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LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL

G3S

•08

M38P

5m-12-'29. No. 7461

9O9-

CONTENTS

1 . Forestry in Massachusetts

2. Wood fuel

3 . The evergreens

4. We must stop forest fires

5. Parasites of the gypsy and "brown-

tail moths

6. Massachusetts wood-using industries

7. Wilt disease, or flacherie, of

the gypsy moth

9 . Chestnut bark disease

10. Artificial use of the brown-tail

fungus in Massachusetts.

11. The brown-tail moth.

12. The gypsy moth.

13. Reforestation

14. Forestry in Massachusetts.

15. Improvement thinnings

16. Older forest plantations in Mass.

17. Gypsy moth in Massachusetts

18. Instructions for county forest d^k

wardens ^

19. Chestnut bark disease.

20. Forests of Worcester county

21. Utilization of forest products

22. Forests of Plymouth county

23. Massachusetts and her forests

24. Reforestation in Massachusetts

25. Forests of Hampshire county

26. General forest laws

27. Laws relating to gypsy and brown-

tail moths

28. Laws relating to forest fires

63.T.0 8

l%1^2T

FOEESTEY IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Pakt I .
WHAT IS FORESTRY?

Forestry is technically denned as the science which is concerned with the forma-
tion, cultivation, harvesting and utilization of timber, in short, the management
of timber as a crop.

True Forestry deals with trees in forest stands as a community and is to be
distinguished from aboriculture, the science that deals with trees as individuals,
although in practice, the two sciences both go under the name of forestry and are
not looked on as distinctive as they should be. Forestry is distinguished from
landscape architecture by its point of view. Landscape gardening deals with
trees, both as individuals and as groups, but always with the purpose of producing
artistic effects, and if any wood or timber is produced, it is merely incidental. We
do not mean to say, however, that forestry can always be divorced from the con-
siderations of landscape architecture.

Forestry is chiefly concerned with the economic production of wood or timber,
and it aims to do one or more of these things : to produce by cultivation a greater
amount of timber than an uncared-for forest, to produce a better quality of timber,
or to produce the same amount of timber in a shorter period of time. In other
words, it aims to assist and improve on nature in the same way that scientific agri-
culture cooperates with nature. We will not. attempt here to describe how these
. things are done, for to do so would be to write an elaborate text book on forestry,
and that is not in the scope of this bulletin.

The considerations which make forestry desirable, however, are many. They
vary somewhat in the different sections of the country and also to some extent in
the same section according to local needs and the desires of individual owners of
woodland. In steep, mountainous countries, the protection of the soil cover and
the maintenance of its ability to store moisture and to equalize the run-off of
streams is of more importance then the raising of timber. On the prairies of the
central west, the forests have an important influence on climate by reducing the
extremes of temperature, while in many places the protection of the natural scenery
is often an important consideration. As a rule, if forestry is practised for com-
mercial purposes, i. e., to provide timber, the protective and beautifying functions
of the forest will be performed, per se.

Back of the prescriptions of forest management is the principle of the " sus-
tained yield." The principle of having the forests of one unit, it may be of one
owner, of a township or of a state, so organized that each year there can be har-
vested an amount of lumber equivalent to the annual increment over the entire
forest. This crop can thereafter be harvested each year forever, because the forest
capital will be unimpaired. The fact that there are many practical considerations
standing in the way of the attainment of this ideal does not prevent it from being
the background of the plan of forest management.

IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY IN MASSACHUSETTS.

The proper management of our forests is of great importance to this Common-
^wealth for two very evident reasons, first, because we are large consumers of forest
products and second, because we are potentially large producers of them.

To consider the first reason let us understand that the people of this state use
'each year, 900 million feet of lumber, nine-tenths of which comes from outside the

~"D

boundaries of the state and three-fourths of which comes from outside of New
England. Of the material coming from outside of New England, the bulk is made
up of southern pine from the Gulf States and Douglas fir from the Pacific Coast,
lumber brought thousands of miles and on which the freight charge alone is more
than the entire value of similar native lumber twenty-five years ago.

It is a popular misconception that the bulk of our lumber supply is consumed in
building construction. As a matter of fact only 300 million feet of the amount
named above is used for construction purposes, while the other 600 million forms
the raw material of our manufacturing industries, the three industries most promi-
nent as wood consumers, being box making, furniture and novelties. If these in-
dustries ever close down for lack of raw material, much invested capital will become
idle and many thousands of workmen will be out of a job.

Year by year the production of lumber in New England grows smaller and our
builde s and manufacturers go further and further afield for their raw material.
Witness in Providence a great terminal for the unloading of timber brought from
the Pacific Coast via the Panama Canal, and in Boston harbor steamers loaded
with paper pulp manufactured in Sweden and Finland. It seems like "carrying
coals to Newcastle" for it is not man}^ years since New England was not only self-
supporting in the matter of forest products, but had a comfortable surplus to
export outside its boundaries.

In spite of the relatively small area of Massachusetts, the state is potentially a
producer of a large yield of forest products. This is due to the high precentage
of our forest area which is 60% or 3,000,000 acres. When we say forest area, how-
ever, our readers must not imagine a territorj^ covered with high forest, for all of
it has been cut over once, most of it several times, much of it has been burned, so
that the once valuable forests have been reduced to inferior sprout or scrub lands
which produce only 150 million feet of lumber per year, 75 board feet per acre,
while under proper conditions this yield should easily be four or five times this
amount, and so almost provide us with our annual requirements.

The following table which is based on the results of actual surveys of forest area
in five of our counties (Worcester, Plymouth, Norfolk, Hampshire and Essex)
give a striking picture of our forest conditions. By way of explanation I will say
that of the four sized classes, 1 and 2 might be said to represent merchantable growth,
whereas three and four are unmerchantable. Maple and birch refer to grey birch
and red maple, species of low value, and so is almost idle forest land. As there
are three eastern counties represented to only one western, the table is not an
accurate picture of the whole state, even though it covers nearly one-half the total
area.

Forest Types.

Forest Types.

4
(Acres).

3

(Acres) .

2

(Acres).

1
(Acres).

Total

(Acres).

Per Cent.

Pine

44,900

63,300

55,000

28,500

191,700

15

Pine and hardwoods .....

63,000

77,300

26,000

28,300

194,600

15

Oak

140,000

131,000

73,000

25,000

369,000

28

Hemlock .......

11,000

20,000

12,000

3,000

46,000

VA

North hardwoods .....

25,400

20,200

7,400

500

53,500

4

Maple and birch

222,000

114,500

26,500

7,700

370,700

29

Spruce

2,600

2,000

500

-

5,100

XA

47,200

14,700

7,000

2,500

71,400

5

Total

556,100

443,000

207,400

95,500

1,347,900

100

48

36

9

7

55

Non-Forest.

Total
(Acres) .

Per Cent.

Tillage

Pasture

Brush pasture

Brush swamp

Residential

Salt marsh

Water .

492,000

215,000

140,000

50,000

107,000

32,000

62,000

20
9
6
2
4
1
3

2,445,900

45

THE FUNDAMENTAL CONDITIONS.

There are five fundamental conditions that must precede or accoirwpam^ the
permanent development of forestry in any country. The first is the presence of a
considerable area of non-agricultural land which is capable of bearing forest growth ;
the second is a good market for forest products ; the third is the presence of good
transportation facilities; the fourth is an adequate system of protection from
fires; and the fifth is a fair method of taxation of forest lands.

To practice forestry means, on the part of the man who does it the sacrificing
of a portion of his present profits for future results, and the forest owner is not apt
to do this unless all the conditions are favorable.

1. Non- Agricultural Land.

It is not a sound economic proposition to grow trees on land which could earn
larger dividends as cultivated land; but in this State we have, as has been said
before, nearly 3,000,000 acres which bear forests and are not capable of bearing
any other crop, except at great expense. This State, therefore, fulfills the first of
these conditions. /

2. Good Markets.

The second condition — that of a good market for forest products — is also
fulfilled in this State. Where there is building going on there is a demand for
lumber; where manufacturing is going on wood is being used somewhere in the
process of manufacture or in crating the product for shipment; where there are
railroads there is a demand for ties; where there are telephone and telegraph fines
there is a demand for poles; and where farming is going on there is a demand for
lumber, fence posts and firewood. The degree to which forest cultivation can
be carried on depends largely on the market for forest products, and the market
for forest products depends largely on the density and distribution of population.
There is only one State in the Union that has a' denser population than Massa-
chusetts, and although congested around Boston, there is no large section of the
State that is not settled with cities and towns of considerable size. Manufacturing
is going on not only in the larger towns but in most of the smaller ones. It is readily
seen that a market for wood and lumber is not far to seek in any part of this State;
no one has better markets.

3. Transportation Facilities.

Transportation has an important bearing on forestry. Forest products are as a
rule bulky and heavy, and their transportation is consequently a considerable
item in the cost of marketing. Whether this or that operation can be adopted
in the woods often depends on the question whether the lumber can be carried to
the market with a margin of profit. If transportation facilities are good much
more intensive forestry can be practiced than otherwise.

The transportation problem here in this State is comparatively simple. A net-
work of railroads puts nearly every section of the State within practical hauling

distance of a shipping point. Our country roads, when compared to those of other
States, are excellent, and we have 1,500 miles of macadamized State highway
which is being added to each year.

4. Protection from Fire.

Fire is the greatest enemy of the forest. It not only injures and destroys mer-
chantable timber, but it kills young growth upon which our future timber supply
must depend. The constant recurrence of fires on large tracts changes them to
barren wastes, producing nothing and a burden to the community that contains
them. More damaging than the actual loss by fire is the fear of it, which pre-
vents conservative and scientific handling of our woodlands. We cannot condemn
the lumberman for skinning the land where we cannot give him reasonable assur-
ance that it will not burn over at any time. We must protect his crop to the extent
of making it possible for him to insure it at reasonable rates that do not exceed
the growth of the crop. Great progress has been made in the matter of fire protec-
tion in this State in the past few years. The forest warden act of 1907 put the
matter of fighting forest fires in our towns in the hands of one responsible man
and clothed him with sufficient authority. The fire wTarden acts of 1911 created the
office of State Fire Warden, with district deputies to supervise the work of the
town wardens and a small appropriation to expend in the work of forest-fire pre-
vention. Under this law the smaller towns have been provided with fire-fighting
apparatus, and a system of 40 watch towers has been erected for the early detection
of fires.

With all our improvements, however, we are still a long distance from the ideal
condition because we still have far too many fires and too manjr acres of burned
land.

5. A Fair Method of Taxation.

The system now in vogue of assessing forest lands for purpose of taxation pro-
vides not only for the taxing of the land but of the growing crop as well. Not
only is the crop taxed once but many times over, and for many years before any
returns come in. The only reason that this unjust condition of affairs has not been
realized before is that the assessors have purposely undervalued forest lands, and
that therefore what is wrong in principle has not been apparent in practice. In-
deed, were forest land given its full value and taxed at the prevailing rate, the tax
would be nearly equal to the value of the entire annual increment on the wood-
land. How long could any business last whose entire income had to go to pay
taxes? Either the assessor must break the law and undervalue the forest or else
he practically confiscates it. Such a system is neither fair to the landowner nor
the assessor.

This Commonwealth, which leads in many forms of legislature, is also leading
in this matter of forest taxation. As long ago as 1905 a commission was appointed
to study the matter, and as a result of their stud}^ and the constant agitation in
behalf of the reform, the Legislature and the people have adopted a constitutional
amendment which allows the Legislature to make a new system of taxation for
forest lands. Following this permission the Legislature has passed an act (Chap.
360 Acts i922) under which growing forest land can be separately classified and
thereafter the timber will not be taxed until it is cut.

Recapitulation.

As we said before, there are five conditions which are fundamental to a per-
manent and successful development of forestry: (1) the presence of a considerable
area of non-agricultural land that is capable of forest growth; (2) a good market
for forest products; (3) good transportation facilities; (4) a good system of fire
protection; (5) a fair method of forest taxation. The first three of these condi-
tions we already have, the fourth we are attaining and the fifth we also have, so
that we should feel greatly encouraged in our endeavor to establish forestry in this
Commonwealth.

Part II.
THE COMMONWEALTH'S FOREST POLICY.

The office of State Forester was established in 1904 with an appropriation of
$5,000 and a force made up of one assistant and a clerk. The increasing interest
of the state in its forest problems is shown by the fact that the same department
today has about thirty assistants, eight clerks and an appropriation of $450,000.
In 1909 an important addition to the duties of the State Forester was made by
abolishing the office of superintendent of moth work and placing the supervision of
the gypsy and brown-tail work in the hands of the State Forester. In 1911 the
State Forester was given general supervision of the forest fire work in the state
acting through an assistant known as the State Fire Warden. In 1914 the Com-
monwealth decided to adopt the policy of acquiring land for state forests and
created for this purpose, the State Forest Commission of three men, of whom the
State Forester was one, with a small appropriation for the purchase of land. The
outbreak of the European war made it seem unwise to push this work very vigor-
ously so that in its five years existence only 12,000 acres were bought by this com-
mission. In 1919 the general consolidation of all state offices into twenty depart-
ments took place and the forest service was placed in the Department of" Conser-
vation together with the Division of Fisheries and Game and the Division of Animal
Industry. Mr. Wm. A. L. Bazeley was appointed head of the Division of Forestry
in the capacity of State Forester and head of the Department of Conservation as
Commissioner. In this consolidation of the departments, the State Forest Com-
mission was abolished, but in 1920 the legislature authorized the Commissioner
of Conservation to purchase 100,000 acres of land for state forests, these lands to
be bought before 1934.

We have given a brief outline of the development of the Commonwealth's forest
policy by detailing some of the high fights in its history. Now let us see how this
forest policy is at present being carried out in the actual work of the Division of
Forestry.

In general one can divide the operations of the Division of Forestry into five
lines of work, as follows: Suppression of Gypsy and Brown-tail Moth, Forest Fire
Work, Purchase and Administration of State Forests, Forest Nurseries, Educa-
tional.

Suppression of Gypsy Moth.

The law provides that each individual town shall care for the suppression of the
g3>-psy and brown-tail moths within the borders through a local superintendent
appointed by the selectmen or mayor and approved by the state forester. In
canying out the measures for such suppression, he acts under the direction of the
state forester, and his district superintendents. The financing of this work as
provided by law is somewhat complicated and complete details are not essential
to this account. Suffice it to say that each town has a liability which is one twenty-
fifth of one per cent of its valuation. This sum, which amounts to only a few hun-
dreds in small towns, and runs up to $5,000 in cities, the community must spend
from its own funds provided the moth conditions call for it. Where amounts in
excess of this liability are spent with the authorization of the State Forester, the
whole or a portion of this excess is reimbursed by the State to the towns, the rate
depending upon the valuation of the town. This reimbursement may be paid in
money or in the form of supplies or both.

In combating insects, the state forester is limited to work against the gypsy and
brown-tail moths. As far as other injurious insects are concerned, he can act in
only an advisory capacity and if towns wish to combat such pests they must do so
at their own expense and through a special appropriation.

The State Forester is superintendent of moth work but assigns this work to a
deputy superintendent who supervises the work of six district superintendents.

6

There is also a business agent who looks after the buying, distribution of supplies
used in moth work and who incidentally performs the same service for the other
branches of the forestry division. The present appropriation for gypsy moth work
is $150,000, a very substantial reduction from the $300,000 appropriations made
for many years.

Forest Fire Prevention.

The work of fighting forest fires in each town is in the hands of a local forest
warden who is appointed by the selectmen or mayor with the approval of the State
Forester. In places having an organized fire department, this office is usually held
by the chief. The local fire wardens act under the supervision of the state fire
warden and his district deputies. This supervision is limited by law, however, to
that of an advisory character. The towns bear the entire expense of fighting fires
except in the case of the poorer towns where if the fire fighting expenditures exceed
their liability, (1/20 of one per cent of the valuation) the state will reimburse them
for 50% of the excess. Also the State Forester can compensate these same towns
for 50% of the value of fire fighting equipment which they may purchase. Beside
the supervision of the local warden, the efforts of the state fire service are directed
towards the prevention and quick detection of forest fires. It is required to enforce
the slash law which requires that brush left after the logging, shall be cleared away
for a distance of 40' from highways and the boundaries of adjoining woodland and
near sawmills. It is also required to see that spark arresters of locomotives are
in order and that the railroads keep their rights of way properly cleared. For the
quick detection of fires, it maintains forty observation towers in which watchmen
are maintained for about six months in the year.

The State Forester as head of the fire service deputizes his powers to a State
Fire Warden who has the assistance of seven district wardens and 40 observers.

The funds available for fire work are about $60,000 of which $8,000 is a grant
from the Federal Government.

State Forests.

Mention has already been made of the State Forest Commission established in
1914 which acquired five state forests aggregating 12,000 acres and of the larger
Purchase & Development Act of 1920 under which the area of state forest land
has been increased to 60,000 acres divided into 20 forests and promises to increase at
the rate of about 10,000 acres per year. As the law provides that the purchase price
shall not exceed $5 per acre, it follows that the department does not acquire land
with any amount of large standing timber although much of it has valuable repro-
duction. The idea of this act is to purchase cut-over timberlands and abandoned
farms and through a policy of fire protection, artificial planting and silvicultural
treatment to insure that these lands shall grow valuable timber for the future.
When the time arrives that this timber is merchantable, it will be sold to lumber
operators who will cut it under forestry regulations. It is hoped that eventually
the Commonwealth will own at least 10% of the 3,000,000 acres of forest land in
the state. Besides their primary purpose of providing a future reservoir of timber
for the citizens of the state, these state forests offer opportunities for recreational
use and on several of them, a number of camp sites have been leased to citizens
of the state. For purposes of fire protection and convenience, roads and trails are
built through the forests and these are, of course, available to the hiker and hunter.
They have an important bearing on our hunting conditions for while five of the
state forests have been set aside as permanent game sanctuaries, hunting is allowed
on the others according to law and in general, it is our policy to keep these forests
open to the hunter as long as the privilege is not abused. Fishing in accordance
with the general laws is allowed on all the state forests.

The first item in the management of these forests is fire protection and this is
largely provided for by opening up of roads and trails, thus dividing up the forest
into blocks and making all parts accessible. The second operation is the planting
of abandoned fields and pastures and cut-over areas not naturally restocking to

valuable growth, the third will be the improvement of the natural and artificial
growth by silvicultural cuttings where possible and the fourth the proper harvest-
ing of the timber crop, which as we have intimated is sometime in the future.

The purchasing and surveying of these lands is in charge of an assistant forester
who has several surveyors in the field. The larger forests, are as a rule, under the
care of a superintendent who resides on the property, but the smaller forests are
placed in the hands of the state fire warden of the district.

The annual appropriation for the purchase and development of state forests is
$150,000.

Reforestation Lots.

These plantations are somewhat analogous to the state forests but for a little
different purpose, namely to demonstrate and advertise forest planting. The law
provides that the State Forester may purchase scattered tracts not to exceed eighty
acres in one lot, suitable for reforestation at a price not to exceed $5.00 per acre.
The law further provides that the original owner of these lots shall have the privilege
of redeeming them at any time within ten years by paying back to the Common-
wealth the purchase price plus the cost of planting and maintenance. If this option
is not made use of in the ten year period, the land becomes the permanent property
of the Commonwealth. To date 180 plantations aggregating 7,000 acres have been
made under this law and $10,000 is appropriated annually to carry it out.

FOKEST NUESERIES.

To provide the planting stock which must be used in reforesting state forests
and reforestation lots, it is necessary to maintain forest nurseries and the depart-
ment has now three principal nurseries and six transplant nurseries on the state
forests. In addition to providing trees for state forests, the law also provides that
we shall distribute stock to other state departments free of cost and sell at cost to
towns and private individuals. The demands from these outside sources frequently
exceed the number planted on state forests. We are working on an estimated
demand of 4,000,000 three or four year transplants each year, of which 2,000,000
will be used for department planting, 1,000,000 will be available for sale purposes
and the remaining 1,000,000 will be for other state departments and other miscel-
laneous purposes.

The nursery work is in charge of an assistant forester and three resident super-
intendents; $20,000 is the annual appropriation available for this work.

Educational.

As nearly all the work of the forestry department is in its way educational or
demonstrational, it is rather difficult to separate any of its activities and call them
alone educational, yet there are a few which are exclusively in that class. For
instance, the woodland examination service which provides that landowners may
have their woodlots or shade trees examined by a forester from the department and
advice as to their treatment extended on the ground whether the problem be one of
marketing some lumber or of treatment for some insect infestation. The only
expense for this advice is a charge for the traveling expenses of the forester making
the examination. The growing and care of fruit trees and orchards is not a part of
forestry and people who desire information in this line should consult the Depart-
ment of Agriculture or their county farm extension service.

The department from time to time publishes bulletins on different phases of
forestry work which are available for free distribution. A number of members of
the department spend considerable time lecturing before various organizations on
the forest problems of the Commonwealth and forestry exhibits are frequently
made at agricultural fairs and other similar shows.

We consider it important to use all the methods within our means and time to
acquaint the people of Massachusetts with the vital importance of the forest prob-
lems of the state.

s

Conclusion.

Among these United States the Commonwealth of Massachusetts takes high
rank for the completeness and sane progressiveness of its forest policy. This con-
dition is not so much due to the officials in charge as it is due to the intelligent
and sympathetic interest which the citizens of this state have for their forests. In
focussing this interest the Massachusetts Forestry Association, the Chamber of
Commerce through its forestry committee, the State Grange and many local or-
ganizations have done excellent work. The state legislature has been in sympathy
with forest legislation and appropriations. Let us not in self-satisfaction, how-
ever, stop where we are and allow other states to outstrip us. We can enlarge our
state forest policy, our cooperation with private owners and strengthen some weak
spots in our fire protective system and by so doing bring still nearer the time when
Massachusetts will produce within its own borders the timber which is so vital to
its economic welfare.

•3 .5".

WOOD

FUEL

A BULLETIN

To Stimulate the Production and Use of Wood as

Fuel for Patriotic and Economic Reasons

as a War Measure

— c

ONT

17 M T ^

\->

LIN 1 O

Page

Page

Wood Fuel ....

3

How to Cut ....

6

Reasons for Stimulating Wood

Transportation ....

8

Production ....

3

What to Cut .

9

Wood versus Coal

4

Aid by State Forestry Department

10

Qualities of Woods for Fuel

5

Conclusions ....

10

By PAUL D. KNEELAND, M.F.

Assistant Forester in Charge Utilization and Operations

Under the Direction of

F. W. RANE, B.AGR., M.S.

Massachusetts State Forester

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

^

WOOD FUEL.

Last spring, in a statement issued by the State Forestry De-
partment advising woodland owners to cut cordwood, it was said
that the price of wood was mounting so rapidly that soon cord-
wood might be as valuable property as a gold mine. However
picturesquely worded, that statement has been amply borne out
by the facts. Many who have cut wood this past year have
doubled or even trebled their investment. In many localities*
prices have approached the coal strike level. But now the pro-
duction of cordwood has gone beyond the matter of profit; it
has become a problem of patriotic endeavor and grim war ne-
cessity. There is still the appeal to the purse, but that has become
secondary to the need for fuel of all kinds, which can be met
in a considerable measure only by substituting the product of
the New England woodlot for the coal from the Pennsylvania
mines.

Reasons for Stimulating Wood Production.

We have had our flour shortage and our sugar shortage, and,
unless all signs fail, we shall have a fuel shortage — if not this
winter, then the winter following. This will be felt more in the
smaller communities than in the cities, unless cordwood is made
to take the place of coal to a large degree. There is no excuse
in a man's shivering for lack of fuel if trees and forests grow all
about him; at least, that is what those who have the allotting of
coal are very likely to say when it comes to a pinch.. So it seems
that it will be up to the rural communities, not only to supply
their own fuel, but also to help in supplying the larger towns and
cities.

Wood is a more primitive fuel than is coal. In the cities its
use in normal times, except for kindling, has been confined to the
two extremes, — to the well-to-do, who use it for the cheer of the
open hearth, and to the poor, who cannot afford a continuous
fire. In the country wood has been largely supplanted by coal

4 WOOD FUEL.

for heating purposes, even in the kitchen range. Wood is used
only where its lower cost and greater convenience as a summer
fuel are factors. However, in these times we shall have to get
back to essentials, — wood is better than no fuel at all. We have
sufficient quantities of wood close at hand. Coal is not close at
hand, and we may not be able to get it. It behooves the prudent
man to stock up with wood, and that quickly. It is for the patri-
otic as well as foresighted man to cut, not only enough wood for
himself, but for his neighbor who cannot cut it himself.

Wood versus Coal.

Wood is inferior to coal in convenience of handling, in lasting
qualities while burning and in fuel value. Roughly speaking,
1 ton of coal has as much fuel value or heat units as 2 tons of
dry wood. A cord of good dry hard wood, such as oak, hickory,
hard maple or beech, weighs about 2 tons, and so equals a ton
of good hard coal (such as we seldom see nowadays, by the way).
But wood has many advantages over coal, which it might be well
to point out at this time, to show that its wider use will not be
altogether a hardship.

1. It is less wasteful. It consumes completely without waste.
It does not burn when not needed.

2. It is cleaner. There are very few ashes and practically no
dust, dirt or gas. There are no cinders to sift and dispose of.

3. It is hotter. One can get a hot fire much more quickly than
with coal.

4. It is often more convenient. For cooking purposes wood
gives a quick hot fire, being next to gas in that respect. In the
warm weather it is not necessary to heat up the kitchen, as does
a coal fire. For the rapid heating of a room with fireplace or
stove, or for " taking the chill off the house " with the furnace,
wood comes in very handy.

5. Under many conditions it is a cheaper fuel. The farmer or
owner of a wooded estate who can cut wood with his own or
hired labor gets fuel at only a fraction of the cost of coal. In
most rural districts, and in communities at a distance from the
railroad, wood at present prices is cheaper than coal. Even in
the larger cities, where, due to high distribution expense, a cord

WOOD FUEL.

of wood costs more than a ton of coal, wood if used properly
can save more than its cost in coal. In extreme weather by burn-
ing wood in fireplaces or stoves, as an auxiliary, it is not necessary
to drive the furnace so hard, and thus the excessive use of coal
which that entails is avoided. In the fall and spring the house
can be kept comfortable by wood alone, burned at morning and
night to keep the chill and dampness away. Wood burned part
of the time is cheaper than coal burned all the time. Where a
continual fire is not needed a great saving can be made by burning
wood instead of coal.

Qualities of Woods for Fuel.

Woods vary greatly in their characteristics and value as fuel.
In general, the fuel value or caloric content varies directly with
the specific gravity. In other words, the heavier the wood the
more heat it contains. Hickory, white oak, sugar maple, beech,
red oak, ash, yellow and black birch, red maple, white birch,
chestnut, gray birch, poplar and willow are the chief hardwoods
of this region, and have weights and fuel value about in the order
named. Larch, hemlock, spruce, pine and cedar are the chief
softwoods, and are chiefly valuable for kindling, since their fuel
value is so low, being only about half of that of hickory. The
fuel value also varies with the dryness of the wood. It takes
considerable heat to evaporate the moisture from green wood,
and so leaves less of the heat available for use. Wood dries very
rapidly when first cut, and so wood, even three or four months
dry, is considerably better than green wood. However, for keep-
ing qualities on the fire green wood is better. It is possible to
run the furnace all night with green or partly green wood, and
impossible with dry, except very big hunks. Green gray birch
and poplar are better than dry. When dry these woods burn
almost as rapidly as pine kindling, and so are not very valuable
for fuel purposes. When green, however, they last longer on the
fire, and so are comparable with the other hardwoods. The fuel
value also varies with the size of the stick, as there is more heat in
cleft or split wood than in round sticks. This is partly because
the split wood dries more rapidly and so contains less moisture,
and partly because there is less heat in the bark and sapwood

6 WOOD FUEL.

than in the heartwood. Small round wood has a larger proportion
of the bark and sap than the large cleft pieces.

Wood varies in other qualities besides fuel value. Chestnut
and hemlock are very snappy, and so are unsuited for extensive
fireplace use. Black oak is so slow drying that it never gets really
dry, but always hisses and smoulders on the fire. The birches and
red maple are free burning and hot, and so make a very cheerful
fire in the hearth. Hickory and the oaks ignite slowly, but when
thoroughly ignited give a hot, enduring fire. Apple and cherry
wood make a beautiful flame. Red cedar gives a pleasant odor.

How to cut.

The methods of producing wood fuel have not advanced con-
siderably since the earliest times. The experienced wood chopper
with his axe, cutting by the cord, is still the cheapest way of pro-
ducing cordwood under most conditions. The matter with him
is that he is too few. If we have to depend on experienced cord
labor in the present emergency we shall not have nearly enough
wood to meet the demand. In many sections wood chopping is
a lost art. The lumber and pulp industries, as well as the general
manufacturing industries, with their high wages and steady work,
have recruited heavily from the already thinned ranks of the wood-
choppers. The present price for cutting by the cord varies all the
way from $1.75 to $3 per cord, depending on the chance, the
character of the wood, the need of the owner and the bargaining
ability of the chopper. The wages may go even higher. The
man hiring wood chopped by the cord has several other things to
think of than the exact price he pays. Often a camp has to be
provided for the choppers, and even their families, to live in. That
adds to the cost. Also wood chopping is a trade requiring skill,
and as in many other skilled trades there are many tricks to catch
the unwary. Wood is often piled on stumps, cross piled, etc., so as
to make less than a cord look like a cord. It is often cut short or
not properly split. There is a natural shrinkage in wood when it
dries, and this with the improper piling usually makes a 5 to 10
per cent, loss when the wood is sold. The loss to inexperienced
operators has often exceeded that.

Wood that is cut by the cord is usually piled in the woods in

WOOD FUEL.

4-foot lengths where cut, and when dry hauled out by teams.
Before being used it must be sawed up into shorter lengths, and
usually split further. This is done either by hand or machine.
The wood-sawing machine has come into very general use. Dealers
have one in their yards, and in almost every community there is
a portable machine with a rotary saw and gasoline power which
will cut wood for from 75 cents to SI. 50 a cord, $1 being the
usual price. Such a machine now costs from $250 to $500. It
will cut from 15 to 20 cords of wood, in 4-foot lengths, into
stove wood per day. There are also splitting machines which
work efficiently on short lengths.

Many farmers nowadays are cutting their wood in convenient
lengths longer than 4 feet, often called sled lengths. These sticks
they haul direct to their yards and have cut into stove lengths,
usually by machine. This is an improvement over the old method,
especially as it allows the use of day labor in cutting instead of
cord labor. This is the method we recommend to all farmers and
others who cut near-by wood for their own use, or to dealers who
supply a local trade. The cost of the method is well within reason-
able limits.

Wood in short lengths is much more difficult and expensive to
handle dry, and ship any distance, than is wood in 4-foot lengths.
With proper conveying machinery it probably can be done econom-
ically, but to our knowledge it has never been done yet. Practi-
cally all wood which is shipped to the cities or to the wood-using
industrial plants comes in 4-foot lengths. The problem that now
confronts us, therefore, is to devise methods of economically
shipping for considerable distances wood in short lengths, or
producing economically, by machinery, wood in 4-foot lengths.
We are convinced that machinery in wood production is the only
answer in the present emergency. Day labor, largely unskilled
in woods work, must be used in wood production. To learn to
use an axe as do the French-Canadian wood choppers is impossi-
ble except after years of practice. The use of a saw in felling a
tree is not so difficult to learn, and by cutting up the tree by
machinery we can greatly heighten our production with the labor
available. An unskilled woodchopper cannot produce a cord of
wood a day, cutting it up in 4-foot lengths in the woods. Prob-
ably one-half cord would be an average. Therefore that method

8 WOOD FUEL.

of producing wood is impossible except in the case of the most
urgent necessity, or of small operations, or to keep permanent labor
busy during the slack times. It is not a commercial proposition,
even with the present high price of wood, with unskilled labor
costing about $3 a day.

The shipping of short wood may be successfully done by motor
trucks going direct to the consumer from the wood pile. Probably
15 to 20 miles is the limit on that, however. The State Forestry
Department is now devising a machine by which it is expected to
produce 4-foot wood at about $3.50 per cord, all yarded out and
piled ready for drying and shipment. Others are probably work-
ing on the same problem. If this proves successful, similar ma-
chines scattered throughout New England can greatly increase
the wood production.

Transportation.

There is less difficulty in hiring teams than in hiring wood-
choppers this winter. In the spring and summer, when the teams
are busy on the farms and roads, it is apt to be hard to get them.
The standard price for teams is now, in the slack time, about $6
per day. Around the cities prices range to $7 or $8. Teams
should make two trips up to 4 or 4| miles, and one trip per day
up to 9 or 10 miles. On hauls of less than 2 miles three or four
trips per day should be possible, especially if extra help in loading
and unloading is provided. It is wise to have several teams haul-
ing at once in order to help each other over the hills, and to make
help in handling the wood more profitable. The best practice is
to use several teams, and have at least one extra man to help
load in the woods, and perhaps another at the car or unloading
point. A good team will haul a cord and a half of heavy wood, as
hickory or oak, except where there are bad hills. Of lighter wood,
as chestnut, two cords or more can be hauled. In the winter, on
sleds, up to 50 per cent, more can be hauled than the above figures
indicate. For motor trucks the wood must be yarded out to a
good road at a cost of from 75 cents to $1.25 a cord. For this
reason, motor trucks do not pay except on long hauls, — 6 or 7
miles or more. A 6-ton truck will carry four cords of wood. They
can be hired for from $20 to $30 a day, which includes the driver.
Extra help must be provided for loading and unloading. Seventy-

WOOD FUEL. 9

iive miles a day is about the maximum for a heavy truck, but
that cannot be attained without quick loading and unloading.
Light and fast trucks, which carry a cord or less, can also be used
in hauling wood, but care should be exercised not to overload
them. However, the heavy trucks will be found more efficient.

What to Cut.

Softwoods, trees of large enough size for lumber, or healthy
stands of high future lumber value should not be cut for fuel at
this time. Softwood has low fuel value, and should be saved for
lumber, pulp, etc., Enough kindling can be obtained from lumber-
ing and sawmill waste and inferior trees. Of course if there are
only a few trees of log size in a stand to be cut, it might be ad-
visable to put them into wood with the rest. Large growths
should be saved for lumber as the main product, not for wood.
Young stands which contain considerable ash, basswood, hard
maple, poplar and oak (outside the gypsy moth area) should not
be put into wood. The ideal sizes of trees for cordwood are from
4 to 8 inches in diameter. Smaller than that the wood is inferior;
larger than that it is usually better suited for logs and is difficult
to split. Certain species are best suited for wood and will never
make good lumber. Chief among these are the red or swamp
maple, gray birch and the oaks in the Cape Cod region and on
poor soil in other localities. In many places smaller stands of
beech, birch and maple are now of more value as wood than they
ever will be for lumber. Chestnut stands of less than tie or pole
size can now be advantageously put into wood, as on account of
the blight they will probably never mature, and the wood can be
disposed of in the present emergency, a thing which may be im-
possible later.

The present fuel shortage opens an opportunity to the owner of
woodland which has never before been presented. He can now
thin out inferior trees and poor species from a mixed stand, and so
practice forestry and improve his property at a profit. It is hard
to get cordwood choppers, paid by the cord, to cut in thinnings.
Now, when day labor must be employed anyway, it is just about as
cheap to make a thinning. The present demand for wood will make

10 WOOD FUEL.

practically any kind of cordwood salable. In fact, dead wood, as
oak, killed by the moths, blighted chestnut and gray birch are
rather at an advantage because they can be sold and burned im-
mediately, while most green wood must be seasoned somewhat
before it is fit to use. It is strongly urged on owners of woodlands
not to spoil the future production of their land by reckless cutting,
even in the present emergency. Clear cutting should be done only
in maple swamps, in gray birch or infested oak or chestnut areas.
In other types of growth, where it is possible to leave something
of future lumber value, the best trees should not be cut.

Aid by State Forestry Department.

This department is anxious to aid in the wood fuel situation in
all possible ways. We have cut and sold over 30,000 cords of wood
within the last four years, and maybe our experiences will be of
value at this time. We are willing to help both in the production
and the distribution. Any owner can call on us for an inspection
of a woodlot where cutting is proposed, and we will give advice,
give estimates, mark trees for cutting, etc., without charge. We
will help, if possible, in procuring labor to carry on the work,
devising special machinery, or getting teams and motor trucks.
We will help in selling and disposing of the wood also if desired.
This department will also co-operate directly with the owner in
cutting wood. If the owner will provide the capital for carrying
on the work we will look out for the operation and sell the wood
for him without charge (except traveling expenses in some cases).
The State Forestry Department is here to help all citizens of the
Commonwealth at this time, and we hope they will freely call on us.

Conclusions.

1. A greatly increased production of cordwood for fuel is nec-
essary at this time as a war measure.

2. Wood, although not as good a fuel as coal, is a very satis-
factory substitute, and there is a sufficient supply close at hand,
if it is cut.

3. Regular cordwood choppers are hard to find at present, but

WOOD FUEL.

11

their loss can be made up in a large measure by wood-sawing
machines.

4. Now is an especially good time to cut and dispose of the
dead and inferior trees and to make improvement thinnings.

5. The State Forestry Department should be called upon for
help by all interested in producing or obtaining fuel.

L

WE MUST STOP

FOREST FIRES

IN

MASSACHUSETTS.

I. A Word from the State Forester.
II. What happened during the Past Year.

III. Letters from Towns that are doing Something (read them and

see if your Town is there).

IV. Suggestions and Equipment for All Towns (Forest Wardens

take Notice, and let your Towns know what they should do).
V. Official List of Massachusetts Forest Wardens.

BOSTON:

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 Post Office Square.

1909.

Approved by
The State Board op Publication.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

A word from the State Forester, 5

Massachusetts forest fires of 1908, 6

Table on damage by causes, 7

Table on causes by months, 9

Table on acreage and damage by months, 10

Summary of fires by months, 9-13

Fire fighting and protection as carried on by enterprising towns, . 14

Forest wardens1 letters, 14-23

On forest fire protection and apparatus, 23

Organization and fire lines, 24

Fire patrol, 25-27

Damage by forest fires, 28

Miscellaneous points — extracts from wardens1 letters, . . . 29-31
Address list of forest wardens, 32-43

KINGSTON FIRE, JULY, 1908.

FOKEST FIKES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

I. A WORD FROM THE STATE FORESTER.

Do you know, good people of this grand old Bay State, that
annually we are allowing fires to run rampant over Massachusetts ?
We talk about putting out shade trees along our roadsides, in our
public squares and about our homes, which is all very good; but
forestry or the lumber crop is the only thing that will fill in the
background of the painting, that will produce the ideal Massachu-
setts of the future.

Forest fires have destroyed and are continuing to deplete the very
birthright of town after town, and hence the Commonwealth. Take
a trip with me throughout the State and see the utter wanton waste
and destructiveness of man on every hand. Lands by the thousands
of acres are to-day standing idle that but yesterday bore magnificent
primeval forests from which it is said the graceful spars of the
English navy were cut. These same soils, whether barren, rocky,
sandy, hilly or mountainous, the veritable eyesores of the State, are
as capable as ever of producing noble forests at our bidding, pro-
vided we, as people, rise to the occasion by stifling the fire demon,
and educating our present and coming generations to the im-
portance of so grand and beneficial a work as the practice of modern
forestry.

The time has come, as a business proposition alone, leaving out
the great aesthetic value, when we can ill afford not to establish
definite fundamental principles of constructive forestry in this
State. Two and one-half million acres of non-agricultural lands,
producing a thousand feet board measure of white pine per acre,
for example, per year, at stumpage value of $5 to $10, would mean
an income of $12,000,000 to $25,000,000 a year. Is this not worth
thinking of?

Was there ever a State more worthy of our endeavors? The
eastern part of the State presents one aspect, the beautiful Berk-
shires another and the grand old Cape country is pathetically in
need of our special attention. Every part of Massachusetts is a

natural forest country, and were we to move out of the State, nature
would reclothe the whole territory in a relatively short time. This
fact alone is suggestive enough, and if we will but stop fires and
assist nature we must succeed.

This bulletin on the subject of forest fires is published that our
people may realize more fully the exact condition, and especially
for the benefit of our forest wardens and their deputies, that they
may know what other towns in the State are doing, thereby gaining
new ideas and being enabled more intelligently to accomplish good
results in their own communities.

The State Forester is proud of the showing that the forest
wardens have made in their first year of service, and desires in
every way possible to assist and further their public-spirited en-
deavors.

It certainly is hoped that this bulletin will be made use of and
that some good will result therefrom.

II. MASSACHUSETTS FOREST FIRES OF 1908.

The past year has been one of great interest to any one interested
in the forest fire situation in Massachusetts.

In the first place, it is the first and trial year of the new system
of forest fire fighting. Forest fire work in each town is in charge
of an officer called a forest warden, who is appointed by the local
authorities, their choice being confirmed by the State Forester. In
cities and towns having an organized fire department, the chief is
usually the forest warden, or a deputy. The warden does his fire
fighting in the interest of and at the expense of the town, but
reports the fires, with their extent and damage, to the State For-
ester. The reports which were sent in this year form the material
out of which the following tables were made, and make a valuable
contribution to the knowledge of forest fires, concerning their causes
and extent, etc.

In the second place, the season of 1908 was one of extraordinary
drought, — a condition extremely favorable to the spread of forest
fires and to increasing their damage, for when the ground is dry,
the fire burns deeply into the soil. This drought, caused by a defi-
ciency of 17 per cent, in the annual rainfall, was intensified at times
by more than the usual number of high winds.

We have, then, a new system of fire protection and of collecting
the data, started in a year calling for unusual activity. Let us
examine the results.

Table 1. — General Table on Damage and Acreage, by Causes.

a

6
o

0Q

s

pq
bo

DO

u

to

co
u
<o
X
a

s

to
E3
O
CD

0

o

sa

M

a

s

o

O

o

'3

u

p

o

to

o

CO

0
0

u
u
co

"3

CO

CD

Is

o

P

Hi

m

02

pq

H

pq

§ -

H

Number of fires re-

337

539

96

111

58

18

11

209

1,379

ported.

Reports having dam-

$72,936

$27,938

$18,000

$28,000

$3,500

$7,000

$2,500

$49,874

$209,748

age estimated.

Damage on burned

$7,749

$4,369

$2,913

$5,040

$800

$1,603

$700

$7,492

$40,396

acreage not given

in reports, esti-

mated.

Total damage, .

$90,415

$32,307

$20,913

$33,040

$4,300

$8,603

$3,200

$57,366

$250,144

Burned area on

6,491

3,840

3,958

5,163

957

957

1,796

4,578

27,740

which damage was

reported (acres), .

Burned area on

23.4

13.8

14.2

18.6

3.4

3.4

6.4

16.8

-

which damage was

reported (per

cent.).

Burned area for

1,638

966

994

1,302

238

238

448

1,176

7,002

which no damage

was given (acres).

Burned area not tab-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4,596

ulated by months

(acres).

Total area reported

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

991

as not damaged

(acres) .

Total acreage

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

40,327

burned (acres).

; m

There are 342 towns and cities in the Commonwealth which have
forest wardens, out- of which, 234, or 68 per cent., reported that
they had 1,379 fires; 15, or 5 per cent., reported that they had no
fires; 93, or 27 per cent., sent in no reports. Just how many of this
last class had fires to report and neglected to do so it is impossible
to state, but it must have been many, because we cannot believe
that all these towns were without fires when their neighbors were
reporting many. Probably about 20 per cent, should be added to
the figures in the table for the number, acreage and damage of fires.
to allow for the negligence of these wardens.

The number of acres reported as burned over was 40,327. Esti-
mating the forest area of the State at 2,500,000 acres, — and to do
this we have to include all the scrub growth and thinly stocked
pasture, — we find that 1 acre in 62 has been burned. Looking at
it in another way, it means that the entire forest area of the State
might be burned over every sixty-two years. Taking the entire land
area of the State, it is 1 acre in 123. On the United States national
forests it is 1 in 10,000 acres, and in Germany 1 in 15,000 acres
which are annually burned.

8

The average damage per acre was $6.20, and the total damage
$250,000. To this should be added 20 per cent., or $50,000, for
towns not reporting, making a total estimated damage caused by
forest fires in 1908 of $300,000. Even with the allowances made
we do not arrive at the true damage caused by forest fires, because,
for reasons which will be discussed in another chapter, it is exceed-
ingly difficult to reduce the damage to terms of dollars and cents,
and, indeed, some of it cannot be so estimated. The damage caused
by fire in woodlands is in the long run greatly underrated.

In the following table, which is not quite complete, because it was
made up before all the reports came in, we have the number of fires
arranged by causes and months. We find a great variety of causes,
26 in all, not including the large number in the column headed
unknown.

Eailroads are the largest producers of forest fires, with nearly
40 per cent, of the total. Next comes the unknown, with 25 per
cent. Then there is 8 per cent, caused by smokers and 7 per cent,
from burning brush. If some of the unknown fires could be traced
out, probably smokers would figure more heavily in the total. In-
cendiary and boys setting fires maliciously, which we imagine is
much the same thing, together make 11 per cent.

It ought to be noted that of all the 1,299 fires, 5, or .3 per cent.,
which were set by lightning, were the only ones which were abso-
lutely not preventable. The rest in large part could have been pre-
vented if people would go to the same lengths that they do in cities.
A small city of 25,000 population, with a property valuation of
$20,000,000, spends about $30,000 a year on its fire department, or
an expenditure of $1.50 per $1,000 of the valuation. Information
collected in 1906 by the State Forester showed that in 1905 311
towns spent $30,000 for fighting fires. The forested area of the
State can be roughly valued at $50,000,000, which makes the ex-
penditure on forest fires about 60 cents per $1,000 of their valua-
tion. With proper care and safeguards we could attain such a
condition as that in Prussia, where in twenty-five years only 1,400
acres were burned over on the average each year, or .02 of 1 per
cent. In Bavaria, during five years it averaged only .007 of 1 per
cent, of the total forest area. Compare this with an enlightened
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, with an average of 1 per cent
or more.

Table 2. — Fires by Causes and Months.

Causes of Forest Fires.

o
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p.

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3

42
03

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P<

W

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o

42

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O

o

00
42

o
H

42

®

4)
04

Blasting fuse, ....
Boys setting fires maliciously, •
Burning brush, ....
Campers' fires, ....
Carelessness, ....
Children playing with matches,
Coals dumped by locomotives

and others.
Cranberry pickers,

Fire balloons

Firecrackers, ....

Gypsy Moth Commission men, .

Lightuing,

Locomotive sparks, .

Picnic and May parties,

Rubbish fire, ....

Section men burning railroad
ties and- brush.

Smokers' pipes, cigars, cigar-
ettes and matches.

Steam portable sawmill, .

Tramps setting fire, .

Sparks from burning buildings,
Sparks from forest fires, .
Wood choppers cooking, .

1

1
1

1
2

8

3

4

28
53
1
3
2
2

6
1

48

199
2

7
3

39

1
105

11

21

2
3

1

16

93

5

23

6

39

3
3

6
1
2

5

1

29

1

10
4

28

9
3

2
3

1

4
4

65

1

13

1

1

35

3

2

1
1

2

2

1
3

1

2

1
1

1

2
1

5

5

1

21

1

12
6

2
4

4

16
16

68
2
1

14

1

74

2

3

2

2

1
1

1
3

21

1

3

5
1

11
1

58
90

1
16
13

4

1
2

3
11

7

18
92

5
490

4
16

3

111

12
3

314
5
5
3

4.0
7.0

1.0

1.5

7.0

.3

38.0

8.0

1.0

25.0

21

500

220 93

147

10

41

228

39

1,299

-

Summary by Months.

The following is a brief summary of the fires for each month,
the object being to show the effect of different seasons on the
frequency of forest fires. It may be said in passing that ordinarily
the danger season runs from the 15th of March to the 1st of June
and from the 15th of September to the 1st of December, but on
account of the drought conditions which existed last year the sum-
mer season was little different from the spring and fall in its lia-
bility to fire.

The following table gives the acreage burned and the resulting
damage for each month. It is not quite complete, as some of the
wardens withheld their reports until the close of the year, too late
to be included with the others, but their number is small and they
do not materially affect the comparison.

10

Table 3. — Acreage and Damage oy Months.

Months.

Acres.

Damage.

Damage per
Acre.

March, .
April,
May,
June,
July,
August, .
September,
October, .
November,
Totals,

236
16,262
5,856
1,195
6,109
1,567
1,062
7,084
301

39,672

$420
52,731
48,506
17,824
28,783
22,320

3,140
29,960

1,468

$205,152

$1 78

3 25
8 28

14 91

4 71
14 25

2 95
4 22
4 88

March.

Many towns failed to make reports of forest fires during the early
days of March, because the new system of appointing forest wardens
did not become established in smooth running order until the latter
part of the month. The figures for this month are not, therefore,
worth analyzing.

April.

During this month woodland conditions were extremely favorable
to the spread of forest fires. Not only was the rainfall light, but a
succession of strong winds from the northwest blew much of the
time. The consequence was that the moisture in the upper soil
was quickly dried, leaving the debris on the forest floor in an in-
flammable condition.

The wardens' reports for Sunday the 26th and Thursday the 23d
amounted to 40 fires for each day, the record for the year. Sunday
the 5th and the 12th, the latter the date of the Chelsea fire, were
next in order. Three Sundays in April show a total of 148 fires,
almost one-third the total for the month.

Prominent among the causes were locomotives, equal to 39.8 per
cent., and burning brush, 10.6 per cent. Next in order came fires
caused by discarded smoking material, equal to 7.8 per cent.

Wardens' returns in April show the largest area burned and the
greatest estimated damage for the whole season. As compared with
some other months the per acre damage was less, but this may have

11

been accounted for by the fact that more moisture lay near the
surface than later in the season, which prevented the fire burning
very deep or long enough in one place to do much damage.

May.

The largest number of fires for any one day in this month came
on the 19th, being 25 in all, or 11 per cent, of the total. The prin-
cipal causes were locomotives, 41 per cent., smokers, 10.4 per cent.,
and burning brush, 9.5 per cent. Fires set deliberately were 5 per
cent, of the total, while the remaining 25 per cent, were due to
unknown or scattering causes.

Most of the spring rains this }-ear came in May and gave the
grass and verdure a good start, nevertheless it did not prevent the
fires in May from being more destructive than those in April, their
per acre damage being $8.28, as against $3.25 for the previous
month.

June.

According to expectations June reveals a marked reduction in
point of number of fires. May showed a falling off over April, and
June has 127 less fires than May.

The dry weather continued, with a showing of 31.2 per cent, for
locomotive fires, a reduction from May and April of nearly one-
fourth, due probably to the infrequency of high winds. Smokers
with 11 per cent, and 5 per cent, for boys are about the same as
the average of the previous months.

The acreage burned in June was 4,661 less than that of May
and the damage $30,682 smaller.

July.

The lack of rain in June produced a drought in July, which dried
up the growing vegetation so that fire ran through the green leaves
almost as freely as through the dead debris of previous years.

Forest warden reports reveal an increase of 54 fires over June,
whereas a decrease in the number would ordinarily be expected.

The most prolific source of fires was again the railroads, with 44.2
per cent., an increase of 13 per cent, over the figures for the pre-
vious month. Smokers maintain their average with 8.8 per cent.
Fires escaping from persons burning up brush while clearing land,
either because insufficient aid was at hand to keep them in check or
because they were left overnight unattended, amounted to only 2

12

per cent, of the whole number, while in April, which is the brush-
burning season, such fires were the second largest cause.

It may be here remarked that fires from this cause are exceed-
ingly reprehensible, because they are quite unnecessary when proper
precautions are observed. Such fires cannot be classed as purely
accidental.

August.

Fires in August were the least in point of numbers of any month
of the season. To offset this advantage, however, they proved quite
destructive and burned over a large area.

Locomotives lead the list of causes, with 20 per cent, of the
month's total. Burning brush also foots up to 20 per cent., which
points to a complete disregard of responsibility on the part of per-
sons starting such fires at an unseasonable time of the year and in
the face of a severe drought. Smokers furnished 10 per cent.

The fires of August were more extensive than usual, for although
July had fourteen times as many fires, their area was only three
times as great. The reason for this is not apparent.

September.

A marked increase in the number of fires appears for September
over August, the numbers being as 41 is to 10. August was unique
in having more than its normal rainfall, but September was not so
blessed.

An examination of the prominent causes shows that locomotive
fires drop to 12.2 per cent., which is far below the average. Smok-
ers were responsible for a like amount. The reports which gave
cause unknown made up 51 per cent., far too great an amount.

The estimated damage and acreage of the fires were small con-
sidering the conditions, which were as favorable to the spread of
fires as were those of some other months that show greater totals.
It is probable that much of the land particularly liable to fire, espe-
cially along the railroads, had by this time been burned over, and
was immune for the rest of the year.

October.
The second drought of the year 1908, which commenced in Sep-
tember, was by this time in full swing, so that the woodlands were
again abnormally dry. Fires of considerable extent raged, particu-
larly in the Berkshires, which up to this time had not suffered a
great deal. The acreage burned was the second largest of the sea-

13

son, although it was less than half as great as the record month of
April.

A greater loss was prevented by the timely arrival of rain during
the latter part of the month.

Locomotives, with 30 per cent, of the fires to their credit or dis-
credit, still lead, although below their yearly average. Hunters
appear, as we might expect at this time, and are the cause of 7.7
per cent, of the fires. Smokers, whom we imagine are often hunters,
fall a little below their average, and into third place, 6 per cent.
Mischievous boys were responsible for 5.3 per cent., which indicates
that the young generation need some sharp lessons to instil in them
a decent regard for other people's property and the value of forest
land.

November.

This is the tenth and last month of the season of 1908, and the
number of fires and their damage falls abruptly. The figures for
this month are not quite complete on account of delayed reports,
but they give some clew to the fire damage which we should expect
under ordinary conditions. The figures for November are below
those of the summer months. When given average conditions, we
should expect more and serious fires in the fall, when the ground is
covered with fallen leaves.

Locomotives run high this month, with 54 per cent, of the fires,
and smokers hold to their usual average, with 7.6 per cent. Fires
set by boys amounted to 5.1 per cent.

Addenda.

There were three fires resulting in a severe financial loss so much
greater than the average that they are worthy of mention. On
May 19 sparks from a portable sawmill set fire to a stack of lumber
valued at $10,000. A similar loss of lumber was reported from
Carlisle June 28, caused by a lightning bolt. The heaviest single
loss was reported from Orleans, July 15, which amounted to
$15,000. Dwellers in large cities are accustomed to fires causing
far greater loss than these, but in small country towns such sums
are very considerable.

During the present season no less than nine men have been
arrested for unlawfully starting fires, which arrests resulted in the
payment of a fine or imprisonment or both.

At Clinton one forest fire fighter was burned to death and in
Franklin a man died of heart disease while fighting fire. So far
as known these were the only casualties.

14

III. FIRE FIGHTING AND PROTECTION AS CARRIED ON BY

ENTERPRISING TOWNS.

The best information on forest fire fighting should logically come
from those men who are doing this work, and we have therefore
included abstracts from letters of various wardens who have kindly
contributed their ideas. It is recognized that conditions vary over
the State, and that a method of forest fire fighting used in one
town may not be feasible in another. Again, this office, by publish-
ing these letters, does not by that act endorse the ideas and views
contained therein, but offers them so that the readers may draw
their own conclusions. The selection of reports has been made so
as to include some from towns with an organized fire department
as well as some without.

Extracts from Letters of Forest Wardens.

James W. Cutting, Forest Warden, Braintree.

Fire fighting here depends largely on general conditions and extent of
the territory, the topography and the wind. Fires are usually discovered
by a lookout on the cliff or the mill tower.

A wagon is at once driven as near the scene as possible. One man
takes an extinguisher and goes along the line, deadening the flames, while
three others follow, one of whom carries the soda pail and acid box
while the other two carry a can of water each. As soon as the cans are
emptied they are returned to the wagon and full ones are taken to the
front by one of the men, while the other takes the five empty cans for a new
supply. Men with shovels and rakes follow after the extinguisher to beat
out any remaining fire. Back fires are only resorted to in cases of par-
ticular emergency.

The town of Braintree owns an express wagon, 6 extinguishers, an acid
box containing 100 charges, 30 water cans and 18 rakes and brooms. The
soda pails are provided with hinged covers, to keep out the dirt. The
water cans have covers which prevent slopping over and pitcher mouths
for ease in filling extinguishers and to stop waste. The Star extinguishers
have been used with good results. The soda is not added to the water
until reaching the fire. In case the fire is very hot an extra charge of
soda is used, to throw the stream further. The Star will stand this extra
pressure. Soda should be sifted if lumpy, because it will not dissolve
quickly otherwise. A copper wire should be carried with each extinguisher,
to clean out the tube. To prevent the brooms from taking fire they should
be saturated with salt water. The hose should be covered with a covering
of electric tape, to prevent its being shrivelled by the heat.

On an alarm of fire our wagon picks up the men along the way. If
more men are needed than the warden's force, the fire alarm is rung,
but no man receives pay unless put to work by the warden. The rate pre-
scribed by the town is 30 cents per hour.

BRAINTREE WAGON.

15

Those communities provided with an electric alarm system are in a
position of advantage, as they can use a special call for forest fires, with
a resulting economy of time which is of great importance.

Experience in Braintree has shown that 6 extinguishers are sufficient
for a small crew. This would be on a basis of four men to a crew. The
supplies needed consist of 2 pails of soda and 1 of acid, in addition to
50 bottles in the carrier, 12 cans of water and 4 shovels.

The town uses the Star and Hollo-way extinguishers. Any re-
versible extinguisher is unreliable, according to Mr. Cutting, after
having been shaken about in the wagon. Those charged by refilling
the acid bottles take up too much time. The Holloway works by
the breaking of the bottle. The water cans have proved very handy,
rendering good service. They are made of galvanized iron, cover
attached with a chain, and with a bail handle for ease in carrying
in the woods.

John Breagy, Forest Warden, Dover.

Sometime ago the town purchased a fire wagon. As Dover has no water
system, the wagon was equipped with ladders, two or three dozen milk
cans, 18 Brict hand pumps and 6 hand chemical extinguishers.

The cans cost $9 per dozen, while the pumps were $54 per dozen and
the extinguishers were $14 apiece. The wagon without equipment cost
$500. Two 54-gallon barrels filled with water were also placed on the
wagon. The force pumps threw a stream 30 feet.

E. A. White, Chief of Fire Department and Forest Warden,

Foxborough.

The town has its own horses and a regular wagon equipped for forest
fires. The outfit consists of 8 extinguishers, 20 4-gallon milk cans, 2
tanks holding 50 gallons, and 12 shovels. A 50-pound keg of soda and 100
bottles of acid are carried along to recharge the extinguishers. The Hol-
loway extinguisher is used.

Foxborough has an alarm system, and when the warden or one of the
engineers is notified of a woods fire he sounds an alarm, which consists of
three strokes three times repeated. This calls out twelve men, picked for
forest fire work. If the required number do not appear within five minutes
a second alarm is given which calls the entire department.

At the fire four men use the extinguishers and four men follow with a
couple of cans of water each, and two men bring the soda and the acid.
Other men armed with shovels come behind to finish all remaining blaze.
In times of necessity a back fire is set, but only rarely.

Forty cents an hour is the rate prescribed by the town, and no one
outside of the regular force is hired unless the fire is extremely severe,
and then they must be well-known, good men.

The new law in regard to setting fire without a permit between April
and December was adopted by the town last year and has proved a great

16

success. A printed form is used for the permits, and no one receives
one unless he can satisfy the warden that he can protect himself and
others against the spread of fire.

Edward R. Farrar, Forest Warden, Lincoln.

In Lincoln, whoever sees a forest fire notifies the nearest fire company
by telephone. There are three wagons, located in separate districts.

Besides the above-mentioned apparatus, Mr. Chas. Francis Adams has
a light express wagon which he keeps loaded with 8 extinguishers and
20 milk cans filled with water, which is always offered when needed.

On the estate of Major Higginson, near by, 12 extinguishers are kept
for a similar purpose, and 12 more may be obtained if necessary. Many
other citizens have extinguishers to be had in time of need.

When fighting forest fires we send men ahead with extinguishers and
cans of water, and behind these follow careful men with shovels, to put
out the remaining fire.

Jas. J. Shepard, Forest Warden, Pembroke.

A definite plan of operation at forest fires is followed in Pembroke.
(When the apparatus arrives at the fire a man starts along the blaze with
an extinguisher. He does not stop to extinguish everything, as another
man or more follow on to put out the fire left by the first. Generally a
man or two with extinguishers can deaden the fire so that men with shovels
can complete the job. Meanwhile I set one man at work refilling ex-
tinguishers and bringing supplies of water. Cans are preferred to tanks,
as they can be carried into the woods, whereas a tank must remain in one
place and the extinguishers be carried to it.

During the drought this year I issued an order through our local paper
stating that permits for fires would not be issued until rain came. A re-
quest was also published asking for the co-operation of the people. For-
tunately we escaped the infliction of the severe fires which some of our
neighbors suffered from.

One of our wagons went to a fire located in a large house, while directly
across the road were three more buildings with the wind blowing towards
them. Our men went out on the roofs with the extinguishers, and as
fast as the shingles caught put them out. All the buildings were saved.
It was three miles from the place where the wagon was kept to the fire,
but the driver got there in eighteen minutes from the time the telephone
message was received. The above merely shows that the wagons serve
the town in more than one capacity.

The cost of our three wagons and equipment, consisting for each wagon
of 14 Standard extinguishers supplied with extra heavy cover and a patent
shutoff, 2 axes, 9 shovels, 2 lanterns, a large gong, 10 water cans, each
holding enough for two charges, a brass rail along the sides, and under
the driver's seat 60 charges of acid and soda, was about $400 each.

Doubtless this is a more expensive wagon than others rendering similar
service. The bare wagon, fitted with pole, nicely painted and lettered,
cost without freight in Indiana $135. The outfitting was done here by
local men. Each extinguisher stands by itself in a case, so that there

^

\.

A

LINCOLN WAGON.

A

PEMBROKE FOREST WARDEN APPARATUS.

*

WILMINGTON FOREST FIRE WAGON.

17

can be no chafing against each other. The water cans are also inside a
wooden case, where their slop will not wet the chemicals.

I presume a wagon might be fitted up, less the price of the extinguishers
and water cans, for $150.

Thomas Maker, Chief of Fire Department and Forest Warden,

Milford.

The regular supply wagon of the department is used to carry the forest
fire apparatus, which consists of 6 extinguishers, shovels and brooms. The
forest fire alarm consists of 5 strokes, and all the men report at the station.
From six to ten men are taken along on the wagon and they are paid 25
cents per hour. v

Mr. Maher also says that back fires may be required in some
instances, but they are often more disastrous than the original ones.

S. T. Parker, Forest Warden, Wakefield.

Wakefield has furnished apparatus for forest fires valued at $1,400.
This apparatus consists of 268 Johnson pumps of the double acting variety,
500 buckets and a few cans. Forty oil barrels were purchased and sunk
in the ground in the woods, at a cost of $1 each, for a reserve supply
of water.

When a man receives a pump he signs a receipt for it, agreeing to
report at any fire within half a mile. Failing in this he gives up the
pump. The pumps may be used for other purposes, but they must be
kept in condition for immediate use.

Very little time is lost before men are working at the fire, and it
seldom burns more than three or four hours. When the fire is too hot
in front work is confined to the flanks, and the fire is gradually nar-
rowed down until put out. In a dry season a trench is dug and water
turned in to prevent the fire from running under ground.

Water for the pumps is found in brooks and ponds, with which Wake-
field is well supplied, and from the water barrels mentioned before.

Every fire is investigated and the cause is usually discovered. If boys
set fire their parents are notified, and if they are caught again they are
brought before the Board. The warden keeps a record of every fire, its
extent, cause and damage.

J. M. Hill, Chief Fire Department and Forest Warden, Wilmington.

The town has two single express wagons which are equipped with 20
10-quart cans with stoppers attached, 6 Johnson pumps, 6 shovels and 3
brooms each. The wagons are kept -at opposite ends of the town.

Men report voluntarily, and if the fire is a small one the warden or
deputy takes the wagon with two or three men and goes to it. If more
men are needed the fire alarm is sounded. The signal is one blast fol-
lowed by the box number sounded thrice.

18

Mr. Hill thinks that good results are obtained with water and
hand pumps, especially in his section, where on account of the rocky
soil there is little chance of using a shovel. Quickness in reaching
the fire he considers is paramount. He resorts to back fires when
a large number of men are at hand, and then only when necessary.

Herbert Morrissey, Forest Warden, Plymouth.

Fires are controlled by chemical extinguishers, and after the flames
have been deadened, men with shovels finish the work by throwing on sand.
Close watch is kept on fires, the men remaining overnight if necessary.
The area burned is patrolled at least once the next day. When the fires
are too hot to combat from the front this work is carried on at the flanks,
gradually narrowing in the line until it is all put out by the men meeting
in the middle of the line.

The town owns about 100 extinguishers and has three especially equipped
wagons. Two of these wagons carry 12 extinguishers each and the other
14. The wagons are also equipped with tanks holding 50 gallons and covers
holding an equal amount, which are put on the ground and the tanks
emptied into them, the wagons then going for a new supply. Compart-
ments of acid and soda are fitted into the wagon, and shovels, hoes and
brooms are provided.

Two men remain at the wagon to refill the empty extinguishers as they
are brought in. Besides the extinguishers on the wagons, each of the
twenty deputy wardens have 4, which they bring to the fire with them.
All the extinguishers have straps, so that they may be slung on a man's
back. One extinguisher will deaden the fire on a line from 50 to 100
yards in length on one charge.

Plymouth is, we believe, unique in having an iron watch tower on
one of the highest hills in the town, for the detection of forest fires.
The tower is of steel lattice work construction, similar to that of a
windmill, and with a sheet-iron cabin at the top. The tower is 85
feet tall, the hill 165 feet above the sea, so that gives the watchman
a total elevation of 250 feet. It is connected by telephone with Mr.
Morrissey's house. The watchman who stays up here during the
dry seasons has a strong glass and thus is given a clear view over
many miles of country.

When fires are severe and the situation critical Mr. Morrissey does
not hesitate to use back fires, which are handled as follows': —

The warden places his men along a road, if convenient, or along
a line of freshly dug earth extending across the face of the fire. A
man with a torch goes along the road setting the back fire. Men
with shovels are stationed at short intervals along the road, ready
to deaden the flames or to stop them from jumping the road to the

A

ONE OF THE WAGONS OF THE PLYMOUTH FOREST WARDEN.

J

OBSERVATION POST OF FOREST FIRE DEPARTMENT ON RESER-
VOIR HILL, PLYMOUTH, 248 FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL.

19

woods behind. Within these woods are stationed men with extin-
guishers, indicated in the diagram by large black dots. These men
stand ready to put out all incipient fires lighted by flying sparks,
and hasten forward to the aid of the men on the line when called.

PLYMOUTH METHOD

OF

BACK FIRING

Men with extinguishers

wiwo

OlffKTION

MAIN FIRE
WITH THE WIMP

In Plymouth fires set by locomotives are usually put out by the
section men, but when the forest warden is called the railway com-
pany reimburses the town for the expense.

Permission to build fires in the open must be obtained from the
warden. Cranberry bog owners are treated with leniency when
obliged to build smudge fires to protect their crops from frost. All
fires for clearing up brush are guarded by a wagon and crew, the
owner of the property paying the charge for the protection.

C. H. Trowbridge, Forest Warden, Oakham.

When a forest fire breaks out the warden telephones all persons having
fire extinguishers to turn out, and then, taking what men and extinguishers
he can muster, he hastens to the fire at once.

At the fire it is the custom of the warden to have three or four men
follow him along the line to pass forward loaded extinguishers and take
back empty ones for recharging.

Water for recharging the extinguishers is brought in cans from the
nearest supply. Much of the advantage of extinguishers over a chemical
wagon is that they may be carried with their cans to inaccessible places
in the woods.

20

Oakham owns 34 extinguishers, which have been placed in private houses
throughout the town. Many more persons applied for them than could be
supplied. Next year the town intends to buy enough to supply the de-
mand. The first ones cost $18, but a substantial .reduction was obtained
by ordering a large quantity. While there are many kinds of extinguishers,
those most effective at woods fires are provided with an arrangement
which cuts off the stream by means of a valve which stops the flow of
acid. Such a device saves the remainder of the soda charge, so that it
may be used at intervals when needed. Those chemicals using the whole
charge are useful in buildings. Every small town should have some such
protection as this of Oakham. Many houses have been saved here by
extinguishers when a bad fire seemed inevitable.

J. A. Healy, Forest Warden, West ford.

I will give you the list of the fire tools of the town of Westford: 30
shovels, 30 hand pumps, 12 extinguishers, 60 pails.
Enclosed find picture of fire wagon.

F. B. Knapp, Forest Warden, Duxbury.

Our woodland area covers about two-thirds that of the town, and pro-
duces cord wood, box boards and some better lumber. It forms part of
a continuous forest extending into adjoining towns, but is split up by
roads, ponds and open spaces. There are numerous isolated farms liable
to damage from forest fires.

Our liability to fire is considerable. A railroad runs the length of the
town, many strangers come for mayflowers in the spring and cranberry
bogs are in process of construction. The soil is light and the woods get
very dry. '

The town is liberal in its appropriation and appreciates our efforts.
Telephones are pretty common, and the men turn out well. "We are in
close touch with the railroad people and co-operate with them.

The forest warden and fire departments are technically distinct, but
work together. I am chief of the fire department, and all of the engineers
are deputy wardens. One commissary looks after all of the apparatus.

We have 2 60-gallon hand combination fire engines (used for forest
fires when specially called out), 4 forest fire wagons, and several private
ones used at times, 100 3-gallon Standard extinguishers scattered through-
out the town, shovels, mattocks, etc.

The fire wagons vary, but this one is typical: A light, one-horse express'
wagon, 4 extinguishers, 6 boxes, each with 6 charges of chemicals, 16
3-gallon Marshfield cans, not completely filled (on account of weight), 10
shovels, 2 mattocks, 2 axes, 2 lanterns, torches.

We spread the alarm of fire by direct telephoning and by bells. In
times of great danger a man is stationed in a church belfry.

We are inaugurating a system of outlooks in conjunction with the
Plymouth fire tower. Our tower is the Standish monument, on Captain's
Hill. From these two points the compass bearings of an incipient fire
can be read and telephoned to a central station. These lines are then
run out on the United States geological survey map, allowance being

4

WESTFORD FIRE WAGON.

21

made for the difference between the true and magnetic north. If the
compass readings are correct the intersection of the two lines gives the
position of the fire.

&^ Jorest fiVt

■WWr*

7o-

•tr,

r

\ «-. ^

TSNVeroTiCaHWs Hill "N m CombiSJ HriiingS .>.*-• *.

'Duibuvij fa \ Base Line1 f "L^W

n 7 " Cmnfwss Wi«g.s ^--*i

Iron Tower
Plymouth

<-;

DIAGRAM

SHOWING METHOD

OfLOCATIN&FIFfES

V

'Incipient
^V-.J-orest fTre
Sc£>5) Swerdt Miles

From Ether Tower

At a small fire we do not attempt any thorough organization, but we
organize at serious fires as follows. All are familiar with the organization,
either through experience or printed instructions.

Chief. — The forest warden or deputy of the district. Does not stay at
any one point, but overlooks the whole line. Informs himself carefully as
to the extent of the fire and picks out the critical points. If the attack
on one line is unsuccessful he draws the men back to another.

Aids. — Messengers for the chief.

Deputy Wardens. — Act for section as chief does for whole, or, at
smaller fires, are simply foremen.

Foremen. — Each has from four to six men, who stay with him until
the fire is out. Each foreman and his crew form the units for fighting.
As, for instance, one crew might be put to work refilling extinguishers,
another at carrying them, another at guard duty, to prevent fresh out-
breaks after the fire is apparently out.

Commissary. — Takes care of the apparatus, and at the fires sees that the
men are supplied with food and other supplies.

[The diagram on page 22 gives this organization in graphic form and is
remodelled from one sent in by Mr. Knapp.]

It is essential that the work of forest fire fighting should be done as
systematically as possible, and that the directions of the leaders should
be faithfully carried out. The failure of a single man to do the part
assigned to him may make useless a whole lot of hard work and cause
a new start to be made.

22

If the force is too small to attempt to stop it across its whole front,
we start to windward and work down both flanks, narrowing to the front.
One crew with extinguishers pushes ahead and deadens the flames, and is
followed by a second crew consisting of one man with a mattock and

State

Forest

WorKing

*

Forester

Wa rden

^ornmissdni

and men

Crews

d tag-ram

Showing Eff ective Towb
Ogam zati on
Of Men For Fire Fghting

four with shovels, and a reserve man. If very dry a second shovelling
crew follows this one. Then come the guards with shovels and ex-
tinguishers, who patrol the whole line.

With a force strong enough to attack in front, back firing is used.
A back fire must be set on a natural line, such as a road, but, failing in this,

INTERIOR OF WELL-EQUIPPED WAGON.

23

one can be plowed. For this purpose use a strong plow drawing a nar-
row furrow and pulled by two horses set tandem. Set a back fire as
rapidly and continually as possible, the men with torches being followed
by shovellers to put out fire spreading on the leeward side of the line.
Other shovellers and extinguisher men are stationed some distance back
in the woods to put out sparks as they fly over.

Our work is still in the experimental stage and just at present we are
trying to get the fire fighters more systematic, and are getting into closer
relations with neighboring towns.

The preceding letters were selected so as to give as wide a range
of conditions as possible. There are letters from wardens who are
at the same time the chiefs of organized fire departments, letters
from wardens who have an organization distinct from the fire
department and letters from wardens in towns which have no fire
department. The apparatus used varies in value from $300 to
$3,000. There are towns which have done as much or more than
some of those mentioned above, but the fact remains that a large
majority have made no provision for fighting forest fires. The cities
also are as indifferent as the towns. It is not to be supposed that
all the towns represented by the letters have done the best thing
possible under the circumstances, but they have done something.

IV. WHAT IS YOUR TOWN DOING?

On Forest Fire Protection".

Apparatus.

Every town having 1,000 acres or more of forest land should have
some form of apparatus, its amount depending, of course, on the
financial ability of the town, the acreage of forest land and the value
the inhabitants set upon it. Cities and towns having organized
departments should see that special provision is made for combating
forest fires, whether the warden is a member of the fire department
or not.

The equipment best suited to various localities will, of course,
vary in detail, but a practical outfit will include the following
essential things : —

1. A stout express wagon. Gold paint and brass work are not
necessary to its practicability, and a second-hand wagon in good
condition would fulfill all requirements.

2. Five or 6 chemical extinguishers of a reputable make, and
costing from $12 to $20 each.

3. A dozen or more cans, with attached covers, and filled with

24

water in which soda has been dissolved ready to recharge the extin-
guishers. Large milk cans are often used, but cannot as a rule
withstand hard service.

4. Extra charges of soda and acid carried in proper receptacles.

5. Shovels, mattocks, axes, rakes, hoes and brooms, as many as the
wagon will conveniently carry.

Such an outfit will cost from $300 up.

Organization.

Each warden should have some kind of organization, although
the exact form will depend a good deal on local circumstances. The
warden and each deputy should have a small crew of men whom he
can call quickly and upon whom he can rely. No others should be
taken to the fire unless its size makes it imperative. Such a plan
will stop irresponsible people from setting fires in the woods merely
to get a job at putting them out.

Fire Lines.

This subject is a rather unsatisfactory one to discuss, because
although more or less has been written on it, there have never any
real tests been made.

A fire line as ordinarily described is a strip through the woods
from which all the growth has been removed. Some people acting
on this description have made fire lines which were veritable traps.
They cleaned out all the trees and undergrowth and there left it.
Consequently during the next year it came up to sprouts and bram-
bles. To keep such a line clear it must be mowed and burned over
every year, although of course as time goes on grass will take the
place of brambles and sprouts, and this can be easily burned over.
The cost of such a line made for the Metropolitan Water Board at
the Wachusett Eeservoir was $150 a mile.

What appears to be a very efficient fire .guard is to be found on
the estate of Mr. Charles Francis Adams, Esq., in Lincoln. It con-
sists of a trench 6 feet wide and dug down to mineral soil (about 2
feet), paralleling the railroad track at a distance averaging 60 feet
from the center of the right of way. We are of the opinion that if
the distance had been 100 feet there would be less likelihood of
cinders blowing over it. Between this ditch and the track the under-
brush has been cut and the dead leaves are annually burned. The
large trees are left undisturbed, and serve as a screen to catch the
flyiug sparks. Except in the case of a very high wind this line is
fireproof. It is two miles long.

FIRE LINE, METROPOLITAN WATER BOARD RESERVATION,

BOYLSTON.

■I

FIRE LINE, ADAMS ESTATE, LINCOLN
(WINTER SCENE).

25

A similar but cheaper line could be made by running a few fur-
rows with a plow instead of digging a trench. Mr. Knapp contem-
plates the use of a rotary disk plow followed by a drag to smooth
over the ground. A plowed line of this sort would not be sure to
keep a fire from running under ground while the trench would.

Just a word of protest should be inserted here against the common
practice of cutting brush along the side of country roads, where it
lies, making fuel for the first match that is thrown into it.

One of the best natural fire lines is the old wood road. These
roads are more or less common, and often ground fires run up and
skirt them and there terminate. Were these old roads kept cleaned
and widened, with an idea of usefulness as a fire line as well as
for getting out forest products, they could be made to serve both
purposes.

Forest wardens will do well to emphasize the importance of
having all large forest tracts and eyen relatively small areas sub-
divided by fire lines, and thus be able to concentrate forces on
definite units. System and forethought will put out many fires
before they even occur.

Old stone walls relieved of debris, as leaves, brush, etc., also
may be utilized as splendid fire protectors. Fires will run up to
and skirt these old walls without crossing them if these walls are
cared for.

Patrol.

The old saw concerning the stitch in time which saves nine ought
to be changed to nine thousand when applied to fire. The quickest
and surest way to handle a forest fire is to be on the watch for it.
We have seen in the report of Warden Morrissey of Plymouth how
that town handles the situation with its tower. This idea is worthy
of wider application. Where the topography admits it, several
towns could combine to maintain such a station. The Forest Com-
missioner of Maine maintains several watchmen, who are stationed
on some of the highest mountains in the forest region of the State.

The first place to start a patrol would be along the railroads, for,
relative to the territory covered, far more fires are started there than
elsewhere. Imagine a small car mounted on the rails, run by gaso-
line, capable of carrying one man, a couple of extinguishers and
other tools and geared to a speed of 35 miles an hour. A man so
provided could cover a 50-mile stretch of track five times a day.
The dangerous season for which a patrol would be needed usually
extends from the 15th of March to the 1st of June and from the
15th of September to the 1st of December, — 150 days in all.

26

The expense for wages and supplies would be $500 per man. The
machines might cost $500 each. Let us imagine ten such patrols
distributed as follows and see how well they cover the danger points.
We do not mean by this that ten men are adequate; but they are
enough for an experiment.

New Haven Eailroad.

Plymouth Division.
Brockton to Provincetown, 100 miles, two men, $1,000.
Braintree to Plymouth (main line) and Middleborough Branch, 40 miles,
one man, $500.

Midland Division.
Norwood Central to Douglas, 40 miles, one man, $500.

Boston & Albany Eailroad.

Main Line.

Westfield to Pittsfield, 40 miles, one man, $500.
Ware Eiver Branch, 50 miles, one man, $500.

Boston & Maine Eailroad.

Pitchburg to Greenfield, 65 miles, two men, $1,000.

Central Massachusetts, Hudson to Belchertown, 50 miles, $500.

Central Vermont Eailroad.

Miller's Palls to Monson, 50 miles, one man, $500.

Total cost: New Haven, $2,000; Boston & Albany Eailroad, $1,000;
Boston & Maine Eailroad, $1,500; Central Vermont Eailroad, $500.

These figures do not allow for the cost of the machines, which
would double them for the first year. No allowance is made for
patrols at night, for as a rule comparatively few forest fires start
at night, as there is little wind and the ground is covered with dew.

Another scheme is suggested which would make it compulsory
along certain sections of track for the section men to detail one
of their crew to follow all trains over their section. A crew of
five men near Marshfield is said to have spent 50 per cent, of its
time during certain weeks of last summer in fighting fire. It
would have been real economy for the railroad if one man, or
20 per cent, of the force, had been detailed to patrol the track
and put out the fires when they first started.

The advantage of this last scheme is that it is more elastic
than the first one, because it can be put in operation when needed
and drawn off when not, regardless of months. It also fits into

27

the ordinary manner of administering the right of way. It would
take five men to cover the ground which one could under the first
plan, so the annual cost would undoubtedly average more.

That the railroads can afford to expend something on the patrol-
ling of their tracks will be plain from the following list of damage
claims paid by railroads in Massachusetts. If the figures of 1908
were at hand it is probable that increases of 200 per cent, would
be found. It will be seen that the patrol only has to stop about
10 per cent, of the fires in order to justify the expense.

Table 4. — Forest Fire Damages paid by Railroads in Massachusetts.

New London Northern:

For three years ending June 30, 1906, $8,339 36

Boston & Albany:

Nov. 1, 1903, to .Nov. 1, 1904, 4,699 33

Nov. 1, 1904, to Nov. 1, 1905, 8,450 60

Nov. 1, 1905, to July 20, 1906, 7,244 62

Boston & Maine:

1903, 34,859 15

1904, 19,426 36

1905, 35,560 89

New York, New Haven & Hartford:

Tear ending June 30, 1902, 13,658 49

Year ending June 30, 1903, 19,107 79

Year ending June 30, 1904, 19,395 55

Year ending June 30, 1905, 26,311 20

Year ending June 30, 1906, 45,112 96

In addition to patrolling by the railroads along their line, the
State should be ready in emergencies to put on a patrol in other
sections. The Forest Commissioner of Maine has an emergency
appropriation of $20,000 which he can use for such means. His
average annual expenditure from this fund has been $9,000, but
last year he exhausted the entire amount before the 1st of Sep-
tember. For a State of the area of Massachusetts probably $5,000
would constitute an ample emergency fund. The burden of patrol
work is put not on the towns but on the State, because the saving
of the forests is a problem which the State as a whole is interested
in, and the expense of it should not be borne by the towns, which
are forced now to pay the entire cost of fire fighting. As a rule,
those towns having the largest area of forest land are the least
able, from the financial standpoint, to protect it. In the States
of ISTew York and Minnesota one-half the expense of fighting fires
is borne by the State ; in Michigan it is one-third ; in New Jersey
one-half, and in Connecticut one-fourth is paid by the State and

28

one-fourth by the county. Massachusetts is one of the few States
having an organized forest fire fighting force in which the Com-
monwealth is not specifically obliged to assume part of the expense.

On Damage by Forest Fires.

There are many ways in which a fire injures the woods, some
of which are well known and fully appreciated, but several of
the most important are not usually considered when the cost of a
fire is estimated.

First. — A fire may kill the standing timber. This is always
the case when a top or crown fire occurs. In some cases such fire-
killed timber can be utilized, but it does not bring a good sale
value on the market and only a part of the loss can be recovered.

Second. — A light fire may run through a stand and kill a tree
here and there. In this case the damage is not so apparent as
when all the trees are killed, but a close examination of the wood-
lot through which surface fire has gone reveals the fact that other
trees do not escape without injury. It may be a slight scorching
of the bark, or the roots near the surface of the ground may be
damaged. Such trees die later on, because in this weakened con-
dition they are no longer able to withstand the attacks of insects
and fungi. Chestnut is a tree peculiarly susceptible to fire scorch.

Third. — The vegetable part of the soil, or humus, as it is called,
is consumed by a fir,e as well as the leaves and other litter which
would make a future supply of humus. The destruction of the
humus affects the fertility of the soil in a marked degree. The
elements which tend to conserve the soil moisture are thus de-
stroyed.

Fourth. — A forest fire may result in a change in the compo-
sition of the stand of trees. It is often followed by a growth of
poplars, birches, scrub oak and blueberry, which growth has little
or no value and is hard to get rid of.

Fifth. — Owing to the moisture-conserving elements which have
been destroyed and the rank new growth which succeeds the fire,
land which has been burned over is made more liable to fire, so
that each successive fire means danger of another.

Sixth. — The young growth or reproduction is nearly always
killed. In the long run this is probably the greatest injury of all,
although it is seldom counted when the loss through a forest fire
is being reckoned.

When one comes to estimate the damage caused by fire in terms

29

of money he finds it a hard proposition. Allowance must be made
for all injuries that can possibly be expressed in dollars and cents,
which, except in case of mature growth which has been entirely
destroyed, a rare case, calls for a lot of judgment. By mature
growth we do not mean that the trees have stopped growing in
volume, but that their rate of increase does not keep pace with the
interest on their value. For a pine stand this age would be from
fifty to sixty years; chestnut sprouts, forty to fifty years; sprout
oak, thirty to forty years. To find the value of these stands before
they are mature, their expectation value at that age should be
discounted to the present date at 6 per cent. The expectation
value of these three types of stands at maturity could be averaged
as follows, although of course a great deal would depend on the
situation of the stand. Pine, $250 per acre; sprout chestnut,
$60 per acre; and mixed sprout hardwoods, $30 per acre. At
ten years of age, and discounted at 6 per cent., the value per acre
would be as follows : —

Type.

Mature

Age
(Years) .

Expecta-
tion
Value.

Taxes and
Interest.

Value at
Ten Years.

White pine, .
Sprout chestnut, .
Sprout hardwoods,
Gray birch, •.

50
40
30
20

$250
75
30
20

25
15
10

$19 40

8 70

1 70

55

The above values, it must be remembered, take no account of
the injury to the soil. It must also be remembered that a severe
injury to a young tree amounts to total destruction, since there
would be little chance of its reaching merchantable size and much
less financial maturity.

Extracts prom Wardens' Letters.
These paragraphs from wardens' letters were selected because
they contained miscellaneous points of interest. Most of the let-
ters which contained information on fire fighting have been given
under that heading.

A. E. Travis, Deputy Forest Warden, Barre.
The fires of the 24th were set by a locomotive. The two larger fires
were set at 9.30 a.m. between mile posts 29 and 30; the smaller fire was
started at 2.30 p.m. on the return trip, near mile post 29.

30

No section men came to any of these fires and as far as I can make
out no fire call was sounded by tlie locomotive.

Our fire department was called, but all that saved us from a severe loss
was the wind.

T. B. Tubman, Warden, Brewster.

I write you this letter hoping that you will do something about these
abominable railway fires. The railroad will not give the section foreman
a man to follow the trains, nor does it seem possible that they inspect their
screens as they should. Can you not influence the company to remedy
this evil so their engines will run over the road without burning up all
the woodland?

I have been a fire warden for about ten years, but have never known
anything like the number of locomotive fires during April, except one
day last summer when the Boston train set thirteen fires.

A. P. Baker, Forest Warden, Dennis.

Woods fires reported from South Dennis are set by locomotives. As
the same engines do not pass over the road every day, it is impossible to
report them for the inspection of their spark arresters.

Fires are of almost daily occurrence some weeks. Thus far I have
been able to get to them very soon after they start, thus preventing much
damage.

Ralph Earle, Forest Warden, Dighton.

I am reporting the only fire which the town has had this year. This
I feel is due to our excellent fire laws being well advertised among the
people.

E. E. Qhapman, Forest Warden, Ludlow.

I have issued to fourteen different persons permits to set fire.

I have had two fires to date where I called out a large number of men.
They were extinguished by back firing from a plowed furrow across the
face of the fire.

H. J. Montgomery, Forest Warden, North Adams.

The warning notices printed on cloth, calling attention to the fire laws,
and sent out by the State Forester, have been a very effective check on
forest fires here this season.

A. F. Howlett, Forest Warden, Spencer.

The selectmen think that the railroad company should at least pay
half the expense that it costs this town to fight the numerous brush fires
set by locomotives.

A. C. Warner, Forest Warden, Sunderland.
We have been for the past two days fighting the worst fire that we
have ever had in Sunderland. It was started by a locomotive of the
Central Vermont Railroad. I believe the fire covered more than 200 acres

31

of valuable timber land. I have had 125 men out and think that it is
under control, but shall maintain a watch on it for a few days.

This fire is only one of a number set in the same locality by the Central
Vermont.

Alvarado Henry, Forest Warden, Upton.

Please send me more blue books with the forest laws as I have ap-
pointed nine deputies.

I have had extracts of the forest laws printed on postal cards, which
I sent to every voter in the town, so that all may know its mandates.

E. A. Young, Forest Warden, Hubhardston.

There have been many small fires along the railroad which have been
taken care of by the section men and of which I have no account. No
timber of consequence has been destroyed.

In this unusually dry year adjoining towns have all suffered severely
from fires. I believe that the small loss and light cost of fighting fires in
Hubbardston have been due to : —

First. — The enforcement of the law against setting fires without a
permit.

Second The co-operation of citizens with the forest warden and his

deputies to prevent fires of careless origin, and the prompt reporting of
fires where observed.

During the danger period of the past year special warnings were posted
and all citizens were requested to extinguish or report small fires.

On the Woek of Game Waedens.

This book may well close with a short tribute to the work of
the deputies of the Fish and Game Commission. Of the nine
arrests and convictions made for violations of the fire laws, seven
were brought about by these two men, Deputy H. A. Bent of
Franklin, four men, and Deputy T. L. Burney of Lynn, three
cases. The Lynn offenders were boys. Twelve other deputies re-
ported to the commission that they had seen and aided in ex-
tinguishing nearly fifty fires. The reports of a few of them are
here appended.

Walter A. Larhin, Andover.

I have put out three fires since I have been here; one in Haverhill, set
by fishermen; one at Foster Pond, Andover, and one recently in Bedford.
The fishermen at Foster Pond set the fire to drive away mosquitoes. I have
spoken to them and no more have been set.

Allen A. David, Taunton.

As to forest fires, I have put out ten of them last year. Nine out
of ten were along the railroad track and the other in the woods. Three
fires did not do much damage, on account of being put out before they
got much headway.

32

Irving 0. Converse, Fitchburg.

Fires found and extinguished alone, 2; fires found and department
called out, 3; fires found and section hands notified, 3; fires found and
farmers called upon.

William H. Leonard, East Foxborough.

I have, with the assistance of one man, put out two woods fires, one in
North Attleborough and one in Foxborough. I called out the fire depart-
ment in the latter town and also notified the chief in Blackstone of a
forest fire.

Strange to say, many of the towns in the district have been quite im-
mune compared with former years.

In travelling along the railroad line in Bellingham and Blackstone one is
astounded at the vast acreage of woodland forever destroyed by fires.

While in Kingston in October I was told that a fire there in July last
cost the town hundreds of dollars just to fight it ($1,500).

D. E. Wansey, Montague City.

Sunday I saw a forest fire and went out with my son and fought it all
the afternoon.

Francis B. Osborne, Hingham.

Number of forest fires extinguished, 5. All of these were in the first
stages and help was required only in one. I think that the cause of them
was in at least two cases locomotives.

V. ,LIST OF FOREST WARDENS.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Abington,

287

Acton, .

181

Acushnet,

275

Adams,

7

Agawam,

93

Alford,

24

Amesbury,

228

Amherst,

67

Andover,

212

Arlington,

193

Ashburnham,

104

Ashby,

158

B. Ernest Wilkes, chief fire department.

William H. Kingsley.

Geo. T. Parker, selectman.

John Clancy.

Edward M. Hitchcock.

John H. Wilcox.

James E. Feltham, chief fire department.

G. E. Stone, tree warden.

J. H. Playdon, tree warden.

Walter H. Pierce, chief fire department.

William D. Miller.

Henry A. Lawrence.

33

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town oe City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Ashfield, .

50

Chas. A. Hall.

Ashland,

200

H. H. Piper.

Athol, .

105

Jas. A. Dunbar.

Attleborough,
Auburn,

265
123

Hiram Packard, 3 Hope Street, chief fire depart-
ment.
J. Fred Searle.

Avon, .

259

E. Walter Packard, constable.

Ayer, .

169

Henry E. Sanderson.

Barnstable, .

315

Henry C. Bacon, P. O. Hyannis.

Barre, .

142

D. H. Rice.*

Becket,

23

Elmer D. Ballou.

Bedford,

179

Chas. E. Williams.

Belchertown,

73

James A. Peeso, constable.

Bellingham,

326

L. F. Thayer, town treasurer.

Belmont,

194

John F. Leonard, chief fire department.

Berkley,

271

Gideon H. Babbitt.

Berlin,

139

Walter Cole, constable.

Bernardston,

39

E. E. Benjamen.

Beverly,

220

Levi K. Goodhue, chief fire department.

Billerica,

173

Geo. C. Crosby, chief engineer fire department.

Blackstone, .

114

Thomas Reilly.

Blandford, .

81

Stephen Bodurtha.

Bolton,

146

Frank A. Powers, tree warden.

Bourne,

311

Emory A. Ellis, P. O. Bournedale.

Boxborougb,

182

M. L. Wetherbee, selectman.

Boxford,

218

Harry L. Cole, selectman.

Boylston,

138

Chas. S. Knight, metropolitan watchman.

Braintree, .

Brewster,

Bridgewater,

244
318
293

James M. Cutting, special police, P. 0. South

Braintree.
T. B. Tubman, highway surveyor, P. 0. North

Brewster.
Edwin S. Rhoades.

Brimfield, .

99

Edward J. Prindle.

Brockton,

286

Harry C. Marston, chief fire department.

Brookfield, .

120

David N. Hunter

34

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town or City.

Badge

No.

Warden.

Brookline, .

.

237

Geo. H. Johnson, chief fire department.

Buckland, .

49

William Sauer, P. O. Shelburne Falls.

Burlington, .

178

Walter L. Skelton, tree warden.

Canton,

249

Laurence Horton, fire engineer, P. O. Ponkapoag.

Carlisle,

171

Herbert P. Dutton, selectman.

Carver,

304

Eugene E. Shaw.

Charlemont,

42

Fred D. Legate.

Charlton,

115

Carlos Bond.

Chatham,

320

Geo. H. Eldredge.

Chelmsford,

172

Ralph P. Adams.

Cheshire,

11

Chas. D. Cummings.

Chester,

80

William H. Babb.

Chesterfield,

63

Chas. A. Bisbee, P. O. Bisbee.

Chicopee,

87

John H. Pomphret, chief fire department.

Chilmark, .

308

Ernest C. Mayhew.

Clarksburg, .
Clinton,

3
145

Robert Lanfair, R. F. D. No. 1, P. O. North

Adams.
Daniel W. Goss, 40 East Street.

Cohasset,

246

Wm. J. Brennock, captain fire department.

Colrain,

37

Wm. H. Davenport.

Concord,

180

G. E. Morrell, chief fire department.

Conway,

51

Chas. Parsons, tree warden.

Cummington,

60

W. S. Gabb,1 P. 0. Swift River.

Dalton,

14

William M. Colton, forester, Flint Stone Farm.

Dana, .
Dan vers,

147

210

Elmer A. Collier, chief fire department, P. 0.

North Dana.
Thos. E. Tinsley, tree warden.

Dartmouth, .

278

John W. Howland, P. 0. North Dartmouth.

Dedham,
Deerfield,

241

52

Everett J. Winn, chief fire department, P. 0.

Box 96.
Wm. L. Harris, selectman.

Dennis,

317

Alpheus P.Baker, constable, P. 0. South Dennis.

Dighton,

272

Ralph Earle.

Douglas,

112

W. L. Church, county commissioner.

Dover, .

240

John Breagy.

1 Proprietor of the Elm Tree Inn.

35

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS —Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Dracut,

Dudley,

Dunsta"ble,

Duxbury,

East Bridgewater

Eastham,

Easthampton,

East Longmeadow,

Easton,

Egremont,

Enfield,

Erving,

Essex, .

Fairhaven,

Fall River,

Falmouth,

Fitchburg,

Florida,

Foxborough ,

Framingbam,

Franklin,

Freetown,

Gardner,

Gay Head,

Georgetown,

Gill, .

Gloucester,

Gosben,

Gosnold,

Grafton,

Granby,

Granville,

163

110

161

303

298

322

77

95

264

29

74

46

233

276

280

312

157

5

261

197

255

274

153

343

224

45

234

61

344

125

79

91

Adelbert P. Bryant, 790 Pleasant Street.

F. A. Putnam.

Dexter Butterfield.

Fred B. Knapp, master Powder Point Scbool.

Loren A. Flagg, chief fire department, P. O. Elm-
wood.
"W. Horton Nickerson, road surveyor.

Frank P. Newkirk, tree warden.

Henry Ashley.

John Baldwin, chief fire department, P. O. North

Easton.
Frank W. Bradford, Great Barrington, R. F. D.

No. 3.
Chas. W. Felton.

Ch. H. Holmes, selectman, P. O. Farley.

Otis O. Story, tree warden.

Henry T. Howard.

"William Bayard, tree warden.

J. M. Watson.

Geo. H. Hastings, superintendent, local superin-
tendent gypsy moth.
Fred R. Whitcomb, P. O. Hoosac Tunnel.

Ernest A. White, chief fire department and con-
stable.

James Stalker, P. O. South Framingham, assist-
ant tree warden.

Edward S. Cook, dealer in wood and lumber.

Andrew M. Hathaway, P. O. Assonet.

Theodore W. Danforth.

Leander B. Smally, Menemsha, Mass.

Clinton J. Eaton.

Lewis C. Munn.

M. A. Walton.

Sidney F. Packard, P. O. R. F. D. No. 2, Wil-
liamsburg.
Harold S. Veeder, P. O. Cuttyhunk.

Sumner F. Leonard, overseer of the poor.

C. N. Rust, P. O. South Hadley.

Laurence F. Henry, selectman.

36

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS— Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Great Barrington,

25

Daniel W. Flynn.

Greenfield, .

44

William A. Ames, tree warden.

Greenwich, .

327

William H. Walker, P. 0. Greenwich Village.

Groton,

167

James B. Harrington, chief fire department.

Groveland, .

225

Sidney E. Johnson, 311 Center Street.

Hadley,

66

Edward P. West, tree warden.

Halifax,

299

Edwin H. Vaughan, assessor.

Hamilton, .

222

Fred Berry, P. O. Essex, R. F. D.

Hampden, .

97

John S. Swenson.

Hancock,

9

Chas. F. Tucker.

Hanson,

296

Albert L. Dame, tree warden, P. 0. South Han-

Hanover,

295

son.
Chas. E. Damon, P. 0. Box 113, North Hanover.

Hardwick, .

141

Myron N. Ayers, constable.

Harvard,

152

Benjamin Priest.

Harwich,

319

John Condon.

Hatfield, . .

65

John M. Strong, P. 0. West Hatfield.

Haverhill, .

216

John B. Gordon, chief fire department.

Hawley,

48

Ernest R. Seare, tree warden, P. 0. Charlemont.

Heath, .

36

S. G. Benson.

Hingham, .

289

Geo. Cushing, chief fire department.

Hinsdale,

15

Lewis B. Brague, tree warden.

'Holbrook,

247

E. W. Austin.

Holden,

136

J. W. Rice.

Holland,

101

0. F. Howlett, P. 0. Southbridge, R. F. D. No. 2.

Holliston,

202

Waldo A. Collins.

Holyoke,

85

Chas. C. Hastings.

Hopedale, .
Hopkinton, .

328
201

Walter F. Durgin, constable, superintendent of

parks.
R. D. Frail.

Hubbardston,

149

Ernest A. Young, tree warden.

Hudson,

199

Fred W. Trowbridge, chief fire department.

Hull, .

329

Smith F. Sturges, tree warden, P. 0. Allerton.

Huntington,

70

Daniel B. Mack, constable.

37

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town oe City.

Badge
No.

"Warden.

Hyde Park, .

330

Harry Higbee.

Ipswich,

223

Augustus J. Barton.

Kingston,

301

Thos. W. Bailey, selectman.

Lakeville, . t .

283

Nathan F. Washburn, P. O. Middleborough.

Lancaster, .

151

Everett M. Hawkins, chief fire department.

Lanes borough,

10

King D. Keeler, constable.

Lawrence, .

214

Chas. G. Butter, chief fire department.

Lee,

22

James W. Bossidy.

Leicester,

122

Walter E. Sprague.

Lenox,

18

Geo. W. Fitch.

Leominster, .
Leverett,

155

57

William K. Morse, chief fire department, P. O.

North Leominster.
Orman C. Marvel, assessor.

Lexington, .

188

Azor P. Howe.

Ley den,

38

Herman W. Severance, Bernardston.

Lincoln,

187

Edward R. Farrer, tree warden.

Littleton,

170

Chas. F. Johnson, town clerk.

Longmeadow,

94

Oscar C. Pomeroy.

Lowell,

165

Edward S. Hosmer, chief fire department.

Ludlow,

88

Edward E. Chapman, constable.

Lunenburg, .

156

Clayton E. Stone.

Lynn, .

331

Nathan M. Hawkes, park commissioner.

Lynnfield, .

209

Thos. E. Cox, P. 0. Wakefield R. F. D.

Maiden,

191

Frank Turner.

Manchester,

236

Frederick Burnham.

Mansfield, .

263

Herbert E. King.

Marblehead,

332

William H. Stevens.

Marion,

306

Isaac E. Hiller.

Marlborough ,

198

Chas. H. Andrews, chief fire department.

Marshfield, .

292

Edward E. Ames.

Mashpee,

313

Joseph A. Peters.

Mattapoisett,

281

Everet C. Stetson.

Maynard,

184

Arthur J. Coughlan, room 17, Maynard's block.

38

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Medfield, .

252

Waldo E. Kingsley, chief fire department.

Medford,

192

Chas. Bacon, chief fire department.

Medway,

254

Clyde C. Hunt, captain fire department.

Mendon, . . .

119

Alhert W. Gaskell.

Merrimac, .

227

Edgar P. Sargent.

Methuen,

213

Alfred H. Wagland, tree warden.

Middleborough, .

284

C. W. Weston.

Middlefield,

342

Thos. H. Fleming, P. 0. Bancroft.

Middleton, .

211

William W. Richardson.

Milford,

127

Thos. F. Maher, chief fire department.

Miirbury,

124

William E. Horn.

Millis, ....

253

Chas. La Croix.

Milton,

242

Nathaniel T. Kidder, park commissioner.

Monroe,

34

S. R. Tower.

Monson,

98

Omer E. Broadway.

Montague, .

53

Fred W. Lyman, lumber dealer.

Monterey, .

28

Andrew J. Hall.

Montgomery,

82

Frank C. Preston, P. O.Huntington.

Mount Washington, .

30

Fred Porter.

Nantucket, .

333

Albert R. Coffin.

Natick,

204

William E. Daniels.

Needham, .

238

Howard H. Upham, captain fire department.

New Ashford,

6

Henry B. Baxter.

New Bedford,

277

Edward F. Dahill, chief fire department.

New Braintree, .

131

E. L. Haven.

Newbury,

231

William P. Bailey.

Newburyport,

230

David Kent, 26 Arlington Street.

New Marlborough,

32

Dennis Hayes, P. O. Mill River.

New Salem,

55

Ransen King, P. O. Cooleyville.

Newton,
Norfolk,

205
256

Walter B. Randlett, chief fire department, P. 0.

West Newton.
C. Albert Murphy.

North Adams,

4

H. J. Montgomery, chief fire department.

39

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Northampton,

72

Fredrick E. Chase.

North Andover, .

215

Geo. A. Rea.

North Attleborough, .

262

Harvey W. Tufts, chief fire department.

Northborough^

140

T. P. Haskell.

Northbridge,

117

W. E. Beemap, P. O. Whitinsville.

North Brookfield,

129

H. S. Lytle, chief fire department.

Northfield, .

40

Fred W. Doane.

North Reading, .

175

Irviug F. Batchelder.

Norton,

266

Alden G. Walker.

Norwell,

290

John Wahlen.

Norwood,

250

J. Fred Boyden, chief fire department.

Oak Bluffs, .

334

Samuel N. Kidder.

Oakham, .

135

Chas. H. Trowbridge.

Orange,

47

Chas. E. Lane.

Orleans,

321

Chas. F. Poor.

Otis, ....

27

Wilbur L. Strickland.

Oxford, .

335

A. W. Stafford, North Oxford.

Palmer,

89

James Summers, chief fire department.

Paxton,

130

Geo. W. Van Wyke.

Peabody,

219

Michael V. McCarthy, Forest Street.

Pelham,

68

E. P. Bartlett, P. O. Amherst.

Pembroke, .

294

Jos. J. Shepard.

Pepperell, .

Peru, ....

160
16

Geo. G. Tarbell, P. O. East Pepperell, Room 17,

Aldine block.
Clarence W. Hathaway.

Petersham, .

148

George P. Marsh.

Phillipston,

106

William C. Goddard.

Pittsfield, .

13

Lucien D. Hazard.

Plainville, .

59

Harlie E. Thompson.

Plainfield, .

309

Lestan E. Parker.

Plymouth, .

302

Herbert Morrisey.

Plympton, .

300

Thomas W. Blanchard.

Prescott,

69

Waldo H. Pierce, P. O. Greenwich Village.

40

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Princeton, .

150

J. Heyden Stimpson.

Provincetown,

325

James H. Barnett.

Quincy,

243

Peter J. Williams, chief fire department.

Randolph, .

248

Chas. A. Wales, chief fire department.

Raynham, .

270

John V. Festing.

Reading,

176

Herbert E. Mclntire.

Rehoboth, .

2S8

Silas A. Pierce.

Richmond, .

17

T. B.Salmon.

Rochester, .

282

William N. Smellie.

Rockland, .

288

John H. Burke, water commissioner.

Rockport,

235

A. J. McFarland, P. O. Box 91.

Rowe, .

35

Solomon Granger, P. O. Zoar.

Rowley,

232

Daniel O'Brien, agent Gypsy Moth Commission.

Royalston, .

102

Willard W. White, P. 0. South Royalston.

Russell,

83

Sidney F. Shurtleff , highway surveyor.

Rutland,

143

Henry Converse, chief fire department.

Salisbury,

229

Wm. H. Evans.

Sandisfield,

' 33

Lyman H. Clark, P. 0. New Boston.

Sandwich,

314

John F. Carlton, P. 0. Spring Hill.

Saugus,

207

Eugene Stephens.

Savoy, .

8

Herbert H. Fitzroy,1 P. 0. Savoy Center.

Scituate,

291

Percival S. Brown, tree warden.

Seekonk,
Sharon,

267
251

John L. Barker, P. 0. Attleborough, R. F. D.

No. 4.
John G. Phillips.

Sheffield,

31

Geo. G. Peck.

Shelburne,

43

Samuel Oates, P. 0. Shelburne Falls.

Sherborn,

203

Milo F. Campbell, constable, South Sherborn.

Shirley,

168

Melvin W. Lougley, assessor.

Shrewsbury,

132

Wm. E. Rice.

Shutesbury,

58

Emmons J. Spear.

Somerset,

336

James Wilson, fish and game warden.

Southampton,

76

Geo. W. Tyler.

Proprietor Grand View Farm.

41

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS— Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

Warden.

Southborough,

337

Harry Burnett, tree warden.

Southbridge,

109

Aimee Langevin, Olney Avenue.

South Hadley,

78

Joseph Beach, P. O. South Hadley Falls.

South wick, .

92

Edward Gillett, tree warden.

Spencer,

121

A. F. Howlett.

Springfield, .

86

Burton Steere, assistant fire chief.

Sterling, . ,

144

G. F. Herbert, assessor.

Stockbridge,

21

Geo. Schneyer, selectman, P. O. Glendale.

Stoneham, .

190

Geo. E. Sturtevant, chief fire department.

Stoughton, .

258

Jesse E. Smith.

Stow, .

183

William H. Parker, P. O. Gleasondale.

Sturbridge, .

108

Chas. M. Clark, P. O. Fiskdale.

Sudbury,

185

F. E. Bent.

Sunderland,

338

A. C. Warner.

Sutton,

116

Ransom W. Richardson.

Swampscott,

339

Geo. P. Cahoon, chief fire department.

Swansea,

273

Thos. L. Mason, constable, P. 0. R. F. D. No. 2.

Taunton,

269

Fred A. Leonard, chief fire department.

Templeton, .

107

Henry H. Seaver, P. 0. Baldwinville.

Tewksbury, .

164

Herbert W. Pillsbury.

Tisbury,

310

Albert Rotch, P. 0. Vineyard Haven.

Tolland,

90

Eugene M. Moore.

Topsfield, .

218

Isaac B. Young, selectman.

Townsend, .

159

F. J. Piper, chief fire department.

Truro, .

324

Manuel F. Corey.

Tyngsborough,

162

Otis L. Wright.

Tyringham, .

26

H. E. Moore.

Upton, . . .

126

Alvarado Henry, chief fire department.

Uxbridge, .
Wakefield, .

113

208

Arnold S. Allen, constable and chief fire depart-
ment.
Samuel T. Parker

Wales, .

100

W. W. Eager.

Walpole,

340

N. Emmons Winslow, chief fire department.

42

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Continued.

Town or City.

Badge
No.

"Warden.

"Waltham, .

195

Geo. L. Johnson, chief fire department.

Ware, ....

75

L. S. Charbonneau, P. 0. Box No. 25.

Wareharn, .

305

Arthur B. Savary.

"Warren,

119

Joseph St. George, constable.

Warwick,

41

Chas. H. Williams.

Washington,

19

John B. Watson, R. F. D., Becket.

Watertown,

206

John C. Ford, tree warden.

Wayland,

196

Clarence S. Williams, Cochituate.

Webster,

111

Arthur B. Patterson.

Wellesley, .

239

Fletcher M. Abbott, tree warden.

Wellfleet, .

323

Edwin P. Cook.

Wendell, .

54

Geo. A. Lewis.

Wenham,

221

Jacob D. Barnes, tree warden.

Westborough,

133

James H. McDonald, chief fire department.

West Boylston, .
West Bridgewater,

137

285

Frank H. Baldwin, agent Metropolitan Water

Board.
Octave Belmore, tree warden.

West Brookfield,

128

Robert M. Carter, P. O. Box 135.

Westfield, .
Westford,

' 84
166

Geo. H. Byers, chief fire department, P. 0. ad-
dress, Arnold Street.
John A. Healey, P. 0. Graniteville.

Westhampton,

71

Levi Burt.

Westminster,

154

John C. Goodridge, chief fire department.

West Newbury, .

226

Silas M. Titcomb, P. 0. Byfield.

Weston,

186

Edward P. Ripley.

Westport,

279

Frank Whalon, North Westport.

West Springfield,

341

A. A. Sibley.

West Stockbridge,

20

Bernard Manning.

West Tisbury,

307

William J. Rotch.

West wood, .

251

Chas. Dean, P. 0. Islington.

Weymouth, .

245

J. Rupert Walsh, P. 0. East Weymouth.

Whately,

56

James A. Wood.

Whitman, .

297

Clarence A. Randall, tree warden.

Wilbraham,

96

Henry I. Edson, P. 0. North Wilbraham.

43

V. LIST OF FOREST WARDENS — Concluded.

Town ok City.

Badge

No.

"Warden.

Williamsburg,

Williamstown,

Wilmington,

Winchendon,

Winchester,

Windsor,

Woburn,

Worcester, .

Worthington,

Wrentham, .

Yarmouth, .

64

9

174

103
189

12
177
131

62
260
316

C. S. Damon.

Daniel Russell.

Jos. M. Hill, chief fire department, P. 0. North

Wilmington.
Arthur L. Brown, chief fire department.

Irving L. Symmes, chief fire department.

H. Ward Ford, tax collector.

Frank E. Tracy, chief fire department.

H. Ward Moore, Winnefred Avenue.

Chas. E. Clark.

Chas. E. Brown, chief fire department.

Setli Taylor, constable.

PAEASITES

OF THE

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS

INTRODUCED INTO

MASSACHUSETTS.

WHERE THEY COME FROM.

WHAT THEY ARE DOING.

A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE WORK.

By W. F. FISKE,

Agent and Expert, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

F. W. RANE, State Forester.

BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 Post Office Square.
1910.

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

CONTENTS.

Introductory, .....

Acknowledgments, ....
Nature of insect parasitism,
Natural control of the gypsy moth, .
Parasite introduction in theory and practice,
Sequence of parasites, ....
Parasites of the gypsy moth in Japan,
Parasites of the gypsy moth in Europe,
Parasites of the gypsy moth in America, .
Parasites of the egg,

Anastatus bifasciatus,

Schedius kuvanoe,
Parasites of the caterpillar,

Glyptapanteles fulvipes,

Blepharipa scutellata,

Compsilura concinnata,

Tachina larvarum and Tricholyga grandis,

Zygobothria gilva and Carcelia gnava,
Parasites of the pupa,

Theronia sp., .

Chalcis flavipes, .

Monodontomerus aereus,
Progress of the parasites in Massachusetts,
When will the parasites become effective?

The work in 1910,

Parasites of the brown-tail moth,

PAGE

5
6
7
9
10
13
15
18
20
23
23
25
28
28
33
36
3S
39
40
40
41
43
46
50
52
53

6

INTRODUCTORY.

clition and more promising from actual results at the present
time than ever.

The State Forester cannot refrain from saying also that what
Massachusetts is doing in this work is indirectly as important
to the nation generally ; for what is here accomplished will ulti-
mately result in equal value throughout New England and
finally elsewhere.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The work of writing and compiling the data in this bulletin
was done by Mr. W. F. Fiske, agent and expert, Bureau of
Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, in
charge of directing the technical work of introducing the para-
sites and predatory enemies of the gypsy moth and the brown-
tail moth into Massachusetts. The headquarters for this work
are at the State laboratory at Melrose Highlands.

When it was determined by the State Forester that the in-
formation contained in this bulletin would be appreciated by our
people, a conference with Dr. L. 0. Howard, the United States
Government Entomologist, who has been our chief adviser in
expending the State's money for this work, resulted in his dele-
gating Mr. Fiske to the task. Mr. Fiske's manuscript was ex-
amined and approved by Dr. Howard.

We are therefore under obligations to both of the above-named
gentlemen for their hearty co-operative efforts in our behalf.

F. W. RANE,

State Forester.

6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass., March 15, 1910.

PLATE I.

Grounds of the Gypsy Moth Laboratory, showing Temporary Structures used in
rearing Parasites of the Gypsy Moth and Brown-tail Moth.

Interior of One of these Structures, showing Trays for feeding Caterpillars.

PARASITES OF THE GYPSY AND BROWN-
TAIL MOTHS.

' NATURE OF INSECT PARASITISM.

It is probable that the total number of different species of
insects which are native to Massachusetts is not far short of 10,-
000, if indeed it does not exceed this number. A large propor-
tion of these are plant feeders, some of them sucking the sap,
others eating the foliage, and others still boring in the roots,
seeds or stems. A great many feed upon dead vegetable matter,
or upon the lower plants, such as mushrooms and other fungi.

, Several thousand, possibly half of the total, feed upon animals
or upon dead animal matter, and by far the larger part of these
prey upon other insects, — principally, but by no means exclu-
sively, upon those which are plant feeders. It is largely through
this continuous warfare that the plant-feeding insects are held in
check, and prevented from increasing to such numbers as to be-
come a menace to vegetable life in general.

The insects which subsist upon other insects may roughly
be divided into two classes, according to the methods of their
attack. The predatory, like the other predatory animals, wander
about, attacking and devouring the weaker species or individ-
uals. For the most part they are very catholic in their tastes,
and will attack almost any other insect which they may chance
to encounter in their favored haunts. The parasitic, on the con-
trary, are in most instances very closely restricted in the choice
of their prey, and have a very different method of attack.

Instead of falling upon and devouring a weaker insect, they
frequently attack and destroy those which are much larger and
stronger in every way than themselves. This is accomplished by
the deposition of an egg, or in some instances a living maggot,
within or upon the body of the selected victim, or upon its food,
or in some other situation. The young larva, hatching from the

8 IMPORTED PARASITES.

egg (or deposited by the female parasite, for in quite a large
number of them the eggs hatch within the body of the parent),
ultimately becomes established within or upon the body of the
other insect, which serves, as host ; and, although there is consid-
erable variation in the ways by which this is accomplished, the
end is the same.

Having become established, the young larva proceeds to feed
upon the less vital portions of its victim, usually upon the fatty
tissues, until it is nearly or quite full grown; then, from its
point of vantage inside the body of its host, it kills it, devours
all or such portions of its body as it desires, and later trans-
forms to a pupa, which in turn produces an adult similar to
that which made the original attack.

There is hardly a plant or shrub or tree which is not attacked
in some portion by one or more species of plant-feeding insects.
Some trees, like the oak and pine, support a very great variety,
which are widely diverse in their habits, and each of which con-
fines its attack to a limited portion of the tree. Those which
bore in the bark, for example, are always different from those
which feed upon the foliage or which are nourished by the seed.
Similarly, there is hardly a single plant-feeding insect which is
not attacked by one or more different parasites, each of which is
limited in its attack to some stage in the development of the par-
ticular species which serves as host. The parasites which attack
the caterpillars of a plant-destroying insect, like the gypsy moth,
never attack the pupae or the eggs ; but there are other parasites
which do attack these stages.

Plant-feeding insects very rarely attack more than a few sorts
of plants or trees. Some, like the gypsy moth, are very general
feeders, and will eat the foliage of pine and fir as well as of oak
and birch ; but the number which feed upon both pine and oak
are very few, and even the gypsy moth displays a strong prefer-
ence for the foliage of broad-leaved trees. There are a great
many which will feed upon nothing but oak, and there are many
which are even more restricted, and which are never found- on
more than one kind of oak. Exactly the same is true of the
parasites : some are general feeders, and will attack a great va-
riety of hosts ; others are extremely particular in this respect,
and will not attack, or, if thev are forced to attack, their young

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 9

cannot develop upon, more than a very limited number of hosts.
The great majority are thus closely restricted in their host rela-
tions, and the parasites which are most effective in controlling
the increase of plant-feeding insects are generally of this char-
acter. It is on account of this that the many hundreds of dif-
ferent parasites of native caterpillars do not, and cannot, attack
and control an insect like the gypsy moth, which is different in
many respects from any native American insect.

NATURAL CONTROL OF THE GYPSY MOTH.

With the exception of the parasites, nearly every, and prob-
ably every, controlling agency which works to keep the gypsy
moth within bounds in Europe and Japan is present in America.
Mortality through catastrophic causes, such as storms and cli-
matic changes, is heavy here, as it is abroad. It is probable that
the birds, which destroy so many of the caterpillars, pupse and
moths, are equally effective in both Europe and America. Dis-
ease, induced through overpopulation, is more prevalent in some
parts of Massachusetts than in those countries where overpopu-
lation is not so apt to occur ; and a multitude of predatory in-
sects, notably, the bugs described by Mr. Kirkland in the report
on " The Gypsy Moth," by Forbush and Fernald, render great
assistance. So effective are these various agencies, that, taking
the older infested section as a whole, the gypsy moth is prac-
tically at a standstill so far as permanent increase in numbers
is concerned. Its numbers cannot be said to decrease to a notice-
able extent, except as the immediate result of artificial repres-
sion, and it has reached its maximum possible abundance. If it
had continued to increase at a rate of only twofold annually, it
would by 1909 have been thirty-two times as common as it was
in 1904 in tracts of woodland where artificial suppression could
not be economically employed. This is obviously not the case.

Even in newly infested territory, where the controlling ef-
fect of starvation and disease is hardly or not at all apparent,
an increase of six-fold annually1 during the first few years is
about all that is expected ; and when it is considered that the
number of eggs deposited by one female is frequently in excess
of 500, it is at once evident that natural causes are responsible

forbush and Fernald: "The Gypsy Moth," p. 94.

10 IMPORTED PARASITES.

for the destruction of a tremendous percentage. Five hundred
eggs, developing into an equal number of males and females,
would result in the deposition of 250 egg masses the summer
following, or an increase of two hundred and fifty-fold. If
only a six-fold increase in the number of egg masses results, it
is evident that 244 of the females must be destroyed at some
time during their life; in other words there is an approximate
mortality of no less than 97.6 per cent, annually in Massachu-
setts, due to natural causes.

So, to reduce the number of survivors as to permit of no an-
nual increase, on the average, in territory where the gypsy moth
is not sufficiently abundant to become a pest, is the hope and
aim of the work of parasite introduction. As already stated,
there is no steady increase of the moth in the central most
badly infested sections of the area of infestation ; but the control
brought about by famine and plague within this area is so ex-
clusively dependent upon overpopulation, which is to say, upon
a superabundance of the moth, as to make very probable a con-
tinuation of the present conditions for an indefinite period, un-
less some other factor becomes operative.

PARASITE INTRODUCTION IN THEORY AND PRACTICE.

If, as is believed by those who have the matter most at
heart, the only important controlling agency which is lacking in
America is the presence of the parasites which are such effective
factors in its control abroad, the introduction of these parasites
into America and their establishment here is all that is neces-
sary to bring about the reduction of the gypsy moth from its
present pre-eminence as a destructive pest to that of an innocu-
ous or rarely noxious insect. The problem at first sight seems
simple, but, like most undertakings, it develops complications in
its practical solution.

Long before the work of parasite introduction was begun, all
of the published records of European parasites and other ene-
mies were well known to the Bureau of Entomology, which for
years had been keeping track of such observations, and had ac-
cumulated a card catalogue with more than 20,000 references.
As soon as work was begun, additional information concerning
gypsy and brown-tail parasites was secured from European and

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 11

Japanese entomologists, who were most generous in their offers
of assistance and advice. At the same time, it must be ad-
mitted that the sum total of available and absolutely reliable
information was far from adequate. Long lists of parasites had
been compiled * but these records were based upon the notes and
observations of entomologists who were not particularly inter-
ested in the possible practical side of the question, and very
frequently their records amounted to little more than the bare
fact that a certain parasite had been reared in connection with
the gypsy moth or the brown-tail moth. Furthermore, the same
parasite was sometimes referred to by different entomologists
under different names, or different parasites were considered to
be the same, and on this account hardly any dependence could
be placed on many of the records, and the doubt was reflected
upon others. With very rare exceptions, nothing was published
which gave any clue to the relative importance of the different
species, and in several instances a secondary parasite was re-
corded as attacking the gypsy moth itself.

The work in the beginning was largely experimental, being
an effort to determine ways and means for securing the parasites
in a living and healthy condition. This accomplished, it be-
came necessary to make a critical study of the various species
secured, to determine, first of all, whether they were truly pri-
mary enemies of the moth, or whether they were present in some
other connection. If they proved to be primary parasites and
true enemies of the gypsy moth, they were liberated as rapidly
as they could be imported and reared. As the work progressed,
the various species were studied in greater and greater detail,
and were ranked according to their relative importance in the
countries to which they were native, and according to their
methods of attack. Every effort was made to learn the main
facts in the life and habits of each, and to become familiar with
the conditions necessary to insure the establishment of each spe-
cies in Massachusetts.

Upon numerous occasions knowledge of this character has
been of the greatest value in suggesting the methods of import-
ing, handling and colonizing the parasites, and in some instances
it was essential to success. The work has been seriously handi-

1 Howard: "Insect Life," vol. 2, p. 210. Forbush and Fernald: "The Gypsy Moth," pp.
377 and 387.

12 IMPORTED PARASITES.

cajyped through the practical necessity of entrusting the actual
work of collection and shipment in foreign countries to others
than those most familiar with the nature and needs of the various
parasites. The several trips which Dr. Howard has made
abroad, wholly or in part in the interest of this undertaking, has
enabled him to meet the foreign agents, and to enter into ex-
planations which were infinitely more satisfactory than any
which could be effected through correspondence. At the same
time, it has been impossible to convey to these agents the detailed
information which would enable them to work to the best advan-
tage, nor would it be possible for them to acquire this in any
manner short of actual experience in the laboratory. In par-
ticular has it been handicapped by the very short period during
which work upon any particular parasite could be carried on in
any one year. Parasites of the pupa, or of certain stages of the
caterpillars, could be collected in Europe or Japan only during
the season when pupse or caterpillars in those particular stages
occurred in the open in those countries ; and the aggregate period
during which it has been possible to work with some parasites
in the five years since the inception of the work does not exceed
as many months.

In all, there have been received at the laboratory in a living
condition between 40 and 50 species of parasites of the brown-
tail moth and of the gypsy moth. Of these, about 30 attack the
gypsy moth, but only about two-thirds of that number can be
considered as at all important. The others* seem always to be
rare in the countries to which they are native, and never to be-
come so abundant as to affect the increase of the moth. No
parasite, however rare it might seem to be, has been ignored,
once it was demonstrated to be a primary upon the gypsy or the
brown-tail. A great deal of time has been spent in attempting
to discover the probable reason for apparent inconsequence in so
many instances ; and a great deal of work has been done to dem-
onstrate that this was due to other causes than defective methods
in the collection and subsequent handling of the parasite im-
portations.

One by one, as material has been imported under different
conditions and from different countries, different species of
parasites have been added to the list, until it has exceeded in

-k

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 13

gross numbers any list of parasites of the gypsy moth which
has ever been published. One by one, as these parasites have
been received and studied, they have been rated according to
their habits and importance in the countries from which they
came, and those which have failed to show promise of ever
becoming of value in America have been eliminated. One by
one, different species have been liberated in America under the
most favorable conditions which could be provided for their
establishment, until at the present time there are only 3 or i
out of a total of 20 (which may be considered as including all
of the promising parasites of the gypsy moth in Europe and
Japan) which have not been liberated here, or which are not on
hand ready for liberation as soon as the proper season shall ar-
rive. The others, tentatively considered as of possible value,
are very rarely common in any country; and partly on this
account, and partly on account of the extraordinary difficulties
which stand in the way of their successful importation, it has
been impracticable to determine whether they are to be ranked
as promising, or not. It is very likely that they will prove to be
of a distinctly minor importance when they shall have been
thoroughly investigated.

SEQUENCE OF PARASITES.

There is one very important factor which must be taken into
consideration and thoroughly understood before it will be pos-
sible intelligently to discuss the work which has been accom-
plished in the importation of parasites of the gypsy moth.
Briefly stated, it is that no one parasite is capable of effecting
the necessary amount of control in an insect of the character of
the gypsy moth, and capable of a similarly rapid rate of increase
when unchecked by parasites ; but a sequence of parasites, which
will attack the insect in different stages of its development, and
all the component members of which will work together in har-
mony, is absolutely necessary before the best results may be
expected.

It has already been stated that the different parasites of one
host are limited in their attack to certain stages in the develop-
ment of this host. In the case of the gypsy moth, there are
some which attack the egg, others the young caterpillars or the

14 IMPORTED PARASITES.

older and larger caterpillars, and those which form still another
group reserve their attack until such time as the caterpillars
have spun up preparatory to their transformation into pupse, or
until after this transformation has taken place. It is confi-
dently believed that representatives of each of these three or
four groups will have to be established in America before any
marked results of a practical nature can be expected.

There are two exceedingly good reasons for believing this,
which may be mentioned here besides others equally good, but
less easily expressed in non-technical language. One of these
is the fact that in not a single instance has one species of para-
site been found sufficiently abundant abroad to bring about the
percentage of destruction which will certainly be necessary in
order to offset the six-fold rate of increase of the gypsy moth,
which it is the consensus of opinion exists in newly infested
territory in America at the present time. The other is, that
there is not a single species of defoliating caterpillar, similar
in habit to the gypsy moth, of which the parasites have been
studied, and which is controlled by them to any extent, which
does not support a sequence of parasites similar to that which
it is proposed to establish for the gypsy moth.

If the theory as to the necessity of a sequence of parasites be
accepted as a general rule, its importance cannot be overesti-
mated. Success in the work of parasite introduction will then
depend entirely on whether or not a sufficient variety of para-
sites can be established, in America, and cannot obtain until all
of the species which go to make up a natural and effective se-
quence are established, and have increased to a sufficient abun-
dance to make each of the chain effective in its own particular
field. The predaceous beetles alone can never bring about the
desired end, neither can the egg parasites, nor those of the pupa?,
nor, it is believed, can all these three groups together. The
parasites of the caterpillar, in addition to these others men-
tioned, ought to bring about the desired end. The Calosoma
beetles bid fair to assist the native predatory enemies materially
in the good work which they are doing, and their establishment
will make that which is expected of the parasites easier and
more certain of accomplishment.

It ought to be stated, in this connection, that this principle,

PLATE II.

Large Shipment of Parasite Material received in 1909 from France.

Gypsy Moth Laboratory, Exterior. Lot of Packages of Parasite Material just

received.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 15

while it has been recognized as one applicable in many instances,
has been established much more firmly than ever before, as a
result of the work which has been done at the laboratory. It
would be impossible to speak with so much assurance had it not
been for a series of investigations upon the parasites of several
native insects, similar in certain important respects to the gypsy
moth. These investigations have seemed sometimes to be out-
side of the main point at issue ; but their value in establishing,
as they have, this and certain other general propositions, has
justified many times over the relatively small expenditure nec-
essary to carry them on.

PARASITES OF THE GYPSY MOTH IN JAPAN.

The Japanese race of the gypsy moth is larger and stronger
and in certain other respects different from that found in Eu-
rope or in America. One important characteristic is its greater
fecundity, the number of eggs in a mass being from one-fourth
to one-third greater, on an average, than in the egg mass of the
typical European variety. This is indicative of greater powers
of resistance to natural controlling factors, and, conversely, of
the existence of more effective controlling agencies in Japan
than in Europe. It is very significant that it is not at all an
important pest in Japan, and that, in the opinion of the native
entomologists and of every American entomologist or other-
wise trained observer who has had opportunity to acquire first-
hand information, the parasites are very effective in its control.

Thirteen species of primary parasites have been reared from
eggs, caterpillars or pupse of the gypsy moth from Japan, but
only 7 of these can be considered as of importance in bringing
about its control. The others have been consistently rare, and
some of them have never been recorded as parasites by the Japa-
nese themselves.

These parasites, in every instance but one, are either identical
in all respects, or, if not absolutely the same, exceedingly similar
to the parasites in Europe. It is unfortunately necessary to
refer to them by their technical names, since none of them have
been considered as of general interest hitherto, and other than
such names there are none. Thev are listed in Table 1.

16

IMPORTED PARASITES.

