S. forest Service. Fic. 97.—About 100,000 shakes made from five sugar pine trees in the Sierra National Forest, California. These sold at $4.00 per thousand. Shake making is exceedingly wasteful and is rapidly going out of practice. After the shakes are diagrammed on the face of the block they are split out. The shake maker uses the following tools: A cross-cut saw, axe, maul or mallet, 1 or 2 wedges, and a frow. The frow consists of a steel blade 6 to ro in. long with a wooden handle at right angles to the blade. It is usually made locally in a blacksmith shop and has a rather thick wedge edge. They cost from $.75 to $1.00 or more. With a frow and a wooden maul the bolts are first quartered, and then split up into suitable sized bolts for riving into shakes. Immediately after splitting the 372 FOREST PRODUCTS shakes are piled in fours, crib fashion and thoroughly seasoned before being used or hauled to the market. As a rule, roof shakes are 32 in. in length, 5 in. wide and 3; of an inch thick. Tray shakes are generally 2 ft. long, 6 or more inches in width, and } in. thick. In California, it is estimated that each roof shake con- tains about 3% ft., board measure, and each tray shake about } ft., board measure. Only about 4000 roof shakes are made from each thousand board-feet of the tree actually used. About 25 per cent of the available saw timber of the trees taken for shake making is wasted. This por- tion is not used because of knots, cross-grain, sapwood, and defects. of various kinds. ! . The following costs of production have been observed in California. The usual selling price for roof shakes sold at the point of making runs between $6.00 and $8.00 per thousand shakes. Operation. Cost per M Shakes. Felling: and trimmitig. i060 dosh eseee see gee $0.10 to $0. 12 BIA ves ss ee ee Cotes. PEM ae ae 1.25 to 1.60 RIVTAG.. 25 utes oe SERUM A GAY ore es ee 1.80to 2,10 Dili 4 eter hy aes Moen Oe Aone .10 tO: 50 Baling (including wire) .........3....0: 60004 (25 tO ae PAE MIB okies agen SEA tetany SRS RIA Le 86 to 9.-e2 SEUPMIIAIC ars he; 5 as a bg va bie SR Aw ete Dele pe 1.25 to 1.60 oral Der Thousand 5.65 Ss sos eS $4.80 to $5.89 Tray shakes for use in the California valleys are commonly split out, but they are also sawed out at so-called tray mills. The operation is practically the same as in making roof shakes, but the operator is not so particular about the type of timber taken. Tray shakes are, as a rule, much longer, wider and thicker than roof shakes, and are sometimes graded into first and second classes. Tray mills which saw their product sometimes turn out from 12,000 to 16,000 tray boards per day. They bring from $13.00 to $15.00 or more per thousand delivered at the rail- road. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berry, Swirt. Shake Making and Tray Mills in California National Forests. Forestry Quarterly, No. 3, Vol. 11, 1913. Knapp, J. B. and A. G. Jackson. Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest. Reprint from the West Coast Lumberman, 1914. ee EEE EEE aoe SHINGLES AND SHAKES 373 Mattoon, W. R. The Southern Cypress. U.S. Forest Service Bulletin 272. National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association. Conference with the Federal Trade Commission. December, 1915. Miscellaneous Articles in the Timberman, the West Coast Lumberman, the Lumber World Review, the American Lumberman and the Canada Lumberman. _ Sntnn, C. H. Shakes and Shake Making in a California National Forest. No. 2, Vol. 4, Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. U. S. Bureau-of Census. Lumber, Lath and Shingles, 1912. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Production of Lumber, Lath and Shingles in 1917. Bull. 768. Weiss, H. F. Preservation of Strcutural Timber. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. Chap. 14. CHAPTER XVIII MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT THE making of syrup and sugar from the sap of the maple trees was discovered and developed in a very crude way by the Indians long before the first white settlers came to this country. Interesting passages from the journals of early explorers refer to the tapping. of the maple trees in the early spring throughout the St. Lawrence Valley and the northeastern part of this country. . The earliest extant written record seems to be in 1673. Many legends have been handed down to the white settlers concerning the first discovery of the use of.the maple sap by:the Indians. They tapped the tree by making a sharp incision in the bark or in one of the larger roots and. collected the sap by conveying it by means of a reed or a curved piece of bark into a receptacle made of clay or bark. The journal of a white settler captured by the Indians ‘in.1755 tells of a large trough of 100 gal. capacity made of baie bark which was used for the collection and the storage of maple sap.. The early settlers quickly -took .up the process. and ‘aaa many improvements in the. way. of receptacles and utensils. The Indians had boiled down the sap by repeatedly dropping hot stones into it. They had also learned to convert the sap into sugar by allowing it to freeze in shallow vessels, the ice being skimmed. off and thrown away and this process continued until the sap was sufficiently refined to crystallize. Although the same general method was followed, little marked improve- ments were made by the early colonists. The axe was used to cut a diagonal notch in the tree and later a circular hole was cut, followed by the use of the spile or spout to convey the sap into a bucket. Iron or copper vessels were substituted for the crude bark or wooden troughs or hollowed logs. Still later the trees were tapped by the use of an auger, holes being bored an inch or more in diameter in which were inserted hollow or half round spiles of sumach or alder. The sap was collected in wooden buckets, and more recently galvanized iron and tin buckets came into common use. 374 MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 375 The “ boiling down ”’ or evaporation process in the early days was also very crude. It was done in the open woods with no shelter from sun, wind, rain or snow. The resultant impurities from this lack of pro- tection meant a very inferior grade of product. Frequently a pole was stretched between two forked posts and from this an old-fashioned potash kettle was suspended over an open fire. Sometimes a long, heavy pole supported by a post or the crotch of a tree and balanced at the other end with weights was used. The latter method permitted the kettle to be swung over or away from the fire. As the sap was boiled down the impurities were skimmed off. When it was boiled down to the Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. Fic. 98.—The old primitive and wasteful method of tapping sugar maples used by the Indians and sometimes by the early settlers. The rough-hewn receptacle and wooden trough have been replaced by the covered bucket and the iron spout. proper consistency, or to a thin syrup, it was stored in a vessel and the process repeated with fresh sap. Very often the syrup resembled a tarry mass; dark, heavy, and exceedingly inferior in quality in com- parison to the modern product. The work of making the syrup into sugar is known as “‘sugaring off.” This was accomplished by continued boiling until the syrup attained a waxy consistency when dropped in the snow.. It was then poured immediately into small moulds where it crystallized into sugar. 376 FOREST PRODUCTS Succeeding the suspended iron kettle came the open furnace, built of flat stones or brick with grates placed over them and space provided for from four to six kettles. The next step was the use of the boiling pans which varied in width from 30 in. to 3 ft., in length from 6 to 10 ft., and only about 6 in. deep. These pans came into use about the middle of the last century. In 1865 pans with partitions to produce an alter- nating flow of sap were introduced and rapidly adopted. The latter made possible the gradual flow of sap from one side to the other through succeeding compartments until it finally emerged in the form of syrup. This principle is incorporated in the modern evaporators, which have been in common use for the past forty years and which are used in con- nection with all of the larger commercial sugar orchards. They have a capacity of converting from 25 to 400 gal. of sap into syrup in an hour. The modern evaporators are usually from 2 to 6 ft. in width, 4 to 8 in. deep, and from 6 to 24 ft. long with corrugated bottoms to increase the heating surface. The rate of flow through the compartments is obvi- ously of the greatest importance. Most of the present models use automatic regulators by which the flow of sap from the tank or reservoir increases or diminishes with the heat underneath the pan. The evap- orator is always operated now in a sugar house conveniently located to the maple orchard. Its use will be more fully explained later in this chapter. As the evolution of the modern evaporator came about in gradual improvements, so the methods of collecting the sap and maintaining the sugar grove progressed from time to time. At first the sap was gath- ered in wooden buckets and carried by hand to the kettle or sugar house. Then a barrel on a sled drawn by horses or oxen was used as larger groves were tapped. The most modern improvements are exemplified in a system of pipes which convey the sap directly by gravity to the storage tanks along the roadside or to the sugar house. One large Adirondack sugar bush used a narrow gauge railway for bringing the sap from the woods to the sugar house. 3 Another great advance in the industry has been in the cleanliness of the methods of tapping, gathering and manufacturing of both syrup and sugar and, therefore, in the purity of the product. At the present time, covers or lids are used on the pails hung on the trees on most of the up- to-date operations. Formerly rain, snow, leaves, twigs, pieces of bark, etc., fellin. Boiling was practiced in the open and here the same oppor- tunity was afforded for impurities to fallin. The lightest colored sugar and syrup are only derived from the purest sap and by the use of the most MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR oV7 Sanitary utensils and methods. The purest product secures the best prices on the market so it is considered of the highest importance to use the most sanitary methods in every respect. It must not be assumed from the foregoing that all our maple sugar and syrup are made with the use of the evaporator and other up-to-date methods. Only the larger commercial operations tapping from 50 or 100 up to several thousand trees every year can afiord these improve- ments. Both products are made on most of the farms in the Northeast where sugar maples are available, but on many places only a compara- = Pa kee Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. Fic. 99.—The old-fashioned method of reducing the sap to syrup by “boiling down” .in copper kettles in the woods. The modern evaporator has replaced this method in large sugar bushes because it is more efficient and sanitary. tively few trees are tapped and the syrup and sugar made in the home kitchen and only for home use. In the early colonial days, maple sugar was made as an article of food. With the advent of cane sugar, it ceased to be an important necessary commodity on the markets and is now classed as a luxury. The demand for both sugar and syrup as luxuries has kept the industry alive and it is on the steady increase. However, in spite of the strong demand, the production has remained about stationary for the past two decades or more because of the large amount of adulteration. It is estimated that approximately seven-eighths of the total product is adulterated before it reaches the ultimate consumer. The increase in demand, therefore, 378 FOREST PRODUCTS results in the use of more adulterants so that the producers do not profit from this strong demand. Organizations to combat this evil and to place their product directly in the hands of the consumer, as well as to standardize and advertise their product, have done much good work, notably among them being the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers’ Associa- tion, organized in 1893. The growers, consequently, do not like to seil their product to these “ mixers,”’ as they are called, and prefer to sell the sugar and syrup direct. This results both in protecting the trade against a spurious product and in bringing in more returns for their work. SPECIES OF MAPLES USED There are about 70 species of maples distributed over the world, of which Sargent recognizes 13 species or varieties as growing in the United States. The most important in the making of sugar and syrup is the . sugar maple (Acer saccharum) which also goes by the names of hard or rock maple. Probably between 80 and go per cent of all the maple sugar and syrup is made from this tree. All of the other native maples yield a sweetish sap, but only a few of them are capable of producing sugar on a commercial scale. Sugar Maple. The sugar maple is found throughout the eastern part of the United States, but for the production of sugar and syrup it does best in western New England, New York, Pennsylvania, the northern Appalachians, northern Ohio and the Lake States. The southern varieties of sugar maple, namely, A. floridanum and A. leucoderme, do not yield sugar or syrup. Throughout its northern habitat, the sugar maple is one of the most prominent trees in the forest, growing in mixture particularly with yellow birch and beech and on the higher elevations with spruce. It has a very wide range of soil requirements and is found both on moist, well- drained soils as well as on gravelly, dry hillsides. It is classed as a tolerant tree so that its crown is rather deep and broad even when growing in close association with other trees or under the shade of other dominant specimens. Sugar maple sometimes reaches a height of from 100 to 120 ft. although it commonly grows to a height of from 60 to 80 ft. Its diameter averages between 14 and 24 in. and it is said to occasiqnally reach 4 ft. in diameter. It is a very slow growing tree and frequently reaches an age of between three hundred and four hundred years. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 379 This tree is readily planted in the form of new groves and it is easily reproduced naturally so that, in spite of its slow rate of growth, there will always be little difficulty in maintaining sugar groves for the future of this industry. 3 Black Maple. ; The black maple (Acer nigrum) which is sometimes recognized as a variety of sugar maple, also occurs throughout the North and East, but commercial production of maple sugar and syrup is limited to the Northeast as in the case of the true sugar maple. In Vermont the black maple is commonly considered superior to the sugar maple as a pro- ducer of high quality as well as large quantity of sap. In general appear- ance and characteristics, it is very similar to the sugar maple and is usually found on lower elevations and along the banks of streams and in the lower valleys. Red Maple. This maple (Acer rubrum) has a wider natural range than any of the other maples found in this country. It grows best along the borders of streams and in swampy soils. It is a much more rapidly growing tree but does not reach the size, either in height or diameter, of the sugar maple. It is used for sugar production in the Middle and Western States to a limited extent, but its sap is very low in yield of both syrup and sugar. Silver Maple. The silver maple (Acer saccharinum) is found from New Brunswick to Florida and west to the central prairies. It commonly grows along with the sugar maple, but altogether prefers the low lands bordering swamps and streams. It yields a plentiful flow of sap, but it is very likely to discoloration and its season is very short and uncertain. It is seldom used when sugar or black maples are available. It grows to a good size, but does not occur as frequently as the three maples mentioned above. It is not likely that it will ever be an important source of syrup and sugar production. Other Maples. The other maples, such as the Oregon maple (Acer circinatum), mountain maple (Acer spicatum), striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), box elder (Acer negundo), etc., are of no importance in this industry. It is of the greatest importance that the best forest conditions are maintained in the sugar grove. The sap and sugar production is directly 380 FOREST PRODUCTS proportionate to the leaf area of the trees and it is said that this leaf area is of greater importance than the amount of light the leaves receive. Each tree, therefore, should have full room for development consistent with the largest available number of trees per acre. At the sample time the crown canopy of the trees should be sufficiently dense to prevent the growth of grass underneath and to maintain a good covering of humus and leaves on the ground. The gradual northern spring with cold nights, warmer days and slow yield of frost from the ground are conducive to a long and continuous flow of sap. Sudden thaws and rapid changes of temperature are injurious to this flow. The ground should be kept as moist as possible under the humus covering. A good blanket of snow gradually melting off helps very materially to keep the soil moist and, therefore, to induce the maximum flow of sap. The careful nurturing of the young maples, the thinning and improve- ment of the grove, etc., are silvicultural problems which are deserving and receiving more and more attention from the sugar makers. Some growers even advise the sowing of 500 Ib. of nitrate of soda per acre to induce vigorous leaf growth and, therefore, sweeter and more sap during the following spring. ANNUAL PRODUCTION It is estimated that an equivalent of about 45,000,000 Ib. of maple sugar are annually made in this country. This is based upon the assump- tion that all sap is made into sugar. The annual production of maple sugar and syrup reached the height of its importance in 1860. At this time the cane sugar came into com- petition with it as a food commodity. In 1870, as a result of this com- petition, the production fell heavily but rose again in 1880 and remained about the same in 1890. About this time both syrup and sugar came | into strong demand as table luxuries and this demand stimulated its production very materially. In 1900 there were produced about 12,000,000 lb. of sugar valued at $1,074,260 and 2,056,611 gal. of syrup valued at $1,562,451. In 1909 the value of the sugar and syrup crop was $2,541,098. There has been a distinct tendency in the production to fall off in those parts of the country where sugar was produced for home consumption only, whereas in regions where the industry is of larger commercial importance, it has increased in considerable amounts. For example, in Vermont, New York and northern Ohio, the industry has made rapid strides within the. