NEW ENjii' hawleyambI ilili ®ije ^. ^. PtU pbrarg 513144 Date Due ' ■ '■ i'; j 1 .i 1 .J _ K r-^ ^^ FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND A HANDBOOK OF EASTERN FOREST MANAGEMENT BY RALPH CHIPMAN I;I/VWLEY, M. F. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY, YALE UNIVERSITY AND AUSTIN FOSTER HAWKS, M. F. STATE FORESTER OF VERMONT AND PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 1912 M-^W^ Copyright, 1912, BY RALPH C. HAWLEY AND AUSTIN F. HAWES Stanbopc iprcss H.GILSON COMPAN BOSTON, U.S.A. To HENRY SOLON GRAVES FORESTER OF THE UNITED STATES. WITH A DEEP SENSE OF OUR PERSONAL OBLIGATIONS TO HIM AS OUR PRECEPTOR IN THE YALE FOREST SCHOOL WHICH HE ORGANIZED AND BUILT UP TO RANK AS THE FORE- MOST SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THIS COUNTRY, AND IN RECOGNITION OF HIS SERVICES TO AMERICAN FORESTRY AS AN EDUCATOR, WRITER AND ADMINISTRATOR. "•""sisri^, SJSI PREFACE. Throughout America and especially New England there has been a rapid awakening of interest in forestry during the past few years. The disappearance of old forests, together with increased prices of lumber, has made ready converts to the forestry propaganda of the federal and state governments; but up to the present time nearly the only available literature on the subject is in the form of government bulletins. There are, to be sure, a number of good books on the trees written from a botanical standpoint, and several books dealing with forestry in a general way, besides a very few advanced textbooks. There is now such widespread interest in the subject, that a book dealing with the specific forestry problems of New England will not only be of interest to the nature lover but of real assistance to the land owner who wishes to adopt approved methods of forest culture, or to the student of forestry. Books are legend dealing with specific agricultural problems, and it is intended that this work shall be for the woodland owner what these are for the agriculturist. Every year more people are moving from the cities and acquiring country places. Many owners of this class cannot afford their personal time for farm supervision, and, without this supervision of the owner, farming is apt to be too expensive. Forestry particularly appeals to this class of owners because it requires less frequent attention than any other land culture. It is gratifying to find that the farmers themselves are taking up forestry in the same practical way in which they are accus- tomed to handle other problems, and the authors frequently have been asked by farmers to recommend some good book on forestry. Practical problems, such as the planting of an old hill pasture to pine, or the advisability of pruning pine and Vi PREFACE spruce; the proper treatment of a sugar orchard, — these and many similar questions are constantly being asked by the up- to-date farmer. Lumbermen also are becoming interested in forestry, .and, while they have not yet to any extent adopted modern methods of cutting, this is largely due to unfavorable conditions and ignorance of such methods. In preparing this book the authors have been governed by a twofold purpose: first, by the desire to present a book which might be of practical assistance to all classes of land owners in the East; and second, to produce a textbook treating of forestry in New England. The latter is greatly needed, especially in the various agricultural colleges where courses in forestry are given, and where it is essential that thorough instruction in the forest problems of the northeastern United States be furnished. There is even a wider field for a book dealing with a definite section of the country, so arranged as to serve as a handbook for owners of woodland in the section treated. It has been the aim of the authors thoroughout to present the material in the simplest and least technical form possible, with the view of making everything clear to persons not familiar with forestry. The book is arranged in two parts : one dealing with methods and principles of forestry in general, the second treating in detail with the forests of New England. While it is written with special reference to New England, the book has a much wider field of direct application. Forest conditions similar to those in portions of New England prevail over a large part of New York and New Jersey, in Pennsylvania, and also in south- eastern Canada. Part I is intended to furnish the woodland owner with a brief survey of the whole field of forestry, and to give him suffi- cient knowledge to rightly understand and be able to carry out the treatment recommended in Part II for his forest land. The subjects in Part I are too comprehensive to be fully covered in one volume. In many cases the presentation here will be PREFACE Vii sufficient, but if a complete discussion is needed various more technical works restricted to a single subject should be consulted. For example, two books by Graves, " Forest Mensuration " and " Principles of Handling Woodlands," cover mainly the three subjects " Silvicultural Systems," " Timber Estimating " and " The Growth of Trees and Forests," which are here included in three chapters. As a textbook, then, for the post-graduate forest schools giving the highest grade of instruction, this book will have a greater value for its detailed discussion of New England forests, than for the portion dealing with general forestry. But it is hoped that, for numerous undergraduate forest schools giving a slightly lower grade of instruction, all portions of the book will prove useful. The publications of the United States Forest Service relating to New England topics, as well as those issued by the Forestry Departments of the different New England States, have been freely consulted, and much of the information which they con- tain has been incorporated in these pages. Free use has also been made of various books dealing with the subjects treated in these chapters. Among them are the following: " EQstory of the Lumber Industry in America" by Defebaugh; "Studies in Forestry" by Nisbet; "Principles of Handling Woodlands" and "Forest Mensuration" by Graves; "A Textbook of Botany" by Strasburger Schenck, Noli and Schimper; " Handbook of Trees of the Northern States and Canada" by Hough; and various articles in Forestry Quarterly too numerous to mention. All the tables in the appendix, with the exception of certain log rules and several tables taken from a " Manual for Northern Woodsmen " by Prof. Austin Gary, have been secured from state or federal forest service publications. In connection with each table acknowledgment is made of the source from which it was obtained. The sketches and a majority of the pictures are original with the authors, although a large number were secured from other VUl PREFACE sources. Wherever a picture was not taken by the authors its origin is stated beneath the picture. In conclusion, the authors wish to render acknowledgment to the many friends who have assisted with helpful suggestions in the preparation of this book. CONTENTS. PAGE PART I. General Forestry i Chapter I. Silvics i Forest Types 8 Pure and Mixed Stands lo Coppice and High Forests 12 Even and Uneven-aged Forests 14 High Forest Forms 15 Coppice Forms 16 Composite Forms 16 Chapter II. Silvicultural Systems 17 I. Systems depending on Reproduction by Seed 17 Selection System ' 17 Clear Cutting Systems 20 Clear Cutting with Artificial Reproduction 21 Clear Cutting with Natural Reproduction 22 Clear Cutting the Whole Stand 22 Reserving Blocks of Trees 22 Reserving Scattered Seed Trees 24 Reserving Thrifty Standards 25 Clear Cutting in Strips 26 Clear Cutting in Patches 27 The Shelterwood System 27 n. Systems depending on Reproduction Wholly or Partly from Sprouts 31 Simple Coppice 32 Coppice with Standards 33 Pole-wood Coppice 35 Chapter III. Silvicultural Characteristics of the Important New England Trees 37 Wb'te Pine 37 Red Pine 41 Pitch Pine 42 Scotch Pine 43 Red Spruce 45 Norway Spruce 47 ix CONTENTS PAGE Balsam or Fir 48 Hemlock ^g Tamarack 50 European Larch ^ i Arborvitae. 52 Juniper 52 Sugar Maple 53 Soft Maple 54 Yellow Birch , 54 Paper Birch ^^ Gray Birch e6 Beech 57 White Ash 58 Basswood 58 Poplar 59 Chestnut 60 White and Red Oaks 62 Tulip Tree 63 Chapter IV. Forest Planting and Seeding 65 Chapter V. Improvement Cuttings 74 Cleanings 74 Liberation Cuttings 76 Thinnings 7q Damage Cuttings gi Schedule of Improvement Cuttings g2 Methods of Controlling Cuttings g3 Pruning g5 Chapter VI. Injuries from Animals g7 Chapter VII. Forest Insects and Fungi loi Insects loi White Pine Weevil loi Pine Bark Aphid 103 Spruce Destroying Beetle 105 Spruce Budworm 106 Gipsy Moth 108 Brown-tail Moth no Larch Sawfly m Elm Leaf Beetle . 113 Forest Tent Caterpillar 114 June Bug 116 Fungi 118 Chestnut Bark Disease 118 Trametes pini 122 CONTENTS XI PAGE Polyporus schweinitzii 123 White Pine Blister Rust 124 White Heart Rot 126 White Pine BHght 129 Chapter VIII. Forest Fires. Kinds of Fires and Damage done 131 Causes of Fires 136 Fire Prevention 138 Fire Lines ^42 Roads and Trails 146 Extinguishing Fires 146 Estimating the Damage done by Forest Fires 152 Chapter IX. Timber Estimating and Valuation 156 Estimating Timber on Small Woodlots iS7 Estimating Timber on Large Woodlots 161 Estimating Timber on Large Forest Tracts 161 The Money Value of Standing Timber 165 Chapter X. Growth of Trees and Forests , 171 Growth of Trees 171 Age of Trees 172 Diameter Growth i74 Height Growth i7S Volume Growth 176 Growth of Stands : 178 Age of Stands 178 Diameter Growth ^79 Height Growth ^79 Volume Growth i79 PART II. New England Forests and Their Management 183 Chapter XI. The Original Forests and Their Early Develop- ment 183 Chapter XII. Present Forest Conditions 196 How to find Information Applicable to a Particular Tract 199 Chapter XIII. The Spruce Region 2cx) General Considerations 200 Forest Types 203 Swamp 2°5 Spruce Flat 206 Hardwood 208 Spruce Slope 209 Xll CONTENTS PAGE Birch and Poplar 2 1 r Old Field 215 Methods of Handling the Forest 216 Spruce Slope 217 Spruce Flat 220 Swamp 222 Hardwood 223 Old Field Spruce 226 Birch and Poplar 228 Planting 231 Avoiding Waste in the Woods 232 Logging Methods 235 Market Conditions 242 Industries 243 Pulpwood 243 Lumber Industry . . 245 Special Woodworking Industries 248 Summer Resort Business 249 Character of the Land and Timber Ownership 251 Forest Protection Forest Fires . 253 254 Methods of Fire Protection 257 Fighting Fires 261 Protection against Grazing Animals 262 Protection against Insects 262 Protection against Fungi 263 Watershed Protection 263 Summary 264 Chapter XIV. The Northern Hardwoods Region 265 General Considerations 265 Forest Types 269 Hardwood 269 Swamp 272 Birch and Poplar 272 Old Field Hardwoods 273 Old Field Conifers 274 Methods of Handling the Forest 276 Hardwood 277 Swamp , 283 Birch and Poplar 283 Old Field Hardwoods 284 Old Field Conifers 285 Logging Methods 285 Market Conditions 287 Industries 288 CONTENTS Xlll PAGE Lumber Industry 288 Maple Sugar Industry 289 Character of the Land and Timber Ownership 290 Forest Protection 291 Forest Fires 291 Methods of Fire Protection 292 Protection against Grazing Animals 293 Protection against Insects and Fungi 295 Watershed Protection 295 Summary 295 Chapter XV. The White Pine Region 296 General Considerations 296 Forest Types 299 Hemlock 300 Pitch Pine 30i White Cedar Swamp 301 Pure White Pine 303 Pine and Inferior Hardwoods 3°^ Mixed Hardwoods 3^1 Soft Maple Swamp 312 Waste Land 312 Methods of Handling the Forest 3^3 Hemlock 3 H White Cedar Swamp 3^6 Pitch Pine 316 Pure White Pine 318 Pine and Inferior Hardwoods 323 Mixed Hardwoods 324 Soft Maple Swamp 325 Waste Land 325 Logging Methods 327 Market Conditions 328 Industries 329 Ownership of Woodlands 332 Forest Protection 332 Forest Fires 332 Methods of Fire Protection 335 Methods of Fighting Fires 339 Protection against Grazing Animals 339 Protection against Insects and Fungi 34° Watershed Protection 34i Summary 34i Chapter XVI. The Sprout Hardwoods Region 342 General Considerations 342 Forest Types ■ 346 CONTENTS PAGE Mixed Hardwoods 346 Hemlock 348 Hardwood Swamp 350 Cedar Swamp 351 White Pine 351 Old Field 351 Methods of Handling the Forest 354 Mixed Hardwoods 356 Hemlock 359 Hardwood Swamp 360 Cedar Swamp and White Pine 36 1 Old Field 361 Logging Methods 362 Market Conditions 364 Industries 364 Ownership of Woodlands 366 Forest Protection 367 Forest Fires 367 Methods of Fire Frotection 369 Methods of Fighting Pires 371 Protection against Grazing Animals 371 Protection against Insects and Fungi 372 Watershed Protection 372 Summary " . . 373 Chapter XVII. The Progress of Forestry in New England . . . 374 Forest Administration 379 Connecticut , 379 Administration 379 Fire Service 379 Educational Work 380 State Forests 381 State Nursery 383 Taxation 383 Massachusetts 384 Administration 384 Fire Service 384 Educational Work 385 State Forests 386 State Nursery 386 Forest Taxation 386 Control of Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths 388 Rhode Island 389 Administration 389 Fire Service 389 Educational Work 390 CONTENTS XV PAGE State Forests 39i Taxation 39^ Control of the Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths 391 Vermont 39^ Administration 391 Fire Service 392 Educational Work 394 State Forests 394 State Nursery 395 Taxation 395 New Hampshire 39^ Administration 396 Fire Service 39^ Educational Work 398 State Forests 39^ State Nursery 399 Taxation 399 Maine 399 Administration 399 Fire Service 4°° Educational Work 402 State Forests .• 402 Insects 403 Forestry Practice 403 Lands under State Ownership 403 Lands under Corporate and Private Ownership 404 Chapter XVIII. The Yield to be Expected from New England Forests under Proper Management 408 Appendix 417 Forest Fire Statistics 417 Bibliography 420 Tables 426 Log Rules 427 Volume Tables 438 Growth of Individual Trees 464 Yield Tables 466 Index 475 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND PART I. GENERAL FORESTRY. CHAPTER I. SILVICS. In any study of forests over a wide range of country, as a whole continent, it must be apparent that climate determines the character of the forest just as it affects the growth of agricultural crops in certain regions or belts. In a small region, such as New England, the climatic factors are less noticeable, but cannot be overlooked. The average temperature of a region is of less importance in determining the range of different trees than the lowest and highest extremes of temperature. In these extremes we have an explanation of the inability of the eucalyptus of southern Cahfornia to live in New England, and of the fact that the canoe birch, although growing from the Atlantic to the Pacific, does not extend as far south as Long Island Sound. In a less notice- able way it is probably the extreme cold of winter which limits the chestnut to southern New England and the region farther south. Aside from this matter of extremes it is not so much the winter's cold that is injurious to species, as the late frosts in spring when the young leaves and shoots are still tender, and the early frosts of the autumn before the summer's growth has sufficiently hardened to withstand the cold. The late frosts of the spring of 1910 killed back the new growth of pine and fir in northern Vermont. 2 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Besides temperature there are other chmatic factors influenc- ing tree growth. It has been found, for example, that the southern limits of forest trees are mainly determined by the quantity and the regularity of the rainfall during summer. Taken as a whole, broadleaf trees consume on the average about ten times as much water as conifers, and, owing to the light foliage of pine, this species requires much less soil moisture than spruce or fir. The lack of rain for even two or three days may be fatal to young seedlings. White pine plantations established two years previously were badly killed out by the prolonged drought and hot weather of 191 1. With age and development of the root system the ability of the tree to resist drought increases. A mature tree with the assistance of its reserve supplies of water can withstand a drought of several months' duration. Precipita- tion outside of the growing season is also valuable, in thoroughly wetting the soil, because during the growing season when the trees are in foliage the soil is seldom thoroughly wet. Aside from these climatic factors, heat and rainfall, which influence the general distribution of forests, the factors most important to individual tree growth are light and soil moisture, and to a lesser extent the physical and chemical character of the soil. Each genus, and in some respects each species, reaches its best development under a certain set of conditions of soil, climate, etc., called its optimum, and varies whenever found under different conditions. Since topography, exposure, and altitude affect these factors, they must also be taken into account. Near their northern limits of distribution all trees ascend the mountains to a greater height on the southern than on the northern sides, because of warmth requirements. Trees derive most of their nourishment from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, but they depend upon the soil for water and mineral supplies; these can only be taken up when held in solution by the soil. Water is a chief essential of tree growth, part of it being retained in the wood. Greenwood often contains as much as 50 per cent by weight of water. Water in the plant serves as a carrier for the minerals (the salts, oxides, etc.), which, SILVICS 3 being non-volatile, remain in the plant after the water is given off. The process of taking up minerals in solution through the roots, of depositing these minerals, and of giving off water from the leaves is called transpiration; this is one of the leading features of plant life. Trees of normal size lose by this process from lo to 25 gallons of water daily, and it has been estimated that a large oak with 700,000 leaves gives off 244,000 pounds of water in the five months from June to November, or an average of 25 tons a month — nearly one ton a day. Transpiration is greater in the daytime than in the night, and leaves exposed to the sun transpire from three to ten times as much water as those that are shaded. There has not yet been developed any very satisfactory theory explaining the movement of water to the top of a high tree. It is known that the minute root hairs at the ends of the roots fasten themselves to the soil particles and with- draw water from them even when they appear dry; and it is probable that the transpiration current, which flows through the wood to the leaves, is forced up by a combination of atmospheric and root pressure aided by osmotic force ^ and capillarity. As has been said, the conifers are more moderate in their demands on water than the broad-leaved genera. This is the reason why sand plains, such as those of Cape Cod, can support the pine. The water table is always found to be farther removed from the surface of the ground under forest than outside it or under a cut- over forest; under old forests it is lower than under young stands. Seedhngs spring up in a forest when the roots of the adjoining trees are cut through, thus allowing the water table to come nearer the surface. From the illustration of the oak mentioned above it will be readily realized, in dry seasons especially, that the amount of water available per tree might well be the controlling factor influencing growth or life itself. Forests transpire more moisture than other vegetation under the same conditions. Any deficit caused by excess of transpira- tion over precipitation is necessarily made up by water from the 1 See "A Text Book of Botany," Part I, Sect. II, by Strasburger, Schenck, Noll, and Schimper. 4 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND open. Other things being equal and leaving the surface out of account, the soil under a mature forest is drier than in the open. Thus seedlings grown in the open get more moisture in a dry season than under large trees, but. on the other hand, the intense heat in the open may more than counterbalance the greater supply of water. The chief element of dry wood is carbon, which forms about one-half the dry weight of plants. This element is entirely absorbed from the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere through the process called assimilation. As there are only two grams of carbon in 10,000 Hters of air, one tree with a dry weight of 5000 kilograms requires about 1 2 million cubic yards of air to furnish the carbon. But for the fact that the air is being constantly resupplied with carbon exhaled by animals and poured forth from factories and chimneys these figures would seem startling. The process of assimilation, or the taking of carbon from the carbon dioxide, can only be carried on by the chlorophyll or green bodies in the leaves, by the action of sunlight, and a definite amount of heat. The first products of assimilation are carbo- hydrates, either in solution or as starch grains. The process ceases at night and the starch grains are dissolved and pass out of the cell. The surplus products that are not needed at once are stored. This surplus is greatest at the end of the growing season, and upon its amount depends all growth of the next year either of mother-plant or offspring in germinating seed. This material is stored in the form of starch or sugars in the embryo of the seed, in tubers, bulbs, roots, and medullary rays of the wood. All trees require a certain amount of light in order to carry out this work of assimilation. With regard to their ability to bear shade, marked differences occur among the various species of trees, so that they may be classed as: light-demanding or intolerant trees, such as larch, red cedar, and gray birch; and shade-enduring or tolerant species, such as beech, spruce, hem- lock. Between these is a class of intermediate trees, including white pine and chestnut. The demands of various species for SILVICS 5 light may be gauged by the general density of the foliage of the crown and the capacity of overshadowed twigs to retain life. Until very recently it was thought by foresters that the amount of light to which a tree has access determines its growth more than any other factor. Recent investigations of soil moisture indicate that this is an even more important factor, so that while it was customary formerly to attribute increased growth, after thinning a forest, to more light, it now appears that it is due as much to the increased supply of water available for the roots. The physical qualities of soil especially as related to ability to retain moisture, are more important than the chemical con- stitutents, for almost all soils are chemically able to bear trees. The root systems of various species vary greatly with regard to shape and the depth to which they reach; but even shallow- rooting kinds derive advantage when the soil over which they grow is deep, owing to the greater fertility within easy reach of their roots. Some species, like the oak, have a strong tap root; others, such as beech and birch, develop strong side roots, but no tap root; and still others, like spruce, have a pronounced shallow-root system. Spruce and birch require least depth of soil, oak most. Whether the soil is loose or binding is a matter of great importance for tree growth. As a rule, the broadleaf trees do better than the conifers on the stiff er classes of land, although soils of average tenacity are on the whole most suitable for all kinds of trees. The chief con- stituents of soil are clay, lime, and sand; and as clay yields the most valuable materials for plants, the qualities of soil are often determinable to some extent by the quantity of clay in them. Clay soils are hard and interfere with the movement of moisture; sands are too porous; limes too easily heated; loamy soil, there- fore, is usually best. The chief chemical constituents of wood are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, but the ashes of wood also contain sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, silicon, potassium, sodium, calcium, mag- nesium, and iron. The carbon is obtained solely from the car- 6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND bonic acid of the air; the hydrogen and oxygen are derived chiefly from the water in the soil; and the nitrogen from the ammonia of the soil formed by nitrifying bacteria from organic decaying matter. These other chemicals taken from the soil in salts and oxides are contained in very small quantities. Thus iron, though very important for the formation of chlorophyll in the leaves, is present only in very small quantities, so the old remedy of driving nails into a dying tree was of no value. The percentage of pure ash in the dry leaves of trees varies from 2.3 per cent in white pine to 7.6 per cent in the ash tree, and dry leaves have a higher percentage of minerals than wood. This indicates the well-known fact that conifers are less demand- ing as regards chemicals than broadleafs. For this reason the soil improves under coniferous crops if a good canopy is main- tained, as the minerals accumulate. It also illustrates the way in which a forest soil is annually renewed by the return of the leaves rich in minerals. Of all the elements taken from the soil nitrogen is the most important. The chief source of nitrogen is the raw humus com- posed of decayed leaves and wood. It has been found that dead leaves mixed with soil absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere in large quantities, probably through the assistance of bacteria, mosses, and lichens. This capacity of the bacteria is reduced by frost, so the supply of nitrogen is less in the open in places exposed to frost. Some plants take in nitrogen from the air through their leaves. About 10 pounds of nitrogen are carried to the ground per acre annually by rain, and the litter of leaves and twigs carries to the ground in a beech forest 40 pounds, in spruce 28 pounds, and in pine 26 pounds of nitrogen per acre. On the other hand, the annual consumption of nitrogen for wood production is 9 pounds for beech per acre; 12 pounds for spruce and fir; and 6| pounds for birch. An investigation in a planta- tion of maritime pine on a sand dune 56 years after planting produced, from a layer of soil 6 inches deep, 7 tons of organic matter per acre with nitrogen 1.5 per cent, or 248 pounds of nitrogen per acre. This is an annual accumulation of 4.5 pounds SILVICS 7 per acre. In another plantation the average accumulation was 7.2 pounds per year.^ As regards the chemical composition of soil, sour, marshy soils are unsuited to most species except Scotch and white pine and spruce. These are about the only species that will thrive on pure peat. Ash, maple, beech, and elm require a moderate amount of lime in the soil, and oak, locust, European larch, and Austrian pine thrive best on soils which contain some lime, while chestnut seems to do better in a soil containing very little lime. Some recent investigations in soil seem to show the com- manding importance of lime as a controlling factor in tree growth. Most trees are lime-loving to a certain extent, but an over- abundance of lime in all cases is unfavorable. The hardwoods — oak, ash, maple, chestnut, beech — seem to demand the presence of a considerable quantity of potash; spruce, fir, pine, and birch thrive on soils rich neither in lime nor potash. For the produc- tion of wood only, the demands vary as follows in high forests: from 4 to 20 pounds of lime; from 2 to 10 pounds of potash, and from ^ to 4I pounds of phosphoric acid per acre per year. The combined influence of all these factors dependent on soil and situation is shown in the amount of timber produced per acre and in the quality of the timber. When the trees of a wood are tall and straight, free from branches, and tapering but little, it is the best possible indica- tion that the soil and situation are eminently suited to the wood- land crops growing on them. These factors of climate, soil, etc., have influenced the dis- tribution of trees in such a way as to form forest "types." In crossing a mountain ridge we find one type of forest in the swamp at its base, which is quite distinct in its composition and appearance from that on the drier, rolling land just be- yond. On the steeper slopes another forest type is substi- tuted, just as the human type raised in the wild mountains differs from that of the fertile valleys below. Scientific forestry largely deals with the causes for: these varied types, while applied ^ See Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, p. 290, and Vol. VII, p. 192. 8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND forestry, based on this knowledge, tries to develop in every locality the type which is best fitted to exist there. The term "stand" is the unit of description applied to any definite portion of a forest having a definite distinguishing char- acteristic. Thus in a certain type we may have a stand of young growth; a stand of diseased and damaged trees; a stand of exceptionally tall specimens, etc. These stands may be ex- tensive, covering many acres or they may be confined each to a small part of an acre. Fig. I. — Two stands uf white pine of dififerent age classes. The one at the right is 40 years, that on the left 70 years of age. Forest Types. In every forest the ceaseless struggle going on gradually brings about many changes unseen by the casual observer. In the small openings of the forest, caused by windfall, snow breakage, or other causes, seeds of trees germinate and begin to grow. The kind of trees that come up here depends, as has already been shown, on many factors — the kinds of seed trees near, the covering of the soil and moisture content, the light available, etc. On the burned-over and freely-exposed SILVICS 9 mineral soils, poplar, bird cherry, and birch spring up freely; on the abandoned fields, pine and spruce are especially apt to appear; and on the moss-covered decaying logs of the northern woods, little hemlocks, fir, and spruce seedlings start. In a few years the growth and very existence of these seedlings are in- fluenced and other changes take place. The tops of the old trees may spread out and shade the openings, so that only the tolerant seedlings can endure; or the remaining old stand may be felled and an unlimited amount of light admitted. Under this impetus certain rapid-growing species may push up to the entire exclusion of the others, or these others if they are tolerant of shade may be relegated to an understory of secondary im- portance. On an acre of forest soil thousands of such seedlings may start, but in the course of their various struggles and under innumerable external influences their ranks are so thinned that only a few hundred grow into fair-sized trees. A stand of looo trees per acre 20 feet high by the time it- is 80 feet high and correspondingly large will seldom contain over 400 trees to the acre. The trees that are killed in this constant strife fall to the ground after a few years, decay, and add to the humus of the soil. As the forest grows old gaps are caused by these deaths and reproduction again takes place. Whether the same kind of trees will come in depends upon the conditions at that time. In every region certain combinations of forest trees and under- brush are characteristic of different sites. As already explained, this community of tree life is called a ''type," and is influenced by soil, exposure, elevation, moisture, and other factors. As examples of types, we may mention the ''spruce slope type," characteristic of the steep mountain slopes of northern New England, and "chestnut oak type," of the trap ridges of Connec- ticut. Under natural conditions such a forest type maintains itself century after century on the site to which it has become adapted. Accordingly it is known as the permanent type of that particular site. Circumstances not in the regular course of nature may entirely change the conditions and cause the lO FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND appearance of a different forest type. Such influences are wind- fall, extensive damage by heavy snows, by insects or fungi, by fires, and by lumbering or clearing for farming. The type following any change of this sort is a temporary type, as, for example, the "poplar type" on burns, or the "old-field type" on abandoned cleared lands. Gradually this temporary type, if left to itself, will change into the permanent type and after perhaps fifty or one hundred years the forest will have the form and composition that it had before the change. Such is nature's way of asserting her rights. Every forest type will be found under a considerable variety of condition of soil, moisture, etc., and, of course, will make its best development where the sum total of conditions is most favorable. Foresters recognize this situation as Quality I for the type, and usually speak of Qualities II and III as designating respectively poorer sites. Pure and Mixed Stands. One of the first things to notice in the study of a forest is the kind of trees that are present and the proportion of the more important ones. In the virgin forests of northern New England, for example, we find spruce, hemlock, birch, maple, beech, probably basswood, and several other species. The hardwood forests of Connecticut and Rhode Island, on the other hand, consist of chestnut, oak, hickory, maple, birch, elm, hornbeam, etc. Both of these are termed "mixed forests." But in the former region, especially in Maine, there are extensive areas that have been burned over which are now covered with canoe birch. There are old pastures in northern Vermont now overgrown with impenetrable thickets of arborvitae; and further south, with white pine. These are "pure forests," being composed of but one species. As used in this country a stand is called "pure" if 80 per cent of the main crop is composed of one species. A study of the causes of these differences reveals the fact that pure forests are usually composed of trees whose seeds are light and are, therefore, borne long distances and in great numbers SILVICS II by the winds. Anyone accustomed to tramp in winter must have seen the snow-covered fields, though far from trees, well sprinkled with birch seed. Although these light-seeded species often occur in mixed forests, the heavier-seeded varieties are characteristic of them and never form pure forests except under particularly unfavorable circumstances. Such exceptions are the summits of the trap ridges of Connecticut where the soil is too scant to support any tree life except a very open, pure forest of chestnut oak. There are, of course, artificially pure forests, as those which are planted, or those from which all but one species have been removed. This brings us to the question which has been pro- lific of discussion among foresters, as to whether pure or mixed forests are more profitable. Naturally there are advantages in a mixture of deep and shallow-rooted trees, since a greater store of soil moisture and fertility is thus made available. So also different trees having somewhat different requirements as to chemical or physical properties of soil can abstract more from a given area than could one species, and a mixture of trees having different degrees of shade endurance can dwell more closely and form a heavier stand per acre. But the chief advantage of a mixture is in case of some catastrophe which devastates one species but spares the others. The tamarack may suffer from insect ravages, as was the case twenty years or more ago. If other species are in mixture they remain to take up the area, to reproduce, and also, to some extent, to present a barrier to the invasion of insects. In case of a severe windstorm, the more shallow-rooted trees may be over- turned in exposed situations, unless protected by a mixture of windfirm varieties. So against all forest enemies a mixture forms a safeguard. There is also a financial advantage in raising mixed forests. The length of time required to grow timber is so great that it is impossible to predict what species will be more valuable by the time of maturity. In Europe the first forestry measures were induced by a scarcity of fuel wood in the vicinity of the large cities. Hardwoods were, therefore, cultivated in 12 FORESTRY TN NEW ENGLAND these early operations, but to-day when railroad transportation has brought coal to the cities from long distances and manu- facture is given an impetus, the demand is for softwood lumber and the systems of management have been changed to produce it. A mixed forest provides against such changes of the market by furnishing different classes of timber. On the other hand, pure forests have now well-recognized advantages, the primary one being the simplicity of management. While the chances for injury are greater than with mixed forests, the profits are also greater if such injury is avoided, for a pure forest of trees adapted to a situation will produce more valuable timber than a mixed one. Much can be said theoretically in favor of each kind. For practical purposes in New England, it may be said that good management of our existing mixed forests will gradually restrict the mixture to two or three of the most valuable species; while plantations will be made pure, at least over small areas. As certain soil-fertilizing qualities are furnished by the heavy shade and decaying foliage of less valuable species, such as beech and hemlock, they may be sometimes planted, but this planting should usually be in the form of under-planting. Mixed forests undoubtedly have a greater aesthetic value than large pure forests, and for this reason will always be character- istic of estate forests. Coppice and High Forests. Nearly all the deciduous trees of New England have the ability to resprout when cut, a power common to only one or two conifers. In some cases these sprouts spring from the top of the stump, but with most trees from its base. In the New England forest, chestnut is the most prolific sprouter as regards the number of sprouts, their thriftiness, and the advanced age to which it is able to produce them. While the white oak sprouts but little after the age of sixty years, there are numerous cases of chestnuts which have grown from stumps one hundred and ten years or more old. Besides the chestnut and various SILVICS 13 species of oak, the red maple and white ash and basswood are prolific sprouters. Next to these in this regard are some species of birch and hickory; but the species characteristic of the northern forest, such as sugar maple, yellow birch, and beech, sprout comparatively Httle, and the trees resulting from them rarely amount to anything. A forest produced by sprouts is a coppice or low forest, so called because the trees seldom attain the height of those raised from seed, and are grown mostly for the production of small- dimension materials, especially fuel. As distinct from this is the high forest composed of trees that have grown from seed. Practically all our virgin forests were of this character, and wherever a second growth of conifers has come up on an old pasture it is a high forest, even if not over ten feet in height, the distinction being that trees sprung from seed will in time produce tall timber. A combination of the coppice and high-forest forms is known as the "composite form," in which seedling trees and sprouts are grown together. The effect of these different methods of reproduction are nowhere better exemplified than in the forests of northern and southern New England. The slopes of the White and the Green Mountains when once denuded of their spruce become reclothed with conifers only after a series of years. In the lower and warmer regions of Massachusetts and Connecticut, on the other hand, the hills are immediately reclothed with forest of the same species that were cut. Such are the advantages of the unkept woods of this region over those of the north. But as a practical system the simple coppice can be advised only in regions where there is a profitable market for fuel wood, as small-dimension material is its chief product. In America the sale of such products is slight compared with the demand for lumber, ties, poles, etc., so the land owner should gradually transform the coppice forest to a high forest, either of the same or more valuable species. 14 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Even and Uneven-aged Forests. If several specimens of the paper or canoe birch in a stand grown on an old burn are cut, it will be found that the ages vary but httle, as, for example, from twenty to twenty-five years. In Connecticut it has been the practice of farmers for over a Fig. 2. A virgin forest of a mixed uneven-aged character. Spruce, yellow birch, paper birch, maple and beech are the chief species. century to cut their wood lot "clean" whenever the trees were of a sufficient size to furnish the material desired. This was formerly cordwood, but during the past generation the use of coal has become so general that other products are now taken from the wood lot. In either case it has been the custom to cut all the trees on a certain area. These are of species that sprout SILVICS 15 naturally from the stump, and the result is that another forest all of whose trees are of the same age comes up to take the place of its predecessor. These are called "even-aged forests." Of a very different character is the virgin forest of the Adiron- dacks or the White Mountains. Here one will find stunted spruces that have not attained a height of three feet in fifty years along with one-year-old seedlings overshadowed by larger spruce and immense yellow birch that have been growing for over three centuries. This is an uneven-aged, or as it is often termed, a selection forest. Patches of seedlings spring up here and there in small openings where a few grow into saplings and finally into large trees. With such a variety of sizes and species these forests are often most beautiful, but on account of their unevenness are usually least profitable to manage. We have now described the chief distinguishing characteristics of all our forests. Whatever the composition, the forest must fall into each of these groups: it must be pure or mixed; even- or uneven-aged; coppice or high forest. The business of forestry is chiefly concerned with the harvest- ing of a crop in such a way as to leave a young growth of the desired species. To bring this about various methods have been developed to suit the requirements of different classes of forest. For purposes of uniformity the classification of forest forms set forth by Graves^ is here given in tabulated form. A. HIGH FOREST FORMS. 1. Selection Form. — Seedling trees of all ages, from seedhngs to veterans, are represented mixed together individually or in groups. 2. Regular or Even-aged Form. — The trees are approximately even-aged. 3. Irregular Form. — A stand which is not even-aged, nor yet of all ages, but has for some reason, either artificial or accidental, two or more ages well represented. ^ See "The Principles of Handling Woodlands," by Henry S. Graves: Wiley & Sons. l6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 4. Two-storied Form. — Two distinct stands on the same area, one growing underneath the other. They may be the same age, but composed of trees of different rates of growth. 5. The Reserve Form. — A regular stand in which scattered older trees are retained over a second rotation or longer. B. COPPICE FORMS. 1. Regular Coppice Form. — Here the sprouts are approxi- mately of the same age. 2. Irregular Coppice Form. — Various ages are represented owing to bad treatment. C. COMPOSITE FORMS. 1. Regular Composite Form. — Here sprouts and seedling trees of approximately the same age are growing together. 2. Irregular Composite Form. — This corresponds to the ir- regular coppice .with the addition of seedling trees of various ages. 3. Coppice with Standards. — In addition to the regular coppice stand there are scattered trees grown from seed on the same area; these are allowed to grow over several sprout rota- tions. CHAPTER II. SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS. In order to harvest different kinds of forests and to insure an equally good growth after cutting, various systems of cutting have been developed. Often they differ very little from ordi- nary methods of lumbering, but in other cases may demand a considerable money investment and a high degree of forestry knowledge. The forester, or the layman who handles his own forests, should have these systems definitely in mind, as only in this way can he secure satisfactory results in the reproduction of the desired species. Thus far these systems have been Httle used in America, but as our market conditions approach those of Europe they will be adapted to our conditions. And even under our present rough conditions it is as well to have some ideal to work for, some definite method to follow, as in other agricultural lines. The classification of these systems is the same as that used by Graves,^ with the exception that some of the least important systems described by him (generally modifications of the chief systems) are here omitted in order to avoid confusion. I. Systems Depending on Reproduction by Seed. A. THE SELECTION SYSTEM. This system, as its name implies, is adapted to selection stands. Since the virgin forest of all countries is an uneven-aged or irregular high forest, the first and crudest system deals with this and is called the "selection system," because the trees to be harvested are selected here and there as they become mature. 1 "Principles of Handling Woodlands," by Henry S. Graves: Wiley & Sons. 17 i8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGL.\ND As the old trees are removed seedlings gradually take their place. By this method no area is ever cut clean, and for that reason it appeals to those interested in the woods mainly for aesthetic reasons. It is so well known that with many it stands, un- fortunately, for the whole of forestry, with ill-advised legisla- tion in some localities imposing a minimum diameter limit for cuttings. As forestry develops in this country the selection forest will gradually be supplanted by even-aged stands managed 4 15 Hi 17 18 Fig. 3. — The selection system in a stand of spruce and hardwoods. I. First cutting.' II. Ten years later. Reproduction has started in the openings, and the stand is marked for a second cutting. ' In this and succeeding diagrams, trees to be cut are indicated by dashes. under one of the other systems. In the application of this system the whole stand may be cut through every year, or the stand is divided into blocks each of which is cut over periodically. In this case the interval between cuts is called the cutting cycle. Under ideal conditions this would be about ten years. Care must be taken always that trees of all ages be maintained, other- SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 19 wise a time will come when the cut must be reduced and the revenue correspondingly diminished. If the whole stand is cut over annually the amount removed should correspond with the annual growth of the whole stand. If it requires ten years to get through the forest the equivalent of the growth of ten years would be removed at each cutting. Thus, in the application of the system in one of our white pine forests having an area of 100 acres and with an annual growth of 500 board feet per acre and timbtr marked for selection Fig. 4. — The hardwood type. A stand (cMiiaininL; mature ^^ .«. -^ cutting. (The marked trees are blazed.) Note overmature and unhealthy condition of many trees. a cutting cycle of ten years, 5000 board feet per acre, or 500,000 board feet on the whole area, can be removed each decade. If the rotation in this forest, or the length of time required to mature the crop, is one hundred years, the area cut over annually, with a cutting cycle of ten years, would be 10 acres, and the annual cut from this area would amount to 50,000 board feet. In our virgin forests where there is a great range of age classes, all mature trees are grouped in the oldest-age class and the first cuttings will tend to eliminate them, so that in the forests of twenty years hence we shall have comparatively few trees over one hundred years old. 20 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND B. THE CLEAR-CUTTING SYSTEMS. Where such a large proportion of the trees is cut that the remainder does not influence the growth of reproduction, it is called a "clear cutting." The clearing may be done in one or a series of operations but is usually accomplished in twenty years at most. While the selection system is best adapted for many of our virgin forests under present conditions, there are certain exigencies which make clear cutting, especially of even-aged forests, more profitable as well as preferable from a silvicultural standpoint. For example, in the pure spruce forests of the steep slopes of the White Mountains there is such great danger of windfall if scattered trees are left that some form of clear cutting is a necessity. This is also the case where logging is so difficult and expensive that only infrequent operations can be profitable; and where trees are so large that later removal would injure valuable reproduction. In many of our culled forests so little of value is left that it is practically necessary to cut clean the inferior growth and replant. Of course there are certain dis- advantages in the use of these systems, among the most impor- tant being the exposure of the soil, especially on steep slopes, to erosion. Berry bushes and other weeds are apt to spring up on such areas and seriously interfere with reproduction. Young trees are more apt to be injured by sun, wind, frost, and insects than when started under shade. Good forestry principles de- mand that the areas cut clean shall not be very large. Young growth may be secured after clear cutting either by natural seeding or artificially by sowing or planting. The detailed methods of accomplishing artificial reproduction will be discussed later under the chapter on Planting, so only its theory need be considered here. It will be readily seen that natural reproduction is a rather slow process, while restocking by plant- ing can be accomplished at once, and is more certain to be successful. Then, again, the varieties obtainable by natural means are limited to those already present; but in planting, the species best adapted to the soil or most remunerative may be SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 21 substituted. On the other hand, natural reproduction is ap- parently, though not always actually, cheaper. Natural re- production follows nature's methods closely and for that reason will be the method largely used for the present in this country, and, in fact, has preference in certain kinds of forests in Europe. Fig. $. — A stand of European silver fir in the Vosges Mountains, France, lOO to 150 years, managed on the selection system. I. Clear Cutting with Artificial Reproduction. By this method the area in question is cut clean and the plant- ing or seeding is done afterwards. It is desirable that the slash or limbs be disposed of in some way before planting. This method was the chief one used by the Cornell Forest School some ten years ago in the management of its extensive tracts in the Adirondacks and for which the school became so unpopular that it was given up. It was not realized at that time that any form of clear cutting could be good forestry. It is a system admirably adapted for small tracts well protected from fire, in stands which 2 2 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND are either overmature or have been so damaged that desirable natural reproduction is impossible, and wherever intensive man- agement is possible. Graves recognizes three systems of clear cutting with artifi- cial reproduction, but as they are practically identical except for the area cut over, these various modifications need not be con- sidered in this book. 2. Clear Cutting with Natural Reproduction. The success of this method depends on the thoroughness with which the area is seeded from trees standing on the border of, or scattered over, the cut area. Naturally, it can be used with Jight-seeded trees only. The completeness of the seeding is proportional to the area cut and the ability of the seed to be carried long distances. For example, the method on a large cut- over area would be much more successful with poplar than with spruce. a. Clear Cutting the Whole Stand. If the cutting is made just after a seed year, there may be enough seed on the ground to warrant cutting off the whole stand. Occasionally one finds a place where a pine or a spruce stand happened to be cut at such a time, and a dense growth of seedlings has resulted. Very often a mature stand of timber may be surrounded by younger stands which would naturally be left for a number of years. If such a mature stand is cut clean the area will be seeded in for a considerable distance on all sides from the surrounding younger stands; and if this cut-over area is not too large it will be completely reseeded in this way. h. Reserving Blocks of Trees. When the clear-cutting system is to be used on extensive areas some provision must be made for reproduction by leaving a sufficient number of seed trees. In many locahties, and espe- cially with shallow-rooted trees, there is great danger of windfall SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 23 in leaving scattered trees or small groups, and to overcome this difficulty large blocks of trees are reserved. The ideal way to overcome this danger of windfall would be to use the strip sys- tem described a Uttle farther on, which leaves 40 to 50 per cent of the timber for a second cutting. Oftentimes poor market conditions and expensive logging prevent two cuttings and require that at least 75 per cent of the timber be cut in one cut- ting. Under these circumstances the best which can be done is 12 3 4 5 6 7 b 9 10 H 12 13 14 16 lb 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2(> 27 ?»?i?n??mmT?9?f9????ffn??wmff??w??????rf?f?M^ffaffflffi?#ff?M^m9 Fig. 6. — The scattered seed-tree method. A mature stand marked for a reproduction cutting. The entire stand is to be cut except for occasional seed trees. Ten years later, showing the reproduction fully established and the old seed trees marked for removal. to leave 15 to 25 per cent of the timber in the form of large blocks. These blocks are carefully located with reference to seeding the cut-over area, usually on ridges or the upper portions of slopes. A young stand should be selected for this purpose if practicable, since it is not expected to return to remove it for a number of years, possibly not for an entire rotation. Occasionally there are blocks of inferior trees of little value for lumber which, never- theless, are perfectly good for seed purposes. At best the method 24 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND is only an expedient to be used during the present pioneer stage of forestry until our markets have improved enough to make a more intensive system possible. It is very doubtful even now whether it is better to invest money in reserve blocks of over- mature timber or in replanting after cutting clean. By permission of the Massachusetts State Forester. Fig. 7. — The scattered seed-tree method. Pine seed trees are seen together with some hardwoods. These latter will be cut clear for cordwood, only pine remaining. c. Reserving Scattered Seed Trees {Scattered Seed-tree Method). In some locahties where there is little danger of windfall and with well-rooted species, this system of clean cutting with re- PROPERTY OF A. A im. COLLEGE LIBRARY. SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 25 serves of scattered trees is advisable. Neither this nor the preceding system can be used with any other than hght-seeded trees. The best number of seed trees to be left varies con- siderably, but they should not be farther apart than their heights, three to eight per acre. Often very limby or partially decayed trees, so long as they are windfirm, may be left for this purpose. They should have large crowns occupying at least half the tree's height, since these bear the largest crops of seed, while suppressed and spindling trees have very little seed. The investment consequent on this method is less than that entailed by the previous method, since less timber in the aggregate is left. Wherever many or valuable trees are required as seed trees some other system should be substituted. After reproduction has been estabhshed the seed trees are usually removed. In some cases small groups of three to ten or more seed trees are left standing together. This is done to better prevent windfall. d. Reserving Thrifty Standards {Reserve Seed-tree Method). Under the two systems just described trees are left for seed alone, hence inferior trees may be left. Under the reserve seed- tree system trees are left for greater growth as well as for seed, and only straight, thrifty specimens are reserved. The system is well adapted to stands of moderate age where there are many trees capable of continuing a thrifty growth for years, probably for another rotation. If, for example, the rotation used in white pine were seventy-five years, these reserves or standards might be left over one rotation, until they were one hundred and fifty years old, when they would be very valuable for special purposes, as for derrick sticks, besides having served as seed trees. While under the previous system less than a dozen trees per acre are required for seeding, under this system from 15 to 25 reserves per acre may be left. Naturally the reproduction is better on this account. 26 'forestry in new ENGLAND e. Clear Cutting in Strips. As market conditions improve it will become feasible to cut a stand clean in two or more operations instead of taking out the bulk of the timber at once, as described in the clear-cutting systems already considered. When this is practicable one of the forms of the strip system will be of value in New England. The strip system may be applied in either of two ways: i, with alternate strips; 2, with progressive strips. Fig. 8. — The progressive strip system. I. A mature stand marked for reproduction cutting. II. Ten years later. The first strip is reproduced and a second : ready to be cut. I. The strips are here cut at fairly regular distances removing about half the timber and leaving alternate strips uncut to seed up the cleared areas. The best results are obtained where the cut strips are not much wider than the height of the bordering trees, although they may be three times as wide with some light- seeded species. It is customary to allow several seed years to pass between cuttings so that the area may be well reproduced. The remaining stand can, of course, be cut clean and replanted; or one of the previously described seed-tree methods may be SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 2^ applied on these alternate strips. If the period between cuttings were long enough to allow the new generation to produce seed this would be unnecessary, but it is not the practice to wait so long. 2. Under this method the stand is removed by a series of strips, beginning on one side and progressing in the direction of the prevailing wind across the area. The last strips must be reproduced by some other method. An interval of several seed years is allowed to elapse between the cuttings. It would, there- fore, take a very long time to cut over a whole forest in this way. To overcome this delay the stand is divided into several nearly equal areas and a series of strips is established in each. /. Clear Cutting in Patches {Group Method). Irregular patches of unequal size are cut usually where a group of reproduction is already started. These first openings are not over 200 feet across and do not aggregate over one-third the entire area. When these patches are entirely reproduced from the surrounding stand, the cuttings are enlarged gradually until all is cleared. The last strips will, of course, have to be repro- duced by some other method. C THE SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM (STAND SYSTEM). There are certain disadvantages connected with all of the clear-cutting systems which are overcome by the shelterwood system. Under the former methods the soil is exposed and reproduction is retarded by drought and frost. It is also im- possible to use them with heavy-seeded trees, such as oak, chestnut, and beech. The principle of the shelterwood system is to open and re- move the stand gradually by a series of thinnings. This results in reproduction under the shelter of the mother trees which are not all cut until complete reproduction has been accomplished. A more even distribution of seed results from this system because there are large numbers of seed trees well distributed over the area, and the young seedlings are protected by the shade of the 28 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND remaining trees. The mother trees also benefit from the thin- nings and make a more rapid growth during the remainder of their lives. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2t> 27 2s Fig. g. — The shelterwood sj'stem. I. An even-aged stand sixty years old marked for the preparatory cutting. II. Five years after the preparatory cutting has been made. The seedbed has been made more favorable for germination and a little reproduction may be seen in the more open places. The stand is marked for the seed cutting. [II. Ten years after the seed cutting. Complete reproduction has been secured and the stand is marked for the final cutting. The system can be applied only with windfirm species or where there is no danger from windfall, as the system of cutting leaves many trees isolated. On account of the gradual removal of the stand, by means of several cuttings, the shelterwood system is SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 29 best suited for well-settled regions where intensive management can be practiced. The simplest form of this system, and the only one that can be applied with crude market conditions, is to remove the stand in two cuttings about twenty years apart. The first, intended to give opportunity for reproduction to start, is called the "seed By permission of the U. S. Forest Sendee. Fig. 10. — Reproduction of white pine under the shelter of a mature stand. or reproduction cutting," and removes about 75 per cent of the merchantable timber. Ten to twenty years later the second or "final cutting " removes the remainder of the old stand. The maturest and least thrifty timber is selected for the first cutting, while thrifty trees and good seed producers are the kind retained for the final cutting. These trees should be left dis- tributed over the areas as uniformly as possible. With the better market conditions which prevail in portions of New England, one of the more intensive forms, such as have 30 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND been developed in Europe, can be used. The cuttings fall into three classes: 1. Preparatory cuttings. 2. Seed cuttings. 3. Removal cuttings including the final cutting. The purpose of the preparatory cutting is to prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed. Often in a dense stand, such as many of our spruce stands, there is a heavy layer of "duff" or decaying needles, and the seed cannot come in contact with the mineral soil, and hence may either fail to germi- nate or die soon after it germinates. The increased circulation of air following a thinning dis- integrates the humus and makes a favorable seed bed, and the remaining trees cast enough shade to prevent the rank growth of injurious weeds. The preparatory cutting also gradually ac- customs the mother trees to isolation, and tends to make them more windfirm. This cutting removes the inferior trees — those which are diseased, suppressed, defective, or particularly liable to windfall, and weed species not desired in the next crop. From 20 to 30 per cent of the volume of the stand is removed in the preparatory cuttings, leaving a space of not over three to five feet between the crowns of the remainder. After an interval of from five to ten years the humus should be sufficiently decom- posed to leave the mineral soil exposed in spots, when it is time for the seed cutting. This is a heavy thinning made during a seed year by taking out from one-quarter to one-half of the original stand, and with the purpose of estabhshing proper conditions for the start of reproduction. The best results are obtained with heavy-seeded trees, if this cutting can be made after the seed has fallen. The largest and most spreading- topped trees are removed at this time, as felling them later might damage the reproduction. If unfavorable conditions exist, the reproduction after the seed cutting may be assisted artificially by planting or simply by stirring up the soil with mattocks, or by pasturing hogs with the purpose of rooting up the fitter and exposing the mineral soil. SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 31 The shelter trees which are left under this system to shade the ground and the little seedhngs (thus distinguishing the system particularly from the clear-cutting systems) are taken out in the removal cuttings as soon as the reproduction is well established. The first of these cuttings is made within three or four years of the seed cutting. Under the most intensive system, as developed in Europe, there are three or four of these removal cuttings, including the final cutting, occurring at inter- vals of about three years. The inevitable breakage in the re- production caused by these cuttings, if severe enough to leave gaps, is repaired by planting. The following table shows the occurrence of the various cuttings used in this system, covering a period of twenty-five years. The number of preparatory and removal cuttings will undoubtedly be decreased and the total length of the period from the first to the last cutting will be shortened in the use of the system in New England. TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CUTTINGS UNDER SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM AS MOST INTENSIVELY APPLIED. Kind of cutting. Preparatory cuttings. . Seed cutting Removal cuttings Including final cutting. Date of beginning. 1900 1910 191S 1925 Approximate number of cuttings. Percentage of original stand removed. 