:S3 a. x NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OP CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT R. Bruce Etheridge, Director Bulletin No. 53 Forest Resource Appraisal of North Carolina (1945) Survey by: Geo. K. Slocum, Associate Professor of -Forestry, N. C. State College Chas. R. Ross, Regional Consultant American Forestry Association Cooperating Agencies: N. C. DEPT. OF CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT N. C. STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENGINEERING AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT R. Bruce Etheridge, Director ^SSfe Bulletin No. 53 FOREST RESOURCE APPRAISAL OF NORTH CAROLINA (1945) Survey by: Geo. K. Slocum, Associate Professor of Forestry, N. C. State College Chas. R. Ross, Regional Consultant, American Forestry Association Cooperating Agencies: N. C. DEPT. OF CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT N. C. STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENGINEERING AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION PUBLISHED BY DIVISION OF FORESTRY AND PARKS W. K. Beichler State Forester DIVISION OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Paul Kelly Industrial Engineer Four Major Forest Problems In North Carolina 1. Hardwood Succession. Pine timber made the state's reputation in the lumber world. Later it attracted pulp mills. Pine yields considerably more than hardwoods on most sites but hardwoods are gradually re- placing pine. This area in Wake County is now taken over by hardwood trees, sprouts, and culls after two cuttings in the original pine stand. Mm-: ■ ^m 3. Removal of Pine Seed Sources. Pine will often reseed an area after cutting if trees are left to scatter seed. More and more cuttings today fail to leave seed trees, as on the above area in Bladen County. It will be necessary to plant pines here to establish a worthwhile forest. The hard- woods now coming up will be worth little, if anything, on this poor, sandy site. IBVHI 2. Widespread Burning in Eastern North Carolina. This cut-over area in Jones County is typical of several million acres in that fires are not being effectively prevented. Fire protection facilities must be greatly increased. The ground shown in the above picture is covered with pond pine seedlings and sprouts. They would re-stock the area very well if continual burning were stopped. 4. Accumulations of Hardwood Cull Trees and Brush. Timber com- panies at present have very little use for hardwood trees that will not make sawlogs. Regeneration of desirable sawtimber in areas of this type is impossible, unless the unwanted overwood can be disposed of in some manner. Currituck County. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/forestresourceap1945sloc FOREWORD The Forest Resource Appraisal is a project of nation- wide scope, organized by the American Forestry Associa- tion early in 1944. It is a fact-finding survey to determine the effects of the war period upon the country's forests, their productive condition, and to study means of improv- ing these conditions. The Board of Directors of the Asso- ciation decided on the project in 1942 and funds were con- tributed in 1943 and 1944 by over 500 organizations, in- dustrialists, and individuals alert to the need for forest ■conservation and development in the post-war economy. John B. Woods was appointed Director of the National Project. This effort on the part of the American Forestry Asso- ciation was in turn matched by forestry and planning agencies within the various states. Dr. J. V. Hofmann, Director of the N. C. State College Division of Forestry; W. K. Beichler, State Forester, and J. S. Holmes, Asso- ciate State Forester, arranged for the cooperation of their organizations. The North Carolina Forest Resource Appraisal was begun in March, 1945. The work was carried out under a cooperative agreement between the North Carolina State College Division of Forestry, the Division of Forestry and Parks and Division of Commerce and Industry of the N. C. Department of Conservation and Development, and the American Forestry Association. The Department of Conservation and Development furnished one man, James Roberts, Washington, D. C, as an office computer, and is publishing this report as its chief contribution to the project. Opinions, conclusions, and statistical data expressed herein are not necessarily endorsed by this Department. All field work and the development of the report was done by the authors. Appreciation is expressed to the North Carolina Crop Reporting Service, the U. S. Soil Conservation Service, the U. S. Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the Ten- nessee Valley Authority and the Forest Survey of the TJ. S. Forest Service for valuable assistance in the survey. Inclusion of information from the U. S. Forest Survey is frequent in this report. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Foreword iii North Carolina Forestry Facts v Summary vi Physical Features of the State 1 Explanation of Appraisal Methods 1 Land Use in North Carolina 3 County Statistics: Total Land, Forest, and Non-forest Area. Will Forest Land Increase or Decrease? 4 County Statistics : Utilization of Non-forest Land 8 County Statistics : Ownership of Forest Land 8 The Supply of Sawtimber 12 Sawtimber Suitable for Poles and Piling 14 The Supply of Timber Below Sawtimber-Size 15 Piedmont Temporarily Gains in Under-sawlog-size Pine 16 Wake County — An Abandoned Cotton Field 16 Other Material Suitable for Cordwood Use 17 The Supply of Pulpwood 19 The Cull Problem 19 Where Are the Culls? 19 Timber Harvesting in North Carolina 19 Minimum Size of Trees Cut 21 Availability of Stumpage 21 Lumber Production 21 Pulpwood Production 24 Fuelwood Cutting 24 Degree of Satisfactory Stocking 24 Non-Stocking 26 Reproduction 28 Causes of Fire 29 Extent of Burning 29 Overwhelming Fire Problem in Eastern North Carolina 30 State-wide Fire Control 31 Can Forest Management Maintain Pine? 32 Natural Succession 32 Solution to the Problem 32 Regulation of Commercial Timber Cutting 34 Considerable Interest in Regulation 35 Regulation Will Not Be Simple 35 Recommendations 36 Tax Situation on Forest Land 36 The Timber Volume Balance Sheet 37 State Forests 38 Education of Forest Landowners 38 Status of Forest Management 38 Educational Efforts to Date 39 Allowable Cut for Next 10-Year Period 41 Conclusion 42 IV NORTH CAROLINA FORESTRY FACTS Total area of the state 52,712 sq. mi. 33,735,680 acres Total water area 3,570 sq. mi. 2,284,800 acres Total land area 49,142 sq. mi. 31,450,880 acres Total forest area 29,502 sq. mi. 18,797,245 acres Public Ownership of Forest Land National Forests, U.S.F.S. Dept. of Agriculture 965,766 acres National Parks, Dept. of Interior 249,977 acres Other Federal 396,594 acres N. C. State Forests 40,000 acres N. C. State Parks 10,910 acres N. C. State Game Refuges and Farms 80,645 acres County and Municipal Forests 56,096 acres Other State 93,816 acres 5.14 per cent 1.33 per cent 2.12 per cent 0.22 per cent 0.05 per cent 0.42 per cent 0.30 per cent 0.50 per cent 10.08 percent Private Ownership of Forest Land Farm Woodland 9,093,377 acres Industrial 1,543,911 acres Other 6,266,153 acres 48.37 per cent 8.22 per cent 33.33 per cenc 89.92 per cent Timber Stand Estimated saw timber stand 1938* 43,606,600 M. bd. ft. Estimated saw timber stand 1945 41,121,000 M. bd. ft. Estimated under-saw timber stand 1938* 78,464,000 cords Estimated under-saw timber stand 1945 87,263,000 cords Total volume in standard cords of all sound wood, 1938* 256,962,400 cords (excluding chestnut) 1945 257,863,000 cords ♦Figures from U. S. Forest Survey SUMMARY The Forest Resource Appraisal of North Carolina was undertaken in 1945 as a cooperative project between the American Forestry Association, the Division of Forestry and Parks of N. C. Department of Conservation and De- velopment, and the Division of Forestry of N. C. State College. The North Carolina Appraisal is part of a na- tion-wide survey conducted by the Association to deter- mine the effects of the war period upon the nation's for- ests. In many states, more detailed information was de- sired by the local cooperating agencies than was deemed necessary for the national report. This was the situation in North Carolina. A time limit of one year was imposed for purposes of obtaining the field data and writing the report. As North Carolina is divided into 100 counties it was necessary to conduct the survey by sample counties. Twen- ty-one sample counties were carefully chosen from the va- rious topographic units; five were selected in the North Coastal Plain, six in the South Coastal Plain, five in the Piedmont, and five in the Mountain region. Forest area and timber volumes of each county were determined from aerial photographs after a thorough study of ground con- ditions was completed. All volume estimates are net, de- fective material having been deducted at the time of mak- ing ground measurements. Defect is estimated to run 5 to 8 per cent of gross volume for pine, and 25 per cent of gross volume for hardwood. Volume tables for under-saw- log-size were developed from existing Forest Survey tables and the International % Inch Rule was used for all saw- timber. New forest acreage figures were determined for all coun- ties because of inaccuracies in previous county areas as given by the U. S. Census. The county and State gross acreage figures were corrected by the U. S. Census in 1940, but no new forest acreage figures had been estimated. New acreage figures were also determined for non-forest, cul- tivated, idle, pasture, highway, and other land. Ownership of forest land was divided and listed by counties under the headings; Public forest reserve, commercial forest area, National Forest, farm woodland, and other. Sawtimber volumes for the State were developed from the sample counties. The present volume of 41 billion board feet is 6 per cent lower than reported by the Forest Survey in 1938. Pine sawtimber has a volume of 25 billion board feet, hardwood 16 billion. Average sawtimber stands per average forested acre are low. The state average for all sawtimber being 2.2 thousand board feet per acre, 61 per cent of which is pine and 39 per cent hardwood. Under-sawlog-size trees have gained approximately 12 per cent in volume since 1938. The average stand per acre for pine and hardwoods combined is 4.71 cords, 53 per cent of which is pine and 47 per cent is hardwood. U. S. Forest Survey figures show that for the 7 year period from 1937 through 1943 the net annual growth for all material 5.0" d.b.h. and larger, was 9,310 thousand cords while the annual drain was 8,552 thousand cords. Pine has been over-cut as shown by an annual growth of 5,636 thousand cords against an annual drain of 5,847 thousand cords. Hardwood growth has definitely gained during this period with an annual growth of 3,674 thous- and cords and drain of 2,705 thousand cords. Field data show that North Carolina's forest area is 49.9 per cent stocked with sawtimber and under-sawlog- size material, 28.3 per cent stocked with reproduction, and 21.8 per cent or* 4 million acres is non-stocked with timber producing tree species. The greatest single cause of non- stocking is the obstruction by culls and worthless hard-, wood brush. Lumber production has been fairly constant since 1889. The. average annual cut in North Carolina for the past 56 years has been 1.3 billion board feet. Pulpwood production has been steadily rising from 240 thousand cords in 1937 to 547 thousand cords in 1943. This trend is still upward. Fire is a very serious problem, especially in eastern North Carolina. Appraisal results show that approximate- ly 38 per cent of the forest area of the North Coastal Plain and 47 per cent of the forest area of the South Coastal Plain has been burned over in the five year period preceding 1946. For the same period the Piedmont has had a 7.7 per cent burn, while in the Mountain region the burn was 1.2 per cent. The problem of regulation of cutting on forest lands was approached and studied, but no definite conclusions were reached except that some provision should be made to prevent the complete removal of pine seed sources and that urgent need does not exist for rules applying to hard-. wood cutting. In spite of the unfairness of the present system of class- ifying land for tax purposes, taxes are not unduly high in many counties, the eastern counties having the fairest as- sessment on timberlands. It is believed that the State of North Carolina should own and operate State Forests for timber production and demonstration. These forests should be located chiefly in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain; to a lesser extent in the mountains due to existing large Federal ownership. Forestry education work has been steadily progressing since the appointment of J. S. Holmes as State Forester in 1909. This phase of forestry is, however, far from being adequate. Of the 1,600 million board of feet of lumber cut in 1943 from 17 million acres of forest land, 300 million feet or less was cut under the influence of educational work. * In accordance with the "Conservative Estimates of Acres Plantable by States" by Philip C. Wakeley, Silviculturist, Southern Forest Experi- ment Station, exclusive of the Mountain unit, there are 892,300 acres in North Carolina. The Mountain unit shows 120,700 acres of abandoned cropland which in all probability would have to be reforested artificial- ly. This would give a total of 1,013,000 acres which should be planted to, forest trees in North Carolina. VI CO iH CD cd •H ra -P •H £1 aJ P U o P. o ft < CD rH *l Ift o cc IT." z in i o O >1 $ „ o o a 3 i*. CM • • o a M O i" Ul UJ * Ul *- o z I t- •- «n v) Ul Ul o p u. u. cn o z w i u o 0» »" o o o o 3 h\ z o «J X o -J o o * *» 4 i • • < /*■ a a. S < i| Is (22) praisal, but it is believed that existing drain figures for lumber are too low. Black market transactions do not find their way into reports of lumber cut. Collecting lumber production data is a very difficult job at any time, and has been made doubly so in recent years. The appraisal determined areas cut over for logs, wood, and pulp in each sample county, according to the propor- tion of plots having such cuttings. Bertie County, for example, showed that an