S2

a
e

En

<

DO

H
0
<
H

►J

0
(In

O Q

Fresh,

3
Days.

Pre-
pupa,

2
Days.

to

H
0

<
H
CQ

J

>
K
«i

Seventh,

7

Days.

a
o

Sixth,

7
Days.

■+» •

03 :

u ■

o :

i=i :
© •

Fifth,

7
Days.

O :

73 :

C '■
o '■

Fourth,

7
Days.

a

o ■

w. ■

Third,

7
Days.

O ;

03 :

u

a •

Second,

7

Days.

o '■

First,

7
Days.

fe :

d

Old,
280

Days.

Fresh,

10
Days.

03

H

Anastatus bifasciatus

m

.2*
j>

"3
<++

m
j»

"o
45

a

03

a

03
+5

a.
>,

a

Tachina japonica,

Theronia atalantaj,

Chalcis obscurata

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 17

How they work in effecting the control of the moth in their
native country is best indicated in the table, which, while it
needs explanation, tells the story much plainer than it would be
possible to tell in words. Opposite the name of each parasite,
extending across a certain number of the vertical columns, is a
dotted and a solid line. The vertical columns indicate different
stages in the development and transformations of the gypsy
moth, as egg, caterpillar and pupa, and these are still further
divided into caterpillars of different sizes and eggs and pupse
of different ages and conditions. At the head of each column is
stated the approximate number of days during which the indi-
vidual gypsy moth remains in that particular stage.

The dotted line following the name of the parasite indicates
those stages in the life of the gypsy moth during which it is
liable to be attacked by the parasite in question, and it will be
seen that in a number of instances, as, for example, Chalcis and
Theronia, this period is exceedingly short. The solid line indi-
cates the stages in the life of the gypsy moth during which it is
likely to contain the parasite in its body. This, it may also be
noted, varies considerably. Crossocosmia, for example, gains
lodgment in the active caterpillar while it is only about half
grown, and the extension of the solid line across all of the
columns which stand for the later caterpillar stages, as well as
for all of the pupal stages, indicates that the larvae of this para-
site do not leave the host caterpillar until after it has trans-
formed to a pupa, and until the moth would naturally have
emerged had the pupa remained healthy and unparasitized.

The main fact, which it is particularly desired to emphasize,
is that every stage in the transformations of the gypsy moth,
from the time the eggs are first deposited until the caterpillars
are full grown and transformed to pupse, is subject to the attack
of one or more parasites. It is also liable to attack at any time
throughout this period except during the cold weather in the
winter, when there is no insect activity. This is exactly what
is meant by the sequence of parasites, and, in the opinion of
those most thoroughly informed, it is the condition which it is
absolutely necessary to bring about in America before complete
control can be effected.

18 IMPORTED PARASITES.

PARASITES OF THE GYPSY MOTH IN EUROPE.

Table 2 is similar in construction and illustrates the para-
sitism of the gypsy moth in Europe. There are at least 22
species, and possibly one or two more of slight importance,
known to attack the moth in various European countries, and
of these, 15 are considered to be important. Of the 22, 2 are
identical in all respects with 2 which occur in Japan, and are
considered to be the same species. Six or 7 are quite distinctly
different from any which have yet been received from Japan,
and it is impossible to separate the remainder from the Japa-
nese species by habit and method of attack alone. The most
of them, however, appear to be different in their final appear-
ance as adults, and are considered, for the present, as repre-
senting different species.

There are several reasons why there should be a longer list
of European than of Japanese parasites, principal among which
is the greater variety of climate represented by the different
European countries. Some of the parasites are confined al-
most exclusively to the Mediterranean region, others to Russia
and eastern Europe generally, while others are more common
in the northern, central and western portions. It is almost cer-
tain that other parasites will be found in other parts of the Jap-
anese empire from which small quantities of parasite material
have been received, but it is very doubtful if any of importance
will be added to the list from European sources.

It will be noted, if the table is scrutinized, that exactly the
same conditions as regards the sequence of parasites obtain in
Europe as in Japan. As in the table first given, every stage
of the moth from the newly deposited egg to the pupa is open to
attack by one or more species of parasite, and the sequence is
perfect.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS,

19

S3

a,

5-

ss

CM

CD

n
<

"3

-a

m
<

m

<
a.
p

PL,

03

° Q

— :

— :

Fresh,

3
Days.

Pre-
pupa,

Days.

ao

H
O

<
OQ

►J

-<
>
«

Seventh,

7

Days.

a
o

Sixth,

7
Days.

— ■
cs :

u ■
© !

o :
© •

Fifth,

7
Days.

ond G

Fourth,

7
Days.

a

« ■
© :
w :

Third,

7
Days.

O ;

s3 :

<s

= •'

Second,

7
Days.

© •

09

!- .

First,

7
Days.

fe :

o

Old,

280

Days.

Fresh,

10
Days.

PARASITES.

Anastatus bifasciatua,

Apanteles solitarius,

09

a
►
"3

■M

03

O

"©

a

03

a

e3

-*^
a
>>

O

Blepharipa scutellata

Compsilura concinnata, ....

Zygobothria gilva,

Carcelia gnava,

Tricholyga grandis, ....
Tachina larvarum, .....
Parasetigena segregata, ....
Ichneumon disparis, ....

Theronia atalantffi,

Chalcis flavipea,

Monodontomerus aereus,

Calosoma sycophanta, ....

20

Oakham owns 34 extinguishers, which have been placed in private houses
throughout the town. Many more persons applied for them than could be
supplied. Next year the town intends to buy enough to supply the de-
mand. The first ones cost $18, but a substantial ^reduction was obtained
by ordering a large quantity. "While there are many kinds of extinguishers,
those most effective at woods fires are provided with an arrangement
which cuts off the stream by means of a valve which stops the flow of
acid. Such a device saves the remainder of the soda charge, so that it
may be used at intervals when needed. Those chemicals using the whole
charge are useful in buildings. Every small town should have some such
protection as this of Oakham. Many houses have been saved here by
extinguishers when a bad fire seemed inevitable.

J. A. Healy, Forest Warden, Westford.

I will give you the list of the fire tools of the town of Westford: 30
shovels, 30 hand pumps, 12 extinguishers, 60 pails.
Enclosed find picture of fire wagon.

F. B. Knapp, Forest Warden, Duxbury.

Our woodland area covers about two-thirds that of the town, and pro-
duces cord wood, box boards and some better lumber. It forms part of
a continuous forest extending into adjoining towns, but is split up by
roads, ponds and open spaces. There are numerous isolated farms liable
to damage from forest fires.

Our liability to fire is considerable. A railroad runs the length of the
town, many strangers come for mayflowers in the spring and cranberry
bogs are in process of construction. The soil is light and the woods get
very dry.

The town is liberal in its appropriation and appreciates our efforts.
Telephones are pretty common, and the men turn out well. We are in
close touch with the railroad people and co-operate with them.

The forest warden and fire departments are technically distinct, but
work together. I am chief of the fire department, and all of the engineers
are deputy wardens. One commissary looks after all of the apparatus.

We have 2 60-gallon hand combination fire engines (used for forest
fires when specially called out), 4 forest fire wagons, and several private
ones used at times, 100 3-gallon Standard extinguishers scattered through-
out the town, shovels, mattocks, etc.

The fire wagons vary, but this one is typical: A light, one-horse express
wagon, 4 extinguishers, 6 boxes, each with 6 charges of chemicals, 16
3-gallon Marshfield cans, not completely filled (on account of weight), 10
shovels, 2 mattocks, 2 axes, 2 lanterns, torches.

We spread the alarm of fire by direct telephoning and by bells. In
times of great danger a man is stationed in a church belfry.

We are inaugurating a system of outlooks in conjunction with the
Plymouth fire tower. Our tower is the Standish monument, on Captain's
Hill. From these two points the compass bearings of an incipient fire
can be read and telephoned to a central station. These lines are then
run out on the United States geological survey map, allowance being

WESTFORD FIRE WAGON.

21

made for the difference between the true and magnetic north. If the
compass readings are correct the intersection of the two lines gives the
position of the fire.

"ft**

%

7o »i

vr

ToWeroijCjLUins Hill \~"^\ « Comlna Haling". -^■"V-
'Dutbuvij Q V Base Line' j

^x ) " Comjuss Hm dings —

Iron Tower
PlljmoutW

DIAGRAM

SHOWN* METHOD

OfLOCATIN&riffES

4

I
I

1

I

?
i

^ 'incident

est Fir

later dl

From Ether Tower

\^, .Forest Fire
S£35> Suertl Miles

At a small fire we do not attempt any thorough organization, but we
organize at serious fires as follows. All are familiar with the organization,
either through experience or printed instructions.

Chief. — The forest warden or deputy of the district. Does not stay at
any one point, but overlooks the whole line. Informs himself carefully as
to the extent of the fire and picks out the critical points. If the attack
on one line is unsuccessful he draws the men back to another.

Aids. — Messengers for the chief.

Deputy Wardens. — Act for section as chief does for whole, or, at
smaller fires, are simply foremen.

Foremen. — Each has from four to six men, who stay with him until
the fire is out. Each foreman and his crew form the units for fighting.
As, for instance, one crew might be put to work refilling extinguishers,
another at carrying them, another at guard duty, to prevent fresh out-
breaks after the fire is apparently out.

Commissary. — Takes care of the apparatus, and at the fires sees that the
men are supplied with food and other supplies.

[The diagram on page 22 gives this organization in graphic form and is
remodelled from one sent in by Mr. Knapp.]

It is essential that the work of forest fire fighting should be done as
systematically as possible, and that the directions of the leaders should
be faithfully carried out. The failure of a single man to do the part
assigned to him may make useless a whole lot of hard work and cause
a new start to be made.

22 IMPORTED PARASITES.

It is not by any means assured that all of these parasites are
established here, bnt it is possible that they are, or that they
will be before another season passes. Some that are known to
be living in the field, and which are apparently in a very good
way toward becoming permanent fixtures in the American fauna,
have had their freedom for less than one year ; and there is no
assurance that a species is established until it has completed
at least one cycle of the seasons unprotected in the open. A
few of them, as will be shown later, will be the better for
artificial assistance in dispersion, etc. One, Chalcis, ought to
be imported in larger numbers, but with this one possible ex-
ception, each that is listed has been liberated under the most
favorable circumstances which it is possible to provide.

Especial attention is called to the fact that the sequence is
complete as it stands. Every stage of the moth is provided with
a parasite which will attack it, if given the opportunity, and in
every respect the table compares favorably with that illustrative
of the Japanese parasites or of the European. It represents,
in this most important respect, the climax of the endeavors of
the past five years, and it has been accomplished only during the
past five months. If the writer were assured of the firm estab-
lishment of each of the species listed, and that each would be-
come as efficient in Massachusetts as it is in the countries from
which it came, he would state without reservation that the work
of parasite introduction was successfully accomplished.

The reader must not confuse the accomplishment of parasite
introduction with the accomplishment of the end which it is
desired to achieve. It goes without saying, when the habits of
the parasites are taken into consideration, that the few paltry
thousands, which it has been possible to secure through methods
of importation which were the best which experience could
devise, must be allowed sufficient time to increase to the millions
and billions necessary to cope with the tremendous quantities
of gypsy moths which are everywhere in evidence throughout
the infested district, wherever the expensive methods of hand
suppression have not been employed.

Fortunately, this increase, if it follows colonization, will be
by geometrical progression, exactly as has been the case with the
gypsy moth ; and it will, most fortunately, be much more rapid

Fig, 1. — Anastatus Mfasciatus : gypsy moth egg parasite, adult female,

greatly enlarged.

V\a. 2. — Anastatus: egg,
greatly enlarged.

Fl<;. 3. — Anastatus : hibernating
larva from gypsy moth Ci^ix,
greatly enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 23

than it was in the case of the gypsy moth, owing to the greater
dispersive ' powers of nearly all of the parasites. With one
exception, they more nearly resemble the brown-tail moth in
this respect, being gifted with the power of flight; and, as is
well known, the territory covered by this insect is much more
extensive than that covered by the gypsy moth, although the
latter was introduced into America more than twenty years
earlier.

Another enormous step in advance, which has marked the
progress of the work the present season, is the accumulation
of certain valuable data which throw much-needed light upon
the subject of parasite dispersion, and which have tended more
than anything which has come about since the earliest beginning
to encourage those who have been charged with direction of
the work. For the first time it is possible to calculate, with
some foundation upon fact, the probable outcome of the under-
taking. It is difficult to do this on the small amount of abso-
lutely authentic information at hand, and to vouch for the
accuracy of the conclusions with any degree of assurance ; but
the attempt has been made, and will appear in the concluding
paragraphs.

First, in order to make more clear the ground which supports
these conclusions, a brief account of each of the introduced
parasites of the gypsy moth will be given. No attempts have
been made to go into technical detail concerning the lives and
habits of these several species, further than is necessary to give
a general idea of their methods of attack, and of the hopes and
fears which are felt for the future of each.

Parasites of the Egg.
Anastatus bifasciatus.
This minute parasite (Pig. 1) attacks the newly deposited
eggs of the gypsy moth during the brief interval which elapses
before the embryonic caterpillars develop. Its eggs (Pig. 2)
are deposited singly, one in each individual egg of the host, and
its larvae feed upon the substance of the host eggs and become
full fed in about three weeks. They then enter on a long rest-
ing stage, snugly ensconced within the limited confines of the

I

24 IMPORTED PARASITES.

shell (Fig. 3), and do not resume activity until the middle of
the following summer, ten months later. The transformations
to pupa (Fig. 4) and adult (Fig. 1) follow in the course of two
or three weeks, the latter emerge, and in a few days are ready
to deposit eggs for another generation within the newly deposited
eggs of the next generation of the gypsy moth. There is thus
but one generation of the parasite each year, and its life cycle,
which corresponds to the annual cycle, is correlated exactly with
that of the insect which serves as its host.

It is a native of both Europe and Japan, and is sometimes
a common and effective parasite in either country. It is very
unevenly distributed, however, especially in Europe, and a great
many lots of eggs have been received which did not contain any
of the parasite. For two years large numbers of egg masses
were imported from various European and Japanese localities,
and not a single specimen was secured. Finally, in the spring
of 1908 it issued almost simultaneously from Russian and from
Japanese eggs, and was soon determined to be a primary
parasite. About 500 individuals were liberated that summer,
but under conditions which were unsatisfactory in many re-
. spects, and no reproduction in the field resulted, so far as has
been determined.

Encouraged by the knowledge that there was an egg parasite
which could be secured through the winter importation of eggs,
— a fact which was far from being established up to the rearing
of the first specimens of Anastatus, — larger importations from
numerous localities were made during the winter of 1908-09.
As before, only a part of these shipments were productive, but
among them was one consisting of five sacks of about 1,000 egg
masses each, from Professor Jablonowski of Budapest, which
were collected in five different Hungarian localities. From
three of these only an insignificant quantity of parasites was
secured, one lot being entirely unparasitized. From two, how-
ever, was secured by far the largest number of egg parasites
ever received from any source, there being more than 80.000
all told. It illustrates very well the uneven distribution of the
species in Europe.

These, together with some others from other sources, were
liberated in five colonies, in quite widely separated localities

Fig. 4. — Anastatus: pupa
from gypsy moth egg,
greatly enlarged.

FIG, 5, — Schedius kuvance: Japanese, parasite of gypsy moth eggs, adult female, greatly

enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 25

within the infested area. In every instance they attacked the
freshly deposited eggs of the moth with avidity, and reproduc-
tion in the field under perfectly natural conditions resulted.
At the present time there are many thousands of the larva? of
the parasite hibernating in the open in the immediate vicinity
of the colonies, exactly as they would do in their native land,
and there is hardly room to doubt that they will issue next
summer in the normal manner.

In one respect only is the insect disappointing. It appears
to resemble the gypsy moth, in that the females do not fly.
The utmost endeavors have been made to determine accurately
the distance to which it travelled from each of the points where
it was liberated, and the results indicate that 100 feet is about
the limit. This is a rate of dispersion slower than that of the
gypsy moth itself, and it would take a great many years for the
parasite to spread over the entire infested area. Additional
importations will be made during the present winter, and it is
hoped that a large number of colonies will be established next
summer, but no immediate benefits can be expected.

Schedius huvance.
Most fortunately it is not necessary to depend exclusively
upon the Anastatus as a parasite of the eggs of the gypsy moth,
for in Japan there is another (Fig. 5) with similar habits, in
so far as the object of its attack is identical; outside of this fact,
it is different in many important particulars. Instead of con-
fining its attack to the freshly deposited eggs, it rather prefers
those in which the embryonic caterpillars have developed, and,
since these caterpillars are fully formed, and so far as appear-
ances go ready to hatch within three weeks after the eggs are
deposited in the summer, Schedius is actually a parasite of the
unhitched caterpillar, rather than of the egg. Instead of re-
quiring a full year to complete the life cycle from egg to adult,
it completes a generation once every three or four weeks during
the warmer part of the summer, or in the winter if kept in rooms
properly warmed. It is thus able to go through at least two
generations during the fall, after the eggs of the moth have been
deposited, and before cold weather puts a stop to its activity.

26 IMPORTED PARASITES.

The history of its introduction into America is most interest-
ing, and, except for the fact that it was so long delayed in ex-
ecution, forms one of the most satisfactory episodes in the entire
work of parasite introduction.

As long ago as the spring of 1907 a few dead adults were se-
cured in an importation of gypsy egg masses received during the
winter from Japan, but none were living on receipt. During
the winter next following larger importations were made, and
many thousands of eggs, from which some parasite had issued,
were found, but not a single living specimen was obtained. It
was evident that it completed its transformations and issued in
the fall, and that, if it hibernated in the eggs, it was warmed to
activity while the packages were in transit to America, and the
adult parasites either died or escaped en route.

In the fall, winter and spring of 1908-09 a large quantity of
eggs of the gypsy moth were received from Japan, the shipments
beginning early in the fall and continuing until nearly time for
the caterpillars to hatch in the spring. The first, received in
September, contained hundreds, possibly thousands, of the para-
sites, which had issued from the eggs en route, and all of which,
as usual, had died ; not a single living individual was received.
Specimens were referred to Dr. Howard, who found that they
represented an entirely new and hitherto undescribed species,
which he named after Professor Kuwana, who collected and sent
the eggs from which they had issued. A single pair of living
specimens rewarded the careful attention which was lavished
upon the importations received later in the fall and during the
winter, and it was not until April, 1909, that a mated pair could
be secured. During that month a total of 11 individuals issued
from cages containing Japanese eggs recently received.

This small number served as the beginning of a series of ex-
periments in propagation, which succeeded so well that in Au-
gust several thousands were available for liberation in the field.
In September and again in October additional colonies were es-
tablished, and during the fall, some 50,000 in all were given
their freedom.

After September the bulk of those reared were kept for exten-
sive propagation work in the laboratory, and at the present time
(February 1) a conservative estimate of the number in various

Fig. 6. — Gypsy moth egg mass, show-
ing exit holes of Schedras, enlarged
a) tout four times.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 27

stages in the reproduction cages is 2,000,000. It is by no means
sure that the species will go through the winter in the open as
successfully as is hoped will be the case ; but no obstacle threat-
ens to prevent the liberation of several millions of the parasite
during the summer of 1910.

The reproduction of the parasite in the field, as a result of
the earlier attempts at colonization, has been far in excess of
expectations. The rate of reproduction in the laboratory, which
averages only about ten-fold each generation, was greatly ex-
ceeded, and hundreds of thousands of eggs were known to be
parasitized in the immediate vicinity of the colony sites. In
the one colony which has been most carefully watched the para-
sitized eggs (Fig. 6) average some 30 to the mass everywhere
within a radius of 50 yards, and the masses in a few places are
so thick as to hide the bark on the trees. Beyond 50 yards the
numbers fall off very rapidly; but the species has been found
several hundred yards from the point of liberation, in striking
contrast to Anastatus, which traveled only 100 feet.

It is hoped that a strong colony will be established in every
town in the infested district during the coming summer ; and if
the same rate of dispersion indicated during the past fall con-
tinues, and the parasite demonstrates its ability to exist under
American conditions during the entire year, it should be gen-
erally established throughout the infested area in two or three
years more.

It must not be forgotten, however, that it has not yet proven
itself adaptable to American conditions at all seasons. Like the
other egg parasite, Anastatus, the only known host is the gypsy
moth; but, unlike that species, its life is not correlated to that
of its host. It is not known how it passes the winter, and, al-
though living adults issue within a few days from egg masses
brought in from the vicinity of the colonies in December, it is
possible that they will not survive the cold weather which is
bound to follow in January and February.1 There is also a
possibility that in Japan there is some other sort of egg subject
to its attack, in which it passes a generation during the early

1 This statement was written in December. It has since been found that all of the larvae and
pupae of the parasites perished during the cold weather in January, but that adult parasites, of
which there are known to be many in the field, lived through it. Whether they will survive
the remainder of the winter is yet to be demonstrated.

28 IMPORTED PARASITES.

summer, before the eggs of the gypsy moth are available, and
that there will be no native insect which will give what may
prove to be some such necessary aid to its continued existence.

Parasites of the Caterpillar.

Glyptapanteles fulvipes.

Although this was almost the first parasite of the gypsy moth
which attracted any attention in Massachusetts, and the first
which it was attempted to import after the beginning of active
work, it was one of the last to be liberated under satisfactory
conditions, and its establishment in America is not yet certain.
Extraordinary methods were necessary to bring it to America
living and healthy, and it was not until Prof. Trevor Kincaid,
who was selected by Dr. Howard as the best available man for
the purpose, visited Japan, and personally superintended the
collection and shipment of the cocoons, that success was achieved.
The story of Professor Kincaid's experiences and of the difficul-
ties which he met and overcame is interesting. He was accorded
great and material assistance by the Japanese entomologists, and
the work inaugurated by him in 1908, was continued with even
greater success in 1909.

The adult parasite (Eig. 7) deposits a number of eggs be-
neath the skin of the active caterpillars, and any stage, from
the first to and possibly including the last, may be attacked.
The larvae, hatching from the eggs, become full grown in from
two to three weeks, and then work their way out through the
skin of the still living caterpillar (Fig. 8) within the body of
which they fed. Each spins for itself immediately afterward,
for its better protection during its later stages, a small white
cocoon. The number of parasites nourished by a single host
varies in accordance with its size. There may be as few as 2
or 3 in very small caterpillars, or 100 or more in those which
are nearly full grown.

The unfortunate victim of attack does not, as a rule, die im-
mediately after the emergence of the parasite larvae and the spin-
ning of their cocoons, but it never voluntarily moves from the
spot. Its appearance, both before and after death, surrounded
by and seeming to brood over the cocoons, is peculiar and char-
acteristic, and once seen can never be mistaken (Fig. 9).

Fig. 7 '. — Glyptapanteles fulvipes : Japanese and European cater-
pillar parasite, adult, gi-eatly enlarged.

Fig. 8. — Glyptapanteles: larvse leaving
gypsy moth caterpillar, enlarged.

Fig. 9. — Glyptapanteles: dead gypsy moth
caterpillar surrounded by cocoons of
parasite, slightly enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 29

There is ample opportunity for two generations of the para-
site annually upon the caterpillars of one generation of the
gypsy moth. This is the rule in the countries to which it is
native, and is to be expected in America.

The parasite was described from Europe more than seventy-
five years ago, and has been known to be a parasite of the
gypsy moth for a long time. Later it was described under a
different name from Japan, and the Japanese parasite was for
a time considered to be different from the European. Abso-
lutely no differences in life and habit which can serve to sepa-
rate the two are known, and, as the adults are also indistinguish-
able in appearance, they are considered to be identical.

It has been the subject of frequent mention under the name
of Apanteles, as well as of Glyptapanteles, in the various reports
of the superintendent of moth work, from the first to the fourth ;
and Dr. Howard, in the account of his first trip to Europe in
the interests of parasite introduction, tells of its occurrence in
the suburbs of Vienna. Largely on account of the fact that it
is much more conspicuous than many of the other parasites, it
has attracted more general attention. The Rev. H. A. Loomis,
a missionary, and resident of Yokohama, was the first to call
attention to its importance in Japan, and made several unsuc-
cessful attempts to send it to America. Dr. G-. P. Clinton,
mycologist of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station,
who visited Japan in 1909, observed the parasite at work, and
reported most favorably upon its efficiency as a check to the
moth. Numerous other attempts on the part of European and
Japanese entomologists, including one elaborate experiment,
which involved the shipment of a large wire-screened cage con-
taining a living tree with gypsy caterpillars and the parasite,
were made, but with uniformly ill success. Upon every oc-
casion the parasites all emerged from their cocoons and died
en route.

When every other means failed, Professor Kincaid, as already
stated, was deputed to visit Japan, and to make all necessary
arrangements for the transportation of the parasite cocoons in
cold storage to America. The arrangements which he perfected
provided for continuous cold storage, not only en route across
the Pacific, but during practically every moment from the time

30

IMPORTED PARASITES.

the cocoons were collected in the field in Japan until they were
received at the laboratory in Melrose. Events justified the
adoption of every precaution, and, with all the care, only a
small part of the very large quantity of cocoons which he col-
lected reached their destination in good condition. Hundreds
of thousands were collected and shipped, and less than 50,000
were received alive, — nearly all in one shipment in July.

The season in Massachusetts was early, and nearly all of the
gypsy caterpillars had pupated by that time, so that there was
no opportunity for the parasite to increase in the field upon this
host that season. In 1909 the sites of the colonies were fre-
quently visited, but not a single parasitized caterpillar was
found which could be traced to colonizations of the year before.
Keen disappointment was at first felt, but later developments
have tended to throw a more encouraging light upon the situa-
tion.

In 1909 importations were continued, through the magnificent
efforts of Prof. S. I. Kuwana of the Imperial Agricultural
Experiment Station, at Tokio, with much more satisfactory
results. In 1908 the season in Japan was very late, and it was
not practicable to send any of the cocoons of the parasite until
June and July ; while in America the season was early, and by
that time all of the caterpillars, as has already been stated, had
pupated. In 1909 the season was rather early in Japan and
correspondingly late in America; and besides, through special
effort, Professor Kuwana was enabled to send a few thousands
of the cocoons of the first generation, which reached the labora-
tory early in June. About 1,000 adults emerged from these
cocoons after receipt, and the most of them were placed in one
colony in a cold situation on the North Shore, where the cater-
pillars were greatly retarded, and where there were still some
in the first stage. The remainder were colonized in warmer
localities, where the caterpillars were one stage farther-
advanced.

Immediate success followed the planting of these colonies.
Within three weeks cocoons were found in each, and the number
of parasitized caterpillars was gratifyingly large. A very care-
ful investigation was conducted, to determine the proportion
which was attacked by native secondary parasites; and, while
this was so very large in one instance as seriously to jeopardize

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 31

the success of the experiment, it was not so large in the
others.

There were several thousands of this first generation known
to have developed in the open upon American soil, which issued
from the cocoons some four or five weeks after the colonies were
established, but in only that one on the North Shore, where the
caterpillars were in the first and second stages when the parasites
were liberated, was there a full second generation. Here the
larger caterpillars were again attacked, and an abundant second
generation of the parasite followed.

Meanwhile, additional shipments of cocoons of the second
Japanese generation were received early enough to permit of
a generation in the open upon the native caterpillars, and sev-
eral other colonies were successfully established. It is known
that there were many thousands of the parasite issuing in at
least Hve different localities during August, but immediately
thereafter they were completely lost to sight, and it is futile to
hope to recover traces of them before another spring.

Until the late summer of 1909 nothing occurred to indicate
that this parasite would be likely to fly for any great distance
from the point of its liberation ; and, as has been already stated,
it was looked for in vain in the summer of 1909 in the imme-
diate vicinity of the colonies of the year before. In July, 1909,
a strong colony was planted in an isolated woodland colony of
gypsy moths in the town of Milton. It was rather confidently
expected that it would attack these caterpillars so extensively
as to destroy the major portion; but it was the cause of some
surprise, when the locality was visited after the parasites of the
new generation had mostly issued from the affected caterpillars,
to find a smaller number of cocoons than there were individuals
liberated in the first place, and only about one-fourth, perhaps
less, of the caterpillars attacked. The circumstance was as dis-
couraging as anything which had gone before, and for a few
clays nothing happened to change its complexion. Then, to the
intense surprise of the writer, Mr. Charles W. Minott, field
agent of the central division, sent to the laboratory a bona-fide
example of the parasite, which had been collected in the Blue
Hills reservation, upwards of a mile away. There was no pos-
sible source except the Milton colony, and a spread of upwards
of a mile in something under a week was indicated beyond dis-

32

IMPORTED PARASITES.

pute. At almost the same time the brood of Monodontomerus
was found for the first time in pupge of the gypsy moth in the
field ; and when the history of this species is considered, in the
connection which it bears toward the circumstances surrounding
the recovery of the Glyptapanteles so far from the point where
it was liberated, the whole situation is altered.

Granted that the parasite disperses at the rate of one mile
in each week of activity, and that it is able to adapt its life
and habits to the climate and conditions in America, the chances
are, that, instead of looking for it in the immediate vicinity
of the points of colonization, it is quite as likely to be found
almost anywhere in the infested area within 25 miles of Boston.
If it is thus generally distributed, very large numbers in the
aggregate may exist, and it may increase at a rate as rapid as
that of Monodontomerus, and at the same time escape detection
until the summer of 1911 or 1912. 1

This is not only possible, but probable, unless a number of
careful observers assist in the recovery of the parasite next sea-
son; and if any one should chance, at any time during the
summer, to discover parasite cocoon masses similar to those
figured, and will collect them and forward them in a small box
to the gypsy moth laboratory, Melrose Highlands, Mass., the
service will be greatly appreciated. There are a great many
native parasites of native caterpillars which are very similar
and in some instances indistinguishable from those of the
Glyptapanteles, but none of these have ever been recorded as
attacking the gypsy moth.

The one great fear in connection with the introduction of this
most important parasite is that it will not find all of the natural
conditions necessary for its continued existence in Massachu-
setts. Its life during the fall and its whereabouts during the
winter are equally a mystery ; and even the Japanese entomolo-
gists, who are the keenest of observers, resident in a country
where it is a relatively common insect, are wholly unable to sug-
gest a reasonable solution. It has been recorded upon a variety

1 The occurrence of the cocoons in the near vicinity of the colony sites immediately following
the liberation is most natural, and in perfect harmony with the wide dispersion. The female
parasites as soon as they emerge are ready to deposit a small part of the eggs which they will
eventually deposit if they live and have opportunity. After the deposition of this part, it is
necessary for them to wait an appreciable time before they are ready to deposit any more.

Fig. 10. — Blepliaripa scutellata : important European par- Fig. 11. — Blepharipa : full-grown
asite of gypsy moth caterpillar, adult, enlarged. larva from gypsy moth pupa,

enlarged about six times.

Fig. 12.— Blepharipa: puparia, slightly enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 33

of other caterpillars in Europe, but these records are known to
be erroneous in part, and all are likely to be so. As stated just
above, there are numerous other species which are easily con-
fused with it, but none of them appear to attack the gypsy moth ;
and, vice versa, absolute proof that the Glyptapanteles of the
gypsy ever attacks any other host is at present lacking.

It is one of the most important parasites, perhaps the most im-
portant, and fills a gap in the sequence which it will be exceed-
ingly hard to fill should it fail to become established. If it
demonstrates its ability to live in America, it is safe to say that
the greatest and most-feared of all of the obstacles to success
will prove to be nonexistent.

Blepharipa scutellata.

Blepharipa belongs to a different order of insects, the Dip-
tera, which consists of the true flies, while the egg parasites and
Glyptapanteles belong to the order Hymenoptera, and are more
nearly related to the bees and wasps. The latter are character-
ized by four membranous wings, while Blepharipa has but two
wings, and is the first of the several parasites which will be
mentioned which belongs to the family Tachinidse of order Dip-
tera. The Dipterous parasites of the gypsy moth and of the
brown-tail moth are all members of this family, and will fre-
quently be referred to as the Tachinid parasites, in contradis-
tinction to the Hymenopterous parasites.

The Tachinid parasites, as a class, differ markedly in their
manner of life from the Hymenopterous, but not all of them to
quite the extent of the one under consideration (Fig. 10). It
attacks the gypsy moth during several of the caterpillar stages,
but instead of depositing its eggs within the body of the host,
they are deposited upon leaves of trees infested by the cater-
pillars. They are exceedingly minute, black and shining, and
one fly can lay many thousands. When eaten by a caterpillar
big enough not to crush them in the process they hatch almost
immediately into tiny maggots, which pierce the walls of the
alimentary canal and lodge themselves in the fatty tissue of the
caterpillar's body. They grow slowly, and invariably, if para-
sitism is successful, the caterpillar pupates. When the moth
would have been about ready to issue, had the puna been healthy,

34 IMPORTED PARASITES.

the Blepharipa maggot (Fig. 11) reaches maturity and works
its way out of the now empty shell. It then drops to the earth
and burrowing its way several inches below the surface, trans-
forms to a puparium (Fig. 12), an oval, dark body, formed of
the hardened skin of the larva, and containing the true pupa.
This pupa remains unchanged during the winter, and produces
the perfect fly in the late spring following.

Blepharipa is a very important parasite of the gypsy moth
in Europe, and in western Europe appears to be very much more
destructive than does the Glyptapanteles. It is represented in
Japan by another very similar species (Crossocosmia sp.), the
adults of which have not yet been reared at the laboratory.

The difficulties which have stood in the way of the successful
introduction of this parasite into America have been different
from any that have hindered the work with any other species.
Importation of the full-grown caterpillars or freshly formed
pupa? of the gypsy moth resulted in 1905 in securing a con-
siderable number, several hundred at least, of the hibernating
puparia, but not a single fly issued the following year. The
cause was not obvious at the time, but was later determined to
be due to the drying up of the pupae within the puparium.
Death did not immediately ensue, but eventually the fly would
die when it was nearly ready to issue. A great many different
methods of hibernating these puparia have been attempted, and
with very variable but uniformly unsatisfactory results. Dur-
ing the winter of 1907-08 the puparia were kept in moist earth,
and a 10 per cent, emergence from a total of 5,000 was secured.
The year before it was less, hardly equalling 3 per cent., and
the year following much less, hardly amounting to 1 per cent.
These tremendous losses were unexplained until the summer of
1909, when large numbers of gypsy caterpillars were received
in a living condition from Hyeres, France, through the mag-
nificent efforts of M. Rene Oberthiir of Rennes, and as a direct
result of Dr. Howard's trip to Europe that year. (Plate II.)
They came in better shape, in many respects, than any other
similar lot of material ever received, having been shipped in
cold storage on fast transatlantic liners.

For the first time since the inception of the work, large
numbers of living pupa? containing the immature maggots of

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 35

the parasites were received at the laboratory, and it was possible
to allow the formation of the puparia under natural conditions
in the earth. Each preceding year the maggots had reached
their maturity, and formed, or attempted to form, puparia in
the boxes in transit. They were often injured, and the puparia
were always thoroughly dried when received.

A very large number of the parasites were secured in this
manner (25,000, as a conservative estimate), and several thou-
sands of the maggots were allowed to enter the earth in the open
in forests infested by the gypsy moth. Examination has demon-
strated the fact that these maggots pupated in a perfectly natural
manner, and the condition of the pupse at the present time is
far and away more satisfactory than it has ever been before at
this season of the year. It is almost impossible to conceive of
conditions which will prevent the emergence of these flies in
large numbers in the open the coming spring.

The remainder of the maggots were allowed to go into the
earth in a variety of containers, principally sunken wire screen
cages in the laboratory grounds. They, as well as those in the
open, are in the best of condition, and it will be a severe dis-
appointment if a large number of the flies are not reared and
colonized, as a result.

The parasite was colonized as adults in small numbers and
under satisfactory conditions in the spring of 1907, and in
somewhat larger numbers in 1908. No results have been secured
to date, nor are immediate results expected from these early
colonies. The fly is very strong, and it is to be expected that
it will fly for long distances during the considerable period of
its activity in the spring. Unlike Glyptapanteles, Schedius,
etc., it is not ready to deposit its eggs for something like three
weeks after it issues in the spring, and during this time it is
likely to traverse considerable distances. It is a source of great
regret that it has not been liberated in large numbers much
earlier in the course of the work; but it was not until after
numerous experiments had been made, through wThich it was
hoped to remedy the obvious defects in methods of importation
and handling, and all modifications proven to be useless, that
the extraordinary methods of last season were adopted. There
is not a single other one amongst the numerous species of

36 IMPORTED PARASITES.

Tachinid parasites, except the Japanese Crossocosmia, which
is nearly so difficult to handle.

Multiplication of this parasite in the open, under favorable
conditions, which it is believed the present season offers, ought
to be exceedingly rapid. As in so many other instances, the
year to come is crucial, and will likely demonstrate the ability
of this species to become Americanized.

Success with Blepharipa, and its rapid acclimatization in
America, is looked for more especially on account of the close
correlation which exists between the parasite and host. Like
Anastatus, this correlation is perfect, and the parasite is able
to continue its existence from year's end to year's end, inde-
pendent of any other insect. This, in connection with its ex-
traordinary powers of multiplication, make it one of the most
promising of the parasites studied at the laboratory, and perhaps
the most promising of all.

Compsilura concinnata.

Only a very few of the introduced parasites are equally im-
portant as enemies of both the gypsy moth and the brown-tail
moth, although a number of them are known to attack both to a
varying degree. One of the few which are important enemies
of both is Compsilura, a Tachinid fly like Blepharipa, but dif-
fering from that species in a great many important particulars.
Instead of depositing eggs on the foliage, to be eaten by the cat-
erpillars, the eggs hatch in the body of the parent female, and
the minute maggots are thrust beneath the skin of the host after
a fashion somewhat comparable to the manner in which Glypta-
panteles deposits its eggs in the active caterpillars. Usually
only one parasite develops in one host.

The maggots begin to feed at once, and in a very short time
(less than two weeks in the summer) are full fed, and have
caused the death of the host caterpillar. They then work their
way outside of its body, drop to the earth and transform to pu-
paria, from which shortly after the adult flies issue.

Since the parasite has been secured in both brown-tail and
gypsy moth parasite importations, the numbers which have been
received and liberated have been considerable. The first col-
onies were planted in 1906, and in each year since, but particu-

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 37

larly in 1909, new colonies have been located in various parts
of eastern Massachusetts. There is no better method for the
recovery of the parasite from the field than the collection of
gypsy or brown-tail caterpillars and their confinement in cages,
where they can be fed, and where the parasite can be secured
in case it is present and emerges. This is a tedious process, in-
volves a large amount of labor, and in the case of the brown-tail
caterpillars entails much discomfort in its execution ; and at-
tempts to determine the distribution of the parasite in the field
have not been as thorough as it is intended that they shall be
in 1910. Nevertheless, it was recovered from the field upon
several occasions in the course of the summer of 1909, and there
seems not to be any question that it is thoroughly established
and widely distributed in Massachusetts at the present time.
Its rate of increase, if the widespread distribution is taken into
account, is wholly satisfactory, and, as indicated by the field
collections, is as great as of Calosoma and perhaps as of Mono-
dontomerus. It must be remembered, in this connection, that
there is no simple means of determining its distribution, as is
the case with both of the other species mentioned ; and further-
more, that, although it was liberated in 1906, it was not until
so late in the season as to make a generation upon the gypsy
or brown-tail caterpillars improbable during that year. It was
not until 1907 that it can be considered as having had its first
good opportunity for reproduction in America, and the fact
that it was found to be generally distributed the third season
in the field is indicative of a particularly satisfactory progress.
It is not a very important parasite of either the gypsy or the
brown-tail moth in Europe. It has never been received from
Japan, and it is not expected that it will become of more than
relatively minor importance in either connection here, as com-
pared with Blepharipa and Glyptapanteles. At the same time,
it has points in its favor not possessed by any other parasite,
notably, its ability to pass one generation upon the brown-tail
caterpillars and another immediately after upon those of the
gypsy ; and it is likely to gain in effectiveness, in this manner,
a part of what it loses through its probable inability to com-
plete its seasonal cycle without the assistance of an alternate
native host. It is very democratic in its choice of hosts, and

38 IMPORTED PARASITES.

has been reared in the laboratory from a considerable variety
of native caterpillars, including such common species as the
fall web worm and the Datana caterpillars, which are frequently
so abundant upon various trees and shrubs in the fall.

Tachina larvarum and Tricholyga grandis.

These two species of Tachinid parasites are exceedingly sim-
ilar in many respects and are so difficult to separate in their vari-
ous stages as to have been confused under the name of Tachina
larvarum during the first three years of the work. On this ac-
count, considerable confusion exists concerning the early history
of both in America.

Tachina (Fig. 13), like Compsilura, is a parasite of both the
brown-tail and the gypsy caterpillars, while Tricholyga is prin-
cipally confined to the last-mentioned in its host relations. Both
deposit large flattened eggs upon the body of the larger cater-
pillars, and the minute maggots hatching from these eggs bur-
row into the body of their host, where they grow rapidly. The
larva of Tachina usually leaves its host and completes its trans-
formations upon or just beneath the surface of the earth. That
of Tricholyga may do this, or it may remain attached to the host
and never drop to the ground at all. Both species usually kill
the host caterpillars before pupation, but not always.

Several thousands of one or both species were liberated in vari-
ous localities in 1906 and 1907. Both were colonized in small
numbers in 1908, and in very large numbers in 1909. It was
not known that either species had established itself until late in
the summer of 1909, when Tricholyga was recovered from the
field as a parasite of the gypsy moth from the near vicinity of a
very small and unsatisfactory colony of the year before. There
seems to be every reason to believe that it has succeeded thor-
oughly in establishing itself, and that it is a mere matter of
time until it shall become so common as to be of active assist-
ance in the control of the gypsy moth.

The Tachina, strangely enough, is scarcely distinguishable as
an adult, or in any other way than by its behavior as a gypsy
moth parasite, from a native American species which has upon
rare occasions been reared as a parasite of the gypsy moth. The
native species is probably the one which deposits its conspicuous

Fig. 13. — Tachina larvarum : European parasite of gypsy and
brown-tail moth caterpillars, adult, enlarged.

Fig. 14. — Chalets flavipes : European parasite of gypsy

moth pupae, adult, greatly enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 39

white eggs upon the larger caterpillars of the gypsy moth in
certain localities each year so abundantly as periodically to at-
tract attention; but the identity of these eggs cannot be deter-
mined, since the maggots which hatch from them rarely go
through to maturity. The reasons for this extraordinary state
of affairs have not been accurately determined, but in some way
the caterpillars of the introduced insect are not fitted to the
needs of the maggots of the native parasite.

It has been stated that the native species occasionally com-
pletes its growth and transformations upon the gypsy moth, and,
since it is impracticable to separate the adults with certainty,
there will be no way of following the progress of the imported
species in America until it shall become a great deal more com-
mon than the native in this connection. It is unquestionably
too soon to look for such conditions at the present time, but it
is rather confidently expected that within a few years Tachina
larvarum will become an efficient link in the sequence of para-
sites which it is hoped to establish.

There is a species of Tachina in Japan, indistinguishable in
habit from the European species, and apparently rather more
effective. The adults are different,' however, and quite easily
distinguished from either the American or the European. A
small number have been liberated, and it is possible that they
will be heard from in the future. It is also expected that a
larger number will be imported and liberated the coming sea-
son, so that, if the European species for any reason should fail
to come up to expectations, the position which it might other-
wise occupy will not remain vacant.

Zygohothria gilva and Carcelia gnava.
Through the efforts of M. Rene Oberthiir of Rennes, very
large shipments of gypsy caterpillars and pupae were received
from France in 1909 in much better condition than any con-
siderable shipments ever received before. Largely because of
the satisfactory condition of the material on receipt, and partly
because the two parasites named above are more common in
the Mediterranean region than in northern or central Europe,
several thousands of each were imported and colonized under
the happy circumstances which accompanied nearly all of the

40

IMPORTED PARASITES.

colonizations in 1909. Both had been received before, and
both had been colonized, but in insignificant quantities and
under conditions which left much to be desired. It is consid-
ered, therefore, that the first satisfactory and possibly the first
effective colonization of these parasites was accomplished last
year.

Both are Tachinids, and similar in many respects to Tachina,
Compsilura, etc., but differ from all others and from each other
in many minor particulars in their life and habits. In relative
importance, as determined by the frequency of their occurrence
abroad, they are about equal in rank, and compare favorably in
France with any other Tachinid parasites except Blepharipa.

It is hoped that both will establish themselves iu America,
but their ability to do so remains to be proven, and it is hardly
to be expected that either will be recovered before 1911 or 1912,
unless some of the earlier and relatively very unsatisfactory
colonizations should have resulted more favorably than is now
believed to be the case.

Parasites of the Pupa.
Theronia sp.

There are at least 10 species of large, wasp-like parasites
which attack the freshly formed pupae of the gypsy moth, and
the caterpillars just previous to their transformation, and which
belong to the genera Pimpla and Theronia. All of them are
very general in their host relations, and will attack the pupae of
almost any moth which they encounter under the proper con-
ditions ; but none of them, with the exception of the several
varieties or species of the genus Theronia, have ever occurred
so abundantly in any lots of imported gypsy pupae as to justify
a position among the important parasites of the gypsy moth.
As parasites of the brown-tail, the several species of Pimpla are
quite effective both in Europe and America; and Theronia is
also a brown-tail parasite, but of relatively less importance.

There are three species or varieties of Theronia, inhabiting
respectively Europe, Japan and America, and all are very sim-
ilar in appearance and habits. The American species, Theronia
fidvescens, appears to have reached its maximum effectiveness

Fig. 15. — Cbalcis: full-grown
larva from gypsy moth
pupa, greatly enlarged.

Fig. 16. — Chalcis: pupa
from gypsy moth pupa,
greatly enlarged.

Fig. 17. — Clialcis: gypsy moth pupae, showing exit hole of
the parasite, enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS.

41

in America, and without exceeding in this respect the Japanese
or the European species in their respective countries. A few
of the European Theronia atalanice have been liberated in
America, but nothing more is expected of it than of Theronia
fulvescens; and, as a matter of fact, it will be difficult to deter-
mine whether it is established or not, owing to the very close
resemblance between the two.

Theronia will help a little in the ultimate control of the gypsy
moth in America, but it is not to be expected that it will ever
become of greater efficiency than it is at present. It is gen-
erally distributed throughout the infested area.

Chalcis flavipes.

One of the most effective parasites of the tussock moth in cer-
tain more southern localities is a native species of Chalcis (Eig.
14) which is not very common in any connection in New Eng-
land. If, as is altogether probable, the gypsy moth extends its
southern distribution into the range of Chalcis as a common
parasite, it is not at all unlikely that it will be attacked by it.

In southern Europe and in Japan are other species of Chalcis
similar to the native species in appearance and habits, and some-
times quite effective parasites of the pupse of the gypsy moth.
They are always solitary, and notwithstanding that there is sub-
stance enough in an average gypsy pupa to nourish several in-
dividuals, there is no record of more than one ever emerging
from one host. The eggs are deposited in the freshly formed
pupa, and apparently the individual host is open to attack for
a period of only about three days in the course of its life. The
larva (Fig. 15) feeds upon as much of the contents of the pupal
shell as it desires, and then transforms to a pupa (Fig. 16).
The adult emerges later through a large, ragged hole gnawed
through the pupal shell. (Fig. 17.)

The European species, Chalcis flavipes, was imported in some
numbers in 1905, but at that time was supposed to be an enemy
of the Tachinids which were primary parasites of the moth, and
none were liberated. In 1906 and 1907 none were received,
and no opportunity arose to investigate the relations existing
between the moth and the parasite. It was not known that it
was so closely confined in its geographical distribution at that

42

IMPORTED PARASITES.

time, and since no gypsy moth pupse were received in good con-
dition from any of the Italian or French collectors, its impor-
tance was not recognized.

In 1908, for the first time since 1905, a quantity of gypsy
moth pupse was received from Italy, through the courtesy of
Professor Leonardi of the School of Agriculture, Portici, and
from them quite large numbers of the parasite were reared. At
first, with the recorded secondary parasitism of the species in
mind, considerable care was exercised to prevent the escape of
any of the specimens until their true relation to the gypsy moth
should be established. At last, after a rather tedious series of
microscopic studies, supplemented by dissections of the para-
sitized pupse, it was definitely demonstrated that the Chalcis
which issued from the Tachinid puparia were different from
those which came from pupa direct ; in other words, there were
several species of the genus Chalcis, closely resembling each
other in their appearance, but differing entirely in their habits.
One of them was, beyond further dispute, a primary parasite
of the gypsy moth, and was immediately liberated in the field,
while the others were destroyed as fast as secured.

In 1909 a few more were received in importations of gypsy
pupae from Italy and France, and another small colony was
established. It is known definitely that reproduction in the field
followed immediately after, but there is insufficient assurance
that the species is acclimatized in America, since it has not been
recovered a full year after its colonization. If it disperses as
rapidly as do most of the parasites, it will be some years before
it is again recovered as the result of the last summer's coloniza-
tion. During this period it is hoped that additional importa-
tions will make it possible to establish larger and stronger
colonies of what, if it can exist here, is very likely to become
a parasite of some importance.

In both 1908 and 1909 Chalcis flavipes was carried through
all of its transformations in gypsy moth pupa? in the laboratory ;
and, but for the fact that a supply of host pupa? cannot be pro-
vided except during a very limited season each year, it would
be practicable to institute propagation work similar to that
which has been so successful with Schedius and Calosoma. Onlv

t/

about one month is required for the complete life cycle from

Fig. 18. — Monodontomerus aereus: European parasite of gypsy and
brown-tail moth pupae, adult female, greatly enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS.

43

egg to adult. It is very probable that the adults live for a long
time, like those of Monodontomerus, and they may hibernate.

Monodontomerus aereus.

The females (Fig. 18) deposit their eggs (Fig. 19) in the
freshly formed pupse of the gypsy moth and of the brown-tail
moth, several in each individual host. The larvae (Fig. 20) feed
and subsequently undergo all of their transformations within
the pupal shell, of which they usually consume the entire con-
tents. (Fig. 21.) A little later than the time when the moth
would have issued, had the parasitized pupa remained healthy,
the Monodontomerus adults escape through a small hole in the
dried pupal shell. (Fig. 22.) From 5 or 6 to 15 or 20 come
from each. The males die soon after, but the females live all
winter, and are not able to deposit eggs for another generation
until the summer following. When cold weather approaches
they seek the shelter afforded by the hibernating webs of the
brown-tail caterpillars, and remain well protected in the silken
chambers during the winter. They come forth in the spring as
soon as the weather becomes warm enough to stir them into
activity, and in the course of the period intervening between
their resumption of activity and the pupation of the brown-tail
and gypsy, they develop their eggs and are ready for the attack.

A considerable number of the adults of this parasite, all, with-
out exception, fertilized females, issued from the large number
of brown-tail hibernating nests which were imported from vari-
ous European countries during the winter of 1905-06. A part
were given their freedom in the spring, but as it was soon found
that the species were not in any way an enemy of the hibernating
brown-tail caterpillars, and as their parasitism of the pupse of
the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth was not indicated at that
time, their liberation was discontinued. In 1906 and 1907
small numbers were reared from imported cocoon masses of
brown-tail, but under conditions which told nothing concerning
their host relations. Upon several occasions small numbers have
been reared from the puparia of Tachinid parasites of the gypsy
moth, and it was feared that the parasite might prove to be
habitually secondary, instead of primary.

Like Chalcis, Monodontomerus is more common in southern

44 IMPORTED PARASITES.

Europe, and the small quantities of gypsy and brown-tail pupae
which were received in 1906 and 1907 from those countries
where it was most abundant made any attempts to investigate
its life and habits difficult of execution. The females would
never evince any interest in gypsy or brown-tail pupae in the
laboratory, and all of the many reproduction experiments which
were made failed utterly. This was subsequently found to be
due to the fact that their eggs were undeveloped, and it was not
until a careful series of microscopic dissections were made that
this insuperable obstacle to success was discovered.

In 1908 the same importation of gypsy moth pupae from Italy
which served to establish the host relations of Chalcis served
also to establish the primary character of the parasitism by
Monodontomerus. It was reared from the gypsy moth pupae
direct, and in such numbers as to indicate that it was a parasite
of considerable importance; and great regret was felt that it
had not been liberated in larger numbers upon the first oppor-
tunity. It was hardly considered probable at that time that
the small number liberated during the early spring of 1906
would succeed in establishing themselves.

In the winter of 1908-09, large numbers of the hibernating
nests of brown-tail were collected from various localities, as they
had been each winter since the beginning of the work, and from
these nests issued a very few hibernating females of Monodon-
tomerus, exactly as they had previously issued from nests simi-
larly collected in Europe. The circumstance was as unexpected
as it was gratifying, and indicated that the parasite had mul-
tiplied rapidly in the field, because similar collections of even
larger quantities of brown-tail nests had not produced the para-
site the year before. Steps were immediately taken to determine
the distribution of the parasite, and the surprise was greater
when it was discovered to be sparingly but generally dis-
tributed over an area of approximately 500 square miles, ex-
tending in nearly every direction, but farthest to the west, from
the original point of liberation.

In the summer of 1909, when the proper season had arrived,
it was recovered for the first time as a parasite of the gypsy moth
iu the field. Although it was not verv common, it was found to
be ffenerallv distributed, exactlv as indicated by the collections

O • 7 V I

Fig. 19. — Monodo mom-
ents : egg, greatly en-
larged.

Fig. 20. — Monodontomerus :
larva from gypsy moth
pupa, greatly enlarged.

Fig. 21. — Monodontomerus:
pupa from gypsy moth
pupa, greatly enlarged.

Fig. 22. — Monodontomerus :
gypsy moth pupa, showing
exit hole left by parasite,
greatly enlarged.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS.

45

from brown-tail nests the winter before. The percentage of the
gypsy pupae destroyed was negligible ; but the fact remained that
the parasite was on the increase, since exactly the same methods
employed in previous years had produced no such results.

Great curiosity was felt as to the probable character of the
results of winter work in the recovery of the hibernating females
in the winter nests of brown-tails in the fall of 1909, as this
would provide the first opportunity to determine the rate of an-
nual increase and of dispersion. The work was begun as soon
as practicable, and, while the results are not yet complete, they
are more favorable than was at any time anticipated. In brief,
the insect is now known to be distributed over an area of ap-
proximately 3,000 square miles. Every portion of the Com-
monwealth north and east of Boston to the New Hampshire line,
and as far west and southwest as Leominster, Shirley and Dover,
is included in this territory. It is certain to be in New Hamp-
shire, but to date none have been received from that State, and
the western limits of its distribution have not been determined.

Everywhere in the area which was not included in its known
distribution last year it is about as common as it was in any
place the. winter before. Within the limits of the territory in
which it was known to occur a year ago it has increased at least
twenty-five-fold during the year. At this rate, if unchecked,
it would be abundant enough to destroy all of the gypsy and
brown-tail pupae in three years more. Since this, for various
reasons, is highly improbable, it is likely that it will reach its
maximum effectiveness within the centrally infested areas by
that time. Judging from the best which it is known to do
abroad, this will be the destruction of something like one-fourth
of the gypsy and brown-tail pupae. It is not abroad, and cannot
be expected to become in America a parasite of as great import-
ance as Glyptapanteles or Blepharipa, provided these species
become as thoroughly acclimatized ; but it promises to become
a very valuable parasite, occupying, as it does, a position in the
sequence of parasites which would otherwise be vacant except
for the ineffective Theronia or the less certainly efficient
Chalcis.

46

IMPORTED PARASITES.

PROGRESS OF THE PARASITES IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Before it is possible accurately to predict the progress of an
insect in a new country, it is necessary to know, first, the average
rate of increase under the new conditions; and, second, the
average rate of dispersion. Neither may be determined other-
wise than by actual observation in the field. In the countries
to which the insect in question is native, the rate of increase
is balanced more or less perfectly, and, although it always fluc-
tuates somewhat in relative abundance from one year to another,
there is no permanent gain or loss. The dispersion of an insect
in a country where it is native and generally distributed is im-
possible of determination ; the progeny of any given parent or
of the parents within a. given area are at once confused with
the progeny of parents in any part of the surrounding country
into which they may chance to spread.

The introduction of an insect into a new country is usually
followed by a steady increase, which is sustained until it has
established a balance with the native insects ; or by a steady
decrease, which results in its final extinction.

There are a few instances on record in which the progress of
an introduced insect has followed neither path. The Chinese
lady-bird (Chilchorus similis) was introduced into Georgia in
1902 as an enemy of the San Jose scale, and for one year in-
creased at a very rapid rate, and spread over a considerable
territory from the point where it was liberated. It passed the
first winter successfully, and for a time bade fair to become
so numerous as to be of valuable assistance in the fight against
this scale; but in 1904 its numbers showed a decided decrease,
and at the present time it appears not to be at all common. The
causes for this are very obscure, and no satisfactory explanation
has ever been advanced.

The history of the Oriental moth in Boston, where a few
years ago it appeared to have become firmly established, is an-
other case in point. At the present time it is far from common,
and it is very possible that eventually it will become extinct.

It will never be known how many insects have been introduced
into America from abroad, but the number is undoubtedly far

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 47

in excess of those which have become temporarily or permanently
abundant enough to attract attention.

It has never been expected that all of the parasites and
predatory enemies of the gypsy and brown-tail moths which have
been introduced into Massachusetts would continue to exist here.
It has always been expected that certain of them would do so,
and the only cause for uneasiness as to the ultimate success of
the work has been the fear that not enough different kinds of
parasites could be secured for colonization, or, if colonized, that
not enough to form a natural and effective parasitic sequence
would be able to continue to exist. At the present time there is
no parasite of the gypsy moth, and only one or more of the
brown-tail, of which it can be said that the progress is unsatis-
factory. Just what the progress is, or whether there is any
actual progress, is not known in every case ; but, as will be
shown, it may be very satisfactory, and at the same time in-
conspicuous.

In the beginning it was expected that increase, if it followed
colonization, would be rapid ; but it was not thought that many
of the several species would be likely to fly very far from the
point of liberation until they had increased for several genera-
tions. Had these expectations been fulfilled, practical results
would have been apparent, locally, within three or four years.

So far as it is possible now to state, the rate of multiplication
has generally been gratifyingly rapid ; but it has been accom-
panied by a rate of dispersion so much greater than was ex-
pected as to materially change the aspect of the situation. It
is now evident that, if success follows the work of parasite in-
troduction, the parasites will become practically effective over
a considerable portion of the infested area, and possibly through-
out its whole extent, at about the same time.

In order better to illustrate this point, a theoretical example
may be taken of an insect introduced into a new country, where
it increases at the rate of twenty-five-fold annually, and spreads
from the point of liberation at the rate of about 10 miles an-
nually. It is supposed that 1,000 individuals are liberated in
a territory where they can be spread in every direction, and
where their increase will be unhampered for a period of six
years.

48

IMPORTED PARASITES.

Lest any one should think that the figures and diagrams as
given are fanciful, and the result of pure speculation, it is well
to state in the beginning that they represent, as accurately as the
available information will permit, the progress of Monodon-
tomerus in the field. The territory covered is not quite as ex-
tensive as indicated by the first diagram, owing to the fact that
a large part of it is, or would be, open sea; but the recovery
of the parasite from the field indicates that it has spread at
a rate of approximately 10 miles annually to the west and north,
and that its increase, which was about twenty-five-fold during
the summer of 1909, has been maintained at that rate since its
liberation. It is not known exactly how many of the parasites
were liberated originally, the notes which were made at that
time apparently having been lost. Tentatively, the figures are
set at 1,000.

The rate of dispersion, provided it was dependent upon the
activities of the insect, and not upon chance or accidental agen-
cies, would be about as rapid during the first year from a colony
of 1,000 as though it were very abundant. The territory covered
by the insect during the six years would therefore be represented
by a series of six concentric circles, the smallest of which would
have a radius of 10 miles, and each of the others of multiples
of 10 up to 60. The area given in acres, and for convenience
sake in round numbers, over which the insect would range each
year from the first to the sixth, respectively, would be as indi-
cated in Diagram I.

Increase numerically, at the rate of twenty-five-fold annually,
would be at a very much more rapid rate, and is indicated by
the several squares in Diagram II. It would be impossible to
illustrate this increase diagrammatically for the entire six years
without the use of a large chart, because the square which would
indicate the number of the insects which would result from the
sixth year's increase would have sides between 3 and 4 feet long.
The figures for six vears would be : —

1906,
1907,
1908,
1909,
1910,
1911,

1,000

25,000

625,000

15,625,000

390,625.000

9,725,625.000

Diagram I. — Illustrating the dispersion of an introduced insect for six years, at the rate

of approximately ten miles per year.

■

1

□

Diagram II. — Illustrating the numerical increase of an introduced insect for four
years, at the rate of twenty -five-fold each year.

1906.

1 individual to 200
acres.

1907.

5 individuals to 200
acres.

1908.

69 individuals to 200
acres.

1909.

976 individuals to 200
acres.

1910.

15,625 individuals to 200
acres.

1911.

270,156 individuals to 200
acres.

Diagram III. — Illustrating the increase in average abundance of an introduced insect
which disperses as indicated by Diagram I. and increases at the rate indicated by
Diagram II.

—

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 49

Increase in the average abundance of the insect from year to
year over the area included in its range would be comparatively
slow at first, but would later become much more rapid, on ac-
count of the rate of increase being so much greater than that
of dispersion. An attempt has been made to illustrate it in
Diagram III., in which each square represents an area of 200
acres. The number of the insects (Monodontomerus in this
instance) which are to be found within a territory of this extent
is indicated by the black dots. It becomes impossible to crowd
a sufficiently large number into the limited space available to
indicate accurately the proportionate abundance which will re-
sult in 1910 and 1911, if the rate of increase continues without
diminution.

The parasites are generally very inconspicuous, and when not
common are difficult to find. Monodontomerus, as has been
stated, is particularly easy to find, owing to its hibernating
habits, and it is partly on this account that so much is known of
its progress. The only methods which may be employed for the
recovery of the most of them is the collection of a quantity of the
caterpillars or pupae of the gypsy moth, which are confined in
the proper form of cage in the laboratory until the parasites issue
from the affected individuals after destroying them. To collect
all of the gypsy caterpillars or pupae over a territory as large as
1 acre is out of the question when the insect is abundant. It is
therefore impracticable to follow systematically the progress of
an insect which would be so uncommon as to be represented by
only a single individual in an area of this extent. It is small
wonder that no trace of certain of the parasites which have been
liberated has been found during the first few years following.

It was not until the summer of 1909, the fourth after its estab-
lishment, that Monodontomerus was first recovered as a parasite
of the gypsy moth in the field; and if a parasite can increase
at such a rate and remain unnoticed for three years, there is good
foundation for hoping that other species may be doing as well.

The Calosoma beetles, which were also liberated for the first
time in 1906, in time to attack the gypsy moth caterpillars that
year, have ever since increased at a less rapid but at the same
time a very satisfactory rate. Their rate of dispersion is also
much less, and probably does not exceed a mile or two per year.

50 IMPORTED PARASITES.

It will be several years before they will reach the abundance
at present held by Monodontomerus.

These two insects, Monodontomerus and Calosoma,1 were the
only enemies of the gypsy moth which were liberated in 1906
in time to attack the gypsy caterpillars that year. A number
of other parasites were given their freedom during the late sum-
mer or fall, after the caterpillar season was nearly or quite over,
and the first opportunity which they had to attack the gypsy
or the brown-tail caterpillars was in the year following. Of
these parasites, one, Compsilura, has been recovered in the past
summer in numbers in every way as large as could be expected,
if its rate of dispersion is as rapid as that of Monodontomerus.
A greater rapidity of dispersion and multiplication, sustained
over a period of years, has not been expected of any of the in-
troduced insects.

WHEN WILL THE PARASITES BECOME EFFECTIVE?

This question, which has been asked so frequently, has always
been avoided, especially since it became apparent that the dis-
persion of the parasites was going on at an unexpectedly rapid
rate, making their recovery difficult except in the immediate
vicinity of the colony and immediately after colonization. It
was obviously impossible, under such circumstances, to deter-
mine what their actual progress was ; and the only results which
were apparent to those in charge of the work were so technical
in their nature as to be of little significance to anv one not
thoroughly familiar with entomology.

During the past few months considerable data have been accu-
mulated, uniformly satisfactory in character, which bears upon
the rate of dispersion or of multiplication of certain of the para-
sites. It is very insufficient, but if it is reliable, and if the
progress of the first among the parasites and predators to be
liberated may be taken as a criterion of what is to be expected
of the others, it is possible to make a fair estimate of the length
of time required for the parasites to become sufficiently abun-
dant and so generally distributed as to bring about an effective
natural control of the gypsy moth. The different species differ

1 Calosoma inquisitor, another predaceous beetle, was also liberated in 1906, but in rather
small and unsatisfactory numbers. It has not been recovered.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS.

51

in so many particulars, however, as to make such an estimate
at the present time largely speculative.

In Table 4 are listed all of the parasites of the gypsy moth
which have been liberated in America under conditions in every
way satisfactory. The dates when the first satisfactory colony of
each was established will be found in the second column. When,
as so frequently happened, the parasite was secured too late in
the season to make its attack upon the caterpillars possible until
another vear, the circumstance is indicated in the third column.
The fourth column indicates when the parasite was first recov-
ered from the immediate vicinity, and the fifth when it was
found to be generally distributed. On the supposition that the
progress of the parasites later liberated will be comparable with
that of the earlier, the dates when each of the species listed can
be expected to become effective in their respective roles of egg,
caterpillar or pupa parasites, are indicated in the last column.

Table 4. — Showing Date of Liberation and Subsequent Progress of the
Parasites of the Gypsy Moth in Massachusetts.

Parasites.

First
liberated

under
Satisfac-
tory Con-
ditions.

First Op-
portunity
to repro-
duce as a
Parasite
or Enemy of
the Gypsy
Moth.

First
recovered

from

Immediate

Vicinity

of
Colony.

First
recovered

at a
Distance

from

Colony

Site.

_2

1909

1907

1909

1907

1909

_ 3

_ 3

1909?

1909?

1909

-

1909

-

1909

-

1909

-

-

-

Will

probably

become

Effective.

Theronia fulvescens,1
Monodontomerus aereus,
Calosoma sycopbanta,
Compsilura concinnata,
Tachina larvarum,
Tricholyga grandis, 4 .
Glyptapanteles fulvipes,
Anastatus bifasciatus,
Schedius kuvana?,
Chalcis flavipes, .
Blepharipa scutellata,
Zygobothria gilva,
Carcelia gnava, .

1906

1906

1906

1906

1906?

1908

1909

1909

1909

1909

1909

1909

1906

1906

1907

1907

1907?

1909

1909

1909

1909

1910

1910

1910

1911
1911
1912
1912
1912?
1914
_?

1912
1915
1916
1916

1916

1 A native parasite, of slight relative importance.

2 First recovered at a distance from colony.

3 Adults indistinguishable from a native species, which is rarely parasitic on the gypsy moth.

4 It is not known positively when Tricholyga was first liberated, owing to its very close re-
semblance, in appearance of adult, to Tachina. The recovery from the field in 1909 may have
been the result of colonization in 1908, or equally well of that of earlier years.

52 IMPORTED PARASITES.

Earlier in this paper an attempt was made to point out the
necessity of establishing a sufficient number of parasites to form
a natural sequence, which would attack each stage of the moth,
from egg to pupa. Every parasite necessary to make an effective
sequence is represented in the list given, but there are several,
including at least one of considerable importance (Blepharipa
scutellata), which may not become effective before 1916. Since
the chain is no stronger than its weakest link, the sequence of
parasites will not become fully effective until each necessary
component of the sequence has reached the necessary abundance.
It will be 1916 before the complete control of the gypsy moth in
Kew England can reasonably be expected, and, unless the writer
is mistaken, this control, when it is effected, will be general over
all of the infested area.

THE WORK IN J9J0*

The year 1910 will be crucial in one respect, since it will give
ample opportunity to prove or disprove a number of the premises
which have been used as a basis for the above calculation. It
ought to be possible to follow the progress of several parasites
very exactly, and their progress must be proportionate to the dis-
tance which they must travel if they are to become effective in
their respective roles by the time set. Should the actual develop-
ments of this season fall short of what is considered to be a
necessary amount of progress, the disappointment of those in
charge of the work will be very great.

It is hoped that Monodontomerus will increase at about the
same rate which has prevailed in the past, but a slight falling off
is rather expected. In like manner increase in the numbers of
and in the territory covered by Calosoma ought to be commen-
surate with the progress of this species during the past year.
Compsilura ought to be recovered with ease, and it should be
possible to determine more accurately its rate of increase and of
dispersion. Tachina ought to be recovered for the first time, and
Tricholyga may or may not show decided increase, owing to the
doubt which exists concerning its early history in America. It
is hardly expected that Glyptapanteles will be found at all. If it
were, the circumstance would be more encouraging than any-
thing which has happened: first, because it would allay the

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS. 53

doubts which have been felt as to its ability to exist here; and
second, because it would indicate an increase beyond what could
be reasonably expected. The egg parasites, Anastatus and
Schedius, and the Tachinid Blepharipa, must demonstrate their
ability to survive the New England winters. It is hardly to be
expected that Carcelia, Zygobothria and Chalcis will be recov-
ered. Should any or all of them be found, it would be considered
as particularly encouraging.

PARASITES OF THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH.

The brown-tail moth is generally and with justice considered
to be the less injurious of the two imported pests, and largely
on this account the major part of the space in this bulletin is
devoted to the consideration of the gypsy moth and its parasites.
It must not be concluded from this, however, that the parasites
of the brown-tail moth have been treated with less consideration
in the laboratory. They have received their full share of atten-
tion, and work upon them, which naturally begins in the winter,
at a time when very little can be done on the parasites of the
gypsy moth, is largely completed by the end of June, before the
larger and more important importations of gypsy moth material
are received.

The brown-tail is generally more common and more frequently
injurious than the gypsy moth in Europe, and appears to be less
completely controlled by its parasites. It is attacked by a
greater variety, but more of the species are of distinctly minor
importance.

There are at least six parasites native to America which at-
tack the brown-tail moth as freely as the native Theronia attacks
the gypsy moth. One of these, Diglochis, is apparently the same
as the European Diglochis omnivorus. All but one of the re-
mainder are very similar in habit to European species, as may
be seen by reference to Table 5.

All of the European parasites known to be of importance
abroad have been imported and liberated in some numbers ; but
in a few instances we have not been able to secure a sufficiently
large number to establish strong colonies. Several of the Euro-
pean species, on account of their very close resemblance to
American forms which attack the brown-tail in this country,

54 IMPORTED PARASITES.

cannot be considered as of much promise; and two (Tricho-
gramma and Pteromalus) have been given every opportunity to
prove their worth, but have not responded at all satisfactorily.

There are, however, ten or twelve European parasites differ-
ent from any known to attack the brown-tail in America, and
which include several of great promise, which will be of material
assistance in reducing the present prevailing abundance of their
host, if they prove adaptable to American conditions.

In Table 5 are listed all of the known parasites of the brown-
tail moth which play any considerable part in effecting its
control. The names of the native American species are in
black-faced type; those of European species which have been
imported in satisfactory numbers and colonized under favorable
conditions are in Roman type ; while those of the European
species which have not yet been received under satisfactory
conditions are italicized.

Nearly all of the introduced species have been recovered from
the field, but not all of them are known to be firmly established.
Three of them, Monodontomerus, Tachina and Compsilura, are
promising parasites of the gypsy moth also.

GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS.

55

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IMPORTED PARASITES.

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A STUDY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES

By HU MAXWELL, Expert

United States Forest Service
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

PROF. F. W. RANE

State Forester, Commonwealth of Massachusetts
AND

H. S. SACKETT

In Charge of Wood Utilization, United States Forest Service

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

18 Post Office Square

1910

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page

Introduction 5

Massachusetts Wood-manufacturing Industries 7

Kinds and Quantities of Woods used (Table 1) 8

Prices paid for Woods by Different Industries (Table 2) 10

Boxes and Crates 10

Furniture 12

Steam and Electric Cars 14

Musical Instruments . . . . . • . . . . . . . .15

Interior Finish and Stair Work 16

Lasts and Fillers 18

Cooperage and Tanks 18

Shuttles, Spools and Bobbins 19

Ships and Boats 20

Refrigerators . 21

Horse Vehicles 22

Garden and Farm Implements 23

Automobiles 24

Whips • .25

Cabinets, and Store and Office Fixtures 26

Baskets 26

Toys . 27

Handles 28

Brushes 28

Miscellaneous 29

| List of Wood Manufacturers 30

Uses by Species . 34

INTRODUCTION.

The Bureau of the Census, in co-operation with the United States
Forest Service, compiles and publishes statistics annually, showing
the output of sawmills by States and for the whole country. The
cut in Massachusetts in 1908 was 384,526,000 feet B. M., reported
by 610 sawmills. This did not include pulpwood, tanbark, tanning
extracts, cross-ties, telegraph and telephone poles, or cooperage and
veneer stocks.

After lumber leaves the sawmill it serves many purposes. Some
of it passes through no further process of manufacture, but goes into
buildings with only the cutting and fitting which carpenters give it.
Another part is further manufactured before it is used. Wood-
working machines of many kinds change its form, and it is cut,
joined and fitted by skilled labor, becoming, partly or wholly, a fin-
ished product, — boxes, frames, doors, sash, vehicles, boats, shuttles,
spools, lasts, baskets, musical instruments, furniture, handles, toys,
brushes and many more. This study has to do with that part of
lumber only which undergoes further process of manufacture after
it leaves the sawmill.

Heretofore, lumber has not been very carefully followed after it
leaves the saw, to ascertain what becomes of it, what is made of it,
and into what commodities it enters. In a general way it has been
known that some of it is used in its rough form, and some passes
through further process of manufacture. The present study of the
wood-manufacturing industries of Massachusetts was undertaken to
supply information concerning the lumber which is not used in its
rough form. The work has been done in co-operation by the United
States Forest Service and the State of Massachusetts. Industries
which manufacture commodities wholly or partly of wood were
asked to furnish data along their special lines, and this report is
based on their replies, supplemented by independent investigations
throughout the State.

Statistics thus collected and published are expected to be useful to
both growers and manufacturers of wood. It is shown what part

[5]

INTRODUCTION.

of the total demand, and of the demand for each species, is met by
forests and woodlots in the State, and what part is supplied from
without. The kinds of wood demanded by the various industries
are shown, together with the amount of each species used, the prices
paid at the factory, and into what product each wood is manufactured.
With this information before them, the woodlot owners who are
looking to the future can determine what kinds of timber promise
best returns, and can give preference to those kinds. Those who
have timber or lumber to sell can form an intelligent opinion as to
where the best market may be found for what they have to offer. On
the other hand, the manufacturer who is in the market for woods
of certain kinds will have the means to determine whether he can
buy near home, or whether he must look beyond the State ; and
a study of average prices paid by others will show whether or not
he has been buying on an equal footing with others. A closer ac-
quaintance between buyer and seller, with a better understanding of
what one has to sell and what the other wishes to buy, will be of
mutual benefit.

A history of lumber operations and of past uses and markets
in the State was not undertaken, though it would have brought out
many interesting facts. It was deemed sufficient if present conditions
were shown, thereby making it possible to formulate an intelligent
policy for future operations.

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-MANUFACTURING

INDUSTRIES.

Manufacturers in Massachusetts convert approximately 550,000,-
000 feet of rough lumber a year into finished products. The total
quantity of wood used annually in the State is not shown by these
figures, - — certainly not half of it, — but only that portion of it
which, after it leaves the sawmills, is further worked by machinery,
or, at least, by the expenditure of considerable labor upon it. The
mere cutting off of beams, planks and boards to fit them in house
frames, bridges or trestles, or the mortising or joining in rough con-
struction, does not constitute sufficient manufacture to bring the
product within the scope of this study. Neither are railroad ties,
poles, shingles and clapboards included. No attempt has been made
to ascertain how much wood of all kinds and for all purposes is
used in this State, nor to show what the market value is when the
products take their final form. Finished commodities shipped into
the State ready for use are not included in the tables and totals which
follow. This distinction excludes a great deal of planed and matched
flooring, siding and interior finish, which is fully manufactured be-
fore it is shipped into Massachusetts. The same consideration ex-
cludes much furniture arid many wheeled vehicles which come into
the State ready to assemble, or partly assembled. Though sold in
Massachusetts, they are not manufactured here.

A painstaking effort has been made to keep species separate. They
Jiave not been grouped as " oak," " pine," " hardwoods," etc., but as
white oak, red oak, yellow oak, white pine, longleaf pine, black gum,
red gum, etc. The identification and listing of species was perhaps
not successful in all cases ; and in other instances, where use is con-
fined almost exclusively to one species, though the genus includes
others, a common term, as " ash " or " maple," was deemed suffi-
cient. In Table 1, which follows, all the kinds of wood reported are
brought together, except a few for which no figures showing the
amount used yearly could be procured. All the species, together with
the uses reported for each, will be found in the part of this report
dealing with uses by species, beginning on page 34. Fifty-four
woods are listed in the following table : —

[7]

8

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

Table 1. — Kinds of Wood used, Quantity of Each, with Total Cost, and the
Per Cent, grown in the State and out.

Species.

Feet used
B. M.

Cost
at Factory.

Grown
in Massa-
chusetts.

Grown
outside of
Massachu-
setts
(Per Cent.).

(Per Cent.).

White pine .......

296,787,000

$5,061,821

44

56

Spruce .

45,772,400

882,491

17

83

Hemlock

31,557,000

547,151

17

83

Maple

30,252,300

578,837

11

89

Longleaf pine .

27,368,500

776,391

-

100

White oak

24,287,700

936,492

12

88

Fir

14,999,100

277,511

10

90

Yellow poplar

14,806,400

656,765

10

90

Chestnut

11,753,000

163,781

34

66

Beech

9,873,000

193,436

18

82

Sweet birch

9,846,400

227,244

20

80

White birch

5,665,000

93,766

28

72

Basswood

4,166,500

106,487

3

97

North Carolina pine

4,115,000

162,410

-

100

Ash

3,440,300

140,114

11

89

Elm

2,698,500

107,493

1

99

Mahogany

2,025,400

298,253

-

100

Hickory

1,564,500

112,060

5

95

Cypress .

1,252,000

65,860

-

100

Pitch pine

887,000

16,605

83

17

White cedar .

795,500

15,477

11

89

Yellow birch .

757,000

16,352

8

92

Black walnut .

743,100

73,452

1

99

Douglas fir

655,000

26,723

-

100

Cherry .

611,250

26,639

1

99

Western cedar

603,500

24,245

-

100

Black gum

475,000

22,032

-

100

Red oak

398,000

14,548

20

80

Redwood

356,100

13,610

-

100

Norway pine .

250,000

5,000

-

100

Cottonwood

137,000

5,178

-

100

Sugar pine

68,600

4,392

-

100

Red gum

45,000

2,825

-

100

Dogwood

40,000

7,000

-

100

Persimmon

40,000

7,000

-

100

English walnut

35,000

4,200

-

100

Teak

33,000

7,196

-

100

Red cedar

27,000

1,655

-

100

Butternut

25,000

1,800

-

100

Sycamore

21,000

1,047

-

100

Holly .

20,000

2,000

-

100

Circassian walnut

15,000

1,620

-

100

Applewood

13,800

166

100

-

Loblolly pine .

8,000

192

-

100

Hazelwood

8,000

496

-

100

Yellow oak

8,000

320

100

-

African walnut

6,000

720

-

100

English oak

3,370

367

-

100

Spanish cedar

1,500

300

-

100

Italian walnut

1,212

242

-

100

Hackmatack .

1,000

40

-

100

Prima vera

300

75

-

100

Rosewood

300

225

-

100

Ebony .

112

28

-

100

Total

549,319,644

$11,692,130!

30

70

1 The average price per M. for all the wood reported was ?21 .29.

It is evident that Massachusetts is still a white pine State. It
has always been that. The original forests contained some of the
finest white pine ever cut in America ; but the virgin stand was felled
long ago, and the second, third and perhaps the fourth growths are
now being drawn upon. How well the demand is met is indicated

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES. 9

by the fact that the present cut of this wood greatly exceeds the com-
bined cut of all others in the State. Manufacturers last year used
133,276,000 feet of home-grown white pine, and only 33,172,923
feet of all the other State-grown species, — 4 to 1 in favor of white
pine. Yet Massachusetts is not now producing half the pine de-
manded by home factories. Fifty-six per cent, of the total quantity
comes from other States, some of it from as far west as Michigan.
Large areas of vigorous young growth are coming on, and, with better
protection from fire than formerly, there is promise of substantial
gain.

The State grows only two woods in sufficient amounts to supply its
manufacturers, and these are little-used species, — yellow oak and
applewood. Pitch pine makes the next nearest approach to supply-
ing the home market, and falls 17 per cent, short. But this is not an
important wood ; rated by quantity, it is twentieth on the list.

The amount of black walnut reported is disappointing, and of
the small quantity used the State grows only 1 per cent., — less than
8,000 feet. It was once a popular wood for furniture, but available
statistics indicate that Massachusetts now puts more of it into brush
backs than into furniture. Its principal uses now are for musical
instruments and gun stocks.

INDUSTRIES.

The articles made wholly or partly of wood are so many that a
complete list is practically impossible, but a general division into
industries is practicable. It becomes necessary, however, to decide
somewhat arbitrarily at times as to the divisions in which certain
commodities belong, and under what industry a certain manufacturer
should be placed. For example, the distinction between " finish "
and " fixtures " is clear enough at times, and at times not ; and the
dividing line between other industries is occasionally obscure. It is
necessary, however, if figures are to be presented and useful com-
parisons made, that the division of the whole into separate parts must
be insisted upon.

In the present study the wood manufacturers of Massachusetts
have been listed under twenty heads, the twentieth being " miscel-
laneous," which includes everything not clearly belonging elsewhere.
Care was exercised to make the divisions as distinct as possible, but
doubts as to the proper listing of a commodity were not always cleared
away. Table 2 names the industries, and likewise shows the average

10

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

price which each paid for wood at the factory, and the comparative
quantity used by each. The amount of lumber used by all was
549,319,644 feet, and the average price was $21.29 per thousand. If
these figures are borne in mind, the table will show at a glance which
industries p&id more and which less than the average, and the com-
parative amount of lumber used by each will likewise be shown.

Table 2. — Wood-using Industries, Average Prices paid for Lumber at the
Factories, and the Per Cent, which each Industry used of the Total
Quantity.

Industries.

Average Price

paid for Lumber

at the Factory

per 1,000 Feet

B. M.

Apportionment of
the Total Quantity
of Lumber among

the Industries

(Approximate Per

Cent.).

Boxes and crates ........

$16 02

64.00

Furniture .....

28 36

8.68

Steam and electric cars

' .

27 80

5.40

Musical instruments ....

35 71

5.00

Interior finish and stair work

34 15

3.78;

Lasts and fillers ....

16 99

2.3a

Cooperage and tanks

14 06

1.3$

Shuttles, spools and bobbins

18 83

1.02

Ships and boats

50 51

.72

Refrigerators ....

35 93

.59'

Horse vehicles ....

58 85

.56

Garden and farm implements

25 02

.40

Automobiles ....

60 79

.34

Whips

21 38

.33

Cabinets, and store and office fixtures

67 92

.29

Baskets .....

14 47

.27

Toys

14 92

.17

Handles .....

17 94

.14

Brushes .....

27 07

.12

Miscellaneous ....

23 73

4.47

BOXES. AND CRATES.

In quantity of wood used and in total cost, boxes and crates head',
the list. These items, and others, will be fully set forth in Table 3.
It is worthy of remark that the State demands 351,941,350 feet of"
lumber for boxes. This is seven times as much as any other wood-

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES. 11

manufacturing industry requires, and almost twice as much as all
the others combined. It is clear that the making of boxes and crates
is preeminently the leading business in the State among those who
manufacture wood. Box makers paid four times as much for their
raw material — considering wood as raw material when it reaches the
factory — as was paid by any other of the listed industries. The
nearest approach was by the furniture makers, both in amount of
lumber used and the cost. Twenty-three woods are on the list of box
materials. The manufactured product ranged from the grossest
crates, such as serve for shipping marble slabs or nursery stock, to
the finest sample cases for commercial travelers, and receptacles for
confectionery, toilet articles and jewelry. The cheapest wood re-
ported, averaged for the whole, was cottonwood, at $9 a thousand,
cut in Massachusetts and received as logs at the factory. The most
costly was mahogany, at $251 per thousand, — a higher average price
than was reported by any other industry in the State. Only one
wood more costly was reported by any industry, — rosewood, at $750
per thousand, for pianos. It is therefore apparent that box makers
supply a wide range of customers and send their wares to many
markets.

One-third of the manufacturers of wood in the State make boxes.
It is a side line with many, who thus utilize what otherwise would be
waste. Others, whose chief business is in other lines, perhaps not
directly connected with wood, make boxes and crates for shipping
their own products. Less than 38 per cent, of the reported box ma-
terial is grown in the State. The largest importation is of white pine,
spruce next. If no outside lumber were obtainable, boxes alone
would consume 94 per cent, of the State's whole lumber cut.

Though some very fine and costly boxes are made, the bulk of them
are of cheap lumber. It generally reaches the factory as wane-edge,
unplaned boards, with bark on the edges, due to sawing small logs
through and through without slabbing the four sides. Some factories
saw, plane and match box boards, making shooks of them, and selling
them to the users, who nail them up, but operate no wood-working
machinery. Others do all the work, from the log — perhaps from
the tree on the stump — to the finished box. In some instances a
factory makes boxes for one purpose only, perhaps shoe boxes ; while
others manufacture many sizes, shapes and kinds.

12

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

Table 3. — Boxes and Crates.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Ash

8,800

$26 76

$235 45

1,000

$19 00

7,800

$27 75

Applewood

13,800

12 00

165 60

13,800

12 00

-

-

Basswood

605,500

26 99

16,342 75

100,000

21 50

505,500

28 08

Sweet birch

27,800

53 00

1,473 40

-

-

27,800

53 00

Cherry .

5,000

26 80

134 00

4,000

16 00

1,000

70 00

Chestnut

2,362,000

16 10

38,021 00

782,000

16 36

1,580,000

15 96

White cedar

700,000

18 50 '

12,950 00

-

-

700,000

18 50

Cottonwood

22,000

9 00

198 00

22,000

9 00

-

-

Elm

854,000

38 90

33,221 00

-

-

854,000

38 90

Fir

14,879,700

18 28

272,398 57

1,461,400

18 08

13,436,300

18 31

Hemlock

27,394,000

17 31

474,207 50

4,278,500

17 01

23,115,500

17 37

Maple .

350,000

20 57

7,201 00

75,000

11 33

275,000

23 09

Mahogany

12,000

251 00

3,012 00

-

-

12,000

251 00

White oak

55,000

12 00

660 00

-

-

* 55,000

12 00

Red oak

56,000

40 00

2,240 00

-

-

56,000

40 00

White pine

263,443,700

16 85

4,439,163 95

121,855,600

15 90

141,588,100

17 66

Longleaf pine

1,591,000

15 31

24,365 00

-

-

1,591,000

15 31

Pitch pine

600,000

15 93

9,560 00

448,000

16 33

152,000

14 76

North Carolina pine

251,000

19 57

4,911 00

-

-

251,000

19 57

Yellow poplar

6,723,800

24 00

161,350 60

1,465,000

17 95

5,258,800

25 68

Spruce .

31,972,000

17 57

561,775 25

2,677,700

17 42

29,294,300

17 58

Sycamore

10,000

25 00

250 00

-

-

10,000

25 00

Walnut

250

144 00

36 00

-

-

250

144 00

351,941,350

$16 02

$5,637,872 12

133,273,000

$16 01+

218,668,350

I

$16 03

FURNITURE.

Furniture makers report the use of 23 woods, ranging in price
from $152.70, the average paid for their mahogany, to $11.31 for
hemlock. The average price for all, as shown in Table 4, was $28.36.
The State produced 20 per cent, of its furniture wood, and drew the
balance from many parts of the world, the mahogany coming from
Mexico, Central and South America, and different parts of Asia and
Africa. The showing for mahogany is high not only for furniture, but
in other industries. Massachusetts used about 5 per cent, of the ma-
hogany imported into the United States in 1908, and paid approxi-

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

13

mately 14 per cent, of the total value of the imported wood. It ap-
pears from that fact that the grade bought by Massachusetts manu-
facturers was very much above the average.

Furniture makers paid for wood grown in the State an average
price of $20.64, and for that brought from without $30.37. One-
third of all was white oak, and Massachusetts supplied 11 per cent,
of it, and 21 per cent, of the maple, 14 of the sweet birch, beech 16,
chestnut 47. A large part of all the lumber used went to chair fac-
tories, but the exact ratio between that made into chairs and that used
for other kinds of furniture can not be stated. The bulk of the chair
wood was beech, sweet birch and maple.

Table 4. — Furniture.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

White pine

2,686,000

$20 38+

$54,735 00

1,840,000

$18 30

846,000

$24 89

White birch .

50,000

19 30

965 00

40,000

19 87

10,000

17 00

Maple .

8,563,000

20 29

173,775 00

1,763,000

18 40

6,800,000

20 78

Ash

900,000

24 62

22,157 00

48,000

22 81

852,000

24 72

Sweet birch .

6,388,000

21 30

136,099 00

926,000

17 15

5,462,000

22 01

Spruce .

555,000

16 38

9,094 00

195,000

15 42

360,000

16 63

Chestnut

4,849,000

24 51

118,846 00

2,284,500

24 56

2,564,500

24 46

White oak

16,722,500

34 59+

578,485 00

1,838,500

25 18

14,884,000

35 76

Yellow poplar

319,500

34 77+

11,110 00

-

-

319,500

34 77

Basswood

408,000

19 80

8,006 00

20,000

20 00

388,000

19 60

Beech .

4,943,000

20 09

99,304 00

812,000

15 99

4,131,000

20 89

Mahogany

762,000

152 70

116,350 00

-

-

762,000

152 70

Black walnut

20,000

121 40

2,428 00

-

-

20,000

121 40

Hemlock

163,000

11 31

1,843 50

119,000

11 05

44,000

12 00

Black gum

61,000

43 47

2,652 00

-

-

61,000

43 47

Elm

348,000

31 49

10,906 00

-

-

348,000

31 49

Cherry .

148,000

79 39

11,750 00

-

-

148,000

79 39

Sugar pine

100

100 00

10 00

-

-

100

100 00

Sycamore

1,200

78 33

94 00

-

-

1,200

78 33

Yellow birch .

250,000

24 00

6,000 00

-

-

250,000

24 00

African walnut

3,000

120 00

360 00

-

-

3,000

120 00

Hazelwood

2,000

80 00

160 00

-

-

2,000

80 00

Cypress

1,000

80 00

80 00

-

-

1,000

80 00

48,143,300

$28 36

81,365,209 50

9,888,000

$20 64

38,257,300

$30 37 +

14

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

STEAM AND ELECTRIC CARS.

Table 5, presenting statistics of car manufacturing, shows that
southern yellow pine greatly surpasses all other woods in quantity
used and in value. The two species, the longleaf and the North Caro-
lina, constitute 80 per cent, of the total and 78 per cent, of value. A
distinction between longleaf and shortleaf pines is not always recog-
nized after they are made into lumber. Manufacturers reported much
more of the former than of the North Carolina species, but it is not
improbable that a good deal of the latter appears in the lists as long-
leaf. Massachusetts grows less than 6 per cent, of its car timber, and
four-fifths of this small amount is white oak. The cheapest timber
reported by car builders was hemlock, averaging $19, and only a small
quantity was used. Mahogany was the most costly, and a compara-
tively large quantity was used. It is employed as finish for passenger
coaches and electric cars. Sixteen species in all are listed, as the
following table sets forth in detail : —

Table 5. — Steam and Electric Cars

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

15

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The makers of musical instruments reported the use of 27 kinds
of wood. The largest quantity went into pianos, but organs, includ-
ing pipe organs, used the greatest number of woods. Twenty-two
species grow in the United States, but only seven were supplied wholly
or in part by Massachusetts, and they made less than 5 per cent, of the
total. Seventy-four per cent, of all the black walnut reported by man-
ufacturers in the State was used for musical instruments. ISTone of
the instrument walnut was State-grown. Yellow poplar is an im-
portant wood in this industry. Three woods were reported by makers
j3JLmusical instruments and not reported by any others ; they were red
gum, prima vera and rosewood.

Table 6. -

-Musical Instruments.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f . o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in

Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Ash

91,000

$43 27

$3,938 00

10,000

$11 00

81,000

$47 26

Basswood

40,000

32 38

1,295 00

40,000

32 38

-

-

Beech .

2,115,000

21 83

46,172 50

10,000

11 00

2,105,000

21 88

Sweet birch

1,904,000

23 52

44,801 50

10,500

12 62

1,894,000

23 53

Butternut

10,000

45 00

450 00

, -

-

10,000

45 00

Cherry .

1,000

52 50

52 50

-

-

1,000

52 50

Chestnut

3,838,000

24 23

93,012 00

300,000

23 33

3,538,000

24 31

Ebony .

12

250 00

3 00

-

-

12

250 00

Elm

1,355,000

43 66

59,163 75

-

-

1,355,000

43 66

Fir

101,400

50 41

5,112 00

-

-

101,400

51 41

Black gum

320,000

44 13

14,120 00

-

-

320,000

44 13

Red gum

45,000

62 78

2,825 00

-

-

45,000

62 78

Hazelwood

6,000

56 00

336 00

-

-

6,000

56 00

Mahogany

663,900

138 45

91,917 00

-

-

663,900

138 45

Maple .

4,101,800

28 33

116,201 10

248,000

24 64

3,853,800

28 57

White oak

926,500

78 20

72,453 00

-

926,500

78 20

White pine

3,935,000

27 86

109,775 00

694,500

30 26

3,240,500

27 39

North Carolina pine

602,500

35 10

21,150 00

-

-

602,500

35 10

Sugar pine

33,500

73 34

2,457 00

-

-

33,500

73 34

Yellow poplar

4,354,500

39 94

173,927 00

-

-

4,354,500

39 94

16

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

Table 6. — Musical Instruments — Concluded.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average

Cost at

Factory

per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost
at Factory
(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f.o.b.).

Prima vera
Redwood
Rosewood
Spruce .
Black walnut
Circassian walnut .
Cottonwood .

300

1,500

300

2,367,700

552,000

12,000

85,000

S250 00

60 00

750 00

24 45

104 96

100 00

48 00

$75 00

90 00

225 00

57,885 60

57,937 00

1,200 00

4,080 00

-

—

300

1,500

300

2,367,700

552,000

12,000

85,000

S250 00

60 00

750 00

24 45

104 96

100 00

48 00

27,463,412

S35 71 +

$980,657 95

1,313,000

S26 48+

26,150,412

S36 17+

INTERIOR FINISH AND STAIR WORK.

Stair building is sometimes considered distinct from interior finish,
but in this study it was not practicable to present separate statistics.
The combined industries stand fifth in the list, on the basis of amount
of lumber used. They head the list in the number of species.
Twenty-eight appear, only three of which are foreign, and one of them,
Italian walnut, appears in no other industry. Massachusetts supplied
20 per cent, of the wood reported, and 78 per cent, of it was white
pine. This species constitutes 38 per cent, of all the lumber manu-
factured into interior finish and stair work. Some of the woods were
of high grade, as indicated by the average prices shown in Table 7.
This applies particularly to beech, mahogany, black walnut, cherry,
sycamore and black gum. However, the average price paid for all the
woods employed in this industry was considerably less than averages
paid by makers of boats, horse vehicles, automobiles, cabinets and
store and office fixtures.

The total number of feet shown in the table is clearly not the total
used in the State for finish and stair work, — certainlv not one-tenth
of it. The table shows that part only which was manufactured in
Massachusetts. This study, as was explained on a preceding page,
was not concerned with products fully manufactured before they
reached the State. The largest item in that class is flooring, of which
a single firm reported the sale of 200,000,000 feet, all of which was
manufactured ready for use before it came into Massachusetts, and

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

17

of course could not be included in this study. In several other in-
stances, and for similar reasons, large amounts of finish, frames, sash
and doors were excluded from consideration, though used by Massa-
chusetts builders.

Table 7. — Interior Finish and Stair Work.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory
(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

White pine

8,059,000

$26 95

8216,859 00

3,478,000

$22 21

4,581,000

830 48

Yellow poplar

1,655,500

49 29

81,603 00

-

-

1,655,000

49 29

Sweet birch .

838,600

36 65

30,735 00

500,500

32 02

338,100

43 51

North Carolina pine

2,628,500

40 73

107,064 00

-

-

2,628,500

40 73

Longleaf pine

962,000

36 07

34,696 00

-

-

962,000

36 07

Redwood

1,000

62 00

62 00

-

-

1,000

62 00

Cypress

1,165,000

52 25

60,888 00

-

-

1,165,000

52 25

Spruce .

2,654,000

22 62

60,037 00

-

-

2,654,000

22 62

Hemlock

1,036,000

18 64

19,311 00

60,000

13 50

976,000

18 95

Ash

456,000

56 54

25,783 00

-

-

456,000

56 54

Mahogany

56,350

160 05

9,019 00

-

-

56,350

160 05

Black walnut

7,800

124 55

971 50

-

-

7,800

124 55

Redwood

1,000

80 00

80 00

-

-

1,000

80 00

Cherry .

5,250

80 77

424 00

-

-

5,250

80 77

White oak

652,000

66 57

43,403 00

19,000

26 31

633,000

67 77

Sycamore

9,000

78 11

703 00

-

-

9,000

78 11

Maple .

442,500

37 64

16,654 00

13,000

31 39

429,500

37 82

Black gum

4,000

65 00

260 00

-

-

4,000

65 00

Chestnut

338,000

21 94

7,416 00

310,000

20 13

28,000

42 00

White cedar .

53,000

25 60

1,357 00

53,000

26 60

_

Basswood

501,000

33 21

16,637 00

-

-

510,000

33 21

Douglas fir

1,000

53 00

53 00

-

-

1,000

53 00

Sugar pine

35,000

55 00

1,925 00

-

-

35,000

55 00

English oak .

1,370

210 00

287 70

-

-

1,370

210 00

Italian walnut

1,212

200 00

242 40

-

-

1,212

200 00

Beech .

160,000

39 84

6,375 00

-

-

160,000

39 84

Red oak

1,000

30 00

30 00

1,000

30 00

-

-

White birch .

75.0C0

19 00

1,425 00

-

-

75,000

19 00

21,795,357

$34 15

$744,303 60

4,434,500

$23 13

17,360,857

$36 96 +

18

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

LASTS AND FILLERS,

Table 8 presents statistics of the manufacture of lasts and fillers
for the shoe trade. Fillers, which are also known as shoe forms or
stretchers, are made of yellow poplar and basswood. The number is
about 10 per cent, of the number of lasts. Only four woods were
reported for this industry. Maple and beech supply the material for
lasts, maple constituting 99 per cent, of the total. The most of it is
cut in Michigan, with Pennsylvania as a second. The last industry
stands sixth in the State for quantity of wood used, and it is worthy
of note that the reports do not show that one foot of the wood was
grown in Massachusetts. The manufactured product goes to every
important country of the world where leather or rubber shoes are
made. Lasts for rubber shoes and boots constitute a considerable
trade, but they are not separately listed in the table. Only three lines
of manufacture reported woods of lower average price than last makers
use. These were toys, baskets and cooperage and tanks, statistics for
which are shown respectively in Tables 9, 18 and 19. Last wood is
selected with great care, is seasoned during two or more years, and is
worked by machinery as true as skill can make it.

Table 8. — Lasts and Fillers.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at
Factory
per M
(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Maple .
Basswood
Beech .
Yellow poplar

11,850,000

982,000

40,000

160,000

$16 39
23 51
11 50
22 50

$194,220 00

23,085 00

460 00

3,600 00

-

-

11,850,000

892,000

40,000

160,000

$16 39
23 51
11 50
22 50

13,032,000

$16 99

$221,365 00

-

-

13,032,000

$16 99

COOPERAGE AND TANKS.

Table 9 presents statistics of an industry which cannot be clearly
defined, but its principal products are pails and buckets for confec-
tionery and articles of that nature, tubs, keelers, churns, caddies, fir-
kins, kits, tanks, vats and wooden receptacles of many kinds. Xo
barrels or kegs for beer, molasses or spirituous liquors are included.
The average price of the wood employed was lower than for any other

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

19

industry, being $14.06 per thousand. White pine made 87 per cent,
of it. Massachusetts furnished approximately 66 per cent, of all the
wood reported. This was a percentage of home supply larger than for
any other industry except toys (Table 19). Eleven species of wood
were reported, and all are grown in Massachusetts except cypress,
though the State seems to have supplied none of the white cedar. All
the beech, white birch, chestnut, hemlock, maple and pitch pine were
cut in the State, and 65 per cent, of the total amount used was home-
grown. The average price of State-grown woods was higher than for
those shipped in.

Table 9.—

Cooperage and Tanks.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Beech .

40,000

$8 00

$320 00

40,000

$8 00

-

-

White birch

40,000

8 00

320 00

40,000

8 00

-

-

White cedar

25,000

38 00

950 00

-

-

25,000

S38 00

Chestnut

110,000

15 00

1,650 00

110,000

15 00

-

-

Cypress

50,000

52 50

2,625 00

-.

-

50,000

52 50

Hemlock

50,000

10 00

500 00

50,000

10 00

-

-

Maple .

40,000

8 50

340 00

40,000

8 50

-

-

White oak

90,000

18 33

1,650 00

40,000

18 75

50,000

18 00

Pitch pine

277,000

25 00

6,925 00

277,000

25 00

-

-

White pine

5,933,000

13 14

77,961 00

3,770,000

13 80

2,163,000

11 99

Spruce .

160,000

16 00

2,560 00

1C0.000

10 00

60,000

26 00

6,815,000

$14 06

$95,801 00

4,467,000

$14 29

2,348,000

$13 64

SHUTTLES, SPOOLS AND BOBBINS.

Statistics of the manufacture of shuttles, spools and bobbins were
compiled with difficulty, because much of the material is partly or
wholly manufactured outside the State, and is received in small pieces
difficult to measure and reduce to feet. Table 10 presents available
data, but the total amount of wood used in the State is probably more
than the table shows. The highest-priced material was dogwood, used
exclusively for shuttles, and worth $175 per thousand feet, — which
was above the average for mahogany. It reaches the factory in blocks
of many sizes. Tennessee and Kentucky supplied the most of it.

20

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

White birch was the principal spool wood, and Maine was the chief
source of supply, but Massachusetts grew one-tenth. Eleven per cent,
of all the wood employed in this industry grew in the State, and its
average cost per thousand was 72 per cent, of the cost of that shipped
from without. In every reported instance the price paid for outside
wood in this industry was above the price of that grown in Massa-
chusetts.

Table 10. — Shuttles, Spools and Bobbins.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f . o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Dogwood
Basswood
White birch
Beech .
Maple .
Yellow poplar
Yellow birch

40,000
897,000

2,080,000
928,000

1,157,000
102,000
412,000

$175 00
21 83
16 41
16 48
16 28
13 73
23 07

$7,000 00
19,581 50
34,142 50
15,298 00
18,827 50
1,400 00
9,504 00

100,000
220,000
100,000
100,000
100,000

$13 50
14 77
13 50
13 50
13 50

40,000

797,000

1,860,000

828,000

1,057,000

2,000

412,000

$175 00

22 88
16 61
16 84
16 53
25 00

23 07

5,616,000

$18 83

$105,753 50

620,000

$13 95

4,996,000

$19 44

SHIPS AND BOATS.

Twenty-one woods are used in boat building. White pine heads the
list, with 28 per cent, of all. Longleaf pine furnished nearly as much.
Only five species were supplied in part by Massachusetts, and the
amounts were very small, the aggregate being less than 2 per cent, of
the total. The State once supplied white pine masts for the largest
ships. The whole quantity of this species obtained in the State by
boat builders was only 5,800 feet in 1908, which was scarcely the
equivalent of two or three first-class masts. Four foreign woods were
reported, — Spanish cedar, mahogany, English oak and teak. They
made finish for yachts, canoes and steamboats. Teak was the highest
priced and basswood the cheapest of the timbers reported for this
industry. The average price of all was $50.51, which was exceeded
by only three industries. Loblolly pine, an abundant southern timber,
was reported for this industry only. A large number of boats are in
use in Massachusetts, and the comparatively small quantity of lumber
reported for boat building indicates that the State is not supplying

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

21

the home market, and that considerable numbers of boats ready made
are shipped in. Available statistics do not, however, confirm or dis-
prove this assumption.

Table 11

— Ships

%nd Boats.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at
Factory
per M
(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.)-

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Ash

35,000

$75 00

$2,625 00

-

-

35,000

$75 00

Basswood

365,000

17 00

6,205 00

-

-

365,000

17 00

Butternut

15,500

87 10

1,350 00

-

-

15,500

87 10

Red cedar

27,000

61 30

1,655 00

-

-

27,000

61 30

Oregon cedar

3,500

70 00

245 00

-

-

3,500

70 00

White cedar .

12,500

60 00

750 00

1,500

$60 00

11,000

60 00

Spanish cedar

1,500

200 00

300 00

-

-

1,500

200 00

Cypress

24,500

68 16

1,670 00

-

-

24,500

68 16

Douglas fir

74,000

72 70

5,380 00

-

-

74,000

72 70

Elm

10,000

35 00

350 00

-

-

10,000

35 00

Maple .

11,000

34 55

380 00

-

-

11,000

34 55

Mahogany

44,000

151 48

6,670 00

-

-

44,000

151 48

English oak .

2,000

40 00

80 00

-

-

2,000

40 00

White oak

274,700

54 97

15,099 00

60,000

46 67

214,700

57 28

Red oak

5,000

90 00

450 00

-

-

5,000

90 00

White pine

1,106,300

78 94

87,330 00

5,800

72 41

1,100,500

78 97

Longleaf pine

1,071,500

36 82

39,453 25

-

-

1,071,500

36 82

Loblolly pine

8,000

24 00

192 00

-

-

8,000

24 00

North Carolina pine

15,000

35 00

525 00

-

-

15,000

35100

Spruce .

792,700

26 10

20,691 00

11,700

34 27

1

781,000

25 98

Teak .

33,000

218 06

7,196 00

-

33,000

218 06

3,931,700

$50 51

$198,596 25

81,000

$46 80

3,850,700

$50 59

REFRIGERATORS.

Massachusetts grows none of the timber which supplies its manufac-
turers of refrigerators. White pine exceeds in quantity all other
woods combined in their construction. Yellow poplar furnishes the
least, but its price is highest. Refrigerators are like furniture, in
the fact that many sold in the State are made elsewhere. This does
not apply to large sizes, constructed in place and not meant to be
moved. The greater portion of the 3,240,000 feet of lumber reported
is used for large refrigerators.

22

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

HORSE VEHICLES.

Vehicles to be drawn by horses and those operated by power are
distinct so far as manufacturing is concerned. The number of
wagons, carts, drays, carriages and conveyances of that kind is ap-
parently as large as ever, notwithstanding the increase in number
of automobiles. Table 13 shows what was done in Massachusetts
the past year in the manufacture of vehicles for horses. The number
of vehicles is not shown, but the woods used are listed. These woods
are generally high in price, the average being $58.85 per thousand.
Massachusetts furnishes only 14 per cent, of this, and the average
price is $25.98 lower than for imported timber. Except red oak,
every wood from without cost more than the same species grown at
home. Red oak was the same for both. A number of firms which
formerly did their own manufacturing reported that they no longer
do so, but buy vehicles ready to sell, or nearly ready, and now act as
selling agents or merchants. They generally buy in the middle west.
Others buy wooden parts dressed and fitted, and complete the work
by putting the irons on and doing the painting. In this industry, as
in many others, the manufacturing shows a tendency to move toward
the source of supply for the raw material. A considerable part of
the wood listed in Table 13 was used in repair work.

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

23

Table 13. — Horse Vehicles.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average

Cost at

Factory

per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Ash

289,500

$36 60

$10,597 50

82,500

$33 15

207,000

$38 00

White oak

1,364,500

53 86

73,500 00

308,500

40 66

1,056,000

57 72

Hickory

969,500

79 96

77,525 CO

6,500

64 61

963,000

80 07

White pine

60,000

31 66

1,900 00

60,000

31 66

-

-

Yellow poplar

74,000

86 08

6,370 00

6,000

70 00

68,000

87 50

Elm

25,000

16 00

400 00

25,000

16 00

-

-

North Carolina pine

8,000

40 00

320 00

-

-

8,000

40 00

Sweet birch .

8.0C0

40 00

320 00

-

-

8,000

40 00

Maple .

6,000

35 00

210 00

-

-

6,000

35 00

Spruce .

10,000

48 00

480 00

-

-

10,000

48 00

Redwood

3,000

7 00

210 00

-

-

3,000

70 00

Mahogany

1,000

180 00

180 00

-

-

1,000

180 00

Yellow oak

8,000

40 00

320 00

8,000

40 00

-

-

Chestnut

3,000

40 00

120 00

3,000

40 00

-

-

Red oak

250,000

35 00

8,750 00

50,000

35 00

200,000

35 00

3,079,500

$58 85

$181,202 50

549,500

$37 50

2,530,000

$63 48

GARDEN AND FARM IMPLEMENTS.

Of the thirteen woods listed in Table 14, nine were supplied wholly
or in part by Massachusetts, but what the State furnished was only
27 per cent, of the total. The average price paid at home was only
70 per cent, of that paid for imported lumber. It is of interest to
note that one of the cheapest woods listed in this industry was black
walnut, and that the whole supply came from Massachusetts. The
quantity was not large, however, and that fact probably accounts for
the low price. A small lot of home-grown yellow poplar was bought
for $13 a thousand, which was about one-fourth the usual price.
This suggests a complaint sometimes made by wToodlot owners and
farmers who have a few trees. They say it is not always easy to sell
small lots of logs, — three or four trees, perhaps, — because pur-
chasers do not care to buy that way; they want carload lots. The
owner probably cannot cut that many, and so he must sell at a low
price, or not at all. Cases have been reported of farmers burning

24

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

logs that would have made good lumber. Mill men would make no
offer on lots so small, though the general demand in the State for
logs is far greater than the supply.

Table 14. — Garden and Farm Implements.

SPECIES.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

White oak

Maple .

Black walnut

Ash ;

Spruce .

Chestnut

White pine

Hemlock

Yellow poplar

Elm

Longleaf pine

North Carolina pine

Black gum

711,000

270,000

8,000

145,000

101,000

50,000

224,000

108,000

4,600

2,500

434,000

117,000

70,000

2,245,1C0

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

$19 52

17 28

16 50
24 11

18 25
15 00

17 80

18 00
39 56
13 00
45 50
27 00
33 75

$25 02

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

$13,879 00

4,665 00

132 00

3,495 50

1,843 30

750 00

3,988 00

1,944 00

182 00

32 50

19,747 00

3,159 00

2,362 50

5,179 80

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Feet.

266,000
50,000
8,000
57,000
30,000
50,000

145,000

2,000
2,500

610,500

Average

Cost per M

(f . o. b.).

13 00
16 50
24 18
18 00
15 00
18 24

13 00
13 00

$19 17

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

445,000
220,000

88,000
71,000

79,000

108,000

2,600

434,000

117,000

70,000

1,634,600

$18 70
18 25

24 06
18 35

17 00

18 00
60 00

45 50
27 00
33 75

$27 24

AUTOMOBILES,

Manufacturers of automobiles predict that the use of wood in their
industry will not increase in proportion to the increased output of
the factories. Aluminum is taking the place of yellow poplar, ma-
hogany, walnut and other expensive woods in the construction of
bodies. The industry is so new that figures are not available to
show the rate at which wood is being replaced by metal. Frames,
however, are of wood, and apparently will continue to be. Of the
1,894,000 feet used, 1,279,000 feet were hickory and ash, and went
into frames. Massachusetts-grown timber constituted 2 per cent, of
quantity and less than 1 per cent, of value. ISTine American woods
and two foreign were listed in this industry.

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

25

Table 15. — Automobiles.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at
Factory
per M
(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f.o.b.).

Yellow poplar

527,000

$65 34+

$34,435 00

-

-

527,000

$65 34+

Ash .

778,000

57 36+

44,630 00

3,000

$90 00

775,000

57 24

Mahogany

21,500

144 54

3,107 50

-

-

21,500

144 54

Cherry .

500

125 00

62 50

-

-

500

125 00

White pine

25,000

18 00

450 00

25,000

18 00

-

-

Spruce .

24,000

28 50

684 00

10,000

18 00

14,000

36 00

Hickory

501,000

60 15

30,135 00

-

-

501,000

60 15

Basswood

2,000

15 00

30 00

-

-

2,000

15 00

Black walnut

10,000

110 00

1,100 00

-

-

10,000

110 00

Circassian walnut .

3,000

140 00

420 00

-

-

3,000

140 00

Sweet birch .

2,000

40 00

80 00

2,000

40 00

-

-

1,894,000

$60 79

$115,134 00

40,000

$24 50

1,854,000

$61 57

WHIPS.

Four woods only are listed as whip material in Table 16. Massa-
chusetts grew 58 per cent, of all, but the average price for its share
was little more than half the average paid for woods grown in other
States. The measurement in feet of wood used by whip factories is
difficult, because it reaches the factory in various forms and sizes.
Some of it, too, is so far manufactured when it arrives as to exclude it
from the scope of this study. The table which follows presents the
available statistics for 1908 : —

Table 16. — Whips.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Average
Feet. Cost per M
1 (f. o. b.).

Beech
Birch
Maple .
Hickory

521,000

555,000

733,000

18,000

$19 33

21 06

22 13
60 00

$10,070 00

11,690 00

16,225 00

1,080 00

251,000
351,000
458,000

$13 42

16 44

17 41

270,000

204,000

275,000

18,000

$24 81
30 00
30 00
60 00

1,827,000

$21 38

$39,065 00

1,060,000

$16 15

767,000

28 62+

26

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

CABINETS, AND STORE AND OFFICE FIXTURES.

The manufacturers of cabinets and of fixtures for stores and offices
paid a higher average price for their lumber than was paid by any
other wood-using industry in the State. The cheapest reported for
this industry was hemlock, and its average was $25. The average
for mahogany was $149.05. Much high-grade white oak, basswood
and maple were reported. The dividing line between cabinets and
fixtures is frequently difficult to define, and no attempt to do so has
been made here. Of the lumber used, the State grew 10 per cent.,
but it received little more than 5 per cent, of the total price. For
three of the woods, however, the State-grown product commanded
higher prices than the same species grown elsewhere. These woods
were chestnut, white oak and yellow poplar.

Table 17. — Cabinets, and Store and Office Fixtures.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f.o.b.).

Ash

Basswood
Sweet birch
Cherry .
Chestnut
Cottonwood
Elm

Hemlock
Mahogany
Maple .
White oak
White pine
Yellow poplar
Spruce .

22,000

186,000

64,000

47,000

50,000

30,000

27,000

3,000

262,000

20,000

379,000

260,000

131,000

105,000

$50 00
58 49
27 81
41 17
35 40
30 00
32 78
25 00

149 05
47 50
80 18
34 22
53 24
20 38

$1,100 00

10,880 00

1,780 00

1,935 00

1,770 00

900 00

885 00

75 00

39,050 00

950 00

30,390 00

8,896 00

6,975 00

2,140 00

10,000

5,000

3,000

138,000

6,000

$65 00

20 00
95 00
32 78
75 00

22,000

186,000

64,000

47,000

40,000

30,000

27,000

3,000

262,000

15,000

376,000

122,000

125,000

105,000

$50 00
58 49

27 81
41 17

28 00
30 00
32 78
25 00

149 05
56 67
80 06
35 84
52 20
20 38

1,586,000

$67 92

$107,726 00

162,000

$37 25

1,424,000

$71 41

BASKETS.

Next after the woods used for cooperage and tanks, presented in
Table 9, basket makers paid the lowest average price for their lumber.
Much of it came to them as logs, and they did all the manufacturing.
In other cases it was partly manufactured when it reached them.
In this industry the average price for home-growTn material was lower
than for the imported, but the State furnished less than one-fourth
of the total.

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

27

Table 13. — Baskets.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

Ash

264,000

$22 61+

$5,971 00

138,000

$21 67

126,000

$23 66

Beech .

310,000

10 32+

3,200 00

10,000

20 00

300,000

10 00

White birch

320,000

10 62+

3,400 00

20,000

20 00

300,000

10 00

Elm

25,000

17 00

425 00

25,000

17 00

-

-

Maple .

379,000

10 52+

3,990 00

20,000

20 00

359,000

10 00

Red oak

40,000

23 89

955 00

13,333

23 89

26,667

23 89

White oak

130,000

24 61+

3,200 00

125,000

23 00

5,000

65 00

Rattan .

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Willow .

-

-

-

-

-

-

1,468,000

$14 47

$21,141 00

351,333

$21 67

1,116,667

$12 11

TOYS.

Massachusetts grows 77 per cent, of the wood worked in the toy
factories of the State. A proportion so great of home-grown wood is
not found in any other industry embraced in this study. The average
price of the home-grown timber was 8 per cent, higher than for that
grown elsewhere. Among the articles listed as toys are sleds, wagons,
barrows, hobby horses, swings, games, menageries, villages, furniture,
railroads and equipments, soldiers and small articles of many kinds.

Table 19. — Toys.

SPECIES.

Chestnut
Hemlock
Red oak
Cherry .
Maple .
White birch
Basswood
Yellow poplar
Beech .
White oak
White pine

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

158,000

190,000

16,000

2,000

6,000

256,000
30,500
12,000

193,000
20,000
50,000

$13 14
13 00
20 00
30 00

13 50

14 97

19 93
16 00

15 00

20 00
20 00

933,500

$14 92

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

$2,076 00

2,470 00

320 00

60 00

81 00

3,831 00

608 00

192 00

2,895 00

400 00

1,000 00

$13,933 00

Grown in

Massachusetts.

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f.o.b.).

158,000

16,000

6,000
256,000
10,500
12,000
193,000
20,000
50.0C0

721,500

$13 14
20 00

13 50

14 97
16 00
16 00

15 00
20 00
20 00

$15 19+

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

Feet.

190,000
2,000

20,000

212,000

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

$13 00
30 00

22 00

$14 01

28

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

HANDLES.

The handles represented by Table 20 are chiefly for buckets, pack-
ages, boxes, knives, shovels, tools and articles which do not require
tough woods. Ax and hammer handles are of another kind. They
account for the 25,000 feet of hickory listed in the table. Massa-
chusetts grew all the hickory, and its price was higher than that of
any other wood. Cherry was supplied wholly by the State, but its
price was lowest. As in the case of toys, the average price of State-
grown wood was above that of the imported lumber.

Table 20. — Handles.

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Grown in
Massachusetts.

Grown out-
side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Average
Feet. Cost per M
1 (f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f.o.b.).

Ash

Beech .
White birch
Cherry .
Hickory
Maple .
White oak

5,500

175,000

292,000

40,000

25,000

212,000

21,000

§29 00
15 69
19 71

13 63
45 00

14 60
18 86

$159 50
2,745 00
5,755 00

545 00
1,125 00
3,095 00

396 00

5,500
105,000
82,000
40,000
25,000
142,000
21,000

$29 00
18 48

17 68
13 63

45 00

i

16 13

18 86

70,000
210,000

70,000

$11 50
20 50

11 50

770,500

$17 94

$13,820 50

420,500

$18 80

350,000

S16 90

BRUSHES.

The manufacture of brushes calls for a variety of woods, ranging
in price from beech at $10.53 per thousand feet to ebony at $250.
All the holly reported for the State was taken by the brush makers.
It grew in North Carolina. It is worked into backs and handles for
toilet brushes. The same use is made of rosewood, mahogany, black
walnut and ebony. Cheaper wToods serve as backs and handles of
clothes brushes, blacking brushes, scrub brushes and others of similar
kind. The purpose was to include under " Handles " (Table 20)
all woods made into handles, as separate from the article as a whole ;
but it is probable that some of the woods listed under " Brushes "
(Table 21) was made into handles for paint, varnish, whitewash and
shaving brushes. The average price of home-grown woods was 30
per cent, under the average for outside material.

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

29

Table 21. — Brushes.

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Grown in

Grown <

}UT-

Quantity

used

annually

(Feet B.M.).

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Massachusetts.

side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Feet.

Average
Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Average

Cost per M

(f. o. b.).

White birch .

393,000

$18 58

$7,304 00

115,000

$11 56

278,000

521 52

Ebony .

100

250 00

25 00

-

-

100

250 00

Yellow poplar

5,000

48 00

240 00

-

-

5,000

48 00

Black walnut

25,000

78 00

1,950 00

—

-

25,000

78 00

Maple .

80,000

12 87

1,030 00

60,000

10 50

20,000

20 00

Holly .

20,000

100 00

2,000 00

-

-

20,000

100 00

Rosewood

10,000

150 00

1,500 00

-

-

10,000

150 00

Mahogany

20,000

100 00

2,000 00

-

-

20,000

100 00

Beech .

55,000

10 53

580 00

55,000

10 53

-

-

Yellow birch

40,000

11 00

440 00

40,000

11 00

10,000

75 00

Ash

10,000

75 00

750 00

-

-

-

-

658,100

$27 07

$17,819 00

270,000

$11 28 |

388,110

S38 07

MISCELLANEOUS.

Table 22 is made up of odds and ends which could not properly be
listed under any of the special industries. The articles from which
the table was compiled were usually small, but the aggregate reached
nearly 25,000,000 feet, or more than 4 per cent, of all the wood
reported by the manufacturers of the State.

Table 22. — Miscellaneous.

Average
Cost at

Factory
per M

(f. o. b.).

Grown in

Grown

OUT-

Quantity

used
annually

Total Cost

at Factory

(f. o. b.).

Massachusetts.

side Massachusetts.

SPECIES.

Average

Average

(Feet B.M.).

Feet.

Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Feet.

Cost per M
(f. o. b.).

Ash

30,500

$33 11

$1,010 00

15,000

$20 00

15,500

$45 81

Basswood

90,000

32 57

2,947 50

-

-

90,500

32 57

Beech .

238,000

13 56

3,228 00

238,000

13 56

-

-

White birch .

1,959,000

20 65

31,372 00

849,000

15 47

1,110,000

27 22

Sweet birch .

18,500

43 51

805 00

-

-

18,500

43 51

Yellow birch .

55,000

7 50

412 50

55,000

7 50

-

-

Western cedar

600,000

40 00

24,000 00

-

-

600,000

40 00

White cedar .

30,000

14 00

420 00

30,000

14 00

-

_

Cherry .

1,200

42 50

51 00

1,000

25 00

200

130 00

Chestnut

98,000

16 49

1,616 00

98,000

16 49

-

-

Cypress

12,500

54 16

677 00

-

-

12,500

54 16

Douglas fir

580,000

36 71

21,290 00

-

-

580,000

36 71

Elm

7,000

30 00

210 00

-

-

7,000

30 00

Black gum

100,000

50 00

5,000 00

-

-

100,000

50 00

Hemlock

2,607,000

17 91

46,680 00

938,000

17 73

1,669,000

18 00

Hickory

51,000

43 04

2,195 00

42,000

35 12

9,000

80 00

Mahogany

1,650

150 00

247 50

-

-

1,650

150 00

Maple .

1,014,000

25 67

26,024 50

463,000

18 90

551,000

31 35

White oak

510,500

55 90

28,538 00

110,000

12 95

400,500

67 70

White pine

9,070,000

21 04

190,793 00

3,215,000

17 98

5,855,000

22 71

North Carolina pine

131,000

32 83

4,301 00

-

-

131,000

32 83

Pitch pine

10,000

12 00

120 00

10,000

12 00

-

-

Yellow poplar

210,000

43 83

9,205 00

-

-

210,000

43 83

Redwood

350,600

37 79

13,248 00

-

-

350,600

37 79

Spruce .

6,656,000

23 55

156,751 00

1,860,000

21 36

4,796,000

24 40

Walnut

120,050

75 03

9,008 00

-

-

120,050

75 03

English walnut

35,000

120 00

4,200 00

-

-

35,000

120 00

24,587,000

$23 73

$583,450 00

7,933,000

$18 29

16,663,000

$26 31

30

MASS A CHUSE TTS WO OD-VSING IND US TRIES.

WOOD MANUFACTURERS.

Below is a list of Massachusetts manufacturers who supplied data
on which this report is based. The names are grouped by industries.
If a name appears under more than one industry, it indicates that the
firm manufactures more than one commodity. Occasionally, for ex-
ample, a firm makes its own shipping boxes, though its principal
business is in other lines, and it is listed under both industries.

Automobiles.

S. R. Bailey & Co.

. Boston

The Biddle & Smart Co.

Amesbury

Briggs Carriage Co.

Amesbury

Currier Cameron Co.

Amesbury

James N. Leitch & Co.

Amesbury

Quinsler & Co.

. Boston

Sargent & Ham Co.

Boston

Chauncey, Thomas & Co.

Boston

Archibald Wheel Co.

Lawrence

Bartlett, Stevenson & Co.

Leominster

J. B. Judkins Co. .

Merrimac

C. S. Pease & Sons

. Merrimac

Knox Automobile Co. .

. Springfield

Baskets

M. E. BaUou & Sons .

Becket

Bailie Basket Co. .

Boston

D. S. Bridgman

Northampton

Williams Mfg. Co.

Northampton

Boats.

The Atlantic Co. .

Amesbury

D. D. Kelly & Son

. Boston

George Lawley & Son .

Boston

Fall River

Union Spar Co.

Gloucester

Stearns & McKay .

Marblehead

H. Manley Crosby

Osterville

Fore River Shipbuilding Co.

Quincy

The Baker Yacht Basin

Quincy

E. H. Brown .

Taunton

Boxes, Cases and Crates.

Blanchard & Gould

Acton

Acushnet Saw Mills Co.

Acushnet

Henry W. Cushman Co.

Acushnet

George W. Bryant

Amesbury

L. W. Love .

Amesbury

N. E. Angus .

Amherst

William 0. Loveland .

Ashby

The Diamond Match Co.

Athol

Smith & Rice Co. .

Barre

George H. Allen

Beverly

A. W. Copp & Co.

Beverly

American Box & Lumber Co

Boston

Dexter Box, Shook & Lum-

Beverly

Boxes, Cases, and Crates — Con.

Frost Box Co.

Beverly

A. Ceppi & Go.

. Boston

Conant Bros. Co. .

. Boston

A. H. Davenport Co.

. Boston

F. C. & E. B. Gammon

3 . Bridgewater

E. L. Bonney

Brockton

Mackie Bros. Co. .

Brockton

F. L. Woodbridge,

Brockton

Doten Dunton Desk Co

. Cambridge

National Casket Co.

. Cambridge

George G. Page Box Co

. Cambridge

A. B. Holden

. Caryville

Frank B. Ford

Charlemont

Putnam Bros.

Charlton

Atwood & McManus

. Chelsea

Parsons Mfg. Co. .

. Chelsea

Belcher & Taylor Agr.

Tool

Co.

. Chicopee Falls

J. Stevens Arms & Toe

1 Co. Chicopee Falls

F. W. Purrington .

Colrain

Cadwell & Glazier

. Cooleyville

Flansburgh & Hardima

n . Dalton

Crane & Co. .

. Dalton

F. J. Derry

. Danvers

Woodman Bros. & Ross

5 . Danvers

National Casket Co.

. E. Cambridge

Joseph Lunan & Sons

Fall River

Isaac Varney & Sons

Fall River

Lynde Bros. Box Co. .

Farley

Webber Lumber Co.

. Fitchburg

Charles W. Welder

. Fitchburg

E. S. Cook .

Franklin

O. F. Metcalf & Sons .

Franklin

F. E. & H. E. Chase

Freetown

Collier Keyworth Co.

Gardner

Perkins Box Co.

Gloucester

George A. Stevens

Gt. Barrington

New England Box Co.

. Greenfield

Charles R. Field Mfg. C

o. . Greenfield

Robert Darhurst .

Halifax

E. H. Vaughan

. Halifax

W. S. Simmons

Hanover

John Foster Co.

Hanson

0. S. Currier & Son

Haverhill

Haverhill Box Co.

Haverhill

C. H. Hayes Corpn.

Haverhill

Hazen L. Foss

Haverhill

Island Park Box Co.

Haverhill

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

31

Boxes, Cases, and Crates — Con.

Holyoke

Holyoke

Holyoke

Hudson

Hudson

Huntington

Huntington

Hopkinton

Ipswich

Kendal Green

Lawrence

Lawrence

Leominster

Leverett

Leominster

Lowell

Lowell

Lowell

Lowell

Lowell

Lowell

Lynn

Lynn

Lynn

Lynn

Maiden

Marblehead

Marlborough

Marshfield

Doane & Williams

Green Mountain Lumber Co.

Holyoke Box & Lumber Co.

C. J. Sawyer ....

N. G. Tripp ....

A. F. Puree ....

H. E. Stanton

Williams & Bridges Co.

Ipswich Mills

Hook & Hastings Co. .

George W. Dinsmoor .

Weld Bobbin & Spool Co. .

Whitney Reed Chair Co.

Beaman, Marvell & Co.

Richardson Piano Case Co. .

Otis Allen & Sons Co. .

A. L. Brooks & Co.

George L. Cady & Sons

Frank G. Cummings

T. W. De Long & Co. .

James A. Thompson

Crossman Box Co.

Littlefield & Plummer Corpn.

John Owens & Co.