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 381 past five years through a strong demand for the products, organization of the growers and more stringent laws to prevent adulteration without proper labeling. In 1909 there were produced 14,060,206 lb. of sugar and 4,106,418 gal. of syrup. The great majority of these products are made in Vermont, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan and New Hampshire, listed in order of importance. These states supply about 95 per cent of the sugar and over 80 per cent of the syrup. Vermont is said to specialize more in sugar while Ohio turns most of its production into syrup. New York engages in the production of both syrup and sugar without dis- crimination. Other states passively engaged in the work are Indiana, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Maine, West Virginia and Maryland. The census for 1909 shows a number of other states such as lowa, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Illinois, Nebraska, North Carolina, Virginia and others, but the total number of trees tapped and products made in them are of very little importance. In 1909 there were over 18,899,533 trees tapped valued at $5,177,809. A census of the more important sugar orchards in Vermont showed the average orchard to contain a little over 1000 trees. It is generally understood that by a sugar bush one means a grove where at least 100 buckets are installed. In New York some of the sugar groves contain between 8000 and 17,000 buckets, although the usual sugar orchard runs between 300 and 1500 buckets. Practically every county in Vermont engages in the industry on-a commercial scale. The leading counties in order of production in this state in 1914 were Orleans, Franklin, Caledonia, Lamoille, Windham, Washington and Orange. The leading centers in New York are in St. Lawrence and Franklin and Lewis Counties, the Saratoga-Warren County section, the Delaware-Schoharie County unit and Cattaraugus- Chautauqua County unit. Geauga County is the center of production in Ohio. CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS In the establishment of an operation for making syrup and sugar within the natural range of sugar and black maple, where sap flows in commercial quantities, there are several considerations which should be kept in mind. It is assumed that in engaging in the work on a com- mercial scale the purchase of modern equipment such as evaporator, sugaring-off arch, tin buckets and covers, etc., is included. 382 FOREST PRODUCTS These considerations may be summarized as follows: 1. There should be trees enough for at least 100 buckets. The larger the number of buckets above this minimum the greater is the profit per bucket. : 2. There should be at least from 60 to 80 trees or more per acre large enough to be tapped. The individual tree should be preferably well formed, with deep crowns and of good size. 3. The trees should lie on gentle or sloping topography from which 3 the sap can be collected on a sled with little difficulty. Although trees on southerly slopes run earliest in the season, there is no indication that they yield more sap than trees on other exposures. 4. Very little capital is necessary to engage in the work, as the manu- facturers of equipment usually allow the growers to pay for this invest- ment out of the annual profits of the business. Other important considerations bearing upon the financial aspects of the making of syrup and sugar are: (a) No skilled labor of any kind is required; the work being done by the farmer and his family and hired help unless the groves are of the largest sizes. ‘Three men can look after the work of tapping the trees and gathering the sap on an orchard of 2000 trees or less, while it requires only one man to look after the evap- orator. (6) The sugar season comes at a time of the year when the regular work of the farm is least active, thus giving the men an oppor- tunity to give most of their time to it. Under average conditions the gathering of the sap is finished by the middle of the afternoon and one man is left to complete the work of making syrup or sugar until the last of the day’s sap is run through the evaporator. SAP FLOW AND SEASON The flow of sap from the maple tree has not been thoroughly under- stood until comparatively recent years. Many investigations have been carried on by the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station which thor- oughly cleared up a number of doubtful points. Maple sap ordinarily contains from 2 to 6 per cent of sugar with an average, under all conditions, of about 3 per cent. The sap is composed largely of water, and the other component part sbesides sugar are various mineral ingredients such as lime, potash, iron, magnesia and certain vegetable acids. - It is the alternate freezing and thawing, peculiar to the climatic conditions in the early spring throughout the Northeast, that is most conducive to commercial sap flow. Moderately warm days and cold: MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 383 nights below the freezing point are considered best in Vermont, and it is current opinion that a temperature of 25° F. during the night and a maximum of 55° F. during the day, with damp, northerly or westerly winds are the conditions under which the best flow is obtained. These changes of temperature cause a certain expansion and contraction of the gases within the cells and intercellular spaces in the wood which results in an alternate pressure and suction. During the sugar season this force varies from a suction of 2 Ib. per square inch at night to a pressure of about 20 Ib. per square inch during the day. The commercial flow of sap ordinarily runs from about the middle of March until about the middle of April in the region from Vermont to northern New York, inclusive. In Ohio and western New York the season is usually from late in February to early in April. The beginning of the sap season, of course, is determined wholly by the weather and the latitudes. Records show that the flow has commenced as early as the first of February and as late as the early part of April in the Northeast. The following records were obtained in Ohio from 1880 to 1912 by a sugar grower who kept an actual record of the opening and closing date of each season:! | | Number Coens | Closing | Number 7 Year. ate. | Date. of Days. } Year. ning | Closing | 1897 Mar. 9 | Mar. 9 | 23 1898 Mar. 3 | Apr. 11 39 | 1899 Feb. 20 Apr. 11 50 1900 | Mar. 8 | Apr. 14 | 37 1881 Mar. 9 | Apr. 16 | 38 1882 Mar. 2 ne St, a0 1883 Mar. 1 Apr. 10 | 41 1884 Mar. 12 ! 1885 Mar. 27 Apr. 18 22 | | | 1880 Feb. 24 | Aer ss «f 3F | | | 1902 | Mar. 7 Apr. 6 30 1886 Mar. 15 Apr. 1r | 27 || 1903 | Feb. 26 | Mar.15 | 17 1887 Mar. 2 Apr. 9 38 1904 | Mar. 2 Apr. 6 | 34 1888 Feb. 21 Apr. 10 | 50 || 1905 Mar. 16 Mar. 29 | 13 1889 Mar. 11 Apr. 9 29 «|| «1906 | Feb. 13 Apr. 2 | 48 1890 Feb. 17 Apr. 7 49 || 1907 Mar. 14 Mar. 23 9 1891 Feb. 13 Apr. 1: | 57 || 1908 | Mar. 5 Mar. 26 | 21 1892 Feb. 22 Mar.30 | 37 | tgo9! | 1893 Mar. 7 Apr. 3 |, 27 || 1910! | 1894 Feb. 27 Apri Fao!) I) TORE Feb. 16 | Apis a | 47 1895 Mar. 23 Apr. 12 20 | IgI2 Mar. 17 | Apr. 9 | 24 1896 Feb. 27 Apr. Io 43 | t 1No records were taken in this year. The longest run on this record is fifty-seven days and the shortest only nine days. The average is thirty-four days. The season ends 1 See “ The Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar,” by A. H. Bryan and W. F. Hubbard, Farmers’ Bulletin 516, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1912, p. 20. 384 FOREST PRODUCTS when the leaf buds begin to swell. The season, of course, begins earlier in the South than in the North. Professor J. L. Hills, Director of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, has determined in his inves- tigations of sap flow many interesting findings, the chief of which may be summarized as follows: 1. The amount of sap flow from a tree under given conditions is directly in proportion to the leaf area and the amount of sunshine it receives. The starch is stored in certain sapwood cells during the preceding summer and through the action of enzymes is transformed from starch into sugar. The alternate freezing and thawing causes expansion and contraction which, with the large amount of moisture drawn up from the roots, excites pressure at the tap hole. Trees in the open with wide, deep crowns, therefore, give much more and richer sap than forest grown specimens with long, straight boles and small shallow crowns. A tree 15 in. in diameter and 50 ft. in height was determined to have 162,000 leaves. This leaf space is equivalent to 14,930 sq. ft. in area representing about one-third of an acre. The weight of the water in the leaves in this tree is estimated to be 242.2 lb. and the total water content of the tree is set at 1220.57 lb. 2. No more sugar or syrup is obtained by tapping on the branchy or south side of the tree. The compass direction makes no apparent difference in the yield of sap, sugar or syrup. A healthy and fresh por- tion of the bark indicates the best place in which to tap a tree. 3. Most of the sap flow comes from the first 3 in. of sap wood. Deep tap holes, therefore, are not considered best. Tapping is seldom done now to a depth of more than 2} in. It was determined that in a tap hole 6 in. deep, four-fifths of the sugar came from the first 3 in.. Deep tap- ping does not compensate for the extra labor of boring and increased injury to the tree. 4. The best point at which to tap a tree is about 4 ft. from the ground. This point yields both more sap and better quality sap than lower or higher elevations. An experiment showed that 51 per cent of the total yield of sugar came from a tap 4 ft. from ‘the ground, whereas only 27 per cent came from a root tap and only 22 per cent from a higher tap hole. 5. The best size of tap hole is from 3 to 3 of an inch. Seven-eighths of an inch is the size most commonly in use to-day. Generally speaking, the larger the tap hole the more sap and sugar for the time being will be yielded. However, the smaller size holes yield practically as much sap and the hole will rapidly heal over so that the tree is not materially injured. In all cases the tap hole should be cut by a short bit, should MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR | 385 be cleaned of all shavings and borings before the spout is inserted and the bark should be left intact. 6. Sap pressure exists on all sides of the tap hole. That is, the pres- sure from above and below is the same and the flow of sap from the side also shows the same amount of pressure. 7. Most of the sap flow occurs between the hours of 9 A.M. and noon. Over an extended period 63 per cent of the total sugar was con- tained in the sap which ran before noon. After 3 P.M. there is very little flow if any at all. 8. The removal of the sap from the tree does not seem to have any material effect on its growing ability or general health conditions. Assuming that 3 Ib. of sugar are made to the tree, only from 4 to 9 per cent, according to the size of the tree, of the total sugar contained is removed. g. Buddy sap, which is the common term applied to the green sap collected toward the end of the season and from which a resultant red- dish syrup is made, is commonly attributed to the swell of the buds. Investigation shows that this is caused by the development of a certain group of bacteria. These micro-organisms infect the sap as it flows out of the tap hole and while in the spouts and buckets. This infection increases with the sugar season and is the cause of the souring of sap and the buddy flavors which are common in syrups made at the termina- tion of the season. This tendency may be eliminated and the quality of the product much improved by observing the following: (a) By keeping the spouts and buckets thoroughly clean by wash- ing often ard regularly. (b) By using metal spouts and buckets instead of wooden ones. (c) By collecting the sap frequently and boiling it as soon as pos- sible after collection. WOODS OPERATIONS Tapping Trees and Distribution of Buckets. Tapping should take place just before the season opens. A sharp bit should be used since a dull, rusty one leaves the hole rough. Smooth- surfaced cuts always give best results. The tap hole should not be over 3 in. deep and a depth of from 2 to 23 in. is considered best since this depth will completely grow over in a year and heal itself. The best diameter is now considered to be 7% in., although holes of from } to 2 of an inch or more are used. 386 FOREST PRODUCTS Immediately after tapping, the spout is inserted. Care should be used to remove all chips, bark, etc., from the hole, before inserting the spout. It should be done immediately, followed by the hanging of the pail. z In long or intermittent flowing seasons, when the tap holes are likely to be contaminated, the holes should be reamed out once, using a reamer Photograph by U.'S. Forest Service. Fic. 100.—Tapping a sugar maple in the Adirondacks at Horseshoe, New York. 7s in. larger than the original tap hole. This cleans the exposed surface of all slimy substance and induces stronger flow. There has been considerable discussion regarding the number of taps per tree. There is no question but that overtapping not only impairs the life of the tree, but seriously interferes with tapping during suc- ceeding years. The writer knows of one very large tree on which 30 buckets were hung in one year. The ensuing year the tree sickened MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 387 and died. The following table shows the number of taps that should be used, depending upon the size of the tree: Boag eae ep Number of Taps. 8 to 12 I 12 to 16 2 16 to 24 3 24 and up 4 or more Some prominent owners of large sugar groves advocate the tapping of only one hole in each tree during a season. Tapping should be done in the thrifty part of the tree where the bark looks best. It is commonly-done on the southern side of the tree because that side warms up the earliest in the season and the first sap flow is considered best, but experiments show that under average weather condi- tions, the flow of sap is equal on all sides. It is always advisable to avoid tapping near an old tap scar. Two men working together will tap and hang about 400 to 500 buck- ets per day working from eight to nine hours per day. The cost, there- fore, of the distribution of buckets and of tapping is about 1 cent per bucket. _ There are at least twelve different kinds of metal sap spouts or spiles on the market. They cost from $2.00 to $3.00 per hundred and for each particular brand there are special advantages claimed. They have displaced the old sumach or alder or half round wooden spiles except on the smallest and most inaccessible orchards. The general principles involved in the selection of a ky spout may be summarized as follows: 1. It must provide for an easy and maximum flow of sap. 2. It must hold firmly in the tree and not only support the bucket and cover but it must be attached and removed easily and the bucket must be held in such a position that it may be emptied without unhooking it from spout. Buckets should never be hung from a nail. . It should be placed in the hole in a level position and must not be ase in deep enough to split either bark or wood, and yet it must pre- vent leakage. 4. It should exclude the air and prevent drying out at the end of the first run of sap. 5. It must be inserted in and withdrawn from the tap hole with the least difficulty. 388 FOREST PRODUCTS On many of the most modern operations, after the spout is taken out at the end of the season, the tap holes are plugged with cork stoppers. During the following growing season the hole readily heals over with a fresh layer of wood and bark. The flaring rust-proof tin buckets of 13- and 16-qt. capacity are rapidly superseding the old wooden bucket.. They are hung, together with the covers, directly on the spout. The flare shape is used to prevent ice from breaking them. Galvanized iron is never used because of the voisonous nature of the metals used in galvanizing. . The advantages of the tin over the wooden buckets are: 1. They do not dry up and leak. 2. They can be easily rinsed and cleaned after each run. Bees a Fic. ror.— Modern tin ssias with covers to bend the sap ome of rain, bark, twigs, a other impurities. Photograph taken at Hardwick, Vermont. 3. They do not soak up sap and sour the contents as the wooden buckets do, unless frequently scalded. 4. The tin bucket is durable, light in weight and when nested they are compactly stored. The 13-quart rust-proof tin buckets cost from $25 to $30 per hundred depending upon the number purchased. The covers cost about $8.00 to $9.00 per hundred. Collection of Sap. Preliminary to the work of tapping the trees, setting the buckets and the gathering of the sap, haul roads are customarily broken through the snow so that as soon as tapping is commenced, preparations can be made to bring in the sap immediately. ee MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 389 Gathering was formerly done entirely by hand, the men going from tree to tree with buckets into which the new sap was poured from the pails hanging on the trees. This was a slow and laborious method and with the development of larger commercial operations, especially in sugar groves where the number of trees tapped range from r1ooo or more, a gathering tank of from 25 to 160 gal. capacity is placed on a sled-which Photograph by U.S. Forest Sertice. Fic. 102.