estimated 114,000 acres was cut for logs in five years. If one assumes the average log cut- ting removed to be 3 M per acre, then 340 million feet were cut in five years, or 70 million per year. The Census shows 49 million sawed in 1942, a high year. Halifax County was indicated to have had 87,000 acres cut over for logs in the previous five years. Assuming 2 M cut per acre, this would be 175 million feet cut, or 35 Table 15 PRODUCTION OF LUMBER BY COUNTIES 1942 County Lumber Sawed (M ft.,b.m.) County Lumber Sawed (M ft.,b.m.) Alamance Alexander Alleghany Anson Ashe Avery Beaufort Bertie Bladen Brunswick & New Hanover Buncombe Burke Cabarrus Caldwell Camden Carteret & Jones Caswell Catawba Chatham Cherokee & Graham Chowan & Perquimans .... Clay Cleveland Columbus Craven Cumberland Currituck Dare & Hyde Davidson Davie Duplin . . Durham Edgecombe Forsyth Franklin Gaston Gates Granville Greene "... Guilford Halifax Harnett Haywood Henderson Hertford Hoke Iredell 7,721 11,529 3,871 33,219 8,075 6,512 51,567 49,055 42,563 11,364 9,683 12,687 1,232 17,978 447 9,681 16,996 20,598 47,438 17,301 24,246 7,990 7,520 45,558 35,139 23,264 1,605 2,865 19,332 8,268 42,486 16,266 8,083 9,861 27,659 4,595 4,115 41,819 1,076 35,398 18,427 27,387 12,310 2,287 14,636 5,792 18,240 Jackson and Transylvania Johnston Lee Lenoir and Pitt Lincoln McDowell Macon Madison Martin Mecklenburg Mitchell Montgomery Moore Nash Northampton Onslow Orange Pamlico Pasquotank Pender Person Polk Randolph Richmond Robeson Rockingham Rowan Rutherford Sampson Scotland Stanly Stokes Surry Swain Tyrrell Union Vance Wake < Warren Washington Watauga Wayne Wilkes Wilson Yadkin Yancey 24,692 18,367 13,027 18,015 8,870 6,976 11,376 4,264 26,300 3,884 4,335 32,162 33,180 22,358 35,356 9,587 21,408 8,073 28,165 18,753 19,177 7,798 34,778 17,420 27,972 13,388 9,016 18,233 45,126 3,941 18,046 15,543 17,687 13,475 13,300 18,846 5,708 48,127 32,027 10,694 10,724 20,908 40,942 9,953 13,365 10,543 State Total 1,691,536 (23) million per year. The Census shows 18 million feet sawed. These calculations of course prove nothing, but do show one reason for the supposition that lumber drain may be higher than reported. Some counties came out about right on these guess-calculations. Sample plots indicated that Halifax County had an additional 38,000 acres cut over for pulpwood in five years. PULPWOOD PRODUCTION Production figures by counties are not available for pub- lication. Information for 1942 has been drawn upon to point out sections of the various units where cutting was concentrated in that year. Northern Coastal Plain: Halifax and Northampton counties accounted for 40 per cent of the unit production. Bertie, Gates, Washington, and Hertford counties produced 40 per cent of the unit total. Approximately 5 per cent of the volume cut was hardwood material. Southern Coastal Plain: Pender, Bladen, and Bruns- wick accounted for 60 per cent of pulpwood cut in the unit. Sampson, Duplin, Robeson and Onslow were next, their combined production amounting to 25 per cent of unit total. Hardwood was negligible. Piedmont: With cutting widely distributed, Chatham and Rockingham accounted for 30 per cent, with Warren, Rutherford, and Wake totaling another 20 per cent. The rest of the production came from another 21 counties. Approximately a tenth of Piedmont production was hard- wood. Mountain Unit: Cutting occurred in all 21 counties. Cherokee and Graham accounted for 30 per cent of the total, Haywood, Swain, and McDowell making up another 25 per cent, half of the total being hardwoods. Pulpwood production in the Piedmont rose sharply in 1943, but declined in the Coastal Plains. This trend was caused by labor and hauling factors under war-time shortages. North Carolina pulp production has been rising steadily, as follows: 1937 240 M cords 1938 290 M cords 1939 315 M cords 1940 512 M cords 1941 582 M cords 1942 606 M cords 1943 547 M cords FUELWOOD CUTTING The amount of wood cut for heating purposes is related to: (1) the number of people in rural areas; (2) the amount of tobacco produced. The average farm family is said to use over 12 cords per year for household purposes. The average per small town and city family is considerably less, but it is still more than one might guess — five and two cords, respectively. The amount of tobacco cured per cord of wood is esti- mated to be 600 pounds. Big tobacco crops of recent years have required nearly a million cords of wood despite the gradual trend toward the use of coal and oil. Fuelwood is another item of drain that is difficult to measure accurately, because farmers themselves do not know how much they use. Undoubtedly, fuelwood use has dropped substantially, owing to labor shortage during the war period. County agents and Soil Conservation Service technicians were asked how much fuelwood cutting had increased or decreased. Only one, in Chatham County, said there was an increase. Eighty per cent of these farm counsellors said cutting had decreased, the average estimate of decrease being 20 per cent. DEGREE OF SATISFACTORY STOCKING One may compare the stocking of an acre of forest land with an acre of corn. Corn-land yields, in bushels per acre, depend on the stand obtained from planting, fertility of soil, season, and competition from weeds and insects. Given an acre of land that could produce 50 bushels per acre, suppose the yield was 25 bushels, because of poor germina- tion that gave a scattered stand; rank weed growth from lack of cultivation that choked out part of the crop, and insects destroying still other stalks. It could be stated that the acre was only 50 per cent stocked, and gave 50 per cent of a crop. This is analagous to stocking on the forest area. If it has only half as many stalks, or trees, as it should have, then the yield will be one-half of capacity. What is satisfactory stocking of forest land in the differ- ent sections of North Carolina? This question could not be answered definitely by the various agencies contacted. The consultants, through a check of existing literature, and through personal knowledge of managed forest areas, de- cided on a set of standards. The standards represent the average stand per acre that can be maintained on period- ically cut forest areas under practicable management. Standards were set for sawtimber, under-sawtimber-size, and reproduction. The standards per acre for the various regions are as follows (meaning well-distributed stems) : 1. Northern and Southern Coastal Plain. Eight thousand board feet of sawtimber, or 12 cords of under-sawlog- size, or 640 seedlings under 1 inch in diameter at breast height. 2. Piedmont. Seven thousand board feet of sawtimber, or 10 cords of under-sawlog-size or 640 seedlings under 1 inch in diameter at breast height. 3. Mountains. Five thousand board feet of sawtimber, or 8 cords of under-sawlog size or 640 seedlings under 1 inch in diameter at breast height. Here, hardwoods will make up most of the volume. As reproduction diameters include the 4 inch tree class, 480 trees in the 2 inch class or 320 trees in the 4 inch class constituted full stocking. Any one acre of forest land may be fully or partially stocked with one or a combination of the above mentioned conditions. If the acre does not support satisfactory stock- ing on the basis of the set standards, the percentage differ- ence is designated as non-stocked. Reasons are sought for the non-stocked condition. For example, consider an acre plot in the Northern Coastal Plain that has been tallied and the volume determined. The estimator finds 2 M bd. ft. of sawtimber, 3 cords of under-sawlog size, and 160 seed- lings. On the basis of the above standards the acre is 25 per cent stocked with sawtimber, 25 per cent under-sawlog- size, and 25 per cent reproduction, while 25 per cent of the area is non-stocked. This acre does not have enough trees to be satisfactorily stocked. It is suggested that an ideal stocking, based on the proper distribution of size classes, would be to have 66% (24) percent of the area occupied by sawtimber and under-saw- timber size, and 33 % percent of the area occupied by re- production. Non-stocked areas would be at a minimum. An examination of Table 16 will give the reader an idea of the approximate conditions as they exist in the sample coun- ties. Individual sample counties, within the same region and between regions, show a wide variation in degree of stock- ing. In the North Coastal Plain, Bertie County has 71 per cent stocking in the sawtimber and under-sawtimber size. This is probably due to the presence of a large amount of over-mature hardwood timber in the river swamp type and to the fact that timber cutting in the 10 inch-14 inch di- ameters (D.B.H.) classes has not been as heavy as in other sample counties in this region. Pender County, in the Southern Coastal Plain, may be used to illustrate the opposite condition. This county shows 30 per cent stocking in the sawtimber and under-sawtimber size. Heavy cutting for logs and pulpwood, and lack of pine reseeding, is responsible for this condition. Development of regional and state totals, from data ob- tained in the sample counties, is shown in Table 17. An examination of Table 17 will show that the worst stocking conditions are found in the South Coastal Plain. The understocked condition in this region is due substan- tially to lack of pine seed trees and the prevalence of un- restricted fire. It should be borne in mind that if there is no pine on a large proportion of the forest land in the Coastal Plain, there will be nothing there but scrubby hardwoods. Table 16. ESTIMATED DEGREE OF SATISFACTORY STOCKING AS DETERMINED FOR THE 21 SAMPLE COUNTIES IN PER CENT County Commercial Forest Acres Degree of Satisfactory Stocking Sawtimber and Under-Sawlog Reproduction Total Degree of Non-Stocking NORTHERN COASTAL PLAIN Beaufort 363,779 Bertie 306,916 Currituck 80,022 Halifax 239,357 Tyrrell 213,481 Bladen 424,795 Harnett 238,134 Jones 231,931 Pender 465,111 Richmond 191,411 Wayne 175,824 Caswell 152,842 Gaston 85,233 Randolph 303,483 Wake 306,320 Yadkin 94,122 Ashe 90,138 Buncombe 271,632 Caldwell 220,551 Graham 169,100 Jackson 252,724 44.2 31.8 76.0 24.0 71.4 20.1 91.5 8.5 50.0 21.2 71.2 28.8 48.2 34.3 82.5 17.5 43.8 39.4 83.2 16.8 SOUTHERN COASTAL PLAIN 38.7 28.2 66.9 33.1 39.7 26.4 66.1 32.9 38.9 35.5 74.4 25.6 30.6 34.2 64.8 35.2 40.6 22.8 63.4 36.6 46.8 33.8 80.6 19.4 PIEDMONT 45.7 36.9 82.1 17.9 52.0 31.3 83.3 16.7 55.0 26.0 81.0 19.0 68.3 21.9 90.2 9.8 60.8 27.2 88.0 12.0 MOUNTAINS 39.8 29.2 69.0 31.0 66.0 16.0 82.0 18.0 61.5 23.6 85.1 14.9 61.0 25.0 86.0 14.0 35.0 36.0 71.0 29.0 Table 17 ESTIMATED DEGREE OF SATISFACTORY STOCKING ON REGIONAL BASIS Region Total Degree of Satisfactory Stocking in Per Cent Commercial Forest Acreage of Region Sawtimber and Under-sawlog Size Reproduction Degree of Non-stocking Per Cent 4,140,752 52.2 30.0 17.8 5,607,685 37.7 30.5 31.8 5,039,742 58.2 26.9 14.9 3,748,679 54.0 25.4 20.6 18,536,358 49.9 28.3 21.8 North Coastal Plain South Coastal Plain Piedmont Mountain State (25) NON-STOCKING Table 17 shows that 21.8 per cent of North Carolina's forest area is non-productive at present. In other words, approximately four million acres of forest lands are con- tributing nothing in the way of wood production to the economy of the state. What is the reason for this condition? The consultants endeavored to answer the problem by determining the main reason for non-stocking on each of the non-stocked plots. The following code was used to designate the reason for non-stocking : A. Obstruction by culls and scrubs of cordwood size or larger. B. Obstruction by advance reproduction of non-timber species. C. Obstruction by low ground cover of vines and bushes. D. Pine seed trees lacking — site too poor for hardwoods. E. Recently cut area. F. Effects of fire. G. Incompletely seeded old field. H. Seed trees present, ground not obstructed, reason for non-stocking not apparent. I. Site too poor to support full stocking. Obviously, some of these items overlap. For example, if pine seed trees had been present, seedlings might have re- ceived an early start and climbed out of the "C" obstruc- tion before it became so dense. Tabular results of the findings are recorded in Table 18. Table 18 Region ABC DEFGHI North Coastal Plain . . 35 22 8 7 16 41 1 . . South Coastal Plain . . 37 31 21 67 11 47 1 6 . . Piedmont 39 41 8 4 24 2 6 6 9 Mountain 17 43 5 3 . . 3 1 5 Total 128 137 37 83 54 90 10 14 14 One other question was asked concerning each non- stocked plot. "Will this area restock naturally in the next 10 years if not burned?" In 20 per cent of the cases the question was answered in the affirmative. Such non-stocked areas expected to reseed were largely of fire origin (10 per cent) and from effects of recent cuttings (6 per cent). If all woodlands could be protected, one might expect ap- proximately 800,000 of the 4 million non-stocked acres to come back into production in 10 years without assistance. This, of course, is an unrealistic expectation. Actually, there are approximately 3,200,000 acres of "idle" forest land to "have and to hold" until changes are made in utilization or cutting practices. Obstructions, as identified by code letters A, B, and C are responsible for 53 per cent of the non-stocking. Present cutting practices will tend to increase this percentage as pine stands are cut and as more marketable hardwoods are removed from the hardwood areas. Cull material will in- crease because it is being left after each "selective cut" (i.e., select the best and leave the worst). With complete exclusion of fire, hardwood bushes, especially in the Coastal Plain, increase to a point where pine seedlings cannot compete and will disappear from the stand. Hard- wood reproduction of timber producing species may also be checked by the complete cover of non-timber producing shrubs and small trees. Regulation of cutting practices is not the answer to this problem. Regulation cannot force the cutting of culls and shrubs and, until markets are developed for such material, it will tend to accumulate in the forests. Regulation can require the leaving of pine seed trees. This will, in some cases, establish pine seedlings quickly after cutting, there- by enabling some pine to become established before the brush takes over the area. Complete exclusion of fire will not solve the problem, as most of the pine stands in the Coastal Plain are a direct result of fire in the past. Fires killed the bushes and ex- posed the soil thus preparing a bed for the pine seed. Fires seldom killed the large pines. The problem of obstruction is one which will need some very pertinent research to solve. The answer may be found TIMBER CUTTINGS THAT REMOVED THE SOURCES OF PINE SEED Bladen County. Professor Slocum stands by the stump of a pine that should have been left. No other tree on 10 acres here could serve as a seed tree. Fire is a threat on this area. Pender County. None of these saplings can produce seed for years. This view exemplifies the tremendous waste due to nonproducing lands in North Carolina. (26) with the aid of an axe, a fire, or a goat. First, of course, there is need of more complete cutting which leaves no culls, or low-grade, or defective small trees containing sound wood. Fifteen per cent of non-stocking on pine lands was traced primarily to the absence of a pine seed source. This problem could be helped by regulatory action. Where present, a source of pine seed must be retained if owners CAN PINE STANDS BE REGENERATED? 