25 to 40 25 to 50 10 to 50 II. Systems Depending on Reproduction Wholly or Partly from Sprouts (Coppice). The systems already described depend for their success upon the production and growth of young trees from seed. The following systems depend largely on the ability of trees to sprout when cut back. Naturally these systems can only be apphed in forests composed of trees which sprout readily. In this country the most prolific sprouters are chestnut, oak, basswood, 32 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND birch, maple, especially soft maple, ash, hickory, and other hardwoods. There are three systems depending wholly or partly on sprout reproduction : A. Simple Coppice. B. Coppice with Standards. C. Pole-wood Coppice. A. SIMPLE coppice. Under this system which is so simple that it has long been practiced in southern New England, the stand is cut clear and allowed to sprout up again from the stumps. Usually several sprouts start from a single stump although only a few live to attain tree size. In the western part of Connecticut where the forests have been repeatedly cut under this system at intervals of about twenty years for the production of charcoal for the iron mines, it is possible to distinguish three or four generations of stumps in many wood lots, each younger generation of stumps surrounding the older ones. The system is so easy of applica- tion that neglect is common and a forest is very apt to dete- riorate. Some species continue to sprout freely much longer than others, but nearly all after a certain age fail to sprout vigorously. Chestnut, for example, generally sprouts well if cut at loo years or even at 120 years, while white oak sprouts poorly after sixty years. To maintain thrifty, fully-stocked coppice stands short rotations are necessary. Ordinarily the rotation must be less than forty years except for a species hke chestnut, which sprouts well to a considerable age. Therefore the simple coppice system is chiefly applicable for the production of fuel, and for this purpose is generally applied in Europe on a rotation of about twenty years. In this country where fuel wood is as yet such a drug on the market, the system has little to recommend it. To secure the best results in sprouting the trees should be cut between September 15 and April i. The stumps should be left with a clean slanting surface so that water will not settle in them and cause decay. SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 33 B. COPPICE WITH STANDARDS. There already exists a form of forest which may be considered as a transition stage between coppice and high forest and which when fashioned by the science of the forester is called a coppice with standards forest. This is a forest composed largely of sprouts, but with an admixture of larger trees grown from seed. In the Rhine Valley of Baden this system has, perhaps, reached its highest perfection. Here the forest is laid off in regular sub- divisions, one of which is cut each year of the rotation of the coppice, which is usually twenty years. In most cases an area is cut every twenty years and allowed to resprout. But instead of cutting quite clear a few selected trees or standards are left to grow on for several more rotations. The standards are trees from the seed and not sprouts. These standards are obtained either by planting or by natural seeding, a little of which is apt to take place even in simple coppice stands. At the end of the next twenty-year period the poorer trees are cut along with the stand of coppice, but the best, perhaps thirty to the acre, are left to grow for another coppice rotation. Again, part are removed and a few allowed to grow on to sixty, eighty, or one hundred years, thus producing timber of various dimensions at each cutting. When the system is once under way a stand of coppice together with standards of several different ages and sizes will be found on the same acre. The reason that trees grown from seed are selected for standards is that such trees live to a greater age and attain larger propor- tions than those grown from sprouts. When a cutting among the standards is made the spaces formerly occupied by the old standards are filled with seedlings by planting. Trees are selected as standards which are of valuable species and will have a high value when mature. Since these standards are crowded only during the first part of their lives, they form short, thick- set bodies and usually produce one or two large logs of fast growth. 34 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 1-M 4-5^ 7 8-9-10 11-12-13-14 15-16-17 18-19 20-21-22 23 24-25-26 0 V <0 Q 10 li -0 2 29-30-31 7 32-33-34 35 36 37-38-39 40 16 41-42 43 21 44-45.46 26 47-48-49 50 IV Fig. 38 10 43 — Coppice with standards. I. A sprout stand 25 years of age, which it is desired to manage on the coppice with standards' system; the rotation for coppice to be 25 years and that for standards any multiple of 25 years. The stand is marked for the reproduction cutting, everything being taken except a few selected standards (trees nos. 2, 7, 16, 21, and 25), which are either of seedling origin or are thrifty sprouts. II. Same stand immediately after the cutting, showing standards left. III. Same stand 25 years later. A second crop of coppice is ready to cut and the stand- ards are 50 years old. .The cutting will take all the coppice except selected standards. All the standards of the older age class which are unhealthy, like no. 21, or where standing too thickly, are removed. rV. Same stand immediately after the cutting. Two age classes of standards are left: trees nos. 7, 16, and 25 of the so-year class and nos. 36, 38, 43, and 50 of the younger class. SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS 35 ■^^"."^ CoppiLc wilh standards as used in l-_>un)pL-. 1 iic leaving the standards. lias just bee C. POLE-WOOD COPPICE. This system combines reproduction by sprouts and reproduc- tion by seed in varying proportions. The seedhng reproduction is secured under shelter, as in the shelterwood system; and the pole-wood coppice system stands in a position midway between the simple coppice system and the shelterwood system. Its advantages are that sprout reproduction which requires so little skill to secure, is utilized, and yet long enough rotations can be used to grow saw timber, owing to the fact that seedling re- production can be reHed on to fill the gaps where sprouting has failed. The rotation instead of being limited to forty years or less, as in the simple coppice system, may be as high as eighty years. In New England its field of usefulness is in the southern and central portions where the hardwoods reproduce extensively by sprouts. The system is applied by making two cuttings. The 36 FORESTRY IX NEW ENGLAND first resembles the seed cutting in the shelterwood system and is intended to get seedHng reproduction started. About 30 to 40 per cent of the volume is taken out, the poorest specimens being cut. Where the stand is composed of species like chestnut, which will sprout well even on an eighty-year rotation, there is less need to secure seedling reproduction and the seed cutting can be very Hght.^ Where trees Hke white oak, which sprouts poorly at sixty to eighty years, occur the seed cutting must be made heavy enough to encourage complete seedling reproduction. Five to ten years after the seed cutting, or as soon as good seed- ling reproduction is established and has secured a few years' start, the remainder of the stand is removed in the final cutting. Sprouts at once start and with the seedlings on the ground develop a mixed stand of seedlings and sprouts. 1 Even in stands where at eighty years every stump will sprout, the stumps are relatively so far apart that the young sprouts do not form a close stand, and a mixture of seedlings is needed to grow clear-bodied trees. CHAPTER III. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMPORTANT NEW ENGLAND TREES. In the first chapter the relation of climatic influences, such as soil, light, etc., to tree growth has been traced and the kinds of forests to be dealt with have been described. The differences existing between forests are due to the trees composing them, and the presence of these in turn is due to the natural conditions previously mentioned. Through the centuries of its evolution each tree species, as each animal species, has acquired certain definite characteristics which the forester calls silvicultural to distinguish them from the botanical characteristics by which a species is identified. Scientific forest management must be based on an accurate knowledge of these characteristics of the different tree species. The most important silvicultural characteristics of trees, which it is the purpose of this chapter to describe, are the following: (a) Range and distribution. (b) Requirements as to soil, light, and moisture. (c) Rate of growth and longevity. {d) Seed production and abihty to reproduce by seed and sprouts. (e) LiabiUty to damage by fire, insects, fungi, etc. (y) Purposes for which used. White Pine (Pin us strohiis). The white pine extends from Newfoundland and southern Labrador to western Minnesota and Manitoba. It reaches its southern hmit in central Illinois, Indiana, and the southern Appalachians, where it is found as far south as northern Georgia 38 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND and Alabama. It originally grew in all sections of New England except on the higher mountains and in the region comprising southeastern Rhode Island and Cape Cod. Few forest trees bear seed every year and the white pine is rather more irregular in this respect than are most trees. There is a common saying that the pine bears a seed crop only once in seven years. This notion, however, is incorrect. There was a good seed crop in Vermont in 1907, in parts of the State in 1910, and in other parts in 191 1. It takes two years for the pine cones to mature. At the end of the first season the cones are about one inch long and of a purplish color. The mature cones begin to open early in September when the seed blows out and is carried by the wind for considerable distances. As there are two seeds on each scale, there may be eighty or more seeds in a cone. Usually about one pound of seed is secured from a bushel of cones. Some large-topped pines will yield from two to three bushels of cones, which carry anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 seeds. A few such trees scattered over a tract are important factors toward its restocking. Much of the seed is carried twice the length of the tree and some of it considerably farther. It germinates best where there is plenty of light, as in a pasture at the edge of the woods, or in an opening caused by windfall. The Httle seedlings require a great deal of light and will soon die if deprived of it. These facts are important reasons for making cuttings in a pine forest the season following a seeding. On account of the length of time required to mature the cones, it is always possible to know a year ahead when there is to be a good crop, and the harvest should be planned accordingly. If the cutting is made in the fall or winter following seeding, when the ground is covered with seed, germination goes on well in the soil which is stirred up by lumbering, and the seedlings grow well under the increased light. If made the year before, the seed from these trees will be lost; if made the year after, the seed would largely have germinated and died for lack of light and moisture. This ex- plains why it is that occasionally one finds a splendid second SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 39 growth of pine following the cutting of pine, and at other times there is no growth at all. Cones are often formed on very young pine trees, but until the trees become thirty years old there is either no seed in these cones, or the seed is liable to be sterile. ^^^>'. i 'y^^" *^^^ > - ^ - ■ - ^ 'iil2. ^mw^ ■fev • ^r^:^c4^^ ^P^^^lK? ■ ' ->■"' .-^^ ^'^:^""--'^•"■r■^.--■ By permission of Ike U . i>. Forest Service. Fig. 13. — Windfalls as the result of planting white pine on low, wet ground where the drainage is insufficient. The white pine is very indifferent in its demands upon soil and moisture and thrives on all but the driest of New England's sandy plains; it will grow also on hummocks, in swamps, even with clay substratum. However, it makes its best development on a fairly moist loam soil. In regard to light, it is more exact- ing. Under a light shade the seedhngs will exist for several years, but they will make little growth and in a heavy wood are sure to succumb. The rate of growth, as with all species, de- pends upon conditions. On the whole, it is the most rapid growing native tree of New England, and usually averages over a foot a year in height. The annual height growth is sometimes over three feet, and the diameter growth is proportionately large. 40 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND A cross section of white pine, which attained a diameter of thirty-two inches in seventy-seven years, is on exhibition in the State Forester's office in Burhngton, Vermont. Unlike some rapid growers, the white pine Hves to an advanced age, occasion- ally three hundred years or more, though trees of that age are Fig. 14. — A white pine of the best type for lumber; with straight trunk, without dead branches. now rare. In youth it is very susceptible to dam_age by fire, but as it gradually substitutes a thick, rigid bark for the thin, green, smooth bark of youth, it becomes more resistant. Its chief natural enemy is the white pine weevil, which is described later (see Chapter VII). On account of its smooth grain and the softness of its wood the white pine is a most valuable wood for many purposes. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 41 Until it became scarce it was the chief building lumber. Now the better grades are used largely for interior finishing and other special purposes. The cheaper grades are used for match stock and the very poorest grades for box boards. Its high value and rapid growth, combined with its abihty to thrive on the sandiest and poorest sites, make the white pine the most important tree to raise in New England; it should be encouraged wherever it occurs. Red or Norway Pine {Pimis resinosa). The red pine has about the same natural range east and west as the white pine, but does not extend so far south. In New England it is a comparatively rare tree, and is scattered in- exphcably in small clumps from the Canadian Hne to northern Connecticut. It derives its name from the fact that it was first noticed near Norway, Maine. The demands of the red pine on soil, light, and moisture are about the same as those of white pine. It will grow, however, on an even drier sand, but is more exacting of light. Measurements made in several New England plantations show an average height of thirty-five feet and a diameter of six inches, in thirty years. In mixture with white pine its height growth is fully equal to that of the latter, and its diameter growth only a little smaller. It does not attain as large a size in New England as does white pine, specimens one hundred feet high and three feet in diameter being rare. The seed years of the red pine are more infrequent than those of the white pine, and in off years there is no crop; with white pine there are often some cones between regular crops. The seed germinates well in hot, dry situations, as on a fitter of needles, on exposed mineral soil, or in thin grass growth, so that in spite of the comparative scarcity of seed reproduction is fairly profific wherever seed trees occur. This tree is free from insects and diseases, and suffers less from fire than the white pine. Its wood is harder than white pine, but is often classed in with it and for many purposes is nearly as good. 42 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND On account of its rapidity of growth and freedom from insects and disease, the red pine is a species that should be planted extensively. By prrrni:.!,.,, ..j ll„ ( „»«,.//.;// .V.i/. /'.-r, ,r. Fig. 15. — Experimental plantations of the Connecticut Agricultural Station. Reading from left to right the species are: — red pine, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, white pine. The pines are 10 years of age. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigidd). This is emphatically an eastern pine, being confined to a belt along the Atlantic from southern Maine to Georgia, and extending westward only to the edge of the Mississippi valley. It occurs throughout New England in the extreme northern part, and in the mountains. It is the outcast of the pines and occurs pure only on the sandiest plains where other trees thrive with difficulty. On better soils it is sometimes mixed with other pines and with hardwoods. It is characteristic of sand plains in the Champlain valley, on Cape Cod, and in the lower Connecticut valley. In SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 43 early colonial times in the last-named region it was important as the source of tar and turpentine which were produced in large quantities to supply our early ship-building industry. To-day there are few stands of any size or age, as it has suffered from fire more than any other species, owing to the hot, dry locaHties which it inhabits. Its habits are those of the red pine accentuated, in its abihty to withstand drought, heat, poor soil, and in its greater demands for light. Its tendency is to grow rather short and crooked, but on the better soils it attains a height of sixty or seventy feet. Pitch pine seedlings grow more rapidly at first than those of our other native pines, but their growth is slower after three or four years. The pitch pine is a proHfic annual seeder and reproduc- tion on land not burned over is usually good, since the seed germinates well on the driest of mineral or needle-covered soils. This species also has the abihty (uncommon in conifers) to sprout from the stump. After fires, especially, it is common to find numerous sprouts growing from .the stump. As a rule, however, these do not mature. This tree has no serious enemies, and as the bark is often an inch thick it is very fire-resistant. It is this abihty to withstand fire that accounts for its frequent occurrence pure where other trees once in mixture, such as the white pine, have been killed by fire. The shade cast by the pitch pine is not very dense, and the conditions for reproduction of white pine and other species are often best under its mild protection, so that it is a valuable agent in the natural reproduction of worn-out, sandy plains. On account of the poor quahty of the timber and its smaller yield per acre, the pitch pine is not an especially desirable species. Scotch Pine {Pinus sylvestris). This is a foreign tree and resembles the Norway pine in ap- pearance, but its foliage is somewhat bluer and its bark redder. A native throughout Europe, it attains there a height of one 44 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND hundred and twenty feet and a diameter of from three to five feet. In America it has been extensively planted, generally with success. The largest plantations in the East are those on the New York state lands near Saranac Lake. Fig. 10. — A 7-year-old plantation of Scotch pine on sandy soil. Having the ability to withstand intense drought and to thrive on the poorest of sandy soils, it makes a remarkable height growth under the most trying circumstances. In Europe it is also, extensively planted on peaty soils. Its demands for light are greater than those of white and red pines. The seed crop is abundant every two or three years, but as yet seed used in America is imported. Experience has shown that the seed which comes from northern Europe produces better timber trees than that from the southern part of its range. The presence of old Scotch pine is so limited in this country that very little reproduction occurs and it is impossible to judge of its ability in this direction. In this country it has escaped all enemies except a bhster rust which occasionally attacks young trees. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 45 The lumber of Scotch pine is similar to that of pitch pine, but of better, though not of first-class quaHty. This with its rapid growth makes the tree well worth planting. Red Spruce (Picea rubens). This is a distinctly eastern species of the cooler regions, extending west from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, nearly through New York, and in the Appalachians as far south as northern Georgia. In New England it occurs throughout Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, and on the higher hills of central and western Massachusetts. All spruces are tolerant of shade, and it is one of the well- known traits of this species that it can exist for half a century or more under heavy shade without making appreciable growth, and then shoot up with the vitality of youth if the shade is removed. As might be expected from its preference for a cool climate it naturally selects moist situations. Together with balsam and tamarack it is one of the first trees to grow on the gradually forming lands of our northern swamps. However, a lack of water does not prevent its growth, for it inhabits high elevations in the Green and White Mountains where it often forms pure stands of excellent timber. Its root system is very shallow and where grown on hardpan or on ledges, trees are Hable to be blown over if exposed to the wind by the removal of surround- ing trees. Under favorable circumstances, though the spruce can hardly be considered a rapid-growing species, it often grows from ten inches to a foot a year in height. More often in virgin forest it grows very slowly, and very old specimens are common. A growth of a tenth of an inch per year in diameter is a fair average for virgin spruce. Four hundred and seventeen annual rings have been counted on a tree less than a foot in diameter, which grew on the upper slope of a Maine mountain. The seed years are more frequent than those of pine and it begins to seed at an early age. 46 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Trees bear prolific crops of cones which open some two or three weeks later than those of white pine, owing to the cooler situations in which the spruce occurs. For a germinating bed it prefers decaying logs or moss, but does well on bare mineral soil or one covered with needles. In any small opening in a spruce forest numerous seedhngs can generally be found, and on Fig. 17. — A stand of spruce 60-70 years of age on an old field. Note the number , size of dead branches still on the trees. abandoned fields in the spruce region reproduction invariably follows. The young roots cannot penetrate the leaf litter of a hardwood forest, and spruce reproduction in such places is, therefore, scarce. Like most conifers it is severely damaged by fire, and, as mentioned above, is very susceptible to windfall. There are also several bark-boring insects which cause periodic damage. Though spruce is neither as rapid growing nor as valuable as white pine, its natural adaptability to the higher and northern portions of New England, its value for many uses as lumber and pulp, its fair growth and easy reproduction, all combine to make it the most important tree to encourage in the higher elevations. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 47 Norway Spruce {Picea excelsa). The Norway spruce, like the Scotch pine, is native throughout northern Europe, but is not pecuHar to Norway any more than the pine is to Scotland. It was planted considerably in this country between 1850 and 1875, chiefly for ornamental purposes, and made such a rapid growth that in a few instances it has been planted in clumps and large groves, for commercial purposes. Individual specimens may be found throughout New England. It grows much faster than the red spruce, two feet a year in height being not uncommon. Its diameter and volume growth are equally rapid. One of the best known plantations of this spruce, a small patch on the Billings Estate in Woodstock, Ver- mont, is now thirty-four years old. Many of these trees have diameters from a foot to eighteen inches. Four of them when cut made a cord of pulp wood. Tests made by the International Paper Company proved that the wood of the Norway makes a whiter and stronger-libered paper than that of the red spruce. For this reason, combined with its rapidity of growth, this company has commenced planting it extensively. Its requirements as to moisture, soil, and light appear to be similar to those of red spruce, except that possibly it does not thrive so well on wet land. In habihty to damage it is also similar to our native species. There are, however, two serious objections to the Norway spruce. The first is that in this country it does not seem to live much over fifty years. This, perhaps, is not a serious objection from the standpoint of raising pulp since an excellent crop may be secured in thirty-five to fifty years. The other objection is that it is a very poor reproducer. Although this tree has been planted extensively in this country, it is difficult to find any number of small trees that have seeded from old ones. But this is not an acquired fault, for this spruce is notorious, even in the Black Forest of Germany, for its poor reproduction. Our native red spruce is much superior in this respect, and this difference will be of importance as years pass and forests now 48 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND starting approach the period when they should be reproduced. Artificial reproduction will always have to be the method of securing another stand of Norway spruce. Even with these objections it cannot be denied that the Nor- way spruce, on account of its rapid growth, is a much more encouraging tree to plant than red spruce; it should have a large field in localities not adapted to pine, especially in the northern part of New England. Balsam or Fir (Abies halsamea). This tree is a northern species extending from Labrador to the Rockies, and southward in the Appalachians to West Virginia. It is not native to southern New England, though in the west it extends through the Berkshires into northern Connecticut. The fir is less tolerant of shade than spruce, and it is a common thing in the woods to find small trees dead from lack of light. For the same reason the lower limbs die out more, making lumber freer from large knots. Balsam should be classed, however, as a tolerant tree. The fir is even more cosmopohtan as regards soil and moisture than the spruce, but, in general, prefers more moisture. It seldom occurs on dry, sandy soils, though it is common on high mountains where there is httle soil, and that very dry; in swamps also it often occurs pure. Both spruce and fir are subject to damage by wind but in different ways. A heavy wind that will uproot a spruce on account of its shallow- root system, will break down a balsam four or six feet above the ground. This breakage is possible because the balsam is seriously attacked by a fungus which weakens the stem. The fir is distinctly a rapid-growing tree, a height growth of one and one-half feet and a diameter growth of one-half inch per year being not uncommon. This is nearly twice the growth made by the average red spruce. The fir is short-lived. Trees over eighteen inches in diameter are rare. On the lower lands fir begins to deteriorate between SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 49 fifty and sixty years; higher up on the slopes it usually remains sound until seventy years. The fir is an exceptionally prolific reproducer. Wherever in a mixed spruce and fir stand a cutting is made the reproduction is sure to be largely of fir. It prefers as a seed bed the bare mineral soil or a soil covered with needles, and seldom grows on hardwood fitter, although it does better in such situations than spruce. Fir lumber is of an inferior quafity, but on account of the rapid growth and splendid ability to reproduce, it is possibly as profitable to raise as the red spruce. In the future when the profit from growing is given as much consideration as the profit from cutting, the balsam will be more appreciated. Hemlock {Tsiiga canadensis). The range of hemlock is from Newfoundland west to Minne- sota and south to Georgia. It is found scattered throughout New England except in the Cape Cod region. The hemlock is only a httle more particular than the pine in regard to soil, as it will grow in very dry situations. It is rather a tree of the hillside than of the plain, and especially prefers cool glens or ravines, probably on account of the atmos- pheric moisture, where it is usually mixed with other trees. Hemlock stands a great deal of shade, even surpassing the spruce in this ability. It is very slow growing and is apt to become shaky in old age. Reproduction is good, as seeds are borne nearly every year. They germinate on practically all sites but prefer decaying logs and similar moist beds. Hemlock is comparatively free from disease, and much less susceptible to windfall than spruce. The lumber is of inferior quafity, but the bark has a slight additional value for tanning purposes. Altogether, when its slow growth and low value are taken into 50 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND consideration, the hemlock cannot be recommended in forestry operations, and is doomed to disappear from our forests except when maintained for aesthetic purposes. Tamarack {Larix laricina). Tamarack is one of our most northerly trees, ranging from Labrador and Newfoundland northwest to Alaska, and south to Ilhnois and Pennsylvania. In New England it is not at all common but is found in many restricted localities, usually on the border of a swamp or the edge of a pond. It does not extend into southern New England, the northern part of Con- necticut being its southern limit. It requires more light than most trees, but will live in water and on sour soils. Tamarack is occasionally found on hillsides but very rarely. It is but seldom found on sand, preferring a loam soil. It has a tendency to form pure stands but is often mixed with balsam, birch, spruce, and cedar. The root system is shallow but very compact. Tamarack grows rapidly on well-drained soils, but very slowly on the average swampy site. It seeds abundantly and is a good reproducer especially on abandoned fields. The seed germinates well in pasture grass or on the moss-covered soils of swamps. The tamarack is our only deciduous conifer. Many years ago the tamarack was practically destroyed by the worm of the larch sawfiy which eats the foliage. For this reason it is seldom that one finds a large, live tamarack although dead specimens two feet in diameter are common. Of late years, however, the sawfiy has not been abundant and the tamarack is again prospering; in many places it is encroaching on old pastures. Its wood is durable and strong and is used for posts, poles, railroad ties, and in ship building. In early times it was trans- ported in large quantities from Maine to England for the last purpose. Wherever it occurs it should be encouraged. SILVrCULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 5 1 European Larch (Larix Eiiropcea). This is a European tree very similar to its American relative, the tamarack. Unlike the tamarack, it thrives only on well- drained soils and requires a deep and moderately fertile soil. It has been planted somewhat widely throughout New England and prospers in all sections. .^■^^^^ * ?!i Fig. 18. — A pure plantation of European larch, planted in rows 12 by 12 feet. It is fully as intolerant of shade as the tamarack and requires a sheltered, warm situation, so that it is well adapted for planting on south slopes. Here and there in the vicinity of cemeteries and other places where the larch has been planted a few seedlings can be found, but the examples of European larch reproduction in this country are few. Aside from the damage by the larch saw- fly, to which it is subject with the tamarack, the larch appears to be very free from enemies. Larch is a rapid grower, exceeding white pine in height growth but not in diameter growth. This quahty combined with the durability of the wood in the soil makes it an excellent tree to plant for the raising of posts, ties, poles, etc. 52 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Arbor viT^ or Northern White Cedar {Thuja occidentalis) . This is a northern species common throughout eastern Canada and as far west as Minnesota and extending south in the Appa- lachians to northern Georgia. It is confined to the northern portions and seldom is found in Connecticut. It usually grows in wet areas forming dense thickets known as cedar swamps, but also frequents hillside pastures in Vermont. It is intolerant of shade as is shown by the characteristic death of the lower limbs when grown close together. Cedar produces an abundant crop of seed almost every year. It prefers for a germinating bed bare mineral soil or old pasture. As the tree advances in age it is apt to be affected by a fungus which causes the red rot of the heartwood, and renders it useless. The cedar is very slow growing, although in swamps it grows as well or better than other conifers. As the wood is very dur- able in the soil it may be encouraged in wet situations for the production of posts and poles. Juniper or Red Cedar {Junipirus virginiana). This is one of the most widely distributed conifers being well scattered over the United States from New England to North Dakota and Texas. In New England its range is restricted to the southern portion. It is characteristic of abandoned pastures in Connecticut and parts of Massachusetts where it is easily recognized by its picturesque conical form similar to the cypress of the Mediterranean. It is very intolerant and slow growing, often being killed out by faster growing and more tolerant trees. Red cedar is not fastidious as to soil for it is often found on ledges and sand plains. Although slow growing it is a long-lived tree, but seldom in New England does it attain a height of over sixty feet or a diameter of over twelve inches. Its seed, which is in the form of a berry, is largely distributed by birds. It is supposed that some chemical action which takes place in the bird's stomach aids germination. In old pastures SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 53 reproduction is plentiful under old hardwood trees and along fence lines. The wood is very durable and in great demand for posts and lumber for chests, but on account of its slow growth it is not a tree to be particularly favored. Sugar Maple {Acer saccharum). The sugar maple extends throughout the eastern part of the country from the Atlantic to the great plains of Dakota and Oklahoma and south to the Gulf of Mexico. It occurs every- where in New England, but is more abundant in the northern portion and is especially associated with spruce. However, the sugar maple is never mixed with the spruce in the swamps or the higher mountain slopes, but on the lower slopes and gently rolhng land where the soil is neither very wet nor dry. It seldom occurs on sand, and is an unmistakably lime-loving species. The maple prefers a well-drained, deep loam soil. It is one of the most tolerant trees as regards shade, and young seedhngs do well even where they receive no direct sunhght. Although large-topped and ornamental trees on well-fertilized lands often make a conspicuously good growth, it is on the whole a slow-growing species. In the sugar bushes of Ver- mont and the virgin forests of Maine it is not infrequent to find trees from three to four centuries old. Although like most deciduous trees it is able to reproduce by sprouts from the stump, as a matter of fact it seldom does so in New England except in the southern portion. It more than makes up for this, how- ever, by being a very prolific seeder. The seed matures in the fall and is often thickly scattered over the ground near old trees. It germinates well in pasture grass or on bare mineral soil. The result is that our northern forests often have dense thickets of maple saplings. On account of the thickness of the bark it sufifers comparatively little from fire. It sometimes suffers severely from defoliation by the forest tent caterpillar. An injury to the sap is caused and often ends in the death of the 54 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND tree. Another common insect enemy is the maple borer which makes great sores on the trunk. Soft Maple or Red Maple {Acer rubruni). The range of this species is shghtly more restricted than that of hard maple, as it extends westward only as far as eastern Minnesota and Nebraska, but it reaches a little farther south in Florida. It is found throughout New England but is more common in the southern section. In the northern portion an- other species, A. spicatum or mountain maple, commonly takes its place and is similar in character. The red maple is not in the least fastidious as to soils for it is the most common deciduous tree of swamp lands and is found as well on very dry sites, although seldom on sand plains. In the swamps its growth is only medium, but on the old fields of southern New England where it is a characteristic feature it grows rapidly. It does not, however, attain great age and specimens over fifteen inches in diameter and eighty feet high are rare. It produces an abundant crop of seed every spring and repro- duction both by seed and by sprouts is good. The seed germi- nates best on old fields and also on soil made bare by fire. The bark of red maple is soft and the tree is easily damaged by fire. It has no serious insect or fungus enemies. As the wood is of inferior quality it is used chiefly for fuel. Except in swamps and as a pioneer in the reestablishment of forests on old fields, it is of Httle importance silviculturally, and it is bound to play a less and less important part as such worth- less species gradually are eliminated. Yellow Birch {Betula lutea). The yellow birch extends westward from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia into Minnesota and south in the Appalachians to northern Georgia. It occurs throughout New England from northern Maine to Long Island Sound. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 55 It is less particular in regard to the character of the soil or moisture than the sugar maple, but is less tolerant of shade than that tree. In second growth stands it is a fairly rapid grower, but under virgin conditions the growth is similar to that of maple and it hves to equally advanced age. Like all birches this species is a very proHlic seeder, and as the seed is very light it is blown long distances. Birch seed germinates particularly well on burned-over land where the mineral soil is exposed. Openings in spruce forests caused by windfall or lire or camp clearings frequently grow up to a dense stand of seedUngs either of pure yellow birch or of this mixed with other species. This tree has no serious natural enemies and is little damaged by fire. Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera). The range of the paper birch extends across the continent to the Rocky Mountains but not very far south. It occurs through- out New England but only occasional specimens are found in Connecticut and Rhode Island. This tree thrives best on a fresh, well-drained soil, being fond of moisture but not of swampy land. Although frequently found on dry slopes it does not prosper there as well as the yellow birch. Paper birch is one of the most intolerant trees and is often killed out, for lack of hght, by slow-growing but more tolerant spe- cies, which started under its protection but finally caught up with it in old age. Although rapid growing in youth, it is com- paratively short hved, trees over one hundred years old being uncommon. Specimens over eighteen inches in diameter and seventy-five feet high are scarce. It produces an abundant supply of seed, but on account of its intolerance of shade reproduction is only successful under favorable light conditions such as those obtained on burned areas. . These also furnish the bed on which the seed germi- nates best because the bare mineral soil is exposed. When cut at an age of less than sixty years the stumps sprout pro- lifically and these sprouts grow even more rapidly for forty or fifty years than trees grown from seed. 56 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The wood of the paper birch is used principally in the manu- facture of spools, bobbins, dowels, shuttles, toys, pegs, etc. Paper birch is very susceptible to injury by fires. Grown in pure stands as it usually is, this birch is one of the most beautiful trees. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any- thing more beautiful than such a grove with the sunlight filter- ing through the foHage upon the pure white bark. In too many places this beauty is destroyed by the ruthless peehng of the bark for souvenir purposes. It should be realized that the white bark never grows again, and that once peeled the beauty of the tree is gone forever. On account of its rapid growth, its value for special purposes, and its proHfic reproduction on burns, this tree always will be one of considerable importance in northern New England. Gray Birch {Betula populifolia). The tree is found from New Brunswick south through Dela- ware and Maryland and west through New York. It occurs in all parts of New England, but chiefly in the three southern states. The gray birch is a poor imitation of the paper birch but is sometimes confused with it on account of the whitish color of its bark. This, however, does not peel so readily and is a dirty white compared with the clean white bark of its superior. Furthermore, this tree seldom attains a diameter over eight inches or a height over fifty feet, and is short lived. The gray birch is as characteristic of the old fields of southern New England as is the red cedar. It grows rapidly in such situations where there is plenty of light, but under shade is soon killed out. It thrives on the driest of sand plains differing in that respect from the paper birch, but is also occasionally found in rather swampy places. The quality or texture of the soil seems to be of less importance than the amount of light available. It produces a large crop of seed every fall which is blown long distances. This germinates best on bare mineral soil, though SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 57 often starting well on a thin sod. For the first twenty years or so it grows very rapidly and when cut sprouts vigorously, so that in many cases it is an undesirable weed on account of the diffi- culty of keeping it out of the fields. The gray birch is easily killed by ground fires, but has no serious enemies. It seldom attains lumber size, and is an indifferent fuel, but is beginning to be used for spool and bobbin manufacture and other purposes for which its wood, which is similar to that of the paper birch, is fitted. However, it is not a tree that will ever be favored by the forester. Beech (Fagus atropunicea). The range of the beech extends throughout the eastern United States from the Atlantic to Wisconsin and Texas and south to the Gulf of Mexico. In New England it is found principally in the forests of the three northern states. As found in New Eng- land, it occurs always in mixture with other trees, and prefers a loam soil. However, it frequently grows on very poor sandy soils or other dry situations. It is one of the most shade enduring trees, and on this account it is able to grow under a dense cover of other species. Like the yellow birch and maple it is slow growing and lives to an advanced age. Although it suckers from the roots, its chief means of reproduction is by seed, which being a heavy nut cannot be transported by the wind. Heavy seed crops occur only at long intervals, although some seed is borne every three or four years. The seed germinates best on a mineral soil well mixed with humus. In Connecticut, Rhode Island, and southeastern Massachusetts the beech repro- duces very poorly from seed and is forced to depend on root suckers. Its smooth, heavy bark is a good fire resister, and it has no serious enemies. The lumber is used for heavy planking, for tool handles, etc., but is of relatively low value, and the tree will never hold an important position in forestry operations. 58 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND White Ash {Fraxinus Americana). The white ash occurs throughout the eastern half of the country, west into Nebraska and Texas, and south into Georgia and Mississippi. In New England scattered specimens are found in all sections, but it is most common in the northern hardwood forests. The white ash usually occurs as individuals mixed with other trees, seldom forming a large proportion of the stand. It prefers a moist loam soil and is almost never found on dry, sandy sites. It also requires considerable light, and, when favored with good light and soil, makes a fairly rapid growth. The ash seeds nearly every fall, but some years more heavily than others. The seed has a long wing and is carried consider- able distances by the wind. It germinates best on a mineral soil rich in humus, and where such conditions prevail near seed trees reproduction is usually good, although never so plentiful as with some species, as birch and maple. The ash is frequently covered with the oyster-shell bark louse, but has no serious enemies and investigation indicates that it is not attacked by the gipsy moth. The bark is not very thick and consequently the trunk is seriously injured by ground fires. Ash lumber has a high value for carriage manufacture, scythe snathes, tennis racquets, and other special uses requiring bending quahties. On account of its high value and its rapid growth, the white ash is the best deciduous tree of New England to cultivate and should be especially favored by the forester. Basswood {Tilia Americana). The national range of the basswood is practically the same as that of the white ash. In New England it is found chiefly in the northern hardwoods region. It is also similar to ash in its •requirements as to a good moist loam soil and plenty of light, but will survive in comparatively dry situations. It grows rapidly but seldom reaches advanced age without becoming decayed in the center. SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 59 The seed has a wing which helps to carry it some distance. It germinates best on moist mineral soil rich in humus and seedling reproduction in the north woods is usually fair. The tree has the further advantage of being a prolific sprouter, by which it reproduces almost entirely in Connecticut and Massa- chusetts. Clumps of basswoods are common wherever the tree occurs. It is little troubled by insects, but is easily damaged by fire. Its wood being Hght, straight-grained, and easily worked, gives it a demand for many purposes, as for lumber, clapboards, excelsior, etc. The high value of the lumber, its rapid growth, and ability to reproduce by seed and sprouts, make the basswood second only to ash in the forester's estimation, especially in northern New England. Poplar {Populus tre?nuloides, P. grandidentata, P. balsamea). The national range of these three species is somewhat differ- ent but they all occur well scattered throughout New England. P. tremuloides is more common in the northern, and P. grandi- dentata in the southern portions. These true poplars should not be confused with the tulip tree which is called in some sections yellow poplar and is native in southern New England but has a different character from the real poplars, which are all similar to each other. The poplars are not fastidious as to soils except that they rarely grow on heavy clay. They are common on sandy soils and prefer warm, well-drained situations. They are all very exacting of light and do not endure much shade at any time. Poplar is noted for its rapid growth and attains a diameter of ten inches or a foot, and a height of sixty feet, in forty years. It is short lived, however, and usually infested by a fungus, Fomes igniarius, by the time it is forty and begins to die at the top. The bark is thin and the tree is damaged easily by fire. The crop of seed which is borne every summer is always a prolific one and as the seed is very light it is blown long distances. 6o FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND It germinates best on bare mineral soils, especially those which have been burned over and, therefore, along with the birches, the poplars are the first trees to reclothe burned areas. Poplar is used for lumber, paper pulp, and many special uses, and on account of this, its rapid growth and its power to cover burns, it is a tree to command considerable respect in forestry. Chestnut {Castanea dentata). The chestnut is a southern tree and extends north only to the southern portions of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. It extends west into the Mississippi valley and south into Ala- bama and Georgia. Chestnut prefers a rather moist loam soil, although it some- times grows on sand plains and on the dry, trap ridges of Con- necticut where, however, it is unable to compete with the chestnut oak. Perhaps of all deciduous trees it is the most conspicuously independent of lime. As regards light, however, it is more exact- ing. The young seedlings cannot thrive long under shade any more than can the sprouts which spring in great numbers from the stumps. This sprouting capacity of the species is its strongest characteristic, and the one by which, with each successive cutting, it gains in the struggle for existence with the rival inmates of the wood lot. Trees sprout to a more advanced age than any other species, and vigorous sprouts are common on specimens no to 1 20 years old. Seed years are not infrequent, but the nuts are eaten so extensively by men and rodents, and are so injured by insects, that reproduction depends largely upon sprouts. The chestnut is one of the most rapid growing New England trees. The young sprouts are especially fast growing, often making a height of five or eight feet the first year. In the course of forty or fifty years, however, the seedlings overtake the sprouts and live to a greater age. Most of the chestnuts of southern New England are of second or third growth, and it is seldom that a tree over 150 years is found, though ia the virgin forests of the south they attain an advanced age. The smooth bark of the young chestnut renders it particu- SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 6l larly liable to damage by fire, and even the older trees are so severely scorched that they become liable to fungus diseases. By permission oj the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 19. — A plantation of chestnut and black locust 68 years of age. Chestnut killed back by fire often sprouts again, and it is common to see groups of fairly thrifty sprouts surrounding the old dead 62 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND stubs. There is a special bark fungus, Diaporthe parasitica, dis- cussed in the chapter on Fungi, which is now a serious enemy of the chestnut. Chestnut wood is particularly durable in the soil and has a wide range for poles, piles, ties, etc., as well as for lumber. On account of its wide use and consequent value, its abihty to sprout and its rapid growth, the chestnut is the most valuable tree of southern New England, and should be much raised in the future, unless the bark disease renders it impracticable. White and Red Oaks {Quercus alba and Querciis rubra). These two trees, which are the most important of the New England oaks, although somewhat different in character, may well be considered together. The oaks are essentially southern trees, extending up into New England from southern regions. The white oak has a range similar to that of chestnut; scattering specimens of the red oak extend to the Canadian line, and are found on Mount Kineo in Maine, and on an island in Lake Mem- phremagog, Vermont, although it is doubtful if it is native there. Neither species is especially fastidious as regards soil, for al- though they prefer a well-drained loam they frequently grow on dry sand or heavy clay. They do not thrive in swamps and are seldom found there. Both oaks can stand a fair amount of shade, more than the chestnut but less than maple. They differ widely as regards rapidity of growth. The red oak on good soil often grows nearly as fast as chestnut; with the other species the growth is slower. Both attain a very advanced age and the oaks are proverbially the longest lived trees. Both reproduce fairly well from seed. White oak seeds abundantly once in several years, but a seed crop of red oak is produced every other year. The nuts, of course, cannot be transported any considerable distance except by squirrels and similar means. The acorns germinate best on a mineral soil lightly covered with leaves. In southern New England the chief reproduction of oak is by sprouts. The sprouting capacity of the white oak de- SILVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS 63 creases rapidly after sixty years. The red oak is a better sprouter, and here again is a close second to the chestnut. Oak bark is so thick that it is little damaged by surface fires. The white oaks, however, are scorched severely by hot surface fires, after which they become infested with fungi. In eastern Massachusetts and the adjacent territory the oaks are damaged and frequently killed by the gipsy and brown-tail moths. Oak lumber is strong and the white oak particularly is durable in the soil. It has accordingly many uses and sells at a good price. The numerous uses make the oaks important trees to produce, but their rather slow growth is a factor against them from the forester's standpoint. Red oak will be planted much more than the white. Tulip Tree, Whitewood, Yellow Poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera) . This tree, known in different parts of its range by these various names, is a southern species extending from Massachusetts west into lUinois and Arkansas and south to the Gulf of Mexico. In New England it is most common in Connecticut. In the region treated in this book, the whitewood, as it com- monly is called here, is usually a tree of the rich, moist bottom lands, and rarely grows on dry upland sites. In its requirements as to light it is exacting, though the seedHngs sometimes start under a light shade. The tulip is a fairly rapid grower, although in this section its growth is probably less rapid than farther south. It is also a long-lived tree. It has a characteristically straight form, free from defects, and veterans two feet through and eighty or ninety feet high are sometimes found even in this northern extension of its range. In the south it grows much larger. Seed is borne prolifically, and being light and equipped with a wing, like ash seed, it is carried considerable distances. The seed germinates easily on light leaf litter or bare mineral soil, but 64 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND as only a small percentage of the seed is fertile, reproduction in this region is somewhat scanty. It sprouts occasionally from the stump but cannot be considered a vigorous sprouter. The tulip has a tender bark and is easily damaged by fire. Although the leaves are sometimes badly infested with a scale insect it has no serious insect or fungus diseases. The lumber is smooth, clear-grained, soft, and usually free from defects, hence, easily workable. Known in the market as white wood, although usually of a greenish-yellow color, the lumber has many uses, as in the manufacture of carriages and furniture, for cheap interior finish, etc. Near the seacoast it is used for piling. On account of its rapid growth and its value the tulip is a tree to be encouraged in sites suited to its production. CHAPTER IV. FOREST PLANTING AND SEEDING. The essential difference between forestry and lumbering lies in the measures taken when harvesting timber to make provision for a second growth. We have described the various silvicul- tural methods by which this may be brought about. It often Fig. 20. — One-year-old white pine seedlings grown for forest planting. happens that these attempts are not wholly successful and large gaps occur in the young stand. These are as much to be deplored in good forest management as they would be in raising corn or tobacco, and in addition to the natural methods it is necessary to resort to artificial means of stocking. Among these methods clear cutting with artificial reproduction was described. Under this system planting or sowing is depended upon entirely for the new stand. In all parts of the country there is land once used for agricul- ture, which was either unsuited for that purpose or has become 65 66 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND exhausted by a system of farming which did not maintain the fertihty of the soil. Such lands are often better suited for the raising of forests than any agricultural crop, and must be stocked artificially. Much land forested to-day is not covered with fast growing trees or with timber that possesses high value. Such lands are not producing so much or so valuable wood as they might. Another opportunity for artificial reproduction is found in introducing better species into such woodlands. This can often be satisfactorily accomplished by setting out one to two hundred plants per acre. Although only partially stocking the land at the time of planting, if cared for they will finally develop and dominate the stand. The desired change in the forest is thus accompHshed for a fraction of the expense necessary to plant the whole area. It will be apparent that there are numerous opportunities for the use of artificial reproduction, and it is necessary that the best methods of accomphshing this be thoroughly understood. Artificial establishment of a forest may be effected by planting or by seeding. By "seeding" is meant the use of seed on the land to be restocked; ''planting" impHes that small trees raised in a nursery or taken from the woods are used, and it has been found that planting is almost always preferable, because for the same amount of money a more complete stand can be secured by planting and because two or three years of the rotation are saved thereby. Several methods of seeding are practiced. Broadcast sowing of seed, the most common, is also least often productive of the best results. This may be modified by brushing in, or raking in the seed. Sometimes the ground is prepared in advance for the reception of the seed by stirring the soil with a harrow. Where the land is sufficiently free from rocks and brush very satisfactory results can often be secured by plowing and harrowing the land and then sowing the forest seed with some farm crop, such as buckwheat. This, however, is an expensive method and land which can be so treated is usually fitted for agriculture. Partial seeding instead of broadcasting is sometimes tried. FOREST PLANTING AND SEEDING 67 Where plowing is possible furrows may be run across a tract at intervals of from six to ten feet and seed sown broadcast in these furrows. Another modification is the so-called "seed-spot method." In the application of this system, spots favorable for germination are prepared, every six or eight feet, by scraping away the sod for a foot square and loosening the soil. Seeds are then sown in each spot and are pressed in by the foot or buried at different depths according to the nature of the seed. De- pressions made in this way or from plowing a furrow give the seedhngs the benefit of more moisture than is available on level ground, and free them for a brief period from the encroachments of grass and weeds. Several good methods of planting are recognized. In New England the tool most used is the mattock or old-fashioned grub hoe, as it is often called. With this the sod must first be scraped away for a space about a foot square, that the seedling may not be harmed by grass or weeds. With a strong stroke of the mat- tock the blade is driven well into the soil. Then by raising the handle and turning it sHghtly to the right the soil is broken on one side, while under the blade a cleft is made into which the rootlets of the plant may be placed before the blade is removed. The mattock is then taken out and the earth made firm with the foot. This is called the sHt system of planting. Sometimes with a Ught sod the prehminary scraping away may be omitted, thus shortening the operation but decreasing the efliciency. A more thorough way of planting and one surer of results is to scrape away the sod, and then to remove the earth from the center of the square. In this hole the tree is set by hand or with the aid of a trowel. Fine dirt should be packed tightly around the plant. This and the sUt method are recommended for ordinary work. In either case the emphasis must be placed on the removal of the sod before the hole is made. In wet places where planting is desirable it is customary to make mounds of earth and set the plants in the center of these. This is, of course, a more expensive method. One precaution above all others must be taken in forest plant- 68 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND ing, especially with conifers, and that is, not to expose the fine rootlets to drying influences of sun or wind, even for a few minutes, because they are very tender and will be killed by such exposure. When the nursery stock arrives at the plantation it should be heeled in immediately near the place of final planting. To do this a slanting ditch is dug slightly deeper than the length By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 21. — A small planting crew organized in unili of two men. of the roots. The bundles of trees are untied and loosened, and the roots carefully spread out and covered with soil. This is called "heeling in" the plants. It is well to wet the roots by pouring on water after the plants have been heeled in. The soil should be firmly pressed against the tree roots and if several days are to elapse before planting, some boughs should be spread over them for a shade. It is better yet to dig the ditch where there is shade. Just before planting, the roots should be thoroughly puddled, that is, dipped in a thick mud. For this a mixture of clay and FOREST PLANTING AND SEEDING 69 loam is preferable, of such consistency that it will stick to the roots but will not harden on them, in case of a prolonged drought. The plants should be carried to their destination either in pails half filled with a mixture of mud and water or in baskets with plenty of wet sphagnum moss to cover their roots. An important consideration is the size of the plants with which the plantation is established. A small, inexpensive plant is wanted, yet one hardy enough to withstand the severe conditions Fig. 22. — Nursery beds of 2-year-old pine seedlings. to which it is often exposed. What are known as two-year-old seedlings and three-year-old transplants are the two grades ordinarily employed in estabhshing commercial plantations. The former has been grown for two years in a seed bed ; the latter was transplanted after one or two years in a seed bed and has grown one or two years since transplanting. Three-year-old transplants cost approximately twice as much as two-year-old seedlings and are much stronger plants. The present tendency is to use seedlings only on the most favorable sites, and this is the wiser course. The relative merits of pure and mixed forests have already been discussed. It is safe to say that most of the planting in this yO FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND country will be pure, that is, that there will be httle mixture of species on the same area. This is because it is simpler and, on the whole, a pure plantation of a tree well adapted to the soil is more satisfactory than a mixture. It is well, however, for the reasons mentioned in discussing pure and mixed forests, to plant small areas with different species. Commercial planting. By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 23. — A plantation of white pine about 8 years old spaced 6 by 12 feet. This is too wide. whether pure or mixed, should, however, be restricted to a few species of known value and adapted to the site. White, red, and Scotch pines, Norway spruce, European larch, white ash, and red oak are the standard trees for commercial plantations in New England. On the whole, conifers or softwood trees in contrast to the hardwoods recommend themselves especially for forest planting for the following reasons : 1. Softwood lumber is in greater demand for general purposes, and, therefore, commands the best prices. 2. The conifers, such as pine and spruce, are more rapid growing than the hardwoods. FOREST PLANTING AND SEEDING 7 1 3. The conifers yield more lumber to the acre in a given length of time than deciduous species, because the trees stand closer together and grow faster. 4. Much of the land to be planted is of very light soil and is, therefore, better adapted to such trees as the pine than to any other species. The question of the proper spacing of trees is one which has led to endless discussion on the part of European foresters, and it must be decided in every case according to the owner's particular aims. In many of the early German plantations the trees were spaced not farther than one meter (three feet) apart. The general tendency to-day, even in Europe where nursery stock and labor are still comparatively cheap, is toward more open spacing, and the practice thus far in New England is to plant about five or six feet apart. For most purposes a spacing of six by six feet is recommended. The following table gives the number of trees required to stock one acre when set at different distances apart. Distance of spacing Number of trees per acre 3 by 3 feet 4840 4 by 4 feet 2723 5 by 5 feet 1742 6 by 6 feet 1210 7 by 7 feet 889 The general principles underlying spacing may be stated here and the planter may judge for himself what distance best meets his own requirements. Close planting forces the trees up in order to secure light, and thus produces a rapid height growth. At the same time it kills the lower limbs for lack of light, thus causing natural pruning. The result is a long, slender log fairly free from knots. Open planting, on the other hand, produces a large-branch system, a rapid diameter growth, especially near the base, and a rather slow height growth. The result is a short, thick log tapering rapidly from base to top and rather knotty. For the production of high-grade lumber the former is evidently to be advised; for a heavy production of fuel wood, pulp wood, 72 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND railroad ties, or other inferior materials, the open spacing may be more profitable. One should also remember that tolerant trees must be planted closer than intolerant trees in order to secure equally good pruning. Fig. 24. — A block of 3-year-old white pine transplants; the best stock with which to start a commercial plantation. Cost of planting varies enormously and depends primarily on the stock used, price of labor, spacing of the plants, and condi- tion of the planting site. Often adverse weather conditions or other factors cause heavy losses, and extra expense is required to secure a complete reproduction. Good stands have been secured for less than $5 per acre and sometimes more than $30 per acre have been spent. On the average New England planting site, using three-year-old transplants at $5.50 to $6 per thousand, set six by six feet apart, and with labor at $1.75 per day, the cost per acre should not exceed $15; it can rarely be brought below $11. This does not allow for the unusual losses which sometimes occur, due to prolonged droughts. Where areas as large as several thousand acres are to be planted and the stock is grown by the planter, the cost may be a few dollars an acre less than this estimate, which is based on stock that is purchased. FOREST PLANTING AND SEEDING 73 The success of seeding is governed so largely by chance and weather conditions that the cost of a successful sowing is more uncertain than that of a plantation, and cannot be figured accurately in advance. The few successful sowings which have come under the observation of the writers have cost more than the amount given for an average plantation. It is believed when sufficient care is taken in preparing the site, and securing the same success as would be obtained by planting, that the cost in every case would be higher than that of the plantation. CHAPTER V. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS. In Chapter II the different methods of cutting with the pur- pose of securing a new stand (reproduction cuttings) were discussed. Such cuttings are needed in mature timber in order that a young stand may replace the old one/ and occur only during the latter part of the life of the stand. There is then a long period extending from the time that the old stand is removed and the new one established until the new stand has itself de- veloped to maturity and become ready for a reproduction cutting. During this period, i.e., between reproduction cuttings, there may be, and in a stand under management ordinarily are, several cuttings, which are termed improvement cuttings. Their pur- pose is to improve the existing stand in composition, rate of growth, and value of the final product, without any attempt to secure reproduction. Improvement cuttings are made in immature stands, ranging from those only a year or two in age to stands nearly ready for reproduction cuttings. Improvement cuttings may advantageously be divided into four kinds, as follows, each of which will be separately discussed : 1. Cleanings. 