—A recent development in the maple sugar and syrup industry—a pipe line to conduct the sap directly from the forest to the sugar house. Note also the modern covered buckets. is drawn about by a team. The gathering tank should be of metal, preferably of tin or galvanized iron and provided with some form. of strainer at the top to keep out such impurities as leaves, twigs, etc., and also to prevent the contents from spilling out. Haul roads are laid out on a systematic basis with reference to reaching the largest number of trees from the coves and draws and with reference to the location of the sugar house. Pipe lines are now used to some extent in the larger 390 FOREST PRODUCTS sugar orchards under such favorable conditions as large numbers of trees, rather steep topography and a central location for the sugar house. Narrow gauge railroads have been used, but this is an extreme refinement which will never be adopted to any extent. Under ordinary conditions two men and one team work together. This crew will gather the sap from 500 buckets per day, making two col- lections during the day. The men pour the sap directly into gathering buckets which are emptied into the tank on the sled. Gathering should be done as frequently as possible and the sap should always be taken up after from 2 to 4 qt. of sap flow. The leaving of sap in buckets too long results in discolored sap, which means a low grade of syrup. It costs about $50 per season for gathering sap on a bush of 500 buckets. MANUFACTURE OF SYRUP AND SUGAR The Sugar House. : In laying out a new operation, the first consideration is the location, size and equipment of the sugar camp or sugar house and its cost. These Fic. 103.—A typical sugar house in the “sugar bush.” A large pile of dry wood is available for heating the évaporator under the shed at the right. are determined, in turn, by the number of trees to be tapped. In an orchard containing 500 buckets or more, it must be located with refer- ence to the minimum length of sap haul on one of the principal woods roads. The house should be placed on a well-drained slope to permit the emptying of the gathering tank by gravity into the storage tank. —— iii te a MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 391 It should never be built in a cold, damp hollow where a poor draft will be afforded the chimney. For a camp of 500 buckets, the house should be about 14 by 20 ft. in ground plan, with 8-ft. posts,-rough siding, ventilator at the ridge and paper roofing. This may be constructed for from $75 to $150, depending upon cost of materials and labor and method. of construction. This will provide nicely for a 3 by 12 ft. evaporator. For larger operations and where further refinements are justified, a house with two compartments and a separate woodshed, with brick or concrete paving on the floor, a well-equipped work bench and provision for maintaining an even temperature and avoiding drafts are considered advisable. Where sugaring-off is practiced a two-compartment house is usually required. The primary requisites in the construction and oper- ation of the sugar house are comparative inexpensiveness, convenience and cleanliness. ‘Fuel. Well-seasoned wood, split rather fine and prepared well in advance, should be kept stacked in the woodshed adjoining the evaporator room. Some makers use the old fence rails and odd pieces of wood picked up in the grove. It should preferably be cut in the spring so it will have a whole summer season in which to thoroughly dry out. It usually requires about 8 face cords of 2-ft. wood or 4 full cords (of 128 cu. ft. each) to evaporate the sap from about 500 buckets, or expressed in other words, about 6400 gal. On many of the Vermont operations it is commonly considered that it requires 1 cord of wood to provide suf- ficient heat to make 300 Ib: of sugar. For the larger evaporators, some of the operators estimate that they use a full cord every day. © The cost of cutting, hauling and ricking the fuel wood in the wood- shed is usually figured at from $2.00 to $2.75 per full cord. Equipment and its Cost. Many of the smallest groves operated for home consumption still use the old-fashioned methods such as wooden buckets and spouts and boil down the sap in a kettle on the kitchen stove. The minimum number of buckets with which modern equipment is used is about 4o. It is doubtful, however, if such a small operation would ordinarily justify the rather large initial expenditure involved. For this work the following equipment is recommended: 392 FOREST PRODUCTS A sugaring-off arch and pan which serves the purpose of an evaporator.jas welle. 3c... 195 2548445 (Rae eee eee eee $27.00 40 sap spouts with hooks at $2.75 per hundred................ 1.10 40 16-qt. buckets at $29 per hundred..............00....000. 11.60 40 bucket covers at $8.75 per hundred... ......0...0.00...050. 3.50 t thermiometer 5055445. 58 yeh Nake) ee ee ee 1.25 L trainer 266.2 St seh cites ey See te Vee Pee res at Pe tos 1.50 One’ 3-in: tapping bits yas 5 265 Gla k | bi ete Po eee 25 One $2in, reamersiuty vcs lvoe fst, oak ee eee 50 Total. 6 ence ees we eketee ee eee $46.70 Gathering and storage tanks are not usually used in such small outfits as this. It is generally considered in the industry that it scarcely pays to engage in the work with modern equipment unless one has a bush of at least 100 buckets. The necessary outfit required for a 500-bucket sugar bush equipped only for making syrup is as follows: COST OF EQUIPMENT Evaporator—capacity go gal. sap per hour. ......:.. PERE oA $145.00 500 buckets—rust proof at $27.00 per hundred... ............. 135.00 500 bucket covers at $8.00 per hundred..................... 40.00 500 spouts.at $227.5 per hundred «2. pone ee a ireees 13.75 Gathering tank at 160-gal. capacity. ........ 2... c ee eee ee 20.00 1 10-bbl. capacity storage tank . 2 )..25 0046 6. es 2. ide ens 15.00 Thermometer, dipper, skimmer, strainer.................... 3.25 One pair of gatheriig’ pails yoo nc. 8G ook CSc 2.50 200 Tegal. SYTUP CANS, Soa. tee ea bene 2s eee 24.00 Potal. 3. aecclaincs en dere so ea eee $401.00 With good care this equipment should last twenty years or more. It is at once evident that the cost of operation and equipment per bucket decreases as the number of buckets increases. For example, in the above estimate, by dividing the total cost of initial equipment by the number of buckets, the cost per bucket is $.802 ($401+ 500=$.802 per bucket), whereas in an orchard of 2000 trees where the total cost of initial equipment is about $1170, the cost per bucket is only $.585 ($1170+ 2000 = $.585). es it es ee MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 393 The cost of labor per bucket is also less because while two men with one team can take care of 500 buckets, with the above equipment, three men with two teams could easily handle 2000 buckets. Manufacturers of evaporators, sugaring-off arches and other sugar makers’ utensils usually provide for the payment of the initial equip- ment out of the profits of the business from year to year. It is esti- mated that the average annual gross income from each bucket in the bush varies from 25 to 40 cents. The average cost of operations, including interest on equipment, depreciation of utensils and tools, labor taxes, etc., will total about 15 cents per bucket in a sugar bush of 500 buckets. Photograph by U. S. Forest Seretce. Fic. 104.—Gathering the sap in a northern New York sugar bush. Sufficient snow is still on the ground when the sugar season is on to require the use of snowshoes. ‘The expense per bucket decreases directly as the number of trees increases. From the profits of from 1o to 15 cents per bucket, therefore, together with the depreciation charges, this initial cost of equipment can be readily paid off. There are several types of evaporators or “ arches,” as they are called, on the market. Each make has certain advantages claimed for it but in general the same principle is followed in all. As mentioned before they vary in width from 2 to 6 ft., and from 6 to 24 ft. long. They cost from about $40 for a small capacity type for a 50-bucket bush up to around $500 for the largest size, which has a capacity of from 350 to 500 gal. of sap per hour. The latter are only used in the largest sugar c 394 FOREST PRODUCTS orchards. All the evaporators are divided into compartments through which the sap passes in the evaporation process. Underneath, a fire, with flues leading the length of the pan, furnishes the necessary heat. In the selection and use of an evaporator the following general prin- ciples should be followed: 1. The capacity should be sufficient to handle the sap from the num- ber of trees tapped without night work. In no case should sap be left over for the next day’s run. 2. The sap should be converted into syrup as soon as possible after leaving the tree. In the conversion process, a large heating surface covered by shallow sap is used to reduce the sap to syrup in the shortest time. 3. As the sap enters the evaporator, it should be kept constantly moving through the various compartments until it finally comes out as syrup. The light and heavy sap should never be allowed to mix as in the old kettles or pans. When the sap reaches a temperature of 219° F., it should weigh 11 lb. to the gallon in conformance with the law. When it is desired to make sugar from the syrup, a sugaring-off arch and pan are set up, usually in another room of the sugar camp. For the smallest orchards, this can be used instead of an evaporator for making syrup, but where 50 trees or more are tapped a small evaporator is advis- able. The accompanying illustration shows the firebox underneath and the general manner of construction. They cost about $30 for a 50-gal. capacity size. In dimension, this is 23 in. long by 45 in. wide and 11 in. deep. This will sugar-off syrup in about one-half hour. Another important feature of every sugar camp is the storage tank into which the sap is emptied when brought from the trees. This should be located outside the main house in order to be kept as cool as possible and elevated so that the bottom of the tank will be at least 12 in. above the level of the evaporator so that the sap will flow by gravity to the regulator which governs the rate of flow. It is very essential to have a large capacity storage tank to take care of from 8 to 15 bbl. of sap or more. Other important items of equipment for the sugar camp are a good weighing scales, a thermometer, a saccharometer for testing the density of syrup, a skimmer, a felt strainer, sugar molds, funnel and sugar cans. Process. Many of the details of syrup and sugar making have already been covered or at least touched upon in a brief way. By the time the sap MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR - 395 first comes in from the bush, all the utensils should be thoroughly cleaned and scalded, the sugar house carefully swept and dusted out and the firebox prepared for the fire. The automatic feeder or regulator is then opened and the sap allowed to flow from the storage tank into the evap- orator until it covers all the corrugations. As the sap heats up, the first part to reach the syrup end is dipped back until the proper density is reached. Many of the modern evaporators have a heater in connection with them which warms up the sap from the waste heat so that it evap- orates much more quickly. Fic. 105.—Interior of a sugar house showing the steaming evaporator at the left and the “sugaring-off”” arch at the right. The sap is maintained just as shallow as possible without danger of burning as this method permits the most rapid evaporation. When the fire gets hotter, a greater flow of sap is induced through the regulator, or, if scorching is likely, the fire is checked by means of dampers or other patent devices. As impurities or scum come to the surface, they are skimmed off. The sap gradually turns an amber color as it reaches the syrupy stage and deposits of malate of lime (called niter in Vermont and silica in Ohio) are noted on the bottom of the evaporator as the current reaches the end of the pan. Many devices, such as siphons, interchange- able pans, reversing the current, etc., are used to obviate this precipita- 396 FOREST PRODUCTS tion. It is estimated that on the average evaporator used, the sap covers about 50 ft. of surface through the various compartments before it finally emerges as syrup. It has been determined that sap boils at 213° F. At 219° F. (at 500 ft. in elevation above sea level) the syrup will have attained a specific gravity of about 1.325 and weigh r1 lb. to the gallon, a point at which it will not granulate. At the beginning of the season sap ordinarily con- tains about 6 per cent of malate of lime; later in the season it may con- tain from 25 to 30 per cent of the total dry matter of the sap. If the malate of lime is not removed before the syrup is taken off, tempera- tures should run about 221° F. An increase or decrease in the altitude of 500 ft. affects the thermometer 1° F. for the purpose of boiling. Every few minutes the syrup is run off and strained through felt to remove any malate of lime not already eliminated or any impurities of any kind. It is then put up when still hot into tin cans or glass jars, the former usually of 1 or $ gal. size and the latter of 1 or 2 qt. capacity. Care must: be taken to observe that the containers are absolutely clean and when filled are made airtight and kept in a cool place. When sugar is to be made, the syrup is placed over the sugaring-off arch and heated until it is so thick that it pours slowly or becomes waxy in the snow or in cold water. This occurs at a temperature of about 230° F. It is then turned into molds. Experienced sugar makers can readily tell when the syrup has sugared-off, but some operators use a saccharometer or thermometer to determine this. When hard, the sugar is wrapped in wax paper. The first run of sap always makes the best sugar. In fact, that from the last of the season will sometimes fail to ‘“ cake.” YIELDS OF SAP, SYRUP AND SUGAR The yield of products in this industry varies considerably with the season, size of the tree, character of tapping and many other conditions which have been covered under the subjects of sap flow, tapping, etc. Yields are often expressed on the basis of the individual tree. However, this is not a satisfactory basis, because much depends upon the size of the tree, the number of buckets hung, its past and present condition, etc. A general figure for all trees, an average of 3 lb. of sugar per season per tree is sometimes used. This varies, however, from 1 to 7 lb. per tree. The most satisfactory basis of determining the yields is expressed in terms of the individual bucket. Both costs and yields are now coming to be expressed in terms of buckets rather than the individual tree. By MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 397 a sugar bush is usually meant a unit of roo buckets or more regardless of the number of trees. The following average figures have been derived as a result of investi- gation covering conditions in New York, Vermont and Ohio: From a standard bush of 500 buckets, there is an average yield under all conditions, of about 6400 gal. of sap. This will be equivalent to about 200 gal. of syrup or 1500 lb. of sugar. These equivalents are based upon a determination that 32 gal. of sap under average conditions are required to make 1 gal of syrup and that 4{ gal. of sap are required for 1 Ib. of sugar. Storage Tank on Brackets 7 with Shed Roof a & cae i] Evaporator Bere 4 a I] jee ee ~ 2 Wood Shed = 10‘x 12° # pass Draw off B Working Floor Raised 12in. Work Bench 30 wide 15’ long Sle aes Fic. 106.—Ground plan of a 14- by 20-ft. sugar house equipped with a modern evaporator. An average of 12.8 gal. of sap are secured from each bucket in the average bush. Each bucket, therefore, yields about } gal. of syrup or about 3 lb. of sugar. The number of buckets on each tree, of course, is determined by its size, as explained under the subject of tapping. There are extreme instances on record of groves which averaged 19 gal. of sap per tree per season and of one tree which actually produced enough sap to make 303 Ib. of sugar in one season. One maple tree in Vermont yielded 175 gal. of sap in a single season.!_ Usually from 5 to 40 gal. of sap are obtained from each tree. A gallon of good syrup will make about 73 Ib. of sugar testing 80 per cent. 1 See Proceedings of the Vermont Sugar Makers’ Association for 1906. 398 FOREST PRODUCTS There is a variation of between 28 and 40 gal. or more of sap to an average gallon of syrup. A standard gallon of syrup will weigh about 11 lb. net. USES AND VALUE OF PRODUCT Formerly, the country merchant usually set the price for both syrup and sugar because he took them in trade from the farmer and sold them at the best prices he could obtain. The Sugar Makers’ Association in Vermont has done a great deal to develop and broaden the market and, as a result, the makers are coming more and more to sell their product directly to the consumer. It is now shipped and sold directly to individuals and stores all over the country. The far-reaching possi- bilities of successful marketing have, however, scarcely been touched. In marketing, lies the success of the whole operation to a marked degree, as it does in fact with most commodities. A few years ago, maple sugar could be purchased in gallon cans for from 75 cents to $1.00 per can. The same product is now worth from $1.25 to $2.75 per gallon can, delivered to the consumer. Fairly good profits can be made at $1.25 per gallon, retail, but much of the product is still sold wholesale, especially the inferior grades at prices varying from 70 cents to $1.10 per gallon, depending upon the quality of the product and the season. There are no uniform grades adopted. Each maker decides upon his own system of grading and some- times there are four grades based on flavor and color. In fancy, nicely labeled cans or jars, some of the best syrup brings as high as $3.00 or more per gallon, retail. It is said that the best average prices are received in Michigan for the reason that the makers have a common understanding that syrup is always worth at least $1.25 a gallon and that this should be the lowest possible figure in order to make a reasonable profit. A few years ago, sugar brought from 8 to 12 cents per pound depend- ing upon its quality, size of cake and kind of package. Now it brings from 12 to 20 cents per pound and the very best sugar, put up in small cakes and nicely packed and labeled, brings from 20 to 30 cents per pound. “ Stirred sugar,” a special product, brings from 20 to 25 cents per pound. | As to whether there is greater profit in syrup or sugar has long been an open question. As noted before, Vermont has heretofore specialized more in sugar than any other section and Ohio turns out syrup for the market almost entirely. Probably not one-tenth of the sugar made MAPLE. SYRUP AND SUGAR 399 twenty years ago in Vermont is now produced in that state. It is likely that about 75 per cent of all the sap that is harvested is turned into sugar. Comparing prices, it is very evident that sugar must be worth more than 16 cents a pound, with 73 lb. of sugar equivalent to a gallon of syrup, to compete with syrup at $1.25 a gallon. Then, too, the added cost of manufacturing sugar must be offset by still higher prices. Fic. 107.