7. Pine reproduction can be obtained here in abundance. Frequent burning has continually killed back the hardwood sprouts. The ground is exposed to the extent that pines will "catch." There are already a fair number of very young pine seedlings present, grown up since the last fire. Fires will have to be kept out if the seedlings are to develop. The timber has been burned more often and harder than would be necessary to keep down the hardwoods. Johnston County. are to continue to grow pine on large areas of this state. Present trends show closer cutting of pine, as any one can see by looking at the log trucks that roll by on the high- way. A "seed tree law" that can be easily interpreted and fairly enforced would retain a source of pine seed for future crops. EXAMPLES OF HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL PINE REGENERATION 9. A fairly heavy stand of pine was cut on this area several years ago. Prior to the time the sawtimber was cut, occasional fires had kept down the hardwood growth. Sources of pine seed remained after cutting and the area quickly reseeded. The saplings are now growing vigorously. By a "fortunate accident" no fires have occurred since the cutting. A fire in pines of this size would be ruinous. Jones County. 8. It will be possible to obtain good pine reproduction here when a cutting is made in this loblolly pine stand. Fires have kept the hardwood understory completely cleaned out. Some very hot fires have passed over this land with the result that pine trunks are charred to a height of 20 feet. Some smaller pines have been killed. Lands of a pulp company in Northern Coastal Plain. 10. This area is located many miles from the one pictured above, but has had a similar history. There were occasional fires before the pine sawtimber was cut, which kept down the hardwood growth. Pine seed trees were left. The area reseeded thickly to loblolly pine immediately following the cutting. Fortunately, no fires have occurred since the reproduction was established. Hardwood growth is coming up with the pines, but the pines will outgrow it and not be handicapped. Jones County. (27) Non-stocking due to prevalence of fire was limited mainly to the Northern and Southern Coastal Plain. Six- teen per cent of the non-stocking was due to this cause. Annual burning, in many sections of the two regions, has eliminated both pine and hardwood reproduction from large areas. A seed source is often present, but the areas cannot become stocked until adequate protection becomes a reality. REPRODUCTION It has been shown that 28.3 per cent of the stocking in North Carolina is reproduction. What is the proportion of pine and hardwood in this class of trees under 5 inches d.b.h.? Table 19 shows these proportions for the 21 sample counties. Reference to Table 11 will show that the present stand of under-sawlog size material in the North Coastal Plain is composed of approximately the same proportion of pine and hardwood as was present in 1938; the South Coastal Table 19 RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF PINE AND HARD- WOOD REPRODUCTION IN 21 SAMPLE COUNTIES County Per Cent Pine Per Cent Hardwood NORTHERN COASTAL PLAIN Beaufort 25.0 75.0 Bertie 20.5 79.5 Currituck 8.8 91.2 Halifax 16.1 83.9 Tyrrell 28.7 71.3 Regional Average 22.0 78.0 SOUTHERN COASTAL PLAIN Bladen 48.7 51.3 Harnett 25.9 74.1 Jones 51.4 48.6 Pender 64.1 35.9 Richmond 43.2 56.8 Wayne 37.2 62.8 Regional Average 49.3 50.7 PIEDMONT Caswell 32.0 68.0 Gaston 23.0 77.0 Randolph 18.6 81.4 Wake 34.5 65.5 Yadkin 38.7 61.3 Regional Average 28.3 71.7 MOUNTAINS Ashe 8.0 92.0 Buncombe 18.0 82.0 Caldwell 21.0 79.0 Graham 5.0 95.0 Jackson 11.0 89.0 Regional Average 12.9 87.1 Plain has a gain in the proportion of pine; the Piedmont has a gain in the proportion of pine ; the Mountains retain practically the same proportion of both. Recruitment of this material into sawlog size will give substantial stands of pine for the next cut. A study of under-sawlog-size only would cause no alarm over the so-called "hardwood encroachment." However, a study of the reproduction that will replace the present under-sawlog-size in the next cycle, presents an entirely different picture. A comparison of present un- der-sawlog-size pine-hardwood proportions, with present proportions of pine-hardwood reproduction, is shown in Table 20. Table 20 PROPORTION OF PINE AND HARDWOOD 6"-8" CLASS VS. REPRODUCTION (Based on Tree Numbers in Both Cases.) Under-Sawlog-Size Trees Reproduction-Size Trees % Pine % Hardwoods % Pine % Hardwoods Region (6"-8") (6"-8") N. C. Plain 51 49 22 78 S. C. Plain 71 29 49 51 Piedmont 68 32 28 72 Mountains 23 77 13 87 The percentage figures in Table 20 were derived from total numbers of tree stems in each category. In the North- ern Coastal Plain, present under-sawlog-size material is composed of 51 per cent pine and 49 per cent hardwood. This trend is not out of proportion considering the large percentage of swamp and river-bottom type in this region. However, with only 22 per cent pine reproduction growing to replace the present under-sawlog-size, the trend is defi- nitely in favor of the hardwood. The Southern Coastal Plain, with 71 per cent pine and 29 per cent hardwood in the under-sawlog-size, and 49 per cent pine and 51 per cent hardwood reproduction, reflects the effects of continued burning. If the present rate of woods burning is continued, the trend will be toward a re- duction of hardwood stems and a corresponding increase in pine in the larger classes. However, stands of pine will continue to remain light if uncontrolled fire continues. The Piedmont presents the most serious condition in reference to future pine stands. Present high pine ratios in the under-sawlog-size are a definite reflection of land clearing and abandonment. There are thousands of acres of bandoned old fields supporting fine stands of young pine in this region today. The trend, at present, is toward land stabilization and when lands do become stable, the day of the "old field pine" will end. Present under-sawlog-size is made up of 68 per cent pine and 32 per cent hardwood while the reproduction is 28 per cent pine and 72 per cent hardwood. Most of reproduction size is, of course, in abandoned fields too. The Mountain region is primarily a hardwood region and, thus, causes no concern. It can be seen that pine reproduction is fighting a losing battle in all sections of the state. Present cutting methods tend to increase the odds against the pine. Even conven- tional silvicultural methods of cutting such as the selec- tion, shelterwood, and seed tree methods do not insure re- production of the pine species. In fact, they aid in the re- (28) production of the various hardwood species by removing the overstory of pine. This merely hastens the approach to Nature's goal of establishing a hardwood climax forest. As most of our pine forests developed as a result of dis- turbing Nature's process by land clearing or fire, what are foresters going to do to keep North Carolina's pine lands — estimated to be at least % of the forest area of the state — producing pine in the next 50 or 100 years? Will the prob- lem be solved by forgetting pine and concentrating on the development of bulkwood industries to use the tremendous volume of hardwood that is usable for no other purpose at present except fuel? If so, the forests will be able to support only about one- half of the bulk-wood industry, or % of the lumber in- dustry that would be possible with pine. CAUSES OF FIRE Figures supplied by the N. C. Forest Service show the following causes of forest fires on State-protected areas in the order of their incidence. The figures shown are the annual average as determined for the calendar years 1940 to 1944, inclusive. 1. Smokers 1212 2. Incendiary 851 3. Debris burning 792 4. Hunters, fishermen, campers 419 5. Miscellaneous 338 6. Railroads 193 7. Lumbering . . 98 8. Lightning 34 Total, all causes 3937 The above figures show the number of fires by various causes for cooperating counties only. For the fiscal year 1945-46 there are 63 counties cooperating. Only estimates are available for the non-cooperating counties. What about the personal element involved in most fires? Human carelessness and lack of responsibility and, in some cases, local customs, are the main issues. Many forest fires develop while individuals are engaged in burning tobacco beds, ditch banks, hedgerows, broom straw fields and pasture. Responsibility for fires of this type is generally not hard to establish when experienced men are used to collect evidence. Once responsibility is established, the proper action can (and should) be taken. Fire law enforcement, it should be said, is an important part of the work of the Division of Forestry and Parks. In fact, the Division's law enforcement record has been for some years the best among forestry agencies in the South. This program, like many others, has suffered during the war years due to drastic loss of supervisory personnel. In 1940, as a sample pre-war year, the Division handled 4,726 fires and 445 fire law prosecutions (of which 397 resulted in court convictions). An additional 424 cases were settled for payment of the fire-fighting costs by the responsible parties. Hunters are responsible for many fires by failure to extinguish warming fires and by trying to smoke squirrels, o'possums, raccoons, or bees from hollow trees. Local deer hunters often take it upon themselves to improve hunting by eliminating underbrush. Some areas, it seems, have to be "swinged off" periodically so that hunters can see to shoot! Ownership of land does not concern them, neither does the crop of trees present on the area. Others burn to "kill boll weevils" or "ticks and snakes" and "to chase the bears back in the swamp so they won't eat the corn or 'chillun' ". Education may convince some of these people that burning does not accomplish their purpose. Habitual woods-burners will have to be "lawed until they see the light." FIRES RAVAGE EASTERN N. C. WOODLANDS 11. Farm tenants who live near this big woods area in Jones County are apparently responsible for fires sweeping across it nearly every year. There are some good pine seed trees and the area could reseed to pine if burning could be stopped. Th ground is in good shape for pines to become established. . ,.-5^, III I m ■'> 12. The owner of this formerly dense young loblolly stand in Bertie County has sustained a heavy financial loss due to fire. The majority of the pines were killed. EXTENT OF BURNING A study of Table 21 will show that woods burning is also a regional problem. Present fire detection and suppression methods appear to be satisfactory in the Piedmont and Mountain Region, but are inadequate in the Northern and Southern Coastal Plain. The figures listed under acreage burned have been determined by field sampling and do not necessarily check with other published acreage figures. However, the sampling method used gives a very good in- dication of actual burned acreage. Wake County may be used as an example of procedure. Seventy-four one-quarter acre plots were mechanically se- lected for study. The plots were carefully checked to de- termine if burning had taken place within one or five years, this information being obtained from the age of (29) sprouts on fire killed hardwoods. The one source of error incurred is that it is impossible to tell if sprouts five years old were killed by a fall fire in the sixth year, or by a spring fire in the fifth year. This error is more than bal- anced, however, by the fact that many areas have burned more than once in the five-year period. It was thus determined for Wake County that 2.8 per cent of the plots or 8,675 acres were burned in the current year, while 11.4 per cent or 35,313 acres were burned in the five-year period. The average annual burn in this county for the five-year period was 2.3 per cent or 7,064 acres. Table 22 was developed from the average burned acre- age figures of the sample counties. The development of this table presupposes that the sample counties contained representative conditions in each region. OVERWHELMING FIRE PROBLEM IN EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA On the coastal side of the Northern and Southern Coast- al Plains there is a strip, approximately 75 miles wide from Virginia to South Carolina, that features conditions not to be found on such a large scale anywhere else in the United States. There are about 25 counties lying in this area. This coastal region is typified by flat land, sand ridges, pocosins, bays, and swamps. The fire situation in this region is one that will need more money, trained men, and research to control. The present fire protection system is quite inadequate and can- not possibly solve the problem, which arises from the in- flammability and rapid growth of vegetation; peaty and inflammable nature of much of the soil in time of drouth; large unbroken forests tracts; and attitude of the people. Table 21 ESTIMATED ACREAGE AND PER CENT OF FOREST LAND BURNED IN 21 SAMPLE COUNTIES FOR ONE-YEAR AND FIVE-YEAR PERIODS. Gross Forest % Burned Acreage % Burned Acreage Av. Annual Av. Annual County Acreage 1 Year Burned 5 Years Burned Burn— % Burn— Acreage NORTHERN COASTAL PLAIN Beaufort 363,779 16.7 60,751 53.3 193,894 10.7 38,779 Bertie 306,916 4.1 12,584 29.3 89,926 5.9 17,985 Currituck 80,022 3.2 2,560 13.8 11,040 2.8 2,208 Halifax 239,357 8.6 20,585 17.7 42,605 3.6 8,521 Tyrrell 213,481 7.5 16,011 55.3 118,055 11.1 23,611 SOUTHERN COASTAL PLAIN Bladen 425,295 11.9 50,610 36.1 153,532 7.2 30,706 Harnett 238,134 13.9 33,100 49.1 116,924 9.8 23,385 Jones 231,931 27.6 64,013 58.0 134,520 11.7 26,904 Pender 465,111 38.3 178,138 67.0 311,624 13.4 62,325 Richmond 191,411 7.4 14,164 30.4 58,189 6.1 11,638 Wayne 175,824 6.0 10,549 21.1 37,099 4.2 7,420 PIEDMONT Caswell 152,842 * 1.7 2,958 .3 519 Gaston 85,233 * 14.6 12,444 2.9 2,489 Randolph 303,483 * 7.5 22,761 1.5 4,552 Wake 309,820 2.8 8,675 11.4 35,319 2.3 7,064 Yadkin 94,122 * .0 * * * MOUNTAINS Ashe 91,276 * 4.0 3,651 .8 730 Buncombe 273,284 * 3.0 8,198 .6 1,640 Caldwell 220,559 * * * * * Graham 172,900 * * * * * Jackson 253,252 * * * * * * Some burning present, did not encounter any on sample plots dis-tributed in all sections of county. Table 22 ESTIMATED REGIONAL BURN BASED ON 5-YEAR PERIOD PRECEDING THE APPRAISAL. Region Gross Acreage Forest Land Total Burn 5 Yrs. % Total Acreage Burned 5 Yrs. % Burn 1 Yr. Average Annual Acreage Burned North Coastal Plain 4,140,752 South Coastal Plain 5,607,685 Piedmont 5,050,152 Mountains 3,998,656 State Totals 18,797,245 37.8 1,565,204 7.6 • 313,040 47.0 2,635,612 9.4 527,122 7.7 388,862 1.5 77,772 1.2 47,984 .2 9,597 24.8 4,669,338 4.9 927,521 (30) The vegetation of this region consists of wire grass and scrubby oaks on the drier places and a mixture of pepper- bush, gallberries, various bays, swamp ironwood, reeds, and huckleberries on the more moist sites. The soil is low in calcium and, as a result, the vegetation has a very high fiber content in the leaves. This high fiber content and rapid growth plus the oils and resin typical of the above species, creates annually a head-high mass of highly inflammable material. It quickly dries, even after a downpour, and some claim that the only time during the year that a fire season is absent is when it is raining. As a result, late spring and summer fires burn with great heat and cause a tremendous amount of damage. The large, unbroken and, in many cases, seemingly im- penetrable tracts of forest land present their own special set of conditions. Agricultual land developments follow the county road systems and the forest land tends to be in large blocks at the center of these highway-surrounded sections. The forest land holdings of many owners thus come together and form large unbroken tracts. There are also many large forest tracts owned by individuals, lum- ber companies, and corporations having no connection with agricultural land. Indiscriminate backfiring of whole blocks of timber in self-protection may have pathetic results as in one case in Bladen County. The incident was described by a local farmer who had assisted in fighting the so-called "back- fire." He said, "We found one old Negro woman with two crazy daughters holding three scared cows on a little grass island in the timbers. The fire and smoke were 'biling' up into the elements while they screamed and bellowed in fright." This fire burned over one ownership of 5,000 acres that was surrounded by small farms. When the fire started a crew attacked the fire, but adjoining owners immediately "protected" their property by backfiring. As a result the whole area burned. County agents, U. S. Soil Conservation Service techni- cians, foresters, lumbermen, and farmers were almost unanimous in their opinion that the fire situation could not be greatly improved until these areas are opened up so that a fire crew can get near the fire and shut it off in a small space, instead of backfiring around the whole area. The Division of Forestry and Parks believes that a strong program of pre-suppression fire line flowing, with landowners directly sharing the cost, offers the best single answer to this problem of accessibility. Such a program is being pushed as rapidly as funds for the necessary heavy equipment become available. Attitudes of people concerning woods burning vary widely. One group, consisting mainly of landowners who own timberland, is growing more conscious of the damage done by fire and is interested in preventive measures. How- ever, many of them are against complete exclusion of fire and want winter-burning of their lands as an insurance measure against a late spring or early summer "wild" fire. Some contend that "fires are worse since the warden pro- gram started." They base their contention on the fact that where forests are protected for a period of 6-10 years and then an accidental fire burns over the area, the accumula- tion of litter is such as to cause an almost complete loss of trees even 16"-20" in diameter. The landowners contend that it is far better to have a slight loss from a winter fire than a complete loss from a late spring or early summer fire. Some landowners are still convinced that winter burn- ing is the best insurance against hot spring fires. A defi- nite action program will be necessary to convince them that they can be adequately protected from "wild" fire. What is the attitude of the group consisting of tenant farmers, sportsmen and others who are in and around the woods, but don't own it? Too often their attitude is one of unconcern. Many are not concerned about the future of any area and are interested mainly in their own ideas and pleasures. It is from this group that the lands of the first group must be protected. Intensive education and enforce- ment work would be of benefit in dealing with these peo- ple. In spite of education, enforcement, or other proposals, there will still be forest fires. Always there are the ac- tivities of irresponsible persons and the effects of acci- dents; otherwise, neither police forces nor insurance com- panies would be needed. To cope with the situation in Eastern North Carolina, the landowners must have out- side assistance in suppression work. Outside assistance must be furnished in the form of trained fire fighting per- sonnel, additional fire towers, and heavy equipment such as tractors and fire line plows and pumpers, furnished by the State. In addition, the landowner must expend more of his own money for maintaining fire breaks. The county and state cannot be expected to protect fully the individ- ual. He must bear his own share of the cost of producing his crop of timber. STATE-WIDE FIRE CONTROL North Carolina does not have a state-wide fire control budget or organization. Each county makes the decision as to whether it will take part in fire control work. Co- operating counties, through the County Commissioners, appropriate money which is matched by state and federal funds. In the fiscal year 1945-46 there were 63 cooperating counties which appropriated $105,650. The state appropri- ation was $187,189; the federal, $164,720. The total budget was $469,517. With 12,440,000 acres of forest land under protection, the average allotment was about 3.7 cents per acre. Approximately 4,500,000 acres of forest land are unprotected by organized fire fighting crews. It is a well-known fact that present appropriations are not adequate to handle the situation. More money for ex- pansion is sorely needed if the state is to help solve a very trying problem. Lack of fire control has been one of the main drawbacks to many forestry developments in this state. It has been one of the principal reasons given by lumber companies for not acquiring land and endeavoring to grow some of their own timber. Fire frequency has also been the reason for lack of interest in tree planting on large unstocked areas. One farmer in the eastern section planted several thousand trees early in the spring and lost them to fire before they started to grow. What can be done to make the fire protection and sup- pression system more effective in this state? The answer may be found in adequate state-wide control. W. K. Beichler, State Forester of North Carolina, is working on a state plan to present to the 1947 Legislature. It is recognized that fire hazards are variable in the dif- ferent regions of the state and the proposed plan classi- fies these regions accordingly. As much as 16 cents an (31) acre per year is recommended for prevention and sup- pression work in the Coastal "ground-burning" counties with their large unbroken tracts of timber land, as com- pared with 2 cents per acre in the well-broken forest areas of the Piedmont. With fire control on a state basis, effort can be concentrated where nseded, from the Mountains to the Coast. The timber resources of North Carolina are a state re- sponsibility. As most of the wood-using industries depend upon the state as a source of raw material, fire control is not entirely a county problem. The method of financing a state-wide system must, of course, be determined by the General Assembly. Recommendations have been and will be made by the Department of Conservation and Develop- ment. The neighboring states of Virginia and South Carolina have recognized the need of state-wide control and have established systems to meet their responsibilities. CAN FOREST MANAGEMENT MAINTAIN PINE? COMPARATIVE VALUE OF PINE AND HARDWOOD ON "PINE LAND" This question has often been asked: Does pine or hard- wood produce the greatest return, in volume or value, when grown on the so-called "pine land" in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain? An exact answer, based on research, has evidently not been found. However, most authorities agree that the volume produced by pine far exceeds the volume produced by hardwoods on the flat "pinelands" and roll- ing uplands. Dr. C. F. Korstian, Dean of the School of Forestry at Duke University, said : "It is my opinion that pine will produce at least two times the volume in the same period of time on approximately 80 per cent of the land in the Piedmont. The remaining 20 per cent of the land, which is located along stream bottoms and draws, is suited for good quality hardwood production." G. M. Jemison, Silviculturist of the Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, believes that pine will outgrow hard- wood two to one on at least 75 per cent of the land in the Piedmont, but stated he had no figures to prove it. Profes- sor H. H. Chapman, of Yale University, dismissed the hardwoods on most of the lands in the belt along the east- ern coast as "worthless brush" when compared with pine. Assuming that pine will produce greater volume per acre on these areas, what is the comparative quality of the material produced? High quality hardwood logs have a greater value, financially, than pine. This being the case, is it better to grow hardwood than pine? The answer is definitely "No." In the first place, the volume production from pine more than offsets any financial gain from qual- ity hardwoods and, in the second place, there is very little hardwood "quality" production on these areas. If the present hardwood forests on the sand ridge, sandy loam, and rolling upland areas are any indication of the quality to be produced, the state can meet its full re- quirements for fuelwood, but not for lumber. The oak, hickory, maple, black gum and other hardwood species do not produce high, or even medium quality, lumber on these areas. In an effort to ascertain what proportion of the forest lands in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain are better suited for the growing of pine than hardwood, plots were care- fully examined and the conclusion reached was influenced by existing stands, drainage indicator plants, soil, and site index. From these field classifications, proportions were determined for each of the regions under question. The North Coastal Plain shows approximately 40 per cent of the region better suited for pine than hardwood; the South Coastal Plain 72 per cent; and the Piedmont 78 per cent. In fact, one might express it more strongly and say that the above proportions of forest land are defi- nitely unsuited for hardwood production, since they pro- duce slow-growing, short-boled, defective trees suitable mainly for fuel. Thus it is clear that pine in not being grown on those areas best suited to it. The hardwoods are moving into the pine areas just as Nature intended them to do. The rate at which the hardwoods are proceeding in this succession is fully discussed under "Reproduction." NATURAL SUCCESSION What is Nature's intent in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain? Natural succession may well start with a bare area such as an abandoned field or one exposed by fire. Eco- logists point out, and any observer can see for himself, that the field is first occupied by low grasses such as crab grass. This is followed by the tall weed species and then by broom sedge. The broom sedge forms the perfect nurse for pine reproduction so that in six to ten years most old fields support a fine stand of young pine, if a seed source is nearby. Succession then slows down, the pine may ma- ture with more or less interference from the hardwoods; but as the stand grows older and the pine trees die, one or several at a time, their place is not taken by pine seedlings, but by hardwoods. The hardwoods are more successful in forming an understory and can take over at the expense of the pine. Thus by the time the original pines have passed from the picture, the area is well-stocked with hardwood species that will later form the climatic climax typical of the region. This complete succession may take place naturally in less than 200 years. This natural succession has been quite evident on lands owned by the Division of Forestry, N. C. State College. One 80-acre tract of virgin loblolly pine was in the last stages of pine supremacy before being cut. As individual pines died from natural causes their place was being taken by oaks and hickories. Stands of Virginia pine show even more rapid deteriora- tion when the trees are mature. Fully stocked stands on old fields may be regenerated, mature, and be displaced by hardwood in a period of 100 years. SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM It has been pointed out, elsewhere in this report, that present cutting methods tend to hasten this natural suc- cession by removing the overstory of pine. If this is the case, what can be done to keep pine on these areas that are better suited for growing pine than hardwoods? With the present trend toward land stabilization and complete exclusion of fire, how can Nature's challenge be met and this natural succession halted? Three recommendations are offered. Dr. C. F. Korstian, Dr. J. V. Hofman, Dr. H. H. Biswell, and others agree on the various points, but not necessarily in their application. 