2. Liberation cuttings. 3. Thinnings. 4. Damage cuttings. I . Cleanings. — As a stand begins to grow there are almost sure to be certain trees present which, because they threaten to injure better trees, are not wanted. These trees may be of an inferior species or they may simply be poor individuals of some 1 Artificial reproduction, i.e., planting or seeding is sometimes employed. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 75 valuable species, or often worthless shrubs. In any case, they need to be removed in order that the stand may eventually be of the highest possible character. This type of cutting is called a cleaning, and always takes place in young stands, usually when they are from three to ten years of age. Frequently one cleaning is not suificient and another must be made three to five years after the first. The trees removed differ but little in age from those left and oftentimes are the same age but of more rapid growth. When a few years older they are usually of the type termed "advance growth," by which is meant trees that seeded in first and obtained a few years start of the rest of the stand. Because of their com- parative freedom from side crowding they have rather branchy crowns and will not develop into high-grade trees. The expense of the cleaning can often be reduced and the purpose as well accomphshed by lopping off the tops of the trees instead of cutting them at the base. They should be lopped back far enough so that the tops of the trees to be freed are above them. One is tempted in making a cleaning to remove all trees of inferior species, all shrubs, and all poor individuals from the stand. But from both the financial and silvicultural standpoints only the material should be cut which is actually hindering the development of better trees. If all inferior species were to be cut, great gaps might be left in the stand, since there may be no valuable trees in mixture with the poor ones. In such a place a cleaning need not be made. A small hatchet or a brush hook is an excellent tool with which to make cleanings where the material is small or the tops are to be lopped, but often in stands five to ten years of age an axe is needed. Inasmuch as a cleaning is in such young stands that no mer- chantable material is secured from the cutting it results in a present financial loss. Cleanings should only be made where a small expenditure will be justified by the improved development of the stand. A stand of white pine overtopped by gray birch is an example of where they are justifiable. The forest of 76 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND nearly pure pine which can be secured by removing the over- topping birch will be so valuable as to more than pay the expense of the cleaning. The cost depends so largely upon the amount and size of the material to be removed that it may range from a few cents to several dollars per acre. An expenditure of more than $3 per acre for a cleaning is usually unnecessary and the work can often be done for 25 to 50 cents per acre. As a general rule cleanings should be made as needed in all plantations to protect the planted species, and wherever there is a wide difference in value between the species being injured and the one injuring it. A cleaning is an intensive forestry operation and hence in many places is impracticable. By permission ,/ //;, < oinwrlicul Stale Forester. Fig. 25. — The spreading hardwoods should be taken out to liberate the seedling growth. 2. Liberation Cuttings. — Liberation cuttings are used in young stands from a year or two old to those of middle age. The operation consists in removing older trees which, by their IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 77 widespreading crowns are interfering with a younger growth that it is desired to favor. Unhke cleanings where the trees removed dififer in age from those left by only a few years, liberation Fig. 26. — A liberation cutting is needed to remove the large oak to free the young growth which is already feeling the effects of the crowding. cuttings remove trees of a much older age class than the re- mainder of the stand. A study of the diagrams of cleanings and liberation cuttings on page 78 will make this point clear. Two diagrams of Hbera- tion cuttings are given. The first is in a very young stand of seedlings with large trees high above them. This form is very similar to the final cutting under the shelterwood system 78 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND M\l mi Fig. 27. — A cleaning. The stand contains white pine 5-8 years old, overtopped by gray birch 6-10 years old. The gray birch should be cut out or lopped back. Two older white pines (18 years of age) forming "advance growth" should also be cut, as they will produce knotty lumber and suppress several most promising trees. To be out. 100 yt-ars of age- 9?%maa-. I l..oX^>?y;>?$'^^?l^^ Fig. - A liberation cutting in which the young stand has not yet been seriously affected by the overtopping trees. Fig. 29. — A liberation cutting in a middle-aged stand, where the crowns are ab-eady de- formed by the large trees which should be at once cut to prevent further injury. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 79 of reproduction. In Fig. 29 a middle-aged stand is shown with older trees interfering. Here the crowns of the main stand have reached the crowns of the interfering trees and are already some- what deformed. If the cutting were delayed much longer the stand would be seriously injured. The material removed in liberation cuttings is of merchantable size either for timber or cordwood, but is usually of poor quality, being knotty and frequently extremely limby. From the size of the trees to be cut it often appears that a handsome profit can be made, but owing to the scattered location of the trees singly among younger trees, the logging is usually expensive and the trees, on account of their widespreading crowns and large limbs, are hard to cut up. In most cases the trees can be disposed of for enough to at least pay the costs of the operation; so that no financial loss is ordinarily required in making hberation cuttings. Liberation cuttings are needed especially in abandoned fields which have gradually reverted to forest, or on cut-over lands where in previous cuttings poor individuals had been allowed to stand. As liberation cuttings pay for themselves they have a wider range of application in practical work than do cleanings, but at the same time, since the material removed is of a low grade, it cannot readily be sold where the markets are poor. A good rule is to make liberation cuttings wherever the material will at least cover the cost of removal. 3. Thinnings. — As a young stand of trees grows older, indi- viduals which at first had ample space for development become crowded. There commences a struggle between them, which becomes more intense year by year, for Hght, growing space, moisture, and nourishment. As the struggle goes on certain trees obtain a slight advantage over their neighbors and may finally succeed in completely overtopping and kilhng them. In accompKshing this, however, the leading trees, as well as those overtopped, are inevitably restricted in crown development, and therefore are retarded in rate of growth and prevented from 8o FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND attaining the size possible if they had not been so seriously hindered by the competition with neighboring trees. In order to prevent part of this competition and to keep the leading trees in the stand growing at a rapid rate thinnings are made.^ Thinnings remove the trees which have fallen behind Fig. 30. — Plantation of white pine and European larch on first quality soil. The stand has just received a C grade thinning. Total yield 40 cords per acre. Amount cut 16 cords per acre. Age 27 years. In the foreground most of the pine was removed, leaving the larch. the best trees of the stand but which still crowd them and ham- per their development. It is convenient in discussing thinnings to divide the trees in a stand into five classes, called crown classes, depending on the relative position of each class with respect to the other trees in the stand. ^ The struggle for existence is best noticed in even-aged stands where trees of the same age are competing. It is in such stands (even-aged) that thinnings are particularly needed, although in forests of other forms there will be found small even-aged groups here and there in which thinnings are useful. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 8l These crown classes are as follows: Dominant; which contains the leading trees having compara- tively symmetrical crowns and receiving full light. Codominant; which includes trees a Httle shorter than the dominant ones and with smaller crowns crowded on the side. Fig. 31. — The .-aiiic ijlaiUdiiuu bciuie I liiuiiiii.'. Xuic the dcuse dark appearance of the stand in contrast to its appearance after thinning. Ahhough the stand is 27 years old the dead branches still persist on the trees down to the ground. On the trees in the foreground the lower dead limbs have been knocked off. Intermediate; comprising trees shorter than those in the pre- ceding class and with crowns open to Light only from above and seriously crowded on all sides. Suppressed; including all Kving trees with crowns entirely overtopped. They can obtain only filtered light. Dead; containing all standing dead trees. There may be in a stand a wide range from dominant to dead trees and it may often be difficult to distinguish in which of two adjacent classes a tree belongs. This is especially true between dominant and codominant trees and between codominant and 82 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND intermediate. As a general rule dominant and the better co- dominant trees are favored in thinnings, while the other three classes are cut out. Just what is taken out depends mainly on the heaviness of the thinning, which may range from an extremely light cutting to one as heavy as a reproduction cutting. The Fig. 32. — A stand of beech and oak iu Europe, 40 lo 50 years of age. A light thinning has just been finished. following live classes of thinnings are recognized, depending on the heaviness of the cutting: Grade A. — Light thinning; removing dead and suppressed trees. Grade B. — Moderate thinning; removing dead, suppressed, and the poorer intermediate trees. Grade C. — Heavy thinning, removing dead, suppressed, inter- mediate and a few codominant trees. Grade D. — Very heavy thinning, removing dead, suppressed, intermediate and codominant trees. Accretion Cutting. — Any thinning heavier than Grade D. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 83 Which grade to use depends mainly on the purpose for which the stand is managed. Light and moderate thinnings favor the production of high-grade timber free from knots. This is the principal advantage of the competition between trees in a dense stand, and thinnings of Grades A and B do not greatly lessen the competition in a stand, since this is largely between trees of the intermediate, codominant, and dominant classes. By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 33- — A white pine stand 34 years old secured by artificial seeding, thinning has just been made. ; A C grade Heavy thinnings, by giving the trees ample growing space, result in the production of shorter-boled and more knotty trees; and, on account of the greater growing space, in more rapid growth and higher yield in a given time. Where quantity with- out regard to the highest quality is wanted heavier thinnings are needed than where timber of high technical quality is the primary consideration. In general, as the thinnings increase in severity, the diameter 84 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND and hence volume growth of the trees rises, but there always is a point beyond which heavier thinnings, while possibly still in- creasing the rate of growth on the individual trees, lower the growth of the stand as a whole. This is because the gaps be- tween trees become so large that the total growth per acre from the few fast-growing trees is less than would be secured from those left after a lighter thinning. Accretion cuttings are too heavy to secure the highest growth per acre, although phenomenal growth on individual trees may result. Thinnings of Grades A and B interfere so Httle with the natural competition that their effect in increasing the rate of growth of a stand is negligible. A Grade C thinning is needed to appreciably increase the growth rate, and at the same time this grade does not so open the stand as to prevent the pro- duction of clear timber. For most owners in New England, Grade C or occasionally Grade D thinnings will be the most valuable. In making thinnings of whatever grade it should always be remembered that the trees to be cut are chosen on the basis of their crown development. Too often a beginner examines the spacing of the trees on the ground and endeavors to cut wherever the number of trees is great, with the object of securing a uni- form spacing of the trunks. This is altogether wrong and can be easily avoided if the crowns of the trees are used as the guide in selection. Another method of thinning, somewhat different from the one already described, is known as the French method because of its origin and use in France. By this method certain trees are selected, when the stand is about thirty years of age, which will be favored and are to form the final crop at the end of the rotation. The number of trees per acre to be selected varies with the species, the product to be produced, and various other factors, but for the purpose of this discussion may be said to range from one to two hundred. When these trees have been picked out a thinning is made IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 85 with the object of giving them every opportunity for rapid growth. They are set free by cutting the surrounding trees which are at the time seriously crowding them. The cutting is made regardless of the crown class of those cut. Codominant and dominant trees as well as those of the lower crown classes are removed if hindering the chosen trees. A second principle of the method is that practically nothing is removed unless it actually is interfering with the chosen in- By permission of ike Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 34. — Same stand as in Fig. 33. but 2 years after the thinning. Poplar and gray birch have reproduced abundantly, largely owing to the abundant light which was admitted to the forest floor. A lighter thinning would have encouraged white pine reproduction. dividual. The only exception is in the case of dead trees or those that will die in a very few years. These are cut but the suppressed and intermediate classes are allowed to remain if not hindering the chosen trees. The French method really amounts to a Grade D thinning in the upper crown classes, and a Grade A thinning in the lower classes, taking out the poorest material. The chief advantage of the method is that the trees to form 86 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the final crop being selected so early can be kept free and growing rapidly. It is thought that equally good timber can be pro- duced faster under the French method of thinning than under that ordinarily used. Up to the present time there is no ade- quate data to conclusively prove this. With poor markets the method may sometimes be employed when another could not, since some larger-sized material is secured from the heavy cutting in the dominant and codominant classes, while the lower classes, furnishing cordwood principally, are left uncut. Silviculturally the lower classes of trees assist in forcing the height growth of the chosen trees, and furnish a good cover to the soil which is in this way better protected than in Grades C and D thinnings as ordinarily made. A practical disadvantage of the French method is that the numerous suppressed and intermediate trees left standing make the execution of the thinning difficult. The felling of the trees is often badly hampered, and considerable breakage of standing trees occurs. Moreover, the piling and removal of the wood is made more expensive by the many standing small trees. In actually carrying out a thinning in the field it is often advantageous, and, in fact necessary, to secure the best results, not to hold rigidly to a thinning of any given grade. For in- stance, a Grade C thinning may be the kind desired, but where dominant trees of a worthless species or diseased trees occur, it is best to cut them, making in such places a heavier cutting. The theory of thinnings as given here is exceedingly simple but in application many problems will come up which cannot be covered in the space of this discussion, and are best solved through field experience. The lessening of the competition between the individual trees which effects an increase in the rate of growth has already been mentioned as the chief purpose of thinnings, but the results which come through the aid of thinnings have not yet been fully stated. The increase in rate of growth of the individual trees results in obtaining trees of merchantable size several years sooner than IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 87 is possible in an unthinned stand. In other words, thinnings enable the forester to shorten the rotation in which a given product is produced. This shortening may be as great as twenty- five per cent. For example, if an unthinned stand of pure S9g^ By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. 35. — Portion of the same stand as shown in Fig. 33. Here Fig- 35- — Portion of the same stand as shown in Fig. 33. Here a heavy D grade thinning was made and a large number of the trees were broiien off by the wind. The trees were too slender for such a heavy thinning. chestnut is merchantable for ties in forty years, a similar stand which has been properly thinned should have trees of the same size in thirty years. Besides increasing the growth of the individual trees the total yield of the stand is raised, by which is meant that in a single rotation (or given number of years) more material is produced 88 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND by a thinned stand than by a similar one un thinned. There may be as much as thirty per cent added volume produced by the thinned stand. This increased production is made possible be- cause the yield from the thinnings largely utihzes material which in an unthinned stand dies and decays before the final cutting. The struggle between the trees is slowly kilhng the weaker individuals. As the stand grows older, they pass from the co- dominant to the intermediate class, then to the suppressed, and finally are numbered among the dead. The great difference in number of trees per acre between young and mature stands (both fully stocked), which is apparent on the most casual inves- tigation, gives an idea of the large number of trees and quantity of material lost through decay in an unthinned stand. Besides utilizing material otherwise wasted, the one thinned when ready for harvesting will have as great or sometimes even greater vol- ume than the unthinned stand. A higher grade product, taking the average for the whole stand, is furnished by the thinned than by the unthinned stand. In the latter there may be a few exceptionally fine trees, but with them are many inferior specimens, merchantable only for cordwood. In the former a smaller number of trees per acre will be found on which the growth has been concentrated. Individually none of them may contain such high-grade timber as the exceptional tree in the unthinned stand, but, on the other hand, every tree can be used for better products^ than cordwood and the average value per tree is much higher. Thinnings raise the grade of the final product in another way: by enabling the forester to eliminate worthless species from the stand when it is young. Oftentimes in unthinned stands a species of low lumber value will be found occupying a prominent place in mature stands, but in properly thinned stands this need never happen. Theoretically thinnings should be begun as soon as the com- petition between the trees becomes strong. This occurs usually when a stand is ten to twenty years of age. Thinnings in such ^ With light thinnings timber of high technical value can be produced. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 89 young stands ordinarily do not yield material salable even as cordwood under present market conditions in New England. The first thinning should be deferred until the material taken out is large enough for cordwood and the returns will at least cover the cost of the operation. This will rarely occur before the stand is twenty years old, and not later than the thirtieth year. Thinnings should be repeated whenever needed. Unless the thinning was very heavy this should be in five to ten years. Fig. 36. — AC grade thinning in a 38-year-o!d stand of mixed hardwoods containing oak, chestnut, maple, black and yellow birches. Yield per acre 27 cords; actually cut 6\ cords per acre. The time for making the next one can be judged by observing the crowns. If the openings left by the previous cutting have been filled and the crowns of the trees are once more in close contact, competition has again assumed serious proportions and it is time for another thinning. The best method is to make small openings in the crown cover which will close together within a few years, necessitating an early repetition of the operation. When only small gaps in the cover are made there is no danger of the trees producing knotty 90 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND timber nor of the stand becoming insufficiently stocked with trees. The soil is best protected by light thinnings, frequently repeated. They should be carried on until the time comes to start reproduction cuttings. At the present time in many quarters there is a prejudice against making thinnings through ignorance of their value and especially through behef that they are impracticable. One objec- tion raised is that the uncut trees will be thrown by wind. There I'lg- 37- — The same stand as in the previous picture but 3 years after the thinning. The crowns have already closed together and another thinning could safely be made. is sometimes danger of this on wet ground, with shallow-rooted species, on exposed sites and in stands past middle age when thinned for the first time. In such stands the trees often have very small crowns and root systems and depend on each other for support. If thinnings are begun when the stand is twenty to thirty years of age and made light there will not be any large loss due to windfall. Another objection is made that the trees, in being cut and removed, will injure the standing trees. This arises through the mistaken idea that the smaller trees are left and the larger are IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 9I cut, while the reverse is true. Thinnings are often confused in the lay mind with the selection cutting described in Chapter II. As a matter of fact, the removal of the lower crown classes rarely inflicts a serious injury on a standing tree. The cost of cutting and removing the material is somewhat greater than in cases where the stand is cut clear, but there is not the great difference sometimes assumed. The added cost will, of course, vary with the conditions, but ten to twenty-five per cent will represent the usual range. Frequently unfamiharity with the style of cutting and unwillingness to learn on the part of the woodsmen are the chief factors in increasing the cost. Thinnings in young stands yield only cordwood and in stands of all ages a large per cent of the material cut is cordwood. Where this cannot be sold at a profit, as is the case in portions of New England, thinnings are not practicable. Usually in conif- erous stands they can be made under poorer market conditions than in hardwood forests, as in the former smaller-sized logs are cut into lumber or put into other products of greater value than cordwood. 4. Damage Cuttings. — Frequently a cutting is advisable in a stand with the purpose of removing and utilizing material which has been damaged by wind, insects, fungi, fire, or other causes. It is altogether too common a happening to have a large per cent of the trees in a stand killed by fire. Such a cutting, intended to take out injured material, is called a damage cutting. It is made without regard to the crown classes or species of the trees cut, simply taking out all injured individuals. As the extent of injury varies greatly so does the severity of damage cuttings. They may range from the removal of occasional trees to clear cuttings. In cases where the injured stand is mature or nearly mature it is often possible to begin the reproduction cuttings early, and arrange them so as to utihze the damaged trees. But in immature stands special damage cuttings are made in case of injury. Damage cuttings, so heavy as to remove a large percentage of the trees, call for a sacrifice in immature stands, as the trees are cut before reaching the most profitable 92 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND size. However, as long as fire, wind, insects, etc., cause ex- tensive injury in the forests, damage cuttings are demanded as a regular part of management, to make the best of a bad situation. When promptly made, before decay has progressed far, dam- age cuttings usually yield material of merchantable size. Where the returns from material taken out will not pay the expenses of removal, damage cuttings are not ordinarily recommended. Fig. 38. — A damage cutting. Note the undergrowth of grass and weeds which has started as a result of the heavy cutting. To avoid such undergrowth improvement cuttings should be made as light as possible. The fallen tree, weakened at the base by fire and fungi, has been broken off by the wind. Schedule of Improvement Cuttings. — In order to illustrate the relative time at which the different kinds of improvement cuttings are made, the following table has been drawn up for a planted stand of white pine, this particular type of forest serving as a good example for even-aged stands of other species. The rotation has been set at sixty years. If it was intended to reproduce the stand naturally, a reproduction cutting would be substituted for the last thinning. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 93 SCHEDULE OF IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS FOR A WHITE PINE PLANTATION. Age of stand. Cleanings. Liberation cuttings. Thinnings. Damage cuttings. Years. 4 7 X In the case of a plan- tation the liberation cuttings, should any be needed, are best made just before it is established or within the first five X X X X Made only in case stand 3° 40 5° suffers injury. 60 End of rota erated nat tion. Stand cut clear and area planted, or regen- urally as described in Chapter II. Crosses indicate cuttings. Methods of Controlling Cuttings. — In order to be sure that the style of cutting desired is actually carried out on any particular tract, it is necessary to oversee the work with great care. This is so whether an improvement or reproduction cutting is made. It is especially true where the cutting is done by a contractor, or is in charge of old lumberjacks, trained to wasteful methods and unwilling to accept new ideas. Control of the cutting can be assured best by marking all trees to be cut (or those to be left) and frequently inspecting the cut- tings to see that the marking is being followed, or by outlining the general plan of cutting to a foreman and then frequently inspecting his work to be sure that he carries out the plan correctly. The choice of the method of control will be mainly determined by the style of cutting. In thinnings it is best to mark carefully either the trees to be cut or those to be left. Cleanings, liberation cuttings, and damage cuttings (because in making them it is usually a simpler proposition to recognize what should be removed) can often be satisfactorily controlled by furnishing the foremen in charge with general instructions and then looking over the work at frequent intervals. Many times, however, the trees to be cut in liberation and damage cuttings should be marked. 94 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND In reproduction cuttings, where clear cutting is to take place, laying out the areas to be cut suffices. Where seed trees are to be left, or the selection system or one calling for only a partial clearance is to be used, marking of the trees is advisable. It may seem as though in a selection cutting the use of a diam- eter limit would take the place of marking, but there are so many cases in every operation where trees above the limit should be left and those below cut, that the trees should be marked, even when a diameter hmit roughly controls the cutting. [y.: Fig- 39- — A damage cutting in a stand of chestnut and oak. Fire has injured many trees and the chestnut bark disease was present. After the cutting, an open stand of the fire-resistant oak remained. The material cut was too small for anything but cordwood. In marking the trees, either those to be cut or those to be left may be marked. Usually it is best to adopt the easiest method. Thus, on areas to be cut clear, with patches of seed trees to be left, the few seed trees should be marked; but in a selection cutting, where comparatively few trees are to be removed, these should be marked. The trees can be marked by axe blazes or by dabs of paint. To insure full control of a cutting it is best to mark the base of the trees below the point of cutting, as well as a point easily seen IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 95 three to five feet above ground. Then, after the trees are felled, inspection of the stumps shows whether they were marked for removal. If axe blazes are used for marks it is well to have a distinctive stamp on the head of the axe and stamp each blaze, thus pre- venting marking by unauthorized parties. Pruning. — Pruning, as used in forestry, really should be classed as a type of improvement cutting, for its purpose is to improve the quality of the crop. It is an operation which as yet has been Httle used, and will be used only in occasional cases, where forest management can be on a highly intensive scale, and with certain species, like white pine, in which natural prun- ing is poor, even when grown in a crowded stand. Pruning should only be practiced where clear lumber is wanted, and where such lumber is sufficiently valuable to pay the cost of the operation. The way in which pruning raises the value of the forest crop is through the early removal of lower limbs, allowing the production of clear lumber free from knots. (See Fig. 40.) Forest pruning should be restricted to the removal of dead limbs. There are two reasons why the removal of live limbs is bad; first, because the wounds left by the pruning of live limbs offer good opportunities for the entrance of fungi or insects, and second, because the removal of live limbs disturbs the balance between the crown and root systems of the tree, and may often result in retarding its growth. It is claimed, also, that in the case of some species pruning of live Hmbs causes loose knots in the timber. It is impracticable to prune higher than the first log length, or as high as a man can reach with his pruning tools. Pruning should be done at the earliest possible moment, as soon as the branches have died for the distance up the trunk that the trim- ming is to be done. In this way there will be a smaller knotty center inside the log. The pruning can ordinarily be done before the trees become twenty years of age. Only the trees intended for the final crop should be pruned, 96 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND as to prune those of the subordinate crown classes, which will die or be removed in thinnings, would be a useless expense. Various tools can be successfully used in forest pruning. As only dead Hmbs are removed, a blow from the back side of an axe Fig. 40. — The results of pruning in producing clear lumber. The tree from which this lumber came was pruned up to, but not including, the set of knots marked B. or a heavy stick will often do the work. On the higher hmbs and where the limbs are small, pruning hooks do the best work. Where larger limbs are found, a saw is needed. The cuts should be smooth, and close to the trunk, so that they may readily heal over. CHAPTER VI. INJURIES FROM ANIMALS. The forest as a whole suffers relatively little from animals, their influence on its character being much less important than that of insects. Probably the most destructive wild animal is the porcupine, which in the northern woods girdles a great many trees, especially spruce. As these animals are very fond of old pork barrels they are often found in the vicinity of abandoned lumber camps, and, although in some states there is a reward for killing them, it is a question whether more harm is done by the porcupines or by the class of men who profit by this reward and are responsible for many forest fires. While deer may damage some farm crops in parts of New England, it will be a long time before our forest management will reach that degree of intensiveness which has been reached in Germany, and which takes remedial measures against the occa- sional nipping of a forest bud or stripping of the bark from a saphng. Squirrels, rabbits, and mice often nibble the bark from young trees and occasionally girdle them. The writers have seen plantations of locust and pitch pine in Connecticut killed in this way. Moles also injure the roots of trees and wounds of this kind furnish an easy entrance point for fungous spores. The greatest damage from these rodents is, however, in the forest nursery, where the seeds are often eaten in large numbers, especially the nuts and larger pine seed. Small birds, such as sparrows and goldfinches, frequently cause serious damage in forest nurseries by eating the seed just after germination and thus destroying the young plants. Provision against such dam- age can be made by coating the seed before sowing with red lead, a powder which will remain on the seed for a year and which is 97 98 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND distasteful to birds. In the large commercial nurseries where birds are a serious menace the seed beds are covered with a wire netting of three-fourths-inch mesh. Moles and mice in a nursery can be trapped. One of the simplest methods is to sink pails half full of water and covered with grain in the paths of the nursery, Fig. 41 A fine stand of hard maple and beech. Note absence of reproduction owmg to heavy grazing and compare with ne.xt figure. where the rodents will soon fall into them. Woodchucks, squir- rels, and crows frequently damage seedlings in plantations, es- pecially where nuts have been planted. Much of this injury can be obviated by coating the nuts with tar before planting. More a matter of interest than of economic importance is the service squirrels sometimes render in helping in the collection of forest seeds. The Shakers of Enfield, Connecticut, used to seed down an area of sand plain each year to pine and buckwheat. After taking off the crop of buckwheat they allowed the area to INJURIES FROM ANIMALS 99 grow up to pine, and gathered the pine cones from the piles which the squirrels had collected in the woods. Throughout New England much land formerly pastured is now growing up to brush and trees. For a long time this land was kept clean by cattle and sheep, but the rapid decline in the amount of live stock raised in the East has allowed the reversion of many pastures to forests. Where forest seedlings have come Fig. 42. — A pure stand of hard maple ready for a selection cutting. Note the abundance of hard maple seedlings and saplings which have started owing to protection from grazing. up in land still pastured, examination will show that many of them have been eaten or broken off by the animals. A common practice is to allow domestic animals to pasture in wood lots, where they do a great deal of damage, the character of which depends on the kind of animal. Cattle are more incHned to rub against little pines and other conifers and thus break off their tops than to eat them. Sheep lOO FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND and goats will often strip all foliage as high as they can reach. On steep slopes the trampHng of the animals, overturning stones and cutting up the soil, results in preventing young seedlings from becoming established. Hogs destroy forest seedlings and eat the mast of nut trees and, in some sections of the West, this forms an important part of their diet. There may be times when the introduction of hogs into a forest is rather beneficial than otherwise. They will do much by their rooting to prepare the soil for germination before a heavy seed crop and it may even be advantageous for them to eat an undesirable kind of seed, as beech nuts, to keep down the percentage of a poor species. They also destroy innumerable grubs, many of which, like that of the June bug, are serious enemies of forest and nursery. The presence of grass in a forest is a sign of poor management, as grass can only grow in openings exposed to sunlight and these openings should not exist in the forest. Grass, more than any- thing else, transpires moisture and tends to dry out the soil. Another result of pasturing wood lots is a total absence of young seedlings and the consequent decHne of the forest. No area which has been planted to forest, or which has been covered with a natural growth of seedHngs, should be pastured until the trees are ten feet high. If the stand is of proper density there will not then be sufficient browse to pay for pas- turage. In other words, forestry and grazing can rarely be practiced on the same land to their mutual advantage. CHAPTER VII. FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI. There are numerous insects and fungi which attack the leaves, branches, trunks, or roots of forest trees. Some restrict their attack to dead or dying trees, while a smaller number are able to prey upon living healthy trees. The insects and fungi considered in this chapter have been selected because they are among the most destructive to liv- ing forest trees. From the practical standpoint, the forester is less interested in enemies which prey only upon dead or badly injured trees. For a complete list of the insect and fungous enemies of the New England forests, reference must be made to more advanced entomological and pathological works. A . INSECTS. White Pine Weevil {Pissodes strobi) . This pest is found generally wherever the white pine grows. Form of Damage. — The weevil invariably works in the main terminal shoot and causes it to wither, but seldom kills the tree. Depredations begin in July or early August. The next year one of the side branches straightens up and forms the leader, but there is always a sHght crook in the tree. In badly infested regions the same tree may be attacked repeatedly, and numer- ous crooks will give it a deformed and stunted appearance. For timber purposes the value of the pine is much diminished. The insect seems to prefer trees under 30 feet in height, but it occa- sionally attacks taller ones, and those in old fields and open woods are more severely attacked than those in closed stands. The injurious effects are worse in the southern range of the species. I02 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Appearance. — In its adult stage it is a reddish-brown beetle about one-quarter inch long with a pronounced snout. The pupa is creamy white and about the same length as the adult, and the grub is also white and of varying length up to one- quarter inch, according to development. The infested top of the tree is badly decayed at the close of the season and is riddled with tunnels that are filled with the borings. The wilting of the needles is the first evidence of the weevil's presence. ^-^^ By permission oj the U.S. Forest Service. Fig. 43. — Leader of a young white pine killed by the white pine weevil. Several of the side branches have already begun to take the place of the leader. Life History. — The beetles deposit their eggs under the bark of the main shoots in May or June, and the grubs, which hatch after a week or two, begin to bore inward and in a downward direction to the pith. In the grub stage they are greatly re- duced in numbers by natural enemies, mostly parasitic insects. The transformation into pupae and adults takes place during FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 103 July and August, after which the imprisoned beetles bore a way out to freedom and seek suitable abodes in which to pass the winter. Treatment. — The best way to light this enemy is to cut off the infested top during June, July, or early August, before the beetles have escaped. The surest way of extermination is to burn these tops, but as they often are the habitat of minute insects which prey upon the weevil, a modification has been suggested by Dr. Hopkins of the United States Bureau of Ento- mology. Obtain a perfectly tight box or barrel with but one opening (a large metal can is still better). In this, place the infested tops, and cover the opening with a very fine- wire mesh (one which an ordinary pinhead cannot pass through). The beetles cannot escape, but the parasites easily make their way out and attack other weevils. The box must not be exposed to the weather as it will check and allow the weevils to escape. Either form of treatment must be repeated several successive years as it is impossible to exterminate them in a single season. In order to prevent the injured trees from developing two or more main stems, all the side branches of the top whorl, except one, should be cut off close to the main stem. This one side branch will straighten and develop into the trunk of the tree. Pine-bark Aphid {Chermes pinicorticis) . Form of Damage. — This plant louse is sometimes present in such large numbers on pine stems as to weaken the vitahty of the tree by sucking the sap. A sickly condition and occasionally death, in the case of young trees, results. This aphid occurs everywhere throughout the range of the white pine. Appearance. — A cottony appearance on the twigs, and some- times over the trunk of the tree, betrays the presence of the insect. It is sometimes mistaken for the exudations of the pitch. The eggs occur in downy balls near the base of the needles and vary in number from live to sixty or more in each cluster. They are oval, and of a reddish-yellow color. As insects, some I04 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND are winged and some wingless. The young of the latter are oval in shape, somewhat flattened, and of a yellowish-brown tint. As these develop they become darker colored, and finally almost black. The wool-hke covering serves to hide the insect and By permission of the Conneclicut State Forester. Fig. 44. — A white pine tree 27 years old seriously attacked by the' white pine aphid. gives it the appearance of a ball of down. The winged species are of a Kght-reddish tinge; their white wings expanding rapidly become transparent, but the bodies become almost black. Life History. — The eggs laid by the wingless females begin to hatch early in May, and the young, emerging in large numbers from the bulbs of wooly matter, spread over the bark at the base FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 105 of the needles. Individually they are almost too small to be seen with the naked eye, but their number at this stage is legion. They soon attach themselves to the tender bark of young twigs, increase rapidly in size and darken down to brown or black, and all the while exude a substance which nearly conceals them. Maturity is reached about the last of May when the females deposit eggs for another brood. During the summer there may be several broods and at last females with wings appear. Treatment. — The aphid has several natural enemies, the most effective being certain varieties of ladybugs. Where a hy- drant is near the insects can be washed off by a forcible stream of cold water. A spray of kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap, is efhcient. One pound of the soap to four gallons of water makes a good mixture. However, in forestry it is usually im- practicable as well as unnecessary to use preventive measures. The SpRUCE-DESTROYrNG Beetle^ {Dendroctouus piceaperda). Form of Damage. — This insect, which has been prevalent in New England and New York since 1818, has destroyed much spruce timber by its borings in the cambium, the living tissue just beneath the bark. Here it makes its primary galleries, and lays its eggs. As soon as the eggs hatch the young broods make transverse galleries which effectually girdle the tree, and in time the withering leaves proclaim the death of the tree. The falling leaves are an outward sign of the damage; by remov- ing the bark the galleries made by the insects may be plainly seen. Appearance. — The adult is a reddish-brown or black beetle, varying in length from three-sixteenths to one-quarter of an inch. The egg, small and nearly white, is not distinguishable from that of other bark beetles. The larva, at first a minute white grub, becomes about one-quarter inch long. The pupa is nearly white * See " Some of the Principal Insect Enemies of Coniferous Forests in the United States," by A. D. Hopkins, from Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902. Io6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND and of about the same size and form as the adult; it is found in cavities in the bark. Life History. - — Simultaneously a large number of beetles will attack the lower part of a large-sized spruce. Trees over ten inches in diameter may be attacked They bore through the bark and deposit their eggs in the galleries as already de- scribed. The eggs soon hatch and each larva bores its individ- ual gallery where it matures. The period of development from egg to mature larva varies according to the season, from two to nine months, but the adult seldom develops sufiticiently to emerge until another spring. The result is, when activity ceases in October, that a tree may contain the insect in all its stages of growth. Treatment. — Nothing can be done to save a tree once in- fested with this borer, but much can be done to prevent the spread to other trees. Theoretically the best method is to make trap trees by hack girdling them in May or June. The beetles are thus led to concentrate on these weakened trees, and these are to be destroyed in the fall, winter, or early spring, either by the removal of the timber from the forest or by felling and re- moving the bark before the insects emerge. Intelhgent lum- bering of the areas of infected trees, and of all mature trees, is the most practicable way of keeping this insect in check. The Spruce Bud worm (Tortrix fumijerana) . The spruce budworm is an insect which, within recent years at least, has not attracted widespread attention among forest- ers and landowners in New England. Extensive killing of the spruce about thirty years ago along the Maine coast is attributed largely by Packard to this insect. However, in Canada, in the neighboring province of Quebec, it is now a serious pest, and there is reason to believe that in New England also it may become dangerous. Form of Damage. — The insect feeds in its caterpillar stage on the buds of the spruce, and after these are destroyed it eats off FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 107 the needles, attacking them at the base. Besides the spruce, other conifers may be attacked. Trees may be killed outright by the spruce bud worm, if defoliated repeatedly, but in the majority of cases the result is the checking of the growth of the tree and the weakening of its vitality. Indirectly this is of importance, since the weakening of the tree's vitality results in its falling an easy prey to the spruce- destroying bark beetle, which is a much more dangerous enemy. Branches attacked by the spruce budworm have a reddish- brown appearance, due to the bare twigs and to the dead leaves, which the caterpillars have fastened together to serve as a place in which to live. Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, F.E.S., Dominion Entomologist of Ottawa, Canada, has studied the spruce budworm and the fol- lowing account of its life history is taken from one of his addresses published in the Report of the Canadian Forestry Convention for 191 1 : "The winter is passed in the caterpillar stage, as a very small caterpillar, we believe, in a little shelter constructed near a bud. In the spring, when the buds begin to swell, the caterpillar begins to feed and becomes full-grown towards the end of May and beginning of June. They are then four-fifths of an inch long, of a reddish-brown color, and have small light-yellow warts on each segment of the body; the sides of the caterpillar are lighter in color. They transform into brown chrysalids inside the loosely made shelters. In six to ten days the small brown moth emerges from the chrysalis, dragging the empty case partially out of the larval shelter. The moths are found from the middle of June to the end of July. Shortly after emergence, they deposit their peculiar pale-green scale-like eggs in small oval patches on the undersides of the needles, and they are not conspicuous. The eggs hatch in about a week or ten days, and the young larvae feed for a short time on the terminal shoots of the branches before hibernating. During July when the moths are flying, they occur in enormous numbers about the electric and other Kghts. . . . They are carried considerable distances by the wind, and this method of dispersal accounts for the rapid spread of the insect." Io8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Treatment. — No practicable method of directly combating the spruce budworm is as yet known. Its greatest damage is done in connection with the spruce-destroying beetle. This beetle can be controlled as already described. Where the spruce budworm is found in abundance, especial watch should be kept to see whether the spruce-destroying beetle has attacked the weakened trees. The Gipsy Moth {Porthetria dispar). Form of Damage. — Since its importation into Massachusetts, the damage done by this insect has been most serious — dam- age, by the way, not confined either to forest or fruit trees, for it also attacks other forms of vegetation. The damage done is by defoliation which weakens the tree, and if repeated for two or three successive seasons results in its death. The gipsy moth prefers such trees as the oak and maple, but conifers are not immune.^ It does Kttle damage to the compound leaf species, as the ash, hickory, and butternut. Experts, there- fore, advise the encouragement in the infected regions, so far as possible, of species with compound leaves. Appearance. — The presence of this insect is always apparent in the latter part of the season from the defoliation of the trees, but identification is easiest by the discovery of the large egg masses which are oval in shape, about an inch wide and two inches long, of a buff color, and presenting much the appearance of a piece of sponge. These may be found on the bark of trees or under leaves on the ground. The young caterpillar is about one-tenth inch long on emerging from the egg; when full grown it is from two to two and a half inches in length. It has a double row of tubercles down the back, eight blue and twelve red. The pupa is dark brown and from three-fourths to one and a half inches long. The male and the female moth differ widely in appearance. The former is small and of a brown color, with a wing spread of one and a half inches. The female, of a white ' The red pine is thought to be immune. FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI lOQ or buff color, and with a wing spread of about two inches, is too heavy to fly. Life History. — In this country as well as in Europe this insect has but one generation a year. The minute eggs are laid in clusters of from four hundred to five hundred eggs each. Yellowish hairs give to these clusters a sponge-like appearance, and although they are usually on the trunk of the tree, or the side of a log, they are often concealed in crevices and under rocks. Eggs are laid in the latter part of the summer and usually do not hatch into caterpillars until the following spring, from the end of April until the middle of June. The cater- pillars reach full growth in about ten days, spin filmy cocoons usually on the trunks of trees, and finally emerge as moths in late July or August. Most of the damage is done in the cater- pillar stage, and the dissemination of the insect is also due largely to the activity of the caterpillar. Eggs and caterpillars are distributed by artificial means, as on cars, automobiles, etc. Treatment. — The conspicuous color of the egg mass and the long duration of the insect in this stage make this the most vulnerable stage to combat. The masses may be collected and burned, or, as is most generally done now, they may be treated with a coating of creosote. In the woods, extreme vigilance is necessary to find these clusters. All brush, especially near stone walls, should first be removed. Several methods of destroying the caterpillars are employed. During the month just after hatching — from the middle of May to the middle of June — the trees may be sprayed effectively with arsenate of lead. This spray will not injure the tenderest foliage when diluted with water in the ratio ten pounds to one hundred gallons of water. One method of preventing the cater- pillars from climbing trees is either to bind the trunks with tar paper, or to smear the bark with fish oil or a sticky German product known as " raupenleim " (caterpillar glue). This glue remains viscid for months. Another kind of band, used as a trap, consists of a strip of common burlap a foot wide which is tied around the trunk with a single string at its middle and no FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND about four feet from the ground. The upper part of the burlap is turned down over the twine, thus making a double fold around the tree. The caterpillars eat the foHage in the night, crawl down the tree and conceal themselves on the burlap through the day. Squads of men going through the forest crush them in these hiding places. Rubbish heaps and all breeding places should be destroyed. An effective method of protecting coni- fers is to remove all hardwoods, especially those with simple leaves. A number of parasitic insects have been introduced from Europe and set free in Massachusetts ^ and it is confidently hoped that they will in time obtain the mastery. The gipsy moth has spread constantly, year by year, despite all the efforts that have been made to control it. At one time it was nearly under control when, unfortunately, Massachusetts politics interfered, appropriations for suppressing the insect were cut down and the evil spread unhindered. It now appears throughout the eastern half of Massachusetts nearly to the Berkshires, through southern Maine and southeastern New Hampshire, throughout Rhode Island, and has been discovered in Connecticut, but has been controlled there by the State Entomologist. The United States Department of Agriculture is now cooperating with the various states mentioned in an attempt to suppress this evil, and is laying special emphasis on the introduction of foreign parasites and enemies. Brown-tail Moth {Euproctis chrysorrJioea). Form of Damage. — Like the gipsy moth this insect defoliates both forest and fruit trees, but apparently does not attack conifers. Of forest trees, it prefers oak, maple, and elm. Be- sides the damage to trees, the hairs from the caterpillars are exceedingly irritating and poisonous to some people, and often cause severe illness. Appearance. — The most conspicuous indication of this in- sect's presence, and one which distinguishes it at once from ^ See Chapter XVII, Massachusetts. FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI III the Gipsy moth, is the webs on the terminal twigs in which the partly grown caterpillars spend the winter. The male moth is pure white with a wing spread of about one and a fourth inches, and has a conspicuous reddish-brown tuft at the tip of the abdomen from which it gets its name. The female is some- what larger, but is the same color as the male except that the tuft is larger and of lighter color. The full-grown caterpillars range from one to one and a fourth inches in length. Life History. — The winter is passed in the partly grown caterpillar stage as indicated above. These begin work early in the spring, feeding downward from the tips of the branches and leaving the naked twigs and their gray tents as evidence of their sojourn. When numerous, they will devour green fruit as well as leaves and buds and blossoms. A number of caterpillars frequently pupate in a common cocoon of dry leaves at the tips of the branches and sometimes in masses under fences, clapboards, or on the trunks of trees. They pupate in June usually. Their webs may be distinguished frorh those of the tent caterpillar which are always at the forks of the branches. The eggs are laid during July in masses composed of two hun- dred to three hundred, usually on the underside of leaves. These eggs, which are covered with fine brown hairs, hatch in a short time, and the young marauders live on the foHage until it is time for them to make their winter tents. Treatment. — As their hibernating nests are conspicuous par- ticularly in early spring, they can then be cut off and burned. The species is killed also by spraying with arsenical mixtures. The range of this insect is similar to that of the gipsy moth, but scattered specimens have been found in Vermont and other sections outside the infected Gipsy moth belt. The Larch Sawfly {Nematus erichsonii). This insect is distributed through the New England range of the tamarack, on the leaves of which it feeds. Complete defoHation often results from the attack of the sawfly, and the tamarack over a large region may be killed. In the early 112 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 8o's, great destruction of the native larch was caused in New- England. The insect will also attack the European larch. The following account of the appearance and life history of the insect is quoted from an article by Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, F.E.S., Dominion Entomologist of Ottawa, Canada, and pub- lished in the Report of the Canadian Forestry Convention for 1911: "The habits and Hfe history of the insect are such as to render it injurious in both the caterpillar or worm stage, and the fly stage. The winter is passed by the larva in a cocoon under the turf round the base of the tree. In May the larvae transform into the perfect insect and the flies begin to emerge during that month. An interesting feature of the productive powers of the larch sawfiy is that it can reproduce parthenogenetically, this means that the females can deposit eggs wliich, although they have not been fertilized by the males, are not infertile but produce larvae of the sawfly. This interesting phenomenon, which also occurs in certain other insects, is of importance, as the pro- ductive power of the species is increased when the necessity of the female meeting a male is dispensed with. Shortly after emerging the females begin to deposit their eggs. The eggs are always deposited in the terminal green shoots of the larch and never on any other part of the tree. In laying the eggs the female sawfiy makes an incision in the tender stem of the shoot by means of a pair of saw-like instruments at the end of the body, and into this incision the egg is pushed. The eggs are usually deposited in a double row in the shoot and as many as forty or iifty eggs may be found on a single green shoot. As they are usually deposited along one side of the shoot the in- juries inflicted by the saw-Hke appendages of the female cause the shoot as it grows to curl. In many cases the injuries are so severe as to kill the shoot and the presence of the dead and reddish-brown shoots often serves as an indication of the pres- ence of the insect. In about a week to ten days after deposition the eggs hatch and the young pale-green caterpillars emerge and immediately begin to feed upon the green verticles of the leaves. As they become older they feed in masses, sometimes as many as fifty or sixty caterpillars in a single cluster, and, feeding in this manner, they completely strip the branches of all green leaves which gives the tree a winter aspect in the middle FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI I13 of summer. The caterpillars are full grown in three to four weeks and, during their lives, they cast their skins five times. . . . The full-grown caterpillar measures about two-thirds of an inch in length. Its color is bluish or glaucous green, the lower surface being a lighter green. The head and three pairs of thoracic legs are jet black. It also possesses seven pairs of abdominal legs. When the caterpillars are full-grown they either crawl down or drop from the tree and penetrate the turf round the base of the tree to the depth of a few inches. There they spin a brown oval cocoon about two-fifths of an inch in length, and in this the winter is passed, the caterpillar transforming into the perfect insect in the following year as previously de- scribed. The sawflies are black with the middle portion of the hind body or abdomen a bright resin red, and they measure about half an inch in length." Treatment. — The prevention of the ravages of this insect must be left to natural factors, especially to various parasites which prey upon the sawfly. So completely does an outbreak of the sawfly destroy the larch, that the supply of food for the insect becomes scarce and it falls a victim of its own rapacity. In Europe birds have been found to be important enemies of the sawfly, and special steps are taken to increase their numbers, but this will hardly be practicable as yet in this country, as the native larch is most abundant in sections where only extensive methods of management can be applied. Elm-leaf Beetle {Galerucella lutcola). Form of Damage. — The elm leaves are skeletonized, and this gives the crown of the tree a brown, scorched appearance which detracts greatly from its beauty. If a tree is defoliated two or three seasons in succession, it is sure to die. The elms of southern New England, especially those in cities and towns, have suffered tremendously from this pest. Appearance. — The damage is always done before its extent is apparent. By the middle of summer the infested trees are entirely defoHated. The beetle is about one-fourth inch long with head and wings marked with yellow. The yellow eggs are usually deposited in irregular rows on the under surface of the 1 14 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND leaf. The full-grown caterpillar is about one-half inch long with a broad, yellowish stripe down the center and a narrower strip of the same color on each side. The pupa is a bright orange yellow about one-fifth of an inch long. Life History. — The transformations of this insect follow each other so rapidly that unless one knows just what to look for he is apt in combating the pest to do the wrong thing at the wrong time. The beetles pass the winter in sheds, attics, and in other sheltered places and emerge in the first warm spring weather. Late in April or with the appearance of elm leaves the beetles fly into the trees and begin defoliating. Before the latter part of June when the eggs are all laid, much damage may be done. Early in June the young grubs hatch out and begin to eat the leaves. They complete this stage in about three weeks and then pupate, developing into the beetle in a few days. As there are usually two broods in a season the foliage may be destroyed, re- newed, and again destroyed, which is very weakening to the tree. Treatment. — Many of these insects are killed by a fungus and by parasites. The success of any treatment depends on accurate observations. Much can be accomplished by spray- ing the underside of the leaves in early spring with arsenical poisons when the grubs begin to feed. There should be no de- lay in this work. When the caterpillars crawl down the trunk, large numbers of them may be killed by spraying with kerosene emulsion, soap solution, or by pouring boiling water on them. Banding the trees is of no use in combating the insect, since it works down the tree instead of up. The successful methods of fighting the elm-leaf beetle cannot be used in forestry work on account of the expense. Forest Tent Caterpillar,^ or Maple Worm (Malacosoma dis stria). Form of Damage. — A few years ago this insect caused a great deal of damage throughout the northeast by defoliating sugar- 1 See New York State Museum Memoir 8, " Insects Affecting Park and Wood- land Trees." FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 115 maple trees. Many sugar orchards were completely stripped of leaves by the caterpillar, resulting in the death of numerous trees, and an injury to sugar productivity which has not yet been fully compensated, after a period of ten years. The defo- liation occurs for the most part in the early summer. While the insect prefers the foliage of the maple, it does not confine its ravages to this tree, but eats the foHage of oak, Hnden, locust, peach, plum, cherry, apple, elm, poplar, birch, and some of the shrubs. Appearance. — The damage is done by the caterpillar which is blue-headed, with a line of silvery diamond-shaped spots down the middle of the back. When not feeding, they assemble in clusters on the sides of the larger limbs and trunks. This insect may be distinguished from the common tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americana, by the fact that it does not spin a con- spicuous web tent as does the latter. The egg belts containing about 150 eggs encircle the slender twigs and have a brownish protective covering. The white or yellowish-white cocoons are spun in the leaves on the tree or on the ground, in crevices of the bark, under stones, in fence corners, etc. In the cocoons are dark-brown pupae. The moths are light buff colored and active. The males are smaller than the females and of rich coloring. Life History. — This insect passes the winter in the egg stage as a well-developed larva. In the warm weather of spring the young caterpillars emerge and await the unfolding of the leaves. As the young increase in size they molt, leaving their cast-off skins on the bark. The larvae are found in clusters on the limbs when not feeding. When the limb is jarred they are easily knocked off. Early in June when the caterpillars are nearly full grown they may be seen in great numbers crawling over walks, piazzas, and the sides of buildings. The insect remains in the pupa stage about two weeks, and emerges as a moth about the last of June or in July, when the eggs are deposited. Natural Enemies. — This insect is sometimes attacked by a fungous disease. It is also a favorite item of diet for robins, Il6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND orioles, chipping sparrows, catbirds, cuckoos, cedar birds, and nuthatches. Treatment. — Something can be done by collecting and burn- ing the egg masses in winter, but the method is of no great value. Many of the caterpillars can be brushed off the trees and crushed, or burned on the trees with a torch. Bands of tar paper or fly paper tied around the trees prevent the cater- pillars from ascending. The masses of caterpillars on the trunks can also