—A maple tree on the Spalding farm, Amsden, Vermont with 32 buckets hung at one time. Excessive tapping is injurious to the tree. As noted before, probably seven-eighths of all syrup and sugar sold on the market is adulterated and sold under another name resembling or implying the pure product. Most of it is used as a table luxury and for use in flavoring preparations, confections, etc. The inferior sugar and poorest syrup, sometimes called “black-strap,” is utilized for sweet- ening chewing tobacco. Since the war, the value of maple sugar and syrup has advanced - 400 FOREST PRODUCTS markedly and many orchards heretofore tapped little or not at all have been brought into production. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bryan, A. H. and Hupsarn, W. F. The Production of Maple Syrup and Sugar. Farmers Bulletin 516. U.S. Dept of Agriculture, rgr2. Cook, A. J. Maple Sugar and the Sugar Bush. Medina, Ohio: 1887. Cooke, W. W. and Huts, J. L. Maple Sugar. Bulletin No. 26. Vermont Agricul- tural Experiment Station. Burlington, Vt.: 1891. ‘ CrockeT, W. H. How Vermont Maple Sugar is Made. Bulletin No. 2i. Vermont Department of Agriculture, 1915. Fox, WILLIAM F. and Hussarpb, W. F. The Maple Sugar Industry. Bulletin No. . 59. Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. Hitts, J. L. The Maple Sap Flow. Bulletin No. 105 of The Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. Burlington: 1904. Hitts, J.L. Buddy Sap. Bulletin No. 51 of The Vermont elie Experiment Station. Burlington: i1gro. HusparD, WILLIAM F. Maple Sugar and Syrup. Farmers Bulletin No. 252. U.S. Dept of Agriculture, 1906. McGri1, A. A Study of Maple Syrup. Bulletin No. 228 of the Laboratory si the Internal Revenue Dept. Ottawa, Can.: t1g11. Proceedings of the Annual Meetings of the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers’ Associa- tion, 1909-1917, inclusive. CHAPTER XIX RUBBER GENERAL RvuBBER—also commonly called india rubber and caoutchouc in the trade—is the product of the milky juice or latex found in a variety of trees, vines and shrubs of the tropics. The true function of latex in the life and development of the tree has not been fully determined as yet. It is found secreted in the vessels and small sacs in the cortical tissue between the outer bark and the wood. It also occurs in the leaves, roots and other parts of certain tropical plants. The latex is derived from the bark by making an incision at regular intervals through the outer layers of bark. This milky fluid contains from 20 to 50 per cent of crude rubber. Rubber is one of the most important forest products used by man- kind. The value of rubber imported to this country is more than twice the total value of all other forest products brought to this country from foreign sources, including lumber, tanning materials, dyewoods and materials, pulpwood, wood pulp, etc. In 1917 the value of rubber imported to this country was $233,220,904. The rubber industry has made greater advances, measured both in the quantity and value of its product, than any other forest industry »in the world. The demands of the automobile industry for rubber tires have been enormous, and the production of crude rubber has been equal to the demand. Little rubber of any kind was used fifty years ago and the process of making crude rubber available for modern arts and indus- tries was only discovered less than one hundred years ago. In the year 1900 the total world’s production of rubber was only 120,713,600 lb.; in rgro the total output was 157,920,000 lb., but in 1915 the production rose rapidly with the increased demands for rubber tires for automobiles, and in that year the output was 355,492,480 lb. More- over, the demand was not satisfied even with that enormous yield and in 1918 the world’s production had risen to the enormous total of about 600,000,000 Ib. 401 402 FOREST PRODUCTS Had the native resources of the various rubber trees been depended upon, it would have been quite impossible to meet the heavy demands. Prior to 1900 the wild rubber trees supplied practically all the world’s supply of rubber. Since that date, however, the production of rubber from planted trees in the Far East has made remarkable strides and in 1918 furnished over 83 per cent of the world’s supply. The successful attempts to transplant the principal original source of rubber, which is generally called Para rubber ( Hevea braziliensis), from its native habitat in Brazil to the Far East has revolutionized the entire industry. . “x ais ea he de Neat oe eto Photograph by U. S. Rubber Company. Fic. 108.—Two-year-old rubber trees grown in plantation in Sumatra. One company has 70 square miles of planted rubber trees. The total annual value of rubber products in this country is estimated (1919) at over $1,000,000,000. The United States consumes about 70 per cent of the total world’s rubber production. HISTORY The history of the production and manufacture of india rubber has been full of interest. Although rubber, as a material, has been known for many centuries, its development and extensive use has taken place within the past century. The development of the automobile industry has been the impetus which has created an enormous demand for rubber RUBBER 403 and within the past five years the demand has increased over 250 per cent. The history of india rubber dates from Columbus’ second voyage to the Western Hemisphere. One of his recorders, Herrera, described the use of rubber balls made of the latex of certain trees by the natives of Haiti. They were used entirely for amusement purposes. A book published in Madrid in 1615 refers to certain trees in Mexico which produced a crude form of rubber. It is said, however, that india rubber wes first studied scientifically by a French scientist named Le Con- damine, who sent samples of the crude rubber product to the French Academy in Paris in 1736. The name india rubber was suggested by a chemist named Priestley about the year 1770. At that time the only use developed for rubber, which was in an exceedingly crude state, was for the purposes of erasure. The first rubber is said to have been brought to this country about 1800. In that year Charles Goodyear, the man whose inventions and experiments made possible the extensive use of this product, was born. The manufacture of some crude forms of rubber began in 1820 in this country, when a few establishments were created in New England to import and make rubber for erasing purposes. At that time it was an exceedingly coarse and hard material, full of foreign matter and very expensive. It remained for Charles Macintosh, a Scotch chemist, to develop a method for waterproofing cloth in the year 1823 and the name still obtains for certain forms of waterproof garments. In 1852 an American sea captain brought to Boston 500 pairs of rubber boots which he had secured in Brazil. These sold readily and brought from $3.00 to $5.00 or more per pair. The rubber industry in this country, however, in its broader sense, really dates from the work of Charles Goodyear, who first succeeded in making rubber less susceptible to the influence of changing conditions of heat and cold. It had been determined that the admixture of sulphur rendered the rubber less sticky, but it is said that the art of vulcanizing was learned purely through accident, Goodyear having dropped some of the rubber admixture by accident on a hot stove without the usual melting result. He first patented his process in 1844, which really marks the beginning of the great industry in this country. Generally speaking, vulcanizing consists in mixing sulphur with rub- ber and then submitting the admixture to heat up to about 250° to 320° F for from one to three hours depending on the thickness of the goods. This renders it elastic, impervious and unchangeable in various ordinary. 404 FOREST PRODUCTS temperatures. Commercial rubber hardens at the freezing point (32° F.) and temporarily loses its elasticity but, on the other hand, it does not become brittle. The center of the American rubber industry is at Akron, Ohio, to which many large automobile tire concerns have gravitated within the past decade. Had it not been for the development of a successful method of arti- ficially growing rubber trees, particularly in the Far East, rubber would be exceedingly expensive on account of the tremendous demands for it. Methods have been developed for the manufacture of rubber by syn- thetic processes, but no methods have been evolved to manufacture it on a basis to replace the natural rubber. Great strides have been made in the past decade, not only in the amount of imports of rubber to this country, but in the manufacture of the crude form, as well as in the han- dling of rubber plantations, the tapping of the trees and the reduction of the milky fluid or latex into the crude rubber state. SOURCES OF SUPPLY AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION Up to 1914 the principal source of india rubber was Brazil, where the province of Para was the center of production. The so-called Para rubber is the standard by which all rubbers have been judged. Since that year, the principal source of supply has been the plantations of the Malaya and the surrounding sections of the Far East and for the past five years the production of plantation rubber has had a most remarkable development. Wild rubber is also produced in nearly all sections of the tropics. Aside from the regions mentioned above, considerable quantities of rubber are produced from a variety of plants in Central America, Africa, Mexico, the northern countries of South America and the West Indies. The following species are the principal sources of rubber supply, in the approximate order of commercial importance: 1. Para rubber occupies the pre-eminent position in the world’s rubber markets. It is derived from several species of Hevea, principally Hevea braziliensis (Miill, Arg.) which, in both the wild and planted forms, supplies about 80 per cent of the world’s rubber production. There are extensive forests in the valley of the Amazon River, especially in the province of Para, but it also extends along the tributaries of this river to Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela and the Guianas. The rubber area in Brazil alone is said to cover 1,000,000 square miles. The Para rubber RUBBER 405 trees frequently reach a height of 60 to 80 ft. and a diameter of 12 to 30 in. The tree flourishes best in damp, rich soil and where the temperature ranges from 89° F. to 94° F. at noon and never falls below 73° F. at night. The trees are seldom tapped until they are twelve to fifteen years of age, because they yield an inferior grade of rubber if tapped earlier. The rubber fluid or Jatex is collected during the dry season from June to February and, if properly carried on, the tapping is not injurious. Great efforts have recently been made to conserve the rubber forests, and prac- tices which are destructive to the trees are being abandoned. It has been determined that the latex runs most freely in the early morning. The “ seringuero,” or rubber tapper, equipped with a small basket and a quantity of tin latex cups, goes out along the “ estradas ’”’ or pathways cut through forest to each rubber tree. He makes a blow or incision with a hatchet and attaches the cup to the bark at the base of the incision to receive the latex, by either using clay as a plaster or by slipping the cup underneath the bark. The tapper uses his judgment as to how many cups each tree should carry. There may be up to 20 cups on each tree. The cups hold only a few ounces each. The tapper comes back to empty the cups into a pail the same day or next day, depending on how rapidly the trees are flowing. The latex secured from this tapping contains about 30 per cent of rubber and the average sized tree will yield about 10 Ib. of rubber per year. The latex is collected, brought to camp and con- verted to the crude rubber state in the following manner. A fire is built of dry sticks and oily palm nuts (Aiddalea excelsa) and the natives make a piece of wood about 3 ft. long fashioned like a paddle, which is dipped in the latex and held over and revolved in the smoke of the fire. The smoke of the fire is usually controlled through a narrow bottle-like neck. As the milky fluid becomes dried and hardened on the paddle, the process is continued until a large ball or “ biscuit ’’ weighing 5 to 6 Ib. or more is formed. The smoke has the peculiar property of firming and curing the latex. A skilled native is said to make from 4 to 6 lb. of rubber per hour by this method. Other forms of sticks are commonly used as well as the paddle-like form. This “wild” Para rubber, although containing many impurities and 15 per cent of moisture, is said to be the finest rubber product obtainable. The scrapings from the tree are mixed with the residue from the fire pots and. collecting receptacles and made into large balls called “ negro-heads.’’ These contain from 20 to 35 per cent of impurities such as chips, bark, water, twigs, etc. 2. The “ule” or “ caucho”’ rubber of Central America and Peru, generally called “ centrals ’ in the trade is derived from Castilloa elas- 406 FOREST PRODUCTS tica (Cerv.) which grows principally in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Southern Mexico and in northern South America west of the Andes. The same general method of collecting and treating the latex as described for the Hevea is followed, although there are many variations. 3. Guayule is the trade name applied to rubber from Parthenium argentatum from Mexico, which has entered the rubber markets in a prominent way during the past decade. It does not command the high price which Para rubber does. 4. The principal rubber plant of the African tropics is the Funtumia elastica, called ‘“‘ Africans ” or “ logos” in the trade. The rubber is of excellent quality, but it generally contains considerable impurities. 5. The climbing vines of Africa have entered prominently in the rubber trade, especially in Sudan, Congo and Mozambique. The vines are generally destroyed in the process of collecting the latex. They consist largely of several species of Landolphia, especially L. owariensis. The Kickxia elastica is also eieely associated in this group and enters the trade under the name of “ Africans.”’ 6. The rubber tree commonly planted as an ornamental tree is the Ficus elastica, which produces the Assam or Rambong rubber of com- merce, which is known in the American rubber trade as ‘‘ East Indian.” It attains a large size in Ceylon, India and Malaysia. Owing to the crude methods of collection it does not command.a very high price. It fur- nishes much of the native wild rubber of India, Sumatra and Java. 7. Jelutong or Pontianak is the name of an East Indian rubber derived Dyera oe cay: 8. The manihots or “‘ manicobas,” which is the common trade name, come largely: from Manihot glaziovit, a native of Brazil, and a close rela- tive of the tapioca plant. It grows at elevations up to 4000 ft. along the Andes Mountains. 9. Mangabeira is the trade name of the rubber derived from Han- cornia speciosa, a native tree of Brazil. It is also called Pernambuco rubber. 10. Balata is the rubber from Mimusops balata, which grows in Brit- ish and French Guiana. 11. Gutta percha is largely derived from a species called Palaquium gutta. Inferior guttas called gutta siak are secured from several species. Many other plants yield a latex or rubber-bearing fluid and it is said that large forests of rubber plants are still undeveloped owing to their inaccessibility in the remoter districts of the tropics. However, the above represent practically all that are of present commercial importance. RUBBER 407 RUBBER PLANTATIONS Prior to the year 1900 practically all rubber was of the “ wild” variety and largely produced in Brazil. Owing largely to the enhancing cost of rubber, due to its ever-increasing inaccessibility and remoteness, the cost of transportation to market, the lack of good labor in the upper Amazon districts and the restriction of production to the dry season of six months in each year, many attempts were made to grow several varieties of the rubber trees in artificial plantations. In 1873 an Englishman, H. A. Wickham, was commissioned by the Government India Office, to attempt the introduction of rubber trees in India. In June, 1876, there were 70,000 young seedlings growing in the Copyright by U. S. Rubber Company. Fic. 109.