1. Grazing. It has been observed, and some research has (32) EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE FOREST MANAGEMENT 13. Fire lane on pulp company lands. Made with tractor and Mathis plow. Used to divide the property so fire can be reached and confined to small area by backfiring. Jones County. 14. Excellent thinning of immature old-field loblolly stand by farmer in Wake County. His product was tobacco wood. 15. Seed trees and some merchantable growing stock left after cutting on lumber company lands in Bertie County. The hardwood brush remains a serious bar to reseeding. proved, that cattle grazing on forest lands in eastern North Carolina favors pine reproduction and also de- creases the fire hazard by reducing the accumulation of litter. The direct effect of cattle is to remove many com- peting hardwoods by browsing and to trample pine seed into the ground so that the seed comes in contact with the mineral soil. It has been proved that grazing on forest lands is profitable under certain conditions and during specific seasons. However, cattle grazing has its limitations. There is room for expansion in the cattle industry, but to increase the industry to a point where it would solve the problem in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, would mean the use of such numbers that it would be impossible to feed the stock during the seasons when the forest areas would not sup- port them. Further research is definitely needed, especially in the Piedmont region. Dr. C. M. Kaufman, Associate Professor of Forest Research at N. C. State College, is now conduct- ing a forest grazing study. No conclusions have been reached at this time, as to the effect on pine reproduction. More information is needed as to the exact concentra- tion of cattle per unit area to accomplish the desired re- sults. Also, the use of sheep and goats may well be inves- tigated, especially in cleaning tangled areas of brush, brambles, and vines. 2. Cleanings. The bush-axe is a fine silvicultural tool, but one that is not used frequently enough at present. Many forest areas could be put back into volume produc- tion by the removal of brush and sprouts that are sup- pressing the pine seedlings already present on the area. (33) Landowners could well utilize idle farm labor during win- ter months for this purpose. It is possible to clean several acres per man-day even in very brushy areas. Winter is the best time for this work as the brush is more easily cut and handled when the leaves are absent. This system is very effective where reproduction is present, but cannot be recommended as a method of aid- ing the re-establishment of pine by natural seeding when the area is completely occupied by shrubs and bushes. More drastic exposure of the mineral soil is needed when the above condition exists. 3. Fire. The use of fire, fire that is expertly controlled as to time, place, and size, is one of the most valuable sil- vicultural aids. Observations in the field, plus collateral reading, indicate that the use of controlled fire is not only desirable, but necessary if pine is to be retained as a com- mercial crop in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain. Several points must also be made quite clear before pro- ceeding with a discussion of the use of fire. 1. The present fire control system must be strengthened, especially in the Coastal Plain, so that "wild" fire can be controlled. This point cannot be overemphasized. Adequate and continuing control of wild fire is abso- lutely essential before a program of controlled fire can be initiated. 2. Present fire protection educational efforts should be changed to a program that admits the intelligent use of fire as a silvicultural tool, while decrying the damage done by fire. Modify the present approach to the subject and present scientific facts. The N. C. Division of For- estry and Parks is already using this new approach on a trial basis. Many landowners have seen the beneficial effects of light accidental fires on the establishment of pine reproduction and have begun to wonder if forest- ers know what they are talking about. If foresters lose the confidence of landowners, any program will fail. 3. All hardwood sites must be excluded from such dis- cussion. Good hardwood producing areas must have fire exclusion at all times. 4. Last, but not least, it is reasonable to assume that the landowner, and those who come in contact with the woods, will not use the idea of controlled burning as an excuse to burn up the state. A burning permit sys- tem, liability laws, and enforcement control are still in effect to take care of the irresponsible person. If land- owners are shown the value of their timber, both pres- ent and future, on a cash basis, they will not willfully destroy their assets. Timber values are not yet known to many landowners, as evidenced by their method of "lump sale" and the destructive cutting allowed on their property. More education of a practical nature is sorely needed. What is the reason for wanting to use controlled fire in the first place? How did the pine stands in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain originate? The answer to the latter question is land abandonment in the Piedmont and fire in the Coastal Plain. The fine stands of longleaf pine that were found in the Coastal Plain by early settlers were the result of fire. Dr. B. W. Wells, Head of the Botany De- partment, N. C. State College, in referring to the South- eastern Coastal Plain, states: "So universal is fire in the area that mature climatic climax communities are un- known. All evidence indicates that the extensive pine for- ests are fire sub-climaxes. The hypothetical suggestion of- fered for the upland climaxes is a dry oak one for the deep, coarse sand; moist oak-hickory on the finer sand textures; with beech-maple on the moist slope bases. On more moist sites, but locations not wet enough to carry swamp forest, a characteristic community of red bay, sweet gum, red maple and sweet bay may be expected." If uncontrolled fire in the past was a factor in the de- velopment of fine stands of pine over large areas, it is quite reasonable to suppose that even better stands could be evolved when fire is used as a tool, intelligently ap- plied. Lack of research in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of North Carolina is a definite handicap at present. The so- lution of this problem should be undertaken as soon as pos- sible and definite burning procedures established for the various topographic types. Rolling uplands, sand hills, fiat woods, bays and pocosins should receive separate study as no one set of standards will apply for all conditions. It may be found that bays and pocosins should be excluded from burning altogether. Some few experimental burnings have been made, but have been quite limited in their extent. Carl G. Krueger, Forest Supervisor, Pisgah-Croatan National Forests, states: "Some prescribed burning was carried out on the Croatan district in 1942. The burning was carefully done, but was on a very small scale. No cost figures were kept. Heavy fire damage from wildfire, that same spring, large- ly nullified some of the work, since some of the areas were covered or surrounded by wildfire. Results on these areas where identity could be maintained were fairly good. The rough was reduced markedly, percentage of brown spot on young longleaf pine was reduced, and a good catch of seedlings has been obtained. Our burning has been confined to the longleaf pine type as fire should be excluded from the pocosins or loblolly pine sites." Not only does prescribed burning benefit long-leaf pine, but when properly used, burning may accomplish the de- sired results with loblolly pine as well. Professor H. H. Chapman, School of Forestry, Yale University, has shown that fire can be used to advantage in loblolly pine stands in Arkansas and West Louisiana, and has made specific recommendations for its use on certain industrial forest areas in North Carolina. If these recommendations are carried out, the results will be most interesting to all con- cerned. It is not possible to make definite statements on con- trolled burning procedures in this state. Procedures de- veloped in other sections might well apply here, either in modified form or in the same form. Men must be trained to carry out any controlled burning program, or it will fail from the start. Many an owner in the Deep South has too quickly assumed that controlled burning was an easy mat- ter, with the result that he burned up many dollars worth of timber. REGULATION OF COMMERCIAL TIMBER CUTTING The idea of regulating timber cutting has been talked about for many years in America. Proponents of regula- tion have been more vociferous in the last 10 years than in all preceding years. The U. S. Forest Service is clamor- ing for national regulatory legislation and seems to have (34) gained the support of many members of Congress. Legis- latures in many of the important timber states have had the proposition before them in recent years. The majority have either felt that a particular measure was not the right one, or that there was not enough support for it at the time. A number of states are believed to have adopted timber-cutting regulations that will produce the results intended. Any American attempt at regulation of timber-cutting is bound to be an experiment, at first. Imperfections and failures should be expected until it is learned what is needed and what will work in different parts of the United States. A state is not to be criticized if its first attempt is discovered to have weaknesses. A great many landowners, timbermen, county officials, business leaders, agricultural workers, and foresters were questioned to learn what they think about public regula- tion of commercial timber-cuting in North Carolina. The idea of any rules to be enforced on forest landowners was dismissed, because there are over 200,000 of them in North Carolina, mostly farmers, and administration of rules in- volving various kinds of cutting by so many people would be simply too big a job for any agency that could be em- powered to handle it. Rather, some kind of supervision of the cutting of trees or buying of logs by commercial ope- rators was proposed. This would include sawmill men, pulpwood contractors and buyers of veneer logs, crossties, poles, and such commercial products as may be deemed necessary. This approach seems more practicable, as there are only about 3,000 of these commercial operators. It was not assumed that regulation was needed. Infor- mation was sought from examination of woods conditions, and from informed sources, as well as from the general public. CONSIDERABLE INTEREST IN REGULATION The majority of those interviewed were in favor of "something being done about the timber cutting." From records of interviews, the following examples show the different kinds of opinion: Soil Conservation Service Technician: "There is strong feeling in the county that something should be done to stop mills from coming in and cutting everything on a place." County Commissioner and portable sawmill operator: "Rules about timber-cutting might be all right if they were enforced fairly, but I don't approve of government inter- fering with business. The woods do need to be laid off of awhile." Deputy Sheriff and farmer; community leaders (Ques- tion by consultant) "Would people in this county support laws to. stop close cutting of timber?" (Answer) "Yes, they would." (Question) "Sure they wouldn't yell about their rights? You know, people are complaining about so many regulations." (Answer) "Yes, understand that. But we've got to do something about our timber." Tax Collector: "I don't know what should be done about timber-cutting." Big Lumberman: "Against further regulations at this time. Might be interested later when something is worked out to reduce fires." (Note: This is a coastal county where fires are bad.) Tobacco Farmer: "Need a government law to stop woods being murdered by lumber and pulp companies. It's a sight how they cut it close an' knock down what they don't cut. We need a law also to protect a feller from his tenants. Always want to cut the best trees. Leave if you get after them." Medium Lumberman: "Regulation is needed." (Further conversation revealed his timber supply was being limited by pulp cutting. Possibly he felt regulation would slow down pulp cutting.) Big Lumberman: "Educate. I don't think it is right for the state or federal government to tell a man which trees he may cut on land that he is supposed to own." Veneer and Lumber Manufacturer : "We favor regula- tion." The above are fair examples of opinions offered by farmers, lumbermen, landowners, and county leaders gen- erally. Asked if their counties would show enough sup- port to make it worth-while to try regulation, S. C. S. technicians were equally divided in opinion. In general, people whose activities would be little touched by timber- cutting regulations, such as farmers, businessmen, and the general public as represented by town and city people would favor regulations. These people believe in a general way that the woods are being hacked to pieces and that something should be done. Their ideas as to how timber ought to be cut, however, are just as likely to be wrong as right, because they don't know. Practically all of them would condemn clean, heavy cuting as destructive. Yet in many cases this might be good forestry. Lumbermen are divided on the question. Generally, the portable sawmiller and the concentration yard man are against restrictions. The kind of cutting regulations al- most everyone thinks of would require a considerable number of smaller trees to be left, and this would severely curtail