A. G. Potter ....

Samuel E. Vaughan

Geo. L. Metcalf Wood &

Paper Box Co. .
Howe Lumber Co.
H. H. Oakman

Bolles Bros Mattapoisett

T. C. Tinkham . . . Mattapoisett
Edwin V. Mitchell Co. . . Medfield
M. A. Ritchie . . . Medfield

Medway Box Co. . . . Medway
A. T. Savery .... Middleborough
S. A. Eastman Co. . . Milford

C. J. Billings & Sons . . Montague
L. P. Churchill Co. . . Myricks
Natick Box Co. . . . Natick

D. S. Bridgman . . . Northampton
Henry W. Warner . . Northampton
T. M. Cole . . . .No. Carver
William P. Proctor Co. . No. Chelmsford
L. S. Crafte . . . .No. Hatfield
Bullard & Sons . . . No. New Salem
Gilbert H. West . . . No. Pembroke
A. H. Sweet & Son . . Norton

W. D. Turner . . . Norwell
The New Home Sewing Ma-
chine Co Orange

Chaffee Bros. Co. . . . Oxford
Lemuel Lefurgey . . . Pembroke
North Dana Box Co. . . Prescott
Paper, Lumber & Box Co. . Princeton
Myron F. Chickering . . Raynham
Otis P. Symonds & Sons . Reading
Judah Hathaway . . . Rochester
Alden R,ounseville . . Rochester

C. N. Atwood & Son . . Rock
Gideon Studley . . . Rockland
Amos C. Maynard . . Savoy

Boxes, Cases, and Crates — Con.

Sharon Box Factory . . Sharon

G. M. Ballou .... Shirley .
The Horton & Hubbard Mfg.

Co Somerville

Charles Hyde . . . Southbridge

United States Spring Bed Co. Springfield

F. M. West Box Co. . . Springfield
Charles R. Richmond . . Taunton
Conrad H. Gale . . . Tully

A. A. Flint . . . Tyngsborough
Heywood Bros. & Wakefield

Co Wakefield

E. L. Needham . . . Wales

Ware Lumber Co. . . Ware

G. M. Wheeler & Co. . . Warwick
Cochituate Box Co. . . Wayland
J. D. Putnam Son Co. . Webster
Blanchard & Gould . . W. Acton
Bartlett Box & Lumber Co. Westborough
H. E. Lowe . W. Boylston

S. A. Healy & Sons . . W. Chesterfield

W. J. McCarthy . . . Westfield

Edwin B. Hedges . . . Westfield

New England Whip Co. . Westfield

Lot Phillips Co. . . . W. Hanover

J. C. Goodridge
Upton Mfg. Co. .
Reuben Loud & Sons .
Atwood Bros.
G. M. Bradford .
Williams & Bridges Co.
Baker Box Co.
W. D. Smith . .

Brushes.
A. V. Stevens
Charles H. Ball .
Florence Mfg. Co. .
Willis H. Bean
Samuel E. Jordan Brush Co.
Florence Mfg. Co. .

Westminster

W. Acton

Weymouth

Whitman

Williamsburg

Worcester

Worcester

Wrentham

Cummington

E. Windsor

Florence

Lowell

Maiden

Northampton

Builders' Finish.
Clinton W. Schwamb & Co. . Arlington
N. Sarsfield .... Ashburnham
H. M. Peckham . . . Athol
Arthur F. Tyler Co. . . Athol
Smith & Rice Co. . . . Barre
Dexter Box, Shook & Lum-
ber Co Beverly

John R. Atkins . . . Boston

Boston Floor Co. . . . Boston

George H. Carter . . . Boston

A. Ceppi & Co. . . . Boston

Louis Cohen & Co. . . Boston

Charles A. Freeman Mfg. Co. Boston

Graham & Cameron . . Boston

Irving & Casson . . . Boston

A. E. Jones & Co. . . . Boston

P. W. Merrill Co. . . . Boston

Perkins Woodworking Co. . Boston

Dean-Penney Company . Brockton

32

MASS A CHUSETTS WOOD- USING IND US TRIES.

Builders' Finish
Hayward Screen Mfg. Co. .
Henderson Bros. .
John Quinn & Son.
W. M. Pratt .

E. R. Marshall
Webber Lumber Co.
K. L. Haskins
N. S- Cole & Sons .
Messenger Wood Works

F. P. Stanton
Doane & Williams
Robertson & Larkin
S. F. Canney .
William H. Bean .
J. B. Goodwin
W. E. Hatch .
W. C. Miles & Co.
C. W. Maxim
A. W. Allen Co. .
Greene & Wood
Tripp & Thorpe .
L. R. Washburn & Son
Edward Perkins Lumber Co.
John E. Fales

S. B. Dibble Lumber Co. .

William P. Proctor Co.

Patten & Bond

E. J. Faxon ....

Milton P. Locke & Son

J. A. Richmond & Sons

George N. Gates .

Springfield Lumber Co.

The Ide Lumber Co. .

J. K. & B. Sears & Co.

Lawrence M. Yale

P. H. Pickens

P. Jacobus ....

Bartlett Box & Lumber Co.

J. W. Bishop Co. .

Henry Brannon

L. C. Clark Co.

Flexible Door & Shutter Co.

Hatch & Barnes

J. W. Loring & Son

— Con.

Brockton

Cambridge

Cambridge

Charlemont

Chelmsford

Fitchburg

Greenfield

Haverhill

Haverhill

Huntington

Holyoke

Hudson

Ipswich

Lowell

Lowell

Lowell

Medford

Middleborough

New Bedford

New Bedford

New Bedford

New Bedford

Newburyport

Norfolk

No. Adams

No. Chelmsford

Palmer

Salem

Salem

Shelburne Falls

Shrewsbury

Springfield

Southbridge

So. Hyannis

Stockbridge

Taunton

Turners Falls

Westborough

Worcester

Worcester

Worcester

Worcester

Worcester

Worcester

Cooperage and Tanks — Con.

Co

Cabinets and Store and Office Fixtures.

C. H. Bangs Druggist Fix-
ture Co.
Eastern Showcase Co. .
Charles P. Whittle Mfg.
Doten Dunton Desk Co.
Library Bureau
A. W. Allen Co. .
L. R. Washburn
E. W. Coffin .
J. W. Loring & Son

Boston

Boston

Boston

Cambridge

Cambridge

New Bedford

New Bedford

Worcester

Worcester

Cooperage and Tanks.

L. E. Flint .... Ashby
New England Tank and

Tower Co Boston

A. Bachelder & Co. . . Lowell

T. M. Cole .... No. Carver

S. W. Farrar & Son . Royalston

George A. Thayer .
Charles R. Richmond .
B. & A. D. Fessenden Co.
George P. Morse .
Wm. Brown & Son
M. H. Parks Co. .

Furniture.
William O. Loveland .
Albert M. Wilder .
L. Morse & Sons .
Smith, Day & Co.
Waite Chair Co.
Smith & Rice Co. .
Oliver L. Briggs
J. E. Came Co.
A. H. Davenport Co.
Paine Furniture Co.
Irving & Casson
Shales & May
Allen Chair Co.
Cadwell & Glazier
T. T. Greenwood .
George W. Travers Co. .
Washburn & Haywood Chair

Co

Haywood Bros. & Wakefield

Co

S. Bent & Bro.
Brown Bros. Co. .
Collier Keyworth Co.
Conant Ball & Co.
P. Derby & Co. .
J. A. Dickerman .
Greenwood Bros. & Co.

Kelly Bros

E. H. Mahoney Chair Co. .

Nichols & Stone Co.

S. K. Pierce & Son

L. B. Ramsdell Co.

Charles R. Field Mfg. Co. .

Merriam Hall & Co.

Whitney Reed Chair Co.

French & Heald Co.

H. E. Cummens

J. N. Crowe & Co. . .

Brown & Simonds Co. .

Derby Desk Co.

Alfred H. Whitney

W. B. Pierce ....

United States Spring Bed Co.

Heywood Bros. & Wakefield

E. J. Crandall

Mather & Pierce Co.

Kenney Bros. & Watkins

C. Dodge Furniture Co.

Carter & Campbell

Vocalion Organ Co.

Spruce Corner

Taunton

Townsend

W. Wareham

Winchendon

Winchendon

Ashby

Ashby

Athol

Baldwinville

Baldwinville

Barre

Boston

Boston

Boston

Boston

Boston

Boston

Concord Junction

Cooleyville

E. Templet on

E. Templeton

Erving

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Gardner

Greenfield

Leominster

Leominster

Milford

No. Brookfield

Salem

Somerville

Somerville

So. Ashburnham

So. Ashburnham

Springfield

Wakefield

W. Ha w ley

Westminster

Weston

Winchester

Winchendon

Worcester

Garden and Farm Implements.
Belcher & Taylor Agr. Tool

Co Chicopee Falls

Samuel H. Houghton . . Harvard
L. S. Crafte . . . .No. Hatfield

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

33

Garden and Farm Implements — Con.
H. J. Games & Co. . . Ludlow
Ames Plow Co. . . . "Worcester
Richardson Mfg. Co. . . Worcester
Zoar Mills Co. . . . Zoar

Handles.
H. G. Reed ....
The Mossman Wood Turning

Co.
Bolles Bros. .
J. H. Russell .
S. A. Healy & Son
Paul Wheeler
Amos E. Maynard
George A. Thayer .
F. T. Crosby .
C. A. Brooke .

Conway

Fitchburg

Mattapoisett

Melrose

No. Chesterfield

Rutland

Savoy

Spruce Corner

Williamsburg

Winchendon

Horse Vehicles.

S. R. Bailey & Co.
Wm. O. Loveland
E. A. Gillett & Sons
Henderson Bros. .
WT. L. Payne .
Archibald Wheel Co.
E. Teel & Co.
George L. Brownell e;
William E. Mann .
Pike & Whipple Co.
G. N. Sampson
A. M. Eames & Co.
Smith & HubbeU .
Brownell & Burt .
John J. Grothe
Henrv Jerome

tate

Amesbury

Ashby

Boston

Cambridge

Charlemont

Lawrence

Medford

New Bedford

Norfolk

Peabody

Plymouth

So. Framingham

Springfield

Taunton

Woburn

Worcester

Lasts and Fillers.

F. W. Stuart & Co.
Boston Last Co.
Brockton Last Co.
Mawhinney Last Co.
Woodward & Wright
Goodwin Bros.
Thomes W. Gardiner
George P. Cox Last Co
Middlesex Last Co.
Marlborough Last Co.
George E. Belcher Last
Golbert Last Co. .
S. Porter & Co. .

Co.

Beverly

Boston

Brockton

Brockton

Brockton

Lynn

Lynn

Maiden

Maiden

Marlborough

Stoughton

Worcester

"Worcester

Miscellaneous.

Wm. 0. Loveland . . Ashby

The Diamond Match Co. . Athol

The Atlantic Works . . Boston

Boston & Lockport Block Co. Boston

Oliver L. Briggs & Sons . Boston

Josiah Cunningham & Sons . Boston

New England Trunk Co. . Boston

J. Rush Green . . . Boston

Miscellaneous

Sanitas Mfg. Co. .

Hayward Screen Mfg. Co. .

F. L. Woodbridge

National Casket Co.

Standard Turning Works

Horatio Bisbee

C. S. Damon .

A. G. Spalding & Bros.

J. Stevens Arms & Tool Co. .

W. A. FuUer .

E. F. Hodgson

F. J. Smith & Co. .
Webber Lumber Co.
Florence Furniture Co.
George C. Tarr
Samuel H. Houghton
H. F. Puree .
S. F. Canney .
William K. Aldrich Co
Willis H. Bean
H. Carver & Co.
M. E. Killam .
J. H. Russell .
Norwood Engineering Co.
John D. Ondress .

G. N. Sampson
J. N. Crowe & Co.
The Horton & Hubbard

Co.
C. W. H. Moulton Co.
Charles Hyde
S. N. Farrar & Son
E. A. Jordan .

E. J. CrandaU

F. T. Crosby .
J. W. Loring & Son
William C. Sampson
C. W. Bryant

— Con.

Boston

Brockton

Brockton

Cambridge

Cambridgeport

Chesterfield

Chesterfield

Chicopee

Chicopee Falls

Clinton

Dover

Fitchburg

Fitchburg

Florence

Gloucester

Harvard

Huntington

Ipswich

Lowell

Lowell

Ludlow

Lynn

Melrose

Northampton

Otis

Plymouth

Salem

Mfg.

Somerville

Somerville

Southbridge

So. Royalston

W. Cummington

W. Hawley

Williamsburg

Worcester

Worthingto

Zoar

Musical Instruments.

The Theo. Schwamb Co. . Arlington

A. M. McPhail Piano Co. . Boston

Briggs Piano Co. . . . Boston

Everett Piano Co. . . Boston

Hallett & Davis Piano Co. . Boston

Mason & Hamlin Co. . . Boston

Merrill Piano Mfg. Co. . . Boston

Vose & Sons Piano Co. . Boston

Ivers & Pond Piano Co. . Cambridge

Seaverns Piano Action Co. . Cambridge

Standard Action Co. . . Cambridge

Ernest M. Skinner Co. . . Dorchester

Edmund Cole Piano Co. . Fall River

Trowbridge Piano Co. . . Franklin

J. H. Locky Piano Case Co.. Leominster

F.G.Smith .... Leominster

Wellington Piano Case Co. . Leominster

A. Merriam Co. . . . So. Acton

J. W. Stine & Son Organ Co. Springfield

E. W. Lane .... Waltham

Beckwith Bros. & Co. . . West field

Emmons Howard . . . Westfield

Hook & Hastings . . . Weston

34

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

Musical Instruments — Con.

Simplex Piano Player Co. . Worcester
A. Stevens & Sons . . Worthington

Railway and Street Cars.

The Laconia Car Co. Works Laconia
Keith Car & Mfg. Co. . . Sagamore
Osgood Bradley & Sons . Worcester

Refrigerators.
D. Eddy & Sons Co. . . Boston

A. D. Hall & Son .

Boston

A. E. James Co.

Boston

0. M. Whitman & Co. .

Boston

F. A. Atherton

. Worcester

Shuttles, Spools, E

OBBINS, ETC.

Frary Mfg. Co.

Charlemont

Chester Mfg. Co. .

Chester

Dana S. Courtney

Chicopee

W. L. Parker

Lowell

Union Shuttle Co.

Lawrence

Weld Bobbin & Spool Co.

Lawrence

The Hall Bobbin Co. .

No. Adams

Shuttles, SpoDls, Bobbins, etc. — Con.
M. H. Parks Co. . . . Winchendon
Winchendon Spool & Bobbin

Co Winchendon

Toys.

Frary Mfg. Co.

Noble & Cooley branch of
Hardware and Wooden-
ware Mfg. Co.

American Toy Mfg. Co.

Mason & Parker .

Whips.

Horatio Bisbee

A. F. Puree , .

H. E. Stanton

W. J. McCarthy .

New England Whip Co

W. C. Sampson

United States Whip Co
(American Whip Co
branch) ...

H. M. VanDeusen Whip Co

Charlemont

Granville

Salem

Winchendon

Chesterfield

Huntington

Huntington

Westfield

Westfield

Worthington

Westfield
Westfield

Pvi

USES BY SPECIES*

The manufacturers in Massachusetts report the use of 54 different
woods. The principal purposes for which each is employed are shown
in the list which follows : —

African Walnut.

Furniture
Interior finish

Ash.

Automobile bodies

Baby carriages

Balusters

Banjos

Baskets

Boat frames

Brush backs

Cabinet work

Car finish

Car frames

Carriage bodies

Castors

Dowels

Drums

Furniture

Go-carts

Gymnasium goods

Harps

Hobby horses

Measure rims

Molding

Newel posts

Piano cases

Ash — Con.

Picker sticks

Pipe organs

Pung frames

Rakes

Refrigerators

Sieves

Shipbuilding

Shovel handles

Showcase frames

Sleds

Sleighs

Snow plows

Snow shovels

Stair rails

Tambourines

Tennis rackets

Wagon gears

Wheel rims

Woolen mill cabinets

Applewood.

Boat knees
Box handles
Engraving blocks
Wooden type
Yacht ribs

Balsam Fir.
Boxes

Clothboards
Crates
Frames
Shoe cases

Bamboo.
Reaper whip handles

Basswood.

Baby carriages.

Barrel heading

Boat templets

Bobbins

Boxes for confectionery

Car roofing

Crates

Cupboards

Drug store fixtures

Drums

Fillers

Hollow lasts

Kitchen tables

Medicine cabinets

Molding

Penholders

Picture frames

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

35

Basswood — Con. «
Piano skeletons
Pipe organs
Pyrography wood
Reed ribs (in cloth mills)
Shirt-waist boxes
Shoe frames
Showcase tables
Skewers
Spirit levels
Spools
Toys
Trunks

Beech.
Balls
Baskets
Bobbins
Brush backs
Bucket handles
Children's cradles
Cores for veneering
Crochet hooks
Furniture
Interior finish
Lasts
Novelties
Piano posts
Plane stocks
Rolling hoops
Round boxes
Skewers

Slack cooperage
Soap sticks
Spools
Swings
Tool handles
Toys

Turned wood
Whip stocks
Valve handles

Birch (Sweet).

Banjos

Billiard tables and fixtures

Boring machine frames

Brush backs

Cabinets

Carriage bodies

Children's cribs

Counters

Druggists' fixtures

Drums

Flooring

Furniture

Gymnasium goods

Harps

Interior finish

Keys for musical instruments

Molding

Panels

Piano cases and hammers

Picture frames

Birch (Sweet) — Con.
Platforms for scales
Posts

Refrigerators
Showcases
Soda fountains
Spindles
Stair rails
Stools

Tambourines
Tennis rackets
Trim for passenger cars
Turned toys

Black Gum.

Agricultural implements

Furniture

Gun stocks

Interior trim

Panel work

Piano trusses

Pipe organs

Porch posts

Black Walnut.

Balusters

Brushes

Carpenters' tools

Furniture

Interior finish

Mantels

Molding

Organs

Package handles

Pianos

Picture frames

Pipe organs

Railing

Stair work

Tennis rackets

Boxwood.
Plumbers' wood
Plumbers' tools
Billiard material

Butternut.
Boats

Piano cases
Pipe organs

Cherry.

Automobile bodies

Boats

Cabinets

Car finish

Carriage panels

Furniture

House finish

Molding

Cherry — Con.

Organ panels
Penholders
Pianos

Picture frames
Sample-case boxes
Spirit levels
Stair work
Tool handles
Yacht trim

Chestnut.
Agricultural implements
Billiard tables and fixtures
Boxes
Cars

Children's cradles
Crates
Furniture
Gymnasium goods
House finish
Molding

Mission furniture
Piano cases
Picture frames
Pipe organs
Showcase doors
Slack cooperage
Stable floors
Stair work
Tool chests
Toys

Circassian Walnut.
Cabinets
Furniture
Interior finish
Musical instruments

Cocoa.

Tree sticks (used in shoe fac-
tories)

Cottonwood.
Boxes
Showcases
Musical instruments

Cypress.
Balusters
Boats
Cabinets

Cranberry separators
Doors
Furniture
Interior finish
Molding
Picture frames
Porch posts
Screen frames
Showcases

36

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

Cypress — Con.

Hemlock.

• Mahogany — Con.

No

Stair work

Boxes

Piano cases

Doc

Weatherboarding

Cloth boards

Picture frames

Flo

Weather strips

Crates

Showcases

Fre

Mill cabinets

Stair work

Gy

Dogwood.

Organs

Tennis rackets

Int
Pi!
Re
Sa

Shuttles

Siding

Yacht finish

Golf goods

Stair work

Maple.

Hickory.

Agricultural implements

Sci

Douglas Fir.

Automobile gears

Athletic goods

Sts

Sn

Flooring

Baskets

Balusters

Gutters

Carriage poles

Banjos

Interior finish

Golf clubs

Baskets

Masts

Gymnasium goods

Bobbins

:

Molding

Handles

Boxing machine frames

Organs

Heel cutter's mallets

Boxes

Porch columns

Rims for measures

Brush blocks

Portable houses

Rolls

Brush handles

Spars

Screens

Butter printers

B

Shafts

Candlepins

G

Ebony.

Trunk slats

Car finish

a

Brush backs

Wagons

Carriage bodies

s

Gavels

Wheels

Children's cradles

Handles

Church organs

B
C

;-

Organ keys

Holly.

Clamp jaws

Pedals

Brush backs

Cottage organs

Society goods

Crates

'

Italian Walnut.

Cutter frames

Die blocks

Elm.

Furniture

Drums

Agricultural implements

Interior finish

Flooring

:

Baskets

Furniture

Boxes

Lignum Vit^e.

Games

Crates

Boat finish

Go-carts

Hoops of many kinds

Bowling balls

Gymnasium goods

Hubs

Castor wheels

Handles

Parts of furniture

Harps

Parts of pianos

Loblolly Pine.

Interior finish

Refrigerators

Boats

Lasts

Showcase tables

Meat blocks

Slack cooperage

Longleap Pine.

Pianos

Soda fountains

Boats

Piano player actions

Trunk slats

Flooring

Railing

Wheel rims

Freight cars

Rolls

Inside finish

Skewers

English Oak.

Molding

Parts of machines

Slack cooperage
Soap sticks

Interior finish

Passenger cars

Spools

Tables

Pipe organs

Swings
Tambourines

Fir.

Mahogany.

Tennis rackets

Boxes
Crates

Automobile bodies

Ten pins

Actions for piano players

Toys

Packing cases

Canoe trim

Turnery

Slack cooperage

Counter tops

Whip butts

Drugstore fixtures

Wire mattress frames

Hackmatack.

Furniture

Boat building

House finish

North Carolina Pine.

Molding

Blinds

Newel posts

Boxes

Hazelwood.

Organs

Cloth boards

Piano legs

Passenger car finish

Crates

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

37

North Carolina Pine — Cop.

Doors

Flooring

Freight car siding

Gymnasium goods

Interior finish

Pipe organs

Refrigerators

Sash

Screens

Stair work

Snow plows

Wagons

Norway Pine.

Freight car siding
Walking planks

Persimmon.
Billiard cues
Golf stick heads
Mallets
Shuttles

Pitch Pine.
Boxes

Crates

Heading for barrels

Staves

Prima Vera.
Musical instruments

Quassia.

Quassia chips
Quassia cups

Rattan.

Furniture

Red Cedar.
Boats
Furniture
Interior finish
Yacht trim

Red Gum.
Piano skeletons

Red Oak.
Baskets
Boat finish
Furniture
Interior finish
Refrigerators
Rolling hoops
Snow plows
Stair work
Wagons

Redwood.

Carriage bodies
Cupboards

Redwood — Con.

Flooring

Furniture

Gutters

Molding

Pianos

Wagon tops

Rosewood.

Brush backs
Gavels
Piano cases
Society goods
Tool handles

Spanish Cedar.
Boats
Furniture
House finish

Yacht trim

Spruce.
Agricultural machines
Barrel bungs
Blinds
Bobbins
Boxes

Butter cases
Car roofing
Cloth boards
Crates
Doors
Furniture
Hobby horses
Interior finish
Mill cabinet work
Organs

Piano skeletons
Plugs

Refrigerators
Sash
Screens
Shoe racks
Slack cooperage
Sounding boards
Spars and yards
Spruce oil
Stair work
Stakes

Sugar Pine.
Blinds

Interior finish
Pipes for church organs

Sycamore.
Boats
Furniture
Interior finish
Pipe organs

Teak.

Boats
Bowling balls

Western Cedar.
Yachts

White Cedar.
Boats
Panels

Piazza columns
Tanks

Tennis rackets
Tubs and pails
Wedges

White Birch.

Baby carriages

Balls

Baskets

Bobbins

Brush backs

Children's chairs

Coffin handles

Doorknobs

Dowels

Novelties

Package handles

Penholders

Screens

Skewers

Slack cooperage

Spindles

Spools

Tackle blocks

Toys

Turnery

Wagons

Whip butts

Wire mattress frames

White Oak.

Agricultural machines

Baskets

Billiard tables

Boats

Bungs

Cabinets

Church organs

Church pews

Cottage organs

Die blocks

Doors

Flooring

Freight cars

Furniture

Gymnasium goods

Handles

Hobby horses

Interior finish

Measure rims

Molding

Panels

Parquetry

Passenger car finish

Pianos

Picture frames

38

MASSACHUSETTS WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES.

White Oak — Con.

Plow beams and handles

Plugs

Pulpits

Refrigerators

Screens

Showcases

Showcase tables

Snow shovels

Soda fountains

Stair work

Tight cooperage

Toys

Trunk slats

Turnery

Wagon wheels and gears

White Pine.

Agricultural machines

Automobile bodies

Baby carriages

Barrel heads and bungs

Blinds

Bottoms for measures

Bottoms for showcases

Brackets

Boxes

Carriage bodies

Children's wheelbarrows

Chocolate boxes

Church organs

Cloth boards

Crates

Cutting boards

Doors

Egg carriers

Freight cars

Furniture

Golf goods

Hobby horses

Hothouse sash

Matches

Mill cabinets

Pails

White Pine — Con.

Patterns

Penholders

Piano cases

Piano keys and key beds

Refrigerators

Sash

Screens

Showcases

Showcase tables

Shoe racks

Snow plows

Soda fountains

Tanks

Tobacco cases

Toys

Trunks

Wagon bodies

Warehouse car bottoms

Weather strips

Window frames

Woodenware

Yacht decks

Willow.

Baskets
Furniture

Yellow Birch.

Baskets

Bobbins

Brushes

Chairs

Go-carts

Handles

Interior finish

Skewers

Slack cooperage

Soap sticks

Spools

Stretchers

Swings

Toys

Turnery

Yellow Oak.

Furniture
Snow plows
Wagons

Yellow Poplar.

Actions in piano players

Agricultural implements

Automobile bodies

Balusters

Billiard tables

Boats

Bobbins

Boxes

Brackets

Brushes

Cabinets

Car finish, roofing and siding

Carriage panels

Chocolate boxes

Crates

Church organs

Doors

Drums

Fillers

Frames

Furniture

Gymnasium goods

Hobby horses

Interior finish

Molding

Newel posts

Panels

Penholders

Pianos

Railing

Refrigerators

Screens

Shelving

Showcase doors

Spools

Stair work

Steamboat finish

Weather strips

h

THE "WILT DISEASE." OR "FLACHERIE

n

OF

THE GYPSY MOTH.

BY

WILLIAM REIFF,

BUSSEY INSTITUTION OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER.

BOSTON :

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY. STATE PRINTERS.

18 POST OFFICE SQUARE.

1911.

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introductory. . . . . . . . . . .5

I. Caterpillar Diseases in General, ...... 7

Common Diarrhoea; Bead Disease; Muscardine; Pebrine;
Flacherie.

II. Resume of Some Experiments with Flacherie in 1909, ... 12

III. Flacherie Experiments in 1910, ...... 14

A. General, ......... 14

Acknowledgments; General Points of the Work; Con-
trol Experiment.

B. The Single Experiments, 20

Concord, North Carver, Boxford, West Bedford, Haver-
hill, Marshfield, Kingston, Brockton, Beverly, Co-
hasset, Hingham, Byfield.

IV. Summary, .......... 53

V. Final Conclusions, ......... 55

INTRODUCTORY.

Anything that offers promise of being effective in onr war-
fare against the gypsy moth is hailed with delight by our
Massachusetts people.

It is with pleasure that the State Forester is able to offer
this publication, setting forth the work with the " wilt disease/'
or " Flacherie," of the gypsy moth, which has been carried on
during the past two years by Mr. William Reiff, under the
supervision of Prof. W. M. Wheeler of the Bussey Institution
of Harvard University. Professor Wheeler's co-operative in-
terest in the moth-suppression work in the State is highly appre-
ciated by the State Forester, and the results shown in this
bulletin will prove, we are sure, of great interest generally.

This bulletin is a companion, in a way, to that issued on
parasites, in that it is another method of attacking our foe.
We desire to have as many strings as possible to our bow in
fighting this pest. That this " wilt disease " is a most hopeful
remedy there is little question. We anticipate carrying on
even more extensive work with it the coming season.

Upon reading this bulletin it will be readily apparent that
any one can easily assist in furthering this work at little, if
any, expense; and it is to be hoped that many will not only
acquaint themselves with the methods employed, but experi-
ment on their own initiative. If the State Forester can assist
you in any way do not hesitate to call upon him.

Acknowledgments.

The experimental work and writing up of the data in this
bulletin was done by Mr. William Reiff of the Entomological
Laboratory of the Bussey Institution of Harvard University.

The State Forester decided that the work undertaken by
Mr. William Reiff during the season of 1909 was well worthy

6

of being continued upon a much larger scale, and co-operative
plans were happily agreed upon with Dr. Wheeler, with the
results as outlined in this bulletin.

Besides Professor Wheeler and Mr. Reiff, there are the field
agents and local superintendents of the regular moth staff,
who made it possible to get results. To these we are also under
obligations for their loyal support and co-operation.

F. W. RAKE,

State Forester.
Boston, Mass., March 21, 1911.

THE "WILT DISEASE," OR "FLACHERIE," OF
THE GYPSY MOTH.1

I. Caterpillar Diseases in General.

The production of diseases is one of nature's methods of
quickly checking the overproduction of living things. Animals,
including man, and plants all have their own specific infec-
tious diseases, which usually appear whenever a species be-
comesv so numerous that it menaces the prosperity of the
coming generations. In the animal kingdom the possibility
of overproduction is especially apt to occur in insects, since
they form by far the largest portion of the world's fauna,
aud have a high rate of reproductivity. Insects, small though
they are individually, form in their totality an immense mass
of living matter. Of this mass we can get only a slight con-
ception, even when we consider that insects are everywhere
present, not only as a few scattered individuals, but in such
enormous numbers that they constitute, as it were, a world in
themselves. We may say without hesitation that among all the
conditions which arise from and are caused by animals, there
is none more widely distributed, more many-sided and which
interferes more deeply with life on our planet than that which
is brought about by insects. As Graber says : —

Man may unwisely neglect these creatures — as he does many things ;
but their power for evil crushes him the more; indeed, it may destroy
him if he persists in his neglect.

Now, such a power may be checked by nature by one of the
most efficient means which she possesses, — the infectious
diseases.

Owing to the profound influence which insects exert upon us
and our culture, attention has been drawn to their diseases.
A close study has been made of some of these; especially of

1 Contributions of the Entomological Laboratory of the Bussey Institution, Harvard Uni-
versity, No. 36.

8

those known to occur in the silkworm (Bombyx mori) and in
the " nun " moth (Psilura monacha), which latter destroys the
forests of Central Europe.

The first scientific knowledge which we have of caterpillar
diseases we owe to the valuable investigations of the French
scientist Pasteur. Since his time many other investigators have
been engaged in this study, among them the Germans Standfuss
and Emil Fischer, the Italians Yerson and Bolle, and the
Americans Snow and Forbes. By their experiments and in-
vestigations we are now able to recognize the character of the
more common caterpillar diseases.

We may mention some of those diseases with which the
lepidopterist will come in contact in the course of a few years.

A very frequent disease of caterpillars is the common
diarrhoea, which is produced in most cases by too juicy or too
wet food. This is shown by the unusually wet excrement, the
fluid part of which is green. If the disease is of longer stand-
ing, the excrement does not cling together, but is voided as a
pulpy mass, in which the single vegetable particles swim around
undigested. This disease in itself is not dangerous, since it
is not infectious, but it may prepare the way for the attack of
other infectious diseases, which will be mentioned further on.

In another disease, which has no popular name as yet, and
which I shall call bead disease, the excrement masses hang
from the body like a string of beads. This intestinal disease
is probably due to unhealthy food, but the specific cause has
not been determined. Apparently this disease, too, is not
infectious.

Of much greater importance is the disease known as muscar-
dine. This is really a collective name for a series of fungous
diseases, which convert the infected caterpillar in a short time
into a stiff, swollen mass, with the skin invested with a grayish-
white coating. Very hairy caterpillars are especially suscep-
tible to muscardine, but in extremely wet years even smooth
caterpillars suffer from fungous diseases. It is easy to deter-
mine whether muscardine is present in a given locality because
the diseased caterpillars crawl toward the exposed tops of grass
blades, poles or stems, and remain there after death, thus be-

9

coming visible for a considerable distance. On a trip which I
made in June, 1910, to Raymond, E". H., I saw thousands of
brown-tail moth caterpillars dead from muscardine, and com-
monly hanging in this characteristic manner. Since these
fungous diseases are extremely infectious, and propagate with
incredible swiftness, and since healthy caterpillars are much
inclined to gnaw at dead ones, the artificial production and
propagation of muscardine has been hopefully considered dur-
ing the last few years as a means of destroying the brown-tail
moth.

There are two fungi, especially, which are responsible for
the death of most caterpillars ; these are Botrytis bassiana Bals
and Entomophthora aulicae Reichhardt. Experiments with
fungous diseases of the brown-tail moth are being conducted by
Mr. A. T. Speare, under the direction of Dr. E. Thaxter of
Harvard University.1

The pebrine or pebrina, which has become so notorious
through the great damage it has caused to the silk industry,
is the caterpillar disease which has been studied so. far most
thoroughly. Caterpillars with this disease always have a
wet anus, and if they are hairy, the hairs on this region of
the body stick together. Smooth caterpillars also change their
color considerably; for instance, green caterpillars turn yellow-
ish, and are often mottled with dark, irregular spots ; gayly
colored caterpillars lose their brilliancy. This disease does
not kill in a few hours or days, but the infected caterpillars
languish slowly, lose their appetite, and become transparent
and ill-nourished. They then shrink more and more, till
finally at death only the flabby dry skin remains. Pebrine
appears preponderatingly in wet years, and its cause seems to
be lack of nourishment. The specific cause, however, the dis-
position, has not yet been absolutely determined. The carriers
of the disease are known under the name Corpuscoli di Cornalia,
and have been described by Lebert 2 as the fungus Panhisto-
pliyton ovatum (Micrococcus ovatus). Here it might be of
interest to cite from a review in " Deutsche Entomologische

1 "Seventh Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts, " 1910, pp. 98-101.

2 " Berliner Entomologische Zeitschrift," 1858, p. 170.

10

National 'Bibliothek," No. 3, Jahrg. IL, 1911, where it is
stated that the botanist Naegeli described the carrier of the
pebrine, as early as 1857, as Nosema bombycis. This review,
moreover, mentions the fact that W. Stempell (38. Jahresber.
Zool. Sekt. Westf., Prov. Yer. f. Wiss. u. Kunst, 1909-10, p. 37)
has made artificial infection experiments with this parasite,
and found that it develops with extreme rapidity and great
virulence, not only in caterpillars of the silkworm, but also
in caterpillars of several local species of the same family. Thus
Stempell reached the conclusion that this susceptibility of the
individuals towards the pebrine parasite might be used prac-
tically in combating injurious caterpillars. He further men-
tions that his researches on this and other Microsporidia are of
biological interest, since it would seem that there must be
organisms so minute that they cannot be seen, even with our
most modern optical instruments. In several infectious diseases
the carriers of the disease have not yet been optically demon-
strated, and it may be that these carriers are such small
organisms. These little oval shining bodies are now no longer
regarded as plant organisms, but as belonging to the Psoro-
spermii, a group of Protozoa. Pebrine is extremely in-
fectious, and is carried over, as Pasteur has proved, from gen-
eration to generation in the eggs, with increasing destructive-
ness.

We come now to the last and probably most important of
all the common caterpillar diseases, the disease called Flacherie,
Flaccidenza or caterpillar cholera, and in America known also
under the name " wilt disease." This disease is characterized
as follows : a caterpillar suffering from it soon stops eating,
becomes weak and lazy, and usually crawls up on some object,
as the trunk of a tree, a fence, a wall, or other vertical surface,
where it remains without motion. In a few hours there drops
from its mouth and anus a dirty, blackish, foul-smelling liquid ;
the caterpillar becomes more and more flaccid, one leg after the
other looses its support, and finally the creature, reduced to a
black skin, hangs dead, still holding on with one or two of its
false feet or with the anal claspers. The slightest touch now
suffices to break the skin, and a thin, dark, offensive-smelling

11

liquid flows out. Flacherie kills the older more quickly than
the younger caterpillars. Young .caterpillars, indeed, often
live several days before they are killed by the disease. It is
not positively known what organisms produce Flacherie. The
bodies of caterpillars which have died of this disease show ex-
tremely small bacilli, innumerable schizomycetes, and, more
particularly, many small strings of micrococci; but which of
these micro-organisms, if any, is the real carrier of the disease
is still unknown to specialists.1 To the investigations of Dr.
E. Fischer, in Zurich, Switzerland, we owe considerable infor-
mation regarding the primary causes leading to Flacherie, and
the manner in which the disposition to this disease may be in-
duced. He has pointed out that a decrease in the nutritive value
of the food of the caterpillars, which induces a disturbance in
their metabolism, is the first condition leading to the contraction
of the disease. As a result of these disturbances the organisms
responsible for the disease immediately find conditions suitable
for their growth. One of the main causes of the disease is
therefore to be sought in the predisposition of the caterpillars,
while the specific infection of Flacherie is to be regarded as
coming more or less secondarily; in other words, without this
predisposition infection cannot take place, and the predisposi-
tion can be brought about artificially by insufficient nourish-
ment.2 Flacherie seems to be influenced by climate and weather
conditions less than any other caterpillar disease. We meet
with it both in the old and the new world, in wet, in dry and in
normal weather. As a result of its comparatively great abund-
ance and its extremely easy infection, Flacherie has become the
" guardian angel " of the Central European forests. When the
" nun " (Psilura monacha) makes its appearance in some places
in Europe in vast numbers, man with his wit and the powerful
means at his command is quite unable to stop the destruction,
but Flacherie always comes to his assistance. Although this
disease has been much studied, it has not yet been positively

1 Very recently C. Sasaki, in Tokyo, Japan, found that there were also polyhedral corpuscules
present in caterpillars which were sick from Flacherie ("Deutsche Entomologische National-
Bibliothek," Jahrgang II., 1911, No. 1, Referat). Since polyhedric corpuscules, however, are
found chiefly in caterpillars which have been infected by the pehtrine, a close relationship of these
two diseases is highly probable.

2 See Fischer's detailed accounts in the " Biologisches Centralblatt, " Band XXVI., No. 13-16.
Leipzig, 1906.

12

established whether it is hereditary or not. There is at present
no argument that can be brought against the heredity of the
disease, while there are some important facts which indicate its
heredity. These will be considered later.

II. Resume of Some Experiments with Flacherie in 1909.

Fischer called attention, in his excellent paper, already men-
tioned, to the manner in which Flacherie can be artificially
developed. He says that the disposition to the disease is
secured by giving the caterpillars food which has been placed
in water and renewed only every three or four days. This
treatment apparently causes an injury to the leaf protoplasm,
due to the presence of too much water, and there is a con-
comitant increase in the acidity of the leaves.1 If, now, a cater-
pillar eats such leaves, the alkalinity of its digestive fluid,
which is very strong in healthy individuals, decreases, and in
this manner the first susceptibility to the disease is given.
Before the visible outbreak of Flacherie, Fischer could recog-
nize as an early symptom a characteristic sweet odor in the
breeding cages, which could be compared best to that of some-
what withered lilac blossoms. Whenever this odor was notice-
able Flacherie soon made its appearance, and as it progressed
the odor increased proportionately. Fischer recommends the
artificial production of Flacherie among the caterpillars of the
"nun" (" die Xonne " of the Germans) by intentionally giv-
ing the larvae this kind of food as soon as an abundance of the.
pest is noted in any particular locality.

Bearing in mind the close relationship existing between the
" nun " and the gypsy moth, I attempted during the summer
of 1909 to put Fischer's conclusions regarding the artificial
production of the wilt to a practical test. These experiments
were published in detail in the entomological journal " Psyche,"
Vol. XVI., Xo. 5, October, 1909. There appeared also a Ger-
man translation of the paper in the " Societas Entomological
Jahrgang XXIV, pp. 178-181, Zurich, Switzerland. The
main facts in these experiments are here noted. Up to 70
per cent, of the caterpillars were killed by artificially produced

9 l See the ."experiments which Sasaki performed on mulberry trees in Japan, "Zeitschrift fur
Pflanzenkrankheiten," XII. Band, Jahrgang 1902, 4. Heft, pp. 203-226; 5. Heft, pp. 258-278.

13

Flacherie, while all caterpillars which were kept apart for con-
trol remained healthy. From these results I was therefore
led to believe that the artificially produced Flacherie might be
utilized as a valuable aid in the destruction of gypsy moth
caterpillars. If the disease appears in nature during normal
weather conditions, the caterpillars are in most cases almost
full grown when attacked; but the farther the weather condi-
tions of the year differ from the normal, the earlier in their
life will the disease affect them. The fact that I succeeded in
rendering the caterpillars susceptible to the wilt before the
third molt suggested that this may be of importance in the
practical use of the disease, since by artificially inducing
Flacherie, relief might be had weeks sooner than happens in
nature.

Better to understand the conclusions drawn from the last
experiment, which was performed on trees on which a consid-
erable number of gypsy moth caterpillars occurred naturally,
the following account is given: A group of oak and another of
willow trees were infested with about 5,000 caterpillars each.
Shortly before their fourth molt, upon each of these two groups
of trees 100 sick and 50 dead caterpillars were destributed.
The disease spread with amazing rajndity, and even on the
following day many freshly killed caterpillars could be counted.
By the time of pupation about 4,000 caterpillars on each group
of trees had succumbed to the disease. Two conditions which
did not enter into my previous experiments united to cause this
unusual result. In the first place, the two groups of trees had
been badly infested and injured by gypsy moth caterpillars
the previous season, as was evidenced by the unhealthiness of
the leaves during the summer of 1909, and the caterpillars had
probably become predisposed to the disease on account of the
resulting decrease in the value of their food. As a second
very important factor may be mentioned the dry weather,
which by its desiccating effect upon the leaves served to render
the food for the caterpillars still less nutritious. Hence, from
the beginning there was a decreased vitality in the tissues, and
digestion was early disturbed. In short, the caterpillars were
already very susceptible to the disease at the time I introduced it

14

among them, and conditions were therefore most suitable for the
spread of the wilt. Always in the places that have been in j ured
by gypsy moth caterpillars in previous years, there is a pre-
disposition on the part of caterpillars of the following year
toward Flacherie. The heavy defoliation checks the normal
metabolism of the attacked vegetation, which causes a weak
and sickly development of the shoots, and these therefore do
not furnish the caterpillars sufficiently wholesome nourishment.
It should be remembered that these facts, in the long run,
mean a self-protection of the vegetation. If at this time dead
and sick material is introduced among the caterpillars in such
a locality, the organisms of the disease will act readily upon
the individuals present. Infection will take place even in
cases where a locality is badly infested by the caterpillars for
the first time, because one can always find a large number of
weak and therefore susceptible specimens. Then, as the disease
progresses, it acquires such virulence that even the previously
healthy specimens become infected.

In the article mentioned I called attention to other ways in
which the caterpillars advance the infection among themselves,
that is, during the resting period, during the feeding time,
etc., and how easily the disease may be carried over by the
caterpillar to its pupal stage. The great probability of an
economic value in Flacherie for destroying the gypsy moth was
suggested, but it was thought that the experiments of only a
single year had better not be taken as a comprehensive method
for the practical use of the wilt, and that further experiments
should be undertaken on a larger scale to substantiate the
obtained results.

III. Flacherie Experiments in 1910.

A. General.
In the spring of 1910 the author was requested, by the State
Forester of Massachusetts, to make similar experiments on a
large scale in different parts of the State.1 These experiments
were* undertaken with the help and kind encouragement of
Prof. W. M. Wheeler. I would also express my indebtedness

1 Cf.: "Sixth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts," 1909, p. 86.

15

to all those from whom I have received advice and actual
assistance. My thanks are also due to State Forester Frank
W. Eane and Assistant Forester L. H. Worthley for much
help ; and to their division agents, Norman Souther of Bridge-
water, and Francis C. Worthen of Georgetown, and to Mr.
H. P. Eichardson, local moth superintendent of Concord, for
their support in the field work. Last but not least, I owe,
through correspondence, several valuable hints to Dr. E. Fischer,
Zurich, Switzerland, who, through his investigations on insect
diseases, is to be regarded the proper instigator of these ex-
periments.

In the beginning of the work each of the division agents was
asked by letter to suggest convenient localities in which to con-
duct the experiments. Three of the division agents stated
that they had no suitable places in their districts. In the
remaining divisions 29 places were chosen, but at the end of
my investigations unfortunately 13 of these could not be used,
since some of the local moth superintendents had not followed
instructions, and other places had been sprayed with arsenate
of lead. Isolated forest districts, varying from small areas
to several acres, were chosen for the experiments. The isola-
tion was for the purpose of making easier a control of the
place, since in such a locality an eventual increase or decrease
of the caterpillar mass by migration was less probable. The
local superintendents of the different places were instructed not
to use any artificial means for destroying caterpillars in the
selected woods. I was, however, obliged to use some localities
in which, during the preceding winter, some of the egg clusters
had been killed by creosote. According to the size of the
various places, the local superintendents were requested to col-
lect a corresponding mass of gypsy moth caterpillars shortly
before their second molt. These amounted to from 50 to 100
individuals per acre. Where many egg clusters were present
but few caterpillars had to be collected, and vice versa. Hence,
the number of caterpillars to be collected was decided in ad-
vance for each locality. The reason for this is that an in-
fection spreads more easily and rapidly in a heavily infested
district than in places less damaged by caterpillars. In a

16

badly infested forest of 10 acres or more the average number
of caterpillars to be collected was placed at less than 50 speci-
mens per acre, since the disease spreads best in such localities.

The local superintendents had been instructed to feed the
collected caterpillars daily with oak leaves, or with apple leaves
where oak leaves could not be secured. These leaves were
not to be removed from the twigs, and were to be placed in
water for at least four days before feeding. A special em-
phasis was laid on not giving as food leaves of trees which had
been sprayed with arsenate of lead. As breeding cages com-
mon wooden boxes were used, to which the entry of air was
provided for by means of gauze coverings. Further, the local
superintendents, who were not familiar with the wilt, were
taught the character of this disease and its manner of appear-
ance, and were instructed to communicate with me at once on
the first appearance of Flacherie in their breeding cages. The
local superintendents were asked to attend to this part of the
work, since at that time it was not convenient to rear several
thousand gypsy moth caterpillars in one place, and also in
order that their interest might be awakened in the experiments.

As soon as the wilt was determined to be present in a brood
the whole material was transplanted upon the previously chosen
places, with the help of the respective superintendents. This
was done as follows : a piece of clean cloth, burlap, for instance,
about 2 feet long by 1 foot wide, was hung in dense foliage
between the limbs of a tree, or from one tree to another close
by (Fig. 1). In this hammock-like bag were placed, besides
the dead and still living caterpillars of the brood, also all food
remaining in the breeding cage, since such remains might also
be supposed to contain organisms of the disease. No means
were used to prevent the escape of the sick but still crawling
caterpillars, in order that they might disseminate the organ-
isms.1 Where possible, the bag with the material was hung
about 6 feet or still higher from the ground, in order that the
wind might aid in the spread of the disease. In planting
the diseased material the direction of the prevailing wind of the

1 That this is the case is proved by some experiments which I shall consider particularly later,
where only sick caterpillars were transplanted, but no dead caterpillars.

17

season was taken into consideration. For instance, in locali-
ties which had prevailing east winds the infected material
was exposed near the eastern border of the forest, but still
inside of it, so that the wind, before reaching the larger part
of the wood, was forced to strike first the center of the diseased
area. It may be mentioned that in some cases, where no con-
venient cloth was at hand, the breeding cages themselves with
the material, after the removal of the cover, were hung between
limbs. No difference was observed in the results. The in-
fected material was planted in most of the localities at a time
when most of the caterpillars in the field were undergoing the

Fig. 1.— Method of hanging hammock in tree.

third molt. The respective ages of the caterpillars will be
mentioned under each experiment.1

It was important to select places which gave the best guaran-
tee for the health of the growing caterpillars; hence, special
attention is called to the fact that in the experimental localities
no disease is known to have occurred among the caterpillars
of previous years.

1 I had always planned to plant the disease as soon as it made its appearance in one or the other
of the broods. This was, however, frustrated on several occasions by various circumstances.
For instance, some local superintendents did not notice the Flacherie till after the disease had
prevailed for several days, It was, further, not always possible for me to depart immediately
upon receiving a communication concerning the outbreak of the disease. It was also almost
impossible for one man to transplant the infected material to all the chosen places during the
short time in which the gypsy moth caterpillars were in the third or beginning of the fourth stage.
This is the reason why in some localities the disease was planted later, although the caterpillars
were already beyond the third molt.

18

After the eggs were laid in the autumn of 1910 all localities
were carefully inspected, and the number of the fresh clusters
was determined as nearly as possible. For examination of the
single eggs, five clusters, when possible, were collected from each
locality. Five clusters from a place in the western part of
Concord, Mass., served for control. These eggs must be con-
sidered as normal because they come from a place in which
positively no disease whatever has occurred. In collecting
clusters for examination the first Hve found were taken; and
were not taken at random.

Every single egg of all these clusters was examined micro-
scopically. This, it is true, required very much time, but it
was nevertheless indispensable. The eggs were separated into
three kinds : first, those that showed no signs of development of
the embryo (empty or unfertilized eggs) ; second, those in
which the more or less developed embryo had been killed before
its complete development; and finally, those which showed a
perfectly developed embryo (normal and supposedly living
eggs). In every case in which the egg could not be absolutely
assigned to the second series it was counted with the third
series.1

In the details of all the work everything which seemed to
suggest the economic value of the wilt has been purposely re-
garded from the most unfavorable standpoint, for the purpose
of meeting any objections. When estimating the egg clusters
from the selected localities there was always present either the
division agent or the local superintendent, and at that time
written notes were made of these estimates before the intro-
duction of the disease. In the spring we made the lowest
possible estimate on the number of clusters present, while
with the second estimate in the autumn, after the disease had
produced its effect, the fresh clusters were estimated as liberally
as possible.

The average which resulted from the examination of the
single clusters must not be taken as absolutely fixed, since the
small number of the clusters examined admits of a variation

1 The eggs of the control clusters could all be distributed with exactitude into the respective
series.

19

from the mean in both directions. The main purpose of the
experiments, however, was not to make mathematically exact
calculations, but to find out in what manner and to what degree
the gypsy moth may be infected by the wilt. For these pur-
poses the calculations made should be sufficient, and the figures
given will not be far from the real average.

As to the control experiment, the average of eggs in a normal
cluster was found to be 437. I am not aware that the eggs of
a large series of normal clusters have ever been counted in order
to establish an accurate average. In published reports the aver-
age of eggs in a normal cluster is stated as " 400 to 500."

Control Experiment, Concord, Mass.

Five clusters were taken in the western part of this locality,
where there certainly did not occur any disease among the gypsy
moth caterpillars. These clusters, therefore, must be regarded
as normal. The microscopic examination of the eggs of these
clusters gave the following results : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

per cent., or about 1 per cent.
99 per cent.

Cluster 1.

. 543 =99.27 per cent., or about

. 547 eggs.

Cluster 2.

o \ — «47 per cent., or about .5 per cent.
. 424 =99.53 per cent., or about 99.5 per cent.

. 426 eggs.

Cluster S.

3 1

. > = 1.74 per cent., or about 2 per eent.

. 395 =98.26 per cent., or about 98 per cent.
. 402 eggs.

Cluster If.,
o \ = -93 per cent., or about 1 per cent.

424 =99.07 per cent., or about
428 eggs.

99 per cent.

20

Cluster 5.

Unfertilized eggs, .

■n 'a j j u o r — -79 per cent., or about 1 per cent.

iiiggs with dead embryos, 3 J

Eggs apparently alive, . . 377 =99.21 per cent., or about 99 per cent.

Total, .... 380 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters is as follows : —

Dead eggs, .... 4 = .92 per cent., or about 1 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 433 =99.08 per cent., or about 99 per cent.

Total, . . . .437 eggs.

The results of this control experiment are used in estimating
the departure from the normal of the egg masses in all the
other experiments.

B. The Single Experiments.

Concord, Mass.

Division Agent, Chas. W. Minot; Local Superintendent, Henry P.

Richardson.

As a suitable place for my experiments, I located, on May 20, 1910,
an isolated forest of about 2*4 acres, belonging to the estate of Mr.
William Brewster. This place is situated in the eastern part of Con-
cord, about half a mile west of the West Bedford railroad station.
The forest consists mainly of oaks about twenty years old and of a
group of pines about fifty years old, all mixed with brush; and along
the border, especially on the northern part, are birches about ten years
old.

According to the local superintendent and to the owner, Mr. Brewster,
the gypsy moth caterpillars were quite numerous during the summer
of 1909. Both are certain that there was no disease among the cater-
pillars. We estimated this place to contain about 10,000 clusters of
eggs in May, 1910.

On June 6 I received notice from the local superintendent that the
wilt had appeared among the caterpillars which he had collected and
fed according to instructions. Two days later I went to Concord, and
found that some 10 caterpillars were already dead and the others were
apparently very sick, as they remained motionless even when irritated.
The superintendent had begun to feed the caterpillars on May 26, and
had noticed the first dead specimen on June 5. Accordingly, he had
succeeded in developing the wilt artificially in the course of eleven days.

21

With the assistance of the local superintendent the whole breeding
material was immediately exposed in the western part of the selected
forest. The distance from the ground to the material, which was hung
between the limbs of a tree, was about 15 feet. The largest number of
gypsy moth caterpillars in this locality were at this time in the third
molt, or about to pass into this molt. The wilt soon spread over
the whole forest, as was seen during occasional visits to the place
by Mr. Richardson, Mr. Brewster and myself. On Sept. 7, 1910, the
fresh egg clusters were estimated by the local superintendent and
myself to amount to about 5,000. Often 4 or 5 of these clusters to-
gether would not make more than 1 normal cluster; the actual number
of eggs was thus much less than would have been present in the same
number of normal clusters.

The examination of 5 clusters which had been collected Sept. 7,
1910, on Brewster's estate showed the following counts : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

3 1
, .. > = 9.66 per cent., or about 9.5 per cent.

. 131 =90.34 per cent., or about 90.5 per cent.

145 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 2.

2\

q > =7.43 per cent., or about 7.5 per cent.

137 =92.57 per cent., or about 92.5 per cent.
148 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 8.

13 \

4q > =48.06 per cent., or about 48 per cent.

67 =51.94 per cent., or about 52 per cent.

129 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 4-

a } = 8.64 per cent., or about^8.5 per cent.
74 =91.36 per cent., or about 91.5 per cent.

Total,

81 eggs.

22

Cluster 5.

Unfertilized eggs, - \ c „a , u^cc *

^, ..1111 ?}= 6.76 per cent., or about 6.5 per cent.

Eggs with dead embryos, 5 J

Eggs apparently alive, . . 69 =93.24 per cent., or about 93.5 per cent.

Total, .... 74 eggs.

Averaging these 5 clusters we have : —

Dead eggs, . . . . 20 = 17.24 per cent., or about 17 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 96 =82.76 per cent., or about 83 per cent.

Total, . . . .116 eggs.

A normal egg cluster contains on an average 433 eggs (p. 20) which
are apparently alive. Since the infested locality averages only 96 eggs
which are apparently alive per cluster, 41/4 clusters are necessary to
equal the size of a normal cluster. The number of the fresh clusters,
estimated at 5,000, thus has to be reduced to about 1,100 clusters to
compare with the 10,000 clusters present in the spring of 1910. The
number of apparently vital eggs, therefore, is decreased to about 11
per cent, through the action of Flacherie.

The local superintendent informed me that the disease had also spread
into the neighboring forest districts. By an extended walk through
about 5 acres of these woods I learned that the wilt had operated in
the same manner as in the first locality. He is of the opinion that
the number of clusters in this 5 acres has been decreased to about
15 per cent. Adjoining these woods there are about 15 acres of forest,
in which the local superintendent found that all egg clusters which
had been laid in the summer of 1909, and which had been deposited
1 foot or more above the ground, had failed to produce caterpillars,
that is, the eggs had remained unhatched; but the caterpillars had all
emerged from those eggs in clusters placed less than 1 foot above the
ground. I found that these statements corresponded very closely with
the facts. Here and there I noticed a slight exception by occasionally
finding either a high-placed cluster from which a few caterpillars had
emerged, or I detected close to the ground a cluster from which only
a portion of the caterpillars had emerged. These exceptions, however,
were insignificant, for they represented in each case hardly more than
10 eggs. I am unable, so far, to find any explanation for this peculiar
occurrence. At first I thought that an egg parasite might have exerted
its helpful power, but the examination of eggs from several clusters
which had remained unhatched showed that almost all eggs contained
a fully developed dead embryo, and no signs of a parasite could be
found. The moisture of the soil cannot be made responsible, for bor-

23

dering this forest there is another with exactly the same soil, the same
kind of trees and of the same age as the other place, and although
these forests are separated only by a very broad road, in the latter wood
the caterpillars of almost all egg clusters of 1909 had emerged from
clusters that had been placed at any height on the trunks of the trees.
There were exceptional cases of clusters, sometimes on the upper, some-
times on the lower part of the trees, from which all caterpillars had not
emerged, but there was no evidence of the peculiar condition that
characterized the clusters in the place first mentioned. Whether any
caterpillar disease has any effect in this occurrence, I cannot now say.
The solution of this question may come in the future from careful ob-
servations at this particular locality.1

An extensive forest in the southwestern part of Concord was visited,
in which, according to the information of the local superintendent, the
wilt had broken out naturally. The peculiar conditions which we found
here require a detailed description of the locality and of the manner
in which the disease operated. The largest part of the forest, about
20 acres, is situated upon the ridge of a hill. On the east and west
the hill slopes to wet meadows. On the north and south the hill gently
passes over into level country, and it is bordered here by broad roads.
The principal trees on the ridge of the hill are high pines about sixty
to eighty years of age; brush is almost absent. The slopes are covered
in large part with young oaks, which are much mixed with brush of
different kinds. Now, while the forest of the whole ridge, including
the northern and southern slopes, suffered considerably from injuries
by gypsy moth caterpillars during the summer of 1910, the eastern and
western slopes were exempt from this damage. Soon after the cater-
pillars had passed the third molt Flacherie made its appearance among
those feeding on the pines upon the ridge of the hill. The disease
developed here so rapidly that probably all caterpillars were killed, for
we were unable, even by careful search in these 20 acres, on Sept. 7,
1910, to find a single fresh cluster. The statement, therefore, seems
justified that all caterpillars, at least all the females (100 per cent.),
were here killed by the wilt. This very high number, however, was
restricted to the forest upon the ridge of the hill. On the first trees
of the northern and southern slopes fresh egg clusters were found, and
the number of these increased as we went toward the plain. But the
inspection of such dead caterpillars as were observed showed that the
wilt had also operated in the woods of these slopes. The local super-
intendent looked here for Flacherie, but it did not appear till the cater-
pillars were in their last stage. The reason for this behavior of the
wilt might be that the ridge of the hill, with its high trees, was much
exposed to the effect of the wind, and after Flacherie had once devel-
oped it could be spread very rapidly along the ridge. On the northern

f • l Similar observations, where eggs have not hatched, were made elsewhere by different per-
sons connected with the moth work, but no definite observations, as at Concord, were reported.

24

and southern slopes, however, the wind could not strike so hard, and
the spreading of Flacherie toward the plain, therefore, took place com-
paratively slowly. Upon the eastern and western slopes, on account
of the lack of caterpillars, the conditions necessary for developing the
wilt were not present.

A map of the place, sketched by Mr. Richardson (Fig. 2), which may
aid in understanding the description, is given herewith.

A

Fig. 2. — Experiment, Concord, Mass. A. Summit of hill, now cleaved. B.
Northern slope, infested. C. Southern slope, infested. D. Eastern slope,
not eaten. E. Western slope, not eaten. F. Meadows.

Five clusters were examined for comparison from the localities in
which Flacherie developed naturally. These were collected on a walk
through the forest district at the southern end of the hill, and from
different trees taken at random. The result was : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 1.

4l
lfi } =12.59 per cent., or about 12.5 per cent.

. 139 =87.41 per cent., or about 87.5 per cent.
. 159 eggs.

Total,

Cluster 2.

21

r. ) = 5.30 per cent., or about 5 per cent.

143 =94.70 per cent., or about 95 per cent.
151 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

25

Cluster 3.

= 2.14 per cent.

229 =97.86 per cent.

234 eggs.
Cluster 4-

= 3.17 per cent.

122 =96.83 per cent.

126 eggs.

Cluster 5.

6
32

= 12.93 per cent.

256 =87.07 per cent.

294 eggs.

Averaging these 5 clusters we get this result:

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive,

Total,

15 = 7.77 per cent.
178 =92.23 percent.

or about 2 per cent,
or about 98 per cent.

or about 3 per cent.
or about 97 per cent.

or about 13 per cent.
or about 87 per cent.

or about 7.5 per cent,
or about 92.5 per cent.

193 eggs.

We notice also that the egg clusters from this place, where the wilt
developed naturally, are considerably less than the normal size, about
21/o clusters being equal to 1 normal cluster. This, and the fact that
only 7.5 per cent, of the eggs would fail to hatch, while in the experi-
ment 17 per cent, were dead, is probably due to the fact that upon
this southern slope Flacherie appeared late and spread but slowly.

North Carver, Mass.

Division Agent, John A. Farley,- Local Superintendent, Herbert F. Atwood.

This locality was visited on May 9, 1910, with the inspector of the
southern districts of the State of Massachusetts, Mr. Norman Souther
of Bridgewater, to find suitable places for the intended experiments.
The gypsy moth does not occur here in such enormous numbers as in
the northern parts of the State, but I wished to have some experiments
at places where the gypsy moth has but recently gained a foothold.

An isolated wood of about 2 acres, situated somewhat southwest from
Makepeace's cranberry bog, was found to be a suitable place. It con-
sists of pines about forty years old and of oaks about twenty to twenty-
five years of age, with considerable brush.

26

The gypsy moth was discovered here for the first time during the
winter of 1909-10, by finding egg clusters. Several of these clusters,
unfortunately, had been already killed with creosote before my first
visit, but there were present, according to Mr. Souther's and my esti-
mation, about 25 clusters. Whether there was any disease among the
caterpillars of the previous year could not be ascertained, but it is
highly improbable, considering the youth of the colony and the large
size of the clusters.

On June 14, 1910, the local superintendent sent me word that
wilt had made its appearance among the caterpillars which he had
collected and fed according to instructions. I therefore went to North
Carver on June 16, and found that in Mr. Atwood's colony about
3 per cent, of the caterpillars had already died of Flacherie. Most
of those still living were very sick. He therefore had developed the
wilt artificially after a feeding of about fourteen days.

This same day, with the assistance of the local superintendent, a
part of the breeding material was exposed on the western side of the
selected place. The bag containing the material was fastened about
8 feet from the ground, between young oak trees. Most of the cater-
pillars of this locality had just passed the third molt.

On Oct. 7, 1910, an extended search was made by the local super-
intendent and myself, but only 4 fresh clusters could be found. The
microscopic examination of these 4 clusters resulted as follows : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.
5 |
21 ) = 6.03 per cent., or about 6 per cent.

405 =93.97 per cent., or about 94 per cent.

431 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 2.

■jo f = 5.38 per cent., or about 5.5 per cent.
375 =94.62 per cent., or about 94.5 per cent.

396 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 3.

£ ) = 4.65 per cent., or about 4.5 per cent.
205 =95.35 per cent., or about 95.5 per cent.

Total,

215 eggs.

27

Cluster 4-

Unfertilized eggs, . . 3 \ ^ or about ^ ^ ^

Eggs with dead embryos, . 18 J

Eggs apparently alive, . . 136 =86.62 per cent., or about 86.5 per cent

Total, . . . .157 eggs.

Averaging these 4 clusters we get : —

Dead eggs, . . . . 20 = 6.67 per cent., or about 6.5 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 280 =93.33 per cent., or about 93.5 per cent.

Total, . . . .300 eggs.

Since, as we have seen, a normal cluster contains on the average
433 eggs with apparently living embryos, the living eggs of these 4
clusters, after the wilt did its work, amount to about 64.5 per cent.
The egg clusters which were present in the spring of 1910 were esti-
mated at about 25, while only 4 fresh clusters were found in the
autumn of 1910. The total number of all apparently living eggs was
decreased in this locality to about 13 per cent., as compared with the
number present in the spring of 1910.

Another place for experiments, very similar to the last one, was
selected in North Carver. This is a forest district of 3 acres, and is
situated east of the cemetery on Wenham Street. The timber and
brush here are the same as in the other locality, and the egg clusters
of the gypsy moth were also first discovered here during the winter
of 1909-10. Unfortunately, several clusters were killed with creosote
before my first visit. The clusters still present were estimated by Mr.
Souther and myself at about 600. On account of the young age of the
colony and the considerable size of the clusters probably no disease
had appeared among the caterpillars of the preceding year.

The remaining part of the wilt material was planted among the cater-
pillars of this locality on the same day and in the same manner as in
the first colony. Here, also, most of the caterpillars at this time had
just undergone the third molt.

The estimate of the fresh clusters, which was made by the local super-
intendent and myself Oct. 7, 1910, was about 400, from which the first
5 found were used for microscopical examinations. The result is as
follows : —

Cluster 1.
Unfertilized eggs, . . . - 1

Eggs with dead embryos, . 12 / = 4'U Per cent'> or about 4 Per cent«
Eggs apparently alive, . . 280 =95.89 per cent., or about 96 per cent.

Total, . . . .292 eggs.

28

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 2.

r =17.17 per cent., or about 17 per cent.

oo J

193 =82.83 per cent., or about 83 per cent.

233 eggs.

Cluster 3.

= 7.38 per cent., or about 7 per cent.

9
113 =92.62 per cent., or about 93 per cent.

122 eggs.
Cluster 4>

r = 4.89 per cent., or about 5 per cent.
292 =95.11 per cent., or about 95 per cent.

307 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 5.

Q > = 2.95 per cent., or about 3 per cent.
362 =97.05 per cent., or about 97 per cent.

Total, . . . .373 eggs.
Averaging these 5 clusters we get : —

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive,

Total,

17 = 6.42 per cent., or about 6.5 per cent.
248 =93.58 per cent., or about 93.5 per cent.

265 eggs.

Since this place, after infection with Flacherie, contains on the
average only 248 eggs with apparently living embryos per cluster,
almost 2 clusters of this locality are necessary to equal a normal
cluster. The number of the fresh clusters, estimated at about 400, thus
has to be reduced to about 250. The number of apparently living eggs
in this locality therefore decreased, after the wilt had operated, to
about 42 per cent.1

1 This forest was cut down by the owner in the beginning of the winter of 1910-11, and all egg
clusters which the forest contained were collected by the local superintendent; 444 clusters were
found. Our estimate of the clusters in the autumn, which was 400, therefore was nearly correct.
The number of apparently living eggs which remained after Flacherie did its work has to be in-
creased 3 per cent., that is to say, to 45 per cent.

29

Boxford, Mass.

Division Agent, Francis C. Worthen; Assistant Local Superintendent, Harry

L. Cole.

Two places were selected in the West Boxford district for the in-
tended experiments. The locality which we shall consider first is situ-
ated opposite the almshouse, near the Almshouse Road, and is only
about a quarter of an acre in size. This small isolated wood is com-
posed of oaks almost fifty to sixty years of age, and there is no brush.
The gypsy moth caterpillars were numerous here in the summer of
1909. No disease had been noticed among them, according to Mr.
Worthen and Mr. Cole, nor have any artificial means of destroying the
gypsy moth been undertaken here. Mr. Worthen and I estimated the
number of egg clusters at the time of my first visit, on May 6, 1910,
at about 200.

Mr. Cole was intrusted with raising the caterpillars for the Boxford
experiments. Having received no notice of the wilt making its appear-
ance in the brood, on the 14th of June, 1910, I went to Boxford to
inspect the material. It was found that Mr. Cole had reared the
caterpillars in a very cold cellar, where they were eating but little
and were retarded considerably in their development. He was in-
structed to place the caterpillars immediately in a warmer place in the
open air. On June 19, 1910, a letter from him announced that
Flaeherie had broken out in his brood. On June 21 I went to Boxford
to confirm his statement. About 5 per cent, of the caterpillars of this
brood had already died of Flacherie, and most of the individuals still
living showed all the signs of the disease.

One part of this brood was exposed, with the assistance of Mr. Cole,
on the same day in the western part of the selected locality. The bag
containing the material was fastened between twigs of oak trees, about
6 feet from the ground. Most of the caterpillars of this locality were
at this time about ready for the fourth molt.

The fresh clusters at this place were estimated, on Aug. 26, 1910,
by the division agent and myself, to be about 60. The first 5 clusters
which were found were collected and examined. The examination re-
sulted as follows : —

Cluster 1.
Unfertilized eggs, . . . - 1

Eggs with dead embryos, . 6 / = 4'92 per cent- or about 5 per cent"
Eggs apparently alive, . . 116 =95.08 per cent., or about 95 per cent.

Total, . . . .122 eggs.

30

Cluster 2.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

r =10.16 per cent., or about 10 per cent.
115 =89.84 per cent., or about 90 per cent.

128 eggs.

Cluster 8.

= 7.14 per cent., or about 7 per cent.
91 =92.86 per cent., or about 93 per cent.

98 eggs.

Cluster 4-

lfi > =28.24 per cent., or about 28 per cent.
61 =71.76 per cent., or about 72 per cent.

85 eggs.

Cluster 5.

f. i = 2.96 per cent., or about 3 per cent.
164 =97.04 per cent., or about 97 per cent.

169 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, . . . . 11 = 9.17 per cent., or about 9 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 109 =90.83 per cent., or about 91 per cent.

Total,

120 eggs.

Since this place, weakened by the wilt, contained only 109 eggs with
apparently living embryos to the cluster, almost 4 clusters were neces-
sary to equal the size of a normal cluster. The number of fresh egg
clusters, which were estimated at 60, thus must be reduced to about
20 clusters. The number of apparently living eggs was therefore de-
creased, as the result of Flacherie, to about 10 per cent.

The second place which was selected in West Boxford for experi-
ments with the disease consists of an isolated wood of about half an
acre. Most of the trees are oaks about thirty years of age, mixed
with underbrush. This locality is situated on Highland Street, between
two apple orchards. In the summer of 1909 the gypsy moth cater-
pillars were relatively more numerous than at the first place. No dis-

31

ease was noticed among them by Messrs. Worthen and Cole, but it is
nevertheless possible that the wilt might have made its appearance.
No artificial means for destroying the gypsy moth had been undertaken
here. The number of egg clusters present at the time of my first visit
in the spring of 1910 was estimated by Mr. "Worthen and myself at
about 550.

Flacherie, which had been developed artificially by Mr. Cole, was
planted in this locality Jivne 21, 1910, in the same manner as in the
place first described. The caterpillars were about ready for the fourth
molt, as in the first experiment. With the assistance of the division
agent the fresh clusters at this locality were estimated on Aug. 26,
1910, to be about 80. The microscopical examination of the first 5
clusters found shows : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 1.

■if) \ — 6.67 per cent., or about 6.5 per cent.
154 =93.33 per cent., or about 93.5 per cent.

Total,

165 eggs.

Cluster 2.

f, } = 6.25 per cent., or about 6 per cent.
90 =93.75 per cent., or about 94 per cent.

96 eggs.

Cluster 3.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

= 7.09 per cent., or about 7 per cent.
118 =92.91 per cent., or about 93 per cent.

Total,

127 eggs.

Cluster 4-
3 |
y, ) = 9.68 per cent., or about 9.5 per cent.

140 =90.32 per cent., or about 90.5 per cent.
155 eggs.

Cluster 5.

This cluster proved to be entirely without eggs, and it consisted only of a
mass of wool of about 1 square centimeter in size. The female moth, which
deposited this cluster, seems to have been absolutely sterile. It started
mechanically, it is true, to lay eggs, but of course it could deposit nothing
except the hairs from its abdomen.

32

The average of these clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, .... 8 = 7.34 per cent., or about 7 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 101 =92.66 per cent., or about 93 per cent.

Total, . . . .109 eggs.

Since this locality, which had been infected with the wilt, showed
only 101 eggs with apparently living embryos on the average per
cluster, about 4 clusters would be equal to a normal one. The fresh
egg clusters, which were estimated at about 80, thus have to be re-
duced to about 20. The number of apparently living eggs in this
infested locality has thus decreased to about 4 per cent.

A third locality in which the wilt appeared naturally was somewhat
closely inspected. A small isolated wood of about 3,000 square feet
is situated on Main Street, about 500 yards south of Wood's Corner.
The trees consist of oaks a hundred years or more of age, and the
place is free from underbrush. The gypsy moth caterpillars were very
numerous here in the summer of 1909, but no definite statement can
be made as to whether or not there was disease among them. If the
disease was present, it was doing little harm, as otherwise dead cater-
pillars in large numbers would have been noticed, without doubt, by
the division agent or the local superintendent. Mr. Worthen estimated
the number of clusters present in the spring of 1910 at about 400. No
artificial means for destroying the gypsy moth were undertaken. Meas-
ured in a straight line this place is at least 1 mile from the nearest
of the two localities previously mentioned. Flacherie was noticed here
at a time when most caterpillars were in the fourth molt. Here, too,
the disease worked considerably among the caterpillars. It was hard
to find even 50 clusters when Mr. Worthen and I estimated the freshly
laid ones, on Aug. 26, 1910. For comparison the first 5 clusters found
were collected and examined. They gave the following results : —

Cluster 1.

Unfertilized eggs, ... - 1 .. . _„

Eggs with dead embryos, . 8 / = * 1.27 per cent., or about 11 per cent.

Eggs apparently alive, . . 63 =88.73 per cent., or about 89 per cent.
Total, . . . .71 eggs.

Cluster 2.

Unfertilized eggs, ... 1 \ ^n „

Eggs with dead embryos, . 10 / = 1028 per Cent-' 0r about 10 per Cent-

Eggs apparently alive, . . 96 =89.72 per cent., or about 90 per cent.

Total, .... 107 eggs.

33

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs ^fc^Iead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,
The average of these 5

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 3.

2 1

s f = 6.94 per cent., or about 7 per cent.

. 134 =93.06 per cent., or about 93 per cent.
. 144 eggs.

Cluster 4-

. \ = 4.26 per cent., or about 4 per cent.
90 =95.74 per cent., or about 96 per cent.

94 eggs.

Cluster 5.

2 1
19 ? = 8.59 per cent., or about 8.5 per cent.

. 149 =91.41 per cent., or about 91.5 per cent.

. 163 eggs.

clusters gives the following result : —

9 = 7.08 per cent., or about 7 per cent.
. 106 =92.92 per cent., or about 93 per cenl

115 eggs.

Thus in this locality, also, in which the wilt appeared naturally, the
egg' clusters were far below the normal size. Examination showed that
about 4 of these clusters would be necessary to equal a normal one
in size. The estimated sum of 50 clusters, therefore, must be reduced
to about 14. Hence, the apparently living eggs which remained amount
to about 4 per cent.

Finally, a forest of about 30 acres was inspected. This is situated
at an angle of 45°, and half a mile distant from the two first localities.
In this forest, which consists mainly of large pines and oaks, the gypsy
moth caterpillars had been present in considerable numbers during
the summer of 1909, and were still more numerous during the
first part of the summer of 1910. The owners of this place intended,
according to the division agent, to cut down the forest, thus preventing
a total stripping and decrease of the value of the wood. A powerful
ally came to the support of the owners during the latter part of the
summer of 1910, in the guise of Flacherie, which cleared up the cater-
pillars in a manner that left nothing to be desired. It cannot be deter-
mined whether the disease appeared naturally or was spread to this

34

forest from the two localities in which the experiments were performed.
However this may be, the wilt had acted at any rate in such a virulent
manner that in all these 30 acres of forest not a single fresh egg cluster
could be found, notwithstanding the most painstaking search on the
part of Mr. Worthen and myself.

Mr. Worthen also undertook, on his own behalf, the breeding of sev-
eral hundred caterpillars, feeding them according to my instructions.
The disease could be noticed in this brood as early as June 14, 1910.
Most of these caterpillars had just passed the third molt. Three days
later he exposed all the material among the caterpillars of a forest near
his home. Soon he observed the " dying off " of the caterpillars which
were there present. The number of the dead ones grew astonishingly,
but the final result cannot be stated, since, unfortunately, the trees
were later sprayed with arsenate of lead.

West Bedford, Mass.

The division agent and the local superintendent in this locality were
not requested to perform the experiments. My friend, Mr. L. W.
Swett, the well-known specialist in Geometridse, asked me in the spring
of 1910 to undertake an experiment with the wilt upon his estate on
Davis Street, northeast of the railroad station, in West Bedford. We
inspected the place for this purpose on May 29, and the locality ap-
peared to be a very suitable one for the work. It consists of two iso-
lated strips of wood, which meet at a right angle. One strip comprises
oaks about fifty years of age, mixed with some brush; while the other
consists of dense birch brush about six years old. The whole locality
comprises about three-quarters of an acre. The gypsy moth was first
discovered here in 1908, and the place since that time has been under
continuous observation by Mr. Swett. He assured me that there were
positively no signs of a disease among the caterpillars. During the
summer of 1909 the caterpillars were quite numerous. Part of the egg
clusters, which were laid in the autumn of 1909, were killed with
creosote, but there were still present, according to Mr. Swett's and my
estimation at the time of my first visit, about 400 clusters on the oaks
and about 100 clusters on the birches.

The caterpillars for this experiment were raised by the author at
Forest Hills. They began to die from Flacherie after a continuous
feeding of fourteen days, and just as they had passed the third molt.
This material was planted, June 22, 1910, in the birch brush, and the
bag was fastened about 6 feet from the ground. Most of the cater-
pillars of this locality were at that time half way between the third
and fourth molt. The place was visited again on July 18, 1910, to
determine the progress of the disease. Mr. Swett and I found that
the caterpillars were dying in considerable numbers, and the percentage
of dead individuals was greatest on the shortest brush, and decreased

35

gradually the higher the vegetation grew. For instance, all the eater-
pillars which had been feeding on the small willow brushes were already
dead. This brush, hardly 3 feet high, occurs here and there in front
of the two rows of woods. The dead caterpillars were readily seen,
as they were hanging all over the brush. Many of the caterpillars on
the birches were dying, but a considerable number of living individuals
was still present. In the colony of the high oaks, however, the wilt had

Fig. 3. — Experiment, West Bedford, Mass. A. Dense birches. X- Exposure of
disease. B. Oaks and underwood. C. Field. D. Marshy meadow with a few
scattered willows.

not spread so much, although dead individuals were found in consider-
able numbers.

On Sept. 23, 1910, the freshly laid egg clusters were estimated. We
made the interesting discovery that there existed no fresh clusters in
the row overgrown with birch. Thus, all the caterpillars, at least the
females, had been killed by Flacherie. To be certain of this fact the
crevices of the bordering stone wall were carefully examined, since
the gypsy moth female selects with preference such hidden places for
oviposition. But no fresh clusters could be found here. The other row
with the high oaks, however, proved to have a relatively large number

36

of fresh clusters, which were estimated at about 150. Mr. Swett later
made au examination and confirmed these facts. There is no sufficient
explanation so far for the peculiar behavior of the wilt in this locality.
Apparently the wind here played a special role. The difference in the
vegetation may also have had some influence. Does the eating of birch
foliage hasten the production of the disposition to Flacherie among
the caterpillars?

The accompanying map will complete the description of the West
Bedford locality (Fig. 3).

The microscopic examination of the 5 first egg clusters, found on
the oaks, gave the following result : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

_ ? = 2.69 per cent., or about 2.5 per cent.
181 =97.31 per cent., or about 97.5 per cent.

186 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 2.

- I = 2.67 per cent., or about 2.5 per cent.
328 =97.33 per cent., or about 97.5 per cent.

337 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, . .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 8.

. > = 3.25 per cent., or about 3 per cent.
149 =96.75 per cent., or about 97 per cent.

154 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embrj'os,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total, . .

Cluster 4-

12 1

— ) =20.65 per cent., or about 20.5 per cent.

269 =79.35 per cent., or about 79.5 per cent.
339 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 5.

q ) = 3.19 per cent., or about 3 per cent.
303 =96.81 per cent., or about 97 per cent.

Total,

313 eggs.

37

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, . . 20 = 7.52 per cent., or about 7.5 per cent.

Eggs apparently alive, . . 246 =92.48 per cent., or about 92.5 per cent.

Total, .... 266 eggs.

Since this locality, in which the wilt has worked, contained only
246 eggs with apparently living embryos in average per cluster, nearly
2 clusters were necessary to equal a single normal cluster. The num-
ber of fresh clusters, which were estimated at about 150, must therefore
be reduced to about 90. The number of apparently living eggs of that
part of this locality which bears the oaks was therefore decreased to
about 22.5 per cent, after the wilt had worked, while, as already men-
tioned, the part with the birches contained probably no living eggs.

Haverhill, Mass.

Division Agent, H. F. Armstrong; Local Superintendent, G. F. Moore.

With the assistance of the local superintendent a place was selected
for the experiment in East Parish, Haverhill; it is situated west of
East Broadway and northeast of Millway Pond, and on the Old Coun-
try Road. This locality represents almost 50 acres of isolated forest,
in which oaks about thirty years old, mixed with underbrush, prevail.
Only about 12 acres of this forest are infested with the gypsy moth.
The caterpillars were numerous here during the summer of 1909, but no
disease was present, according to the local superintendent. On May
18, 1910, our joint estimation gave 1,000 clusters per acre, i.e., alto-
gether about 12.000 clusters. No artificial means of destroying the
gypsy moth had been undertaken.

Mr. Moore, owing to lack of time, could not raise caterpillars for
the experiment, and he had no reliable man to whom he could entrust
the work. Upon the recommendation of Mr. Fitzgerald, the field in-
spector of the northern divisions, the brother of the local superin-
tendent of Methuen, Mass., Mr. Wagland, was intrusted with the raising
of the caterpillars. As no communication was received from Mr. Walter
Wagland by June 21, 1910. that his caterpillars showed signs of
Flacherie, I went on this day to Methuen, to convince myself of the
condition of the insects. The local superintendent, A. H. Wagland,
Mr. Walter Wagland's brother, was with me, and we found that all
the caterpillars were sick and that several had already died. The reason
why I had received no word from Mr. Walter Wagland was that he
did not recognize the disease. The planting of the material in the se-
lected place in Haverhill was accomplished the next day. All the
material was exposed in a pasteboard box in the western part of the
forest, about 6 feet from the ground and between limbs of oak trees.

38

Most of the caterpillars of this locality were at this time about half
way between the third and fourth molts.

The place was visited again Aug. 30, 1910, with the local superin-
tendent of Haverhill, to see how the wilt had operated, and how many
fresh egg clusters were present. First it was noticed that the infested
portion of the forest was not uniformly infected with Flacherie. While
the periphery of the infested area (about 8 to 9 acres) showed a very
considerable decrease of the egg clusters in comparison with those of
the spring of 1910, the real center of the colony, which covered 3 to
4 acres, had been more resistant to the disease, although here also
the number of the fresh clusters had decreased considerably in com-
parison with the clusters of the previous year. Altogether the num-
ber of fresh clusters of the whole colony was estimated by us to be
about 3,500. The 5 clusters which served for examination proved to
be as follows : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.
g |
2£ > =28.57 per cent., or about 28.5 per cent.

90 =71.43 per cent., or about 71.5 per cent.

126 eggs.

Cluster 2.

- ? = 3.31 per cent., or about 3 per cent.
146 =96.69 per cent., or about 97 per cent.

. 151 eggs.

Cluster 8.

• 4l

.jo } = 5.63 per cent., or about 5.5 per cent.

. 285 =94.37 per cent., or about 94.5 per cent.
. 302 eggs.

Cluster 4'

7 1
2_ > =12.36 per cent., or about 12 per cent.

. 227 =87.64 per cent., or about 88 per cent.
. 259 eggs.

Cluster 5.

n\— 1.95 per cent., or about 2 per cent.
. 302 =98.05 per cent., or about 98 per cent.

. 308 eggs.

39

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, . . . . 19 = 8.30 per cent., or about 8 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 210 =91.70 per cent., or about 92 per cent.

Total, . . . .229 eggs.

Since a normal cluster contains, on the average, 433 eggs with ap-
parently living embryos, and this locality in which Flacherie had pre-
vailed contained only 210 eggs with apparently living embryos on the
average per cluster, 2 clusters were necessary to equal a normal one.
The number of fresh clusters, which were estimated to be about 3,500,
must therefore be reduced to about 1,750. The number of apparently
living eggs had decreased in this locality, after the wilt had operated,
to about 14.5 per cent.

Marsh field , Mass.

Division Agent, John A. Farley; Local Superintendent, P. R. Livermore.

I did not visit this locality, but the experiment was undertaken by
the local superintendent with the assistance of Mr. Joseph Shermann
of Marshfield, who raised the caterpillars according to my instructions.
On visiting Marshfield on June 24, 1910, it was found that Mr. Sher-
mann's caterpillars, most of which were ready to undergo the fourth
molt, were sick with Flacherie. He was instructed to expose the ma-
terial, with the assistance of the local superintendent, in a forest in-
fested with the gypsy moth. This was done on June 26, 1910, in a
forest of 10 acres. On Oct. 25, 1910, the local superintendent sent,
upon my request, a number of fresh egg clusters from the locality
where the disease had been planted, and he remarked that the number
of egg clusters were considerably decreased in comparison with those
present in the spring of 1910. Unfortunately, further detailed com-
munications regarding this locality were not received. The first 5
clusters, which were taken from the top of the shipment, were exam-
ined microscopically. The result was as follows : —

Cluster 1.

Unfertilized eggs, 1 1 .

-c m.u j a u m I — 4.26 per cent., or about 4 per cent.

Eggs with dead embryos, 10 J v ' ^

Eggs apparently alive, . . 247 =95.74 per cent., or about 96 per cent.
Total, .... 258 eggs.

Cluster 2.

Unfertilized eggs, . . . 8\ .,_ ,„ i_x-.or

tp m.i. -j j i. cr ) =13.47 per cent., or about 13.5 per cent.

Eggs with dead embryos, 65 J * ' ^

Eggs apparently alive, . . 469 =86.53 per cent., or about 86.5 per cent.
Total, . . . .542 eggs.

40

Cluster 3.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

41 f = 10.59 per cent., or about 10.5 per cent.
363 =89.41 per cent., or about 89.5 per cent.

406 eggs.
Cluster 4-

14 r = 5.28 per cent., or about 5 per cent.
269 =94.72 per cent., or about 95 per cent.

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

284 eggs.

Cluster 5.

p } = 6.64 per cent., or about 6.5 per cent.
181 =93.36 per cent., or about 93.5 per cent.

194 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive,

Total,

31 =9.20 per cent., or about 9 per cent.
306 =90.80 per cent., or about 91 per cent.

337 eggs.

After the wilt had operated in this locality the size of the egg clusters
was not up to the average size of the normal cluster, and the percentage
of dead eggs was very high.

Kingston, Mass.

Division Agent, John A. Farley; Local Superintendent, C. C. Faunce.

With the help of the field inspector, Mr. Norman Souther of Bridge-
water, two places were selected for the intended experiments. The lo-
cality which we will first consider is an isolated part of the so-called
" Rocky Nook," and is situated about 1 mile east of the Kingston-
Plymouth car line. This place is about a quarter of an acre in size
and mainly overgrown with oaks about twenty-five years of age. The
gypsy moths were discovered here in the autumn of 1909 by finding egg
clusters. The youth of the colony made it seem improbable that there
was any disease among the caterpillars of 1909, and, moreover, the
egg clusters had a considerable size. Several of the clusters found
had been killed with creosote, but there were still left about 60 clusters,
according to Mr. Souther's and my estimate.

41

The local superintendent was intrusted by Mr. Souther with the
breeding of caterpillars. On June 24, 1910, I found the wilt in this
brood. The same day, with the assistance of the local superintendent,
one part of the material was exposed in the locality mentioned. This
brood was thoroughly sick, but the " dying off " of the caterpillars had
not begun. The bag containing the material was fastened between
twigs about 7 feet from the ground. The caterpillars in this locality
were at this time half way between the third and fourth molt.1

On Oct. 25, 1910, the fresh egg clusters of this locality were esti-
mated by the local superintendent and myself. We found that the
place contained almost the same numbers of clusters as in the spring
of 1910, with the difference, however, that many clusters had the hairy
covering only in part. Several clusters completely lacked this covering.
It seems that the disease spread very slowly, and that it did not kill
many caterpillars but had merely given them a mild form of the dis-
ease, which manifested itself later in the manner mentioned, when the
females laid their eggs. The 5 clusters which were first found were ex-
amined, like those of other localities. The examination gave the fol-
lowing interesting results : —

Cluster 1.

2\
,„ )= 3.97 per cent., or about 4 per cent.

363 =96.03 per cent., or about 96 per cent.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

378 eggs.
Cluster 2.

92 f =18.85 per cent., or about 19 per cent.
. 422 =81.15 per cent., or about 81 per cent.

. 520 eggs.

Cluster 8.

• 2\

gg > =13.48 per cent., or about 13.5 per cent.

. 385 =86.52 per cent., or about 86.5 per cent.

. 445 eggs.

Cluster If..

123 I = 20.98 per cent., or about 21 per cent.
. 467 =79.02 per cent., or about 79 per cent.

591 eggs.

1 This experiment was intentionally undertaken with sick caterpillars only, and no dead ones,
in order to see what effect the exposure of only sick individuals might have upon the healthy
caterpillars in the field.

42

Cluster 5.

Unfertilized eggs, .

-m -xi. j j u o r = 6.06 per cent., or about 6 per cent.

Eggs with dead embryos, 2 J * ' *

Eggs apparently alive, . . 31 =93.94 per cent., or about 94 per cent.

Total, .... 33 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, . . . . 60 = 15.23 per cent., or about 15 per cent.

Eggs apparently alive, . . 334 = 84.77 per cent., or about 85 per cent.

Total, .... 394 eggs.

Since this place, in which Flacherie had operated, contained on the
average only 334 eggs Avith apparently living embryos per cluster, the
size of these clusters was about one-quarter less than normal. The fresh
clusters, which were estimated to be about 60, i.e., the same number
which was found in the spring, thus must be reduced to about 45. The
number of apparently living eggs of this locality therefore was de-
creased, after the wilt had worked, to about 77 per cent.

This experiment also shows that the exposure of sick instead of dead
caterpillars contributes to the spread of the wilt. As in such cases,
however, the disease spreads slowly, the caterpillars, it is true, will not
be killed in large numbers, but they will be infected more or less
lightly. The result is that a high percentage of the eggs deposited
by the females will fail to hatch.

The second place which was selected in Kingston for an experiment
is situated on the eastern side of Jones River, opposite the poor farm.
This is an isolated wood of about one-eighth of an acre in size, which
contains several large oaks and underbrush. The gypsy moth was dis-
covered here also by the finding of egg clusters first in the autumn of
1909. It cannot be stated whether disease was present among the cater-
pillars of the summer of 1909, but this seems improbable, owing to the
youth of the colony. Several of the clusters were killed with creosote,
but there were still left, according to Mr. Souther's estimate, about
50 clusters.

The planting of the sick material was accomplished on the same
day and in the same manner as in the first locality. Estimating the
fresh clusters on Oct. 25, 1910, unfortunately I found that most of
these fresh clusters (about 25) had been already killed with creosote
by the men working under the local superintendent. Even with the
assistance of the local superintendent, only 2 untouched egg clusters
could be found. Only 1 of these could be collected, since the second
was out of reach. Although, therefore, we are unable to draw any

43

complete and final conclusions in regard to the work of the wilt in
this locality, nevertheless the result of the examination of the single
cluster which could be secured may be given : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

r i = 3.52 per cent., or about 3.5 per cent.
356 =96.48 per cent., or about 96.5 per cent.

369 eggs.

All we can say concerning this locality is that through the operation
of Macherie, which was introduced by sick material only, the number
of fresh clusters seems to have been reduced in comparison with that of
the previous year.

Brockton, Mass.

Division Agent, L. W. Hodgkins; Local Superintendent, E. Moltan.

The place which, with the assistance of the inspector, Mr. Norman
Souther of Bridgewater, was selected for an experiment, is situated
near Oak Street, northwest of Brockton Center and east of the Dutch-
land Farm. The place, of about half an acre, consists of a growth
of oaks about forty to fifty years of age; no brush is present. The
caterpillars of the gypsy moth were abundant here in the summer of
1909, but no disease was noticed among them. Several of the clusters
were killed with creosote during the winter of 1909-10. The clusters
which were left were estimated by Mr. Souther and myself to be
about 40.

The raising of caterpillars for the intended experiment Mr. Souther
intrusted to Mr. Rudolph Marshall, 218 Battle Street, Brockton. On
June 24, 1910, the brood was inspected. Several caterpillars had
already died from the wilt and the others were found to be sick. This
same day the whole material was exposed in the selected place. The
bag was fastened between oak limbs, about 8 feet from the ground.
Most of the caterpillars of this locality were at this time about half
way between the third and fourth molt.

This place was visited again on Oct. 7, 1910, with Mr. Souther, to
determine the number of fresh clusters. But in spite of the most strenu-
ous search there were found but 4 clusters; these were collected for
examination. They resulted as follows : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

2\
■tft) — 2.99 per cent., or about 3 per cent.

. 389 =97.01 per cent., or about 97 per cent.

401 eggs.

44

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Cluster 2.

13 1

22 ) =11.71 per cent., or about 11.5 per cent.

264 =88.29 per cent., or about 88.5 per cent.

299 eggs.

Cluster 3.

3 1
1 . } = 5.47 per cent., or about 5.5 per cent.

294 =94.53 per cent., or about 94.5 per cent.
311 eggs.

Cluster 4-

2l
.. o ) — 4.81 per cent., or about 5 per cent.

396 =95.19 per cent., or about 95 per cent.
416 eggs.

Total,
The average of these 4 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive,

Total,

21 = 5.88 per cent., or about 6 per cent.
336 =94.12 per cent., or about 94 per cent.

357 eggs.

Since this place, in which the wilt had operated, contained only
336 eggs with apparently living embryos on the average per cluster, the
size of these clusters was about one-fourth less than normal. The num-
ber of the fresh clusters, which were found to be 4, must thus be re-
duced to 3. The number of apparently living eggs of this locality
therefore was decreased, after Flacherie had worked, to about 7.5 per
cent.

Beverly, Mass.

Division Agent, Saul Phillips; Assistant, W. F. Holmes.

With the help of the assistant of the division agent two places were
selected for the experiments. The place which we will first consider
is situated near Hart Street, north of Greenwood Avenue, Beverly
Farms. It is an isolated wood of about 1 acre, mainly overgrown with
maple about fifty to sixty years of age, and yellow birch, and has dense
underbrush. The gypsy moth caterpillars were very numerous here
during the summer of 1909, but no disease was noticed among them.
A small percentage of egg clusters was killed with creosote during the

45

winter of 1909-10. A joint estimate of the egg clusters in this locality
made with the assistant of the division agent in the spring of 1910 re-
sulted in finding about 500 clusters.

The rearing of caterpillars was undertaken by Mr. Phillips's as-
sistant. On June 20, 1910, he noticed the first dead individuals in
the brood. Three days after the receipt of this communication I went
to Beverly to inspect the material. Many of the caterpillars had
already died from the wilt. This same day (June 25), with the help
of the assistant, one part of the material was exposed in the western
portion of the locality mentioned. The bag containing the material
was fastened about 6 feet from the ground, between limbs with dense
foliage. Most of the caterpillars of this locality had at this time just
passed the third molt.

After the wilt had operated all through the summer among the cater-
pillars of this locality, the place was visited again on Sept. 13, 1910,
together with Mr. Phillips's assistant. We estimated the number of
fresh clusters present to be about 250. The decrease in the size of
the clusters compared with those of the previous year was very strik-
ing. The examination of the first 5 clusters which were found gave
the following result : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

12 } = 13.60 per cent., or about 13.5 per cent.
108 =86.40 per cent., or about 86.5 per cent.

125 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 2.

2\

g ).— 5.92 per cent., or about 6 per cent.

159 =94.08 per cent., or about 94 per cent.
169 eggs.

Cluster 8.

q ? = 7.37 per cent., or about 7 per cent.
88 =92.63 per cent., or about 93 per cent.

95 eggs.

Cluster 4'

~ I = 5.76 per cent., or about 5.5 per cent.
131 =94.24 per cent., or about 94.5 per cent.

139 eggs.

46

Cluster 5.

-in -j-u j j ' u /t r = 6.45 per cent., or about 6.5 per cent.

Eggs with dead embryos, 4 J ^ ' ^

Eggs apparently alive, . . 58 =93.55 per cent., or about 93.5 per cent.
Total, .... 62 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, .... 9 = 7.63 per cent., or about 7.5 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 109 =92.37 per cent., or about 92.5 per cent.

Total, . . . .118 eggs.

Since a normal cluster contains on the average 433 eggs with appar-
ently living embryos, and this place, in which Flacherie had operated,
contained only 109 eggs with apparently living embryos on the average
per cluster, about 4 clusters were necessary to equal the size of a
normal one. The number of fresh clusters, which were estimated to
be about 250, thus must be reduced to about 65. The number of ap-
parently living eggs of this locality therefore was decreased, after the
wilt had worked, to about 15 per cent.

For the second experiment a small isolated group of oaks, about
eighty years of age, was selected. This place is situated near the
railroad station, Beverly Farms, between the railroad track and the
ocean. The caterpillars of the gypsy moth have always appeared here
only in small numbers, and there were hardly more than one dozen
clusters in the spring of 1910, according to our estimate. It must
be mentioned, especially, that this locality is always exposed to very
strong winds.

Flacherie, artificially developed by the assistant of the division agent,
was planted among the caterpillars at this place on June 25, 1910, in
the same manner as in the first locality. Considering the heavy breeze
the material was placed in a wooden box, which was then fastened
between limbs; thus the wind was not able to carry off the whole
material. Most of the caterpillars of this place were about ready
at this time to undergo the third molt.

On Sept. 13, 1910, this locality was visited again. The wilt had
done very considerable damage to the caterpillars. Although the place
was carefully searched with Mr. Holmes's assistance, we could find but
2 fresh clusters. One of these is especially remarkable, as it lacks com-
pletely the protecting covering. The microscopic examination of both
clusters gave the following results : —

47

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

3 1

> = 9.17 per cent., or about 9 per cent.

. 109 =90.83 per cent., or about 91 per cent.
. 120 eggs.

Cluster 2. 1

38 1

| =87.50 per cent., or about 87.5 per cent.

+ 12.5 per cent.

22 = 12.50 per cent., or about

176 eggs.

The average of these 2 clusters gives the following : —

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive,

Total,

83 =55.70 per cent., or about 55.5 per cent.
66 =44.30 per cent., or about 44.5 per cent.

149 eggs.

Since this place, in which Flacherie had operated, contained only
66 eggs with apparently living embryos on the average per cluster,
the size of these clusters was about five-sixths less than normal. The
number of fresh clusters, which were found to be 2, thus equal together
only one-third of a normal one. The number of apparently living
eggs of this locality therefore had decreased, after the wilt had worked,
to about 3 per cent.

Colnasset, Mass.

Division Agent, F. A. Bates; Local Superintendent, J. E. Grassie.

An island, known as Barron's Island, which is situated southeast of
Cohasset in the headpart of Bailey's Creek, was selected for the ex-
periment. This island has an area of about 10 acres, and is densely
overgrown, mostly with oaks about twenty-five years of age and with
underbrush. The gypsy moth was quite numerous here in 1909, but
there was no disease among the caterpillars, according to Mr. Grassie's
statement. Our joint estimate of the clusters which were present in
the spring of 1910 was about 2,000. No artificial means of destroying
the gypsy moth had been undertaken here.

Mr. Grassie, who was intrusted with the breeding of the caterpillars,
noticed the wilt in this brood after a feeding of about sixteen days.
On June 27, 1910, the caterpillars were inspected, and there were found

1 Without the protecting cover.

48

about 70 per cent, individuals already dead from the disease.1 The
same day all the material was exposed, with the assistance of Mr. Gras-
sie, in the western part of the selected place, and about 6 feet from
the ground. Most of the caterpillars of this locality were at this
time about ready to undergo the fourth molt. ,

On Sept. 26, 1910, the island was visited again, in company of the
local superintendent, to determine in what manner the wilt had op-
erated among the caterpillars. An especially considerable reduction
of the number of the fresh egg clusters, compared with those of the
previous year, had not occurred. According to our estimate there were
about 1,500 fresh clusters. The size of each of these clusters, com-
pared with the clusters found in the spring of 1910, was diminished
in such a degree, however, that the clusters were often no larger than
a bean. The eggs also were often only covered in part with hair. This,
as well as the comparatively small mortality and the smallness of the
fresh clusters, may be perhaps a consequence of the late planting of
the disease. It is true that a number of caterpillars were killed, but
most of them only grew slightly sick, the disease again expressing it-
self at the time of oviposition. The fresh clusters of this locality were
also of an abnormally light yellowish color, which was noticed nowhere
else.

The examination of the first 5 clusters found gave the following re-
sult : —

Cluster 1.

Unfertilized eggs, . . . 4 1 n nn . .

Eggs with dead embryos, . 7 / = °6 per cent" or about 6 per cent'

Eggs apparently alive, . . 162 =93.64 per cent., or about 94 per cent.

Total, . . . .173 eggs.

Cluster 2.

Unfertilized eggs, ... 3 1 . nn ^

Eggs with dead embryos, . 15 J =23-68 per Cent"' 0r about 23"5 per Cent'

Eggs apparently alive, . . 58 =76.32 per cent., or about 76.5 per cent.

Total, .... 76 eggs.

Cluster 3.

Unfertilized eggs, . . . 1 1 ■ , - «

Eggs with dead embryos, . 6 ) " 12'28 per cent- or about 12 per cent

Eggs apparently alive, . . 50 =87.72 per cent., or about 88 per cent.

Total, .... 57 eggs.

1 It should be mentioned that Mr. Grassie sent a telephone communication on June 12, 1910,
that the wilt had made its appearance among his caterpillars, but by a mistake I did not receive
this notice until June 23.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

49

Cluster 4-

5 \
91 f =18.31 per cent., or about 18 per cent.

. 116 =81.69 per cent., or about 82 per cent.
. 142 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 5.

8
66

= 39.15 per cent., or about 39 per cent.

115 =60.85 per cent., or about 61 per cent.

189 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

27 =21.26 per cent., or about 21 per cent.
100 =78.74 per cent., or about 79 per cent.

127 eggs.

Since this place, in which Flacherie had worked, contained only 100
eggs with apparently living embryos on the average per cluster, more
than 4 clusters were necessary to equal a normal cluster. Thus the
number of fresh clusters must be reduced to about 370. The number
of apparently living eggs of this locality therefore had decreased, after
the wilt had operated, to about 18 per cent.

Hingham, Mass.

Division Agent, F. A. Bates; Local Superintendent, A. W. Young.

For the experiment an island of about 1 acre was selected, very
densely overgrown with low wood. This island is situated east of
Water Street and south of the railroad track in the so-called Millpond.
The wood consists mainly of oaks and birches of five to six years of
age, and of underbrush. The gypsy moth was quite numerous here
in the summer of 1909, but there was no disease among the caterpillars,
according to the statements of the division agent and the local super-
intendent. Several of the clusters were killed with creosote during the
winter of 1909-10. The number of the clusters which still remained
was estimated by Mr. Young and myself to be about 100.

The breeding of a series of caterpillars was accomplished exactly
according to my instructions by the local superintendent, but unfor-
tunately he omitted to send word when the wilt made its appearance,
since he had understood that he was to notify me only after all the
caterpillars of the brood had died. To convince myself about the con-

50

dition of the brood, I inspected the caterpillars July 1, 1910, and found
that about 60 per cent, of them had succumbed to Flacherie. The first
dead caterpillars were noticed by Mr. Young about fifteen days before.
On the same day the whole of the material was exposed, with Mr.
Young's assistance, in the southwestern part of the island, about 5 feet
from the ground. Most of the caterpillars of this locality had at this
time just undergone the fourth molt.

On Sept. 26, 1910, this island was visited, again in company with the
local superintendent. We could see that the wilt had done very con-
siderable damage to the caterpillars, for there were only a few scattered
clusters. According to our estimate there were hardly 15 fresh clusters
present; these, moreover, were much smaller in size than those of the
previous year. It was also noticed that the clusters were often only
partly covered with hair. All these conditions may well be attributed
to Flacherie. The almost full-grown caterpillars had contracted the
disease, and the females which then emerged from pupae produced by
these caterpillars were unable to oviposit like healthy moths.

The examination of the first 5 clusters found gave the following re-
sult : —

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

3 1
I* |= 9.56 per cent., or about 9.5 per cent.

. 123 =90.44 per cent., or about 90.5 per cent

136 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 2.
3 |
12 ) = 8.82 per cent., or about 9 per cent.

155 =91.18 per cent., or about 91 per cent.
170 eggs.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 8.

- ) = 4.73 per cent., or about 4.5
161 =95.27 per cent., or about

per cent.
95.5 per cent.

169 eggs.

Cluster 4-

2\

- > =10.77 per cent., or about 10.5 per cent.

58 =89.23 per cent., or about 89.5 per cent.
65 eggs.

51

Cluster 5.

Unfertilized eggs, 4 \ __ u+n *

_, .,, i i i n r = 9.22 per cent., or about 9 per cent.

Eggs with dead embryos, 9 J

Eggs apparently alive, . . 128 =90.78 per cent., or about 91 per cent.

Total, . . . .141 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result : —

Dead eggs, . . . . 11 = 8.09 per cent., or about 8 per cent.
Eggs apparently alive, . . 125 =91.91 per cent., or about 92 per cent.

Total, . . . .136 eggs.

Since this place, in which Flacherie had operated, contained only 125
eggs with apparently living embryos on the average per cluster, almost
4 clusters were necessary to equal a normal one. The number of the fresh
clusters thus must be reduced to about 5. The number of apparently
living eggs of this locality therefore had decreased, after the wilt had
worked, to about 5 per cent.

Byfield, Mass.

On June 30, 1910, a letter was received from Mr. James 0. Hale
of Byfleld, in which he stated that he had heard of my Flacherie ex-
periments of 1909, and asked for aid in diminishing the gypsy moth
caterpillars by using Flacherie. I therefore visited the locality on
July 5, 1910, and took with me sick and dead caterpillars which had
been raised at Forest Hills. The forest in question is about 4 to 5
acres in size, and consists mainly of oaks of different ages and some
underbrush. It is situated on the border between Rowley and Newbury.
It is not isolated, but connected with woods which belong to other
persons. At the time of my arrival most of the caterpillars had already
undergone the fifth molt, so that it seemed questionable whether the
disease would be able to show much success this year. The infected
material was exposed in the southwestern part of the forest, about
7 feet from the ground. It proved to be impossible to secure a correct
estimate of the caterpillars which were present ; all that could be stated
was that the caterpillars were quite plentiful.

This locality was visited again with Mr. Hale on Sept. 16, 1910, to
determine the results. Mr. Hale gave his opinion that there was, at
the least, no increase in the number of egg clusters compared with that
of the previous year, although there was no visible decrease in the
number of the fresh clusters. However, these fresh clusters were con-
siderably smaller than those of the preceding year.

The first 5 clusters collected gave the following counts : —

52

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Cluster 1.

2\

fi > = 8.33 per cent., or about 8 per cent.

58 =91.67 per cent., or about 92 per cent.

96 eggs.

Cluster 2.

. \ = 3.76 per cent., or about 3.5 per cent.
128 =96.24 per cent., or about 96.5 per cent.

133 eggs.

Cluster 8.

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

Unfertilized eggs, .
Eggs with dead embryos,
Eggs apparently alive, .

Total,

- ) = 2.75 per cent., or about 2.5 per cent.
212 =97.25 per cent., or about 97.5 per cent.

218 eggs.

Cluster 4>
2*

4 J "■-*- '

121 =95.28 per cent., or about 95.5

127 eggs.

= 4.72 per cent., or about 4.5 per cent.

per cent.

Cluster 5.
= 5.59 per

3 1

cent., or about 5.5 per

6 j
152 =94.41 per cent., or about 94.5 per

cent.

cent.

161 eggs.

The average of these 5 clusters gives the following result:

Dead eggs,

Eggs apparently alive,

Total,

7 = 4.76 per cent., or about 4.5 per cent.
140 =95.24 per cent., or about 95.5 per cent.

147 eggs.

We notice that the clusters of this locality in which the wilt had
operated are far smaller than normal ones, since about 3 clusters are
necessary to equal the size of a normal one. The percentage of dead
eggs, however, does not attain that of other localities.

53

IV. Summary.

The artificially developed Flacherie was planted, after the
" dying off " of the breeding material had begun, among the
caterpillars of the gypsy moth in the following localities, the de-

i

Fig. 4. — Diagram showing percentage of living eggs in healthy colonies.

tails in regard to these experiments being given in the preceding
pages. The number of apparently living eggs was reduced to
the following percentages : —

Per Cent.

Concord, Mass. (Brewster's estate), 11

Carver, Mass. (southwest of Makepeace's cranberry bog), . . .13

Carver, Mass. (on Wenham Street), 45

Boxford, Mass. (near the almshouse), . 10

Boxford, Mass. (on Highland Street), 4

West Bedford, Mass. (Swett's estate), 0 per cent. + 22 y2 per cent. = 11^

Haverhill, Mass. (west of East Broadway), 143^

54

Brockton, Mass. (on Oak Street),
Beverly, Mass. (on Hart Street),
Beverly, Mass. (beside railroad track),
Cohasset, Mass. (Barron's Island),
Hingham, Mass. (island in the millpond),

Per Cent.

15
3

18
5

Taking the average of these results, we see that the total
number of apparently living eggs has been decreased by intro-
duction of the artificially developed Flacherie to about 14- per
cent. This result is shown graphically in Figs. 4 and 5, where

y$ovx$i v$$$$ ?$$}$$> >8$xA?y$ ^)^6^XM
HffiiftvQim Q\iiHr*f)i' KjX?>w>u .o^vfoX yoKi't*itQj XwMi

Fig. 5. — Diagram showing average percentage of living eggs after introduction

of the disease.

1 per cent, is equal to 1 square, the cross-lined spaces repre-
senting the percentage of dead eggs.

Only those localities have here been tabulated on which we
had complete data from the beginning to the end of the experi-
ment.

55

V. Final Conclusions.

The foregoing experiments prove conclusively that Flacherie
has an injurious influence upon the prosperity of the gypsy
moth caterpillars, this influence varying according to the man-
ner and time of the appearance of the disease. There was
no difference noticed in the progress of the wilt which broke
out naturally and that of the artificially developed Flacherie.
The latter, however, is probably the more important factor,
for with its help we may be able to introduce the disease among
caterpillars of localities in which the wilt, perhaps, would not
make its appearance naturally. The infection of a place with
sick material only seems to be, as regards the " dying off " of
the caterpillars, less favorable for the spread of Flacherie than
with material which already contains a number of dead indi-
viduals. In selecting the localities in which the disease is to
be introduced, it is unimportant whether the caterpillars of the
gypsy moth are present in large or small numbers. It is true
the wilt will get a stronger foothold and attain a greater viru-
lence the larger the number of caterpillars. In places, how-
ever, which are not badly infested, the disease will also spread
to the healthy caterpillars, as was shown by several of the
experiments. According to the observations, we are almost
inclined to believe that the direction of the wind plays an
important role in spreading the disease. This opinion is
strengthened especially by the observations made in Concord
and West Bedford.

Wherever the naturally as well as the artificially developed
Flacherie occurs the female caterpillars will always succumb
to it more readily than the male. This may perhaps be due to
the fact that they require a longer time to mature than the
male caterpillars. If, at the flying period of the moth, we visit
such a diseased locality, — one in which during the summer
the caterpillars were quite plentiful, — we find ourselves sur-
rounded by male moths, which to the superficial observer
would indicate that the wilt had caused no considerable diminu-
tion. As soon, however, as we begin to search for adult females,
we discover that they are present in a decided minority, and

56

that they are by no means in the same large proportion to the
male moths as in localities where the disease has not occurred
among the caterpillars. The effective result, then, will be shown
at the time of oviposition, in the decrease of the number and
size of the fresh clusters, compared with those of the previous
year. To be sure, this will not always be the case ; for instance,
in localities in which Flacherie appears very late. However,
places infected early enough, always show as a result a diminu-
tion in the number of the fresh clusters, sometimes to 100 per
cent. The reduced average size of the clusters also has a close
connection with the wilt. Heretofore it has often, but errone-
ously, been supposed that small clusters were deposited by
small female moths, which suffered during their caterpillar
stages from lack of food. Certainly such cases are not rare,
but the origin of small clusters is capable of yet another ex-
planation. For instance, in localities in which there are few
gypsy moth caterpillars, and where there is no lack of food, but
where the wilt has worked, egg clusters are found which are no
larger than a pea or a bean. Such clusters contain from 4 to 12
eggs, with embryos which are usually incompletely or not at all
developed. In such localities it may often be recognized, from
the volume of the abdomen, even of the freshly emerged female
moths, which were little below the normal size, that the body
contained only a small number of eggs. Also, in several cases
the interior of the body was examined, and then it was found
that the cause of the small circumference of the body was that
the ovary was small. Females which had already oviposited and
died were examined to see whether they contained more eggs in
their bodies. Eggs were always found in females that had laid
egg clusters which were only partly, or not at all, covered with
hair. But there were sometimes found undeposited eggs in fe-
males which had completely covered the cluster with their ab-
dominal hairs. All this must be taken in connection with the
wilt, for female moths from healthy colonies deposit all the eggs
they contain, as long as they are not interrupted at the time of
egg laying, and it does not matter whether the individuals are
large or small.

The most important point to be noticed is the fact that the

57

clusters which are found in localities in which Flacherie oper-
ates among the caterpillars contain, on the average, a compara-
tively high percentage of dead eggs. Hence, Flacherie has a
direct effect even upon the next generation. If, however, the
number and the quality of the eggs in the female adult are
affected by the wilt, is it not then possible that the disease goes
directly over to the eggs? Certainly we have no direct proof
of this at the present time, but we do know that Flacherie can
be carried over from the caterpillar to the pupa, and from the
pupa to the adult, and we have seen that the eggs in the ovary
of females which come from infected colonies are influenced
by the disease in regard to their number and vitality. In spite
of the many investigations which have been made by celebrated
bacteriologists in both the old and the new world, the carriers
of the disease have not yet been determined. This shows what
a difficult problem science has before it to solve. Although
several scientists accept neither the heredity of the disease,
nor believe that it can be carried over to the next generation,
there are others (Pasteur, Fischer) who believe in its tr ad-
missibility. Perhaps the disease is carried over to the follow-
ing generation through the adult female only, in a similar
manner to the pebrine. Perhaps, moreover, the name Flacherie
covers several diseases, which, it is true, make their appearance
in the same manner in the infected individuals, but neverthe-
less are specifically distinct. One of these diseases may be
restricted, indeed, to caterpillar and pupa only, while the other
disease is carried over to the adult, and might possibly be in-
herited through the female organism by the descendants. It
may be possible to throw some light on these complicated ques-
tions by breeding experiments, but only the investigations of the
bacteriologist and pathologist can secure the final proof. It
would be of the highest importance for the economic value of
Flacherie if the inheritance of the disease could be definitely
proved. If the wilt proves to be the direct cause for the " dying
off " of many embryos of eggs from infected localities, death
would be caused by the organisms of the disease themselves,
and probably not be a result of the weak constitution of the
female moth. The still living embryos of the same cluster will

58

then contain, without doubt, at least partially, the carriers of
the disease, which, according to their number and to the con-
stitution of the embryo, will kill, early or late, the larva after
it has hatched. Thus Flacherie will be carried again through
the whole ontogeny of the descendants of those individuals
which were originally infected by the disease. In this case the
wilt would be hereditary, and it would have by far the greatest
possible economic value and benefit. If, however, the " dying
off " of several of the embryos is only a consequence of the
weak condition of the female adult, which perhaps was slightly
infected during the caterpillar stage, then of course the guaranty
for the wilt is not yet given for the next generation. Among
the hatching caterpillars there will always be a considerable
percentage of weak individuals which thus possess from the
beginning the necessary predisposition to the disease. If, then,
the climatic conditions develop favorably for the disease, these
weak caterpillars will be attacked first by the wilt, but as it
increases in virulence it will attack the stronger and healthier
individuals. If the climatic conditions are less favorable for
the natural appearance of Flacherie, we hope the introduction
of the artificially developed Flacherie in the respective localities
will transmit the disease to the weak caterpillars. Then the
disease will operate as though it had appeared naturally.

The existence of the wilt does not depend upon climatic
conditions as soon as the disease is once established. It is true
weather conditions will often be of great advantage in spreading
the disease, but not likely to be of considerable harm. Hence,
Flacherie, even if its nonheredity should be proved, is a factor
of great importance to economic entomology. It will be advis-
able to work with the wilt against the gypsy moth in large
wooded areas of all kinds, and it has the great advantage of
cheapness, while the spraying with arsenate of lead or with
other poisons is expensive. A very good scheme would be to
furnish as many trees as possible with rings of tanglefoot in
heavily infested forest districts, and not to kill the caterpillars
after they are gathered together under the rings, but to assist
in this manner the more rapid spread of the wilt, since the sick
and weak individuals thus have a greater possibility of coming

59

in contact with healthy caterpillars. The effect of this method
was observed in one case during the summer of 1910. In com-
pany with the division agent, Mr. Worthen, I came in touch
with a locality in Boxford where gypsy moth caterpillars were
gathered together in considerable numbers under tanglefoot
rings. It had been decided to kill the caterpillars with burning
oil, but I dissuaded the men from doing this by giving as my
opinion that the wilt would make its appearance in all prob-
ability in a few days. This assumption was right, for there
was seen, after three days, the first signs of the disease, which
then spread so quickly that in a few more days the caterpillars
had succumbed.

Perhaps it might be worth while to work with the wilt in
different ways from those in the experiments described. There
is, for instance, the recapitulation of the experiments of 1909 on
a large scale. Caterpillars which had been killed by Macherie
were mixed with water in different ways, and the mixture was
then either sprayed upon trees or was painted as rings around
the trunks. One or the other of these methods may prove to be
valuable, but the expense will be quite high, while the use of the
simple exposure method incurs but small expense. There might
be mentioned still another point; Dr. E. Fischer of Zurich,
the discoverer of the predisposition of caterpillars towards
Macherie, wrote me some time ago the following directions for
developing Macherie artificially in the field: cut some of the
larger roots of a tree that is infested with a sufficient number
of caterpillars, water frequently the ground around the cut
surfaces and put into the trunk as much water as possible
through a hole bored at an angle of about 45° to the base of
the tree. By these means the same unhealthy food is produced
on the tree as is otherwise obtained by the placing of twigs in
water. It is certain that the wilt can be developed artificially
in the manner just described, but such an experiment needs
constant attention, and trees thus treated are, of course, de-
stroyed.

I doubt whether the gypsy moth will ever become extinct in
America, but the wilt will probably produce, first, a consider-
able reduction of the mass, and then it is to be hoped that the

60

insect parasites and other natural enemies will contribute in
diminishing the pest to a minimum. I am quite convinced that
we can apply the wilt in a systematic manner to the benefit of
our forests, and that in so doing we shall come considerably
nearer to a solution of the problem of destroying the gypsy
moth. In wooded areas mainly much more attention should be
given in future to the wilt as an aid in combating the insect,
while for street trees, garden trees, etc., which are more easily
managed, the eggs and caterpillars of the gypsy moth may be
removed according to established methods. The wilt should
eventually reduce the pest to a condition in which it can be easily
kept in check, and prevent serious outbreaks and damage.

PLATE I. — Egg clusters from a healthy colony.

PLATE II. — Egg clusters from a colony where disease was

introduced.

»

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ss

f

urra*y of the
laussaclitisette igri rtlege.

/ItfLttilrt&Tj 9Mk&&*

1 he Chestnut Bark L)i

lsease

A Grave Danger which Threatens

Our Forest Trees, with

Its Remedy

STATE FORESTER'S OFFICE
BOSTON, MASS.

F. W. Rane, State Forester

boston

wright & potter printing co., state printers

18 post office square

1911

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE.

The Disease aistd its Method of Attack.
The State Forester wishes to call the attention of the citizens
of the Commonwealth to a serious disease of the common chest-
nut (Castanea dentata), — a disease which has been working
for some time in the States of iSTew York, jSTew Jersey, Con-
necticut and Pennsylvania, and which has been found to be
slowly gaining a foothold in Massachusetts. This disease is
caused by a fungus known botanically as Diaporthe parasitica
(also as Yalsonectria parasitica) , and grows in and derives nour-
ishment from the tissues of the inner bark of the chestnut tree.
The fungus is conveyed from one place to another by means of
" spores " or fruiting bodies, which are analogous to seeds in the
higher orders of plants. These spores, being small and very light,
are easily carried lon^ distances bv the wind, and when blown
against a chestnut tree find lodgment in any wounds, of which
even the healthiest tree often has a great many, that may be in
the bark. It makes no difference with the disease whether the
spores find a refuge in the tissues of the thick bark of the trunk
or the thinner bark of the small twigs, — the fungus develops
equally well. It is true that in localities where the disease is
rare the spread is slow, but the fact that it can increase to an
alarming rate has been proved in our sister States, where it is
no exaggeration to say that in certain sections the chestnut is
becoming extinct.

Growth.
The spores having gained an entrance, the fungus begins to
spread by sending out many small fibers, much in the same way
that a plant sends out roots. These fibers, pushing about and
through the growing cells of the tree to obtain nourishment, form
a close network which soon saps the life of the section where
they are.

Now, the serious part of this process of growth, looked at from
the tree standpoint, lies in the fact that the fungus shows a
marked tendency to grow around the infected branch or stem,
thus girdling it, and killing all growth above that point. When
this happens to the trunk of a tree it is easily seen that it becomes
a serious matter.

Furthermore, the trunk of a tree may be infected by spores
coming from diseased parts of its own branches, thus multiplying
the disease within itself so to speak.

Appearance of Diseased Parts.

The following features are characteristic of the external ap-
pearance of the diseased tree. The outer bark over the diseased
part is of a slightly reddish tinge, more so than the rest of the
bark, and as the disease progresses this reddish area becomes cov-
ered with yellowish, brownish, or orange-colored pustules. Fur-
ther, in damp weather or damp situations the spores are often
extruded in the form of greenish-yellow " strings." The bark
splits open up and down the length of the infected spot and often
shows a swelled appearance. The cracks are filled with twisted
and criss-crossed fibers of a slightly yellowish color. Among the
smaller branches the cracks are of course less visible, but they
still occur.

It should be here stated that these same characteristics may
be the result of the work of other species of fungi than the one
in question, and therefore, in order to be sure, specimens should
be sent to a botanist for a microscopic examination. Such iden-
tification will be gladly made by the Bureau of Plant Industry,
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,
or by the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.

Time for making Observations.
The best time for seeing the evidences of the work of this
fungus is the season now approaching, viz., in the spring, when
the leaves begin to appear. The reason for this is not that the
disease does the greatest amount of damage at this time, but be-
cause trees that have been injured the previous season by having
much of their live tissue destroyed, instead of putting forth

Two trees killed by the disease. Note the dilapidated or shreddy appearance of the bark
and the few persistent dead leaves; also, portion of upper part of left-hand tree, where
bark is falling off. (All photographs taken at Wilbraham, Mass., Feb. 23, 1911.)

Infested trunk, showing how hark splits open.
(This is a nearer view of section marked "y"
in photograph to the left.)

Infested stem. The fungus
tends to girdle the dis-
eased portion rather than
to extend up and down,
"x" and "y" are dis-
eased sections.

healthy new leaves can produce only sickly and stunted foliage,
the extent of the blighted area depending on whether the main
stem or only a branch was attacked.

Methods of Control.
It should be understood that there is no known method of cur-
ing the disease, or of saving woodland once it has become thor-
oughly infested. The experience of other States has proved
this. 'Nor is it possible to save single trees, if badly diseased,
except at great expense, and even then the chance for failure is
great, owing to the impossibility of locating all the infected
spots.

Vigorous Measures needed in Early Stages.

To check its spread at the beginning of its entrance into a
locality is, therefore, the only hope, and this hope is considered
a strong one by those who have studied the disease most.

Dr. Haven Metcalf, who is the pathologist in charge of inves-
tigating this blight for the government Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, and who has spent a great deal of time in this work, states
that " in all cases we know of where the disease has been care-
fully eradicated, in localities where it has just appeared, the
work has been very successful; so that we feel warranted in
advising a very considerable outlay of energy to eradicate the
disease at the outset."

Methods of Eradicating.

Inspection of Nursery Stock.
There are several ways of going about the eradication of the
blight. All chestnut nursery stock should be carefully inspected
for signs of the disease, as such stock has heretofore apparently
been one of the chief agencies of spreading the fungus. This
precaution should be taken by nurserymen and purchasers alike.

Prompt Destruction of Diseased Trees.
A careful inspection of trees for evidences of the disease
should be made by all owners of chestnut woodland during the
months of May and June, and any tree found infected should at

once be cut down, the wood put into marketable form, and all
brush, and if possible all patches of diseased bark, burned at the
first opportunity. If this is not done, the down tree merely
becomes a center of infection for the rest of the woods, as it is
known that the fungus may live on dead bark for at least six
months after cutting.

In answer to the question as to whether sprouts from the
stumps of infected trees that have been cut will also themselves
be infected, it should be said that for the first year at least they
will not be, but after that they should be carefully examined for
signs of the disease.

Treatment Other than Cutting.

Spraying.

Experiments have shown it to be a matter of doubt as to
whether the spraying of infected trees is of any avail against
this fungus. It is possible, however, that in the case of valuable
shade trees very frequent sprayings might have a tendency
toward preventing infection.

Broken limbs, wounds, cracks and crotches of branches are
fruitful sources of attack, and the fungus should be looked for at
these points.

Local Cutting of Infected Spots.

The other method of individual treatment that has proved suc-
cessful, though only in the case of valuable trees, where the ex-
pense was warranted, is the one of cutting and removing all
patches of diseased bark and carefully protecting the exposed
surface with a coat of tar or paint. This treatment must be
thorough, and even then it will do no good if the disease has
progressed too far. Infected branches should be removed alto-
gether, at a good distance below the point of infection, and any
bark cutting should be done at least an inch beyond and outside
of the discolored area, which shows the location of the fungus.

A tree that has been already girdled should be cut down at
once, and trees under treatment should be inspected frequently,,
say about June 1, July 15 and September 1, or oftener in wet
weather.

Cooperation Necessary.

It is believed that by carefully following the foregoing instruc-
tions the disease can be kept under control in Massachusetts,
with the constant hope that some natural enemy will appear to
assist in the work. No controlling enemy, however, is known at
present. All persons are therefore urged to do their utmost,
either by reporting cases to this office or by actively using some
of the above measures of control, to aid in checking this enemy
of one of our best timber trees.

Bibliography.

Reference is made to the publications of the United States
Department of Agriculture on this subject, especially Bulletin
141, Part V., of the Bureau of Plant Industry, from which
several extracts, including quoted passages in this pamphlet, have
been taken (those who are interested are advised to obtain a copy
of this bulletin) ; also to a report of the Main Line Citizens'
Association of Haverford, Pa.

Coxcltjsiox.

Lest the serious results of this disease be underestimated, the
following instances of its work in other localities are cited : —

" A survey of the Forest Park. Brooklyn, showed ' that 16,695 chest-
nut trees were killed in the 350 acres of woodland in this park alone.
Of this number, about 9,000 were between 8 and 12 inches in diameter,
and the remaining 7,000 or more were of larger size.' M

" In a recent publication Dr. W. A. Murrill estimates the financial
loss from this disease ' in and about New York City ' at ' between five
and ten million dollars.' "

With this loss in a city it can readily be seen what an enor-
mous loss would occur should the disease become prevalent in the
woodlands.
* It becomes a question, therefore, as to which is the better
economy, — to do nothing, and lose our chestnut trees, or to do
our utmost at this early stage, with a fair chance of saving them.

PLATE I.

A winter nest with young larvae dead from the disease scattered all over the surface.

THE ARTIFICIAL USE OF THE

BROWN-TAIL FUNGUS

IN MASSACHUSETTS

WITH PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR

PRIVATE EXPERIMENT, AND A BRIEF

NOTE ON A FUNGOUS DISEASE OF

THE GYPSY CATERPILLAR

BY A. T. SPEARE, ASSISTANT PATHOLOGIST
HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION

and R. H. COLLEY, austin teaching

FELLOW IN BOTANY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER
OF MASSACHUSETTS

BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY
STATE PRINTERS - - 18 POST OFFICE SQUARE

1912

• Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

INTRODUCTORY.

This report is published in order to acquaint our people with
the beneficial results to be derived from utilizing a fungous
disease in destroying the brown-tail moth, which is so destruc-
tive to our deciduous trees and also so obnoxious to our people
on account of the rash incident upon the contact of its hairs with
the human skin.

The report is based on a manuscript of Dr. G. P. Clinton, on
the manuscript and notes of Mr. A. T. Speare and on personal
observation and experiment by Mr. R. H. Colley, and was sug-
gested by the apparent success of experiments made by Dr. Ro-
land Thaxter of Harvard University at Kittery Point, Me., in
the summer of 1907.1 At this time former Superintendent
Kirkland of the Moth Commission became interested in the
matter, and on the advice of Dr. Thaxter the services of Dr.
G. P. Clinton of the ~New Haven Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion were secured, and preliminary experiments were continued
under his supervision from May 12 to July 11, 1908. Dr. Clin-
ton was assisted during June and July by Mr. A. T. Speare, who
was later employed permanently by the State Forester to suc-
ceed Dr. Clinton, and who had immediate charge of the investi-
gation from July, 1908, until February, 1911, while during the
past year it has been in charge of Mr. R. H. Colley. All of
the laboratory experiments connected with this work have been
conducted in the cryptogamic laboratories or at the Botanic
Garden of Harvard University.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The State Forester and all concerned in the work wish to
acknowledge their indebtedness to Professor Thaxter for sug-
gestions as to experimental methods and for general direction
and advice. Through the courtesy of Dr. G. L. Goodale and
Mr. Oakes Ames, the directors of the Botanic Gardens, the suc-
cessful propagation of the disease through the winter and the

1 See Professor Hitchings's report in Maine Dept. Agri. Bur., 3, 20, 1908.

preparation of infection material on a large scale, have been
rendered possible.

Thanks are also due Mr. Worthley, assistant in moth work,
Messrs. Fiske and Burgess of the parasitic laboratory at Mel-
rose Highlands, and to the division and local superintendents
of the regular moth staff for their co-operation, and for cour-
tesies rendered.