—Method of tapping rubber trees in plantation in Sumatra. The most successful tree for planting and the only one now being planted is the Hevea braziliensis, which has been the main source of wild rubber known as Para rubber. Botanic Gardens of England. In the same year 2000 young plants were sent to Ceylon, but the trees did not flower until 1884. The year 1888 was a turning point in the attempt to grow rubber in plantations, as the plants were introduced in Malaya, particularly in the region bout Singapore, where the rubber plants were found to do much better than in Ceylon or India. Tapping experiments were also begun in 1888 and it was learned that the trees could be tapped every day except when they shed their leaves in February and March. Rubber 408 FOREST PRODUCTS plantations, however, were not made on any important scale until 1898 and it was not until 1905 that any extensive developments were made. In the latter year, it is estimated that there were 16,000 acres in plan- tations. The Dutch and later the French and Americans followed the example of the English. Since.1905 the development of rubber planta- tions has been remarkable. Many species were tried, including the Ficus elastica, the Castilloas and others, but it remained for the Para rubber tree ( Hevea braziliensis) to be the most successful as well as the first to be tried by Wickham in his experimental plantations. It is the only one now used on new plantations. Over 35,000 acres of other species have been planted. | At the present time there are about 500,000 acres of rubber trees under cultivation in the Dutch East Indies alone and about 250,000 acres in Ceylon. The English have invested $36,000,000 in Dutch plantation properties, the French about $8,000,000, the Americans $9,000,000 and the Dutch about $7,000,000. By the end of 1907 only about 13 per cent of the world’s rubber supply had been produced from plantation rubber. At that time, about $1.00 per pound was secured for this rubber at the plantations, which was con- sidered a satisfactory price. By 1910 the price had risen to $2.50 per pound and a great boom was created in plantations. The present area (1919) of rubber plantations of all kinds is estimated at nearly 2,000,000 acres and new areas are being constantly planted.- The soil and climate of the Far East seem to be peculiarly suited to the successful growing of the Para rubber in plantations. The following table shows the dis- tribution of the planted areas in the Far East: RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN THE FAR EAST Region. Area in Acres. Malay: Peninistila ic. :3.2 ss «o5je cies apse ene ne bagi eae ano NTS 1,033,069 DUMNALT AS. oe Ss, 7s 5S dadala be a patiose ee Se ins ae ee RRR ee 250,388 POND pager oly wo hain epee Paine i Frabac pias pegee te Ss eesti mas athe Bate 249,326 Ceylon. osc iene ont Ce sia eae Ga antag pA aS aE 240,000 Burns; India ¢. 73:5 sagas aks ad ots Fave eo oa 58,000 SOUPNERD Tia. 5005s plies ace Goat oa hae eels atop nae 44,000 Cochin COMMA SS a tivina-5.c cities to ene 05o/ oleae Ww a Beg Mie Nurs eae 42,500 British: North: BOrmees:..5 «ts s-s av oe ek oars eee ba Tee 31,500 Other: DutehIndiesy oases Bsr oiscov. eae aah wee sleep 29,998 Neéw, Guinea yden pane Sisco t awe vo te baa ee kaeite ets 13,300 TOGA Seis aette hip WET ve etre SEEN oP e ite 1,992,582 RUBBER 409 There are said to be over $400,000,000 invested in rubber plantations and they supply (1919) about 83 per cent of the total world’s require- ments. The trees in plantation are planted about 150 trees per acre (20X15 ft.) and do not become productive until four to seven years of age, when they are 5 to 7 in. in diameter at breast height. If tapped before this age the rubber yield is inferior. At seven years of age, the annual yield is only about 3 lb. per tree per annum. The average at twelve to fifteen years of age is about 13 Ib. per tree. At first all the brush and weeds were removed from an area to be planted at great expense, but it was found that the hot tropical sun Copyright by U.S. Rubber Company. Fic. 110.—Close view of tapping methods and cups used in collecting the latex. baked out the soil too readily and until the plants reached a size sufficient to shade the soil, it was necessary to grow some leguminous plants to both shade and enrich the soil. The methods of tapping and reducing the latex have been greatly improved over the systems in vogue with wild rubber, although it cannot be said that they have reached a finality of development. A common method is to make a series of V-shaped incisions on four sides of the tree up to a height of 5 to 7 ft. from the ground. The latex is collected in a cup hung at the apex of each V._ The “ herring-bone ”’ plan with a ver- tical incision and lateral channels on either side is used as well as the spiral 410 FOREST PRODUCTS system. Daily incisions are made at 45° until the trunk is nearly covered with scars. When the bark of the trunk is almost completely covered with cuts to induce the flow of latex, a period of years is generally allowed to elapse before beginning to retap the tree. Small sharp knives are employed in making the incisions instead of the axes or large cutters used in Brazil. Instead of the primitive and wasteful method of reducing the latex to crude rubber, as followed in the forests of Brazil, the fluid is collected in large tanks or casks. It is coagulated by the admixture of an acid, usually acetic acid or lime juice. The coagulation gradually separates as a soft, white, or yellowish mass. This is washed by first passing through washing machines, and then through other machines, which compress it in thin sheets or long ribbons called crépe. These are hung up and dried. Plantation rubber enters the market either in the form of crépe in sheets or biscuits or in the form of large blocks made by com- pressing the sheets of crépe together. Plantation rubber formerly did not bring the same prices on the English and American markets as that commanded by the Para or “ wild ”’ rubber, but it now brings about the same or even slightly better price. It is much cleaner and freer from impurities than the wild rubber and contains only 1 per cent of water as against 15 per cent for the latter. It is generally regarded, however, that plantation rubber has not the tensile strength of the Para rubber. This may be due to the fact that the plantation rubber is generally procured from much younger trees. The following table shows the relative importance of plantation rubber and the product of native forests of Brazil and other portions of the tropics: PRODUCTION OF RUBBER FROM PLANTATION AND NATIVE SOURCES IN TONS FROM 1911 TO 1918, INCLUSIVE Product from 4 Product f: Product f : Total Production, Year. Plantations, Tone. Brazil, Dene. poe iy oa, Tons. IQII 14,419 375730 23,000 755149 IgI2 28,518 42,410 28,000 98,928 1913 17,618 395370 21,452 78,440 1914 71,380 37,000 12,000 120,380 IQI5 107,867 37,220 13,615 158,702 1916 152,650 36,500 12,448 201,598 1917 204,348 39,370 13,258 256,976 1918 240,000 38,000 12,000 290,000 a RUBBER 411 The above table shows the tremendous strides in production of plan- tation rubber, the almost stationary production of wild rubber from Brazil and the falling off in the product from all other sources, such as Central America, Mexico, Africa, the Guianas, etc. METHODS OF MANUFACTURE ' Wild rubber contains many impurities such as dirt, stones, bark, leaves, chips, etc., as it comes to this country in its crude state in the form of biscuits or balls. The first process, therefore, in the manufacture of the various finished forms of rubber is thoroughly to cleanse it of all foreign matter. Wild rubber, which is generally called Para rubber from Brazil, contains a great many more impurities than the plantation rubber. 5 : y. oa LZ Production in hundreds of millions of pounds w r — N 1900 1902 1904 1906 1908 1910 1912 1914 1916 1918 Years . Fic. 111.—Curve representing the world’s production of India rubber from rgoo to 1918, inclusive. The latter comes to this country in sheets or packages and is much more free from impurities on account of the greatly improved methods of col- lecting and coagulating the latex. The process of cleansing consists of washing the crude rubber in hot water for a period of about twenty-four hours. It is then passed through corrugated rollers in the presence of large quantities of water. This process removes the impurities and gives the rubber a more homo- geneous structure. It is then placed in the drying rooms ‘n sheets and after a thorough drying it is stored until desired for further use. 1The methods of rubber manufacture is a large and involved subject and can be cov- ered only in a most brief and suggestive fashion in this work. For further reading on the manufacture and the chemistry of rubber it is suggested that several references in the bibliog- raphy at the close of this chapter be consulted. MSs. FOREST PRODUCTS Various methods of vulcanizing rubber are in common use at the present time. The method generally followed consists of kneading the crude rubber aiter it is washed and dyed with varying amounts of sulphur. It is later reduced to proper shape by cutting into small pieces and then running it through rollers. In general, there are two kinds of rubber, naturally hard and soft rubber. Hard rubber is often called ‘‘ ebonite ” in the trade. There are many classes of finished forms of rubber, each of which requires a different kind of treatment and a distinctive process of manufacture. The principal classes of rubber may be divided as follows: . Footwear. Waterproof garments. Mechanical goods, such as tires, belts, etc. . Electrical and scientific apparatus and articles. . Medical and surgical appliances., . Liquid or semi-liquid goods, such as varnishes, cements, etc. An Ww N H PRINCIPAL USES There are no statistics available to show the utilization of rubber in this country. An authority on rubber and its uses estimates the value of the different forms of rubber products as follows: USES OF RUBBER - Uses. Value. Aritomonule UES 5 sas oe pees Ba eee ee $2 50,000,000 Mechanical g00ds.i3060.. 62) 5% Secs foe eae 200,000,000 Solid. 66s i) ue as ator a ees 175,000,000 MOC Ai Redes. eases mc wire oes 100,000,000. Clothing, auto topping and similar goods. . 75,000,000 Agatomobile Funes. 5 i Se oe ee 70,000,000 Rubber insulated wire and insulation..... 65,000,000 Draggists ‘stndries) 5c. as ty 4 30,000,000 Miscellaneous Ses40) da sae Jager ceace ee 30,000,000 PION PUD Sse oe HG Ei dau eos 15,000,000 Motor cycle, bicycle tires, etc............ 10,000,000 Wesper COMENIE Sch ha ste Ph ee ee 5,000,000 Total annual value. 0.6.65 0... 048 $1,025,000,000 —" RUBBER 413 BIBLIOGRAPHY Akers, C. E. The Rubber Industry in Brazil and the Orient. London: Methuen & Co., 1914. BEADLE, CLAYTON and STEVENS, H. P. Rubber; Production and Utilization of the Raw Produce. London: Sir I. Pitman & Sons, Ltd., rortr. Brown, Harotp. Rubber, Its Source, Cultivation and Preparation. London: J. Murray, ror4. CavapiA, T. G. Les Plantations de caoutchouc leur developpement, leur avenir Paris: Kugelman Printing Co., rgt1. . Ciouts, Franz. Rubber, Gutta Percha and Balata. London: Maclaren & Sons, 1903. Farmer, J. B. The Rubber Industry, etc. Scientific American. rg18. Vol. 86, p- 178. Fox, WALTER. Notes on the Cultivation of Para Rubber.. International Rubber Congress II. London, rgrt. Horter, JoHN C. Cultivated Rubber. American Geographical Society. Vol. 37, pp. 720-724. Great Britain. Imperial Institute. Rubber and Gutta Percha. London: Darling & Son, r912. India Rubber World. Miscellaneous Articles. New York. International Rubber Congress. Proceedings. Miscellaneous Articles. London. International Bureau of American Republics. Rubber and its Relatives. Wash- ington, 1909. Potts, HARoLtD E. The Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. London: Constable & Co., 1912. SEELIGMAN, T. India-rubber and Gutta Percha. London: Scott, Greenwood & Co., IgI0. CHAPTER XX DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS GENERAL DESCRIPTION - From the earliest times various forms of natural dyestuffs have been used for coloring purposes. The principal sources of these vegetable dyes have been the roots, bark, leaves, fruit and the wood of trees and other forest-grown material. Until the Civil War and shortly thereafter practically all of our dyestuffs came from some form of vegetable origin. Later the aniline dyes were introduced and came into prominent use. Many of our important industries are dependent upon these dye- stuffs and their consumption has increased very rapidly within the past decade. The industries consuming the largest quantities of dyestuffs are the textile for cotton, silk, wool, etc., paint, varnish, ink, leather, paper, wood, etc. At the present time aniline dyes compose a large percentage of all the dyeing materials used. For certain purposes, however, a few dye woods are still held in high esteem in the textile and leather trades and other fields which consume large quantities of dyeing materials. For the fiscal year 1913 this country expended over $12,000,000 for foreign artificial dyestuffs imported to this country and only $961,534 for for- eign importations of natural dyestuffs. Germany has been the principal source of artificial dyes and before the war produced about go per cent of the dyestuffs consumed in the world’s markets. These were manufactured from coal tar products made in Germany. Since 1914 there has been a great impetus in the importation of natural dyes and in the introduction of new sources, notably osage orange which, before the coming of the white race to this country, was exten- sively used by the Indians to decorate their war bonnets, bows, arrows, etc. This and many other natural coloring agents were adopted from the Indians by the early colonists in the dyeing of their homespuns, etc. It is said that even during the Civil War, butternut dyes obtained from the husk of the nut were used to color the dull yellow suits worn by the Confederate soldiers. 414 DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 415 MANUFACTURE OF DYESTUFFS Most of the natural dyes are now produced from imported woods from Central and South America and the West Indies, the coloring matter being obtained from the parenchyma cells by extraction after reducing the wood to the powdered or chipped form. Dye woods generally con- _ tain only from 5 to 10 per cent of their weight in true dye color. The principle of wood dye extract operations consists first in removing the coloring material by lye washing made with the help of a suitable sol- vent, which differs with each wood to be treated, and then by concen- trating the solution to the crystal, liquid or powdered form. The process employed in deriving these extracts varies with most of the large manufacturing concerns and the details are held with the greatest secrecy. However, the following is a very brief description of the process generally used in the reduction of our principal dye woods. The wood is first run through a grinder or a very fine chipper or “ hog.” In the case the latter is used the chips are again shredded. The principle involved in reducing the wood to such fine proportions is to make the coloring material more readily available to the effects of the solvent which is used to separate and carry off the desired color from the wood cells. The chips or shredded wood are then submitted to a curing process, which consists of leaving them piled up in heaps 4 or 3 ft. in height in the open air. The piles are moistened with water from time to time and left in this condition for from four to six weeks. They are occasionally worked over with shovels to prevent heating and to allow full access to the air. The wood gradually turns to a deep color and sometimes certain chem- icals are used to hasten the curing process. However, there is danger of over-oxidation. Extraction and concentration are next followed out. Extraction is accomplished in diffusion batteries consisting either of a set of open tanks or of closed copper extractors arranged in series. Ordi- narily there are eight or ten of these batteries, the liquor from one cell being used as a solvent for the material in the next cell so that as con- centrated a liquor as possible is obtained with a minimum amount of extracting water. The liquid extract is then evaporated in multiple- effect vacuum evaporators made expressly for this purpose. In this way an extract is obtained containing about 25 to 30 per cent of total solids at a temperature which is not injurious to the extract. All natural dyestuffs require a mordant, such as a solution of chrome for their proper fixation on fibers. 