be killed by spraying with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil-soap solution (one pound to four gallons), or with the ordinary poisonous insecticides, as the arsenical sprays. In June great numbers of cocoons can be collected with little trouble. In some New York towns rewards have been paid the school children for collecting these cocoons. These methods are too expensive for use in forestry, except in the care of valuable sugar orchards. The June Bug {Lachno sterna) } The June bug as a forest pest has gained prominence in New England only in the last few years since forest planting has been started on a large scale. For years it has been recognized as injurious to certain crops, particularly grass, its ravages being much worse in some localities than in others. During the last three years the attention of foresters has been directed to this bug because of the havoc it has wrought in certain nurseries. Appearance. — The June bug in the pupa stage, as a whitish grub, eats the roots and bark on the roots of seedlings, trans- plants, and trees in plantations. Only the smallest and ten- derest roots can be consumed, but larger roots, up to at least one-eighth inch in diameter, may be partially or completely stripped of their bark. The greatest damage is to seedlings where the entire root system may be consumed by this grub. Three- and four-year-old transplants in nurseries may lose all but a single main root and become so weakened that finally ^ This is the generic name. There are ten or more species of the genus found in New England. FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI II 7 they die. In plantations the loss is less noticeable than in nurseries. No thorough study of the loss has been made so far as is known. Often the slow and stunted growth of certain trees may be traced to root injuries due to this insect. Only plantations in open land not recently under forest are hable to the injury, as the June bug is not found commonly in forested soil. When once famiUar with its devastations, its presence can be readily detected. In seed-beds of very young plants the grub often eats o& the roots and draws the stem of the plant into the ground leaving the top to rest on the surface. When these tops are taken out the roots are found to have been eaten entirely away. Older seedhngs and transplants show the injury by wilting and turning yellow, when their tops are pulled up easily. An uninjured plant being held by its small roots offers resistance when pulled. Life History. — The June bug appears in the beetle form dur- ing the latter part of the spring. In June or July it lays eggs in the ground, one to six inches below the surface. Open land and fields of old sod are its habitat. In the daytime the beetle prefers to remain in trees and at night to fly out into the adjoin- ing fields where it lays its eggs. Fields bordered with shade trees which offer a shelter in the daytime are pretty sure to furnish numerous June-bug grubs. The eggs soon hatch into slender, whitish grubs, which at first are less than one-fourth of an inch in length; sometimes they grow to be over one and a half inches long. It is in this grub or pupa stage that the injury is done. The grubs are sluggish, work slowly, and never appear above ground. They do not remain at one depth, but in sum- mer work from near the surface to ten or twelve inches below; in late fall and winter they bore much deeper and remain there until frost leaves the ground. They work at night and will be found nearer to the surface then than during the daytime. In August or September the grubs begin to change into beetles, and as such remain in the ground until spring, when they emerge and are a famiHar sight. Many remain in the grub Il8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND stage for more than one season, and do not change into beetles until the second August or September. This gives them a longer time to feed, and as they grow in size they become more injurious. Often they work until the ground is frozen and start in early again when it thaws in the spring. Treatment. — A simple and cheap method of combating the June bug has not yet been worked out. At present in forest nurseries, when the grubs are found to be abundant, they are dug out by hand, the spot where they are working being easily determined by the appearance of the injured plants. This method can be used in transplant beds, but in thick beds of seedlings it is hardly practicable. Where land known to be infested with the grub is to be used for a nursery or a planta- tion, it is a good thing to turn in swine. They will uproot the ground thoroughly and eat the grubs. After that the field can be used safely. Inasmuch as old sod and grass land is preferred by the beetles as a meeting place, such land should not be put into nursery use until after a year or two of preliminary cultivation. In the case of a similar species, trapping and killing the beetles has been tried in Europe sometimes very successfully. In one section where the insects abounded, the cost of planting was in eight years reduced from the abnormal figure of $53 per acre to between $3 and $4 per acre. In this case trap trees of a species which the beetles preferred were left in the open, and then the beetles, when in the trees, were shaken down upon sheets and destroyed. B. FUNGI. Chestnut Bark Disease {Diaporthe parasitica). Without doubt this is one of the most threatening fungous diseases which ever attacked a forest tree. It is one of the few diseases which cause the certain death of healthy, vigorous trees. So virulent is it that the chestnut, on which it preys, has been practically exterminated in portions of New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. The worst injury has been FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI II9 done on Long Island, and in the vicinity of New York City, from which as a center it is spreading. Only since 1905 has the disease been generally recognized, and in New England it was little noticed until 1907. Southwestern Connecticut is the most seriously infected region here; and in Fairfield County the chestnut has been nearly all killed. As we proceed from south- western Connecticut, through that state and then into Massa- chusetts and northern New England, the number of infected trees is less and less noticeable. But the disease may be found practically over the entire New England range of the species. North of Connecticut no great amount of timber has as yet been killed. The chestnut bark disease attacks and kills the cambium layer, which lies between the bark and the wood. This is the growing layer of the tree and when it is girdled, death of the portion above the injured place results. As the disease is distributed by the spores (virtually seeds) which are easily blown by winds, or carried by birds, its spread is rapid. These spores cannot attack a tree except through a wound, but as every tree has many slight wounds or openings in its bark, it is rarely that a tree is exempt from the disease. When a spore finds lodgment it quickly develops a fungous growth spreading in the cambium layer at first in a somewhat elliptical form until finally it girdles the branch or trunk. It may also work up and down the trunk. Trees of all ages from the young sprout to those of lumber value are attacked. In an old tree with thick bark the disease usually enters at the top and works downward. On young trees, with easily wounded bark, the disease may start at any point. When old trees are injured by fire, even to a very slight extent, the disease will find entrance at the base. There are several ways in which the work of this fungus can be recognized. The spots or cankers are apt to have an ellip- tical form, and the bark over the injured part is somewhat reddish and sometimes appears sunken. Pustules, of a yellow- ish or orange color, containing the spores can often be seen pro- I20 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND truding through the bark. These fruiting bodies are the only part of the fungus visible to the naked eye, and usually occur in the crevices of the bark. Often they may be seen near the base of a mature tree, which to the observer appears otherwise Fig. 45. — A forest-grown chestnut on the edge of a recent cutting killed the previous season by the chestnut bark disease. sound. These pustules are an unmistakable sign of the disease. When the trees are in foliage, diseased individuals may be recognized by their bare branches, or branches with partly shriveled leaves or burrs. Frequently half a tree or a limb FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 121 here and there may be dead, and the remainder of the tree be in full fohage. Another sign of the disease is the presence of thrifty one- year sprouts on the trunks of fairly large trees. Usually on close examination near or above these sprouts can be found a spot with other characteristic symptoms. As yet no method of successfully combating the chestnut bark disease is known. When a tree in the forest is attacked it is virtually doomed. In the case of valuable shade trees, cutting out the infected parts has in some cases been successful. The exposed face of the cutting must be covered with paint or tar. If this is done and all infected spots are completely removed, the tree may be saved. Such treatment is, of course, out of the question in handling forests on account of the expense. The fungus cannot be reached by spraying as it is protected by the bark of the tree. Several pathologists who have studied its ravages predict the extermination of the chestnut unless some- thing unforeseen stops the disease. If all the infected trees, in a section where the disease is just beginning to spread, could be cut down and the brush and in- fected bark burned, this evil might be checked in that locaUty, but, unfortunately, all injured trees cannot be found. In a forested region it is doubtful if any method will be successful. It should be stated that Dr. G. P. Clinton, Botanist for the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, holds a some- what different view of the situation ^ from that commonly expressed. He believes that the chestnut bark disease, although a virulent disease, would not have caused the damage to the chestnut, which has already resulted, had it not been powerfully assisted by some other cause. Such a cause he finds in the un- usual weather conditions existing in Connecticut since the year 1902. Winter injury was especially noticeable following the winter of 1903-04. The severe droughts which have occurred in the last few years, especially in 1907 and 191 1, have in- 1 See Report of the Station Botanist: Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1908. 122 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND creased the injury due to winter killing. It is probable that much of the injury to the chestnut is due directly to winter killing, and the effects of the droughts which have injured other trees in the same region. With such weakening of the chestnut, due to unfavorable weather conditions, the bark disease has been able to spread and develop far more rapidly and with more disastrous results than would ordinarily occur. Whether this relation between weather conditions and the activity of the disease actually exists is not yet proven. Within the next few years, however, providing severe droughts and abnormal winters do not occur, the truth should become apparent. If the seasons are normal and the disease does not develop with the same rapidity as in the past. Dr. Clinton's theory may be accepted. But if, after several normal seasons, the disease still continues its devastat- ing progress, the injury must be attributed to the fungus alone. It is to be hoped that he is correct, and that the chestnut in New England will be saved from extermination. Tra?netes pint. Trametes pini is a fungus attacking practically all the impor- tant conifers of New England; red and white spruce, white pine, hemlock, larch, and balsam. Von Schrenk considers larch most susceptible to its attacks, the spruces next, and the balsam least. It is a common and extremely dangerous disease, entering living trees, old enough to form heartwood, through wounds or any opening in the bark. From the point of entry it spreads up and down the trunk, working both in the heartwood and the sapwood, except in white pine, where it flourishes only in the heartwood. Finally even the roots and the larger branches may be infected. As the wood is not entirely destroyed by the fungus the tree remains standing, but is so weakened that eventually it is broken off by a strong wind. The lumber value of the infected portion is entirely destroyed. The fungus can be identified because the diseased wood is honeycombed and is filled with small holes. These holes often FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 1 23 have a shiny white hning, and between the holes will be thin layers of wood only partially destroyed. The best outward indication of the disease is the pitch which exudes on the bark, sometimes in considerable quantities. The fungus^ is spread by spores blown by the wind. These come from fruiting bodies located usually at old knot holes and on the stubs of dead branches, although on spruce at least the fruiting bodies may form in dry crevices of the bark. The light reddish-brown color of the lower surface of the fruiting bodies is characteristic, but their form varies from a bracket shape to that of a plate, following the configuration of the trunk or branch. There is no practical method for use in forestry of combating Trametes pini. Diseased trees, as soon as discovered, should be cut and utilized, but as such trees are often scattered it is not always possible to remove them. If all diseased trees could be discovered quickly and removed the loss from this fungus would be greatly lessened. Poly poms schweinitzii. This fungus is common on balsam, red and white spruce, white pine, and arborvitae; it attacks living trees of all ages and causes extensive losses. The fungus first enters underground, through the root system, but soon spreads to the trunk, up which it may extend its growth for forty feet or more. Diseased trees are ordinarily found in groups, because the fungus spreads from tree to tree through the ground. As the disease progresses the root system and trunk become weakened and finally the tree is uprooted or broken off near the base. Like Trametes pini this fungus destroys the lumber value of the infected portion. Probably the greatest loss is found in the balsam, of which species nearly all the older trees are attacked. 1 A detailed description of Trametes pini will be found in U. S. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Bull. 25, entitled, " Some Diseases of New England Conifers," by Von Schrenk. 124 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Wood attacked by Polyporus schweinitzii^ has a cheesy con- sistency, is yellowish in color, and is easily powdered when dry. In the last stages of decay it is very brittle. These char- acteristics of the diseased wood and the large, brightly colored fruiting bodies are the best means of field identification. The fruiting bodies when young are a yellowish-brown color, but in a few days become reddish brown. The underside is some- times rose colored, and if bruised quickly turns dark red. They take the form of brackets, ordinarily several in number, fastened one above the other, usually arising from the roots of the tree, near the base of which they may be seen growing, in the months of July and August. Occasionally the fruiting bodies are borne on the trunk of the tree. Fully grown specimens range from four inches in diameter to about fourteen inches. On account of its spreading underground, and entering the tree unseen, the fungus is hard to detect, until in the advanced stages, and hence difficult to combat. A European practice is to surround infected trees and groups with a deep trench which prevents the further spread of the fungus. Such a method is as yet impracticable in New England, and the best that can be done is to utilize diseased trees before their value is entirely gone. The White Pine Blister Rust, or European Currant Rust {Peridermium strohi)r Other species of Peridermium have been common in New England on pitch pine and Scotch pine, as well as other plants, but until recently the white pine was exempt. As a result of the growing enthusiasm for forest planting which has spread so rapidly during the past few years, a large quantity of nursery stock has been imported from Europe. ^ For a more detailed description of the fungus see Bull. 25, U. S. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, entitled, " Some Diseases of New England Conifers," by Von Schrenk. 2 See Circular 38, U. S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry, " European Currant Rust on the White Pine in America," by Spaulding. FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 12$ In June, 1909, some of the stock thus imported into New York State was found to be infected with this fungus and on exami- nation it was discovered that stock imported into other states was Hkewise diseased. In fact the fungus has been found on trees imported several years previous to 1909, which makes its eradication somewhat more difficult. In nearly all cases the diseased stock has been traced to one European nursery, that of J. Heins Sohne, of Halstenbek, Germany. The fact that this immense nursery, one of the largest in the world, should know- ingly export to this country diseased stock, should deter Amer- icans from all future dealing with it, even after this disease has been exterminated. In Europe this species of Peridemiium has long been common on Finns cembra, or stone pine, which is the European variety of white pine. Of late years with the multipKcation of planta- tions of our American species throughout Europe the disease has attacked these. In some regions it has caused much havoc especially in nurseries. In certain places, notably, in Holland; at Oldenburg, Germany; and at Moscow, Russia, the disease is so serious that the cultivation of white pine has been aban- doned. Young trees are killed outright by the disease, and the small branches of large trees are killed. The affected seedlings have a peculiarly stunted appearance, and the stem is abnormally enlarged and swollen in places. New growth is very short. The orange fruiting bodies on the stem, which, however, occur only in the spring, furnish the best means of identification. This fungus is one stage of the bhster rust of currants and gooseberries known as Cronatimn rubicola. In other words, like the wheat rust, cedar apple, and many similar fungi, it is a fungus which requires two hosts to complete its fife history. The spores from an infested currant or gooseberry bush are blown to a neighboring white pine tree. Here they germinate and the mycelium vegetates in the inner bark until the second spring after infection. Then the diseased bark thickens and the stem becomes swollen. The fruiting bodies break through 126 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the bark sometime between the middle of April and June, according to the locality and the season. They are of a light, orange color and project from the stem about one-eighth of an inch. They soon break open and the spores are scattered by the wind. After the spores are gone, the remains of the fruit- ing bodies are washed off, leaving empty fissures in the bark to show where they were. The spores from the pine, if they chance to fall upon currant leaves, infect them in turn. On these leaves in fifteen to forty days new fruiting bodies are formed, the spores of which may infect either currant or pine. The spores produced on the pine cannot directly infect pine, but must first infect currants. On the pine the fungus remains alive as long as the stem on which it grows; but in the currant it is not thought to be perennial. Fortunately the spores are not apt to be carried over one hundred yards. The best means of combating the disease are: (i) To examine all infested plantations and burn all currant or gooseberry bushes, wild or cultivated, within five hundred feet of the plantation. This should be done between the middle of July and the fall of the currant leaves. (2) To inspect imported white pine trees and burn all that show any symptoms of the disease; or better yet use only native- grown plants. (3) To inspect, for two years at least, all white pines located near infected currant bushes and burn all that become infected. White-heart Rot. False-tinder Fungus, Poplar Disease {Fomes igniarius)} The principal diseases of deciduous forest trees are caused by a group of fungi which grow in the heartwood of trees. This species is characteristic of the group. It is impossible to recog- nize the presence of the fungus during the early stages of the disease, in fact not until the fruiting bodies form on the exterior of the trunk. When these appear the tree is thoroughly diseased 1 See Bull. 149, U. S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry, " Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees." FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 127 for two or three feet above and below the fruiting bodies. In its final stages the heartwood is completely destroyed so that the tree is weakened and Hable to be broken off by windstorms. On examination the center of the tree will be found of a pulpy consistency definitely limited on the outside by one or more narrow black layers. Fig. 46. — The fallen chestnut, now 6 inches in diameter, was formerly injured by fire which allowed a fungus to enter. This fungus hollowed out the stem for over 2 feet from the ground leaving untouched a mere shell of wood on the outside. The first heavy wind broke the tree. This disease causes greater damage to poplar than to other trees, but is by no means confined to the poplar. It occurs on more species of broadleafs than any similar fungus. It has been found on poplar from Maine to Oregon and from Canada to New Mexico, and undoubtedly exists wherever poplar lives. In New York and New England the beech also is very commonly affected. It is one of the most conspicuous of our so-called punks, or shelf fungi, which grow upon living trees. The fruiting body is commonly more or less hoof shaped, the thickness being about equal to the width. The upper surface, at first smooth, becomes 128 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND concentrically marked with age. They grow to great age as indicated approximately by the number of layers. The lower surface is gray to reddish brown; the edge yellowish brown. The spores enter the tree trunk through some wound, as an old branch stub. The fruiting bodies usually form at the point of original infection. It is not uncommon to find a dozen of these bodies on the trunk of an aspen. Examinations by Spaulding have proven that the fungus continues to thrive after the death of its host. Fig. 47. — An oak broken oS by the wind. The base of the tree was honeycombed by a fungus which entered through old lire scars. Wind cannot uproot an oak but fre- quently breaks off weakened trees. A tree affected with white rot may hve for a number of years, especially such long-lived species as oak and beech. But with such trees as aspen, where the disease may encroach upon the sapwood, the trees may be killed by the disease. The death of trees is a minor result of the disease compared with the great destruction of wood which it causes. Two methods of prevention are possible: one consists in the prevention of wounds, and the other in the removal of the sources of infection. The former method is impracticable FOREST INSECTS AND FUNGI 1 29 except in the case of ornamental trees. Infected trees should always be removed as soon as the disease is apparent. Usually this will be soon enough to save part of the wood or lumber. It is of no avail to destroy the fruiting bodies alone as the fungus will continue to grow in the tree and produce other punks. White Pine Blight. It is now plain that this injury is not due to any insect, and apparently not to any fungus, but probably is caused by un- favorable weather conditions, such as winter injury due to extremely cold weather without much snow, or to extremely dry summers, or a combination of the two. This bhght is characterized by the death of the end of the needles, from one- fourth to one-third thereof turning a bright reddish brown. Sometimes the whole needle dies, giving the tree a brown appearance, but the tip of the needle is always affected hrst. Trees that have been attacked look as if they had been scorched by fire. Young trees are more susceptible to this form of injury than old ones. On young trees, often the needles will wither and curl up much as if scorched, and very frequently the twigs also are killed back. In Maine, ^ in exposed localities, acres of young trees which were apparently healthy in the fall of 1907 were entirely dead by the last of May, 1908. Usually the injury was confined almost entirely to the north and northwest sides of the young trees. Injury here was not limited to pines, but spruces, firs, and other conifers showed the same trouble and in the same manner. In most parts of New England the disease was first noticed in 1907. It was particularly widespread during the summer of 1907, and many feared the pine forests were doomed. It was thoroughly advertised throughout New England, and many young pine stands were unnecessarily cut. Few trees died, however, and conditions were much better the next year. By 1909 it had practically disappeared in most sections of New 1 See Report of Forest Commissioner of ]\Iaine. 1909, pp. 22-24. I30 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND England, but curiously enough was much worse in certain localities, as, for example, in the region about Burlington, Ver- mont. The pine woods belonging to the University of Vermont were carefully examined in August, 1909, and the affected trees were numbered. Another examination made in the summer of 1910 showed seven additional trees had been attacked, but of the 112 previously found to be diseased the conditions were as follows : Number of trees. Per cent of trees. Dead. 6 55 13 38 5-3 49.1 II 6 34 0 Total 112 This study shows that the condition of the stand is much improved, which would indicate that dry summers may have an important bearing on the malady, as the summers of 1908 and 1909 were very dry, while that of 1910 was normal in respect to rainfall. It is evident, therefore, that there is no real disease causing this blight, but that it is due to weather conditions. CHAPTER VIII. FOREST FIRES. This chapter deals with forest fires in general. In later chapters under each region the particular fire problems of that region are discussed at length. Kinds of Fires and Damage Done. American forests have suffered more from fires than those of any other country and few regions have entirely escaped. The character of these fires and the damage done by them depends very largely upon the type of forest. It is only in coniferous forests that fires assume immense proportions and become en- tirely uncontrollable and for this reason Maine, with its rolHng hills of spruce, has from its earliest history suffered more from fires than most parts of New England. In these coniferous forests, fires often sweep through the tops of the trees, and, driven along by strong winds, advance over several miles of forest in a day. These are called "crown fires." Most of the evergreen trees are killed, but here and there a clump sometimes escapes. The fire may jump from one side of a ravine to the other leaving the trees in the bottom uninjured, and while the hardwoods adjoining conifers are usually severely scorched, large areas of these deciduous trees form an effective check to the spread of the flames in the tops. The dry sand plains of Plymouth County, Massachusetts, have been an incessant breeding ground for forest fires, as the cran- berry growers of the region have, until recently, taken little care for the forest. Fires burn over thousands of acres annually and the result has been that the forest growth has continually de- teriorated until it is of very little value. 131 132 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The hardwood forests of Connecticut and Massachusetts are largely composed of oak, which has a tendency to retain its fohage over winter. The result is that in the dry season, which invari- ably comes in April and May, these leaves form a ready tinder for the innumerable little fires of the region. These fires con- fined to the leaves and underbrush are called "surface fires.'' The birch and maple of Vermont and New Hampshire shed their leaves in the fall; they are matted down and rotted by the winter Fig. 48. — A group of chestnuts killed outright by surface fires. snows, which are much heavier than in southern New England, and the result is that these states, with few unbroken areas of conifers, are more free from forest fires than any other part of New England. These surface fires seldom kill the trees of a forest outright, but wound them so severely that they become infested with fungous diseases, make Httle growth, and eventually die. The severity of the wounds inflicted depends very largely upon the strength of the wind at the time of the fire, the amount of inflammable material on the ground, and the kind and size of trees in the forest. With a strong wind the flames often lap around the trunk of a FOREST FIRES 133 tree and, in the case of a conifer, leap into the top. Some farmers claim that annual fires are a good thing, because the ground is thus kept free of material which would make a really hot fire. This, however, is not true, for every fire, in New England at any rate, does more harm than good. Some trees, as the chestnut, are much more easily damaged by fire than others, like the oak, hickory, and birch ; and practically all trees are more tender in youth than later when the bark has thickened. Besides the crown fire which leaps from tree top to tree top, and the surface fire which runs over the ground burning the fitter, underbrush, etc., a third class of fire occurs in the coniferous forests of the north. In the forests composed of such trees as spruce and fir the ground is often covered with a thick layer of decaying vegetable matter, such as needles and twigs, which in seasons of drought become very dry. If a fire once starts in this "duft\ " as it is called, it may smoulder for weeks on a small area of less than a half acre. At any time such a "ground fire " is apt to flare up, if a strong wind arises, and may become a serious surface or even a crown fire. Besides the damage to grown trees one of the worst effects of a forest fire is the killing of the small forest seedfings and sap- lings. This is a damage which is often overlooked and it is more responsible for the present worthless condition of milHons of acres in the United States than any other cause. Forest seed- lings, especially those of the evergreens, are practically sure to be destroyed by any fire passing through them. We do not realize the relatively long time required for seedlings to grow the first ten feet in height, as compared to that of subsequent growth. It requires from ten to twenty years for most trees to reach the height of ten feet, while many suppressed spruce and hemlock are fifty years old before they reach it. The destruction of seedlings, therefore, retards the growth of the forest. It often happens, too, that the seed trees have been removed in the mean- time or are killed by the same fire. In this case natural repro- duction of that species will be prevented for many years and the land will either be covered with a worthless tangle of brush or be 134 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND seeded in by some light-seeded tree, such as the paper birch or poplar, or must be planted. The composition of a New England forest is invariably injured by fire, for it happens that the trees which first come up on burned areas in addition to huckleberry, raspberry, and other shrubs, are inferior, such as poplar, birch, and bird cherry. In northern New England these often form pure forests after a fire. Seed- lings of the original conifers may finally come in, and in the course By permission of ike Massachusetts State Forester- Fig. 49. — The start of a forest fire on dry, sandy, and brushy land. This could easily be put out now by a patrolman but if left alone soon will develop into a serious con- flagration. of fifty or one hundred years the original character of the forest reasserts itself. In regions where trees sprout after being killed back by fire the character of the forest is not so greatly changed, but the quality is seriously injured. The question often arises why it is that softwoods so frequently succeed hardwoods when the latter are cut or burned off and vice versa. It is wholly a matter of seed supply, as may be easily demonstrated by proper cutting of a forest. Softwoods can be made to succeed themselves by leaving enough seed trees at the time of cutting, and this is one of the most interesting FOREST FIRES 135 problems of the forester about which the various silvicultural systems described in the first chapter have developed. A careful examination of any softwood forest will reveal a great many deciduous seedhngs on the ground. Thgse, together with the old hardwoods that the ordinary lumberman would leave, are amply able to change the appearance of a softwood to hardwood forest when the fo'rmer is cut off, or when the evergreens are burned. In a deciduous forest a surface fire may pass through and in a few hours burn out except in a few dead stumps. But in a coniferous forest, when a fire once gets in the duff, it becomes a ground fire which may smoulder for weeks or months and eventu- ally be fanned into a serious blaze by a strong wind. An examination of the soil just under the "duff" or leaf Htter of a forest will show that the mineral particles are mixed with decomposed vegetable materials. The percentage of those ma- terials grows less the deeper down one digs. This top soil is called humus, and it is very valuable as fertilizer, on account of the nitrogen it contains, and because of its water-absorbing power. One of the most serious effects of a forest fire is the burning out of this humus,^ resulting in a drying out of the soil. On steep slopes, especially when this binding and absorptive agent has been removed, the soil is frequently washed off, leaving bare ledges which will probably never again be reclothed with soil. In such situations the snow melts rapidly in the spring and the water flows off immediately, so that, indirectly, these fires have an important bearing on water flow and freshets. The most severe forest fires occur on tracts which have been lumbered, where the ground is covered with the tops of pines and other conifers. For this reason it is very desirable that these tops should be destroyed at the time of cutting, either by careful burning or by lopping off the branches so that they will at once come in contact with the soil and be rotted. Fires are not as common in New England as formerly. The ^ Where there is considerable soil with the humus and the fire is not very severe, the humus may not burn, but the removal of the litter prevents formation of more humus. If fires are repeated the humus may entirely disappear. 136 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND great forestry educational movement has done much to make people more careful; still there is room for a great deal of im- provement, and not until the danger of fire is largely ehminated will land owners be induced to practice forestry extensively. Up to the present time, forest fire risk is so great that no insur- ance company in this country will insure standing timber. Every landowner must furnish his own insurance by introducing the preventive measures which are described under the different forest regions. Causes of Fires. In the different sections of the United States, the causes of forest fires differ according to the nature of the country. In large, unbroken forest areas, hke the Adirondacks and the Maine woods, probably the largest percentage of fires has been set by locomotives on the railroads crossing the region. Heavy freight trains ascending steep grades are particularly apt to throw out five cinders which readily start a fire in the dry leaves and grass beside the right of way. On every railroad there are certain places where there is special danger, as, for example, on sharp curves between high banks, particularly if on a steep grade, where the engine is so much tipped that its cinders fall on the bank before they have had time to cool. No effective spark arrester has thus far gained general use, but extensive and very satis- factory experiments ^ have recently been conducted with new inventions in this line by the Chicago and Northwestern Rail- road at Chicago and by the American Spark Arrester Company of Indianapolis at Purdue University. The best way of preventing these railroad fires is to keep the right of way as clean as possible, and during dry seasons to thoroughly patrol it. One man in a hand car closely following every freight train during such seasons can put out a great many incipient fires. In New York the State Public Utilities Commission has required the railroads operating in the Adirondacks and Catskills to burn only oil in their loco- motives during certain months of the year. 1 See Report State Forester of Wisconsin, 1909-10, p. 119. FOREST FIRES 137 In certain seasons in these large forest sections many fires are started by the carelessness of hunters and fishermen. Probably the most common kind of fires set by this class is due to aban- doned camp fires. One cannot be too careful in the building of a fire in the woods to surround it with a ditch dug down to mineral soil, so that the fire cannot spread in the duff. When leaving a camp fire one should be certain that it is completely out. Hunters and fishermen, as well as others, also start a good By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 50. — A train on an upgrade casting sparks on the adjoining woodland. Fortunately this has been burned over and is in condition to act as a fire line. At the left the work of burning over a strip next the track is in progress. many fires by carelessly throwing down lighted stubs of cigars or cigarettes and burning matches. It is hard to realize how easily a fire may be set in this way in dry weather. Hunters, after hedgehogs and coons in the north and possums in the south, often start forest fires in trying to smoke the animals out of hollow trees. In farm communities most forest fires start through careless- ness in burning brush. Many people seem to be entirely lacking in common sense in selecting a time and place for burning brush 138 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND or rubbish. Such fires should never be started when there is a strong wind or in dry weather, wind or no wind. In manufacturing communities mill hands in the woods on hoHdays and Sundays are responsible for starting numerous fires. Besides these fires, due to various forms of carelessness, there is a class far more common than the uninitiated would suppose, namely, incendiary fires. In almost every sparsely-settled re- gion of New England there are certain communities of run-out stock where a few characters, often of doubtful parentage, some- times half-witted and less frequently vicious, hold the surround- ing farmers in continual terror. They start forest fires either from a wild delight in seeing them burn or for spite, and, if inter- fered with, will wreak vengeance by next burning a barn or poisoning a horse. The better element in the community is usually too much afraid to furnish evidence that might lead to conviction. Not until this class is weeded out of our hill towns and a thrifty, self-respecting population is substituted, will the rural problem of New England be on a fair way to settlement. Here is the common field for forester and missionary; — for re- munerative work, which in many of these regions can be fur- nished only by the forester, is a necessary accompaniment of better teaching. In the West many forest fires are undoubtedly started by lightning, and it is certain that several were thus started in northern New England in the summer of 191 1. It is maintained that fires are sometimes started by the sun's rays reflected from broken bottles and unquestionably they have been set by fire balloons and other fireworks. Fire Prevention. Forest fires spread very rapidly if there is any wind, with an ever-increasing front, so that each hour wasted in attacking them increases many times the difficulty and expense of extin- guishing. The most efficient method of preventing damage by forest fire is, therefore, to provide some means of attacking FOREST FIRES 139 them at once before they have time to spread. Watchmen in lookout stations or patrolling in dangerous localities are necessary in order to give notice immediately on the discovery of fire. A definite policy of establishing lookout stations on the summits of prominent mountains has been inaugurated in Maine, New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, and New York and will be followed in Vermont and possibly Connecticut. At each station is a small building in which the watchman Hves during the fire season. The station is equipped with a map of the surrounding country, a pair of field glasses, and a compass, and is connected by tele- phone with the fire warden. Upon discovery of a fire the watch- man gets the compass bearing and the closest possible location of the fire. This is telephoned down to the warden and a crew is at once sent to extinguish the fire. An idea of the cost of such a station may be had from a report of the state forester of New Hampshire concerning the Mount Kearsarge station. The total cost of this station was as follows: Wire and telephone equipment $96 Labor of installing same (including superintendence) 140 Eight- by twelve-foot house (material, labor, and equipment) 70 Traverse table and field glasses 33 $339 While a watchman located in one of these fire stations can overlook a large area, 50.000 to 200,000 acres according to the topography, in clear weather, the efficiency of such stations in smoky weather is very low. A system of fire patrols is, there- fore, much better in very dry and dangerous seasons, although one man can of necessity protect only a small portion of the area that can be overlooked from a fire station in clear weather. There are various methods of patrolling according to the nature of the country and the kind of fire danger. A very efficient method of patrolHng railroads is to follow every train on a hand car or motor. As there is most danger from freights the patrolman should follow directly after these, if it is impossible to follow all trains. Following as closely as this the I40 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND patrolman will discover fires while they are still so small that he can extinguish them alone. In a well-watered country where there is special danger from campers and fishermen, as in northern Maine, a patrol of the streams by boat or canoe is easiest and most eflicient. The patrolman takes the names and addresses of all campers, and in that way not only has good evidence in case of subsequent fires, but warns parties so that they are more careful. Fijr. 51. — Fire station on H;ili| Mountain, Maine. A constant watcii for forest fires is maintained during the dangerous season. In many wooded sections well provided with trails a patrolman on horseback can cover considerable country, and in farm com- munities provided with roads he may be mounted on a bicycle. In other regions where trails are lacking it is necessary for the patrolman to go on foot, but in any case the patrol must be so located as to provide inspection of the places most in danger of fire. In the so-called ''Weeks' Bill," which was passed by the United States Congress in the spring of 191 1, to provide for the acquisi- tion of national forests in the East, provision was also made for FOREST FIRES 141 the expenditure of $200,000 in cooperation with the various states in the prevention of forest fires. Under this law any state which has an organized system for the prevention of forest fires, and which has forests protecting the headwaters of navigable rivers, may call upon the national government for some of this money. The federal government is authorized to appropriate to any state only so much as the state is expending in similar work in the same fiscal year. All the New England states with the exception of Rhode Island are eligible for this assistance, and are receiving sums ranging in 191 1 from $1000 to $10,000. This federal money can be spent solely for hiring men to be employed either in patrol or lookout duty. The wages paid are fixed in an agreement between the state and national forest service. Dur- ing wet weather when there is no immediate danger of forest fires these men may be employed in constructing trails and fire lines or in any other way that will tend toward fire protection. Much can be accomplished toward preventing fires by improv- ing the condition of the forest. As previously stated, most of our worst fires occur or, at least, gain their headway in cut-over coniferous forests where the ground is covered with dry, inflam- mable tops. In New York State a law has been enacted compel- ling lumbermen to lop the branches from these tops so that the material will at once come in contact with the ground and be rotted out by the snows of a few winters. Experience of lumber- men in the Adirondacks has demonstrated that this operation can be done for twelve to fifteen cents per cord of pulpwood cut. It was also found that many tops after being lopped were worth taking out; these would otherwise have been left in the woods, so there was considerable saving to the operators. In our large lumber operations, especially in spruce forests where the tops are very branching, some such lopping measure will be the best and most practical preventive. However, in smaller operations es- pecially in the small pine wood lots of New England the more efficient measure can be adopted of burning the branches, either at the time of lumbering or soon afterwards. The cost of this work has been found to vary from twenty-five to fifty cents per 142 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND thousand feet of lumber cut according to the size of the trees. Of course, in most parts of New England the wood cut from the limbs has a sale value sufficient to more than pay for cutting, and in this way close utilization may considerably reduce the cost of brush burning. While the conditions are such that measures of this sort are not always feasible, it may readily be seen that if this inflam- mable material is cleared from certain belts in the forest it would be comparatively easy to check a fire. Belts of this kind are called fire lines. Fire Lines. A fire line or fire lane is a strip kept free from inflammable material, so that a fire will either go out of itself on reaching it, or can easily be extinguished at this line by a crew of fire fighters. Fire lines may be of various widths and made in different ways, according to the forest and kinds of fire likely to occur. Investi- gation of the Vermont fires of 1908 showed that crown fires occurred only in coniferous forests, and that practically all of the worst fires started in slash made by lumbermen. One effective form of fire line could, therefore, be made by burning all the tops and dead-and-down timber and removing all conifers from the strip in question. Of course surface fires would cross such a strip, if unprotected, upon the leaves and underbrush. It would, therefore, be well to cut from a narrow strip all growth of trees and brush and to burn the leaves annually. This can be made still more effective by grubbing out the stumps and plowing a few furrows. As an ideal fire line for mixed forests, we would suggest the following: (a) A strip one hundred feet wide from which all coniferous trees and all underbrush and all dead-and-down timber are re- moved to prevent crown fires. (b) One-third of this or a strip thirty-three feet wide to be annually burned over to prevent surface fires. FOREST FIRES 143 (c) A portion of this or a strip six to ten feet wide to be grubbed out, and, if possible, plowed to prevent ground fires. Fig. 52. — A completely cleared fire line in a stand of mixed hardwoods on ground too rocky to plow. The line has recently been cleared of leaves and occasional sprouts from the old stumps. This is done twice a year. The cost of a fire line of this kind would vary, according to the topography, the nature of the forest, and the thoroughness with which it is made, from $25 to $100 a mile. The maximum expenditure could hardly be justified except in the case of very valuable forests in extremely exposed situations, but there are 144 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND few forest areas that it would not pay to protect with some such kind of fire hne. On level, sandy soils, where fires run frequently and easily, forests should be divided into relatively small areas of from three hundred to six hundred acres in extent by fire Hnes. All extensive plantations should also be protected by fire lines. These lines need be only ten to fifteen feet wide. They should ,K. ^v_v — A giuuii.i Jcaiol ..ic line with the larger trees left .-laa.liiiK on llie liuc. Ii shade checks the growth of grass and herbs which is apt to spring up on an open line. have all growth removed except trees over four inches in diam- eter, breast high, and the mineral soil exposed. Frequently this can be accomplished by cutting out the brush and small trees and then plowing the line. Once established in a sandy soil such a line can be cheaply maintained by an occasional harrowing. If plowing is impossible a clear line can be secured by burning over the line or by hoeing and raking away the litter. If burned over great care must be taken to prevent the escape of the fire. Narrow lines should be raked free of litter on each edge of the fire line and then the area inside burned over on a quiet day. Roads make the best kind of a fire line and can, in many cases, FOREST FIRES 145 be utilized for this purpose. The original cost of construction will vary greatly with the amount and character of the growth to be cleared, and whether the line is plowed, burned over, or raked. Under the best conditions a ten- to fifteen-foot Hne can- not be constructed for less than $10 per mile, while in less favor- able places the cost may easily run up to $50 or $75 per mile. By permission of Ihc U. S. Forest Service. Fig. 54. — Fire line cleared through a hardwood stand. The line has not been properly maintained and is covered with a thick growth of weeds. The fire hazard is now greater on the Hne than in the forest. After it is constructed the cost of maintenance should be below $10 per mile per annum. The location of fire Hnes is largely controlled by natural condi- tions. It is well to take advantage of brook beds which form a barrier in themselves and where water can be obtained for fighting fires; also of roads and trails; and especially of ridge tops. Fires burn downhill very slowly and can, therefore, be most easily checked at the top of a ridge. 146 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Roads and Trails. Roads and trails are of great benefit in the prevention of fires, not only serving for fire lines but furnishing means of communica- tion between various parts of a forest. A large forest area with- out such roads is very hard to protect, as a long time may be wasted before men and tools can reach the source of danger. ■^RP iff n^^ ^H ■i %1 P' '• 3h Em|»- • i% ■HI ISk^ Jn HHI wm B ^^ ■ 9 ^^M m By permission of the U. S. Forest Service. Fig- 55- — Fighting a ground fire by trenching through the thick dufi to mineral soil. Extinguishing Fires. We have considered already the most efficient means of so improving the condition of the forest that not only fires will burn with less severity but that men can gain access to them more easily. Even under the most favorable conditions a well- organized fighting crew is also necessary, under the leadership of someone who understands fire fighting. Certain equipment can FOREST FIRES 147 be of great service and should be kept at vantage points in the forest where it is easily obtainable in case of fire. The best tools to be kept for such purposes are: long-handled shovels, rakes,- axes, mattocks, brooms, pails, and spray pumps. Chemical fire extinguishers are also of great value for surface fires, and it is a much-discussed question whether such extin- guishers or spray pumps are more efficient in extinguishing forest fires. The chemical extinguishers employed for this purpose are By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 56. — The fire wardens of a Connecticut town and their fire fighting outfit of bucket pumps. They have been burning over a fire line adjacent to the railroad track. fairly light, portable ones, weighing about thirty-seven pounds when charged, and provided with a short hose and nozzle. Various makes of extinguishers are on the market but all based on the same principle. Briefly, the extinguisher contains in the top a small bottle of sulphuric acid, while beneath is a mixture of water and calcium bicarbonate. In working the extinguisher it is inverted and the sulphuric acid mixes with the liquid, result- ing in the formation of carbonic acid gas and calcium sulphate. The chemical reaction forces out through the hose a mixture of water and carbonic acid gas, which, theoretically, stops combus- 148 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND tion quicker than water alone. The bucket or spray pump is a small suction pump fitted with a hose and nozzle, and with a clamp so that the pump can be securely fastened into a large pail. The pail should be covered with a wire netting or cloth to strain the water and keep out sticks and dirt. Both the extinguisher and bucket pump are used in the same way in fighting a surface fire. The operator walks rapidly along the fine of the fire and deadens the blaze; a helper, who beats By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 57. — Fighting a surface fire with a bucliet pump. out with a shovel the last remnants of the fire, should come behind him. Both are extremely effective methods of extinguishing surface fires, even of such severity that beating out, shoveling on dirt, etc., cannot be employed alone. Which is the better, bucket pump or chemical extinguisher? Each has its supporters and usually in a locality where one is employed the other is not used. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, which have been placed in two parallel columns for the purpose of comparison. PROPERTY OF FOREST FIRES 149 COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHER AND SPRAY PUMP. Cost Capacity Weight when full. Length of line of fire put out. Material used. Cash outlay for recharg- ing. A ccompany- ing eqiiip- ment. Bucket pump. Depends on size of pail. Should use large pail hold- ing 3 to 4 gallons. A 4-gallon galvanized pail, with pump, containing 3 gallons of water, weighs under 35 pounds. 50 to 150 feet. Skill of operator in using only a little water in the right spot governs the length of line which can be put out. Chemical extinguishe $9 Between 2\ and 3 gallons. Approximately 37 pounds. It is a much harder article to carry than pail and pump. 50 to 200 feet. This depends mainly on how fast the operator walks and his skill. The severity of the fire influences length of line with both. If very carefully handled and the country is easy to get over, making rapid walking possible, the extinguisher should put out a longer line of fire than the bucket pump. Water. bi- Water, sulphuric acid, I carbonate of soda. Practically same amount of water needed to recharge either of the two. Nothing. 10 to 25 cents per charge. In order to make either the bucket pump or chemical extin- guisher most eflfective there must be facilities for refilling. Several empty cans (big milk cans are among the best) or pails for bringing water are necessary. Besides this for the chemical extinguisher there must be extra supplies of sulphuric acid and bicarbonate of soda. The statement is frequently made that the chemical extin- guisher is forty times as effective as water in extinguishing fire, i.e., one hundred and twenty gallons of water would be needed to do the work which one charge (three gallons) of the chemical extinguisher accompHshes. Whether this is so in the case of a fire in a building in which a great volume of fire is concentrated in a comparatively small space, the authors do not know, but I50 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND it is certain that nothing so disproportionate exists in the case of the ordinary forest fire, which extends as a narrow Hne. Here the extinguisher is not even twice as effective. The lower cost (both the initial cost and that of maintenance) and freedom from trouble in recharging with chemicals make the bucket pump more desirable for general use than the chemical By permtiiwn of the Maaachu l Fig. 58. — Special forest fire wagon; small size for one horse. extinguisher, although the latter can put out a somewhat longer line of hre. There are special circumstances under which the chemical ex- tinguisher is preferable, as when water is extremely scarce, for it uses a Httle less water; or where all parts of a tract are accessible by good roads, for then a wagon can go along and transport a supply of extra chemicals easily and without danger of breakage. The most intensive development of this method of tire fighting is found in certain Massachusetts towns, located mainly through the eastern part of the state and especially in the level, sandy southeastern section, where transportation by wagon is easy. In these towns, special forest fire wagons are maintained. They vary in style somewhat in different towns, but two types built by FOREST FIRES 151 the state forester of Massachusetts as special forest fire wagons may be considered as standard. The following quotation from the Seventh Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachu- setts briefly describes the two wagons and their equipment. "The larger wagon is intended for two horses and costs, all equipped, about $450. The equipment consists of fourteen chemical extinguishers; fourteen gal- vanized cans, each holding two extra charges of water and chemicals; shovels, rakes, mattocks, and spare chemical charges. This equipment is carried in racks and cases, not only so that it will ride safely, but also so that it can be conveniently carried into the woods. Eight men can find accommodation on this wagon. " The smaller wagon, drawn by one horse, has all the equipment of the larger, but less in amount. It will carry four men and costs, all equipped, about $300." By permission of the Massachusetts State Forester. Fig. 59. — Special forest fire wagon; large size, for two horses. Raking the leaves and Ktter away from the advancing flames is another good way of checking surface fires. This makes a rough sort of fire line where the fire stops for lack of inflammable material. Perhaps the most common method of checking a fire, and the most effective under certain conditions, is beating it out with brooms or evergreen boughs or bran sacks. These sacks when wet can be used to good advantage. One experience in fighting fire will suggest the best methods for certain conditions. The chief thing to remember is that a fire is not out when the flames are stopped. It will often smoulder for a long time in some old stump and finally blaze out again, perhaps after several days. Fire wardens should 152 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND remember this and always have someone to watch a fire for some time after it is supposedly out. The most effective time to fight fire is in the night when there is usually less wind and the ground is damp with dew. A small force of men can often accomplish more at this time than a large force in the daytime. It is easier to put out a fire spreading downhill than in the opposite direction, because hot air rises and an ascending fire is fanned by the draft which it creates. Fortunately crown fires are not very common in New England. About the only way to prevent a serious crown fire with a strong wind is by "back firing," but this should never be resorted to except as a last resort and at points of vantage. To have a back fire effective it must be started far enough ahead of the main fire to clear a considerable strip of all inflammable material before the main fire reaches it. This distance, therefore, depends upon the rate of advance of the main fire. A fire advancing at the rate of a mile an hour could probably be checked by a back fire set one-half mile ahead; while to check one travehng at twice that rate a greater distance would be required. Great care must be used in starting a back fire that this does not escape with the wind and go tearing through the forest, increasing the damage done by the main fire. The purpose is to burn back against the wind toward the main fire and thus destroy all inflammable material in the track of the main fire and cause its death through lack of fuel. A back fire should only be started on the side of a road, brook, ledge, or some other obstacle which would help to control it. Estimating the Damage Done by Forest Fires. In almost all states persons who set forest fires are responsible for damages, and civil suit for such may be brought against them. From the first part of this chapter it will be seen that fires seldom kill standing timber outright and that the damage thereto is often small compared to that done the younger growing stock, the reproduction, and the soil itself. Inasmuch as this young FOREST FIRES 1 53 growth seldom has any market value until of lumber, or at least of cordwood size, it has been quite common to overlook these more serious forms of damage in appraising the results of a fire. Neither is it an easy matter to determine the damage to young growth and soil. The only just method of determining this damage is to estimate, (a) what the forest would have been worth after a given length of time if not burned, and (b) what it will be worth in that same time now that it has been burned, and deduct the latter from the former. The result is the amount of damage at the end of this period caused by the present fire. In order to determine the present value of this damage it is neces- sary to discount the amount to the present time, at the same rate of interest as the forest is yielding on the capital invested. To illustrate: Suppose on a tract of twenty acres of spruce burned over this year, 200,000 feet of lumber were destroyed worth $7 per M. The damage to timber Is $1400. If it is estimated that the young growth would have produced 200,000 feet more in thirty years without the fire and will now not produce over 30,000 feet in that time; and it is estimated that stumpage will be worth $10 per M. in tliirty years, the damage at the end of the period would be equivalent to 170,000 feet at $10 = $1700. From tables of interest it is found that the present value of $1700 discounted at five per cent for thirty years is $390. Therefore the total present damage is $1400 + $390 = $1790. To execute the field work necessary for an estimate of this sort of the damages done by fire the chapter on timber estimating must be understood. As a rule our New England fires do not destroy the trees, so it is possible after a fire to estimate the amount of lumber killed just as live timber is estimated. To determine the damage to reproduction is somewhat more difficult, depending on whether the young seedlings are wholly destroyed or simply killed. If they are still present it is possible to estimate the percentage of the area which was stocked. If they have been destroyed it will be necessary to judge the former condition of the reproduction by that on similar adjoining tracts which have 154 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND not been burned over. After ascertaining the percentage of the area formerly stocked it will be possible by the use of yield tables, discussed in Chapter X, to estimate what the yield would have been had the land escaped fire. It will be reaHzed that there are many opportunities for inac- curacies in determining damage in this way, especially in our American forests where so little is known as yet of exact rate of growth and the future value of stumpage. One of the main chances for mistake is in selecting the rate of interest. In the example given it will be seen that the present value of $1700 discounted at 4 per cent for 30 years would be $525, or, at 5 per cent, $295, making the total damage respectively $1925 or $1695 instead of $1790. Of course where forests are managed under scientific working plans, as is the case in many European forests, and only a portion of the forest is removed equal to the amount grown in that time, a definite income is derived. In such a forest the rate of interest corresponds fairly well to the income divided by the capital. For example, in a forest having an estimated stand of 40 cords per acre in which there is an annual growth of one cord and where wood is worth $1 per cord, the rate of interest at which the forest is growing would be one fortieth = two and one half per cent. In this country the rate of interest used will usually be not less than that paid by savings banks since our forest management is in such an unsettled state. It is only recently that the destruction of reproduction has been recognized by the courts as a damage for which reimburse- ment could be claimed. Hitherto damages allowed by courts have been based entirely on the stumpage value of the timber destroyed. This, however, is only a part of the actual damage, as the young growth and productive capacity of the soil is also injured. For this reason a recent decision of the United States Circuit Court at Deadwood, South Dakota, is of interest. ''The government in the summer of 1910, won a signal victory in the case against the receiver of the Missouri River and North- western Railroad Company, in which damages were claimed for FOREST FIRES 1 55 the destruction of timber by sparks from the defendant's loco- motives. The jury brought in a verdict for the plaintiff allowing practically the full amount asked. The total sum demanded was $3728.85 and the verdict was for $3659.45, a difference of but $69.45. This item was the alleged value of the cordwood destroyed, amounting to 231^ cords at 30 cents per cord. The government claimed that the wood before the lire was worth 60 cents per cord and as it was subsequently sold for 30 cents they claimed the difference, which was not allowed. "The important feature of the case was the allowing of $12 per acre for reproduction and the suit was unique in that this establishes a precedent of the greatest value to the Forest Service. It is the first time that a court in the United States has decided that trees of such immature growth have a value that may be determined and for which damage may be estimated and allowed. "The item of reproduction in this case was $1094.40 or $12 per acre for 91.2 acres and it was allowed by the jury in full. The other item allowed was for the partial destruction of 675,000 feet of mature timber, originally valued at $6 per thousand, but a credit of $2.20 per thousand was allowed the defendant as the fire-killed timber was subsequently sold at that price. This added $2565 to the reproduction allowance. "The basis for the valuation of the reproduction were the figures derived from the actual operations of this kind in the Black Hills National Forest during the past season, when 1500 acres were reforested by seeding. Thus the forest officers, in their testi- mony, were able to give exact figures for the work already per- formed and thereby put a definite value on young trees, which to practical lumbermen would be worthless. "^ ^ This quotation is taken from Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VIII, p. 566. CHAPTER IX. TIMBER ESTIMATING AND VALUATION. Methods of timber estimating are numerous and of varying degrees of accuracy. The method which should be employed depends very largely upon conditions. Usually there is not the same need of exactness in estimating timber on a large tract that there is on a small one, since the large tracts, as a rule, do not have a very heavy average yield per acre, and they are situ- ated in remote regions where the stumpage price is comparatively low. Some small tracts, on the other hand, are worth from $ioo to $500 per acre, on account of heavy yield and proximity to the market. Naturally one would employ more exact methods of estimating the stand on a fifty-acre tract priced at $5000 than on a ten-thousand-acre tract valued at $100,000. As a general thing the more valuable the timber the greater the need of an accurate and elaborate estimate. Estimating lumber is like every other business; the more ex- perience a man has in it, the more accurately he can estimate and the simpler the methods he can use. Many lumbermen, or, more correctly, timber cruisers can go over a large tract in a casual way and estimate fairly well the total amount of timber upon it. They are able to do this because they have had ex- perience in cutting off many similar tracts and know the amount of lumber taken from them. The roughest method is simply to compare in one's mind the tract under consideration with those with which one has had experience. This method is liable to errors of twenty -five per cent even when used by experienced men. Stumpage prices of timber have now advanced so much and competition is so great that practically all cruisers now use some more accurate system. It should be said at the outset that the land owner or pro- 156 TIMBER ESTIMATING 1 57 spective purchaser can usually secure the services of a timber cruiser, but as the business of estimating offers unequaled op- portunity for dishonesty, the employer should be sure that the estimator is working for his interests. It must also be borne in mind that most of these men look at the forest from the lumberman's rather than the forester's standpoint, and are, therefore, not inclined to place much value on young growth or to appreciate the probable rise in prices. For these reasons they are more Hkely to underestimate than overestimate and their judgment is worth more to the purchaser than to the seller. As the purpose of this chapter is to point out methods of estimating which can be applied by one of little experience, rather than to describe the cruisers' methods, the latter will be omitted. A. ESTIMATING TIMBER ON SMALL WOOD LOTS. The most accurate way of estimating timber and one wholly practicable on small wood lots, as areas of less than one hundred acres, is to measure the diameters of all the trees and the heights of as many as will estabHsh an average. The diameters are measured with calipers, always at breast height. Heights may be measured accurately with an instrument known as a hypsom- eter,^ or, after a httle practice, may be estimated fairly accurately. This work can be done best by two men crossing and recrossing the wood lot on parallel strips. To avoid mistakes it is well to mark the trees measured with a piece of carpenter's chalk. The most convenient form of tallying the trees measured under this system is to use a sheet ruled horizontally and vertically; the vertical columns for the various species, the horizontal lines for diameters. A dot is made for each tree measured and after four dots are made under the same diameter and species, the next trees are designated by connecting lines and diagonal lines until ten trees are tallied. The following table illustrates this method: 1 There are several kinds of hypsometers. The one commonly used in this country is called the Faustman and can be purchased from Keuffel & Esser Co. of New York. iS8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Diameter, breast high, inches. Spruce. Birch. Maple. Hemlock. Beech. Fir. A »:(5) ::(4) : (2) • (i) :*(3) ■ta-(ii) W (6) n (8) c :(2) 6 7 • U(7) • (i) 8 . 