the operations of many portable mills. In discussing regulation, there was no attempt to dis- cuss details as to how much would or would not be cut, nor to indicate the level of publication regulation — State or Federal. The pulp mills appear willing to accept regulation; at least representatives of two large companies so indicated. They stipulated that it should be state regulation; they would oppose federal regulation. Pulp mills have been much criticized due to heavy cutting of small pines by con- tractors. One of the defense arguments is, "Why should we leave merchantable trees? The landowner may turn around and allow a 'peckerwood' sawmill to cut them all later." Sawmills use the same argument. No one cares to leave merchantable trees for the future, because it is claimed that some one else will get them. The timber game does not have any rules or referees; anything goes. If this is resulting in damage to forest pro- duction, and it is feasible to do something about it, then the public does seem to have a duty in the matter. Appar- ently, most states are beginning to see it in that light, as regulatory proposals keep coming to the legislative bodies of timber states. REGULATION WILL NOT BE SIMPLE Early in the investigation, it was shown that people do not relaize just how complicated a set of forest cutting rules might be. Americans have a blind faith that a new law will correct almost any situation. In this case, the dif- ficulties to be encountered should be understood in advance, so that proposals will be carefully considered. (35) Some county workers of the U. S. Soil Conservation Service, who do forestry work with landowners, seemed to understand the complications, as most foresters do who "stay in the woods." Thinking of this, one forester said, "When foresters move out of the woods to town, the an- swers are much simpler and more easily arrived at." Said one Soil Conservation worker near the coast, "Regulation might be desirable, but how can anything workable be de- veloped here? There are so many different conditions. The rules would be full of loopholes." In the woods, there often are situations where the need- ed measures would be hard to fit into general rules. It is somewhat discouraging to note that many people seem to overlook this feature. The Southeastern Section of the Society of American Foresters appointed a committee to draft a set of cutting practice rules that would be a desirable minimum. The U. S. Forest Service has an outline also, somewhat similar. The average timber operator would not be able to inter- pret either of them and thereby guide his cutting to meet the standards. The rules are not unduly complicated, but there are too many conditions to be covered. The Society Committee stresses the fact that the rules are necessarily somewhat flexible and would be held up as a guide only where a forester or forestry-trained man was not in charge of the cutting. If the practices were under direction of a forester, the regulatory body would then pass on his system to see if it met the objectives of the law. It is believed that these cutting rules would make it nec- essary for a forester to oversee all cuttings. They apply to both pines and hardwoods. They specify, for example, that certain desirable hardwoods should not be cut if under 17 inches at the stump; that good pine should not be cut if under 15 inches at the stump, unless numerous; that smaller pines should be left to the number of 80 per acre; and so on, with various conditions stated under which dif- ferent specifications would apply, including clear-cutting. The fact that these proposed rules envisage a forestry- trained individual planning and checking on commercial timber harvesting, should enable the objectives of a regu- latory act to be met in any timber condition in a sensible manner. How to make available, or in other ways obtain the technical guidance that would be necessary is a matter concerning which few suggestions have been made to date. No doubt this could be worked out if enough support could be obtained for the plan. Let no one suppose that timbermen are universally op- posed to a thorough-going set-up, such as the one proposed. One lumber man said, "Each county should have its own forester, paid % by the state and % by the county. After the public is educated, give him a whip hand. 'Any timber sold in ■ county, not in accordance with county forest- er's recommendation, should be subject to special tax of 5 per cent of the sales price." Another said, "Although we are snowed under by government regulations, we would be glad to comply with any laws enacted for the purpose of conserving and improving our timber resources." RECOMMENDATIONS The data obtained indicate that pine restocking is being damaged by cutting, and that it is desirable to consider regulatory action. The discussion of the relative values of pine and hard- wood growth in the section on Management explains the importance of using every feasible means to maintain pine in our forests. The section headed "Degree of Satisfactory Stocking" presents data showing the unmistakeable trend toward hardwoods on former pine lands. Almost all timbermen think of regulation as a set of rules with considerably more complications and prohibi- tions than those believed necessary to reserve pine seed sources. There were a number of opinions given as indicat- ing that seed tree regulation might be widely acceptable. It would be argued that merely leaving seed trees will not insure pine reproduction. That is true in many cases. But, at least, a source of seed will be preserved so that the owner will have something with which to work. Seed trees would be a great benefit in Coastal forest areas where frequent fires kill back the hardwoods. As it is, with fires killing the hardwoods, and pine seed sources being removed, such areas are doomed. The data does not indicate urgent need now for rules applying to hardwood cutting. Hardwood sawtimber is not decreasing, and cordwood-size material is increasing. If a regulatory plan which put a forestry-trained person on the ground to plan or to approve cuttings could be adopted, that would take care of the situation described. However, in the event the more complete plan cannot be put into practice, it is felt that seed tree legislation might 'well be considered by itself. This point should be stressed. No legislation is likely to have success in the United States unless a majority of those to be affected support it. Nothing can be accomp- lished unless enough sawmill and pulp men will themselves put their influence behind a plan. TAX SITUATION ON FOREST LAND It has been stated by some individuals and companies that the high tax rate on forest land is one of the draw- backs to their practice of forestry. They state that it is better for some one else to own the land, and grow the timber. The company will buy the logs. Just what is the situation in North Carolina? In the first place, timber is classed as real estate in the eyes of the lawyers and tax assessors. Timber cannot intelligently be classified as real estate unless corn, potatoes, cotton, and tobacco are also included. Timber is a crop. It pro- duces material annually that is added to the crop of the year before, the sum of the annual crops being harvested when conditions warrant. To the tax assessor the land should be the assessable feature, not the timber. Table 24 Region Tax Rate % Real Value Timberland Cut-over Timberland Waste Land Agricultural Land $1.30 62 $15.00 $ 7.00 $ 4.00 $48.00 95 66 28.00 13.00 7.00 34.00 1.50 62 25.00 6.00 3.00 50.00 (36) Agricultural lands assume value on the basis of what they will produce. This is not true of forest land. Forest lands are given a value depending on what is present on the land. The forest land areas are classified in some coun- ties as timberland or cut-over timberland, the latter hav- ing the lesser value. In other counties, forest land is con- sidered along with agricultural land and an average figure per acre is the basis for the assessment. In some counties timberland has a higher assessed value than agricultural land. In spite of the unfairness of the classification to owners of large timber tracts, taxes are not unduly high in many counties, the eastern counties having the fairest assess- ment on timberlands. Average land valuations for tax purposes are shown in Table 24. These figures were compiled from 40 sample counties. Present tax laws can be made to work fairly if they are properly administered. Inequalities frequently arise from the present assessment policies which do not consider the productive capacity of timberland as compared to agricul- tural land. Generally speaking, examples of excessive taxation on large timber tracts have not been noted. Such cases do exist, but there is also a tendency on the part of many people to complain about taxes merely as a matter of prin- ciple. Some farmers in the Piedmont have the most cause for complaint when their forest land is assessed at the same value as their agricultural land. THE TIMBER VOLUME BALANCE SHEET The Forest Resource Appraisal did not attempt a study of growth based on new field data. The information pre- sented on this subject is from the thorough study by the U. S. Forest Survey in 1937 and 1938. No other estimates of growth in North Carolina are available. Table 23 shows that during the seven-year period, 1937 through 1943, the average annual net growth of sawtimber material was 2,311,000 M. bd. ft. Nearly three-fourths of the sawtimber growth was made by pine; over one-fourth was made by hardwoods and cypress. The table shows how this growth is distributed among the four regions. Sawtimber growth apparently has not declined, although the total amount of sawtimber volume has declined. The reason for this is that heavy cutting of sawtimber trees has, in effect, swapped large trees for smaller ones. The smaller trees produce wood at a more rapid rate. It is pointed out, however, that the quality of the sawtimber growth on smaller trees is not equal in value to the same volume of wood on larger trees. According to Forest Survey calculations, sawtimber growth was a litle higher in 1943 than in 1937. Three regions are figured to have shared in the gain, only the Piedmont showing a decrease in sawtimber growth. All changes are negligible. The growth estimates for all sound trees 5.0 inches d.b.h., and larger, include sawlog trees, upper stems of pine sawlog trees (but not hardwoods), and sound under- sawlog-size trees. The rate of growth of the sound-tree growing stock increased in the period from 1937 through 1943, all regions showing a gain except the North Coastal Plain. Average Net Growth per Acre. Based on the stands present in 1937 and 1938, the Forest Survey calculated the net sawtimber growth for the average wooded acre in North Carolina to be 131 board feet. Loblolly pine types averaged over 200 board feet per acre while upland hard- woods were lowest, being under 70 (This fact emphasizes the desirability of growing pine where feasible on upland sites, as stressed elsewhere in this report). By regions, average growth per acre was 163, 128, 149, and 72, board feet for the North Coastal Plain, South Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and Mountains, respectively. Average growth per acre for the total sound-tree grow- ing stock was about % cord for the state as a whole. It ranged from .41 cord in the Mountains to .68 cord in the Piedmont. Growth estimates are of necessity based on calculations. Table 23. FOREST GROWTH COMPARED WITH COMMODITY DRAIN* Annual average based on 7 year period 1937 through 1943 AVERAGE NET ANNUAL GROWTH All Sound Trees Sawtimber 5.0" D.B.H. and Larger Pine Hardwoods Total Pine Hardwoods Total (Million Board Feet) (Thousand Cords) N. Coastal Plain 477 174 651 1,228 742 1,970 S. Coastal Plain 554 154 708 1,793 751 2,544 Piedmont 507 191 698 2,167 1,201 3,368 Mountains 107 147 254 448 980 1,428 State 1.645 666 2,311 5,636 3,674 9,310 AVERAGE ANNUAL COMMODITY DRAIN N. Coastal Plain 442 156 598 1,387 538 1,925 S. Coastal Plain 477 170 647 1,597 672 2,269 Piedmont 686 170 856 2,450 798 3,248 Mountains 112 167 279 413 697 1,110 State • 1,717 663 2,380 5,847 2,705 8,552 Cypress is included with hardwoods. * From Forest Survey Release No. 18, "N. C. Forest Growth and Drain 1937-1943," by J. W. Cruikshank and A. D. Toler. (37) Borings in thousands of stems determine the rate at which trees increase in volume. Through other phases of a growth study the mortality drain is computed and deducted to ar- rive at net growth. Growth rate changes as timber stands change in character. A repeated inventory affords a rough check on the growth calculations, provided that commodity drain is known. The Forest Resource Appraisal in North Carolina found 6% less sawtimber than was found in 1938. This compares reasonably with the volume arrived at by project- ing growth and deducting the commodity drain. The Ap- praisal estimates of sawtimber are somewhat lower in the Coastal Plain than would result from the projection of growth and drain. It is believed that drain was heavier than it has been figured. This would account for the dif- ference. STATE FORESTS Are more public forests needed in North Carolina? This question raised opinions of approval and disapproval in the various regions of the state. People, generally, seem to favor the additional acquisi- tion of public forests in the Mountains. Many individuals have come in contact with the National Forests and National Parks through the medium of recreation. Many are not acquainted with the policies of forest management on either the National Forests or National Parks, but as these areas have a high esthetic value the people are in favor of further acquisition. Lumber companies have, in the past, welcomed the idea of selling their cutover lands to the Federal Government. This trend continues and, as a result, more land will likely be acquired in the Mountains for National Forests. In the Piedmont, various community leaders did not think that public ownership was feasible due to the absence of large, unbroken timber growing areas. Units large enough for National Forest Ranger Districts are practical- ly nonexistent. However, the opinion was expressed that state forests could well be established