416 FOREST PRODUCTS RAW MATERIALS USED A very large share of our natural dyestuffs is made from West Indian and Central American woods. They are received in the log form from 3 to 8 ft. long and are sold entirely by weight. To be acceptable to the dye manufacturers, the logs must be thoroughly trimmed of all bark and sapwood and free from any dirt or other foreign material. Extracts from these dye woods are imported to a small extent, but they are con- ~%, sidered inferior to those made in the extract manufacturing plants in this ~ country. Logwood or Campeachy wood constitutes about 75 per cent of all dye extract materials imported into this country. Fustic is next in importance; then there is a great variety of foreign woods occasionally used such as the Brazil-wood and other redwoods, sandalwood, etc. Other forest-grown materials used for dyeing purposes are catechu or cutch, sumach, gambier, etc. Other sources of natural dyes such as. cochineal, indigo, turmeric and madder are not classified as forest products. Osage orange is coming into use as the principal native dyeing mate- rial. Quercitron, the crushed bark of the black or yellow oak (Quercus velutina) is another important native source of dyes. Other native materials used to a vary limited extent are black walnuts and butter- nuts, sumach, yellow wood, mesquite, alder, red gum, bluewood and dogwood. The following is a brief description of the principal forest-grown materials used for dye extracts in one form or another: Logwood. Logwood (Hematoxylon campechianum, L.) also called Campeachy wood, bois de sang, etc., is a thorny tree of the family Leguminosee. It is one of the oldest dye woods in common use and is now used more than all other woods together for coloring purposes. Its principal source is in Jamaica, Haiti and the Bay of Campeachy in Mexico, where it grows abundantly, but it is also exported from most of the Central Amer- ican countries and many of the West Indies. It has been successfully introduced and grown in India. Varieties of logwood are sometimes rec- ognized according to their source, but they are all generally accepted to be of one species. The wood is very heavy, non-porous, coarse-grained and yellowish in color, which rapidly turns to a rich red on exposure to the air. It has a very pleasing odor, resembling the violet. CO OO ——— DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 417 Logwood contains from g to 12 per cent of the coloring essence called hematoxylin, from which is derived hemitin, the true dye color. Log- wood is chiefly used for the black colors and it is considered superior to the aniline blacks. It is also used, to some extent, for blues and other dark colors and with other dye materials for composite colors. Its principal use is on silks and wool. When acids are likely to come into contact with it, logwood black is not considered so very good, but these cases are exceptional. It is also used on leather and to a limited degree on cotton. Under normal conditions, logwood brings from $20.00 to $25.00 per ton delivered at our Atlantic ports, but since the war prices have risen enormously and have become very unstable due to over-speculation, the elimination of the German supply of aniline dyes and the exceptionally high ocean freight rates. Maximum prices of $110 per ton have been quoted and many sales have been made at from $55.00 to $80.00 per ton at New York and other ports. The importations of logwood increased from 30,062 tons for the year ending June 30, 1914, to 122,794 tons for the year ending June 30, 1917. Brazil-woods. Brazil-woods or the soluble redwoods include a variety of woods of the genus Cesalpinia used for red dyes, which appear on the market under a great confusion of trade names. Although of the same genus they vary considerably in their value for dyeing purposes. The coloring matter braziline is found in varying quantities in all these woods, which are hard, heavy, durable and even grained in all species. Hypernic is the trade name applied to the extract obtained from the soluble redwoods. Pernambuco-wood from C. crista L. is recognized as the most valuable of these woods and grows largely in Brazil and Jamaica. The wood is yellowish-red with a distinct brown or brownish red on the surface. Brazil-wood from C. braziliensis Sw. comes from Brazil and generally throughout the West Indies and Bahamas. Sappan-wood from C. sappan L. comes from Siam, China, Japan, Ceylon and the East Indies. Its wood is somewhat lighter in color than the other redwoods of this genus. Lima-wood or Nicaragua wood from C. bijuga Sw. comes from the Central American countries and the northern countries of South Amer- ica. Other trade names used for these and other species of Cesalpinia are braziletto, peach wood, South American basswood, etc. Brazil-wood normally brings from $23.00 to $26.00 per ton at the Atlantic seaboard ports. Since the outbreak of the European war it 418 FOREST PRODUCTS brought from $35.00 to $46.00 or more per ton. Extracts from the Brazil-woods are chiefly used in wool and cotton dyeing. Fustic. : Fustic is the principal source of natural yellow dyes and has been in common use for a long time. Next to logwood it is the most important dye wood imported into this country. Owing to its comparative scarcity many substitutes have been used to displace it and osage orange is becom- ing a prominent competitor for yellow colors. 7 True fustic comes from the fustic tree of the West Indies and tropical America. The scientific name of the tree is Chlorophora tinctoria, Gaud. (also described as Maclura tinctoria, D. Don and Morus tinctoria L.). Fustic is sold under a variety of trade names such as old fustic, fustic mulberry, yellow wood, Cuba wood and mora. It contains two color- ing principles, morin or moric acid and maclurin or moritannic acid, both of which are used for yellow dyes and are found in the commercial extract. The fustic tree reaches a size of only about 2 ft. in diameter and about 50 ft. in height in its native habitat. The wood is fairly hard and heavy. The heartwood is a light-colored yellow which rapidly becomes a yellow- ish brown on exposure to air and light. The sap is white and very thin. It is always trimmed off before shipment to save freight as it does not contain sufficient coloring matter. Fustic is usually imported in the form of logs from 2 to 4 ft. long and from 3 to 12 in. in diameter. It is sometimes brought to this country in the form of chips, powder, liquid extract and paste. The wood ordinarily brings from $18.00 to $22.00 per ton on the docks in this country. Since 1914 and during the heavy speculation in dyewoods it brought as high as $45.00 per ton, but seldom ran over $35.00 to $40.00 per ton. Fustic dyes are largely used for yellows, browns and olives and in connection with logwood dyes for toning the darker colors, especially on woolens. Red Sandalwood or Saunderswood. Pterozarpus santalinus L. is used to some extent for red dyes through its coloring principle called santaline, of which it is said to con- tain 16 per cent. It grows in Java and the East Indies as well as in China and yields a very hard, heavy and slightly resinous wood which is described as being a deep orange-red with lighter zones running through it. On exposure it turns a very deep red. A number of other woods ee a DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 419 such as barwood (Pierocarpus santalinoides, L’her) and camwood (Baphia nitida, Afzel), which closely resemble it are sold as red sandalwood. All of these woods are commonly referred to in dyestuff circles as the insol- uble redwoods. Quercitron. _ This is the crushed or ground bark of the black or yellow oak (Quercus velutina, Lam.) which is found throughout the East and particularly in the Middle Atlantic States and the southern Appalachian Mountains. The coloring matter is contained in a thin layer in the inner bark. The bark is usually crushed into a fine brownish-yellow powder, the coloring principle of which is quercitrin. This may be decomposed, by using a dilute sulphuric acid, into quercitrin. Flavine is the trade name applied to a preparation of quercitron obtained by acting upon the bark first with alkalies and treating this extract with sulphuric acid. Both - the liquid and solid extracts are used commercially for dyestuffs. Flavine and quercitron find their principal use in dyeing cottons and woolens with tin mordants. Flavine is commonly used with cochineal or lac-dye for producing scarlet. Venetian Sumach. Venetian sumach, also called young fustic, wild-olive, smoke tree, wig tree, etc. (Rhus cotinus L. also called Cotinus cotinus (L) Sarg.) is imported to a limited extent from Hungary, Greece, Italy and other European countries. It produces a yellow dye called fustine, used chiefly in coloring glove leather and wool. It is sold very commonly as a sub- stitute for the true fustic, although it is produced by a small tree or shrub which yields sticks up to 4 in. in diameter and 4 to 6 ft. in length. The heartwood is greenish-yellow and hard. This tree is not related botan- ically to the true fustic. The coloring matter yields a fine orange color with alkalies and bright orange precipitates with lime and lead acetate. Sumachs native to America, especially the staghorn sumach (Rhus hirta), which grows throughout a large part of the East, are used to a very limited extent in coloring cloth and fine leather. The leaves, leaf stalks and smaller twigs yield a yellow dye. A close relative of the sumachs, called chittam or American fustic (Cotinus americanus, Nuit), grows throughout the lower Mississippi Valley and yields a clear orange colored dye. Osage Orange. This tree is commonly found in the rich bottom lands of southern 420 FOREST PRODUCTS Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas. It is most abundant in the valley of the Red River. Its scientific name is Toxylon pomiferum, Raf., and, besides osage orange it is commonly called bow-wood, mock orange, bodock, bois d’arc, yellow wood and hedge tree. It is frequently planted throughout the East both for its wood and as a decorative and hedge tree. The tree is rather poorly shapen as a rule and seldom grows to be over 50 ft. in height and 2 ft. in diameter. The wood is exceptionally hard, heavy, strong, durable and coarse grained. It is a bright orange in color, which on exposure turns to a deep yellowish brown. The wood is in high demand for use as wagon and vehicle stock, especially for felloes and spokes and for cross ties, fence posts, handles and other specialized purposes. It was highly prized by the Indians as a material for bows and arrows, hence the name bois d’arc. Osage orange, even in the time of the Indians, was used for dyeing pur- poses, and in the region of its natural growth has been used to a limited . extent as a coloring matter. Since the outbreak of the European War, however, it has been extensively experimented with and is coming into commercial use as a substitute for fustic. The dyeing principles found in osage orange are morin or moric acid and moritannic acid or maclurin, as is the case with fustic. The extract from this wood is now manu- factured and sold under the trade name of aurantine. The roots and bark also contain coloring principles which have been extracted by boiling. This practice, however, is limited to a very small local custom in the Southwest. Results of experiments show that with iron and chrome mordants, osage orange dyes are satisfactorily fast to light, water and washing, especially when used on wools, and that they may be employed wherever dyes from fustic wood are used. Osage orange is also used on leather, wood, paper and, to small extent on cotton. It is especially effective for orange-yellows, old gold, deep tan, olive and chocolate shades. It is, moreover, used as a base for greens and grays in combination with other colors and with aniline dyes. In comparison with fustic, the advan- tages claimed for it are that it is cleaner, more uniform, yellower, faster and cheaper. It is estimated by Kressman of the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., that over 25,000 tons of waste material are now available annually from the manufacture of osage orange for various wood products and that altogether from 40,000 to 50,000 tons of osage orange could readily be shipped yearly from Texas and Oklahoma. In 1915 about 14,000 tons of fustic were imported to this country instead of the usual a DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 421 yearly importation of about 4500 tons prior to this date and it is likely that osage orange will gradually displace, to some degree, at least a good share of this material. The latter can be purchased in Texas and Okla- homa for about $5 to $8 per ton. It brought from $12.00 to $15.00 per ton delivered on the Atlantic seaboard in 1916 under the name of Amer- _ican fustic. Cutch. Cutch or catechu is used principally as a tanning agent and has been briefly described in the chapter devoted to tanning materials. It is the _ name applied to the dried extract derived from Acacia catechu, which is produced largely in India and Burmah. It is used somewhat exten- sively for brown dyes. With copper, tin and alumina mordants it yields a yellow dye principle called catechin. It also yields another dyeing ‘principle known as catechutannic acid. The best varieties of cutch are said to come from Pegu. Bombay and Bengal cutch are also held in high esteem. They are used in cotton and silk dyeing for browns and composite shades. Catechu is frequently adulterated with starch, sand, clay and blood. Gambier. Gambier is also a dried extract used chiefly for tanning purposes in this country. It also goes under the names of gambier and pale catechu and is derived from the leaves of two species of the same genera, namely Uncaria gambier and U. acida. IMPORTATION OF DYESTUFFS The following table secured from records of the U. S. Department of Commerce shows the value of dy woods imported for each year by decades since 1860 and also the years 1917 and 1918: IMPORTATIONS OF DYEWOODS Year. Total Value. ROM CRY ilo WER 3 de Shires he 0s aR en yy eT W,, ROSE OO BOO i= they Sg et eg eA ee SN kG 1,337,093 fs Papen ere een eae ae, re te NOE a ae a 1,808,730 MEM es Dattate Ce aa ete Ne wel ace Pe ke Ses as 1,725,167 SANG PUN se so we A Me gee se 6s ge 8S 862,462 WEG pl Dente Sirk ck Gh a ote CHL £32 —, manufacture of, 131 —, sawed, 132 456 Horter, J. C., on rubber, 413 Hough, F. B., report on forestry, 187 House, charcoal, 212 —, log, equivalents, 15 —, retort; 207 —., still, in hardwood distillation plant, 210 Hoyer, E., on papermaking, 58 Hubbard, Ernst, on utilization of wood waste. for wood pulp, 58 —, W. F., on production of maple syrup, 383, 400 I Idaho, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 7 —, poles produced in, 300, 301 —, wood fuel used, 339 Increment of American and European forests, 5 Illinois, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3 —, wood fuel used, 339 Imports of cork, 443 — —, dyewoods, 421 — —, pulpwoods and wood pulp, 57 — —, tanning materials, 86, 87 Inch, equivalent, 17 Insulation cork, 441, 442 India, 20 Indiana, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, box lumber consumption, 252 —, quartered white oak veneeers in, 93 —, wood fuel used, 339 India rubber—see rubber India Rubber World, 413 Towa, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 339 Iron mines, timber used in, 332 Irons, “‘S,” used to prevent checking in poles, 316 Italy, 20 Italian beech forest, cut-over, illustration of 244 Italy, charcoal making, 244, 245 —,— used in, 235 —, per capita consumption in, 6 Interior of still house at distillation plants, illustration of, 211 J Jackson, A. G., on western red cedar, 372 Java, acreage of planted rubber trees, 408 INDEX Jelutong rubber, 406 Jepson, W. L., on California tanbark oak, 87 Jointer, tight stave, illustration of, 158 — Joyce, W. R., photograph of ties, by, 289 Joyce-Watkins Co., photograph of ties, by, 287 Juniper poles, amount, 303 —, posis, 226 K Kaniksu National Forest, peeling poles, 302 Kansas, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 339 Keller patent for grinding wood pulp, 21 Kellock, T., on use of wood fuel, 350 Kellogg, R. S., on mine timbers, 330 Kempfer, W. H., on preservative treatment of poles, 323 Kentucky, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 7 ‘ —, wood fuel used, 339 Kerr, G. A., on tanning extract manufacture, 87 Kickxia elastica, rubber, 406 Kilns, charcoal, illustration of, 242 Kiln drying slack heading, 127, 128, 129 Kilns, brick, used in making charcoal, 200 Kinds of paper, manufactured, 22 — — —, relative value of, 20 . — — wood, prices by, 10 Kino, for tanning, 64 —, production and use of, 86 —, tannin contents of, 64 Klemm, Paul, handbook on papermaking, 59 Kline Company, excelsior machines, 431 Knapp, J. B., on western red cedar, 372 —,— —, on world’s box shook industry, 261 Koller, T., on wood waste, 59 Koch, on cross tie investigation, 279, 280 Kraft paper, 47, 48 : Kressman, on dye woods, 420 — —, F. W., on osage orange, 423 L Labor, cost of, in hardwood distillation, 213 Labor in acid factories, 213 Lagging, (6 pieces) equivalent, 15 Laichinger, P., on cork, 443 Lake states, distillation plants in, 202 — —, posts cut in, 326, 328 — —, stand of timber in, 4 Landol phia, spp., 406 INDEX 457 Larch, distillation, 227 —, (including tamarack), amount for boxes, 251 — for tanning, 65 —, lumber cut, 8 —, (tamarack), lumber value, 10 —, western, cross ties, amount, 267 —,—, ties, durability, 293 Latex, collecting, 409, 410 —, source of rubber, 404, 405 Lath, annual consumption and wastage, 5 —, wastage, 5 Lawson, P. V., on papermaking in Wiscon- sin, 59 Leather, manufacturer, reference, 87 — World, reference to, 87 Leaver, J. M., on box estimator, 261 Life of mine timbers, 334, 335 Lightwood used for distillation, 227 Lima-wood, 417 Lime, acetate of,—see acetate of lime Limestone used in making sulphite acid, 41 Limnoria, damage to piling, 320 Linear foot, equivalent, 15 Liquors, spent, recovery of, 50 Little, A. D., on chemistry of papermaking, 58 —, — —, — softwood distillation, 225 Load, equivalents, 17 —, (in the rough), equivalents, 15 Loading, chestnut poles, illustration of, 315 —, southern white cedar poles, illustration of, 318 Locust, black, ties, durability, 293 —, poles, amount, 303 —, posts, 326 Log chutes, 68, 69 Logging, poles and piling, 310 —, shingle bolts, 354, 355, 356 —, waste in, 11 Logos rubber, 406 Logwood, 416, 417 —, prices of, 417 Louisiana, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Loss of wood in manufacture of saw set 13 Lumber and timbers, 11 —— —, export, IT —, annual production of, 6 —, cut, history of, 2 —, —, use of, 11 Lumber, production, by states, 3, 7 —, —, changes in, 3 —, quality of, used for lumber, 249 —, used for boxes, 248 —, values, 9, 10 —, wastage in producing, 5 McGill, A., on maple syrup, 400 McKoy cup, illustration of collecting resin with, 176 Machine, die stamping, 98 —, for chamfering, howeling and crozing tight barrels, illustration of, 161 Machines, excelsior, 428 —, listing, illustration of, 155 Poh shingle, 356 Madelura tinctoria, 418 Magnolia, amount for boxes, 251 Mahogany, sawed veneers, 1or —, sliced veneers, 99 —, used for veneers, 90, 94, 95, 99, 106 —, veneer, prices, 95 —, veneers, use, 106 Maine, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Malaya rubber plantations, 407 Management of timber lands for hardwood distillation, 195 Mangabeira, rubber, 406 Mangrove bark, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 82, 83, 84 — —, production of, 82 — —, use of in Europe, 83 — —, tannin contents of, 64 Manicobas, rubber, 406 Manihot glaziovii, rubber, 406 Manihots, rubber, 406 F Manufacture of boxes, 253 — — cork, 438, 440 — — dyestuffs, 415 — — maple syrup and sugar, 390 — — mechanical pulp, 31 — — paper from wood pulp, so —— — slack cooperage stock, 122 — — soda pulp, 48 — — sulphate pulp, 47 — — sulphite pulp, 38 — — tight staves and heading, 153 Manufacturing tight staves, cost of, 155 458 Maple, amount for boxes, 251 —., black, used for syrup, 370 —, boiling for veneers, 97 — cross ties, amount, 267 — for pulp, 26, 27, 29, 48 —, fuel value, 342 —, hard, charcoal yield, 239 —, hard, for charcoal, 236 —, hard, ties, durability, 293 —, —, used for distillation, 192, 193, 217 —, —, — — tight cooperage, 146 —,—, veneers, amount used, 93 —, —, veneer logs, prices, 93 =, —} 8s 2065 107 — hoops, 131 —, lumber cut, 4, 8 —, lumber value, 10 —, Oregon, 379 —, red, used for syrup, 379 —., silver, used for syrup, 379 —, soft, charcoal yield, 239 —, soft, excelsior, 426 —., staves, sizes, 40 — sugar orchard, conditions for commercial operations, 381 — syrup and sugar, making process, 394 —, sugar, used for syrup and sugar, 378 — syrup and sugar, uses of, 398 — — — —,, value of product, 398 —— — —, woods operations, 