For the work on the fungus of the gypsy caterpillar, which
has not as yet developed so satisfactorily as that on the brown-
tail, we are wholly indebted to Harvard University through its
friends in financing the expedition to Japan, where the disease
was secured. The kindly offices of Harvard University, through
Dean Sabine and his colleagues in assisting the State Forester
in making this work possible, are herewith heartily acknowl-
edged.

F. W. KANE,

State Forester.
Boston, March 22, 1912.

THE ARTIFICIAL USE OF THE BROWN-TAIL FUNGUS IN
MASSACHUSETTS, WITH PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS
FOR PRIVATE EXPERIMENT, AND A BRIEF NOTE
ON A FUNGOUS DISEASE OF THE GYPSY CATER-
PILLAR.

SOME FUNGOUS DISEASES WHICH HAVE BEEN USED

ARTIFICIALLY.

The conditions governing the artificial spread of a fungous
disease among insects vary according to the type of fungus used
and the characters and habits of the pest to be attacked. All
classes of insects have their fungous enemies, — some, like the
EntomophthorecB, the species of Cordyceps and its Isaria con-
dition, as well as other forms belonging to the Fungi Imperfecti,
often causing serious epidemics, while others, like the Laboul-
heniales, may be comparatively harmless. The idea of using
fungous diseases in a practical manner to control the ravages
of noxious insects is not a new one, and as early as the middle
of the last century De Bary, Tulasne and others called the atten-
tion of agriculturists and orchardists to the importance of white
muscardine, Isaria densa Link., as a natural check on destruc-
tive insect pests. Since the time this suggestion was originally
made there have been numerous more or less successful attempts
to use fungous diseases artificially, among which the following
may be mentioned.

Metchnikoff (1878) cultivated Meiarhizium anisoplim
(Metch.) Sorokin, the so-called green muscardine, and infected
Anisoplia with the spores. Krassilstschik (1884) founded a
laboratory at Smelk in order to raise green muscardine in large
quantities, and the spores, spread on the beet fields to infect
Cleonus punctiventris, the beet weevil, started an artificial epi-
demic which is said to have killed from 50 to 80 per cent of
these destructive beetles. Rorer (1910) has also used the spores
of the same fungus, mixed with flour, in spraying sugar cane in
Trinidad to control the froghopper, with some success.

Cordyceps melolonthce Tul. lias been employed against the
white grub, Melolontha vulgaris, in Europe, and Giard (1893)
records an attempt to use Isaria densa against the same insect
in France, contrasting the results obtained with those of certain
American investigators. Buisson (1892) used Botrytis tenella
Sacc. against the same pest.

Sporotrichum globuliferum Speg. has been used by Snow
(1889), Forbes (1888), Brunner (1902) and others on the
chinch bug in this country, but although various opinions have
been expressed as to the success of this work, the more recent
experiments of Kelly and Parks (1911) lead them to the con-
clusion that, although under certain conditions the fungus may
be very destructive in nature, its artificial propagation is not
to be recommended, an opinion in which Messrs. Billings and
Glenn (1911) also concur. Brunner has also used it on the
migratory locust in the Argentine Republic, and reports its
use in the fight against the same pest in Sterling, Col.

Sphcerostilbe coccophila Tul., Microcera sp. and Ophionec-
tria coccicola E. and E. have been successfully employed (Rolfs,
1907, and Eawcett, 1908) against the San Jose and purple scale
of orange trees in Elorida. During the last three or four years
the use of Aschersonia aleyrodis Webber, Aschersonia flavo-
citrina P. Henn and 2Egeriia Webberi Eawcett (Eawcett, 1908,
Rolfs, 1908, and Berger, 1910) has been very successful in
checking the white fly in the citrus groves of Florida, a region
especially well adapted for such experiments, owing to the
fact that here these fungi grow naturally out of doors more or
less continuously throughout the year.

Of the Entomophthorece, although the group contains some
of the most destructive forms attacking economically important
insects, the brown-tail fungus appears to be the only form which
has been used artificially. That more of these forms have not
been used is probably due to the fact that their cultivation and
propagation is usually attended with the greatest difficulty.

THE BROWN-TAIL FUNGUS.

The fungus which causes the disease of the brown-tail cater-
pillar is a microscopic plant known technically as Entom-o-
phthora Aulicce Reich, which has been long known in Europe

*1r.

81

li
inn

u

p

PLATE II.

a be

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. — a, gypsy moth larva from Japan killed by fin Entomophthora disease; b, a
tent caterpillar, and c, three brown-tail larva? killed by Eittomophthora Aulicce. The
latter were kept in a dark chamber to develop an external growth of the fungus.

Fig. 2.
KiG# 2. — This photograph gives some idea of the number of spores discharged. The
branch, crowded with dead and dying caterpillars, was laid ona sheet of glass in a
-till room, and the white color is entirely due to the thousands of spores which fell
on the jrlass during the night.

and was first reported from this country by Dr. Thaxter in
1888. It has not only produced natural epidemics among the
brown-tails since they were first introduced, but it attacks vari-
ous other native species of insects, which are enumerated below.
It is closely allied to Entomophtliora muscce Cohn, a fungus
that attacks the common house fly, which may often be seen
dead on a window pane or mirror, where it becomes surrounded
by a white halo or whitish patch, due to the large number of

M %

Fig. 1. — Diagram to illustrate the development and discharge of spores.
At the tip of the club-shaped conidiophore a a rounded bud b develops
into the pear-shaped spore c. This spore is torn away at the collar d
when mature by internal pressure, and shot off from the conidiophore
f, as indicated by the arrow at e. Spores produced and discharged in
this manner are called conidia. At g is shown a germinating spore
with its young germ tube.

spores discharged on the glass. (Plate II., Fig. 2.) These
spores, called conidia, which are the fruit of the fungus, and
correspond in function to the seeds of higher plants, are ovoid
to pear-shaped (Plate VII., Pigs. 1-4), with a papillate base,
and measure 25 to 35 by 28 to 40 thousandths of a millimeter.
If a spore comes in contact with a healthy caterpillar under
favorable conditions of moisture, germination takes place imme-
diately; that is, the spore sends out a thread-like germ tube.
(Pig. 1, gj Plate VII., Pigs. 5-7; Plate VIII., Pig. 32.)
This germ tube pierces the integument and continues to grow

8

within the body of its victim for about five days after infection.
Germination may also take place on any moist surface, but in
such cases growth is usually very limited, and may result in
the production of secondary conidia (Plate VIL, Fig. 8)
exactly similar to the primary conidia, which may be dis-
charged when mature and have the same power of infecting a
healthy larva. The conidia retain their power of germination
for about seventy-four hours after their discharge. In nature
the caterpillar is not visibly affected by the presence of the
fungus in its body until the afternoon of the fifth or sixth day,
when, after a brief period of nervous activity, its movements
become sluggish or cease altogether. By this time the branches
from the original germ tube have become broken up into irreg-
ular chunky " hyphal bodies," which more or less completely
fill the body cavity. Just before death, which usually comes
toward evening, the caterpillar is almost always impelled to
climb to the highest point on the leaf or twig on which it has
been resting; the forelegs then lose their power, and the fore
part of the body droops backward or to one side in a position so
characteristic as to be easily recognized. (Plate VI.) As soon
as the caterpillar is dead, or even just before death, the hyphal
bodies within it send out stout germ tubes. (Plate VIII. , Pigs.
28—31.) The ultimate branches of these germ tubes break
through the integument in pustules (Plate VIII. , Fig. 26),
which may eventually cover the whole body with a creamy white
mass of fungous growth, especially if the atmosphere is moist.
At the tip of each of the club-shaped branches, called conidio-
phores (Pig. 1, a, h; Plate VIL, Pig. 10), a rounded bud
develops into the pear-shaped spore (Fig. 1, c, e), which is
shot off with considerable force when mature by a mechanism
specially developed for this purpose. Air currents may carry
the spores for miles, or if they fall on the backs of other cater-
pillars the movement of the latter may perhaps further aid in
their distribution, especially where the caterpillars are closely
congregated. The number of spores which may be discharged
from a single diseased larva is very large, probably reaching
hundreds of thousands in the case of a full-grown caterpillar,
and every spore has the power to infect another caterpillar,
provided that it strikes in a favorable position for penetration

under favorable conditions of moisture. It is interesting to note
that nature has provided for the wider dissemination of these
spores by impelling the dying caterpillar, as already mentioned,
to climb upward, thereby placing its body in a more elevated
position, from which the falling spores will be distributed over
a large area. In the field the dead caterpillars are found most
often on the shady under side of the limbs, near the crotches
of the branches, but one may find them with little trouble on
anv part of the tree or on adjacent walls and fences. (Plate

iii.)

Resting Spores.
Besides the type of " air spores " or " conidia " just de-
scribed, the fungus produces another type, formed internally,
known as " resting spores," which are extremely resistant to
changes of heat and cold, and which, although their germina-
tion has not been observed, undoubtedly serve to tide the fungus
over winter. Thev are commonlv formed bv the rolling* to-
gether of the contents of large, irregular, fungal elements
(Plate VIL, Pigs. 12-18) into spherical bodies, which later
become enclosed in very thick walls. Spores of this type are
comparatively rare, and the conditions which lead to their form-
ation, whether they be due to internal causes, or to the effect of
weather, or other external influences, are not clearly under-
stood.

Encysted Hyphal Bodies.

In the fall the hyphal bodies may themselves also become
surrounded with heavy walls, which on germination split and
let out the contents in the form of stout germ tubes. (Plate
VIII., Pigs. 22. 23.) The latter branch freely, and give rise
eventually to pustules (Plate VIII., Pig. 25), as in the case
of the ordinary hyphal bodies. These encysted hyphal bodies
are also instrumental in wintering over the fungus.

General Conditions governing the Artificial Spread of the Fungous
Disease of the Brown-tail Moth Caterpillar.

In the case of the brown-tail caterpillar there are two periods
in its life history when the Entomophthora under consideration
may be effectively used, namely, in the spring and early sum-

10

mer, when the larvae have left their nests to feed on the young
leaves, and in the autumn for several weeks before the webs
of the new broods are closed for the winter. During both of
these periods the rapid spread of the disease is largely depend-
ent on weather conditions, and when these conditions — warm
nights and damp atmosphere — favor the growth of the fungus,
artificial distribution yields truly satisfactory results, and may
bring about enormous and widespread destruction ; but it should
be understood clearly that, even under these conditions, al-
though the disease is evidently very important as a powerful
check, it cannot be regarded as a " cure-all." In the spring,
when the caterpillars are scattered all over the trees, it is com-
paratively easy to place the infected larvae in among them, but
in the autumn, when they are localized, feeding in the imme-
diate vicinity of the nest, it is necessary to infect individual
webs. Experience seems to point to the autumn, however, as
the more advantageous time to start the artificial epidemic.

Early Reports of the Disease among Brown-tails.

Mention has been made in previous State reports of the
occurrence of the disease in spring and fall epidemics. The
dead larvae on the outside of the webs (Plate I.) were first
noticed during the early winter months 1 of 1902 and 1903, and
the frosty appearance of the nests, due to hundreds of thousands
of discharged spores, led to the popular belief that the young
caterpillars had been lured out of the webs by the warm mid-
day sun and had been frozen to death before they could return.
The susceptibility of the brown-tail to this disease was first
noticed by Dr. Thaxter in Maine, just after the caterpillars
made their initial appearance there. He had made a series of
experiments in artificial infection previous to the experiments
at Kittery Point, Me., in 1907, which were reported by Pro-
fessor Hitchings, and the apparent success of which led to the
engagement of Dr. Clinton to carry on a preliminary investi-
gation in Massachusetts.

1 See Fernald and Kirkland's Report of Brown-tail Moth Commission, 1903.

11

Preliminary Experiments of 1908.
Dr. Clinton concluded from his preliminary experiments in
the spring of 1908 that the use of the disease as a check would
be of practical value if (1) the fungus were planted in terri-
tory where the natural disease was not in evidence, and (2) if
the plantings were made in the field before the natural disease
could develop under ordinary weather conditions, thereby giv-
ing the introduced disease an opportunity to develop more gen-
erations, and consequently infect more larva? than the later-
starting natural epidemic. He was hampered in his investi-
gation by the fact that he was unable to begin operations until
the season was well advanced, and the time available was so
short that he was unable to make extensive experiments. His
results, however, again demonstrated that the propagation of
the disease in the field could be successfully accomplished.

Autumn of 1908.

Dr. Clinton being unable to continue the work after July
of this year, it was taken in charge by Mr. Speare, and the first
fall infection was made in the autumn of 1908, when about
500 diseased caterpillars were distributed over a limited area
on low shrubbery at North Andover, Mass. As nearly as could
be estimated about 35 per cent, of the young larva? on the
hillside where the planting had been made died as a result of
this artificially induced epidemic.

Cultivating the Fungus through the Winter of 1908-09.

The Entomophthora from the fall infection was cultivated
and kept alive through the winter months so that the spring
planting could be made as early as possible, without the delay
incident to spring collection and forcing of the disease. In
order to accomplish this, webs were cut open and placed on a
layer of filter paper over damp moss in ordinary culture dishes.
A. glass cover kept the atmosphere in the dishes moist and
favorable to the growth of the fungus. Infected larva? were
placed in the cut nests, and in this manner the disease was
transmitted to the healthy larva?, and the fungus kept alive
through successive generations. Some practice was necessary

12

before the optimum moisture conditions were determined, but
the chief difficulty encountered was the hostile action of other
fungi, which grew very rapidly under culture-dish conditions.
The worst enemy, Sporotrichum globuliferum Speg., sometimes
threatened to choke out the Entomophthora entirely.

Spring of 1909.

The fungus having been propagated through the winter of
1908-09 at the Botanic Garden, about the first of March two
bushels of webs were brought from cold storage and placed in
two boxes, which, for the sake of convenience, will be called
the " disease box " and the " rearing box." Both boxes were
of the same type, their dimensions being 11 by 27 by 27 inches,
and by leaving the bottoms open the contents were directly in
contact with the moist earth. A two-inch rim of ordinary com-
mercial tanglefoot served to keep the caterpillars confined.
Dead and dying larvae from the winter culture dishes were
turned into the disease box, together with fresh webs contain-
ing healthy caterpillars, for the purpose of starting a general
infection as soon as the latter emerged. In order to favor the
spread of this infection as much as possible the atmosphere was
kept moist by covering the box with a damp mat. Without
attempting to force the growth of the larvae in either box, they
were fed just enough to keep them alive, so that the disease
might be carried along through successive generations on a
little larger scale than was possible with the culture dishes.

About April 1 larvae from four bushels of cold-storage webs
were placed in five rearing boxes, and the intention was to feed
them to the limit of their capacity, so that they would be large
enough for infection and distribution by the 25th of the month.
Owing, however, to themature of the only food which was avail-
able, the rearing of the caterpillars was attended with the great-
est difficulty, as it was almost impossible to make them feed.
Willow twigs forced under glass were not acceptable ; lettuce
worked fairly well but was expensive, and the larvae did not
thrive on it, so that little or no active growth occurred until a
supply of fresh food became available out of doors as the season
advanced.

13

Feeding Methods.

The larvae were fed by two methods: (a) by placing leafy
twigs in jars sunken in the earth, or (b) by throwing small
quantities of stripped leaves directly on the clean earth. In the
first method the leaves remained fresh for some time, but in
handling the wet twigs, when changing the food or the water,
the boxes often became too damp and favorable to the growth
of the fungus, which, when once it gained a foothold, threatened
to kill off the entire supply of caterpillars. The second method
has proved to be the better for general use, because the supply
of food can be easily regulated by throwing in just enough
leaves to keep the caterpillars eating all the time. The boxes
were kept clean and sanitary by removing the dried and half-
eaten leaves as soon as the larvae crawled on fresh ones.

General Methods of Infection.

All investigators on fungous diseases of insects have experi-
enced more or less trouble in transmitting the disease to healthy
larvae in the laboratory. In most cases it seems very difficult to
imitate exactly the conditions under which the infection nat-
urally occurs. What is true of other fungous diseases is in
general true of the brown-tail disease, and it often happened
that the fungus would get a start in the rearing boxes, where it
was not wanted, and attack the larvae with the virulence of an
epidemic, while in the disease boxes, where the conditions were
supposed to be at an optimum for its growth, it appeared only
in scattered spots. The three methods used for general infec-
tion may be outlined as follows : —

(a) Infection by the " Crate Method/' — A crate 5% by 30
by 30 inches, with a mosquito netting bottom, was fitted tightly
over a second crate of similar dimensions, in which the healthy
larvae were placed. Caterpillars dying from the disease or those
already dead and ready to discharge spores were placed at
short intervals on the netting bottom of the upper box, so that
the spores from their bodies would drop through the meshes
of the netting upon the healthy larvae below.

(b) Infection by the ''Spray Method/' — Dead caterpil-

14

lars were placed in an atomizer bottle so that all of the spores
discharged would be caught on the glass. After spore dis-
charge had ceased, and the bodies of the caterpillars had been
removed, the bottle was filled with water, the spores were dis-
lodged from the sides and bottom with a soft camel' s-hair brush,
and the " spore water " was then sprayed over healthy cater-
pillars in an ordinary rearing box.

(c) Infection by the "Natural Method/' — Infected larvae
were mixed with healthy ones all over the twigs and leaves in
a rearing box. Following their natural instinct to climb, the
diseased caterpillars placed their bodies in such elevated posi-
tions as the tips of the twigs and sides of the box just under
the rim of tanglefoot, so that the spore discharge was directed
against the bodies of the healthy caterpillars and in every direc-
tion over the leaves.

By taking lots of 100 at random from these boxes, after they
had been exposed to the spray or spore discharge for three or
four days, placing them in small trays and counting the number
which died from the disease within nine days, it was found that
the maximum infection was hardly more than 40 per cent.1
The last method appeared to be the most favorable, and was
adopted for the infection of all of the material sent into the
field.

General Methods of Distribution.

After trying several schemes for distributing the infected
larvae it was concluded that the method first used by Dr. Clin-
ton could not be bettered for general use, because of its sim-
plicity and comparatively low cost. The method in brief is as
follows: From 20 to 30 caterpillars which had been exposed
to the spore discharge were placed in a quarter-pound paper
bag, the neck of which was wound tightly with a 10-inch strand
of No. 26 iron wire. The bag was then hung in the tree as
near the web as possible, or near the masses of feeding cater-
pillars, and its side ripped open to allow the infected larva?
to escape. In addition to this bag method, wherever it was
possible the sick caterpillars were placed directly in the feeding
masses, thus practically insuring an infection.

1 This maximum was increased by a combination of methods to 75 per cent, in 1911.

ii.ii

1*1

mi

r

Hi
||l

Klljj

u

111

PLATE III

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. — Showing dead larvae on the top of an old stone wall at South Billerica.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. — A view of a single stone of the above wall. All of the larvae shown are dead

from the Entomophthora disease.

15

The plantings 1 of the spring of 1909 were made by the two
methods just described. In nearly every case the larvae
crawled ont of the bag in a few minutes, but in the first two
plantings made in late April, the cold rendered their move-
ments so sluggish that they died before they could escape. The
last three plantings were made so late in the season that they
could not have been very effective. The season's work proved
that artificial spread before May 1 is useless, because the irreg-
ular cold weather of late April inhibits the growth of the
fungus, and that it is extremely difficult to estimate the effec-
tiveness of plantings made after May 25 on account of the
prevalence in the field at this season of spontaneous epidemics.
In the territories of Rowley and West Newbury, where the
disease worked very successfully, the final mortalities among
the prepupse and pupae ranged from 80 to 90 per cent., and in
localized plots of intense infection it was impossible to find a
single live individual.

On May 14 the number of caterpillars dead from the disease
on the territory at North Andover, planted the previous fall,
was estimated at 50 per cent., and on May 28 at 95 per cent.
The epidemic had apparently spread about equally well in all
directions. Inspection of the estate of Mr. William Brewster at
Concord, where a natural infection had occurred in the fall,
showed that the caterpillars were practically annihilated by the
24th of May. It seemed probable that the epidemic in the
North Andover territory had been started by the diseased cater-
pillars planted there in the fall of 1908, since there was no
indication of the fungus in that locality previous to their in-
troduction, and in both cases the early appearance of the dis-
ease in the spring, and the intense destruction wrought by it,
seemed to point to the conclusion that the fungus had wintered
over in the nests, and begun its attack as soon as the young
larvae emerged.

Autumn of 1909.

In the autumn of 1909, the supply of webs in cold storage
being insufficient, only three plantings were made, two of which
were effective in killing off 20 to 30 per cent, of the larvae, thus

1 See page 26 for list of localities planted.

16

confirming the results of the preceding fall; the other was
spoiled for observation because the infected webs were cut
from the trees and burned by the owner of the 'property.

Spring of 1910.

The fungus was carried over the winter of 1909—10 in cul-
ture dishes by the method already outlined, and a general infec-
tion started in the disease boxes in the usual manner. A disas-
trous epidemic of S'porotrichum glohuliferum Speg., which
killed off a large number of the larvae and threatened to choke
out the Entomophthora altogether, was controlled only with the
greatest difficulty. In spite of this hindrance, however, a suffi-
cient quantity of infected material was ready for planting on
the 1st of May. The diseased caterpillars were distributed over
a solid block of territory about twelve square miles in extent,
running along the railroad track from Ipswich to within one
mile of the New Hampshire line, and also in six scattered
plantings on private estates. Weather conditions were favor-
able, and regular inspection at intervals during late May and
early June revealed a mortality estimated at about 35 per cent.,
with the disease universally distributed through the planted
areas. The virulence of the epidemic gradually increased until
the larvse began to spin up, about the middle of June, when
the per cent, of those visibly affected rose so high that only 80
out of 1,000 pupae and prepupae collected from all over the
planted territory matured moths.

It might be stated here that the word per cent, as used above
should not be taken in its literal sense, as it is impossible to
arrive at an absolutelv correct determination of the work of the
fungus at any given moment. The reasons are obvious. Only
those caterpillars visibly affected with the disease at the time
of inspection can be used in the calculation, which means that all
larva? which have died and dropped from the trees, as well as
those infected but not yet dead, must be inevitably overlooked.
Moreover, at the time of inspection the disease may be at a
very low ebb, due to adverse weather conditions or some other
cause, and the inspector will get the impression that the fungus
is not working at all. Territories in which the disease ap-

17

peared to be working to perfection in May often exhibit only
scattering evidence of the destruction wrought when inspected
in June, and in other territories the June death rate may be
the highest of the season. Since the conditions in the field are
so variable, careful inspections and estimates must be made at
intervals throughout the entire season in order to arrive at
even an approximate estimation of the total work that the
fungus has done.

Autumn of 1910.
Seventy bushels of webs were brought from cold-storage on
the 25th of July to furnish the larvse for the fall infection of
this year. The caterpillars were placed in long rearing boxes
out of doors under favorable conditions for their growth, but
an attack of the disease, which started from one box in which
there must have been a few infected webs, and spread rapidly
to all of the others, killed off 90 to 95 per cent, before the
20th of August. The few that survived were evenly distributed
in iive disease boxes, and with them were mixed healthy larvse
from the webs in the field. Although this meager supply of
diseased material was unsatisfactory, about forty plantings
were made, with the co-operation of the State agents and super-
intendents, on low shrubbery in eastern Massachusetts. A new
method of sending the caterpillars to the field, in mailing cases,
was tried in connection with these plantings, and proved to be
satisfactory, except in those instances where the cases were
delaved in the mails until the larvse were dead when they

v d

arrived at their destination. In making the plantings all the
nests that could be conveniently reached were ripped open, so
that a few of the infected caterpillars could be inserted directly
among the healthy occupants. The bag method was also used
successfully. Where the contour of the country permitted, the
plantings were made at 50-foot intervals, and the whole planted
territory divided into plots of convenient size for careful ob-
servation. A count of all of the nests in a selected plot was
recorded at the time of planting, so that the spread of the dis-
ease might be checked up at each inspection. The reports of
the inspectors showed that the disease became evident after
ten days in every plot, and that the number of dead larvse on

18

the outside of the nests increased very rapidly, first in the
immediate vicinity of the infected web, and then in scattered
spots all over the territory. The following typical report from
two inspections of a planting made August 13 at Clinton gives
some idea of the rapid death rate. One hag, containing 15 to
20 diseased caterpillars, was hung in the middle of each plot,
and the plots so chosen that the hags were about 50 feet apart.

Plots.

Total Number

of
Webs in Plot.

Webs

Infected

September 10.

Dead Larvae
September 10.

Webs

Infected

September 15.

Dead Larvae
September 15.

I., . . .
II., . . .
III., . . .
IV., . . .

12
10
23
20

4
3
6
6

67

46

149

78

10
9

15
13

231
340
410
177

The area of each plot was between 400 to 500 square feet. The
same results were reported from the other plantings, which
were practically all successful, resulting in the infection of 35
to 50 per cent, of the webs in the planted areas.

Spring of 1911. *

Following the same general methods in rearing, infecting
and distributing the caterpillars used in previous experiments,
the work of the spring of 1911 was continued on a still larger
scale. The only change in the rearing and disease boxes was
the use of heavy wire screening with a quarter-inch mesh on
the bottoms, to retain a thin layer of earth and prevent the
escape of the larvae whenever the boxes had to be moved. The
late spring, and consequent late opening of the foliage, made
the work of early rearing very difficult, and it was necessary to
draw on a supply of raspberry leaves, grown in the greenhouse
and intended for use in raising gypsy larva?, until the willow
and cherry trees came out. Beside the extensive plantings
made by two men employed especially for the purpose during
the month of May, a general distribution of infected caterpil-
lars was made possible with the help of the State agents. Ship-

1 Mr. Colley took full charge of the work in February, 1911.

J

PLATE IV.

1

'

f"

r^fS^T^^

-JPJ

H

£&

Ci

v A '5

ifc*vL-

.

fymigri

^KSHpP

^^ ATPs*,

ft Tjk "*#i$S

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. — Long rearing boxes under the ti'ees at the Botanic Garden, used to force the

larva? for the infection experiments of the fall of 1910.

•i

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. — Rearing boxes protected by cotton drilling to prevent the spread of an epi-
demic of the disease in the fall of 1'JIO. It was thought that the cotton cloth would
stop spores from being blown in from the infected boxes.

19

ments were made also to interested persons all over the State
for private experiment, as long as the material lasted.

The extreme dryness of the month of May hindered the
growth of the fungus to a very large extent, so that the final
results were not as good as those of the preceding spring, but
toward the end of the season there was a general infection all
over the planted territory. In and around Ayer the number
of caterpillars visibly affected with the disease on the 27th of
June was estimated at 60 to 70 per cent., and the trees in
which the fungus had been planted were not nearly so badly
stripped as those in which the caterpillars had been unmo-
lested. In contrast to this condition a badly infested scrub
growth of oak and cherry in Roberts, where no fungus had
been planted, was completely defoliated, and the natural dis-
ease, though evident on one or two bushes, was not present in
epidemic form.

Early inspection of the plantings made in the autumn of
1910 showed that the infection was general, but was not spread-
ing far from the planted areas, except in one or two instances.
In spite of this fact the defoliation in these areas was notice-
ably less than in areas where no fungus had been distributed.
As in the spring of 1910, the death rate after the 15th of June
increased very rapidly, and in Georgetown, where an excellent
infection was started the previous September, the caterpillars
in the planted territories were almost completely annihilated.
The territory between Ipswich and Rowley, which is damp
nearly all the time, on account of the proximity of the ocean
and salt marshes, was found to be practically cleared of brown-
tails by the disease.

Autumn of 1911.

In preparation for the fall infection the larvae were brought
from cold storage on the 15th of August, three weeks later
than in previous seasons, and fed wholly on cherry. Fortu-
nately, the disastrous results which attended our efforts to force
the caterpillars in July and August, 1910, were not repeated,
so that ten bushels of webs furnished an abundant supply of
larvae about one-half inch long by the 1st of September. It
was found advisable to cover the bottoms of the rearing boxes

20

with a thin layer of coarse gravel, which was a great aid in
keeping the boxes clean. Two disease boxes had been rnn all
summer, and from them infection was started in seven others.
The latter were all arranged as shown in Fig. 2, and by a com-
bination of the " natural method " and the " spray method "
a comparatively high per cent, of infection was obtained. The
following table shows the results obtained in five test experi-
ments. In each case the caterpillars were picked at random
from the disease boxes and packed in mailing cases for several
hours, as if they were to be shipped to agents in the field, to
imitate the normal conditions of distribution, before being
placed in the observation trays.

Trays.

Number of

Larvae placed in

Tray.

Number of

Larvae dying within

Nine Days.

Approximate
Per Cent.

I.,
II.,
III.,
IV.,

v.,

180
253
219
144
129

97
204
183
109

97

53
80
83
75
75

Planting was commenced on the 1st of September and ended
on the 12th, during which time approximately 100,000 cater-
pillars were distributed, a great increase over the number dis-
tributed in the fall of 1910. The caterpillars, packed in mail-
ing cases as before, were delivered by automobile, a method
which assured their reaching the agents in good condition, be-
cause by its use unnecessary delay in transit was avoided.
With one or two exceptions all of the infected caterpillars were
planted directly in the nests.

About the middle of October an inspection of all the nests on
plotted areas in plantings in Waltham, Stow, Marlborough and
Hudson showed a general infection, about half of the nests
examined being diseased.1 In all of this autumn's work only
three cases of naturally infected webs were observed, a fact
which led to the conclusion that the epidemic in these areas

» The number diseased was 763 out of 1,623, by actual count.

21

was due to the infection started by the introduced caterpillars.
There is every indication that, with favorable weather condi-
tions, the work of the fungus will be evidenced in the spring of
1912 by a more or less complete annihilation of the brown-tails
in and around the territories where the plantings were made
this last autumn.

In summing up the results of the investigations covering the
four seasons 1908-11, it may be said that it has been found
possible to propagate the disease in the laboratory, and to infect
caterpillars in the field successfully, both in the spring and in
the fall. Under favorable weather conditions the artificially
induced spring epidemics have resulted in many cases in the
practically complete destruction of the larvae in the planted
areas. In the fall epidemics the number of nests infected at
the end of the season has ranged from 30 to 50 per cent., and
these nests have apparently formed the starting point of early
spring infections. The fall plantings have, therefore, a two-
fold efficiency, in that they not only result in the destruction
of one-third to one-half of the caterpillars in the autumn, while
they are small and comparatively harmless, but also, by es-
tablishing the disease in the nests, enable an epidemic to get
started much earlier in the spring than any natural infection
could develop under ordinary weather conditions. The last
three or four years have not been particularly favorable for
natural epidemics or for furthering the spread of the intro-
duced disease, and it seems reasonable to suppose that the fun-
gus would have been far more effective if the weather, espe-
cially during the spring months, had been warmer, with a
larger rainfall. It has, of course, been impossible to plant all
of the infested territory with diseased caterpillars, and in many
cases areas cleared of brown-tails by the fungus in the spring
have been invaded by moths from uninfected localities, with
the result that they were infested as badly as ever in August.
This condition of affairs is unavoidable, since we are dealing
with a moth that may fly, or be blown, for some distance, and
it is therefore impossible to guarantee that the fungus will
clear any territory of moths so that it will remain free for
any length of time. The presence of the disease does not ren-

22

... . .

ler a territory immune to future immigrations, but it certainly

will reduce the amount of damage that the invading moths
may do. The determination of the distance to which the dis-
ease may spread is extremely difficult. Undoubtedly the spores
are often blown for miles, and in such cases the epidemic
might jump from one territory to another widely separated
from it, but there would be no means of telling just where the
spore or spores which started the second epidemic came from.
As can be seen from the table on page 18, one bag of 20 to 30
diseased caterpillars is sufficient to infect an area of approxi-
mately 625 square feet ; any further spread of the disease would
be variable, and dependent upon weather conditions.

Webs in Cold Storage.

Before giving general directions for private experiment it
seems advisable to mention the advantages of having a supply
of webs in a cold-storage warehouse, or packed in a dry box in
an icehouse where the temperature does not go over 35 degrees,
to furnish the proper amount of material at short notice for
spring or fall work. It is difficult to collect larvae just when
they are needed in the spring, for the caterpillars have usually
started to feed, and it is impossible to collect them in the sum-
mer in time for the fall work, for they do not emerge from
their eggs until the middle of August. Care should be taken
that such webs as are selected for this cold-storage supply are
not infected with the disease at the time of collection, for if
they are it will become epidemic when the nests are brought
out into the warmer air, and completely destroy the larvas in
the rearing boxes.

Directions for Private Experiment.

With such a supply of webs to draw from, persons wishing to
make private experiments might proceed something as fol-
lows : —

Two boxes should be constructed after the manner shown in
Fig. 2, and set in two frames (Plate V., Fig. 2) some distance
apart, one for rearing the caterpillars and one for forcing the
disease. The bottoms of both boxes should be covered with a

PLATE V.

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. — Showing the proper method of
hanging the bag containing the infected
caterpillars close to the nest.

Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. — A cheap but efficient frame and disease box for private experiment.

23

thin layer of gravel. About April 1, 200 stored or -freshly
cut webs should be placed in each box, and in addition to this
number the box chosen for the disease box should also receive
two or three dozen infected webs from some locality where the
disease is known to be present.

Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic view of the interior of a rearing or disease box. Forked sticks bbb
driven into the ground support crosspieces cc, on which leafy twigs may be hung. Other
leaves should be scattered on the ground beneath the crosspieces. Infected caterpillars will
usually crawl up the forked sticks and along these crosspieces, so that the spores from their
bodies will fall on the healthy larva? feeding below. A two-inch rim of tanglefoot in the
position indicated by aa will keep the caterpillars confined.

In the matter of food, sanitation, heat and shade experience
is the only reliable guide, but in general, young buds, stripped
from oak or cherry trees, make the best material for early feed-
ing; the boxes, especially the rearing box, should be kept as
clean as possible, and the shade should be arranged so that the
temperature does not go much over 80 degrees. The disease
box should be kept dark and moist most of the time by covering
with a damp mat, but here again the rule is not without excep-

24

tion. The rim of tanglefoot, indicated in Fig. 2, should be
frequently combed.

After about ten days, by which time the disease should have
made its appearance, the disease box should receive constant
attention. Each night and morning the dead and dying cater-
pillars should be evenly distributed among the other larvae in
the box, in order to make the infection as general as possible.
The " spray method " outlined on page 13 should be used in
conjunction with this " natural method." Furthermore, it is
particularly important, in the attempt to hasten the general
infection, that the number of larva? in the disease box should
be kept nearly constant, by transferring healthy caterpillars
from the rearing box to replace those killed by the disease.
Broad-pointed forceps should be used in handling the cater-
pillars.

Planting should be commenced about the first of May, and
can be continued to advantage until the first of June. Twenty
to 30 of the caterpillars which have been exposed to the spore
discharge in the disease box should be placed in a quarter-
pound paper bag, the neck of which should then be tightly
wired with a convenient strand of ~No. 26 iron wire, or other
suitable material. The bag, when it has been hung as near as
possible to the masses of feeding larva? or to the nests (Plate
V., Fig. 1), should be ripped open to allow the escape of the
infected caterpillars.

For successful autumn planting a supply of cold-storage webs
is absolutely necessary, because the fungus must be kept alive
through successive generations during the summer months in
the disease box, and to do this one must have a few webs on
hand all the time. Moreover, as stated before, the larvae in
the field are not large enough for convenient handling in the
fall experiments. The rules given for spring rearing and in-
fection hold in general for the autumn work, except that it is
not necessary to keep the boxes under glass. Autumn planting
should be direct, that is, infected caterpillars should be placed
directly into nests conveniently reached, a method which insures
an infection and which is simpler than the bag method. Pliable
branches may be pulled down with a hooked pole. Where there
are a number of nests on a small bush the central nest mav be

25

directly inoculated and the surrounding nests tied up to it with
a piece of heavy cord, which may be cut at the first inspection,
after the infection has spread. Another method, devised by
Dr. Thaxter, is as follows : cut, infect and bind together half a
dozen or more nests. To one end of a string of convenient
length attach a small stone, throw the stone over the infested
tree and pull the bunch of webs attached to the other end of the
string up into the topmost branches, where the nests are usually
crowded and the infection will do most good. All of these sug-
gestions can be varied to suit conditions of moisture, contour
and shrubbery on the territory which is to be planted. Where
it is convenient the nests which have been cut from fruit trees
may be piled in an open field or in swampy pasture land and
the infection started in the pile. Such a method will result
in the practically complete destruction of the caterpillars, will
allow the escape of insect parasites which would be killed by
burning, and will establish the starting point for an epidemic
which should spread to the surrounding bushes and trees. It
has been found advantageous in some cases to burlap the trees
in which the fungus has been planted, especially in the spring,
as the caterpillars, in crowding together under the burlap,
easily transmit the disease to one another.

Conclusions.

The artificial propagation and use of the brown-tail fungus
has been clearly shown to be an effective means of destroying
the caterpillars of this insect in great numbers and over con-
siderable areas.

Although the success of this artificial use is variable, owing
to the fact that the degree of warmth and moisture most favor-
able for the growth of the fungus, and dependent on weather
conditions, cannot be controlled, the introduced disease can in
general be depended on to kill from 60 to 100 per cent, of the
caterpillars in the planted areas.

Plantings of the infected caterpillars should be made prefer-
ably in localities where the natural disease is not known to be
present, in the spring from May 1 to June 1, and in the autumn
from August 25 to September 10.

The fungus usually lives over winter from the autumn infec-

26

tion, and does effective work, as is evidenced by the early
appearance of the disease and the reduction of the spring defo-
liation in localities where it was introduced the preceding fall,
and for this reason fall infection is doublv effective.

Artificial distribution is most easily accomplished in sprout
woodlands and pastures where the ordinary methods of control,
such as spraying and cutting, are not employed, and where
the nests are more readilv accessible.

List of Localities where the Fungus has been planted.

Spring, 190S. — Concord, Gerrish Island, Me., South Billerica, State
Line, Waltham.

Fall, 1908. — North Andover.

Spring, 1909. — Ballardvale, Chelmsford, Concord, Lowell Junction,
Newbury port, North Andover, North Wilmington, Rowley, Salis-
bury, West Newbury, Woburn.

Fall, 1909. — Mishawum, North Wilmington, Newbury.

Spring, 1910. — Territory along railroad track from Ipswich to New
Hampshire line. Scattered plantings on six private estates.

Fall, 1910. — Amesbury, Andover, Billerica, Bolton, Boston, Boxf ord,
Clinton, Cohasset, Draeut, Georgetown, Groveland, Fitchburg,
Framingham, Harvard, Leominster, Lunenburg, Medfield, Methuen,
Newbury, North Andover, Reading, Rowley, Scituate, Shirley,
Tewksbury, West Newbury, Worcester.

Spring, 1911. — Intensive planting in and around Ayer. Dunstable,
Groton, Leominster, Lunenburg, Pepperell, Shirley, Stony Brook,
Westford, Whalom.

Fall, 1911. — Amesbury, Arlington, Ashland, Bedford, Belmont, Berlin,
Boxford, Burlington, Carlisle, Concord, Danvers, Dedham, Dover,
Fayville Dam, Framingham, Georgetown, Groveland, Hamilton,
Hopkinton, Hudson, Ipswich, Lakeside, Lexington, Lincoln, Lynn,
Marlborough, Maiden, Melrose, Merrimac, Needham, Northborough,
North Reading, Newbury, Roberts, Salisbury, Saugus, South Acton,
Soutliborough, Stoneham, Swampscott, Wakefield, Waltham, Wel-
lesley, Weston, West Acton, West Newbury, Wilmington, Win-
chester, Woburn.

This list indicates the localities where the fungus has been
planted, but not the number of plantings. In many instances
several plantings were made in the same town.

27

List of Hosts of Entomophthora Aulicw Reich, reported in the United
States. Hosts of Emyusa grylli Fres. are excluded.

Agrotis sp., cutworm, Thaxter.1

Catocala sp., Clinton.

Clinton.

Kirkland, Stone
and others.2
. Thaxter.3
. Thaxter.1
. Clinton.
. Thaxter.1
. Thaxter.3
. Thaxter.1
. Thaxter.1
. Thaxter.8
f Thaxter.3
' \ Webster.4
. Thaxter, herb.
. Thaxter, herb.
. Thaxter, herb.
. Thaxter, herb.
. Thaxter, herb.

Estigmene acraea, salt-marsh caterpillar, .
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, brown-tail moth caterpillar,

Hyphantria text or, fall webworin,
Lithophane {Xylina), cutworm, .
Malaeosoma americana, tent caterpillar,
Mamestra sp.} cutworm,
Orgyia nova, rusty tussock moth,
Phlegethontkis Carolina, tomato worm,
Pldegethontius celeus, tomato worm, .
Pyrrliarctia isabella, Isabella moth, .

Spilosoma virginica, yellow bear,

Eucheles Egle,

Smerinthus modestus, .....
Amphipyra pyramidoides, ....
Larva of diurnal lepidoptera, probably Vanessa
Larva of diurnal lepidoptera, sp.,

1 Ann. Rept. Connecticut Agri. Exp. Sta., 1890; 95, 1891.

2 Ann. Rept. Mass. Supt. Suppression of Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths, 1, 130, 1936.
« Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History, IV.; 159-162, 1888.

4 Journal Cincinnati Soc. Nat. History, XVI.; 175, 1894.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE GYPSY FUNGUS.

In the spring of 1908, while Dr. Clinton was carrying on
preliminary experiments with the brown-tail fungus, he re-
ceived from the Melrose laboratory specimens of Japanese
gypsy larvae, shipped from Japan with other material, which
had been killed by the attack of an Entomophthora, but owing
to the fact that the caterpillars had been dead for some weeks,
all attempts to make this fungus develop its spores were unsuc-
cessful. As it was thought that this species of Entomophthora
might be as effective in destroying the gypsy larvse as Ento-
mophthora Aulica? was in destroying the brown-tail, Dr. Clin-
ton, through the generosity of a friend of Harvard L'niversity,
was sent to Japan to obtain the living fungus, and after great
difficulties succeeded in bringing a few infected Japanese cater-

28

pillars to Cambridge. Of the few larvae which survived the
long trip and severe heat only two developed the disease.
These two were put immediately into a moist culture dish,
so arranged that the spores would be discharged on healthy
caterpillars. Only one of the latter developed typical conidia,
but the growth was so feeble that probably very few spores were
discharged. The pustules of conidiophores and attached spores
were picked off and transferred directly to healthy caterpillars,
and the dead bodies of the few larvae which had developed rest-
ing spores were carefully saved. The caterpillars directly inoc-
ulated showed signs of the disease externally on the eighth day
after infection, but in no case was the appearance typical.
From this generation of the fungus 30 caterpillars were inoc-
ulated directly as above, and by successive transfers the num-
ber which developed the conidial form of the disease was
increased steadily, though slowly. Resting spores were gen-
erally formed with the conidia. By the time the disease was
running well in the infection boxes the larvae in the field had
practically all become prepupae or pupae, and since the attempt
to raise caterpillars from cold-storage eggs was unsuccessful, the
disease, from lack of hosts on which it could be propagated,
died out late in August.

Healthy gypsy larvae were put into the infection box of the
previous spring on May 15, 1910, and the disease, which de-
veloped spontaneously on the 2d of June, was kept running
until the last of August. Reinfection was undoubtedly accom-
plished through the germination of some of the thousands of
resting spores, formed during the previous season, which were
lying on the bottom of the box. From June 15 to July 2 six
plantings were made, following the same methods used suc-
cessfully with the brown-tail fungus, in Billerica, Brookline,
Lynn, Saugus and North Wilmington, but regular and careful
inspection of these plantings revealed neither the conidial nor
the more common resting-spore stage of the fungus.

In the spring of 1911 the same plantings were inspected
carefully to see whether the disease had possibly started as a
result of the infection made in 1910, but no indication of its
presence was discovered. The disease boxes at the garden had
not been disturbed during the winter, so they contained all the

PLATE VI.

;

O

i

caterpillars dead from n disease similar i<> the brown-tall fungus. Note the
characteristic position <>r the bodj «>t the dead caterpillars.

29

resting spores formed in 1909 and 1910, except those which
must have germinated and the few removed for experiment
and examination. The disease appeared on the 23d of May,
when a very small larva broke out with a few feebly growing
pustules. On the 27th a half -grown caterpillar died from the
disease in the greenhouse, and again on the 9th of June a large
gypsy was found rigid and ready to shoot. From these larvae,
and from others which subsequently developed the disease,
about 500 caterpillars were directly inoculated, but it was not
until the 19th of June that the supply of diseased material
warranted the first planting, at Brookline. On the 24th and
26th of June two other plantings were made in a badly infested
scrub oak woodland in Roberts. Careful inspection on the
29th of June, and on the 6th and 15th of July, failed to reveal
the slightest sign of the fungus in either of these plantings.
The wilt disease appeared to be universally distributed wher-
ever the gypsies were feeding, and was severe enough during
the hot weather of the last half of June and of early July to
kill off the caterpillars in the rearing boxes and the disease
boxes at the garden to such an extent that the propagation of
the fungus became more and more difficult, until finally it had
to be abandoned, owing to the total destruction of the culture
larvae.

Conclusions from work on the Gypsy Fungus.

The experiments with the gypsy fungus, notwithstanding
the fact that they were made under unfavorable weather condi-
tions, both in 1910 and 1911, indicate that this disease is not
a promising form for artificial use. This conclusion is based
not only on the fact that the fungus is itself far more difficult
to propagate than that of the brown-tail, and is much more sen-
sitive to unfavorable weather conditions, but is also evident
from the fact that the breeding in confinement of gypsy larvse
is associated with difficulties which are in themselves sufficient
to render the continuous propagation of the fungus from month
to month or from year to year almost impossible.

Should it obtain a foothold in the field, however, it might be
expected to prove continuously effective from season to season,
owing to its habit of forming resting spores in great abundance,
which the experiments have shown nro able to survive the "New

30

England winter, and a very slight increase in virulence, such as
often appears in parasitic fungi in successive seasons, might
bring about quite different results from those above reported.

LITERATURE.

Among some of the more important articles dealing with
insect diseases and their practical use the following may be
mentioned : —

1855. Cohist, F. Empusa muscce mid die Krankheit der Stubenfliegen.

Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol, d. Nat., XXV., 301,

1855.
1869. Reichardt. Empusa Aulicce. In Bail, Ueber Pilzepizootien in

Schriften d. Natur. Ges. Danzig. N. F. Band II., 3, 1869.
1875. Cohn, F. Entomophthora Aulicce. Beit. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen,

Band I., Heft VII., 1875.
1882. Nowakowski, L. Entomvphthoracece. Report in Bot. Zeit.,

1882, 560.

1888. Thaxter, R. The Entomophthorecs of the United States. Mem.

Boston Soe. Nat. Hist., 4, 133-201, 1888.
Forbes, S. A. On the Present State of our Knowledge concern-
ing Contagions Insect Diseases. Psyche, Vol. V., 3, January-
February, 1888.

1889. Giard, A. Review of Krassiltschik's " De Insectorum Morbis

qui Fungis Parasiticis Effieiuntur." Bui. Sci. de France et de
la Belgique, Tome XX., 120-136, 1889.
Snow, F. H. Experiments on Artificial Dissemination of Con-
tagious Diseases among Chinch Bugs. Kansas Academy of
Sciences, Vol. XII., Topeka, 1889.

1892. Buisson, M. Le Botrytis tenella. Nouveau Moyen de detruire

les Vers Blancs et les Hannetons. Compiegne, Imprimerie
Henry Lefebvre, 31 Rue Solferino, 1892.

1893. Giard, A. L'Isaria densa. Bui. Sci. de la France et de la Bel-

gique, Tome XXIV., 1893.
1895. Pettit, R. H. Studies in Artificial Cultures of Entomogenous

Fungi. Bui. 97, Cornell University Agri. Exp. Sta., 1895.
1S97. Rolfs, P. H. A Fungous Disease of the San Jose Scale, Splice-

rostilbe eoccophila Tul., Bui. 41, Florida Agri. Exp. Sta., 1897.
1901. Danysz, M. J., and Wize, M le Dr. K. De L'utilisation des

Muscardine dans la Lutte avec le Cleonus punctiventris.

Libraire Agricole de la Maison Rustique. 26 Rue Jacob,

Paris, 1901.
Howard, L. O. Experimental Work with Fungous Diseases of

Grasshoppers. U. S. Dept. Agri. Yearbook, 459, 1901.

31

1902. Brunner, L. Killing Destructive Locusts with Fungous Diseases.

IT. S. Dept. Agri., Div. of Entomology, Bui. 38, new series,
1902.

1903. Sheldon, J. L. Cultures of Empusa. Journal of Applied

Microscopy and Laboratory Methods, Vol. VI., No. 3, 2212-
2220, Rochester, N. Y., 1903.
1906. Olive, E. W. Cytological Studies on the Entomophthorece.
Bot. Gaz. 41, 192-208, 229-261, 1906.
Eiddle, L. W. Cytology of the Entomophthoracece. American
Acad. Arts and Sciences, 42, 10, 1906.

1908. Rolfs, P. H., and Fawcett, H. S. Fungous Diseases of Scale

Insects and White-fly. Bui. 94, Florida Agri. Exp. Sta.,
1908.
Hitchings, Professor. Note on the Infection Experiment at
Kittery Point, Me. Maine Dept. Agri. Bur., III., 20, 1908.

1909. Spraying with Ascliersonia. Florida Agri. Exp. Sta. Report

for year ending June 30, 1909, 38-41: 1910, 39.

1910. Berger, E. W. White-fly Control. Bui. 103, University of

Florida Agri. Exp. Sta., 1910.
Fawcett, H. S. An Important Entomogenous Fungus, JEgerita

Webberl Mycologia, Vol. II., No. 4, July, 1910.
Rorer, J. B. The Green Muscardine of Froghoppers. Proc.

Agri. Soc. of Trinidad and Tobago, Vol. X., 467-482. Society

Paper No. 442, 1910.

1911. Kelly, E. O. G., and Parks, T. H. Chinch Bug Investigations

West of the Mississippi River. U. S. Dept. Agri., Bur. Ento-
mology, Bui. 95, Part III., 40-52, 1911.
Billings, F. H., and Glenn, P. A. Results of the Use of the
White-fungus Disease in Kansas. U. S. Dept. Agri., Bur.
Entomology, Bui. 107, 1911.

Explanation of Plate VII.

Figs. 1-4. — Typical conidia.

Figs. 5-7. — Germinating conidia.

Fig. 8. — Secondary conidium produced directly from a primary conidium.

Fig. 9. — Four small hyphal bodies.

Fig. 10. — Group of conidiophores showing four stages, a, b, c and d, in the development
of the conidium.

Fig. 11. — An abnormal hyphal body, apparently partially encysted.

Figs. 12-17. — Characteristic forms of hyphal bodies prior to and during the formation
of resting spores.

Fig. 18. — A mature resting spore.

Fig. 19. — Section through the body of a caterpillar, showing the relation of the conid-
iophores to the integument.

PLATE VII.

Explanation of Plate VIII.
Figs. 20-21. — Encysted hyphal bodies (autumn).
Figs. 22-23. — Germination of the encysted hyphal bodies.
Fig. 24. — A conidiophore, showing the old walls of primary, secondary and tertiary

conidia which have germinated in situ.
Fig. 25. — Pustule of conidiophores which developed from germinating encysted hyphal

bodies in a culture dish in the laboratory.
Fig. 26. — Section view of a similar pustule breaking through the integument.
FIG. 27. — Formation of a conidium from the germination of an encysted hyphal body.
Figs. 28-31. — Germination of the ordinary type of hyphal bodies.
Fig. 32. — A germinating conidium showing the cross septa a which closes the empty tube

after the advancing protoplasm.
Fig. 33. — An abnormally large hyphal body.

All the figures were drawn with the aid of the camera lucida, and are reduced about
one-third in reproduction. With the exception of Figs. 19, 25, 26 and 27 the magnification
was approximately 425; for Fig. 19 the magnification was about 90; for Figs. 25 and 26,
about 300 ; and for Fig. 27, about 600.

PLATE VIII ,

J

THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH.

How to identify and know all about it. See colored plate.

Issued by the Massachusetts State Forester,
F. W. RANE.

m

■

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

INTRODUCTORY.

This publication is issued by the State Forester in order to
explain briefly that which people desire to know about the
brown-tail moth. The text is largely a revision of a former
bulletin, now out of print. The illustrations in color shown
herewith are natural size, and should acquaint one immediately
with the various stages in the development of the insect.

Heretofore it has been customary to publish the literature
on the brown-tail moth in the same bulletin with the gypsy
moth, as the same State law of suppression applies to each.
This has resulted in a tendency to confuse the two insects,
which really are totally different. For that reason this bulletin
refers to the brown-tail moth only.

Nothing is given herein regarding the State laws, governing
their suppression, as this is published in full in a small pam-
phlet in which are compiled all the forest laws of the State.
This may be had by Massachusetts citizens upon application to
the State Forester.

F. W. RANE,

State Forester.
6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass., March, 1912.

i

i

m

Female moth

E. O. Cockayne, Boston, Lith. L. C. C. Krieger, del.

The Life History of the Brown-tail Moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea).

THE BEOWN-TAIL MOTH.

This insect, a common European pest of fruit and shade trees,
has been an object of interest to gardeners from the earliest
times. Throughout Europe it is known as the " common
caterpillar ,5 and accounts of its habits and periodical ravages
are to be found in nearly all European works on entomology
and horticulture. It found its way accidentally to Somerville,
Mass., in the early 90's, probably in a shipment of roses from
Holland, multiplied, spread, and is now generally disseminated
over eastern New England.

Damage by the Brown-tail Moth.

While at first a pest of the pear and other fruit trees, the
brown-tail moth has now adapted itself to feeding on various
species of forest trees, notably the oaks. In the spring, as
soon as the buds unfold, the young caterpillars begin to feed,
and where numerous completely strip even large trees. When
the food supply gives out, they swarm forth along fences,
walks, etc., in search of foliage.

The damage by the caterpillars to the fruit trees is only a
part of the harm wrought by them. Whenever these insects
come in contact with human flesh, they produce a most severe
and painful nettling. This is due, apparently, to some poison-
ous substance in the hairs, and also, perhaps, to the finely
barbed and brittle hairs themselves. So severe is this affection
that in many cases people have been made seriously ill by it.
The best remedv for it is the liberal use of cooling lotions, or
what is more satisfactory, even if less pleasant, the free use of
common vaseline. A prescription which has given great relief
in actual practice is: carbolic acid, \ drachm; zinc oxide,
\ ounce; lime water, 8 ounces; shake well and rub into the
affected parts. It is also stated on good authority that a sat-
urated solution of hyposulphite of soda is an excellent remedv.

Where the brown-tail moth caterpillar exists in great num-
bers, it at times gathers upon houses and even enters them,

6

causing extreme annoyance. Like the gypsy moth, the brown-
tail moth, where it abounds, depreciates the value of residential
property.

Life History.

The Egg. — The egg mass of the brown-tail moth somewhat
resembles that of the gypsy moth, but it is laid on the under
side of a leaf — seldom on a tree trunk — and is smaller and more
elongated, and of a brighter reddish-brown color. From July
15 to the end of the month the white moths lay their eggs in
brown, hair-covered masses on the leaves near the top of pear
and other trees. Each egg cluster contains about three hun-
dred eggs, closely packed in a mass about two-thirds of an inch
long by one-fourth of an inch wide.

The Caterpillar. — The eggs hatch during August, and the
young caterpillars begin to feed in clusters on the upper sur-
face of the leaves. They soon commence the work of spinning
their winter webs. In making the web a number of leaves in
the vicinity of the- egg clusters are drawn together and care-
fully spun in with a tenacious silken web. The web is grayish
in color, composed of dead leaves and silk, and is very hard to
tear apart. Each web contains about two hundred and fifty
caterpillars, and varies in length from four to six inches. With
the approach of cold weather the caterpillars enter the web and
close the exit holes. We then have the strange phenomenon
of a caterpillar wintering over when only one-quarter grown,
and emerging the following spring to complete its life history.
The extremes of cold in Massachusetts do not seem to affect
these insects adversely. They emerge in the spring, usually
early in April, eat first the buds and then the blossoms, and
attack the foliage of fruit trees as soon as it develops. The full-
grown caterpillar is about two inches in length, with a broken
white stripe on either side and two conspicuous red dots on the
back near the posterior end.

Stripping the foliage of one tree, they go to others, and
continue to eat until full grown, when the cocoons are spun
within the leaves at the ends of the branches or sometimes on
the tree trunks.

The Pupa, — The caterpillars pupate within their cocoons at
the tips of twigs. Usually the mass of cocoons is formed within
a spray of leaves, but at times the cocoon is made on a house

wall, fence, tree trunk, etc. The pupa is a compact, dark-
brown body, about five-eighths of an inch long, with yellowish-
brown hairs scattered over its surface. Pupation takes place
the latter part of June, and the moths emerge about the middle
of July.

I i I E BROWN TAIL MOTH

IN

]VEVT ENGLAND

The Moth. — The moths are pure white on the wings. The
male is slender bodied, while the female has a conspicuous
bunch of brown hair at the tip of the abdomen, hence the Dame
" brown-tail moth." The female has a wing expanse of about
one and one-half inches, the male being slightly smaller.

Both the male and female brown-tail moths fly mainly by

8

night, and are greatly attracted to lights. As in the 'case of
the gypsy moth, all the destructive work of the brown-tail
moth is done by its caterpillar, which, unlike the gypsy moth
caterpillar, habitually feeds by day.

Distribution.

The brown-tail moth is known to have spread at least as far
to the northeast as Eastport, Me., and as far south as Cape Cod,
Mass. To the west it has been found at Amherst, and at North
Adams and Clarksburg, Mass. The eastern portion of Massa-
chusetts from north to south is now quite solidly infested, and
the moth doubtless exists in many communities in and out of
Massachusetts from which it has not yet been reported.

The female winged brown-tail moth, like the male, is a
strong, swift flier, and can carry her eggs long distances before
depositing them. For this reason the brown-tail moth has
spread much farther from its point of introduction in Massa-
chusetts than has the gypsy moth. In its flight the brown-tail
moth is often aided b}^ strong winds. It is also transported on
steamboats and in electric and steam cars, to which it is at-
tracted at night by the lights.

The caterpillar of the brown-tail moth has, when young, the
"spinning down " habit, and is transported by vehicles and
pedestrians. The neighborhoods of traveled highways, there-
fore, should be kept free from the brown-tail moth.

Where to look for the Brown-tail Moth.

The Eggs. — The gathering of leaves which bear egg masses
is only feasible in the case of shrubs and young trees where
the foliage may be reached from the ground. Rose bushes,
dwarf fruit trees and ornamental shrubs often may be cleared
from the moth in this way.

The Caterpillar. — The winter webs or nests containing the
hibernating caterpillars are conspicuous objects at the tips of
twigs from October to April. These webs should be sought out
and removed by the use of pole shears or long-handled pruners,
and then carefully collected and burned. It is more satisfac-
tory, where possible, to burn the webs in a furnace or stove,
since, where an open bonfire is used, extra care must be taken

9

to see that none of the webs escape with a mere scorching.
When a light snow is on the ground the work of web destruc-
tion and gathering can be carried on to best advantage,
although it is desirable that the work should be done as early
as possible in the season after the leaves fall. When tall trees
are infested, two men, one to point out the nests from the
ground, the other in the tree to cut off the nests, can work
more rapidly and economically than one man. It should be
borne in mind that webs cut off and thrown on a dump heap,
as well as those that are beaten off by storms, will yield
their quota of caterpillars the following
spring.

Spraying is very effective against
brown-tail moth caterpillars, since they
are much less resistant to the action of
poison than are those of the gypsy moth.
To secure best results spraying should be
done as soon as the foliage develops in
the spring. Five to eight pounds of the
arsenate of lead paste to one hundred
gallons of water is sufficient for the spray,
or if preferred, one pound of good Paris
green kept well stirred in one hundred
and fifty gallons of water may be applied.
Spraying may be done not only in the spring, but also in
August, when the caterpillars hatch from the egg, except in
cases of trees in fruit.

Spraying or sprinkling with kerosene emulsion or strong
soap suds is often useful in destroying the swarming cater-
pillars on fences, walks, etc.

Such trees as are free from brown-tail moths may be pro-
tected from the caterpillars which crawl from neighboring
estates by applying a sticky band. The banding will not pre-
vent the infestation of the trees by the female winged moths,
which, flying in July, will alight on the foliage of such trees
and deposit their eirg clusters thereon. It is therefore clear
that sticky banding, when used against brown tail caterpillars,
has a more strictly limited usefulness than in the ease of the
gypsy moth.

Pruning shears suitable
for removal of winter
webs.

10

The Pupae. — When the caterpillars have changed to pupae
enclosed by their cocoons, these may be gathered, although
the work is likely to be attended by severe inflammation of the
skin from contact with the nettling hairs. Cocoons thus gath-
ered should be placed in a barrel covered with mosquito netting,
so that any parasites may escape while the moths are confined.
Brown-tail moth pupae are most numerous during the latter half
of June.

The Moths. — As has been already mentioned, the moths
assembled in great numbers around electric and other lights.
It often occurs on a morning during the flying season that a
lamp pole is covered by hundreds if not thousands of the
winged moths. In such cases the free use of the hose will
wash down and kill the insects. No effective form of lamp
trap has yet been devised, and, in fact, it is not at all clear
that the brown-tail moth can be combated economically in the
winged stage.

Natural Enemies of the Brown-tail Moth.

The brown-tail moth has its natural enemies in the fungus
Entomojphthora Aitlicce, in various parasites and in the Calo-
soma beetles. The fungous disease has been
found to occur in this country naturally and
has also been propagated by this office and
spread artificially. Many plantings of it
were made last season in woodland where
no suppressive measures were used.

The parasites and beetles have been
planted all over the most thickly infested
sections and are spreading naturally.

For further information in regard to the
fungous disease, or for assistance in com-
bating this insect, application should be made
to the local moth superintendent in your town
or city, as he is in immediate charge of the
work of suppression.
A publication now in press on the fungous disease may be
secured by Massachusetts citizens by applying to the State
Forester, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.

Improved pruner
with rope instead
of wire, and im-
proved cutter.

\o

The Gypsy moth.

How to identify and know all about it. See colored plate,

•llI.'MI

1|fl>

;<w J,

;i<V

Issued by the Massachusetts State Forester,
F. W. RANE.

I II

Approved by
The State Boaed of Publication.

INTRODUCTORY.

This publication is issued by the State Forester in order to
explain briefly that which people desire to know about the
gypsy moth. The text is largely a revision of a former bul-
letin, now out of print. The illustrations in colors shown
herewith are natural size, and should acquaint one immedi-
ately with the various stages in the development of this insect.

Heretofore it has been the practice to publish the literature
regarding the gypsy moth in the same bulletin with the brown-
tail moth, as the same state law of suppression applies equally
to each. , This has resulted in a tendency to confuse the two
insects, which are totally different. For that reason this bul-
letin refers to the gypsy moth only.

Xothing is given herein regarding the State laws governing
their suppression, as this is published in full in a small pam-
phlet in which are compiled all the forest laws of the State.
This may be had by Massachusetts citizens upon application
to the State Forester.

F. W. RANE,

State Forester.
6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass., March, 1912.

i

l

4
1

Male moth

- —

Male moth at rest

i»a*viOs

Female moth
laying eggs

Male pupa

Female moth

Female pupa

Full grown caterpillar

Egg mass

E. O. CocKayne, Boston, Lith

L. C. C. Krieger, del

The Life History of the Gipsy Moth (Porthetria dispar).

THE GYPSY MOTH.

As far back as authentic records exist, the gypsy moth has
been a destructive insect pest in Europe ; at times increasing ,

enormously and disastrously, then for other periods decreas-
ing, only to increase again and renew its extensive ravages.
At the present time it is most numerous and destructive in
southern Russia.

Up to the year 1868 the gypsy moth was not known to exist
anywhere within the western hemisphere. In that year the
insect was brought from Europe by an experimenter to Med-
ford, Mass. Soon escaping, it spread into many cities and
towns of eastern Massachusetts, and, increasing enormously,
became in 1890 so serious a pest that the Commonwealth began
exterminative work against it. This was continued for ten
years. By 1900 the State work had so reduced the numbers
of the moth that it was doing little or no serious damage, and
had, indeed, ceased to be generally noticed, having been ex-
terminated in many places. The Commonwealth then aban-
doned its operations against the insect ; whereupon it rapidly
gained headway, and soon became again a formidable menace.
To-day, in many localities, the gypsy moth occurs in enor-
mous numbers, as it did in 1890, but it is found over a much
larger territory than it occupied at that time.

The Damage caused by the Gypsy Moth.

The gypsy moth caterpillar will attack all fruit, shade and
woodland trees. It shows a preference for the apple, white
oak, red oak, willow and elm. It will devour on occasion
nearly every useful grass, plant, flower, shrub, vine, bush,
garden or field crop that grows in Massachusetts.

The caterpillar kills both deciduous and coniferous trees,
but in its early molts will not feed on pines. Woodlands
assailed by it in formidable numbers are stripped bare, as in
winter, and many trees are killed. While several COnsecul ive

6

strippings are usually necessary to cause the death of a healthy
deciduous tree, one thorough stripping will kill the white pine
and other coniferous trees. Where the gypsy moth abounds
in residential districts, it not only eats nearly everything green,
but it swarms, in caterpillar form, upon houses, walks and
verandas, and often enters dwellings. In residential districts
most heavily infested by the moth real estate tends to rapid
depreciation, so that it sometimes becomes a matter of diffi-
culty to rent or sell property.

Life History.

The gypsy moth, like all insects of its class, exists under four
different forms during the year.

The Egg. — The eggs of the gypsy moth are laid in July
and August in a yellowish, hair-covered mass, averaging about
one and one-half inches long and about three-fourths of an
inch wide. To the eye the egg mass resembles a small, tightly
stuffed, oval, buff-colored cushion. During winter the color
often fades to a dingy white. In this mass, the eggs, to the
average number of about five hundred, are closely packed with
yellowish hair from the body of the female moth. An indi-
vidual egg is scarcely as large as a pinhead, salmon-colored
when first laid, but turning dark in the course of a few weeks.

The Caterpillar or Larva. — The eggs hatch about May 1,
and each mass or " cluster " yields a swarm of small caterpillars,
the bulk of which become fully grown by midsummer. Gypsy
moth caterpillars of any age are decidedly hairy. The head
of the caterpillar is large in proportion to its body, this being
especially noticeable when it is young.

The mature caterpillar has a dusk}^ or sooty-colored body.
Along the back, counting from the head, which is marked with
yellow, is a double row of blue spots followed by a double i*oav
of red spots. This double row of spots almost invariably may
be seen very distinctly on the back of a gypsy moth caterpillar
which has attained a length of one inch and a half or more.
There are five pairs of blue spots and six pairs of red spots.
No other New England larva has this double row of blue and
red spots along its back. Until the gypsy moth caterpillar
grows to the length of an inch and a half, however, it does

not always show very distinctly these pairs of spots. The
mature gypsy moth caterpillar not infrequently attains a length
of three inches.

The Pupa. — When fully grown, usually in July, the cater-
pillar spins a few threads of silk as a supporting framework,

THE (GYPSY IMOTriHI

UE¥ EBHElLklsniD

casts its skin and changes into a pupa, or, as it is sometimes
called, a chrysalis. The pupa is dark reddish or chocolate in
color and very thinly sprinkled with Light reddish hairs. Un-
fortunately it resembles the pupae of certain other moths found
in Massachusetts, and cannot, unless by experts, be identified

8

at a glance. The thinly sprinkled, light reddish hairs are, how-
ever, characteristic.

The Moth. — From July 15 to August 15 the winged moths
emerge from the pupse, the date varying according to the sea-
son and time of pupation. The male moth is brownish yellow,
varying to greenish brown in color, has a slender body and ex-
pands about one and one-half inches. It flies actively by day,
with a peculiar zigzag flight.

The female moth is nearly white, with numerous small black
markings, heavy bodied and sluggish, and expands about two
inches. The female does not fly, otherwise the spread of the
gypsy moth would be most rapid. After mating, the moths
live but a short time. The female dies after depositing her egg
mass. The "winged moths take no food. All damage to foliage
is caused by the caterpillars.

Distribution.

The gyps}^ moth spreads chiefly during the caterpillar stage.
While the caterpillars do not crawl very far from where they
hatch, except when there is a scarcity of food, they have the
habit, when small and young, of spinning down on their silken
threads from trees, and, falling on vehicles, are then carried
from place to place. Electric cars, pleasure and business
vehicles, bicycles and automobiles are common means of thus
transporting the gypsy moth. The special attention of all
those upon whom gypsy moth suppression devolves is there-
fore directed to the necessity of keeping the neighborhoods of
traveled highways free from the insect. The caterpillars often
crawl upon vehicles standing in an infested spot, and by this
means also are carried from one place to another. It has also
been proven conclusively that young caterpillars can be carried
a great distance on the wind. This probably accounts in some
cases for new colonies which are found at some distance from
any known source of infestation. The egg clusters of the
gypsy moths may also be transported upon any of the numer-
ous objects on which they are laid. Freight cars that have
stood near infested foliage for a period long enough for the
laying of gypsy moth eggs upon them may even thus trans-
port the pest.

9

Outside the State the gypsy moth now occurs in southern
Xew Hampshire and the southwestern part of Maine.

Where to look for the Gypsy Moth.

The JEgg. — From August to May the egg masses of the
gypsy moth may be found in places near which the moth
emerged from the pupa case. In laying, the female moth
chooses tree trunks, the under sides of limbs, sheltered crotches
and holes in trees, hollow trees, crevices in or under rough
bark, etc. The egg clusters are also found on shrubbery, build-
ings, scattered and heaped rubbish, barrels, boxes and similar
objects standing out of doors, wood piles, stone piles, fences,
walls, boulders and the like. Gypsy moth egg clusters have
been found upon an immense variety of objects, and occa-
sionally may be seen in almost any situation that is not too
far from vegetation. The tendency is to deposit the eggs on
the lower or inner surface of an object. The moths disregard
all rules when they swarm in a place, and their egg clusters
may then be found plentifully in sight as well as out, and in
all sorts of places, even within buildings.

The Caterpillar. — From May to August the caterpillars may
be found in various stages of growth, diminishing in numbers
rapidly after July 15. In the spring the small caterpillars
should be looked for on the foliage, feeding principally on the
under side of the leaf. As the caterpillars grow, they molt or
cast their skin several times, and these molted skins are char-
acteristic signs of the presence of the moth. As the caterpillars
acquire size, they commence to feed by night, and during the
day seek shelter, generally in clusters, on the shady side of
tree trunks, beneath large limbs, under rough or loose bark,
in holes in trees, under fence rails, in walls, stone heaps, rub-
bish piles, in short in any accessible place offering shelter from
the sun and the birds.

The Pupa. — Gypsy moth pupa? are most abundant during
the latter half of July. They are to be found in the same sit-
uations as an; chosen for depositing the egg clusters, and not
infrequently, also, in the foliage of trees and shrubs.

The Moth, — The peculiar zigzag flight of the male moth has
already been noted. The large, white, conspicuous female moths

10

sit or crawl on tree trunks, etc., near their pupa cases. In July
(chiefly the latter half) and through August these females may
be found busily engaged in laying their eggs.

Danger Signs. — The bristly, cast-off molt skins of the
gypsy moth caterpillars, often with the head cases attached,
may frequently be found in the situations chosen for the eggs
and pupse. They are often massed in bunches, and are very
commonly associated with empty gypsy moth pupa cases or
hatched or unhatched gypsy moth egg clusters.

Gypsy moth molt skins and empty pupa cases are resistant
to weather and decay, and may be found at any season of the
year. The presence in any locality of such molt skin, empty
pupa case or hatched egg cluster of the gypsy moth indicates
the probable presence near by of the living moth in some form,
and therefore is a sign of danger not to be disregarded. The
hatehed-out egg masses of a previous year often remain intact
in sheltered places, and thus give a clue to the presence of the
insect.

Remedies against the Gypsy Moth.

Egg Killing. — No single method of destruction against the
gypsy moth is more effective than killing the eggs. The egg
masses wherever accessible can be killed from August to May
by soaking them thoroughly with creosote mixture. The creo-
sote may be applied with a small swab or paint brush. In kill-
ing gypsy moth eggs in high trees, it is usually best to work
with two men, one man to point out the egg clusters from the
ground, another to kill the eggs in the trees. Creosote mix-
ture may be purchased at agricultural warehouses and seed
stores at from eighteen to twenty-five cents per gallon.

Where trees and shrubbery (especially low-cost woodland
and unimproved tracts of brush) are extensively infested with
the eggs of the gypsy moth, the growth should be cut and
burned. The eggs are, however, remarkably resistant to fire,
and an intense heat applied directly to the clusters is required
to kill them all. Where the clusters are very plentiful, burn-
ing the ground over with oil to destroy eggs scattered as a
result of the cutting of trees and bushes will be required to
insure thorough work. The practice of burning is resorted to
only in very exceptional cases, however, as the damage from
fire in the loss of forestry conditions is to be guarded against.

11

Caterpillar Destruction. — Spraying infested foliage with
arsenate of lead at the rate of ten pounds to one hundred gal-
lons of water is very effective when the caterpillars are small.
Any of the common hand outfits will suffice for the spraying
of shrubs or flowering plants. For use on trees, a pump
mounted on a barrel or hogshead is desirable. The poison
should be thoroughly mixed in water, and applied, if possible,,
on a clear, dry day, in such a manner as to cover the leaves,
rather slowly, with a fine mist. The foliage should never be
drenched with a stream. When the leaves begin to drip, spray-
ing should at once cease. Spraying should begin at the top of
the trees. This work is most effective when done during May
and early June. Where tall street trees or trees in easily ac-
cessible woodland are to be sprayed, the use of a power out-
fit is to be recommended. Steam or gasoline engine sprayers
are not so economical of the spray as hand pumps, but make
a great saving in the cost of labor. Furthermore, with a prop-
erly equipped power outfit the work can be done with the
greatest possible rapidity. Where arsenate of lead cannot be
obtained, Paris green, one pound to one hundred and fifty
gallons of water, may be used, but it should be borne in mind
that this insecticide often scorches the foliage, and that it
washes off with the first rain. Arsenate of lead is not open to.
these objections. In order, however, to secure the best results
from the use of arsenate of lead, it is well to be sure that the
poison is pure and will stand proper tests. The formula which
is furnished by this office is as follows for arsenate of lead
paste : —

50 per cent, dry arsenate of lead.

No less than 15 per cent, arsenic oxide (AS2 O).

To contain not more than f of 1 per cent, of soluble arsenic.

To contain no free acids or adulterant or inert substances.

To be in a good mechanical and physical condition.

Dealers should be required to supply arsenate of lead which
will stand test for this formula.

(ireat care should also be taken to insure a thorough mixing
of the poison in the ko<^ before it is used.

Burning over infested wood or brush land in May or June
is a very effective method of destroying gypsy moth cater-

12

Manner of applying the burlap.

pillars, and is the logical complement to the method of egg
killing by burning previously described. The trees and bushes
should be cut before the hatching time of the eggs, and may be
left lying as they fall. A few trees should be left standing, and
to these such caterpillars as escape the burning will resort for
food, and they may then be killed by spraying or by burlap-
ping, as described farther on. The burning of the fallen trees and

brush should be done when the
caterpillars are very young and
small. At this time they quickly
succumb to flame. When the cat-
erpillars are older, burning is less
effective. The use of fire, how-
ever, should be the last thing to be
resorted to on account of its being
a bad forestry practice.

If a strip of burlap or other
coarse, cheap .cloth is tied about
an infested tree trunk by the middle, in such manner that the
flaps hang down, the caterpillars, as soon as they have acquired
the night-feeding habit, will gather under the cloth and can
then be destroyed by crushing or by cutting with a sheath
knife. The burlaps should be examined daily, or, when the
caterpillars are in great numbers in a locality, several times a
day. Burlap can be successfully employed from the latter half
of May to the first or middle of August, for the caterpillars
commonly pupate under burlap and winged moths lay many
eggs under it. It should be borne in mind that the cloth band
is in no sense a tree protector ; nor is it a trap. Its function
is simply to give the shelter which the caterpillars seek by day.
Serving as it does as a hiding place for various insects, it is
better off the tree than on unless it can be attended to and kept
clean. At the end of the caterpillar season, all burlaps should
be removed and burned. To insure best results on high trees,
such as street elms, burlaps should be placed around some of
the larger limbs, as well as around the trunk, as many cater-
pillars will seek shelter up in the tree rather than descend to
the ground. The most effective results in using the burlap are
obtained where cavities, crevices, etc., in the trees have been

13

first filled with cement or covered with zinc and all loose bark
removed. If these hiding places are destroyed, nearly all the
caterpillars will seek the burlap at some time during the season.

Banding a non-infested tree with insect lime or other sticky
substance or mixture to keep the caterpillars out of it is an
effective means of protection, provided the branches of the
tree do not interlock with those of an infested tree, and pro-
vided the two do not stand so near that the small caterpillars
can pass from the infested tree to the other by means of their
fine threads. A band, of whatever material composed, to be
effective must remain sticky. When caterpillars are numerous
in a place, they often, in their attempts to cross the band,
bridge it over with their threads and dead bodies, with the
result that other caterpillars coming later are able to ascend
the tree. For this reason and in order that the caterpillars
which collect beneath may be killed, the sticky band should
be frequently inspected. If the many caterpillars which fre-
quently "herd" below the sticky bands are not killed, they
will in time leave the trees for shrubbery, where thejr are less
easily destroyed, there to complete their feeding period and
transform into moths. Insect lime, raupenleim, tanglefoot,
bodlime, printer's ink or even axle grease are among the mate-
rials most used for banding. All may be dangerous to the
tree and should be removed after the caterpillar season has
passed.

Destroying Pupm and Moths. — Pupre are commonly found
under the burlap and in other places frequented by the cater-
pillars. They are often massed under large brandies or in
other sheltered places. In similar locations the female moths
may be found in numbers. Both forms of the insect may be
crushed by hand to advantage during July and August.

Natural Enemies of the Gypsy Moth.

In addition to all the aforesaid methods of destruction used
against the gypsy moth, we may also mention some natural
enemies that seem at the present time to promise help in the
warfare.

First, the wilt disease or " nacherie " of the gypsy moth.
The disease occurs naturally when the caterpillars are in great

n

14

numbers, so as to find feeding scarce. It is a bacterial disease
which affects the intestinal canal of the caterpillar and soon
causes death.

We are endeavoring now to plant and spread this disease
artificially. Owners of woodland containing bad infestations
may, by applying through their local moth superintendent to
this office, obtain plantings of the disease, together with in-
structions concerning its use and artificial spread.

There are other diseases of the caterpillars which afford help
at times, but the wilt disease is the most important.

Parasites of the gypsy moth are now planted over all the
worst infested sections, and it is believed that they are increas-
ing in numbers and actually becoming acclimated. The large
carnivorous ground beetles, such as Calosoma sp., have been
planted throughout the infested territory, and are believed to
be well established. All these are helps to the suppression of
the gypsy moth, and the appearance of these natural enemies
should be studied, so that they may not be destroyed by mis-
take.

For further information in regard to parasites and the wilt
disease, or the State laws regulating the gypsy moth, read
the bulletins on the subjects which are sent to citizens of Mas-
sachusetts upon application to F. W. Rane, Massachusetts
State Forester, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.

For assistance in combating this insect apply directly to the
local moth superintendent in your town or city, as he is in
immediate charge of the work of suppression.

FOREST NURSERY

AND REFORESTATION WORK

IN

MASSACHUSETTS

By R. S. LANGDELL, ASSISTANT

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY. STATE PRINTERS

18 POST OFFICE SQUARE
1913

UN"

Mil i

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

CONTENTS.

Introduction,

Acknowledgments,
The forest nursery,

Procuring the seed, .
Layering seed in sand,

Site for a nursery,

Preparation for the seed beds,

Time to plant seed, .

A marker,

Sowing the seed,

Mulching,

Shading, ....

Damping off, .

Protection for the winter, .

Hardening off of evergreens,

Transplanting,

Puddling,

Heeling in young trees,

Root pruning, .

Packing seedlings,

Data on collecting and storing forest tree seeds,

Cost of seedlings and transplants per thousand,
Reforestation,

Cut-over land,

Burnt-over land,

Run-out pasture land,

Seedlings and transplants,

Varieties to plant,

Trees suitable for forest planting in Massachusetts,

Nurserymen,

Spacing of trees,

Heeling in on lot,

Method of setting the trees,

Time to plant,

Protection of plantation, .

Fire lines,
Reforestation work done by the State,

Reforestation act (chapter 478, Acts of 1908, as amended by chapter
214, Acts of 1909),
Sylvicultural characteristics of trees,

Trees most commonly found growing in Massachusetts, the uses to which
their timber is put, and a few of their most important enemies,
Application for examination of lands, .....

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INTRODUCTION.

The State Forester has been anxious to place in the hands of
our people some definite information on forest nursery and refor-
estation work. It is believed that this bulletin will meet the
requirements.

Nearly every farm in Massachusetts — in fact, in New Eng-
land — has its woodlot, or some land suited only to the growing
of trees. In most cases such land has been wholly or partly cut
off or burned over, and left as barren, worthless tracts, an un-
sightly addition to the rest of the property.

It is the purpose of this bulletin to set forth a remedy which
will bring these waste and denuded lands back into forest growth,
and provide a method to keep them in a condition to be a source
of revenue to the owner at a very small outlay. If, when a wood-
lot is cut off, provision is made for restocking it, either by natural
reproduction, as the leaving of seed trees, or by replanting it with
nursery-grown stock, much headway will be made towards bring-
ing the waste lands of Massachusetts back into forest growth.

Nursery work and that of reforestation go hand in hand though
two entirely separate undertakings. It is from the nursery that
the young trees are furnished to be used on land to be restocked.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The work of writing and compiling the data in this bulletin
was intrusted to Mr. R. S. Langdell, my assistant, who has for
the past six years been devoting his energies to carrying on the
nursery work at Amherst, and furthering the reforestation work
throughout the State. This bulletin was first issued in 1910, but
that edition becoming exhausted, we now offer the second edi-
tion, with slight additions.

F. W. RANE,
State Foreshr.

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Fig. 1. — Pine cones spread out to dry, in
order that seed may be extracted.

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KEFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

THE FOREST NURSERY.

One of the first things in nursery work is the procuring of the
seed. In most cases our native trees furnish this in great abun-
dance, though in some years the seed crop is much more heavy
than in others, due to climatic conditions. Practically all of the
seeds referred to may be easily gathered in almost any locality
throughout the State.

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Procuring the Seed. (i|

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The white pine (Pinus strobus), our native pine, bears its seed
in the cones or burrs, which generally grow in clusters of twos or
threes on the upper branches of the tree. Many persons wonder
why it is that they cannot find the seed in the opened cones picked
up in any pine grove ; in fact, a number of cases have been known
where persons have planted the cones which have fallen to the
ground in late fall or winter, the scales open and the seed escaped,
and expected to obtain a crop of trees. The seed is located two
under each scale of the cone, and is about the size of a raisin seed,
being provided with a small, bee-like wing, which favors its dis-
tribution by the wind. The cones commence to turn brown in
this section about the middle of August, and from then on ripen
very rapidly, one or two sunny days drying the scales so that they
open and set the seeds at liberty. The cones must therefore be
picked while green, before the scales have opened, by climbing the
tree and picking by hand or with pruning shears. Sometimes a
person may be fortunate enough to find a large number where the
trees are being cut for lumber, — they are then readily picked
into baskets. The squirrels also at times cut off large numbers
of cones, which fall to the ground and can be gathered up, care
being taken to select cones which have matured sufficiently for
the seeds to be fertile.

After the cones are picked they should be spread out in the sun
on a smooth floor (Fig. 1), where they can be raked over from
time to time, to aid drying. In a week or two the scales will

8 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

begin to open and the seed fall out. The cones can then be raked
off and the seed swept up. If the cones are then put into a bag
and flayed, any remaining seed will rattle out. The cones should
be kept from getting wet while drying, as the scales will close and
will have to dry thoroughly again before opening. They should
also be kept away from birds and mice, which often destroy large
quantities of seed before being detected. If a large amount of
seed is to be extracted, a drying room with drying racks and
screens may be provided.1

Spruce, hemlock, larch, Norway pine, pitch pine and other
coniferous tree seeds can be gathered and extracted in the above
manner. If properly stored, the seed in most cases retains its
vitality for a number of years.

The seed should be cleaned by winnowing, and then put into
bags and kept in a cool, dry place through the winter, to be in
readiness for planting the following spring.

The seed of maple, ash and other deciduous trees, except the
nut trees, is most readily picked from the tree. The oak, chestnut,
hickories, locust and some others ripen their seed in the fall, and
shed it to the ground by the action of frost and wind.

Layering Seed in Sand.

It is best in most cases to protect the germinating qualities of
nut seeds during the winter by storing in sand.

Layering is a method of storing certain seeds through the
winter, and should be resorted to when keeping chestnut, oak,
hickories, etc. For this purpose a well-drained slope should be
selected, and a hole dug in the ground large enough to hold the
seed; a layer of sand about 3 inches deep should then be placed
in the bottom, then a layer of seed, followed by a layer of sand,
and so on till the seed is stored. It should then be covered about
1 foot deep, to protect it from freezing and thawing. When only
a small amount of seed is to be stored, a large drain pipe set in
the ground with the bottom covered with fine mesh wire is very
convenient, the seed being layered inside the pipe, to protect it
from rodents. A wooden box used instead of the drain pipe will
answer the purpose very well, and make it easier to remove the
seed in the spring.

1 Bulletin No. 73, Forest Service, Washington, D. C.

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Fig. 2. — View of marker for making drill in which to sow evergreen seeds.

Fig. 3. — View of lath screen to be used in shading evergreen seedlings from

the sun

Fig. 4. — Stake to be driven
Into ground t<> hold screens
above the seed beds.

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FIG. 5. — Showing method of screening evergreen seedlings from the sun (broad-
cast method).

yu, >-,. _ vj«.w of the seed beda w Ith screena removed, to alio* the beda t<> drj oal
.iikI prevenl damping off (drill method).

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Site for a Nursery.

A level, well-drained site should be selected for a nursery, the
soil being preferably a sandy loam, not subject to washing and
free from stones. It is also well to select a plot near the house,
where it will be convenient to take care of, and offer some pro-
tection from birds and rodents, which often destroy the seed after
it has been planted. A small plot in the garden will be well
suited for the purpose.

Preparation for the Seed Beds.

The land to be used for the seed beds should first be well plowed
and harrowed till the soil is pulverized. A small amount of well-
rotted barn-yard manure, free from weed seeds, may be used to
advantage. The beds should then be laid out, the most con-
venient size being a bed 4 feet wide and any convenient length,
with walks 2 feet wide between the beds. If the surface soil
retains water it will be well to raise the bed a few inches above
the walk, and have it about 1 inch higher in the center than on
the sides. This will give the moisture a chance to drain off.
After the beds have been made up they should be raked over
with an iron rake till all small stones and lumps have been re-
moved and the soil thoroughly pulverized. The beds are then
ready for the seed, which may be planted in drills or sown broad-
cast.

Time to plant Seed.

As a rule, the seed should be planted in the spring, as soon as
the ground has warmed up a little, generally in April or May.

Drill Method (a Marker).

For making the drills to plant pine seed, a marker made of
strips of wood 4 feet long, mailed to cross-pieces on a board, with
the strips about 4 inches apart, and so arranged as to make a
drill about § inch deep, has been found very useful. The marker
(Fig. 2) can then be pressed down across the bed. If, each time
it is moved, the inside cleat is allowed to rest in the trench pre-
viously made by the outside cleat, very uniform drills can be
made.

10 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Drill Method (Sowing the Seed).

After the drills have been made, the seed should be sown simi-
larly to any garden seed. In case of pine seed, if sown nearly
touching each other, 1 pound would cover a bed 4 feet wide and
40 feet long. After the seed is sown, it should be covered by
lightly brushing or sifting a little fine soil over it and firming it
slightly. If the marker has been made by nailing strips to a
smooth board, the back side can be used for this purpose.

Broadcast Method (Box Beds).

Most nurserymen prefer to sow seed broadcast, as it takes less
space and there is much less weeding, the seedlings growing nearer
together and checking or choking out the weeds. In order to
keep the edge of the beds from washing, they are enclosed in a
wooden frame made of 1-inch boards 6 inches wide. The frame
is 12 feet long and 4 feet wide. The bed inside the frame should
be raised slightly above the walks outside to assure drainage, and
holes can be bored at intervals along the bottom of the frame to
allow the water to run out. Some nurserymen recommend mak-
ing a wire screen for the top and sides, to protect the beds from
rodents and birds.

White pine seed may be sown broadcast about | of a pound to
a bed. The ground should be slightly firmed by light pressure on
a board or tamper, and a little sand sprinkled over the bed to the
depth of tV of an inch will be sufficient covering.

Mulching.

As soon as the seed is sown, the beds should be covered over
with leaves or needles about 3 inches deep, or burlap the width
of the bed may be used if the corners are slightly weighted to
keep the burlap in place, in order to hold the moisture in the
ground and keep an even temperature. This prevents the soil
from becoming dry, in which case the seed would not germinate.
As soon as the seed commences to appear above ground, the mulch
should be carefully removed. Screens for shading should be pro-
vided in the meantime, as pine seed does not generally germinate
for from two to three weeks.

Fig. 7. — Two-year-old Norway spruces grown broadcast. Box-Jed frame re-
moved the second year.

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v\(.. 8. — Transplant beds, State foresl aurserj nl Amherst.

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REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 11

Shading.

For the first two years most coniferous seedlings need to be
protected from the sun (Figs. 5 and 6). For this purpose lath
screens (Fig. 3) may be cheaply made, using two laths as cross-
pieces, and nailing others to them about their width apart. If a
lath is nailed on slanting through the middle, it makes the screen ^

much more firm. The screens should then be placed about 1 foot
above the bed, the laths running north and south. Stakes with
a cross-piece 1 foot long nailed on top (Fig. 4), stuck into the
ground at each corner of the screens, will hold them in place. In
case box beds are used the screens may be laid directly on the

top of the frames. : •

Damping off.

After the seedlings have appeared above ground and the mulch
been removed, a dangerous disease to the seedlings is liable to
appear, especially • if cool, wet weather sets in. This disease
causes the seedlings to wilt or die off in large numbers, the stem
near the ground rotting off, so that the seedling tips over and *$

dies. The best way to prevent this disease is to remove the
screens for a short time each day. Care must, however, be taken
not to allow them to remain off long enough for the sun to burn
the seedlings, as they are very tender at this stage. If the beds
are sprinkled with coarse sand, it also prevents the soil from be-
coming wet and damp.

The seed beds should be carefully weeded as soon as any weeds
appear, care being taken not to root up the seedlings. After the
seedlings have obtained a good start, the roots have branched out
and a firm hold has been secured, a small hand weeder may be
drawn between the drills, to remove the small weeds and at the
same time cultivate and fine the soil about the roots of the trees.

Oak, chestnut and other deciduous tree seeds may be sown in
beds 8 or 10 feet wide and 25, 50 or 100 feet long, the seed being
planted about 2 inches apart in trenches 1 foot apart. This
leaves ample space for cultivating seedlings. It is a safe rule to
plant seed twice its own depth, as if planted too deep it is liable
not to come up till the following spring. Under average condi-
tions, deciduous seeds need not be mulched or shaded. In a
short time they should be of sufficient size so that a small hand
cultivator may be used.

12 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Protection in the Winter.

In order to protect the tender seedlings from alternate freez-
ing and thawing during the winter, they should be mulched with
leaves, pine needles or burlap. The screens should then be re-
moved from the seed beds of evergreens, and the mulch spread
over the beds to a depth of from 3 to 4 inches. The screens can
then be laid down on the mulch, to hold it in place and prevent
it from being scattered by the wind.

The seedlings of deciduous trees need not be mulched, but it is
often well to hill them up slightly just before the ground freezes,
by piling a little earth up around the stem with a hoe or culti-
vator. Mulching may, however, be resorted to where the winter
is severe.

In the spring, as soon as the snow is off and the frost out of
the ground, the mulch should be removed and the screens put
up over the evergreen seedlings. Weeding should be done when
necessary during the season, from three to four times probably
being sufficient if they have been well taken care of in the pre-
vious year.

Hardening off of Evergreens.

In the later part of the season, when the sun is not as strong as
during the summer, the screens should be removed for a short
time each day, a little longer each time, and finally left off alto-
gether. This will harden the plants, and get them into condition
to withstand the second winter without mulching, so that they
will be ready to transplant in the following spring.

Transplanting.

When the white pine seedlings are two years old, they should
be either transplanted in the nursery (Figs. 7 and 8) or set in
their permanent sites. It is generally preferable to transplant
them in the nursery for one or two years, in order to form a more
compact root growth and make a more stocky plant.

Two-year white pine seedlings can be set in beds 100 feet long
and 4 feet wide, the rows running crossways of the bed, 6 inches
apart. The trees are set 1§ inches apart, 31 trees to the row. A
bed would contain 6,200 trees under this method of setting. The
use of a transplanting board greatly facilitates the work.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 13

If it is intended to grow the trees more than one year in the
transplant bed, they should be set in beds 100 feet long and 10
feet wide, the rows running lengthwise and 1 foot apart, the trees
being set in the rows 6 inches apart. Under this method of grow-
ing, a hoe or small hand cultivator can be used without injuring
the trees; it also affords ample space for the growth of each tree.

In the spring, as soon as the frost is well out of the ground
(April or May), the seedlings should be dug up and tied in bunches
of 50 or 100. In digging, care should be taken not to break off
many of the small rootlets. It is also better to choose a cloudy
day for the work, rather than a bright, sunshiny day, when there
is danger of the roots drying out quickly.

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Puddling.

As soon as the trees are dug and tied into bunches, the roots
should be dipped into a puddle of mud and water mixed to the
consistency of common paint. This covers the roots with a thin
coating of dirt, which prevents their coming in contact with the P*

air and drying out.

Heeling in Young Trees.

To keep the trees in good condition till ready for transplanting,
they may be temporarily set in a trench about 1 foot deep, dug
with one side on a slant. The bunches of seedlings may then be
placed side by side against the slanting trench, and a little damp
soil thrown over the roots and firmed down. Should it be in-
tended to keep the trees heeled in more than a week, the bunches
should be untied and the trees separated and spread along the
trench, to prevent them from heating.

Most hardwood trees should be transplanted when one year
old, as they develop a long tap root, which, if allowed to grow
for a number of years without resetting, becomes so well rooted
that it will be impossible to dig up the plant without serious injury.

Root Pruning.

In order to cause the tree to develop a compact root growth, it
is generally considered advisable to cut off a portion of the tap
root on deciduous seedlings, such as ash, hickories, catalpa, etc.
The cutting off of about one-third of the root causes it to develop
a lateral growth.

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14 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Packing Seedlings.

When the trees are to be removed some distance from the
nursery, the bunches should be packed in boxes, with the roots in
damp sphagnum moss. A layer of damp moss should be put in
the bottom of the box, and by alternating the bunches so that
the roots will all be in the center, making first a layer of moss,
then a layer of trees, and so on till the box is full, a large number
may be packed in a small space. It is also well to puddle the
roots before packing, giving them an additional coating of soil.

REFORESTATION IX MASSACHUSETTS.

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REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Cost of Seedlings and Transplants per Thousand.

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Price

op American Trees.

Variety.

1 Year.

2 Years.

3 Years.

White pine,

-

$2 25-S4 00

$6 00

Pitch pine, .

-

2 25- 4 00

-

Red pine, .

-

2 25- 4 00

-

Scotch pine,

-

2 25

6 00

Norway spruce,

-

2 25

6 00

European larch,

-

2 25

6 00

Arbor vitse,

-

2 50

-

Hemlock,

-

24 00

-

Rock maple,

$6 00

15 00

-

White ash, .

2 75

6 00

-

White birch,

-

20 00-30 00

-

Beech,

-

8 00

-

Chestnut, .

8 00-15 00

-

-

White oak, .

10 00-15 00

-

-

Red oak,

4 00-15 00

-

-

Hickory,

12 00-25 00

-

-

Black locust,

2 25- 5 00

-

-

REFORESTATION.

The total area of Massachusetts is about 5,321,787 acres, of
which 2,672,950 acres is land adapted only to the growing of
trees. Of this area there are about 700,000 acres which at the
present time constitute practically worthless tracts, being simply
a tax to the owners, who at a very small outlay could bring the
land back into a profitable forest growth, as well as adding to the
scenic beauty of the section.

This land lies in tracts varying in size from one to thousands of
acres. Practically every farm has a portion which at one time
or another has been cut off, burnt over, or allowed to relapse into
a condition where it is no longer a source of revenue, but a piece
of property which brings in no return, though it is still taxable.
Lumbermen, mill owners, water-right companies and farmers all
have some land which falls under one of the following types, and
it is this sort of land which fortunately furnishes ideal conditions
for forest planting.

Fig. 9. — Cut-over land, suitable for restocking with white pine. The sawdust pile

tells the storv.

Fig. 10. — Burnt-overland, where ail the Beed and young trees bay e been destroyed
by repeated (ires. Land should i>e reforested,

Fig. 11. — Run out pasture kind, which should be brought back into forest growth.

y-fussi-air-

' T.

Fig. 12. — Land comiDg up to gray birch and undesirable hardwood, and which

should i>«- reforested.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 17

Cut-over Land (Pig. 9).

It can be safely said that every lumberman owns one or more
tracts of land which he has cut off, but which has not come back
into a growth which will ever be of any great profit to himself
or others, if allowed to remain in its present condition. Nature
intends that this land should remain in forest growth, but through
inconsiderate cutting it has come up to an undergrowth of small
value. It is always preferable to restock this type of land as
soon as possible after it has been cut, as the sprout and hardwood
growths, if allowed to gain too great a headway, will hold the
seedlings in check.

Burnt-over Land (Fig. 10).

On land which has been subjected to repeated fires, destroying
the growth and ground cover, the soil is left free to the action of
the weather, to be quickly dried out by the sun, or, if on a side
hill, to be washed into the valley by rains. The seed or seed-
lings which may have been on the ground have been destroyed,
and the land might lie for a long period of years before it would
reseed itself naturally. Land of this type, therefore, should be
set with considerable care, in order to obtain the best results.
It is generally advisable to set a three-year-old or four-v ear-old
transplant here, rather than seedlings.

Run-out Pasture Land (Figs. 11 and 12).

Many of the farms throughout the State are becoming run out,
and are allowed to grow up to brush and undesirable hardwoods.
Pasture lands especially are being encroached upon by some of
our less valuable trees, such as bird cherry and gray birch, which
so overshade the ground that good pasturage runs out, and the
lot is abandoned for fields affording better forage. In many cases
scattering white pine have crept in, and probably in time would
seed in the whole piece; but the old trees, while doing good work
in reseeding, would be of little value, as, growing so scattered,
they would develop large lateral branches, instead of giving a
clear, straight bole to the trunk, so desirable in the best grade of
lumber. If the lot could be set out with seedlings and the trees
allowed to grow in sufficiently dense stands, the lower branches
would die off naturally, and smooth, clear lumber would be assured.

18 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Seedlings and Transplants.

It is generally considered advisable to set transplants rather
than seedlings, although under most conditions in this section the
two-year-old white pine has been planted with good results. As
a rule two-year-old seedlings may be planted on land classed as
run-out pasture land or on cut-over land with good success, there
being a little shade afforded by gray birch or low bushes.

Three-year-old or four-year-old transplants are adapted for
planting on open land, exposed to the drying effects of sun and
wind (Fig. 13). As their root growth is large, they can be more
deeply set in the ground where they can take up the moisture;
whereas, if the roots were near the surface, as they would neces-
sarily be if seedlings were used, the trees would die from lack of
moisture in the top soil. It is also best to set transplants in old
fields or mowings, where small plants would be beaten down and
choked out by the thick fog or dead grass.

Varieties to plant.

There are a number of varieties of trees which may be planted,
with good results. It is advisable to set some tree which grows
naturally in the locality in which the work is to be done.

The white pine {Pinus strobus) (Fig. 14) has been used largely
for reforestation purposes throughout the State, and has adapted
itself to most of our New England conditions; in fact, this section
of the country at one time was covered with primeval forest com-
prised largely of white pine. The rapidity of its growth and the
many uses to which the variety of wood may be put makes it a
practical tree for forest planting, and the one most used in this
work. It is, however, recommended to use some other variety
on Cape Cod, unless the plantation is well protected from the
wind, which on the Cape causes a somewhat stunted growth.

The white ash (Fraxinus americana) is well suited for planting
on a springy side hill, where the growth and texture of the wood
of this variety often reaches its highest quality. It is also prac-
tically immune from the attack of the gypsy and brown-tail
moths, which are so detrimental to the trees in many towns in
the eastern part of the State.

The Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), a tree grown on an exten-

i

Fig. 13. — Land planted with white pine transplants, six years after setting.
Notice remarkable growth of leading shoot.

kill:
ililll

■1*1.

PIG. 14. — View of thirty-eight-year-old planta-
tion of white pine, showing how the lower
branches have died from lack of light, giving

a clear, straight bole to the trunk, and produc-
ing clean lumber, free from large knots.

El;

Pi-
ll!:

1

c

to"

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 19

sive scale in European countries with climatic conditions similar
to our own, is a tree well suited for planting in sections where our
native red spruce is the predominating species. It is a rapid
grower, and its wood is also claimed to have properties for the
manufacture of paper pulp not contained in other native trees.
This variety has been planted quite extensively in New York
State, where excellent results have been obtained. I(

For planting on Cape Cod, the Scotch pine, pitch pine, Austrian
pine, black locust and oak should be used. The Cape conditions
vary in a number of ways, and should be looked into to some
extent before undertaking to plant the trees. In many sections
of the Cape repeated fires have so destroyed the ground cover
and even burnt into the- top soil that a transplant should be used,
whose root could reach down into the soil deep enough to obtain
moisture. In other cases a screen of some rapid-growing trees
should be planted around the plantation, to act as a protection
from the prevailing wind, which often causes the trees to lean.
In almost every instance a plantation on the Cape should have
some protection from forest fires. The sandy formation of the
soil offers great inducement for making and retaining a fire line,
at very small expense. A furrow in most cases could thus be
made with a plow, and the dry, sandy soil thus turned up would
act as a check to a running fire. It could be very easily kept free
and clear from dead grass, leaves and brush. In fact, if the towns
comprising the Cape could be brought to see the advantage of
maintaining a strip 50 feet wide on each side of a town line, many
of the large disastrous fires of that section could be prevented.
And, as the town lines necessarily have to be blazed or marked
every few years, the labor and expense for such work could be
done away with. This is a line of work which might receive some
attention in other sections of the State, as well as on the Cape.
In a number of towns where a rather modified form of the work
has been done, it has been found remarkably effective and the
expense comparatively small.

20

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Trees suitable for Forest Planting in

Massachusetts.

Name of Species.

Soil.

Uses.

White pine,

Any soil not near coast or swampy,

Lumber, box boards.

Pitch pine, . .

Sandy soil, on coast,

Lumber, to hold sand in check.

Red pine, .

Sandy soil, inland, .

Lumber, ship timbers.

Norway spruce, .

Sandy loam,

Lumber, Christmas trees.

European larch, .

Light soil, .

Piles, ship building.

Arbor vitae,

Sandy soil,

Posts, shingles, etc.

Hemlock, .

Well-drained soil, or swam

py.

Lumber, ties, tanning.

Rock maple,

Well-drained soil,

Furniture, floors.

White ash, .

Wet land, swampy, .

Lumber, carriages, tools.

Tulip tree, .

Sandy loam,

Lumber, pulp wood.

White birch,

Sandy or gravelly soil,

Furniture, fuel, handles.

Poplar,

Sandy or gravelly soil,

Pulp wood, excelsa.

Beech,

Moist loam,

Tools, laths, etc.

Chestnut, .

Well-drained soil,

Poles, posts, ties, etc.

White oak, .

Sandy loam,

Agricultural tools.

Red oak,

Well-drained soil,

Lumber, fuel.

Hickory,

Sandy loam,

Carriage building, tools.

Black locust,

Sandy soil, on coast,

Posts, ties, etc.

Nurserymen.
Franklin Forestry Company, . . . Watertown, Mass.

Northeastern Forestry Company,
American Forestry Company, .
Massachusetts State Forester, .
Keene Forestry Company, .

New Haven, Conn.
South Framingham, Mass.
Boston, Mass. 1
Keene, N. H.

Spacing of Trees.

In order to produce a dense stand of trees, where the lower
branches will die off and fall to the ground from lack of light,
giving a clear, straight bole (Fig. 14), so desirable for lumber pur-
poses, the trees should be set 6 feet apart each way, or about
1,210 to the acre. The exact number will necessarily vary ac-
cording to the condition of the land. On rough, stony tracts,
where the trees will be set only where there is sufficient soil for
the roots to obtain a firm footing, the number of trees may be a

1 The State Forester often knows of local growers who have from 1,000 to 500,000 trees for
sale each year, and is glad to give information in regard to them, but does not sell trees from
his own nurseries.

y

Fig. 15. — First step in making the hole.

Fig. 16. — Second step in making the
hole.

Pig. it. -Setting the seedling and
covering the roots.

Fig. I". ■ Firming the soil hy pressure
of tin1 foot.

"

[li i

BE

€ :

IHi>' i

iltli'' 1

II I

.'! ►

II I

|j I

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 21

few hundred less than on land covered by a good top soil. If the
trees are set in rows running from one side of the lot to the other,
it will be found quite easy to keep track o£ the portion which
has been set. The distance apart may be very readily determined
by making the holes two paces apart, or about 6 feet. It is also
generally considered best to make a clear planting, rather than to
mix varieties.

Heeling in on Lot.

Where a large number of trees are to be planted, they should
be heeled in on the lot in a place where there is some protection
from the sun; otherwise, a screen of brush may be put up. It
will also be well to choose a spot near a brook or stream, as the
seedlings will need to be watered if they become dry before trans-
planting. After they have been set in their permanent site they
will take care of themselves, as to water them when spread out
over a large area would be an almost impossible undertaking.

Method of setting the Trees.

The most convenient method of setting the trees is for the men
to work in pairs, one making the holes and the other planting the
trees. The first man with a grub hoe or mattock should strike
into the ground (Figs. 15 and 16) and make a small hole, leaving
as much as possible of the soil removed where it can be readily
used to place arouad the roots when the tree is set; then he takes
two paces and makes another hole. The second man, carrying a
pail containing a bunch of seedlings, the roots of which are in a
puddle of mud and water always to be kept in the pail, takes a
plant and sets it in the hole (Fig. 17) at about the same depth as
it originally grew, covering the roots with fine soil and firming it
down by pressure of the foot (Fig. 18). The men should keep
together and work from one side of the lot to the other and then
back, the rows being kept about two paces apart. If stakes with
flags are placed along the outside row and moved from time to
time, it will be much easier to follow the row. One man should
superintend from six to eight pairs of men.

22 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Time to plant.

Planting should be undertaken as soon as the frost is out of the
ground in the spring, the month of April and first of May being
preferable, in order that the young roots may get started before
the dry season sets in. Spring planting is preferable to fall plant-
ing, as the roots having started will not be as likely to be heaved
out by the frost; although under certain conditions fall planting
is sometimes resorted to, as in a case where a piece of land is too
wet to work in the spring, but becomes dry during the summer
and fall.

Two men working in the above manner will set about an acre
per day, the expense of reforesting a tract, therefore, ranging from
$8 to $10 per acre, depending on the price of the trees used and
the cost of labor, white pine seedlings generally selling for from
$2.25 to $4 per 1,000, and labor ranging from $1.50 to $2 per
day. The above estimate is based on about 80 lots planted by
the State Forestry department, the lots ranging in size from 20 to
200 acres. It was generally found that the average cost is much
smaller on large lots than on small ones, the men becoming used
to the lay of the land, and thus beinjr able to work with greater
speed.

Protection of Plantation.

After the lot has been planted, it needs practically no care
unless a large proportion die out, in which case the blanks should
be filled in with transplants. The lot should not be pastured, as
many of the young trees would be trampled down. It is also
well to put up posters prohibiting hunters and berry pickers,
who often through carelessness start fires capable of great damage.

Fire Lines (Fig. 19).

Around large lots a fire line should be cut on the exposed side
of the plantation, to protect them from forest fires creeping in from
adjoining land. A strip 50 feet wide cleaned of brush has been
found very effective, the brush being piled and burned when the
snow is on the ground (Fig. 20). On the side nearest the planta-
tion (Fig. 20) a trench 6 feet wide should be grubbed up or plowed
up, and kept free from weeds and dead leaves. In this way a
fire working in from other land would be unable to jump across

Fig. 19. — Fire line, Metropolitan Water Board reservation, Boylston.

I- 1'.. 20. ■ Burning brush along a fire line, work being done when the -now is on
the ground, t.» prevent the Are from running, a treuch six feel wide imii-

tinrtlv BhOWIl .hi t lie left.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 23

the trench, having nothing to feed on. A trench on the outside
of the line would also be of advantage; but in case only one
trench is deemed advisable, it is better to have it on the inside
of the fire line. A line so made will offer a place for checking a
fire or back-firing. The cost will vary according to the growth
which has to be cleared. In cases where the wood is large enough
to put it into cord wood, the expense will be small, the work
nearly paying for itself; but under average conditions, where no
return can be derived, the cost will vary from SI 50 to $200 per
mile. It is best to cut and pile the brush for such a fine in early
fall, when there will be no danger from sparks or fire running. A
strip of this kind is of especial advantage along railroads.

In extremely dry times, when there is danger from berry pick-
ers or hunters, a look-out from some high knoll will be of advan-
tage. A fire patrol of a lot, whether planted, or a natural stand,
is practical in dry times. The old saying, that "An ounce of pre-
vention is worth a pound of cure," certainly applies in cases where
forest fires are concerned.

REFORESTATION WORK DONE BY THE STATE.

Under "An Act to provide for the purchase of forest land and
for reforestation," passed by the Legislature of 1908, provision is
made that private land owners may turn tracts of land suitable
for ieforestation purposes over to the State, to be planted and
handled under practical forestry management, such owners reserv-
ing the right to redeem the land at any time within ten years, for
the actual amount expended.

During the years 1909, 1910, 1911 and 1912 about 1,000 acres
per year were planted under the supervision of expert foresters
from the State Forester's office, the work being done by local gangs
(Fig. 21) picked up in the various towns where the lots were
situated. The cost of planting, including price of trees and labor
of setting, ranged from $8 to $10 per acre, according to land and
labor conditions. The first three years a large number of trees
were purchased from outside nurserymen, but in 1912 the out-
put of the State nursery had increased sufficiently to meet the
demand, and by raising our own trees the cost is kept at a
minimum.

24 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Reforestation Act.

Section 1. For the purpose of experiment and illustration in forest
management and for the purposes specified in section seven of this act,
the sum of five thousand dollars may be expended in the year nineteen
hundred and eight, and the sum of ten thousand dollars annually there-
after, by the state forester, with the advice and consent of the governor
and council, in purchasing lands situated within the commonwealth and
adapted to forest production. The price of such land shall not exceed in
any instance five dollars per acre, nor shall more than eighty acres be
acquired in any one tract in any one year, except that a greater area may
so be acquired if the land purchased directly affects a source or tributary
of water supply in any city or town of the commonwealth. All lands
acquired under the provisions of this act shall be conveyed to the common-
wealth, and no lands shall be paid for nor shall any moneys be expended
in improvements thereon until all instruments of conveyance and the
title to be transferred thereby have been approved by the attorney-general
and until such instruments have been executed and recorded.

Section 2. The owners of land purchased under this act, or their
heirs and assigns, may repurchase the land from the commonwealth at
any time within ten years after the purchase by the commonwealth, upon
paying the price originally paid by the commonwealth, together with the
amount expended in improvements and maintenance, with interest at the
rate of four per cent per annum on the purchase price. The state forester,
with the approval of the governor and council, may execute in behalf of
the commonwealth such deeds of reconveyance as may be necessary under
this section: provided, however, that there shall be included in such deeds
a restriction requiring that trees cut from such property shall not be
less than eight inches in diameter at the butt.

Section 3. The state forester may in his discretion, but subject to
the approval of the deed and title by the attorney-general as provided in
section one, accept on behalf of the commonwealth gifts of land to be held
and managed for the purpose hereinbefore expressed. A donor of such
land may reserve the right to buy back the land in accordance with the
provisions of section two, but in the absence of a provision to that effect
in his deed of gift he shall not have such right.

Section 4. Land acquired under the provisions of this act shall be
under the control and management of the state forester, who may, sub-
ject to the approval of the governor and council, cut and sell trees, wood
and other produce therefrom.

Section 5. All moneys received by or payable to the commonwealth
or any one acting on its behalf under the provisions of this act shall be
paid into the treasury of the commonwealth.

Section 6. Land acquired under the provisions of this act and sub-
sequently reconveyed under the provisions of sections two or three shall
not be exempt from taxation on account of any plantation of trees set
out or planted while it was held by the commonwealth.

Fig. 21. — A planting gang at work under the reforestation act.

Mi

■
I

km;. 22. — View of example in thinning, where undesirable hardwoods have been
removed and put into cord wood, to give the undergrow Ing stand oi white plm
a chance to grow ■

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 25

Section 7. For the purpose of assisting in reforestation a portion, not
exceeding twenty per cent of the money authorized by this act to be ex-
pended may be used by the state forester for the distribution at not less
than cost of seeds and seedlings to land owners who are citizens of the
commonwealth, under such conditions and restrictions as the state for-
ester, subject to the approval of the governor and council, may deem ad-
visable.

Section 8. The state forester shall replant or otherwise manage all
land acquired by the commonwealth and held by it under the provisions
of this act, in such manner as will, in his judgment, produce the best
forest growth both as to practical forestry results and protection of water
supplies.

Section 9. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby
repealed.

Section 10. This act shall take effect upon its passage.

The purpose of the above act is to place before the people an
example along forestry lines which will aid them in carrying out
the work for themselves. For this reason it is desired that the
State, as far as possible, take over lots easily accessible to main
highways.

Id some instances lots have been taken over where it has been
deemed advisable to protect the plantations from forest fires by
making a fire line, or making provision for some one in the near
vicinity to be supplied with fire extinguishers and equipment for
fighting fires, and to patrol the lot in exceedingly dry times.

A number of lots have also been acquired where a small por-
tion had some small growth which, if systematically thinned,
could be profitably handled (Fig. 22).

Private parties owning land in the State adapted for reforesta-
tion purposes should make application to the State Forester, who
will gladly furnish advice along forestry lines.

SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES.

Trees most commonly found growing in Massachusetts, the Uses to
which their Timber is put, and a Few of their Most Important
Enemies.

For convenience in the matter of reference, we shall separate
the different species under three heads: (1) conifers, (2) northern
hardwoods and (3) southern hardwoods, the term "hardwoods"
being used for all trees other than conifers.

I ader (1) will be treated white pine, red or Norway pine, pitch
pine, Scotch pine, hemlock, rvd spruce, and Norway spruce.

26 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Under (2) come rock maple, beech, white birch and yellow birch.
Under (3), chestnut, red oak, white oak, red maple, shagbark
hickory, black locust and white ash.

1. Conifers.
White Pine {Pinus strobus).

This species is placed first, both because of its marked adapt-
ability to growth in this State and because of the universal demand
for its lumber.

It may be found growing in all sorts of situations except in
extremely wet soil, such as swamps. This does not, of course,
mean that the tree grows equally well everywhere, for it un-
doubtedly prefers a well-drained, loamy sand, and there reaches
its best development. Ideal conditions exist on the slopes and at
the bottoms of the old glacial deposits so numerous all over the
I • State.

The white pine grows either pure or in mixture with other
species, but in the latter case the other trees should form a lower
or under story about the pine, otherwise, the tree will not grow
well, being too much shaded by the others. It is a mistake to
believe that white pine is a shade-enduring tree, for, while some
shade is beneficial in the early stages of growth, it is very harm-
ful at later periods.

Reproduction is by seed, which is produced annually, but in
much larger quantities at intervals of from five to six years, called
"seed years." The seeding process is described in detail else-
where in this bulletin.

As regards size aid rate of growth, white pine compares favor-
ably with any eastern tree and far exceeds most of them in these
respects, reaching merchantable size in about fifty years, as shown
in the "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts, "
published by the State Forester in 1908. If left to grow undis-
turbed, it reaches a size excelled only by trees of the Pacific coast,
specimens having been recorded that exceeded 200 feet in height,
with a diameter of 6 feet, while heights of 100 feet, with 3-foot
diameters, are not uncommon.

The chief enemy of this tree, as of all others in this State, is
fire, which, if it does not kill, so weakens it as to render it liable
to attack by all kinds of insects and fungi. The white pine is

■n

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 27

especially susceptible when young, even a slight ground fire being
quite sufficient to completely kill it. In this respect it resembles
the chestnut.

Leading insect enemies are the pine weevil and the various bark
borers, all of which are much less likely to cause trouble in healthy
stands than in those weakened by other causes. The gypsy moth,
while it will eat pines as well as everything else, is not apt to
invade pure stands containing this species alone. The brown -tail
and leopard moths do not eat pine.

It seems almost unnecessary to enumerate the uses of the tree,
as they are so well known. Among them may be mentioned
building timber of all kinds, laths, various kinds of cabinet ma-
terial, interior finish, wooden ware, matches, flag poles, masts and
boxes.

Red or Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa).

This tree, while common in southern Maine, is not so familiar
to residents of Massachusetts, partly because it does not grow in
pure stands, but only as scattered individuals, and partly because
the difficulty of collecting the seed renders the cost of planting
either seed or seedlings very high. The tree, however, is a very
excellent species, and compares favorably with white pine in
many respects.

It grows on the same kind of soil as the white pine, but will
grow on dry ridges, where the white pine will not. It will not
grow in swamps or in poorly drained soil.

It associates usually with white pine, growing in scattered
groups throughout the stand. More rarely it is found in com-
pany with hardwoods, such as oaks and birches.

Red pine is a rather poor seeder, not beginning to bear until
about twenty-five years old, and then giving only light crops at
four or five year intervals. The seed will not germinate in thick
grass or sod, and the seedlings require much light. A bare mineral
soil containing some moisture is best. The percentage of germ-
ination is high.

In rate of growth red pine is more rapid than white, especially
when young, though it is more short-lived in the long run. It
reaches a diameter of 23 inches and a height of 80 to 90 feet in
one hundred and twenty-five years, producing merchantable tim-
ber. Sixty years will produce good small stock.

ii

■■:

1M

28 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

No serious insect pests or fungous diseases attack this species,
and it is remarkably free from rot. Light ground fires do not
injure it so much as they do white pine, especially as the tree
grows older.

The wood is used for general construction, bridge timbers,
shipbuilding, car construction and flooring.

Pitch Pine {Pinus rigida).

This tree grows on dry sandy soils, and is especially suited to
planting in such localities. When pure it forms very thin stands,
owing to its extreme intolerance, and it must be above all other
species in mixture, or it will die.

It is a prolific seeder, and succeeds well under the above con-
ditions, and is also a fairly rapid grower, reaching at times a
height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches.

It is not subject to attack by insects or fungi, and is probably
the most resistant to fire of any conifer in Massachusetts, sur-
viving repeated burnings.

The wood is used largely for fuel, being brittle and not strong.

Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris).

This tree is the common pine of northern Europe, occupying
there the same place that the white pine does in this country as
a timber tree. Its growth, however, more closely resembles our
Norway, both in quality of lumber and in the kind of soil pre-
ferred by the tree.

It differs, however, in the fact that it grows well in dense pure
stands rather than in mixture with other Species, and also in that
it seeds often and abundantly, and therefore costs much less to
grow than red pine.

In common with the other pines, Scotch is not much subject
to disease and insect attack, but is somewhat more sensitive to
fire than red.

It is used for the same purposes as red pine.

Hemlock (Tsuga americana).
This tree, easily the most tolerant of the American conifers,
prefers cold north and east slopes of the hillsides in the northern
parts of the State. Because of its extreme tolerance, it will grow

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 29

either with any other species, evergreen or hardwood, or in dense
pure stands in all stages of growth.

The seeds are borne in very small cones, and are very light.
Reproduction is good under favorable conditions of soil and loca-
tion, and the tree frequently grows apparently out of ba^e rock,
so thin is the soil.

Trees of this species often grow to a very large size, but such
individuals are apt to be rotten and shaky. Other species will
not grow under hemlock because of the dense shade cast by it.

The wood is being used more and more for building timber, as
the supply of other species grows scarcer, and some lumber dealers
prefer it to spruce for rough frame timbers. If care is not used
in drying it is very likely to check.

Red Spruce (Picea rubra).

This tree is the timber spruce of Maine, and is now the most
important species in that State in size of cut. It will grow in
northern Massachusetts on the higher elevations, preferably in
mixture with pine and hemlock.

It will grow in the shade of other trees for many years, and
shows marked ability to start up and grow when suddenly exposed
to the light.

Growth is not rapid, and large size is not reached by this species;
but good, straight timber is produced, which finds a ready mar-
ket. The limbs do not drop off readily, however, and clear tim-
ber can therefore be grown only in dense stands.

The tree reproduces itself well when the leaf litter on the ground
is not too thick, and the seedlings therefore start readily under
the mature trees of the same species, forming a stand containing
trees of all ages.

The principal enemy is the spruce bark beetle (Dendroctonus
piceaperda) .

The uses of the wood are well known; building timber, piano
sounding boards, inside finish, clapboards, and in Maine pulp-
wood, are among them.

30 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa).

This is one of the principal timber trees of Europe, and is
strongly recommended for planting in this country, possessing,
as it does, all the advantages of the red with the added one of
being a much more rapid grower.

2. Northern Hardwoods.
Rock Maple (Acer saccharum).

This tree, known also as the sugar maple, is one of the most
important of our northern hardwoods, both for sugar and tim-
ber. It grows usually in mixture with beech, oaks, ashes, etc.,
as well as conifers, but may grow in pure stands.

Its chief sylvicultural feature is its extreme tolerance, making
it the most shade-bearing of all American hardwoods, with the
possible exception of beech. A deep, moist soil is necessary for
good growth.

Seed is produced almost every year, but full seed years occur
only at intervals of from three to five years. The percentage of
germination is rather low, but this is offset by the ability of the
young trees to stand dense shade.

Growth is slow, but persists for a long time, the tree reaching a
height of 70 or 80 feet and a diameter of 2 or 3 feet. The tree
is not very wind-firm.

Rock maple is not very susceptible to injury by fire or fungi,
though a good deal of damage is sometimes done by the forest
tent caterpillar, which strips the foliage from the tree and so
reduces its vigor. Another enemy is the "saddled prominent "
(Heterocampa guttimtta) , which has caused a great deal of damage
in Maine and New Hampshire, but is now being brought under
control by natural enemies.

Beech (Fagus ferruginea).

This tree is conceded to be the most tolerant of all the hard-
wood species found in Massachusetts; that is, it will grow well-
beneath the most dense shade, provided the soil is suitable for
germination, and not only this, but it requires shade in order to
start at all. It grows best on rich, loamy soil, on cool slopes,

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 31

in mixtures with other hardwoods, such as the oaks, chestnut
and maple. It sometimes forms pure stands with here and there
scattering pine and hemlock.

The nuts are so much liked by squirrels that reproduction is
hindered by these animals.

The beech is a rather slow-growing tree, generally owing to
the dense shade which surrounds it; but it reaches good size,
both in height and diameter.

The principal enemy in Massachusetts may be said to be the
"saddled prominent," previously mentioned, which prefers the
leaves of this tree to all others, thus causing the woods to resemble
winter in the height of the growing season.

The wood forms one of our most valuable hardwoods, and is
used for tool handles, furniture, flooring and in turnery.

White Birch {Betula papyrifera).

This tree is to be rigidly distinguished from the gray birch
(sometimes called "white") so common in this State. The latter
species (Behtla populifolia) is practically valueless for all pur-
poses, fuel included, and must not be confused with the white,
which forms a valuable timber tree.

White birch grows on northerly slopes, in mixture with other
hardwoods, pine and hemlock. The seed is very light, favoring
reproduction by the wind, and causing the propagation of the
species over burned areas when there is enough soil moisture to
support tree growth. The tree will not stand shade, being very
intolerant, and the seed will not germinate on a thick layer of
himus, so that reproduction within the woods is unlikely.

A long, clear bole is developed by growth in the forest, the tree
reaching a height of 70 to 80 feet in sixty to seventy-five years.
It is a short-lived tree, seldom living over one hundred and twenty
years when grown from seed; sprouts do not live over ninety
years.

Its most serious enemy is fire, since it is not subject to attacks
by insects, fungi or windfall.

The wood is used, to the practical exclusion of all others, in
the manufacture of spools, shoe pegs, shoe sbanks, and very
largely for toothpicks, dowels, bobbins, shuttles and various toys
and novelties.

32 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Yellow Birch (Betula luted).

This tree is quite commonly found in Massachusetts in mix-
ture with evergreens and deciduous species, where it is distin-
guished by its yellow, shiny bark, usually of a tattered appearance.

It is a valuable species for ship building, furniture and wheel
hubs, having a very fine, clear texture of grain.

It is mentioned in this list not because we desire to urge plant-
ing this species, but in order that owners may recognize it as a
valuable tree, and not of the same class as the gray birch, which,
of no value in itself, usually causes more or less injury to its
neighbors by interfering with their proper development.

3. SOUTHEKN HAKDWOODS.

Chestnut (Castanea dentata).

This tree, like the oak, reaches its best condition on the lower
slopes of hills, or in coves where the soil is rich, moist and fairly
deep. It will grow, however, on a very thin soil, if it be loamy.
It grows much more rapidly than the oaks, attaining saw log size
in about fifty years. Under favorable conditions it will attain a
height of 100 feet and a diameter of 3 or 4 feet. As a sprout its
growth is remarkable, excelling that of any deciduous tree except
poplar.

It bears a crop of seed each year, but the crop varies in abundance.

The tree is quite intolerant, but, as it grows more rapidly than
the other hardwoods with which it associates, it has little trouble
in getting all the light it wants.

The chestnut, in common with the hardwoods, is of course
eaten by the gypsy moth, but it has few insect enemies peculiar
to itself. It is, however, gravely affected by a fungus called the
chestnut bark disease (Diaporthe parasitica), which has killed
practically every chestnut tree within twenty miles of New York.
The tree is severely injured by fire, on account of the lightness
and inflammability of its bark.

The wood is light, stiff, strong, and very durable in contact
with the soil. It is used for ties, poles, building material, pests,
slack cooperage and furniture. The wood is distilled, and pro-
duces a tanning extract used in the place of tan bark. The cut
of chestnut has increased nearly 100 per cent, in the past decade.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 33

The Oaks, White, Red, and Black.

For their best development our native oaks require a rich,
moist soil, situated in cover or on the lower slopes of a hill. With
the exception of the swamp white oak, they will not grow on
wet land; and, on the other hand, they make a fair growth on
the top of dry, exposed ridges.

They require considerable sunlight for their best development,
but the black and red oaks will stand some shading. The white
oak is quite intolerant.

The white oak bears seed nearly every year, but the trees of
the black oak family require two years to mature the acorns.

The oak is a slow-growing tree, requiring at best seventy-five
years to obtain a tree of saw log size. The black and red oak
grow more rapidly than the white in early youth, but the white
oak maintains its growth for a longer period,- so that at the age
of maturity there will be little to choose between them as to size.

Brown-tail and gypsy moths seem to be particularly fond of
oaks, but, as they eat other species very readily, this preference
is not of great importance. The " saddled prominent" (Hetero-
campa gnttivitta), an insect now doing a large amount of damage
in northern New England, is known to eat it at times. The oak
is unusually free from borers and bark beetles, and is quite re-
sistant to damage by ground fires.

Oak wood is heavy, hard, tough, close-grained and very dur-
able. White oak has these qualities to a greater degree than the
red arid black. The wood is used extensively in ship building,
tight cooperage, vehicle manufacture, farm implements, ties, in-
terior finish and furniture. So great is the economic value of
this wood that the available supply is being rapidly exhausted.

Red Maple (Acer mbrum).

This tree is partial to wet land, and is our typical swamp tree,
growing pure or in company with ash, hornbeam and hemlock.
Like other swamp-land trees, it is very tolerant of shade, although
in this condition its growth is slow.

It bears an abundance of seed each spring.

Under forest conditions it seldom attains a height of more than
60 feet and a diameter of more than 15 inches. It grows quite

Bl-w
1

N»i!

34 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

rapidly when young, but slacks materially when about thirty
years old.

It is not attacked so readily by gypsy and brown-tail moths as
are most of the other hardwoods.

The wood is lighter, not as strong and more subject to decay
than is hard maple, but is sometimes used as a substitute for it.

It is not a tree that is recommended for forest planting.

Shagbark Hickory (Hicoria ovata).

This tree is of increasing importance because of its increasing
scarcity, due to the heavy demand for hickory wood, — a demand
caused by its unrivalled good qualities for certain kinds of con-
struction.

It is primarily a tree of fresh, fertile soils and rich situations
along streams, and produces good wood in clay soil.

It is never found pure to any great extent, but always in mix-
ture with other species, and, being very tolerant, will grow well
in the shade of the others.

Seed is borne in a fairly prolific manner every two or three
years, but the nuts are largely eaten by weevils and squirrels.
Growth is not very rapid, but is extremely persistent, the tree
living to an age of two hundred to two hundred and twenty-five
years, in full vigor. Timber trees are produced in about one
hundred years.

The wood is used for vehicle construction, handles of axes, etc.
It is the strongest of the hickories except pignut, and should be
favored over that species except on dry soils and where there is
no market for the nuts.

Black Locust (Robina pseudacacia) .

The black locust is a more southern species, but will grow in
Massachusetts, and is recommended where a quick-growing tree
is desired. It demands plenty of light and a mineral soil, and
produces its best wood at forty to fifty years, reaching only some
60 to 70 feet in height. The seed is borne in pods, and if left in
them preserves its germinating power for several years. Seed-
lings grow best when raised in the nursery for one year.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 35

The wood is heavy, exceedingly hard and strong, very durable
in contact with the soil, and is used in ship building, turnery and
construction. It is preferred for tree nails, and makes good rail-
road ties.