in several sections of the Piedmont. These forest areas should be established to show landowners the best methods of managing their timber growing areas. The educational value of these demonstration forests would more than pay for the cost of establishment. There are forest lands in the Piedmont that are suitable for State Demonstration Forests and it is hoped that sentiment will develop for their purchase. The Coastal Plain has many areas of variable size that seem suited to public ownership. Here, again, state owner- ship was suggested for all areas with the exception of the Great Dismal Swamp. Lumber and pulp companies are more interested in the "better" types of timber growing land. The state could well afford to acquire lands in the Coastal Section. Certain pocosins, sand ridges, and swamp areas are well suited for public ownership. These areas are not attractive to lumber and pulp companies at present, but do have future value for timber production if placed under protection. Here, again, demonstration of forestry practices would be of untold value in showing landowners what could be done with these unattractive areas. It is believed that the State of North Carolina should own and operate State Forests for timber production and demonstration. These State Forests should be located chiefly in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain as it is too late to compete with the Federal Government in much of the Mountain region. North Carolina can hardly afford to stand by and al- low more of her potentially good forest lands to be taken up by the Federal Government. There are too many ad- vantages in state ownership. With State Forests go pres- tige, training facilities for personnel, proving grounds for techniques, demonstration and research areas, an influence with personnel which makes the job more interesting to the men, and, last, but not least, financial returns. Probably there are few fields in which the Southern States are losing their birthrights so rapidly as in the matter of forest lands. Once the Federal Government ac- quires these lands, there is the danger that the people of the state will have no further responsibility and little in- fluence in connection with them. It is just that much of the state's territory lost. State sovereignty has lost in a field where its manifestations should be strong. There are plenty of precedents establishing the wisdom of state forests. Several states have had state forests for more than forty years and are continually expanding. These states realize the value of their forest areas and have acted accordingly. New York owns approximately 3 million acres; Michigan owns over 3 million acres; Penn- sylvania owns over 2 million acres ; Minnesota, Oregon and Washington all own over one million acres of state forest lands. Most of the state forests in the United States have been created from cut-over lands and on them are found some of the best forestry practices in the country. These forests have been highly successful and have won public favor. EDUCATION OF FOREST LANDOWNERS Nearly 17 million acres of North Carolina's forest land are in the hands of private owners. Since, as in agricul- ture, the manner in which the crop is handled affects the yield, it is in the interest of the general welfare to inform these owners regarding good practices, and to assist and encourage them by all suitable means. Cotton farmers have been enabled to double their yields per acre through appli- cation of scientific practices brought to them by agricul- tural teaching, extension service and research. It is not too much to hope that over a long period of years timber owners with reasonably good forest land can be led to double their timber yields. In using the term "education" it is intended to include various kinds of assistance which have developed in con- nection with farm programs; not merely giving a talk or handing out a circular, but service in marketing, planning, and other ways. STATUS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT Public forests. Forest maangement is well developed on the one existing state forest, and beginnings have been made on a large state game refuge near the coast. The 84,000 acre forest of N. C. State College is being managed on an intensive basis, and all costs, including purchase price of the land, are being met from income made by the forest. Watershed forests of municipalities are protected from fire, but are usually not under management, the present policy on most of them being to refrain from tim- ber cutting. National forests are said to have intensive management and are well protected from fire. It has been difficult to make much progress with scientific forestry on the three- quarters of a million acres of national forests in the (38) Mountains. They are hardwood forests and, like hardwood forest everywhere in the state, contain so much low-grade and cull material that growth of better trees is impeded. It seems likely that yields of timber on national forests have improved little, if any, over yields on similar private lands. They may have more timber because they cut less. Selective cutting seems to be Forest Service policy for these forests, and must undoubtedly be one good way to harvest, but numbers of foresters will argue that clear cutting is just as good or better for Mountain hardwoods. They point out that the best hardwood stands in the Moun- tains, excepting old fields, both on national forests and on private lands, are on the areas cut most completely years ago. The national forests are building up their stands. This would seem to be an appropriate function of public forests; to hold a good volume of timber for periods of emergency. Industrial Owners. They own over 1% million acres in North Carolina, mostly in the Coastal Plain. Pulp mills, with over % million acres, are either practising intensive forestry or preparing to do so. They employed 13 foresters in North Carolina in 1944, three times as many as the more numerous lumber companies. Pulp companies cut their lands conservatively (much land is not being cut at all) and are trying to protect them from fire. This latter problem is the more troublesome for them because their holdings are scattered. Lumber companies own over % million acres. Of this acreage, however, not over % can be credited with inten- sive management; that is, systematic management aimed at increasing yields. At least % million acres are in the hands of companies which have "cut out" and are still holding the lands, undecided what to do next; or are still cutting without particular efforts toward better practices. There are two large lumber concerns in eastern North Carolina that seem to be energetically pushing ahead with land purchases and purposeful forestry practices. A num- ber of smaller mills are working along the same line, and many more are becoming convinced that they should. Most industrial owners are trying to protect their lands from fire, although with some the effort does not lead to fire lines, etc. on the ground. Farm and Investment Ownerships. These two groups own about 15 million acres of forest land. Possibly % of the acreage is in holdings over 500 acres in size; most of the others are less than 100 acres. As one moves west- ward from the coast, average size of the forest ownerships becomes smaller. County agents, U. S. Soil Conservation Service techni- cians, and public foresters were asked how these private, non - industrial owners are managing their woods. These men who know their country landowners are not inclined to credit more than 7 or 8 percent with intensive management. To earn this rating an owner would be the sort who cuts culls for firewood, tries to protect from fire, and either designates the trees to be cut in commercial sales, or in some definite way makes provision for another good crop of timber. It must be said that these ratings are apt to be confus- ing. In judging a farmer's woods work, foresters or agri- cultural workers are naturally going to judge his work according to whether or not he is following their pre- scriptions. Very often a farmer following no particular prescription at all happens to have the best timber stands in the country. He may have an old field pine stand, or he may have cleancut for tobacco wood by small patches and got perfect reproduction of pine or desirable hardwoods. It is felt that in most counties owners have little better than 7 or 8 percent of their stands in fairly good con- dition. The rating, however, can be said to indicate the number of owners who will today get out and pursue positive mea- sures to improve their woods. Questionnaires and personal contacts with the above farm advisors brought out the fact that they think about % of their woodlands suffer from destructive cutting ; that is, cutting that makes no provision for the next crop and supposedly leaves the land in poorer shape to grow another crop. According to results from plots taken on timber cuttings, slightly over 50 percent showed destructive cutting prac- tices, especially as to the removal of all pine seed sources. Another type of damage arises from the over-cutting of small trees that are just reaching the stage when new volume production is greatest. It will be apparent from reading this report that there is very little forest management being practiced in the state which is effective in regenerating pine, except where pine comes in on abandoned fields, from grazed areas, or accidental disturbances. Therefore, the recommenda- tions being offered to landowners do not offer a solution to one of the principal problems. Forestry agencies are becoming more aware of this fact and it is a certainty that efforts will be redoubled to develop lines of approach that will maintain pine. Research has not been active enough on the most critical problems that confront private owners. EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS TO DATE Extension Service. Great progress has been made in forestry educational work since R. W. Graeber was ap- pointed Extension Forester of North Carolina in 1925. For ten years he carried on educational work with farmers, working alone insofar as the Extension Service was con- cerned until 1935, when an Assistant Extension Forester was appointed. Regular Extension Service educational work was followed by demonstrations and meetings of farmers, and information disseminated by mail. In December, 1942, the Farm Forestry Program was initiated and six field men were added to the staff. This program was developed to assist farmers and to aid the war effort. Farmers were assisted in the systematic man- agement of their forest lands to keep them productive. They were aided in the making of timber sale contracts, finding markets and buyers for their products, and in the development of marketing cooperatives when needed. The war effort was aided by making a great deal more lumber and pulp material available for use, material that otherwise might not have been utilized due to lack of know- ledge of markets or procedures. This program has been continued and extended. There are now eight Farm Foresters working in 31 counties and the program not only includes the above points concerning marketing, but also technical assistance and planning is now offered in thinning and stand improvement, selective harvest of merchantable timber, pruning, planting, and protection from fire, diseases, and insects. (39) Not only farmers, but some mill operators realize the value of the program. Graeber said, "A large number of mill operators are working closely with our farm foresters and are seeking their help. They often refer timber owners to the forester before buying." For the fiscal year 1944-45, the Farm Foresters gave assistance in timber marketing to 686 farmers who sold $708,006 worth of material from 73,337 acres of forest land. Timber was actually marked and volume determined on 415 farms or 24,846 acres. The volume marked was 68 million board feet of sawtimber and 12,392 cords of pulp- wood and miscellaneous products. Further educational value was obtained through the spread of influence in a community by people observing and discussing work of this type. Present plans call for the further development of the Farm Forestry Program within the next 10 years. This is now in North Carolina a cooperative project between the Extension Service (State and Federal), and the U. S. Forest Service. DIVISION OF FORESTRY AND PARKS, DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT Educational work of this division, the state government's chief forestry agency, consists of several phases. Fire pro- tection education work follows the general trend with talks to schools, radio talks from various local stations, showing of motion pictures to schools and civic groups, and the use of fire protection posters and literature. During the 1944 calendar year, 614 schools were visited by division person- nel. Various forestry services and advice are given to the absentee, investment, industrial and other owners of forest land. Federal funds, disbursed through the U. S. Forest Service, join state and county funds in this overall pro- gram. The Bladen Lakes State Forest in Bladen County is be- ing intensively managed as a demonstration of forestry on submarginal land. All phases of management are under- way. Forest products of all types are being systematically grown and harvested. Two recreational centers have been established and two lakes developed for fishing. Regulated deer hunting in cooperation with the Game Division is now underway. Further educational work has been undertaken in co- operation with the Vocational Agriculture teachers in vari- ous counties. In Wilson County, four units of 10 acres each have been established as school demonstration forests. The units have been donated and deeds are held by the Board of Education. Units have been established in four Mountain counties, but the lands are still in private owner- ship. This program was curtailed by the war, but is to be revived on a larger scale. A forester on the State For- ester's staff is assigned full-time to Information and Edu- cation activities corelation. U. S. SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE In 1944 there were seven foresters employed by the U. S. Soil Conservation Service in