385 — — — —,, yields of, 396 — —, history, 374 — —, sap flow and season, 382 — tree with 32 buckets, illustration of, 399 — used in mines, 332 —, weight, 193 Maples, species of, used for syrup and sugar, 378 Mariller, C., on charcoal making, 247 Marine borers, damage by, 320 Maritime pine, 185, 186 — —, illustration of tapping, 186 — — used for naval stores, 185, 186 Marquis, R., on cork, 443 Martin, Geoffrey, on charcoal and wood dis- tillation, 223 Maryland, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 339 — Wood Products Co. plant, illustration of 194 Mason, D. T., on utilization of lodgepole pine, 334, 335 INDEX Massachusetts, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3 —, wood fuel used, 339 Material, raw, used for paper pulp, 28 Mathey, on charcoal burning, 241 Mattoon, W. R., on southern cypress, 373 Maxwell, H., on wooden and fiber boxes, 261 Mechanical process of pulp making, woods used in, 29 pulp, cost of producing, 37, 38 — value of ties, 295 Mell, C. D., on fustic wood, 423 ——— —, — tanbark oak, 37 Method of piling poles, 320 — — using “S” irons, 291 © Methods of making veneers, go — — manufacture, rubber, 411 — — rubber production, 404 — — tapping rubber trees, illustration of 409 Metric ton, equivalents, 16 Mexico, rubber, 406 Michigan, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Mileage, railway, 263 Mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 — — used for fuel, 340, 341 Miller, W., on American Paper-mills, 59 —, Warner, 21 Mimosa, 86 Mimusops balata, rubber, 406 Mine timbers, amount used, 330, 331, 332 — —, annual consumption, 5 — —, causes of destruction, 335 — —, cost of making, 334 — —, durability, 334, 335 — —, general, 330 — —, kinds, 330, 331, 332 et ee prices of, 332, 333 — —, specifications, 333 — —, value of, 332 — —, wastage, 5 Mining timber, equivalent, 15 Mines, number, 330 Minnesota, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 ‘ —, wood fuel used, 339 Mississippi, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 — River, barging ties on, 285 —, wood fuel used, 339 INDEX Missouri, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3 —, wood fuel used, 339 Mock orange, 420 Moe, Carl, on making sulphate pulp, 48 Mohr, on southern timber pines, 188 '. Montana, box lumber consumption, 252 _ —, burning charcoal, 240, 241 —, lumber cut, 7 —, tie study-in, 279, 280 —, wood fuel used, 339 Mora, dye wood, 418 Morus tinctoria, 418 Mover, J., on wood distillation, 223 Mozambique rubber, 406 Mulberry posts, 326 Mulford, Walter, data on volume of hemlock bark, 7o ec tears nuts, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, = Pee SO ol 84 Siveibalses. tannin contents of, 64 N Nail spikes, 295, 296, 207 National Association of Box Manufacturers quoted, 248 — -— — Box Manufacturers, specifications, 255 — Canners’ Association, specifications, 255 — Coopers’ Association, rules and specifica- tion of, 162 — Lumber Manufacturers’ Association, con- ference of, 373 — Slack Cooperage Association, grading tules, 140 oe ae weights adopted by, 137 — Veneer and Panel Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation, rules of, 109 Naval stores, annua! production of, 167, 168 — —, boxing trees in collecting, 170 Peg chipping, 17t — —, dipping, operation of, 172 — —, distillation of, 178 — — experiment in Araons, illustration of 177 — —, French methods of, 185 — —, general, 165 — — industry, tools and utensils used in, Llustration of, 178 — —, quantity and value of, 169 ——,— — —— exports of, 169 459 Naval stores Review, data from, 169, ee 185 — —, scraping faces, 172 — —, source of products, 167 — —, table of production in 1918, 168 — —, utilization of products of, 183 — —, woods operation, 169 — —, yields of, 182 Nebraska, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 3390 Nellis, J. C., data by, 12 —,— —, on woods used for boxes, 250, 251, 252, 261 _ Nelson, John M., on mine timbers, 335 New England, cost of boxes in, 254 New Hampshire, box lumber consumption 252 — —, lumber cut, 7 — —, wood fuel used, 339 New Jersey, box lumber consumption, 252 — —, wood fuel used, 339 Newlin, J. A., on tests of packing boxes, aes New Mexico, wood fuel used, 339 Newsprint Service Bureau, report to, 38 New York, box lumber consumption, 252 —- —, hardwood distillation in, 190, 191, 192, _ 202 — —, importance of in manufacture of wood pulp and paper, 26, 27 -— —, lumber cut, 3. 7 — —, production of sugar and syrup, 380, 381, 383, 307 —— State College of Forestry, bulletin issued by, 189 , investigation by, 196 — —, wood fuel used, 339 Nevada and Utah, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 339 Nicaragua, rubber, 406 — wood, dyes, 417 North and South Dakota, box lumber con- sumption, 252 North Carolina, box lumber consumption, 252 — —, lumber cut, 3, 7 — —, wood fuel used, 339 North Dakota, wood fuel used, 339 Northwest, fuel in, 340 Northwestern Cedarmen’s Association, ae specifications, 305 . Norton, T. H., on dyestufis, 423 J 460 Norton, T. H., on tanning materials, 88 —,— —, reference to, 64 Novelties, 11 Number of cross ties purchased, 267 — — tanning consumers, 61 — — ties per thousand board feet, 279 Oo Oak, amount for boxes, 251 — bark for tanning, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 78 —, black, bark, contents of, 64 —,—, for tanning, 64, 78 —,, boiling for veneers, 97 —, charcoal yield, 239 —-, chestnut, for tanning, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73 —, cork, 433, 434 — cross ties, amount, 267 — for charcoal, 236 —, fuel value, 342 — hoops, 131 —, Japanese, used for veneers, 94 —, lumber cut, 8, 9 —, lumber value, 10 — poles, 301 — —, amount, 303 —, properties of, 1 —, quartered, veneers, prices, 95 —, — white, used for veneers, go, 93, 95, 106 —, red, bark, tannin contents of, 64 —, —, for tanning, 64 —,—, sliced veneers, 99 —,—, ties, durability, 293 —, —, used for tight cooperage, 143 _— staves, slack, sizes, 140 —., tanbark, for tanning, 64, 75, 76 —, —, harvesting, 75 —, —, peeling, illustration of, 76 —, time for burning charcoal, 241 — used for distillation, 192, 217 — — — slack cooperage, 119, 121 — — in mines, 332 — veneer cores, use of, 108 —, veneers, prices, 95 —~ —, use, 106 J —, white, bark, tanning contents of, 64 —, white, drain on, for tight cooperage, 144 145, 148, 149, 150 —,—, for tanning, 64, 78 —,—, poles, durability, 320 —, —, posts, 326 —, —, quartered, sawed veneers, 101 —,—, sliced veneer, 99 INDEX foak, white, ties, durability, 293 —, —, used for tight cooperage, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147 —,—, varieties of, used for tight cooperage, 146 —, —, veneers, amount used, 92 Ohio, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3 ~—, maple sugar and syrup production, 380, 381, 383, 397 —, wood fuel used, 339 Oklahoma, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 339 Open pit method, yield by, 238 Operating costs, ties, 285 Operation, cost of, hardwood distillation plants, 216 — of hardwood distillation plant, 216 Opportunities of waste utilization in dis- tillation, softwood, 225 Oregon, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Osage orange, 416 — —, dye wood, 419 — — poles, amount, 303 Ovens, cooling, 209 —,; —, illustration of, 203 —, distillation, 209 P Pacific northwest, stand of timber in, 4 Packing shingles, 365 Padouk used for veneers, 94 Pails used to collect maple syrup, illustration of, 388 Palaquium gutta, rubber, 406 Palmer, R. C., on distillation of resinous woods and hardwoods, 223, 224 —;— , — —— woods, 231, 232; 234 Palmetto used for tanning, 79 Paper, kinds of manufactured, 22 — machine, description of, 54, 55 —, manufacture of from wood pulp, 50 — mill, first in United States, 20 — — in Italy, first, 20 Paper Mill, The, reference to, 59 —, reference to, 35, 48, 50 — Trade Journal, reference to, 59 Papier-mache, 22 Para rubber, 402 — a ee INDEX Para rubber in plantations, 408 Pine, lodgepole, lumber cut, 8 Parthenium argentatum, 406 —, —, — value, 10 Peach wood, 417 —,—, poles, durability, 320 Peeling cross ties, illustration of, 268 — hemlock bark in North Carolina, illustra- tion, 62 — — —,, season for, 67 — poles, 313 Pennsylvania, box lumber consumption, 252 —, charcoal making in, 237 —, importance in use of mine timbers, 331 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, mine timber specifications, 333 —, wood fuel used, 339 Per capitaconsumption of forest Grodacts, « 5,6 Percentage of loss in manufacture of saw logs, 13 Pernambuco-wood, 417 Persia, 20 Peters, E. W., on preservation of mine tim- bers, 335 Picea canadensis, 24 — excelsa, charcoal yield, 238 — rubens, 24 — silchensis, 24 Picket, equivalent, 15 Piece, equivalent, 15 Pierson, A. H., on oe of firewood, 35° Pile, equivalents, 15 Z Piling, 299 —, annual consumption ae wastage, 5 —, danger from marine borers, 321 —,, life of, untreated, 32 —, logging, 310 — method, illustratior. of, 317 —, preservative of, 321 —, specifications, 3¢7 —, substitutes for, 325 — ties, method of, 289 —, wastage, 5 Pinchot, G., on turpentine orcharding, 188 Pine, Cuban, for distillation, 227 —, —, used for naval stores, 167 — for pulp, 26. 27, 31, 48 —, jack for pvip, 26, 29 —, loblolly, poles, durability, 320 —, —, standing timber, 4 —, —, ties, durability, 293 —, longleaf, characters of, x —, — for distillation, 227 —, —, poles, durability, 320 —; —s Posts, 326 —, —, ties, durability, 293 —, —, used for naval stores, 167 —, Norway for distillation, 227 —, —, standing timber, 4 —, pitch, charcoal yield, 239 — poles, 301 — —, amount, 303 461 — Products Co., Ga., view of plant, 228 —, shortleaf, for distillation, 227 —, — posts, 329 aS ee ties, durability > 203 —., slash, used for naval stores, 167 = Rpt sa cross ties, amount, 267 —, hoops, 131 Be ae dealing timber, € —, — —, veneers, use, 106, 107 —, sugar, amount for boxes, 251 —, —, lumber cut, 8 —, —, — value, 10 —, —, standing timber, 4 — staves, stack, 125 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — — in mines, 332 — veneer cores, 108 —, western, boiling for veneers, 97 —, —, shingles, durability, 369 —,—, veneers, use, 106 —, — yellow, amount for boxes, 251 —, — —, cross ties, amount, 267 —, — —, excelsior, 426 —, — —, for distillation, 227 —, — —, for naval stores, 167, 177 —, — —, lumber value, 10 —,— —, poles, durability, 320 —,— —, tapped for naval stores, 177 —,——,, ties, durability, 293 —, white, amount for boxes, 251 —, —, charcoal yield, 239 —, —, excelsior, 426 462 Pine, white, for boxes, 248 © —,—, for pulp, 26, 29 —, —, fuel value, 342 —, —, lumber cut, 4, 8, 9 —, —, — value, 10 —, —) posts, 329 —, —, shingles, durability, 369 —,—, standing timber, 4 —, —, ties, durability, 293 —, —, used for tight cooperage, 146 —, —, yield in pulp, 37 —, yellow, charcoal yield, 239 —, —, heading, weights, 139 —,—, (including North Carolina pine), amount for boxes, 251 —, —, lumber value, 10 —,—, veneers, amount used, 93 Pines, resinous, for distillation, 225 — used for boxes, 249 Pinus echinata, 9, 227 — divaricata, 9 — heterophylla, 167, 227 — —, used for naval stores, 167 — maritima, 185 — —, charcoal yield, 238 — —, used for naval stores, 185 — monticola, 9 — palustris, 9, 167 — —, used for naval stores, 167 — ponderosa, 97 — —, veneers, 97 — resinosa, 9 — strobus, 9 — sylvestris, charcoal yield, 238 — taeda, 9 Pipe line to collect maple sap, illustration of, 389 Pistacia lenticus, 64 Planing mill products, 11 Plant and equipment, cost of, 213 — equipment, hardwood distillation, 206 —, distillation, cooling ovens used in, 203 —,—, cost of, 206 —, largest New York distillation, 209 — operation, hardwood distillation, 213 —, slack cooperage, ground plan of, 122 —, softwood distillation, illustration of, 228 —, wood distillation, Cobbs-Mitchell Co., illustration of, 202 Plantations, rubber, 407 —, —, acreage, 408 Planted rubber, method of tapping, 409 INDEX Plate screen, diaphragm, illustration of, 55 Pole and pile timbers, qualifications desired in, 299 —, (fence), equivalent, 15 —, (telephone) equivalents, 15 — production, summary of costs, 318 — tie, 264 — yard in Idaho, illustration of, 315 — — — Germany, illustration of, 324 Poles, amount treated, 323 —, amount used, 300 — and piling, general, 299 —, annual consumption and wastage, 5 —, cedar, weights, 309 -—, chestnut, loading, illustration of, 315 —,—, prices of, 306 —, felling and peeling, 313 —, length of service, 319 Pa logging, 310 —, method of piling, illustration of, 320 —, number of, used, 299 —, peeling, illustration of, 302 —, preservative treatment, 321 —, prices, 304 — required for car-load lots, 317 —, seasoning, 314, 315 —, — months, 316 —, shipping, 314 —, skidding, 214 —,southern white cedar, illustration of loading, 318 —, specifications, 304 —, stumpage value 312 —, substitutes for, 325 —., treating, illustration of, 322 —, value of, 209 —, wastage, 5 —, western red cedar, j eight of treatment, . 324 —, yarding, 314 Pontianak rubber, 406 Poplar, Carolina, posts, 320 — for pulp, 25, 27, 31 — used for wood pulp, 25 — — in mines, 332 —, yellow, amount for boxes, 251 —, —, boiling for veneers, 97 —,—, charcoal yield, 239 Spe tor pulp, 20, 48 —, —, logs, prices, 93, 94 —, —, lumber cut, 8 —,—, — value, 10 INDEX Poplar, yellow, posts, 329 —,—, veneer cores, use of, 108 —, yield in pulp, 37 Portugal, cork production in, 433 Post, cost of treating, 329 —, (circumference 18 in.), equivalent, 15 —, equivalent, 15 —, fence, annual consumption and wastage, 5 —, —, wastage, 5 —, general, 326 — in place, illustration of, 32> —, number used, 326 —., preservative treatment, 328, 329 —, principal sources of, 328 —, requirements for desirable, 327 Potts, H. F., on rubber, 413 Power used in pulp mill, 45 Precious metal mines, timber used in, 332 Prentice, H. W., on cork, 443 Preservative treatment of poles and piling, 321 — — — posts, illustration of, 328 eC ee shingles, 369, 370 Preservatives, kinds of, 294 Press rolls, paper, 56 ; Prices, excelsior, 425 — of charcoal, 245 — — dry distillation products, 230 — — fuel wood, 348 — per thousand board feet, lumber, 10 Pritchard, T. W., on wood distillation, 234 Process, distillation of, hardwood, 203, 204, 205 — of making maple syrup and sugar, 394 — — wood pulp manufacture, 27 —, softwood distillation, description, 228 Processes used in making charcoal, 238 Producing hemlock bark, cost of, 69 Production, annual, of lumber, 6 —, —, — veneers, 94 — by dry distillation system, 229 —, cost of by softwood distillation, 230 —, lumber, by states, 7 — of charcoal, annual, 236 — — poles and piling, 310 — — rubber, 410 — — —, methods, 404 — — sugar maple and syrup, 380 —, shingles, annual, 353 Products, forest, wastage in production of, 12 —, utilization of hardwood distillation, 220 463 Products, utilization of, in softwood distil- lation, 232 —, value of, in hardwood distillation, 218 Prop, equivalent, 15 — timber, 333 Protection of ties against mechanical wear, 204 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 9 Plerocarpus santalinoides, 419 — santalinus, 418 Pulp and papermaking, history of, 20 —., bleaching, 51 —, collecting (soda), 50 —, — of, on lap or press machine, 44 —, coloring, 54 = s drying, 45 —, mhechanical, the manufacture of, 31 — mill, photograph of, 25 — —, power required in, 45 — —, requirements for the establishment of, 31, 32 —., sizing and loading, 53 —, soda, manufacture of, 48 —, —, washing, 49 — stock, screening of, 35 —, sulphate, manufacture of, 47 —, —, cost of producing, 45, 46 —, —, manufacture of, 38 —., yield of, from different woods, 37 Pulpwood, annual consumption and wastage, 5 == —0f 122 —, consumption by states, 26, 27 — —., table of, 29 —, forecast of future requirements, 18 —., logging and transportation, 28 —, value of, 30 —, wastage, 5 Pulpwoods, imports of, 57 —, requirements of desirable, 22 Pusey-Jones Co., photograph by, 39 Q Qualities desired in box woods, 249 — — — cross ties, 267, 268 Quebrachia lorentzii, 79 Quebracho, description and production of, 79 —, export of from Argentina, 81 — for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 79, 80, 81, 82 —, imports to United States of, 82 —, tannin contents of, 64 —, weight of, 79 464 INDEX Quercitron, 65, 78, 79 —, dye wood, 419 Quercus acuminata, 146 — alba, 146 — egilops, 85 — cerrus for charcoal, 244, 245 — densiflora, 75 — macrocar pa, 146 — minor, 146 — platanoides, 146 — prinus, 71 — suber, 433 velulina, 78 — —, dyes, 416 Quermos for tanning, 65 Quintal, equivalents, 16 R Rabate on French naval stores industry, 188 Rail, (split), equivalent, 15 Railroad Administration, U. S., tie specifica- tions, 274 — tie specifications, 271, 272 Railway mileage in United States, 263 Rambong rubber, 406 Rate of consumption of lumber, 5 Raw material, excelsior, 427 Raymond, W. C., on cross ties, 298 Record of sap seasons, 383 —, S. J., on cork oak in the United States, 443 —,——, — fuel value of wood, 350 —,—-—,-— sources of vegetable tannins, reference, 88 Recovery of spent liquors, 50 Red spruce—see eastern spruce Redwood, amount for boxes, 251 — cross ties, amount, 267 — fuel value, 342 —, lumber cut, 8 —, — value, 10 — poles, amount, 303 — —, durability, 320 — posts, 326 — shakes, 370 — shingles, durability, 369 —, standing timber, 4 — ties, durability, 293 Reed, L. J., on storage of ship cargoes, 261 Refrigeration, cork for, 441 Refining crude alcohol, 212 Rehm, N. F., on ties and tie plates, 298 Requirements of a good tie, 267 — — desirable pulp woods, 22 — for establishment of a pulp mill, 30 Retort house for distillation, hardwood, 207 Retorts, distillation, 208 —, iron, used in hardwood distillation, 200 —, oven, used in hardwood distillation, 2or — used in cooking sulphite pulp, 41, 42 Resin flow in tapping for naval stores, 167 Resinous woods, fuel value, 343 Rhizophora mangle, Linn., 82 Rhode Island, box lumber consumption, 252 — —, wood fuel used, 339 Rhus coriaria, 85 — glabra, 79 — lyphina, 79 Richards, A. M., photograph by, 19, 25 Rifle tie, 264, Rocky Mountains, fuel in, 340 Rolls, drying, paper, 56 Rosewood sawed veneers, 102 — used for veneers, 90 Rosin and turpentine, production of, 168, 169 — barrels, 181 —-, grades of, 180 — market prices at Savannah, 185 — sizing, 53 —, uses of, 232 —, utilization of, 184 Rotary veneer machine, illustration of, ox Rubber, African, 406 —, collecting, illustration of, 409 — Company, U. S., illustration by, 407, 409 —, general, 4o1 —, history, 402 —, methods of manufacture, 411 —, — — production, 404 —, Para, in plantations, 408 — plantation, illustration of, 402 — plantations, 407 — —, acreage, 408 — —, investments in, 408, 409 — —, spacing trees, 409 — production, 401, 410 —, sources of supply, 404 —, uses, 412 —, values, 401, 402, 412 — vulcanizing, 403 Rule, Doyle, used in measuring stave and heading logs, 137 Rules, grading, shingle, 360 Russia, 2 eS ——— ee eo Oe ee 1. ee INDEX Ryan, V. H., on the manufacture of charcoal, 247 Sabal palmetto, 79 Sackett, H. S., on wooden and fiber boxes, 261 Sadtler, S. P., on dyestuffs, 423 Sandalwood, 418 Sap flow and season, maple syrup, 382 — —, maple, conditions of, 383, 384 Sappan-wood, 417 Sargent, C. S., on forests of North America 35° —, — —, — fuel wood, 337 Sassafras posts, 326 Satinwood used for veneers, 94 Saunderswood, 418 Savannah, rosin market prices at, 185 Sawed versus hewed ties, 269 ; — ties, factors in favor of, 270 Saw kerf, width of, 14 — logs, loss of wood in manufacture of, 13 Sawmill, first, at Berwick, Maine, 2 —, — steam, 90 Sawmills, capacity of, 6 —, wood fuel used by, 341 Schenck, C. A., on heating power of wood arte ed Schlich, Wm., on utilization, 247 Schorger, A. W., and H. S. Betts, data from, 176, 177, 183 — and Betts, diagram of still by, 182 —,—-—-,on oleoresins, 188 Scraping turpentine faces, 172 Screening pulp stock, 35 — sulphite ships, 40 — — pulp, 43 Screw spikes, 205, 296, 297 Season for pe ling hemlock bark, 67 Seasoning and weights of hardwood used for distillation, 193 Seeligman, T., on rubber, 413 Sequoia sempervirens, 326 Seville, Spain, cork factory in, 438, 439 Shake, equivalent, 15 — making, 370 Shakes, cost of, 371, 372 —, history, 351 —, illustration of, 371 —, redwood, 351; 37° —, sugar pine, 351, 370 465 Sheds, charcoal, 208 Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels, illustration of, 103 Sherfesee, W. F., on seasoning ties, 291 Shingle bolts, logging, 354 — machines, 356 — packer, illustration of, 366 — substitutes, 367 — weights, 367 — woods, qualifications of, 352 Shingles. annual consumption and wastage, 5 —, annual production, 353 —, covering capacities, 364 —, durability, 352, 368 —, history. 