9 lO II On the area tallied there was one hemlock 4 inches, one maple 8 inches, two spruces 6 inches, two birches 5 inches, three hem- locks 5 inches, four spruces 5 inches, etc. After all the trees on a lot have been measured in this way their volumes can be best ascertained by the use of "volume tables," ^ if they are available. Volume tables have now been constructed for many of our important species. They are based on the measurements taken in lumber jobs of several hundred felled trees and give the average volume, either in board feet or some other unit, for trees of different diameters and heights. With such tables the total volume of each species on the lot is obtained separately, a table being constructed similar to the one below. In the application of volume tables it will be seen that some give cubic feet instead of fractions of a cord or board feet. The number of cords can be secured by dividing the number of cubic feet by 90 on the principle that a cord of wood (128-stacked cubic feet) contains 70 per cent sohd wood, which amounts vir- tually to 90 cubic feet. Board feet can be converted to cords by allowing 500 board feet as the equivalent of a cord. This varies from 400 feet for small logs to 600 feet for large ones; but it must be remembered that the rule will not always work back- wards, for a cord of wood may be composed of sticks too small to be sawed. ^ A number of such tables are included in the Appendix. TIMBER ESTIMATING 159 TABLE SHOWING THE APPLICATION OF A VOLUME TABLE TO SECURE THE STAND OF SPRUCE ON A WOOD LOT. Diameter, breast Number of trees. Total volume, board high, inches. feet, from volume table. feet. S 500 6 3,000 6 420 12 5 -040 7 430 18 7-740 8 300 38 11,400 9 170 61 10,370 10 200 78 15,600 II 220 96 21,120 12 140 no 15,400 Total 2,380 89,670 Volumes taken from volume table by T. S. Woolsey, Jr., made in Grafton, N. H. In the case of trees for which no volume tables have been con- structed a table should be made. A rough table that will be fairly accurate for any wood lot can be made by cutting on the tract a number of trees of different diameters of the species in question, only taking care that a good range of diameters from the smallest to the largest is included. After these sample trees are felled they are measured into log lengths, and the logs of each tree scaled by the log rule in general use in the community. A log rule is a table, generally laid out on a measuring stick, which gives the number of feet, board measure, in logs of different diameters and lengths. A number of such log rules ^ are in use in different parts of the country. The most common rules - used in New England are the Doyle, the Scribner, the Bangor or Maine, the Blodgett, and the Vermont. After scaling the logs of a tree their volumes are added to give the volume of the whole tree. The volumes of the various felled sample trees are then plotted on cross-section paper, and a curve is drawn designating the average, as shown below. Of the five trees measured in this case, the 7-inch tree contained 30 board feet; one of the 9-inch trees 40, and the other 60 board feet, etc. ^ See Woodman's Handbook, Bulletin 36, U. S. Forest Service. 2 Copies of these rules are given in the Appendix. i6o FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND From this curve it is possible to make the rough volume table (called a "local" volume table) as follows: LOCAL VOLUME TABLE. Diameter, breast high. Vol jme, board feet. inches. 6 15 7 30 8 35 9 50 lO 65 85 12 120 With such a volume table the total contents of the trees on the wood lot of this species are obtained as already explained. Still another method of obtaining the volume of the stand without the use of any volume table is based on estimating, at the same time with the breast high diameters, the top diam- eter of every 16-foot log. To do this accurately requires some practice in judging 16-foot lengths and diameters at different distances. As a result of this method the note keeper has not only the diameter of each tree but also the estimated top diam- eter of each log. The volumes of logs of different diameters are given by the log rules, and the total amount of lumber for the tract is obtained by multiplying the volume of the log of each diameter by the number of logs of that diameter, and adding all together. The following table illustrates the final result by this method. Top diameter of 16-foot logs, inches. Number of logs. Volume per log. board feet. Total volume, board feet. 8 9 10 50 62 70 60 1,600 2,232 4,200 TIMBER ESTIMATING l6l B. ESTIMATING TIMBER ON LARGE WOOD LOTS. On large wood lots, as those over one hundred acres in extent, very hkely it would be impracticable to measure all the trees. A system somewhat less accurate can be apphed in such cases depending upon two operations carried on together, as follows: 1. Count all the trees on the lot. 2. Measure all the trees on certain plots. Two men by walking through a forest on a compass course can very rapidly count the trees on a strip four rods wide. Those on the outside should be marked so as to avoid confusion when returning on the parallel strip. At regular distances, as every two hundred paces, a plot is laid off and all the trees on this plot measured as described under A . Circular plots are conveniently laid off by pacing from the center the distance of the required radius in different directions. A circle with a radius of 59 feet contains a quarter acre; with a radius of 85 feet, a half acre. After all the trees on the wood lot have been counted in this way, and the trees on several sample plots have been measured, the volumes of the various sample plots are worked up by one of the methods described under .4. The total volume of the lot is obtained by ratio: X :V : :N :n in which A' = total volume of the wood lot. V = volume of the sample plots. N = total number of trees on the wood lot. n = number of trees on the sample plots. C. ESTLMATING TIMBER ON LARGE FOREST TRACTS. The methods described above rely upon a census of the total number of trees on the wood lot. In the case of large timber tracts such an enumeration is impossible, and some method must be employed based on an accurate estimate of certain parts of the tract and a knowledge of what proportion these areas form of the l62 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND whole. In order to determine this proportion a map is necessary, from which the total area of each portion or type can be obtained. For example, a io,ooo-acre tract in northern New England might be found to comprise 2000 acres of second-growth pine, 1000 acres abandoned pastures, 4000 acres mixed birch, beech, and maple, and 3000 acres second-growth spruce. A knowledge of the area of each of these types is necessary. There might also be subdivisions according to age, which would have to be esti- mated separately. Thus in the second-growth spruce and pine t3qDes, certain blocks might occur containing timber twenty to fifty years old, while the remainder was less than twenty years of age. The only accurate way to determine these areas is to map them, and consequently a map must be secured by the estimator.^ In an open country, undoubtedly, it is better to map the area first with a plane table and do the estimating separately, but there can be no question that for those sections of New England where large forests occur, the so-called "strip system," or "valuation survey," devised by the United States Forest Service, is unsurpassed. By this method the data for making the map are secured at the same time that measurements of the timber are being taken. To carry out this method a crew of four men is best, although it can be done with a gmaller or a larger number. The necessary equipment is a surveyor's chain, a hand compass (for more accurate work a staff compass), two pairs of calipers, a tally board, some record sheets or a notebook, and a pencil. A hypsometer is a valuable addition as will be explained later. The crew may be arranged in various ways. The main object is to run a straight compass course through the forest and this is done by the head man. The other two men carry the calipers and measure the diameters of all trees for a distance of one-half chain length, two rods on either side. At first this distance should be checked frequently, by carrying the chain out to the side or by pacing; but with practice the men soon are able to judge very closely, and the few inaccuracies balance ^ For methods of mapping forests, see "A Manual for Northern Woodmen," by Austin Gary, published by Harvard University, Gambridge, 1909. TIMBER ESTIMATING 163 themselves. The trees on this strip, 66 feet long and 66 feet wide, are calipered and tallied as described under A . This square of 66 feet each way is one-tenth of an acre. When all the trees on this area have been measured the crew moves on another chain length in the fixed compass direction. The chains are tallied after moving forward. Ten chains complete the acre, which is all that is talHed on one sheet. A description of the By permission of the Connecticut State Forester. Fig. 60. — A portable sawmill of small capacity, such as is commonly used in southern New England. forest is written on the back of the sheet with special reference to the type, so that all acres measured in a certain type can be averaged together. If there is a marked change in type in the course of an acre, it is better to start a new sheet, the tally of chains showing that this sheet represents .6 or .8 of an acre, etc., as the case may be. A continuous strip of eight acres covers a mile of distance: 66 X 10X8 = 5280 feet. The tract is gridironed with these strips. The distance apart of the lines depends upon 1 64 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the intended accuracy of the estimate. Lines run one mile apart give a measurement of one and one-quarter per cent of the entire area; one-half mile apart two and five-tenths per cent; one-quarter mile apart five per cent; one-eighth mile ten per cent, etc. However, in practice, the lines are rarely run nearer than one-quarter mile, and usually two and five-tenths per cent of the area is considered sufficient. By making note of changes of type, topography, streams, etc., it is possible to make a fairly accurate map of the tract. The areas of the different types can be determined from this map. Along with the survey the crew should take the height measurements of a few hundred trees of the most important species, to obtain the average height for each diameter class. When all the required valuation surveys have been secured there remains a large amount of work to be done. In the first place, the tally sheets are assorted according to the type of land they represent. Of the 500 acres measured in the 10,000-acre tract, suppose 100 fall into the second-growth pine type, 150 into mixed hardwoods, 200 into second-growth spruce, and 50 into abandoned pasture. The sheets representing each of these types are averaged together, giving an average acre for each type. This shows the average number of trees of each diameter and species for the type, and the contents can be obtained from volume tables as discussed under A . The total volume of each species is then multiplied by the number of acres in the whole type, giving a total for the type. The valuation survey method of estimating, described above, undoubtedly surpasses, for accuracy and cheapness, any other method and admits of considerable variation in detail. There are now forestry companies whose main business is to estimate timber, and, as far as known, they all use some modification of this system. Another method appHcable for large tracts, by which the data for a map are secured along with the estimate, is a combination of the strip system and the circular plot method outlined under B. The chief advantage of this method is that it can be done TIMBER ESTIMATING 165 by one man. In principle it does not differ from the method just described. The estimator secures his distances by pacing, guiding his course by a pocket compass. Instead of measuring the timber in a continuous strip he takes measurements only at certain points, as at the end of every quarter mile. At these points circular plots are laid off as described under B. In open forest and with mature timber it soon becomes possible to locate the boundaries of the plot by the eye. The trees are either Fig. 61. — Estimating timber by use of the strip method. calipered and the volume of the types ascertained, as in the val- uation survey method, or after sufhcient practice the volume of each tree can be estimated and tallied. After the volumes of all the sample plots in a type have been found, the average volume per acre is obtained and this is multiplied by the number of acres in the type, as secured from the map. The Money Value of Standing Timber. After the amount of standing timber or wood on a given tract has been estimated, the final object usually is to determine its money value. 1 66 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Timber is bought and sold under so many different conditions that when a price is mentioned it is always necessary to define the conditions under which the price apphes. Timber standing is spoken of as stumpage, and the price paid for trees standing is called stumpage price, which is expressed generally as so much per thousand board feet, cord, or other unit. It is customary in European practice, and in some cases in this country, to sell logs in the woods when piled alongside the logging road. In America this is spoken of as being on the skidway. Again, the transac- tion may be of logs delivered at the mill, or loaded on a car, or skidded on the bank of a river. Naturally the price of stumpage is lowest, that paid for logs delivered at the mill is highest; other prices range between the two. The value of timber may also be figured at its price when manufactured and placed on the market. This, of course, is the highest of all, but is the easiest to arrive at and should serve as the basis from which the value of the standing timber can be computed as described below. The market value of manufactured lumber fluctuates consid- erably with national supply and demand. In years of business depression, like 1908, when there is less building, prices decHne. As a general tendency, however, the prices of lumber are rising. Prices paid for lumber, wood, and other forest products, as for everything else, vary according to local conditions, and the first step in valuation of timber is to ascertain the prices that can be secured either for the manufactured article or for the logs delivered at the mill. For example, the following prices per thousand board feet are average prices for logs delivered at the mill in northern Vermont. Birch, beech, and maple, $9 per thousand board feet; hemlock, $9.50; ash, spruce, and fir, $10.50; white pine, $11; but in any given case the actual prices may be considerably above or below these. Hence in- quiry is necessary whenever an estimate of the value of stand- ing timber is to be made. Where there are special industries requiring a large amount of any special timber, the prices paid for that species are higher. As we have stated, a timber TIMBER ESTIMATING 167 owner having had his logs sawed may sell the manufactured lumber. In order to show the average relation between prices paid for logs at the mill and prices paid for rough lumber, loaded on the car at the mill, the following prices of rough, manufactured lumber are given, to compare with those above: Spruce, $16 to $18; second-growth pine, $20 to $22; fir, $16 to $18; basswood, $16 to $18; birch and maple, $13 to $15; ash. Fig. 62. — A selected lot of the best grade spruce logs for manufacture into clapboards. $16 to $18; hemlock, $16; oak, $20 to $25. Sawmill owners in the above section usually charge from $2.50 to $3 per thousand feet, board measure, for sawing softwood lumber and from $3 to $4 for hardwoods. These figures indicate the pos- sible profit of selling manufactured lumber over logs, but the owners should reahze that it is often difiicult for them to find a ready market, while the millmen are in constant communication with dealers. Lumbering is a form of business in which there are many chances of loss and in which experience and the judgment ac- l68 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND quired thereby are of great value. Without these there is a large chance of failure. The inexperienced man may well prefer to pay a lumberman a commission on an operation, which he practically does when he sells the stumpage, instead of acting as his own lumberman. In determining the value of stumpage it is necessary to make a distinction between the price which the owner could get for it if he sold to a lumberman or jobber, and what he could reahze if he acted as his own jobber. If successful in the latter capacity he would have the additional profit which the lumberman would expect to make by the operation. In most communities there are men who make a business in winter of hauling logs and wood. They will take a contract to haul the given distance at a certain price per thousand feet or per cord. The prices charged are usually based on a fair day's wage for men and teams, and this, of course, varies in different sections. The margin for profit is so small that unless the land- owner has plenty of men and teams this contract method will be cheaper for him. For a six-mile haul in northern Vermont the price is usually about $3 per thousand, or from $1.50 to $2.00 a cord. For short hauls, where two trips a day can be made, the cost will be about half these figures. By deducting the cost of haul from the price to be received at the mill, the value of the felled timber is obtained. If it is to be transported by railroad or river, the further charges for such freightage must be added. In southern New England most of the lumbering is done with portable sawmills. In this case the price paid for logs at the mill is less because the manufactured lumber has to be transported to the railway or market. To obtain the value of standing timber, a further deduction for the cost of cutting and logging is necessary. It usually costs about $1.25 per thousand board feet for cutting the trees. Logging ^ in the north woods, where the logs are piled on skids near the cutting, is cheap — usually not over Si. 50 per M- — 1 Logging as here used refers to the operation of removing the log from the place where the tree grew to the skidway or portable mill; it does not include cutting or hauHng from the skidway to the permanent mill or railroad. 2 M stands for thousand feet, board measure. TIMBER ESTIMATING 169 but logging to the portable mill averages about $2 per M. Cutting cordwood costs from 90 cents to $1.25 per cord. As said before, when the cost of cutting, logging, and hauling has been deducted from the price to be received for the logs, the stumpage value is secured, which is the value to the owner acting as his own jobber. A lumberman would not pay so much as this, as he must necessarily make his own profit also, which may be considered as a commission paid the lumberman by the owner. The commission paid to a lumberman when stumpage is sold him varies considerably, but averages about one-half the net value of the standing timber. For example, if logs are worth $12 a thousand feet at the mill and it costs $6 to get them to the mill, they will be worth to the owner about $6, if he is a suc- cessful lumberman. If he sells the stumpage, however, he will rarely receive over $3 per thousand. In other words, he pays a commission of $3 to the lumberman. The following is a summary of prices and costs for an average lumber operation, when the price of logs at the mill is $12 and for sawed lumber delivered is $20 per M. Per M. Per M. Stumpage price $3 . 00 Lumberman's profit 3 . 00 Cost of cutting, skidding, and hauling. . . . O.oo Cost of logs at the mill $12.00 Cost of sawing 3 . 00 Cost of transporting 2 .00 Millman's profit 3 . 00 8.00 Sawed lumber delivered $20.00 In the future this method will largely give way to that of sell- ing at a definite rate per thousand feet, board measure (or other unit), based on the actual cut at the mill. When the stumpage value per thousand feet and per cord has been ascertained, it is an easy matter to determine the value of the standing timber on a lot by simply multiplying by the amount obtained in the estimate. In many cases when lumbermen make an offer for the stump- lyo FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND age the computations above referred to will be useful to ascertain whether ojOfers are satisfactory or not. The experienced lumber- man does not make these detailed computations but knows from past experience about what he can give for stumpage to make a fair profit. Most timber in the past has been sold by the lot and not by stumpage price, but even in this case both the purchaser and the seller have their estimates of the amount of lumber on the lot, and regulate their prices accordingly. CHAPTER X. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS. The study of the growth of trees and forests is, perhaps, the most difficult one in forestry and it is not proposed to attempt any complete presentation of the subject here. Several tech- nical works, ^ in English and in other languages, can be con- sulted for detailed information. The purpose of this chapter is rather to indicate the various kinds of growth and the general methods of study. For convenience the chapter is divided into two sections: A. Growth of trees; B. Growth of stands. A knowledge of the latter must rest upon a knowledge of the former. For scientific purposes foresters speak of increase in volume of a tree or stand as "increment"; and the increase in diam- eter, sectional area, or height, as "accretion"; but ordinarily "growth" is used to cover both terms. The growth of a tree or stand may be the growth of a specific year, when it is called "current annual growth"; or of a specified period of years, called "periodic growth." By dividing the total volume by the age the "mean annual growth" is obtained. A. GROWTH OF TREES. There are many incentives for the study of tree growth, the chief being to establish a basis for forest-growth studies. For the forester to have a knowledge of the relative rates of growth of the more important species with which he deals is not only interesting, but very necessary. It is also advisable to know something of the relative growth of the same species under different conditions. Height growth is the best indication of ^ The most important .\merican book dealing with this subject is, "Forest Mensuration," by Graves. Wiley & Sons. 171 172 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the quality of the soil for any species, and consequently a table showing the average height of trees of different diameters and on different sites furnishes a ready means of determining the relative value of the sites for the species in question. In fact the three quality sites commonly recognized are usually deter- mined by a classification of heights. I. Age of Trees. The age of a second-growth pine tree and of some other species up to fifty or sixty years can be obtained with fair accu- racy by counting the whorls of branches, since the pine makes but one whorl each year. The buds of winter develop in the spring into branches and leader. Height growth is made entirely at the top. One can only approximate the age of most trees without cutting and counting the rings on the stump. Every fall, in our climate, the growth ceases and the tree remains at rest until spring. When activity in the cambium (the tissue just inside the bark) recommences, large wood cells are made with comparatively thin walls. Throughout the growing season new layers of cells are formed, but as the season advances these cells become smaller and their walls relatively thicker. On account of this difference in structure the wood formed in spring and early summer is lighter colored than that formed at the end of the season. A sharp, well-defined line in most species separates the dark growth of the fall from the light growth of the next spring, and the belt between these dark hues is called the annual ring. In the tropics where there are no well-defined seasons, no distinct rings occur, and the age of trees cannot be ascertained in this way. The distinctness of the rings in trees varies with the texture of the wood. In such woods as the spruce, pine, oak, ash and chestnut the rings are easily distinguishable, although slow growth in some cases may require the use of a magnifying glass. With such fine-grained trees as beech, birch and maple, on the other hand, it is often very difficult to distinguish the rings. In obtaining the age of a tree by counting the rings on the stump it must be GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS 173 remembered that seedlings grow very slowly at first, especially under shade, and that a number of years may have been required for the seedling to reach the height of the stump. For this reason stumps to be analyzed should be cut as low as possible. By permission of S. J . Record. Pig 53_ _ Cross section of a conifer (hemlock) highly magnified showing the annual rings of growth. /I to £ is one season's growth. The average period required by different species to reach stump height can be ascertained by studying the ages of a few seed- lings of the desired height. The average age thus obtained should be added to the age of the tree as found on the stump. Thus, if there are one hundred and sixty rings on a hemlock stump, two feet high, and a study has shown that it requires 174 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND fifteen years for hemlock under similar conditions to reach the height of two feet, then the total age of the tree will be esti- mated to be one hundred and seventy-five years. By permission of S. J. Record. Fig. 64. — Cross section of a hardwood (black ash) highly magnified showing the annual rings of growth. A to B is one season's growth. 2. Diameter Growth. For scientific purposes diameter growth should always be studied at a cross section taken at breast height, but as a matter of fact it is usually studied on the stumps of trees cut for lumbering. As the growth near the swelHng of the roots is slightly greater than that higher up, the results are not entirely accurate. The GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS 175 rings should be counted and the growth measured on the aver- age radius, in order to secure the average growth on all sides. The results of a study of this kind may be expressed in various ways as, for example: the average diameter of trees of different ages; the average age of trees of different diameters; the number of rings in the last inch of radius for trees of different diameters; the number of years required for each diameter inch class to increase one inch. Frequently confusion arises among amateurs between the first and the second of these expressions. They are apt to infer because the average diameter of a species fifty years old is fifteen inches that conversely the average age of trees of that species fifteen inches in diameter is fifty years. It is im- possible to use the tables in this way, since one is made by aver- aging all trees that are fifteen inches in diameter, and the other is made by averaging a different set of trees that happen to be fifty years old. Among these, many that have been suppressed may be only eight or ten inches in diameter, and others that have grown rapidly may be correspondingly larger. 3. Height Growth. By means of a hypsometer,^ the heights of standing trees can be rapidly and easily obtained. A table made from these results will show the average height of trees of different diameters, and as the method of determining the average age of different diam- eters has already been given, the average height growth can be ascertained by combining the two in the following manner. Diameter, breast high, inches. Average height, feet. Average age of diameter classes, years. Height growth per year, feet. 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 32 40 48 57 69 20 26 40 44 50 I.I 1-3 I.O 2.2 2.0 See note, Chapter IX. 176 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The height growth of individual trees can be obtained by- counting the rings at the various sections into which the tree is cut. The number of rings on the stump represents the total age of the portion of the tree above the stump cut. Obviously a tree two hundred years old would have that number of rings at its base, but it would have only one ring at the very tip for the growth made the last year. Since the first ring is made by the leader, the number of rings in any section of the tree represents the number of years since the leader reached that point. Each section cut from the base up has, therefore, a diminishing number of rings. This difference in age at various sections is the number of years required by the tree to grow the distance between the sections. By cutting felled trees into sections it is possible to read the record of their height growth. 4. Volume Growth. To compute the mean annual growth of a tree after the volume and age are obtained, one divides the volume by the total age. The figures below, which are actual measurements of a few trees of different species, illustrate this method. Species. Total volume, cubic feet. Total volume, board feet. Age, years. Mean annual growth. cubic feet, board feet White pine White pine White pine Hemlock. . Hemlock. . Hemlock. . Beech 48 32 72 370 552 480 225 40 44 314 294 255 1. 14 .80 1.60 1. 16 1.90 I 5° 1. 00 In the life of most trees, there are periods of slow growth due to suppression by neighboring trees, or to other causes. For this reason the mean annual growth is always low. Foresters sometimes speak of the economic age of a tree as referring to that part of the tree's life during which it made a normal growth. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS 177 The chief purpose of studying tree volume growth is to be able to predict future growth for a coming period. This can best be done by a study of periodic growth made under condi- tions similar to those which are likely to obtain during the period to be predicted. Unless there is a radical change of conditions, the rate of growth during the ten coming years may fairly be expected to approximate that of the past ten years. The growth Fig. 65. — A study of the growth of an indivitUial pitch pine tree is in progress. of a past period is easily obtained, (i) by determining the present volume of the tree; (2) by counting the desired number of rings from the bark inward at both ends of the logs, and obtaining the volume of the tree at the beginning of the period; (3) by sub- tracting the second volume from the first. If the percentage of growth is desired, this remainder is divided by the volume at the beginning of the period. For example, a red oak sixty years old had a volume of 8.4 cubic feet. Its volume ten years ago was 6 cubic feet, and the tree grew at the rate of ^ or 40 per cent. But the annual growth was .24 cubic foot, and hence its annual rate was 4 per cent. Usually the rate of growth of a 1 78 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND tree in percentage falls with increasing age, in spite of the fact that it lays on more wood each year even if the width of the rings remains the same. Although the actual amount of wood made may increase, this increase is an ever-decreasing proportion of the total volume of the tree. Suppose, for example, that the red oak mentioned above grew 3 cubic feet during the decade between sixty and seventy years, the percentage of growth would be ~ or 35 per cent. 5.4 B. GROWTH OF STANDS. Thus far the growth of individual trees has been considered; it is important for many purposes to ascertain the growth of stands or whole forests. Forest management depends very largely on this knowledge, especially the more intensive forms of management, such as are in use in Europe. In Austria, for example, the policy is to cut and reproduce a stand as soon as it ceases to yield a satisfactory rate of interest. This is called the financial maturity of the stand. In Baden and other coun- tries the forest working plans prescribe the cutting of an equal amount of wood each year, while in Wiirttemberg, an equal area is cut over annually. A knowledge of the growth of the different stands is essential for the Baden system. In our own country, forestry which aims at a permanent income must rest on tliis kind of knowledge. Just as we have considered the growth in diameter, height and volume of individual trees, so the growth of whole stands should be discussed under similar headings. I. Age of Stands. The age of a stand is usually considered to coincide with the age of the tree of average size in the stand. Such a tree is selected and its age ascertained as already described. This result is taken as the average age of the stand. Such a figure has more value in even-aged than in uneven-aged stands. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS 1 79 2. Diameter Growth. The only accurate method of determining the diameter growth of a stand is to measure carefully all the trees in a stand, mark the points at which the measurements are taken, and remeasure after a series of years. Usually, for accurate purposes of this kind, the circumferences are measured and the diameter growth calculated from the growth in circumference. This, of course, is impracticable for immediate purposes. Fairly accurate data may be obtained from the mean sample tree or tree of average diameter. If the growth for the whole life of the stand is desired, the sample tree is felled and the rings counted and measured; but if the growth for the past few years only is required, a gash can be cut in an inch or so and the radial growth measured. The measurements from this sample tree are considered as representing the diameter growth of the average tree in the stand. Care must be taken that the average tree is normal in other respects as well as diameter. 3. Height Growth. The height growth of a second-growth pine forest can easily be obtained by counting the whorls of branches of a few average trees. With other species it is necessary to cut and measure a few trees of average height. 4. Volume Growth. One of the simplest methods of determining the volume growth of a stand is to obtain the growth per cent of a mean sample tree, that is, a tree of average size, and apply this per cent to the total estimated volume of the stand. Thus, if the sample tree is growing at the rate of 4 per cent and the total volume of the stand per acre is 20 cords, the growth of the stand may be considered as .8 of a cord per acre. Often the mean annual growth of a stand is found and used as a basis for predicting the future growth. To secure this the stand is carefully estimated, and the total volume divided by l8o FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the average age, which may be considered as the age of the average sized tree. For example, a stand which has produced forty cords to the acre in thirty years may be expected to produce about one and one-third cords per acre a year, for the next few years. This method of predicting growth is only approximate because the growth of a stand is not uniform throughout its life. During the first part of its Hfe the annual growth would exceed the mean annual growth, but in later years it would be less. As a basis of forest management to indicate what different types of forest can produce under various conditions, and at different ages, so-called, yield tables^ are in use. Compara- tively few of these have as yet been constructed in this country, but their construction is one of the most important lines of forestry research open to the forester. These tables are based on the measurements of many stands of a given type at different ages, and express the average volume per acre that can be ex- pected at different ages. Such tables may be "local," if based on stands in a single community, or "general," when the data is secured over a large area, as a whole forest region. It will be readily seen that yield tables, for even-aged stands, not only are more easily made, but are of wider application than those for uneven-aged stands. Since the chief use of yield tables is to predict what forests will produce under favorable circum- stances, they are based usually on the measurements of fully stocked stands, and ' then are called "normal." Often it is impossible in our irregular forests to find acres that are fully stocked, and consequently fractions of acres are measured rather than entire acres which include open areas. Three classes of forests need to be studied for the construction of such yield tables: (a) unthinned pure forests; {b) unthinned mixed forests; (c) thinned stands. Thus far all of the yield tables made in this country have been for the first and second classes, especially for pure forests, and do not indicate what these forests can produce when properly treated. In the future this last (c) 1 Several yield tables are included in the appendix. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS l8l class of yield tables will be chiefly needed, especially in forest regions with the best market conditions. Normal yield tables cannot be made for uneven-aged forests, since cuttings in such forests are made at regular intervals when only a part of the stand is removed. For rough yield tables with which to estimate the growth of such stands, it is customary in this country to designate in tabular form the number of years required for each diameter inch class to grow one inch, and from this to estimate the amount of timber that can be produced in a given period. Since the rate of growth is based almost entirely on conditions different from those which will prevail in the future, these tables should not be taken too seriously. PART II. NEW ENGLAND FORESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. CHAPTER XL THE ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT. While the early history of New England abounds with ref- erences to the forest, they are unsatisfactory as far as yielding light on the real character of those forests. We can, however, gain a fair picture of them from the records of the early forest industries and from the laws which were passed regulating their use. There can be no question that there was an immense white pine forest stretching across Massachusetts to the foot of the Berkshires and extending well up the rivers of Maine and to Lake Winnepesaukee in New Hampshire. It reached still farther north through the Connecticut valley and its tributaries, such as the Ammonoosuc and Passumpsic, and from the borders of Lake Champlain as far inland as the base of the Green Moun- tains. On the better soils, hardwoods were frequently mixed with the pines; birch, maple, beech in the north; oak, hickory, chest- nut in the south. On some of the drier sandy lands the pitch pine was perhaps even more common than the white pine, as in the Cape Cod district and the Connecticut valley near Hartford. The pine was always confined to the warmer soils and seldom reached good development on elevations exceeding 1500 feet. Bordering the pine country in the north or in the mountains was spruce, forming pure forests throughout much of the northern portion of Maine and of the White Mountains, but usually mixed, in Vermont, with the hardwoods. Even in the swamps and 183 l84 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND lower slopes of northern Maine giant pines were often mixed in with the spruce. But a more common companion of the spruce was the fir, which probably formed a smaller percentage of the mixture in the virgin forests than it now does owing to its re- markable reproduction. For the same reason the hardwood forests of southern New England had a larger percentage of oak and hickory than at present, for with every succeeding cutting the chestnut, owing to its unequaled sprouting capacity, has gained on its competitors. The forests of England had ceased to be important timber producers centuries before the settlement of America. With her forests handled even in those days chiefly as game preserves of the nobility, England had been obliged to rely largely on Scot- land and Scandinavia for lumber. The English Government undoubtedly appreciated her new- found American possessions more for these great forest resources than for their possibilities for colonization. While at this period the West Indies probably occupied a greater place in the estima- tion of that Government than did New England, there was no lack of appreciation of the value to the English navy of our timber. In fact, the navy which made possible England's supremacy of the sea through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and which alone prevented an invasion of England by Napoleon, was largely made of New England timber and rehed even more com- pletely on this country for masts. Many interesting incidents bearing light on the timber supply are mentioned in the famous diary of Samuel Pepys, who, in the days of Charles II, was Secretary of the Navy, as for example, the following: "Dec. 2, 1666. I went to Sir W. Batten's and there I hear more ill news still: that all our New England fleete, which went out lately, are put back a third time by foul weather, and dis- persed some to one port and some to another; and their convoys also to Plymouth; and whether any of them be lost or not we do not know. This added to all the rest do lay us flat in our hopes and courages, everybody prophesying destruction to the nation." "Dec. 3, 1666. At noon home, more cheerful than I have been a good while, to hear that for certain the Scotch rebels are ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT 185 all routed; . . . There is also the very good news come of four New England ships come home safe to Falmouth with masts for the King; which is a blessing mignty unexpected, and with- out which, if for nothing else, we must have failed the next year. But God be praised for this much good fortune, and send us the continuance of his favour in other things." It was in this same year that the great fire of London, necessi- tating the use of a large amount of lumber, brought the whole question of lumber supply prominently before the English nation. Charles II, inspired by the example of Louis XIV, that great patron of the arts and sciences, had created the Royal Society, and John Evelyn had brought forth in 1662 his "Silva," the first work on forestry in the Enghsh language. In the dedication of this most interesting volume to the King in 1678, Evelyn says: "I need not acquaint your Majesty how many millions of timber trees have been propagated and planted throughout your vast Dominions, at the instigation, and by the sole direction of this work; because your Gracious Majesty, has been pleased to own it Publickly for my Encouragement, who, in all that I here pretend to say deliver only those Precepts which your Majesty has put into Practice; as having (like another Cyrus) by your own Royal Example, exceeded all your Pred- ecessors in the Plantations you have made, beyond (I dare assert it) all the Monarchs of this Nation, since the Conquest of it." It is not surprising that a government thus sohcitous of forestry interests should have imposed many regulations on the cutting of the forests in the new land, nor is it strange that the settlers coming from a country where they fully realized the need of forest conservation, should have humbly submitted to these regulations and indeed imposed rules and by-laws of their own. It is probable that the first sawmill in New England, and very likely in America, was built at Agamentico, later known as York, Maine, in 1623, or the following year, under the direction of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, from whom is quoted: ''I sent over my son 1 86 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND and my nephew, Capt. Wm. Gorges, who had been my lieuten- ant in the Fort at Plymouth, with some other craftsmen for the building of houses and the erecting of sawmills." ^ The second mill was probably erected at Salmon Falls River in what is now South Berwick Township, Maine, in 1631 or the year following. Of this and other mills it is said that '' Capt. Mason sent into this country eight Danes to build mills, to saw timber and tend them, and to make potashes." It is altogether probable that all the first sawmills were Scandinavian institutions, as there were none in England until 1663, at which time hundreds of them were in use in New England. While sawmills had been used in Europe from the earhest times, conditions of timber supply and labor in England were such that, even as late as 1767, a sawmill was destroyed by an EngUsh mob because it represented too great a saving of labor. The first sawmill in Massachusetts was erected about 1633; the first in New Hampshire near Portsmouth, before 1635; the French settlers had sawmills at Ticonderoga at an early date. Between 1640 and 1650 several sawmills were erected in Massa- chusetts Bay Colony; and Connecticut was not far behind in the use of power for making lumber, for the younger Winthrop, afterwards Governor of Connecticut, brought a millwright to New London and put up a sawmill in 1651. Before the close of the century there were several in Connecticut. After about 1650 the sawmill almost immediately followed settlement in any portion of New England, usually in connection with a grist mill, and the location of a water power often deter- mined the location of the settlement. The right to erect and operate sawmills was, in the early days, granted by town meet- ings, and it is evident that the people were wide awake to the benefit of having a local mill. In a grant by the "townsmen of Saco" to Roger Spender, it was stipulated that he should build his mill within a year, that all the "townsmen should have hordes 12 pence in a hundred cheaper than any stranger," and ^ For much of this material we are indebted to a " History of the Lumber Industry of America," by Defebaugh. ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT 187 that the townsmen who would work erecting the mill "as cheap as a stranger " should have preference. Commerce and shipbuilding had an early beginning in New England. An early record states that in 1623 a ship of a hun- dred and forty tons, called the Anne, was freighted at Plymouth and returned to England with a cargo consisting of clapboards with a few beaver skins and other furs. These clapboards were oak staves for wine casks and had a good sale in London. The settlers of the West Indies also de- pended upon New England for their supphes of barrels and boxes in which to export their molasses and sugar. As early as 1629 there were six shipwrights at work in Boston, and on July 4, 1 63 1, Governor John Winthrop launched at Mystic, now Somer- ville, a vessel of sixty tons, called the Blessing of the Bay. It was the first vessel built in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and demonstrated the excellence of New England timber for this purpose. Medford, Marblehead, and Salem soon began to build ships. Gradually all the seacoast settlements took up this industry, from Maine to Connecticut. The industry, be- sides requiring a large amount of first-class white oak lumber, also depended upon a ready supply of the so-called "naval stores " such as pitch, tar, and turpentine. These materials have long since been considered special products of the south, but for a century after the first settlement of Windsor, Connecticut, and the neighboring region the manufacture of these products from the pitch pine was an extensive industry.^ In fact, the first Indian deed in this territory had its origin in this business, for it seems that in 1643, John Grifhn and Michael Humphrey com- menced the manufacture of pitch and tar and the collecting of turpentine. Manahanoose, an Indian chief, was so unfortunate a few years later as to kindle a fire which in its progress consumed a large quantity of pitch and tar belonging to Mr. Grifhn. To make amends for this the chief deeded to the injured party all his lands at Masscoe. The General Court early recognized the ^ "The Forests of Connecticut," by A. F. Hawes, Connecticut Magazine, Vol. X, No. 2. 1 88 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND importance of this industry by granting in 1663 to Mr. Griffin, two hundred acres in consideration "that he was the first that perfected the art of making pitch and tar in those parts." These materials were in great demand for the uses of the British navy as well as for shipbuilding generally. They commanded a ready sale at high prices, and were nearly the only articles allowed by England to be exported. The town of Enfield and probably others granted the privilege to box a certain number of trees, but this grant did not convey the land nor the trees. The record of such grants reads as follows: "July, 1705. Mr. Joseph Sexton is posesed of so many pine trees as may aford three thousand boxes which are a littel south- ward of or south est of buk horn and ye same sid of wedow glesons medow, these afored trees are bounded on every with common land." The industry was so important that we find an act in the Pubhc Records of the Colony of Connecticut providing for inspection of all barrels of tar and turpentine. In 1709, the inhabitants of Hartford voted "if any persons shall box any pine trees within the bounds of the town of Hartford, either on the comons, or undivided lands, he shall forfeit to the towns use the sum of five shilhngs for every tree so improved." This act of restriction probably marks the beginning of the end, such measures usually coming after a scarcity has begun to be felt. The settlement of Massachusetts was so rapid that most of the lumber was required for domestic purposes, but a great ex- porting lumber business grew up in Maine at an early date. By 1682, there were twenty-four mills in the territory now known as Maine. The most important lumber-shipping port of the colonies during the seventeenth century was that of the Piscataquis River. During the ten months ending April 12. 1681, according to statements made by the King's Council to the Lords of Trade, there were entered at that port "twenty-two ships, eighteen ketches, two barkes, one scallop, and one flyboat, — in all forty- seven." . . . "The Trade of the province is in masts, planks and staves and all other lumber." Pine for masts and oak and tamarack for shipbuilding were cut not only on the Piscataquis ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT 1 89 but the St. Croix and other rivers of Maine. Later the Penob- scot became the most important lumber stream. The destruction of white pine early became a subject of solici- tation on the part of the government. In King WilHam's reign a surveyor of the woods was appointed by the crown and an order was sent to the governor-general to cause an act to be passed in the several governments for the preservation of the white pines. In fact the crown claimed the pick of all the forest and no one but officers were supposed to cut the pines. Many con- flicts arose between the people and these officers. The woods- men, asserting a "Swamp Law," cut their share. Forestry regulations of this sort were imposed not only by the crown but by the colonies. The lumber industry of the colonies steadily grew up to the time of the Revolution, and, in fact, was not long interrupted by the war. In 1770 the export of masts, boards, staves, etc., from New England was valued at £45,000; ships, about 70 sail, at £49,000; and potash to the amount of 8000 barrels, at £20,000. The trade in lumber was largely with the West Indies, Madeira, and the Canaries. The first use of the word "lumber" in its present sense ap- parently dates back to the early colonial times when the wharves of Boston were "lumbered" over with boards, logs, etc. Practically the last act looking toward the preservation of the forest was an act passed by Massachusetts in 1784, providing a fine of $100 for cutting a white pine tree on the public lands. Two years later the Commonwealth abandoned this poHcy of protection in favor of immediate realization of its resources. Both by royal and local authority restrictions on the cutting of timber had been severe, but now within twelve years after the close of the Revolutionary War, Massachusetts disposed of three and one-half million acres, much of it through lottery, in the region now Maine. Undoubtedly she was sadly in need of revenue after the heavy drain of the war, but the disposal of much of this public nonagricultural land in Massachusetts then and later throughout the United States was one of the greatest IQO FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND mistakes made by a people just beginning to govern themselves. Canada has been fortunate in escaping a policy which, until the administration of President Cleveland, was followed by our state and national governments. Naturally the lumber business grew rapidly with the removal of the old restrictions and the passing of these great tracts into private hands. The French traveler Michaux ^ says, that when he was at Windsor, Maine, in 1806, "the river was covered with thousands of logs of which the diameter of the greater part was fifteen or sixteen inches, and that of the remainder (perhaps one- fiftieth of the whole) twenty inches. The blue ash and red pine were the only species mingled with them (white pine) and these in not the proportion of one to a hundred." He adds elsewhere: "For a space of 600 miles from Philadelphia to a distance beyond Boston, I did not observe a single stock of the white pine large enough for the mast of a vessel of 600 tons." In 1807 the im- portations of timber to Great Britain from the United States amounted to $1,302,980, of which white pine formed about one-fifth. This sold in Liverpool at that time at about $20 per M. Probably the greatest transfer of lands ever made in New England was that known as the "Bingham Purchase," by which, in 1793, William Bingham, of Philadelphia, secured 2,107,396 acres in Maine at twelve and a half cents an acre. Much of the land disposed of by the state in these early days went to pay soldiers of the Revolution and the War of 181 2. Perhaps the best disposition of public land was to the various colleges which were established about this time. According to an early history of New England, about 80,000 acres were originally granted to Dartmouth College, and it was estimated that the income from this in 1805 would be the munificent sum of $2000, a little over two cents an acre. The Legislature of Vermont granted about 33,000 acres in 1791 for the support of the University at Burlington. Unfortunately this was scattered through every section of the state, and an economical management of it was ^ See "History of .\merican Lumber Industry," Defebaugh. ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT 191 impossible. Most of it was rented under permanent leases. Bowdoin College received a grant of six townships from the Legislature of Maine. During the first half of the nineteenth century the white pine lumber industry grew to immense proportions. Before this time the rural parts of southern New England had begun to be depopulated, and gradually lands on the hillsides of Vermont and New Hampshire were abandoned for farm purposes. When the country districts had been well inhabited a great amount of wood was used as fuel by the farmers. Many of the early manufacturing industries also used large quantities of charcoal. For the production of these fuel supphes great forest regions such as the whole western part of Connecticut and Massachusetts were cut over again and again. President Dwight of Yale, who traveled extensively throughout New England in the early part of the nineteenth century, describes a system common in Con- necticut at that time of allowing the sprouts of chestnut and oak to grow for fifteen or twenty years and then cutting them off for wood. Unquestionably the more accessible regions were cut again and again in this way. But when the farm population had fallen off greatly, much of this demand for wood ceased. About the same time railroads were built and coal was introduced for fuel for manufacturing purposes. Wood lots which had been cut close were allowed to grow up, and the increased area given up to brush resulting in an oversupply of fuel, a drop in the price followed, so that fuel wood is now not worth cutting in many sections of New England, where formerly it was worth from $1 to $2 a cord standing. Gradually a demand grew for larger materials, as railroad ties, telephone, telegraph, and electric- hght poles, and these are now among the chief products of the chestnut and oak forests of southern New England. The first steam engines burned wood, and many a hillside of Vermont and New Hampshire was stripped of its forest to meet this demand. The original settlers of the more remote localities got no other returns from their forests, which were destroyed to make room for agriculture, than that furnished by the potash 192 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND and pearl ash which they sold in Montreal and Boston. After the admission of Vermont to the Union a great industry grew up which Robinson in his entertaining history of the state de- scribed thus: "The great pines that fifty years before had been reserved for the 'masting of His Majesty's navy/ were felled now by hardy yeomen who owed allegiance to no earthly king, and gathered into enormous rafts, voyaged slowly down the lake, impelled by sail and sweep. They bore as their burden barrels of potash that had been condensed from the ashes of their brethren whose giant trunks had burned away in grand con- flagration that made midnight hills and vales and skies bright with lurid flame. The crew of the raft lived on board, and the voyage (down Lake Champlain and the Richeheu to Canada) though always slow was pleasant and easy when the south wind filled the bellying sail, wafting the ponderous craft past the shifting scene of level shore, rocky headland, and green islands." For years these great rafts of timber went north to Montreal where they were exported, but with the completion of the canal joining the Lake with the Hudson, the current of traffic was turned in the other direction. Finally the timber of the Cham- plain valley was gone and the products of Canadian forests now supply the trade of Burlington, still one of the busiest lumber markets of New England. There is no better picture of the condition of the Maine forests and the industries dependent upon them in the middle of the last century than in Thoreau's "Maine Woods." "Think how stood the white pine tree on the shore of Chesuncook, its branches soughing with the four winds, and every individual needle trembhng in the sunhght — think how it stands with it now, sold, perchance to the New England Friction-Match Com- pany. There were in 1837, as I read, two hundred and fifty saw- mills on the Penobscot and its tributaries above Bangor and they sawed two hundred millions of feet of boards annually. To this is to be added the lumber of the Kennebec, Androscoggin, Saco, Passamaquoddy, and other streams. No wonder that we hear so often of vessels which are becalmed off our coast, being sur- ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT 1 93 rounded a week at a time by floating lumber from the Maine woods." Thoreau's first trip up the Penobscot was in 1846. Just above the mouth of the east branch, he says: "The woods hereabouts abounded in beech and yellow birch, of which last there were some very large specimens ; also spruce, cedar, fir, and hemlock ; but we saw only the stumps of the white pine here, some of them of great size, these having been already culled out, being the only tree much sought after, even as low down as this. Only a little spruce and hemlock beside had been logged here. The eastern wood which is sold for fuel in Massachusetts all comes from below Bangor. It was the pine alone that had tempted any but the hunter to precede us on this route." Even in those days Maine was famous for its forest fires, for he says: "The lumberers rarely trouble themselves to put out their fires, and this is one cause, no doubt, of the frequent fires in Maine, of which we hear so much on smoky days in Massachusetts." Thus interestingly he describes the Bangor of that day: "There stands the city of Bangor, fifty miles up the Penobscot, at the head of navigation for vessels of the largest class, the principal lumber depot on this continent, with a population of twelve thousand, like a star on the edge of night, still hewing at the forests of which it is built, already overflowing with the luxuries of Europe, and sending its vessels to Spain, to England, and to the West Indies." At this time little was used from the great forests but pine, but gradually as this became scarce and had to be sought in the west the lumbermen of northern New England began to saw the better specimens of spruce. Later the great pulp industry grew up to use an ever-increasing quantity of that species for the pro- duction of paper. Tracts which long ago had been culled of their pine and later of their large spruce were now gone over for a third and a fourth time for smaller spruce trees for pulp. The rivers of Maine, the Merrimac, the Connecticut and its branches still bear their great drives of logs in the spring. A goodly pro- portion of these now go to the pulp mills. With the extension of 194 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND railroads throughout the territory many veneer mills and other concerns using hardwoods have sprung up and the proportion of birch and maple lumber used is constantly increasing. A generation ago another important change came in the lumber industry — the introduction of the portable steam saw- mill. Up to this time many small tracts back in the mountains had escaped cutting. Now it was possible to take a mill into the farthest of these lots and transport only the finished lumber. Hundreds of these Httle mills have been at work throughout the region and virgin tracts are now rare. While they have in the past done much damage there is no reason why in the future they should not be an instrument for the improvement of our forests. From the foregoing brief sketch of the early industries of New England it will be realized how intimately the hfe of the people was connected with the forest. It is interesting to note the change of feeling toward the forest which has taken place during the three centuries of our history. As has been said, the earliest settlers from England showed an appreciation of the forest wealth of their new country. But the difficulty of clearing away the woods and making the land tillable, the loneliness of the long forest trails, and, more than all, the dread of the forest as a hiding place of Indian war parties, gradually changed the feeling of respect to one of enmity if not actual hate. To children reared on the New England frontier the forest was probably as dark and foreboding as were those of the early German legends. Not until well into the nineteenth century was the forest visited by pleasure seekers. Thoreau wrote much about the forests and their ways and was bitter against their destruction. Other writers took up the part of the forest in a more or less sentimental way, and this gave rise to the woodman-spare-that-tree type of conservationist who was long the laughing stock of the lumberman, and with whom the forester was at first confused to the detriment of the forestry cause. After the railroads had reached into Maine and New Hampshire, big hotels were built which were more or less dependent on the forest for their patronage, and during the last generation most of the large forested watercourses have become ORIGINAL FORESTS AND THEIR EARLY DEVELOPMENT 195 more or less bordered with summer cottages. Now, with im- proved roads and automobiles, a new movement is rapidly gaining throughout New England. Business men are making their permanent homes in the country and are acquiring large tracts of cheap land much of which is covered with second-growth forest. Everyone is coming to see that the original forests of the United States will soon be exhausted, and the enthusiasm for forestry and conservation in general, which has swept the country in the past decade, is strong in New England. Nowhere in the country are the opportunities for the practice of forestry better than here, and nowhere has greater or finer progress in private forestry been made than in this old region which has been lumbered over and burned over for nearly three centuries. CHAPTER XII. PRESENT FOREST CONDITIONS. As emphasized in the preceding pages, the New England forest in its virgin condition, although often uniform over broad areas, yet showed important differences in character; especially as the observer traveled in a general north and south direction across the whole territory. Tht differences in character were expressed mainly by changes in composition {i.e., in the species of trees making up the forest) brought about by variations in climatic conditions and in soil and amount of moisture in the ground, as explained in the chapter on Silvics. With the advent of settlement, which is always accompanied by lumbering, forest fires, and the clearing of land for farms, conditions which had for centuries governed the growth and development of the New England forest were changed, and as a result of this interference with the natural conditions forests now prevail which often differ widely from the original growth. Settlement has not only occasionally changed the original char- acter of the forest, but it has everywhere emphasized its varia- tions in character throughout the region. New England now is naturally divided into four forest regions within each of which the forest has a distinctive character of its own. The chief species of trees are not the same in any of the four regions; and, what is even more significant, the density of settlement and the available markets for forest products vary immensely from region to region. From the standpoint of forest management these two factors (density of population and avail- able markets for forest products) are of much more importance than the character of the forest. For without suitable oppor tunities for the sale of wood no forestry can be practiced. 