White Ash (Fraxinus americana).

This tree prefers to grow on rich, moist bottom lands, where
it will be found mixed with elm, basswood, yellow birch and
maple. It will grow in a wet swamp and equally on dry, exposed
ridges, so that it may be said to be versatile in habit.

It is quite tolerant when young, but when too much shaded
its diameter growth is very slow.

Some seed is produced each year, but abundantly only once in
three years. It is quite easy to collect, and the tree is therefore
one used quite extensively in forest planting.

The rate of growth is rapid when compared with that of most
of the associated hardwoods, but it varies considerably according
to conditions of moisture and situation. Post timber may be
obtained from it in from fifteen to twenty years.

White ash is attacked by a number of fungous diseases, which
injure the leaves and flowers, but not sufficiently to kill the trees.
It has the distinction of being the only deciduous tree which the
gypsy moth does not attack, although there have been cases
where this pest has attacked this tree when everything else was
gone.

The wood is tough and elastic, and this, combined with its
ability to take a good polish and to season without injury, makes
it a timber of exceptional value for furniture, car vehicles, manu-
facture, interior woodwork, agricultural implements and tools.

Plantations will do best in a protected valley on a light loam.

36 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

No Received

APPLICATION

FOR AN

EXAMINATION OF LANDS SUITABLE
FOR REFORESTATION

TO THE

MASSACHUSETTS STATE FORESTER,
6 BEACON STREET, BOSTON.

The State Forester is empowered, under chapter 478, Acts of 1908,.
to accept, on behalf of the Commonwealth, gifts of land to be held and
managed for the purpose of experiment and illustration in forest man-
agement and for reforestation.

The owners of land acquired under this act, or their heirs and as-
signs, may redeem the land from the Commonwealth at any time within
ten years, upon payment to the Commonwealth of the amount expended
in improvements and maintenance; provided, however, that there shall
be included in the deed of reconveyance a restriction requiring that in
the future the cutting of trees on this land shall be in accordance with
modern forestry methods.

" Section 8. The state forester shall re-plant or otherwise manage
all land acquired by the Commonwealth and held by it under the pro-
visions of this act, in such manner as will, in his judgment, produce the
best forest growth both as to practical forestry results and protection
of water supplies."

Upon receipt, this request will be placed on file, and you will be in-
formed, in order of application, approximately when the examination
can be made, and a mutual date can then be decided upon.

It is always more satisfactory to personally meet on the property the
owner or party most interested. In this way a definite understanding
can be had as to future undertakings.

When sending in this application, a brief description of the land will
assist us.

With the above understanding, I desire to have an examination made

of a tract or tracts of land of approximately acres, located

in the town of county of State of

Massachusetts.

Signed

Address

Date 19 .

r

Fortable mill operating in pine woods.

Box factory at Oxford. A factory of this type will use 20,000,000 feet of pine

per annum.

INFORMATION

THAT MAY INTEREST YOU

ABOUT

FORESTRY

IN MASSACHUSETTS

By
F. W. RANE, State Forester

H. O. COOK, Assistant State Forester

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS

18 POST OFFICE SQUARE, BOSTON

1913

.tli'l

tti«:

m

M

FORESTRY IN MASSACHUSETTS.

P AR T I .

What is Forestry?

Forestry is technically denned as the science which is con-
cerned in the formings cultivating and harvesting of timber ; in
short, the management of timber as a crop. Forestry is to be
distinguished from arboriculture by the fact that arboriculture
deals with trees as individuals, whereas forestry deals with them
in forest stands, — as a community of trees. This distinction is
worth emphasizing because many men who care for shade and
ornamental trees call themselves foresters when in reality they
are arboriculturists. Forestry is distinguished from landscape
gardening by its point of view. Landscape gardening deals with
trees both as individuals and as groups, but always with the
purpose of producing artistic effects. If any timber or wood is
produced, it is merely incidental. We do not mean to say that
forestry can always be divorced from the considerations of
arboriculture and landscape architecture, but if these other con-
siderations are uppermost, the work is not forestry.

Forestry is chiefly concerned with the economic production of
merchantable wood and timber, and it aims to do one or all of
these things : to produce a greater amount of timber than an
uncared-for forest in the same amount of time; to produce a
better quality of timber than the uncared-for stand or the same
amount of timber in a lesser period of time. We will not at-
tempt here to describe how these things may be done, for to do so
would be to write a whole textbook on forestry, and is not in the
sct>pe of this bulletin.

The considerations which make forests desirable, however,
are many, and they vary somewhat in the different sections of
the country and also, to some extent, in the same section, ac-
cording to local needs and the desires of individual owners of

i

woodland. In steep, mountainous countries the protection of
the soil and the maintenance of its ability to store moisture
and to equalize the run-off of the streams is of more importance
than the raising of timber. In the prairies of the central west
the forests have an important influence on climate by reducing
the velocity of the winds and reducing the extremes of tem-
peratures, and a forest there has a value greatly in excess of its
value as a source of timber. The preservation of the natural
beauty of the countryside is often an important consideration,
as well as the production of forest products.

As a rule, if forestry is practiced for commercial purposes,
if the land is made to produce continuously the greatest amount
of merchantable material with the least possible expenditure,
the protective and beautifying functions of the forest will be
performed.

Importance of Forestry in Massachusetts.

The proper management of our forests is of much greater im-
portance to this Commonwealth than the average citizen realizes.
From rather rough studies made by this offi.ce we have estimated
the forest area of the State at 2,400,000 acres out of a total
acreage of 5,320,000, or about 40 per cent. Included in this
acreage is a great deal of land which could hardly be called
forest, — cut-over land only partially restocked, cut-over land
that has been burned so that it bears nothing but a scrub growth,
and old fields and pastures only partially stocked. In addition
we have estimated that there are 500,000 acres of abandoned
fields and pastures and cut-over land on which no forest growth
worth mentioning is coming up, and which we designate as
waste lands, making about 3,000,000 acres available for forest
purposes. The Geological Survey estimates the forest area at
2,688,000 acres.

Our citizens probably do not realize the present extent of the
lumber industry in this State, that in spite of our large popu-
lation, our small size and our depleted forests, we are still pro-
ducing considerable quantities of lumber. In New England our
production is only exceeded by Maine and New Hampshire,
and we are only a short distance behind the latter. The census
of 1910 gives the lumber-cut of Massachusetts as 350,000,000

feet, three-quarters of which is pine, one-eighth chestnut and the
remainder made up of oak, maple, spruce, beech, ash, etc.
Lumber, however, is not the only forest product taken from the
woods. Immense quantities of oak and chestnut are cut for
railroad ties and telephone poles. We know that the railroads
of this State use approximately 600,000 ties each year, the
equivalent of 230,000,000 feet of lumber, the larger part of
which are cut in this State, so that it is safe to assume that
the timber cut in this State is equivalent to 500,000,000 feet
of timber worth, on the stump, nearly $4,000,000. In addition
to the lumber there is a large amount of cordwood cut, no figures
for which are available.

In spite, however, of this apparent large production, the
3,000,000 acres available could with proper management pro-
duce and produce continuously three or four times the present
amount. In the meantime our manufacturers are going to
Canada, the south and to the Pacific coast to get their supplies,
and they are sending money with their orders that might go to
land owners in Massachusetts. By neglecting to practice for-
estry, the owners of woodland are allowing a great natural re-
source to go to waste.

Wood is always needed. In spite of many substitutions it is
more in demand than ever before. The amount of wood an-
nually consumed is not only increasing rapidly, but it is in-
creasing at a rate in advance of that of the population, so
that one cannot put much confidence in the arguments put
forward that wood is to be displaced, for such substitutions as
have been made have produced no effect as yet on the annual
consumption or on the price.

The Fundamental Conditions.
There are fiye fundamental conditions that must precede or
accompany the permanent development of forestry in any coun-
try. The first is the presence of a considerable area of non-
agricultural land which is capable of bearing forest growth;
the second is a good market for forest products; the third is
the presence of good transportation facilities; the fourth is an
adequate system of protection from fires; and the fifth is a
fair method of taxation of forest lands.

\

To practice forestry means, on the part of the man who does
it, the sacrificing of a portion of his present profits for future
results, and the forest owner is not apt to do this unless all
the conditions are favorable.

1. N on- Agricultural Land.

It is not a sound economic proposition to grow trees on land
which could earn larger dividends as cultivated land; but in
this State we have, as has been said before, nearly 3,000,000
acres which either bear forests or are not capable of bearing any
other crop. This State, therefore, fulfills the first of these con-
ditions.

2. Good Markets.

The second condition — that of a good market for forest
products — is also fulfilled in this State. Where there is build-
ing going on there is a demand for lumber; where manufac-
turing is going on wood is being used somewhere in the process
of manufacture or in creating the product for shipment ; where
there are railroads there is a demand for ties; where there are
telephone and telegraph lines there is a demand for poles ; and
where farming is going on there is a demand for lumber, fence
posts and firewood. The degree to which forest cultivation can
be carried on depends largely on the market for forest products,
and the market for forest products depends largely on the
density and distribution of population. There is only one State
in the Union that has a denser population than Massachusetts,
and although congested around Boston, there is no large section
of the State that is not settled with cities and towns of con-
siderable size. Manufacturing is going on not only in the larger
towns but in most of the smaller ones. It is readily seen that
a market for wood and lumber is not far to seek in any part of
this State ; no one has better markets.

3. Transportation Facilities.
Transportation has an important bearing on forestry. Forest
products are as a rule bulky and heavy, and their transporta-
tion is consequently a considerable item in the cost of marketing.
Whether this or that operation can be adopted in the woods often
depends on the question whether the lumber can be carried to

the market with a margin of profit. If transportation facilities
are good much more intensive forestry can be practiced than
otherwise.

The transportation problem here in this State is compara-
tively simple. A network of railroads puts nearly every section
of the State within practical hauling distance of a shipping
point. Our country roads, when compared to those of other
States, are excellent, and we have 1,000 miles of macadamized
State highway which is being added to each year.

Jf. Protection from Fire.

Fire is the greatest enemy of the forest. It not only injures
and destroys merchantable timber, but it kills young growth
upon which our future timber supply must depend. The con-
stant recurrence of fires on large tracts changes them to barren
wastes, producing nothing and a burden to the community that
contains them. More damaging than the actual loss by fire is
the fear of it, which prevents conservative and scientific hand-
ling of our woodlands. We cannot condemn the lumberman for
skinning the land when we cannot give him reasonable assur-
ance that it will not burn over at any time. We must protect
his crop to the extent of making it possible for him to insure
it at reasonable rates that do not exceed the growth of the crop.

Great progress has been made in the matter of fire protection
in this State in the past few years. The forest warden act of
1907 put the matter of fighting forest fires in our towns in the
hands of one responsible man and clothed him with sufficient
authority. The fire warden acts of 1911 created the office of
State Fire Warden, with district deputies to supervise the work
of the town wardens and a small appropriation to expend in the
work of forest-fire prevention. Under this law the smaller
towns have been provided with fire-fighting apparatus, and a
system of watch towers has been erected for the early detection
of fires.

With all our improvements, however, we are still a long dis-
tance from the ideal condition because we still have far too many
fires and too many acres of burned land. The Stale Fire War-
den, instead of acting merely in an advisory capacity, should
have legal authority iu the enforcemenl of the fibre Laws,

8

authority to investigate and punish those violating the laws, and
authority over the laws affecting railroads. Without such au-
thority the central office is in a very weak position, and there
is no agency which takes interest enough in the matter to en-
force the statutes.

5. A Fair Method of Taxation.

The system now in vogue of assessing forest lands for purpose
of taxation provides not only for the taxing of the land but of
the growing crop as well. Not only is the crop taxed once but
many times over, and for many years before any returns come
in. The only reason that this unjust condition of affairs has
not been realized before is that the assessors have purposely
undervalued forest lands, and that therefore what is wrong in
principle has not been apparent in practice. Indeed, were for-
est land given its full value and taxed at the prevailing rate,
the tax would be nearly equal to the value of the entire annual
increment on the woodland. How long could any business last
whose entire income had to go to pay taxes ? Either the as-
sessor must break the law and undervalue the forest or else he
practically confiscates it. Such a system is neither fair to the
landowner nor the assessor.

This Commonwealth, which leads in many forms of legisla-
tion, is also leading in this matter of forest taxation. As long
ago as 1905 a commission was appointed to study the matter,
and as a result of their study and the constant agitation in be-
half of the reform, the Legislature and the people have at last
adopted a constitutional amendment which allows the Legisla-
ture to make a new system of taxation for forest lands. Just
what forms this new system should take is now a matter of in-
vestigation and study, and we hope that a satisfactory solution
of this most perplexing problem will be found.

Recapitulation.
As we said before, there are five conditions which are funda-
mental to a permanent and successful development of forestry:
(1) the presence of a considerable area of non-agricultural
land that is capable of forest growth; (2) a good market for
forest products; (3) good transportation facilities; (4) a good

9

system of fire protection; (5) a fair method of forest taxation.
The first three of these conditions we already have, the fourth
we are attaining slowly and the fifth we are on the eve of
having, so that we should feel greatly encouraged in our en-
deavor to establish forestry in this Commonwealth.

ft ,
Pi

10

Part II.

The Commonwealth's Forest Policy.
The office of State Forester was established in 1904, with
an appropriation of $5,000 and a force made up of one assist-
ant and a clerk. The work at that time was wholly along edu-
cational lines, and those lines have been continued with additions
to the present time. The chief line of work first undertaken
was that of assisting the private landowners in the management
of their woodlands. It is very important that the private
owner should be encouraged to practice improved forestry
methods, and the State has taken the position that it will
furnish to the people the services of experts and leave the owners
to make use of their services or not, as they see fit. This work
has been continued with an increasing patronage each year.

Publications.

It has always been the plan of this office to investigate the
different phases of forestry work and to publish instructive bul-
letins on these subjects. Prom 1904 to the present time 16
bulletins in addition to the annual reports have been issued.
Some of these bulletins are now out of print, but a list of those
available is appended to this report.

Public Lectures.
The State Forester and his assistants are constantly engaged
in giving lectures or talks on various phases of forestry before
the State Board of Agriculture, boards of trade, granges, clubs
and kindred organizations. These lectures, sometimes illus-
trated by lantern slides, are undoubtedly conducive to the proper
management of the forests of the Commonwealth and in creat-
ing a sentiment favorable to forestry.

Forest Nursery.

The act creating the office of the State Forester gave him
the privilege of establishing a nursery for the propagation of
forest-tree seedlings on the grounds of the agricultural college

11

at Amherst. This nursery was established with the idea of sell-
ing the stock to private owners, but with the passage of the re-
forestation law in 1908 the output was used by this office and
the policy of selling seedlings was stopped. It seemed unneces-
sary to continue this policy, because in the meantime a number
of commercial forest nurserymen had started in business, and
they were prepared to furnish trees in large quantities and at
reasonable rates.

At the present time the Amherst nursery and the branch
at Sandwich will yield fully 1,000,000 three and four year
transplants, a quantity sufficient for the reforestation work of
this office, and in addition several million seedlings, a portion
of which we do not set into the transplant beds, and we dis-
tribute them free of charge to our ' State institutions having
lands to be reforested.

Reforestation Work.

In 1908 the Legislature appropriated $10,000 yearly for the
State Forester, to purchase land under certain restrictions and
to set it out with young trees. The same law also contained a
provision whereby any one could deed their land over to the
Commonwealth and this office should plant it, the orginal owner
to have the right to redeem the land at anv time within ten
years by paying the State the cost of the planting. Under this
law approximately 3,500 acres have been planted, one-third of
which was purchased and two-thirds deeded. With the present
appropriation it is possible to plant, on an average, 800 to 1,000
acres per year.

Forest-fire Work.
Previous to 1907 the forest-fire fighting system was in a very
chaotic condition. The law of that day allowed the towns to
appoint a number of fire wardens, no one of whom was in
supreme authority. Many of the towns made no attempt to
have any fire wardens, and in those that did there was little
organized attempt at forest-fire fighting. In 1907 the Legisla-
ture passed the forest warden act, so called, wherein every town
and city was called upon to appoint one man as a forest warden.
who should have complete charge of the forest-fire work. This
official is appointed by the selectmen, but his appointment must

12

be approved by the State Forester. This clause bas tbe effect
of giving permanence to tbe position. Tbe result of tbis act
bas been to bring tbe forest-fire fighting system in our country
towns to a much higher dignity and proficiency than the happy-
go-lucky system prevailing before. There is a tendency in
many towns to combine the office of tree warden, forest warden
and local moth superintendent, and this tendency is to be
commended because it produces a position which may well oc-
cupy most of the time of a capable man. It was with this
object in view that the 1907 act called tbe men forest wardens
instead of fire wardens, for we expect that when the practice
of forestry becomes a settled thing in this country, each forest
warden shall become a local expert in the care of forests and
shade trees, and the fighting of woods fires shall be only an inci-
dental part of bis work.

This State has never adopted the policy, prevalent in most
States with a definite forest policy, of reimbursing a portion of
the cost of fighting forest fires, but in 1909 it passed an act to
reimburse towns having a valuation of less than $1,500,000 one-
half the cost of installing apparatus for fighting forest fires, pro-
vided such apparatus did not cost more than $500. To date 80
towns out of 170 entitled to reimbursement have taken advan-
tage of this law.

In 1911 the Legislature constituted an office, and an appro-
priation to support it, which we had long endeavored to obtain,
namely, the position of State Fire Warden, who acts as the
representative of the State Forester in all matters dealing with
the suppression of this enemy of our forests. Previous to that
time, such small authority as was lodged with the State For-
ester was exercised by him through his regular forestry assist-
ants, and as there were no funds provided for paying the
expenses of such work, and as the time of the assistants was
largely occupied in forestry work, the time and means applied
to fire work was necessarily small and included only the abso-
lutely necessary clerical work which the forest warden law re-
quired. The Legislature gave $10,000 for the work of the fire
warden the first year and increased this amount to $20,000 in
1912. The State has been divided into four districts, each with
a deputy fire warden to supervise the work of the town wardens

13

in their districts. Nineteen watch towers have been erected on
various hills and mountains over the State, and from March to
November watchmen are kept in these towers to look out for
incipient forest fires in the range of vision, which includes a
radius of 6 to 12 miles, depending on the state of the atmos-
phere. Each tower is connected by telephone with the nearest
exchange, so that the watchmen can call up the fire warden or
deputy nearest the scene of action. In this way, many fires
are put out in the early stages instead of being allowed to grow
into uncontrollable conflagrations. Not only does the State
Fire Warden supervise the work of town wardens and the
work of these watchmen, but he also co-operates with the rail-
road commission in the inspection of locomotives, with the idea
of lessening the number of railroad fires. Not only has this
office done great service in controlling the forest fires of this
State, but with the possibility of increased powers being con-
ferred upon the fire warden there is a field for wider usefulness.
In the foregoing we have endeavored to give a history of the
work of the State Forester's office and the development of its
forest policy. Let us turn now to our plans for future develop-
ment.

14

Part III.

Some Important Woodland Problems.

The principal points in the State's forest policy as it exists
to-dav have been described, but there remain to be considered
some matters of interest which pertain to the future growth of
this policy.

State Forests.

The Commonwealth ought to extend its policy to include a
system of general State forests, for when all is said and done it
is only a portion of the private owners who can practice forestry,
and only a very small portion who can practice it in intensive
form. As we have said before, the practice of forestry means
the sacrifice of present profits for future greater ones, but the
man who must spend his present income for his daily needs
cannot afford to make such a sacrifice except in a small way,
whereas the owners with a large surplus income who can afford
to practice intensive forestry are few. Therefore we see that
if we depend wholly on the development of private forestry in
this Commonwealth we shall make but slow progress.

The federal government is already well committed to the
government ownership of forest land, with its 160,000,000
acres of national forests in the west and its recent purchases in
the east. The constitutional limitation, however, that such
forests must be for the protection of the headwaters of navi-
gable streams, precludes the idea that they will ever operate in
this State. Indeed, each State should do this work for itself
and not wait for aid from the national government. The great
Commonwealths of New York and Pennsylvania are thoroughly
committed to this idea of State forests, the former having ac-
quired nearly 2,000,000 acres and the latter 1,000,000. Even
our neighbors here in New England have taken up this policy,
although their beginnings are small, and Connecticut, New
Hampshire and Vermont all have State forests under the man-
agement of the State Eorester. Of course, the lands which we
have taken over under the reforestation law are in a way State
forests, but they are only temporarily so, for after ten years
they revert to the original owners if these owners choose to
make use of their privileges.

15

This State already owns a considerable area of wild forest
land in the form of reservations protecting some of our more
prominent mountains. The principal of these reservations are
Greylock, Wachusett, Everett, Mt. Tom and Sugar Loaf. These
reservations, aggregating 12,000 acres, would form an excellent
nucleus for a State forest system, and can be made to produce
forest supplies without any injury to their present use. In
fact, it seems rather incongruous that this State, should on the
one hand urge upon the private landowner the advantages of
forestry management when on the other hand it refuses to prac-
tice it on the lands that it already owns. Territory can be
added to these reservations already existing and new ones
created. Land for such reservations can be purchased for $10
per acre or less. A few years ago Connecticut purchased 900
acres at a cost of $1.64 per acre, but this was, of course, an ex-
ceptional case. When once well stocked, the sale of mature
timber should not only provide for its maintenance, but should
yield a net revenue to the treasury. The kingdom of Prussia
owns 6,000,000 acres of forest land from which it derives a
net revenue of $9,000,000, and the State forests of France yield
a net annual revenue of $2 per acre.

City and Town Forests.
There are many reasons why cities and towns would do well
to own and manage woodlands, when suitable cheap lands are to
be found in their boundaries. This could be done in many in-
stances at a moderate initial cost, and, as said above in con-
nection with State forests, such holdings should in time provide
for their own maintenance and even return a net revenue to the
town that owns one. Many towns already have the possibility
of such a municipal forest in their possession in the form of
lands which they are holding for the protection of their water
supplies. Fall Eiver owns 4,000 acres, Westfield, 1,500,
Holyoke, 2,000 and many others smaller amounts. Such lands
should not be allowed to lie idle producing nothing, but should
be put under management so that they will help supply the
future timber needs of the community, and at the same time
they are in better shape to conserve the water supplies that they
were created for.

Mi

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16

CONCLUSION".

The friends of forestry in this Commonwealth are much
encouraged by the interest which has been manifested by the
general public. The Massachusetts Forestry Association and
the Boston Chamber of Commerce, which has a forestry com-
mittee, the State Board of Agriculture, the State Grange, etc.,
have been powerful factors in focusing this interest on legisla-
tion and in other ways. This interest is so hearty that it tempts
us to look forward to a time when the old abandoned farm,
coming up to red cedar or worthless birches, will be a thing of
the past ; when waste lands from Cape Cod to Berkshire will be
occupied with thrifty stands of white pine and other useful
timber trees ; when the woodlot will produce saw logs as well as
cordwood ; when the State over cities and towns will own forests
for the production of timber and recreation grounds for the
people ; to a time when the greater part of the timber used in
the Commonwealth will be produced within its borders. All
these things are possible and practicable from an economic view,
but it will take an intelligent interest on the part of the private
owners, and an intelligent sentiment on the part of the general
public, to bring these conditions about.

17

List of Publications of the State Forester.
Forestry Bulletins.
Forestry in Massachusetts.
Wood-using Industries of Massachusetts.
The White Pine in Massachusetts, Log Scales, Volume Tables.
Massachusetts Forest Laws.
Reforestation in Massachusetts.
Improvement Cuttings and Thinnings.
The Chestnut Bark Disease.
The Chestnut in Massachusetts.
Study of Trees in our Primary Schools.
Study of Evergreens in the Schools.
How to collect Pine Seed.
Forest Fires in Massachusetts.

Gypsy Moth Publications.
The Gypsy Moth.

The Wilt Disease of the Gypsy Moth.
The Brown-tail Moth.
The Brown-tail Fungus.
Annual Report of the State Forester.

■

Laud coming up to gray birch arid undesirable hardwood, and which should be

reforested.

Brusta after logging piled and burned. The cord wood wras cul from the slash.

:?

•II!

B

MP1

Land planted with white pine transplants, six years after setting. Notice re-
markable growth of leading shoot.

View of thlrtj elghi year-old plantation of
w lute pine.

I

•'.'to

l.»m«j

Before thinning in mixed forest.

After thinning in stand above. Onli the thrifts trees are left

hi

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■

Pine trees left standing for reseeding purposes, on the Burbank

IIos))ital property, at Fitchburg.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING

IMPROVEMENT
THINNINGS

AND THE MANAGEMENT OF
MOTH-INFESTED WOODLANDS

BY

H. O. COOK, M.F., Assistant Forester

AND

P. D. KNEELAND, M.F.

Forester, Moth Division

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

F. W. RANE, State Forester

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS
32 DERNE STREET :: :: BOSTON, MASS.

1914

nf i

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1

INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin, the third edition printed on the same subject by
this office, is published by the State Forester so that the people
of this State may have at their disposal the information so often
desired on the thinning of woodlands.

While it is believed that after a careful study of this bulletin a
man should be able to go into his wood lot and select approximately
the right trees to be taken out, yet it must be admitted that the
problems of thinning work are many and intricate, so that it is im-
possible to give more than the general theory in a publication of
this kind.

We believe that in those sections of the State infested by the
gypsy and brown-tail moths a proper management of the woodland
offers an important solution of the problem in controlling these
pests, and we commend to your attention the portion of this bulle-
tin on this subject written by Mr. Kneel and.

Your attention is called also to the policy of this office in sending
out trained foresters. At the request of any owners of woodland
in the State, the forester will go over the land with the owner and
will explain to him his ideas on its treatment, the method of pro-
cedure and the probable expense. Application blanks for such work
can be had by applying to the State Forester's office, 6 Beacon
Street, Boston.

Acknowledgments.

The work of writing and compiling the data in this bulletin was
done by my assistant, Mr. H. 0. Cook, M.F. The section dealing
with the management of woodlands infested with the gypsy moth
was written by Mr. Paul D. Kneeland, M.F., who has charge of
the work being done along this line. Mr. Roy G. Pierce, M.F.,
wrote the paragraph on chestnut thinnings. He worked in the
State department in co-operation with the United States Bureau
of Plant Industry. Mr. John Murdoch Jr., A.M., an assistant in
our department, compiled much of the cost data.

F. W. RANE,
State Forester.

11

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neglected and badly moth-infested woodland. The growth here is not large
enough to pay for thinning, and contains quantities of dead trees, which condi-
tion is one of the worst to deal with. About all that can be done is to cut it
clean and replant. There are many acres of this type and they are most dis-
couraging propositions to the owners. Starvation methods may be practiced
under favorable circumstances.

woodland thinning to assist in controlling the gypsy moth. The favorite
food trees are removed. The white pine is encouraged. A process of build-
ing over the forest. A thinned forest like this can be sprayed and looked after
at far less expense. The forest products removed pay for the treatment. One
hundred acres on the Weld estate, Dedbam.

HOW TO MAKE IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS
IN MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS.

IMPORTANCE OF THINNING.

By improvement thinnings and cuttings we mean the systematic
removal of a portion of the trees in a growing forest, in order to
benefit the portion that remains. It is the forester's method of
cultivation, and it is the only practical way he has of increasing
the yield and improving the quality of his crop. The methods
of the arboriculturist are, except in limited cases, too costly to have
a place in practical forestry.

Those people who doubt the value of forestry practices often
argue against thinnings, on the ground that nature's methods must
be the best. It is no more true that nature's methods are best in
the forest than in the orchard or garden. The practice of thinning
in European forests for nearly one hundred years has established
beyond a doubt that this work increases the amount and quality
of the lumber. In 1830 the average annual growth in German
forests was 20 cubic feet per acre, while in 1904 it was 65 cubic
feet, — an increase of 300 per cent., which can be attributed almost
entirely to the methodical thinning of their forests.

Xearly 45 per cent, of the land area of Massachusetts is covered
with some form of woodland growth, which can be apportioned
roughly among three main t}'pes; the pine forest, which has come
up on abandoned fields and pastures; the mixed growth, composed
of hard woods, usually of seedling origin; together with pine and
hemlock and sprout forest. Above an altitude of 1,200 feet spruce
replaces pine. A seedling tree is one which has come from a seed
or nut; and by a sprout we mean one which had its origin in a
sucker sent out by a stump from which a tree has been cut.

The principles of thinning apply to all kinds of forest, bill
it is perhaps the sprout land which chiefly needs improvement. It
is the lanrost single type, and yet, with the exception of sprout
chestnut, which is used for ties and polos, this sprout land is at
propont producing nothing but cord wood. Proper care might
bring these cord wood stands to producing saw timber.

6 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

THEORY OF THINNING.

In order that one may understand the principles which underlie
the process of thinning, he must know something of the physio-
logical growth of single trees, and of that collection of trees known
as a forest.

Plants are made up of tissues composed of numberless small cells.
These cells are largely composed of carbon derived from the carbon
dioxide of the air and water. The carbon dioxide enters into the
leaves through minute pores (stomata), and by the action of the
sunlight on the green chlorophyll grains, the process of assimila-
tion, which in plants answers to digestion in animals, takes place.
The carbon is combined with the water and a small amount of
mineral matter taken from the soil by the roots to form the grow-
ing material of the plant, while the oxygen is returned to the air.
Therefore any crowding or shading which deprives the tree of these
necessary agents, foliage and sunlight, checks its volume growth
in proportion.

To take a simple example, let us suppose a plantation set out
with seedlings 6 by 6 feet apart; then there will be 1,210 trees on
an acre, and each tree will have 36 square feet in which to spread
its branches. When the side branches meet we have what is called
a closed stand, and a struggle commences. It is characteristic of
trees to take all the room they can get; and not having any more
at the sides, they seek the sunlight by growing upwards at a rapid
rate. Trees even of the same species differ in their rate of growth,
so that some get ahead of the others; and when they do, they
spread out their side branches and so overtop their weaker neigh-
bors. Unless these overtopped trees happen to be in the class called
by foresters tolerant, i.e., shade-bearing, they will soon sicken and
die. By the time our plantation is fifty years old, only 400 trees
will remain of the original 1,210.

In the early life of the forest, say the first fifteen to twenty
years, a sharp conflict of this kind is very useful, for it produces
all tall, straight trees; in the second place, on account of the dense
crowding the side branches are killed off when young, and the tree
is free from knots; and in the third place, the ground is kept
shaded and the moisture retained in the soil. After twenty years
growth, however, these objects have been accomplished, and then
the forester steps in and opens up the stand so as to allow the
crowns to spread. Larger crowns mean, of course, a more rapid
increase in volume growth. Furthermore, the slower-growing trees

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS.

are removed while they are still alive and fit for use, and are not
allowed to gradually sicken and die, an invitation to insects and
diseases of the forest.

In the case of sprout land the crowding is generally more severe
and the need of thinning more urgent than the plantation supposed
above, for from every stump 10 to 50 suckers may spring, so that
several thousands of young trees may start up on an acre.

PRACTICE OF THINNING.

When to Thin.

The conditions which exist in most parts of this country do not
permit us to thin as early or as often as is desirable. The market
for small-sized wood is uncertain, and we must be satisfied with
a less intensive cultivation of our forests than our European friends
enjoy.

A safe rule to follow is to thin a stand as soon as the material
to be removed has reached such a size that its sale will pay the cost
of the removal, and as soon again as the material to be removed
has accumulated in sufficient quantities to pay the expense involved.
The profit is to be found in the improved growth of the stand.
When the wood lot owner is a farmer, or has farm help during the
winter months, when they might be idle much of the time, the
net cost of the work may be held quite low.

A less commercial and a more scientific rule would state that
a thinning should be made as soon as the trees have attained their
maximum rate of height growth, and the lower limbs are well
pruned off. In practice this would mean a moderate thinning
when the stand is from twenty to thirty years old, and a heavier
one ten to fifteen years later. If the rate of growth of our native
trees and their response to treatment were better known, we could
afford to thin at some net expense, being able to calculate what
the profit would be; but unfortunately American foresters have
not had time to gather the necessary data on this subject, and
until we do, the rule of letting the material pay the expense is the
to follow.

What to Thin.

The extent to which a closed stand may be opened up depends
on several circumstances. Species which arc (ailed t€ tolerant,"
because they stand the shade well, should be kepi quite thick, for
they cling tenaciously to their side limbs. Hemlock and beech
are extreme examples of " tolerant n trees. A forest OD a dry,

8 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

sandy soil or on a hilltop should not be thinned as heavily as one
on low, moist ground, because under such circumstances the soil
must be kept shaded to retain the scanty supply of moisture. The
age of the trees and the kind of timber desired have an influence
on the decision of what to take. For instance, if the owner of a
chestnut sprout stand wishes it to yield poles rather than ties or

i, I lumber he should thin it lightly.

The simplest problem of thinning is in a wood lot consisting of

,M but one species. We first divide the trees into four classes: dom-

inant, intermediate, suppressed and dead. Dominant trees have
large, full crowns, well up in the light. Intermediate trees receive
light from above, but are somewhat crowded at the sides, some
more than others. Suppressed trees are those which have been

n wholly overtopped by their more vigorous neighbors, and are

slowly dying. A moderate thinning would consist in the removal
of the intermediate trees, which are closely pressed by their neigh-

I bors, and all the suppressed trees if they will make a marketable

product. Dead trees do no injury to the growing crop, and are
only removed to improve the appearance of the woods, or as a pre-
caution against fires, insects and disease.

When the wood lot contains a number of species the problem be-
comes more complicated, for we have the relative value of species
as another factor which we must consider. The relative worth
of different species depends in part on their value in the market;
in part on the owner's plans as to the final disposition of the wood
lot; and in part on their adaptability to the soil in which they are
growing.

The hardwoods of the eastern part of the United States are
divided into two types: the northern and the southern. Generally
speaking, the order of preference in the northern hardwoods would
be rock maple, paper birch, yellow birch and beech. Among the
southern hardwoods the names might be arranged as follows:
chestnut, white ash, red oak, hickory, white oak and soft maple.
Gray birch, poplar and wild cherry are usually classed as forest
weeds, and are taken out. Where these latter three species are
growing by themselves, and are not interfering with other and
better trees, they can of course be left ; but they are not worth any
improvement work.

Where white pine is mixed with deciduous trees it is usually
favored at their expense ; and spruce in the higher altitudes should
be similarly benefited. Pitch pine, however, is in a class below

3

11

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to

a
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a
-a

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 9

the better hardwoods; and there is no call to favor hemlock, be-
cause it is very " tolerant."

After the trees have been classified and the order of preference
by species determined upon, a third consideration must enter into
our calculations. Defects, such as decayed trunks, fire scars or
extreme crooks, are a sufficient reason for the removal of a tree, so
that it is not impossible to have a wood lot in which the dominant
trees, being in poor condition or of a valueless species, would be
removed. Such a cutting could, however, scarcely be called a thin-
ning, but would rather partake of the nature of an improvement
cutting.

One can readily understand that the man who is put in charge
of a thinning operation must have sound judgment, and be well
instructed in the principles of the work. Where possible, it is well
to have a trained forester mark the trees to be cut. It is better
to be conservative rather than radical in the selecting of the trees to
be removed, as a thinning which is too light can be easily remedied,
but one which is too heavy will take years to mend. A mere clean-
ing up of the underbrush and a few suppressed trees is not a thin-
ning, however.

In practice it is customary to blaze the trees to be cut, and often
they are blazed twice, once about 4 feet from the ground, and once
low down on the stump. Unless one has great confidence in his
man, it is not wise to let the chopping out at so much a cord,
because as a rule in a thinning operation we take only the smaller
and poorer trees, so that the chopper is under a great temptation
to increase his pile by taking some of those intended to be left,
and it is difficult to detect the fraud.

Thinking Chestnut Woodlands.

Very frequently it becomes advisable for the wood lot owner
to carry on thinning operations in stands of pure chestnut or in
mixed hardwood growth, with chestnut forming a large part of
the mixture.

This is especially the case in stands of from twenty-five to forty
years of age, where the competition has been so great that the trees
have grown very slowly in diameter. Height growth lias been se-
cured at the expense of growth in diameter.

Chestnut, because of its great sprouting capacity, generally
grows up in a dense stand, the number of sprouts from one stump

10 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

ranging from 3 to 7, sometimes even more. This makes for height
growth.

A moderate thinning would remove only the dead, suppressed and
poorer intermediate trees. This would not stimulate diameter
growth very much, and it is this diameter growth which is desired
in the chestnut stands of the ages mentioned above.

The advent of the chestnut blight, and the possibility of the
destruction of the chestnut by this fungous disease within a com-
parative short length of time, makes it imperative that the stands
of chestnut should be brought up to merchantable size as fast as
possible.

A heavy thinning, which would include the trees removed in the
moderate thinning, with the addition of some codominant trees,
would result in increased rate of growth.

A damage cutting should be made at the same time as the thin-
ning and all diseased trees removed. This should be repeated every
year or two if possible.

Explanation of Diagrams.

We have endeavored to represent in Diagram No. 1 a section of
a typical sprout chestnut stand, 50 feet in length and 20 feet in
width. The trees of the dominant class are marked A; the inter-
mediate class, B; and the suppressed trees, D. The small maples,
although apparently suppressed, are not so ; but, being very tolerant
of shade, they have come up under the shadow of the chestnuts,
and form a sort of second cover. The trees removed in thinning
include five suppressed, two intermediate and one dominant. The
dominant chestnut was removed primarily because of its poor,
crooked bole, and secondarily because there was a good red oak
and a chestnut ready to grow into the vacated space. The maples
were not cut because they were so small that they could not inter-
fere with the larger trees, and they help to keep the ground shaded
until the broken cover is re-established. Diagram No. 2 represents
the stand as it appeared after the thinning.

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS.

11

12

IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 13

RESULTS OF THINNING.

We said in the section on the " Theory of Thinning " that the
more light and air a tree receives the more rapidly it grows in
diameter; so that a thinning, by opening up the stand and allow-
ing the crowns of the remaining trees to enlarge, stimulates the
volume growth of the stand. There are fewer trees in the stand,
but larger and better ones. This may riot be considered important
until we realize how much more valuable a tree of large diameter
is than a small one. For example, the average white pine, 10
inches in diameter breast high, and 60 feet in height, contains
95 feet of round-edge lumber; whereas a pine of the same height,
15 inches in diameter, contains 195 board feet of lumber; that is,
with a 50 per cent, gain in diameter there is an increase of 100 per
cent, in the product. This is not the whole story, because with the
increase in the size of the tree the boards are wider and have less
knots, yielding a higher price; so that the gain in money value
is even greater than the increase in volume. An average chestnut
tree 10 inches in diameter will produce 2 ties and .03 cords of fire-
wood. Supposing a railroad tie to be worth 50 cents, the tree may
be said to be worth about $1. A 15-inch chestnut will yield 5 ties
and .06 cords of wood, worth about $2.50, or an increase in money
value of 150 per cent. In the case of sprout oaks and other sprout
hardwoods, thinnings made at the right time may result in con-
verting what would otherwise be nothing but a cord wood lot into
one of saw-timber size.

If, as a result of thinning, the trees become larger in a given
space of time, conversely they will attain any suitable size in a
shorter space of time than without a thinning. The experiments
of European foresters have shown that the rotation of the timber
crop can be shortened by judicious thinnings from 10 to 20 per
cent.

In the course of this work many unsightly and diseased trees
are removed, and this fact tends to make the woodland more at-
tractive to the eye. Where forest land is used for park purposes
as well as for timber production, a moderate thinning is highly
recommended. It should, however, be conducted under careful
supervision, as the tendency is often towards a " sand-papering "
treatment of the woods, to which many people who appreciate prim-
itiveness in nature object; and they wrongfully believe this effect to
be a necessary result of forestry work.

14

IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

IS THINNING PRACTICABLE?

There are many owners of forest property who, although they
do not doubt that a thinning will benefit their woods, say that the
cost of the work is prohibitive. Of course there are many places
in this State so remote from a market that the product will not
even pay the charge for labor; but the trouble with most of these
people is that they want to get back their wages, a fair stumpage,
and often an additional profit from work meant for improvement
only. It is an especially valuable line of work for the landowner
who is obliged to keep men and horses through the winter months,
with little for them to do. Such a man makes something out of
the thinning work, no matter if the actual returns are small.

In the sprout hardwood stands, from 3 to 8 cords will be found
to be the usual product of thinnings, depending on the age and
density of the stand. In the seedling hardwoods and mixed stands
the density is so variable as to make any definite statement in re-
gard to the probable product of thinnings impossible. As a rule,
about one-third of the trees, and from one-fifth to one-quarter of
the total volume in the wood lot, are taken out in this work.

Two years ago this office published a small pamphlet containing
data on the white pine. Part of this booklet was given over to
yield tables. A pine yield table is one which shows the volume of
well-stocked pine stands at different ages, which in this case ranged
from twenty-five to fifty-five years. These tables were made by
measuring the trees on many sample plots of all ages, and averaging
the results. When these sample plots were calipered, those trees
which would be removed if the stand was thinned were noted sep-
arately. From this data a table of the yield from pine thinnings
was made and published at that time. We print it again in this
pamphlet, on account of its connection with the subject.

Yield from Thinnings.

Trees under 5 inches, from report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission, 1906.

Trees over 5 Inches in Diameter.

Trees under 5 Inches in
Diameter.

AGE (YEARS).

Board
Feet.

Value at

$16
per M.

Stump-
age
at $6.

Cubic
Feet.

Cords.

Value at
$3 per
Cord.

Cubic
Feet.

25, .
30, .
35, .
40, .
45, .
50, .
55, .

1,400
3,700
4,950
6,000
6,800
7,400
7,900

$22 40

59 20

79 20

96 00

108 80

118 40

126 40

$8 40
22 20
29 70
36 00
40 80
44 40
49 40

280
720
850
1,030
1,140
1,240
1,310

7H
6

4H
3

m

$22 50

18 00

13 50

9 00

4 50

750
600
450
300
150

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 15

MISCELLANEOUS CUTTINGS.

There are many kinds of cuttings which one can make to improve
woodland which cannot strictly be called thinnings because their
primary object is not to open up the crown cover in order to
stimulate the growth of the trees. It is not always possible to
draw a hard-and-fast line between such improvement cuttings and
thinnings because one may partake of the nature of the other,
and the two may be carried out at the same time. Such cuttings
can best be suggested by a few examples.

We will suppose that an insect pest which attacks some particu-
lar species of tree — for instance, maples — is more or less preva-
lent in a region. As a matter of protection, the owner of mixed
woodland might go through it and take out all the maples so as not
to attract the insects to his land. The removal of hardwoods from
a pine stand as a precaution in fighting gypsy moths is another
protection cutting, which we have described elsewhere in this
bulletin.

One often finds among the woods large, spreading old trees, more
or less decayed and of little value for timber. It is good forest
policy to cut such trees down, and to allow the large amount of
ground space which they occupy to come up to a new growth of
more value.

In old, abandoned pastures we often see young pines coming up
underneath a stand of gray birches. While the pine seedlings are
very young, let us say not more than four or five years old, the
birches protect them from the hot sun and wind, and act in the
role of nurse trees. But as the pines increase in size they need
the sunlight; and, further, the branches of the birches, as they
sway in the wind, cut the tender leading shoot of the pine, killing
it and causing the tree to be stunted and crooked. In such cases
the birches should be removed; but if they are too small to make
cord wood, or if the young pines are scattered, it is only necessary
to remove the trees immediately surrounding the pines. If done
in this manner, one man can easily cover an acre or two a day.

If diseased or decaying trees are removed from a stand with
no special reference to the principles of thinning, the operation is
an improvement cutting and not a thinning.

16 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

THINNINGS IN GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL

MOTH WORK.

Thinnings are a logical development in the fight against the
gypsy and brown-tail moths. However, thinnings as made in this
work differ considerably from the improvement thinnings pre-
viously mentioned, and perhaps some other term should be used to
describe them. They vary all the way from what practically
amounts to clear cutting to merely the chopping out of underbrush
and dead trees.

Methods of Moth Control.

Some account of the habits of the gypsy and brown-tail moths
and the methods used in their control may help in explaining the
purposes and possibilities of moth thinnings. The present means
of fighting the moths may be classified under three heads, — direct
entomological methods, indirect entomological methods and forestry
methods. The direct entomological methods seek the destruction
of the moths in one of their various forms by human agency, as in
spraying or creosoting. The indirect methods seek the propagation
of parasites or disease which will destroy the moths. The forestry
methods seek the eradication of tree growth which is favorable to
the moths, and, conversely, the encouragement of growth unfav-
orable to their development.

It has been found, from our own and from European observations
and experiments, that although it will eat practically all kinds of
vegetation, the gypsy moth thrives only on a limited number of
species of trees. These trees, which are the oaks (especially the
white oak), willow, cherry and fruit trees, and probably the gray
birch, may be called " non-resistant " trees. The brown-tail moth
is virtually the same, except that it will not eat coniferous growth
(pines, etc.) at all. Unless a large proportion of their food con-
sists of the leaves of these " non-resistant " trees, under ordinary
conditions both gypsies and brown-tails will soon either pass on to
a more favorable feeding ground or die. Therefore forestry methods
rather than attempting to destroy the moths themselves would de-
stroy their food. If we grow forests of resistant species, as conifers,
maple, ash, chestnut, etc., the moths will cease to be destructive.

Before thinning, at Manchester -by-the-Sea. Imagine the difficulty in treating thi9
woodland for gypsy moths as it is.

After thinning, tA Ifancbester-b] -the Sea, Not only are the condition! tinier for
combating moth-,, but the Improved forestry conditionB are e\ Ldenfe.

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MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 17

The forestry methods of control consist of what we here term
moth thinnings. The moths themselves carry on these thinnings
in a crude way if left to ravage undisturbed. They will kill off most
of the " non-resistant " trees, together with many " resistant " ones,
it is true; but after many years, if undisturbed, the forest will grow
up almost wholly " resistant." Moth thinnings will prevent the
large waste which this natural method would entail, and also will
hasten the regeneration of the forest and save many " resistant "
trees which would not be killed unless mixed with the " non-re-
sistant " species. Thus these thinnings, like other kinds of thin-
nings, are for the purpose of saving and encouraging the growth
of the forest as a whole by sacrificing some of its unnecessary or
dangerous individuals.

KINDS OF THINNINGS.

Moth thinnings may be classified under four different heads
which are more or less distinct.

1. Cuttings made solely for the Purpose of aiding in Direct
Methods of Moth Control. — These are not real thinnings. They
usually consist of merely taking out the underbrush and a few dead
or undesirable trees. They have been carried on for years in prac-
tically all park and ornamental woodland where large sums of
money were to be spent in spraying the trees or painting the egg-
clusters. They are based on the principle that cuttings of this
character will greatly lessen the cost and increase the effectiveness
of the other work.

2. Cuttings which are made for the Purpose of leaving the Wood-
land wholly " Resistant/' — Xot over 5 to 10 per cent, of " non-
resistant " trees are left after a thinning of this sort ; the brush
may or may not be cut, according to its character, and the expecta-
tion is that no further measures of moth control will be necessary.
These are motli tli innings of the extreme type. In stands which
have a good percentage of resistant growth they are real thinnings
and leave a fair forest cover. In stands almost wholly non-resistant
they practically amount to clear cutting, and should always be fol-
lowed by reforestation.

3. Thinnings which are a Compromise between the Two Pre-
ceding Kinds. — In the cutting all possible non-resistant trees are
removed, but not enough to seriously break the forest cover, and it
is expected that further measures of moth control, as spraying, will
be utilized when necessary. One purpose of this type of cutting

18 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

is to enable the owner to maintain a forest cover at the least pos-
sible expense, with no "unnecessary trees to take care of, and with
the largest possible proportion of resistant trees. The real purpose
of these thinnings should be to make it the first step in a gradual
elimination of all non-resistant trees, and the remaking of the forest
into one of a resistant character without too great a disturbance of
the forest conditions during the process. Natural reproduction or
underplanting of desirable species should follow the cutting.

4. Damage Cuttings. — To a greater or lesser extent in all wood-
land where the moths have been present for a number of years there
are moth-damaged trees which have to be removed when a thinning
is made. However, under this heading it is intended to include
only cuttings made for the main purpose of marketing the dead
and damaged trees before they become too much decayed to be
merchantable. Of course this sort of a cutting has no effect in
controlling the moths. The wood cut from dead trees is not usually
as valuable as that cut from live ones, and also it costs more to cut
it; so damage cuttings are only profitable in better quality growth
near a good market. Eesistant thinnings should be made where
possible before serious infestation, to prevent the necessity of
damage cuttings.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Thinnings as a Method of

Moth Control.

The great advantage of thinning is in its small cost. The direct
methods of moth control are a net expense and are liable to have
to be repeated year after year. In most woodland the annual cost
of spraying or of a thorough creosoting is greater than the value of
the wood which that woodland will produce in a year. Therefore
it is cheaper for the owner, unless the area has a considerable value
other than for the wood it grows, to cut down all his trees and
sell them than to try direct methods of control. This fact is well
known, and is the reason why in recent years little attempt has
been made to stop the moths in woodland unless it was mainly
used for park or pleasure purposes, or in case of a light infestation,
to keep it from spreading.

Moth thinnings will pay for themselves, or come very near doing
so, as will be seen from figures of actual operations which are given
later. The product in cord wood, ties, piles, logs, etc., will, in
almost every growth which is at least fair, pay for the work done,
and in many cases will yield a profit.

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 19

Moth thinnings in many types of woodland offer a permanent
solution of the moth problem; they do not call for a heavy annual
expenditure.

In all woodland, thinnings will aid and lessen the cost of other
methods of control, even if not in themselves completely solving
the problem. A thinned area can be sprayed for a fraction of the
cost of the unthinned, and the work is much more effective. The
same is true of creosoting, clipping nests, etc.

In wild woodlands the chief value of which is for the wood they
produce, thinning with the aid of parasites and diseases seems to
offer the only reasonable solution of the problem.

However, it must be remembered that moth thinnings are not a
cure-all for every phase of the moth problem. It is desirable, and
always will be, to grow " non-resistant " species for shade trees and
in park, ornamental and protection woodland. Here the other
methods must be continued.

There is a great class of woodland which is so poor that no pos-
sible cutting will pay for itself. This includes young sprouts, gray
birch growth and areas which contain a large amount of brush, as
scrub oak, hawthorn, briars, etc. Moth thinnings are so expensive
in these lands that they can hardly be advisable. However, some
people have cleaned them off and replanted to pine. Where there
is considerable young pine mixed with the other growth on these
areas a thinning will pay in future returns from the pine, even
though the wood removed will not cover the first cost.

Eesults of Moth Thinnings.

The result of moth thinnings and of natural selection in the
case of badly infested woodland will be the elimination of a large
part of the oak from our forest growth. This will prove to be a
blessing rather than a disaster if pine is substituted. Most of the
sprout oak in the moth-infested territory is occupying natural pine
land. The soil is poor and unsuited to the best development of
oak, but is excellent for pine. It is thought that originally the
land was almost wholly covered with pine. The pine has the ad-
vantages of being more valuable, more rapid growing, ;>n<l generally
more satisfactory and productive than the oak in tin- region. Oak
can be left on the richer soils and moister slopes, whore it may be
able to withstand the ravages of the moths. Generally <ho oak
must be relegated to the position of unimportance which it occupies
in European forestry, and the white oak, the poorest of all in this

20 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

region, will be almost exterminated. Of the other trees affected,
the cherry and gray birch are weed trees, and so of no importance,
and the willow is rather uncommon and quite capable of withstand-
ing repeated moth attacks.

HOW TO THIN.

The types of forest growth in the cnt-over lands of Massachusetts
are so many and the conditions are so varied that no hard-and-fast
rules in thinning can be laid down. Outside of forest conditions
the wishes and purposes of the owner of a specific tract must be
one of the main factors to determine the method of its treatment.

If a stand is almost purely non-resistant, as an oak growth, it is
for the owner to decide whether he wants the stand clear cut at
once and replanted with pine, or whether he wants to gradually
thin out the area, and underplant, keeping all the while some sort
of forest cover. The first method is the cheaper, but the woods are
gone for a number of years until the pine grows up. If the second
method is chosen, practically all white oaks should be cut out any-
way, as they are by far the most undesirable trees from the moth
standpoint. Of the other species of oaks only those in poor condi-
tion, of poor form, or the suppressed, overtopped and intermediate
should be removed. One or two of each bunch of sprouts can usually
be cut down. An intermediate tree of a resistant species, as pine
or maple, should be left, and the oak which is crowding it out
removed.

Where a harcb\vood stand of good density is to be underplanted,
probably 60 per cent, numerically, and from 30 to 50 per cent, in
volume, should be removed. Where there is considerable natural
pine reproduction under the hardwood, or where it is possible to
gain it, not all shade should be taken away, but a heavy thinning
should be made. Experience has shown us that, where there is
only the choice between leaving the young pine without protecting
cover, or leaving white oak as that cover, it is better to remove the
white oak if the moth infestation is serious.

There is one combination method of treatment in nearly pure
oak stands where the owner does not wish to lose the wooded effect
and yet does not want to go to the expense of taking care of the
whole area.

By this method a thinned strip, which can be sprayed easily, is
left along the edge, on the roads or bordering fields, and back of
this strip the growth is cut clean and the land replanted.

ill

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il

A splendid Btand of large white pine with ;i relatively small mixture of bard<
woods on the line Rodman estate In Dedham. The pine to|is show the ravages
of the gypsy moth, a Dumber of the large pines are pasl redemption. This
whole estate Is being thinned out at the present time. The hardwoods are being
taken out, together with the dead pines. Sad the hardwood been removed early
ail of the pines could have been saved.

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MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 21

In stands 50 per cent, or more of moth-resistant character prac-
tically all non-resistant trees should be removed. No white oaks,
and not more than 10 per cent, of other oaks, should be left unless
the owner is prepared to use other methods of moth control.

In stands which contain not over 10 to 20 per cent, oak, and the
rest pine, a thinning out of all oak is especially important. It
has been uniformly observed that in such stands the damage to the
pine is greatest. All oak undergrowth should be removed also.

In pure or nearly pure gray birch a thinning is unprofitable and
unadvisable unless the birch is large enough and the market good
enough to make a clear cutting pay for itself. In stands where
there is a large amount of young pine mixed with the gray birch
a cutting out of all birch would seem advisable, even if made at
a small present financial loss.

Brush Disposal.

The disposal of the brush and slashings is a large problem in con-
nection with this work. The following are several general rules
which have been formulated in the work this department has under-
taken and supervised : —

Cutting of Brush and Undergrowth.

1. The cutting of brush is a net expense, and where financial
considerations enter largely as little as possible should be done.

2. In park or ornamental woodland, or where spraying or creo-
soting are to follow the cutting, it is usually advisable to cut prac-
tically all the underbrush. Care should be taken, however, not to
cut valuable young reproduction, as pine, maple, ash, etc., or valu-
able flowering shrubs, as flowering dogwood, Vibernum lantanoides,
laurel, etc.

3. In ordinary woodland only " non-resistant " brush and repro-
duction should be cut, such as scrub oak, oak, birch, shadbush and
witch-hazel.

Burning of Brush and Slashing.

1. In park or ornamental woodland; where planting is to follow
the cutting; where other measures of moth control are to follow
the cutting; where there is any aesthetic value to the woodland ; and
where the fire danger is considerable, all brush and slashing should
be burned.

2. Along roads, rights of way and boundary lines the brush
should be burned.

22 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

3. Hardwood brush is not as dangerous as softwood brush, and
where left it should be scattered. Brush is sometimes an aid to
natural reproduction, but whether it is burned or not is usually a
financial consideration with the owner. Except in the above-named
cases we do not advise its being burned when the expense would be
a burden.

4. Brush should be burned in the winter or spring or on rainy
days.

5. Except where it is very thick it is usually cheaper and better
to pile the brush first and burn afterwards than to pile and burn at
the same time.

The cost of brush disposal will be discussed later.

USES AND MARKETS FOR WOOD. •

The products of these thinnings are depended on to meet com-
pletely or in a large measure the costs of the work. Therefore
it is essential that the wood cut should be utilized in the best pos-
sible manner and sold to the best advantage. An enumeration of
the various products obtainable and a discussion of their possibili-
ties for profit follow : —

1. Cord Wood. — #Cord wood is usually the chief product of the
thinnings. It is universally cut into 4-foot lengths in the woods
and is used for fuel. It might be graded into two or possibly three
grades, and also its value varies somewhat with species. The best
grade is cleft wood. It is usual to split any stick over 5 inches in
diameter. Wood below that size is called round, or, if very small
(2 to 3 inches), trash wood. A small percentage — usually not
over 10 per cent. — of round or trash wood may be included with
cleft wood and sold as such. If there is a larger percentage than
that of round wood it is a poorer grade and as high a price cannot
be obtained. Trash wood is very difficult of sale, and most dealers
refuse to buy any, but a certain amount can be sold locally in many
places at a low price. Oak wood almost all over the State is con-
sidered the best kind, although in some places maple is more in
demand. Birch is usually of less value, although near cities for
fireplace use good cleft birch will often obtain a better price than
oak. Birch, not split, will rot if left out in the open over summer.
Oak needs a year of seasoning before sale in most places.

In all cities of the State there is a good although limited demand
for cord wood. The rural districts consume more proportionally
than the cities. There are a 'number of dealers constantly in the

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 23

market for wood in large quantities. In many places the owner can
obtain a better price by himself selling the wood to the consumer,
but to do so he must have the facilities to haul and deliver it. A
large amount of wood, ofteu of the poorer grades, is consumed by
the brick yards and charcoal kilns.

The value of the wood depends not only on its quality but on its
location. The going price for average wood stacked where cut in
many sections of the State is $3 a cord. However, that price is far
from universal, and as high as $5 a cord or as low as $2 are known
to have been obtained for the same kind of wood. The price of
cutting by the cord, where the chance is good, is usually $1.50, but
may be less in some sections.

2. Logs. — Oak lumber is in good demand in many sections for
furniture, agricultural implements, plumber's woodwork, ship tim-
bers, lobster pots, car stock, vehicles, flooring, dimension timber and
planing-mil] products. Large logs which will saw fair to good
quality lumber can be sold almost anywhere. The value of the
lumber delivered on the cars will vary from $16 to $35 per thou-
sand feet, depending on the quality and use. The usual log lengths
are from 10 to 16 feet. It costs more to cut, handle and saw oak
than it does pine, so usually saw logs of less than 8 to 10 inches
in diameter at the top are not used. Before cutting logs it is
usually advisable to see where and at what price they can be sold.

3. Ties. — There is a good demand for cross-ties made of all
species of oak. The steam and electric railroad companies buy
them. The Xew Haven road at present buys them in three sizes
when hewed on two sides, and without bark; Xo. 1, 8 feet long,
7 to 12 inch face, 7 inches thick; Xo. 2, 8 feet long, 6 to 12 inch
face, 6 inches thick; Xo. 3, 8 feet long, 5 to 12 inch face, 6 inches
thick. The prices delivered are : Xo. 1, 70 cents ; Xo. 2, 55 cents ;
Xo. 3, 35 cents. The specifications of other companies vary some-
what from these, the street railways usually buying the smaller
sizes.

It takes an average log of 8V2 inches diameter at the small end
to make a Xo. 3 tie. If the log is over 15 inches in diameter it
has to be hewed or sawed on four sides, for which the specificati
are somewhat different.

As a general rule it does not pay to saw the oak into tic-. <>n
account of the expense of handling. Ti can be done profitably
under favorable circumstances, hut usually ties should he hewed.
Hewers ran ho obtained who will cut and hew for from l*i t<> 20
cent- a tie.

24 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

4. Piling. — Considerable oak piling is used. In the larger sizes
— 35 feet long and upward — there is a good demand. The smaller
lengths from 16 feet up can be sold, but there is a good deal of risk
in cutting them unless a market is obtained beforehand. White
oak is the best for piling. No general price for piling can be given,
because the distance of haul and expense of handling is such a large
factor. From 2 to 6 cents a running foot cut in the woods has been
received for the short piles, and as much as $5 apiece standing for
the big ones.

5. Posts. — In a few places it has been possible to sell white oak
posts 6 inches in diameter. With the chestnut going this seems
to offer a good field for future development.

6. Other recorded uses are for rustic furniture, fences, baskets
and chemical wood.

COST OF THINNING.

The cost of carrying on a thinning operation depends on the
amount of wood to be cut; the amount of brush and its disposal;
the size and density of the growth; the severity of the thinning;
the efficiency of the labor ; and to a lesser degree on the area of the
tract, the supervision, the tools and equipment, and other minor
factors, as weather conditions, topography, etc.

Figuring of cost should be done on the basis of so much per
cord, tie, thousand board feet, etc., rather than so much per acre.
Labor should be hired on the cord basis where possible. In light
thinnings, in brush cutting, near cities, or for brush disposal it is
often impossible to have the work done except by day labor. In
places where the labor supply is inadequate it is better to put up
a camp and bring in a crew than to use irregular and inefficient
local labor.

It must be borne in mind that the per cord cost of thinning is
higher than the cost of the ordinary wood chopping. In a thinning
only part of the trees are taken, making the felling more difficult,
and the work more scattered. Also the poorer and smaller trees
are cut and the best ones left, which also adds to the proportionate
expense. Usually the owner of the thinned area wants a fairly
neat job done, with low stumps and some sort of brush disposal.
This adds to the cost. Therefore the owner should undertake these
thinnings not to make money, but to keep from losing money
through the destruction caused by the moths or the cost of combat-
ing them. In fair growth he probably will make a little money,
but his largest returns will be in the conservation of what he has.

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Extreme resistant thinning. All oaks removed and forest cover seriously broken.
Natural pine reproduction is expected, which will be followed by the removal
of remaining- large trees. Notice the hewed oak ties.

Moderate thinning. All possible nonresistant tree- removed, bn( forest cover no!
seriously broken. Wood enougb cut to pay for the co9t of the work, First
stage of remaking the stand Into n resistant growth Lf thinning la followed by
natural reproduction <«r by planting of pine.

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MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 25

However, before undertaking a thinning, with some exceptions,
the owner should be assured that he will very nearly " break even/'
in order to be justified in doing the work.

The following general rules are laid out to enable owners to tell
whether a thinning will pay for itself or not : —

1. The thinning should be fairly heavy. At least 7 or 8 cords
per acre must usually be cut out to assure financial success.

2. There must not be a large amount of brush to cut.

3. Xot very much ornamental work, as limbing up trees that
are left, etc., can be done.

4. Large open-grown trees cost more to cut than the wood is
worth, also small sprouts.

5. The labor must be efficient. If day labor is employed it
should be previously experienced in this kind of work, or its cost
will be excessive.

6. Experienced and constant supervision is necessary in an opera-
tion of any size to get the best results.

COST DATA.

In the following tables the costs of thinning operations are
analyzed. " Supervision " takes account of the foreman's time when
not engaged in productive work, and includes part of the time spent
in marking trees for the cutters. " Cutting " includes chopping or
sawing down the trees; trimming the branches; cutting tie logs,
saw logs and piles, and in one case hewing the ties; and cutting,
splitting and piling the cord wood. " Brush disposal " includes
cutting the underbrush where necessary, and piling and burning
all the rubbish. Where the cost of this item per cord is high, much
underbrush was cut; on the job where it was 35 cents per cord,
practically all the underbrush was left. " Miscellaneous " includes
the foreman's time on rainy days; sharpening saws; time and ex-
penses in moving; and so forth. "Tools" cover the actual cost
of depreciation and replacement of the tools used.

In computing the costs per cord it was assumed that tie Logs
cosi 5 cents each to cut; oak saw logs $2 per M and pine $1; piling
1 cent per running foot; and cedar posts .r> cents each. From
these figures was calculated the equivalent in cords of all oil
products on each job, and the sum of cords and equivalents taken
as tin; total number of cords cut.

Tablo T. gives the total cost, with the average, lii'_r!i and low i
per cord and per acre of the different items, for bo representati

26

IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

lots, totalling 191.9 acres, from which were cut 2,121 cords or
equivalent. The six taken together give a fair average of the con-
ditions that are likely to be met in thinnings. They do not repre-
sent any cuttings in small growth. The average number of cords
per acre was 11; high, 25'Vi; low, 7. On all of these lots the brush
was burned and the place cleaned up. Most of the work was done
by day labor, but some by the cord. The average result shows a
small profit if wood can be sold at $3 per cord on the lot, which
can be done almost anywhere in the moth-infested region.

Table I.

Averag<

i of six lots

, 191.9 acres, 2,121 cords.

Total
Cost.

Cost per Cord.

Cost per Acre.

Average.

High.

Low.

Average.

High.

Low.

Supervision,

$314 30

$0 148

$0 45

$0 10

$1 638

$4 72

$0 83

Cutting, .

4,429 57

2 088

2 42

2 00

23 083

50 81

14 00

Brush disposal,

1,131 68

534

1 09

35

5 897

• 11 35

3 67

Miscellaneous,1

220 47

143

35

10

2 033

3 68

1 18

Tools,

80 91

038

08

03

422

74

27

$6,176 93

$2 913

$4 30

$2 68

$32 193

$68 16

$18 77

1 Five lots.

Table II. gives the data for a thinning in a 30 to -10 year hard-
wood stand of medium size. The growth was 80 per cent, of oak
with the rest pine and resistant hardwood, mostly maple. A purely
resistant cutting was not made, but practically all white oak was
taken and enough of the other species were left so that the forest
cover was not seriously broken. This thinning is typical of the
first stage in the remaking of an oak growth into one of a resistant
character. It is expected that the place will be sprayed in the
future when necessary, but at a greatly reduced cost over former
sprayings. After this thinning, part of the area is ready for under-
planting of pine, and part of it has sufficient pine reproduction so
that planting will be unnecessary. All oak brush was cut and all
brush and slashings burned. This thinning is especially interesting
because when the wood is all sold it will have paid for itself and
made a small profit, — about $5 an acre for the owner. The
work was done wholly by experienced day labor under a competent
foreman.

mixed growth of hard and soft wood that is sure to be destroyed by the
gypsy moth unless the owner spends large sums of money in spraying and treat-
ing. The only practical forestry solution is to immediately cut out the hard-
woods and give the whole area over to the white pine. In an infested stand like
this the pines are killed outright in a year or two; therefore, owners having
similar woodlands should give them early attention. The pine in clear stands
by itself is perfectly resistant to the moths.

A severe thinning, to be followed by underplanting with white pine. The prod-
uct, which was largely white oak, sold for enough to meet the expense. Gypsy
moth suppression work on the Karlstein property at Dedham. This property
was stripped the past season.

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS.

27

Table II.

Karlstein, Dedham, 83.5 acres, 579 cords.

Total Cost.

Cost per Cord.

Cost per Acre.

Supervision,

$68 30

$0 12

$0 83

Cutting,

1,155 78

2 00

14 00

Brush disposal,

302 60

52

3 67

Tools,

22 00

04

27

Total, .-'

$1,548 65

$2 68

$18 77

From this lot all the ties have been sold at a price to net 39%
cents in the log ( 641/2 cents delivered, less 25 cents hewing and
hauling) ; 100 cords of wood have been sold at $3.35 on the lot;
the rest of the wood, including some of poorer quality, should
average at least $3. If it fetches $2.50, the work will have paid
for itself ; anything over this will be profit.

Table III. gives the cost data for a cutting operation which
represents varied conditions. The main stand, in two lots totalling
2214 acres, was a growth of large oak with a little pine. The oak
had been so seriously damaged that not only was it necessary to
clear it off, but also the wood had so deteriorated through the at-
tacks of borers that but little of it could be utilized for anything
but cord wood. On one lot of 11% acres a sort of thinning was
attempted, as it was possible to leave enough maple, pine and other
resistant growth to partly cover the ground. The other 10% acres
were cleaned off of all growth and replanted to pine. On this
piece the growth was so heavy in places that as much as 80 cords
to the acre were cut, with an average of 45 cords per acre. Be-
sides this main stand there were 6 acres of a young mixed hardwood
growth from which all oak and birch was cut, and a larch planta-
tion of 5 acres, which had grown so thick with brush as to be
nearly impassable, and which was put into condition. On account
of these varied conditions the costs can hardly be called typical,
and both the cutting and brush-disposal costs are high, one on
account of the large quantity of heavy wood which had to be split,
and the other because of the cleaning up in the sprouts and the
plantation. Some of the wood was cut by the cord at $1.50 per
cord and the rest by day labor. These figures are interesting, bow-
ever, to show that a difficult proposition like this can be made to
si low a profit.

28

IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

Table III.

French lot, North Andover, 33.6 acres, 851 cords.

Total Cost.

Cost per Cord.

Cost per Acre.

Supervision,
Cutting,
Brush disposal,
Miscellaneous,
Tools, .

Total, .

$87 60

1,709 66

381 71

89 50

25 00

2,293 47

SO 10

2 01

45

10

03

S2 69

$2 60

50 81

11 35

2 66

74

$32 19

From this lot there have been sold 5 M of oak logs at $25 and
14 M of pine at $12, delivered at the mill. The ties have been de-
livered, and should net at least 50 cents on the lot (the cost of
hewing is included in "cutting"). Much of the wood has been
sold at prices up to $4 per cord yarded by the road. The opera-
tion, when all the wood is sold, will have paid for itself, paid for
planting up the clear-cut area and underplanting part of the thin-
ning, and returned some profit, estimated to be about $15 an acre.

In the Schrafft lot in Weston, on about 25 acres, a damage cut-
ting was made where most of the growth (a medium hardwood
stand) had been killed a year or two previously, and so the wood
was largely dry. Here all the wood was cut by the cord at prices
varying from $1.50 to $2, with an average of $1.70 for 570 cords.
Most of the brush was burned by the acre at $5 to $6 per acre,
making an average cost of brush disposal of about 25 cents per
cord. The supervision cost was 15 cents per cord, making a total
cost with tools of about $2.12 per cord. This lot is not one of the
six averaged in Table I.

CONCLUSION.

As a forest insect the gypsy moth offers a distinct and important
problem. Its extermination can no longer be hoped for. In the
woodland its control by shade-tree methods is impracticable on ac-
count of expense, if not impossible. It has already been responsible
for the destruction of a large part of the growth on hundreds of
acres of woodland. Thinnings with the aid of parasites and diseases
offer a practical method of combating the moths in forest areas,
and an ultimate solution of the woodland problem. The result of
these methods will be the replacement of a large part of our oak

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 29

growth with more valuable coniferous stands, for which the land is
better suited.

This department is anxious to co-operate with all owners of wood-
land in the State where moth invasion is present or threatened.
Free of all charge they will inspect such woodland with the owners,
and offer expert advice as to its condition and treatment. They
will also, without expense to the owner, supervise thinning opera-
tions, mark trees to be cut, furnish labor and aid in the sale of the
wood. If desired this department will take entire management of
an operation and see that it is satisfactorily carried on, the owner
bearing the actual cost of the work and making any profit that may
result.

For aid or advice write to the State Forester.

ml
■
1

30

IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

REPORT ON THE PRACTICAL THINNING
OF A WHITE PINE WOOD LOT.

Introduction.

The following report is a record of the conditions and facts con-
nected with the experimental thinning of a white pine woodlot in
Warwick, Mass.. belonging to Dr. P. W. Goidsbury : —

The Tract.

The tract extends over an area of 12 acres of gradual swales and
ridges at the bottom of a valley. Excepting for a small area where a
ledge outcrops or lies very near the surface, the soil is a deep, sandy
loam of good moisture, and everywhere well drained.

The stand, which averages fifty years of age, is interrupted by two
small ponds from being a block of solid growth. This growth is a
result of a natural seeding of an old pasture. As a result of this
natural seeding, there are represented two conditions which governed
the policy of the thinnings, — the first that of a dense condition where
the trees had practically started at the same time and grown up to
form an even-aged stand, tall and comparatively clean of their side
limbs. A sample plot taken in this condition will better illustrate it : —

Plot \ Acre, South of Baptism Pond, in Direction of the House.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

6

7

8

9 | 10

i

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

22

Number of trees, .

3

5

3

9

8

4

7

7

7

3

4

2

2

2

A total of 66 trees, or 264 to the acre, with a height of 65 to 70 feet.

Plot

t Acre, on the Flat between the Two

Ponds.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12 '

13

14

15

16

Number of trees,

2

3

12

12

13

14

12

6

9

4

3

1

A total of 91 trees, or 364 to the acre, with a height of 60 to 70 feet.

Q

s

■>--.

— _. - -

H

B*

B * ' :--3
** "•** P*B

H •ml

1

i i— —
•

I 1

II

in

II

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS.

31

A better idea of the density of these trees can be realized if it is
known that 302 trees spaced regularly over an acre would be 12 by 12
feet apart.

The other condition was that where a few trees had started and de-
veloped very wide spreading, and with large side limbs near to the
ground. The density varied from a condition where the side limbs of
the trees came together and completely shaded the ground to where
the trees stood with open spots and areas about them. In these open
areas there was almost always a good reproduction of white pine com-
ing in among the blueberry, huckleberry and kalmia bushes. The fol-
lowing sample area was taken where the pines had a great deal of
room about them, with a good reproduction of pine coming in : —

Plot \ Acre, Northeast of Large Pond, in Direction of a

Field.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

9 16

18

22

24

Number of trees, .....

1

1

1

1

i

A total of 5 trees, or 20 to the acre, with a height of 55 to 60 feet.

Owner's Desire.

It was Dr. Goldsbury's first desire not to mar the beauty of his
farm, or to make his woodlot an eyesore to the village of his town by
cutting and stripping the land of its fine growth. Furthermore, he
desired to take such steps as would improve his lot and place it in a
more flourishing condition, so that it would come down to the younger
generation unimpaired. Lastly, his difficulty in getting any one to
attempt the thinning of his lot influenced him to sacrifice his woodlot
to an experiment which would make a basis of calculations for such
work in the future.

General Policy.

For the first condition above mentioned or the even-aged growth, the
plan was to thin out the weak and poorer trees, leaving the good speci-
mens with sufficient room for their tops to spread and develop without
retardation for some ten years at least. The ground for this policy
was based on the fact that the trees had made their main height growth,
and their energies were now towards developing their diameters. The
growth in diameter of a tree is in proportion to the size of its top,
sinee the leaves are the laboratories of the food materia] which goes to
make up the growth, — the more laboratories the faster the growth.

With this theory in mind, actual practice mean! leaving the better
and more promising individuals with sufficient room about them to

32

IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

allow the tops to grow unchecked for at least ten years. If this is suc-
cessfully accomplished, the trees will have developed a larger top, more
laboratories or a larger feeding area.

The following data show the proportion of trees in number and
volume removed and left on the same area : —

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

5

6

7

8

8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

Trees removed,
Trees left, . .

6
1

17
1

31
3

30
10

38
16

40
32

17
19

18
36

12
36

10
32

3

29

24

2
24

1
10

4

4

4

1

A total of 225 removed and 286 now standing; in volume (according
to Massachusetts volume tables), 27,050 B. M. feet were removed and
50,140 B. M. feet left; in fact, about two-fifths of the trees in number
and one-third the volume were taken out in the thinnings.

For the second condition the policy was that of encouraging a nat-
ural regeneration where a good reproduction did not exist, and assisting
a good reproduction where it did exist. Wherever the trees were close
enough together, so as to form a complete shade, certain of the poorer
specimens were taken out, allowing light to enter and encouraging the
growth of any seedlings.

Wherever a good reproduction had started around or underneath
any of these large pines, better known to lumbermen and foresters as
the " pasture pines," they were removed, taking care to destroy as few
of the smaller or young trees as possible.

Through the entire work there were not any hard-and-set rules which
could be followed entirely, for there was here and there a problem
which could be decided only on the spot. Around the edges of the
stand, thinning if carried on at all was not very heavy, since it was
thought that too much sun and wind would be admitted from the sides.
The presence of a ledge outcropping and lying very near the surface
in one instance resulted in a very light thinning, since it was thought
that the stand on it was liable to windfall. Other local problems were
treated in like manner, but as a rule the main ideas were not deviated
from.

The Operating.

Every tree to be removed was blazed with a hatchet, in order that
the choppers might not make any mistake. In marking, care was
necessary in order to mark those with which there would not be any
difficulty in felling. Oftentimes it was necessary to remove trees where
some difficulty could not be avoided; yet there were also times when a
little foresight would obviate any trouble and still allow good specimens

Goldsbury lot, during thinning (interior view |.

ill

;9il

!

<

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 33

to remain. A little time was sufficient to mark an area which would
take some time for the choppers to cover.

The choppers were most efficient in gangs of three. One man, going
ahead, would under-cut tree just above the ground and on the side
towards which it was to fall. It is remarkable to observe the skill
some men have in directing the tree through any small opening by the
right position of this under-cut on the tree. The other two men fol-
lowing him would saw just above and on the opposite side of the
under-cut until the tree fell. It was the first man's duty now to trim
the tree of its side branches and mark the tree into logs with lengths
most economical for it to be sawed by the other two men.

This system sounds bunglesome to relate, but, once started, one man
should not be interrupted or in the way of the others, and under
ordinary conditions the work would be about equally portioned.

Frequently a tree was found so wedged in between its neighbors,
their limbs interwoven, or so balanced in regard to its necessary felling
direction, that some means was required to give the tree a start before
it would fall. This was overcome in large trees by wedging the stump
and bole in the saw-kerf, or in small trees by directing the men to throw
their weight against the tree. Other methods were: picking up small
trees and carrying them away at the bole in the opposite direction they
were to fall; felling other trees against the one which does not start;
and finally, the most useful method, that of turning the tree with a
cant-hook, twisting its top in the direction of least support until it gains
momentum sufficient to crash to the ground.

The labor of chopping over the 12 acres required seven hundred and
forty-eight hours. Over this area many of the so-called "pasture
pines" were removed, which always tended to make the average cost
high, since so much time was required to rid them of their side branches.
The fact is that the more expensive trees were removed and the least
expensive to handle were left.

Good woodsmen are obtained for $2 per day, or for 74.8 days an
expense of $149.60 over the whole work. The logs were sawed "live-
run " into 2V8-inch plank with 1-inch sidings, and according to the
mill scale totalled between 125,000 and 130,000 B. M. feet. Upon the
basis of 130,000 feet, the average cost would be $1.15 per thousand for
the felling and sawing into logs.

The ordinary contracting price when cutting clean is around $1 per
thousand, — sometimes a little more and sometimes a little less; as a
rule, however, a little more, getting as high as $1.30 per thousand. The
chopping of this lot clean would have cost $1 to contract.

Since it was foreseen that the removing of the "pasture pines " \v;is
sure to add to the average cost of chopping the improvement thinnings,
d record was kept of the labor and the material removed Prom an area
whore the work was entirely that of thinning. It required 112.5 hours

34 IMPROVEMENT THINNINGS IN

to go over 2.5 acres, where 27,000 feet were removed and 50,000 feet
left. At the rate of $2 per day, $22.50 was the cost of the work of the
improvement thinning, or an average of $0.83 per thousand by day
labor.

The logging of this tract was done upon a low, four-wheeled truck
for two horses, since it was found to be more handy in driving about
the trees than the ordinary wooden-shod sled or " skid." On snow a
traverse sled was used. A few of the trees had to be snaked out with
a horse, but ordinarily two men could handle the logs by actually pick-
ing them up and carrying them to the sled or truck. The ordinary con-
tracting price for logging this lot would not be over $1.50 per thousand,
and the additional expense for picking the logs up from among the
trees left standing was not over $0.15 per thousand.

Conclusion.

Up to date (December, 1909) there are no bad results in the stand
left.

From a practical standpoint there seem to be quite definite con-
clusions that it is possible to thin out a pine growth fifty years of age
with an additional cost of not over $0.15 per thousand for chopping
and $0.15 per thousand for the logging under ordinary conditions.

Joseph J. Dearborn.

Aug. 15, 1908.

OR

Sa

OR

Ms

o

i

0

T

MASSACHUSETTS WOODLANDS. 35

APPLICATION FOR EXAMINATION.

Should yon desire, an examination for thinning send to the State
Forester for a blank application like the following, fill it out and
send it in : —

No Received,

APPLICATION

FOB AN

EXAMINATION OF FOREST LANDS

TO THE

MASSACHUSETTS STATE FORESTER,

6 BEACON STREET, BOSTON.

The State Forester stands ready at all times to promote the per-
petuation, extension and proper management of the forest lands of the
Commonwealth, both public and private (1904, chapter 409, section 2).

If you have such lands and desire an examination of them and advice
as to their management, fill out the following blank form and send it
to the above address of State Forester.

Upon receipt, this request will be placed on file, and you will be in-
formed, in order of application, approximately when the examination
can be made, and a mutual date can then be decided upon.

The only expense the applicant promises to pay is that of travel and
subsistence of the State Forester or his assistants, incurred in making
the examination.

It is always more satisfactory to personally meet on the property
the owner or party most interested, at least when the preliminary ex-
amination is made. In this way a definite understanding can be had
as to future undertakings, and whether working plans are necessary.
Often a preliminary visit to gain knowledge of the problem and give
advice on the grounds are all the services needed.

When sending this application in, a brief description of the land
will assist us.

With the above understanding, I desire to have an examination made

of a tract of land of approximately acres, located

in the town of county of State of

Massachusetts.

Signed

Add resa

Date 19

THE OLDER

Forest Plantations

IN

MASSACHUSETTS.

CONIFERS.

J. R. Simmons, Assistant Forester, under the Direction of
F. W. Rane, State Forester.

BOSTON :

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

32 DERNE STREET.

1915.

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

FOKEWORD.

Mr. Simmons has brought together in this bulletin some
very valuable information. All of the examples cited are re-
sults of actual early planting in this State.

Many of the plantations, it may be said, have not had the
normal conditions that would exist to-day. Most of the stock
planted was wild stock dug from the surrounding country, and
in some instances the land used was extremely inferior.

With nursery-grown transplants, adaptable soils and modern
methods of thinning far better results may be had in the future.

The results reported herewith are extremely conservative,
and the reader, I am sure, cannot help receiving encouragement
in attempting forest planting of pine in this State.

Interest in reforestation is growing rapidly each year, and
we may anticipate what our well-directed efforts of to-day will
bring forth twenty-five to fifty years hence by the results here
shown.

Every 1,000 acres planted now will mean much to posterity,
and, as well, reflect great credit and profit to our generation.

F. W. RANE,

State Forester.
Feb. 1, 1915.

FOREST PLANTATIONS IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Introduction.

The object of this bulletin is to show the practicability and
results of forest planting of coniferous trees, and deals with
plantations which have reached an age when value can be
measured in terms of lumber. The tracts selected for observa-
tion were originally planted by private individuals who repre-
sent the pioneers in the work of reforestation in this State.
By interviewing these owners, or those to whom their property
has been handed on, a considerable amount of information has
been collected with regard to the objects which they had in
mind in the beginning, the methods employed and the later
management of their plantations. To this has been added
measurements of each wood lot, either as a whole, or by the
selection of sample plots, and the contents computed as de-
scribed in the succeeding pages. The data and accompanying
illustrations were taken in 1914. It is the desire of the State
Forester to encourage those who own waste land to bring it
back into forest production. This investigation represents one
method of showing what may be expected from such an under-
taking.

Early Methods and Interest in Forest Planting.
The period between 1820 and 1880 was one of enthusiastic
planting of pine in New England. The lumberman foresaw
the time when natural white pine as a marketable commodity
would be gone, and the rise in prices would make planted tim-
ber of economic importance. Large plantations wore made by
private owner-, and a few by corporations, Seedlings were
usually dug up from the fields lying around old seed pines, and
planted cither at random or in rows, and spaced at distan

6

varying from 4 to 15 feet. Seed plots were attempted by some,
and others even tried out broadcast sowing. At the end of
this period there were in Massachusetts alone forest plantations
of white pine to the extent of 10,000 acres.1

Typical of the forest planters of this time was Mr. Augustus
Pratt, a former member of the State Board of Agriculture, who,
when nineteen years old, planted pine seed on an old pasture
belonging to his father. The wood lot which thus developed
has been recently cut, and was between forty and fifty years
old.

After 1880 interest began to decline, chiefly because of the im-
mense supply of lumber brought from the region of the Great
Lakes at a low rate of transportation and the inadequate
methods of combating forest fires; these conditions tended to
gradually dampen the enthusiasm of the forest planter.

Present Need of Reforestation.

We are now entering once more upon a campaign for the
reclamation of waste land. This is due not alone to the de-
crease in our supply of lumber, but also to the following facts : —

There is a growing sentiment among our people for forests
and scenic beauty. There are nearly 1,000,000 acres of waste
land in Massachusetts; our hardwood forests are threatened by
gypsy, brown-tail and other moth pests, and our beautiful
chestnut tracts by the ever-increasing chestnut bark disease.
Improved methods of forest-fire fighting and the co-operation
of railroads, local fire departments and individuals have made
possible the protection of forests, once they have been ac-
quired.

Coniferous trees offer the best means of realizing our present
needs. They act as the most effective check upon the devasta-
tions of the moth, being unedible to the brown-tail, while the
gypsy will pass them by if he can find anything else upon
which to subsist. 2 Beneath a pine forest there is always a
thick bed of needles which keeps the ground moist and free
from sprouts and deciduous seedlings. Therefore, while pine
develops tremendous heat in case of fire, it prevents the collec-

1 United States Forest Service Bulletin No. 35.

2 See Massachusetts State Forester's Bulletin on "Improvement Thinnings."

tion of inflammable material which would feed on ordinary
ground fire; in other words, it is a good preventive against the
first causes.

Recent Plantations.

Excellent plantations of pine, ranging from trees a few inches
in height to 15 or 20 feet, may be seen on the watersheds of
many of our lakes and streams. A large number of individuals
and corporations in all parts of the State have undertaken re-
forestation, either upon their own initiative or with the co-
operation of the State Forester. In 1914 the amount of land
planted under the reforestation act was 550 acres. In addi-
tion to this, the Massachusetts State institutions and commis-
sions planted about 700 acres. The transplants were supplied
from the State Forester's nursery at Amherst, Mass. A new ji

State Forest Commission has, within the year, been appointed H

by the Governor, and empowered to acquire wild and waste
lands for the purpose of converting them into State forests.
These lands will be turned over to the State Forester for plant-
ing and management. In most parts of the State the work of
private forestry companies is also becoming evident. To many
people a flourishing forest is sufficient remuneration. For the
economic advantages of reforestation the reader is referred to
the measurements given herewith, and also to " Forest Mensura-
tion of the White Pine," which can be obtained by writing to
the State Forester.

The Forest Taxation Law.
The advantages of the new forest taxation law should be
known and understood by those interested in the subject of
reforestation. In order to benefit by the provisions of the law
the forest plantation must first be registered. The law then
substitutes for the general tax on land and timber two taxes,
i.e., one on the land at its own value, the same as if all the
trees had been removed, and one equal to G per cent, of the
stumpage value, payable when the timber is cut. The owner
of a registered plantation would therefore pay an annual tax
on the value of his land ($1 to $10 per acre, which at a $20
rate would amount to 2 to 20 cents) so long as the plantation
stood, and a yield tax of (> per cent, when the timber was cut

8

to $20 per acre). These two taxes would be considerably
less than the amount paid under the present system, and their
amount would be a known quantity, because the owner could
determine in advance the amount which he would have to ex-
pend. Under the old system he would be subject to the judg-
ment of his assessors, who can raise the amount of his valua-
tion from year to year. The reader is referred to the Massa-
chusetts State Forester's Bulletin, "The Forest Taxation Law."

Plantations.

South Orleans, Mass. — Owner, John Kenrick.

History. — This plantation was made in March, 1876, by
John Kenrick, Sr., and consists of about 7 acres of white pine,
Scotch pine and American larch. Previous to planting, the
land had borne rye for one year and corn for two years, and
the trees were set out on the corn stubble 4 feet apart. On a
portion of the tract, instead of using seedlings, small seed
spots were sown, always with the same spacing. The larch
consisted entirely of seedlings. In spite of the close spacing,
the trees have made a remarkable growth for this section of the
State, and there are very few blank spaces, even where the
seed was used. Occasionally a small group of trees more
slender than the others marks where several seedlings sprang
up as if from a single root out of the seed spot, but usually
the most vigorous tree has crowded out the others.

Objects. — Personal interest in forest planting, and to demon-
strate the practicability of forest planting on Cape Cod; to
improve and utilize land otherwise of little agricultural value.

Treatment. — The original owner lived to make his first forest
thinning, though well on in years when the planting was done.
This was confined almost entirely to removing the dead and
overcrowded trees. The 4-foot spacing remains in evidence
throughout most of the tract. A large number of trees could
now be removed to advantage, but even as they stand they
present a marked contrast to the native pitch pine, being taller
and of greater diameter.

Thirty-eighl year old plantation of white pine. John Kenrick, South Orlean , Mn.-.s. _l

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Plot No. 1 . White Pine 'predominating.

Sample plot, 280 by 110 feet; age, thirty-eight years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

5, .

6, .

7, . .

8, .

9, .

10, .

11, .

12, .

13, .

14, .
Total,

Number op Trees.

White
Pine.

70
59
55
38
21
16

275

Scotch
Pine.

25

21

23

21

14

8

6

2

4

125

Height
(Feet).

35
35
35
40
40
40
45
45
45
45

40i

Board

Feet.

1,188

1,400

1,950

2,065

1,575

1,320

1,085

810

410

120

11,923

Total number of trees to acre, 571.
Total board feet to acre, 17,033.

1 Average height.

Plot No. 2. Scotch Pine predominating.

Area, x/i acre; age, thirty-eight years.

Number of Trees.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Scotch
Pine.

White
Pine.

Board Feet.

5,

6,

7,

8,

9,

10,

11,

12,

21
15
22
26
7
5

1

14
19

7
12

5

525
680
870
1,330
540
275

75

Total,

97

57

4,295

Tota
Tota

nun
boni

lbor <
■d fet

jf trc
t to

(•:■

i to acre, 616.
re, 17,180.

Average height, 40 feet.

10

Plot No. 3. Tamarack.

Area, V± acre; age, thirty-eight years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Board Feet.

5,

6,

7, .

8,

9,
10,
11,
12,
13,

Total,

Total number of trees to acre, 428.
Total board feet to acre, 10,584.
Average height, 35 feet.

Plot No. 4- Tamarack.

Area, M acre; age; thirty-eight years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Number of
Trees.

Board Feet.

5

6

7,

8,

9,

10,

92

51

32

5

1
2

920

765

640

125

30

80

Total,

183

2,550

Total number of trees to acre, 732.
Total board feet to acre, 10,200.
Average height, 30 feet.

West Monponsett Lake, Mass. — Owner, Frank H. Albee.

History. — Before this land was bought by the present owner
it was covered with a beautiful plantation of white pine. This
was for the most part lumbered in 1913 and cut, according to
the buyer of the timber, 30,000 board feet to the acre. Measure-
ments have been made of a sample acre of stumps and one inch

11

deducted to determine the diameter of the original trees breast
high. The plantation was made about forty-six years ago by
Samuel Alden, East Bridgewater, Mass., and a Mr. Kingman
of Brockton, Mass., and the land selected was on an abandoned
farm. Planting was begun in the fall and finished in the spring,
and the spacing was done by means of cross-plowed furrows
about 10 feet apart.

Objects. — Interest in reforestation, and to utilize waste land.

Treatment. — The removal of dead trees was the only care
given this tract, so far as could be determined. The wide spac-
ing prevented excessive overcrowding, but the diameter growth
was much better than the height, as estimated from the few
trees left standing.

Sample Plot.

Area, 1 acre; age, forty-six years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Number of
Trees.

Height

(Feet).

Board Feet.

9,
10,

11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,

13

9

26

17

44

44

54

40

36

19

9

2

1

1

30
30
30
30
40
40
40
40
40
50
50
60
60
60

325

270

1,040

850

3,300

3,740

5,400

4,600

4,860

3,800

2,115

670

380

430

Total, .

315

42 1

31,780

1 Average height estimated.

Rehoboth, Mass. — Owners, Miss Fannie Douse and Mrs. Clara

I. Hubbard.

History. — This fifty-five year old plantation was made by
Mr. Christopher Carpenter. Pasture trees were used and the
spacing was about 8 to 10 feet. At the end of the first ten

12

years the trees had reached the height of a man's head. The
property is now in the possession of Miss Fannie Douse and
Mrs. Clara I. Hubbard.

Treatment. — About four years ago the dead trees were re-
moved and measures taken to protect the plantation from
forest fires.

An examination of the tract showed so regular a growth, and
so much care in lining up the rows, that a slightly different
method was used in measuring it, as follows : —

Two rows of trees through the plantation were measured
for heights and diameters, and the contents in each case multi-
plied by the total number of rows. As a check on this work,
a sample quarter acre was measured, with about the same aver-
age result.

Row No. 1.

Area, 7 acres; age, fifty-five years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Board Feet.

6,

7,

8,

9,

10,

11,

12,

13,

14,

15,

16,

17,

Total,

Total number of rows, 66.
Total board feet, 306,570.
Total number of acres, 7.

Total board feet to acre, 43,796.
Average height, 50 feet.

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A view of the same tract, taken inside the woods.

13

Row No. 2.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Total

Number of
Trees.

Board Feet.

6,

7,

8,

9,
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,

Total,

1
2
2
5

11
6

12
7
2

50

30
80
100
300
825
540
1,260
840
280

360

4,615

Total number of rows, 66.
Total board feet, 304,590.
Total number of acres, 7.

Total board feet to acre, 43,512.
Average height, 50 feet.

Total Results Averaging Rows Nos. 1 and 2.

Area, 7 acres.

Number of trees to acre, 480.

Board feet to acre, 43,654.

Sharon, Mass. — Oivner, Mr. Edwin Fobes.

History. — The original planter was Mr. Lyman Plimpton,
who in 1858 planted white pine on the site of an old peach
orchard which had been killed by blight. When first made, the
plantation comprised about 6 acres, but a forest fire swept
through it a number of years ago, destroying or badly damag-
ing over half of it. A few of the remaining trees show scars
upon their trunks, but otherwise appear very thrifty.

Purposes. — To utilize poor land. Interest in forestry, from
the standpoint of lumber value and beauty of landscape.

14

White Pine.

Area, 2 acres; age, fifty-six years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Number of
Trees.

Height
(Feet).

Board Feet.

10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,

Total,

16

23

50

75

74

98

60

35

25

17

12

6

5

5

3

2

2

1

509

60
60
60

60
70
70
70
70
70
75
75
75
75
75
80
80
80
80

70 1

480
1,150
3,250
7,875
9,250
14,210
9,900
6,650
5,375
4,624
3,660
2,040
1,900
2,110
1,515
1,110
1,190
640

76,929

Total number of trees to acre, 254.
Total board feet to acre, 38,464.

1 Average height.

Along the road which passes this plantation is a row of pine
ttrees which were planted at the same date. Their growth, on
account of the added amount of light they have received, has
been so much greater than that of average forest trees that it
was deemed advisable to measure them separately. While their
height is about 10 feet less than that of the adjoining planta-
tion, they show a far greater diameter growth, which will give
some idea of what might be expected from white pine if given
every possible advantage.

Fifty-six year old plantation of white pine. Edwin Fobes, Sharon, Mass.

A row of forty-two white pine trees, fifty-six years old. Edwin Fobes plantation, Sharon,

Mass.

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ft

15

White Pine.

Measurements for a row of trees along road spaced about 10 feet; age, fifty-six years. (See illus-
tration.)

Because these trees are planted in a straight row, 10 feet
apart, the spread of the branches, laterally, is nearly 50 feet.
It would therefore require only about 80 trees of this size to
cover an acre of ground. In terms of the above measurements
they would yield a little over 40,000 board feet.

Bridgewater, Mass. — Owner, C. M. Cook.
History. — So far as could be ascertained from residents in
the vicinity of this small plantation it was made about fifty
years ago, trees dug up from the surrounding pastures being
used. Stumps within and on the border of the lot show be-
tween 45 and 50 rings. Other information than these observa-
tions and the measurements given is lacking.

16

White Pine.

Area, 200 by 320 feet (approximately \\i acres); age, fifty years.

Diameteb Breast High (Inches).

Number of
Trees.

Average
Height

(Feet).

Board Feet.

5,

6,

7,

8,

9,

10,

11,

12,

13,

14,

15,

16,

17,

18,

19,

20,

21,

22,

23,

Total,

33

32

51

59

94

85

78

75

54

29

11

1

5

4

1

614

40
40
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
60
60
60

70

70

495

640
1,530
2,065
4,230
6,375
7,020
7,875
6,480
4,060
1,760

180
1,300
1,180

335

480
565

46,570

Total number of trees to acre, 460.
Total board feet to acre, 34,927.

East Bridgewater, Mass. — Owner, Mr. Harris Latham.

History. — Mr. Latham's plantation is one of the largest in-
vestigated, and covers about 12 acres. It can be seen from any
one of three roads, and has the appearance of a well-kept park.
The original planter was Mr. Galen Latham, father of the
present owner, and the trees were set out in 1875, in furrows,
plowed 8 to 10 feet apart. Pasture trees 10 to 12 inches in
height were used.

Objects. — Interest in forestry. To improve the landscape
and to utilize land difficult of successful cultivation. To utilize
a large number of seedlings which had sprung up in the pasture.

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Two views of the Harris Latham plantation, East Bridgewater, Mass.; age, thirty-nine

years.

17

Treatment. — No thinnings have been made. A very few
dead trees have been removed, and no limbs and refuse allowed
to remain on the ground.

This experiment is the most extensive recorded in this bulle-
tin from the standpoint of the number of trees measured. The
land was resurveyed as a check on the area.

White Pine.

Area, 12 acres; age, thirty-nine years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Number of
Trees.

Board Feet.

5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,

11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,

470

749

896

981

927

705

371

170

85

53

15

8

4,700

22,470

35,840

49,050

55,620

52,875

33,390

17,850

10,200

7,420

2,400

1,440

Tot

al,

5,430

293,255

Total number of trees to acre, 452.
Total board feet to acre, 24,428.
Average height, 50 feet.

South Lancaster, Mass. — Owner, Mr. Harold Parker.

History. — This plantation was made by the father of the
present owner forty-three ' years ago. Natural seedlings were
used, taken from the surrounding woods, and spaced about
10 by 10 feet. The whole area reforested covered between 15
and 20 acres, and, besides pine, several types of hardwoods were
planted. The area from which measurements were taken, and
devoted almost entirely to pine, is about 4 acres.

Objects. — To utilize waste land for commercial advantage,
and to determine what might be expected from planted white
pine as an investment. To improve the appearance of the land

18

from the standpoint of beauty of landscape. Interest in horti-
culture and the care of woodlands.

Treatment. — In 1905 the government laid out four sample
plots, numbered and measured the diameters of all the trees in
each plot, and most of the suppressed trees were removed. The
total numbers of trees removed (compare following lists of data)
were as follows : —

Plot No. 1, 1

Plot No. 2, • . . 73

Plot No. 3, 46

Plot No. 4, 32

A record of the data taken in 1905 was loaned by the United
States Forest Service in Washington and compared with
measurements made in 1914. For convenience in obtaining
board measure, trees whose diameters fell over or under the
half-inch division of the rule were recorded to the nearest inch.
No height measurements were made in 1905. The heights for
that date have therefore been estimated at 5 feet below the
measurements for 1914. It is believed that this is a conserva-
tive estimate.

Sample Plot No. 1 {Government Plot No. 4).

Area, K acre; age, forty-three years.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board

Feet.

Gain

in

Board

Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

1

White pine,

12

12

2

105

120

15

2,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

3,

White pine,

12

12

1

105

120

15

4,

White pine,

10

'12

1

75

120

45

5,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

1Q3

28

6,

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

7,

White pine,

10

10

2

75

85

10

8,

White pine,

10

10

2

75

85

10

9,

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

10,

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

11,

White pine,

13

15

1

120

180

60

12,

White pine,

15

15

1

160

180

20

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Forty-three year old plantation of white pine which is making a current annual growth
of about 1,000 B. F. to the acre. Harold Parker, South Lancaster, Mass.

19

Sample Plot No. 1 (Government Plot No. 4) — 'Continued.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High
(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board

Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

13, .

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

14, .

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

15, .

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

16, .

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

17, .

-

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

18, .

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

19, .

White pine,

10

11

2

75

103

28

20, .

White pine,

10

10

2

75

85

10

21, ■

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

22, .

White pine,

9

10

2

60

85

25

23, .

White pine,

11

11

1

90

103

13

24, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

25, .

White pine, _,

9

10

2

60

85

25

26, .

White pine,

7

7

2

40

45

5

27, .

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

28, .

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

29, .

White pine,

12

14

1

1,05

158

53

30, .

White pine,

14

15

1

140

180

40

31, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

32, .

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

33, .

White pine,

1L

12

1

90

120

30

34, .

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

35, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

36, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

37, .

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

38, .

Hemlock,

2

3

5

3

3

-

39, .

Hemlock,

3

4

5

5

5

-

40, .

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

41, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

42, .

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

43, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

44, .

White pine,

14

15

1

140

180

40

46, .

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

47, .

•

White pine,

11

12

2

90

120

30

48, .

White pine,

12

12

1

105

120

15

20

Sample Plot No. 1 {Government Plot No. 4) — Continued.

Tkee Number.

Species.

Diameter

Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

BOARE

Feet.

Gain

in
Board

Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

49, .

White pine,

12

12

2

105

120

15

50,

White pine,

8

9

1

50

70

20

51,

White pine,

8

8

3

50

58

8

52,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

53,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

54,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

55,

White pine,

12

12

1

105

120

15

56,

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

57,

White pine,

7

7

3

40

45

5

58,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

59,

White pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

60,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

61,

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

62,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

63,

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

64,

White pine,

14

15

1

140

180

40

65,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

66,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

67,

White pine,

12

14

2

105

158

53

68,

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

69,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

70,

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

71,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

72,

White pine,

11

11

2

90

103

13

73,

White pine,

9

9

3

60

70

10

74,

White pine,

14

15

1

140

180

40

75,

White pine,

9

10

2

60

85

25

76,

White pine,

12

13

2

105

138

33

77,

White pine,

13

14

1

120

158

38

78,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

13S

33

79,

White pine,

14

16

1

140

205

65

80,

White pine,

12

14

1

105

158

53

81,

Hemlock,

3

3

6

5

5

-

82,

Hemlock,

4

4

4

10

10

-

83,

White pine,

5

5

3

15

25

10

21

Sample Plot No. 1 {Government Plot No. 4) — Concluded.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

84, .

White pine,

9

9

3

60

70

10

85, .

White pine,

8

10

3

50

85

35

86, .

White pine,

8

9

2

50

70

20

87, .

White pine,

11

11

1

90

103

13

88, .

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

Total,

-

-

-

7,303

9,429

2,126

Average height, 1905, 50 feet.
Average height, 1914, 55 feet.

Suinmary of Data.

Total board feet to acre, 1905,

Total board feet to acre, 1914, .

Total gain in board feet per acre,

Current annual gain in board feet per acre,

29,212

37,716

8,504

945

Sample Plot No. 2 {Government Plot No. 5),

Area, H acre;

age, forty-three years.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

1,

White pine,

13

14

120

158

38

2,

White pine,

12

14

105

158

53

3,

White pine,

12

14

105

158

53

4,

White pine,

11

13

1

90

138

48

5,

White pine,

8

9

50

70

20

6,

White pine,

9

11

2

60

103

43

7,

White pine,

11

13

1

90

138

48

8,

White pine,

7

9

2

40 70

30

10,

White pine,

7

9

2

40

70

30

11,

White pine,

6

9

2

30

38

8

12,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

13,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

14,

White pine,

8

9

2

50

70

20

15,

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

22

Sample Plot No. 2 {Government Plot No. 5) — Continued.

Tree Number.

16,
17,
18,
19,
20,
22,
23,
24,
25,
27,
29,
31,
33,
34,
36,
43,
45,
46,
47,
48,
49,
50,
54,
55,
56,
57,
58,
59,
60,
61,
68,
69,
70,
71,
72,

Species.

Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh

te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,

Larch,

Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh
Wh

te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,
te pine,

Larch,

Larch,

Larch,

White pine,

White pine,

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

1905.

1914.

9

9

2

10

11

1

11

11

1

10

11

2

10

11

2

11

12

1

12

14

1

9

9

2

10

11

1

11

13

1

8

9

2

7

8

2

8

8

2

6

7

2

8

9

2

7

7

1

7

.7

1

3

3

3

4

4

3

8

9

2

6

6

2

6

7

2

7

8

2

6

7

2

6

7

2

9

10

1

8

8

2

7

8

2

6

7

2

9

10

1

9

10

1

5

6

2

5

5

2

12

15

1

6

8

3

Board Feet.

1905.

1914.

60

75
90
75
75
90

105
60
75
90
50
40
50
30
50
40
40
5

10
50
30
30
40
30
30
60
50
40
30
60
60
15
15

120
30

70
103
103

103
103
120

158
70

103

138
70
58
58
45
70
45
45
8

15
70
38
45
58
45
45
85
58
58
45
85
85
38
25

180
58

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

10

28

13

28

28

30

53

10

28

48

20

18

8

15

20

5

5

3

5

20

8

15

18

15

15

25

8

18

15

25

25

23

10

60

28

23

Sample Plot No. 2 {Government Plot No. 5) — Continued.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board

Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

73, ...

White pine,

13

15

1

120

180

60

74,

White pine,

13

15

1

120

180

60

76,

White pine,

15

16

1

160

205

45

77,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

78,

White pine,

16

18

1

180

295

115

79,

White pine,

14

15

1

140

180

40

80,

White pine,

17

18

1

200

295

95

81,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

260

20

83,

White pine,

14

17

1

140

260

20

84,

White pine,

15

16

1

160

205

45

86,

White pine,

11

11

1

90

103

13

87,

White pine,

8

10

3

50

85

35

88,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

90,

White pine,

10

10

2

75

85

10

92,

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

93,

White pine,

11

13

1

90

138

48

94,

White pine,

8

9

2

50

70

20

96,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

99,

W7hite pine,

11

11

2

90

103

13

100,

White pine,

11

11

-

90

103

13

102,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

103,

White pine,

9

9

1

60

70

10

105,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

106,

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

107,

White pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

108,

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

112,

White pine,

14

16

1

140

205

65

113,

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

114,

White pine,

9

9

-

60

70

10

120,

White pine,

8

8

3

50

58

8

121,

Larch,

6

7

2

30

45

15

122,

WTiite pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

123,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

124,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

127,

White pine,

7

7

2

40

45

5

24

Sample Plot No. 2 {Government Plot No. 5) — Continued.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter

Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

BOARI

> Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

128,

White pine,

10

10

2

75

85

10

129,

White pine,

8

9

50

70

20

131,

White pine,

12

14

105

158

53

132,

White pine,

11

12

90

120

30

133,

White pine,

13

14

120

158

38

136,

White pine,

12

14

105

158

53

137,

White pine,

10

12

75

120

45

138,

White pine,

12

13

105

138

33

144,

White pine,

9

10

60

85

25

145,

White pine,

8

9

50

70

20

146,

White pine,

11

11

90

103

13

147,

Hemlock,

3

4

4

5

15

10

148,

Hemlock,

3

4

5

5

15

10

149,

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

150,

White pine,

7

7

3

40

45

5

151,

White pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

152,

White pine,

8

9

1

50

70

20

154,

White pine,

9

11

1

60

103

43

157,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

158,

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

159,

White pine,

7

7

2

40

45

5

161,

White pine,

8

9

1

50

70

20

162,

White pine,

6

7

2

30

45

15

164,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

166,

White pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

167,

White pine,

7

8

2

40

58

18

168,

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

169,

White pine,

10

12

1

75

120

45

170,

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

172,

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

173,

White pine,

10

10

2

75

85

10

174,

White pine,

10

12

1

75

120

45

175,

White pine,

7

8

2

40

50

10

177,

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

178,

White pine,

'

8

9

2

50

70

20

25

Sample Plot No. 2 {Government Plot No. 5) — Concluded.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

179

White pine,

11

11

1

90

103

13

180,

White pine,

8

9

2

50

70

20

181,

White pine,

9

9

2

60

70

10

182,

White pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

185,

White pine,

6

8

3

30

58

28

186,

White pine,

11

|

11

1

90

103

13

187,

White pine,

8

8

2

50

58

8

188,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

189,

Larch,

6

6

2

30

38

8

191,

.

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

193,

White pine,

9

10

1

60

85

25

195,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

196,

White pine,

10

10

1

75

85

10

197,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

199,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

200,

White pine,

12

13

1

105

138

33

201,

White pine,

8

9

1

50

70

20

202,

White pine,

10

11

1

75

103

28

203,

White pine,

11

12

1

90

120

30

204,

Larch,

9

9

1

60

70

10

207,

.

Larch,

5

6

2

15

38

23

212,

Larch,

5

5

2 .

15

25

10

213,

Larch,

6

6

2

30

38

8

215,

White pine,

11

13

1

90

138

48

Total,

-

-

-

9,820

13,371

3,551

Average height, 1905, 50 feet.
Average height, 1914, 55 feet.

Summary of Data .

Total board feet to acre, 1905, .
Total board feet to acre, 1914, .
Total gain in board feet per acre,
Current annual gain in board feet per acre,

. 19,640

. 26,742

. 7,102

789

26

Sample Plot Xo. 3 (Government Plot Xo. 6),

Area, y$ acre; age, forty-three years.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter

Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board

Feet.

Gain

in

I Board

Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

3,

White pine,

7

7

1

50

58

8

5,

White pine,

11

12

1

115

150

35

7,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

8,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

10,

White pine,

6

7

1

35

48

13

11,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

12,

White pine,

6

7

1

35

58

23

13,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

14,

White pine,

5

6

2

20

48

28

15,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

16,

White pine,

10

11

1

95

130

35

21,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

22,

White pine,

5

6

2

20

48

28

23,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

2S

24,

White pine,

7

9

1

50

93

43

25,

White pine,

9

11

1

80

130

50

27,

White pine,

6

7

1

35

58

23

29,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

30,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

31,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

33,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

35,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

2S

44,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

45,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

2S

46,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

49,

White pine,

7

8

2

50

75

25

53,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

54,

White pine,

8

9

2

65

93

28

55,

White pine,

8

9

8 !

2

65

93

28

56,

White pine,

7

2

50

75

25

57,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

59,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

61,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

63,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

27

Sample Plot No. 3 {Government Plot No. 6) — Concluded.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

64,

White pine,

5

7

2

20

58

38

66,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

67,

White pine,

8

9

3

65

93

28

69,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

71,

White pine,

9

10

1

80

110

30

73,

White pine,

9

10

1

80

110

30

74,

White pine,

8

9

2

65

93

28

75,

White pine,

7

8

2

50

75

25

76,

White pine,

6

6

3

35

48

13

77,

White pine,

9

10 |

1

80

110

30

78,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

81,

White pine,

9

9

1

80

83

13

83,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

85,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

86,

White pine,

8

10

1

65

110

45

87,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

89,

Wnite pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

91,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

92,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

94,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

101,

White pine,

9

11

1

80

130

50

Total

>

-

-

-

2,860

4,135

1,275

Average height, 1905, 60 feet.
Average height, 1914, 65 feet.

Summary af Data.

Total board feet per acre, 1905, .

Total board feet per acre, 1914, .

Total gain in board feet per acre,

Current annual gain in board feet per acre,

22,880

33,080

10,200

1,133

28

Sample Plot No. 4 (Government Plot No. 7),

Area, J^ acre; age, forty-three years.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter

Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board
Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

1, . . .

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

2,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

3,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

5,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

7,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

8,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

9,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

10,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

12,

White pine,

7

7

1

50

58

8

13,

White pine,

6

6

1

35

58

23

16,

White pine,

6

6

1

35

48

13

17,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

18,

White pine,

7

7

1

50

58

8

19,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

20,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

21,

White pine,

4

5

3

10

35

25

22,

White pine,

7

7

1

50

58

8

23,

White pine,

8

10

1

65

110

45

24,

White pine,

5

6

2

20

48

28

25,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

26,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

27,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

29,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

30,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

35,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

36,

White pine,

4

4

3

10

15

5

37,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

38,

White pine,

6

7

1

35

58

23

39,

White pine,

4

5

2

10

35

25

41,

White pine,

7

7

1

50

58

8

42,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

43,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

46,

White pine,

7

8

1

35

75

40

48,

'

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

29

Sample Plot No. 4 (Government Plot No. 7) — Continued.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter.
Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board Feet.

Gain

in
Board

Feet.

1905.

1914.

1
1905. 1914.

49,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

51,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

52,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

53,

White pine,

7

8

1

50

75

25

55,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

56,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

57,

White pine,

4

4

3

10

15

5

58,

White pine,

4

4

3

10

15

5

59,

White pine,

9

9

1

80

93

13

60,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

61,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

62,

White pine,

5

6

3

20

48

28

63,

White pine,

4

5

2

10

35

25

64,

White pine,

5

6

2

20

48

28

65,

White pine,

n

9

1

50

93

43

66,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

68,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

70,

White pine,

7

8

2

50

75

25

71,

White pine,

7

7

1

50

58

58

72,

White pine,

10

11

1

95

130

3

73,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

74,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

75,

White pine,

6

6

2

35

48

13

76,

White pine,

6

6

3

35

38

13

77,

White pine,

9

11

1

80

130

50

79,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

81,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

82,

White pine,

8

8

2

65

75

10

83,

White pine,

5

6

2

20

48

28

85,

White pine,

7

8

2

50

75

25

86,

White pine,

8

8

1

65

75

10

87,

White pine,

7

7

2

50

58

8

88,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

89,

White pine,

4

4

3

10

15

5

98,

White pine,

11

12

1

115

150

35

30

Sample Plot No. 4 (Government Plot No. 7) — Concluded.

Tree Number.

Species.

Diameter

Breast High

(Inches).

Class.

Board

Feet.

Gain

in

j Board

Feet.

1905.

1914.

1905.

1914.

99,

White pine,

5

5

2

20

35

15

101,

White pine,

6

7

2

35

58

23

102,

White pine,

8

9

1

65

93

28

105,

White pine,

5

5

3

20

35

15

106,

White pine,

6

6

3

35

48

13

107,

White pine,

6

6

3

35

48

,3

108,

White pine,

6

6

3

35

48

13

109,

White pine,

6

6

3

35

48

13

110,

White pine,

5

5

3

20

35

15

111,

White pine,

8

8

2

65

75

10

112,

White pine,

11

12

1

115

150

35

113,

White pine,

8

8

1

65

75

10

Total

-

-

-

3,345

4,835

1,490

Average height, 1905, 60 feet.
Average height, 1914, 65 feet.

Summary of Data.

Total board feet to acre, 19C5, .
Total board feet to acre, 1914, .
Total gain in board feet per acre,
Current annual gain in board feet per acre,

26,760

38,680

11,920

1,324

South Lancaster, Mass. — Oivner, Mrs. Abbie F. Kilburn.

History. — This plantation joins that of Mr. Harold Parker,
only a stone wall separating the twTo lots. It was made by
Mr. Jonas Goss, and was planted in two sections, aged sixty
years and forty-one years, respectively. The spacing was 6 by
8 feet. Since that time trees of various ages have been added
around the edges. A survey Was therefore necessary to show
the areas of the original lots of even aged trees, which are: for
the sixty-year old lot, 2.11 acres, and for the forty-one year old
lot, 2.02 acres. If all trees are included, the area is 7 acres, and
the figures given under "Treatment" were worked out on that
basis by Mr. W. G. Kilburn.

Treatment. — In 1908 a thinning was made under the direc-

3

i

31

tion of this office, and about one-third of the trees removed.
The following is a record of the lumber taken out : —

Box boards, 14,000 feet.

Wood, 40 cords.

Cost of brush burning, $35

Stumpage price received for lumber, $8 per M.

Stumpage price received for wood, SI per cord.

Profit per acre, $20

Net profit, . $150

While this work was going on the small dead branches so
persistent on white pine were removed from the trunks of the
trees in order to improve the general appearance of the grove.
The thinning was not made so much with the idea of an imme-
diate profit, as to increase the value of the plantation. While
six years is not sufficient time to judge accurately as to the
increase in growth due to thinning, the trees have every ap-
pearance of being stimulated by the added light received. This
is shown by the healthy bark, green tops and absence of any
dead or dying trees.

Section 1.

Area, 2.11 acres; age, sixty years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Board Feet.

9,
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
1",

Total,

Total number of trees to acre, 383.
Total board feet to acre, 43,620.
Average height, 60 feet.

92,040

32

Section 2.

Area, 2.02 acres; age, forty-one years.

Diameter Breast High (Inches).

Number of
Trees.

Board Feet.

5,

6,

7,

8,

9,

10,

11,

12,

13,

14,

15,

16,

Total,

5

21

57

122

151

116

102

46

26

5

3

4

658

50

630

2,565

7,015

10,570

9,860

10,455

5,520

3,575

788

540

820

52,388

Total number of trees to acre, 325.
Total board feet to acre, 25,934.
Average height, 55 feet.

East Taunton, Mass. — Gamer, Miss Margaret Dean.

History. — About 1854 David Dean, a brother of the present
owner, set out this plantation of white pine near his home, and
about 1880 another lot adjoining was planted. Field trees
were used and spaced 10 by 10 feet.

Object. — At that time the " American Agriculturist," pub-
lished in New York, was advertising the planting of pine, and
the original owner was one of those who became interested in
forest planting.

Treatment. — This tract, while an excellent illustration of the
growth of New England white pine, would have increased from
2 to 3 inches in diameter growth if it had been thinned at the
proper time. A few trees have died out, and some were blown
down during a heavy gale. Observations were made of the
stumps of these trees. The last 20 annual rings were scarcely
thicker than a sheet of paper, showing a tendency towards
stagnation. For the first twenty years the rings show a growth,
in some cases, better than normal.

• ■•■''' •;■- ■'■',• S' -■■■,-,. ' - :V , ' - - :.. / \ ; "ih:?T'::Z'*-^-:^k: - ,~.-v-

§

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* * -^*^g,a;g;

33

The measurements were made early in the year (1914), and
the total results placed upon the records in the State Forester's
office. The inch classes are therefore omitted.

Section 1, Sixty-one Year Old Plantation.

Area, V/2 acres.

Total number of trees, 400.
Average height, 60 feet.
Board feet to acre, 41,000.

Section 2. Thirty-eight Year Old Plantation.

Area, V/i acres.

Total number of trees, 375.
Average height, 50 feet.
Board feet to acre, 29,000.

Georgetown, Mass. — Owner, H. E. Guptill.

History. — Although this timber was measured in 1912, the
totals are here given to show the results of the growth of white
pine planted with Norway spruce. The plantation was forty-
eight years old when measured, and was made with natural
seedlings transplanted from the woods.

White Pine and Norway Spruce.

Area, 2.57 acres; age, forty-eight years.

Total board feet of spruce, 27,000.
Total board feet of pine, 55,000.
Total stand per acre, 33,000 board feet.

Conclusion.

The total results of the investigation, in terms of board
measure for pine, are as follows. The two sample plots of tam-
arack and the forty-two roadside trees at Sharon, Mass., are
not included.

Board Feet
per Acre.

Plantations 30 to 40 years old, 21,910

Plantations 40 to 50 years old, 32,726

Plantations 50 to 60 years old, 41,186

34

These results compare favorably with measurements made
by this office of healthy stands of native Massachusetts white
pine. No attempt has been made to show that planted pine,
untreated, would produce more. On only two of the planta-
tions was anything like a systematic thinning made (pages 18 and
31), and in no case were trees removed at an age when an
added amount of light would have given the remaining trees
the maximum amount of growth. The present method of plant-
ing calls for a 6 by 6 foot spacing, but with the idea that thin-
ning is to be done as the trees develop to prevent overcrowding,
to realize something in the way of an income on the plantation,
and to develop the best diameters and heights possible for the
final stand.

In conclusion the reader is referred to the yield tables on pages
37 and 38, representing the financial rotations of white pine
plantations, the one under the present general system of taxing
forest land, and the other under the new forest taxation law
enacted in 1914. These tables are compiled by H. O. Cook,
supplementary to the financial rotations in his bulletin on
"Forest Mensuration of the White Pine." The volume tables
used in this investigation were taken from the same bulletin.

When we speak of the yield of a pine plantation we think
principally of the amount of lumber which can be cut from the
land. Now, while this is important, the real determining factor
as to whether a plantation is a success or not is the financial
profit that such a plantation will bring. As with any in-
vestment, it is not the amount of business done, but the
profits made which in the last analysis determine failure or
success.

Timber crops are peculiar in that they cannot be harvested
except after a period of years, so that it is not alone
necessary to deduct actual expenses from gross returns in order
to determine net yield, but these expenses must be carried
from the date of their incurrence at some determined rate. As
most savings banks pay 4 per cent., we must use a rate better
than that, and have chosen 5 per cent. The net yield is in
this case, therefore, a speculative profit over and above 5 per
cent.

The gross returns are in this case the stumpage value ob-

35

tained from a yield table made by measuring sample plots in
well-stocked natural stands in all parts of this State. Natural
stands were taken because of the limited number of plantations
that can be taken for this purpose. It will be seen on com-
parison, however, that the amounts given in the table are in
substantial agreement with the average shown by the planta-
tions described in this bulletin. The stumpage rates chosen
run from $6 to $10, and are the rates of the present day, no
allowance being made for the increase that future years will
bring.

In compiling these tables certain assumptions were made,
based on actual experience. The cost of the land is assumed
to be the first expense, and is placed at $5 per acre. The
second premise is the cost of planting which is placed at $12
per acre. These two expenses must be carried at compound
interest from the beginning to the end of the rotation.

We have presented two tables, one of which shows the re-
turns of a plantation taxed under the present general system,
and the other for the same plantation registered under the new
taxation law. We have assumed the tax rate to be $20 per
thousand. The land, of course, pays taxes from the beginning,
but the timber not until the twenty-fifth year. In the case of
classified land it pays no tax until it is cut, when it pays a
product tax of 6 per cent. All of these expenses are carried at
5 per cent, compound interest to the end of the rotation, and
we see that in the case of unclassified land the maximum yield
comes at fifty years, when there is an excess profit of $60. In
the case of registered land the maximum yield comes at fifty
years, and there is an excess profit of $140, or two and a half
times that of the unregistered. It should be said here, however,
that in the case of the unclassified land we have assumed that
the assessors taxed it at its full value, which is unusual in
practice.

We would urge that every owner of a young artificial planta-
tion should register his land, for it will be seen that while the
owner of Plantation 1 invested in actual cash $83 on his timber
in fifty years, the owner of the registered Plantation 2 only
risked $40 in cash. On account of the time element and risk
of a forest plantation the owner should take every opportunity

36

of keeping down his money investment. At present prices on
lumber, a pine plantation is a 6 or 7 per cent, investment in
Massachusetts, but an increase in stumpage values of what-
ever per cent, will make a corresponding increase in the re-
turns. In other words, the planter of the present day can as-
sume that he is investing for a 10 or 12 per cent, return rather
than a 6 or 7 per cent, return.

:

37

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THE GYPSY MOTH
IN MASSACHUSETTS

A BULLETIN OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION

DIVISION OF FORESTRY

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

INTRODUCTION

This bulletin on the gypsy moth is the successor of several
that have preceded it, and the last edition, published in 1912,
has been exhausted for some time. The present edition dif-
fers from its predecessors because it contains not only infor-
mation on the life history and artificial methods of controlling
the insect, but we have added paragraphs on its insect
enemies and the wilt disease. The writer, H. O. Cook, M.F.,
has derived his information not only from the experience of
the State Forester's department, but has drawn freely from
the results of the investigative work of the United States
Bureau of Entomology, and we wish especially to acknowl-
edge the valuable assistance rendered us by Mr. A. F. Bur-
gess, the chief of that department of the Bureau engaged in
the work against the gypsy moth in New England. The
aim has been to bring inside one cover, and in brief form,
all the up-to-date information concerning this pest, its habits,
and its control. We trust that our readers will find herein
the information that they are seeking.

W. A. L. BAZELEY,

Conservation Commissioner and State Forester.

[3]

Full grown caterpillar

Egg mass

E. O. Cockayne, Boston, Lith. L. C. C. Krieger, del

The Life History of the Gypsy Moth (Porthetria dispar).

The Gypsy Moth in Massachusetts

The gypsy moth was introduced from Europe by a natu-
ralist, Leopold Trouvelot, in 1868, who at that time was
living in Medford. Professor Trouvelot was endeavoring,
by cross-breeding the gypsy moth and the silk worm, to
produce a variety of the latter that could live in this climate.
Unfortunately, one of the cages in which gypsy moths were
confined became broken, and some of the caterpillars escaped.
Mr. Trouvelot warned the people of Medford of the serious-
ness of the situation by articles in the local paper, but the
warning was so disregarded that ten years later, when a
strange caterpillar began to make its appearance in Med-
ford, it was only after considerable investigation that it was
identified as the gypsy moth of Europe. By 1889 the insect
had reached alarming proportions, and a State appropriation
was made to exterminate the insect. For ten years the work
was carried on under the supervision of the Board of Agri-
culture. By 1900 the gypsy moth had been so decreased
that it had ceased to be a public nuisance, and the Legisla-
ture was induced to withdraw the appropriation. This stop-
ping of the fight against the gypsy moth was a serious mis-
take, for had it been continued the insect could at least have
been kept under permanent control. The result of discon-
tinuing the work was that by 1905 the depredations of the
moth had again assumed alarming proportions, and they
had spread over a territory far larger then they had occu-
pied previous to 1900. In 1905 work was again taken up
by the State under the supervision of a superintendent of
moth work, and in 1909 the office was placed under the
control of the State Forester.

[5]

[6)

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

LIFE HISTORY

The life history of the gypsy moth, like that of many
insects, is divided into four stages, — egg, larva, pupa, and
imago, or perfect insect.

Egg. — The eggs are spherical, yellow in color, and about
the size of the head of a pin. They are laid in masses of
about four hundred, on the trunks of trees, fences, stone
walls, etc., and are covered by the female with yellow hairs
from her body. These egg masses are laid by the female
moth from about the middle of July to the middle of August.

Larva. — The larva, or caterpillar, hatches from these
eggs about May 1, and when it emerges is a small, black,
hairy caterpillar, less than one-quarter inch long. The
caterpillar has six stages, or molts, and by the time it has
reached the third molt it develops distinct markings. A
double row of Rve raised blue spots is followed by a double
row of six red. The full-grown caterpillar is from 1| to 3
inches long. It is the larval stage of the moth which does
all the damage to foliage.

Pupa. — When fully grown, usually about the middle of
July, the caterpillar spins a few silken threads as a support-
ing framework, casts its skin, and changes into a pupa, or
chrysalis. The pupa is dark reddish brown in color, and
very thinly sprinkled with brownish yellow hairs.

Moth. — From the middle of July until the middle of
August the winged moths emerge from the pupee. The male
moth is brownish yellow, with dark brown markings. It
has a slender body, and a wing expansion of 1| inches. It
flies actively by day, with a peculiar zigzag flight.

The wings of the female moth are yellowish white, with
numerous black markings, and expand about 2 inches. The
abdomen is pale yellow and very heavy, as it is completely
filled with eggs. The female is sluggish and does not fly.

[7]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

If it were otherwise, the spread of the gypsy moth would
be much more rapid. After mating the moths live but a
short time, and the female dies after depositing her eggs.
The winged moths take no food, and all damage to foliage
is caused by the caterpillars.

DISTRIBUTION

As the female moth does not fly, it is quite evident that
the dispersion of this insect must be quite slow, unless it is
carried by other means. The caterpillars, when first hatched,
are very small — about one-eighth inch in length — and
very hairy. A moderate breeze will pick up these small
larvae and carry them many miles. To test this matter the
Federal Bureau of Entomology erected screens on the Isles
of Shoals and at Provincetown, and on these screens small
caterpillars were caught which had been blown from 13 to
20 miles. If one will notice the map of New England show-
ing the present distribution of the gypsy moth, he will note
how much farther to the northeast the moth has spread
than to the southwest. This is due to prevailing southwest-
erly winds at the season the eggs are hatching.

When roadsides are badly infested the caterpillars may
get on automobiles and other vehicles, and be carried in
this way. This method of dispersion is not as prevalent as
it may seem, however, and the rapid-moving automobile is
less liable to transport caterpillars than the horse-drawn
vehicle.

Another method of distribution of the gypsy moth is the
transportation of egg-clusters on nursery stock, decorating
material, and forest and quarry products. It is for this
reason that the Federal government has placed a quaran-
tine on the shipment of the above classes of materials from
within the moth-infested areas to points outside, and re-
quires that all such shipments be inspected before they can
be shipped.

[8]

MAP

AREA °r NEW ENGLAND

GIPSY MOTH
1919

Sft.^

[9]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

FEEDING HABITS

When the work of suppressing the gypsy moth was first
undertaken the insect was considered a general feeder, and,
in fact, some early experiments with laboratory feeding
seemed to bear out this testimony. Long-continued field
observations of the caterpillars showed, however, that they
clearly favored certain species, especially the oaks, so that
some very careful laboratory experiments were tried to de-
termine just what is, and what is not, favorable food. The
laboratory experiments were supplemented by detailed ob-
servations of selected areas in the field. It was found that
the feeding propensities of the gypsy caterpillar change con-
siderably with its age, and if forced to live in its early stages
on what may be called "unfavorable foliage" the caterpillar
could not survive and complete its life history. The result
of these experiments is to place our native trees in four
classes, as follows : —

I. Species favored by all larval stages : oaks, gray birch, willow, linden,
larch, apple.

II. Species not favored by early larval stages : chestnut, hemlock, pine,
spruce.

III. Species not favored, but which may be eaten : maple, yellow birch,
elm, hickory, cherry.

IV. Species not favored by any larval stages: ash, butternut, walnut,
catalpa, arbor vitse.

The significance of this discovery lies in the fact that it
aids us in part to control the ravages of the insect by forest
management. By removing from our forests the favored
food plants the increase of the moth can be greatly checked,
and its suppression by other means assisted. The interested
reader will find this matter discussed in detail in our bulle-
tin on "Forest Thinning."