351 —, laying, 364 —, packing and shipping, 365 —, preservative treatment, 368, 369 —, Prices, 363, 364 —, raw material, 354 | —, Specifications and grading rules, 360 —, wastage, 5 Shinn, C. H., on shake making, 373 Shipping shingles, 365 = — ton, equivalents, 17 Shooks, amount, 248 —, export, 260 Shrinkage in wood, 345 Sierra National Forest, California, illustra- tion of tools and utensils used on naval stores experiment, 178 Sindall and Bacon, on testing of wood pulp, 59 Singapore, rubber experiments, 407 Sitka or western spruce for pulp, 24 Size of pulp mills, 23, 24 Sizes of boxes, 254 — — cans used in boxes, 259 Skidding poles, 314 — ties, 283 Slab, equivalent, 15 Slabs, amount used for pulp, 27, 29 Slabwood used for fuel, 340, 341 — — — paper pulp, 14 Slack cooperage—see cooperage, slack — — stock, manufacture of, 122 Slasher used in pulp mills, 31 Smith, A. M., on printing and writing materials, 59 —, C. S., on preservation of piling, 325 —, Franklin H., on statistics of pulpwood consumption, 28, 59 466 INDEX Smith, J. E. A., on history of paper, 59 Society of Chemical Industry, Journal, ref- erence to, 87 Soda process of pulp making woods used in, 29 — pulp, cooking, 40 — —, manufacture of, 48 — —, washing, 49 Softwood distillation—see distillation, soft- wood — mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 — ties, seasoning, 289 Softwoods for paper pulp, 22 —, lumber value, 10 — too light for distillation, 192 . — used for staves, unsteamed, 125 — — in mines, 331, 332 Solvents used in extraction process, 231 Somers, Montana, sawing ties at, 273 Sorting cork, illustration of, 440 Sources of rubber supply, 404 — — supply, fuel wood, 340 South Carolina, box lumber consumption, 252 — —, lumber cut, 7 — —, wood fuel used, 339 —, cross tie production, 266 — Dakota, wood fuel used, 339 Southern pine for pulp, 21, 26, 29, 47 — — regions, stand of timber in, 4 — Cypress Mfrs. Assoc., shingle grades, 362 Spain, 20 —, charcoal used in, 235 —, cork production in, 433 —, exports of cork, 443 Species used for boxes, 250 Specific gravity of charcoal, 239 — —, various species, 342 — —, woods used for charcoal, 239 Specification of mine timbers, 333 Specifications and rules for tight cooperage stock, 162 oat. box, 254 —, piling, 307 (ig poles, 304 —., shingle, 360 Spicer, A. D., on the paper trade, 59 Spikes, effect of, on ties, Spruce, amount for boxes, 251 —, eastern standing timber, 4 — excelsior, 426 Spruce for pulp, 18, 19, 24, 26, 27, 20, 31, 38 ~ — fuel value, 342 —, kinds of, used for pulp, 24 —, length of cooking for pulp, 43 — lumber cut, 8 —, lumber value, ro —, Norway, charcoal yield, 238 — poles, amount, 303 — posts, 329 — pulp, price, 45, 47 — shingles, durability, 369 — staves, slack, 125 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — — — tight cooperage, 146 — — in mines, 332 — veneers, use, 107 —, western, standing timber, 4 —, yield in pulp, 37 Squared pole tie, 264 Stake, (fence), equivalent, 15 Standard, St. Petersburg, 15 States, consumption of pulp wood by, 26, 27 —,— — wood fuel by, 339 —, important lumber producing, 7 —-, lumber production by, 3 —, principal, using boxes, 250, 252 Stave bolts, method of cutting logs into, illustration of, 120 — —, tight, method of riving, illustration of, 144 — cutter, illustration of, 116 — jointer, illustration of, 158 — jointers, illustration of, 155 — mill, bolt equalizer in, illustration of, 153 — —, tight, cost of equipment of, 156. —, patent elm, 119 — saw, illustration of, 125 —, split, emerging from bucker knives, illustration of, 154 Staves and heading, tight, manufacture of, 153 —, Bourbon, 148 —, heating tight, illustration of, 160 —, method of riving tight, diagram showing, 150 —, rived, 149 —, seasoning of, 126 —, slack, grading rules for, 140 —,—, manufacture of, 123 , —, —, production of, 116 —, tight, cost of manufacturing, 155 i iD lid ie, gl Om ee INDEX 467 Staves, tight, exports of, from the United States, 164 —, —, piled for seasoning, illustration of, I 57 Stay, equivalent, 15 Steam distillation, 230 Stecher, G. E., on cork, 443 Stere, equivalents, 16 Stevens, H. P., on rubber, 413 Stick, equivalents, 15 Still house, 210 — —, interior, illustration of, 211 Stills, hardwood distillation, 205 —,, lime lee, 205 Setaes tubs in hardwood ditMation. 205 — yards for hardwood distilling, 206 Strachan, James, on waste paper, 59 Stripping cork bark, 435, 436, 437 Stryker, J. B., on foreign veneer and panel manufacture, 114 Stull, equivalents, 15 Stumpage value of cross ties, 277 — values of hardwood distillation wood, 192, 193 — — — poles, 312 Substitutes for poles and piling, 325 —, shingle, 367 Sudan, rubber, 406 Sudworth, G. B., on fustic wood, 423 Sugar house, 390 ar ee ground plan, 397 — —, illustration of, 390 — —, interior, illustration of, 395 —, maple—see maple sugar — —, tapping, photograph of, 375 — pine shakes, 370 Suitable timber for hewing ties, 278 Sulphate process of pulp making woods used in, 29 — pulp, description of process of making, 47, 48 ——, imports of from Scandinavia, 47 — —, manufacture of, 47 Sulphite cellulose for tanning, 65 — process of pulp making, woods used in, 29 — pulp, collection of, on.lap or press machine, 44 — —, cost of producing, 45, 46 — —, manufacture of, 38 — —, screening, 43 — —, washing, 43 Sumach, American, for tanning, 64, 78, 79 —, —, tannin contents of, 64 Sumach for tanning, 60, 63, 65 —, imported, 85 —, Mexican, 86 —, production of, 78, 79 —., Sicilian for tanning, 64, 85 —, —, tannin contents of, 64 —, staghorn, dye wood, 419 —, Venetian, 419 Sumatra rubber plantation, illustration of, 407 —,— — in, 402 Sump, in distillation plant, 204 Supply of tanning materials, world’s, 64 Sweden, charcoal methods in, 235, 236 —, sulphate process in, 21 Sycamore, amount for boxes, 251 —, charcoal yield, 239 — for pulp, 26, 29 — lumber cut, 8 —, — value, 10 - —, sliced veneers, 99 Syrup and sugar making, cost of equipment, 302 —,, boiling down, illustration of, 377 —, maple—see maple syrup Sylvan, Helge on charcoal making, 247 T Table of charcoal yields, 239 Tabor, H. C., analysis of hemlock bark by, 77 Tamarack, eastern, cross ties, amount, 267 — for pulp, 26, 20, 47 —, fuel’'value, 342 —, poles, amount, 303 —, see also larch — staves, slack, 125 — ties, durability, 293 Tanbark oak, harvesting, 75, 76 — —, tannin contents of, 64 Tanneries in United States, 61 Tanners’ Council of the United States, table on tanning materials, supplied by, 65 Tannery, leather, illustration of, 74 Tannin contents of principal sources, 64 —, forms of, 60 Tanning by Chinese, 61 — materials, 60 — —, annual consumption of, 1918, 65 — —, chrome, 65 — —, foreign introduction of to United States, 62, 63 — —, history of, 61, 62, 63, 64 468 ; INDEX Tanning materials, imports of, 86, 87 Tannins, wood and bark, annual consump- tion and wastage, 5 5, Wastares:s Tapping rubber trees, 404, 405 — — —, illustration of, 407 — sugar maple with bit, illustration of, 386 — trees, maple, 385 Tar oils, uses of, 232 —, wood, uses of, 222 —,—, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 721 Teak sawed veneers, 102 Teeple’s experiment in softwood distillation, 233 Teeple, John E., on waste pine wood utiliza- | tion, 234 —, J. E., on waste wood distillation, 224 Temperatures used in boiling logs for cutting veneers, 97 Tennessee, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Terminalia chebula, 84 Teredo, damage to piling, 320 Texas, box lumber consumption, 252 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Thuja occidentalis, poles, 300 plicata, poles, 300 Tie, equivalents, 15 —, (2d class), equivalents, 15 —, (narrow gauge), equivalents, 15 —, (Standard). equivalents, 15 — hacker making ties, illustration of, 265 — plates, use of, 297 Ties, cross, annual consumption and wastage, 5 —, —, wastage, 5 —, — see cross ties. Tilghman, discoverer of chemical pulp, 21 Tight cooperage—see cooperage, tight, etc. Timber lands, management of, for hardwood distillation, 195 — owned by government, 4 —, standing, owned by pulp companies, 28 —, stand of, by regions and species, 4 Timbers, mine—see mine timbers — used for piling, 321 Time required for charcoal burning, 241 — — — hardwood distillation, 204 Tower system of making acid, 40, 41 Toyylon pomiferum, 420 Trackage and cars, distillation, 207 Treated ties, number, 294 Treating posts, cost, 329 Trevor stave bolt equalizer, 124 Trestle timber, equivalents, 15 Triangular cross ties, 273, 274 — ties, advantages of, 273, 274 | — —, disadvantages of, 274 Trucks, distillation, cost of, 208 Tsuga canadensis, 9 — heterophylla, 9, 63, 77 — mertensiana, 77 Tupelo, amount for boxes, 251 - —, lumber cut, 8 —, — value, 10 — used for slack cooperage, 121 — veneers, use, 107 Turnbull, John H., distillation plant by, 190 Turpentine and rosin, exports of, 169 — — —,, production of, for 1918, 168 — barrels, 181 —, prices of, 184 — still, diagrammatic cross-section of, 182 — —.,, illustration of, 179 —, utilization of, 183 —, yield per crop of, 182 Turpentining, effect of, on strength and durability of lumber, 166 —, French methods of, 185, 186 U Uncaria acida, 86 — gambier, 86 Use of lumber cut, rr —- sawmill and other waste for paper pulp, 29, 30 — — wood, annual, 11 Uses of cork, 440 — — excelsior, 425 — — maple syrup and sugar, 398 —, rubber, 412 Utah, wood fuel used, 339 Utilization in European countries, 12 — of charcoal, 245 — — cork, 440 — — products, hardwood distillation, 220 — — — of naval stores industry, 183 —-— sawmill and wood’s waste for hard- wood distillation, 194 — — softwood distillation products, 232 — — veneers, 105, 106, 107 Oe —————————— a —— sl OE — Se ——“—n wa a INDEX Utilization of waste in manufacture of slack cooperage, 135, 136 — — wood in hardwood distillation, 192 Vv Vallombrosa, Italy, charcoal pits, illustration of, 246 Volonia for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 85 —, production and use of, 85 —, tannin contents of, 64 Van Metre, R., on woods suitable for cross ties, 295 Varieties of white oak used for tight cooper- age, 146 Value of export shooks, 260 — — fuel wood, 337, 339, 348 —_ — — — per cord, 339 — — kinds of paper, 20 — — maple syrup and sugar, 398 — — mine timbers, 332 — — natural dyestuffs, 414 — — poles used, 299 — — principal uses, rubber, 412 — — products, hardwood distillation, 218 — — pulpwood, 30 — — tanning materials, 60 —, stumpage, cross ties, 277 — — tight cooperage products, 148 Values, fuel, 341 —, lumber, per thousand board feet, 9, 10 —, stumpage, poles, 312 Vehicles, amount, 11 — and vehicle parts, 11 Veitch, F. P., on chemical methods of utiliz- ing woods, 224 —,—-—, — commercial turpentine, 188 —,—-—,— on estimate of naval stores production 168 —, --—, — papermaking materials, 59 —, — —,, reference to, 64 Veneer flitches, diagram of, 113 — grading rules, 109, 110, 111 — logs, prices of, 93, 94 — machine, rotary, illustration of, 91, 97 — mill, the “U” plan of, 111 —, plywood or built-up stock, 103 — woods, qualifications desired in, 91, 92 —, slicing machine in operation, illustration of, 100 Veneers, annual consumption and wastage, 5 —, — production of and values, 94 —, cost of making, 99 469 Veneers, general, 89 —, history of, 89 —, making sawed, illustration of, 102 —, methods of making, 90 oe prices of, 95 —, rotary cut, description of process of making, 95, 96, 97 —, sawed, process of making, 1o1 —, sliced, process of making, 99 —, table showing percentage of making, 108 —, thickness of, 94 —- used for cooperage, 93 —, utilization of, 105, 106, 107 —, — — waste in making, 107, 108 —, wastage, 5 —, wood used for, 92 Venetian sumach, 419 Vermilion sawed veneers, 102 — used for veneers, 94 Vermont Agric. Exp. Station, investigations by, 382 —, box lumber consumption, 252 —, production of maple sugar and syrup, 380, 381, 383, 397 — Sugar Makers’ Assoc., proceedings, 397, 400 —, wood fuel used 339 Virgin cork, 435 Virginia, box lumber consumption, 252 ~——, charcoal making, 237 —, lumber cut, 7 —, wood fuel used, 330 Volume of solid wood for cord, 344 —,, original and present of forests in U. S., 2 Von Schrenk, H., on cross tie forms and rail fastenings, 298 Vulcanizing rubbers, 403 WwW Wagon or carload equivalents, 17 Walnut, black, used for veneers, 90, 94, 95, waste in 106, 109, —,—, veneer cores for gun stocks, 109 [lems 5.3 prices, 95 —, —, veneers, use, 106 —, Circassian, sawed veneers, 102 —,—, sliced veneers, 99 —, —, used for Veneers, 90, 94, 95, 99, 100, 106, 109 “~;, —, Veneer, prices, 95 —, —, veneers, use, 106 470 Walnut, lumber cut, 8 —, — value, ro Ward, James, beginning of hardwood dis- tillation by, 189 War Industries Board, Report of, 20 Washing soda pulp, 49 — sulphite pulp, 43 Washington, box lumber consumption, 252 -_ —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, shingle making in, 352, 354, 365 ——, wood fuel used, 339 Wastage, comparison of American and European conditions, 12 — in production of forest products, 12 — — wood production, 5 Waste in European countries, 12 — ~~ logging, 13 —, mill, charcoal yield, 238 —, —, used for pulp, 27, 29 —, sawmill and woods, used for hardwood distillation, 194 —, —, used for paper pulp, 26, 28, 29, 30 —, utilization of, in manufacture of slack cooperage, 135 — wood used for fuel, 340, 341 Watt, Alexander on the art of papermaking, 59 Wattle, 86 —, golden for tanning, 64 , —, tannin contents of, 64 Weed Lumber Co., 109 Weiss, H. F., on preservation of timbers, 293 —, — —, — seasoning poles, 316 Weights ‘of wood used for hardwood dis- tillation, 193 —, shingle, 367 —, stock, slack cooperage, 137 Wentling, J. P., on woods used for packing boxes, 262 — Coast Lumberman on shingle prices, 363 —-—Lumbermans’ Association, shingle branch, 360 West Indies, lumber trade with, 2 — Virginia, box lumber consumption, 252 — —, lumber cut, 7 — —, wood fuel used, 339 Wester Red Cedar Association, pole Bees fications, 304 — spruce for pulp, 24 Wet machine, photograph of, 44 Wickham, H. A., rubber plantations, 407 Willow, amount for boxes, 251 . INDEX Willow excelsior, 426 —, used for pulp, 29 Winslow, C. P., on grouping of ties for treat- ment, 298 ¢ Wire bound boxes, 258 Wisconsin, box lumber consumption, 252 —, excelsior made in, 426 —, lumber cut, 3, 7 —, wood fuel used, 339 Withrow, J. R., on hardwood distillation, 223 Wood alcohol, price of, 218, 219 —-—, refining, 212 — —, uses of, 221 | — —, yield of, 217 ==, “per COM, 210 —, annual consumption of for pulp, 23 —, — use of, 11 —, best, for charcoal, 236 — chipper, photograph of, 39 — consumption statistics of, for hardwood distillation, 196 —, distillation, cutting and delivering to the factory, 193 — dyes, 414 —, excelsior, value of, 428 — fuel, hauling, illustration of, 347 — — —-see fuel wood —, — value compared to coal, 343 — gas, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 217 — —, uses of, 223 —, loss of, in manufacture of saw logs, 13 —, preparation of wood for paper pulp, 31 — pulp and paper, 18 — — — —, capital employed by, 19 — —, cold and hot ground, 33 — —and paper, history of, 18, 20 — —, imports of, 57 Sy ee — —, yield of from different woods, 37 —— — industry, tendency to move to Canada, 27 —, shrinkage, 345 —, solid, amount per cord, ‘344 — tar, uses of, 222 — —, yields of, in hardwood distillation, 217 — used for making brick, 344 — — to smelt copper, 344 —, utilization of for hardwood distillation, 192 Woodenware, 11 — and novelties, 11 Woodlot, source of fuel, 336, 340 r , 4 ‘ INDEX 471 Woods used for paper pulp, 24, 25, 26, 27 — consumed by processes of pulp manufac- ture, 29 ; —, fuel value of, 341, 342 — operation in naval stores industry, 169, 170 —, resinous, fuel value, 343 — used for boxes, qualities desired, 249 — — — charcoal, 236 — — — excelsior, 424, 425, 425, 427 — — — mine timbers, 332 Woods used for slack cooperage, 119, 120, 121 Woodyard in Washington, illustration of, 341 —, municipal, illustration of, 349 World’s production of rubber, 411 — supply of tanning materials, 64 Wyoming, box lumber consumption, 252 —, wood fuel used, 339 x Xylotrya, damage to piling, 320 BOOKS FORESTRY PUBLISHED BY JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 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