196 PRESENT FOREST CONDITIONS 197 Opposite this page is given a map showing the location of the four forest regions into which New England is divided. Actu- ally, on the ground, no such fixed boundaries can exist as are traced on the map. In reality for several miles along the border line between two regions it may be hard to distinguish within which of the two a particular tract lies. Thus the map is intended to indicate only the general location and relative area occupied by each region, rather than to furnish definite boundary lines between regions. The total area of the New England States is 42,537,600 acres. ^ Included in this Is 2,874,880 acres of water surface, the remain- der, 39,662,720 acres being land surface. In giving the areas for the four forest regions water surfaces have been left out, and the figures given in the table are the approximate areas of land surface in the different regions. The area and per cent forested are given for each region as well as the per cent of New England occupied by the region. TABLE SHOWING FORESTED AREAS OF NEW ENGLAND. j Total area of | P„_:„_ I region Per cent of '^'^*^'""- Qand surface), region forested .= 1 ""•■ Area forested, acres . Per cent of New England occupied by region. 17,341,600 7,025,700 11,889,640 3,405,780 90 50 40 40 15,607,440 3-512,850 4-755-856 1,362,312 43h 17* 30 9 Northern hardwoods. . White pine Sprout hardwoods All New England 39,662,720 1 64 25,238,458 100 - Forested area includes waste land and brush land. The spruce region lies to the north in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, a large share of Its area being in Maine. It is largely a region of conifers. The chief trees here are the red spruce, the balsam, and the northern white cedar (Thuja occi- dentalis) . 1 Based on the figures given in the United States Census for 1900. 198 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Among the hardwoods paper and yellow birch, the aspens,^ hard maple, and beech are most important. The country is still wild and rugged, as yet untouched by settlement, and with soils so thin, steep, or stony as to be useless for agriculture. The northern hardwoods region extends through Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, into western Massachusetts, having its greatest area in Vermont. The forest is composed chiefly of hard maple, yellow birch, and beech — trees commonly spoken of as ''northern hardwoods." Conifers such as red spruce and hemlock play a subordinate part. Owing to the greater depth and fertility of the soils a consider- able part of the region is farmed and, as a whole, it is much better settled than the spruce region. Next comes the white pine region, found in all six of the New England States, but centering in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine. White pine rules here, although other species occur commercially. In this region settlement is thickest. Numer- ous towns and cities furnish excellent markets, while a large variety of manufacturing plants create a demand for wood in various forms. The sprout hardwoods region Hes at the south in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, occupying nearly the entire State of Connecticut. Like the white pine region it is a well- settled section, with many manufacturing industries; but the main species of trees are different. Chestnut and the oaks pre- dominate, while conifers in commercial quantities are conspicu- ous by their absence. The precipitation is fairly uniform throughout all New Eng- land, ranging between forty and fifty inches annually. In the White Mountain region of New Hampshire it rises to over fifty inches. This brief description will serve roughly to distinguish the four regions. In the succeeding chapters may be found a de- 1 The aspens, in spite of the softness of their wood, are classed among the hard- woods on account of their similarity in mode of growth and because they are all broad-leaved, deciduous trees. PRESENT FOREST CONDITIONS 1 99 tailed discussion of each region and the possibilities for forest work which it presents. How TO Find Information Applicable to a Particular Tract. If it is desired to secure definite information that may aid in the management of a particular tract, the forest region in which the tract is located should first be ascertained, which can be done by consulting the regional map. With the proper forest region determined, the next step will be to consult the chapters treating of this region and to select the forest types to which the forest of the tract in question most closely approaches. The forest types determined on this tract may not coincide exactly with those described in the book, since the innumerable variations of tree associations which actually occur in a forest region render it impracticable to describe more than the few most important and typical ones. But the types in the field will correspond closely enough with those in the book so that their relationship can be easily recognized. Methods of treating each of the chief types of a region will be found and the treatment for the desired type should be studied. It is believed that by following this procedure an owner of woodlands can not only avail himself of the general information in regard to forestry and its application in New England, but can also secure assistance in the detailed treatment of his own local forest problem. CHAPTER XIII. THE SPRUCE REGION. General Considerations. The spruce region occupies the most elevated portions of New England; and within its borders he the headwaters of nearly all its principal rivers. The White Mountains of New Hampshire furnish the most striking topographic feature of the region. Fig. 66. — A general view of the topography in the Vermont portion of the spruce region. They include seventy-four peaks over 3000 feet in height, with Mount Washington the highest, 6290 feet. The peaks of the White Mountains do not form a single range, but are grouped in an irregular manner; and with their steep, often precipitous slopes and deep, narrow valleys make an extremely rugged country. North of the White Mountains in New Hampshire the country is not so rough. Many lakes occur. The mountains are lower, less precipitous, and have between one another fairly broad valleys. THE SPRUCE REGION 201 The spruce region in Vermont lies in a long, narrow belt, running north and south through the center of the state, on the Green Mountain range. The extreme northeastern corner of the state is also in the spruce region. The Vermont section must be considered a rough country, although it is not nearly so rugged as the White Mountains. In Maine the country is less rugged than in New Hampshire and Vermont. A broad plateau runs northeast from the western side across the Rangeley and Moosehead Lake districts. It gradually slopes eastward toward the Penobscot River basin, while to the north the gentle slope of the St. John River system is reached. In southeastern Maine the plateau runs down to sea level. On this plateau, especially in central Maine, occasional mountains rise to relatively high altitudes, such, for example, as Mount Katahdin, elevation 5385 feet. A feature of the Maine section is the large number of lakes and ponds and the abundant waterways, navigable at least for small craft such as canoes. The comparatively level nature of central and eastern Maine, with its intricate network of small streams and ponds, makes an ideal country for transporting timber; while the White Moun- tains offer many obstacles to cheap and easy logging. Granites and gneisses form the bedrock of the spruce region; and from them is derived a soil rich in the elements essential to plant Hfe. The soils, however, are not generally suitable for agriculture. In earher times glaciers passed over the country, often carrying away the soil and leaving the rock bare. Usually, however, a covering of soil and rock debris, varying in thickness from scarcely an inch to many feet, was deposited. So many rocks are found in these glacial deposits that from this cause alone many soils are rendered unfit for farm purposes. When to this is added the fact that many soils are extremely shallow, that many sites have steep slopes, and that large areas of bog and swamp occur, it will be readily understood that but a small proportion of the soils in the region are suitable for farm- 202 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND ing, even though it is true that its soils are chemically rich enough for agricultural use. The soils of the spruce region are largely true forest soils; that is, soils which for all time should be devoted to the production of wood crops. No accurate surveys for classifying the kinds of land have been made; but from the best available data it has been estimated that not more than ten to fifteen per cent of the land has agri- cultural value; and less than ten per cent is at present used for such purposes. The farm land lies in belts along the principal valleys; or in isolated clearings near railroad stations, around which small towns have arisen. Fully ninety per cent of the area is now forested, in which is included cut-over and burned areas. The forest as a whole is composed of trees of all ages, inter- mixed on the same area; it is thus an "uneven-aged" or an "all- aged" forest. Exceptions to this character occur; for some- times a part of the forest is found where the trees are all of one age over considerable areas; i.e., an "even-aged" forest. But such cases are in the minority. Mixed stands made up of several species, both conifers and broad-leaved trees, prevail rather than pure stands. The principal species are all shade-bearing (toler- ant) trees, several of them possessing the power to endure shade for many years, such as spruce and hard maple. Red spruce is the characteristic and predominant tree of the region. Here it finds chmatic conditions suited to its best growth and development. Nowhere else in the United States does spruce do so well as in this region. It is at its optimum in the White Mountains and in the upper drainage of the Andros- coggin River in New Hampshire and Maine. There are three species of spruce found : red, black, and white or Canadian spruce. The latter two are of much less frequent occurrence than the red; the black spruce occurring mainly in bogs as a small tree of little commercial value, while the white spruce grows in small num- bers in stream valleys on moist ground. Balsam {Abies balsamea) appears everywhere, sometimes as- sociating with the spruce and occasionally forming pure stands. Two species of pine, the white pine and the red or Norway pine, THE SPRUCE REGION 203 occur, but not as important commercial trees. The red pine is apt to grow on sandy areas which are sometimes found along the main river valleys forming pure groves or mixed with white pine. The white pine likes similar sites though it is more widely scattered through the spruce forest. Hemlock occurs through the region singly or in groups, but is not by any means an abundant tree. In the swamps tamarack or larch and the northern white cedar {Thuja occidentalis) are frequent trees. The larch is mostly of small size and not commercially important. The cedar occurs both in mixture with other species and also in pure stands. It is a valuable tree, especially in Maine, while in the mountainous sections of New Hampshire and Vermont it is not so common. Hard maple, beech, and yellow birch are important trees. They are apt to grow together, forming on certain good soils the bulk of the stand with a small amount of spruce in the mixture. The beech and hard maple are of comparatively poor quahty and thrive better in regions further south. Yellow birch, however, finds here optimum conditions for its development. Paper birch in some parts of Maine and New Hampshire is a tree of considerable commercial value. It is scattered generally over the entire region. The aspens {Populus balsamea, Populus tremuloides, and Popu- lus grandidentata) occur on burned-over and cut-over lands in mixture with other trees or in pure stands. Where abundant, aspen is valuable for pulpwood. Forest Types. Within the spruce region the forest is not the same through- out, for the different species found do not all occur in the same proportions in all places. Indeed, there may be an endless variety and a wide range in the combinations of the different species; so much so, that no two spots in a forest can be said to be alike in every detail. Over considerable areas, however, the forest may for all practical purposes be the same. This gives 204 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND rise to "forest types" or associations of forest trees, each asso- ciation having a distinctive character which usually is readily recognized even by persons not technically trained. To the forester, these forest types are helpful in a practical way in managing the forest, because for each type the same general method of treatment holds good. For this reason the main forest types in a region are always determined and studied in order to ascertain the way in which each can best be treated. Fig. 67. — Logging camp. Pure spruce in the background. The forest of the spruce region can be classified with advantage into six forest types. These six grade one into the other with innumerable variations which might be considered as separate subtypes, so that it may often be difficult to identify the main forest type. Of these six types, two are of a transitory nature and owe their existence to the action of fire or to the clearing of land. In other words, they have come in as a result of interference with natu- ral conditions. If left undisturbed, these two types (temporary THE SPRUCE REGION 205 forest types) revert to some one of the other four forest types (permanent forest types). The six types are: Permanent Forest Types: 1. Swamp. 2. Spruce Flat. 3. Hardwood. 4. Spruce Slope. Temporary Forest Types: 5. Birch and Poplar. 6. Old Field. I. Sivamp. — Forests of the swamp type, as the name would imply, occur on the low, wet ground near lakes and streams, and are most abundant in the Maine section of the region. In Ver- mont and the White Mountain section of New Hampshire rela- tively little swamp land is found. The soil is apt to be wet throughout the year and is covered with a dense bed of sphagnum moss often of considerable depth. In certain times of the year the swamps are nearly impassable on account of the water present. Spruce forms from thirty to fifty per cent of the number of trees, both red and black spruce occurring. Other conifers which thrive here are balsam, northern white cedar, and tama- rack. Among the hardwoods, black ash, soft maple, and yellow birch are the most common. The character of the growth is poor; this is well shown in the spruce which, on the average, is small when compared with spruce timber on the other types. Two causes are assigned as contributing to this small size. First, the growth is slow and it takes the individual trees much longer to attain a given diam- eter than on less swampy sites. Second, due to the great danger from windfall on the soft, wet land of this type, the chances are very much against individual trees attaining any considerable 2o6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND size. Old trees are usually blown over before they reach large diameters. The timber of merchantable size is apt to be un- sound. A yield of 5000 feet, board measure, per acre, over a whole swamp would be high. The forest of the swamp land is decidedly uneven-aged. Trees of all ages are intermingled singly or in groups. Wherever openings are made by the death or decay of older trees, there small patches of seedlings start up on the wet, mossy floor. The reproduction secured in this manner is sufhcient to keep the type thoroughly stocked. While the typical swamp forest contains a mixture of sev- eral species with spruce predominant, yet in exceptional cases pure stands of other trees occur in the swamps. Sometimes the northern white cedar takes possession, forming a dense valuable growth. Sometimes tamarack grows pure, always in a rather open stand and on the wet ground near the shores of lakes. The balsam may form pure stands in the swamps and grows in almost impenetrable thickets. On newly-formed ground close to lakes the black spruce may grow alone in a park-like stand, reaching a maximum size scarcely large enough for pulp. 2. Spruce Flat. — The spruce flat type occurs on low rolKng ground above the watercourses. It is an abundant type in the leveler portions of the region, such as parts of northern New Hampshire and in Maine. The soils are moist but not wet as in the swamps. They may be deep or shallow and are characteristically strewn with rocks. The drainage is fairly good. Spruce forms about fifty per cent or more of the stand. The spruce here is practically all red spruce, black spruce being entirely absent and white spruce of only occasional occurrence. Originally, white pine was an important tree in this type, but it was largely cut out in the early lumbering operations. Balsam is abundant, sometimes covering twenty to thirty per cent of the area. Hemlock grows sparingly in this type, and the maples and birches also occur. THE SPRUCE REGION 207 The best individual specimens of cedar are found in this type, but it is not a common tree. The timber is of much better quality than in the swamp for- est. Still it is often unsound and does not average so good as Fig. 68. — Spruce ,t running 6000 feet, B.M., per acre. Chief species are, from left to right, yellow birch, balsam, arborvitae, spruce. on the better-drained ground. Considerable windfall takes place as the soil is always moist; although on account of its location the type is sheltered from excessive wind damage. Yields of 15,000 feet, board measure, per acre are not uncommon. Spruce and balsam, especially the latter, reproduce exceedingly well on lands of this type. They take advantage of the least 2o8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND opening in the forest canopy, appearing wherever Hght reaches the forest floor. 3. Hardwood. — The sites characteristic of this type have well-drained soils of considerable depth, and usually the most fertile in the region. In the mountainous section of Vermont and New Hampshire this type occurs on the lower slopes. In the White Mountains it does not run above elevations of 2400 to 2500 feet. It occupies the low hills and broad, rolHng valleys in northern New Hampshire and Maine. The type, in proportion to the forest area, is most abundant in the Vermont section. Spruce is still present in this type forming on the average twenty to thirty per cent of the stand. But it has yielded the foremost place to three hardwoods: the hard maple, the yellow birch, and the beech. These three species make up sixty per cent or more of the composition. Other species, varying with the locality, mingle with these four trees. On the fertile soils of the hardwood land the spruce reaches its best individual development, although numerically less import- ant than in other types. The hardwoods with their thick foliage assist the spruce in clearing its trunk of branches and make clear boles. Being sturdy, deep-rooted species, they support the shallow-rooted spruce, preventing windfall, and allow the latter to reach great size and age uninjured. The hardwood timber is much of it overmature and de- teriorating. It has not been lumbered extensively throughout the region, though in a few places heavy cuttings have taken place. To-day in the accessible regions it is rapidly being cut. 12,000 to 15,000 feet, board measure, per acre is a fair maxi- mum yield, while the average stand yields much less. Most of the best spruce has been removed by loggers and the percentage of hardwoods is on the increase. Logging operations have attacked the spruce first and more heavily than the hardwoods, and this, coupled with the fact that the situation is best adapted for hardwood reproduction, pre- vents the spruce from maintaining its position in the type. The reproduction is good, but almost wholly of hardwoods. THE SPRUCE REGION 20Q The thick litter of hardwood leaves, which covers the ground, furnishes a germinating bed far more favorable for the develop- ment of hardwood seeds than for those of spruce or balsam. The latter like a cover of moss, rotten wood, or coniferous duff for germination. A thick undergrowth of witchhobble and mountain maple is characteristic of the hardwood type. Indeed, once seen it will serve to identify this type of forest. Fig. 69. — Spruce slope type. .Stand about 40,000 feet per acre. 4. Spruce Slope. — The spruce slope type occupies steep, rocky slopes with thin soils. Often the soil is practically lacking, thick deposits of moss and duff here taking the function of soil. When a forest fire passes over such lands the moss and dufif are consumed together with the wood and nothing is left but the bare rock. The roughest sites and the shallowest soils of the region fall in the t5^e. It is well distributed through the entire region, but is most important in the more mountainous parts, such, for example, as the White Mountains of New Hampshire, where occur many slopes of extreme steepness. 210 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Spruce is the most prominent tree, composing fifty to seventy- five per cent of the growth. With the spruce, balsam is usually associated, and two hardwoods may be found, the yellow birch and the paper birch. Hemlock occasionally occurs. The timber is not of such poor character as might be inferred from the quality of the site, as spruce thrives in amazingly poor By permission of the U. 5. Forest Service. Fig. 70. — The upper slope type. Here the forest changes into stands of unmerchantable material growing smaller as the slope is ascended. Notice moss covered bark indicating great age. situations. Usually the timber grows in thick stands with long, clear boles of smaller diameter than on the hardwood land, but still of good quality. The heaviest stands of spruce in the region are found in the spruce slope type. Exceptional single acres sometimes run as high as 40,000 feet, board measure, but for a tract of any size a yield of 10,000 feet, board measure, per acre is excellent. On good sites it is the most productive of the four permanent types. THE SPRUCE REGION 211 As the slopes are ascended the timber naturally becomes smaller, due both to the absolute elevation and because the soil and moisture decrease with increasing height. Finally, on a few of the higher mountains, timber line is reached, above which no tree growth is found. This line is between 4500 and 5000 feet above sea level. On the upper slopes, from 3500 feet in elevation up to timber line, the slope type does not contain trees of merchantable size. They are scrubby and twisted and often only a few feet high. Balsam usually predominates in these stands at high elevations, and may form the entire growth. Black spruce also occurs at these high elevations. These unmerchantable stands perform a most important function as protection forests where such forests are badly needed. Excellent reproduction takes place in the spruce slope type. Even in the virgin stands plenty of seedlings and young growth ordinarily are found. Balsam seedlings are apt to exceed the spruce in such stands, though the latter is well represented. 5. Birch and Poplar. — This is one of the temporary types occurring on no particular kind of soil or site. It is confined, however, to lands of differing qualities of soil which have been burned over. On such land the leaf litter and moss have been destroyed and the mineral soil is left bare and exposed. Such a seed bed is preferred by yellow and paper birch and poplar. The light seeds of these species are blown in by the wind, often for several thousand feet, and germinate on the bare soil of the burned lands, creating the type. Yellow and paper birch and poplar {Populus tremuloides and grandide?itata and a little halsamea) are the chief species. Other light-seeded species, such as red maple and mountain maple, are often abundant. One fairly heavy-seeded species may be pres- ent in considerable quantities. This is the bird cherry, the seeds of which are brought in by birds and scattered over the burned areas. This composition is but temporary, as under the light shade 212 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND of these hardwood trees various conifers spring up. The conifers gradually enter, usually five to ten years after the hardwoods have started, and form an understory. The conifers are the more persistent growers and longer-lived trees, so that finally they out- live the hardwoods and gain possession of the land, causing the By permission of the U. S. Forest Service. Fig. 71. — The birch and poplar type, starting after fire on lumbered land. type to revert to one of the four permanent types previously described. On extensive burns where conifers have failed to seed in, owing to the absence of seed trees, the birch and poplar type may hold the land for several generations. Unless the type is burned over after cutting, the conditions are not especially favorable for seedhng reproduction of birch and poplar, but paper birch fre- quently sprouts prohfically from the cut stumps, while poplar sends up large numbers of root suckers. These root suckers persist, and will reach merchantable size. THE SPRUCE REGION 213 The type is found all through the region, being most abundant in sections where there have been many and large burns in previous years. Within the last ten years better fire protection has been the rule. This prevents the formation of seed-bed conditions favorable to the start of birch and poplar stands. Fig. 72. — Birch and poplar type. A 40 year old stand on an old burn, chiefly yellow birch and pin cheixy. Beneath the hardwoods conifers are coming in. Thus the area of that type cannot be increasing. Instead of being stationary it is decreasing, because reversion to other types is continually lessening the present area. The birch and poplar type is an example of an even-aged forest. The majority of the trees in a given stand started at practically the same time and are more nearly of the same 214 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND diameter and height than is the case in any of the four permanent types. The latter are examples of uneven-aged forests. Figures secured recently by the United States Forest Ser- vice ^ in this region indicate that stands of paper birch on first- quality soil will yield, at sixty years, forty cords of wood per acre, and on second quality soil nearly thirty cords of wood per acre. Definite data for poplar stands are not available, but the Fig. 73. — A stand of the birch and poplar type 10 to is years old. growth should equal or shghtly exceed that made by paper birch stands. The general impression has been that the birch and poplar type was the fastest growing one in the region. This, however, is not the case, although it is a fast growing one. For the first twenty to thirty years it may exceed all others, but after that age the growth falls off. The old field type has a much higher average growth when stands of merchantable size are considered and must be classed as the fastest growing one in the spruce region, with the birch and poplar type second. Nevertheless the latter is of great * Forest Service Circular, No. 163. THE SPRUCE REGION 215 importance because of its moderately fast growth and high yield, and because the two principal species are of value: the poplar for pulpwood and excelsior, the birch for spools and other uses. The fact that relatively small-sized trees are merchantable and that the type can, therefore, be grown on a short rotation adds to its value. 6. Old Field. — Scattered around the borders of the region and in the main valleys which penetrate the interior are occa- Fig. 74. — The old field spruce type, showing a young fully stocked stand. sional areas which were cleared and used for farms and pas- tures. Many of these lands are now unused and have seeded up to forest. Lands in this condition are classed in the old field type because their forest growth differs widely from that found elsewhere. The stands are usually even-aged like those of the birch and poplar type, and contain trees which are usually exceedingly limby. Some stands have already reached merchantable size, but the majority contain young timber. A variety of species is found; red and white spruce, white pine, balsam, white cedar (in northern Vermont), hard maple, 2l6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND birch, and poplar may all be found on this class of land, usually in pure or nearly pure stands. Red spruce is the most common tree. The soils here are of medium to good quality and the growth correspondingly rapid. Where spruce forms the stand the growth will often average a cord of pulpwood per acre per year. For example, one acre of spruce of the old field type, measured in New Hampshire, gave the following figures: Age of the stand 65 years Height of the stand 60 to 65 feet Number of trees 5 inches or over in diameter 627 Cutting to a 4-inch top the yield was 69 cords of stacked pulpwood. Growth per year 69 -^ 65 = 1.06 cords. Stands yielding 40,000 to 50,000 feet, board measure, per acre are sometimes found. The type has the smallest area of any in the region, and is relatively more abundant in Vermont than elsewhere. Methods of Handling the Forest. In forestry work throughout New England and especially in the spruce region, measures best for the forest from the theoreti- cal standpoint often cannot be undertaken, owing to obstacles of a practical nature. The forester directs his efforts to securing continuous crops of timber on the land and to increasing the productive power of the forest, but frequently the distance from markets and poor facilities for the sale of timber force him to employ some method not altogether the best for the good of the forest. His work is often a compromise between an ideal system and methods the lumberman has found practicable. The intention in these pages is to advise measures which are practicable, and at the same time improve the condition of the forest. The object of forest management in the spruce region is in general the production of spruce. This is the tree to favor over all others. Occasionally in special types of forest other trees should be favored, but such cases are in the minority. THE SPRUCE REGION 217 Intensive methods of management are here usually out of the question owing to the unsettled state of the region. Since the management for the different types is often dis- similar it will be best to consider the types separately. Spruce Slope. — The forest of this type, it will be remembered, lies on steep slopes with shallow soil, where it is exposed to great danger from the wind. The situation often would make it ad- visable to hold these stands untouched, or at most culled only of a very few of the largest trees, as protection forests for the upper watersheds of New England's important streams. But the spruce slope contains a great deal of valuable timber, which, when conservatively cut, can be harvested without destroying the protective power of the forest.^ How shall this be done? For two reasons the use of the selection system in the spruce slope type appears to be out of the question. First, because the stands are comparatively even- aged, and of such density that the culling out of the bigger trees here and there results in heavy damage through windfall of trees standing next to those cut. Second, because the cost of logging timber on steep slopes far from the lower valleys is high and a considerable quantity of timber per acre (more than would be secured under the system of selection) must be cut in order to make a paying operation. Some system of clear cutting must be used. But it must radically differ from the ruthless slashing and complete clearing of timber, now being made on steep slopes by many lumber companies. The clear-cutting system when skillfully applied is of great use and the disastrous results which have followed its use in northern New England, especially in the White Moun- tains, are due to its wrongful application and lack of protection from fire after the cutting. In applying the clear-cutting method to the spruce slope type, clumps of seed trees can often be selected on spots which are comparatively safe from windfall. (Clear-cutting system ^ There are many scrubby and unmerchantable stands at high elevations which should be retained always uncut as protection forests. 2l8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND reserving groups of trees. See chapter on silvicultural systems.) On a slope intersected with small gullies and ravines, the seed trees should be located on the higher ground where the seed can be scattered over the ground below. The greater part of the stand is cut clear, leaving these clumps of trees to scatter seed over the clear-cut area. An ideal arrangement would be to have two or three trees in a clump on each acre, but frequently the By permission oj the U. S. Forest Service. Fig. 75. — The result of leaving scattered trees in exposed positions is seen in these wind- falls. Spruce slope type. groups must be bigger than this, for their own protection, and are accordingly farther apart. Great care must be exercised to have the groups large enough to withstand wind, as they will frequently have to be left on top of knolls and ridges. Usually a few firmly-rooted trees can be found if time is taken to look for them. It is often unnecessary to leave large merchantable trees as seed trees, because clumps of middle-aged trees capable of bear- THE SPRUCE REGION 219 ing seed can be found here and there, which make excellent seed trees. Where such a clump is left there should be no cutting within the group, not even the removal of a single tree; as any breaks in the cover expose the other trees to wind throw. Groups of young growth often contain a few old trees, and where the young growth is left the old trees among them also should be uncut, unless they are dead or dying. Where the spruce slope type occupies but a small space among other types, seed trees can sometimes be left on the edge of the slope. The timber left in the clumps of seed trees may range from almost nothing of commercial value to, in rare cases, twenty or twenty-live per cent of the merchantable stand. Whatever is left as seed trees remains for a forest generation, until the new reproduction is mature. Another form of the clear-cutting system can sometimes be applied, described as follows: about one- third of the forest is left uncut, in the form of large, irregular-shaped patches, or in strips, running usually up and down the slope. These patches or strips furnish seed which is blown over the cut area. The reserve groups are an investment to be left for future cutting. The bodies of uncut timber should be located either above or to the windward of cut-over areas and near enough for the seed to reach all parts of the area. Spruce seed often falls on the snow and may slide along the crust for a considerable distance. The distances between the patches of standing timber should never exceed five hundred feet and much better reproduction will be secured with half this distance. When reproduction has been secured the remaining timber is cut in a separate operation. This would take place about ten to fifteen years after the first cutting. To obtain reproduction on the strips it will be necessary to leave scattered clumps of seed trees in safe positions. The advantage of this strip system over that of leaving clumps of seed trees is that greater protection from the wind is secured, and reproduction is made more certain. But it requires two logging operations, 220 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND which, in the very steepest regions and farther from markets, often may be impracticable. Some stands in the spruce slope type have a full reproduction already on the ground when cut. This reproduction may be either spruce or balsam, but is apt to contain more balsam than spruce. Usually there is some spruce with the balsam. In such By permission of the U. S. Forest Service. Fig. 76. — Pure stand of conifers cut over twice in twenty years and still in good growing condition. On the right is a stump of the first cutting and in left center one of the second cutting. stands, where reproduction is already present, the cutting can remove all the trees of merchantable size and allow the repro- duction to develop. Spruce Flat. — The forest of the spruce flat type is apt to be more uneven-aged and to contain a greater number of species than that of the spruce slope. In places where the soil is rocky and shallow, there may be considerable danger of windfall; and THE SPRUCE REGION in such portions of the type the method of clear cutting carried out as in the slope type is advisable. Much of the spruce flat country, however, is not in great danger of windfall. Here the selection system of cutting works admirably. The forest is suited to such a system by its uneven- aged character, and the location of the type relatively near the main streams, together with its comparatively gentle topog- raphy, makes it possible to take out scattered timber at a profit. Fig. 77. — A carefully made cutting in which a number of large hardwoods were removed without injury to the understory of young conifers. Under the selection system as applied here a cutting is to be made at intervals, which takes out the larger and less thrifty trees. The cutting can most easily be controlled by establish- ing a diameter limit below which size (theoretically) no trees are to be cut, and above which all trees are to be cut. For spruce a diameter limit lying between ten and fourteen inches at breast height is the best. An arbitrary limit must not be strictly adhered to. Where the timber is all of large size for several acres, cutting exactly to a limit might strip the land, and there- fore a clump of trees should be selected and left to furnish seed, 222 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND even though they may be above the hmit in diameter. On the other hand, injured or suppressed trees frequently are seen, be- low the limit in size, which are unthrifty and growing very slowly if at all. Such unproductive trees ought to be cut, what- ever their size, unless needed to scatter seed. The diameter hmit is thus "elastic," permitting the cutting of some trees above and some below the limit. Where the forest is of the typical uneven-aged form it will be possible to return to the sarhe areas and cut again after an interval of ten to thirty years; the interval depending on the amount of the first cut. A difficulty often met with in handling this type, as well as the other spruce types, is the presence of balsam. This tree repro- duces so well that it may become a strong competitor with the spruce. On account of its lower value for lumber and pulpwood it should be discriminated against in favor of the spruce.^ Where the cutting is made on the selection system this discrimination may be effected by cutting balsam to a lower diameter limit than spruce. This limit should be as low as the market conditions on any given tract allow. Swamp. — The method of handling this type is the same as for the spruce flats. Wherever danger from windfall is great (as is the case over a great part of the swamp type) , or occasion- ally where a dense, nearly even-aged growth occurs, the stand must be cut nearly clear, making provision for clumps of seed trees, and where the stand is comparatively safe from wind the selection system may be used. In a great many instances repro- duction will be found already started before the cutting is made. Here, even if the stand is cut clear, a good second crop will be insured without leaving trees for seed. From one hundred to two hundred years, depending on the quality of the site, are needed to produce yields of saw timber on the swamp, spruce slope and flat types. ^ The rapid growth of the balsam in part compensates for its lower value. Eventually, as the market for bajsam becomes better, it may merit the same or even greater attention than spruce. THE SPRUCE REGION 223 Hardwood. — Here a condition exists radically different from that in the other three permanent types. The large number of hardwood trees makes it difficult for the spruce to reproduce abundantly, because the leaves of the hardwoods form a thick cover on the ground which is very unfavorable for the germi- nation of spruce seed. In past lumbering operations the merchantable spruce has been cut and most of the hardwoods left standing. Under such treatment the reproduction following cutting is of hardwood species, and spruce may entirely disappear. Just the opposite policy must be pursued to secure an increased amount of spruce in the second crop: that is to say, the hard- woods must be heavily cut and numerous spruce seed trees allowed to remain. This cutting should be in the nature of a selection cutting, taking out the hardwood trees down to the smallest merchantable size, and cutting only the spruce above a certain large diameter, such as fourteen inches, breast-high (four and a half feet from the ground) . This must be supplement- ed by leaving spruce trees above this limit where cutting exactly to the limit'would remove all seed trees. Provision must in this way be made to leave at least two seed trees per acre. As yet the hardwoods are not salable throughout the entire region, owing to the expense of transporting the heavy hardwood logs to market. Near railroads they can be profitably handled, but in the remote sections it is often impossible to cut the hard- woods. On such lands it may be impossible to secure spruce reproduction, and hardwood will take the place of the spruce as it is cut. To prevent this change in the type it sometimes is advisable to defer cutting of the spruce a few years, until trans- portation facihties improve sufficiently to make possible the close utilization of the hardwoods. Sometimes a plant utilizing hardwoods may be estabhshed and solve the problem. The treatment so far suggested for the hardwood type is based on the assumption that an increased amount of spruce at once is wanted in the type; and such is silviculturally the best poHcy. But from the financial standpoint it may be best to give 224 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND up for the present the idea of getting more spruce on these lands and to work for the hardwoods. The following facts lead to this conclusion: prices for hardwood logs have not risen proportion- ately with the advance in coniferous logs; the latter now com- mand prices which are about maximum and in which relatively little advance may be anticipated within the coming decade. The prices of hardwood logs, on the other hand, have been Fig. 78. — A combined selection cutting and thinning in an old field spruce stand. relatively low, but are now advancing, and within ten years should rise to a much higher level. In expectation of such an advance it may often be advisable to refrain from cutting hardwoods for the next ten years. This would apply even to overmature trees, which are not putting on growth in volume, because the growth in value per unit of their present lumber content will more than pay for their lack of volume increase. Badly diseased and deteriorating hardwood trees, together with the biggest and most unthrifty of the spruce, might have to be removed in a light cutting, leaving the remainder of the stand THE SPRUCE REGION 225 for at least a decade. Undoubtedly hardwood reproduction would stock the gaps made in this cutting; but the question of whether or not to try for spruce reproduction in the type would be deferred for ten or more years. In cuttings in the hardwood type there need be no loss from windfall due to leaving scattered spruce trees for seed. On the deep, fertile soil of the hardwood land the spruce itself develops Fig. 79. — A selection cutting taking out the most limby trees combined witli a thinning, removing the spindling and badly crowded individuals. This is another portion of the old field spruce stand shown in Fig. 78. a more secure root system than on other sites, and, more im- portant still, one or two hardwood trees can be left close to the spruce seed trees and will support the latter against the wind. From one hundred to one hundred and fifty years are needed to produce saw timber. The most profitable treatment of the type in the long run would be to cut clear and plant to conifers. But it is usually impracticable, owing to the impossibility of disposing of the poorer hardwoods. Where the markets are sufficiently good to allow cutting the stand clear and putting the poor hard- woods into cordwood, clear cutting and planting are advisable. 226 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Old Field Spruce. — The stands in this type are extremely dense with closely interlocked crowns, and fairly even-aged. Since these stands, as already stated, occur chiefly on the borders of the region and near settlements, they can be handled more intensively than those of the other types. One of the best systems of treatment will be the clear-cutting system with replanting. Under this system the stand would be allowed to grow until fifty to seventy-five years of age, when it would be cut clear, the brush burned, and the area replanted.^ The greater part of the material can be sold for pulpwood, as straight sticks can be taken down to a three-inch top. For pulp- wood a lower rotation can be used than for saw timber, which requires at least seventy-five years. Such treatment is espe- cially adapted to tracts of small size, where comparatively httle timber is found and it is desirable to harvest this at one time. Reproduction of spruce is absolutely assured by this system. On tracts of some size the strip method of clear cutting can be used, with strips not over one hundred feet in width. Seed- ing is secured from the adjoining stands. The last strip to be cut must be restocked by some other method. The danger in this method is that other species may seed in ahead of the spruce, and where this is especially to be feared the land should be cut and artificially restocked. Still another method, an adaptation of the shelterwood system, can be used to advantage, when it is desired to insure the natural reproduction of spruce. Under this method a heavy cutting, removing about one-third of the volume, is made throughout the forest. Theoretically this should remove the poorer individuals, single trees, scattered here and there through the stand. An old- field spruce stand, however, is not adapted for such a system of cutting because of the thickly interlacing crowns, which make the felling of single trees a laborious and expensive operation. Instead, then, of cutting scattered trees, narrow alleyways, possibly ten feet in width, are cut through the stand, leaving 1 The Norway spruce, a European variety, should be planted rather than the native red spruce. The former grows much faster and yields excellent pulpwood. THE SPRUCE REGION 227 belts approximately twenty feet wide, uncut. This removes one-third of the timber and has the effect of admitting light to the forest floor. The result of this increased light is that spruce seedlings spring up in the alleyways and under the standing trees. ^- ' ' i .l^t "S^ ^ •^i^t -:^ Fig. 80. — Reproduction on a small cutting in the old field spruce type Within ten years a good reproduction should have started, and the old timber can then be cut clear. In cutting the trees in the strips they can all be easily felled into and hauled out along the alleyways. A good yield of pulp- wood results, which makes the operation profitable financially as well as silviculturally. This system was devised and first tried in 1903, by T. S. Wool- sey, Jr., on a New Hampshire tract, with satisfactory results; 228 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND spruce and balsam seedlings stocking the ground thoroughly at the end of five years. The cutting in this particular instance was tried as a method of thinning old-field spruce stands to se- cure increased growth of the remaining trees. So far no increased growth has resulted, and, as a method of thinning, therefore, the system is apt to be a failure, as spruce of this character fails to respond appreciably to the increased light. This may reason- ably be explained as due to the severe crowding which the indi- vidual trees in the stand underwent for a long period of years previous to the thinning. If the strip cutting is made compara- tively early, — before the thirtieth year, and before the trees have suffered serious crowding, — increased growth might be expected to follow. The age of this stand was fifty-two years. Thirty-eight per cent of the volume was removed in the first cutting, or thirteen stacked cords of pulpwood per acre. This was disposed of at a net profit of about ^e decreases after a cutting. Both the even- aged and the uneven-aged forms of forest occur in the hardwood type. The virgin stands and those which have been culled over one or more times approach the uneven-aged form. Areas on 272 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND which clear cutting or a very heavy cutting has been practiced are now stocked with approximately even-aged stands. In some cases such stands are extremely regular and even-aged in form. 2. Swamp. — This is not a type of large area and is of only minor commercial importance. The name indicates the charac- ter of the site on which the type occurs, the most unfavorable for tree growth to be found in the region. The type may be divided into two sub-types: {a) hardwood swamp, and {h) softwood swamp. (a) The hardwood swamp is the more important of the two. Originally there were some conifers in most of the swamps, but cutting has excluded them from many stands. Black ash and soft maple are the most abundant and important hardwoods though neither of them can be classed as high-grade timber trees; and the excessive water supply prevents the best growth. Re- production is poor and confined largely to sprouts. {h) The softwood swamp is similar to that of the spruce region, except that it contains a greater per cent of hardwoods. Spruce, balsam, and tamarack are the chief conifers. Arbor- vitae is not a common tree in this type. With the softwoods there is a mixture of black ash, soft maple, and other hardwoods. The conifers here originally furnished considerable merchantable material, but they have been largely removed and hardwood reproduction rather than softwood has followed. It is much harder for softwoods to reproduce in the swamp type here than in the spruce region, because of the large percentage of hardwoods in the stand, resulting in unfavorable seed-bed conditions for the conifers. 3. Birch and Poplar. — This temporary type is similar to the type of the same name in the spruce region, but is rela- tively of much less importance in this region. Its distribution does not depend on any particular kind of soil or situation, but on the location of burned-over areas. A recent burn with the mineral soil exposed and plenty of light admitted is apt to reproduce to stands of this type, which are composed chiefly of paper and yellow birch and poplar. Under these intolerant THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 273 species with their Hght shade reproduction of sugar maple and often of hemlock and spruce, if seed trees are present, soon takes place. Finally with the maturity of the paper birch and poplar the sugar maple comes into control, though usually the yellow birch in the stand persists with the maple. The reversion from the birch and poplar type to the original hard- wood type is then complete. The sugar maple and hemlock play a part identical in principle with that played by spruce and balsam in the spruce region. There it will be remembered the birch and poplar type was slowly reproduced to spruce and balsam and finally reverted to one of the original and permanent types. In the northern hardwoods region, sugar maple and, to a limited extent, hemlock accomplish the same end. The birch and poplar type is even-aged in form. 4. Old-Field Hardwoods. — This type occurs on lands once used for agriculture and now abandoned. It is important since there are large areas in the aggregate of land formerly cultivated. The composition is of mixed hardwoods, particularly hard maple, yellow and paper birch and white ash. Oftentimes pure stands of maple or birch are seen, and the species do not differ materially from those in the hardwood type, except for the absence of the heavy-seeded beech, whose seed is not easily scattered over the open fields. The proportion of white ash is often greater than in the hardwood type. The stands of old- field hardwoods are all young or middle-aged, for two reasons; first, because most of the so-called abandoned farm land was abandoned within the last fifty years, and second, because stands of this type, as they pass middle-age resemble more and more the original hardwood type, and often cannot be distin- guished from it. They are more even-aged in form than a re- peatedly culled stand of the hardwood type, but this distinction may not serve to separate them from stands of the hardwood type which have been heavily cut. Indeed, an old field may seed up very irregularly and present from the beginning the appear- ance of an uneven-aged stand. In most cases there is little if any practical advantage in keeping the two types separate except 274 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND for the first forty to fifty years of the rotation. Older stands should be considered as belonging to the hardwood type. Fig. 93. — An old field which seeded up to hardwood and now contains an irregular stand of yellow birch, cherry and maple. The larger trees should be cut. (Liberation cutting.) 5. Old-Field Conifers. ■ — This is another old-field type, not so important in area as the previous one, but of considerable value, due to the coniferous timber which it furnishes. This type is found only in the higher portions of the region where the soil is apt to be less thoroughly drained than is that on which the old-field hardwoods occur. Spruce is the principal conifer in the type, often forming pure stands and occupying most of the THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 275 acreage. Tamarack, hemlock, and, in northern Vermont, arbor- vitae and white spruce occasionally seed up the old fields; and stands of white pine also rarely occur. It may seem strange that, in a region so dominated by hardwoods as this one is, Fig. 94. — Old highway and field seeding up to spruce. pure stands of conifers should occur on the old fields, but their presence is made possible by the change in seed-bed conditions. In the absence of the thick layer of hardwood leaves, favorable conditions for coniferous reproduction often exist on the old fields. The type is only temporary for no pure stand of conifers can maintain its existence in the region if the natural forces are left undisturbed. As soon as openings appear in the stand, and 276 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND sometimes even before, seedlings of sugar maple and other toler- ant hardwoods spring up. They prevent softwood reproduction and will finally cause the type to revert to the hardwood type. Methods of Handling the Forest. Both intensive and extensive management can be practiced in the northern hardwoods region. There are more opportu- nities for intensive methods than in the spruce region, owing to the broken distribution of the forest, interspersed by farms, and the greater local population. Much of the territory, how- ever, is so situated that only rough methods are yet applicable. In management a few of the more valuable hardwoods and those best adapted to the site should be favored. An effort should be made to increase their representation as compared with the inferior species. The trees to favor are sugar maple, white ash, yellow birch, basswood, and red oak where it occurs. Beech is a less desirable tree. The greater part of the territory will have to be kept under hardwood forest for the present generation at least. In the sections where intensive methods are possible it may be advisable to gradually change the most poorly stocked portions of the forest from hardwood into coniferous stands. This can only be done by planting. While the hardwood species now dominating the forest (sugar maple, yellow birch, and beech) are well adapted to the site and reproduce excellently, they are not rapidly growing trees and do not furnish timber of such high average value, nor as large yield per acre, as such species as white pine and spruce, which could be planted.^ White ash and basswood are rapid growing species and their lumber is in demand for certain in- dustries, hence special care should be taken to encourage them in preference to all other hardwoods. They are recommended for extensive planting. White pine, Norway spruce, and European larch are the conifers rehed on for general planting. There will 1 See Chapter on Planting, where a fuller explanation of the advantages of conifers over hardwood trees is given. THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 277 be a comparatively small demand for species adapted to sterile, sandy sites, as little of such land occurs in this region. Norway pine can be advantageously mixed in the plantations of white pine as a precaution against the various enemies of the latter. European larch is another good tree for planting on the well- drained, fertile soils of the hardwood type. Naturally the first sites planted will be the vacant fields not now used for agriculture. When this class of land is stocked the Fig. 95. — A field in Vermont on which shifting sand is encroaching. The sandy lands from which the sand comes should be fixed by planting. planting of poorly stocked hardwood land, where handled in- tensively, can be started. The method of planting this class of land, using only a few hundred plants per acre, is described in the Chapter on Planting. I. Hardwood. — In handling stands of this type the selec- tion system will give satisfactory results. The species to be favored (ash, sugar maple, yellow birch, basswood, and red oak) are easily managed under this method, as they are either very tolerant or fairly so. Ash is the least tolerant of those men- 278 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND tioned. Moreover, they all reproduce well in small openings such as would be made by a selection cutting. The cutting can be based on a diameter limit of, say, twelve inches breast high, but the trees to come out should be carefully selected and marked without strict adherence to this limit. Such a system can be used in the most remote sections of the region. Where markets are better a thinning among dense, even-aged clumps of middle-aged growth should accompany the Fig. 96. — Open land too ledgy for pasture in the northern hardwoods region; should be planted. selection cutting. All large trees so defective as to be of no timber value should be cut and put into cordwood. Under present methods of cutting, these trees are ordinarily left where they take up much of the crown space and greatly reduce the growing power of the tract. Too many examples can be found of stands half stocked because of the presence of such trees. Trees of this class are hard to cut and work up into cordwood, and oftentimes it requires considerable efTort to get the work done, for the average lumberman would rather claim that it is impossible than make a trial to learn the cost. THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 279 Many of the second-growth stands in the type are even-aged in nature. Where such stands are well situated with reference to markets they can be handled on the shelterwood system, and thinned at regular intervals during the rotation. An excellent grade of cord wood can be secured from these thinnings. The length of rotation for the hardwood type must be at least seventy to one hundred years. It is only with the faster growing species such as white ash, basswood, and red oak that a seventy- year rotation can be used. The slower growing hardwoods require one hundred years or more to reach maturity. Where the stand is pure sugar maple, or contains a consider- able per cent of this species, it may often be desirable to handle the type as a sugar orchard for the production of maple sugar and syrup. To accomplish this somewhat different treatment is required from that given the type when timber production is the aim. Pure stands of maple are wanted in this case and in all the cuttings other species should be removed, favoring the maple and encouraging it to seed all openings. The amount of sap secured from a maple tree is proportional to the size of the crown, i.e., to the leaf surface. Bearing this in mind, it might appear as though the aim should be to encourage the development of a very few broad spreading trees, possibly three or four to the acre. This would be going to an extreme. For what is really wanted is the greatest amount of sap production from a given area. This will not necessarily be secured from a very few large trees, but rather from a number of moderate sized trees so spaced that the greatest amount of leaf surface is de- veloped. Tall trees, fairly slender for their height, but with dense crowns which nearly reach the ground, represent the ideal, which calls for a sacrifice of the clear length of the bole, so desirable in a timber tree. The chief difference in handling for sap production as against lumber production is that in the former a tree with the longest possible crown is wanted, while for the latter a tree with the longest possible clear length is desired. Wherever the stand approaches an even-aged form thinnings 28o FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND should be made. In these thinnings gaps of from ten to twelve feet should be left between trees in young and middle-aged stands. In older stands somewhat wider gaps have to be made, owing to the crown development of the individual trees. This calls for a heavier thinning than would be used for the production of lumber. It makes possible the development of a good crown nearly to the base of the tree. In a sugar orchard so much depends on the size of the crown, that thinnings to develop good Fig. 97. — A maple sugar orchard. crowns are advisable even in stands so young as to yield no mer- chantable material in the cutting. A method advocated by the United States Forest Service/ is to make the first thinning in a dense thicket of young maples when the trees are only six to eight feet high. It is done by selecting the more promising in- dividuals, spaced about 10 feet apart, and cutting off the tops of all the other trees. This can be done quickly with a bush hook or other tool. Cutting back the tops a couple of feet frees the selected trees sufficiently to enable them to forge ahead of the ' See Bulletin No. 59, "The Sugar Maple Industry." THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 281 others. Of course only a very young stand can be economically thinned in this way. Frequently the owner of a sugar grove considers it desirable to keep down reproduction and undergrowth with the idea of making the interior of the stand as open as possible, — because then men and teams can get around and collect the sap more easily. Grazing animals are sometimes turned in to accompHsh Fig. 98. — A pure bland uf yuung hard nuiple in which a hr^l thinning has been made, reducing the number of trees per acre from 4000 to 2000. The product of the thinning was too small to be merchantable. this purpose. Such an opening up of the stand is a mistake and true forest conditions should be maintained for two reasons, first, because sugar maple needs forest conditions, especially a thick, moist leaf litter underneath, for thrifty development, and second, because for the longest and largest yield of sap the ground should be protected from sudden thaws and kept frozen as long as possible and this is best accomplished by the thick leaf litter and heavy undergrowth. Reproduction should be encour- aged in all openings and allowed to develop. Later on it may be needed to replace some older trees which have been injured. 282 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Another way in which the silvicultural conditions of sugar- maple groves may be improved, is by leaving the edges of the stand (when making a thinning), very dense, wherever it is Fig. 99. — The hardwood type. A middle-aged stand of even-age marked for a heavy thinning. bordered by open fields. Often these groves, and in fact stands of all types, occur as small patches surrounded by open land. If a thinning made in such a stand is carried out to the very edge, the stand is opened up on the sides to the entrance of sun and wind. The moisture conditions of the soil cover, so favorable THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 283 for the best production of sap and indeed for the growth of the sugar maple are then disturbed. 