[io]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

PARASITES

The insect world is controlled by natural forces. Were it
not so, on account of their extreme power of reproduction,
even one species would soon render the earth uninhabitable.
To illustrate: Under the most favorable circumstances the
gypsy moth will increase by sixfold in one year. Theoreti-
cally, it could increase two hundredfold, for each female moth
lays four hundred eggs, and approximately half of these eggs
produce female moths. What becomes of the one hundred
and ninety -four eggs or caterpillars that perish by the way-
side? Enormous numbers of the young caterpillars die in
infancy because they are unable to obtain food soon enough
after hatching, or because they are carried by the winds to
places where no food exists, or because they are forced to
subsist on unfavorable food. One of the potent agencies
which nature uses in her control of insects is parasitism.
Parasites are a class of insects which at some stage of their
existence attack other insects, called hosts, and live upon
them, usually internally. The importation of parasites of
the gypsy moth is one of the romances of the entomological
world. As this importation did not begin until 1905, and
the gypsy moth came here in 1868, we must not be discour-
aged if the parasites have not yet increased in numbers or
spread in area equally with the gypsy moth. Investigation
in Europe and Japan shows that there are about thirty
species of parasites feeding on the gypsy moth at some stage
of its existence, and twenty of them have been imported in
large numbers. Through co-operation between the Federal
Bureau of Entomology and the superintendent for suppress-
ing the gypsy and brown-tail moths a laboratory was estab-
lished, first at North Saugus, and later at Melrose, to receive
and handle importations of parasites. It was the largest
effort in deliberate long-distance insect transportation ever
tried, and it required considerable patience and investiga-

[11]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

tion before satisfactory methods of transporting and rearing
these insects were evolved.

It is not necessary in this bulletin to go into the life his-
tory of all these parasites, but a brief description of a few,
which serve as types, may be of interest. These parasites
attack the gypsy moth in three stages, — egg, caterpillar,
and pupa. In fact, for parasitic work on the gypsy moth
to be effective, all three stages should be attacked.

Two species of minute hymenopterous flies, Anastatus and
Schedius, attack the eggs of the gypsy moth by laying their
eggs within the eggs of the host. The young grubs which
hatch out live on the substance of the gypsy-moth egg, thus
destroying it. Apanteles melanoscelis, also a small hymenop-
terous parasite, lays its eggs in the bodies of small gypsy-
moth caterpillars, and the young grubs live on the interior
contents of the host until it is destroyed. There are several
parasites of this class, and some of them attack the brown-
tail as well as the gypsy-moth caterpillar.

The beneficial insect called the Calosoma beetle, intro-
duced from Europe, is not a true parasite because it does not
attach itself to its host. It attacks and eats the gypsy-moth
caterpillars both as a beetle and as a larva. It also eats the
gypsy-moth pupae. It is voracious in appetite, active and
hardy. This species has increased and spread in a most
satisfactory manner, and has made great inroads on the
gypsy moth in many localities. The beetles are from 1 to
lj inches long, and a beautiful irridescent green, while the
larvae, which are about lj inches long, are shining black.
There are two native Calosoma beetles somewhat similar
in appearance to the imported. They are not as effective
as the European species because of the inability of their
larvae to climb trees.

[12]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

WILT DISEASE

Infectious diseases, as well as parasites, are some of na-
ture's means of checking the overproduction of the insect
family. In fact, observations in Europe have indicated that
where such disease does not exist the parasites are not able
to hold the gypsy moth in check. There are several diseases
affecting caterpillars, some of which are infectious and some
of which are not. Of the infectious diseases none are more
effective than the so-called "wilt disease." This disease is
caused by a filterable virus which may affect the caterpillar
at any stage, but which does not appear abundantly until
the third or fourth molt. At this time the infected cater-
pillar loses its vitality, a brown liquid appears at the mouth
and anus, and the caterpillar hangs downward, suspended
by one or two pairs of feet. After death the caterpillar has
a most offensive odor.

Adverse conditions of several kinds may lead to the con-
traction of this disease on the part of the gypsy moth, but
a prime factor appears to be a decrease in the amount or
nutritive value of their food. This may be brought about
by an oversupply of caterpillars, which completely strip the
foliage while the insects are young, or by the necessity of
feeding the caterpillars on "unfavorable" food. Warm,
moist weather during the feeding season seems to help in
the spread of the disease. It was first thought that the dis-
ease could be artificially propagated by raising diseased larvae
in the laboratory, and liberating them among their fellows.
It was found, however, that where circumstances were not
propitious artificial propagation was of no avail, and that
where they were favorable the disease appeared on its own
account, so that laboratory propagation of wilt disease was
discontinued. The disease not only kills large numbers of
caterpillars, but passes with them to the pupse. In fact, a
thorough attack of wilt disease may reduce a heavy infesta-
tion of gypsy moth 80 to 90 per cent in a single season.

[13]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

GYPSY MOTH IN EUROPE

Inasmuch as the progenitors of our gypsy moths came
from Europe, there is much interest in the status of this
insect on that continent. In Europe it has occasional
severe outbreaks over restricted areas, lasting two or
three years. Its outbreaks are more numerous in Hun-
gary and in southern Europe than they are in northern
Europe. This is due undoubtedly to the higher percentage
of deciduous, especially oak, growth in the forests of those
countries. On the whole, it is not considered to be a dan-
gerous insect, and is not nearly as much feared by foresters
as its first cousin, the nun moth (Liparis monacha). The
reason that the gypsy moth is not as injurious in its native
land, especially in northern Europe, as it is here is due to
three causes, — parasitism, caterpillar diseases, and forest
conditions. It takes all three factors to control an insect
pest as hardy as the gypsy moth. If forest conditions, —
that is, feeding conditions, are favorable to the gypsy moth,
neither parasites nor disease will provide more than a tem-
porary check. In those portions of Europe where forestry has
reached a high state of development it is quite evident that
the foresters have, consciously or unconsciously, eliminated
the gypsy moth as a dangerous insect by greatly curtailing
the growth of its favorite food. Oaks are grown only in
favorable localities, in small groups, or sparsely mixed with
resistant trees. Until we attain a somewhat similar condi-
tion in this State we cannot hope to have complete natural
control of the gypsy moth, and must keep up the fight by
artificial means.

[14]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

METHODS OF CONTROLLING THE GYPSY MOTH

We have been discussing nature's methods of combating
the gypsy moths by parasites and diseases, and we now come
to the artificial methods of control. M

Creosoting. — One of the best methods of controlling the
gypsy moth is to paint the egg clusters during fall and
winter with creosote, to which coal tar has been added.
This is applied with a long-handled brush, and the creosote
kills the eggs, at the same time staining the cluster a dark
brown.1 Unless the creosoting is to be followed by spraying
it must be carefully done. If half the egg clusters are left
undisturbed there will be enough caterpillars to strip the
trees, and the work done is practically wasted. Where
thorough spraying is carried out it is often not necessary to
creosote at all, as the spray will prevent stripping. It often
happens, however, where infestation is very heavy, that the
young caterpillars are so numerous as to strip the foliage
before it can be sprayed, and in such cases creosoting is
resorted to to reduce the force of the early outbreak of the
caterpillars.

Tanglefooting. — A band of tree tanglefoot about 3 inches
wide may be spread around the trunk of trees to prevent
caterpillars crawling up to the foliage. If the egg clusters
on the trees have been previously treated, and the tree does
not stand too close to untreated trees, it is an effective meas-
ure. If the caterpillars attempt to ascend the tree they mass
below the sticky band and die from starvation or wilt disease.

Spraying. — The cheapest and most effective method of
combating this insect in a large way is by spraying with a
solution of arsenate of lead and water, using paste at the rate
of 10 pounds of lead to 100 gallons of water. Many persons

1 Creosote may be obtained in local hardware stores for 45 cents per gallon, or, in many towns,
it can be purchased from the local moth superintendent for about 27 cents. These prices are the
1920 quotations, and on account of the unsettled business conditions, with which we are all familiar,
are subject to change from year to year.

[15]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

now prefer the powdered arsenate of lead, which is mixed on
a ratio of 5 pounds to 100 gallons. It is more convenient to
handle, and more economical.1 There are a great many types
and sizes of spraying machines, from a barrel pump operated
by hand to the so-called high-power truck sprayer driven by
a 40-horsepower truck engine. Most types of gasoline
sprayers are designed for orchard use, and cannot be used on
street and woodland trees unless climbing is resorted to, —
an expensive method. A satisfactory high-power sprayer
drawn by two horses has a 400-gallon tank and a triplex
pump capable of delivering 35 gallons per minute at 200 to
250 pounds' pressure. Such a machine throws a stream 70
to 80 feet in the air, and in woodland work a length 1,500
feet of hose is frequently used with success. This pump is
driven by a 4-cylinder 10-horsepower engine.2 The cost of
spraying is very variable, and depends on several factors, the
chief of which is the distance which it is necessary to traverse
in going for water to fill the tank. Even under favorable cir-
cumstances about half the time is consumed in this opera-
tion. In woodland the cost varies greatly, dependent on
the conditions. Woods that have been thinned, and under-
brush cleared, can of course be sprayed much cheaper than
woodland uncared for. An abundance of roads, making all
parts of the woodland easily accessible, reduces the cost by
making it possible to reach all sections with a short hose.
Where a central water supply, as a pond or brook, is avail-
able, it is better to station the sprayer at this point, and
reach all parts of the woodland by use of a long hose rather
than to haul the water. In general, woodland spraying
costs from $10 to $15 per acre, and as much woodland is
valued at less than this amount it is hardly practical to

1 In hardware stores paste arsenate, in small lots, costs 40 cents per pound, but in many towns
it can be purchased from the local moth superintendent for 12 or 13 cents per pound, and the dry
powdered for 27 cents. These prices are the 1920 quotations, and on account of the unsettled
business conditions, with which we are all familiar, are subject to change from year to year.

2 It costs about $40 per day to operate such a machine.

[10]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

spray the average woodland. The cost of roadside spray-
ing, if figured at the cost per tree, will depend on the number
of trees per mile of road and their size. In general, the cost
of spraying ornamental roadside trees is about 25 cents per
tree, — an investment well worth making. Of course the
above costs are average, and subject to wide variations.
They also apply only to operations carried out on a large
scale. The cost of spraying two or three acres of woodland,
or a few ornamental trees around a house, would be much
higher, as allowance must be made for time lost in getting
out the machine and going to and from the job.

One of the chief difficulties in spraying for the gypsy moth
is the shortness of the time allowed for the job. The feed-
ing season of the caterpillars extends from the middle of
May until the middle of July, but spraying cannot well com-
mence until the trees are in full leaf, which is not until the
1st of June, and spraying done after the 1st of July is not
very effective, for the larvae have already done their worst
damage, and the foliage may be so badly stripped as to be
incapable of holding the poison. It is not possible to spray
in wet weather because the poison will not stick to the foliage,
and it is difficult, at least, to spray in windy weather, so
that there is sure to be considerable lost time to be taken out
of the one month of spraying season.

The proper method of handling the gypsy moth in wood-
land or shade trees, orchards, or parks should be based on
the infestation as determined by some one who is familiar
with the work. Much energy and money may be wasted
in applying remedies, unless their application is based on a
thorough knowledge of existing conditions. An owner of an
infested estate should apply to the State Forester to have an
examination made by one of his assistants, who not only
can give him reliable information as to the proper treatment,
but, under some conditions, will assume responsibility for
seeing that the work is carried out.

[17]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

ADMINISTRATION OF WORK

The laws regulating the work against the gypsy moth are
published in a separate publication, and will not be reprinted
here, but a brief statement of the method of carrying on the
work will be of value in this bulletin.

The law provides that each individual town shall care for
the suppression of the gypsy and brown-tail moths within its
borders through a local superintendent appointed by the
mayor or selectmen, with the approval of the State Forester.
In carrying out the measures for such suppression the local
superintendent acts under the direction of the State Forester
and his district superintendent. The financing of this work,
as provided by law, is somewhat complicated, and need be
only briefly outlined here. Each town is required to expend
one twenty-fifth of 1 per cent of its valuation in suppressive
work. This sum, which amounts to only a few hundreds in
small towns, and runs up to a maximum of $5,000, the
community must spend from its own funds, provided condi-
tions call for it. Where an amount in excess of this liability
is spent by the towns the whole or a portion of said excess
may be reimbursed to the town by the State, the percentage
of such reimbursement depending on the valuation of the
town. Such reimbursements are paid partly in money, but
supplies also constitute part of the amount, because it is pos-
sible for the State Forester to buy materials in large quanti-
ties much cheaper than the towns, and economy in disburs-
ing the State appropriation is thus secured.

In addition to the work done under the direction of
the State Forester, the Federal government appropriates
$300,000 per year for the suppression of the gypsy moth.
This work is done by the Federal Bureau of Entomology,
and although their territory includes all New England, a
considerable portion of their funds are expended in Massa-
chusetts. By agreement between it and this department it

[18]

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

undertakes the work of stopping the spread of the moth by
work on the frontier of the infested territory. The work of
controlling the gypsy moth west of the heavy line shown cm
the map of this State is in the hands of the Bureau of En-
tomology. They have assumed the responsibility for all
work of a scientific character, such as parasite importation
and investigation in field and laboratory of various condi-
tions affecting the life of the gypsy moth. They also have
charge of the inspection of the shipments of forest products
mentioned before. Because they are not restricted by State
lines they are better able to carry on this line of work than
the State Forestry Division.

19

THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

i For the benefit of those who may wish to study into cer-
tain phases of the gypsy-moth problem more thoroughly
than the present bulletin gives opportunity, we append this
list of Federal and State bulletins. It is only fair to state
that many of these publications give the result of earlier
investigations, and do not contain the most up-to-date in-
formation on the subject that they are supposed to cover.

State Forester : —

Parasites of the Gypsy Moth.
Wilt Disease of the Gypsy Moth.
Management of Moth Infested Woodlands.
Calosoma Beetle (card in colors).

United States Department of Agriculture : —

Farmer's Bulletin (564) Gypsy Moth, with Suggestions for its Con-
trol.

Bureau of Entomology Circular : —

(164) Gypsy Moth as a Forest Insect.

Bureau of Entomology Bulletins : —

(273) Dispersion of Gypsy Moth Larvae.
(251) The Calosoma Beetle in New England.
(250) Food Plants of Gypsy Moth in America.
(204) Report on Gypsy Moth in New England.
(484) Control of Gypsy Moth by Forest Management.
Wilt of Gypsy Moth Caterpillars. Journal of Agri. Research 1915,
Vol. IV, No. 2.

[20

wf

Spraying ornamental trees.

m

Spraying in woodland.

s

THE

CHESTNUT BARK
DISEASE

AND THE

CHESTNUT MARKET

IN

MASSACHUSETTS

Where found

How tot tell the disease

Methods of control

Trees should be utilized before they die

Markets

F. W. RANE, STATE FORESTER
6 BEACON STREET, BOSTON, MASS.

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

1916

Approved by
The State Board of Publication.

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The Chestnut Bake; Disease.

Introduction.

The chestnut bark disease as a serious menace to chestnut
growth of Massachusetts first became apparent within our
boundaries in 1910, and the following winter the State Forester
published a pamphlet on the subject. In 1912 this pamphlet
was followed by a more complete bulletin by Mr. John Mur-
doch, Jr., then in charge of the bark disease investigation. In
order to aid the owners of infected stands to dispose of their
timber, Mr. Murdoch was commissioned to issue a bulletin on
the "Chestnut and its Market." Both of these bulletins are
now out of print, and Mr. Simmons of this department has
combined and brought up to date the essential information
contained in both in this new edition.

Acknowledgment should be made to the United States
Bureau of Plant Industry for information on the character-
istics of the chestnut bark disease (Farmers' Bulletin No. 467)
and to the United States Forest Service and the State Forester
of Connecticut for data from which tables in the market bulle-
tin were constructed (United States Forest Service Bulletin
96; Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 154).
Mention should be made of Mr. Roy G. Pierce, who, following
Mr. Murdoch in charge of bark disease investigations, served
in this department for a year and added valuable data to the
knowledge concerning this disease in our State.

The Disease.

History and Distribution.

The chestnut bark disease was first recognized as a serious
disease in the vicinity of New York City in 1904. Its origin
is unknown, but there is some evidence that it was imported
from the Orient with the Japanese chestnut. It is certain that
it has now spread into at least ten States.

So far as is now known the bark disease is limited to the true
chestnuts, that is, to the members of the genus Castanea. The
American chestnut, the chinquapin and the cultivated varieties
of the European chestnut are all readily subject to the disease.
Only the Japanese and perhaps other east Asian varieties appear
to have resistance. In spite of popular reports to the con-
trary, it can be quite positively stated that the bark disease
is not now known to occur on living oaks, horse-chestnuts,
beeches, hickories or the golden-leaf chinquapin (Castanopsis
chrysophylla) of the Pacific coast.

Distribution in Massachusetts.

The serious character of the attack of the disease in this
State was not realized until the summer of 1912. During
June, July and August of that year Mr. A. H. Graves, repre-
senting the United States Department of Agriculture, made a
tour of various portions of Massachusetts. This was supple-
mented by work done during the late fall by two special rep-
resentatives from this office. These investigations showed
that the blight was very widely scattered over the State. In
Berkshire, Hampden, Hampshire, Franklin and western Worces-
ter counties the infection was general, and sporadic cases were
discovered as far east as Bedford, Quincy and Taunton. In
1913 Mr. Roy G. Pierce, government expert, began his work in
connection with the State Forester's office, and covered the
State quite thoroughly, making examinations, giving advice and
lectures, and disseminating knowledge generally in regard to
the disease and its workings, so that most woodland owners
have at present a very fair idea of what the disease is like. He
found that the disease was distributed over the entire chestnut
area of the State.

Cause and Symptoms.

The chestnut bark disease is caused by a fungous parasite
known under the technical name of Diaporthe parasitica Murrill.
When any of the microscopic spores of this fungus gain entrance
into any part of the trunk or limbs of a chestnut tree they give
rise to a spreading "sore" or lesion. If the part attacked
happens to be the trunk, the whole tree is killed, perhaps in a
single season. If the smaller branches are attacked, only those

Section of infected bark, showing pustules producing winter spores. Specimen ob-
tained at Barre, Mass., December, 1911.

branches are killed and the remainder of the tree may survive
for several years.

Some of the symptoms are quite prominent. Limbs or the
trunks of young trees with smooth bark attacked by the
fungus soon show dead, somewhat discolored, sunken areas
(occasionally with a raised margin), or the outer bark may, in
the earlier stages, be raised in the form of a blister, which
continues to enlarge and soon becomes covered more or less
thickly with yellow, orange or reddish-brown spots about the
size of a pin-head. These spots are the pustules of the fruiting
fungus. In damp weather masses of summer spores are ex-
truded in the form of long, irregularly twisted strings or
" horns, " which are at first bright yellow to greenish yellow or
even buff, becoming darker with age. If the lesion is on thick
bark the pustules show in the cracks. After smooth-barked
limbs or trunks are girdled the fungus continues to grow ex-
tensively through the bark sometimes covering the entire sur-
face with reddish-brown pustules. These pustules produce
mostly winter spores.

After a trunk or branch is girdled the leaves change color
and sooner or later wither. Such branches have a very char-
acteristic appearance. In case the girdling is completed late
in the season, the leaves of the following spring assume a yel-
lowish or pale appearance and do not develop to their full size.
The chestnut fruits (burs) on a spring-girdled branch may or
may not attain full size. These burs commonly persist on the
tree during the following winter. The dead leaves also fre-
quently persist through at least the first part of the winter.

Perhaps the most easily seen as well as the longest persistent
symptom of the bark disease is the prompt development of
sprouts or " suckers" on the trunk of the tree and at its base,
or somewhat less frequently on the smaller branches. Sprouts
may appear below every girdling lesion on a tree, and there are
usually many such lesions. These sprouts are usually very
luxuriant and quick growing, but rarely survive the second or
third year, as they in turn are killed by the fungus. Sprouts
are sometimes produced as a result of other injuries, and are
common following thinning of a chestnut stand as a result of
the increased amount of light admitted.

6

Means of Spread and Entrance.

The disease is spread by the spores of the fungus, — minute,
dust-like bodies corresponding to the seeds of higher plants, —
of which there are two kinds. The spores, by rain, are washed
down from twig infections to the lower parts of the tree. There
is strong evidence that the spores are spread extensively by
birds, especially woodpeckers, thus causing the isolated areas
of infection far ahead of the main line of advance, and there
is also excellent evidence that they are spread by insects and
by various rodents, such as squirrels. Although both kinds
of spores are said to be sticky, the uniform and often rapid
spread of the disease from a center of infection would seem to
indicate that they are often carried to some distance by the
wind. An infected area may, under favorable conditions, in-
crease by several hundred per cent, in the course of a single
season.

When the spores have once been carried to a healthy tree,
they may develop in any sort of a hole in the bark which is
reasonably moist. These may be wounds or mechanical in-
juries, but by far the most common place of infection is a
tunnel made by a borer.

The disease attacks only living trees, but the fungus ap-
parently may continue to grow in the bark and to produce an
abundance of spores for six months or more after the tree has
died.

Possibility of Checking the Disease in Massachusetts.

It is admitted that after the disease has once become well
established in a locality there is no practicable method of eradi-
cating it. When Mr. Pierce began his work in 1913 a plan
was discussed for drawing a "dead line" near the main front
of the advance of the disease, for abandoning all chestnut
behind this line and for locating and destroying all cases in
front of it. But the survey of the State which was made
showed that, if such a line were drawn, not less than two-
thirds of the total chestnut stand in the State, probably much
more, must be left behind it. To eradicate the disease outside

General appearance of blighted chestnut tree, dead top, with numerous suckers along

trunk.

Withered chestnut leaves on blighted sprouts.

the line would necessitate a tree-by-tree inspection of every
patch of timber containing chestnut throughout the rest of

Massachusetts, since the blight has been found at or near the
eastern limit of the species across the entire width of the State.

8

The expense of such an examination would be enormous, to say
nothing of the cost of removing the diseased trees when located,
and of the subsequent re-examinations necessary to locate new
infections and to make sure that none had been overlooked in
the first instance. In view of the comparatively small amount
of timber that could be saved in any case, the great cost of the
work and the uncertainty of final success, it was not believed
that any State- wide attempt to check the disease was advisable.
The State Forester was reluctantly compelled to predict the
probability of the practical elimination of the chestnut as a
tree of commercial importance in Massachusetts within a com-
paratively short term of years.

It is possible that in the case of valuable groves, especially in
localities where there is not much other chestnut for some dis-
tance, vigorous local action may be able to preserve the timber.
Such action is not advised unless there is a local market which
will dispose of the diseased trees as they are cut.

Although chestnut is a very durable wood when cut green and
properly seasoned, the sapwood of dead trees left on the stump
soon rots. The railroads assert that the wood of trees attacked
by the disease deteriorates even before the death of the tree, in
that ties cut from such trees do not hold spikes as well as do
those from uninfected trees. Since the bulk of the chestnut in
Massachusetts seems doomed to infection within a few years it
is evident that sound chestnut timber will soon be an exceed-
ingly scarce article in this State. Although the price of timber
from infected trees will fall very low in the next year or two,
as the market becomes flooded with such material, and will
undoubtedly carry the price of sound material with it for a few
years, it is certain that the price of sound chestnut lumber will
rise again before long, and should reach figures considerably
above those prevalent before the effects of the disease began to
be felt in the market.

Any chestnut that is allowed to stand until killed by the
disease will certainly be a dead loss. A great quantity of chest-
nut will probably be cut and thrown on the market when threat-
ened with the disease, and prices will fall until they will no more
than cover the cost of lumbering, leaving no margin for stump-
age. But a man who is able to cut ties, poles, etc., while his

trees are still sound, and so pile them that they will keep for
some years, will then have an article that will be exceedingly
scarce, and that should pay a good profit on the investment.
Statistics show that the average life of a chestnut tie in active
service is eight years. Material carefully piled should be in
good condition after at least the same period.

Summary.

1. The chestnut disease is now almost universally distributed
throughout the State. In the western half, infection is quite
general; in the eastern half, the centers of infection are mostly
small.

2. The area of severe infection is already so great, and the
proportion of chestnut that there would be any hope of saving
is so small, that the Commonwealth would not be justified in
making any attempt to stop the disease.

3. Chestnut forms approximately one-sixth of the timber of
Massachusetts. Practically all of this is almost certain to die
within a comparatively few years unless some unforeseen condi-
tions come to its rescue.

4. Timber attacked by the disease soon becomes unmerchant-
able. Timber cut before it is infected may be seasoned and kept
for many years.

5. This bulletin is not for the purpose of over-exaggeration of
the chestnut disease, but is to give our citizens the exact con-
ditions as they appear. Let every one interested acquaint him-
self with his conditions by looking over the trees in his section.
The illustrations will aid you.

6. The State Forester's office stands ready to examine and
give advice on chestnut stands in any section of the State for
traveling expenses only. We desire to assist in every way
possible.

10

Chestnut : Its Maeket in Massachusetts.

Description.

The chestnut, Castanea dentata, in this State seldom grows
over 90 feet high, with a diameter of 1 to 2 feet. In the open
it sometimes reaches a diameter of 4 to 6 feet, .but it is then
shorter and has a brushy crown. The leaves are oblong-lanceo-
late in shape, 6 to 8 inches long, with acute apex, wedge-shaped
base and dentate margin. The flowers, which appear about the
4th of July, are creamy white, in slender catkins 6 to 8 inches
long. The fruit is a bur containing from 1 to 3 nuts.

The typical form in which chestnut occurs in Massachusetts
is an even-aged sprout stand. This results from the common
practice of clean cutting. Following such an operation, prac-
tically every chestnut stump sends up a number of vigorous
sprouts, which soon close together and form a complete cover.
The weaker sprouts are soon shaded out, as are any seedlings
which may have started, and the resulting stand is of nearly
even height as well as age. Chestnut rarely reproduces by seed
in the forest, since it is unable to endure shade.

Chestnut frequently occurs in nearly pure stands, and fre-
quently also is mixed with different species of oak. White
pine sometimes occurs in mixture, its ability to endure a certain
amount of shade and its rapid growth when once started ena-
bling it to hold its own with the more rapidly starting chestnut.

The State forester of Connecticut has determined that the
average growth of sprout chestnut is as follows : —

Age (Years).

Diameter
(Inches) .

20,
40,
60,
80,
100,

3

9

16

22

28

11

Makket.

Lumber.

Chestnut lumber has many uses. Perhaps the most important
for the native article is in bridge construction. It is especially
adapted to this, owing to its durability when exposed to mois-
ture. It is also used to a considerable extent in the construction
of buildings, as framing, rough siding and sometimes as coarse
shingles. Native chestnut is also used in the manufacture of
agricultural implements, boxes and crates, furniture, house fin-
ish and stair work, slack cooperage, and toys, such as tool chests
and wagons. In 1908 the amounts used in Massachusetts and
the prices paid were as follows : —

Product.

Per Cent, of

Total used

grown in State.

Quantity from

Massachusetts

(Feet B. M.).

Average Price
at Factory.

Boxes and crates, > .
Furniture, .
Musical instruments,
Interior finish and stair work,
Cooperage, .
Agricultural implements,
Toys, .

33

46
8

92
100
100
100

782,000
2,284,500
300,000
310,000
110,000
50,000
158,000

$16 36
24 36
23 33
20 13
15 00
15 00
13 14

It will be seen that there is a very considerable market for
chestnut in the furniture industry. This requires lumber free
of wormholes, and otherwise nearly clear.

It is difficult to form any estimate of the amount of lumber
employed in bridge and building construction, since these uses
are very largely local.

The current prices range as follows : —

Bridge plank, $20, $24, $25, $28, $30, $31.

Bridge timbers, $21, $25.

Framing timbers, $25, $32.

Chair lumber, $30, $35 f. o. b. factory (surface measure, 1)4, inches).

Tie sidings, $15 (used for toys, etc.).

Boards: —
Mill run, $20 (wholesale price), $28 (retail price).
Clear, $40 (retail price).
Covering boards, $22 (retail price).

12

Ties.

The specifications for ties vary according to the company.
The Boston & Albany Railroad has three classes of 8-foot ties.
"First-class," if sawed on all four sides, must have 8-inch face
and 7 inches thickness; if flattened on only two sides, they
must have at least 7-inch face. "Second-class" ties are 7 by

7 inches squared, or with 6 to 7 inch face if flattened on two
sides. "Third-class" ties are 6 inches thick, with face of 8
inches if squared, or 6 inches and up if flattened.

The New York, New Haven & Hartford and the Boston &
Maine railroads publish identical specifications. "No. l"ties,
if sawed square, are to have 7 inches thickness and 9-inch
face; if flattened, 7 to 12 inch face. "No. 2" ties are 6 inches
thick, with 8-inch face if squared, or 6 to 12 inch face if flat-
tened. "No. 3" are the same as "No. 2," with 1 inch less
face. The right is reserved to "limit the proportion of No. 2
and No. 3 ties."

The Central Vermont Railway takes two classes of ties, both

8 feet long and 6 inches thick. "No. 1" are 6 inches or over
on the face if flattened, and 8 to 9 inches if squared. "No. 2"
have a 5-inch face if flattened, and 6 to 8 inch face if squared.

Many of the electric railways use 8-foot ties 6 inches thick,
of which the first class have a face of 6 inches or over and the
second 5 inches or over if flattened, or corresponding widths if
sawed square. Some of the roads make a flat price for all ties,
accepting not more than 10 per cent, of the total in second-
class.

The Boston Elevated and the Middlesex & Boston use only
7-foot ties in one class, which are 6 inches thick with 8-inch face
if squared, or 6 to 9 inch face if flattened.

All the specifications call for ties cut from sound, living tim-
ber, and freed from bark. Some of the companies demand
winter-cut ties.

The published prices are as follows : —

13

Dimensions (squared).

Prices (Cents).

7 by 9 inches by 8 feet,
7 by 8 inches by 8 feet,
7 by 7 inches by 8 feet,
6 by 8 inches by 8 feet,
6 by 7 inches by 8 feet,
6 by 8 inches by 7 feet,

70

65

60

46, 50, 55, 60

30, 35, 40

45 (52H on track), 55-60 f. o. b. Boston

Switch timbers are sawed square, 7 by 9 inches, and in
lengths as ordered. The price is $18 to $20 per M feet B. M.

Poles.

The general specifications for poles are: cut from living tim-
ber, reasonably straight, free from rot, shakes or large knots,
limbs trimmed close and bark peeled. They must conform to
the following minimum dimensions : —

Length (Feet).

Diameter at
Top (Inches).

Diameter 5

Feet from Butt

(Inches).

30,
35,
40,
45,
50,
55,
60,
65,
70,

(8) (9)
(8) (9)

(8)

H1 (12) (14)

12 (13) (15)

14 (14)

15

16

17

18

18H

18^

1 One company specifies a butt diameter of 12 inches with 7-inch top.

The New England Telephone and Telegraph Company, the
largest user of poles in the State, specifies dimensions as fol-
lows : —

[Circumference in inches 6 feet from top or butt.]

Length (Feet).

Class A.

Class B.

Class C.

Class D.

Class E.

Top.

Butt.

Top.

Butt.

Top.

Butt.

Top.

Butt.

Top.

Butt.

25, ...

_

_

_

_

20

30

20

27 1

ISM

26

30,

24

40

22

36

20

33

20

31

KM

29

35,

24

43

22

40

20

36

20

35 >

20

34

40,

24

45

22

43

20

40

20

39

20

38

45,

24

48

22

47

20

43

20

43

20

42

50,

24

51

22

50

20

46

20

46

20

46

55,

22

54

22

53

20

49

-

-

-

-

60,

22

57

22

56

—

—

-

—

—

-

14

The prices for poles vary as follows:

Length (Feet).

Prices.

25,
30,
.35,
40,
45,
50,
55,
60,
65,

SI, $1.83

$2.50, $3, S3. 50, S4, $4.50i

$3.38, $4, $4.50, $5, $5.50, $6i

$5.50, $5.75, $6, $7,i $8i

$6, $6.60, $8

$9, $10

$15, $18

$18, $22

1 These prices were given for poles delivered at the hole.

The higher prices for each length are generally for poles of
the larger diameters shown above. It should be understood
that there is no certainty of obtaining the price given for any
pole, but that these are simply prices which have recently been
paid by the various companies for poles of the given dimen-
sions.

Cordwood.

Cordwood in general has a smaller market value, volume for
volume, than other of the principal forest products. Chestnut
in particular has a low value as cordwood, the price running
from $3 to $4.50 per cord. The market is limited. In Berk-
shire County the lime kilns use much chestnut wood, and it
is occasionally burned for charcoal. In the Connecticut valley
a good deal is also used in the brickyards. Elsewhere the
demand is largely supplied by other species of higher fuel
value. The low price limits the profitable haul for chestnut
wood to a comparatively short distance.

Cost of Production.

The most variable item in the cost of production is hauling.
This varies with both the length of haul and the rate of wages.
It is ordinarily assumed that a work team can average 18 miles
a day, half loaded and half light, over average roads. The
wages of team and driver ordinarily vary from $4.50 to $5.50

15

per day. In some sections $6 is the usual rate. Table 1 gives
the hauling cost for different wage rates and distances.

Table 1. — Costs of Hauling.

[Reprinted from Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Wage rate,

Daily Hauling Capacity for 1 Team.

lload

2 loads, . •

3 loads,

4 loads,

5 loads

$4.50.

$5.

$5.50.

Hauling Cost per Load.

So 50
2 75
1 83
1 38
1 10

Table 2 gives the average costs of production, except hauling,
of the different products, as determined for Connecticut.

Table 2. — Costs of Production.

[Compiled from tables in Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Lumber per M Feet
B. M.

Minimum.

Cutting,
Skidding,
Sawing,
Piling,
Peeling,
Total,

$1 25

1 50

2 50
1 00

S6 25

Average.

SI 50
1 75
3 50
1 00

S7 75

Ties per M
Feet B. M.

Cordwood
per Cord.

$1 50

1 75

2 00

35

So 60

$1 00

SI 00

Cost of cutting and peeling poles assumed to be 30 cents for poles 25 to 35 feet long; 35 cents
for poles over 35 feet long.

The average cost, of production of lumber in Massachusetts,
as given by various operators, seems to be lower than that in
Table 2. The costs given run from $4.50 to $7. In the follow-
ing tables, therefore, the minimum Connecticut cost has been
used as the average Massachusetts cost.

Table 3 gives the combined costs of production and hauling
per unit of volume based on the figures in Tables 1 and 2, for
different daily capacities and wage rates. Since no estimate of

16

costs is complete without including interest on the money in-
vested in the operation, 6 per cent, has been added to cover this
charge.

Table 3. — Cost of lumbering and hauling Different Products, with

Interest Charges at 6 Per Cent.

[Compiled from tables in Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Cost per Pole.

Team-
ing
Wage
Rate

Cost
per M

Cost
per M

Daily Haul-

Cost

ing Capacity for

Feet

Feet

25 to 30

35

40 to 45

50

per

1 Team.

B. M.

B. M.

Foot

Foot

Foot

Foot

Cord.

per
Day.

Lumber.

Ties.

(6 per

(4 per

(2 per

(1 per

Load).

Load).

Load).

Load).

i

$5 50

$12 45

$11 77

$1 29

$1 78

$3 29

$6 20

$6 89

1 M lumber, 1 M

ties or 1 cordj

5 00

11 92

11 24

1 20

1 64

3 02

5 67

6 36

wood,

I

4 50

11 40

10 71

1 11

1 51

2 76

5 14

5 83

f

5 50

9 54

8 85

80

1 05

1 83

3 29

3 00-

2 M lumber, 2 M

ties or 3 cords \

5 00

9 28

8 59

76

98

1 70

3 02

2 83

wood, . . 1

4 50

9 01

8 32

72

91

1 56

2 76

2 65

r

5 50

8 54

7 88

64

80

1 34

2 31

2 23

3 M lumber, 3 M

ties or 5 cords ■

5 00

8 40

7 71

61

76

1 26

2 14

2 12

wood,

I

4 50

8 22

7 53

58

72

1 17

1 96

2 01

Value of Standing Timber.

The stumpage values for lumber, ties, poles and cordwood
here given are derived from the market values and costs of
production given above.

The real stumpage value is the difference between the market
value and the total operating costs, less a reasonable profit on
the combined investment in stumpage and production. The
profit has been computed for the purpose of this bulletin at 20
per cent.

Table 4 gives the stumpage value per unit of volume for dif-
ferent hauling capacities, wage rates and market prices, based
on the total costs of production given in Table 3. These are
the prices which the wood-lot owner should receive for his tim-
ber under the given conditions.

17

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18

Relative Value of Different Products.

Table 5 gives the contents and values of average trees of
different sizes in different products, under the teaming condi-
tions and market values given in the note. "Additional wood"
is the wood in tops and limbs, which is assumed to be put into
cordwood. The first column in the table gives the diameter
of the tree outside the bark at 4^ feet from the ground; the
second gives the average height of trees of that diameter. The
columns headed "value" give the stumpage values of the trees
in the given product; those headed "value and profit" are
computed from the combined stumpage and profit, and repre-
sent the clear gain, over and above costs, of the owner who does
his own logging.

The contents of the different trees are taken from Tables 6,
7, 8 and 9. The figures for ties are those in the Connecticut
bulletin, which are lower than the average in the Forest Service
bulletin, so the values are correspondingly lower.

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20

It will be seen that the values for lumber at $18 and those
for ties are nearly equal, with the advantage in favor of lumber.
At $24 per M, the values for lumber rise towards those for
poles. The values for cordwood are very small, and show con-
clusively that it does not pay to make into wood any chestnut
fit for other products.

Volume Tables.

The tables which follow show the volumes in different kinds
of materials for trees of different sizes, calculated from tables
in the United States Forest Service Bulletin 96. These were
based on measurements of 218 felled trees in Connecticut and
adjacent portions of New York. Since the conditions of growth
here are similar, these figures will apply to Massachusetts trees.

Since volume tables give the average of large numbers of
measurements, they cannot be expected to be accurate for indi-
vidual trees> but only for numbers of trees growing in well-
stocked stands. To apply the tables, the number of trees of
each inch diameter class should be ascertained by measurement
or estimate. The average height of trees of each diameter
should be taken to the nearest 10 feet. The total volume can
then be found by multiplying the number of trees in each diam-
eter class by the figure in the table for the corresponding height,
and adding the products.

The figures published by the State forester of Connecticut
in 1906 are included in these tables for the purpose of compari-
son. These figures are set in heavy type. They are based on
over 400 trees.

Cordwood.

Table 6 is computed from the Forest Service table of volume
in cubic feet of round wood, and the table of converting fac-
tors — percentages of solid wood in stacked cordwood — to re-
duce these to cords. These factors are said to be conservative,
which probably explains why the Connecticut figures are
slightly larger than the corresponding ones calculated from the
Forest Service bulletin.

21

Table 6. — Volume of Chestnut in Cords.

[Computed from tables in Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Height in feet,

20.

30.

40.

50.

60.

70.

80.

90.

Diameter Breast
High (Inches).

Volume in Cords.

2

0.003

0.005

-

-

-

-

-

-

3, .

.006

.01

0.01

-

-

-

-

-

4, .

-

.02

.02, .02

0.03

-

-

-

-

5, .

-

.02

.04, .04

.04

-

-

-

-

6, .

-

-

.04

.06, .06

0.07

-

-

-

7, .

-

- '

.06

.07, .08

.09

-

-

-

8, .

-

-

.07

.09

.11, .11

0.12

-

-

9, .

-

-

.09

.11

.13, .13

.15

-

-

10, .

-

-

.12

.14

.16, .17

.18

0.20

0.21

11, •

-

-

.14

.17

.19, .21

.22

.24

.26

12, .

-

-

.17

.20

.23

.26, .27

.29

.32

13, .

-

.19

.23

.27

.30, .31

.34

.38

14, .

-

-

-

.27

.31

.36, .34

.40

.44

15, .

-

-

.30

.35

.41, .41

.46

.51

16, .

-,

-

-

.34

.40

.46, .47

.52

.58

17, .

-

-

-

.38

.45

.52, .53

.59

.66

18, .

-

-

-

.43

.50

.58, .61

.66

.74

19, .

-

-

-

.46

.53

.64

.70, .73

.82

20, .

-

-

-

.51

.61

.71

.77, .81

.92

21, .

-

-

-

-

.68

.79

.86, .90

1.01

22, .

-

-

-

-

.74

.86

.95, .99

1.11

23, .

-

-

-

-

.80

.94

1.04, 1.07

1.21

24, .

-

-

-

-

.88

1.03

1.14, 1.17

1.32

25, .

-

-

-

-

.96

1.12

1.25, 1.28

1.44

Figures in heavy type are those in the Connecticut bulletin.

Lumber.

The volume table for lumber is adapted from that in the
Forest Service bulletin. Logs were scaled by the International
rule, reduced 10 per cent, to allow for the wide kerf of the ordi-
nary portable mill. The volume of topwood and limbs has been
reduced to cords by dividing by 80, a conservative factor.

22

The Connecticut figures were based on a modification of the
Doyle rule, amounting practically to a mill-tally rule.

Table 7. — Volume of Chestnut in Lumber and Additional Cordwood.

[Computed from tables in Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Height in feet, .

50.

60.

70.

80.

90.

Volume.

Diameter

Breast High

(Inches).

O

to

ft

■n
o

pq

m

u

o
O

ft

o

pq

ED

U
O

o

o
<o

ft

t-t
03

o

PQ

o5

u
o

O

+3

eo

ft

-d
u

03
O

pq

4

M

O

O

o

o

ft

T3
u

a
o
pq

03

(-,
O

o

9, . .

10

.07

15,35

.09

22

.10

-

-

-

-

10, .

26

.06

32,47

.08

40

.09

48

.09

56

.08

11,

42

.06

50,60

.08

58

.09

69

.09

80

.09

12,

58

.06

68,75

.08

78

.09

92

.09

107

.10

13,

74

.06

87,91

.08

100

.09

116

.10

133

.10

14,

92

.06

107

.08

122, 110

.09

141

.10

160

.11

15,

110

.06

127

.08

147, 131

.10

168

.11

190

.12

16,

129

.06

150

.09

172, 155

.11

196

.12

222

.14

17,

-

-

174

.09

200, 180

.12

226

.14

255

.17

18,

-

-

198

.09

227, 206

.12

257

.16

291

.19

19,

•

-

-

223

.09

257, 235

.13

292

.17

328

.21

20,

-

-

250

.09

288, 266

.14

327

.19

368

.24

21,

-

-

276

.10

318, 298

.16

363

.21

409

.27

22,

-

-

305

.10

350, 335

.17

400

.24

451

.30

23,

-

-

333

.11

385, 372

.19

440

.27

493

.34

24,

-

-

363

.11

420, 411

.21

479

.30

538

.39

25,

-

-

396

.12

457, 451

.23

520

.34

583

.45

26,

-

-

-

-

495

-

-

-

-

-

27,

-

-

-

-

541

-

-

-

-

-

28,

-

-

-

-

587

-

-

-

-

-

29,

-

-

-

-

637

-

-

-

-

-

30,

-

-

-

-

688

-

-

-

-

Figures in heavy type are those in the Connecticut bulletin.

23

Ties.

Table 8 gives the contents of trees in 6 by 8 inch ties, with
the wood left in tops and limbs. The Connecticut figures run
lower than those of the Forest Service.

Table 8. — Volume of Chestnut in 6 by 8 Inch Ties and Additional

Cordwood.

[Computed from tables in Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Height in feet,

50.

60.

70.

80.

90.

Volume.

Diameter Breast
High (Inches).

o

00

M
O
O

n
35

H

03

u

O

O

bS

a>

4

o
O

00

<x>
H

go

M
O
O

m

H

05

U

o
D

10,

1

.11

1,1

.13

1

.14

1

.13

3

.12

11,

1

.10

1,2

.12

2

.13

2

.13

4

.12

12,

2

.09

2,2

.11

3

.13

3

.13

4

.13

13,

3

.09

3,3

.10

3

.12

4

.12

5

.13

14,

3

.08

3

.10

4,5

.12

5

.12

8

.13

15,

5

.08

5

.09

4,5

.12

6

.12

9

.13

16,

6

.07

6

.09

5,7

.11

7

.13

9

.14

17,

-

-

6

.08

5, 8

.11

8

.13

10

.16

18,

-

-

7

.07

8, 6i

.12, .09

9

.14

11

.17

19,

-

-

7

.07

8,7i

.12, .09

10

.15

12

.19

20,

-

-

8

.06

10, 8 »

.12, .10

11

.17

13

.22

21,

-

-

9

.06

10,9i

.13, .10

11

.18

14

.24

22,

-

-

11

.06

10,101

.14, .11

14

.21

17

.27

23,

-

-

12

.06

12,lli

.15, .12

14

.23

17

.31

24,

-

-

12

.06

13, 13i

.16, .13

15

.27

19

.36

25,

-

-

15

.06

15,14i

.18, .14

18

.30

21

.42

26,

-

-

-

-

16i

.15

-

-

-

-

27,

-

-

-

-

18i

.16

-

-

-

Figures in heavy type are those in the Connecticut bulletin.
1 Seventy-five feet in height.

24

Poles.

Table 9 gives the length of pole that can be obtained from
trees of different dimensions, with the volume in cords of addi-
tional wood. The Connecticut figures agree exactly with the
corresponding ones of the Forest Service.

Table 9. — Volume of Chestnut in Poles and Additional Cordwood.

[Computed from tables in Forest Service Bulletin 96.]

Height in feet,

50.

60.

70.

80.

90.

Diameter Breast
High (Inches).

12,
13,
14,
15,

16,
17,
18,
19,
20,

21,

22,
23,
24,
25,

26,
27,
28,
29.
30,

•$ 6
bc-3

fln.

25
30
35

Volume.

.04
.02

m-3

On.

h3

25,25

25,25

30

35

O

.08
.06
.04

bfl-3
i-3

25
30,30
35,35

40,40

40,40

45,45

451

45i

50i
55'
55i
55'
55i

55i
55'
55'
55'

T3
O

O

.12
.11
.10

.08
.10
.06

"5 ©

25
30
35

40

45
50

60

O

.15

.14
.13

.11
.10
.09

25
30
35

40
45
50
55
60

3

o
O

.18
.17
.16

.14
.13
.11
.10
.09

Figures in heavy type are those in the Connecticut bulletin.
' Seventy-five feet in height.

25

List of Operators making a Specialty of handling

Chestnut.

This list includes all the dealers handling chestnut of whom
this office knows.

Amherst, F. A. Cadwell.

Ashland, Lewis Alberine, Winter Street.

Athol, Page & Farrington.

Attleboro, Clarence Lincoln, R. F. D. 1.

Attleboro, Frederick C. Rounds, R. F. D. 4.

Ayer, Levi Phelps.

Barre, James A. Rice.

Belchertown, Louis Giroux, R. F. D. 1.

Belchertown, A. B. Howard & Son.

Belchertown, A. L. Kimball.

Belchertown, CD. Lyman.

Belchertown, D. C. Nutting.

Belchertown, J. A. Pesso.

Belchertown, James Pezo.

Belchertown, E. F. Shumway.

Belchertown, Gay & Shumway.

Belchertown, E. C. Witt.

Berlin, Walter A. Wheeler.

Bernardston, E. E. Benjamin.

Bernardston, Baxter Burrows.

Billerica, Leslie A. Bull, Box 142.

Blackstone, D. W. Gaskill.

Blandford, A. E. Blaeslee.

Bondsville, E. L. Bond.

Bondsville, R. L. Bond.

Boston, Willis C. Bates & Co., 70 Kilby Street.

Boston, Boston Lumber Company.

Boston, J. A. Hurd Lumber Company.

Boston, Geo. McQuesten Company, 27 Kilby Street.

Boston, Pettingell-Andrews Company, Pearl Street.

Boston, Virginia Tie and Lumber Company, Mason Building.

Boston, Western Electric Company, 115 Purchase Street.

Brockton, Kendrick & Lawton, 40 Tilton Ave.

Canton, John Estey.

Charlton Depot, E. A. Lamb.

Chartley, Joseph Dumont.

Chelmsford, H. L. Parkhurst.

Chester, George H. Brown.

Chester, Thomas Rose.

26

Chester, G. C. Turner.

Clinton, Wm. L. Bancroft.

Clinton, Philbin Bros., 142 High Street.

Deerfield, S. W. & C. B. Childs.

Deerfield, Henry Wells.

Dwight, L. A. Randolph.

Easthampton, W. T. Evans.

East Foxborough, Mr. Forrest.

East Foxborough, Mr. Hamilton.

East Norton, A. E. & C. W. Sweet.

Enfield, C. W. Felton.

Enfield, F. E. Hamilton.

Everett, Albert Lennox, 159 Nichols Street.

Fall River, A. A. Bedard, Cory Street.

Feeding Hills, Nelson G. King.

Fitchburg, A. A. Marshall, 14 Prospect Street.

Fitchburg, Benjamin F. Ordway.

Florence, Wilfred Learned.

Foxborough, Arthur Coombs.

Foxborough, Amelia Jackson.

Framingham, D. L. Whitney.

Franklin, Edward S. Cook.

Grafton, H. G. Stowe.

Granby, R. A. French.

Granville, Peter Oveson.

Granville, B. J. Roberts.

Granville Center, David L. Roache.

Great Barrington, Warren H. Davis.

Great Barrington, Charles Hollenbeck.

Great Barrington, Geo. A. Stevens.

Great Barrington, N. B. Turner.

Greenfield, Cladwell, Glazier & Porter.

Greenfield, H. C. Porter.

Greenwich Village, W. H. Walker.

Hampden, Nelson M. Carew.

Hampden, E. H. Temple.

Hampden, Thresher Bros.

Holden, J. W. Holt.

Holliston, Aldrich & Mainini.

Holliston, Henry M. Cutler.

Holliston, J. H. Dewing.

Holliston, George Fair.

Holliston, W. P. Kingsbury.

Holliston, Daniel Phipps.

Hopedale, The Draper Company.

Hopedale, Hopedale Cemetery Company.

27

Hopkinton, Chas. R. Burnap.
Hopkinton, A. W. Keyes.
Hopkinton, John Pond.
Hopkinton, Michael Rafty.
Housatonic, Noble Turner.
Huntington, DeWitt C. DeWolf .
Huntington, S. S. Eastwood.
Huntington, M. R. Fisk.
Huntington, E. L. Gorham.
Huntington, Annie N. Lewis.
Huntington, J. B. Lyman.
Huntington, Leon Savoit.
Huntington, Fred Staunton.
Indian Orchard, G. C. A. Fuller.
Indian Orchard, J. L. Simonds.
Lancaster Center, M. A. Estabrook.
Lee, W. C. Baldwin.
Lee, D. D. Hopkins.
Lee, Emerson Houston.
Leominster, A. L. Walker.
Littleton, Flagg Bros.
Ludlow, H. M. Bartlette.
Ludlow, Frederick L. Burr.
Ludlow, The Burr Company.
Ludlow, Burr & Munsing.
Ludlow, Arthur D. King.
Lunenburg, A. A. Cook.
Mansfield, F. I. Sherman.
Marlborough, Theodore Temple.
Mendon, D. H. Barnes.
Mendon, C. A. Fletcher.
Mendon, J. A. Fletcher.
Mendon, E. H. Taft.
Mendon, Leonard Taft.
Milford, John Remick.
Millbury, Geo. J. Dudley.
Millbury, Samuel Goodell, Box 177.
Millbury, Thomas Hill.
Miliis, Lemuel Clark.
Monson, Albert Blanchard.
Monson, Lyman C. Flynt.
Monson, Theodore Gunther.
Monson, C. F. Hancock.
Monson, H. D. Moulton.
Monson, W. M. Peck.
Monson, W. M. Tucker.

28

Montague, F. T. Lyman.

Montgomery, Merton E. Camp.

Montgomery, Edward C. Clark.

Montgomery, Edwin F. Hall.

Montgomery, Andrew Katre.

Montgomery, Myron E. Kelson.

Montgomery, C. A. Williams.

New Salem, Bullard Bros.

Newton Upper Falls, C. H. Spring.

Norton, A. E. Sweet.

Norton, A. H. Sweet & Son.

North Attleborough, Jas. Lavery.

North Attleborough, N. J. Mangan & Co.

North Attleborough, W. H. Riley & Son.

North Amherst, W. D. Cowles.

North Amherst, R. D. Dickenson.

Northampton, S. A. Bailey.

Northborough, T. E. Mentzer.

Northbridge, W. Brown.

Northbridge, F. S. Haward.

North Brookfield, E. A. Batcheller.

North Brookfield, H. E. Cummings.

North Brookfield, W. F. & F. A. Fullam.

North Brookfield, Geo. A. "Whiting.

North Brookfield, J. A. Hurd Lumber Company.

North Dana, Gee & Tyler.

North Dana, Grover & Gee.

North Easton, Jerry Drake.

North Grafton, C. R. AtweU.

North Wilbraham, Chas. M. Calkins.

North Wilbraham, H. M. Green. .

North Wilbraham, W. F. Morgan.

Oxford, Chaffe Bros. Company.

Palmer, J. M. Allen.

Palmer, Booth Bros.

Palmer, Elmer I. Bradway.

Palmer, Harwood & Hamilton.

Palmer, H. M. Sutcliffe.

Pittsfield, Peter Cimini, 37 Jordan Avenue.

Russell, Dana F. Dewey.

Russell, Wilbur L. Herrick.

RusseU, Clifford Williston.

Sharon, Edward Drake, Bay Road.

Shirley, G. M. Ballou.

Shirley, Jas. L. Hazen.

Shrewsbury, Defresne Bros.

.

29

Shrewsbury, Geo. N. Gates.

Shrewsbury, S. R. Howe, Turnpike Road.

Shrewsbury, Allen E. Knowlton.

South Berlin, E. W. Wheeler.

South Berlin, Walter A. Wheeler.

Southampton, E. K. Parsons.

Southampton, H. L. & W. A. Parsons.

Southbridge, Fred E. HaU, 43 Eastford Street.

Southbridge, F. C. Spaulding.

Southbridge, S. W. Plympton.

South Deerfield, S. W. & C. B. Childs.

South Framingham, Frank H. Twitchell.

South Hadley Falls, H. R. Britton.

South Hadley Falls, J. J. Moriarty.

Southwick, Palmer Bros.

Spencer, H. F. Davidson.

Spencer, W. A. Wilson.

Springfield, J. L. Brooks, care of Brooks Banknote Company.

Springfield, Max Elpert, 166 Ferry Street.

Springfield, Samuel Hurwitz, 42 Plymouth Street.

Springfield, Marcus Perm, 236 Dickinson Street.

State Line, E. 0. Raynor.

State Line, M. L. Vernnes.

State Line, John H. Wilcox.

Sterling, Wilder, Walker & Davis.

Stockbridge, G. L. Bradley.

Stoughton, Daniel Lehan.

Stow, Chas. Felcher.

Sunderland, H. H. Bixby.

Taunton, Clifford L. Chase, 623 Tremont Street.

Taunton, Geo. A. Crane.

Taunton, Arthur H. Goff.

Taunton, George E. Rounds.

Taunton, William Slater.

Townsend, Clarence Stickney.

Tyringham, Carl Curtis.

Tyringham, James McCarthy.

Upton, B. C. Wood.

Uxbridge, Walter Gaskill.

Uxbridge, C. E. Talbot.

Wales, H. F. Bradley.

Wales, E. L. Needham & A. L. Hubbard.

Wales, La Roy Squier.

Wales, James H. Walker.

Ware, A. N. Coney.

Ware, H. M. Coney.

30

Ware, E. W. Lawton.

Ware, John M. Moore.

Ware, Amedee Vigeant.

Ware, Geo. C. Wesson.

Warren, F. E. Gleason.

Warren, H. N. Shepard.

Webster, Racicot Bios.

Wellesley, Chas. S. Spring.

Westborougb, Herbert D. Adams.

Westborough, A. M. Nourse.

Westborough, Mason Taft.

Westfield, Geo. W. Loomis.

Westford, Oscar Spaulding.

Westminster, C. H. Merriam.

Worcester, M. Bagdasarian, 57 Hamilton Street.

Worcester, Bemis & Dodge, 737 Slater Building.

Worcester, Joseph Boucher, 178 Plantation Street.

Worcester, L. B. Davis, 805 Grove Street.

Worcester, Ashabel Griswold, 24 Dewey Street.

Worcester, Geo. L. Jacques.

Worcester, W. H. Sawyer.

Woronoco, Mrs. Nettie Cortes.

Woronoco, Andrew Oleksak.

Woronoco, Gregor Oleksak.

Wrentham, G. W. Gilmore.

Wrentham, C. E. Williams.

Other States.
Cumberland Hills, R. I., John McLaughlin.
Eagleville, Conn., J. M. White.
Norwich, Conn., L. B. Brockett.
Norwich, Conn., A. L. Potter & Co.
Suffield, Conn., W. L. Stiles.
Thompsonville, Conn., I. D. Woodworth.

J

The Forests of Worcester County

THE RESULTS OF A FOREST SURVEY OF THE
FIFTY-NINE TOWNS IN THE COUNTY

AND A

STUDY OF THEIR LUMBER INDUSTRY

By H. O. COOK, M.F., Under the Direction of
F. W. RANE, State Forester

Massachusetts State Forester, 1916

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

1917

Approved by
The Supervisor of Administration.

FOREWORD.

We are fortunate in being able to present herewith the forest
survey of the towns composing Worcester County. This work
has been in progress for the past three years, under the super-
vision of my assistant, Mr. H. O. Cook, M.F., who has had the
assistance of several young men from various forestry schools
who have worked largely during the summer vacations.

It is believed that these data will prove very valuable for
present and future use in our State forestry development, and
our purpose is ultimately to complete the work in the other
counties of Massachusetts in the same way.

F. W. RANE,

State Forester.

Nov. 2, 1916.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Explanation of survey,, 7

Explanation of data : —

Size classes, 10

Forest types, 12

Open land types, 14

Worcester County, 14

Town forest conditions : —

Ashburnham, 20

Athol, 21

Auburn, 23

Barre, 24

Berlin, 25

Blackstone, 26

Bolton, 27

Boylston, 28

Brookfield, 29

Charlton, 30

Clinton, 31

Dana, 32

Douglas, 33

Dudley, 34

Fitchburg, 36

Gardner, 37

Grafton, . 39

Hardwick, 40

Harvard, 41

Holden, 42

Hopedale, 44

Hubbardston, 45

Lancaster, 46

Leicester, 47

Leominster, 48

Lunenburg, 49

Mendon, 50

Milford, 51

Millbury, 52

New Braintree, 53

North Brookfield, 54

Town forest conditions — concluded. page

Northborough, 55

Northbridge, 56

Oakham, 58

Oxford, 59

Paxton, 60

Petersham, 61

Phillipston, . 62

Princeton, 63

Rutland, 65

Shrewsbury, 66

Southborough, .67

Southbridge, 68

Spencer, 69

Sterling, 70

Sturbridge, 72

Sutton, 72

Templeton, . . . .74

Upton, 75

Uxbridge, 76

Warren, 77

Webster, 78

West Boylston, 79

West Brookfield, 80

Westborough, 82

Westminster, 83

Winchendon, 84

Worcester, 86

THE FORESTS OF WORCESTER COUNTY.

Explanation of Survey.

One of the first essentials in carrying on a business of any
extent is an inventory showing the stock on hand. Our raw
material in the forestry business in this State is our forest land.
We have never had any thorough investigation which would
answer the simplest question in this connection, — namely, how
much of the area of this State is under forest cover and how
much is tillage and pasture. About eleven years ago this de-
partment, in co-operation with the Massachusetts Bureau of
Statistics, sent maps to the various town assessors and had
them locate on these maps the forest land in their towns. Due
partially to ignorance of conditions on the part of the assessors
and partly to the impossibility of locating from memory all
forest land on a small map, we found that the results of this
investigation were very crude and unsatisfactory. A few
towns were checked up, and the results showed that this
investigation underran the actual forest area by 25 to 50 per
cent. For this reason we have rejected these data as trust-
worthy bases of comparison, believing that the estimate of well-
informed people is more reliable. An investigation which shows
simply the forest area as compared with the open land, while
most interesting, has very little practical value. Such a survey
to be of use must in addition show the amount of various
species which compose the forest, and also the various ages and
size classes. It is only with such information that we can make
any estimate as to the present and future lumber and cordwood
supply in this State.

It was with these conditions in mind that three years ago we
decided to make a forest survey of Worcester County. This is
not only the largest county in area, but is the most important

8

from the forestry standpoint. Its woodlands produce the
largest amount, and its wood-using industries consume the
largest amount of native lumber of any county in the State.

The forest surveying was done in the summer months by
students of various forest schools. In this way we were able to
get trained men at small expense. The work has taken more
time than we anticipated, and was not completely finished until
this summer. In the meantime, however, a similar survey of
Plymouth County has been undertaken and will be completed
this year.

Method of Survey.

Investigations similar to this have been attempted in other
States, and the usual method of work has been for the men to
traverse all the roads in each town and to sketch in the forest
and open land on a base map provided for the purpose. We
started our work on the same plan, but after completing a
couple of towns changed our method. We found that most of
the open farming land lies along the roads, and that the bulk
of the forest lies back of this open country. For this reason,
while it is possible to sketch in boundaries of the forest land
from the roadside, it is impossible to obtain any adequate idea
of the composition, size and density of the woodland without
actually traversing it. Such a system, therefore, did not give
us the information that we most desired.

The method of field work finally used is an adaptation of a
large-scale timber cruising system which we felt gave a maxi-
mum amount of information at a minimum cost. Each man
worked one town at a time, running lines one-half mile apart
by compass and pace from one boundary to the other. In a
specially ruled notebook, on a scale of 1 inch to 1,000 feet, the
length of each type as shown by the pace was recorded. Panto-
graph enlargements of government topographical sheets on a
scale of 1,000 feet to an inch were used as a base map. The
data on the notebooks were therefore easily transferred to the
map. One of these maps is shown as a cut of the town of
Bolton. (In the Plymouth County survey photographic en-
largements of the topographic sheets on a scale of 2,000 feet to
the inch were found satisfactory, and were more convenient to
handle.)

By means of symbols the species making up the type, by
numbers the size, and by per cents, the density of stocking, are
shown; for example, the following note on the line data,
A E C, 2-3, 80, 700, means this: a mixed stand of pine, oak
and chestnut, principally pine, of a size midway between
Classes 2 and 3, 80 per cent, being fully stocked and extending
over 700 feet of line run. In addition, there were special
symbols representing chestnut bark disease, fire hazard, etc., if
there chanced to be any present. The number of feet in each
type, as compared with the total number of feet run in the
town, is then proportioned into the total area of the town and
the area of each type in acres calculated.

The data obtained in this way are very complete, and in
working these up for purposes of publication it was necessary,
for the sake of brevity, to exclude some, or to combine several
different types and size classes. The complete data are all on
file, however, and can be used whenever it appears to be worth
while.

Reports.

In addition to the survey each examiner was asked to write
a report on each town, covering his observations of the forest,
topographical and soil conditions, lumbering and woodworking
industries, timber prices, the names of principal landowners,
forest-fire conditions, chestnut blight, gypsy-moth infestations,
and everything which might be of interest to this department.
These reports and the forest maps are on file in the office, and
can be referred to whenever any forestry problem comes up in
the town.

In order to limit the size of this bulletin it was decided that
only those sections of the reports dealing with the forest con-
ditions and wood-using industries should be published.

The following is a list of men who made these forest surveys
and reports, with the towns in which they worked : —

David L. Dorward, . Brookfield, North Brookfield, Warren, West

Brookfield.

Harold Fay, . . . . Auburn, Barre, Dana, Hardwick, Millbury,

New Braintree, Oakham, Oxford, Worces-
ter.

10

Cedric H. Guise,

Walter G. Iles,
O. D. Ingalls,
Herbert J. Miles,

James Morris,

J. R. Simmons,

Lenthall Wyman,

Dudley, Grafton, Holden, Leominster, North-
bridge, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, Shrews-
bury, Spencer, Sterling, Sutton, West
Boylston.

Athol, PhiUipston, Royalston, Templeton.

Winchendon.

Ashburnham, Gardner, Harvard, Westmin-
ster.

Charlton, Hubbardston, Leicester, Petersham,
Southbridge, Sturbridge.

Boylston, Berlin, Bolton, Clinton, Douglas,
Fitchburg, Lancaster, Lunenburg, North-
borough, Southborough, Uxbridge, Web-
ster, Westborough.

Blackstone, Hopedale, Mendon, Milford,
Upton.

Explanation of Data.

Size Classes.

It is a difficult matter to divide the woodland into size
classes and draw a hard-and-fast line between them. For
purposes of classification we have recognized four classes, Class
1 being the largest and Class 4 the smallest. In the field
intermediate classes were recognized, but in the final classifica-
tion these have been included with one of the four principal
classes. The illustrations are a help in recognizing these size
classes.

Class 4- — This smallest class includes both seedling and
sprout growth from one to twelve years in age, from 1 to 20
feet in height, and less than 2 inches in diameter. This class
has no merchantable value, not even as cordwood.

Class 3. — This class includes growth of from twelve to thirty
years of age, from 20 to 35 feet in height, and from 2 to 6
inches breast high diameter. With cordwood species such as
oak and maple this type has a low merchantable value as a
producer of small, low-grade fuel wood. There is no saw
timber in this type, so that saw species, such as pine and
chestnut, in this size class can be said to have no merchantable
value.

Class 2. — This size includes trees from thirty to forty years
of age, from 30 to 50 feet in height, and from 6 to 12 inches in

11

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14

Open Land Types.

These types are pretty well described by their names, so that
no discussion is necessary, except in one or two instances.

It is difficult to distinguish between open and brush pasture,
as nearly all pasture has some brush growing in it. The
directions to the examiners, however, were to include in brush
pasture such lands as were so fully grown up with blueberry
bushes, hardhack, sweet fern, etc., as to be about three-fourths
covered with such brush growth. When pasture was stocking
with a young growth of gray birch, maple, etc., it was included
in the birch and maple, size 4, class, and for this reason the
area of brush pasture may seem to be smaller than it should be.

In small towns it is a difficult matter to separate the area
described as business and residential from the purely farming
land, and in many very small communities no attempt was
made to do so. Business and residential represent the area
occupied by the village or urban section of the township.

Water areas are obtained from the topographical maps, and
are not very trustworthy in many cases. The topographical
survey was made forty years ago, and since then new dams
have been built in brooks and rivers and new areas flooded,
while, on the other hand, old dams which existed at that time
have broken down and the mill ponds have disappeared. On
the whole, we find that there is more water area than these
maps show.

Worcester County.
Worcester County, the largest in the State, is located in the
central part and extends from the New Hampshire line to the
Connecticut and Rhode Island lines. The city of Worcester
fittingly calls itself the heart of the Commonwealth. Three
lines of railroad traverse it from east to west, — the Fitchburg
Division of the Boston & Maine in the northern part, the
Central Massachusetts Division of the Boston & Maine through
the central part, and the Boston & Albany in the southern
section. These roads are cross connected by several small
branch lines of the three main lines mentioned above, so that
no part of the county is more than 10 miles from the. railroad.

15

Like all of Massachusetts, the principal business is manu-
facturing, although there is a considerable farming and dairying
business carried on in the county. The manufacturing in-
dustries are quite varied, the principal ones being machinery,

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MAP OF WORCESTER COUNTY-

wire goods, textiles, — both cotton and wool, — paper, furniture
and shoes. Worcester, the second city of the State, is the
county seat, while Fitchburg, one of the larger communities of
the State, contains the county offices for the northern district.

16

Topography.

Worcester County is on the southern extension of those high-
lands which in New Hampshire form the divide between the
Connecticut and Merrimack rivers. In Massachusetts all the
streams on the west side of the divide drain into the Connecti-
cut, while on the east side of the divide the streams in the
north section drain into the Merrimack, and those in the
southern section drain directly into the ocean r A line drawn
from Ashburnham in the northeast corner of the county to
Sturbridge in the southwest will about divide these two water-
sheds. The principal streams draining the western watershed
are the Miller's, Ware, Swift and Quaboag rivers, while on the
eastern side are the Nashua, which empties into the Merrimack,
the Quinebaug, a tributary of the Nashua, the headwaters of
the Assabet and Sudbury rivers, both of which are tributary
to the Merrimack, and the Blackstone.

The general character of the topography is that of gently
rounded hills with rather narrow valleys between. Occasionally
these hills take the form of distinct ridges running north and
south. This is especially the case in the southern part of the
county, but on the whole there is little regular arrangement.
Elevations are highest at the north end of the county, where
they average between 1,000 and 1,200 feet above sea level, and
decrease gradually towards the south, where they are between
700 and 800 feet in altitude. The most prominent hill is
Mount Wachusett in Princeton and Westminster, which, with
its elevation of 2,100 feet, dominates the entire hill country,
and is the highest hill in Massachusetts east of the Connecticut
River.

Soil.
In general the soil is a light sandy loam containing many
stones. The top soil is underlaid by coarse gravel or hardpan.
The better quality of soil is found on the hill slopes, while the
valley bottoms are, as a rule, very sandy or gravelly. Low
swamps and meadow lands have a black mucky soil, but these
are of local occurrence. Although swampy areas are numerous

17

they are of small extent, and the county may be said to be well
drained. There are swamps of considerable area in the southern
part of Brookfield and in the southern part of Auburn. The
Nashua River valley in Lancaster has an extensive clay loam
area distinct from anything else in the county. This area con-
tains deposits of fuller's earth, a clay used in the scouring of
woolen cloth. The soil is generally deep even on the hills, and
outcropping ledges of the underlying rock are not common.
This underlying rock is of igneous origin, either granite, schist
or gneiss. About Milford the granite has a pinkish tinge and
is called "Milford pink granite," and is much prized in some
kinds of stone work, while in Fitchburg there are quarries of
common gray granite cut chiefly into edgestones and block
pavement.

Worcester County soil and topography would be favorable
for agricultural development were it not for the great amount
of stones and bowlders which make it impossible to work the
soil with economy. For this reason much of the area must
remain absolute forest soil. The soil on the whole is more
favorable to conifers than to hardwood growth, although in
low, moist situations and on north slopes deciduous growth
thrives excellently.

Forest Conditions.
Worcester County is on the boundary line between the
southern limit of what is called the northern forest type —
which contains, as hardwoods, beech, white and yellow birch
and rock maple, and as conifers, white pine, hemlock, fir and
spruce — and the northern edge of the southern forest region,
whose type of trees includes chestnut, oaks, hickory, gray birch,
red maple, white pine, pitch pine and hemlock. Lying as it
does in this intermediate zone between these two forest regions its
forest flora is very extensive. As explained before, it has been
necessary to group these various species into types, and we give
herewith a table showing the area of these forest types and non-
forest types for the whole county. It will be seen from this
table that the forest area covers more than one-half of the
county, or 57 per cent. It will be noted with regret that the

18

largest single type is that of the comparatively worthless maple
and gray birch, but on the other hand two-thirds of the forest
area is made up of types which contain saw species. One-
quarter of this forest area is doomed to serious damage on
account of the chestnut bark disease. Seven-tenths of the

FOREST 57%

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DIAGRAM SHOWING PROPORTION OF LAND TXPES FOUND IN
YIORCESTtR COUNT*.

forest area is practically below merchantable size, even for
cordwood. This is not to be taken, however, as a discouraging
feature, as naturally stands which have reached a merchantable
size are soon cut down, and the proportion of the larger sizes
must always be low.

19

Wood-using Industries.
Worcester County is an important district from the local
lumbering standpoint, for of the annual lumber cut in the State,
amounting to 400,000,000 feet, it produces at least a third, and
of the annual consumption of locally grown lumber used in
wood-using industries, amounting to at least 200,000,000 feet,
more than one-half is used in this county. The three chief
centers for wood-using industries of the State are located in
Worcester County; they are Gardner, Winchendon and Athol.
The industries using the greatest amount of home-grown
timber are those producing boxes, pails, toys, tubs, chairs and
match blocks. As the industries of these towns and others are
explained in detail in the individual town reports, we will not
go further into the matter in this chapter.

Total Land Types.

[59 towns.]

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

9,059

17,965

21,150

9,981

58,155

10

-

Oak

14,037

16,993

6,682

2,181

39,893

7

-

Chestnut and oak, .

29,049

33,290

16,388

6,019

84,746

15

-

White pine,

13,048

28,907

29,259

21,584

92,798

16

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

26,086

43,320

12,918

5,454

87,778

15

-

Maple and birch,

93,184

70,256

17,610

5,575

186,625

33

-

Softwoods other than white
pine.

5,022

10,073

6,882

2,992

24,969

4

-

Total

189,485

220,804

110,889

53,786

574,964

-

-

Percentage, .

33

39

19

9

214,450

100

57

Non-

FOREST T

TPES.

21

101,974

-

10

50,109

-

5

Alder and brush swamp,

7,461

-

1

Business, residential, etc ,

25,475

-

3

27,341

-

3

Total area of county,

1,001,774

-

100

20

ASHBURNHAM.

Pine is fairly abundant in Ashburnham in scattered stands,
especially in the south part of the township, and there is con-
siderable reproduction. The greater part of the woodlands is
composed of swamp or moisture-liking species, such as spruce,
larch, red maple, birch (gray, white and yellow), red oak, poplar
and beech. Red maple and beech are particularly abundant,
and there are large areas of spruce, larch and hemlock swamp.
The mixed hardwood type is composed of red maple, birches,
red oak, poplar, beech and a little chestnut, although most of
the chestnut has been cut off for the chair factories in Gardner,
Winchendon and Ashburnham.

The general size of the timber is in the 3-2 class, the rate pf
growth is fairly rapid, and the timber is in fair health. On the
northwest of Stodge Meadow Pond, and also about 1 mile west
from Ashburnham Center, are two areas where red pine is
abundant in mixture with white pine. Here the red pine is
growing about as rapidly as the white pine, and is cleaning itself
fairly well, especially where shaded at the side. Reproduction
in old pastures is plentiful where white pine stands from which
seed has come are near by.

The principal sawmill owners are L. Lashaway, Jr., W. E.
Jefts, Warren Marble, Charles Russell and W. E. Peckens.
L. Lashaway cuts pine, spruce and hemlock, about 1,000,000
board feet per year. The other owners saw irregularly, but
probably each saws from 500,000 to 1,000,000 board feet per
year. In addition there are many portable mill operators who
come in from other towns.

The W. F. Whitney Company, in South Ashburnham, has
two mills, using mostly southern oak and a little birch, beech
and maple from New Hampshire and Vermont.

The Curtis chair shop at Ashburnham uses per year
120,000 board feet of chestnut and 132,000 of birch, beech
and maple, practically all of which comes from outside the
State.

Wright's crutch factory turns out 3,500 crutches per month,
and uses the following: —

21

Rock maple, 1$ inch, 100 M board feet per annum.
Rock maple, 1£ inch, 6 to 8 M board feet per annum.
Birch, 1^ inch, 10 M board feet per annum.
Rosewood, 300 board feet per annum.
Cherry, 5 to 6 M board feet per annum.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

91

-

97

-

188

1

-

Oak

195

273

234

143

845

4

-

Chestnut and oak, . ,

58

39

169

150

416

2

-

White pine,

318

937

1,201

3,368

5,824

31

-

Hardwoods and white pine, x

726

779

189

336

2,030

11

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,564

2,012

356

785

5,717

31

-

Softwoods other than white
pine.2

617

1,525

941

643

3,726

20

-

Total

4,569

5,565

3,187

5,425

18,746

-

-

Percentage, .

24

30

17

29

3,173

100

71

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest T

YPES.

12

2,745

-

10

513

-

2

324

-

1

1,123

-

4

26,624

-

100

1 Hardwoods are mostly gray birch and maple with some white birch, poplar and beech.

2 Swamp spruce with a little larch and hemlock. Very little pitch pine.

Athol.

The northern portion of the town is a natural wiiite pine
region. White pine is the principal growth, with chestnut, oak,
birch and maple coming next in order. The largest stand of
white pine noted was possibly 150 acres in area, while the
average stand was about 30 acres. In some places red pine was
found in mixture wdth the white pine, and for the same period
of years the red pine seems to have outgrown the white pine

22

in volume. The southern part of the town is more of a hard-
woods region. Here the main growth is chestnut and oak, with
white pine, birch and maple coming next in order named.
Occasionally small stands of pure hemlock were found. The
hardwoods, chestnut and oak, were found in both pure and
mixed stands. In the mixed hardwoods, suppressed pine was
found but very rarely. Small areas of gray birch and white
pine were found in mixture.

Athol has one sawmill and several wood-using industries.
A sawmill situated in Athol and owned by Fred Patenaude cuts
8,000 board feet per day of white pine for local use.

Athol Center has several wood-using industries, as follows:
(1) Diamond Match Company, which consumed 19,000,000
board feet of white pine in 1912 and 13,000,000 in 1913; this
was used for match blocks; 3,000,000 came from Maine,
1,000,000 from Connecticut, while the balance was divided
between Massachusetts and New Hampshire. (2) N. D. Cass
Company use 1,500,000 of white pine, chestnut and hemlock in
the manufacture of wooden toys. (3) Stratton Bros & Co.,
manufacturers of boxes and interior house finishings, use
500,000 board feet of white pine and southern yellow pine;
the yellow pine amounting to 80,000 board feet. (4) A. J.
Raymond consumes 2,000,000 board feet of white and hard
pine and a small proportion of cypress in the manufacture of
sash, doors and blinds; this comes from California, Oregon,
Michigan, Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. (5)
A. T. Tyler Company, product, sash and blinds, use 1,000,000
to 1,500,000 board feet of white pine, coming from New York
and Michigan, and about 100,000 feet of sugar pine, coming
from California. (6) L. Morse & Sons manufacture furniture
from white pine, oak and chestnut received from local parties.
(7) H. M. Peckham supplies local demands with rails, posts and
balustrades.

23

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3 2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

296

255

497

128

1,176

7

-

Oak,

336

242

222

-

800

5

-

Chestnut and oak,

988

967

537

134

2,626

16

-

White pine,

370

672

1,048

766

2,856

18

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

1,182

1,538

1,303

262

4,285

26

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,553

1,350

322

74

4,299

26

-

Softwoods other than white

20

148

168

20

356

2

-

pine. 2

Total

5,745

5,172

4,097

1,384

16,398

-

-

Percentage, .

35

32

25

8

2,298

100

75

Non-

FOREST 1

'tpes.

10

1,794

-

8

262

-

1

Business, residential, etc.,

894

-

4

370

-

2

22,016

100

1 Hardwoods are largely birch and maple, with some oak and chestnut in the larger sizes.

2 Mostly hemlock and spruce.

Auburn.

Chestnut is the chief tree of the town, the chestnut and oak
type seeming to predominate. Most of it is still unmerchant-
able save for cordwood, and a good deal has been cut over
within the last ten years. Clear cutting is the rule, w-ith a little
poor selection cutting wThich leaves thin, scraggly stands.
There are a few small stands of merchantable pine, notably
Prospect Park, just south of Stone ville. There is a good stand
of small merchantable chestnut and some pine about a mile
southeast of the center of the town. There is quite a little
maple swamp, and in places small stands of pitch pine.

No sawmills nor woodworking industries were found in the
town. A mill belonging to Geo. L. Jacques of Worcester had
recently cut off the southeast slope of Prospect Hill, wdiere
there was a stand of small chestnut, oak and some pine.

24

Land Types.

Appeoximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

220

140

180

70

610

14

-

Oak

60

50

40

20

170

4

-

Chestnut and oak,

600

360

60

30

1,050

24

-

White pine,

160

80

40

280

6

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

130

340

40

-

510

12

-

Maple and gray birch,

780

710

100

50

1,640

37

-

Softwoods other than white

90

-

70

-

160

3

-

pine.2

Total, ....

1,880

1,760

570

210

4,420

-

-

Percentage,

43

40

13

4

100

49

Non-

fokest Types.

2,960

-

33

820

-

9

390

-

4

460

-

5

9,050

-

100

1 Hardwoods are mostly gray birch and poplar.

2 Mostly pitch pine with some cedar.

Barre.

Although this town has been extensively logged, there is still
a large amount of growing pine left, amounting to 50 per cent,
of the forest area. There is very little, however, of commercial
size. Commercially speaking, chestnut follows pine in im-
portance, but occurs with far less frequency. Red maple and
birch form one-fifth of the forest area.

Most of the lumber cut in Barre has been shipped outside.
There is a sash and blind factory at Barre Plains belonging to
Mr. T. E. Rich, and a planing mill owned by H. A. Knight.
James A. Rice is the leading operator.

25

Land

Types.

Appeoximate Size Classes.

Total.

Pee Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

-

67

393

193

653

4

.-

Oak

-

121

48

48

217

1

-

Chestnut and oak,

490

858

417

42

1,807

12

-

White pine,

459

2,213

1,415

744

4,831

32

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

889

3,059

314

48

4,310

29

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,080

883-

151

12

3,126

21

•

Softwoods other than white

-

24

79

85

188

1

_

pine.

Total, ....

3,918

7,225

2,817

1,172

15,132

-

-

Percentage, .

26

48

18

8

6,922

100

52

Non-

FOKEST T

YPES.

24

6,402

-

22

393

-

1

248

•

1

151

.

29,248

-

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch, maple and poplar in smaller sizes, giving way to chestnut and
oak in larger sizes.

Berlin.

The proportion of timbered land to the total area of the
town is about 50 per cent. The predominating type is oak and
pine, usually in mixed stands. Chestnut exists in pure stands
and in mixed stands with oak and pine. Hickory is more
common than in the average town, but there are no absolutely
pure stands.

Edmund W. Wheeler of South Berlin operates a sawmill
cutting about 250 M board feet per year. He uses mostly pine,
chestnut and oak. W. A. Wheeler of Berlin cuts chestnut poles
and ties.

26

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

70

170

140

280

660

16

-

Oak,

140

820

260

70

1,290

31

-

Chestnut and oak, .

70

170

130

70

440

10

-

White pine,

30

70

160

160

420

10

-

White pine and hardwoods, *

40

320

110

60

530

13

-

Maple and gray birch,

230

500

30

40

800

19

-

Softwoods other than white

_

30

30

10

70

1

_

pine. 2

Total

580

2,080

860

690

4,210

-

-

Percentage, .

14

49

20

17

2,820

100

50

Non-

forest Types.

33

560

-

7

740

-

9

110

-

1

8,440

-

100

1 Hardwoods are principally birch, maple and oak.

2 Pitch pine and hemlock.

Blackstone.

The wooded section of Blackstone is in poor condition as
regards thriftiness and percentage of useful species, on account
of the severe fires which have swept through. There is almost
no timber left which is merchantable, and very little which will
grade above a straight Class 3. Pine and softwoods are
lacking, even in reproduction, partly because of their greater
susceptibility to fire, which makes for a higher percentage of
hardwoods wherever it gets in. There are scattered small lots
of pine in the northern part of the town and on Candlewood
Hill, but the greater part of the land is covered with a sprout
growth of oaks, gray birch, chestnut and red maple.

There were no portable mills working in the town at the
time the survey was made. Moreover, there is only one
permanent mill. This mill is located in East Blackstone, being

27

run by water power from the Mill River. Mr. A. S. Kelley is
the owner. This mill is a small one, the amount cut varying,
but seldom exceeding 50 M board feet annually. The stock is
mostly chestnut, with some pine.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4 3

2

i

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

118

243

76

-

437

7

-

Oak,

186

274

15

22

497

8

-

Chestnut and oak,

63

871

278

54

1,266

19

-

White pine,

55

27

34

102

218

3

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

307

452

157

41

957

14

-

Maple and gray birch,

985

572

181

51

1,789

27

-

Softwoods other than white

446

536

296

166

1,444

22

-

pine.2

Total

2,160

2,975

1,037

436

6,608

-

Percentage, .

33

45

15

7

2,054

100

64

Non-

forest Types.

20

363

-

3

Brush pasture,

1,184

-

11

Water

197

-

2

10,406

-

100

1 Hardwoods consist of maple, chestnut and oak.

2 Largely pitch pine with some cedar.

Bolton.

The general condition of the forest is good, especially in the
pine, oak and hardwood types. There is a good layer of
humus. The principal species are pine and chestnut and oak
in clear and mixed stands. Ash and hickory are common in the
mixture and also as roadside trees. Suppressed pine is common
in the chestnut and oak types. The Century Mill, W. J.
Webber, proprietor, cuts chestnut and pine to the extent of
about 75 M board feet per year. This is the only lumber mill
in Bolton, and it is idle most of the time.

28

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

128

527

383

55

1.C93

V

-

Oak

150

419

155

153

877

13

-

Chestnut and oak,

424

887

255

230

1,796

28

-

White pine,

20

424

166

361

971

15

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

100

349

50

72

571

9

-

Maple and gray birch,

132

780

164

-

1,076

16

-

Softwoods other than white

-

112

35

9

156

2

_

pine. 2

Total

954

3,498

1,208

880

6,540

-

-

Percentage, .

14

53

19

14

4,373

100

51

Non-

forest Types.

34

902

-

7

945

-

7

Water, .

30

-

1

12,790

-

100

1 Principally maple and birch.

2 Pitch pine.

BOYLSTON.

The proportion of wooded land to the total area of the town
is about 50 per cent. The chief types are chestnut, oak, pine
and soft maple, in clear and mixed stands. In general the
condition is healthy. Practically all of the pine plantations
around the shores of the reservoir show a healthy growth.

The Sterling Lumber Company, represented by Walker,
Wilding & Davis, a Worcester firm, transact most of the
lumber business of this town, and cut about 200 M feet per
year.

George F. Flagg, Boylston Center, does some lumbering and
cuts about 200 M feet per year.

29

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

I

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

•

100

240

110

220

670

10

-

Oak

430

610

60

50

1,150

18

-

Chestnut and oak,

350

1,330

240

90

2,010

31

-

White pine,

40

310

100

40

490

7

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

-

300

40

110

450

7

-

Maple and gray birch,

390

1,340

20

10

1,760

26

-

Softwoods other than white

-

40

30

_

70

1

_

pine. 2

Total

1,310

4,170

600

520

6,600

-

-

Percentage, .

20

63

9

8

2,450

100

52

Non-

forest Types.

19

420

-

3

600

-

5

2,580

-

21

12,650

-

100

1 Hardwoods are mostly maple, with some chestnut, oak and gray birch.

2 Pitch pine.

Brookfield.

The woodlands are practically a mixture of all kinds of hard-
woods. The stands are all second growth in origin. The
woods were cut many years ago when the railroads were using
wood for fuel. These grew up and in many cases were cut
again within the last twenty or twenty-five years. Chestnut
is not abundant. There are a few pure stands, but as a rule it
occurs chiefly as a part of a mixture. This mixture is mostly
maple, gray birch, oak and chestnut, with an occasional cherry.
The stands are very irregular, the type constantly changing so
that the term "mixed hardwoods" is the best one to apply.
White pine is an important factor in nearly all the stands. In
many cases the type could be changed to a pure pine type with
good stocking if the inferior species were eliminated.

30

There are no sawmills in the town, but the cutting is done
chiefly by William F. Fullam and H. E. Cummings of North
Brookfield.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

460

600

410

30

1,500

14

-

Oak,

-

-

100

-

100

1

-

Chestnut and oak, .

120

20

80

350

570

5

-

White pine,

80

270

100

70

520

5

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

500

1,200

1,650

110

3,460

33

-

Maple and gray birch,

470

1,160

2,300

420

4,350

42

-

Total

1,630

3,250

4,640

980

10,500

-

-

Percentage, .

16

31

44

9

2,810

100

59

Non-

forest Types.

14

1,650

-

9

480

-

3

1,110

-

6

140

-

1

1,010

-

6

17,700

-

100

Hardwoods are largely maple and birch, with some chestnut and oak.

Charlton.

The maple and birch type predominates, mostly in small
sizes. Following this type in order of importance come the
chestnut and oak type, the hardwoods and white pine type,
and the white pine type. Few pure stands of chestnut exist.
The same holds true of oak. The only type running into the
Class 1 size that was noted was that of the white pine.

There are two combined sawmills and box shops capable of
cutting from 300 to 500 M board feet per annum. That of
Marcus Carpenter is located in Charlton City, while the
Putnam Brothers' mill is situated in the eastern part of the

31

town about 1| miles from Richardson's Corner. Both obtain
their logs locally, and sell their products either in Charlton or
in Worcester.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fobest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

30

120

160

-

310

2

-

Oak,

50

180

20

-

250

2

-

Chestnut and oak,

1,270

1,650

110

-

3,030

22

-

White pine,

150

800

1,000

80

2,030

15

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

890

1,660

160

-

2,710

20

-

Maple and birch,
Hemlock, ....

3,700

1,720
40

30
10

_ ,

5,450
50

t 39

-

Total, . . .

6,090

6,170

1,490

80

13,830

-

-

Percentage, .

44

44

11

1

7,240

100

49

Non-

forest Types.

26

3,130

-

11

2,520

-

9

410

-

1

150

-

1

850

-

3

-

-

100

Clinton.

The proportion of forest to cleared land is about 40 per cent.
The principal types are pine, oak and chestnut in mixed stands,
very little being of timber size. The entire northeast corner is
sprout land, sizes 3 and 4. Merchantable timber is found in
very small isolated wood lots. The general condition is only
fair.

W. A. Fuller cuts pine, chestnut, oak and pitch pine; amount
per year about 1,400 M.

W. L. Bancroft cuts pine, chestnut and oak; amount per
year a little less than 1,000,000 feet.

32

Phillip Philburn cuts 250 M per year, — pine 200 M, chest-
nut 50 M, and 1,500 cords of wood.

Bennett Alder cuts cordwood only, — chestnut, oak and pine
mostly, in Clinton, Boylston and Bolton.

Land Types.

Appkoximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

-

120

30

90

240

14

-

Oak,

340

380

60

20

800

47

-

Chestnut and oak,

-

280

60

60

400

23

-

White pine,

20

40

20

10

90

5

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

-

10

-

-

10

1

-

Maple and gray birch,

40

50

-

-

90

5

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

90

-

90

5

-

Total, ....

400

880

260

180

1,720

-

-

Percentage, .

23

51

15

11

650

100

37

Non-

fokest Types.

14

80

-

2

30
1,280

1 -

28

860

-

19

4,620

-

100

1 Hardwood is principally gray birch.

Dana.

Over two-thirds of the town is in forest, and white pine types
predominate. There is a considerable amount of pine of
commercial size, but it is being rapidly logged at this time.
Oak is widespread, but usually in mixed stands.

The chief industry at North Dana is a hat factory, but wood-
using industries occupy a considerable place. There is a box
factory in North Dana belonging to Grover and Gee, and also
one at Soapstone now operated by a Mr. Donnell. Principal
wood-lot operators are C. E. Gee, Cleveland Grover, R. N.
Doubleday and Otis Hager. The F. M. West Box Company
of Springfield have large holdings of pine timber in Dana.

33

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

70

110

230

240

650

8

-

Oak

90

130

110

10

340

4

-

Chestnut and oak, .

190

140

10

-

340

4

-

White pine,

220

930

1,000

590

2,740

32

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

990

1,250

100

250

2,590

31

-

Maple and gray birch,

340

420

200

130

1,090

13

-

Softwoods other than white

100

480

110

20

710

8

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

2,000

3,460

1,760

1,240

8,460

-

-

Percentage, .

24

41

21

14

1,710

100

67

Non-

FOREST T

YPES.

14

1,110

-

9

880

-

7

170

-

1

210

-

2

12,540

-

100

1 Hardwoods consist of gray birch, maple and oaks.

2 About one-half pitch pine and one-half hemlock.

Douglas.

The town is about 85 per. cent, wooded. This wooded area
contains mostly a dense healthy growth of white pine, pitch
pine, oak, chestnut and hardwoods, varying in size from 4 to 1.
There is a considerable amount of swamp in town containing
some hemlock and cedar.

There are two sawmills in the town; that of Mr. W. R.
Wallis sawrs about 500 M feet of pine and chestnut per year,
while that of Charles Church, running about half the time,
cuts about 200 M board feet of chestnut and pine per year.
Mr. W. R. Wallis also owns a box factory which, in connection
with his mill, uses about 1,000,000 feet of pine, oak, chestnut,
spruce and cedar. Mr. R. E. Dudley operates a portable mill
during the fall and winter months. He cuts about 1,000,000
feet per year of pine, oak and chestnut.

34

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

H

Oak

369

82
199

287

211

580
568

3
3

-

Chestnut and oak,

4,262

1,739

1,505

826

8,332

40

-

White pine,

64

867

867

1,064

2,862

13

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

1,306

2,810

896

357

5,369

25

-

Mixed hardwoods,1 .

1,458

1,399

240

100

3,197

15

-

Softwoods other than white
pine.2

59

-

35

47

141

1

-

Total, ....

7,518

7,096

3,830

2,605

21,049

-

-

Percentage, .

36

34

18

12

1,768

100

88

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

7

322

-

1

76

1

2

Business, residential, etc.,

334

1

Water

580

-

2

24,129

-

100

1 Hardwoods are maple, oak, chestnut and gray birch.

2 Cedar and hemlock.

Dudley.

In Dudley the timber is confined to several distinct areas.
Along the western boundary and in for about three-quarters of
a mile it forms an almost solid belt. From this line over to the
lake region the town is given over almost entirely to agriculture,
and outside of small patches of mixed hardwToods of un-
merchantable size very little hardwrood occurs. A longitudinal
strip, comprising the eastern quarter of the town, is covered
wdth some excellent stands of chestnut.

The prevailing types are chestnut, chestnut and oak, mixed
hardwoods and birch, wThile in some places pine occurs, usually
in combination with one of the above-named types. In no
place was found a stand wrhich could be classified as large
merchantable. The chestnut along the western and eastern
parts runs close to Class 2, but it will be some time before the

35

bulk will reach this size. The majority of the best trees now
run in a large 3 to a small 2 class. The chestnut stands in the
eastern part of the town contain trees of splendid quality, and
provided the blight does not come in too severely these will be
quite valuable for saw logs and poles ten or fifteen years hence.

Several areas of very large extent occur which have nothing
but a growth of young chestnut and oak sprouts. These
sprouts are generally infected with the bark disease, and from
the present indications will amount to very little. Around the
ponds in the east, and particularly in the southeast, the best
timber occurs.

There are no sawmills or woodworking industries in Dudley.
Portable sawmills have worked there recently, but have now
moved elsewhere, evidently from lack of suitable material to
operate upon.

The paper mill located at West Dudley uses only rags and
old paper, and is in no way connected with the wood pulp
industry.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

X

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut

170

200

310

110

790

14

-

Oak

380

360

10

-

750

13

-

Chestnut and oak,

470

620

190

-

1,280

23

-

White pine,

-

-

30

30

60

1

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

80

210

30

30

350

6

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,510

700

180

-

2,390

42

-

Softwoods other than white

_

30

_

_

30

1

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

2,610

2,120

750

170

5,650

-

-

Percentage, .

46

38

13

3

5,770

100

i

40

Non-

Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

40

1,010

i

7

1,390

-

10

450

3

Total area of town, .

14,270

"

100

1 Hardwoods are red maple and gray birch.

2 White cedar.

36

FlTCHBURG.

About 50 per cent, of the town is made up of wood and
sprout land. The principal types are white pine, pitch pine,
oak and chestnut, with hemlock, maple, poplar, white and gray
birch, beech, ash and other hardwoods. Clear stands are
usually of pine, oak, chestnut and maple. Mixed stands of
hardwood contain red maple in abundance, and a considerable
amount of hard maple on the hills. The general condition of
the wood growth is very good. There is not very much waste
land in the town.

Fitchburg is not a large consumer of native lumber, but there
are a few box manufacturers who take native pine and chestnut.
Most of the lumber used in building operations and builder's
finish comes from outside the State. The Crocker & Burbank
Company, paper manufacturers, use considerable lumber,
spruce and hard and soft pine. They occasionally buy wood
lots which they operate themselves. The Parkhill Manu-
facturing Company use pine and hemlock for cloth boards, and
operate their own wood lots. Messrs. P. R. Eaton and I. P.
Lawrence also operate locally.

Box Makers.

0. S. Cook & Sons.

C. A. Priest Lumber Company.

Haldie Nickerson.

Webber Lumber Company.

S. G. Cushing & Sons.

Chas. A. Priest Lumber Company.

Webber Lumber Company.
H. A. Lawrence Company.
P. R. Eaton.

Lumber Dealers.

E. E. Watson.
Wiley & Foss.

Lawrence & Klein Lumber Com-
pany.

Cordwood Dealers.
C. H. Greene. Union Coal Company.

Wood Novelties.
Mossman Manufacturing Company.

37

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4 3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

40

190

430

50

710

8

-

Oak

70

140

-

-

210

2

-

Chestnut and oak,

130

420

310

-

860

10

-

White pine,

80

890

980

560

2,510

29

-

Hardwoods and white pine, '

100

450

260

480

1,290

15

-

Maple and gray birch,

670

1,830

230

130

2,860

33

-

Softwoods other than white

-

80

220

20

320

3

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

1,090

4,000

2,430

1,240

8,760

-

-

Percentage, .

12

46

28

14

4,770

100

48

Non-

forest Types.

26

890

-

5

560

-

3

3,030

-

17

230

-

1

18,240

-

100

1 Hardwoods are red maple and birch.

2 About one-third pitch pine and two-thirds hemlock.

Gardner.

No extensive areas of woodland occur. There is a con-
siderable amount of forest scattered here and there in groups
and separated by large logged areas, swamps and brushy
pasture. The northern part of the town is more forested than
the southern part. Much good white pine is found and a
considerable amount of maple, beech and birch. The pine is
mixed with maple, beech, birch, poplar and cherry rather than
with chestnut and oaks, as it commonly is in the southern part
of Worcester County. Both red and sugar maple are more
plentiful here than in the southern part of the county. Ex-
tensive areas of swamp land bearing red and black spruce,
larch and hemlock occur. These swamps contain a young
growth scarcely large enough for box boards.

38

Gardner uses probably more lumber than any other town in
the State outside of Boston in manufacturing industries, and
the chief products are chairs and baby carriages. Naturally the
bulk of the lumber used are hardwoods, and the leading species
are birch, oak, chestnut, maple and beech. Considerable
quantities of cheap pine and spruce are used for crating pur-
poses.

Only about 20 per cent, of the lumber used in the industry is
cut in this State, although the bulk of it comes within the
limits of New England. Inasmuch as the lumber is cut up into
small pieces, the chair manufacturers can utilize a rather low
grade of hardwood lumber, Classes 1, 2 and 3 common. The
largest concern in Gardner is the Heywood Bros. & Wakefield
Company. This concern has mills also at Wakefield, Mass.,
and Chicago, 111. When running to capacity it employs 1,700
hands and consumes 20,000,000 feet per year. The other
chair-making concerns are much smaller and use from 2,000,000
to 5,000,000 feet per year. The following is a list of these
manufacturers of chairs : —

S. Bent & Brothers.

Conant, Ball & Co.

P. Derby & Co.

John A. Dunn Company.

Greenwood Associates.

Brown Brothers Company.

Pineo Manufacturing Company.

Kelly Brothers.
Howe Spalding.
Nichols & Stone.
L. B. Ramsdell.
S. K. Pierce & Son.
A. & H. Knowlton.

In addition to the above manufacturers of chairs, the Central
Oil Stove Company run a small sawmill at their plant at which
they cut up cheap pine and spruce for crating shooks. L. A.
Wright has a stationary mill in which they do custom sawing
and planing, handling pine largely. Timothy E. Sheary manu-
factures boxes and carries on a general lumber business. E.
Osgood & Sons and L. H. Kendall are the chief dealers in
cordwood.

39

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut and oak,

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

White pine,

441

64

947

173

1,625

19

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

1,010

237

275

179

1,701

20

-

Mixed hardwoods,1 .

2,756

787

281

141

3,965

46

-

Spruce, larch and hemlock,

582

83

588

64

1,317

15

-

Total

4,789

1,171

2,091

557

8,508

-

-

Percentage, .

56

14

24

6

1,913

100

59

Non-

forest Types.

13

627

-

4

1,509

-

10

1,663

-

11

Water

460

-

3

14,780

-

100

1 Smaller sized hardwoods are mostly gray birch; larger sized are maple, beech, chestnut and

oak.

Gkafton.

The greater part of this town has been cleared for farming
and pasture land. Timber land is relatively scarce, but where
it does occur it is in excellent condition. Chestnut is the
leading species, followed closely by oak and red maple. White
pine is scarce. On some of the old fields and farms reproduction
of white and pitch pine is rapidly taking possession. Numerous
small areas of gray birch are found scattered throughout the
entire town. A few excellent stands occur. Just east of the
Country Club is a stand of chestnut of Class 2 with an 85
per cent, stocking. Some of the trees will run to Class 1. The
bulk of the timber lies in the eastern quarter of the town in
scattered wood lots of from 5 to 50 acres. This ranges from
Class 1 to Class 3, the larger part being in Class 2.

Grafton has no permanent sawmills or woodworking in-
dustries.

40

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Ttpes.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

199

149

336

653

1,337

25

-

Oak,

105

149

118

12

384

7

-

Chestnut and oak, .
White pine,

690

503
12

174

87

1,454
12

28

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

155

131

44

-

330

6

-

Maple and gray birch,

945

696

62

-

1,703

32

-

Pitch pine,

-

31

50

-

81

2

-

Total

2,094

1,671

784

752

5,301

-

-

Percentage, .

40

31

15

14

5,966

100

35

Non-

forest Types.

40

2,020

-

14

1,264

-

8

261

-

2

118

-

1

Total area of town, .

14,930

-

100

1 Mostly gray birch with a little white pine.

Haedwick.

Commercially speaking, chestnut is the most distinctive tree
in the town of Hardwick, and there is an unusua amount of
commercial size present. White pine follows closely on chest-
nut, but it runs rather smaller. The western part of the town
is the most extensively wooded, but a considerable area in this
section was burned over in a large fire some years ago, so that
the woodland of better quality will be found in the eastern and
central parts.

There are no wood-using industries in this town, unless the
paper mill at Wheelwright can be called such. The wood pulp
used in this mill, however, all comes from mills in Maine and
New Hampshire. A Mr. Spooner on the Greenwich road has a
water mill which apparently is seldom used. A Mr. Howard on
the Gilbertville road has a water mill which is still in use.
Formerly he operated and sawed timber from his own lands,

41

but his work now is largely confined to custom sawing of logs
brought in. Chestnut is the chief product, and is put into
dimension lumber for local building purposes.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut

180

630

620

970

2,400

17

-

Oak

220

170

20

-

410

3

-

Chestnut and oak,

230

310

400

-

940

7

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

1,220

3,550

150

160

5,080

36

-

White pine,

130

710

290

500

1,630

12

-

Maple and birch,

1,080

940

160

140

2,320

17

-

Softwoods other than white
pine. 2

90

700

100

270

1,160

8

-

Total, ....

3,150

7,010

1,740

2,040

13,940

-

-

Percentage, .

23

50

12

15

3,280

100

54

Non-

forest Types.

13

5,530

-

22

2,540

-

10

110

1

1

200

1

25,600

-

100

1 Hardwoods are mostly maple.

2 About 50 per cent, pitch pine; remainder, largely hemlock.

Harvakd.

The hills in this town are covered mostly with the chestnut
and oak type, with considerable white pine in mixture and as
an understory. Frequent stands of white pine occur on ridges
and benches. In the northeastern part of the town near Shaker
River is an extensive stand of white pine of first quality and
size. Similar stands are also found on some flat land extending
into, but raised above, the great swamp in the southwestern
part of the town. Poplar and maple are found in the swamps
of the stream bottoms, while on raised situations some pine is
found. Gray birch is rapidly coming into the old pastures and
in small tracts where there is an outcropping of sandy or rocky

42

soil. The extensive sand barren in the northwest part of the
town is covered by a sparse growth of pitch pine with occasional
bunches of white pine where there is better soil or more moisture
available. The general condition of the woodlands is good.
There are, however, many local areas where thinnings are needed.
Mr. E. J. McLaughlin owns and operates a mill in which he
saws pine for box boards and chestnut for chair stock, barrel
staves and heading. Some poplar and pine are also used for the
latter products. There is a planer in the mill and also stave and
barrel-head making machinery. Mr. McLaughlin also operates
local wood lots.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

389

243

591

394

1,617

18

-

Oak

223

66

-

-

289

3

-

Chestnut and oak,

132

-

92

39

263

3

-

White pine,

230

184

164

394

972

11

-

Hardwoods and white pine, !

670

526

322

250

1,768

19

-

Mixed hardwoods,2 .

2,280

926

263

105

3,574

39

-

Pitch pine,

256

329

13

59

657

7

-

Total

4,180

2,274

1,445

1,241

9,140

-

-

Percentage, .

46

25

16

13

4,836

100

53

Non

-forest Types.

28

1,721

-

10

762

-

4

348

-

2

Business, residential, etc.,

100

-

1

360

-

2

17,267

-

100

1 Hardwoods are made up of about 30 per cent, chestnut and oak, 40 per cent, gray birch and
30 per cent, maple.

2 About 30 per cent, chestnut, 30 per cent, gray birch and 40 per cent, maple.

HOLDEN.

About 65 per cent, of the town is covered with a woody
growth. Chestnut is the leading species, followed closely by
oak. Numerous thick stands of birch occur, generally of Class

43

4 and up to Class 3. White pine is well distributed, and in the
northeastern part of the town occurs very abundantly. Three-
quarters of a mile south from the northeast corner is an area
of several hundred acres of pure white pine varying in size
from Class 4 to a small Class 1. Just across the road from this,
and extending to the Boylston line, is an area of about the
same size of pure chestnut, Classes 3 to 2, and stocked to a full
100 per cent. Stone House Hill is practically covered with
chestnut, and chestnut and oak, of an average Class 3 to
Class 2.

Asnebumskit Hill is almost entirely covered with woods.
These are generally mixed hardwoods and mixed hardwoods and
pine, although extensive areas of birch reproduction and brush
pastures are found enclosed. Most of the woods have a heavy
undergrowth of laurel.

Waldo E. Austin owns a sawmill and box mill. Chestnut and
pine are cut- almost exclusively. This mill works in the spring
and cuts logs for private owners.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fobest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

598

1,170

1,298

71

3,137

21

-

Oak,

270

270

64

-

604

4

-

Chestnut and oak, .

1,774

1,813

1,099

90

4,776

31

-

White pine,

116

296

315

251

978

6

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

701

913

84

19

1,717

11

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,012

1,581

315

103

4,011

27

-

Total

5,471

6,043

3,175

534

15,223

-

-

Percentage, .

36

40

21

3

4,776

100

66

Non-

Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

21

1,902

-

8

764

-

3

Business, residential, etc ,

64

]

405

I "

2

Total area of town, ,

23,134

-

100

1 Hardwoods are chiefly swamp maple and gray birch.

44

Hoped ale.

Chestnut is the most important tree, but considerable
quantities of white pine occur also. The timber in the northern
part of the town runs from 1 to a small 2 size, while in the
southern part it is mostly found in the 4 and 3 classes. The
timber on the land owned by the Draper Company and the
town (750 acres) is almost all ready to cut, some of the pine
running up to 90 feet high, and 30 inches diameter, breast high.

There are no sawmills or operators in Hopedale, the most of
the land being kept as a sort of reservation.

The Draper Company uses a considerable quantity of lumber,
keeping $500,000 worth on hand all the time. Most of this is
used in building houses and repair work. It uses the follow-
ing stock: ash from Vermont and New Hampshire; Oregon
pine from Washington; cedar shingles from Washington; and
small quantities of chestnut and pine from surrounding towns.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

260

50

120

60

490

26

-

Oak,

90

-

-

-

90

5

-

Chestnut and oak,

-

40

-

-

40

2

-

White pine,

80

30

40

50

200

11

-

Hardwoods and white pine, J

50

120

20

-

190

10

-

Maple and gray birch,

280

470

80

-

830

44

-

Pitch pine,

30

-

-

-

30

2

-

Total, ....

790

710

260

110

1,870

-

-

Percentage, .

42

38

14

6

670

100

56

Non-

forest Types.

20

140

-

4

300

-

9

280

-

8

110

-

3

3,370

-

100

1 Hardwoods are principally red maple with some birch.

45

HUBBARDSTON.

Practically all trees found in this State are found in this
town, although pitch pine and spruce are rare. The leading
types are birch (mostly gray), red maple and pine. Chestnut
and oak, while common, exist scattered among other types.
There is an unusual amount of pine reproduction, and if
allowed to grow it will make Hubbardston one of the leading
pine towns in the State.

In Hubbardston village there is a blanket mill employing a
few hands. There is a sawmill and box shop on the depot
road, but it is not now running. The Roper Box Company at
East Hubbardston operate a sawmill and box shop. William
Clark holds considerable timber land which operates through
hired mills. W. E. Coffin and S. A. Bigelow, owners of portable
mills, operate extensively in Hubbardston and vicinity.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

110

90

180

10

390

2

-

Beech, ....

60

150

70

-

280

2

-

Oak

280

660

10

20

970

5

-

White pine,

1,130

2,070

1,580

320

5,100

28

-

Maple and gray birch,1

6,810

3,170

500

10

10,490

57

-

Softwoods other than white

180

650

340

30

1,200

6

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

8,570

6,790

2,680

390

18,430

-

-

Percentage, .

46

37

15

2

100

69

Non-

forest Types.

3,510

-

13

880

-

3

1,480

-

6

1,410

-

5

770

-

3

Water, ....

210

-

1

26,690

-

100

1 Considerable poplar and alder included in Classes 3 and 4.

2 Mostly hemlock and spruce.

46

Lancaster.

The proportion of wooded land to the total area of the town
is about 60 per cent. The best woodland lies in the southwest,
between the river valley and the town line, along the George
Hill and Ballard Hill ridges. The types are usually well de-
fined, the most important being pine, oak, chestnut, soft maple
and birch, in clear and in mixed stands. Reforestation is popu-
lar on the larger estates; white pine is preferred. The planta-
tions show rapid and healthy growth.

The area in the northeast corner, bounded by Crumbury
Pond, Shirley Road and the Nashua River, has a good covering
of young pine, both white and pitch. The growth is not uni-
form, however, and a large amount of brush, dead trees and
fallen birch should be removed to bring it into the best con-
dition.

The rest of the town, except for a few acres surrounding the
lakes, has been swept by forest fires. The reproduction consists
of oak, chestnut, birch, soft maple and aspen, and in some cases
a little pine.

Practically no cutting for lumber is done by residents of
Lancaster. There is one small chair factory on the Leominster
road at Wekepeke Brook. The owner is W. W. Bartlett of
Lancaster. Some cutting is done in this town by the lumber-
men of Clinton.

47

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

X

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

40

170

80

430

720

6

-

Oak

1,220

900

80

-

2,200

19

-

Chestnut and oak,

780

1,430

120

280

2,610

23

-

White pine,

160

940

120

800

2,020

18

-

Hardwoods and white pine, J

70

390

1,080

80

1,620

14

-

Maple and gray birch,

350

1,180

130

40

1,700

15

-

Softwoods other than white

60

220

200

110

590

5

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

2,680

5,230

1,810

1,740

11,460

-

-

Percentage, .

23

46

16

15

5,360

100

63

Non-

FOREST T

YPES.

29

480

-

3

530

-

3

150

-

1

Water,

130

-

1

18,110

-

100

1 Hardwoods are maple and gray birch.

2 Largely pitch pine with about 50 acres of hemlock.

Leicestee.

The principal woodland types are soft maple and gray birch,
either separately or in mixture, chestnut, oak and white pine.
There is a fair representation of older age classes. The pastures
contain much sweet fern and sumac. Around the reservoir of
Worcester water board on Kettle Brook there are some planta-
tions of white pine.

There are no wood-using industries in the town and no
permanent sawmills. There is a good market for box lumber,
poles, ties and cordwood in Worcester, so that timber lots are
cut as soon as they become of merchantable size. Southwick
and Barry are the leading local operators and deal principally in
chestnut products.

48

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

. Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

230

320

440

10

1,000

10

-

Oak

90

240

50

30

410

4

-

Chestnut and oak,

1,250

1,100

530

30

2,910

28

-

White pine,

360

250

340

50

1,000

10

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

150

500

610

30

1,290

13

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,570

800

100

-

3,470

34

-

Hemlock, ....

20

70

20

-

110

1

-

Total, . . . ■ .

4,670

3,280

2,090

150

10,190

-

-

Percentage, .

46

32

21

1

2,770

100

65

Non-

FOREST T

TPES.

18

-

220

-

1

910

-

6

Alder and brush swamp,

480

-

3

.

900
220

_

6
1

15,690

-

100

Leominster.

About 50 per cent, of this town's area is wooded. The
majority of the timber is in only fair condition, owdng to forest
fires and tree diseases. Chestnut is the leading species, and is
the principal tree covering the large hills. White pine occurs
everywhere, but not in such large and continuous stands as the
chestnut. The chestnut and oak sprout lands and mixtures of
white pine and gray birch occur abundantly and in about equal
proportion. The wdiite pine is in good healthy condition and
growing rapidly wherever it occurs. Size classes range from the
largest to the smallest. The majority of the stands, however,
will fall under Class 3. Leaving out all trees under 6 inches,
the average will run about 8 to 10 inches diameter, breast high.

No sawmills w^ere found. Woodworking industries represent
more capital than any phase of manufacturing in Leominster.

49

*

It is estimated that over 10,000,000 board feet are worked up
annually in this city. Among the most prominent lumber-
using and woodworking industries are the following: —

Whitney Reed Corporation.
E. G. Smith Piano Case Company.
J. H. Lockey & Co., Piano Cases.
Leominster Novelty Company.
Merriam Hall Furniture Company.

W. A. Fuller Lumber Company.
Richardson Piano Case Company.
Jewett Piano Case Company.
Wellington Piano Case Company.
E. A. Whitney Carriage Company.

The output of these concerns varies from 500,000 to 2,500,000
board feet annually. Practically all of the native woods and
much foreign wood are used in the various products.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

122

875

617

32

1,646

19

-

Oak

411

251

-

90

752

9

-

Chestnut and oak,

998

811

264

-

2,073

24

-

White pine,

64

359

462

392

1,277

14

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

130

83

-

-

213

2

-

Maple and gray birch,

707

1,620

150

85

2,562

29

-

Pitch pine,

13

202

27

6

248

3

-

Total, 7

2,445

4,201

1,520

605

8,771

-

-

Percentage, .

28

48

17

7

5,048

100

47

Non-

forest Types.

27

Open pasture,

2,703

-

14

Brush pasture,

517

-

3

Business, residential, etc ,

1,327

-

7

Water

451

-

2

Total area of town, .

18,817

~

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch, red maple and poplar.
LUNENBTJKG.

The proportion of forest land to the total area of the town
is about 65 per cent. The general condition is very good.
Most of the woodland lies north of Lunenburg village, but there

50

are a few excellent lots of young timber trees in the middle and
southern sections. The town has recently purchased 20 acres of
pine land, size Classes 2 to 1, stocked nearly 100 per cent., just
north of the village. It will be used as a park. The principal
types found in Lunenburg are white pine, pitch pine, chestnut,
oak, maple, poplar and gray birch. Most of the land is utilized,
and waste tracts are very rare.

H. B. Francis of Lunenburg cuts about 100 M board feet per
year of pine, chestnut and hardwoods and about 200 cords of
wood.

Land Types.

Appeoximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Pee Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Foeest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

127

298

869

70

1,364

12

-

Oak

336

368

165

-

869

7

-

Chestnut and oak,

584

1,465

406

152

2,607

22

-

White pine,

51

774

2,252

596

3,673

31

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

184

729

222

146

1,281

11

-

Maple and gray birch,

837

647

89

32

1,605

14

-

Pitch pine,

-

114

152

38

304

3

-

Total

2,119

4,395

4,155

1,034

11,703

-

-

Percentage, .

18

38

35

9

5,183

100

63

Non-
Tillage and hay,

foeest Types.

28

Open pasture,

844

-

4

Brush pasture,

101

-

1

Business, residential, etc.,

203

-

1

Water, ....

590

-

3

Total area of town, .

18,624

-

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch and maple.

Mendon.
Although sizes 4 to 3 are the prevailing size classes, yet 20
per cent, or more of the timbered land has sizes 3 to 2 on it,
mostly chestnut and oak with a little good merchantable pine.
Mendon fares better than most of the surrounding towns in
having a fair proportion of the cut-over lots coming in to pine.

51

Comparative freedom from fires may account for this to some
degree.

There are no mills working in Mendon and no woodworking
industries are located there. C. A. Fletcher buys and cuts off
lots in Mendon and surrounding towns.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

172

303

99

20

594

8

-

Oak

317

185

-

-

502

7

-

Chestnut and oak,

224

376

277

73

950

13

' -

White pine,

152

53

-

46

251

3

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

270

152

125

13

560

7

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,936

825

600

-

4,361

59

-

Pitch pine,

53

132

33

-

218

3

-

Total

4,124

2,026

1,134

152

7,436

-

-

Percentage, .

56

27

15

2

2,427

100

65

Non-

forest Types.

21

824

-

7

732

-

6

Water

165

-

1

11,584

1

100

1 Hardwoods are largely gray birch, red maple and oaks.

MlLFORD.

The strong market for cordwood and the ready market for
saw stock as well have operated to keep the timber pretty well
cut. Only a small percentage, perhaps 15 per cent., is older
than Class 3, and by far the greater part would be classed as
4. Pitch pine takes the place of white pine to a considerable
extent, but neither is present in anything approaching mer-
chantable quantities. Chestnut, soft maple and oaks (black,
red, scrub, white and chestnut) are the most important of the
hardwoods. Between Cedar Street and the Holliston line are
considerable quantities of scrub oak and chestnut oak.

52

There are no sawmills, either stationary or portable, in Mil-
ford. There are no operators resident in the town, but C. A.
Fletcher of Mendon and D. W. Gaskill of Blackstone have done
some cutting in the past. For the most part the owners cut
their own wood, delivering it to the local cordwood dealers.

Z. C. Field Lumber Company use about 4,000,000 feet of
lumber per year. Practically all of this lumber comes from
outside of the State, and consists of white pine, western yellow
pine, spruce, cypress, whitewood and hemlock. Most of their
white pine is obtained from Canada.

S. A. Eastman Box Company use annually about 175 M board
feet of native white pine.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

X

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

157

103

151

54

465

8

-

Oak,

163

133

48

-

344

6

-

Chestnut and oak,

664

428

78

-

1,170

21

-

White pine,

54

109

30

60

253

4

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

72

-

72

-

144

3

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,786

1,152

235

-

3,173

57

-

Pitch pine,

30

12

-

18

60

1

-

Total, ....

2,926

1,937

614

132

5,609

-

-

Percentage, .

52

35

11

2

2,228

100

58

Non-

forest Types.

23

296

-

3

706

-

8

622

-

7

127

-

1

Total area of town, .

9,588

-

100

MlLLBURY.

The condition of the woods of the southwest portion is very
good. The soil is excellent, and fires have not done much
damage. Chestnut and red maple are the principal trees.
There is a little scattering of white pine and a few small stands
of good merchantable pine. Of the comparatively small

53

acreage of timber in the town, mostly chestnut and oaks, little
is merchantable at present. The best lies along the Oxford and
Auburn sides. The cut-over areas are reproducing well. There
are some brushy pastures coming into gray birch and fuel wood,
with a very little white pine in places, and there are also con-
siderable areas where repeated fires have left little but scrub
oak and gray birch. Throughout the town, and especially in
the east, are maple swamps, usually small in area.

There are three sawmills owned in Millbury. The owners are
W. R. Howe, W. A. Harris and A. W. Rice. These are all
small mills, sawing from 50 M to 150 M board feet per year
when running; practically all local stock. The only wood-
working industry is a small outfit at West Millbury making
tool handles, used mostly by the local edge tool factories of
which there are two.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

190

289

221

160

860

18

-

Chestnut and oak,

307

313

264

37

921

19

- -

White pine,

6

-

43

98

147

3

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

258

344

25

43

676

14

-

Maple and gray birch,
Pitch pine,

1,419

602

104

18

86

2,211

18

| 46

-

Total

2,180

1,548

675

430

4,833

-

-

Percentage, .

45

32

14

9

3,032

100

46

Non-

forest Types.

28

1,634

-

15

Brush pasture,

559

-

5

Business, residential, etc ,

362

-

3

•

332

-

3

Total area of town, .

10,752

-

100

New Braintree.

The woodland of New Braintree is not an important part of
its assets. The chestnut type occupies the largest area and is
the most important commercially. Pine is not as common as

54

in surrounding towns, and is found largely in the Ware River
valley section. There is considerable chestnut of commercial
size.

There are no wood-using industries in the town and no saw-
mills. Ties are the chief forest product, and New Braintree
depot is an important tie-shipping station for the surrounding
country. James Barr & Son are the leading lumbermen in the
town, although operators living in North Brookfield and Ware
do most of the lumbering in this vicinity.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....
Oak,

151
63

404

341

297

1,193
63

26

-

Chestnut and oak,

442

284

-

25

751

15

-

White pine,

189

310

83

126

708

14

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

360

454

88

69

971

20

-

Maple and gray birch,

410

575

32

51

1,068

22

-

Softwoods other than white

69

88

-

-

157

3

_

pine.

Total, ....

1,684

2,115

544

568

4,911

-

-

Percentage, .

34

43

11

12

3,591

100

36

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

26

4,753

-

35

430

1

3

12

1

13,697

-

100

Hardwoods are principally maple and birch, with a little chestnut and oak.

North Brookfield.

The woodland of North Brookfield is made up chiefly of
second-growth hardwoods. Chestnut forms a less important
timber tree than was the case in Warren and West Brookfield,
i.e., there are less pure stands. Pine is perhaps the most im-
portant species. There are several wood lots in the east and
west, where young pine trees are growing very vigorously.

55

Poplar, although not abundant, is found generally throughout
the town. In the northwest, near Sucker Brook, there is a pure
stand of hickory of about 10 acres. Other species which make
up the forest land are pitch pine, maple, hickory and ash.

There are two lumber dealers and operators in town, —
William F. Fullam and H. E. Cummings. Both have portable
sawmills which operate in the surrounding towns. Mr. Fullam
also has a small mill operated by electricity in which he does
planing, etc.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

1

Total.

Per Cent.

1

4 3

2

1

Forest. | Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

240

700

520

20

1,480

27

-

Oak,

290

200

130

-

620

12

-

Chestnut and oak,

140

60

60

-

260

5

-

White pine,

-

60

50

10

120

2

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

190

860

180

10

1,240

23

-

Maple and gray birch, 2

640

740

230

-

1,610

30

-

Softwoods other than white

-

40

-

20

60

1

_

pine.3

Total, ....

1,500

2,660

1,170

60

5,390

-

-

Percentage, .

28 49

22

1

100

38

Non-

forest Types.

3,810

-

27

3,200

-

22

1,280

-

9

280

-

2

250

-

2

14,210

i —
1

100

1 Hardwoods are red maple, gray birch, oak and chestnut.

2 This type contains some oak and chestnut.

3 Mostly pitch pine and hemlock.

NORTHBOROUGH.

The proportion of timbered land to the total area of the
town is about 50 per cent. More than half of the high land is
wooded, the farms lying mostly in the valleys. There is an
abundance of healthy pine, usually in mixed stands, and nearly
every wood lot contains at least a small amount. The oak and

56

chestnut timber are not in the best of condition. Gypsy and
brown-tail moth devastations have been most severe, and are
in evidence over the entire area of the town. Tree planting
has been practiced on a small scale in at least two instances by
citizens. One plantation is located near South Street and the
other is owned by a Mr. Wesson. These plantations have
reached the large pole stage and are in healthy condition.

Guilford P. Heath cuts from 50 M to 100 M board feet of
lumber per year. It is mostly chestnut, with a fair proportion
of oak and pine. G. H. Felt, although cutting no timber, buys
and sells pine, hemlock, hard pine, cypress, white wood and
red cedar, obtaining practically all the stock from outside the
State.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

60

520

200

200

980

16

-

Oak

300

830

60

250

1,440

23

-

Chestnut and oak,

400

640

40

150

1,230

20

-

White pine,

-

260

80

220

560

9

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

20

390

50

60

520

8

-

Maple and gray birch,

90

1,070

110

60

1,330

21

-

Softwoods other than white

-

130

50

-

180

3

-

pine.

Total, ....

870

3,840

590

940

6,240

-

-

Percentage, .

14

62

9

15

3,200

100

52

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

27

Open pasture,

1,480

-

12

Brush pasture,

830

-

7

Business, residential, etc.,

100

1

2

Water, ....

200

1

Total area of town, .

12,050

-

100

NORTHBRIDGE.

Very few timber types are found in Northbridge. Chestnut
and chestnut and pine are most prominent. In the south-
western part of the town the stands belonging to the Whitin

57

Machine Works will run a good average in size, while a fair
amount will come under the head of mature merchantable.
Scattered throughout the entire town are small patches of
chestnut which will run to Class 2, although the majority is
slightly smaller. Pine occurs, but not abundantly, in Class 2.

Stands of mixed hardwoods occur in many places. The plots
are small and the trees are seldom larger than Class 3. These
stands quickly run into chestnut and oak. Oak is very com-
mon. It occurs in large areas, generally in Class 3. Birch is
not present in large amounts.

The type covering most of the town is a mixture of chestnut
and oak sprouts, Class 4, with a stocking varying from 75 to
100 per cent. Where timber larger than Class 3 occurs it is
practically always straight and sound, and will furnish excellent
material for poles or for the sawmill.

At the time the survey was made there were no sawmills or
woodworking industries in Northbridge.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

240

280

350

220

1,090

15

-

Oak, .

470

340

-

30

840

11

-

Chestnut and oak,

840

290

100

90

1,320

18

-

White pine,

390

250

100

370

1,110

15

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

510

380

130

30

1,050

14

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,030

810

100

-

1,940

26

-

Pitch pine,

-

10

30

-

40

-

-

Total, ....

3,480

2,360

810

740

7,390

-

-

Percentage, .

47

32

11

10

2,060

100

61

Non-

forest Types.

17

990

-

8

770

-

6

.

100

-

1

Business, residential, etc.,

320

-

3

530

-

4

12,160

-

100

58

Oakham.

White pine types, either pure pine or mixtures of pine,
chestnut and oak, form the largest part of the woodland, and
there is a considerable amount of commercial, or nearly com-
mercial, size. Chestnut is second in importance, and is found
mostly in the south and west sections of the town. There
appears to be more oak in this town than in the surrounding
townships, but most of it is of small size and poor quality.

This town has no manufacturing industries of any kind.
There is a basket factory in Coldbrook, but it was not running
when the survey was made. Ash, hickory and oak were used
in this business. There is at present a water mill on Five Mile
River belonging to Walter Dean. Mr. Dean formerly bought
and operated his own woodlands, but has done little of this
business in recent years, and his mill work is confined largely
to custom sawing.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

61

257

814

153

1,285

15

-

Oak,

373

43

43

43

502

6

-

Chestnut and oak, .

349

496

263

110

1,218

14

-

White pine,

349

606

312

514

1,781

21

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

716

1,199

202

153

2,270

27

-

Maple and birch,

594

569

135

-

1,298

15

-

Pitch pine,

12

122

37

37

208

2

-

Total, ....

2,454

3,292

1,806

1,010

8,562

-

-

Percentage, .

29

38

21

12

1,995

100

63

Non-

forest Types.

15

2,002

-

15

685

-

5

281

-

2

13,585

-

100

Hardwoods are chestnut, oak and birch.

59

Oxford.

Most of the forest land is found on the hills, those to the
west being more generally forested than those on the east side.
The largest individual types are the gray birch and maple, but
the most prominent trees are chestnut and pine. There is a
rather unusual amount of forest land, with a growth of com-
mercial, or nearly commercial, size. In the non-forest type one
is struck by the small amount of open and brush pasture as
compared with tillage.

The principal wood-using industry of Oxford is the box
factory of Chaffee Brothers. In addition to boxes they manu-
facture rough building lumber and planing mill products. They
operate two or three portable mills, cutting lots in southern
Worcester County and northern Connecticut, although oc-
casionally they have operated wood lots as far away as New
Hampshire and Maine. They handle more or less chestnut,
which is either put into building lumber or ties. Their annual
consumption of lumber is about 5,000,000 feet.

Turner Brothers make a specialty of dealing in chestnut,
especially for ties.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, .

20

40

250

140

450

4

-

Oak

290

130

-

-

420

4

-

Chestnut and oak, .

1,030

650

440

20

2,140

19

-

White pine,

290

280

400

580

1,550

14

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

510

1,230

490

860

3,090

28

-

Mixed hardwoods,2 .

1,450

1,210

330

450

3,440

1 01

Softwoods other than white

-

40

-

-

40

J "

-

pine.

Total

3,590

3,580

1,910

2,050

11,130

-

-

Percentage, .

32

32

17

19

100

64

Non-

forest Types.

4,470

-

26

730

-

4

600

-

3

1

600

-

3

17,530

-

100

1 Hardwoods are principally chestnut and oak.

2 Gray birch and red maple in smaller classes, and chestnut and oak in the larger sizes.

60

Paxton.

About 60 per cent, of Paxton is wooded, chestnut and white
pine being the leading species. Oak and soft maple occur
abundantly, and thick stands of young birch are found every-
where. Practically all of the timber in the eastern part of the
town is below Class 2 in size. The best stand found was a
mixture of pine and chestnut near the southern boundary of
the town, one-half mile east of Kettell Brook. This is in
splendid condition and ranges from Class 2 to Class 1 in size.
Very small stands of pine of this class are found in scattered
wood lots. Mixed hardwoods, common to low situations, are
present in many places. In general, such stands are in rather
poor condition. Tangled undergrowth and young dead trees
are characteristic, and laurel is very common.

Edward E. Eames, Paxton, owns a water mill. He buys
small wood lots and cuts timber. He has a number of wood
lots well stocked with pine and chestnut, now too small to cut.
He has done a little planting of white pine.