North Carolina. These men were not employed as foresters, but were used in the general farm program. However, the forestry-trained con- servationists have worked forestry practices into farm plans and have been responsible for assisting many farm- ers in the development of their forest lands through im- provement cuttings and tree planting. Tennessee Valley Authority. At present, the T.V.A. (Dept. of Forestry Relations) has three foresters working within the Tennessee Valley in North Carolina. This or- ganization cooperates with state, local, and other federal agencies. For the past seven years they have been assisting timber land owners in forest management and tree plant- ing in an effort to decrease erosion on T.V.A. watersheds and for the past two years, T.V.A. foresters have been developing detailed individual management plans for cer- tain demonstration farms. These foresters also work in cooperation with the N. C. Division of Forestry and Parks in giving technical assistance to absentee, investment, in- dustrial and other owners on lands within the Tennessee Valley in North Carolina. Farmers' Federation, Asheville, North Carolina. Two foresters are employed, one working on the marketing of pulpwood in an effort to obtain as much volume as possible to meet present demands by encouraging thinning and cutting; the other working with individual owners to develop a systematic management, harvesting and market- ing program. Management agreements are signed with the timber owners and all future cutting is handled by the Farmers' Federation. This work is carried out on a com- mission basis, with further assistance from a Charles L. Pack Forestry Foundation grant. Farm Security Administration. Under the Tenant Pur- chase Program of the F.S.A., some forestry educational work has been practiced with the cooperation of the Ex- tension Service, Farm Foresters, and Management Assist- ants of the N. C. Division of Forestry and Parks. A num- ber of cutting plans have been developed for individual farms and some very effective work has been done, as the F.S.A. controls farm and forest practices on farms as long as loans are in force. In spite of this "enforced" education, however, some owners have liquidated their timber to pay their mortgages. THE NORTH CAROLINA FORESTRY ASSOCIATION The North Carolina Forestry Association is "A Volun- tary Association of Persons and Organizations Interested in the Protection and Fuller Development of North Caro- lina's Forest and Game Resources." This organization is very active and has developed a broad forestry and natural resources program to assist in keeping North Carolina's forest lands productive. Educational efforts of the Asso- ciation deal with the development of community forests by counties, towns, and cities, an enlarged program of farm and industrial forestry education and service, a broadening of the public interest in forests through the public schools, and adequate facilities for the teaching of forestry at North Carolina State College and Duke University. SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, DUKE UNIVERSITY The School of Forestry, although engaged mainly in the professional training of technical foresters on a graduate level, maintains contacts with private and owners through the operation of the Duke Forest. The Duke Forest, located in Durham and Orange Coun- ties, consists of three main units; namely, the Durham, New Hope Creek, and Hillsboro divisions. The total area of the Forest is now over 7,000 acres. Situated on the lower (40) Piedmont Plateau at elevations ranging from 280 to 650 feet, and composed of second-growth shortleaf and loblolly pines, oak, gum, hickory, yellow poplar, ash, and other hardwoods, the Forest is representative of the various types of timber growth found throughout the region. Besides serving as an outdoor laboratory for the School of Forestry, the Forest is managed with the objective of demonstrating the various methods of timber growing, timber stand treatment, and forest management applicable to the region and of developing it as an experimental for- est for research in the problems of timber growing and in the sciences basic thereto. The development of the Forest as a demonstration of practical forest management is well advanced. Forest type and timber stand maps are available for each of the three divisions and a detailed soils map is being prepared. Each division has been subdivided into permanent compartments and plans for the treatment of each stand have been made. Various products are harvested each year such as saw- timber, poles and piling, veneer bolts, pulpwood, Christmas trees, ornamental stock, and decorative material. Cutting operations, within the limits of annual growth, are so designed as to illustrate approved forestry practices such as selective cuttings, strip cuttings, seed tree cuttings, thinnings, improvement cuttings, conversion operations, and many others. These operations serve the dual purpose of contributing to the development of the Forest as a going business and of demonstrating sound forestry practices. Land owners, farmers, and others interested in seeing and learning about these forestry demonstrations visit the For- est singly or in groups. DIVISION OF FORESTRY, N. C. STATE COLLEGE The Division of Forestry is primarily engaged in the training of technically trained foresters; however, educa- tional contacts with private land owners are maintained through the various forest areas owned or operated by the Division. The Hill Demonstration Forest of 1,500 acres, located hi Durham County, is primarily a research forest. Many sample plots have been planted that demonstrate various spacings of loblolly, shortleaf and Virginia pines. A num- ber of thinning plots in Virginia pine have been established to show silvicultural methods of handling this species, and thinning plots in hardwood for fuel and improvement have been initiated. The Hofmann Forest of 80,000 acres located in Jones and Onslow Counties is owned by the N. C. Forestry Foun- dation and operated by the Division of Forestry. Various commercial operations dealing with pulpwood and log pro- duction are underway. A completely equipped weather sta- tion has been established on the forest by the N. C. Experi- ment Station in connection with fire studies. Forest graz- ing studies on a commercial scale are being conducted by the Department of Animal Husbandry, N. C. State College, U. S. Forest Service, and Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C, on a cooperative basis. Other units on which forestry work and demonstration are well underway are the Richlands Creek area of 300 acres in Wake County and the Hope Valley Forest of 1700 acres located in Chatham County. It can be seen, from the above discussion of agencies concerned with forestry education, that this type of work is and has been steadily progressing since appointment of J. S. Holmes as first State Forester in 1909. This phase of forestry is, however, far from being adequate. There are thousands of landowners who have been contacted in no way whatsoever. It is estimated, by various agencies, that at least 25 percent of the owners of private forest lands would not respond to forestry education and assistance if offered. Forestry education should be expanded, however, so as to reach the other 75 percent. If this could be ac- complished, North Carolina's future timber needs would be insured. Education should be given a fair chance before concluding that government regulation is the only solu- tion to the problem of keeping our forest lands productive. In 1943, approximately 1,600 million board feet of lum- ber were cut from the 17 million acres of privately owned land. Of this amount, probably 300 million board feet were cut under the influence of some educational work, either by actual marking, advice or demonstration. The remain- ing 1,300 million board feet were cut for no reason except to make money. Can it thus be said that forestry educa- tional work has been given a fair trial? ALLOWABLE CUT FOR NEXT 10-YEAR PERIOD 1946-55 During the past 10 years North Carolina forests have grown 23 billion board feet of sawtimber material. It is estimated that nearly 24 billion board feet of sawtimber material has been removed from these forests. Possibly, too, the drain has been higher than estimated. How much sawtimber material can be safely removed in the next 10 years? A number of points bear on this question, which might be answered very conservatively by some and quite liberally by others. The more orthodox claim is that growing stock is depleted and should be allowed to build up, which would mean restricted cutting. In a general way, this is certainly true. At the same time, Dr. J. V. Hofmann, of N. C. State College Division of Forestry, points out that a great deal of the timber in our stands is near-cull or definitely low-grade, and this kind of timber needs to be cut heavily, even if it means clearing everything off the ground but pine seed trees. This would apply more to hardwood trees than to pine, but he feels the principle applies to more pine stands than is ordinarily thought. Another angle is the fact that the timber, even if not greatly reduced in volume, is now in more scattered stands that are not attractive to sawmillers. If restricting the cut were a means of securing greatly increased regeneration of pine, the matter would assume higher importance. However, it is not more than a short step in that direction if, indeed, any forward movement were to result. Heavier cutting offers no particular help, either. A forester of the U. S. Forest Service writes: "Over- cutting in merchantable stands has increased in this sec- tion due to war conditions. So far, it is my opinion that there has been no solution advanced that will improve the situation. It is true that the cutting practices outlined by the Society of American Foresters Committee will defer the final destruction of the pine for some time. However, there has been no proposal made that will regenerate pine on sites where there is any appreciable hardwood under- story." (41) Since the total sawtimber stand is shown by Appraisal figures to have declined 6 per cent in the last 8 years, we might base our allowable cut for the next 10 years on the premise that the deficiency be restored. The rate of sawtimber growth is now about the same as it has been for the past 10 years. The rate, 2.3 billion board feet annually, seems to have over-cut pine by about 12 per cent in the last 10 years. For the next 10 years an under-cut of 12 per cent would build back the pine grow- ing stock. Following these assumptions, the annual cut of sawtimber material would be 2.0 billion board feet. Hardwood cutting could go on as before. It is the pine that needs to be replenished. The calculations are believed to be on the conservative side, inasmuch as under-sawlog-size volume is increasing. CONCLUSION 1. The major problem confronting foresters in North Carolina is the successful reproduction of pine on lands that are better suited for growing pine than hardwood. Hardwood succession is a natural condition being hastened by present systems of cutting. As pine will produce ap- proximately three times the volume of hardwood under average conditions, something must be done to insure the reproduction of pine if the state is to maintain its high production of lumber. Decrease in pine volumes will become serious following the maturing of present under-sawlog- size trees. Although there is a fair percentage of pine in the sawtimber and under-sawlog-size at present, only 27 per cent of the reproduction is pine. Pine volumes have re- mained high in the past due to fire and land clearing and abandonment. Complete exclusion of fire and a land-stabili- zed agriculture will mean a serious reduction of pine volumes. The Mountain region is excluded from the above discussion as this area is predominantly hardwood forest. 2. The fire problem in eastern North Carolina must be met by the State as a whole. It is felt that state-wide fire protection is a necessity and that fire control measures cannot be adequately provided under the present system of voluntary county cooperation. Provision for establishing and financing a state-wide system must be left to the General Assembly. 3. The accumulations of hardwood cull trees and brush are forming an ever-increasing barrier to the development of good timber trees. These accumulations are the cause of the non-stocked condition of approximately 2 million acres of forest land in North Carolina. Development of new bulk wood-using industries will be necessary before the present volume of 41 million cords of usable cull trees can be decreased. 4. Thousands of acres of good pine growing lands are non-stocked because of the complete removal of pine seed sources. A provision should be made to retain a source of pine seed. 5. The forestry educational program should be expand- ed so that more of the 200 thousand landowners might benefit through a knowledge of good forestry practices. 6. State-owned forests should be established in the va- rious regions of the state. State ownership would develop prestige, give training facilities for personnel, provide proving grounds for techniques, demonstration and re- search, and demonstrate financial returns. Enabling statutes already exist, as part of the legal framework of the N. C. Dept. of Conservation and Development. 7. The total sawtimber stand has declined approximately 6 per cent in the last eight years. If possible, this deficit should be made up by slightly reducing the cut of pine, as the pine volumes have been reduced about 12 per cent. Hardwood cutting could go on as before. 8. No definite conclusions have been reached concerning the public regulation of cutting on private lands. Public opinion was divided between federal or state regulation, and no regulation at all. It is felt that no regulations are necessary for hardwood timber, but that some means should be employed to save a source of pine seed. 9. Research is very definitely needed to determine the benefits or detriments of prescribed burning to re-establish pine on certain lands in this state. Burning techniques have been developed in other states so it is reasonable to suppose that techniques could be determined here. (42)