2. Stvamp. — The swamps furnish the most difficult silvicul- tural problem of all the types. This is because it is hard to get good natural reproduction on these sites. Under present meth- ods of cutting the softwoods are removed as well as the good hardwoods. Soft maple, to which species the wet land is no great hindrance, and other inferior species are then apt to get possession of the cut-over land. To keep the poorer species out greater care must be taken in the cuttings to leave plenty of seed trees, softwoods preferably. The swamp land is the site which can best be devoted to soft- woods, for they will reproduce better here and produce a better quality of timber than the hardwood species. Trees like sugar maple and beech will not grow in poorly-drained swamp soil, but the competition of inferior species like soft maple combined with close cutting is driving, or has driven, the softwoods from many swamps. The best way to bring the swamps into productive condition is to plant softwoods hke spruce after cutting clear. Often this may appear too intensive an operation for the present, in which case the best method is to remove only the largest softwoods leaving several trees of seed-bearing age to an acre, at the same time cutting out all hardwoods to the smallest size the markets allow, either for cordwood or charcoal. Where no softwoods remain and the ground is already stocked with such trees as soft maple the simple coppice system may be employed, by which the stand is cut clear and a new stand secured by sprouts from the stumps. For profitable use this requires good markets, as the product secured is nearly all cordwood. 3. Birch and Poplar. — The treatment for this t>Tpe has been fully described under a similar heading in the spruce region, which should be consulted for details. The question will arise whether it is more advisable to maintain the birch and poplar permanently or to allow it to take the natural course and revert 284 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND to the original hardwood type. Either may be done. The same treatment which will keep softwoods from encroaching on the type in the spruce region will prevent sugar maple, hem- lock, and various hardwoods from taking possession in the northern hardwoods region. Where there is a ready market for poplar pulpwood and excelsior, and for paper birch as spoolwood, etc., as was the case in the spruce region, it will be profitable to maintain the type. Otherwise it should be allowed to revert to the hardwood type. Fig. loo. — An example of the use of a final cutting under the shelterwood system. A pure even-aged stand of young hard maple with a few old trees. These large trees should be removed. 4. Old-Field Hardwoods. — This type may be handled in the same manner as the hardwood t^-pe. It will be remembered that the two types differ more in their origin and form than in composition. The old-field hardwoods type is in most in- stances even-aged while the hardwood type in the majority of cases approaches an uneven-aged form. Its even-aged character makes the type well adapted for treat- ment under the shelterwood system. Since these lands were once cleared, it may be taken for granted that they are not in the most inaccessible portions of the region. Hence it may THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 285 often be possible to handle the type intensively enough to warrant the use of this system. 5. Old-Field Conifers. — Here again the treatment advised for a similar type in the spruce region applies. The old-field conifers type is mainly composed of stands of spruce, which can Fig. loi. — The hardwood type. An irregular stand marlced for a selection cutting and tliinning combined. Ash and maple are favored. Most of the trees removed are beech. be handled in the manner described for the old-field spruce type in the spruce region. Clear cutting and replanting is especially advised, whether the stands are spruce, pine, larch, or hemlock, as being the simplest and in reality the cheapest method of reproduction. Logging Methods — Market Conditions - — Ownership of Woodlands. Industries Logging Methods. — Logging is conducted in small operations, and often is carried on by farmers. The forest is too broken up by cleared lands, and too Httle virgin timber remains to permit operations on a large scale. Owing to their weight it is necessary to cut the hardwood trees into short logs, rather than to remove 286 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the tree in one log, as is done with the conifers in the spruce region. The logs are cut in the fall and winter and hauled out on sleds to the mills. No expensive roads are constructed for this work, ordinary woods roads and the regular highways furnishing satis- factory facilities. The tendency of the hardwoods to sink when driven prevents the use of this method of transportation, even if Photograph by J. P. Reed. Fig. 102. — One of the many small water powers, furnishing power to a stationary sawmill. drivable streams were available. Occasionally the logs are shipped by rail considerable distances to a mill, but usually are delivered on sleds to mills near the place of cutting. Many small mills, both portable and stationary, are distrib- uted throughout the region, and there are very few large sawmills. In the early days of settlement, stationary mills were installed, and run by the little water powers which are here so abundant. With the development of the country and general utilization of the virgin timber larger mills were occasionally built. These finally were crowded out by the exhaustion of extensive bodies THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 287 of timber and then were succeeded by many portable mills, which could be transported to the numerous isolated bodies of virgin timber. As this timber is being exhausted and the bodies of remaining timber are each year averaging smaller in size the trend is again toward the development of stationary mills. When timber lies in comparatively large bodies, with many such patches, it is more economical to employ a portable mill and take it into the timber. When the timber remaining is in scattered small patches it is better economy to have a stationary mill and bring the timber to it. The stationary mills where run by water power are cheaper to maintain, and do a better grade of work where the machinery rests on a permanent foundation. More- over, they can be equipped with additional machinery, such as planers, small resaws, and machines for sawing special products. Thus the stationary mill should utilize more fully and more profitably the entire log than can the portable mill. Market Conditions. — Transportation facilities are reasonably well developed. No point is twenty miles distant from a rail- road in a direct line, while fifteen miles is an exceptionally long haul. County and state roads penetrate all portions of the territory and make it possible to haul timber or logs by team to a railroad usually in less than a day's time. While the region has a fairly good transportation system, yet with the disappear- ance of most of the virgin timber and the great inroads on the forest lands for agricultural use, it cannot be counted on to furnish export timber in large amounts. Agriculture has moder- ately populated the region, so that there is a good local demand for forest products and the cut is seldom in excess of the local demand. However, the higher grades of timber are shipped to outside markets and some timber is imported. The local inhabitants furnish a good market for cordwood, as well as for timber. This is especially true of the people scattered through the country at a distance from railroad lines, because coal is expensive, while cordwood is relatively cheap and of a high grade, ^ and also because the winters are long and 1 Beech and sugar maple are two of the best species in the country for fuel wood 288 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND cold, requiring much fuel. Where maple sugar is made a large amount of poor-grade wood is used for boiling sap and as a result the average family in the northern hardwoods region burns more wood than does a similar family in the white pine region and nearly twice as much as in the southern hardwoods region. This is a great help in utilizing small-sized material, and in making intensive methods possible. Industries. Lumber Industry. — This is the principal forest industry for the timber cut goes on the market mainly as lum- Fig. 103. — These hardwood logs have been hauled in by farmers to the mill pond, where they will be sawed by a stationary water power mill. ber. There is nothing like the pulpwood industry in the spruce region to compete on a large scale for the unsawn logs. The principal species cut are hemlock, birch (chiefly yellow), maple, beech, spruce, basswood, and ash. It is even more difficult than in the spruce region to get exact figures for the cut, owing to the irregular form of the northern hardwoods region and the way in which it cuts across state and county hnes. Moreover, there are no species cut for lumber in this region THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 289 which are not cut in far greater amounts elsewhere in the United States. In fact, they are all cut on a commercial scale in one or more of the other New England forest districts. However, an estimate of the annual cut (based on census figures for the year 1909), would place it in the neighborhood of 250,000,000 feet, board measure. Much of the better grade of hardwoods, such as the red birch (as the red heartwood of the yellow birch is called) are made into high-class flooring. Many mills that specialize in this trade are also equipped with machinery for utilizing the poorer grades, which are not fit for flooring, in the manufacture of such small articles as clothespins, novelties, toys, etc. Small wood-working plants, manufacturing various articles such as bobbins, novelties, staves, and heading for slack cooper- age, caskets, tool handles, excelsior, veneer for baskets, etc., are abundantly scattered throughout the region. They buy rough lumber or cut small quantities of wood especially for their own use. None of them especially characterizes tlie region. The wood used in these plants would largely be included in the figure of the annual lumber cut already given. Maple Sugar Industry. — This industry gathers and manu- factures a forest product and is therefore a forest industry. It characterizes the region, although extending beyond its bounds, following the commercial distribution of the sugar maple. The spruce region of New England, and portions of New York and Ohio are the only competitors in this industry with the northern hardwoods region.^ The northern hardwoods region is the most important one for the production of the two products, maple sugar and syrup. There is so little margin of profit in these industries that they cannot be financially profitable except when carried on in con- nection with farming. The summer-resort business is one which brings considerable ^ The sugar and syrup produced in New York State is largely produced in the extension of the New England northern hardwoods region, which surrounds the spruce region in New York State. 290 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND income to the inhabitants of the region, but it is of less volume and does not assume the relative importance which it holds in parts of the spruce region where many people are dependent upon tourists for their summer work. Agriculture is the lead- ing industry of this section and furnishes abundant work during the tourist season. The importance of the forest cover in at- tracting and holding summer trade is, therefore, much less than in the spruce region. Strictly forest industries are seen to occupy a place secondary in this region to agriculture. There is also considerable devel- opment of water powers for manufacturing purposes, and in the Vermont section large quarries of marble and granite are located. The relative place in value of output held by manufacturing interests with respect to agriculture and the lumber industry is difficult to determine, but it is probable that manufacturing exceeds the lumber industry in value of annual output. To summarize, it may be said that the northern hardwoods region is an agricultural section with important manufacturing and lumber interests. Character of the Land and Timber Ownership. — Ownership of the land and timber in small holdings is the rule. It is a forest region characterized by so-called woodlot ownership, i.e., the forest areas are owned mainly in connection with the farms. Each farmer has his woodlot but these lots are considerably larger than those of the sprout hardwoods region, often com- prising several hundred acres of forest. There are, of course, many forest tracts held by other persons than farmers. The larger holdings are among this latter class, being owned princi- pally by lumbermen or by sporting clubs or private estates. There are still comparatively few such club or estate owners, but the number is increasing, — there being a decided tendency for wealthy men to buy up rundown farms with their accom- panying woodlots. Lumbermen as a class of permanent land owners are not prominent; their holdings are changing continually, through the sale of cut-over lands and the purchase of timbered lands. THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 29I Holdings of between 5000 and 10,000 acres are considered large, while one containing more than 10,000 acres is only occasionally found. Title to the land and timber goes together in practically all cases, except where stumpage is bought for immediate cutting. Forest Protection. Forest Fires. — Surface fires characterize this region. The litter of the northern hardwoods forest does not afford oppor- tunity for a ground fire, as did the accumulations of coniferous duff and moss in the spruce region, and crown fires are of rare occurrence and then run only in the few coniferous stands. The fires are worse on cut-over lands with heavy slash, but are by no means confined to such lands. In dry times surface fires can easily run through virgin stands, feeding on the leaf litter. The rapidity with which hardwood reproduction springs up on cut-over lands, shading and keeping the ground moist, soon lessens the fire danger. The most dangerous season is ordinarily considered to be in the spring and fall, but a httle earlier in the spring and a little later in the fall than is the case in the spruce region. In reality the occurrence of drouths during spring, summer, or fall determines the dangerous season, for a drouth in midsummer will make this the most dangerous season. The hardwood leaves furnish the chief fuel for the fires, and these are dried out easily by even a short drought. The chief known cause of forest fires, ^ at the present time, is carelessness in burning brush while clearing land. The railroads are the principal cause of fires where they pass directly through woodlands, but fortunately their location in most cases does not bring them in close contact with such lands. What is true of the Vermont portion of the spruce region is true quite largely for the whole northern hardwoods district, namely, that the railroads lying in the main valleys have belts of cleared land adjacent to their rights of way and are therefore responsible for 1 Forest Fire Statistics for the northern hardwoods region will be found in the Appendix. 292 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND only a small percentage of the fires of this region. The fires started by sportsmen are the second largest in number. Methods of Fire Protection. — Fire protection in this region should lie with the town and state authorities. A central authority is needed, inasmuch as the forest holdings are of small extent. In most cases an organization for the protection of a single tract only would be very expensive, and the owners are too many in a given section to make practicable co-operative fire-protective associations. It devolves, then, in this as in all woodlot regions, upon the towns and state to furnish protection. This can be best accomplished with one central authority (the state forestry department) , in charge and working through local representatives (the forest-fire wardens), in every town. The forest-fire wardens should have the authority to patrol in dan- gerous fire seasons, as well as to attend to the putting out of fires. Unless the right to patrol is given the wardens the system must lack the highest efficiency, because not directed to preventing the start of fires. The maintenance of lookout stations on mountains, while often giving excellent results, is not an essential part of the sys- tem in this region, since the country is well settled and mountains with extended views over the neighboring country are relatively few. The farmers with short views over their immediate neigh- borhood take the place of mountain lookouts. Telephones are already well distributed over the territory, but it may often be advisable to extend the system by connecting lines with farm- houses having good views over wooded territory. Special measures for the disposal of logging debris are not considered necessary. Coniferous forests, with the bad slash left after logging, are notable by their absence. The hardwood tops decay rapidly and do not make a bad fire trap. Cordwood should be taken out of the tops of trees felled for lumber wherever it can be done without financial loss, thus leaving the stand in excellent condition so far as brush is concerned. In fighting fires the same tools are useful in this as in the spruce region. There is, however, less need for shovels, as THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 293 ground fires are rarely met with and hence deep trenching is not often needed, and unless there is plenty of dirt available a hoe or rake is more useful. Surface fires are principally encountered and in stopping them a narrow fire line raked or hoed clear of leaves is often all that is necessary, if men are at hand to beat out fires which may be started by sparks blown across the fire line. The methods of fighting ground and crown fires have been previously described. Fig. 104. — An abandoned schoolhouse, which indicates more strongly than the abandon- ment of a single house, the decrease in New England's rural population in the last 50 years. Protectio7i against Grazing Animals. — Damage by grazing animals is quite prevalent in this region. Nearly every farmer has a few cows and horses which are turned out part of the year. With a large majority of the farmers dairying or, in a few cases, the raising of horses and sheep, is the chief business. The injury done the forest is not well recognized by the land owners. Cattle are especially fond of browsing on sugar maple seedlings and will prevent good reproduction of this important species on grazed-over lands. A great deal of the land now for- 294 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND ested is suitable for grazing purposes and once the soil cover of leaves is opened up will produce a growth of grass even under quite a stand of trees. The custom too often is to allow stock to roam over open pastures and through woodland, which re- sults in gradually opening up even a dense stand and helping the advance of grass throughout the wooded area to the exclusion of reproduction. It should not be inferred that a reduction of the number of grazing animals is advised in order to prevent damage to the forest. Such a course is wholly unnecessary since in most cases excluding the stock from the forested areas will not make neces- sary any reduction in numbers. The feed secured under forest trees is not equal to that obtained on a well-kept pasture, and its loss is often not felt at all. However, should the feed outside the forest be insufficient to support the stock, the best site now forested should be cleared and put into pasture. Better eco- nomic results will be secured by not using the same piece of land for the two purposes. Inferior timber production in both quantity and quality is the result of grazing in woodlands. Poorer forage is the result of keeping pasture forested.^ The owner should determine for which purpose the site is most needed and then devote it to that purpose unreservedly. The influence of grazing animals is felt especially on fields not cultivated but still used for pasture. A few animals pas- tured in such a field may not be able to wholly keep down the hardwood reproduction which is striving to come in, but they will be able to hinder the process of reseeding, and to make the new forest patchy and composed of limby, big-crowned trees of inferior lumber value. Under such circumstances a portion of the field just large enough for their needs should be fenced off for the cattle, and the rest of the field allowed to come up to a thick stand of trees. In this way a good pasture and a good forest will result, 1 As a matter of fact the pastures as well as the woodlands are not scientifically handled in the region. That, however, is outside the present discussion. The reader is referred to Circular No. 49, of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS REGION 295 instead of a combination of second-rate pasture and open forest. Most of the partially stocked stands at present in the old-field hardwood type owe their poor stocking to the influence of grazing during the period of reproduction. Protection against Insects and Fungi. — The destructive insects and fungi common to this region are few in number. The forest tent caterpillar attacks the sugar maple and is now the most dangerous enemy of the kind in the region from the forestry standpoint, but its ravages have not recently been widespread nor does it give indications of becoming a serious insect pest in the forest. The work of the forest tent caterpillar is described in the chapter on Insects. Watershed Protection. — The location of the region with respect to the headwaters of New England's main rivers has already been shown. As a result of its location below the headwaters of these rivers, and of the character of its topography and other natural features the region does not require a forest cover primarily for protection. Summary. 1. The Northern Hardwoods region is an agricultural region with important lumber interests. 2. It is a hardwood region, characterized by northern species and stands of seedling origin, with the forest mainly in woodlot holdings of a larger size than in the other two New England woodlot regions. 3. Much land now forested is of agricultural value. However, the best lands have been cleared and the farm area will not increase appreciably in the near future, or until a decided change in agricultural conditions takes place. 4. Markets for forest products are fairly good, better than in the spruce region, but poorer than in the other two regions. CHAPTER XV. THE WHITE PINE REGION. General Considerations. Two separate sections of the white pine region are recognized, one of small extent, lying along the eastern shore of Lake Cham- plain; the other, and larger portion, extending from Connecticut and Rhode Island through Massachusetts into southern Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. In comparison with the two previously discussed, the white pine region occupies a lower elevation. A glance at the map on page 197 will show that the white pine region in a rough way borders the seacoast, with the northern hardwoods and spruce regions occupying the territory behind, which is of a more ele- vated character. Only where elevations are low, as in the Champlain valley of Vermont and in the upper Connecticut River valley does the region extend any distance inland.^ A northern latitude reacts in the same way as elevation in limiting the white pine region. In eastern Maine, even along the coast, although the elevations are low the species of the spruce region prevail rather than that of the white pine. The region is largely below the 500-foot contour, there being very few peaks where it exceeds 2000 feet in elevation, and it also hes below the torrential portions of the main rivers. These streams have descended from the mountains and high plateaus of the spruce region through the hilly and broken country of the northern hardwoods into a land of gentler topography, where their courses are often meandering and their currents sluggish. There are numer- ous lakes and ponds, especially in the Maine and Central New Hampshire sections. Many extended river bottoms occur with 1 The limits of the region are formed not so much by the proximity to the sea as they are by the lower elevation and soil conditions. 296 THE WHITE PINE REGION 297 sandy plains and terraces. Between these valleys are areas of low rolling hills. The hills are highest and roughest in New Hampshire and Massachusetts in a belt east of and paralleHng the Connecticut River. A larger portion of swamp land is found than in the northern hardwoods region. Granites form the predominant underlying rock, but the bed- rock is not so noticeable as in the spruce region. This is because glacial and river deposits in enormous quantities have been left, obscuring the bedrock. All through the region are found glacial soils and formations, while drumlins and moraines of gravel and sand are characteristic features. The soils are sandy and gravelly in nature, although all classes are found. Sandy loam is the most common soil, but many areas of pure sand occur, as, for example, in extreme southeastern Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, and in Plymouth County. Here rolling hills of sand de- posited by glacial action cover nearly the entire country. These sandy soils are free from surface rock, but the stiffer soils are in many cases thickly strewn with loose stones. On the whole the soils are less stony than those of any of the other three New England forest regions. It may easily be inferred that a region characterized by such sandy soils will, if forested, be stocked with pines, and this occurs here. White pine is the chief tree, the region being an optimum one for it. It is, however, not the only forest region in the United States which affords conditions for the best development of white pine. There are two others, one in the northern part of the Lake States, the other in portions of New York and Pennsylvania. Much of the better land has been cleared so that the forest is broken up into small areas, much smaller than was the case in the northern hardwoods region. Over small areas in the higher and more hilly portions, or on the worst sandy soils, as much as eighty to ninety per cent may be in forest or waste land. The average, however, is in all probabihty about forty per cent. The forested per cent may be expected to remain about the same or to increase slightly rather than to decrease during the next genera- 298 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND tion. There are to-day large areas of abandoned farm land which will be reforested by natural or artificial means within the next few decades. This land, although useful for agricultural pur- poses, is not as yet needed. The opening up of more fertile western lands threw it out of cultivation forty to eighty years ago, and until a very decided agricultural development takes place it will be best kept in forest. The very sandy and gravelly soils should always be kept forested, and this class of land, together with swamps, steep slopes, and the tops of the higher hills, constitute the true forest soils of the region. While white pine is the chief tree it is far from forming the entire forest, as there is often a mixture of hardwoods and conifers. The pine occurs both in pure stands and in mixture with the hardwoods, and the latter often form pure stands with no mixture of conifers. Hemlock and pitch pine occur as im- portant conifers, and the southern white cedar {chamaecy paris thyoides) is present in commercial quantities in the swamps of southeastern Massachusetts. The principal hardwoods are red oak, chestnut, soft maple, gray birch, white oak, and white ash. The red oak found com- mercially in portions of the northern hardwoods region and the chestnut, an infrequent tree there, become in the white pine region two of the most important hardwood trees. As a general rule the pine is most abundant on the poorer sandy and gravelly soils, the hardwoods taking the lead on the better soils. An exception to this is found on abandoned farm lands, which often seed up to pure stands of pine, and these lands, while not the best in the region, cannot usually be classed with the poor sandy lands. The inferior species, gray birch and soft maple, are two of the hardwoods most abundantly found. Indeed, this region is the optimum one for the development of gray birch, and very favor- able for soft maple. Sugar maple and yellow birch are numeri- cally important on some of the cooler sites, but do not figure as trees of general commercial importance. The white oak is most abundant in the eastern half of the Massachusetts portion of the THE WHITE PINE REGION 299 region. Hemlock occurs on the cooler slopes and in ravines, while pitch pine is confined to the most sterile sandy soils. In some localities black cherry grows and when present is a valuable species. The virgin forest is a thing of the past in the white pine region, many areas having been heavily cut over, not only once but two or three times. Clear cutting is usually practiced and has resulted in producing stands of even age, which give the forest its characteristic even-aged form. The original forest was of seedling origin. In the present second-growth forests the conifers are of seedling origin, but among the hardwoods sprout growth has quite largely replaced the original seedling growth. Almost all the hardwoods sprout freely in this region. Forest Types. The original and permanent forest types are less prominent than in either of the regions already considered. Cutting and forest fires have caused the formation of many temporary types. The former has been heavier and both have been repeated a greater number of times than in the two regions previously con- sidered. In other words, the original types have been cut oft" and burned over, and under the continued action of these agencies have so little chance to reappear permanently that temporary t>pes occupy the greater portion of the area. There are eight types in all, classified as follows: Permanent Forest Types. 1. Hemlock. 2. Pitch pine. 3. White cedar swamp. Temporary Forest Types. 4. Pure white pine. 5. Pine and inferior hardwoods. 6. Mixed hardwoods. 7. Soft-maple swamp. 8. Waste land. 300 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND I. Hemlock. — While this is an original and permanent type it is now found as second growth rather than in virgin stands. It is distributed on cool slopes and ravines, and occurs chiefly in the less-settled portions of the territory, for example, in the New Hampshire portion west of the Merrimac River. The soils on which the type occurs are medium to fairly good in quality, but from their location are undesirable for farm purposes. None of the sandy, gravelly soils are occupied by the hemlock type. By permission oj F. F. Moon. Fig. 105. — A remnant of the original forest in the white pine region. This is a mixed stand of white pine, hemlock, and hardwoods. Heights range up to no feet, diameters to 38 inches. The stand is a mixed one, composed of hemlock, white pine, chestnut, red oak, maples, white ash, basswood, and white oak. Hemlock, while oftentimes forming only a small per cent, is always present, and may compose as high as fifty per cent of the stand. In other stands, chestnut and red oak may make up fifty per cent of the stand, and occasionally white pine is simi- larly represented. Hemlock, however, is always the key tree, serving to distinguish the type. A stand containing several age classes is the most common forest form. The undergrowth is THE WHITE PINE REGION 301 usually not dense, but is of witchhobble, mountain, and striped maple, and has much the same character as the hardwood type of the northern hardwoods region, to which it bears some re- semblance. The type is not an important one from the standpoint of area covered, as this is relatively small. The timber produced is, however, of good quality. A maximum yield of from 25,000 to 40,000 feet, board measure, is sometimes secured from well- stocked stands. Such stands are at least eighty to one hundred years of age. In stands which have not been opened up no reproduction occurs, owing to the density, but in all openings a good reproduc- tion of the various species represented in the stand springs up. 2. Pitch Pine. — This is another type which covers only a hmited area. It is restricted to the poorest and driest sandy soils, and is most prevalent in the Saco River region of Maine, in parts of New Hampshire, and in southeastern Massachusetts. In these sections quite large areas of the type exist; elsewhere in the region only an occasional small patch is found. Pure pitch pine stands are typical. Frequently scrub oak {quercus pumila) accompanies the pitch pine. This is especially noticeable on areas which are repeatedly burned over. Fires on the sandy soils of the type are altogether too common, and have made the present stands very open and poorly stocked. The pitch pine reproduces abundantly in all the openings, and when spared from fires soon fills them with seedlings. The value of the type as a timber producer is small, owing both to the slow growth which results from the poor, dry soil, and to the poor quality of the lumber produced. 3. White Cedar Swamp. — Lying in small isolated patches or as narrow belts along streams and ponds are swamps in south- eastern Massachusetts stocked with the southern white cedar (chamaecyparis thyoides).^ The type is an intrusion from the southern coastal region, and is of extremely limited area and, in ^ The type extends in bodies of commercial size as far north as the outskirts of Boston. 302 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND this region, of small commercial importance. The soils are very wet and covered with thick deposits of sphagnum moss. Sometimes the stands contain only the white cedar, but usually have a mixture of soft maple growing with the cedar. Even-aged seedling stands, containing a remarkably large number of trees per acre, are characteristic of the white cedar swamps. The growth of stands in this region has not been thoroughly studied, but figures taken by Pinchot,^ in stands of the same t>pe in By permission of the Massachusetts Slate Forester. Fig. io6. — Pitch pine type on a poor site, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. New Jersey, showed as many as 3,500,000 young seedlings per acre, at twenty years over 10,000 trees, at forty years 3500 trees, and at eighty years 1000 trees per acre. A stand of pure white pine has at sixty years only 250 to 300 trees per acre. White cedar is a slow grower even in the regions suitable for its best development, while in the white pine region it must be classed as an extremely slow-growing conifer. Of course, the wet site has an important influence on the rate of growth. Referring again to figures secured by Pinchot in New Jersey 1 See Annual Reports of the State Geologist of New Jersey. THE WHITE PINE REGION 303 cedar swamps, the following yields for fully stocked stands are recorded : Sixty years, 10,000 feet, board measure, and 500 fence rails. Eighty years, 20,000 to 25,000 feet, board measure, and 1500 fence rails. This may be taken as a maximum yield for the type in the white pine region. Fig. 107. — An open stand of white pine in good condition. Many of ttie trees, as seen on the left, are two-forked and branchy. The yield is not so good in quantity or quality as can be produced. 4. Pure White Pine. — Commercially this type is the most important. In area it is exceeded by the mixed hardwoods type and probably also by the pine and inferior hardwoods type. Two classes of land may be occupied by the type: abandoned fields and lands once cut clear. Usually the type is confined to small scattered patches. While classed as a temporary type on some situations it is really permanent. This is true on some of the poorer soils which in the original forest bore stands of pure pine. The most suitable soils are sandy or gravelly in nature, 304 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND but often soils of a better grade are seeded to stands of the tjpe. This is especially the case on old-field situations. Well-drained soil is an essential. White pine composes eighty per cent or more of the stand, while mixed with it in small numbers may be found occasionally almost any of the hardwoods in the region. Soft maple and gray birch are perhaps the commonest associates of the pine. The pure white pine type furnishes a fine example of a regu- lar even-aged stand, which is the usual form. The stands are generally free from undergrowth, having a thick soil covering of pine needles. Any openings are stocked with reproduction, both hardwood and pine being represented. Sometimes hard- wood reproduction appears in quite dense shade of pine. More investigations have been carried on by the United States Forest Service and the various state forestry departments in regard to the pure white pine type than for any other type in New England. As a result, rehable figures are available for its growth and yield. All the figures given are for unmanaged stands which started from natural reproduction. Table LV given in the Appendix shows the total number of trees per acre, the number of merchantable trees, and the average height of the stand at different ages. The rapid lessening in numbers through suppression and death of the poorer individuals as the stand grows older is noteworthy. Three yield tables have been made within recent years for different portions of the region. One made in cooperation be- tween the United States Forest Service and the State of New Hampshire is for the New Hampshire section.^ Another, for the Massachusetts section of the region, is based on meas- urements taken within that state.- The third, made by the United States Forest Service, is intended to apply to the whole region.^ 1 Published in the Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission for 1905-1906. "^ It is issued by the State Forester of Massachusetts under the title of "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts." ' See Forest Service, Bulletin No. 63. THE WHITE PINE REGION 305 The yield tables secured by these three investigations do not agree exactly for reasons to be shown later. The following yield table has been compiled from all three sources and will bring out their differences. The figures most applicable to any particular case should be the ones used. It will at once be seen that the Massachusetts figures for feet, board measure, are much higher throughout than the New Hampshire data. This is partly to be explained by closer Fig. 108. — In the center is seen good reproduction of white pine on an old field bordering the Connecticut River. The seed comes from the neighboring seed woods at the left and right of picture. utilization of the trees in the Massachusetts section as con- trasted to the New Hampshire section. This, however, cannot explain the entire difference, which must be accounted for through variation in the character of the timber and lack of a sufficiently large amount of data. If a much larger number of trees and plots were secured in each of the two localities probably the results would be nearer aHke. In comparing the yield in cords secured in Massachusetts with that obtained by the United States Forest Service for the region 3o6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Q M < ^ tn. w w < S 2; Q Pi < O H W u W fe H < « < >H - H W P^ ?^ O ( ) tx, W 2 H -J g W 6-, ^ O r^ a, W H F- J < P< ^ o o» fe W -1 eq < H Q h-3 W m Its w -1 OCO LOrOVOO i-i cs rO f^ "S- lOO OC >• a 1 i 00 ro • \ S,8 88 8 8?o88 : t--. Lo -^ c« o^ lo lo pi^ o ; o" oT ^ cj' 6^6 6 rovo" • MOron-^iOLOio • i ! ^ 1 a88a8a8S>8Po88Po8^ -^ (>(» q o_^ -^00^ lo ^c>^ro"c M«o^OOoo'-*Oror-^ ■ 0 LOO o • Q. ^ ^" 1 ooooooooooooooo O O O lO >o i S loovoo-^oioo-ooi^ ^e, being composed of pine and mixed hard- woods, which formed the bulk of the original forest. But the hardwoods found in this type are entirely different species from those prominent in the original mixed forest. The hardwoods in the pine and inferior hardwoods type are light-seeded species, all but soft maple being relatively short-lived, and all of low commercial importance. In the original forest such hardwoods as red and white oak, chestnut, and white ash were mixed with the pine, giving the stand quite a different character. In the pine and inferior hardwoods type the character of the growth is poor. The pine develops slowly and is usually branchy and of inferior form. Its slow development is accounted for by the fact that the hardwoods, growing more rapidly when young, get ahead of the pine. This is true even when the pine and 3IO FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND hardwoods start at the same time, and since the pine often seeds in a few years after the hardwoods the latter secure a considerable start. Before the pine can work its way up through the hard- wood tops its stem often becomes twisted and sometimes the leader is killed by the mechanical rubbing of the hardwood Umbs. In fact the cover of hardwoods may be so dense or have such a start over the pine that the latter is unable to pass it and never amounts to anything. Another form of pine found in the type By permission of the Massachusetts State Forester. Fig. III. — Sandy lands on Cape Cod in need of forest planting. are trees with branchy crowns widely spreading and sometimes reaching to the ground. These trees are in poorly stocked stands where seeding of hardwood and pine was not sufficiently dense to insure proper natural pruning. The hardwoods themselves do not furnish material of value except as cordwood. Occasionally there may be a small use locally for other purposes. Thus the value of the type depends on the amount of pine contained in the main stand, i.e., which has been able to get ahead of the hardwoods. The yield can usually be figured as a certain per cent of what a stand of pure pine would give at that age, the per cent being identical with the THE WHITE PINE REGION 311 per cent of the area actually stocked with the pine. A forty-year old stand having ten per cent of its area in pine, the rest in birch, poplar, etc., would be estimated to have ten per cent of the yield of a pure pine stand at forty years. Usually the quaHty of the material is much poorer than in the pure pine stands, and must be classed chiefly as boxboards. 6. Mixed Hardivoods. — Without doubt the mixed hardwoods type occupies more area than any one of the other forest types. In commercial importance it ranks second to the pure white pine type. It occurs chiefly on cut-over lands which originally bore hard- woods or a mixture of hardwoods and conifers. These lands have already been described as comprising the better soils. Hence the type will be found on the richest of the soils now forested. Occasionally stands of this t>'pe gain a foothold on old fields, though ordinarily such fields seed up to pure pine or pine and hardwood stands. The proportion of sprout to seedling trees is high, and sprout growth may be said to characterize the type. This characteris- tic explains why the type is classed as a temporary one. The composition is the same as in portions of the original forest, and on the better soils this composition would not change greatly if the forest were left untouched, but seedhng stands would replace sprout stands. A great deal of the land now in this type originally had a mix- ture of conifers, which have disappeared under the influence of repeated cuttings and fires. The leading species are chestnut, red and white oak, white ash, soft maple, and gray birch, while white pine, black cherry, and other trees occasionally occur. The stands are usually thrifty and even-aged. No comprehensive study has been made of the yield for the type, but sufiicient figures have been secured to indicate that between a quarter of a cord and a cord of wood per acre per annum, varying with the site, can be expected. At the present time the stands are cut rather young, and yield material suitable largely for the rougher grades of lumber and 312 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND for cordwood. Yields of good grade timber can, however, be secured from stands containing chestnut, oak, and white ash, if not cut too young. 7. Soft Maple Swamp. — The type is somewhat similar to the hardwood swamps of the northern hardwoods region, though apt to be more even-aged in form and to contain a greater per cent of soft maple sprouts. Wet, swampy land is, of course, the situa- tion on which the type grows. Pure stands of soft maple are often in evidence, and always soft maple is the chief tree. The associated species of impor- tance are black ash, yellow birch, swamp white oak, and elm. A great difference in character of growth can be observed be- tween individual stands. Where soft maple is purest the growth is often rapid and the stands present a thrifty appearance. In other instances the same poor and stunted growth of soft maple, black ash, and yellow birch in open stands apparent in so many swamps in the northern hardwoods region is seen. Variation in moisture and soil conditions of the swamp accounts for these differences in growth. The best swamps of pure soft maple will produce a yield of at least one cord of fuelwood per acre per annum. The type is classed as a temporary one because of its sprout origin. 8. Waste Land. — On the sandier soils, where the stands were pure conifers or nearly pure, cuttings, followed by fires, have often resulted in leaving the land bare of any forest growth. This has rarely been the case where hardwoods were in mixture, as these species continued to sprout even under severe treatment. Enough of this kind of land exists to warrant it being listed as a separate type. The soils are among the poorer class and are true forest soils, although now bare. The land is usually covered with such plants as scrub oak, grass, ferns, and various shrubs, but not with trees. In some cases, as, for example, in southeastern Massachusetts, areas of almost bare sand can be found. The type is the most worthless of any in New England^ THE WHITE PINE REGION 313 though in natural productive power it exceeds much of the land in the white cedar and soft maple swamp types. The land can often be bought for fifty cents per acre, or less. By permission of the U. S. Forest Service. Fig. 112. — The waste land type. Lands which have been repeatedly burned over. Methods of Handling the Forest. Intensive management is possible on the majority of tracts in the white pine region, and the white pine is the tree to be favored. The purpose of the management should be to replace the in- ferior species, and in fact many of the better hardwoods, with stands of nearly pure white pine. A small mixture of such hard- woods as red oak, white ash, chestnut, and black cherry in the stand with the pine is better than pure pine. Such a mixture produces a few hardwood logs of fine quahty which can often be sold at higher prices than the pine. Improvement cuttings of various kinds are practicable and should be made where needed, as a regular part of the management, as explained in the special chapter on the subject. 314 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND By permission oj the U . S. forest Service. Fig. 113. — Pine and inferior hardwoods type. The gray birch should be removed and the pine allowed to develop in a pure stand. See next picture. Planting holds in this region an exceedingly important place in forest management. It will be needed mainly on waste lands and on recently cut-over pine lands, but also on cut-over hard- wood lands, to replace the poorer hardwood species, and on portions of farms no longer needed for cultivation or pasture. White pine and red pine should be used most extensively. I. Hemlock. — The object in this type should be to favor white pine, chestnut, red oak, white ash, and black cherry when present, at the expense of the hemlock. An even-aged mixed stand of white pine and hardwoods with a mixture of hemlock should result. The clear-cutting system, with reserves of scattered seed trees should be used (see Chapter II for description). These seed trees can usually be taken out profitably in a separate operation when reproduction has started. Especial care must be used to remove all the hemlock, as otherwise it may seed in. The THE WHITE PINE REGION If 315 By permission of Ihe U, S. Forest Senjt'ce. Fig. 114. — The gray birch has been removed, freeing the pine. This cleaning yielded an immediate profit. See Fig. 113. chances are that there is already scattered hemlock reproduction in the stand before cutting. This develops when released by the cutting, and keeps hemlock in the mixture although no seed trees are left. It will be very hard to completely eradicate the hemlock, but it can be kept in a subordinate position. The young hemlock will usually be outstripped by the pine and hard- woods in height growth, and finally take the place of a tolerant understory. As such it serves a good function in promoting natural pruning of the other trees. Windfirm trees of either white pine, oak, ash, or cherry should be selected for seed trees, and, if possible, the cutting should be made at the time of a pine seed year. The chestnut will maintain its representation in the stand by coppicing and through occasional seedlings wliich get a start in some opening, so that it will be unnecessary to leave seed trees of this species. A rotation of approximately eighty years should be used, as the hardwood species need a 3l6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND period of that length to produce a high yield of good quality timber. The material grown should be saw timber, for use in various woodworking industries. 2. White Cedar Swamp. — This is a type which has not been sufficiently studied from the management standpoint. A system of clear cutting in strips seems best adapted to the type. Where windfirm, individuals can be found clear cutting with scattered seed trees should give satisfactory results. In the swamp where white cedar is in pure stands these methods of cutting should insure cedar reproduction. Where soft maple is present it will be apt to compete with the cedar. It is still an open question whether stands of the slow-growing but more valuable cedar will give better financial returns than the much more rapid-growing soft maple, which, however, yields nothing but cordwood. The soft maple may prove upon further study an equally good or better tree to favor than the white cedar. 3. Pitch Pine. — The great need of lands in this type is for protection. From its situation on dry sandy soils it is exposed to frequent fires, but when these are stopped reproduction is easily secured. While the soils of the type are all poor sands there are two degrees of poverty which need recognition. One of these includes the very deepest and poorest sands, and are best suited for the production of pitch pine or some pine of similar soil and moisture requirements, as the Scotch pine; the other soil is not so poor naturally, but has been burned over so frequently that pitch pine has replaced better species like white pine, which could grow on these sites. The first class of soils will have to be managed for pitch pine. It can be easily reproduced under any of the systems of clear cutting with natural reproduction. The scattered seed tree method is especially recommended. There seems to be no reason why red or Scotch pine would not thrive on the pitch pine soils. These would produce a much better grade of lumber and give a higher yield per acre. The extreme south- eastern portion of the white pine region may be too different climatically from the commercial range of the red pine to war- THE WHITE PINE REGION 31? rant its introduction, but elsewhere in the region red pine is recommended for planting, to replace the pitch pine. Probably a clear cutting of the pitch pine before planting with red pine will be best, as the latter does not require shade of an older stand in youth. On the second class of soils where white pine could grow, the management should work to replace the pitch pine by white r>g^^sm Fig. 115. — Reproduction following clear cutting with the leaving of seed trees. The clear cutting was done about 10 years ago and the seed trees (the stump of one being seen in the foreground) were recently removed. pine. If seed trees of the latter are in the vicinity it can often be done by protection from fire together with a clear cutting of the pitch pine in a white pine seed year. Indeed, the white pine, under fire protection, will reproduce abundantly, directly under the pitch pine stand, which has a favorable influence as nurse trees on the growth of the white pine for a few years. Where white pine seed trees are lacking the white pine should be underplanted and a few years later the pitch pine stand cut clear. 3l8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 4. Pure White Pine. — Several systems of reproduction can be employed with this type, as white pine reproduces well after nearly all styles of cutting. Regular even-aged stands are desired, hence some method of clear cutting or the shelterwood system should be employed. The scattered seed tree method will give good results if the proper type of seed trees are left. Three seed trees per acre are usually sufficient to insure a full reproduction. These trees can be taken out when the reproduction has started. Some lumbermen laugh at the idea of leaving scattered white pine seed trees, stating that from their experience the trees are sure to blow down. On investigation the experience of such men with seed trees usually proves to have been the leaving of tall, slender unmerchantable trees with a sprig of foliage at the top. Natu- rally such a tree has a feeble root system and a weak stem, and is liable to be uprooted and blown down by the wind, and moreover, is incapable of bearing fertile seed. It is in no sense of the word a seed tree. Even when a sufficient number of first-class seed trees have been left, satisfactory reproduction may not follow the cutting. The principal cause of this failure is apt to be that the cutting has been made in a year which was not a seed year, and that before a seed year occurs the seed-bed conditions have become unfavorable or other species have usurped the site. Periods of three to seven years intervene between good seed years of white pine. In New England the years 1897, 1904, 1907, 1908, 1910, and 191 1 were good seed years for all or certain portions of the region. If the cutting is made when the crop of seed has just ripened much of the seed is worked into the ground and the fol- lowing spring advantage is taken of favorable seed-bed condi- tions, before grass, herbs, and other trees secure a start. It is often inconvenient to delay the cutting until a seed year arrives, and this is one objection to the method, an objection which holds also against another good method, clear cutting in strips. In applying this system the strips cut over should not exceed two hundred feet in width or about three times the height THE WHITE PINE REGION 319 of the surrounding seed woods. This method could be used on large tracts, but is not suitable for a pine woodlot which must be cut over in one operation. After reproduction is secured the seed woods are removed. Clear cutting with artificial reproduction should also be given serious consideration in selecting the method of repro- duction. It has the advantage of making the operator entirely Fig. 116. — Clear cutting with artificial reproduction. This stand of the white pine type is being cut clear. The hardwoods in the foreground are temporarily left but will soon be cut for cordwood. Note the small amount of brush. This will, however, hinder planting. It should be piled and burned, and the stand reproduced artificially. independent of seed years, and enables him to cut every mer- chantable tree at one cutting. It is a more expensive method, but not so much more expensive as is often thought. Natural reproduction under any of the other systems requires some sacrifice in leaving trees or in slightly raising the cost of harvest- ing the crop. Owing to its greater certainty and more regular reproduction a somewhat higher cost for planting is justifiable. On small woodlots where the total amount of timber is too small to justify two logging jobs the use of artificial reproduc- tion is always advisable. 320 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The shelterwood system has some advantages for handling white pine over the clear-cutting methods of natural reproduc- tion. For one thing a shelter is afforded the reproduction dur- ing the first few years, and there is less danger of the soil running wild to grasses, herbs, etc., and becoming unfavorable for the germination of pine seed. Even when this system is used it is By permission of the U. S. Fores! Service. Fig. 117. — A 50 year old stand of white pine before the cutting shown in the next picture. advisable to make the cuttings in a pine seed year, as otherwise undesirable species such as soft maple may reproduce. In applying the shelterwood system the removal of the stand in two cuttings is recommended. The first takes out forty to sixty per cent of the volume, and the second, a final cutting, re- moves the remainder when reproduction is well established. Should the reproduction be patchy it may be best to make two, instead of one, final cuttings. THE WHITE PINE REGION 321 If an uneven-aged white pine forest is wanted for some special purpose, such for example as the aesthetic effect, it can be secured by use of the selection system. White pine responds well to this method of treatment. The timber secured is apt to be larger in diameter for the same age, but more knotty than that grown in even-aged stands. Thinnings at regular intervals should be made where the stand is handled as an even-aged one. The thinnings can often be started as early as the twentieth year and be repeated at intervals of ten years or less. These thinnings, while having as their primary object the better development of the trees left standing, will yield substantial returns. The following table, showing yields from thinnings, has been compiled from figures secured in New Hampshire and Massachusetts, and published in the " Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission for 1 905- 1 906," and in "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts." YIELD PER ACRE FROM THINNINGS IN THE PURE WHITE PINE TYPE IN STANDS NEVER THINNED BEFORE. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Massachusetts. New Hamp- shire. Feet, board measure. 1,400 3.700 4-950 6,000 6,800 7,400 7,900 750 3.300 5,600 7.500 8,900 9,900 Trees less than 5 inches in diameter. New Hamp- shire. 750 600 450 300 150 It is believed that for stands under thirty-five years the Massachusetts figures are best, and for stands over thirty-five years the New Hampshire figures are more desirable. The severity of the thinning has of course much to do with its yield. The figures of yield given above are true only for the first thinning in stands not previously thinned. They do not show 322 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND what could be secured in a stand repeatedly thinned, for ex- ample, thinned in the twenty-fifth year and then at intervals of ten years, but the total amount obtained from repeated thin- nings, say at the ages of twenty-five, thirty-five, forty-five, and fifty-five years, would exceed that secured by a single thinning at fifty-five years. If the age at which the last thinning is to By permission oj the U. S. Forest Service. Fig. ii8. — A cutting which removed about 50 per cent of the stand, and should result in securing reproduction. See Fig. 117. be made is known, the yield given for a thinning at that age may be accepted as a very conservative estimate of what can be secured from a stand by the thinnings during the rotation. The yield from thinnings, as explained in Chapter V, is se- cured without decreasing the final yield of the stand. The thinnings in the latter half of the rotation often result in the bringing in of pine reproduction and sometimes may result in fully stocking the ground. In such a case the entire stand THE WHITE PINE REGION 323 can be cut clear at the end of the rotation and the reproduction allowed to develop. The last thinning has then really been a first cutting under the shelterwood method. The most profitable rotation for the pure white pine type is about fifty or fifty-five years. This is shown by the yield tables given in the New Hampshire Forestry Report for 1905- 1906, and in "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine," issued by the State Forester of Massachusetts. These two tables By permission of F. F. Moon. Fig. iig. — A thinning in the white pine type showing the character of logs secured and the brush piled. This operation was carried on under the direction of the State Forester of Massachusetts. differ in the exact financial returns to be secured, but agree in showing that the best returns are obtained by rotations of fifty to fifty-five years.^ Using their figures it seems safe to assume a return of from five to six per cent compound interest on the investment for stands of the pure white pine type. 5. Pine and Inferior Hardwoods. — The object here is to get rid of the hardwoods, and to transform the type into a pure 1 It may often be desirable to allow white pine stands to grow until seventy or seventy-five years of age, in order to obtain the large yields of high-grade tim- ber, which can be produced on such a rotation, although a smaller return on the investment is secured than when using a lower rotation. 324 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND pine stand. (It will be remembered that the hardwoods in the type are gray birch, soft maple, and poplar, and are of little value except for cordwood.) The treatment to accomplish this transformation consists mainly in cutting out all hardwoods and leaving the pine. It can best be started as an improve- ment cutting (strictly a cleaning) in young stands, freeing the pine from crowding and overtopping hardwoods. In very young stands, too small to furnish cordwood, the hardwoods can be lopped back sufficiently so that their tops are lower than those of the pine. This provides for the proper de- velopment of the white pine in the stand, though it may not result in any further seeding. Where areas of more than a quarter of an acre are stocked with the hardwoods and there is no pine in the mixture, it is necessary either to cut clear and plant or else to secure pine reproduction naturally from adjacent seed trees. Planting is the quickest and surest, but natural re- production can be secured by cutting clear the hardwoods when seed trees nearby have a full crop of seed. Whether arti- ficial or natural reproduction is used it will be necessary to protect the pine seedlings from the growth of hardwood sprouts, which is almost certain to follow the cutting. This can be ac- complished by means of cleanings. When the type changes into the pure white pine type its treatment becomes the same as that described for the latter. 6. Mixed Hardwoods. — This is another type best handled as an even-aged forest, as that is its present form and the repro- duction is quite largely by sprouts, making it desirable to maintain a regular even-aged character. The shelterwood system or the modified form of this system, known as the polewood coppice system is advised. As the mixed hardwoods type of this region occurs in greater abun- dance and is the chief commercial type in the adjacent forest region to the south (sprout hardwoods region), a full discussion of its treatment has been given under this latter region, to which the reader is referred. The same general method of treatment can be used in both regions. THE WHITE PINE REGION 325 The hardwoods to favor are white ash, red oak, black cherry, and chestnut, — the latter only in case the chestnut bark dis- ease loses its virulence within a few years. There is sometimes a small mixture of white pine in the type, and where this is the case the pine should be favored and the pine seed trees left when the fmal cutting is made. 7. Soft Maple Swamp. — Soit maple cordwood will always be the main product of this type. This species will yield greater amounts of wood on the site than any other, and should be favored. On some of the better sites a little soft maple lumber can be secured. On such situations some of the better asso- ciates of the soft maple, such as yellow birch, should be en- couraged on account of the greater value of their timber. There should be no attempt, however, to eradicate soft maple from the stand. The simple coppice system is well adapted for re- producing soft maple swamps, since the maple coppices freely, and on swampy land produces vigorous sprouts. Where cord- wood only is desired a rotation of thirty to forty years should prove most profitable. Where some lumber also is wanted a forty to fifty years' rotation will be better. If the longer rota- tion for lumber is used two thinnings at least should be made during the rotation. The coppice with standards could also be used to advantage where soft maple lumber was wanted, cutting the coppice on a thirty-year rotation, and the standards when sixty or ninety years of age. On a short rotation of thirty years for cordwood it will be unnecessary to make any thinnings. 8. Waste Land. — The treatment needed by this type of land is protection from fires, and planting. Because of the sandy nature of the site planting should be with pine; in many cases white pine, but on the poorest sites red pine or in the most unfavorable situations pitch pine or Scotch pine should be sub- stituted for the white pine. The loose sandy character of the soil makes the expense of setting the plants comparatively low. Strong, sturdy stock, transplanted, and at least three years old, should be used. Usually the present growth of scrub oak, shrubs, etc., is not 326 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND dense enough nor of such rapid growth as to interfere with the development of the plantation, which is often benefited by a light shade for a few years. Included in the waste land type are certain lands in Massa- chusetts^ at the end of Cape Cod, covered with drifting sands. The surface soil here is continually shifting, being blown by the winds into huge sand dunes. These moving dunes are a menace to adjoining lands as well as being utterly unproductive. The lands were formerly wooded, but as a result of cutting, grazing, and forest fires have been rendered barren. In order to stop the movement of these shifting sands it is necessary to reestablish the forest cover. This is the most difhcult planting proposition in the region, and one of the most difficult in the whole country. It is an ex- ample of protective planting, calling for a large outlay, too great to make the work pay financially. It is, therefore, a project which the state or federal government, rather than an individual, must handle. Trees cannot be planted at once on such land. It is neces- sary first to hold the sands temporarily with some other form of vegetation. Usually beach grass is planted first, then some sort of a shrub such as bayberry is introduced. After these woody plants have become well established trees are set out. In past experience pitch pine, Austrian pine, Scotch pine, black locust, and black alder (alnus glutinosa) have all been successful. Since sand dunes form but a small fraction of the land in the waste land type, a more detailed discussion of planting such land is unnecessary here. The reader is referred to an excel- lent bulletin on the subject, which gives the details of what has been done in planting the dunes on Cape Cod." ^ Approximately 2000 acres. 