D. T. Grayton owns no mill, but buys wood lots and installs
portable mills. In good years he cuts about 1,000 M board feet
of pine, chestnut and hemlock. There are no woodworking
industries in Paxton.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cext.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

_

270

250

50

570

10

-

Oak

-

20

100

-

120

2

-

Chestnut and oak,

90

340

20

20

470

9

-

White pine,

270

100

190

220

780

14

-

Hardwoods and white pine, l

270

650

-

-

920

17

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,090

1,070

120

40

2,320

43

-

Softwoods other than white

220

20

20

30

290

5

-

pine.2

Total

1,940

2,470

700

360

5,470

-

-

Percentage, .

35

45

13

7

100

56

Non-

forest Types.

Tillage and hay,

3,140

-

32

Open pasture,

400

-

4

Brush pasture,

630

-

6

Water, ....

210

-

2

Total area of town, .

9,850

-

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch, red maple and oak.

2 Pitch pine, hemlock and spruce.

61

Petersham.

This town has an unusually large percentage of pine, es-
pecially in the medium sizes, forming a large part of the large
percentage of forest area which the town has. The second
largest type, called maple and birch, which in most towns
means red maple and gray birch, in this section includes also
white and yellow birch, beech and sugar maple. There is an
unusual amount of hemlock in the forests of Petersham. There
is a rather high percentage of Class 2, which may be due to the
fact that nearly 2,000 acres of the best timberland in the town
is in the possession of the Harvard Forest School.

There is no manufacturing industry whatever in the town.
The town obtains its livelihood from farming and catering to
summer residents, for it is a popular summer resort. There is
a small box shop belonging to John Carter and a water-power
sawmill at Nichewaug, but neither is running at present.
There is a ready market for pine and other lumber in Athol.
The Diamond Match Company has now a portable mill
operating in the town, while each winter the authorities in
charge of the Forest School do some operating. There is a fair
market for cordwood, but it is limited in extent.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Chestnut, . .

Oak

White pine,1
Maple and birch, 2
Hemlock, ....

Acres.

380
560
940
2,860
270

Acres.

630

830

2,150

2,710

480

Acres.

670
300
2,390
470
290

Acres.

50
50
750
40
60

Acres.

1,730
1,740
6,230
6,080
1,100

10
10
37
36

7

-

Total, ....
Percentage, .

5,010
30

6,800
40

4,120
24

950
6

16,880

3,000

1,270

2,140

770

320

70

100

} :

69

Non-

Brush pasture,

Brush and alder swamp,

Business, residential, etc.,

forest Types.

12
5
9
3

2

24,450

-

100

1 White pine in mixture has been proportioned as if growing in pure stands.

2 Smaller sizes are red maple and gray birch, while larger size classes contain white and yellow
birch and beech.

62

Phillipston.

There are but a few good stands of timber left in Phillipston.
Possibly the best of these lies on the ridge west of Queen Lake
or Phillipston Pond. There is also a fairly good stand of white
pine and mixed hardwoods — oak, chestnut, birch and maple —
on the ridge which forms the eastern border of the lake.

Aside from the above-mentioned stands most of the forested
lands of Phillipston consist of pure white pine stands and
coppice hardwoods, together with mixed stands of white pine
and hardwoods, which are of the reproduction and small
merchantable size. Chestnut was found occasionally in pure
stands, but in most cases it was mixed with oak and maple.
Oak was found more frequently in pure stands than was the
chestnut.

The principal species found, in order, are white pine, oak,
maple, chestnut, gray birch, white birch, spruce, larch, hemlock
and a little yellow birch. Basswood was noticed in many
places, but this existed only in the reproduction size. Ash also
appeared in small quantities.

On account of the scarcity of good timber there are no wood-
working industries in the town.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Oak

Chestnut and oak,
White pine,

Hardwoods and white pine, 1
Maple and birch,2
Softwoods other than white
pine.

Acres.

20
150
180
690
690

60

Acres.

280
450
460
3,170
820
100

Acres.

220
370
560
680
100
150

Acres.

90

330

180

20

20

Acres.

520
1,060
1,530
4,720
1,630

330

5
11
16
48
17

3

-

Total, ....
Percentage, .

1,790
18

5,280
54

2,080
21

640

7

9,790

3,130

2,330

180

100

64

Non-
Water

forest Types.

20

15

1

15,430

-

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch, soft maple, oak and chestnut.

2 Principally gray birch and red maple, with some white and yellow birch and beech in the
larger sizes.

63

Princeton.

Woodlands show little variation either in composition or size
classes over most of the area. The gray birch and maple types
cover the largest area. White pine is generally found in mixture
with hardwoods, although there are many small scattering wood
lots which contain almost pure stands. Chestnut and oak are
usually found in mixture together. The chestnut, however, is
often found in pure well-distributed stands; but the oak, when
separate from the chestnut, usually contains a mixture of maple
and yellow and paper birch.

The Roper Lumber and Box Company is the only mill and
woodworking industry in Princeton. It is located very close to
the Hubbardston line. This mill has an average cut of about
1,000,000 board feet. Pine, hemlock and spruce constitute
about nine-tenths of the annual cut, while mixed hardwoods
make up the remainder.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Chestnut, ....

Oak,

Chestnut and oak,
White pine,

Hardwoods and white pine,
Maple and gray birch,
Softwoods other than white
pine.

Acres.

100
310
340
290
1,930
2,350

Acres.

980

550

840

1,000

1,470

1,220

80

Acres.

610
430
270
730
30
250
170

Acres.

120
40

850
90
80
10

Acres.

1,810
1,330
1,450
2,870
3,120
3,900
260

12
9
10
20
21
26
2

-

Total

Percentage, .

4,920
33

6,140
42

2,490
17

1,190
8

14,740

2,610

4,800

410

290

100

65

Non-

forest Types.

11

21

2

1

22,850

-

100

ROYALSTON.

Royalston has but two or three stands of virgin growth left.
These are white pine and hemlock on Jacob's Hill. The hard-
wood stands are of coppice growth, while the white pine, stands
seeded in naturally. The principal trees found in order of im-

64

portance and quantity are white pine, hemlock, chestnut, oak,
maple (rock and red), white birch, yellow birch, beech, spruce,
ash, larch, gray birch, red elm and ironwood.

Royalston has no wood-using industries. It has four saw-
mills cutting white pine, chestnut, oak, hemlock, maple, birch
and beech.

W. Farrar at South Royalston has a small mill cutting from
100 M to 500 M board feet per year.

Newton & Davis in the northeastern part of the town cut
1,000 M board feet per year.

C. Perry in the northern part cuts 200 M board feet per year,
most of which is baled stock.

G. E. Pierce has done some cutting in the western part of the
town.

The daily capacity of these mills is about 8 M board feet.
They do not work steadily on account of a shortage of labor.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Foeest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

70

130

180

20

' 400

2

-

Oak

160

290

240

120

810

4

-

Chestnut and oak,

70

100

190

90

450

2

-

White pine,

280

1,480

1,570

880

4,210

20

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

2,530

2,160

660

20

5,370

25

-

Mixed hardwoods, 2 .

3,000

2,800

1,410

520

7,730

37

-

Softwoods other than white

310

880

620

310

2,120

10

-

pine. 3

Total, ....

6,420

7,840

4,870

1,960

21,090

-

-

Percentage, .

31

37

23

9

3,620

100

75

Non-
Tillage and hay,

FOREST 1

'ypes.

13

Open pasture,

1,990

-

7

Brush pasture,

1,020

-

4

Business, residential, etc.,

70

1

1

Water, ....

180

1

Total area of town, .

27,970

-

100

1 Hardwoods are principally soft maple and gray birch, but some white birch and hard maple
are represented in the larger classes.

2 Mostly soft maple and gray birch, with some white birch, beech and sugar maple, especially
in Classes 2 and 1.

3 Mostly hemlock, with some spruce and larch.

65

Rutland.

White pine is the leading tree, and the remainder of the
woodland is made up of oak, chestnut, soft maple and birch,
with small amounts of hemlock and spruce. White pine and
birch is the leading type. Practically the entire northern
quarter of the town is covered with this growth. The pine, in
almost every case, is in very healthy condition, and has a good
start on the birch. While birch is now present in large quanti-
ties, all conditions point to its suppression. In ten to twenty
years this should be pure pine forest. Very little farm land is
found in this section. The pine runs in size from Class 4 to
Class 2. In the southern half of the town the composition is
more varied. On the higher lands white pine, chestnut and oak
predominate. In the lower portions soft maple and alder, with
small amounts of hemlock and spruce, are found. Mixtures of
soft maple and alder are very common. Trees of every size
class are found, but the average is about Class 3. South of
Demond Pond for three-quarters of a mile are stands of
excellent chestnut. These trees average Class 2 in size. About
60 per cent, of the town is covered with wood growth.

John Moore of Ware has set up a portable mill in the south-
west corner of the town, capable of sawing about 300 M board
feet. He cuts chestnut mostly, with some oak and pine.

Daniels Worsted Mills, West Rutland, owns, in connection
with the worsted mill, a permanent sawmill. This is used only
when logs are brought in by farmers from time to time. Any
kind of wood is sawed, but mostly chestnut and pine. This
mill cuts about 50,000 board feet per year.

66

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

-

60

170

250

480

3

-

Oak,

410

600

430

100

1,540

11

-

Chestnut and oak,

210

320

560

100

1,190

9

-

White pine,

23Q

1,400

810

440

2,880

21

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

850

2,125

180

60

3,215

23

-

Maple and birch,

2,310

930

520

150

3,910

28

-

Softwoods other than white

140

140

210

140

630

5

_

pine. 2

Total, ....

4,150

5,575

2,880

1,240

13,845

-

-

Percentage, .

30

40

21

9

4,910

100

60

Non-

Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

21

Open pasture,

2,430

-

11

Brush pasture,

1,400

-

6

Water, ....

530

-

2

Total area of town, .

23,115

-

100

1 Hardwoods are maple, birch and oak.

2 About 30 per cent, pitch pine; remainder, hemlock and larch.

Shrewsbury.

About 50 per cent, of Shrewsbury is wooded. Small wood
lots of from 10 to 25 acres, alternating with farm and pasture
lands, are distinctly characteristic of the eastern three-quarters
of the town. Chestnut in pure stands and in mixture with oak
forms the larger part of the wood lots. In size the trees will
range from Class 4 to Class 1. Birch occurs in numerous areas,
though not in exceptionally large ones. The best timber in the
town is found in the vicinity of Lake Quinsigamond. This is in
perfect condition, and to a large extent falls in Class 1. It is
made up mostly of chestnut in pure stands and in mixture with
white pine.

Harlow Hill, in the northwestern part of the town, com-
prising roughly an area of 2 square miles, is completely covered
with chestnut and pine, all size classes being represented. The

67

greater part is a sprout growth of Classes 4 to 3, stocked to a
full 100 per cent. Pine and chestnut of Class 2 and better
occur in large amounts on the north side of the hill.
There are no woodworking industries in town.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per (

Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

250

260

950

400

1,860

27

-

Oak

-

220

160

60

440

6

-

Chestnut and oak,

620

330

230

100

1,280

19

-

White pine,

30

100

40

30

200

3

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

150

190

40

-

380

6

-

Maple and birch,
Pitch pine,

1,530
15

920
15

190

20

2,660
30

39

-

Total, ....

2,595

2,035

1,610

610

6,850

-

-

Percentage, .

38

29

23

10

3,690

100

49

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

26

Open pasture,

1,880

-

14

Brush pasture,

860

-

6

690

-

5

Total area of town, .

13,970

-

100

1 Hardwoods are principally red maple, chestnut and oak.

SOUTHBOROUGH.

Gray birch and maple is the most common type, occurring
mostly in small cordwood sizes. The chestnut and oak type
and the white pine type are the most important. There are
several stands containing good-sized trees of both of these
types.

Marlborough, situated about 4 miles from Southborough,
supplies this town by railroad and auto-truck service with all
of its lumber and wood.

68

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

-

-

70

100

170

4

-

Oak

-

130

70

90

290

8

-

Chestnut and oak, .

-

360

110

400

870

23

-

White pine,

50

150

50

170

420

11

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

60

90

-

-

150

4

-

Maple and gray birch,
Softwoods other than white

170

1,530
10

130

70

1,900
10

| 50

-

pine. 2

Total

280

2,270

430

830

3,810

-

-

Percentage, .

7

60

11

22

4,080

100

39

Non-

forest Types.

41

730

-

7

150

-

2

100

-

1

Water, ....

990

-

10

9,860

-

100

1 Hardwoods are red maple, gray birch, chestnut, red oak and poplar.

2 Mostly pitch pine.

SOUTHBRIDGE.

The largest individual type is the gray birch and red maple,
either mixed or in pure stands. Commercially speaking, both
pine and chestnut are of about equal importance, but there is
comparatively little growth of merchantable size in either type.
There is an unusual amount of hickory in the town, although
most of it is of small size. Considerable amounts of native
lumber are used in town for the manufacture of boxes and sash
and doors. The following concerns are interested in the lumber
business in Southbridge : —

Clemence Associates, boxes, sash, blinds and building lumber.
Ide Lumber Company, building lumber, sash and doors.
Charles Hyde, boxes.
Charles M. Morse, operator, principally chestnut ties and poles.

69

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.
Acres.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

380

360

250

30

1,020

13

-

Oak

670

610

140

20

1,440

19

-

Hickory, ....

240

220

40

-

500

7

-

White pine,

250

750

410

210

1,620

21

-

Maple and birch,

1,780

930

90

20

2,820

37

-

Softwoods other than white

20

110

90

20

240

3

_

pine.

Total, ....

3,340

2,980

1,020

300

7,640

-

-

Percentage, .

44

39

13

4

2,410

100

57

Non-

forest Types.

18

800

-

6

940

-

7

Alder and brush swamp,

420

-

3

1,000

-

8

100

-

1

13,310

-

100

Spencer.

Most of the southern half of Spencer is wooded, the chief
species being white pine, chestnut, oak and birch, the amounts
of these being in the order named, from most abundant to least.
The timber is standing now in excellent condition, although not
much of merchantable size is found. Portable mills have been
working in at least five distinct areas within the last few years,
and have made extensive clearings in various parts of the
town. The best timber will be found in the south central,
southwestern and the eastern edge of the town. Chestnut and
pine are the only two species present of merchantable size, and
these seldom range higher than Class 2.

No permanent sawmills were in operation at the time the
survey was made, but portables have been at work almost
constantly during the past few years. Mr. W. A. Wilson is

70

probably the leading operator in the town, cutting from 500 to
1,000 M board feet per year. Pine is cut almost entirely, there
being very little chestnut of merchantable size.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, . . . .

-

50

160

310

520

6

-

Oak

70

310

660

180

1,220

14

-

Chestnut and oak, * .

490

520

300

140

1,450

16

-

White pine, .
Hardwoods and white pine, 2

30

720

90
100

-

90
850

) ■

-

Maple and gray birch,

870

2,030

620

40

3,560

40

-

Pitch pine,

110

150

440

540

1,240

14

-

Total, ....

1,570

3,780

2,370

1,210

8,930

-

-

Percentage, .

18

42

27

13

7,200

100

41

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

33

Open pasture,

2,160

-

10

Brush pasture,

2,470

-

11

Business, residential, etc.,

350

-

2

Water, ....

660

-

3

Total area of town, .

21,770

-

100

1 Chestnut greatly predominating.

2 Hardwoods are largely red maple and birch.

Sterling.

The majority of the timber in Sterling is in excellent con-
dition and growing rapidly, with the exception of the blight-
infested chestnuts. Pine, pine and chestnut, pure chestnut,
chestnut sprout growth, gray birch and birch and pine are the
types most often found. The amounts of soft maple and other
mixed hardwoods are very small when compared with these other
types. Size classes range from reproduction to size 1, this latter
being found only in small scattered lots. Pure pine and pine
and chestnut are the trees generally found in such size classes.

The wooded portion covers about 50 per cent, of the town's
area. The percentage of open country is much greater in the
eastern two-thirds of the town, but in the west and northwest

71

the percentage of timber will run about 70 per cent. It is
characteristic that where timber occurs the stocking will
generally run complete.

The Sterling Lumber Company buys wood lots of varying
size, installs portable mills, and after cutting the timber disposes
of the land. There are no permanent mills working at the
present time in Sterling. Pine and chestnut are cut in largest
quantities, with small amounts of oak and other hardwoods.
During the season of 1912-13 the amount cut was 2,000,000
board feet. This was taken from Sterling and surrounding towns.

There is a chair factory in the town, owned and operated by
Edwin Stevenson. This factory uses practically all of the native
woods, requiring about 200 M board feet per year. A small
mill is run in connection with the factory.

Messrs. T. and E. R. Buck also operate a chair factory in
town. They use practically every kind of lumber in the
manufacture of their product.

Land Types.

Appkoximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

70

410

840

200

1,520

16

-

Oak,

240

330

40

-

610

6

-

Chestnut and oak,

810

1,110

590

110

2,620

27

-

White pine,

730

590

270

60

1,650

17

-

Hardwoods and white pine, *

290

690

90

-

1,070

11

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,120

780

290

-

2,190

22

-

Softwoods other than white

30

-

20

60

110

1

-

pine. 2

Total, .

3,290

3,910

2,140

430

9,770

-

-

Percentage, .

34

40

22

4

4,932

100

49

Non-

Tillage and hay,

foeest Types.

25

4,230

-

21

Brush pasture,

460

-

2

Business, residential, etc.,

60

]

3

560

I

Total area of town, .

20,012

-

100

1 Hardwoods are largely gray birch and red maple.

2 Pitch pine and hemlock.

72

Sturbridge.

The largest individual type is gray birch and maple closely
followed by oak. Chestnut and pine are not such prominent
types as they are in neighboring towns, due to the fact that the
town has been heavily logged for these species in recent years.
For the same reason there is a dearth of larger size classes.

There are no wood-using industries in the town, and most of
the logging is done by operators from Southbridge and Oxford.
George Wright is the owner of a sawmill.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town. 3

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

160

140

460

60

820

5

-

Oak,

1,990

1,870

380

-

4,240

27

-

Chestnut and oak,

420

390

100

-

910

6

-

White pine,

270

780

650

220

1,920

12

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

1,090

1,090

220

-

2,400

15

-

Maple and birch,

3,460

1,350

260

-

5,070

32

-

Hemlock

70

280

160

20

530

3

-

Total, ....

7,460

5,900

2,230

300

15,890

-

-

Percentage, .

47

37

14

2

4,250

100

64

Non-

forest Types.

17

1,830

-

7

1,700

-

7

Alder and brush swamp,

120

1

1

160

J

Water

990

-

4

24,940

-

100

Sutton.

The most common wood types are chestnut, gray birch and
maple. White pine is rare, except along the southern border of
the town and around the drier shores of the ponds. In such
locations good stands occur. Most of the timber is in the small
merchantable class. The ridges are stocked to almost 100

73

per cent, with chestnut and chestnut and oak, and the lake
regions in particular bear heavy stands. Many of the ridge
tops have been cut over within the last three or four years, and
as a result bear dense growths of chestnut and oak sprouts. In
the southeastern part of the town some of the timber owned by
the Whitin Machine Works runs to a large diameter size, but
timber larger than size 2 is very rare. The stands are usually
dense, and the timber of excellent form and shape. In that
region known as Purgatory and to the south, including the
Whitin Game Preserve, are stands of chestnut and pine of
Class 2, and some even larger. The stands will run to practi-
cally 100 per cent, stocking. In the south, central and eastern
parts of the town are large areas as yet not cut by roads.
Such areas are almost entirely covered with a timber growth,
generally chestnut of sizes 3 to 2. Oak seldom occurs above a
size 2, generally sizes 3 and 4. The same is true of the mixed
hardwoods.

Mr. John Dudley has recently operated on a tract containing
about 800 M board feet. Chestnut with some white pine was
the principal species cut. Mr. Dudley's mill is operated
electrically by power obtained from Saundersville.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Chestnut, ....

Oak,

Chestnut and oak,
White pine,

Hardwoods and white pine, 1
Maple and gray birch,
Softwoods other than white
pine. 2

Acres.

340

40

460

140

180

1,330

70

Acres.

2,250

210

320

50

310

2,550

70

Acres.

2,470
190
330
200
380

170

Acres.
290

10
220

Acres.

5,350
440

1,120
610
870

3,880
310

43
3

9
5
7
31
2

-

Total, ....
Percentage, .

2,560
20

5,760
46

3,740
30

520
4

12,580

5,690

1,090

1,850

740

100

58

Non-forest Types.

26
5
8
3

Total area of town, .

21,950

-

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch, red maple and poplar.

2 Mostly white cedar.

74

Templeton.

Templeton seems to be a natural white pine region. Al-
though the entire town has been pretty much cut over, there
are still some good white pine stands remaining, scattered
through different parts of the town. Two of the best of these
are in the extreme northern and in the extreme southern
portions of the town. There is practically no virgin growth
standing. The hardwoods are mostly coppice, and the greater
portion of them are unmerchantable. The town contains con-
siderable spruce and American larch. The best spruce is in a
mixture with white pine on the land of the State School for
Feeble-minded in the northern part of the town. Some of this
spruce calipered from 18 to 22 inches diameter, breast high.
White birch occupies a good proportion of the forested area.
The principal trees found here are white pine, chestnut, oak,
white birch, spruce, hemlock, maple, American larch, beech,
white ash, and, as usual, an abundance of gray birch.

Templeton has two sawmills; one situated at Templeton
Center and owned by Bourn & Hadley cuts about 1,000,000
board feet of native stock per year. At Otter River there is a
mill owned by Louis LaPorte, with a capacity of 8 M board
feet per day when it runs. This mill saws native stock only.

Among the wood-using industries are the following : —

Name.

Product.

Approximate

Output
(Board Feet.)

New England Box Company,
Smith, Day & Co.,
Bishop & Dickinson,
Waite Chair Company,
E. L. Thompson & Co.,
Temple, Stewart Company, .
Children's Vehicle Corporation,
Bourn & Hadley, .

Boxes, .
Chairs, .
Chairs, .
Chairs, .
Chairs, .
Chairs, .
Go-carts,
Office furniture,

7,000,000
800,000
125,000
600,000
600,000
175,000
700,000

These concerns use pine, maple, oak, spruce, beech, tulip,
poplar and white and yellow birch. A considerable amount of
this lumber is obtained from outside the State.

75

Land Types.

Appb

OXIMATE

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

40

10

10

-

60

1

-

Oak

150

230

260

110

750

6

-

Chestnut and oak,

140

390

170

50

750

6

-

White pine,

370

950

1,350

660

3,330

25

-

Hardwoods and white pine, !

2,140

1,000

150

-

3,290

25

-

Maple and birch,

2,470

1,560

400

80

4,510

34

-

Softwoods other than white

100

230

80

20

430

3

-

pine. 2

Total

5,410

4,370

2,420

920

13,120

-

-

Percentage, .

41

33

19

7

100

63

* Non-

FOREST 1

'ypes.

Tillage and hay,

4,520

-

22

1,830

-

9

890

-

4

Business, residential, etc,

70

-

-

Water

370

-

2

20,800

-

100

1 Hardwoods are largely maple and gray birch, with small amounts of white birch and oak.

2 Large sizes, mostly hemlock and spruce; smaller, tamarack and pitch pine.

Upton.

The timber land in Upton has been largely cut over within
twenty years, and most of the land is growing Class 3 sprouts.
Gray birch is more common in Upton than in most of the
surrounding towms, and the percentage of white oak is greater;
probably over half the oak in Upton is white oak. Chestnut
and white pine and hardw^oods are the most important types.
There are several lots of merchantable pine still left in Upton,
but mostly in patches of a few acres each.

At the time this survey was made the only mill working in
Upton was the portable mill of D. W. Gaskill of Blackstone.
He had about 300 M board feet to cut, mostly chestnut, oak
and pitch pine. Mr. B. C. Wood of Upton does considerable
cutting in Upton and near-by towns. The Upton Manufactur-
ing Company is a box company primarily, but they have their

76

own sawmill operated by water power. They use only local
pine. The W. G. Fiske Lumber Company have a stationary
mill, but do not do much cutting themselves. This past year
they cut and sawed about 100 M board feet of lumber of which
75 per cent, was pine, the remainder being chestnut and oak.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Ttpes.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

510

380

350

40

1,280

14

-

Oak,i ....

340

410

130

30

910

10

-

Chestnut and oak, .

440

230

30

30

730

8

-

White pine,

120

390

10

180

700

8

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 2

980

760

70

30

1,840

20

-

Maple and gray birch,

2,310

1,050

60

-

3,420

6 38

~

Softwoods other than white

100

50

-

_

150

2

_

pine. 3

Total, ....

4,800

3,270

650

310

9,030

-

i

Percentage, .

53

36

7

4

3,030

100

65

Non-

forest Types.

22

1,050

-

7

600

-

4

90

■

20

[

2

140

,

Total area of town, .

13,960

-

100

1 About one-third of the oak type is made up of white oak.

2 Hardwoods are maple and gray birch.

3 Pitch pine.

UXBRIDGE.

The woodlands constitute about 70 per cent, of the area of
the entire town, the principal species being pitch and white
pine, oak and chestnut. The general condition of the timber is
fair. There are numerous open spaces — as a result of lumber-
ing operations, forest fires and the abandoning of farms —
which could profitably be reforested. The best timber lies in
the south central portion, and ranges from Class 3 to Class 1,
with a stocking in some parts of 100 per cent.

77

The sawmill of Newell & King cuts during the late fall and
winter months from 300 to 700 M board feet of pine, chestnut
and oak, probably 75 per cent, of the whole cut being pine.

The Uxbridge branch of Wm. M. Harris, Providence, R. I.,
deals in southern and western pine, shingles and cord wood.
This concern buys only cordwood locally, and this from wood-
lot owners who deliver the same.

W. B. Tucker cuts pine and chestnut when they can be
bought.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

30

420

170

550

1,170

9

-

Oak,

280

500

160

40

980

8

-

Chestnut and oak, .

1,270

2,180

1,020

280

4,750

37

-

White pine,

280

280

430

320

1,310

10

-

Hardwoods and white pine, x

190

670

50

210

1,120

9

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,020

1,270

450

400

3,140

25

-

Pitch pine,

80

180

20

-

280

2

-

Total, ....

3,150

5,500

2,300

1,800

12,750

-

-

Percentage, .

25

43

18

14

4,650

100

66

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

24

Open pasture, . " .

830

-

4

280

1

2

110

]

330

-

2

380

-

2

19,330

-

100

1 Larger sizes are mostly red maple; smaller, gray birch.

Warren.
The woodland is chiefly a second growth of chestnut and
oak. In the southern section there is a large area of young
mixed hardwoods. A few stands of good merchantable chestnut
and oak are left, but they are small and scattered. Pine forms
a still smaller percentage of the forest growth in this town than it
does in West Brookfield. The best stand of white pine is found

78

around Comins Pond. Elm swamps are to be found, but these
are so rare that they have been classed as mixed hardwoods.

There are no operators in Warren. Mr. H. N. Shepard deals
more or less in lumber, but he contracts for portable mills
from outside to do his work. The lumber sawed is chiefly
chestnut, oak and pine, with some ash, birch and maple.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

60

340

440

440

1,280

18

-

Oak

50

140

80

10

280

4

-

Chestnut and oak,

430

560

120

170

1,280

18

-

White pine,

120

-

10

70

200

3

-

Hardwoods and white pine, x

-

190

50

-

240

4

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,720

1,250

610

10

3,590

52

-

Softwoods other than white

50

50

-

-

100

1

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

2,430

2,530

1,310

700

6,970

-

-

Percentage, .

35

36

19

10

4,030

100

38

Non-

forest Types.

22

6,660

-

37

Brush pasture,

420

-

2

20
130

} -

1

18,230

-

100

1 Hardwoods are largely gray birch and maple.

2 Pitch pine.

Webster.
The wooded section of this town is in a condition of healthy,
rapid growth. Burned areas in the northeastern and south-
eastern corners are restocking with chestnut and oak sprouts,
maple and birch. The best timber lies along the shores and to
the east of Lake Chaubunagungamaug. There are many small
areas of white pine, and reproduction is generally good. The
proportion of woodland to the total area of the town is about
60 per cent.

79

Louis E. Pattison saws mostly pine, chestnut and oak from
the towns of Webster, Douglas, Sturbridge, Charlton, Oxford
and Thompson (Conn.). He saws about 350 M board feet per
year of pine, chestnut and mixed hardwoods.

Land

Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Oak,

320

200

110

-

630

12

-

Chestnut and oak,

490

470

250

150

1,360

25

-

White pine,

140

70

100

110

420

8

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

80

380

320

50

830

15

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,030

870

300

-

2,200

40

-

Total

2,060

1,990

1,080

310

5,440

-

-

Percentage, .

38

37

20

5

1,520

100

59

Non-
Tillage and hay,

forest Types.

16

Open pasture,

270

-

3

Brush pasture,

100

-

1

Business, residential, etc.,

800

-

9

Water, ....

1,150

-

12

Total area of town, .

9,280

-

100

1 Hardwoods are largely gray birch and red maple.

West Boylston.

While there is very little timber of merchantable size, the
majority of that standing is in good, healthy condition. About
55 per cent, of the town is either pasture or tilled land. The
remainder, with the exception of the water area, is covered
with a wooded growth, chestnut being the predominating
species. Chestnut also occurs mixed with oak and white pine.

The best timber is on the land owned by the Metropolitan
Water Works; and while much of this is small and worth little
now, it is only a matter of time until it will form a valuable
forest. Size classes range from reproduction to 2, but the
majority will fall under 10 inches diameter, breast high.

White pine growing naturally occurs well scattered. Around
the reservoir extensive planting of this species has been carried

80

on, the planted trees now ranging from one to ten years in age.
Red and Scotch pine have also been planted, but to a much less
degree. These trees are making exceptionally rapid growth,
some of the older ones averaging 2 feet in height annually. The
best specimens are found in the northeastern corner of the town.
There are no sawmills or woodworking industries now located
in this town, and there have been none since the reservoir was
built. No portable mills were working when this survey was
made.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

10

150

370

70

600

19

-

Oak,

100

130

120

-

350

11

-

Chestnut and oak,

220

360

390

-

970

30

-

White pine,

180

170

300

40

690

21

-

Hardwoods and white pine, x

10

70

30

-

110

3

-

Mixed hardwoods,2 .

210

170

60

-

440

14

-

Softwoods other than white

30

40

-

-

70

2

-

pine. 3

Total, ....

760

1,090

1,270

110

3,230

-

-

Percentage, .

24

34

39

3

4,110

100

37

Non-

forest Types.

47

640

-

7

140

) .

2

40

f

660

-

7

8,820

-

100

1 Hardwoods are birch, chestnut, oak and red maple.

2 Swamp maple, red maple and gray birch.

3 Pitch pine.

West Brookfield.
Nearly all the woodland is second growth hardwoods, chiefly
chestnut and oak. Here and there are small patches of good
merchantable material. Broadly speaking, probably less than
one-third of the town is covered with species which will develop
into large timber. The chief species are chestnut and oak,

81

while the old pastures are fast growing up to gray birch. Soft
maple occurs in the swamps, but the size of this is small, and
it is of little practical importance. White pine occurs scatter-
ingly in small percentages in nearly all types, but the only place
where pure stands are likely to develop naturally is in the
extreme eastern part. Located in this section is a fine but
small tract of merchantable hemlock.

There are two stationary sawmills. One is owned by D.
Tyler and is located east of Ragged Hill on Mill Brook. This
mill is run by water power. The other is a gasoline sawmill
owned by Henry Foster on Long Hill in the extreme southern
part of the town. Both of these operators do only small odd
jobs as the needs of the neighbors require. The logs for these
purposes are supplied by the farmers.

The chief out-of-town operators are George Wasson and A. N.
Cony of Ware, and Messrs. Cummings and Fullam of North
Brookfield. The lumber sawed is mostly chestnut, oak and
pine, with some ash, birch and maple.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

1 Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut, ....

220

490

280

320

1,310

20

-

Oak,

30

-

90

40

160

2

-

Chestnut and oak,

540

230

330

30

1,130

18

-

White pine,

50

100

40

20

210

3

-

Hardwoods and white pine, l

180

180

70

-

430

7

-

Maple and gray birch,

1,110

1,550

550

20

3,230

49

-

Softwoods other than white

20

20

-

20

60

1

-

pine. 2

Total

2,150 2,570

1,360

450

6,530

-

-

Percentage, .

33 39

21

7

100

48

Non-

forest Types.

2,910

-

22

3,070

-

23

600

-

4

Water

390

-

3

Total area of town, .

13,500

-

100

1 Hardwoods are gray birch and red maple.

2 Mostly pitch pine with some hemlock.

82

Westborough.

The proportion of woodland is about 45 per cent., all in good
condition, but mostly of small growth. There is a noticeable
dearth of timber of all kinds on the land best adapted to grow-
ing it. A few wooded hills remain, covered with chestnut, oak
and pine, but by far the greater part of the timber consists of
soft maple, birch and cedar, running from Class 2 down to
reproduction, and this lies in or near the swamps. At the
present time little timber is being cut in Westborough, there
being no mills and but one woodworking factory. Cordwood is
handled only by dealers in coal and wood.

Frank Bartlett, owner of a box factory, cuts no timber. He
uses spruce, pine shingles and some chestnut and oak. He uses
about 3,000,000 board feet per year, most of which is obtained
from outside of Massachusetts.

Land Types.

Appkoximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut

40

80

50

340

510

8

-

Oak,

70

80

130

190

470

8

-

Chestnut and oak,

360

240

150

100

850

14

-

White pine,

20

160

80

120

380

6

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

100

150

-

-

250

4

-

Maple and gray birch,

950

1,830

240

170

3,190

51

-

Softwoods other than white
pine. 2

80

320

-

180

580

9

-

Total

1,620

2,860

650

1,100

6,230

-

-

Percentage, .

26

46

10

18

4,520

100

43

Non-

fokest Types.

31

1,350

-

9

Brush pasture,

1,540

-

11

140

-

1

Business, residential, etc.,

500

-

3

250

-

2

Total area of town, .

14,530

-

100

1 Hardwoods are largely gray birch, red maple and poplar.

2 Pitch pine in the large sizes; white cedar in the smaller sizes.

83

Westminster.

The woodlands of the town are largely in a state of neglect.
The major growth is chestnut and hardwoods, with scattered
stands of pine. There is considerable growth of pine in the
north and east parts of the town. There is much swamp
covered with maple, birch, spruce and alder. Many areas are
found where cutting has been done, removing everything
merchantable, leaving the land butchered, with slash and debris
scattered about, forming veritable tinder piles. These areas
occur throughout the township. This land is now growing up
to gray birch, sprout chestnut or brush, and is well-nigh in a
useless condition. Thinnings are needed everywhere and re-
forestation in many places. This last operation has been done
to considerable extent. Careful forest management is needed
in this town as in other towns examined. Fires have run
through the cut-over lands and left them in a very poor con-
dition. Practically all merchantable stuff has been cut.

In Westminster village is a box mill, belonging to Mr. Good-
ridge, which uses per year 1,500,000 feet of pine, spruce and
hemlock. Most of the stock is obtained from outside the State
because Westminster's supply and the stock near by is de-
pleted. Last year 200 M board feet were cut here, the re-
mainder coming from New Hampshire. E. H. Merriam runs a
sawmill near Westminster depot in connection with his grain
business. Sawing is done irregularly, and is largely custom
work. This mill saws perhaps 500 M board feet to 1,000 M
board feet per year. Pierce's chair mill at Whitmanville in the
northerly part of the township uses 1,500,000 feet of chestnut
per year. This comes from Pennsylvania, New Hampshire and
New York. Two million feet of turned stock per year are used.

o

84

&

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3 2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut

970

470

340

300

2,080

14

-

Oak,

120

70

30

50

270

2

-

Chestnut and oak, .

380

200

430

630

1,640

11

-

White pine,

660

330

770

780

2,540

17

-

Hardwoods and white pine, 1

250

200

280

240

970

6

-

Maple and gray birch,

3,870

1,370

830

670

6,740

45

-

Softwoods other than white

300

280

100

70

750

5

_

pine. 2

Total, ....

6,550

2,920

2,780

2,740

14,990

-

-

Percentage, .

44

19

19

18

4,380

100

63

Non-

FOREST T

TPES.

18

1,730

-

7

1,670

-

7

360

-

2

70

1

3

670

1

23,870

-

100

1 Hardwoods are largely gray birch and maple.

2 Pitch pine and hemlock.

WlNCHENDON.

Regarding the town as a whole, white pine is the predomi-
nating species. As a rule, it is thrifty and growing rapidly, but
considerable damage caused by the weevil was noticed in some
of the younger stands. It might be mentioned that, in general,
although the pine stands are healthy and growing, they are
understocked.

The gray birch and maple type, although at the present time
covering a much larger area than the white pine, seems likely
to be eventually suppressed by the latter.

Spruce, hemlock and larch were found scattered throughout
the town in moist places. Considerable hemlock is found in the
western part of the town, generally in mixture with pine and of

85

about the same age. In the swamps and bogs spruce, hemlock
and larch are found, either pure, together, or in different
combinations with lowland hardwoods, such as red maple and
the various birches.

The sizes of the different types vary from reproduction to 1 .

Mr. C. A. Brooks runs a sawmill in connection with his
handle factory. He cuts per year 45 M board feet of spruce,
25 M board feet of hemlock, and 180 M board feet of pine.
Nearly all of this lumber is bought in New Hampshire.

M. E. Converse & Sons own a toy factory, and use the
following amount of board feet of lumber per annum: white
pine, 1,000 M; chestnut, 250 to 300 M; basswood, 75 M;
red gum, 50 M; miscellaneous, 100 M.

C. A. Brooks' handle factory uses about 400 cords of beech,
birch and maple per year. Practically all of this comes from
New Hampshire.

Wm. Brown & Son manufacture pails and ice-cream freezers.
They use about 3,500 cords of pine annually.

Mason & Parker, toy manufacturers, use per annum: bass-
wood, 200 M board feet; chestnut, 250 M board feet; poplar,
150 M board feet; pine, 100 M board feet; beech, birch and
maple, 25 M board feet.

Carter & Campbell, furniture manufacturers, use per annum:
spruce, 40 to 45 M board feet; maple, 30 M board feet; ash
and miscellaneous hardwoods, 15 M board feet.

M. A. Parks, manufacturer of spools and bobbins, uses bass-
wood, 500 M board feet; birch, 500 M board feet; pine, 1-inch
boards, and pine, 2| inch boards, 100 M board feet; Pennsyl-
vania beech, 50 M board feet.

E. Murdock & Co., manufacturers of pails and tubs, use
7,500 cords of pine logs; 1,500 cords of spruce, hemlock and
hardwoods; 750 M board feet of 2 J inch pine plank; and 500
M board feet of 1-inch hardwood boards.

86

Land Types,

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut and oak,

270

320

470

160

1,220

6

-

White pine,

' 1,220

1,070

1,970

680

4,940

25

-

Mixed hardwoods, 1 .

10

140

100

30

280

1

-

Maple and gray birch, \

M.1,460
B.5,570

1,510
1,640

700
170

70

3,740
7,380

19
38

—

Softwoods other than white

320

680

910

330

2,240

11

-

pine. 2

Total, ....

8,850

5,360

4,320

1,270

19,800

-

-

Percentage, .

45

27

22

6

4,350

100

68

Non-

FOREST T

YPES.

15

1,170

-

4

1,760

-

6

1,240

-

4

800

'

3

29,120

-

100

1 Hardwoods are beech, hard maple and white birch.

2 Spruce, hemlock, pitch pine and a little red pine.

WORCESTER.

Worcester is more interesting as a consumer of lumber than
as a producer. Its percentage of woodland, 21, is far less than
any other township in the county. What there is is valued far
in excess of its timber value for residential and aesthetic pur-
poses. For this reason the percentage of woodland in larger
sizes is unusually large. Chestnut predominates, either pure or
mixed with oak, while white pine is deficient and under the
average percentage. The woodland is generally in good con-
dition, except for the chestnut blight, which has done con-
siderable damage in many sections. The wroodland around
Lake Quinsigamond shows the result of many ground fires.

A large manufacturing city like Worcester is naturally a large
consumer of lumber, both for construction purposes and in its
industries. Most of this lumber, however, comes from outside
the State, as is the general run with our lumber supply. The

87

principal consumers of native lumber are the box manu-
facturers, of which there are two large concerns in Worcester.
This city, with its numerous car lines and electric companies,
offers a good market for ties and poles. Some native white oak
is used by the car builders, and it is probable that some native
white pine is used by the makers of sash, blinds and interior
finish. Worcester offers a good cordwood market, but the
supply in the vicinity is ample, so that prices are rather low.
The following industries make up the principal timber con-
sumers of Worcester : —

Baker Box Company.
Williams & Bridges.

Box Manufacturers.

H. I. Gould.

Caskets.
F. E. Sessions Company.

Sash and Interior Finish.

Griffin Flooring Company.
Adams & Powers.
Hatch & Barnes.
E. F. Hunt Company.

A. C. Lead Company.

W. E. Putnam.
M. K. Smith Company.
Frank 0. Stevens.
Henry Braman.

Eaves and Troughs.

I Edw. W. Witter & Co.

General Lumber Dealers.

F. 0. Arnold.

Baker Lumber Company.

J. F. Bicknell Lumber Company.

J. W. Bishop Company.

Henry H. Dyke.

John H. Grant.

Edward A. Hackwell.

George L. Jacques.
Frank 0. Arnold.
M. Bagdasarian.

George L. Jacques.
Frank 0. Arnold.
M. Bagdasarian.

Frederick S. Hunt.

New England Lumber Company.

William H. Sawyer Company.

Stone & Berg.

Stone & Foster.

P. W. Wood Lumber Company.

Woodland Operators.

Chas. T. Luce.
H. I. Gould.

Tie and Pole Operators.

Chas. T. Luce.
H. I. Gould.

88

Lasts.
S. Porter & Co.

Agricultural Implements.

Richardson Manufacturing Com-
pany.

Worcester Lawn Mower Com-
pany.

Car Builders.
Osgood-Bradley Company.

Piano Players.
Simplex Player Company. Weber Piano Company.

Refrigerators.
F. A. Atherton Company. M. M. Whitman.

Ararat Wood Company.
David Bergerau.
Walker Ice Company.

E. Perreault.

F. O. Arnold.

Cordwood Dealers.

Claflin Coal Company.
F. P. Defaleo.

New England Fuel Company.
Worcester Fuel Company.
F. E. Powers Company.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Chestnut

90

100

230

310

730

14

-

Oak,

20

360

30

60

470

9

-

Chestnut and oak,

410

420

960

210

2,000

39

-

White pine,

20

-

70

150

240

5

-

Hardwoods and white pine,

-

140

50

310

500

10

-

Maple and gray birch,

310

610

180

20

1,120

22

-

Pitch pine,

10

-

-

30

40

1

-

Total, ....

860

1,630

1,520

1,090

5,100

-

-

Percentage, .

17

32

30

21

8,040

100

21

Non-

FOREST T

YPES.

32

2,800

-

11

680

-

3

7,330

-

30

690

-

3

24,640

-

100

o

m

Red maple in swamp. Diameters, 3 to 7 inches; heights, 35 to 45 feet. (Maple
and birch type, Class 3.)

Oak, maple and pine in mixture. Diameters, 3 to 7 inches; heights,
20 to 30 feet. (Pine and hardwoods type, Class 3.)

Large sprout oak. Diameters, 7 to 12 inches; heights, 50 to 60 feet. (Oak type, Class 2.)

White pine fifty years old. Diameters, 8 to 13 inches; heights, 55 to 65
feet. (White pine type, Class 2.)

Pine, maple and oak. Diameters, 6 to 10 inches; heights, 50 to 60 feet. (Pine and hard-
woods type, Class 2.)

Large sprout chestnut. Diameters, 8 to 14 inches; heights, 60 to
70 feet. (Chestnut type, Class 1.)

^ 5*. OS

THE UTILIZATION OF FOREST
PRODUCTS IN MASSACHUSETTS

::|-: ^iHiM-;.-: - -■■,'lii;;;,-.:; ■,-■ . ::M!!lllllllMMMli;!ilii;i!iS-. ...:: .r . ■. ^iM^, ^;;;■;:;!l!lMil;l:!;ili;lMi:Mii:l:l:;. ;;:. : ■ . . ■ ■. .-■ . . - - . : : ■ ■' : ■ .': iMiiiiiiMi-ll^Miili^J'-iliiliiMilll

AS AFFECTED BY THE WAR

By PAUL D. KNEELAND, M.F.

Assistant Forester

Under the Direction of

F. W. RANE, B.Agr., M.S.

Massachusetts State Forester

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY," STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

1918

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

THE UTILIZATION OF FOREST PROD-
UCTS IN MASSACHUSETTS AS
AFFECTED BY THE WAR.

Introduction.

The war in which we are now engaged has wrought great
changes in the field of forest utilization. Many of these
changes have been kaleidoscopic in their action, and they are
still going on. What was true a year ago, perhaps, does not
hold true to-day, and very likely will be still different a year
from now. This bulletin is written from a popular rather than
a scientific point of view, in order that the woodland owner
may know some of the conditions which now prevail, and
be able to take advantage of them. There is bound to be a
reaction after the war, but there is little probability that
things will go back to their former status.

Of all our natural resources perhaps the forests were the
last to be called upon to help win the war. The other two
great sources of raw material — the field crops and the mineral
reserves — felt the stimulation of war prices long before this
country entered the conflict. It was not until we were in it,
and the great programs for ships, airplanes, cantonments, etc.,
were under way, that the lumber business became a great and
necessary factor.

Massachusetts forests have not been able to help in a large
way as have those of many of her sister States. Of airplane
spruce and ship timbers we have but little. However, our
forests are doing their bit, and all that our State can furnish is
needed.

White Pine.

White pine is our most important species. Its chief market
has always been for box boards. The war has brought about a
great increase in this demand. Most of our munitions have to

issued since the government took over the railroads. They are
appended herewith. A maximum price has been fixed which
applies to all lines in New England. Not all the roads are now
paying the maximum price or buying all classes, but it is ex-
pected that before long they will. All ties must be sold to the
road on whose lines they are delivered. They cannot be
shipped from one road to another. It is intimated that the
railroads will do the buying for the trolley lines. Hard times
have hit the trolley lines, anyway. Many have been discon-
tinued, and the rest are doing as little in the line of construction
and repair as possible. Therefore the market for the small
trolley ties seems to be poor. The new price for ties averages
slightly higher than previously, but not in proportion to the
increase in lumber. The price of the smaller ties is lower than
it was previously on certain roads. The 6-inch tie with 5-
inch face is no longer specified, and will not be taken except
as a cull, price not known. The small tie is our mainstay from
the point of view of utilization of our forests, and it is to be
hoped that later on the Railroad Administration may rectify
the matter of their price and size. Probably the reason for the
low price is that the railroads want as few of the small ties as
possible. Operators should take the hint and cut their pro-
duction of small ties to a minimum. The smaller chestnut can
be more profitably used as lumber, and at present prices of
lumber the larger material also.

3. Lumber. — The chestnut lumber market is the promising
feature of the whole situation. The almost universal disposi-
tion of chestnut lumber in Massachusetts before the war —
that of sawing it 1§ inches round edge for the chair factories —
has been somewhat modified. The chair factories are still buy-
ing and paying good prices, but are not buying in increased
amounts. In fact, their demand has slightly decreased. Chest-
nut has come into demand for box boards as a substitute for
pine. For this purpose, it is sawed mostly 1 inch with some
f inch and lj inches thickness. The price has been from $2
to $5 per M less than the price for pine, while a little mixed
with the pine has been accepted without price reduction. Not
all box shops will buy chestnut, but an increasing number will.
In this way it is possible to utilize trees which will make only

small ties, or which will be too small to make ties at all. Some
operators have been cutting chestnut down to 4 inches, but that
is not advisable if a sure market for the lumber is desirable,
6 inches being a safer minimum diameter.

There is a good demand for the better grades of chestnut
squared up from the butt, and good second logs. This lumber
is being sold in place of the southern chestnut, graded No. 1
and No. 2 common. In thicknesses of 1 inch, 1§ inches, 2
inches and thicker, 6 inches and up wide, it is commanding a
price of from $40 to $55 per thousand feet delivered. Care
should be taken, however, to saw this material full to thick-
ness, so that it will dry to those sizes; also it must be stuck
and dried properly. This material is used for coffins, finish,
furniture, cabinet work, piano cases, construction, etc. Even
higher prices might be realized if great care in sawing and
grading is exercised. Wormy material cannot be sold in this
class, nor can it be sold extensively for chair stock. Railroad
ties and box boards are the best market for wormy chestnut.
Some wormy lumber can be sold square edge, if it is sound, at
a lesser price.

Some chestnut has been used for ship timbers, but it is doubt-
ful whether that demand will continue.

Oak.

Oak is fast disappearing from the eastern section of the State,
due to the gypsy moth. However, it is our most important
hardwood tree, and in extensive demand at this time. The
chief uses may be classified as follows: —

1. Piling. — White and red oak are in constant demand for
piling. White oak is specified in some cases, but usually either
may be used. The prices have ranged from 25 cents to $1
(for very large sticks) per running foot for the piles delivered.
About all the larger piles must be from 7 to 8 inches diameter
at the small end, and from 14 to 20 inches at the butt. Lengths
run from 30 to 60 feet. All must be fairly straight and thor-
oughly sound. The chief difficulty with piling is in handling, as
it requires special knowledge and equipment. It is not advis-
able to cut piles except on order, as they rapidly deteriorate.

10

and wagon manufacture chiefly. Cherry can be sold for chairs
and furniture. There is a special war use for cherry, — air-
plane propellers, — but it takes a very high grade.

Cordwood.

Cordwood for fuel has been one of the great features of the
past year. The price last February was as high in isolated in-
stances as $12 to $13 a cord on the cars and $20 delivered.
The price has now settled to about $8 to $10 a cord on the
cars. It cannot go much lower than that with the present
cost of labor and teams. We doubt very much whether there
will be any such demand this winter as there was last, as there
is much more wood cut. Very few of the woodland owners
profited by those high prices last year. It went largely to
the dealers and speculators. The market for chestnut wood is
rather difficult. A limited amount can be sold from $1 to
$2 under the price of hardwood. There is always a good
demand for slabs and edgings for kindling wood. Owners
should keep on cutting cordwood, but without the expectation
of enormous profits. There is bound to be a good demand, and
also a reaction after the present fuel crisis.

Labor.

The most difficult problem to-day for those wishing to
produce lumber or wood is that of labor. It has steadily in-
creased in cost, decreased in efficiency, and is now hard to
find at any price. The cost of operating is surely double what
it was three years ago, and the difficulties of operating are in-
creased many fold. This must be borne in mind when the
present high prices of products are considered. Labor is bound
to get more scarce as the war continues.

Stumpage Value.

The value of lumber and wood stumpage of all kinds has
unquestionably gone up in the last year. Pine lots have been
sold as high as $20 per M on the stump, and cordwood as high
as $4 per cord. Those prices are undoubtedly war prices, and will
not last for long. However, pine stumpage is worth from $10

11

to $15 now, according to quality and location, for lots within
a two-trip haul of the railroad, and will probably never go far
back from those figures. More distant lots, or very small or
difficult lots, are worth less than that. Chestnut, hemlock and
spruce are worth from $2 to S3 less. Hardwood has about half
of the value of pine. Oak and ash are worth more than pine.

Government Control.

The chief energies of the nation are to-day centered on the
war. The government is slowly but surely heading all our
forces so that they may directly contribute to the winning of
the war. The lumber business must be prepared to do its share,
if not voluntarily, then perhaps under government control.
The recent embargo on the shipment on the railroads of all
lumber and forest products is probably a step toward that end.
It is now impossible to ship forest material (cordwood not in-
cluded) on the cars without a permit, except to the govern-
ment or to the railroads. At this writing the cause and effect
of this embargo are not known. It may last for the duration
of the war. Its effect will undoubtedly be to check the pro-
duction of lumber for unnecessary uses, its shipment long dis-
tances, and the hoarding of lumber supplies. It will certainly
stimulate the production of lumber for direct government use,.,
and may result in lower prices and lessened production. The
lumber producer must be prepared for anything. It is no time
for speculation. Forest products are vital at this time, and the
government will do nothing to hinder their production, but it
will probably guide this production along necessary channels.

The Need of Forestry at the Present Time.

There never was a time when the need of forestry, of forest
conservation, was greater than it is at present. We are un-
doubtedly, due to the impetus of the war, overcutting our for-
ests, especially our pine forests here in Massachusetts; that is,
we are cutting the lumber faster than it is growing. That
means a shortage of lumber later, and the loss of wood-using
industries which will go where they can get the raw material.
Furthermore, we are cutting destructively, with no idea of the

14

United States Railroad Administration.

Specifications for Cross Ties.

Gkade No.

Squared.

Flatted.

1,

2

3,

4,

5

6 inches thick, 7-inch face, .

6 inches thick, 8-inch face, .

7 inches thick, 8-inch face, .
7 inches thick, 9-inch face, .

6x6 inches.

6 inches thick, 7-inch face.
f 6 inches thick, 8-inch face.
[7 inches thick, 7-mch face.

7 inches thick, 8-inch face.
7 inches thick, 9-inch face.

Maximum Prices.

Grade 1.

Grade 2. Grade 3.

Grade 4.

Grade 5.

White oak, ....
Chestnut, ....
Red oaks, ....
Beech, birches, hard maples,

$0 60
50
40
40

70
70
50
50

$0 95
90
75
75

$1 20

1 10

1 00

90

$1 35

1 10

1 10

95

Ties 8 feet are 6 per cent, less in price than above.

Quality. — All ties shall be free from any defects that may
impair their strength or durability as cross ties, such as decay,
splits, shakes or large or numerous holes or knots.

Manufacture. — Ties ought to be made from trees which have
been felled not longer than one month.

All ties shall be straight, well-manufactured, cut square at
the ends, have top and bottom parallel, and have bark entirely
removed.

Dimensions. — All ties shall be 8 feet 6 inches long.

All ties shall measure both sections betwreen 20 and 40
inches from the middle of the tie; and dimensions given are
minimum.

Ties over 1 inch more in thickness, over 3 inches more in
width, or over 2 inches more in length will be degraded or
rejected.

The top of the tie is the plane farthest from the pith of the
tree, whether or not the pith is present in the tie.

Delivery. — All ties ought to be delivered to a railroad within
one month after being made.

F=> I— /^ r-^i CDF"

PLYMOUTH COUNTY

3CALC

THE FORESTS
OF PLYMOUTH COUNTY

The Results of a Forest Survey

OF THE

Twenty-seven Towns in the County

By JAMES J. MORRIS
Under the direction of F. W. RANE, State Forester

MASSACHUSETTS STATE FORESTER, 1918

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

1918

» \ . '■',>;■ S A
is ', — "■

" y' \> Y

THE FORESTS OF PLYMOUTH COUNTY.

Explanation of Survey.

The survey of the several towns of Plymouth County is the
second work of this kind attempted by the State forestry
department. The other survey, that of Worcester County, was
carried on at odd times, and extended over a period of three
years. The data were collected and published last winter in the
form of a bulletin, which was entitled " The Forests of Worcester
County."

In the Worcester County bulletin the reasons for making
forest surveys of the different counties of Massachusetts were
explained in detail, but it will not be amiss here to review
briefly some of the main reasons.

Every manufacturing concern or business of any kind at
some time or other takes an inventory of its stock. Without
such an inventory no business can be carried on to the best
advantage. The stock, or raw material, of forestry work is
forest land, and since the State forestry department of Massa-
chusetts is just what its name implies, the raw material with
which this department must deal is the forest lands of Massa-
chusetts.

If the woodlands of Massachusetts were made up of but one
or two species of trees, or if the various species of trees were all
of the same height or diameter size, this inventory would be a
comparatively simple matter. But such conditions do not exist.
Scattered throughout the State are many different kinds of trees
differing greatly in importance, value, life habits, etc., from
each other. Moreover, since the woodlands have been repeat-
edly cut over at different times for many years, we find existing
a variegated collection of trees of all sizes and conditions; in
fact, nearly every woodlot differs to a greater or less extent
from others.

6

Method of Survey.

In Worcester County each town was covered by one man,
who did all the field work. In Plymouth County the men
worked in a crew, each man covering a certain assigned section
of the town which was being mapped. When one town was
finished the men moved on to the next. There were several
distinct advantages in this arrangement. Since the men camped
in tents it was possible for them to choose a central location for
their camp site and thus save time, inasmuch as in going to and
from their work they were not obliged to cover the same ground
as they would have been had they stopped at a farmhouse or
hotel in one corner of the town, as was often the case in
Worcester County. The cost of the survey was also lighter, the
only expense incurred being for foodstuffs, since the men and
camp equipment were moved from place to place by one of the
department trucks.

For the main part, however, the methods followed in making
this survey were similar to those followed in Worcester County.
The men worked by compass and pace, using a copy of the
United States topographical map as a guide map for each
town. Each man would start at some convenient point on a
road or edge of a pond and run a straight line through to the
town line and then back to the opposite town line on a course
parallel to the first, but one-half mile distant. Care was taken
when laying off these parallel lines to have them cut the roads
so far as possible; that is, if the majority of the roads in a cer-
tain town ran in an easterly and westerly direction the strips
were run in a northerly and southerly direction, or vice versa.
Cutting the roads in this manner enabled the men to get a
truer idea of the actual forest conditions, and it was possible to
obtain a more accurate average, because if the strips were run
fn the general direction of the roads some of them would paral-
lel the roads, and since in most cases the type found along the
roadsides, which is largely tillage, is not typical of the land
lying a few hundred feet farther in, the data obtained in this
way would not be trustworthy, as the lines would show an
amount of farm and tillage land out of proportion to actual
conditions.

For convenience and brevity in the field, symbols representing
the various types, diameter classes, moth infestations, etc., were
used. These symbols are somewhat similar to those used in the
previous survey. The map work of each town has been com-
pleted, and photographic enlargements of the topographical
maps used as a base are to be found at the office of the State
Forester. These maps show the strip lines which were run in
each town, and contain a symbolic explanation of the different
types, size classes, etc. Tables containing summaries computed
from the information obtained from the field work are contained
in this bulletin.

The following diagram may serve to illustrate the method
used in making this survey : —

Sca) e.

•kn'i\e.

LE_GENLD_ .

Wit ft Pine,

- A'fW\e

- l'Popla>*

- M.

PtfcW Pine

- Y

C>e/d«2kv

- vv .Swiwp

- z.

Oak

- E-iA&ricu

1. "•*

B'wcU

• S iPasVvjvc -P»K

Tnseot Tvii

^stations -

US

Fire, Wt*k

-

A D O

Map of northern section of Rockland, showing method of survey.

Lines 1, 2, 3 and 4, running approximately east and west,
represent strip lines one-half mile apart. On Line 1, and near
the top of the plate, are the symbols "ES 5, 1600'." Consult-
ing the legend we learn that along this line for a distance of

8

1,600 feet were found oak and birch of sprout size in mixture,
the number 5 representing the size class. Oak predominates,
since the letter "E," representing oak, precedes the letter "S,"
representing birch.

Forest Types.

On account of the difference in topographical and climatic
conditions, the types of Plymouth County vary to a consider-
able extent from those of Worcester County. Following is a
list of types used and a brief explanation of each: —

White Pine. — This type consists of white pine in pure
stands, that is, in stands made up of 80 per cent, or more of
the one species. There is still a considerable amount of this
type found throughout the county in spite of repeated cuttings
and fires. It may be safely stated that there are several million
feet of this type of good merchantable size, although it is some-
what scattered and found as a rule in stands of small areas.

Pine and Oak. — Stands of this kind are made up of 70 per
cent, or more of white pine and oak in mixture. It is a com-
mon type. Sometimes the proportion of oak is greater than
that of pine, while at other times there is about an equal
amount of each. In all cases, however, the oak and pine in
combination form at least 70 per cent, of the total stand, the
remainder being made up of maple, pitch pine and unimportant
hardwoods. This type is generally found on the higher gravelly
lands.

Pine and Maple. — Substituting maple for the oak, this type
is similar to the preceding. It is not so common as that of the
pine and oak, and is generally found in low or swampy lands.

Oak. — This forms the largest type. It embraces stands
made up of 80 per cent, or more of oak. A very large pro-
portion in size class 5 is made up of the so-called scrub oak.
More than one-half of the total for the county is of a diameter
size too small for cordwood. There is, however, a considerable
amount large enough for saw-logs.

Maple (Sivamp Type). — Consists of nearly pure stands of
maple. This type is found on low, wet land, and is fairly com-
mon. A good proportion is made up of species of cordwood
size, with a moderate representation of the larger size classes.

Pitch Pine Type. — Next to the oak this is the largest indi-

9

vidual type found. It is found in all size classes, but more than
50 per cent, consists of the No. 5, or smallest, class. It is often
found in pure stands, but generally contains some other tree in
mixture. Scrub oak is its most common associate.

Size Classes.

In the Worcester County survey but four size classes were
used. As an experiment it was decided in the Plymouth survey
to split the Xo. 4 size in two, thus forming five size classes, and
differentiating the small brush from saplings. Except for for-
estry purposes, such as determining more exactly the type of
land on which planting might be done without preliminary
brushing, the result does not warrant the distinction. Follow-
ing is an explanation of the various classes: —

No. 1 forms the largest size class, and contains species whose
diameters breast high average 10 inches or better, and whose
height will average 60 to 80 feet.

No. 2 represents trees whose average diameters run from 8 to
10 inches, and whose height will average about 50 to 70 feet.

No. 3 constitutes the cordwood size, and species of this class
average about 5 inches in diameter and 40 to 50 feet in height.

Xo. 4 embraces saplings and small cordwood, or thrash.
Trees falling in this diameter class average about 2 inches in
diameter and 30 to 40 feet in height.

No. 5 is formed of very young sprout or stunted growth,
such as scrub oak, stunted pitch pine, etc. In no case do the
diameters run higher than 2 inches.

Non-forest Types.

Tillage and Hay. — Land covered by this heading is all under
cultivation. Included in this type is all the farming and agri-
cultural land, with the exception of pasture and cranberry bogs.

Pasture. — In the Worcester survey much land which could
not be classed exactly as Xo. 5 forest type, owing to the small
amount of wood growth on it, and yet which was not actually
used as grazing land, was classed as brush pasture.

In this survey the heading " Pasture" includes only such
lands as are actuallv used as such. This accounts to a certain

10

extent for the great difference in the pasture totals of Worcester
and Plymouth counties.

Water. — All inland waters fall under this classification :
ponds, lakes, rivers and brooks. The figures are a little lower
than those of the Waterways Commission, but considering the
necessarily rough method in which they were obtained the
results are very satisfactory.

Residential. — This term explains itself. It also includes
business sections, cemeteries, fair grounds, etc.

Cranberry Bog. — Much of the low, mucky lands along
streams is suitable for the raising of cranberries, and advantage
has been taken of this fact. The area covered by these bogs,
although almost negligible as compared to the total area of the
county, is, nevertheless, worthy of mention because of the im-
portance of the product.

Marsh. — This term has been used to cover two distinct
types. In seacoast towns it applies to salt marsh, while in
inland towns it covers the open swamps.

Plymouth County.

Plymouth County lies in the southeast corner of Massa-
chusetts, just north of Cape Cod. It contains approximately
440,000 acres. Plymouth, a town of about 13,000 population,
situated on the coast in the central and eastern part, is the
county seat. Brockton is the commercial center, and is im-
portant from an industrial standpoint. Other important towns
are Middleborough, Whitman, Bridgewater and Rockland. All
of these towns contain manufactories of various kinds, princi-
pally shoes.

In the western part the Cape Cod branch of the New York,
New Haven & Hartford Railroad runs in a northerly and
southerly direction the entire length of the county, while
another branch follows the eastern coast line as far south as
Plymouth. A line of the same road running east and west con-
nects Plymouth and Middleborough, and in the north a con-
necting line runs to Plymouth. Electric roads traverse the
county in various directions, connecting all the principal cities
and towns. On the whole, it may be said that the railroad
facilities in the county are good, except in the southern part.

11

The products of the county are many and varied. Among
the most important may be mentioned shoes, rope, cotton
cloth, rubber products, boxes, crates, shooks and shoemaking
tools.

The important farming products are hay, potatoes, cranber-
ries and miscellaneous vegetables. Dairying is not now a very
important industry, and is becoming less so year after year.
Stock and poultry raising is practiced to a slight extent.

Along the seashore are many fine summer resorts. Hundreds
of fine residences have been built, and these resorts are con-
stantly attracting people in larger numbers to enjoy the ocean
scenery for which the shores of eastern and southern Plymouth
County are justly famous.

Topography and Soils.

Running practically the entire eastern length of the county,
along the coast, and extending inland roughly about 5 miles, is
a strip of rolling, knobby land with basin-like intervales. The
hills are mostly rounded, irregular of distribution, and in very
rare cases rise beyond 100 feet in altitude. This strip is made
up of a terminal moraine, and is more rugged than the other
sections of the county.

The remainder, which means practically the whole of the
county, is made up of a level to gentle rolling topography. The
elevation of the hills ranges from 100 to 200 feet. Numerous
ponds abound, among the principal of which may be mentioned
Assawompsett, Long Pond and Quittacas, all situated mainly
or in part in the town of Lakeville. Several swamps of large
areas also occur, the Great Cedar Swamps of Bridgewater and
Middleborough being the most important.

The drainage of the county is effected mainly through several
small rivers and their tributaries. TheWeweantic River drains
to the south into Buzzards Bay. The Taunton River, empty-
ing into Mount Hope Bay, drains part of the western and cen-
tral areas. Weir and Fresh rivers are the principal streams in
the north, while North, South and Jones rivers drain to the
east. Other important streams are the Mattapoisett, Wankinco,
Agawam and Sippican. Many of the ponds and lakes through-
out the county have no apparent outlet, and it is possible, par-

12

ticularly so in the eastern section, that they empty into the
ocean through a subterranean flow which drains to a consider-
able extent the whole country.

Monk's Hill in Kingston is the highest elevation in the
county.

The soils of the northern part of Plymouth County are
mostly a light to heavy fine sandy loam, with outcroppings of
granite, gneiss and schist. Much of this soil is forested, but
that which is cultivated produces good and various crops. The
sandier and stony types are found mostly in pastures.

Although the larger part of the soils of the central and south-
ern sections are also sandy loam, they are coarser than those of
the northern section, and carry a considerable amount of gravel
and fine pebbles. Through Plymouth, Wareham and Middle-
borough deposits of muck occur. This soil is used extensively
for growing cranberries, and, as shown in the tables, quite a
sizable area is under cultivation.

Forest Conditions.

In the reports of the overseers of the earlier Plymouth County
settlements reference is often made to the forests, but such ref-
erences contain very scanty information as to their composition.
It is probable, however, that at the time of the landing of the
Pilgrims the greater part of the county was forested with large
and thrifty virgin stands of white and pitch pine, oak and
maple, — pine in uplands, oak and maple in lowlands.

We know that much of the pine was cut and shipped to
England to be used for masts for the English navy, and also
that England depended to a large extent upon New England
pitch pine for her naval stores.

The original forest types exist to-day, but in a much depleted
condition. Over large areas fires have swept repeatedly, burn-
ing off the humus —-the forest floor covering — and greatly im-
poverishing the soil in many sections. Erom these fire-swept
areas the original white or pitch pine stands have disappeared,
and in their places are growths of scrub pitch pine and oak.

Throughout the greater portion of the county, however,, white
pine can be grown, and areas now given over to scrub oak
should be reforested. On the sandier areas Scotch and good

13

grade pitch pine could be grown with success. In fact, refor-
estation has been carried on successfully in nearly all parts of
the county. The State Forest Commission has recently ac-
quired a tract of several thousand acres of land in the town of
Carver, and this department is planting large quantities of
white and Scotch pine there every year.

As mentioned above, white pine of good grade is still found in
fair quantities and in pure stands distributed throughout. the
county.

It may be well to regard briefly the distribution of the various
types. Practically all of the types are universally distributed,
and in nearly every case all of the various size classes are found
in each town.

The towns of Bridgewater, Hingham and Pembroke contain
the highest percentages of white pine, while Abington. Plymouth,
Rockland, Wareham and West Bridgewater contain the smallest.
Good stands of the first quality may be found in all the towns,
but Whitman, Scituate, Abington and Hanover are poorest in
this respect. It may be stated here that these towns contain
very little of the best quality of any of the different types.

Plymouth shows the highest proportion of forested land (82.5
per cent.), but there are several other towns containing 70 per
cent, or more of forest growth. These towns are Carver, Han-
over, Hanson, Kingston, Lakeville, Marion, Mattapoisett,
Middleborough, Norwell, Pembroke and Plympton.

Brockton, Hingham, Marshfield, Scituate and Whitman have
the smallest percentages of wooded areas.

The best oak is found iu largest proportional quantities in
Marion, Mattapoisett, Middleborough, Plymouth, Rochester
and Scituate.

Maple is found mostly in cordwood sizes, but stands of first-
class stock may be found in Lakeville, Marion, Mattapoisett,
Middleborough, Norwell, Pembroke, Rochester and Scituate.

The best stands of pitch pine occur in Carver, Duxbury,
Kingston, Mattapoisett, Marion, Plymouth, Rochester and
Wareham, all seacoast towns with the exception of Carver and
Rochester, which are sandy plains.

Of the non-forest types West Bridgewater contains the high-
est proportion of agricultural land. Others of the larger culti-

14

vated areas are Bridgewater, East Bridgewater, Hanover, Hing-
ham, Scituate and Whitman.

Brockton and Whitman contain the largest proportional resi-
dential areas, although Plymouth and Middleborough have
actual residential areas larger than Whitman.

Abington, Whitman and Hingham contain the largest pro-
portional amount of pasture land.

Marshfield, Marion and Carver have large amounts of marsh
land, Marshfield, as the name suggests, having by far the great-
est area of this salt marsh.

The largest and best cranberry bogs are found in Carver and
Wareham, while Lakeville contains more actual water area than
any other town in the county.

Moth Infestation.

Since Plymouth County contains such a proportionately
large amount of oak as compared to other sections of the State,
we would naturally draw the conclusion that the moth infesta-
tion must be exceptionally large. This, however, is not true.
Conditions here, with the exception of the town of Plymouth,
are not much worse than those throughout the eastern part of
Massachusetts, and at the present time the moth situation is
such that, with careful supervision and a reasonable expendi-
ture of money for spraying purposes, it may be kept well under
control.

There are, however, large tracts of land forested with oak of
poor quality, not large enough for cordwood and with little
chance of being so for some years to come, that present a serious
problem. These lots, most of them located in the southern part
of the county, are situated far away from the centers, and on
account of the poor quality of the wood, and its distance from a
market, spraying is out of the question because of the expense
entailed. These lots should be clean brushed and reforested
with white or Scotch pine. The State forestry department has
not at the present time the money to do this work, and any-
thing that is attempted along this line must be done by the
owners of the lands in question.

15

Forest Fire Protection.

The destructive fires which have raged over the entire Cape
country, including the southern part of Plymouth County, have
caused very serious damage to forest growth. Indeed, fire has
been the most serious enemy of timber propagation in this sec-
tion. The geographic location of this part of the State, together
with the high winds which prevail at certain periods of the
year, are conditions which make each small brush fire a poterp-
tial holocaust.

This fire menace has been recognized for a long time by the
residents of the Cape counties and by the State Forester's
department. A fire tower was constructed in Plymouth by that
town in 1905. In 1911 the office of State Fire Warden was
established, and since then towers have been erected on high
points in the towns of Kingston, Hanson, Hingham and Middle-
borough. These towers, with the addition of that in Bourne in
Barnstable County, now cover the entire area of Plymouth
County, and statistics from the State Fire Warden's reports
show that the fire damage in this section has been reduced
about 75 per cent, since their erection.

Forest Industries.

The shoe manufacturing and cranberry raising industries
require very large amounts of wood in the manufacture of
boxes, crates and barrels for the shipment of their products:
Practically all of the wood used is obtained from the county.
In nearly every town may be found mills which saw 100,000
board feet or more of pine and oak each year. Many of these
mills turn out the finished product, — boxes, crates or barrels,
as the case may be, — but a considerable number simply supply
the boards, while others deliver their product in the form of
shooks. The logs in almost all cases are cut short and bought
locally by the cord, and are sawn into f-inch boards, which is
the standard dimension for box boards.

In addition to the manufacture of boxes, etc., several of these
sawmills do custom work, but there is nowhere near so much of
this done now as in former years.

In one important respect the sawmills of Plymouth County
differ from those located in other parts of the State. They are

16

permanent. Logs are hauled to them by truck or shipped by
rail. Were it not for the many destructive fires, the fact that
these mills are permanent ones might have had a powerful effect
in influencing the forest types.

Before a portable mill owner sets up his mill on a lot he
must be sure that there are at least 200,000 feet of stock in the
immediate vicinity that he can cut. Moving and setting up his
mill to cut under that amount would hardly pay him unless the
stock was exceptionally good.

When large tracts of land are cut over a change in forest
conditions naturally results. New species, generally hardwoods,
take the place of the old. These hardwoods, which grow very
rapidly during their earlier years, shade and choke out the
young reproduction of the conifers recently cut, and after a few
years a stand of hardwoods, often of inferior quality, occupies
the land formerly forested with pine or other valuable trees.

Where the mills are permanent, as in Plymouth County, the
owner of a woodlot is not obliged to cut his lot clean. He can
take out a few trees one year, haul them to the mill, and the
following year cut out a few more.

When a stand is cut gradually in this way the type under-
goes no serious change, since the reproduction is generally the
same as the original trees.

To sum up the whole thing in a few words, permanent mills
foster a system of selective cutting, and have a tendency to pre-
serve the original species and types, while portable mills in many
cases, through clean cutting, bring about a decided change in both.

Poplar makes an ideal wood for staves, and as an experi-
ment the State Forest Commission has set out about 40,000
poplar cuttings on the State reservation in Carver.

White pine is the species most used in the manufacture of
box boards, but of late years pitch pine is being substituted to
some extent.

Stock for barrel staves is in some cases shipped from outside
the State, some of it being loblolly pine from Virginia. Much
of the stock, however, is obtained locally, and consists of pine
and poplar with oak and maples for headings. Oak is used in
the manufacture of piling and mine props. These products are
used in the construction of docks, wharves, etc.

No attention has been given to cedar in the various tables,

17

but nevertheless quite a little of this species is found in isolated
sections of the county, and generally in swamps. This wood is
used in the manufacture of shingles, and on rare occasions for
barrels. It is also used for posts and poles.

The manufacture of lobster pots may be classed as a special
industry. Oak and white pine are used in this product, and
there are several concerns engaged in their manufacture.

Some years ago charcoal was produced in large quantities in
various parts of Plymouth County. This industry has practi-
cally disappeared. Last year this department undertook the
manufacture of charcoal as an experiment in the town of
Mashpee. The lot was made up entirely of oak of poor quality
and small size class, and the wood was too far away from a
market to be put profitably into cord Wood. Three pits were
maintained, and about 40,000 bushels of charcoal were pro-
duced. It was thought that charcoal made from oak would not
sell readily, but no trouble was experienced in disposing of the
entire production in near-by towns; in fact, double the quantity
could easily have been gotten rid of. In this experiment about
40 bushels of charcoal were produced from each cord of wood.

Mashpee is not a town in Plymouth County, and therefore
these remarks are somewhat irrelevant, but they are made
because of the fact that scattered throughout Plymouth County
are hundreds of acres of scraggly oak and pine too far away
from a market to be cut profitably for fuel, which the results of
the experiment cause us to believe could be burned for charcoal
and disposed of for at least a small profit. So far as we know
there is but one man in the county engaged in the manufacture
of charcoal at the present time. A bulletin containing more
detailed information in regard to this experiment will be issued
from the office of the State Forester in the near future.

Other forest products of Plymouth County are pin wood,
mallet heads, ship timbers, wagon stock and hardwood rollers.

In this bulletin is included a list of the sawmill operators of
the county, which gives information regarding their production,
stock used, etc. This list is as complete as it was possible for
us to make it in the limited time we had at our disposal.

Following are the percentage sheets of 26 towns in the
county. The town of Hull was not considered at all in making
the survey, as there is not enough wood growth there to war-

18

rant it. These tables show the proportion of forest land to
non-forest land, and also the relative proportions of the indi-
vidual types of the forested areas. The tables alone could not
be made to show the proportion of the separate type size
classes, so they have been supplemented by diagrams from
which may be formed an idea of the relative amounts of mer-
chantable and non-merchantable timber of each type in each
town. In these diagrams the proportion of non-merchantable
sizes is represented by the inked portion of each line.

In arranging these diagrams size classes 1 and 2 of the white
pine and pitch pine types were combined and classed as mer-
chantable, while in the remainder of the types classes 1, 2 and
3 were combined and classified in the same way. The remain-
der of the size classes was combined in each type and classed
as non-merchantable. It will be noticed from this explanation
that in the case of the hardwoods and mixed hardwoods and
pine, class 3, or cordwood class, has been listed as merchantable,
while in the case of the pines only classes 1 and 2, containing
lumber large enough for saw logs, were so listed.

Forest Types and Acreage in 26 Towns in Plymouth County.

Approximate Size

Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres

Acres.

Pine, .

4,184

5,862

6,439

3,747

2,121

5 22,358

7.4

-

Pine and oak, .

6,612

8,678

18,529

15,004

8,931

) 57,753

19.0

-

Pine and maple,

2,362

3,654

5,613

3,593

83(

5 16,058

5.3

-

Oak type, .

5,337

9,956

24,615

30,669

24,32

L 94,898

31.2

-

Maple type,

1,101

6,282

15,048

19,215

5,651

2 47,298

15. £

-

Pitch pine type,

1,879

4,126

8,501

11,271

39,99]

I 65,768

21.6

-

Total, .

21,475

38,558

78,745

83,499

81,85(

> 304,133

-

69.1

Per cent., .

7.1

12.7

25.8

27.5

26.1

)

67,612

100.0

-

Non-forest Typ
Tillage and hay,

ES.

15.3

Pasture,

16,607

-

3.8

Residential,

18,565

-

4.2

Water,

14,101

-

3.2

Cranberry bog,

8,550

-

1.9

Marsh,

10,998

-

2.5

Total area of 26 t

owns

440,566

-

100.0

19

» vie.

Pine & OaK
Pine & Maple.

Oak

Maple,

Pi fen Pine

NON-FOREST
3 1 */«

* * * y * y * *.

Pasture

WdUr

OlAvGRAM SHOWING PROPORTION OF LINOTYPES
FOUND IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY .

20

Abington.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cext.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

-

50

56

63

-

169

4.6

-

Pine and oak, .

-

31

38

-

182

251

6.9

-

Pine and maple,

38

-

19

75

-

132

3.6

-

Oak type, ....

-

63

427

251

1,330

2,071

56.6

-

Maple (swamp type),

-

44

182

414

257

897

24.5

-

Pitch pine, .

-

-

-

25

113

138

3.8

-

Total, ....

38

188

722

828

1,882

3,658

-

56.4

Per cent., .

1.1

5.2

19.7

22.6

51.4

1,263

100.0

-

No
Tillage and hay, .

N-FORES

r Types

19.5

702

-

10.8

709

-

10.9

100

-

1.5

56

-

.9

Total area of town,

6,488

-

1000

A b i y\ k k o y\

fotel forest re*
WVT\-U Piv\e.
PW & Oak.

Oak

P^cW P'me-

MevcU^viV^kl

TsIoY-\-Yr\erC/ncY-vfa\p\e,

21

Bridgewater.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

202

185

330

174

856

1,747

15.4

-

Pine and oak, .

121

318

659

572

885

2,555

22.6

-

Pine and maple,

46

64

532

376

185

1,203

10.6

-

Oak type, ....

115

445

492

416

382

1,850

16.3

-

Maple (swamp) type,

40

162

625

1,319

752

2,898

25.6

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

23

87

972

1,082

9.5

-

Total, ....

524

1,174

2,661

2,944

4,032

11,335

-

62.9

Per cent., .

4.6

10.3

23.5

26

35.6

4,346

100.0

-

N<

5N-FORES

t Types

24.1

839

-

4.7

544

-

3.0

515

-

2.9

Marsh, ....

434

-

2.4

Total area of town,

18,013

-

1000

Bridge. waVer

Total forest Are^
Wk'i+e Pmt-
Pino & 0*k

Oak

Maple.
Prtok ?\w

22

Brockton.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

130

161

78

52

150

571

8.5

-

Pine and oak, .

114

161

171

192

62

700

10.4

-

Pine and maple,

-

83

150

-

52

285

4.2

-

Oak type, ....

130

228

638

830

907

2,733

40.5

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

119

342

767

539

1,767

26.2

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

-

83

601

684

10.2

-

Total, . .

374

752

1,379

1,924

2,311

6,740

-

49.1

Per cent., .

5.6

11.1

20.5

28.5

34.3

2,411

100.0

-

No

N-FORES

r Types

17.5

716

-

5.2

3,733

-

27.1

21

-

.2

124

-

.9

Total area of town,

13,745

100.0

1bfel forcsf Areat

Pi we t Oak
Pine, i Maple

oak

Pi*cV\Pi-ne-

Brockrow

23

Carver.

Approximate Size Classes.

1
Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine, .

302

604

685

705

-

2,296

12.4

-

Pine and oak, .

-

1,281

2,260

2,621

-

6,162

33.2

-

Pine and maple,

163

1,016

846

622

-

2,647

14.3

-

Oak type, .

36

24

65

812

-

937

5.1

-

Maple (swamp) type

24

496

729

1,257

-

2,506

13.5

-

Pitch pine,

-

314

500

3,181

-

3,995

21.5

-

Total, .

525

3,735

5,085

9,198

-

18,543

-

73.2

Per cent., .

2.8

20.1

27.4

49.7

-

1,667

100.0

-

Non-fores

x Types

6.6

667

-

2.6

121

-

.5

761

-

3.0

Cranberry bog, . .

3,574

-

14.1

Total area of ton

n,

25,333

-

100.0

' -—5

C'Ayv e.r

Total fore&t Area
WVnH Fiyie-

PiYie. & Maple
Oak

24

DUXBURY.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

444

233

391

42

127

1,237

11.7

-

Pine and oak, .

317

550

1,004

581

222

2,674

25.3

-

Pine and maple,

63

95

275

127

-

560

• 5.3

-

Oak type, ....

254

412

1,216

1,164

560

3,606

34.1

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

201

180

729

-

1,110

10.5

-

Pitch pine,

53

359

349

307

317

1,385

13.1

-

Total, ....

1,131

1,850

3,415

2,950

1,226

10,572

-

67.4

Per cent., .

10.7

17.5

32.3

27.9

11.6

2,729

100.0

- •

Nc
Tillage and hay, .

)N-FORES

r Types

17.4

Pasture,

784

-

5.0

847

-

5.4

314

-

2.0

408

-

2.6

Marsh, ....

*

31

-

.2

Total area of town,

15,685

-

100.0

v

lotal roresVAred
White Pi we-
ft«e. & Oak
Piwe.& Maple.

H u X b U f y

25

East Bridgewater.

Approximate Size

: Classes.

Per Cent.

1

2

3

4

5

Total.

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

75

98

230

310

17

730

10.6

-

Pine and oak, .

-

40

184

252

396

872

12.7

-

Pine and maple,

-

-

52

149

-

201

2.9

-

Oak type, ....

34

120

287

1,308

1,130

2,879

41.8

-

Maple (swamp) type,

23

161

361

689

625

1,859

26.9

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

11

-

339

350

5.1

-

Total, ....

132

419

1,125

2,708

2,507

6,891

-

60.8

Per cent., .

1.9

6.1

16.3

39.3

36.4

3,284

1000

-

N(

JN-FORES

t Types

28.9

Pasture,

■.

•

•

•

648

-

5.7

270

-

2.4

143

-

1.3

103

-

.9

Total area of town,

11,339

-

100.0

TofalfWtf Area
WhiVftPivie.
fine. & 06k
Pi*& & Maple.
Oak.

Pitch Pvnc

Ea^V BrUgP^AVftr

26

Halifax.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

139

278

285

110

102

914

12.5

-

Pine and oak, .

22

22

922

-

146

1,112

15.2

-

Pine and maple,

-

102

241

-

-

343

4.7

-

Oak type, ....

-

66

666

878

1,222

2,832

38.7

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

44

644

322

51

1,061

14.5

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

-

-

1,053

1,053

14.4

-

Total

161

512

2,758

1,310

2,574

7,315

-

65.8

Per cent., .

2.2

7

37.7

17.9

35.2

1,857

100.0

-

Nc

N-FORES

r Types

16.7

278

-

2.5

89

-

.8

889

-

8.0

222

-

2.0

467

-

4.2

Total area of town,

11,117

-

100.0

■ " -!

1o<*l fortd Area
V/h\*£ fme.

Pine. Staple
Oak

Pi *oU fine-

ly a I i^y

27

Hanover.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine, ....

13

205

271

221

-

710

9.6

-

Pine and oak, .

-

33

545

678

-

1,256

17.0

-

Pine and maple,

-

20

443

638

-

1,101

15.0

-

Oak type, .

-

53

1,044

1,481

-

2,578

35.0

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

46

588

978

-

1,612

21.8

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

59

66

-

125

1.6

-

Total, .

13

357

2,950

4,062

-

7,382

-

73.8

Percent., .

.2

4.8

40

55

-

2,221

1000

-

N

on-forest Types

22.2

26

-

.3

377

-

3.7

Total area of town,

10,006

-

100.0

i : :

To-fel forest /tad
White Rne.

Pi*e $ Maple
Oak

Ptfck Pine^

\A A V> O V ft V

28 «,

Hanson.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

69

176

195

365

63

868

12.3

-

Pine and oak, .

-

19

208

309

391

927

13.1

-

Pine and maple,

-

19

208

-

-

227

3.2

-

Oak type

-

290

788

1,430

800

3,308

47.0

-

Maple (swamp) type,

82

38

586

668

189

1,563

22.2

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

-

-

158

158

2.2

-

Total, ....

151

542

1,985

2,772

1,601

7,051

-

70

Per cent., .

2.1

7.7

28.2

39.3

22.7

1,655

100.0

-

N(

JN-FORES

t -Types

16.3

422

-

4.2

479

-

4.6

265

-

2.6

252

-

2.3

Total area of town,

10,124

-

1000

H AW5QY1

fo-tal ?ortM Area
Wh'iVePiwe
Pme, & Oak;
Pine &Mafl

Pi*0\ Fine.

&=D

29

HlNGHAM.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine, .....

190

318

310

554

-

1,372

19.2

-

Pine and oak, .

18

123

617

541

-

1,299

18.1

-

Pine and maple,

49

80

257

154

-

540

7.5

-

Oak type, . . • .

209

263

445

1,473

-

2,390

33.4

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

116

331

938

-

1,385

19.3

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

-

178

-

178

2.5

-

Total, ....

466

900

1,960

3,838

-

7,164

-

49.6

Per cent., .

6.5

12.6

27.4

53.5

-

3,243

100.0

-

N(

)N-FORES

r Types

22.4

2,421

-

16.8

1,416

-

9.8

161

-

1.1

49

-

.3

Total area of town,

14,454

-

100.0

Pivie,
Pine& O&k
Pme&Mdfle
Odk
Maple.
PrfaW P\y\&

30

Kingston.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest. Town.

1

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

270

235

165

78

139

887

10.2

-

Pine and oak, .

96

314

270

-

44

724

8.3

-

Oak type, ....

148

61

1,019

853

1,602

3,683

42.3

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

131

78

-

70

279

3.2

-

Pitch pine,

113

-

627

183

2,213

3,136

36.0

-

Total, ....

627

741

2,159

1,114

4,068

8,709

-

71.5

Per cent., .

7.2

8.5

24.8

12.8

46.7

2,107

100.0

-

No
Tillage and hay, .

N-FORES

t Types.

17.3

Pasture,

97

-

.8

780

-

6.4

341

-

2.8

146

-

1.2

Total area of town,

12,180

-

100.0

Tota\ Forest Krcat

Pine

Pine, & Oak

Odk

Pi*chPivie

K \ vt jtS^oyi

31

-

Lakeville.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

134

652

284

200

-

1,270

7.6

-

Pine and oak, .

351

819

919

718

551

3,358

20.1

-

Pine and maple,

117

167

100

33

33

450

2.7

-

Oak type, ....

635

752

1,570

1,704

3,074

7,735

46.3

-

Maple (swamp) type,

234

635

1,672

535

551

3,627

21.7

-

Pitch pine,

Total, ....

-

33

84

150

-

267

1.6

-

1,471

3,058

4,629

3,340

4,209

16,707

-

72.2

Per cent., .

8.8

18.3

27.7

20

25.2

3,286

100.0

-

Nc

>n-forest Types.

14.2

1,157

-

5.0

370

-

1.6

1,134

-

4.9

417

-

1.8

Total area of town,

\

69

-

.3

23,140

—

100.0

:

-P , L AlfP.\/i Up.

Total roretf Area

Pme&O&k

Pme, & Maple
Oak

F\*ck Bwe.

=■

m

32

Marion.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.
Acres.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine, . . . M .

371

185

282

62

21

921

13.4

-

Pine and oak, .

791

282

185

247

27

1,532

22.3

-

Pine and maple,

502

117

130

27

-

776

11.3

-

Oak type, . . .

185

825

453

453

295

2,211

32.2

-

Maple (swamp) type,

82

151

419

137

110

899

13.1

-

Pitch pine,

89

337

103

-

-

529

7.7

Total, ....

2,020

1,897

1,572

926

453

6,868

-

75

Per cent., .

29.4

27.6

22.9

13.5

6.6

336

100.0

-

N(
Tillage and hay, .

>N-FORES

t Types

3.7

Pasture, . . .

117

-

1.3

Residential, .

. •

618

-

6.8

Water, ....

268

-

2.9

Cranberry bog,

206

-

2.2

Marsh, . . .

744

-

8.1

Total area of town,

9,157

-

100.0

Total forest Area

Pi "ne,
Pme&Oak
Pine & Maple

Oak

P\kk Pi*&

33

Marshfield.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per <

Dent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

135

242

72

81

45

575

6.4

-

Pine and oak, .

207

207

817

673

386

2,290

25.5

-

Pine and maple,

-

81

242

36

18

377

4.2

-

Oak type, ....

54

242

1,015

835

512

2,658

29.6

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

-

1,131

422

368

1,921

21.4

-

Pitch pine,

-

45

494

269

350

1,158

12.9

-

Total, f

396

817

3,771

2,316

1,679

8,979

-

49.2

Per cent., .

4.4

9.1

42

25.8

18.7

3,358

100.0

-

Tillage and hay, .

DN-FORES

t Types

18.4

Pasture,

839

-

4.6

Residential, .

986

-

5.4

Water, .

292

-

1.6

Cranberry bog,

91

-

.5

Marsh, ....

3,705

-

20.3

Total area of town,

18,250

"

100.0

Totdlforesl'Ar-ed

Pine,
Pine&0*k
Pine&Maple

0*k

rttok Pine

MAy&^^\e.l A.

34

Mattapoisett.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

334

147

41

-

49

571

7.0

-

Pine and oak, .

580

326

237

98

245

1,486

18.3

-

Pine and maple,

530

237

106

33

-

906

11.2

-

Oak type, ....

440

1,011

799

587

750

3,587

44.3

-

Maple (swamp) type,

114

261

147

212

375

1,109

13.7

-

Pitch pine,

179

73

98

57

41

448

5.5

-

Total

2,177

2,055

1,428

987

1,460

8,107

-

72.5

Percent., .

26.9

25.3

17.6

12.2

18

1,400

100.0

-

N(

)N-FORES

t Types.

12.5

403

-

3.6

373

-

3.3

136

-

1.2

124

-

1.1

646

-

5.8

Total area of town,

11,189

-

100.0

Total forest Are*:

Pine
P^e&cOdk
Pme,&Ma?le

OaVc
Maple.

fittcWPin*

MAHApoi&p.U

35

MlDDLEBOROUGH.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

1

Pine and oak, .

!• 1,365

1,197

2,943

3,499

_i

9,004

25.4

-

Pine and maple,

1

Oak type, .....

679

1,332

4,969

8,347

_i

15,327

43.3

-

Maple (swamp) type,

130

1,951

3,444

5,195

_i

10,720

30.3

-

Pitch pine,

10

108

79

145

_i

342

1.0

-

Total, ....

2,184

4,588

11,435

17,186

-

35,393

-

75.8

Per cent., .

6.2

13

32.3

48.5

-

8,187

100.0

-

Nc

Tillage and hay, .

)N-FORES

r Types.

17.5

Pasture,

1,770

-

3.8

Residential, .

785

-

1.7

Water, . .

511

-

1.1

Marsh, ....

44

-

.1

Total area of town,

46,690

-

100.0

1 Size classes 4 and 5 have been combined.

Total Forest Are*:
Rne&H'dwd's

KUp\e

MiflJlp.knrnu yK

36

NORWELL.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

89

160

594

217

32

1,092

10.4

-

Pine and oak, .

141

467

971

1,457

697

3,733

35.7

-

Pine and maple,

77

550

901

556

102

2,186

20.9

-

Oak type, ....

77

134

294

262

217

984

9.4

-

Maple (swamp) type,

26

326

435

658

300

1,745

IS. 6

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

300

192

243

735

7.0

-

Total

410

1,637

3,495

3,342

1,591

10,475

-

76.7

Per cent., .

3.9

15.6

33.4

31.9

15.2

2,443

100.0

-

No
Tillage and hay, .

N-FORES

t Types

17.9

Pasture,

211

-

1.5

Residential, .

89

-

.7

Water, ....

51

-

.4

Cranberry bog,

13

-

.1

Marsh, ....

371

-

2.7

Total area of town,

13,653

-

100.0

u-

Total for est Arwfc

Pm&
Pine&Oak
Pine&Mafle

Oak

Pitch Pin&

NorwflU

37

Pembroke.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

408

870

507

22

242

2,049

18.6

-

Pine and oak, .

231

397

705

132

353

1,818

16.5

-

Pine and maple,

-

220

66

-

88

374

3.4

-

Oak type, ....

55

474

1,113

1,322

1,619 1

4,583

41.6

-

Maple (swamp) type,

33

297

650

595

77 i

1,652

15.0

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

66

-

474

540

4.9

-

Total, ....

727

2,258

3,107

2,071

2,853

11,016

-

74.0

Percent., .

6.6

20.5

28.2

18.8

25.9

2,026

100.0

-

No

Tillage and hay, .

N-FORES

r Types

'

13.6

Pasture,

•

417

-

2.8

Residential, .

" '

74

-

.5

Water, ....

• i

789

-

5.3

Cranberry bog,

342

-

2.3

Marsh, ....

•

■

223

-

1.5

Total area of town,

14,887

-

100.0

fofelfbrcsMirea

Pir\e L OaVc

Pme&M&pl

Oak

PtttVi Pivie,

Pftwi Kyokft

38

Plymouth.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per (

Dent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

163

54

218

54

-

489

.9

-

Pine and oak, .

436

381

1,526

981

2,070

5,394

9.9

-

Oak type

272

1,362

3,269

2,397

3,978

11,278

20.7

-

Pitch pine and scrub oak,

708

1,417

3,433

4,413

27,353

37,324

68.5

-

Total

1,579

3,214

8,446

7,845

33,401

54,485

-

82.5

Per cent., .

2.9

5.9

15.5

14.4

61.3

5,020

100.0

-

No

N-FORES

t Types

7.6

330

-

.5

1,783

-

2.7

3,500

-

5.3

726

-

1.1

198

-

.3

Total area of town,

1 _.

66,042

-

100.0

Tota\ Forest fou

Pine,
Pine&Oak

(licit fWt&rukfok

P\ y ™ f"J ^

39

Plympton.

Appeoxim

VTE SlZJ

Classes.

Per <

2 EXT.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

240

278

308

75

113

1,014

13.5

-

Pine and oak, .

353

330

667

225

120

1,695

22.6

-

Pine and maple,

75

120

173

158

105

631

8.4

-

Oak type

83

188

1,019

743

728

2,761

36.8

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

60

532

458

188

1,238

16.5

-

Pitch pine,

30

23

30

-

83

166

2.2

-

Total, ....

781

999

2,729

1,659

1,337

7,505

-

77.2

Per cent., .

10.4

13.3

36.4

22.1

17.8

1,486

100.0

-

N<

3X-FORES

t Types

15.3

331

-

3.4

39

-

.4

185

-

1.9

175

-

1.8

Total area of town,

9,721

-

100.0

1oidl Fores* Aredt
PVv\e

Pinejl Oak
Pl-Ke&Mdfle:
Oak

mck P\ne

P\ yw f^Qyt

40

Rochester.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

338

338

596

113

48

1,433

8.9

-

Pine and oak, .

934

918

1,255

386

741

4,234

26.3

-

Pine and maple,

580

370

306

145

-

1,401

8.7

-

Oak type, ....

1,240

547

998

612

1,208

4,605

28.6

-

Maple (swamp) type,

193

757

773

885

628

3,236

20.1

-

Pitch pine,

419

467

64

177

64

1,191

7.4

-

Total, ....

3,704

3,397

3,992

2,318

2,689

16,100

-

69.8

Per cent., .

23

21.1:

24.8

14.4

16.7

3,206

100.0

-

No
Tillage and hay, .

N-FORES

r Types

13.9

Pasture,

.

1,107

-

4.8

Residential, .

323

-

1.4

Water, ....

1,338

-

5.8

Cranberry bog,

784

-

3.4

Marsh, ....

208

-

.9

Total area of town,

23,066

-

1000

Rnchp, Fstf, r

fetal forest Are*
Pine & Oak

Odk
Maple,
PilohPme,

41

Rockland.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine, ....

20

18

10

72

-

120

2.8

-

Pine and oak, .

-

-

96

126

295

517

12.0

-

Pine and maple,

-

-

30

193

181

404

9.4

-

Oak type, .

30

24

138

819

1,300

2,311

53.9

-

Maple (swamp) type,

24

48

277

439

30

818

19.1

-

Pitch pine,

-

"

"

102

18

120

2.8

-

Total, .

74

90

551

1,751

1,824

4,290

-

66.3

Per cent., .

1.7

2.1

12.8

40.8

42.6

1,007

100.0

-

N

ON-FORES

r Types

15.6

223

-

3.4

861

-

13.3

24

-

.4

66

-

1.0

Total area of town,

6,471

-

100.0

Total ForcrtArcal:

Piue,
Pme&Oak
P\Y\e&M&pte|]

Oak

\toh P'me,

R r> r. Vr \ a ya A

&

42

SCITUATE.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

11

74

319

160

17

581

11.7

-

Pine and oak, .

80

86

274

154

-

594

11.9

-

Pine and maple,

40

268

382

103

-

793

15.9

-

Oak type, ....

239

245

348

143

182

1,157

23.3

-

Maple (swamp) type,

80

137

450

239

125

1,031

20.8

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

200

194

422

816

16.4

-

Total, ....

450

810

1,973

993

746

4,972

-

45.5

Per cent., .

9.1

16.3

39.7

19.9

15

2,291

100.0

-

No

n-forest Types.

21.0

325

-

3.0

Residential, .

1,277

-

11.7

296

-

2.7

Marsh, ....

1,761

-

16.1

Total area of town,

10,922

"

100.0

Set 4* U A +>.

ffltal forts^ Are«

Pine.
Fue&Oak
Pme&rUple.

Oak

Pi-kK Pitte

■

1^m

43

Wareham.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3 4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

49

196

49

-

82

376

2.3

-

Pine and oak, .

443

376

950

327

917

3,013

18.4

-

Pine and maple,

82

16

49

-

49

196

1.2

-

Oak type, ....

312

655

917

327

605

2,816

17.2

-

Maple (swamp) type,

16

49

65

147

82

359

2.2

-

Pitch pine,

278

950

1,981

1,425

4,961

9,595

58.7

-

Total, ....

1,180

2,242

4,011

2,226

6,696

16,355

-

67.2

Per cent., .

7.2

13.7

24.5

13.6

41

2,750

100.0

-

Nc

Tillage and hay, .

(X-FORES

r Types

11.3

Pasture,

535

-

2.2

Residential, .

535

-

2.2

Water, ....

1,947

-

8.0

Cranberry bog,

1,047

-

4.3

Marsh

1,169

-

4.8

Total area of town,

24,338

-

100.0

TotolforcsUrcci
Pi nek Oak

Oak

Maple.

ei

W A r ft h Am

44

West Bridgewater.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

58

105

41

17

23

244

4.4

-

Pine and oak, .

12

-

76

174

145

407

7.3

-

Pine and maple,

-

29

105

168

23

325

5.8

-

Oak type, ....

110

116

401

657

1,418

2,702

48.2

-

Maple (swamp) type,

-

52

407

999

250

1,708

30.5

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

-

-

216

216

3.8

-

Total

180

302

1,030

2,015

2,075

5,602

-

55.6

Per cent., .

3.2

5.4

18.4

36

37

3,081

1000

-

N<

DN-FORES

t Types

30.6

Pasture,

767

-

7.6

Residential, .

535

-

5.3

52

-

.5

46

-

.4

Total area of town,

10,083

-

1000

Total Forest Are*

Pmcj/Odk
Piv\e&MA?\e
0*k

PiKVi Pine.

We^-f Ry vAge-wAYftv

45

Whitman.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total

1

2

3

4

5

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine,

-

-

122

-

-

122

6.4

-

Pine and oak, .

-

-

30

61

55

146

7.6

-

Oak type, 1

-

24

225

565

502

1,316

68.6

-

Maple (swamp type),

-

-

-

213

85

298

15.5

-

Pitch pine,

-

-

-

37

-

37

1.9

-

Total

-

24

377

876

642

1,919

-

42.9

Per cent., .

-

1.3

19.6

45.6

33.5

952

100.0

-

Non-forest Types

21.3

475

-

10.6

1,070

-

23.9

57

-

1.3

Total area of town,

4,473

-

100.0

1 Considerable maple in mixture in medium and small sizes.

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Pine, maple and oak. Diameters, 6 to 10 inches; heights, 50 to 60 feet. (Pine and hard-
woods type, Class 2.)

■(

J#

••II
It I

If M \ ii

W

• ■ i

Oak type. Diameter, about 5 inches; heights, 40 to 50 feet. (Class 3.)

Pitch pine type. (Classes 4 and 5.

MASSACHUSETTS
AND HER FORESTS

OR the past twenty-four years I
have been employed as an official
in educational, experimental, and
demonstration forestry work in
New England, having been Stafe Forester of
Massachusetts for the past thirteen years.
During this time it has been my avowed pur-
pose to do everything within mortal power
to accomplish something in establishing fun-
damentals from which forestry practices of a
permanent nature might be the outgrowth.

There are few, if any, problems of greater
moment and more economic importance to
New England at the present hour than that
of forestry. There are those still living who
have seen beautiful primeval forests dotting
the hills and valleys everywhere throughout
this rugged and beautiful country. Year by
year these forests have succumbed to our mad
rush of uneconomic commercialism, until
today finds us in a sadly depleted and ir-
rational condition.

THE FOREST PRIMEVAL

It is always easy to point out mistakes after
they have happened; but experience, though
a dear teacher, should sober us at the present
time. Year by year the primeval forest has
been cut and harvested. Second growth, in-
ferior but valuable, has followed, where con-
ditions have been favorable, which, in turn,
has been utilized as soon as it reached mer-
chantable size. Demand for forest products

l

MASSACHUSETTS

has increased in greater and greater propor-
tions as we have been developing in commer-
cial power and prestige, while products them-
selves have been approaching exhaustion.
During the recent war New England was
fairly gone over with a fine-tooth comb for
forest products for every conceivable use, and
with results only too well known to all busi-
ness men.

We have looked upon our forest products
as inexhaustible, and think that though New
England should be depleted, there are other
sections at our very doors with plenty for our
demands. Many of our statesmen and fore-
sighted, country-loving citizens have pre-
dicted our calamity, but they have been
heeded as one crying in the wilderness.

THE COMMERCIAL ERA

The commercial era has absorbed us. Es-
thetics and standards of economics in a new
country, whose natural resources are appar-
ently boundless, are as nothing compared with
commercial activities. There is bound to
come a time, however, when the pendulum
swings back, and unless our natural resources
are conserved, we are bound to suffer the con-
sequences. We are beginning to get a taste
of it already.

We have in New England a natural forest
country that will respond to forestry devel-
opment as readily as any country on earth.
We are dependent upon the forest crop to
continue our innumerable industries located
everywhere throughout our five states. In
our studies of the Massachusetts wood-manu-
facturing industries in 1910 it was ascertained
that this State alone converted 550,000,000

AND HER FORESTS

feet of rough lumber a year into finished prod-
ucts. When we realize that this is only a part
of the product in one state, certainly not one-
half of it, but only that portion which, after
it leaves the sawmills, is further worked by
machinery, it may give a basis for judging the
industry. These wood-working industries are
scattered everywhere throughout New Eng-
land, and there are many thriving villages
whose main livelihood is dependent upon
them.

FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE

Forestry and general agriculture in New
England are to a great degree interdepend-
able. While it is conceded that forestry is no
longer a simple woodlot proposition, but one
worthy of the economic utilization of all lands
non-agricultural, nevertheless its develop-
ment makes possible the use of labor and
teams in winter at a time when they are
available. Large forest areas in various sec-
tions will greatly augment, therefore, both
manufacturing and agriculture.

We have not begun to realize even yet
what we should in the economic utilization of
the forest products we still possess. It was
not until we were freezing, due to the coal
shortage following war conditions, that we
realized that wood has a value for fuel. Our
fathers depended upon it altogether.

In recent years wood has gone out of style,
and even farmers have found it more conve-
nient to have coal shipped in from Pennsyl-
vania and West Virginia than to cut it on
their own farms. It is an actual fact that
during the trying times a few years since, the
winter of the unemployed, there were instances

3

■

MASSACHUSETTS

of people practically freezing to death while
wood in great quantities was rotting all about
on our hillsides.

War conditions drove our people to burning
wood in their furnaces and fireplaces, and it
is believed many will continue to use more
firewood than heretofore as it has many ad-
vantages even over coal. Cordwood is really
a by-product of the forest. Great quantities
of wood for fuel should be available in all for-
est sections, as it is to the benefit of the forest
that improvement thinnings be carried on,
and whenever forest crops are being harvested
there are always the limbs, tops, and slabs
suitable for little else than cordwood. The
great hindrance to the use of wood for fuel in
the past has been the inconvenient form in
which it has been dealt.

City people, and users in general, are de-
lighted to purchase wood cut into convenient
short sizes. They do not want four-foot
lengths. Every conceivable kind of wood can
be used if cut into small sizes. Why should
we not be able to utilize every stick of wood
possible for fuel in our more thickly populated
sections of New England? In other sections
there should be more definite plans for making
it into charcoal, or shipping it to brick facto-
ries, or using it in other ways. One is im-
pressed in this respect when in the Black For-
est country abroad. Everything there is util-
ized, and there is no waste.

NEW ENGLAND FOREST POLICIES

Each of the New England States has its
forest policies, and is feeling its way toward
greater accomplishments. Much more has
been done than most people realize. Massa-

4

AND HER FORESTS

chusetts, for example, has enacted laws aiding
forestry in the following ways:

1. Expert advice at no expense, except travel
and subsistence, to anybody in the Bay State.

2. Free forestry literature, to be sent to all citi-
zens who care to make use of it.

3. Forest-fire prevention. — A forest warden in
each town, with equipment, organization, and
mandatory laws, to get results.

4. There are thirty-five forest-fire lookout sta-
tions scattered over the State on high points,
which are connected by telephone with local and
State officials to bring aid.

5. Forest Warden Conventions. — The forestry
officials of cities, towns, and the State are empow-
ered to meet to discuss methods, equipment, and
better ways of co-operation.

6. State Aid for Forest Fire Equipment. — The
poorer towns are given State aid in procuring
equipment.

7. Utilization of Forest Products. — Studies
and practices of making greater economic use of
all wood in the industries, and for fuel. This in-
cludes the cost of production and transportation.

8. Regulations of brush and slash disposal.

9. Railroad fires and railroads.

10. Forest Taxation. — A modern system of
taxing forest lands and their production.

12. The acquiring of lands for State Forests.

13. State Forest Nurseries. — Young trees are
grown in State nurseries for use on State lands, and
are sold at cost to citizens and municipalities.

14. The Governor has power to issue proclama-
tions for a closed season on hunting in dry times.

15. Reforesting Private Lands. — Lands suit-
able for planting may be turned over to the State
Forester by title, with power of redemption within
ten years, provided the expense of planting and
care is reimbursed to the State.

la

MASSACHUSETTS

16. We have probably planted in Massachu-
setts, in both public and private work, about
25,000 acres.

WEEDING OUT NEEDED

Do not think that planting or reforestation
is the whole thing. Much of our present for-
est lands need weeding out or thinning, and
rational management as well. We need man-
datory laws that have enough teeth in them
so that uneconomic practices cannot be al-
lowed even on private holdings. This may
seem a strong policy, but often individuals
are their own worst enemies, and, after all,
the economic use of lands as a whole can be
made a success only when what benefits the
individual also, in a larger sense, benefits the
community.

England begins at once to spend $17,000,000
in forestry. Are we of New England stagger-
ing under anything like the blow, both finan-
cial and otherwise, that all England is bear-
ing? Should we not at least make a creditable
start?

If our farmers are afraid that the Lane Bill
in congress will create over-production in agri-
culture, why not convert a large part of our
share into improving our forestry conditions
throughout New England?

FUTURE WHAT WE MAKE IT

The future of New England forestry will be
exactly what we of today propose to make it.
We can continue to go along at a half-dying
pace and try to feel we are doing something,
but what is really needed is a definite and
business-like and more drastic policy if we are
to really accomplish results. We need more

AND HER FORESTS

live business principles, backed up by modern
financing. If, as Americans, we can build a
Panama Canal, a Roosevelt Dam to irrigate
the desert, and spend uncounted billions to
better the world's conditions, surely the rais-
ing of funds sufficient to finance an undertak-
ing bound to solve the future successful exist-
ence of a country whose traditions are dear to
us is nothing for Americans to undertake.

It matters not, either, whether the individ-
ual or the State does the work. The main
thing is to get it done. Private forestry needs
to be greatly encouraged, but it is believed that
the State and Nation should shoulder the
undertaking. Where would the Allies have
turned had not France, to the credit of her
statesmen and people, in earlier time begun
the practice of forestry?

We need in New England to begin not to-
morrow, but today, while we still have some
remnants to tide us over the lean period, to go
to work on a tremendous scale to recoup our
birthright. It takes time to grow a forest, but
we have the possibilities in millions of acres of
idle lands that will work for us day and night,
winter and summer, constantly solving the
basal economic problem of the future of our
Pilgrim lands, if only we do our duty by them.

It is the time for all men of affairs through-
out New England to give this subject con-
structive thought. The future of New Eng-
land Forestry will be what we of today make
it in guiding its destiny.

State House, Boston, Mass.
Sept. 15, 1919.

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deforestation
in J¥la3£acf)u£ett£

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$V 3. &. Summons, P.g>„ Assistant jforester

©noer ti)E direction of
Jf. 89. &ane, State Jforester

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

REFOKESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

INTRODUCTION.

The first bulletin issued from this department on the subject
of reforestation was published in 1910 by R. S. Langdell, assist-
ant to State Forester Rane. This bulletin becoming quickly
exhausted, a second edition with slight additions was offered
in 1913. Only a few copies of the second edition now remain.

The present edition is undertaken for the purpose of bringing
our experience and practice up to date, after having observed
during the last ten years the trees grown in experimental plan-
tations and the effects produced by soil and location in differ-
ent parts of the State.

While experiments are still in progress we have come to pin
our faith more and more t6 the cone-bearing species, to the
elimination of deciduous trees. We must develop a forest that
shall be as nearly as possible gypsy-moth proof, as well as
immune to destructive disease. To this end we have recom-
mended in the following pages only the trees that, up to the
present time, have stood the test.

Inasmuch as the average landowner is more interested in the
actual reclaiming of the land than in nursery practice, less
space has been devoted in the present bulletin to the forest
nursery, and greater emphasis is placed on the handling of
young trees in the plantation. To those wishing to establish
a forest nursery we recommend government Bulletin No. 76,
which may be obtained for a small sum by writing to the
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. The bul-
letin in hand will give the general principles of this phase of
the work, but is intended primarily for those who have pur-
chased nursery stock from the Commonwealth, or from some
of the many reliable nursery firms doing business throughout
the State.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES RECOMMENDED
FOR PLANTING IN MASSACHUSETTS.

White Pine {Pinus strobus) . — This species is placed first,
both because of its marked adaptability to growth in this
State and because of the universal demand for its lumber. It
is but fair to say that the white pine blister rust offers some
menace to clear plantations of this species, especially in Berk-
shire and Essex counties; but by making mixed plantings, and
by eradicating currant and gooseberry bushes in the vicinity,
white pine may be relied on to do its part in the conquest of
the waste-land problem. Even the two-needle pines suffer from
another species of blister rust (the alternate host being sweet-
fern), and the owner must expect to lose a few specimens of
whatever species he may use through disease, insects, winter-
killing or dry weather. The present system of planting pro-
vides for more trees than are ultimately necessary on each
acre of ground, as well as for thinning, both natural and arti-
ficial. A plantation in which white pine represents the expecta-
tion crop, but in which enough trees of other varieties have
been planted to provide for any emergency, is, in our judgment,
the practical and ideal undertaking.1

The white pine may be found growing in all sorts of situa-
tions except in extremely wet soil. This does not mean that
the tree grows equally well everywhere, for it undoubtedly pre-
fers well-drained loamy sand, and there reaches its best de-
velopment. Ideal conditions exist on the slopes and at the
bottoms of old glacial deposits, so numerous all over the State.

Reproduction is by seed, which is produced at intervals of
from three to seven years, called "seed years."

As regards size and rate of growth, white pine compares
favorably with any of our eastern trees, and far exceeds most of
them in these respects, reaching the best merchantable size in
about fifty years. If left to grow undisturbed it reaches a size
excelled only by trees of the Pacific coast, specimens having been

1 Many of our lumbermen and most of our nurserymen, from their observations and expe-
rience, are still of the opinion that they will continue to plant white pine in pure stands as well
as in mixed. Likewise, from correspondence and consultation with many of our leading plant
pathologists and foresters as to diagnosing the future results of the white pine blister rust, the
prevailing impression is that the presence of this disease does not warrant undue fear or exag-
geration, or the abandonment of the white pine for reforestation purposes.

3
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REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. . 5

recorded that exceed 200 feet in height, with a diameter of
6 feet, while heights of 100 feet, with 3-foot diameters, are not
uncommon.

The chief enemy of the pine forests in this State is fire, which,
if it does not kill the trees, so weakens them as to render them
liable to attack by several kinds of insects and fungi. The
white pine is especially susceptible when yoiing, even a slight
ground fire being quite sufficient to completely kill it.

The leading insect enemies are the white pine weevil and the
pine aphis. The weevil attacks the main shoot, and in some
cases greatly damages young trees up to the age of ten or
twelve years. Infested shoots should be pruned and burned
during the summer months. The aphis is a small sap-sucking
insect, and seldom does permanent damage. A simple spray
will easily control it in the event that it appears in large
numbers on a small area or on individual trees.

The gypsy moth, while it will eat pines as well as nearly
every other kind of tree, does not invade pure stands containing
pine alone. The brown-tail moth does not feed on pine.

The many uses of white pine are well known. Among them
may be mentioned building timber of all kinds, laths, cabinet
material, interior finish, woodenware, matches, flag poles, masts
and boxes.

Red or Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa). — This tree, while com-
mon in northern New England, is not very familiar to residents
of Massachusetts. It does not grow in pure stands, but usu-
ally in scattered groups with other conifers and hardwoods.
The difficulty of collecting the seed in this locality renders the
cost of raising the seedlings and transplants very high. Red
pine, however, is a very excellent species, and compares favor-
ably with white pine in many respects. It is more nearly im-
mune from the blister rust of two-needle pines than any other
member of that group, and represents a safe investment when
planted in a favorable location. It prefers a dry sandy loam,
outstripping the white pine on gravelly ridges, and will thrive
in dry, rocky land. It should never be planted in the swamps
or on poorly drained land. In rate of growth the red pine is
more rapid than the white when young, though it is shorter-
lived in the long run. It reaches a height of 70 to 80 feet,

6 . REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

with trunk diameter of 2 to 3 feet, and in old age develops
an open, round-topped, picturesque head. The wood is light,
hard, close-grained, pale red, with thin yellow sapwood. The
lumber is largely used in construction of bridges and buildings,
and for piles, masts and spars. For many purposes the lumber
is mixed with that of white pine, and the two varieties are not
distinguished.

Scotch Pine {Pinus sylvestris). — The Scotch pine is the com-
mon pine of northern Europe, occupying there the same place
that the white pine does in this country as a timber tree. Its
growth more resembles our red pine, both in quality of lumber
and in the kind of soil preferred by the tree. In common with
other pines, Scotch is not much subject to disease and insect
attack, but is somewhat more sensitive to fire than red pine.
Scotch pine is used for the same purposes as red pine.

Austrian Pine (Pinus Austriaca, Endl.) — The Austrian pine
has been used successfully in this State in experimental plan-
tations, and is recommended as a substitute for, or in mixture
with, Scotch and red pine. It grows on a sandy soil and is a
tree of very beautiful appearance, having long and heavy
needles. It should not be used for underplanting except where
the woods are open, or where heavy thinnings have been made.

Hemlock {Tsuga americana). — The hemlock, one of the most
tolerant (shade-enduring) of the American conifers, prefers cold
north and east slopes of the hillsides. Because of its ability
to thrive even in dense shade, it will grow as an understory
with other species, evergreen or hardwood, or in pure stands
in all stages of growth.

The wood is being more and more used for building timber
as the supply of other species grows scarcer, and some dealers
prefer it to spruce for rough frame timbers. If care is not
used in drying, it is likely to check.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa). — This is one of the principal
timber trees of Europe, and is strongly recommended for plant-
ing in this country, possessing, as it does, all of the advantages
of our native red spruce, with the added one of being a much
more rapid grower. Our experience is that Norway spruce
suffers much less from winterkill than pine, and recovers re-
markably after suppression by hardwoods. It is especially de-

fe

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 7

sirable for imderplanting in hardwood stands, a good combina-
tion being spruce and hemlock.

Red Spruce (Picea rubra) . — This tree is the timber spruce
of the northeast, and is now the most important species in
New England in size of cut. It will grow in northern Massa-
chusetts on the higher elevations, preferably in mixture with
pine and hemlock. It will grow in the shade of other trees for
many years, and shows marked recuperative ability when sud-
denly exposed to the light.

Growth is not rapid, and large size is not reached by this
species; but good straight timber is produced, which finds a
ready market. The limbs persist, as in the case of white pine,
and the best clear timber is grown in mixed stands.

The tree reproduces itself well when the leaf litter on the
ground is not too thick, and seedlings start readily under the
mature trees of the same species, forming a stand containing
trees of all ages.

The uses of the w*ood are well known, — building timber,
piano sounding-boards, inside finish, clapboards and pulp-wood.

American Larch (Larix laricina) and European Larch (Larix
decidua, Mill). — The American larch, also known as tamarack
and hackmatack, is the only native deciduous conifer in Massa-
chusetts. In winter, after the needles have been shed, it pre-
sents the appearance of a dead tree. It bears little resemblance
to any of our native conifers, but closely resembles the Euro-
pean larch (Larix decidua, Mill), which may be distinguished
by its larger cones, stouter twigs and more abundant leaves.
The European larch is the more rapid grower, and will thrive
in a less moist and less fertile soil than the native species.
Larch should be planted in mixture with other trees, among
which are recommended spruce, balsam, fir and hemlock. The
principal uses are ship and boat timber, telegraph poles, fence
posts and railroad ties.

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea). — This tree is of small com-
mercial importance in Massachusetts, but is recommended for
certain areas where other more valuable species are hard to
propagate, notably in swampy land, and for use in underplant-
ing. It is sometimes planted in mixture and thinned out later
for Christmas trees. Tolerance and comparative freedom from

8 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

insects and disease are arguments in its favor. Experimental
plantations made by this department several years ago demon-
strate that the balsam fir, like the Norway and red spruce,
will hold out under a considerable amount of shade, and re-
sume normal growth when released.

THE FOREST NURSERY.

The forest nursery represents the first step in the work of
land reclamation. Seed-plots were at one time a favorite ex-
periment among farmers and landowners, and plantations are
in existence that were started in this way. But nature is
prodigal in her waste of seed, and it was early discovered that
by gathering and planting this waste seed in beds a high
percentage could be germinated and brought to an age adapt-
able to low-cost reforestation. A three-year or four-year trans-
plant may be used in grass or brush land where seed would
not have one chance in a thousand.

Procuring the Seed.

The cone-bearing trees differ from the hardwoods in the
matter of bearing seed, usually devoting a few years to prepa-
ration for a large crop. Our native white pine produces an
abundant crop every five to seven years, and bears its seed
in cones or burrs, which generally grow in clusters of twos or
threes on the upper branches of the tree. There are two
seeds at the base of each scale of the cone.

All coniferous seed should be gathered from the trees before
the cone-scales have opened. The cones should be spread out
on a smooth floor in the sun, raked over from time to time,
and finally flayed until the seed has been completely tbreshed
out. This should then be cleaned by winnowing, and kept in
bags in a cool dry place, out of the reach of birds and mice.
If properly stored the seed in most cases retains its vitality for
a number of years.

Fia. 5. — Pine cones spread out to dry, in
order that seed may be extracted.

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REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 9

Raising Transplants from Seed.

Level or gently sloping well-drained land should be selected
for a nursery, the soil being preferably a sandy loam, free from
stones. Any length of bed is practicable, but the most con-
venient width is 4 to 6 feet, with walks 2 feet wide between
the beds. The seed is planted in drills or broadcast, according
to whether it is desired to leave the seedlings in the bed two
years or three years before transplanting. The system that has
proved most efficient in our nursery practice in Massachusetts
is the construction of 12 by 4 foot beds, with a frame made of
lath and fine-mesh chicken wire. The lath gives the young
seedlings the proper proportion of light and shade, and the
fine-mesh wire protects both seed and seedlings from mice and
birds. A burlap cover is used for shading in place of leaves
until the seed germinates and appears through the soil, at the
end of which time the burlap may be removed for a portion
of each day, and finally dispensed with, rolled up and stored
for the following season.

A bed 12 by 4 feet takes approximately three-quarters of a
pound of seed and produces from 5,000 to 15,000 seedlings,
according to the kind of seed used and the success with which
they are germinated. Seed may be planted in April or May,
but it is usually more convenient to wait until June, when the
season for digging transplants is over and more time can be
devoted to the work of seeding and care of the new crop.

The seed germinates in about three weeks' time and makes
its first year's growth within a couple of months. The seed-
lings are usually left in the original bed for two years, then
transplanted into longer beds and spaced from 1§ to 2 inches
apart to prevent crowding. They remain here for two years
more, and are then ready for permanent planting on waste
land.

A tree so planted is. called a four-year transplant, and is the
ideal tree for use in reforestation. In old pastures, where the
grass is short and there is no great quantity of brush, the two-
year seedling may be used with success.

10 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

REFORESTATION.
How Trees should be planted.

Heeling in.

When trees have been properly handled at the nursery they
will arrive in good condition, packed in damp moss and tied
in bundles of 25, 50 or 100, depending on the size and species.
Scotch and Austrian pine are more bulky, as a rule, than
white pine and spruce. The trees should be heeled in as soon
as possible after their arrival. This requires the digging of a
trench about 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep, and laid out as
nearly as possible east and west. If only a few trees are in-
volved in the shipment, and planting can be accomplished in
a few hours' time, no trench will be necessary. It is advisable
to first cover the roots with a light layer of earth, pour on a
few pails of water, and then cover thoroughly with earth,
leaving the tops exposed to light and air. Care should be
taken not to cover any portion of the needles with earth, and
in the event of dry weather the trees should be watered daily.
A covering of burlap or paper will protect them from excessive
heat, and will hold back the buds until the trees can be planted.
One thousand trees require a trench about 12 feet long.

Requirements for Planting.

We have experimented with various kinds of planting in-
struments, such as planting irons, bars, spades, etc., and find
that the grub-hoe, or mattock, is the most practical instrument
for all kinds of soil. Some of our foremen prefer the double-
headed mattock, which on one side resembles an axe, and on
the other an adz. The axe is used for cutting out a square
hole in the sod or leaf-mold approximately 1 foot square, and
the adz-like edge for lifting out the earth to a depth of 6 to
8 inches. The average man prefers the single-bladed adz-like
mattock, similar to the one shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The most
efficient crew consists of two men, one to make the holes and
the other to do the planting. The trees are carried in a pail,
which should be kept about half full of a mixture of water and

Fig. 7. — Two-man planting crew at work.

■A

w

Fig. 8. — First step in making the hole.

Fig. 9. — Second step in making the hole.

Fig. 10. — Setting the seedling and
covering the roots.

Fia. 11. — Firming the soil by pressure
of the foot.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

11

loam. The bundles should be untied before placing them in
the pail. Sod should not be replaced, and each tree should be
firmly set by pressing the earth about it with the foot. An
experienced two-man crew can plant from 800 to 1,000 trees
per day.

Spacing.

The best practice is to space the trees 6 feet apart each way.
This method produces a tall, straight bole and prevents undue
spreading. Flags may be set up at the end of the field as a
guide to the crews, and moved over 6 feet as the end of the
course is reached.

On moist situations Norway spruce or balsam fir may be
planted alternately with white pine. If the pine is set 6 by
6 feet, and the fir or spruce set in the centers of the squares
thus formed, the trees will be evenly spaced 3 feet apart. In
from eight to ten years the fir and spruce will yield an inci-
dental revenue if cut and sold as Christmas trees. It has the
added advantage of rendering a plantation comparatively safe
from any local disease or insect attack that may seriously de-
plete any one of the species used. And in this connection it
may be said that the forest planter would do well to use at
least two species of trees, even in the 6-foot spacing. When
planting pine the combination recommended is white pine,
alternated with red, Scotch or Austrian pine. Spruce may be
alternated with hemlock, tamarack or balsam fir.

Number of Trees required per Acre.

Spacing.

Trees.

3 by 3 feet, ,

4 by 4 feet,

5 by 5 feet,

6 by 6 feet,

7 by 7 feet,

8 by 8 feet,
10 by 10 feet,

4,840

2,722

1,742

1,210

888

680

435

12 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Time to plant.

Planting should be undertaken as soon as the frost is out
of the ground in the spring, the months of April and May
being preferable, in order that the young roots may get started
before the dry season sets in. Spring planting is preferable to
fall planting, as the roots having started will not be as likely
to be heaved out by the frost; although under certain con-
ditions fall planting is sometimes resorted to, as in a case
where a piece of land is too wet to work in the spring, but
becomes dry during the summer and fall. The time for fall
planting depends largely on the season. The months of Sep-
tember and October are usually best in this State.

Care of the Young Plantation.

An ideal plantation requires very little care until it is old
enough to be thinned, which under ordinary conditions would
be at about the twentieth year; but preparation against pos-
sible disappointment and failure is as necessary in the matter
of trees as in the raising of an agricultural crop, and weed-trees
choke out a plantation in much the same way that witch-
grass chokes out grain.

With the exception of old fields, described on another page,
waste land will, in a short space of time, develop hardwood
sprouts of questionable value; and even the old fields will occa-
sionally reproduce unexpected crops of gray birch and popple
seedlings, to the great detriment of the planted pine.

Most plantations must, therefore, be brushed over, in order
that the young pine shall not be shaded out before it has
" topped" the less valuable species growing around it. Nature
has provided that, in the long run, the conifers will win in
the struggle for supremacy, on account of longevity and gen-
eral good health. But the struggle may last for centuries. The
desired result can be obtained in less time through the medium
of proper assistance on the part of man. The amount of cost
will depend on whether the hardwood brush is simply lopped
and left on the ground, or whether it is piled and burned.
The latter is the better and safer method, but where the fire
hazard is negligible the former is recommended.

Fig. 12. — White pine transplants that were set in the open spaces among scrub oak
following a forest fire. The small trees were four years old when set three years ago,
and have grown on an average of from 1 to 2 feet each year during the past two years.
They will undoubtedly overcome the oak.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS. 13

Species most easily controlled.

Gray birch and popple, while abundantly prolific, do not
cast a dense shade. Where these trees persist, money can be
saved by liberal use of the bush scythe on portions of the lot
where these trees are abnormally thick. Scattered birch and
popple in the young plantation will often do good by supplying
a light shade during summer, by rubbing off the lateral branches
of the pine, and by helping to develop a long, straight leading
shoot. In many cases it is advantageous to go over the
plantation with a pair of pruning shears, snipping only the
lateral branches of the hardwoods that interfere with the top-
most branches of the pine. This method saves expense and
develops good pine lumber.

Another species that may be classed under this head is oak,
which, while it casts a very dense shade, is slow-growing and
may be surpassed in height by the pine, provided the latter is
given a reasonable amount of assistance. Where oak alone is
involved, one thorough brushing will often meet the requirements,
and the pine will gain the ascendency. The better grades of
oak may be handled by "limbing up." Scrub oak is an inferior
species and should be cut clean. Scrub oak following a fire
may sometimes be crowded out in the course of time by planting
the pine in the open spaces. This applies especially to certain
portions of Cape Cod and Martha's Vineyard. (See Fig. 12.)

Species Difficult of Control.

The trees most difficult of control in the young plantation
are the chestnut and the soft maple, on account of their very
rapid growth. The chestnut bark disease cannot be depended
upon to kill off sufficient sprouts to protect the pine, as sprouts
will continue to spring up so long as there is any life in the
old stump. Maple is equally fast growing, has no destructive
enemies, and casts a dense shade. Repeated brushing is the
only protection for a pine plantation made among maple
sprouts.

14 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

Suggestion for making a Pine Plantation among Dense Hardwood

Sprouts.

When pine is greatly desired on land offering strong resist-
ance by reason of its dense hardwood sprout growth, cuttings
may be made about 12 to 15 feet apart, and the pines planted
in these paths with the usual spacing. It is of course neces-
sary to keep the area on which the pine is planted free from
brush. In time a mixed stand will result, composed of pro-
tected pine and the best specimens of the prevailing natural
hardwoods, in parallel sections. The State Department of
Forestry has not undertaken this practice on any large scale,
but recommends it on the basis of experiments thus far made.

Another good method which has been tried with success on
several of our reforested lots is as follows: with a bush scythe
or bill hook cut all hardwood sprouts around each pine over a
space about 5 feet in diameter. This allows the pine to keep
its main shoot free to the light, and results in a good mixed
stand of pine and hardwood.

Fire Lines.

In event of undue fire hazard a good means of protection is
to make a fire line around the plantation on the side where the
greatest danger lies. This is done by cutting the brush and
clearing the ground of all inflammable material on a strip about
50 feet wide. Warning notices may be obtained by applica-
tion to the State Forester. The fire line is not practicable
unless it is kept clean, but when cared for it often proves a
vantage point from which destructive fires approaching from a
distant area may be turned back and ordinary brush fires may
be easily managed.

Types of Land Suitable for Reforestation.

The total area of Massachusetts is about 5,321,787 acres, of
which 2,672,950 acres is land adapted only to the growing of
trees. Of this area there are about 700,000 acres which at the
present time constitute practically worthless tracts, being simply
a tax to the owners, who at a very small outlay could bring

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

15

the land back into profitable forest growth, as well as add to
the scenic beauty of the section.

This land lies in tracts varying in size from one to thousands
of acres. Practically every farm has a portion which at one
time or another has been cut off, burnt over or allowed to
lapse into a condition where it is no longer a source of rev-
enue, — a piece of property which brings in no return, though
it is still taxable. Lumbermen, mill owners, water-right com-
panies and farmers all have some land which falls under one
of the following types, and it is this sort of land which, fortu-
nately, furnishes ideal conditions for forest planting.

Cut-over Land.

Undoubtedly every lumberman in the Commonwealth owns
one or more tracts of land which he has cut off, but which has
not come back into any profitable growth and which gives no
promise of a future crop.

Where the land cut off was previously growing pine it is not
always advisable to reforest it the first or second season follow-
ing, on account of the damage that is almost sure to result
from the pine stump beetle (Hylobius pales) . This beetle breeds
in the bark of recently cut pine stumps, but dies out as the
bark decays. It chews the bark of young conifers, girdling and
sometimes killing them, and damages the lateral branches of
larger growth.

Where the land cut off was previously growing hardwoods it is
advisable to reforest as soon as possible, as the sprout and hard-
wood growths, if allowed to gain too great a headway, will hold
the transplants in check, and expensive brushing will become
necessary. In some cases hardwood sprouts are so persistent
as to make reforestation a doubtful investment. Where doubt
exists as to the advisability of planting such land, an applica-
tion should be made to the State Forester for an examination.

Burned Land.

On land which has been subjected to repeated fires, destroy-
ing the growth and ground cover, the soil is left free to the
action of the weather, to be quickly dried out by the sun, or,

16 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

if on a side hill, to be washed into the valley by rains. The
seed or seedlings which may have been on the ground have
been destroyed, and the land might lie for a long period of
years before it would reseed itself naturally. Land of this
type, therefore, should be set with considerable care, in order
to obtain the best results. It is generally advisable to set a
four-year-old transplant here rather than seedlings.

Run-out Fields.

Many of the farms throughout the State have been allowed
to decline, and are growing up to brush and undesirable hard-
woods. Pasture lands especially are being encroached upon by
some of our less valuable trees, such as chokecherry and gray
birch, which so overshade the ground that good pasturage runs
out, and the lot is abandoned for fields affording better forage.
In many cases scattering white pines have crept in, and prob-
ably in time would seed in the whole piece; but the advanced
growth, while doing good work in reseed ing, would be of little
value, as, growing so scattered, they would develop large lateral
branches instead of giving a clear, straight bole so desirable in
the best grade of lumber. If the lot could be set out with
seedlings, and the trees allowed to grow in sufficiently dense
stands, the lower branches would die off naturally, and smooth,
clear lumber would be assured.

Underplanting in Thinned Stands.

Where woodland has been extensively thinned to eliminate
undesirable species, or for the purpose of marketing the mature
timber, underplanting is practicable and advisable. For this
purpose a tolerant (shade-enduring) tree is necessary, and among
the best species may be named the Norway spruce, the hem-
lock, the tamarack and the balsam fir. They should be planted
in the open spaces as much as possible, or in such a way that
they may not grow into the branches of other trees. Other-
wise they must be released in a few years' time by cutting the
older growth, and damage will result from felling.

Fig. 13. — A thinned stand of hickory. Ready for under planting
with spruce or hemlock, or with pine in the more open spaces.

REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

17

Reforestation Work done by the State.

Under "An Act to provide for the purchase of forest land
and for reforestation," passed by the Legislature of 1908, pro-
vision is made whereby private landowners may deed tracts of
land suitable for reforestation purposes to the State, to be
planted and handled under practical forest management, such
owners reserving the right to redeem the land at any time
within ten years for the actual amount expended. Provision
is also made for the distribution of seeds and seedlings at not
less than cost to landowners who are citizens of the Common-
wealth.

The State has now acquired over 150 tracts of land under
this act, comprising in all about 6,000 acres. The number of
trees required in planting these areas, and in supplying the
State institutions, the Metropolitan Water Board, the cities,
the towns and the schools, has been so great that few, if any,
have been left over for the private landowner until the present
year. During the spring of 1918, however, we distributed at
cost more than 500,000 four-year transplants of white and Scotch
pine to citizens in all parts of the State. The price charged for
these trees was $7 per 1,000, representing the actual cost of
raising them in our nurseries.

Acts op 1908, Chapteb 478.
Reforestation Act.

Section 1. For the purpose of experiment and illustration in forest
management, and for the purposes specified in section five of this act,
the sum of five thousand dollars may be expended in the year nineteen
hundred and eight, and the sum of ten thousand dollars annually there-
after, by the state forester, with the advice and consent of the governor
and council, in purchasing lands situated within the commonwealth and
adapted to forest production. The price of such land shall not exceed in
any instance five dollars per acre, nor shall more than eighty acres be
acquired in any one tract in any one year, except that a greater area may
so be acquired if the land purchased directly affects a source or tributary
of water supply in any city or town of the commonwealth. All lands
acquired under the provisions of this act shall be conveyed to the common-
wealth, and no lands shall be paid for, nor shall any moneys be expended
in improvements thereon, until all instruments of conveyance and the

18 REFORESTATION IN MASSACHUSETTS.

title to be transferred thereby have been approved by the attorney-
general, and until such instruments have been executed and recorded.

Section 2. The owners of land purchased under this act, or their
heirs and assigns, may repurchase the land from the commonwealth at
any time within ten years after the purchase by the commonwealth,
upon paying the price originally paid by the commonwealth, together
with the amount expended in improvements and maintenance, with in-
terest at the rate of four per cent per annum on the purchase price. The
state forester, with the approval of the governor and council, may execute
in behalf of the commonwealth such deeds of reconveyance as may be-
necessary under this section: provided, however, that there shall be in-
cluded in such deeds a restriction requiring that trees cut from such
property shall not be less than eight inches in diameter at the butt.

Section 3. The state forester may in his discretion, but subject to-
the approval of the deed and title by the attorney-general as provided
in section one, accept on behalf of the commonwealth gifts of land to be
held and managed for the purpose hereinbefore expressed. A donor of
such land may reserve the right to buy back the land in accordance with
the provisions of section two, but in the absence of a provision to that
effect in his deed of gift he shall not have such right.

Section 4. Land acquired under the provisions of this act shall be
under the control and management of the state forester, who may, sub-
ject to the approval of the governor and council, cut and sell trees, wood
and other produce therefrom.

Section 5. All moneys received by or payable to the commonwealth
or any one acting on its behalf under the provisions of this act shall be
paid into the treasury of the commonwealth.

Section 6. Land acquired under the provisions of this act, and sub-
sequently reconveyed under the provisions of sections two or three, shall
not be exempt from taxation on account of any plantation of trees set
out or planted while it was held by the commonwealth.

Section 7. For the purpose of assisting in reforestation a portion,
not exceeding twenty per cent of the money authorized by this act to
be expended may be used by the state forester for the distribution at
not less than cost of seeds and seedlings to land owners who are citizens
of the commonwealth, under such conditions and restrictions as the state
forester, subject to the approval of the governor and council, may deem
advisable.

Section 8. The state forester shall replant or otherwise manage all
land acquired by the commonwealth and held by it under the provisions
of this act, in such manner as will, in his judgment, produce the best
forest growth both as to practical forestry results and protection of water
supplies.

Section 9. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby
repealed.

Section 10. This act shall take effect upon its passage.

REFORESTATION IX MASSACHUSETTS.

19

FORM OF APPLICATION USED IN ASKING FOR AN EXAMINA-
TION OF WOODLAND.

Massachusetts State Forester,

State House,

Boston.

The State Forester is charged with the work of promoting the per-
petuation, extension and proper management of the forest lands of the
Commonwealth, both public and private (1904, Chap. 409, Sect. 2). The
department is open for consultation on forest and shade tree planting,
woodlot management, wood and lumber markets, prices, the control of
insects and diseases affecting woodland a ad shade trees, taxation, and
all matters pertaining to the care of woodland and ornamental trees.
In matters pertaining to fruit growing, however, go to your local county
agricultural agent. While good advice can be given through correspond-
ence, office interviews and publications, often a personal examination of
the property or trees, themselves, b\r one of my technical assistants
where the advice can be extended on the ground, is the only satisfactory
method of procedure. The only charge for such service is the traveling
expenses of the forester making such examination. If you care to have
such an examination, fill out the attached application blank and mail to
our office. A brief description of the land and the problem involved
will assist us.

F. W, RANE,
State Forester.

Application for an Examination.

Understanding the condition named above, I desire to have an exami-
nation made of a tract of land of approximately acres

located in the town of , State of Massachusetts.

Signed

Address

Telephone

Date

191

THE FORESTS
OF HAMPSHIRE COUNTY

The Results of a Forest Survey

of

Twenty Towns in the County

By R. B. PARMENTER
Under the Direction of W. A. L. BAZELEY, State Forester

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION

DIVISION OF FORESTRY

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER . PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

1922

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor op Administration.

FOREWORD.

We are presenting herewith the results of the forest survey of
Hampshire County, the third county to be so studied. The
field work of collecting the data here was carried out under the
general direction of Mr. R. B. Parmenter, assistant forester.
The men collecting the field data were students from forestry
schools. The work of compilation and arranging the data in the
form of a bulletin was undertaken by Mr. R. B. Parmenter.

Similar surveys of Worcester and Plymouth counties have
already been made and the results published. It is hoped to
continue this work until all the counties in the State are
covered. It is believed that the data so derived will prove
valuable to those interested in the forestry development of the
C ommonweal th .

WILLIAM A. L. BAZELEY,

State Forester.

THE FORESTS OF HAMPSHIRE COUNTY.

Explanation of Survey.

The survey of the several towns of Hampshire County was
made during the summer months of 1920 and 1921. This was
done in continuation of the policy of the State Forestry De-
partment to make a complete survey of all the counties of
Massachusetts.

In the Worcester County bulletin the reasons for making
forest surveys of the different counties of Massachusetts were
explained in detail, but it will not be amiss here to review
briefly some of the main reasons.

Every manufacturing concern or business of any kind at some
time or other takes an inventory of its stock. Without such an
inventory no business can be carried on to the best advantage.
The stock, or raw material, of forestry work is forest land; and
since the State Forestry Department of Massachusetts is just
what its name implies, the raw material with which this De-
partment must deal is the forest lands of Massachusetts.

If the woodlands of Massachusetts were made up of but one
or two species of trees, or if the various species of trees were all
of the same height or diameter size, this inventory would be a
comparatively simple matter. But such conditions do not exist.
Scattered throughout the State are many different kinds of
trees, differing greatly in importance, value, life habits, etc.,
from each other. Moreover, since the woodlands have been re-
peatedly cut over at different times for many years, we find
existing a varied collection of trees of all sizes and conditions;
in fact, nearly every woodlot differs to a greater or less extent
from others.

Method of Survey.

For the main part, the methods followed in making this sur-
vey were similar to those followed in Worcester County. The
men worked by compass and pace, using a copy of the United
States Topographical Map as a guide map for each town. Each

6

man would start at some convenient point on a road or edge
of a pond and run a straight line through to the town line and
then back to the opposite town line on a course parallel to the
first, but one mile distant. These lines were laid off in such a
way as to cut the roads as much as possible at more or less
right angles. This was done in order to obtain a more accurate
average of the forest conditions. If the lines were parallel to
the roads, more tillage land would be noted than forest area;
consequently, the results would be out of proportion to actual
conditions.

For convenience and brevity in the field, symbols were used
denoting the various types, and size classes were numbered
from 1 to 4.

In order to hasten the work and lessen the expense, a central
boarding place was chosen, and from there the men were taken
by auto to the point in the town where they commenced
mapping. As the automobile belonged to one of the men in the
Department who supervised the work, no additional expense
was incurred, and thus the men were enabled to cover more
territory in a day than under the old system. Often the work
was five to ten miles from the boarding place. As soon as one
locality was mapped the crew was transferred to another.

Explanation of Data.

Size Classes.

In this survey four size classes were used, but Class 4 was
divided in two by underlining the figure 4 in order to differ-
entiate the brush plantation land from plantation land all ready
to plant without brushing. Except for the purposes of the
Forestry Department, it is unnecessary to distinguish between
these two. Following is an explanation of the various classes : —

Class 1 forms the largest size class, and contains species
whose diameters, breast high, average 10 inches or better, and
whose height will average 60 to 80 feet.

Class 2 represents trees whose average diameters run from 8
to 10 inches, and whose height will average about 50 to 70 feet.

Class 3 constitutes the cord wood size, and species of 'this
class average about 3 inches in diameter and 40 to 50 feet in
height.

Oak sproutland type.

Hemlock and hardwoods type. Diameters, 6 to 12 inches or larger; heights, 50 to 60 feet.

(Classes 3, 2 and 1.)

Class 4 is sproutland on which the species are not over 2
inches in diameter and 10 to 15 feet in height.

Class 4 is sproutland with scattered open areas which should
be planted so as to bring the land up to 100 per cent produc-
tion.

Forest Types.

On account of the difference in topographical and climatic
conditions, the types of Hampshire County vary considerably
from those of Worcester and Plymouth counties. Following is a
list of types, and a brief explanation of each.

White Pine. — This type consists of white pine in pure
stands, that is, in stands made up of 80 per cent or more of the
species. There is still a considerable amount of this type found
throughout the county, but the greater part consists of cord-
wood size and smaller. Nevertheless, manv thousand feet of
merchantable pine may yet be cut on small areas scattered
throughout the county.

Pine and Hardwoods. — Stands of this kind are made up of
40 to 60 per cent, or more, of white pine and hardwoods in
mixture, with white pine usually predominating. It occurs in
small stands.

Oak Sproutland. -*— This type is exactly what the name sig-
nifies. It is found in areas of considerable size throughout the
county on land formerly covered with chestnut. As the chest-
nut was removed and the resulting sprouts killed by disease,
this oak has come in to take its place.

Hemlock and Hardwoods. — This type occurs in considerable
quantity throughout the county, but principally on the higher
elevations. Fully 65 per cent of the total amount is in the
smaller size classes. It is similar to the pine and hardwood
type in that the hemlock, like the pine, usually predominates.
There is considerable merchantable timber in this type.

Northern Hardwoods. — This type covers large areas through-
out the county, consisting of beech, birch, maple, oak and ash.
This occurs in the smaller size classes, with some merchantable
stands scattered over the county. It is found principally on the
higher elevations.

Maple and Birch (Red Maple and Gray Birch). — This type
is taking the place of better timber. On all cut-over lands and

8

abandoned fields this type is predominating. Very little is
merchantable, although 25 per cent of it is cordwood size. This
type can be used advantageously as an overstory for white pine
plantations. A good proportion of this type is found on low
wet land where the larger size classes are found.

Other Softwoods. — This consists of pitch pine and red cedar.
Pitch pine is found along the Swift River valley in considerable
quantity. Cedar is found to a great extent in pastures. Both
are found in almost pure stands. It is not a valuable type.

Spruce. — Found on the higher elevations along the northern
border of the county. But few stands of pure spruce were seen.

Spruce and Hardwoods. — Similar to the hemlock and hard-
wood type, and found in the same locality as the spruce type.
Consists mostly of the smaller size classes.

Brush Pasture. — Consists of waste land and pasture land
growing to brush, this brush consisting of sweet fern, hardhack,
blueberry bushes and some young growth of birch, maple and
conifers. Much of this land has open areas scattered through
it which can be planted. This land will in the future revert to
one of the other forest types.

Brush. — Land similar to that in brush pasture, but so com-
pletely covered with young reproduction of some kind as to
leave no areas for planting.

Non-Forest Types.

Agriculture. — Land covered by this heading is all under
cultivation. Included in this type are all the swales which are
cut for hay, as well as all the mowing lands.

Open Pasture. — This includes only such lands as are used for
this purpose. This county has a considerable proportion of this
land, as it is largely interested in dairying.

Brush Sivamp. — Alder swamps, wet areas having a sparse
growth of young reproduction, as well as wet areas comprised
of worthless species, come under this heading. Land worthless
unless drained.

Residential. — This term explains itself. It also includes
business sections, cemeteries, fair grounds, etc.

Water. — All inland waters fall under this classification:
ponds, lakes, rivers and brooks. The figures are a little lower

9

than those of the Waterways Commission; but considering the
necessarily rough method in which they were obtained, the re-
sults are very satisfactory.

Hampshire County.

Hampshire County lies in the central and western part of the
State. Northampton is the county seat. There are four rail-
roads crossing the county, — the Central Vermont, Boston &
Maine and the New York, New -Haven & Hartford, running
through the eastern part, while the Boston & Albany cuts the
southern part. The northwestern part is isolated from railroads
on account of the topography being so rugged as to make it ex-
pensive to build a railroad across it.

The principal industries of this county are agriculture, dairy-
ing and lumbering. Some of the most fertile lands in the State
are in the central section along the Connecticut River. The
principal crops are tobacco, onions, corn and hay. Manu-
facturing is carried on to some extent in the larger towns, the
products being paper, cotton, woolen goods and silk.

Lumbering is carried on to some extent throughout the
western and northwestern sections. The central section in the
Connecticut valley is almost entirely agricultural, while the
eastern section is wooded, but the timber has been pretty well
culled out.

Topography.

Hampshire County lies between the divide formed by the
hills in Worcester County and the Berkshire Hills in Berkshire
County. In fact, the western part of the county lies on the
eastern slope of the Berkshire Hills. The principal streams
draining this county are the Connecticut, Ware, Swift and
Westfield rivers.

The topography of this county is very rugged for the most
part, except along the Swift and Connecticut rivers, where the
land is flat. The ridges run north and south, the highest ele-
vations being in the western half, where they average 1,500 to
1,700 feet above the sea level. In the eastern half the eleva-
tions average between 500 to 1,200 feet above sea level. From
these elevations they grade down to 100 feet above sea level at
the Connecticut River.

10

Mount Tom, with an elevation of 854 feet above sea level, is
one of the high points in the central section, as well as a popu-
lar summer resort.

Soil.

The soil of Hampshire County varies from clear sand through
the Swift River valley to bare rock in the western part. In
many places in the Swift River valley the soil reminds one very
much of Cape Cod, — clear sand with few stones, distinct from
any other. In the Connecticut valley section of the county the
soil is deep loam, while in the western part the soil becomes
poorer, with outcropping of rock occurring frequently. A few
swamps were encountered containing muck, but all had an out-
let. Taken as a whole, the county is well drained.

Forest Conditions.

Hampshire County lies both in the white pine region, which
contains, as hardwoods, oak, hickory, gray birch and red
maple, and, as conifers, white pine, pitch pine and cedar, and
the spruce and hardwoods region, whose type of trees includes,
for hardwoods, beech, white and yellow birch and rock maple,
and, for the conifers, spruce and hemlock. Lying as it does in
these two regions, its forest flora is extensive. As explained
before, it has been necessary to group these various species into
types, and we give herewith a table showing the area of these
forest types and non-forest types for the whole county. It will
be seen from this table that the forest area covers more than
two-thirds of the county, or 69 per cent.

Three towns — Amherst, South Hadley and Hadley — were
not surveyed on account of the large amount of agricultural
land. If this had been done, the percentage of agricultural land
would have been higher, a few of the forest types would change,
while brush pasture would be lower.

The chestnut was considered as an extinct species, so wher-
ever chestnut had occurred it was considered as brush or oak
sproutland. It will be noted that 50 per cent of the forest
cover is in brush, brush pasture and worthless red maple and
gray birch. This fact should not be taken as a discouraging
feature, as much of this area is a potential forest, and in a few
years will produce valuable saw material, because there is
bound to be some valuable species in mixture. Sixty-five per

11

FOREST 6$K

<MM>££

o o o o o a o

X X X X X X

■i a « / ■ ">

' <. ( ^

/W

/3/?e * Hardwoods

OdK Sprout land

Hemlock § Hardwoods

Northern Hardwoods

NON-FOREST 3 IX

Maple I "Birch

Other Softwoods

Spruce \

Spruce v Hardwoods

&

\

«Y|

m

TOfWXI,

Brush Pasture

Brush

\\v// v>\/7/ \\v//

DDDDDa

Acjrlculh

ure

Open Pasture.

Srush Swamp

Residential

Water

DIAGRAM SHOWING PROPORTION OF LAND
TYPES FOUND IN HAMPSHIRE COUNTY.

12

cent of the forest area is below cordwood size; but that fact,
again, should not alarm one, as naturally stands which have
attained merchantable size are soon cut down, and the propor-
tion of the larger sizes must always be low.

Total Land Types.

[Total 20 towns.]

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town .

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

5,500

7,862

5,306

554

19,222

8

-

Pine and hardwoods

7,135

5,950

541

-

13,626

6

-

Oak sproutland ....

10,837

4,876

736

1,116

17,565

7

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

5,755

10,028

4,772

11

20,566

9

-

Northern hardwoods . . .

9,911

12,018

4,438

222

26,589

11

-

Maple and birch ....

34,363

13,534

1,103

24

49,024

20

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Spruce

4,265

792

4,339

845

2,140

454

332

11,076
2,091

5
1

-

Spruce and hardwoods .

1,857

1,184

39

-

3,080

1

-

Brush pasture ....

65,257

-

-

-

65,257

29'

-

Brush ......

6,205

-

-

-

6,205

3

-

Total

151,877

60,636

19,529

2,259

234,301

-

-

Percentage ....

65

26

8

1

49,574

100

69

Non-fores
Agriculture

r Types

14

Open pasture ....

36,960

-

11

Brush swamp ....

10,205

-

3

Residential .....

5,837

-

2

Water

4,322

-

1

Total area of 20 towns .

341,199

-

100

Belciiertown.

This town does a very small amount of lumbering, as most of
the merchantable timber has been cut off, the principal indus-
tries being dairying, agriculture and fruit growing. However,
in the southern part of the town manufacturing and bleaching
are carried on, thus developing the water power somewhat.
Three railroads run into the town, thereby facilitating trans-
portation.

13

The lumbering is done by two mills which cut pine, chestnut
and oak. These manufacture lumber, ties and cordwood.

In the northeastern section of the town are many abandoned
farms where reforestation may be 'done to advantage. There is
also considerable cut-over land to be reforested. The soil and
topography both lend themselves favorably to forest growth.
There is considerable pine of the smaller diameter classes which
should be properly managed so as to bring it to full timber
capacity. This pine, together with reforestation work, should
bring this town back to its former place as a timber-producing
community.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

I

4

3

2

1

Forest. Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

671

1,882

702

122

3,377

17

'-

Oak sproutland ....

504

413

27

-

944

5

-

Northern hardwoods

47

212

193

-

452

2

-

Maple and birch ....

4,964

2,996

200

-

8,160

42

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

652
5,520i

413

71

_

1,136
5,520

6

28

—

Total

12,358

5,916

1,193

122

19,589

-

-

Percentage . . .

63

30

6

1

8,051

100

56

Non-fores
Agriculture

t Types

23

Open pasture ....

6,437

-

18

Brush swamp ....

864

-

2

Water

293

-

1

Total area of town

35,264

-

100

1 Nine per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Chesterfield.
The principal industries of this town are farming, dairying
and lumbering. At present there are four stationary mills of
importance running. One at Bisbee Mill manufactures shingles
and whip butts. There are two mills at West Chesterfield, one
which manufactures ash baskets for laundry purposes, and the
other saws lumber entirely. There is also a wood-turning plant
called the "Nutshell," where the owner turns out picture

14

frames, napkin rings and various other souvenirs. In the north-
western section of the town, on the Worthington line, there is a
wood-turning mill which uses 25,000 to 30,000 feet of lumber
annually in the manufacture of drum hoops, banjo and tam-
bourine hoops, embroidery hoops, and frames for Christmas
wreaths. The drum hoops are made from maple, and the
banjo hoops from beech, birch and maple. There are also a few
portable mills in operation here.

The town is well timbered with hemlock and beech, but on
the whole it is so difficult to log that in all probability much of
the timber will be allowed to remain. It is located on steep
hillsides along the banks of the river, and in the bottom of deep
gorges. There is more use for the hardwoods, so the hemlock is
left. Four or five wood distillation plants were found, but these
have been idle for many years.

Reforestation would be extremely difficult and expensive,
owing to the heavy growth of mountain laurel on cut-over areas.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

96

166

194

-

456

3

-

Pine and hardwoods

91

259

-

-

350

2

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

531

2,663

1,484

-

4,678

29

-

Northern hardwoods

480

1,361

881

-

2,722

17

-

Birch and maple ....

1,309

117

-

-

1,426

9

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Spruce

312
104

570
73

223

_

1,105

177

7
1

—

Spruce and hardwoods .

104

-

-

-

104

1

-

Brush pasture ....

5,038'

-

-

-

5,038

31

-

Total

8,065

5,209

2,782

-

16,056

-

-

Percentage ....

51

32

17

-

2,541

100

77

Non-fores
Agriculture .....

t Types

12

1,361

-

7

635

-

3

143

-

1

Total area of town

20,736

_

100

i Twenty-six per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without any brushing.

Brush pasture type.

Brush swamp type.

15

ClJMMINGTON.

The forests of this township consist chiefly of maple, beech,
yellow birch and gray birch for hardwoods, and hemlock, spruce
and white pine for softwoods. Other species found are white
birch, poplar, oak, especially chestnut oak, and ash. The most
prominent combinations are maple, beech and yellow birch in
the valleys and on the slopes, and spruce and hemlock on the
ridges. About 22 per cent of the forested land is cordwood size,
68 per cent is plantation land, and the remainder in the mer-
chantable size classes. In the southeast corner of the town is a
very good stand of merchantable hemlock. Another stand of
pure beech is about two miles east of Cummington Center. On
the Deer Hill State Reservation is a fine stand of chestnut oak.

At present there are almost no cutting operations going on
except just north of the town, where there is some hemlock
being cut. Many farmers own portable sawmills, but are not
operating them at present. The L. L. Brown Paper Company
formerly operated a mill in West Cummington, but in 1907
stopped work on account of lack of raw material. The Stevens
Manufacturing Company cut about 160,000 feet of lumber in
1919.

About 37 per cent of the town is waste land or partially used
for pasture. It lies almost entirely in the east, south and south
central parts of the town. Most of this lies in one continuous
strip in this town, and much more in Goshen and ^Yorthington.

16

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

1

4

3

2 1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

45

52

30

7

134

1

-

Pine and hardwoods

126

89

30

-

245

2

-

Oak sproutland ....

22

26

67

-

115

1

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

754

639

215

11

1,619

15

-

Northern hardwoods

342

836

398

4

1,580

15

-

Maple and birch ....

1,882

451

104

-

2,437

23

-

Softwoods other than spruce and
pine.

19
178

19
236

152

-

38
566

1
5

-

3,856

-

-

-

3,856

37

-

Total

7,224

2,348

996

22

10,590

-

-

Percentage

68

22

9

1

624

100

73

Non-fores

r Types

4

Open pasture ....

2,571

-

18

442

-

3

Residential .....

209

-

1

Water ......

156

-

1

14,592

-

100

Easthampton.

There is little or no merchantable timber in this town. The
best timbered area is found in the northwestern part of the
town, where trees of cordwTood size and some isolated groups of
merchantable timber occur. The rest of the town, fully 60 per
cent, is either open land or grown up to brush, very thick in
some sections. There is very little land available for plantation
purposes. The land that is available for plantation purposes
lies in the southwestern and central western part of the towrn.
The chief species in large sizes are oak, maple, wThite birch and
white pine. Other species are gray birch, pitch pine, hemlock
and yellow birch. All chestnut is diseased or dead.

There are no lumbering operations in the town on account of
lack of material. One lumber company (Pepin Lumber Com-

17

pany) consumes annually 50,000 to 75,000 board feet. This is
cut outside the town. The Harris x\utomobile Wheel Company
uses 10,000 feet of oak and 6,000 feet of hickory annually. The
chief industry of this town is furnished by the West Boylston
Mills, engaged in cotton weaving, and employing 3,000 hands.
The remainder of the population are farmers, raising potatoes
and tobacco.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

51

210

95

-

356

9

-

Oak sproutland ....

1,181

203

25

-

1,409

34

-

Northern hardwoods .

22

48

-

-

70

2

-

Maple and birch ....

800

-

-

-

800

20

-

Softwoods other than pine and

407

-

25

-

432

10

-

Brush pasture ....

1,003

-

-

-

1,003

25

-

Total

2,461

461

145

-

4,070

-

-

Percentage ....

80

15

5

-

2,079

100

' 45

NON-FORES

r Types

22

1,989

-

21

234

-

3

Residential

436

-

5

Water ......

344

-

4

Total area of town

9,152

-

100

Enfield.

The principal industries of this town are agriculture, dairying,
lumbering and the manufacture of woolen cloth. At present the
woolen mills are closed.

Although lumbering has been carried on extensively in the
past, at present no mills of importance are running. In 1920
one portable mill, situated in the southeastern section of the
town, cut 670,000 feet of lumber. On the same location cord-
wood is now being cut. This whole town has been cut over
within the past five or six years, and has grown up to scrub
oak, birch and maple.

18

The species found in this town are as follows: maple, gray
birch, pitch pine, white pine, white birch, oak and dead chest-
nut.

Reforestation in this town would be expensive for two
reasons, — first, because of the steepness of planting areas, and
second, the crown density of sprout reproduction.

Poultry raising is one of the coming industries of this town.
There are a number of large henneries, and from all reports
good returns are being realized.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

366

248

129

3

746

10

-

Oak sproutland ....

280

195

24

-

499

7

-

Maple and birch ....

1,602

719

-

-

2,321

30

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

168
3,839i

77

12

_

257
3,839

3
50

-

Total

6,255

1,239

165

3

7,662

-

-

Percentage ....

82

16

2

-

2,025

100

68

Non-fores

r Types

18

1,027

-

9

Brush swamp .

180

-

2

Residential

201

-

2

Water ......

1,027

-

9

11,200

-

100

1 Ten per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Goshen.

The principal industries of this town are berrying, agriculture
and some lumbering. There are a few portable sawmills and
one stationary mill on Dresser Pond in operation in this town.

The town is heavily wooded, containing mostly mixed hard-
woods, though there are some good stands of pine, spruce,
larch and hemlock. The species found in this town are hemlock,
spruce, pine, beech, yellow birch and maple. Hemlock is the

19

predominating conifer in this section, with spruce second. Pine
is scattered throughout the town, with an overstory of beech,
maple and other hardwoods.

Reforestation can be carried on extensively in this town, as
there are many acres now devoted to berry raising which could
be planted with white pine, spruce or hemlock. Softwood re-
production has come in naturally on many of the cut-over areas.

There are also a number of pine plantations in this town.
These are all growing rapidly and show what can be done along
these lines.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

i

4

3

2

1

Forest. Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

60

377

149

101

687

8

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

265

554

340

-

1,159

14

-

Northern hardwoods

284

794

469

-

1,547

19

-

Maple and birch ....

762

391

23

-

1,176

14

-

Softwoods other than spruce and
pine.

121

76

173
163

403
30

50

747
269

10
3

-

Spruce and hardwoods .

44

6

-

-

50

1

-

Brush pasture ....

2,486i

-

-

-

2,486

31

-

Total

4,098

2,458

1,414

151

8,121

-

-

Percentage ....

51

30

17

2

1,754

100

75,

NON-FORES

r Types

16

Open pasture ....

460

-

4

Brush swamp ....

403

-

4

Water ......

206

-

1

Total area of town

10,944

-

100

1 Thirteen per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Gkanby.

The soil of this town is better adapted for agriculture than
for forestry. Consequently the practice of forestry is limited
to such small area as to be of little importance.

The industries of this town are agriculture and dairying.

There are two stationary sawmills located here, but neither
has been running for some time.

20

Reforestation can be practiced on the cut-over areas, but
these are all limited in extent. Some of the areas now growing
to gray birch or used for pasture should either be cultivated to
farm crops or reforested in order to bring them back to their
original value. Pine would grow well on these idle lands. As
these lands stand at present, they are of no value.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

490

278

100

6

874

12

-

Oak sproutland ....

585

478

-

-

1,063

14

-

Northern hardwoods

202

147

-

-

349

5

-

Maple and birch ....

1,684

705

113

-

2,502

33

-

Softwoods other than pine and

144

14

14

-

172

2

-

Brush pasture ....

2,532i

-

-

-

2,532

34

-

Total

5,637

1,622

227

6

7,492

-

-

Percentage ....

75

22

3

-

6,433

100

43

Non-fores

t Types

36

Open pasture ....

3,044

-

17

Brush swamp ....

465

-

3

Water ......

166

-

1

17,600

-

100

1 Eight per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Greenwich.

Forestry is practiced extensively in this town. The soil is
very well adapted for forest growth, so the inhabitants have
gone into forest management rather than agriculture. The
family of William Walker have practiced forestry for more than
a generation. They have used the selection system and thinned
on a five to ten year basis. The stands of white pine are kept
clear of brush and forest debris, so the fire hazard is kept down.

White pine is the principal species found in this town, repre-
sented by some very fine stands. Next in amount come pitch
pine, maple, gray birch, oak, hemlock and dead chestnut.

21

The most important sawmill is owned and run by William
Walker, together with a box factory. He keeps no tally, so no
figures on amount cut are available. There are also many
portable sawmills which have been operating, but at present
have discontinued work.

This town has four large bodies of water, — Warner Pond,
Curtis Pond, Greenwich Lake and Quabin Lake. On the shores
of these lakes and ponds have been built many summer cottages,
and on one there is a large summer camp called "Camp City,"
for Jewish orphans from New York, under construction.

One outstanding feature of the soil composition is the occur-
rence of large areas of completely barren sand. The edges of
these areas are skirted with a- belt of land on which hummocks
of dry grass and sand are found, and back of this belt pitch
pine is found and also stands of white pine. The soil, on the
whole, is light loam.

Reforestation can be carried on in some parts of the town.
Natural reproduction has taken hold well and is encouraged.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

291

1,033

815

53

2,192

24

-

Oak sproutland ....

846

250

25

27

1,148

13

-

Maple and birch ....

1,067

695

-

-

1,762

20

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

203
3,364i

258

47

—

508
3,364

6
37

-

Total

5,771

2,236

887

80

8,974

-

-

Percentage ....

64

25

10

1

1,943

100

70

Non-forest Types.
Agriculture

15

Open pasture ...........

1,104

-

9

Brush swamp

439

-

3

Residential

67

-

1

Water

273

-

2

Total area of town

12,800

-

100

1 Fourteen per cent of b

rush pas

ture is fi

t for pla

nting wit

hout bru

shing.

22

Hatfield.

This is purely an agricultural town, as the woodland forms a
very small part of the total area. The woodland is located on
the hills along the western part of the town. Ties are pro-
duced, but not enough to be of any importance.

The town is situated on the bottom lands of the Connecticut
River, and the soil is rich and fertile, the chief crops being
tobacco, onions, corn and hay.

A white pine plantation is located on the border of the
Northampton water commission's reservoir, in the northwestern
corner of the town.

Reforestation should be practiced on the cut-over land on the
hillsides.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

51

6

-

-

57

1

-

Oak sproutland

165

201

37

-

403

10

-

Northern hardwoods

98

342

146

-

586

14

-

Maple and birch ....

644

85

-

-

729

18

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

4
2,290i

43

12

—

59
2,290

1
56

-

Total

3,252

677

195

-

4,124

-

-

Percentage ....

79

16

5

-

5,626

100

37

Non-fores
Agriculture

r Types.

51

Open pasture ....

159

-

1

Brush swamp ....

37

-

1

Residential

. • .

379

-

3

Water

747

-

7

Total area of town

11,072

-

100

1 Two per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Spruce type. Diameters, 6 to 10 inches; heights, 40 to 60 feet. (Class 2).

23

Huntington.

This town is chiefly concerned with lumbering. There are a
stationary mill, three portable mills, two paper mills and a
woolen mill in this town. The stationary mill belongs to H. E.
Stanton, who manufactures lumber, box shooks and, in addi-
tion, frost blocks for the railroad. He uses chestnut in the
manufacture of frost blocks. The portable mills are cutting in
various parts of the town, but Mount Pisgah has been nearly
all cut over, showing that a considerable portion of the timber
was formerly on this mountain. There are many areas of good
timber which have not as yet been cut.

On Mount Pisgah and in other places natural reproduction of
pine and hemlock has come in. However, unless these cut-over
areas are taken care of as soon as cut, laurel and brush grow up
so as to make reforestation impracticable.

Northern hardwoods, consisting of yellow birch, beech, white
birch and maple, comprise 30 per cent of the timbered area.
Mixed hemlock and hardwoods are the next type of importance,
comprising 22 per cent of the stand. Pine occurs in mixed
stand with hardwoods, and to some extent pure, but only in the
smaller-size classes.

There is also considerable land which has grown up to brush
after being cut off. Fourteen per cent of this land is ready for
planting without brushing, but there is also considerable land
on which brushing must be done before reforestation will take
place successfully.

24

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

247

239

140

7

633

5

-

Pine and hardwoods

129

297

39

-

465

4

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

916

1,329

755

-

3,000

22

-

Northern hardwoods

1,148

2,335

387

194

4,064

30

-

Maple and birch ....

329

-

-

-

329

2

-

Softwoods other than spruce and

366

421

235

39

1,061

8

-

Brush pasture ....

3,893!

-

-

-

3,893

29

-

Total

7,028

4,621

1,856

240

13,445

-

-

Percentage ....

52

34

13

1

2,516

100

77

Non-fores

r Types.

14

Open pasture ....

1,226

-

7

Brush swamp ....

39

-

1

182

-

1

Total area of town

17,408

-

100

1 Fourteen per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.
MlDDLEFIELD.

The timber found in this town consists of maple, beech,
yellow, gray and white birch and poplars for hardwoods, and
hemlock, spruce and white pine for softwoods. Other species
found are willow, ash, butternut, linden and larch. About 48
per cent of the first group of species is in Class 4, 39 per cent in
Class 3, and 13 per cent in Class 2. The merchantable species
include, principally, maple, beech, yellow birch, hemlock, spruce
and some white pine. Sixty-three per cent of the town is
forested.

The chief industries are dairying and farming to a slight ex-
tent. Forest industries include cordwood operating, and one
portable sawmill cutting pine, hemlock and hardwoods.

The soil conditions are of such character as to make agricul-
ture almost impossible. Consequently, the land should be used
for forestry. About 30 per cent of the town can be planted and
thus bring the town up to its full forest capacity. Reproduction
is' coming in naturally on the cut-over and waste land.

25

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

380

-

30

-

410

4

-

Oak sproutland ....

753

655

20

-

1,428

13

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

891

1,664

721

-

3,276

30

-

Northern hardwoods

511

321

177

-

1,009

9

-

Maple and birch ....

1,867

838

151

-

2,856

26

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Spruce

92
13

66

52

;

92
131

1
1

-

Spruce and hardwoods .

177

269

39

-

485

4

-

Brush pasture ....

1,263

-

-

-

1,263

12

-

Total

5,947

3,813

1,190

-

10,950

-

-

Percentage ....

54

35

11

-

318

100

71

NoN-FORES'

v Types.

2

Open pasture ....

2,209

-

14

Brush swamp ....

1,868

-

12

Water . . . . ' .

143

-

1

Total area of town .

15,488

-

100

Northampton.

The forests of this town consist largely of stands of oak,
maple and gray birch, with dying chestnut. These species
are almost entirely of small size. Other species found are
hickory, white birch_and pine, mixed with hardwoods, elm,
poplar, etc. There is very little merchantable timber left except
a small stand of white pine of large size on the grounds of
the State insane hospital, and a small amount of oak, dead
chestnut, maple and birch of medium growth on the western
slopes of Bald Hill in the southwest.

There are no lumber operations in this town. Two hundred
and fifty cords of wood have been cut on Bald Hill by Leigh
Gerick, a coal and wood dealer from Chicopee, Mass.

Land ready for planting lies in small isolated areas through-
out the town. These should be reforested and all natural re-
production encouraged.

26

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent. '

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

408

260

248

16

932

8

-

Oak sproutland ....

2,628

200

48

-

2,876

22

-

Northern hardwoods

1,444

368

-

-

1,812

15

-

Maple and birch ....

3,460

280

-

-

3,740

30

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

224
2,672

40

24

40

328
2,672

3

22

-

Total . . . .

10,836

1,148

320

56

12,360

-

-

Percentage ....

88

8.6

3

.4

4,983

100

48

Non-fores
Agriculture

t Types

19

3,183

-

12

Brush swamp . .

672

-

3

3,639

-

14

Water ......

1,113

-

4

Total area of town

25,950

-

100

Pelham.

The timber growth of this town consists of maple, gray birch,
pitch pine, white pine, hemlock, oak, white birch and dead
chestnut. Two mills are cutting the chestnut, maple, birch,
pine and oak into ties, posts, box boards, lumber and cordwood.
Chaffee Brothers of Oxford are cutting 800,000 feet of timber at
the present location, and expect to cut 4,000,000 feet before the
job is completed. This mill's chief output is box boards, but
ties and lumber are also produced.

Lumbering has gone on in this town for a number of years,
and at the same time nothing has been done to replace the cut
timber. Consequently there are large areas of cut-over land
w^hich are producing nothing but brush. This brush is left
w^here it falls, thus increasing the fire risk.

Plenty of opportunity for reforestation is to be had on the
cut-over areas. Forty-five per cent of the town is in the
maple and birch type, which is the type coming in on the old

27

cut-over land. This type at best is only good for cordwood,
and uses up the space which should be put to growing better
timber.

Land Types.

Approximate

Size Classes.

Per Cext.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

258

736

669

63

1,726

13

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

28

71

-

-

99

1

-

Northern hardwoods

393

486

257

-

1,136

9

-

Maple and birch ....

2,345

3,419

43

-

6,007

45

-

Softwoods other than pine and

43

334

82

-

459

3

-

spruce.
Brush pasture .

3,924i

-

-

-

3,924

29

-

Total

7,191

5,046

1,051

63

13,351

-

-

Percentage ....

54

37.6

8

.4

1,541

100

83

NOX-FORES

Agriculture .....

r Types

10

973

-

6

Brush swamp ....

199

-

1

Total area of town

16,064

-

100

1 Eight per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Plaixfield.

The forests of this town consist chiefly of maple, beech,
yellow and gray birch for hardwoods, and spruce and hemlock
for softwoods. Other species found are white birch, butternut,
linden, poplar and cherry. Sixty-nine per cent of the forested
area is in Class 4, 22 per cent in Class 3, while the remainder,
mostly hardwoods, is in Class 2. Almost the only timber of
merchantable size is beech and maple in small areas.

The plantation land lies in small scattered strips. Although
it is in small strips, nevertheless it should be taken care of and
reforested.

The industries of this town are a slight amount of farming,
dairying and lumbering. Only one lumber mill is in the town,
which is owned by G. L. Willcut, cutting 25,000 feet of maple
from his own farm. He manufactures this maple into interior
finish and flooring.

28

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Fokest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine ......

-

-

115

-

115

1

-

Pine and hardwoods

182

-

200

-

382

3

-

Oak sproutland ....

1,089

-

-

-

1,089

9

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

160

344

74

-

578

5

-

Northern hardwoods

3,082

902

370

-

4,354

36

-

Maple and birch ....

1,521

474

227

-

2,222

18

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Spruce

115

105

41
153

-

261
153

2
1

-

Spruce and hardwoods .

1,065

695

-

-

1,760

14

-

Brush pasture ....

682

-

-

-

682

6

-

Brush

607

-

-

-

607

5

-

Total

8,503

2,520

1,180

-

12,203

-

-

Percentage ....

70

21

9

-

575

100

87

Non-fores

r Types

4

765

-

6

317

-

2

Water ......

92

-

1

13,952

-

100

Prescott.

The larger percentage of the town is composed of agricultural
and cut-over lands. Of the remaining land, the forest cover is
made up of the following species in order of their importance
as to area covered: maple, gray birch, oak, pitch pine, w-hite
pine and hemlock.

Dairying is the largest industry, and is carried on in most
places according to modern methods. Lumbering is a minor
industry at present, there being but little timber of saw log size
to be found, though there are a few small tracts that contain
some fine white pine, hemlock and white oak. Cutting is
chiefly confined to dead chestnut, and there seems to be a de-
sire to clear cut all chestnut as rapidly as possible. Lumbering

29

has been carried on extensively during the past five years, but
at present there seem to be no indications of further operations.
The soil conditions in the town are such as to make the
growing of timber very profitable. Many old abandoned farms
and cut-over areas should be planted so as to reforest the town.
Some of the cut-over areas, however, would be expensive to
plant because of heavy reproduction of scrub oak, laurel, etc.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

178

540

750

85

1,553

17

-

Pine and hardwoods

39

135

-

-

174

2

-

Oak sproutland ....

153

402

170

-

725

8

-

Northern hardwoods

10

26

-

-

36

1

-

Maple and birch ....

1,166

762

-

-

1,928

20

-

Softwoods other than spruce and

96

258

335

131

820

9

-

Brush pasture ....

3,8781

-

-

-

3,878

43

-

Total . . .

5,520

2,123

1,255

216

9,144

-

-

Percentage ....

61

23

14

2

1,468

100

78

Non-fores

r Types

13

Open pasture ....

1,012

-

8

118

-

1

. Total area of town

11,712

-

100

1 Five per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Southampton.

The forests of this town consist largely of oak, chestnut, gray
birch, maple, pine, hickory and poplar. The largest per cent
is in Class 4, but there is considerable oak, white birch, white
pine and maple of Class 3. There still remain several good
stands of white pine, oak, white and yellow birch and maple of
Classes 1 and 2. The best timbered areas are in the western
and northern sections. Fires have recently burned over several
hundred acres in the north, which are now covered with a thick
growth of juniper and ground hemlock. Almost all of the
chestnut of Classes 2 and 3 has been cut or is now being cut.

30

Many small woodlot owners are cutting cordwood. Two
operators in 1919 cut the following: H. J. Williams, 80,000
feet of chestnut, and E. K. Parsons, 500 feet of pine, chestnut,
oak and birch.

Agriculture is carried on extensively by almost the whole
population, corn, tobacco, and potatoes being the principal crops
planted.

In the southeastern section of the town are several large
tracts that are an absolute waste. Reforestation would take
care of these admirably.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

452

696

357

30

1,535

11

-

Oak sproutland ....

3,193

634

161

-

3,988

30

-

Northern hardwoods

71

-

24

-

95

1

-

Maple and birch ....

3,017

506

83

-

3,606

27

-

Softwoods other than pine and

220

250

161

12

643

5

-

Brush pasture ....

3,445

-

-

-

3,445

25

-

Brush

70

-

-

-

70

1

-

Total

10,468

2,086

786

42

13,382

-

-

Percentage ....

78

15.7

6

.3

1,316

100

77

Non-fores
Agriculture

t Types

8

Open pasture ....

1,630

-

8

Brush swamp ....

928

-

5

Residential

146

-

1

Water

70

-

1

Total area of town

17,472

1 "

100

Ware.
The greater part of this town is made up of agricultural,
pasture and cut-over lands. On the remaining sections the
following species are found in order of importance as to volume:
maple, white pine, gray birch, pitch pine, hemlock, yellow birch,
ash and dead or dying chestnut. Very little saw timber is left
except on isolated areas, though there is a good reproduction

31

coming in, much of which, however, will be of inferior quality,
comprising mostly birch and maple. There are a few good
stands of pine of good quality, and a little spruce and larch,
but not in any great quantity.

All available land has been cleared for agriculture, so there
are few areas left for timber. All logging operations have been
discontinued, although several sawmills are located here.

Manufacturing of cotton, wool and paper, together with
farming, comprise the industries here. As the greater portion
of the town is better fitted for other purposes, extensive re-
forestation is not advisable except in a few isolated sections.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

200

255

263

15

733

6

-

Oak sproutland ....

173

513

72

-

758

6

-

Maple and birch ....

2,448

696

40

-

3,184

26

-

Softwoods other than spruce and

pine.
Brush pasture ....

160
7,212i

216

34

-

410
7,212

3

59

-

Total

10,193

1,680

409

15

12,297

-

-

Percentage ....

83

13.9

3

.1

3,623

100

66

Non-fores

r Types

19

Open pasture ....

2,060

-

11

Brush swamp ....

515

-

3

. . .

238

-

1

Water

19

-

1

Total area of town

f "■

18,752

-

100

1

i Twenty-five per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Westhampton.
The timber in this town has been cut off almost entirely, with
the exception of a few woodlots owned by private individuals.
On these lots are found pine, hemlock and hardwoods in the
merchantable size Classes 1 and 2. On a greater portion of the
land cordwood is cut, even to as small a diameter as 2 and 3
inches.

32

Lumbering is and has been for some time the principal in-
dustry here. Ties and lumber are the products manufactured.
One mill of importance, owned by Frank Loud, cuts lumber,
clapboards, shingles, etc.

The slopes in this town are very steep, in some places so
much so as to make logging difficult and expensive.

Reproduction is good in the greater part of the town, thus
making reforestation unnecessary.

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Per Cent.

Total.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Pine

167

67

222

47

503

3

-

Pine and hardwoods

191

227

-

-

418

3

-

Oak sproutland . .

36

238

-

-

274

2

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

233

1,240

572

-

2,045

13

-

Northern hardwoods

1,296

2,158

370

-

3,824

25

-

Maple and birch ....

728

12

-

-

740

5

-

Softwoods other than pine and

774

535

248

60

1,617

11

-

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

5,740i

-

-

-

5,740

38

-

Total

9,165

4,477

1,412

107

15,161

-

-

Percentage ....

60

30

9

1

1,144

100

85

Non-fores

r Types

6

1,223

-

7

119

-

1

145

-

1

17,792

-

100

■

1 Twenty-six per cent of brush pasture is fit for planting without brushing.

Williamsburg.
The forest growth of this town consists largely of stands of
maple, gray birch, hemlock, pine and oak, with considerable
dead or dying chestnut. Other species found include hickory,
yellow birch, butternut, beech and some white birch. Thirty-
eight per cent of the wooded areas is in Class 4, although there
are several good stands of mixed hardwoods and white pine of
Classes 1, 2 and 3. Good stands of mixed hardwoods are found

33

on High Ridge, hemlock and mixed hardwoods on Petticoat
Hill Reservation, and west of Unquomonk Hill is found a con-
siderable stand of hemlock.

There is but one company operating at present in this town,
which cut 400,000 feet of lumber in Williamsburg, and 600,000
feet from Goshen and Chesterfield in 1919. All of this timber
was sawed into lumber at the Bradford Lumber Company's
mill at Haydenville, and manufactured into crates, barrels, whip
handles, etc. A mill at Searsville did not operate in 1919, but
had a million feet of logs in the yard to cut in 1920. Hill
Brothers Company uses 15,000 to 20,000 feet annually in the
manufacture of spools, butter-tubs, etc. There are also a
number of farmers owning portable mills and sawing ties and
lumber during the winter.

There is a considerable area of plantation land in the south-
eastern part of the town extending over Day's and Shingle
Hill, also along the northeastern border.

Land Types.

Apprc

(XIMATE

Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

1

4

3

2 1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

468

402

337

12

1,219

10

-

Pine and hardwoods

276

288

132

-

696

5

-

Oak sproutland ....

318

468

60

-

846

7

-

Hemlock and hardwoods

936

576

144

-

1,656

13

-

Northern hardwoods

1,337

813

192

24

2,366

19

-

Maple and birch ....

1,487

228

12

24

1,751

13

-

Softwoods other than pine and

spruce.
Brush pasture ....

72
2,831

192

73

-

337
2,831

3

22

-

1,054

-

-

-

1,054

8

-

Total

8,779

2,967

950

60

12,756

-

-

Percentage ....

69

23

7

1

907

100

78

Xox-FORES'

Agriculture

c Types.

6

Open pasture ....

1,293

-

8

Brush swamp ....

717

-

4

Residential

522

-

3

125

-

1

Total area of town

16,320

-

100

34

WORTHINGTON.

The forests of this town consist chiefly of maple, beech,
yellow and gray birch for hardwoods, and hemlock and white
pine for softwoods. Other species found are white birch, ash,
linden, poplar and butternut. Fifty-nine per cent of the
forested land is in Class 4, 25 per cent in Class 3, and the re-
mainder in Classes 3 to 2 or 2. Mostly beech and maple are
in Class 2. No large tracts of merchantable timber were found.
A good stand of planted pine was found in the southeastern
corner. Only about 40 per cent of the town is forested, but a
considerable per cent of pasture land is growing up to a good
growth of white pine. Most of the northwestern part of the
township is covered with second or third growth timber. The
northeastern part is mostly pasture or mowing, with small
patches of brush or timber.

T. K. Higgins cuts and uses 10,000 feet annually in the manu-
facture of white ash baskets and novelties. Many farmers own
and operate portable mills, cutting 10,000 feet annually, con-
sisting chiefly of hardwoods. No large operations are carried
on.

In the northeastern part of the township lie 400 acres of
plantation land. Other areas of plantation land are scattered
throughout the township.

35

Land Types.

Approximate Size Classes.

Total.

Per Cent.

4

3

2

1

Forest.

Town.

Forest Types

Pine ....

Pine and hardwoods

Hemlock and hardwoods

Northern hardwoods

Maple and birch

Softwoods other than

spruce.
Spruce ....

Spruce and hardwoods

Brush pasture

Brush

pine and

Acres.
621
601

1,041
481

1,081

73

421

467

3,645

1,295

Acres.
300
300
948
1,682
160
421
307
214

Acres.

93

140

467

1,455

107

100

67

Acres.

Acres.

1,014

1,041

2,456

3,618

1,348

594

795

681

3,645

1,295

6
6

15
22
8
4
5
4
22
8

—

Total
Percentage

9,726
59

4,332
26

2,429
15

-

16,487

107
3,204
1,002

100

79

Non-forest Types.
Brush swamp

1

15
5

Total area of town

20,800

-

100

t

loo

—

75 ff1-

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

GENERAL FOREST LAWS

State Forests, Reforestation, Nurseries, Taxation, Shade Trees

Town Forests. Forest Fire Laws and Laws relating to

Gypsy Moths are published in separate pamphlets.

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION

FORESTRY DIVISION

,000 4-25-25 Order No. 1626

J

Publication of this Document

approved by the

Commission on Administration and Finance

MASSACHUSETTS FOREST LAWS

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION.

G. L., c. 21 § 1. Organization of department. There shall be a department
of conservation, consisting of a division of forestry, a division of fisheries and
game and a division of animal industry, each under the charge of a director.
The department shall be under the supervision and control of a commissioner
of conservation. The directors shall act as an advisory council to the com-
missioner.

G. L., C. 21, § 2. Amended Acts 1923, c. 369. Appointment and salary of

commissioner. Upon the expiration of the term of office of a commissioner,
his successor shall be appointed for three years by the governor, with the
advice and consent of the council. The commissioner shall receive such salary,
not exceeding six thousand dollars, as the governor and council determine.

G. L., c. 21, § 3. Duties of commissioner. The commissioner shall be the
executive and administrative head of the department. He shall be designated
by the governor as a director of one of the divisions, but shall receive no
salary as such director. He shall supervise the work of the divisions, and shall
have charge of the administration and enforcement of all laws which it is the
duty of the department to administer and enforce, and shall direct all inspec-
tions and investigations.

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

Appointment and Duties of State Forester.

G. L., c. 21, § 4. Appointment, qualifications and salary of state forester.
Upon the expiration of the term of office of a director of the division of forestry,
his successor shall, except as provided by the preceding section, be appointed for
three years by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council. The
director shall be known as the state forester. He shall be qualified by training
and experience to perform the duties of his office, and shall, except as provided
by the preceding section, receive such salary, not exceeding five thousand dol-
lars, as the governor and council determine.

G. L., C. 21, § 5. Appointment of fire warden and other assistants. Travel-
ing expenses. The director may, subject to the approval of the commissioner,
appoint and remove a state fire warden and such experts, clerical and other
assistants as the work of the division may require, and fix their compensation.
The director shall be allowed necessary traveling expenses for himself and his
employees incurred in the discharge of duty.

G. L., c. 132, § 1. Duties of state forester. The state forester, in this
chapter called the forester, shall act for the commonwealth in suppressing the
gypsy and brown tail moths; shall promote the perpetuation, extension and
proper management of the public and private forest lands of the common-
wealth; shall give such a course of instruction to the students of the Massachu-
setts Agricultural College on the art and science of forestry as may be arranged
by the trustees of the college and the forester; and shall perform such other
duties as may be imposed upon him by the governor and council.

2

G. L., c. 132, § 4. Annual report. The commissioner shall make an annual
report of the acts of the forester. The report shall separate so far as practicable
the expenditures on work against the gypsy moth from those on work against
the brown tail moth in each town. It shall include the account of all money
invested in each state forest and of the annual income and expense thereof, and
the report of the state fire warden required by section twenty-eight of chapter
forty-eight.

Advice to Owners.

G. L., c. 132, § 6. Advice to owners of forests. The forester may give to
any person owning or controlling forest lands aid or advice in the management
thereof. Any recipient of such aid or advice shall be liable to the common-
wealth for the necessary expenses of travel or subsistence incurred by him or
his assistants. The forester may publish the particulars and results of any in-
vestigation made by him or his assistants as to any lands within the common-
wealth, and the advice given.

Forest Nurseries.

G. L., c. 132, § 9. Maintenance of tree nurseries. The forester may estab-
lish and maintain nurseries for the propagation of forest tree seedlings upon
such lands of the commonwealth at any state institution as the superintendent
or trustees thereof may set apart for this purpose. Superintendents of institu-
tions where land is set apart therefor may furnish without charge the labor of
their inmates necessary to establish and maintain said nurseries. Seedlings
from these nurseries shall be furnished to the commonwealth without expense
for use upon reservations set aside for the propagation of forest growths for
other than park purposes. All stock grown in nurseries established under this
section shall be used within the commonwealth and shall be furnished to state
institutions without charge. The forester may distribute seeds and seedlings to
tfand owners, citizens of the commonwealth, under such conditions and restric-
tions as he may determine, subject to the approval of the governor and council.

Reforestation.

G. L., c. 132, § 10, as amended by c. 271, Acts of 1921. Lands for experi-
ments in forest management. The commissioner, with the advice and consent
of the governor and council, for experiment and illustration in forest manage-
ment and for reforestation as set forth in this section may expend annually
such sum as is appropriated by the general court in purchasing lands situated
within the commonwealth and adapted to forest production. Land so acquired
shall be under the control and management of the forester, who may, subject
to the approval of the governor and council, cut and sell trees, wood and other
produce therefrom. The price of such land shall not exceed in any instance
five dollars per acre, nor shall more than eighty acres be acquired in any one
tract in any one year except that a greater area may so be acquired if the land
purchased directly affects a source or tributary of water supply in any town of
the commonwealth. All such lands shall be conveyed to the commonwealth, and
no lands shall be paid for nor shall any money be expended in improve-
ments thereon until all instruments of conveyance and the title to be trans-
ferred thereby have been approved by the attorney general, and until such in-
struments have been executed and recorded. For assisting in reforestation
a portion, not exceeding twenty per cent of the money authorized to be
expended under this section may be used by the forester for the distribution,
at not less than cost, of seeds and seedlings to land owners who are citizens
of the commonwealth, under such conditions and restrictions as the forester,
subject to the approval of the governor and council, may impose. The owners

3

of land purchased under this section, or their heirs and assigns, may repurchase
the land within ten years after the purchase, upon paying the price originally
paid by the commonwealth, with interest at the rate of four per cent per annum,
together with the amount expended in improvements and maintenance. The
commissioner, with the approval of the governor and council, may execute in
behalf of the commonwealth such deeds of reconveyance as may be necessary,
and every such deed shall contain a restriction that trees planted by the com-
monwealth of less than eight inches in diameter at the butt shall not be cut
from such property except with the approval of the forester.

G. L., c. 132, § 5. Management of forest lands. The forester shall replant
or otherwise manage all land acquired by the commonwealth and held by it
under section ten in such manner as will produce the best forest growth both as
to practical forestry results and protection of water supplies.

Acts of 1923, chapter 288, allows the commissioner of conservation to sell
or exchange under certain restrictions land acquired under section ten and to
grant rights of way over such lands. See State Forest Law Section 34a.

Bequests and Gifts.

G. L., § 2, as amended by Acts of 1924, c. 284. The commissioner of con-
servation, in this chapter called the commissioner, with the approval of the
governor and council, may accept on behalf of the commonweath bequests or
gifts to be used for the purpose of advancing the forestry interests of the
commonwealth, under the direction of the governor and council, or for the lay-
ing out, construction or maintenance of state trails or paths, in such manner
as to carry out the terms of the bequests or gifts. The commissioner shall forth-
with transfer any such bequest or gift of money or securities to the state treas-
urer, who shall invest, reinvest and administer it in the manner provided by
section sixteen of chapter ten and shall be liable on his bond for the faithful
management thereof. The commissioner may, subject to the approval of the deed
and title by the attorney general as provided in section ten, accept on behalf
of the commonwealth gifts of land to be held and managed for the purpose
provided in said section. A donor of such land may reserve the right to buy
back the land in accordance with said section; but in the absence of a provision
to that effect in his deed of gift he shall not have such right.

State Forest Law.

G. L., c. 132, § 30, as amended by Acts of 1923, c. 288. State Forests. The
commissioner with the approval of the advisory council of the department of
conservation, may acquire for the commonwealth, by purchase or otherwise, any
hold, or, with the approval of the governor and council, may take in fee by
eminent domain under chapter seventy-nine, any woodland or land suitable for
timber cultivation within the commonwealth or any land necessary for the erec-
tion and operation of forest fire observation towers. The average cost of land
so purchased shall not exceed five dollars an acre.

G. L., c. 132, § 31. Management of state forests. Lands acquired under the
preceding section shall be known as state forests, and shall be under the control
and management of the forester. He shall reforest and develop such lands, and
may, subject to the approval of the commissioner and advisory council of the
department of conservation, make all reasonable regulations which in his opinion
will tend to increase the public enjoyment and benefit therefrom and to protect
and conserve the water supplies of the commonwealth.

G. L., c. 132, § 32. Approval for expenditure. The forester, subject to the
approval of the commissioner and advisory council of the department of con-
servation, may expend such sums as are annually appropriated for the neces-
sary expenses incurred under section thirty-one.

G. L., c. 132, § 33, as amended by Acts of 1923, c. 288. Purchase and de-
velopment of state land. In addition to lands acquired under section thirty
the commissioner may purchase or, with the approval of the governor and coun-
cil, take by eminent domain under chapter seventy-nine and hold for state
forest lands within the commonwealth suitable for the production of timber to
the extent of not more than one hundred thousand acres. The land shall be
purchased before August fifth, nineteen hundred and thirty-five, at a rate not
exceeding an average cost of five dollars per acre or at such price as the general
court may from time to time determine. The forester shall reclaim the said
lands by replanting or otherwise in order to produce timber and to protect the
water supply of the commonwealth. The forester may employ temporarily such
persons as foresters, assistant foresters, engineers, surveyors, forest fire ob-
servers and foremen as he deems necessary to assist him in carrying out his
duties under this section, and the employment of such persons shall not be sub-
ject to chapter thirty-one.

G. L., c. 132, § 34. Rules for use of state forests. The commissioner may
make rules and regulations relative to hunting and fishing or other uses of any
such land, provided that such rules and regulations shall be consistent with all
laws in relation to the protection of fish, birds and quadrupeds.

G. L., C. 132, § 34A. Sale or exchange of lands and rights of way. The

commissioner with the approval of the governor and council, and after a public
hearing, may sell or exchange any land acquired by the commonwealth under
section ten, thirty or thirty-three, or under chapter three hundred and forty-four
of the acts of nineteen hundred and twenty-one, and may in like manner grant
rights of way for public highways over any such land, if in his judgment such
sale, exchange or grant is advantageous to the commonwealth, and may execute
such deeds of conveyance or other papers as may be necessary; and the commis-
sioner may also grant over or across any such lands such locations as shall be
found by order of the department of public utilities, after public hearing, to be
required by public necessity or convenience for telephone, telegraph or electric
ilight or power transmission lines, and as in his judgment are necessary and
will serve the public interest, and may execute such papers as may be necessary;
provided that no sale or exchange of any land or interest therein acquired by the
commonwealth under said section ten, or grant either of right of way or location
over or across the same shall be made prior to the expiration of the option of
repurchase given by said section, unless the holder of the option joins in the
sale, exchange or grant.

At the request of the commissioner, and after public hearing, the depart-
ment of public utilities may by order alter or revoke any such location whenever
in its opinion the public interest or the rights of the commonwealth so require;
provided, that before so doing notice of said hearing shall be given to the
grantee of the location and all persons interested, and provided, further that
the grantee or any person interested in such order may appeal therefrom to the
governor and council within fourteen days after the filing of a copy of such
order as provided in the following paragraph:

The commissioner within fourteen days after granting any such location shall
file a copy of the grant of the same, together with a copy of the order of the
department of public utilities that the location is required by public necessity
or convenience, in the office of the clerk of the town where the location is
granted, and the department of public utilities shall file in the office of said
clerk any order altering or revoking such location, and the clerk of such town
shall receive and record the same.

G. L., c. 132, § 7. Labor on state forests. The forester, in the reforestation,
maintenance and development of lands purchased under section thirty or thirty-
three, shall, so far as practicable, obtain the labor necessary therefor under
sections eighty-three and eightv-four of chapter one hundred and twenty-seven.

5

G. L., c. 132, § 36. Appropriations. To meet the expenditures authorized
by sections thirty-three to thirty-five, inclusive, the said department may expend
before August fifth, nineteen hundred and thirty-five, such sums not exceeding
three million dollars as the general court may from time to time appropriate.

Note : Private property erected on state forests is subject to local taxation
payable by the owner. See Acts 1922, chapter 216.

STATE TRAILS.

G. L., c. 132, § 38. The commissioner may lay out, construct and maintain
trails or paths through or over lands in state forests and in public reservations
and trails or paths leading to important mountains and other objects and places
of special interest and beauty and he may connect such trails or paths in order
to make them continuous so far as practicable. The commissioner on behalf
of the commonwealth may purchase such lands or easements therein as may be
necessary for the aforesaid purposes. He may post such trails or paths, erect
signs thereon and construct suitable rest camps or shelters at appropriate
places. He may by special permit in writing allow portions of such trails or
paths to be enclosed and used by the owner of adjoining land, for any use not
interfering with public passage on foot, during the whole or any part of the
year upon such conditions as the commissioner may prescribe and such permits
may be revoked at his pleasure. The commonwealth shall not be liable for in-
jury or damage sustained on such trails or paths.

Section 39. The mayor, selectmen or road commissioners, or the board or
officer having charge of the maintenance and care of highways, if so authorized
by the city council or by the town, may agree in writing, on behalf of such
city or town, to contribute money, labor or materials toward the laying out or
construction of any state trail or path which the commisisoner may lay out and
construct within such city or town.

TOWN FOREST LAW.

G. L., c. 132, § 35. Amended Acts of 1924, c. 24. Forests in cities and

towns. Towns may acquire by purchase, gift or bequest lands for the purpose
of f orestation and may reclaim and plant such lands. The said department may
upon application in such form as the forester may prescribe furnish such towns
free of charge with seedlings for the planting of their lands.

G. L., c. 45, § 19. Laying out and use of public domain. A town, by a
two-thirds vote at an annual town meeting, or a city, by a two-thirds vote of
the city council, may determine to take or purchase lands within its limits, which
shall be a public domain, and may appropriate money and accept gifts of money
and land therefor. Such public domain shall be devoted to the culture of forest
trees, or to the preservation of the water supply of such city or town, and the
title thereto shall vest in the city or town in which it lies, except that cities or
towns owning land within the territorial limits of other cities and towns for
water supply purposes may, as herein provided, convert such land into a public
domain and retain the title thereto.

G. L., c. 45, § 20. Taking by eminent domain. If a city or town has de-
termined to take land for a public domain as provided by the preceding section,
the aldermen or the selectmen shall within ten days adopt an order for the tak-
ing of such land in fee by eminent domain under chapter seventy-nine.

G. L., c. 45, § 21. Management of town forests. In each city or town
which has a public domain as defined under sec. 19, the mayor or selectmen
shall appoint a forester, who may appoint one or more keepers. Said forester
shall have the management and charge of all said public domain. But a town,

6

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by a two-thirds vote at an annual town meeting, or a city, by a two-thirds vote of
the city council may place all such public domain under the general supervision
and control of the state forester, who shall thereupon, upon notification thereof,
make regulations for the care and use of such public domain and for the plant-
ing and cultivating of trees therein; and the city or town forester in such cases
and his keepers, under the supervision and direction of the state forester, shall
be charged with the duty of enforcing all such regulations and of performing
such labor therein as may be necessary for the care and maintenance thereof.
The city or town forester and his keepers within such public domain shall have
the powers of constables and police officers.

G. L., c. 45, § 22. Building on town forests. Any city or town owning a
public domain may lease any building thereon, and it may erect thereon any
building for public instruction and recreation; provided, that if such public
domain has been placed under the supervision and control of the state forester
under the preceding section, no such building shall be erected unless his approval
shall first be obtained. All sums derived from rents or from the sale of the
products of any such domain shall be applied, so far as necessary, to the man-
agement thereof.

G. L., c. 45, § 23. Expenditure limited. No land shall be taken or purchased
for a public domain, no building erected thereon and no expenditures authorized
or made or liability incurred therefor until an amount sufficient to cover the
estimated expense thereof has been appropriated therefor as provided in sec-
tion nineteen, and all contracts made for expenditures in excess thereof shall
be void. The expenditures shall not exceed the appropriations therefor.

G. L., C. 44, § 7. Incurrence of debt for acquiring public domain. Cities
and towns may incur debt, within the limit of indebtedness prescribed in sec-
tion ten, for the following purposes, and payable within the periods hereinafter
specified: (2) For acquiring land for public parks or public domain under
chapter forty-five, thirty years ; but no indebtedness incurred for public domain
shall exceed one-half of one per cent of the last preceding assessed valuation
of the city or town.

SHADE TREE LAW.

G. L., c. 87, § 1. Public shade trees defined. All trees within a public way
or on the boundaries thereof shall be public shade trees; and when it appears
in any proceeding in which the ownership of or rights in a tree are material to
the issue, that, from length of time or otherwise, the boundaries of the highway
cannot be made certain by records or monuments, and that for that reason it is
doubtful whether the tree is within the highway, it shall be taken to be within the
highway and to be public property until the contrary is shown.

G. L., c. 87, § 2. Powers of tree wardens. The tree warden of a town may
appoint and remove deputy tree wardens. He and they shall receive such com-
pensation as the town determines or, in default thereof, as the selectmen allow.
He shall have the care and control of all public shade trees, shrubs and growths
in the town, except those within a state highway, and those in public parks or
open places under the jurisdiction of the park commissioners, and shall have care
and control of the latter, if so requested in writing by the park commissioners,
and shall enforce all the provisions of law for the preservation of such trees,
shrubs and growths. He shall expend all money appropriated for the setting
out and maintainance of such trees, shrubs and growths, and no tree shall be
planted within a public highway without the approval of the tree warden; and
in towns until a location therefor has been obtained from the selectmen or road
commissioners. He may make regulations for the care and preservation of
public shade trees and establish fines and forfeitures of not more than twenty
dollars in any one case for violation thereof; which, when posted in one or more
public places, and, in towns, when approved by the selectmen, shall have the
effect of town by-laws.

G. L., c. 87, § 3. Cutting of public shade trees. Except as provided by sec-
tion five, public shade trees shall not be cut, trimmed or removed, in whole or in
part, by any person other than the tree warden or his deputy, even if he be the
owner of the fee in the land on which such tree is situated, except upon a permit
in writing from said tree warden, nor shall they be cut down or removed by the
tree warden or his deputy or other person without a public hearing at a suitable
time and place, after notice thereof posted in two or more public p^ces in the
town and upon the tree at least seven days before such hearing, and after au-
thority granted by the tree warden therefor. Any person injured in his property
by the action of the officers in charge of the public shade trees as to the trim-
ming, cutting, removal or retention of any such tree, or as to the amount awarded
to him for the same, may recover the damages, if any, which he has sustained,
from the town under chapter seventy-nine.

G. L., c. 87, § 4. Hearing on removal of tree. Tree wardens shall not cut
down or remove or grant a permit for the cutting down or removal of a public
shade tree, if, at or before a public hearing as provided in the preceding sec-
tion, objection in writing is made by one or more persons, unless such cutting
or removal or permit to cut or remove is approved by the selectmen or by the
mayor.

G. L., c. 87, § 5. Cutting down of bushes and small trees. Tree wardens
and their deputies, but no other person may, without a hearing, trim, cut down
or remove trees, less than one and one-half inches in diameter one foot from the
ground, and bushes, standing in public ways; and, if ordered by the mayor,
selectmen, road commissioners or highway surveyor, shall trim or cut down trees
and bushes, if the same shall be deemed to obstruct, endanger, hinder or incom-
mode persons traveling thereon. Nothing contained in this chapter shall pre-
vent the trimming, cutting or removal of any tree which endangers persons
traveling on a highway, or the removal of any tree, if so ordered by the proper
officers, for the purpose of widening the highway, and nothing herein contained
shall interfere with gypsy and brown tail moth suppression, as carried on under
the direction of the state forester and the United States department of agricul-
ture, except so much as relates to the cutting and removal of trees, shrubs and
growths that are one and one-half inches or more in diameter one foot from
the ground.

G. L., c. 87, § 6. Penalty. Violations of any provisions of the three preced-
ing sections shall be punished by forfeiture of not more than five hundred dol-
lars to the use of the city or town.

G. L., c. 87. § 7. Planting of shade trees. Towns may appropriate money
to be expended by the tree warden in p'anting shade trees in public ways,
or, if he deems it expedient, upon adjoining land, at a distance not exceeding
twenty feet from said public ways for the purpose of improving, protecting,
shading or ornamenting the same; provided, that the written consent of the
owner of such adjoining land shall first be obtained.

G. L., C. 87. § 8. Trees on state highways. The division of highways of the

department of public works, in this chapter called the division, shall have the
care and control of all trees, shrubs and growths within the state highways, and
may trim, cut or remove such trees, shrubs or growths, or license the trimming,
cutting or removal thereof. No such tree, shrub or other growth sha1! be trimmed,
cut or removed by any person other than an agent or employee of the commis-
sion, even if he be the owner of the fee in the land on which such tree, shrub
or growth is situated, except upon a permit in writing from the division. Any
person injured in his property by the action of the division as to the trimming,
cutting, removal or retention of any such tree, shrub or other growth may re-
cover the damages, if any, which he has sustained, from the commonwealth under
chapter seventy-nine.

8

G. L., c. 87, § 9. Signs and marks on shade trees. Whoever affixes to a
tree in a public way or place a notice, sign, advertisement or other thing,
whether in writing or otherwise, or cuts, paints or marks such tree, except for
the purpose of protecting it or the public and under a written permit from the
officer having the charge of such trees in a city or from the tree warden in a
town, or from the division in the case of a state highway, shall be punished by
a fine of not more than fifty dollars. Tree wardens shall enforce the provisions
of this section ; but if a tree warden fails to act in the case of a state highway
within thirty days after the receipt by him of a complaint in writing from the
division, the division may proceed to enforce this section.

G. L., c. 87, § 10. Injury to trees on state highways. Whoever without
authority trims, cuts down or removes a tree, shrub or growth, within a state
highway or maliciously injures, defaces or destroys any such tree, shrub or
growth shall be punished by imprisonment for not more than six months, or
by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars to the use of the commonwealth.

G. L., C. 87, § 11. Injury to trees of another person. Whoever wilfully,
maliciously or wantonly cuts, destroys or injures a tree, shrub or growth which
is not his own, standing for any useful purpose, shall be punished by imprison-
ment for not more than six months or by a fine of not more than five hundred
dollars.

G. Lv c. 87, § 12. Injury to shrubs, trees and fixtures. Whoever wantonly
injures, defaces or destroys a shrub, plant or tree, or fixture of ornament or
utility, in a public wayT or place or in any enclosure, or negligently or wilfully
suffers an animal driven by or for him or belonging to him to injure, deface or
destroy such shrub, plant, tree or fixture, or whoever by any other means negli-
gently or wilfully injures, defaces or destroys such shrub, plant, tree or fixture
shall forfeit not more than five hundred dollars, one half to the use of the coni-
plaintant and one half to the use of the town in which the act was committed;
and shall in addition thereto be liable to the town or to any person having an in-
terest in said shrub, plant, tree or fixture for all damages caused by such act.

G. L., c. 87, § 13. Duties of tree wardens in cities. The powers and duties
conferred and imposed upon tree wardens in towns by this chapter shall be
exercised and performed in cities by the officers charged with the care of shade
trees within the limits of the highway.

G. L., C. 40, § 5. Town appropriations for planting shade trees. A town
may at any town meeting appropriate money for the following purposes : ( 10 )
For planting shade trees in accordance with section seven of chapter eighty-
seven.

Forest Taxation Law

Acts 1922, Chapter 360.

Section 1. The General Laws is hereby amended by striking out chapter
sixty-one and inserting in place thereof the following : —

Chapter 61.

Taxation of Forest Products and Classification and Taxation of

Forest Lands

Section 1. Qualifications of eligible land. An owner of forest land, valued
on the town tax list of the preceding year for land and growth at not more than
twenty-five dollars per acre, and which does not contain more than twenty cords
per acre on the average, but which is so stocked with trees as to promise a
minimum prospective average yield per acre, exclusive of water, bog or ledge,
of twentv thousand board feet for soft woods, or eight thousand board feet for

9

hard woods, or for mixtures of the two, such volume between said limits determi-
nable by the relative percentages of the two classes of growth, may apply in
writing to the town assessors to have said land listed as classified forest land,
and such application shall contain a description of said land sufficiently accurate
for identification.

Section 2. Within thirty days after the receipt of said application the
assessors shall decide whether the property fulfills the requirements for classi-
fication, and shall notify the owner of their decision, giving their valuation of
the tract as land alone, and if within ten days of notification the owner accepts
their decision the assessors shall give him a certificate containing the name of
the owner and a description of the parcel to be classified, and stating that the
land described conforms to the requirments for classification under this chapter.
Upon the recording of this certificate by the owner in the registry of deeds
for the county or district where the land lies, the parcel shall become classified
forest land. Each parcel of land so classified shall thereafter be designated
in the annual valuation list of the town, in the column provided for the descrip-
tion of each parcel of land, as classified forest land so long as the parcel re-
mains so classified. The valuation and tax annually assessed upon land classified
under this chapter shall not include the value of forest trees growing thereon.
When classified forest land is sold or otherwise changes title, the obligations and
benefits of this chapter shall devolve upon the new holder of the title.

Section 3. Product tax and other taxes. The standing growth on classified
forest land shall not be taxed, but the owner of such land, except as hereinafter
provided, shall pay a products tax of six per cent of the stumpage value upon
all wood or timber cut therefrom, and one-tenth of such taxes collected by the
town shall be paid to the state treasurer. Trees standing on such land shall not
be included in the town valuation in apportioning the state or county tax among
the towns. But an owner of classified forest land may annually cut, free of tax,
wood or timber from such land, not exceeding twenty-five dollars in stumpage
value; provided, that such wood or timber is for his own use or for that of a
tenant of said land only. Buildings or other structures standing on classified
forest land shall be taxed as real estate with the land on which they stand.
Classified forest land shall be subject to special assessments and betterment
assessments. The owner shall make a sworn return to the assessors before May
first in each year of the amount of all wood and timber cut from such land
during the year ending on the preceding April first.

Section 4. Limit classification period. When in the judgment of the as-
sessors classified forest land contains on the average per acre twenty-five
thousand board feet for soft woods, or ten thousand board feet for hard woods,
or for mixtures of the two such volume between said limits determinable by the
relative percentages of the two classes of growth, they shall notify the owner
that two years from date of notification the forest products tax of six per cent
of the value of the standing timber based on the above volumes will be levied
and that the land and timber will at that time be taken from the classified
list and placed in the general property tax list. Should the owner elect to re-
duce within two years, the volume of timber below the volume mentioned in the
preceding sentence the land shall remain classified, but, if at the end of five
years from time of cutting, the growing stock on the tract does not meet the
requirements for classification contained in section one, the tract may be taken
from classification by the assessors, and any taxes due thereon collected. An
owner may withdraw his land from classification at any time by the payment
of the land tax, and the forest products tax of six per cent on the estimated
value of the standing timber. Within thirty days after an owner requests to
withdraw his land from classification the assessors shall determine the taxes due
thereon, which shall be paid before the land is taken from the classified list.
When in the judgment of the assessors classified forest land becomes more
valuable for other use than the production of trees, they may, after thirty days'

10

notice, withdraw said land from classification, and any taxes due thereon shall
be paid at the time of withdrawal; provided, that the owner may appeal from
such withdrawal to the commissioner, whose decision shall be final. Whenever
land is withdrawn from classification, the assessors shall record in the registry
of deeds for the county or district where the land lies a certificate setting forth
such withdrawal, and containing reference by book and page to the record of the
certificate under which said land was classified.

Section 5. Appeals to state forester. In case of dispute as to the eligibility
of land for classification, or as to the volume of wood or timber contained on
such land or cut therefrom, either party may appeal to the state forester, who
shall examine the property and hear both parties, and whose decision shall be
final.

Section 6. Any owner of classified forest land who fails to comply with the
requirements of this chapter shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by a
fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than five hundred dollars, and in ad-
dition to said penalty the land may be withdrawn from classification by the
assessors.

Section 2. Notwithstanding the passage of this act, all land and the trees,
wood and timber thereon which are, on the date when this act takes effect,
subject to the provisions of chapter sixty-one of the General Laws shall continue
to be subject thereto in accordance therewith.

Forest Trespass.

G. L., c. 266, § 5. Setting fire to woodpile, etc. Whoever wilfully and
maliciously burns or otherwise destroys or injures a pile or parcel of wood,
boards, timber or other lumber, or any fence, bars or gate, or a stack of grain,
ha(y or other vegetable product, or any vegetable product severed from the soil
and not stacked, or any standing tree, grain, grass or other standing product
of the soil, or the soil itself, of another, shall be punished by imprisonment in
the state prison for not more than five years or by a fine of not more than five
hundred dollars and imprisonment in jail for not more than one year.

G. L., c. 2j66, § 7. Wanton or reckless injury to woods by fire. Whoever
by wantonly or recklessly setting fire to any material, or by increasing a fire
already set, causes injury to, or the destruction of, any growing or standing wood
of another shall be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred dollars or
by imprisonment for not more than six months.

G. L., c. 266, § 113. Cutting of timber. Whoever wilfully cuts down or
destroys timber or wood standing or growing on the land of another, or carries
away any kind of timber or wood cut down or lying on such land, or digs up or
carries away stone, ore, gravel, clay, sand, turf or mould, from such land, or
roots, nuts, berries, grapes or fruit of any kind or any plant there being, or
cuts down or carries away sedge, grass, hay or any kind of corn, standing,
growing or being on such land, or cuts or takes therefrom any ferns, flowers
or shrubs, or carries away from a wharf or landing place any goods in which
he has no interest or property, without the license of the owner thereof, shall
be punished by imprisonment for not more than six months or by a fine of not
more than five hundred dollars; and if the offence is committed on Sunday, or
in disguise, or secretly in the night time, the imprisonment shall not be for less
than five days nor the fine less than five dollars.

G. L4., C 266, § 116. Picking of berries, etc., by unnaturalized persons.

Whoever, being an unnaturalized, foreign born person, picks wild berries or
flowers, or camps or picnics upon any land of which he is not the owner, within
the counties of Barnstable or Plymouth, between April first and December
first, without first obtaining a written permit so to do from the owner or owners

n

of the land, shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars or by
imprisonment for not more than one month, or both. The said written permit
shall not be transferable, and shall be exhibited upon demand to the forest
warden, or his deputies, of the town wherein the land is located, or upon demand
of any sheriff, constable, police or other officer authorized to arrest for crime.
Failure or refusal to produce said permit upon such demand shall be prima
facie evidence of a violation of this section, and any forest warden or any duly
authorized deputy forest warden, sheriff, police or other officer authorized to
arrest for crime, may arrest without warrant any person who fails or refuses
to display for inspection the said permit upon the demand of any of the officials
named in this section.

G. Lv c. 2, § 7, as amended, Acts of 1925, c. 112. Mayflower law. The May-
flower (epigaea repens) shall be the flower or floral emblem of the common-
wealth. Any person who pulls or digs up the plant of the Mayflower or any
part thereof, or injures such plant or any part thereof, except in so far as is
reasonably necessary in procuring the flower therefrom, within the limits of
any state highway or any other public way or place, or upon the land of another
person without written authority from him, shall be punished by a fine of not
more than fifty dollars ; but if a person does any of the aforesaid acts in disguise
or secretly in the night time he shall be punished by a fine of not more than one
hundred dollars.

12

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COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

LAWS RELATING TO GYPSY AND
BROWN-TAIL MOTHS

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION
DIVISION OF FORESTRY

Publication of this Document

Approved by

The Commission on Administration and Finance

2,000 4-25-'2S Order No. 1627.

LAWS RELATING TO GYPSY AND BROWN-TAIL MOTHS

G. L., c. 132, § 1. Duties of State Forester. The state forester, in this
chapter called the forester, shall act for the commonwealth in suppressing
the gypsy and brown tail moths ; shall promote the perpetuation, extension and
proper management of the public and private forest lands of the common-
wealth; shall give such a course of instruction to the students of the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College on the art and science of forestry as may be
arranged by the trustees of the college and the forester ; and shall perform such
other duties as may be imposed upon him by the governor and council.

G. L., c. 132, § 4. Annual Report. The commissioner shall make an
annual report of the acts of the forester. The report shall separate so far as
practicable the expenditures on work against the gypsy moth from those on
work against the brown tail moth in each town. It shall include the account
of all money invested in each state forest and of the annual income and
expense thereof, and the report of the state fire warden required by section
twenty-eight of chapter forty-eight.

G. L., c. 132, § 8. Agents destroying gypsy moths may enter on any land.
The clerks, assistants and agents employed by the forester may, for the purpose
of carrying out the provisions of this chapter relative to the suppression of
gypsy and brown tail moths, enter upon any land ; and any local superintendent
appointed as provided in section thirteen or any agent or employee of such
superintendent may enter upon any land within the said town for the purpose
of determining if such land is infested with said moths or the extent to which
such land is so infested.

G. L., c. 132, § 11. Gypsy and brown tail moths declared public nuisances.
Regulations for their suppression. The forester may, subject to the approval
of the governor, make rules and regulations governing all operations by towns
or persons for the purpose of suppressing the gypsy and brown tail moths,
their pupae, nests, eggs and caterpillars, which are hereby declared public nui-
sances. He may make contracts on behalf of the commonwealth; may act in
cooperation with any person, any other state, the United States, or any foreign
government; may conduct investigations and gather and distribute information
concerning said moths ; may use and require the use of all other lawful means
of suppressing said moths; may lease real estate when he deems it necessary,
and, with the approval of the authority in charge, may use any real or personal
property of the commonwealth ; may at all times enter upon any land, and may
use all reasonable means in suppressing said moths; and, in the undertakings
aforesaid, may, in accordance with this chapter, expend the funds appropriated
or donated therefor; but no expenditure shall be made or liability incurred in
excess of such appropriations and donations. No owner or occupant of an
estate infested by the aforesaid nuisances shall by reason thereof be civilly or
criminally liable except to the extent and in the manner and form set forth in
this chapter.

G. L., c. 132, § 12. Penalty for interfering with moth work. Whoever
wilfully resists or obstructs the forester or any officer of a town, or a servant
or agent duly employed by said forester or by any of said officers while engaged
in suppressing the gypsy and brown tail moths, elm leaf beetle, or any other
tree or shrub destroying pest, or knowingly fails to comply with any of the
rules and regulations issued by the forester, shall be punished by a fine of not

I more than twenty-five dollars.
G. L., c. 132, § 13. Local gypsy moth superintendents. The mayor in
cities and the selectmen in towns shall annually in the month of January appoint
a local superintendent for the suppression of gypsy and brown tail moths. Said
superintendents shall, under the advice and general direction of the forester,
destroy the eggs, caterpillars, pupae and nests of the gypsy and brown tail moths

[3]

within their limits, except in parks and other property under the control of the
commonwealth, and except in private property, save as otherwise provided here-
in. The appointment of a local superintendent shall not take effect unless ap-
proved by the forester; and when so approved notice of the appointment shall
be given by the mayor or the selectmen to the person so appointed.

G. L., c.132, § 14 as amended Acts 1923, c. 311 and c. 472. Reimbursement
of cities and towns. When any city or town in which one twenty-fifth of one
per cent of the valuation is more than five thousand dollars shall have ex-
pended within its limits city or town funds to an amount in excess of five
thousand dollars in any one year ending November thirtieth in suppressing
gypsy or brown tail moths, the commonwealth shall reimburse such city or
town to the extent of fifty per cent of such excess above said five thousand
dollars.

Cities or towns in which one twenty-fifth of one per cent of the valuation
is less than five thousand dollars, and in which such valuation is greater than
six million dollars, shall be reimbursed by the commonwealth to the extent of
eighty per cent of the amount expended by such cities or towns of city or town
funds in suppressing said moths in any one such year, in excess of said twenty-
fifth of one per cent.

In towns in which the valuation is less than six million dollars, after they
have expended in any one such year town funds to an amount equal to one
twenty-fifth of one per cent of their valuation, the commonwealth shall expend
within the limits thereof for the suppression of said moths such an amount in
addition as the forester, with the advice and consent of the governor, shall de-
termine. The commonwealth shall reimburse cities and towns every sixty days.

No city or town shall be entitled to any reimbursement from the common-
wealth until it has submitted to the comptroller itemized accounts and vouchers
showing the definite amount expended by it for the purpose of suppressing
said moths, nor shall any money be paid out of the state treasury to cities or
towns until said vouchers and accounts have been approved by the forester and
the comptroller, nor unless said expenditure shall have been duly authorized
and approved by the forester or shall have been made prior to December first,
nineteen hundred and twenty-two.

For the purpose of this section and section sixteen, the valuation of a city
or town shall mean the valuation of such city or town, as determined by the
last preceding valuation made for the purpose of apportioning the state tax.

G. L., c. 132, § 16 as amended Acts 1923, c. 472. Delinquent cities and
towns. When, in the opinion of the forester, any city or town is not expending
a sufficient amount for the abatement of said nuisance or is not conducting the
necessary work in a proper manner, the forester shall, with the advice and con-
sent of the governor, order such city or town to expend such an amount as the
forester shall deem necessary, and in accordance with such methods as the
forester, with the consent of the governor, shall prescribe; provided, that no
city or town where the valuation exceeds six million dollars shall be required to
expend, exclusive of any reimbursement received from the commonwealth, dur-
ing any one full year more than one fifteenth of one per cent of such valuation,
and that no town where the valuation is less than six million dollars shall be
required to expend, exclusive of any reimbursement received from the com-
monwealth, during any one full year more than one-twenty- fifth of one per
cent of such valuation.

G. L., c. 132, § 17. Emergency work. Any city or town failing to comply
with the directions of the forester in the performance of said work within the
date specified by him shall pay a fine of one hundred dollars a day for failure
so to do, said fine to be collected by information brought by the attorney general
in the supreme judicial court for Suffolk county.

In case of emergency, or where there is great or immediate danger of the in-
crease or spread of moths due to the neglect of any city or town to comply with
the provisions of this chapter relating to the suppression of gypsy and brown tail
moths, the forester, with the consent of the governor, may initiate or continue

[4]

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the work of suppression within such city or town for such a period as he may
deem necessary. The cost of such work, including- that done on private estates,
less any sum due from the commonwealth by way of reimbursements on account
of said work, shall be certified by the forester to the state treasurer, and be col-
lected by him as an additional state tax upon the city or town so failing to com-
ply with the requirements of the law. The forester may also in case of emer-
gency, subject to the approval of the governor, carry on wholly or in part such
operations as may be necessary to check the spreading of the gypsy or brown
tail moth in parks not under the control of the commonwealth, and in cemeteries,
woodlands and other places of public resort. The amount to be so expended in
any one year shall not exceed ten per cent of the appropriations made for the
year by the commonwealth for the purpose of suppressing said moths. The
forester may also take complete control of the work of suppressing the gypsy
and brown tail moths in such cities and towns as may through the proper offi-
cials request it. The cost of such work shall be certified by the forester to the
state treasurer, and shall be collected by him as an additional state tax upon
the city or town wherein such work is performed; provided, that no city or
town shall be required to pay more for such work than would have been its
liability as defined by section fourteen.

G. L., c. 132, § 18. Notice to land owners. Assessment of cost of work.
The mayor of every city and the selectmen of every town shall, on or before
November first in each year, and at such other times as he or they shall see
fit or as the forester may order, cause a notice to be sent to the owner, so far
as can be ascertained, of every parcel of land therein which is infested with said
moths; or, if such notification appears to be impracticable, by posting such
notice on said parcels of land, requiring that the eggs, caterpillars, pupae and
nests of said moths shall be destroyed within a time specified therein. The
publication of the notice in newspapers published or circulated in the city or
town at least three times during the month of October shall be deemed a com-
pliance with the law, if in the opinion of the mayor or selectmen such publica-
tion will be a sufficient notice.

When, in the opinion of the mayor or selectmen, the cost of destroying such
eggs, caterpillars, pupae or nests on land contiguous and held under one owner-
ship in a city or town shall exceed one half of one per cent of the assessed
value thereof, a part of said premises on which said eggs, caterpillars, pupae or
nests shall be destroyed may be designated in such notice, and such requirement
shall not apply to the remainder of said premises. The mayor or selectmen may
designate the manner in which such work shall be done, but all work done
under this section shall be subject to the approval of the forester.

If the owner shall fail to destroy such eggs, caterpillars, pupae or nests as
required by said notice, the city or town, acting by the local superintendent ap-
pointed under section thirteen, shall, subject to the approval of the said forester,
destroy the same and the amount actually expended thereon, not exceeding one
half of one per cent of the assessed valuation of said lands, as heretofore speci-
fied in this section, shall be assessed upon the said lands; and such an amount
in addition as shall be required shall be apportioned between the city or town
and the commonwealth in accordance with section fourteen. The amounts to
be assessed upon private estates as herein provided shall be assessed and col-
lected, and shall be a lien on said estates, in the same manner and with the
same effect as in the case of assessments for street watering.

G. L., c. 132, § 19. Assessment of special benefits. If, in the opinion of
the assessors of a city or town, any land therein has received, by "reason of the
abatement of said nuisances thereon by said forester or by said city or town,
a special benefit beyond the general advantage to all land in the city or town,
then the said assessors shall determine the value of such special benefit and
shall assess the amount thereof upon said land; provided, that no such assess-
ment on lands contiguous and held under one ownership shall exceed one half
of one per cent of the assessed valuation of said lands; and provided, that the
owner or owners shall have deducted from such assessment the amount paid

[5]

and expended by them during the twelve months last preceding the date of such
assessment toward abating the said nuisances on said lands, if, in the opinion
of the assessors, such amount has been expended in good faith. Such assess-
ment shall be a lien upon the land for three years from the first day of January
next after the assessment has been made, and shall be collected under a warrant
of the assessors to the collector of taxes of such city or town, in the manner
and upon the terms and conditions and in the exercise of the powers and duties,
so far as they may be applicable, prescribed by chapter sixty, and real estate
sold under such warrant shall be subject to the provisions of said chapter rela-
tive to land sold for taxes.

G. L., c. 132, § 20. Appeal. A person aggrieved by such assessment may
appeal to the superior court for the county where the land lies, by entering a
complaint in said court within thirty days after he has had actual notice of the
assessment, which complaint shall be determined as other causes by the court
without a jury. The complaint shall be heard at the first sitting of said court
for trials without a jury after its entry; but the court may allow further time,
or may advance the case for speedy trial, or may appoint an auditor as in other
cases. The court may revise the assessment, may allow the recovery of an
amount wrongfully assessed which has been paid, may set aside, in a suit begun
within three years from the date thereof, a collectors' sale made under an erro-
neous assessment, may award costs to either party, and may render such judg-
ment as justice and equity require.

G. L., c. 132, § 21. Abatement of assessment. If, in the opinion of the
assessors, the owner of an estate upon which an assessment has been made is,
by reason of age, infirmity or poverty, unable to pay the assessment, they may
upon application abate the same.

G. L., c. 132, § 22. Application for abatement. A person aggrieved by the
taxes assessed upon him for the suppression of gypsy and brown tail moths,
pursuant to section eighteen or nineteen, may, within six months after the date
of the first tax bill issued on account of the taxes complained of, apply to the
assessors for the abatement thereof, who may make such abatement as they
deem reasonable.

G. L., c. 132, § 23. Abatement. The assessors shall not abate a tax under
the preceding section except upon the written recommendation of the local
superintendent who certified the assessment in question to the assessors or pro-
vided them with the information as to the work performed, upon which such
tax was assessed, unless the error or excess complained of originated in the
work of the assessors who laid the tax.

G. L., c. 132, § 24. Record of abatement. The assessors shall keep a
record of all such taxes abated and shall preserve for three years all written
recommendations received under the preceding section. They shall furnish the
collector of taxes with a certificate of each abatement, which shall relieve him
from the collection of the sum abated.

G. L., c. 132, § 25. Tent caterpillar, leopard moth and elm beetle. The
city forester, superintendent or other person having charge of the suppression
of gypsy and brown tail moths in each city and town in the commonwealth, or,
when there is no such person, the tree warden may destroy within the limits
of his city or town the tent caterpillar, leopard moth and elm beetle or any
other tree or shrub destroying pest, if authorized so to do by the mayor and
city council or by the selectmen in towns.

G. L., c. 132, § 26. Entry on land. Assessment for cost of work. The
city forester or other officer designated in the preceding section may enter upon
private land, and the owners of private land may be taxed for work done under
said section as provided by sections eighteen and nineteen; provided, however,
that nothing contained in this section shall require the commonwealth to pay
any part of any such expense other than for the suppression of the gypsy and
brown tail moth; that no land shall be assessed hereunder which has been
assessed the maximum amount provided by said sections eighteen and nineteen
for the suppression of the gypsy and brown tail moths, and that the aggregate

[6]

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assessment on any parcel of private land for the suppression of the tent cater-
pillar, leopard moth, elm beetle and gypsy and brown tail moths shall not exceed
the maximum provided by said sections.

G. L., c. 132, § 27. Arsenate of lead furnished at cost. To assist in ex-
terminating the gypsy and brown tail moths, the local moth superintendent in
any city or town may furnish, at cost, to any owner of real estate situated with-
in such city or town arsenate of lead. It shall be used only for the suppression
of gypsy and brown tail moths and only upon land of the purchaser.

G. L., c. 132, § 28. Method of payment for lead." The amounts due for ma-
terial furnished under the preceding section shall be charged by the local moth
superintendent to the owners of private estates, and shall be collected in the
same way as amounts assessed for private work, and shall be a lien on said
estates in the same manner as said assessments. The amount thus charged
shall be deducted from the total amount expended in each city or town in the
suppression of the gypsy and brown tail moths as provided in section fifteen.

G. L., c. 132, § 29. Forester to furnish arsenate of lead. To assist in
exterminating insect pests the city forester, local moth superintendent or tree
warden in any city or town may obtain from the forester, at cost, arsenate of
lead. It shall be used only for the suppression of gypsy and brown tail moths,
the tent caterpillar, leopard moth and elm beetle, and only upon lands owned
or controlled by the city or town. The cost of said material shall be certified
by the forester to the state treasurer, and shall be collected by him as an addi-
tional state tax upon the city or town making such purchase.

G. L., c. 266, § 119. Transportation of injurious insects. Whoever know-
ingly brings the insects which are known as ocneria dispar or gypsy moth or as
the brown-tail moth, or their nests or eggs, into the commonwealth, or whoever
knowingly transports said insects or their eggs or nests from one town to
another jn the commonwealth, except when engaged in, and for the purpose of,
destroying them shall be punished by a fine of not more than two hundred
dollars or by imprisonment for not more than two months, or both.

G. L., c. 40, § 5. Town appropriations for gypsy moths, etc. A town
may at any town meeting appropriate money for the following purposes; (23)
For destroying and suppressing gypsy, brown-tail and leopard moths, tent
caterpillars and elm beetles, under chapter one hundred and thirty- two.

[7]

S70X

o<

Cfte Commontoealtjj of ^assatbumts

LAWS RELATING TO FOREST FlEES

DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION
DIVISION OF FORESTRY

PUBLICATION' OF THIS DOCUMENT APPROVED BY THE COMMISSION' OX ADMIXI3TR

\TIOX AXD FlXANCE

J

DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

Appointment and Duties of State Forester.

G. L., c. 21, § 4. Upon the expiration of the term of office of a director of
the division of forestry, his successor shall, except as provided by the pre-
ceding section, be appointed for three years by the governor, with the ad-
vice and consent of the council. The director shall be known as the state
forester. He shall be qualified by training and experience to perform the
duties of his office, and shall, except as provided by the preceding section,
receive such salary, not exceeding five thousand dollars, as the governor and
council determine.

G. L., c. 21, § 5. Appointment of Fire Warden. The director may, subject
to the approval of the commissioner, appoint and remove a state fire warden
and such experts, clerical and other assistants as the work of the division
may require, and fix their compensation. The director shall be allowed neces-
sary traveling expenses for himself and his employees incurred in the dis-
charge of duty.

G. L., c. 132, § 1. The state forester, in this chapter called the forester,
shall act for the commonwealth in suppressing the gypsy and brown tail
moths; shall promote the perpetuation, extension and proper management of
the public and private forest lands of the commonwealth; shall give such a
course of instruction to the students of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
lege on the art and science of forestry as may be arranged by the trustees
of the college and the forester, and shall perform such other duties as may
be imposed upon him by the governor and council.

G. L., c. 132, § 4. The commissioner shall make an annual report of the
acts of the forester. The report shall separate so far as practicable the ex-
penditures on work against the gypsy moth from those on work against the
brown tail moth in each town. It shall include the account of all money in-
vested in each state forest and of the annual income and expense thereof, and
the report of the state fire warden required by section twenty-eight of
chapter forty-eight.

G. L., c. 132, § 6. The forester may give to any person owning or control-
ling forest lands aid or advice in the management thereof. Any recipient of
such aid or advice shall be liable to the commonwealth for the necessary ex-
penses of travel or subsistence incurred by him or his assistants. The for-
ester may publish the particulars and results of any investigation made by
him or his assistants as to any lands within the commonwealth, and the ad-
vice given.

G. L., c. 48, § 8, as amended by c. 274, Acts of 1921. Appointment of For-
est Wardens. The mayor in cities and, except as provided in section forty-
three, the selectmen in towus shall annually, in January, appoint a forest
warden, and forthwith give notice thereof to the state forester, in this chap-
ter called the forester. Such appointment shall not take effect unless ap-
proved by the forester. When so approved notice of the appointment shall
bo given by the mayor or selectmen to the person so appointed. Whoever
having been duly appointed fails within seven days after receipt of such
notice to file with the city or town clerk his acceptance or refusal of the
office shall, unless excused by the mayor or selectmen, forfeit ten dollars.
The same person may hold the offices of tree warden, selectman, chief of fire
department and forest warden. Upon the failure of the mayor of a city or
the selectmen of a town to make such appointment in the month of January,
the forester shall notify the mayor or selectmen so to do, and if the mayor
or selectmen fail to comply within fourteen days after receipt of such
notice, the forester may appoint as forest warden in such city or town a
suitable person, who shall be a resident thereof.

G. L., c. 48, § 9. Back Fires in Woodlands. If a fire occurs in woodland,

3

the forest warden of the town, or of a town containing woodland endangered
by such fire, at a place in immediate danger therefrom, may set back fires and
take necessary precautions to prevent its spread.

G. L., c. 48, $ 10. Appointment of Deputies. The forest warden may ap-
point deputies to assist him in his duties, and may discharge them; and he
or his deputies may, if in their judgment there is danger from a forest fire,
employ assistants or require any male person in their town between the ages
of eighteen and fifty to aid in its extinguishment or prevention, and may re-
quire the use of horses, wagons and other property adapted therefor, and
shall keep an account of the time of all persons assisting them and a schedule
of all property so used.

G. L., c. 48, § 11. Penalty for Refusal of Aid. Whoever, without sufficient
cause, wilfully refuses or neglects to assist or to allow the use of his prop-
erty as required by the preceding section, shall be punished by a fine of not
less than five nor more than one hundred dollars, to be equally divided be-
tween the complainant and the town, and may also be imprisoned for not
more than two months.

G. L., c. 48, § 12. Compensation of Forest Wardens. Payment shall be
made to forest wardens, their deputies, and persons assisting them, and for
property used under their direction at a forest fire, at a rate prescribed by
the town or, in default of its action thereon, by the selectmen. No such pay-
ment shall be made until an itemized account, approved by the forest warden
under whose direction the work was done or assistance furnished, shall have
been filed with the officer making payment.

G. L., c. 48, § 13, as amended by c. 515, Acts of 1922. Setting of Fires
in the Open Air. No person shall set, maintain or increase a fire in the
open air between March first and December first except by written per-
mission of the state fire marshal, within the metropolitan fire prevention
district as defined in section twenty-eight of chapter one hundred and forty-
eight, or, outside thereof, of the forest warden or chief of the fire de-
partment in cities and towns, or, in cities having such an official, the fire
commissioner; provided, that debris from fields, gardens and orchards,
and leaves and rubbish from yards may be burned on ploughed fields
by the owners thereof, their agents or lessees, if such fire is at least two hun-
dred feet distant from any sprout or forest land and at least fifty feet dis-
tant from any building and is properly attended until extinguished; and pro-
vided, further, that persons above the age of eighteen may set or maintain a
fire for a reasonable purpose upon sandy land, or upon salt marshes or sandy
or rocky beaches bordering on tide water, if the fire is enclosed within rocks,
metal or other non-inflammable material. The forester may make rules and
regulations relating to the granting and revocation of such permits binding
throughout the commonwealth or any part thereof, outside the metropolitan
fire prevention district. Such rules and regulations shall take effect subject
to section thirty-seven of chapter thirty, when approved by the governor and
council. The forest wardens in towns and officials performing the duties of
forest wardens in cities shall cause public notice to be given of the provisions
of this section, and shall enforce the same. Whoever violates any provision
of this section shall be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred dol-
lars or by imprisonment for not more than one month, or both.

G. L., c. 48, § 14. Exceptions to Preceding. The preceding section shall
not apply to fires which may be set, maintained or increased within said met-
ropolitan district in accordance with regulations and methods approved by the
state fire marshal, nor to fires which may be set for the purpose of suppress-
ing gypsy and brown tail moths in accordance with regulations and methods
approved by the forester, nor to fires set or increased within the limits of any
public way by the employees of the commonwealth or of any county, city or
town in the performance of public work.

G. L., c. 48, § 15. Arrest without Warrant. The forester, the state fire

4
warden or any duly authorized assistant forester, forest wardens in towns
and officials performing the duties of forest wardens in cities, or any duly
appointed deputy forest warden, the director of the division of fisheries and
game, fish and game wardens and deputy fish and game wardens may arrest
without warrant any person found in the act of setting, maintaining or in-
creasing a fire in violation of sections thirteen and fourteen.

G. L., c. 61, § 23. For services rendered under sections three, eight, nine,
and thirteen, the forest warden of a town shall receive from the town the
v compensation provided by section twelve of chapter forty-eight.

G. L., c. 266, § 8. Negligence in Case of Fire. Whoever wilfullv or with-
out reasonable care sets or increases a fire upon land of another whereby the
property of another is injured, or whoever negligently or wilfully suffers any
fire upon his own land to extend beyond the limits thereof, whereby the
woods or property of another are injured, shall be punished by a fine of not
more than two hundred and fifty dollars.

G. L., c. 266, § 9. Whoever, in a town which accepts this section or has
accepted corresponding provisions of earlier laws, sets a fire on land which
is not owned or controlled by him and before leaving the same neglects to
entirely extinguish such fire, or whoever wilfully or negligently sets a fire
on land Avhich is not owned or controlled by him whereby property is endan-
gered or injured, or whoever wilfully or negligently suffers a fire upon his
own land to escape beyond the limits thereof to the injury of another, shall
be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred dollars or by imprison-
ment in jail for not more than one month, or both, and shall also be liable for
all damages caused thereby. Such fine shall be equally divided between the
complainant and the town. This section shall not apply to cities.

G. L., c. 148, § 66, as amended by c. 485, Acts of 3921. Fire Balloons.
Whoever liberates or flies a fire balloon shall be punished by a fine of not
more than one hundred dollars or by imprisonment for not more than one
month, or both.

G. L., c. 266, § 134. Whoever, between April first and October first, sets
fire to a coal pit or pile of wood, for the purpose of charring the same, on any
woodland in the cities of New Bedford or Fall River or in the towns of
Dartmouth, Freetown, Fairhaven, Middleborough or Rochester, shall forfeit
one hundred dollars. Whoever, between the times aforesaid, sets fire to any
brushwood or bushes on any part of such woodland, or on land adjoining
thereto, so as to cause the burning of such brushwood or bushes shall forfeit
fifty dollars. All forfeitures under this section shall be equally divided be-
tween the city or town in Avhich the offence is committed and the person
who sues therefor.

G. L., c. 48, § 16. Clearing Land of Slash. Every owner, lessee, tenant or
occupant of lands or of any rights or interests therein, except electric, tele-
phone and telegraph companies, who cuts or permits the cutting of brush,
wood or timber on lands which border upon woodland, or upon a highway
or railroad location, shall dispose of the slash caused by such cutting in such
a manner that the same will not remain on the ground within forty feet of
any woodland, highway or railroad location.

G. L., c. 48, § 17. Clearing Ways of Slash. Any person who cuts or causes
to be cut trees, brush or undergrowth within the limits of any highway, shall
dispose of the slash and brush then and there resulting from such cutting in
such a manner that the same will not remain on the ground within the limits
of said highway.

G. L., c. 48, § 18. Electric, etc., Companies to clear Land of Slash. Elec-
tric, telephone and telegraph companies which, at the time of erecting their
transmission lines, cut or cause to be cut brush, wood or timber on land which

5

borders upon woodland or upon a highway or railroad location, shall dispose
of the slash caused by such cutting in such a manner that the same will not
remain on the ground within forty feet of any woodland, highway or railroad
location; such companies which after the erection of their lines trim or cut
brush, wood or timber which has grown up since the line was erected, and
which borders upon woodland or upon a highway or railroad location, shall,
upon the request of the forester, and within a time limit set by him, dispose
of the slash of second or subsequent cuttings if the same in his opinion con-
stitutes a menace to adjoining property.

G. L., c. 48, § 19. Forester, Forest Wardens, to enforce Preceding Sections.

The forester, or any duly authorized assistant, and the forest wardens in
cities and towns are hereby authorized to inspect wood or lumber operations,
and also the rights of way of electric, telephone and telegraph companies'
transmission lines, to determine whether the slash and brush are disposed of
in accordance with sections sixteen to eighteen, inclusive.

G. L., c. 48, § 20. Penalty for Violations. Violation of any provision of
sections sixteen to eighteen, inclusive, shall be punished by a fine of not less
than twenty nor more than one hundred dollars.

G. L., c. 48, § 20A, as amended by c. 252, Acts of 1922. Operation
of Portable Sawmills. No person shall engage in any lumbering opera-
tions which involve the cutting of more than ten thousand feet, other
than the cutting of cordwood, unless he has filed with the forester a state-
ment giving the location and approximate size of the lot of land from
which wood is to be cut and the approximate date when such opera-
tions are to be Commenced. Any person, before operating any portable
sawmill, shall notify the forester of the place of such intended opera-
tion and shall clear away and dispose of all slash and brush within seventy-
five feet thereof. Violation of any provision of this section shall be punished
by a fine of not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars.

G. L., c. 48, § 21. Spark Arresters on Portable Saw Mills, etc. Whoever,
except when the ground is covered with snow, operates in or adjacent to for-
est or grass lands any portable steam saw mill, steam roller, steam shovel or
steam tractor, which burns wood, coke, coal or other spark producing ma-
terial as fuel, unless the same is provided with a suitable spark arrester ap-
proved by the forester, shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifty nor
more than one hundred dollars. This section shall not apply to the metropoli-
tan fire prevention district as defined in section twenty-eight of chapter one
hundred and forty-eight.

G. L., c. 48, § 22. Inspection of Saw Mills, etc. The forester or his as-
sistants may inspect all appliances described in the preceding section to deter-
mine if they are provided with suitable spark arresters.

G. L., c. 48, § 23. Towns may construct, in co-operation with other towns
or with the commonwealth, forest fire observation towers, the situation and
construction of which shall be subject to the direction of the forester.

G. L., c. 48, § 25. Duties of Forest Wardens. Every forest warden shalL
take precautions to prevent the spread of forest fires and the improper
kindling thereof, and shall have sole charge of their extinguishment. He shall
investigate the causes and extent of forest fires and the injury done thereby,
and shall report thereon to the forester at such times and in such form as he
requires. Every forest warden shall also post in suitable places in the town
such warnings against the setting of forest fires and statements of law re-
lating thereto as may be supplied to him by the forester. The engineers or
other officers in charge of fire departments in cities and in towns which have
so voted shall perform the duties and exercise the powers of forest wardens
with respect to forest fires.

G. L., c. 48, § 26. Penalty for destroying Notices. Whoever wilfully and
maliciously tears down or destroys any notice posted under the preceding
section shall be punished by a fine of ten dollars.

6
G. L., c. 48, § 27. Forest Wardens not liable for Trespass. Forest Wardens,
their deputies and assistants shall not be liable for trespass when engaged in
the performance of their duties under this chapter or chapter one hundred
and thirty-two.

G. L., c. 48, $ 28. Aid and Advice to Forest Wardens. The state fire
warden appointed under section five of chapter twenty-one shall aid and ad-
vise the forest wardens and their deputies in towns and the municipal officers
exercising the functions of forest wardens in cities in preventing and ex-
tinguishing forest fires and in enforcing the laws relative thereto. The for-
ester may designate not more than fifteen assistants to aid the warden. The
state fire warden shall report annually to the forester upon his work and upon
the forest fires occurring in the commonwealth. This report shall be in-
cluded in the report of the commissioner of conservation relative to the acts
of the forester.

G. L., c. 132, § 37. Duties of Local Forest Wardens. Every local forest
warden, in addition to his duties prescribed by chapter forty-eight, shall in-
vestigate the values of forest lands, the character and extent of woodcutting
operations, the prevalence of insect pests injurious to forest growths, and
other matters affecting the extent and condition of woodlands in his town,
and shall report thereon to the forester at such times and in such form as he
requires.

G. L., c. 132, § 3. The forester shall from the money appropriated annually
for the expenses of his office recompense the forest wardens for the time
spent by them in making investigations under his direction, as required by,
section thirty-seven of this chapter and section twenty-five of chapter forty-
eight; provided, that he shall not be liable to make any such payment except
upon the presentation of a duly itemized account or to pay for such investi-
gations at a rate greater than that approved by him or in excess of the ap-
propriation available for such payment. He may also expend such sums as are
annually appropriated in making necessary arrangements for conventions of
forest wardens to be held at a place within the commonwealth and in paying
wholly or in part the traveling expenses to and from their towns of such
forest wardens who attend these conventions; provided, that no money shall
be expended in paying the traveling expenses of any one warden to or from
more than one convention in one year.

G. L., c. 130, § 9. Duties in Eespect to Forest Fires. The director, a war-
den or deputy may arrest without a warrant any person found unlawfully
setting a fire and may require assistance according to section ten of chapter
forty-eight. They shall take precautions to prevent the progress of forest
fires, or the improper kindling thereof, and upon the discovery of any such
fire shall immediately summon the necessary assistance, and notify the local
forest warden. The warden and deputies shall report to the state fire warden
monthly their doings under this section; they shall report to him the situation
and extent of any forest fire occurring within their respective districts.

G. L., c. 48, § 42. Fire Departments in Certain Towns. Towns accepting
the provisions of this and the two following sections or which have accepted
corresponding provisions of earlier laws may establish a fire department to
be under the control of an officer to be known as the chief of the fire depart-
ment. The chief shall be appointed by the selectmen, and shall receive such
salary as the selectmen may from time to time determine, not exceeding in
the aggregate the amount annually appropriated therefor. He may be re-
moved for cause by the selectmen at any time after a hearing. He shall have
charge of extinguishing fires in the town and the protection of life and prop-
erty in case of fire. He shall purchase subject to the approval of the select-
men and keep in repair all property and apparatus used for and by the fire
department. He shall have and exercise all the powers and discharge all the
duties conferred or imposed by statute upon engineers in towns except as

7
herein provided, and shall appoint a deputy chief and such officers and fire-
men as he may think necessary, and may remove the same at any time for
cause and after a hearing. He shall have full and absolute authority in the
administration of the department, shall make all rules and regulations for its
operation, shall report to the selectmen from time to time as they may re-
quire, and shall annually report to the town the condition of the department
with his recommendations thereon; he shall fix the compensation of the per-
manent and call members of the fire department subject to the approval of
the selectmen. In the expenditure of money the chief shall be subject to such
further limitations as the town may from time to time prescribe.

G. L., c. 48, § 43. Chief to act as Forest Warden. The chief of the fire de-
partment shall act as forest warden in all such towns, and shall have author-
ity to appoint deputy wardens and fix their compensation subject to the ap-
proval of the selectmen.

G. L., c. 48, § 44. The two preceding sections shall not affect the tenure of
office nor apply to the removal of permanent and call members of fire depart-
ments in towns which have accepted chapter thirty-one or corresponding pro-
visions of earlier laws. Said sections shall not apply to cities.

G. L., c. 40, c. § 11, as amended by c. 252 Acts of 1921. Reimbursement to
Towns. A town which accepts this section, or has accepted corresponding
provisions of earlier laws, may appropriate money for the prevention of for-
est-fires to an amount not exceeding one tenth of one per cent of its valua-
tion. Every such town with a valuation of one million seven hundred and
fifty thousand dollars or less which appropriates and expends money, with
the approval of the state forester, for apparatus to be used in preventing or
extinguishing forest fires, or for making protective belts or zones as a de-
fence against forest fires, shall, upon the recommendation of the state for-
ester, approved by the governor, receive from the commonwealth a sum equal
to one half the said expenditure; but no town shall receive more than two
hundred and fifty dollars. A sum not exceeding five thousand dollars may
annually be expended by the commonwealth for this purpose. Whenever it
has been demonstrated to the satisfaction of the state forester that such
equipment has been destroyed or has become unfit for use, the town shall be
reimbursed by the commonwealth one half the cost of replacing the same;
provided, that the amount paid to any one town in any one year shall not
exceed fifty dollars. All equipment purchased under this section shall be in
the custody and care of the town forest warden. The state forester or his
deputies may inspect such equipment at such times as they may deem
necessary.

G. L., c. 40, § 5. A town may at any town meeting appropriate money for
the following purposes: (29) For erecting and maintaining forest fire ob-
ervation towers, as provided by section twenty-three of chapter forty-eight.

G. L., c. 48, § 24. Town Expenditures authorized. Money appropriated by
a town under section eleven of chapter forty, for the prevention of forest
fires, and all fines received under sections eleven and thirteen of this chap-
ter and section nine of chapter two hundred and sixty-six shall be expended
by the forest warden, under the supervision of the selectmen, in trimming
brush out of wood roads, in preparing and preserving suitable lines for back
fires, or in other ways adapted to prevent or check the spread of fire; or such
town may expend any portion of such money in taking by eminent domain
such woodland as the selectmen, upon recommendation of the forest warden,
consider expedient to prevent forest fires. Such taking and the payment of
damages therefor or for injuring the property, other than by fire or back
fire, shall be governed by chapter seventy-nine. Every town, the valuation
of which does not exceed one million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars,
which expends in any one year a sum equal to one-twentieth of one per cent
of its valuation in the extinguishment of forest fires, shall, upon the recom-

8
mendation of the forester, approved by the governor, receive from the com-
monwealth one half of any additional sum expended by it in the extinguish-
ment of forest fires, provided that the total amount paid by the common-
wealth to any such town in any one year shall not exceed two hundred and
fifty dollars.

G. L., c. 10, § 8A, as amended by c. 73, Acts of 1923. Disposition
and Expenditure of Funds received from the United States in Relation
to Forest Fire Prevention or for Forestry Purposes. He shall receive
from the United States all sums of money payable to the commonwealth
under any act of congress, providing for co-operation in the prevention
of forest fires, by way of reimbursement for sums expended by the com-
monwealth on account of such prevention, or otherwise, and any sums
allotted to the commonwealth for the purpose of protecting, preserving
or developing its woodlands. The sums so received shall be held as the Fed-
eral Forestry Fund and be expended upon the order or approval of the
division of forestry of the department of conservation without specific
appropriation.

G. L., c. 160, § 234. Every railroad corporation shall be liable in damages
to a person whose buildings or other property may be injured by fire com-
municated by its locomotive engines, and shall have an insurable interest in
the property upon its route for which it may be so held liable, and may pro-
cure insurance thereon in its own behalf. If held liable in damages, it shall
be entitled to the benefit of any insurance effected upon such property by
the owner thereof, less the cost of premium and expense of recovery. The
money received as insurance shall be deducted from the damages, if recov-
ered before they are assessed; and if not so recovered, the policy of insur-
ance shall be assigned to the corporation held liable in damages, and it may
maintain an action thereon.

G. L., c. 160, § 235. Every corporation operating a steam railroad shall,
subject to the approval of the department [Department of Public Utilities],
install and maintain a spark arrester on every engine in its service in which
wood, coke or coal is used as fuel, and shall, between April first and December
first in each year, keep the full width of all of its locations over which such
engines are operated, to a point two hundred feet distant from the center
line on each side thereof, clear of dead leaves, dead grass, dry brush or other
inflammable material, and shall not at any time leave any deposit of fire, hot
ashes or live coals upon its locations in the immediate vicinity of woodlands
or grass lands, and shall post in stations and other conspicuous places within
its location and right of way such notices and warning placards as are fur-
nished to it for the purpose by the state forester; provided, that this section
shall not prohibit any railroad corporation from piling or keeping upon its
location or right of way cross-ties or other material necessary for the main-
tenance and operation of its railroad.

G. L., c. 160, § 236. Any railroad corporation may, upon giving notice as
herein provided, enter upon unimproved land adjoining any location or right
of way upon which it operates engines burning wood, coke or coal, and may
there, at its own expense and subject to the direction of the forest warden,
or the officer or board having his powers, in the city or town where the land
lies, clear such land of dead leaves, dead grass and dead wood to a distance
of one hundred feet from the tracks, without thereby becoming liable for
trespass; provided, that no railroad corporation shall, under this section, do
any acts on unimproved land outside its location or right of way, unless it
has within two months given fourteen days' written notice by mail or other-
wise to the occupant of the land, and to the owner thereof, if he resides or
has a usual place of business in the city or town where it lies, and if the land
is unoccupied and the owner does not reside or have a usual place of business
in the city or town, then, unless the railroad corporation has within two
months published notice of its purpose once in three successive weeks in a

9
newspaper published in the county where the land lies, and unless it has
within three days given at least twenty-four hours' notice to the forest war-
den, or the officer or board having his powers, in the city or town where the
land lies of the location of the land which it intends to enter under this sec-
tion, and of the time at which it intends to enter the same; and provided,
further, that no notice hereby required shall be valid unless it sets forth the
provisions of this section.

G. L., c. 1G0, § 237. Any engineer, conductor or other employee on a train
discovering a fire burning uncontrolled on lands adjacent to the tracks shall
forthwith cause a fire signal to be mounded from the engine, which shall con-
sist of one long and three short whistle blasts repeated several times, and
shall notify the next seetionmen whom the train passes, and the next tele-
graph station, of the existence and location of the fire. This section shall
not affect the authority conferred upon the department by section one hun-
dred and thirty-nine.

G. L., c. 160, § 238. Seetionmen or other employees of a railroad corpora-
tion receiving notice of the existence and location of a fire burning on land
adjacent to the tracks shall forthwith proceed to the fire and shall use all
Teasonable efforts to extinguish it; provided, that they are not at the time
employed in labors immediately necessary to the safety of tracks or to the
safety and convenience of passengers and the public.

-G. L., c. 160, § 239. Railroad corporations shall inform their employees as
to their duties under the four preceding sections and shall furnish them with
the appropriate facilities for reporting and extinguishing such fires.

G. L., c. 160, § 240. The five preceding sections shall not authorize any
railroad corporation to enter* upon, or to interfere in the management or care
of, any public park or reservation.

G. L., c. 160, § 241. Any railroad corporation which, by its servants or
agents, negligently, or in violation of law, sets fire to grass lands or forest
lands shall be liable to any city or town where such fire occurs, for the
reasonable and lawful expense incurred by such city or town in the extinguish-
ment of the fire.

Cities and towns may recover in contract in the superior court sums to
which they are entitled under this section.

G. L., c. 131, § 29. Whenever, during an open season for the hunting of any
kind of game, it shall appear to the governor that by reason of extreme
■drought the use of firearms is likely to cause forest fires, he may, by procla-
mation, suspend the open season and make it a close season for the shooting
of birds and wild animals of every kind for such time as he may designate,
and may prohibit the discharge of firearms on or near forest land during the
said time.

G. L., c. 131, § 30. During the time designated as above by the governor,
all laws relating to the close season shall be in force, and whoever violates
any provision thereof shall be subject to the penalty prescribed therefor.
Whoever, during a close season proclaimed as aforesaid, discharges a firearm
| on or near forest land, or shoots any wild animal or bird, as to which there
is no close season otherwise provided by law, shall be punished by a fine of
not more than one hundred dollars.

G. L., c. 131, § 31. A proclamation issued under section twenty-nine shall
be published in such newspapers and posted in such places and in such
I manner, under the direction of the department, as the governor may order.

G. L., c. 130, § 9. Duties of Fish and Game Wardens in Respect to Forest
I Fires, etc. The director, a warden or deputy may arrest without a warrant
[any person found unlawfully setting a fire and may require assistance ac-
cording to section ten of chapter forty-eight. They shall take precautions to

i

10

prevent the progress of forest fires, or the improper kindling thereof, and
upon the discovery of any such fire shall immediately summon the necessary
assistance, and notify the local forest warden. The warden and deputies
shall report to the state fire warden monthly their doings under this section;
they shall report to him the situation and extent of any forest fire occurring
within their respctive districts.

G. L., c. 266, § 5. Setting Fire to Woodpile, etc. Whoever wilfully and
maliciously burns or otherwise destroys or injures a pile or parcel of wood,
boards, timber or other lumber, or any fence, bars or gate, or a stack of
grain, hay or other vegetable product, or any vegetable product severed from
the soil and not stacked, or any standing tree, grain, grass or other standing
product of the soil, or the soil itself, of another, shall be punished by impris-
onment in the state prison for not more than five years or by a fine of not
more than five hundred dollars and imprisonment in jail for not more than
one year.

G. L., c. 266, § 7. Wanton or Reckless Injury to Woods by Fire. Whoever
by wantonly or recklessly setting fire to any material, or by increasing a fire
already set, causes injury to, or the destruction of, any growing or standing
wood of another shall be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred
dollars or by imprisonment for not more than six months.

G. L., c. 266, § 113. Cutting of Timber. Whoever wilfully cuts down or
destroys timber or wood standing or growing on the land of another, or car-
ries away any kind of timber or wood cut down or lying on such land, or digs
up or carries away stone, ore, gravel, clay, sand, turf or mould, from such
land, or roots, nuts, berries, grapes or fruit of any kind or any plant there
being, or cuts down or carries away sedge, grass, hay or any kind of corn,
standing, growing or being on such land, or cuts or takes therefrom any
ferns, flowers or shrubs, or carries away from a wharf or landing place any
goods in which he has no interest or property, without the license of the
owner thereof, shall be punished by imprisonment for not more than six
months or by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars; and if the offence
is committed on Sunday, or in disguise, or secretly in the night time, the im-
prisonment shall not be for less than five days nor the fine less than five
dollars.

G. L., c. 266, § 116. Picking of Berries, etc., by Unnaturalized Persons;

Whoever, being an unnaturalized, foreign born person, picks wild berries or
flowers, or camps or picnics upon any land of which he is not the owner,
within the counties of Barnstable or Plymouth, between April first and De-
cember first, without first obtaining a written permit so to do from the r ne^
or owners of the land, shall be punished by a fine of not more than fift^ dol-
lars or by imprisonment for not more than one month, or both. The said
written permit shall not be transferable, and shall be exhibited upon demand
to the forest warden, or his deputies, of the town wherein the land is located,
or upon demand of any sheriff, constable, police or other officer authorized to
arrest for crime. Failure or refusal to produce said permit upon such de-
mand shall be prima facie evidence of a violation of this section, and any
forest warden or any duly authorized deputy forest warden, sheriff, police
or other officer authorized to arrest for crime, may arrest without warrant
any person who fails or refuses to display for inspection the said permit upon
the demand of any of the officials named in this section.

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