2 Bulletin No. 65 of the United States Bureau of Plant Industry, entitled "Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes." THE WHITE PINE REGION 327 Logging Methods, Market Conditions, Industries, Own- ership OF Woodlands. Logging MetJwds. — The topography of the white pine region makes logging here a relatively easy matter. Cutting and hauHng of logs is often carried on the greater part of the year. This practice is most common in the central and southern por- tions of the region, where snow cannot be relied on for winter Fig. 120. — The white pine type. A light thinning in a stand 40 to 50 years of age. logging. In the southern portion for a few months in the sum- mer the heat makes logging expensive. In the northern por- tions, with more snow, there is more of a tendency to concentrate logging operations in the winter. Clear cutting has been the usual method of logging in the past. It will not need radical change when forestry methods are introduced. The use of thinnings, leaving of seed trees, and removal of a mature stand in two operations instead of one are the principal changes recommended. Under nearly all the systems of reproduction advised in the preceding chapter a final clear cutting of the stand is included. 328 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The mills are of small capacity, either portable or stationary in character, the former being the more usual. With such a mill the lumberman can move onto the lot to be cut, the topog- raphy making this possible in nearly every instance. The owners of the mills often farm part of the year and saw timber during the remainder. Lack of virgin timber and the decreas- ing size and number of the tracts of timber to be cut is causing the same trend from portable toward stationary mills as was described in the northern hardwoods region. It is so much easier to take a mill onto a woodlot in the white pine region as contrasted to the northern hardwoods region that portable mills will perhaps always hold first place. There are also fewer available water-power sites for stationary mills than in the latter region. Market Conditions. — Conditions for the sale of forest products are far better than in the two preceding forest regions and slightly better than in the sprout hardwoods region. Railroads ramify all parts of the region. Most of the area lies less than five miles from railroad lines, but a few points can be found, twelve to fifteen miles distant in a straight line from a railroad. The Maine and Central New Hampshire portions have the poorest railroad facifities. The region is characterized by a dense population, the Massa- chusetts section being one of the most thickly settled sections in the United States, with the innumerable large towns situated here. As would be expected with such a dense population this is not a timber exporting region. It does not produce enough forest products to supply its own local demands, ^ and large quantities of timber are imported. The dense population creates a strong demand for wood, and makes possible a closer utilization than is found in the other New England forest regions. The possibiHty of utilizing small material is often the cause of cutting stands on short rotations, 1 This does not mean that some products, Uke white pine for boxes, are not shipped outside. THE WHITE PINE REGION 329 sometimes as low as twenty years for timber, and even lower for some special product like willow wood for powder (cut on a rotation of seven to nine years). Industries. — The white pine region is a great manufacturing and commercial region. These pursuits rank first, with agri- cultural interests second in importance. Strictly forest indus- tries hold a subordinate position. Among the latter the lumber industry leads, the greater part of the timber cut being sawn into lumber of some sort rather than used for ties, pulpwood, telegraph, and telephone poles, etc. The total lumber cut of the region exceeds one billion feet, being estimated at 1,085,402,000 feet,^ board measure. Of this amount 935,000,000 feet,- board measure, was white pine and the balance, 150,402,000 feet, board measure, was mainly chest- nut and hemlock with a variety of other woods. As the total amount of white pine cut in the United States in 1909 was 3,900,034,000 feet, board measure, this region is evidently an important producer, ranking second to the Lake States, which cut considerably over 2,000,000,000 feet, board measure. The region is well equipped with numerous wood-working plants, in this respect leading the other New England forest regions. A large per cent (probably less than fifty per cent) of the lumber cut is worked up by these special wood-working plants into a variety of products. The most important of such products, both in amount of native grown lumber used and in value of the output, is the wooden-box industry. In fact the white pine region is characterized by the extent to which the box industry has developed within its borders, deriving its main source of supply from the white pine. The boundaries of the region correspond closely with the territory in New England covered by the box industry. The large number of manufac- 1 The figures given here are based on the cut for the year 1909, as computed by the United States Bureau of the Census. 2 This is approximately the amount of white pine cut in the New England States. A small per cent of it was undoubtedly cut in the other New England forest regions. Just how much it is impossible to determine and it has all been credited to the white pine region. 330 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND turing plants in the region create a heavy local demand for all kinds of wooden boxes; and it is fortunate that a wood so suit- able for box construction as white pine is available. There are several hundred box factories in the region, con- suming annually from a few thousand to twenty and thirty milHon feet apiece. However, the small boxmen are gradually By permission oj the MassiukmcHs State Forester- Fig. 121. — A heavy thinning in a rather open grown stand of white pine. Note the brush piled in the openings ready for burning. giving way to the stronger concerns, owing to the difhculty of getting timber. Frequently a box shop, is run in connection with some other wood- working plant to utilize the coarser grades. In some cases, as for example some of the shoe makers of eastern Massachusetts, manufacturing concerns maintain their own box shop for construction of the boxes needed in shipping their out- put. In connection with the production of white pine lumber for box boards close utilization is possible. Logs less than three inches at the top are sometimes run through the mill. Usually the lumber is sawn by the portable mills into planks or one-inch THE WHITE PINE REGION 331 boards, and later resawn in the box shops. The custom prevails in some localities in Massachusetts of cutting logs into very short lengths (often under four feet), and sawing the boards at the portable mills into thicknesses of a fraction of an inch, five-eighths inch being a common thickness. The contents, in feet, board measure, of such boards is figured as though they were of full inch thickness, which is somewhat confusing to the uninitiated. Each box shop employs a buyer, who purchases Fig. Plant of the Diamond Match Co., at Athol, Mass., where white 1 resawed into match blocks and shipped to the match factories. logs or sawn box boards. Very few shops own the necessary amount of standing timber to supply their plant. In some sections, especially around Athol, Massachusetts, a good deal of the white pine cut goes into the manufacture of matches. Material for matches has to be of a little larger size than for boxes and staves. Logs under six inches at the top are ordinarily disposed of to box shops or stave factories. Beside the timber cut for lumber there are large quantities of material taken out in the New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Con- necticut, and Rhode Island sections for railroad ties, telegraph, telephone, and trolley poles, and cordwood. Chestnut is the 332 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND principal species thus used, while oak is used for ties, and all species are used for cordwood. In possibilities for the sale of cordwood the white pine region excels the other New England forest regions. This is due mainly to the dense population, which affects the sale of cord- wood in two ways; first, by affording a market, and second, by making possible close utilization for other more valuable products, and hence effecting a reduction in the amount of material which has to be put into cordwood. This last point has special weight with conifers which lend themselves more readily to close utilization in the tops for valu- able products than do hardwoods. Ownership of Woodlands. — The forest is held mainly in woodlots and small-sized tracts. The size of the average farm is about eighty to one hundred acres and part of it is usually wooded. In Massachusetts, in the year iqo6, the records showed only forty-five holdings of over one thousand acres each, and a number of them were in the western part of the state, outside the white pine region. In Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont a relatively larger number of big holdings exist, but a holding of 10,000 acres is an exceptionally large tract for the region, and very few occur. The large holdings are either in the possession of box concerns or lumbermen, or form private preserves and parks. All these classes of owners are apt to increase in the future. Except for small scattered tracts in Massachusetts, not exceeding a few thousand acres, and a couple of small state forests in Con- necticut, the states do not appear as owners of forests lands. Forest Protection. Forest Fires. — It might at first thought seem that the white pine region with its wooded area broken up into woodlots, and with its dense population, should be comparatively free from fires. Unfortunately increased density of population is not necessarily accompanied by decrease in the number of forest THE WHITE PINE REGION 333 fires. In fact, an increase in population, due to manufacturing development, often brings in a class of people, who, by their carelessness, increase the fire danger. The railroads are numer- ous and carry a heavy traffic, and frequently traverse wooded areas instead of passing mainly through cleared valleys, as in the northern hardwoods region. There are large areas, in the aggregate, of coniferous stands on dry sandy soils, a combination causing great fire hazard. A large majority of the fires, and Fig. [23. — A stand of white pine has just been cut clear here, for sawlogs and cordwood. The brush should be piled and burned and the land planted. the most dangerous, occur on such situations. For these rea- sons the danger and frequency of forest fires is even greater than in the two forest regions already discussed. Both surface and crown fires occur, though the former is the prevalent kind. On sandy soils, where the growth is pure or nearly pure of conifers, the surface fires may develop into de- structive crown fires. The extent to which gray birch has spread over lands formerly in white pine or valuable hard- woods is the result largely of fires rather than cutting. This is one of the worst effects of forest fires in this region. On the 334 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND sandiest soils scrub oak is encouraged in the same way. The fires are, of course, more apt to start on cut-over lands, but run readily through stands of heavy timber. The ground cover of wet moss characteristic of the forest in the spruce region, and which, under ordinary circumstances prevents fire in an uncut stand, is here lacking. On sandy and gravelly soils in the white pine region the pine duff readily dries out and becomes inflammable. Stands of young pine fall an easy victim even to light fires, as on entering such a stand the fire feeds on the tinder-like dead branches covering the lower parts of the trunk. The forest fire season is a longer one in the white pine region than in the two more northerly ones, due to the shorter winters. This is mainly noticeable in the southern half of the region, and not in the Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire portions. Statistics published by the State Forester of Massachusetts for 1909 show that fires occurred in that state during every month in the year except December. In other years fires have occurred during that month, so that the season can be said to last the entire year, but for practical purposes the winter months are free from fires. Beginning the first of March and from then until well into November, forest fires may be expected. As previously stated in discussing fire conditions in the northern hardwoods region, the occurrence of wet or dry periods through- out the year really fixes the dangerous fire season. Within the last few years there has been variation enough in climatic conditions to allow serious fires in all months of the year, from March to November, inclusive. Prolonged droughts under present conditions are certain to result in a large number of forest fires. Railroad locomotives are responsible for starting more forest fires than any other known cause. The close network of rail- road fines and the frequent passage of locomotives directly through wooded areas increase their importance as a cause of fires. In the sections where extensive wooded areas occur on sandy soils, as, for example, in southeastern Massachusetts, locomotives are especially dangerous to the forest. Many fires THE WHITE PINE REGION 335 are set through carelessness in the use of matches or tobacco. Fishermen and hunters in the woods and especially people simply out for pleasure are responsible for this class of fires. On Sundays and holidays during the warmer months and in the vicinity of manufacturing towns many fires are apt to start from such causes. It is much more difficult to trace the cause of fires due to carelessness than those due to railroads since they may start in the most distant and out of the way places, while the latter start near the track, and therefore in a locality which can be easily reached and often is well watched. Doubtless a large number of the fires of which the cause is reported as "unknown" are due to carelessness. It is believed that if accurate information about all fires could be secured carelessness would have to be ranked as at least equal to railroad locomotives as a cause of forest fires in the white pine region. Burning brush in clearing land gives rise to a good many fires and should be ranked as third in importance among the causes of forest fires. ^ Methods of Fire Protection. — The situation as regards fire protection is the same in many respects as in the northern hardwoods region. Small areas of woodland lying in isolated bodies interspersed with cleared land are held by countless in- dividuals. Here again state control of the organization for fire protection, with active wardens in each town, will be the ideal system. The comparatively level nature of the country, with only small differences in relative altitude, make mountain lookout stations less effective than in a hilher country. There are a few peaks considerably above the general level which offer good sites for such stations. Mount Monadnock, in southern New Hampshire, and Wachusett Mountain, in northern Massachu- setts, are two examples, but it is inadvisable to endeavor to extend a system of stations over the whole region. Good tele- phone faciUties and the numerous local wardens will take the place of mountain lookout stations. 1 See the appendix under " Forest Fire Statistics " for further information. 336 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Fires caused through the carelessness of people in the woods are so frequent that special stress should be laid on educational measures. In the northern hardwoods region, with a popula- tion engaged largely in agricultural occupations and a high percentage of the inhabitants interested in woodlands, the ne- cessity for arousing public sentiment against forest fires does not so strongly exist as in a densely populated section like the one under discussion, with many manufacturing towns close to wooded areas. Here a great number of people, entirely igno- rant of and indifferent to the damage done by forest fires, and not owning woodlands, are found taking their pleasure in the woods, and are responsible for numerous fires. They must be educated to see the harmful results of these fires. The local fire wardens should thoroughly post their districts with warning and instructive notices concerning forest fires, printed in several languages, to meet the needs of the local population. To supple- ment these notices the newspapers should be furnished with plenty of copy on the subject. A campaign for better enforce- ment of the laws punishing persons setting fires, especially if a few convictions can be secured, will do much toward lessening the number of fires set intentionally. The great danger of fires starting from railroad locomotives, which is amply proven by statistics, should lead to special efforts to reduce the fires from this cause with the purpose of finally eliminating locomotives as a source of forest fires. This may eventually come by the use of a safer fuel than wood or coal. On a few of the main lines electricity will probably be voluntarily adopted by the railroads within ten or fifteen years, but the general adoption of a new fuel, while undoubtedly most advantageous from a fire standpoint, will come only through state regulation. Since the main lines of railroads in the white pine region traverse alternately open and wooded land it is doubtful if a compulsory change of fuel could be secured, but with branch lines extending chiefly through woodland the use of a safe fuel might reasonably be demanded. Until such action can be secured emphasis must be placed on THE WHITE PINE REGION 337 having railroad rights of way patrolled in wooded sections. This patrol should be in effect from early in the spring until late in the fall, only being laid off during rainy periods. The cost of the patrol can justly be laid upon the railroad. Indeed, when the amounts of money spent annually by them, in the white pine region, for settling damage suits arising from forest fires set by their engines, are contrasted with the cost of patrol, the latter will be found cheaper. Patrol will also result in mak- ing productive the wooded section tributary to the railroad lines, and build up the lumber business instead of turning the country into a desolate waste. Besides patrol the use of fire lines along railroads in ex- ceptionally dangerous country is advised. A plan similar to the New Jersey law regarding railroad fire lines should give the best results. Under this law the railroads are obliged to clear a line on each side of the track one hundred and ten feet in width. This must be cleared and kept clear of all inflam- mable material and small trees. The trees left on the line are trimmed of branches for six feet above ground. The last ten feet on the outside edge of the fire line should be entirely clear. The law has been in operation since 1909, and has given satis- factory results. The cost of the first clearing of the line varies with the nature of the forest growth, but ranges from about $125 to $500 per mile. Maximum costs come on rocky, hilly land, covered with hardwood growth, while minimum costs obtain on pine plains. It would be well if such a law could be secured by the various states for use in the white pine region, the fire lines to be con- structed along such stretches of railroad right of way as the state forestry officials might designate. It should first be ap- plied to all lines passing through coniferous stands, and in hard- wood growth at all places where the railroad has a heavy grade. So far the use of fire lines has been advised only in con- nection with railroads, but they are also needed in the more extensive and unbroken forest tracts found on poor, sandy soils. For details in the use of such Hnes see Chapter VIII. 338 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Inasmuch as very heavy or clear cuttings are the present custom and advisable under management, it follows that there will be a considerable amount of slash left after cutting. The close utilization reduces the slash but in heavy cuttings it is still Fig. 124. — "Pine succeeding pine." Excellent reproduction of white pine on land cut clear, having seed woods adjoining, really the clear cutting in strips method of repro- duction, though accidentally used. a fire menace. This is especially so in pure coniferous stands, where the slash should always be removed. In hardwood stands the tops decay quicker and where cordwood has been taken out to a low limit disposal of the brush is not so essential, as the leaf litter furnishes the chief fuel for the fires. THE WHITE PINE REGION 339 Of the various methods of brush disposal pihng and burning the tops as the logging is in progress is silviculturally preferable and should be the cheapest. Fires should be started at con- venient points and the tops thrown on these fires as the trees are felled and trimmed. When done in this way the cost should range from ten to forty cents per thousand feet of lumber cut. The method can only be used when there is no danger of the fires spreading, and is therefore best for winter operations. In dry weather no burning should be done, and if logging is carried on it will be best to throw the tops into piles and burn these piles later, in a wet season. It may seem as though no special harm would be done if the fire was allowed to spread over the entire area logged, since it is clear cut, but the burning would result in making seed-bed conditions more unfavorable for the pine and very favorable for the reproduction of gray birch. Then, again, even on clear-cut areas there is apt to be reproduction which must be protected as well as any seed trees that were left. Methods of Fighting Fires. — Owing to the well-settled con- ditions of the country in the white pine region the more inten- sive methods of fighting fires, such as the use of bucket pumps and chemical extinguishers,^ are strongly recommended. It is in this region that the highest development of the use of ex- tinguishers has been reached, by having special fire wagons equipped with extinguishers and all the necessary accessories. Any town in the white pine region, in which the forest fire hazard is great, can profitably invest in one of these wagons. Where pumps and extinguishers are not available the tools and methods of fighting surface fires and crown fires described in the two preceding regions should be employed. In sandy country there is plenty of loose dirt available and throwing this on the fire is the best method next to the use of water. Ground fires do not often occur. Protection Against Grazing Animals. — Since dairying is the most important agricultural pursuit for the region as a whole ^ For full description see Chapter VIII. 340 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND a great deal of grazing occurs on lands partly or completely forested. Damage by browsing is not so important as in the northern hardwoods region, because here the chief species, white pine, is practically immune from browsing by animals. The principal injury through grazing in the region is in lower- ing the reproduction of a tract, through partial stocking of the forest and competition of grass with the trees. i.'5. — An open stant: jf the white pine type. I'li^ I.l . - ings is due to the grazing of stock. -iruductiuii in the opea- What has been said under the northern hardwoods region, in regard to using lands either altogether for grazing purposes or for forestry purposes, appHes in the white pine region. Protection Against Insects and Fungi. — The white pine wee- vil is one of the most injurious insects in the forest of this region. It is abundant everywhere attacking the white pine, and should be looked for on every tract. Its habits and the method of prevention have been given in Chapter VII. Both the gipsy ^ and brown-tail ^ moths are working in re- stricted portions of the white pine region. The damage done 1 See Chapter VII. THE WHITE PINE REGION 34I by these pests to forest growth is so great that where they occur special methods of treating the forest often are needed. There are no serious fungous diseases in the region against which it is practical to take remedial measures. The white pine bhster rust has been found in a few cases on young pines imported from Europe, but unless continued importations of nursery stock are made from abroad the general spread of the disease in this country need not be feared. The chestnut bark disease has already appeared in the Rhode Island and Massachusetts sections of the region and threatens the destruction of the chestnut. In the summer of 191 1 the State Forester of Massachusetts had a party in the field ascertaining the extent to which the disease had spread, and acquainting forest owners with the disease. If the owners desire they can cut out the infected trees, but it is doubtful if the work will be thorough enough to prevent its spread. Watershed Protection. — Watershed protection is needed in the white pine region, not so much for regulating steamflow ^ as to assist in keeping the streams pure for drinking purposes. The large number of towns and cities must be supplied with water, and in New England the water is secured largely from springs and streams with more or less extensive watersheds. Unless the water is filtered it is desirable to have a forest cover, which prevents surface run-off and causes the water to seep through the ground and come into the reservoirs free from impurities. Summary. 1. The white pine region is a manufacturing region with agriculture and lumbering following in the order named. 2. It is one of the three (eastern) white pine regions and is second only to the Lake States in annual cut. 3. It contains a high percentage of true forest soils. 4. The market conditions are so favorable as to encourage the practice of forestry on an intensive scale. In this respect it is one of the most promising regions in the United States. 1 See explanation given under northern hardwoods region. CHAPTER XVI THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION. General Considerations. The sprout hardwoods region occupies the extreme southern part of New England, including the greater portion of Con- necticut and Rhode Island and a small area in the southwestern corner of Massachusetts. The region is not co-terminous with its New England boundaries, but extends southward through a corner of New York State into New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The present study is confined, however, to the New England portion. On account of its southern situation and proximity to the coast the climate is more moderate than in the other forest regions of New England. It has the same rainfall of forty to fifty inches, but in temperature and duration of the winter season conditions are more favorable for the growth of certain species. The region Hes mainly below the six-hundred foot contour, and a great deal of the land is below two hundred feet in elevation. In Connecticut a broad central lowland runs from New Haven northward across the region, and on either side are highlands. These rise gradually from near sea level to over two thousand feet in a few peaks of southwestern Massachusetts. On the eastern side of this central area the hills do not average over five hundred feet. These highlands represent geologically a plateau which has been eroded by water and carved into a more or less hilly country. The eastern highland extends into the Rhode Island portion of the region, but in the eastern part of the state drops to somewhat lower levels in what is known as the Narragansett Basin. In the neighborhood of the coast, throughout Rhode Island, 342 THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 343 and in the central lowlands of Connecticut, gently rolling land is characteristic. In the northern, and especially in the western part of the region, the country loses this gently rolling character and becomes quite hilly. Extensive stretches of level plain also occur in the central lowland. The level or rolling country of this plain is, however, broken in a most striking and picturesque manner by small '^^^m^s^ Fig. 126. — General view showing the distribution of the forest in the sprout hardwoods region. In the left center is seen a small knoll occupied by the old field type. The other wooded areas are of the mixed hardwoods type. areas of rocky hills and mountains, which rise abruptly from the general level, in some cases reaching an elevation of over six hundred feet. Differences in the underlying rock account for the varied topography of the region, granites, gneisses, and schists prevailing over the greater part of the area, especially the highland portions. In the central lowland of Connecticut the bed rock is a soft red sandstone, which has been worn down more rapidly than the rocks of the highland areas. Soft rocks also occur in the Narragansett Basin. The isolated hills, rising abruptly from the central lowland, are intrusions of hard trap rock. The West Rock Ridge, near New Haven, and the 344 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Hanging Hills of Meriden are excellent examples of these trap ridges. In a few places in western Connecticut, especially in the northwestern corner, and also in parts of the Massachusetts section, beds of limestone rock occur. Drainage trends southward into Long Island Sound. The Connecticut is the largest river, and cuts directly across the region. This, together with the Housatonic, and its branch the Naugatuck, and the Thames drain the greater part of the region. These streams, where passing through the highlands, have often worn canyon-hke valleys, on the slopes of which the steepest topography is found. On their lower reaches most of the streams are tidal and navigable to the head of the tide- water. Small lakes and ponds, while not so abundant as in the white pine region, are still plentiful. The streams afford many excellent water powers. Areas of swamp are common. In the highlands the swamps occur on the plateau rather than in the valley bottoms, while near the coast extensive swamps sometimes occur near the main streams. The soils owe their origin to glacial action, which has been present over the whole region. A great variation within short distances is common, ranging from coarse sands to a heavy clay, but the total amount of clay soil is not great. As a general rule the soils are fertile and do not average so sandy as those of the white pine region. They are characterized by the presence of abundant loose rock. This is rarely entirely absent except in the soils of the central lowland of Connecticut. Here are fre- quently found sands, loams, and clays free from stones. The amount of loose stone present, the depth of the soil down to the underlying bed rock, and the degree of slope are the chief factors determining whether a soil is agricultural or best suited for forests. About forty per cent of the region must be classed as true forest soil. Approximately this percentage is forested at the present time. The mountains of trap rock, with their shallow soils and steep sloping sides, furnish excellent examples of permanent forest soils. THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 345 Long belts of forest occur on these trap ridges, elsewhere a broken distribution of the woodland is the rule. However, in some of the rougher sections of the highland eighty to ninety per cent of the country is in forest, while in other places, with gentler topography, the per cent of open land and forest is reversed. This is a country in which the first settlement dates back many years, and as a consequence the original forest has dis- appeared with but rare exceptions. In the present forest the growth is made up chiefly of sprout trees, often of the third and fourth generation. Timber exceeding one hundred years of age is extremely rare. The forest is composed of even-aged mixed hardwood stands. These are characterized by the abundance of chestnut, which often occurs pure and frequently forms more than one-half the growth over large districts. Commercially chestnut is even more important than the area in the forest occupied by it would indicate, on account of its rapid growth, and because it has a wider range of uses than any of the other species in the region. Next in importance rank the oaks, the following five being the most important; white, red, black, scarlet, and chestnut oaks.^ Chestnut oak makes its only appearance in New England in this region. Not a single species finds its optimum range in the sprout hardwoods region. The oaks and chestnut all secure conditions for their optimum development farther to the south. Gray birch comes as near as any tree to securing optimum conditions, but thrives somewhat better in the white pine region. Conifers are scarce, and not an important factor in the present forest. Originally quite large bodies of pitch and white pine occurred, but they were on the sandier soils in the lowland region, on lands easy to clear, and adjacent to the earlier settle- ments. Hence the large stands disappeared long ago. Occa- sional isolated individuals or small clumps of these conifers may ^ Several other species of oak occur botanically withih the region. 346 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND be found. Hemlock and southern white cedar are both present, and occasionally in commercial quantities. Red cedar is the most abundant conifer. A great variety of hardwoods, such as beech, hard and soft maple, hickory, white, red, and black ash, yellow and black birch, tulip tree (or whitewood as it is called in this region), swamp white oak, white and pin oaks, basswood, butternut, and poplar are in mixture with chestnut and the principal oaks. Forest Types. It is difficult here to distinguish between temporary and per- manent types. The forest in its species and mixtures is not far distant from the original stands, yet, in its regular form, sprout origin, and certain changes in mixture, is quite different from the original growth. Mainly on account of the sprout origin of all but the coniferous stands it is considered best to class all the types as temporary. The types are six in number, as follows: Temporary Forest Types. 1. Mixed hardwoods. 2. Hemlock. 3. Hardwood swamp. 4. Cedar swamp. 5. White pine. 6. Old field. I. Mixed Hardwoods. — This is the most important type commercially and in area. No accurate figures are available, but it is believed that the type covers at least eighty per cent of the forest area. It is common throughout the region and occupies a wide range of sites, from the shallowest soils to those deep and fertile enough for agricultural purposes. The type does not occur on very poor, sandy soils, or on swamp sites. Within it a wide range of composition is included. A mixture of oak and chestnut is characteristic, but all sorts of variations THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 347 from pure stands of oak to pure stands of chestnut occur. The quality of the site is the governing factor in controlling the composition. On dry, shallow soils the oak becomes pure; on deep, well-drained loams chestnut can be expected in pure stands. On soils of medium depth the oak and chestnut meet on equal terms. The oaks included in the type are the white, By permission of (he Connecticut Stale Forester. Fig. 127. — A pure stand of chestnut, estimated to contain 22,000 feet, board measure, per acre. (The mixed hardwoods type.) chestnut, red, black, and scarlet. It is not uncommon to find pure stands of chestnut oak alone on dry ridges, though mix- tures of several species are more usual. Other trees, such as hickory and soft maple, are characteristic though usually in a subordinate position. Occasionally hickory is found nearly pure, over small areas. The number of species in a single stand is greatest on the best sites, while on the shallowest soils only a few species grow. On third quality sites chestnut oak and hickory predominate. 34^ FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The stands are even-aged in form and almost entirely of sprout origin, although a few seedling trees can usually be found. The type yields all classes of forest products, such as cord- wood, ties, poles, piles, and lumber. The kind of product, and the yield at a given age, depend greatly on the quality of the site, cordwood being the only product of the poorest soils. The percentage of chestnut in the stand greatly influences the yield of lumber and particularly of poles, piles, and ties, as many of the other species are not used for these purposes. Until recently reliable figures on the yield of the type had not been secured, but in 1910 the Connecticut Agricultural Ex- periment Station, in cooperation with the United States Forest Service, made a thorough study of the growth and yield of the type.^ Generally speaking, in stands of pure chestnut a growth of about one cord per acre per year may be counted on in all but the poorest stands, while in stands of pure oak the growth rarely exceeds eight-tenths of a cord per acre per year on the better sites and may be as low as a quarter of a cord on poor soils. Maximum yields of lumber for stands containing a high per- centage of chestnut run between 20,000 and 25,000 feet, board measure. In Connecticut it has been estimated that 30,000 feet, board measure, is the maximum possible yield on average soil for a pure chestnut stand (planted) at the age of seventy years. It is interesting to contrast this with the yields secured from unmanaged stands of pure white pine (see page 306) . At seventy years a pine stand gives 55,800 feet, board measure, per acre on soils of average quality. These pure chestnut stands, the most productive in lumber of the hardwood types in New Eng- land, are by many persons erroneously considered to be as rapid growing as white pine stands. Actual figures prove quite the contrary and illustrate the great superiority of the white pine. 2. Hemlock. — ^The hemlock type is not one which covers a ^ See Bull. 96 U. S. Forest Service. THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 349 large area, occupying less than five per cent of the total for- ested area. In the original forest the type was a more im- portant one. It is generally distributed throughout the region on steep slopes and cool exposures where there is an abundant supply of atmospheric moisture. Stream gorges furnish ideal locations for the type. Hemlock forms thirty to one hundred per cent of the com- position, having as associates the chestnut oak, red oak, and [28. — The hemlock type in t in mixture with the hemlock li 1 111 M mil and red oak are 0,000 feet, board measure, per acre. chestnut, though many of the other hardwoods in the region may be present. The hemlock has a tendency to spread over areas of the mixed hardwood type where the site conditions are favorable. It does this by seeding beneath the hardwoods where it persists and grows in the shade, due to its great tolerance. Finally if not removed by fires or cutting, it will thus secure for itself a place in the stand and cause a reversion to the hemlock type. Oftentimes the type is two storied in form with a lower story of hemlock and an upper story of hardwoods. The most typical natural form is even-aged, either pure hemlock or 350 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND mixed hemlock and hardwoods, although in these stands there are apt to be several ages of hemlock represented. The hard- woods are usually of sprout origin. Sometimes, on account of inaccessibility on a steep slope, old growth of seedling origin persists. It is a slow-growing type, producing lumber, however, and giving maximum yields as high as stands of pure chestnut but at a greatly advanced age (one hundred to one hundred and fifty years). Fig. 129. — The hemlock type, occurring in a swale on the summit of a ridge of trap rock. The stand contains 10,000 to 15,000 feet, board measure, per acre. 3. Hardwood Swamp. — In point of area this type ranks second in importance, although probably less than ten per cent of the total area is characterized by it. It occurs throughout the region, but is most abundant along the Connecticut coast, especially in the eastern half of the state and in Rhode Island. The soils are not well drained, and contain an excess of moisture. Many of the swamps when drained make excellent agricultural land, while others are too stony for such purposes. Soft maple is the leading tree in the type, often growing in pure stands, especially in the wetter swamps but by no means THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 351 confined to them. In the drier situations, a mixed growth usually prevails with such trees as pin and swamp white oaks, white elm, white and black ash, gray and yellow birch, and whitewood in mixture with the maple. Very little lumber is produced in the hardwood swamps, most of the material being only fit for cordwood. It is usually a rapid-growing type, except in situations where water stands for a good part of the year, and checks fast growth. On the average a growth of over a cord per acre per year can be ex- pected from the hardwood swamps. Reproduction is almost wholly by sprouts. 4. Cedar Swamp. — In the section within twenty miles or so of the coast are found occasional swamps of southern white cedar. This same type was described in the white pine region, to which reference should be had for details. It covers an ex- tremely limited portion of the forest area, probably a small fraction of one per cent, and deserves mention chiefly from its strong contrast in character of growth to the hardwoods swamp type. 5. White Pine. — The white pine type represents an exten- sion southward of the chief type of the white pine region. Only a small per cent of the forest area is covered by this type, which is in area of less importance than the hemlock type. Its high yield per acre and the value of white pine lumber makes it a type of commercial interest. Throughout Rhode Island and eastern Connecticut more of the type occurs than elsewhere. As a result of planting open lands with white pine the type will steadily increase in im- portance. For further description of the type the reader is re- ferred to the type of the same name under the white pine region. 6. Old Field. — This is a widely distributed type, occupy- ing lands at one time cleared, and covering about the same area as the hardwood swamp type, hence ranking second or third in importance. The soils are usually medium in quaHty, since the best have been reserved for farming and the poorest were never cleared. Red cedar and gray birch are the two 352 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND trees which form the typical forest growth on old fields. Pure stands of either species and mixtures of the two are all found, but pure stands are more common than mixtures. Gray birch is a species which requires a bare soil for a seed-bed, while red cedar can start well under more adverse conditions, even in a thick sod. This difference in the habits of the two species ex- Fig. 130. — On the flat is a stand of the best quality swamp hardwoods. Soft maple, tulip tree, yellow birch, black birch, and elm are the principal species. A thinning is needed. plains why pure stands now of one species and then of the other are met with on old fields. The gray birch seizes possession of those fields which were abandoned after having some other crop than grass, while on abandoned pasture or meadow opportunity was given the cedar to form pure stands. A fire running over a pasture or meadow might result in exposing mineral soil and creating a seed-bed favorable for gray birch. THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 353 Poplar, soft maple, and black birch are oftentimes associated with the gray birch and cedar. Stands of all degrees of density are found, from almost bare fields with a sprinkling of birch or cedar to a closed canopy. As the stands grow older the seeding up of the fields becomes more complete and the stand finally becomes a dense one. Fig. 131. — A stand of the old field type wliich has nearly finished the process of reversion to the mixed hardwoods type. A liberation cutting is needed, removing such trees as the big spreading chestnuts at the right in order to favor the young growth of white oak and black birch underneath. Both uneven-aged and even-aged forms of forest are charac- teristic of the type. When gray birch seeds up an old field it usually takes possession in one year, resulting in an even-aged stand, but red cedar is rarely found in such stands. This tree seeds in slowly, and stands containing a large per cent of cedar are extremely uneven-aged in character. The type is strictly a temporary one, for as the stand ad- 354 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND varices in age chestnut, oak, hickory,^ and white ash reproduce and develop beneath the hght shade of the gray birch and cedar. These good hardwoods are more rapid growing than the cedar and do not mature so early as the gray birch. Hence they are able finally to crowd out the cedar and gray birch and change the type to the mixed hardwoods type. This is a long process, rarely as short as fifty years and sometimes requiring one hundred and fifty years for its completion. Cedar furnishes an excellent grade of fence posts, but the chief product of the type is a poor quality of cordwood. The stands of pure gray birch are rapid growing for the first twenty years, and soon after that time begin to deteriorate, while those containing cedar are extremely slow in growth through life. Measurements show that it takes about forty years to grow a red cedar fence post eight feet long and four inches at the top. Methods of Handling the Forest. Intensive methods of management are possible throughout the greater part of the sprout hardwoods region. It is only in relatively few places, remote from the railroads, that intensive methods cannot be used, and here only because the sale of cordwood does not yield a profit. Within a distance of six miles from a railroad a profit can usually be secured on cordwood. Where the wood is cut and burned for charcoal a slight profit may be made at greater distances. On account of the predominance of hardwoods in the forest and because on many sites nothing but cordwood is produced, a greater percentage of the forest products must be marketed as cordwood than in any of the other New England forest regions. There is a smaller per capita consumption of cordwood - than in the northern hardwoods region, because in this section- the cold season is shorter and coal is largely used, even in the 1 Heavy seeded species such as chestnut, oak, and hickory, gain a start on old fields, through the assistance of squirrels which scatter the seeds widely. 2 Estimated to be twice as large in the northern hardwoods as in the sprout hardwoods regions. THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 355 country districts. In the white pine region the large areas covered with pine, which is used for other purposes, reduces the amount of cordwood to be disposed of and makes easier the disposal of what is cut. The abundant supply of cordwood in the sprout hardwoods region of course keeps the price low, and makes the disposal of cordwood the hardest and often the most important problem in the management of a tract. ; The species of the greatest commercial importance in the region is chestnut, which until recent years has been the tree to favor in management. The chestnut bark disease (discussed in Chapter VII) has spread so generally through the region and been so destructive in its work as to reduce the value of the tree for management. In Fairfield County, Connecticut, where the disease first appeared in New England, practically all the chest- nut has been destroyed. If this continues its virulent spread for a few more years all the chestnut in the region will be destroyed and of course the tree cannot then be considered as one to be encouraged in management. But if the progress of the disease is stopped by natural causes within a few years, as some author- ities expect, chestnut may still be favored. Red oak, on account of its rapid growth, commercial value, and general distribution, is the second best tree to favor, and the other oaks are to be encouraged on certain sites. When present white ash and white pine should be given preference over all other trees. For the best financial returns a change from hardwood forest to coniferous forest is demanded. This was suggested in con- nection with the northern hardwoods region, and, as there, can be brought about only by planting. Many of the sites now yielding only hardwood cordwood could be so handled as to produce coniferous lumber. If the region was occupied by forests of fast-growing conifers no portion would be so poorly situated as to prevent intensive management. Planting on open lands is already in progress. Such lands 356 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND should be the first planted and until they are stocked the problem of planting hardwood lands to conifers need not be undertaken. Wherever cordwood or charcoal can be disposed of at a profit improvement cuttings, especially thinnings, should be made. I. Mixed Hardwoods. — At least two systems of reproduction can be used to advantage in handling the different kinds of stands which are included in this type. By permission of II'. O. Filley. Fig. 132. — Mixed hardwoods type underplanted to white pine seedlings 7 years ago. The hardwoods should be cut soon, taking care not to injure the pine. In stands of pure or nearly pure chestnut the simple coppice system ^ can be applied, using a rotation of fifty to sixty years. Chestnut will coppice vigorously at even a greater age. During the rotation several thinnings are advised. They will, of course, increase the yield and will bring in a little seedling reproduction. This latter is quite necessary, even though chestnut sprouts well for a much longer period than the length of this rotation, because at maturity the trees are so far apart that complete sprouting does not serve to fully stock the ground. Seedling 1 Refer to simple coppice system in the chapter on " Silvicultural Systems." THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 357 reproduction is wanted to fill the gaps, and also because a forest will eventually deteriorate if reproduced by sprouts alone. On the poorest of the third quality sites also the simple coppice system will be the best. Since the stand in these situ- ations is mainly oak and hickory, whose sprouting capacity rapidly decreases with age, the system should be based on a lower rotation, forty years or under. The growth is slow and the product grown will only be cord wood, even though a much Fig- ^33- — A reproduction cutting in the mixed hardwoods type in a 60 year 0 oak. Approximately 40 per cent of the volume has been removed. longer rotation were used. As the third quality sites are mainly on ridges and steep slopes they are usually expensive to lumber. Therefore it will not pay to make thinnings, which, because of the slow growth, could furnish but a small yield per acre. The cost of the logging is also a strong argument in favor of the simple coppice system, as under it the stand is entirely removed in one operation, and reproduction assured. Except on these extremely poor soils and where the stand is largely chestnut another system of reproduction is recom- mended. This is the polewood sprout system, which has been described in the chapter on " Silvicultural Systems." It is 358 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND better suited than the simple coppice system for use with oak where the rotation must be long enough to produce timber, and where expense of logging and slow growth do not prevent thin- nings and the gradual removal of the mature stand. The length of the rotation will depend somewhat on the species. Where red oak is abundant with a sprinkling of chestnut, a rotation as low as sixty years can be used and good yields of timber secured. But when other oaks compose the Fig. 134. — Mixed hardwood type. A stand of chestnut and oak 5 years after being thinned. Note the thick leaf litter and lack of undergrowth showing that the thinning was not too heavy. A reproduction cutting under the polewood sprout system will now be made. Age of stand 70 years. stand seventy or eighty years will be needed. At this greater age many of the stumps will fail to sprout, and seedling repro- duction must be relied upon to fill the gaps. The details of making the cuttings have already been described under the description of the polewood sprout system.^ Several thinnings during the rotation can be made under this system. Quite a variety of products can be secured from stands of the mixed hardwoods type, lumber, ties, poles, and piles being the principal ones. It is not necessary to determine in advance of maturity the particular one of these products into which the ^ See chapter on "Silvicultural Systems." THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 359 timber shall be cut. This is governed quite largely by the species; for example, only chestnut can be used for poles, chestnut and the oaks for ties, while for piles and lumber the range is wider. At the time of cutting an investigation should be made as to the most profitable product to cut for the stand in question. The best product will vary from place to place and season to season. It is not always possible to sell poles, except when they happen to be needed for construction or re- pair work. Piles are not salable everywhere and at all times. Ties and lumber are more uniformly and constantly in demand. As a general rule poles and piles, when salable, are the most profitable products. Ties and lumber are often about equal in point of profit, with lumber leading in a majority of cases. Usually in every stand it will pay best to put the better cuts into lumber, the poorer into ties. The management thus far advised for the mixed hardwoods type has been on the assumption that chestnut is desired, and that the present hardwood growth is to be retained. As already explained, the chestnut bark disease may in a few years destroy the chestnut. If this happens generally (and already there are tracts where the chestnut has been almost exterminated), other trees should be introduced to replace the chestnut. These should be conifers, preferably white and red pine. On lands where the mature chestnut has been killed the planting of the pines is strongly advised. Unless the stand was all chestnut a few hundred plants per acre will be sufficient. For owners desiring the greatest ultimate financial returns, the planting of pines generally through lands of the mixed hardwoods tj^^e is strongly urged. The planting is best done when the stand is cut clear at the end of the rotation. For a few years after the planting the pine must be protected by means of cleanings from the fast-growing hardwood sprouts. 2. Hemlock. — The selection system is very effective if the object is to maintain or increase the per cent of hemlock in the type, but usually it is desirable to decrease the amount of hemlock and convert the type to one more productive. Hem- 360 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND lock is such a slow-growing tree and has so low a lumber value that it is less profitable than the hardwoods. Under certain cir- cumstances, as on steep, poor soiled, but cool sites, hemlock may be as profitable as any hardwood, for it may there produce lumber while the hardwoods would only yield cordwood. It also makes an ideal protection forest, and is often desirable from the aesthetic standpoint. By permission of the Connecticut Stale Forester. Fig. 135. — A reproduction cutting (Shelterwood system) in a stand of mixed hardwoods On the better soils of the type and where neither the protec- tive nor aesthetic value of the forest needs special consideration the stand should be cut clear, taking out all young hemlock with particular care. The area occupied by the hemlock and by hardwoods which fail to sprout should at once be planted to pines. This will result in a stand containing a large percentage of pine. 3. Hardwood Swamp. — Both the simple coppice and the polewood sprout system are useful in managing this type. In THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 361 very wet situations (where soft maple usually is pure or pre- dominates) seedling reproduction starts with difficulty and the main dependence should be placed on sprout reproduction. Thus the simple coppice system is needed. The soft maple furnishes excellent cordwood and on the wettest sites no attempt should be made to grow other products. A rotation of thirty to thirty- five years will be sufficiently long. On the drier sites of the type, where seedling reproduction can be more easily secured, the polewood sprout system is best. This will allow of a longer rotation and the growing of more valuable products than cord- wood. Where soft maple composes the stand a forty to fifty- year rotation will be long enough, but with the other swamp hardwoods fifty to sixty years is better. When present, white ash, whitewood and swamp white oak should be favored. The first two, especially, scattered as single trees in association with soft maple, make a desirable combination. In order to secure a good yield of lumber in forty to sixty years, frequent thin- nings must be made. 4, 5. Cedar Swamp and White Pine. — The methods of hand- ling these two types have been discussed in the white pine region under the types of the same name, which should be con- sulted for details as similar treatment is needed in the sprout- hardwoods region. 6. Old Field. — The object in managing this type is to hasten its conversion into some more valuable type of forest. This process is a natural one but so slow that it requires fifty to one hundred and fifty years. No treatment to improve the growth of the present trees in the type is advisable. The con- version can take place in two ways; either by artificial repro- duction, the existing stand being cut clear and planted, or by aiding the natural seeding of the hardwoods which is slowly progressing beneath the shade of the old-field species. This latter can be accomplished by cutting out the inferior species wherever a valuable young seedling has gotten a start, thus en- couraging its rapid development. Such cutting must not be made until the valuable seedlings are already started, as other- 362 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND wise the cedar and gray birch are apt to seed in again in the opening, and retain longer their control of the site. Waiting for natural seeding of good hardwoods is much slower, but cheaper in present outlay than planting. Where a hard- wood stand is wanted this method secures the desired result, but the quickest and largest returns will be secured by changing the type by planting to white and red pine. It is not advisable to begin planting at every stage of de- velopment of the old-field type. In all cases where the lands are not fully stocked the openings should be planted at once. Stands of cedar with the trees nearly touching can be planted, as the cedar spreads out very slowly and the pine is encouraged in height growth by its presence. Where the land is densely covered with cedars or gray birch planting cannot be under- taken without preliminary work. The inferior species must be cut clear and the wood removed, and brush burned, before planting begins. In order to lessen the expense of this opera- tion it is usually best to delay the cutting until the cedar is large enough for posts and the birch large enough to furnish cordwood. Such a stand will pay the costs of cutting the wood, and burning the brush, and leave a profit on the operation be- sides. The young plantation will meet the competition of sprouts from the gray birch stumps, and will need to be assisted by cleanings. Logging Methods, Market Conditions, Industries, Ownership of Woodlands. Logging Methods. — The logging is altogether on a small scale, and on account of the accessibility of the forest does not present great difficulties. The process is similar to that in the two other New England woodlot regions. Cutting, skidding to the mill, and hauling the product to market are often let out by contract to farmers or other persons. Logging is carried on throughout the year, though during the hottest months of the summer there is relatively little done. Snow cannot be relied on for logging work except in the northern portion of the region. THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 3^3 The farmers do considerable logging themselves during the winter months, but not nearly so much as in the other regions. Sawing is by small mills, mostly portable, though there are a number of stationary mills, run by water power or steam, scattered over the region. The portable mills are moved from lot to lot. Oftentimes the owner of the mill does not buy timber himself, but simply rents the mill, sawing for a fixed price per thousand. Mill set-ups of 75,000 to 100,000 feet. Fig. 136. — A "C" grade thinning in a stand of pure chestnut about 40 years old. Many of the suppressed trees, being soft and hard maples, and beech, were left according to the French method of thinning, to shade the soil. Yield about 28 cords per acre, cut 6 cords per acre. Brush is piled but does not need to be burned. board measure, are considered profitable, and indeed in many sections of the region set-ups are made for only 30,000 to 40,000 feet, board measure. The present logging methods need very little, if any, change to adapt them for use in forest management. Final cutting of the stand clean, as is now done, is generally recommended for all types. It is in making thinnings and cuttings under the polewood sprout system that changes in logging methods are needed. The changes here are simply to accustom choppers to cut the marked trees (usually the smaller ones) without injur- 3^4 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND ing the standing trees. A slight addition to the price for cut- ting wood and inspection of the work will ordinarily result in accomplishing what is desired. Market Conditions. — Railroads cover the region thoroughly, very few points being over ten miles from one. Many trolley lines, in the rural communities, give additional transportation facilities. The road system of the region is highly developed, with many stretches of hard roads, extending into the more re- mote portions. While there is a large percentage of true forest soils in the region, the present output is small, since past cuttings have exhausted most of the timber and lack of proper handling and protection has prevented replacement: Even when producing the amount of wood of which it is capable the region will probably grow but little more than its own needs. It will never, under the best of handling, be a timber exporting section, but should eventually produce an amount equivalent to its own requirements. At the present time the production of the more valuable products is far below that point. Cord- wood is supplied now for all local needs. There is a dense population centering in the many manufac- turing towns and cities with which the region is dotted. Industries. — Manufacturing is the leading industry of the region, with agriculture next in importance, and strictly forest industries taking a third place. Among the forest industries the manufacture of lumber is the leading one. For the year 1909 the cut was approximately 174,000,000 feet, board measure, of which chestnut furnished about 93,000,000 feet, board measure. This is not, however, the leading f 01 est region for the production of chestnut, since the cut in the southern Appalachians is far higher. The pro- duction of oak was approximately 37,000,000 feet, while the balance of the total cut, 44,000,000 feet, was made up by a variety of species, of which hemlock, hickory, maple, ash, and birch are the more important. Practically all the lumber cut is used within the region. The material is largely of low grade and not suitable for export. For certain lines of manufactur- THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 365 ing, such as for furniture, tools, etc., the local forests provide a limited amount of material, though they by no means provide the entire supply. Most of the locally grown lumber is consumed for bridges and car construction and in the construction of buildings. Minor wood-using industries and special wood-working plants are not so numerous as in the white pine region. The large number of manufacturing plants create a demand for wooden boxes, but the wooden box making industry is not developed in the sprout hardwoods region, because the native timber is not so well adapted for use in boxes as is the leading species of the white pine region. Chestnut and oak are cut extensively for railroad ties, for steam and electric roads. It is impossible, from the census re- ports, to obtain the number of ties cut in the region. However, if the tie output were figured as lumber, it is probable that the results would show not over half the amount of material used for ties as is used for oak and chestnut lumber. In many sections of the region the cutting of chestnut for telephone, telegraph, and trolley and electric lighting poles takes consider- able timber each year though much less than for ties. Piles of chestnut, oak, hemlock, and sometimes other species are cut in sections accessible to the coast. A much larger amount of material is each year put into cord- wood than into lumber. A great part of this is material cut in connection with tie and lumber operations, and which had to be cut in logging these more valuable products. A portion of the cordwood cut comes from situations on which the hardwood species can produce only cordwood, and which are stocked with inferior species. Allowing for all this, however, there still remains a large share of the cordwood output which comes from young and middle-aged stands cut especially for this product. This early cutting of stands for cordwood, instead of waiting for a yield of ties or lumber, is an economic waste which should be remedied. The cordwood cuttings should be con- fined, first, to utilizing the tops and inferior trees left after log- 366 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND ging for better products; second, to clear cuttings of inferior hardwood species and of valuable hardwoods growing on sites where they cannot produce better products; and third, to thin- nings. An ample supply of fuel could thus be secured. One of the chief reasons for the cutting of young and middle- aged stands for cordwood is to supply brick and lime kilns and brass plants with wood for fuel and use in manufacturing proc- esses. In northwestern Connecticut the making of lime is an Fig. 137. — Chopping out a thinning. Mixed hardwoods type, about 60 years of age, with a yield of 35 cords per acre, 8 cords per acre removed in the thinning. important industry, while through the central part of the State are many brick yards. Brass plants are found in the Nauga- tuck valley of Connecticut. All these industries consume large quantities of cordwood and the owners often buy up young and middle-aged stands for the special purpose of cutting the trees into cordwood. Ownership of Woodlands. — The sprout hardwoods is essen- tially a woodlot region and will always remain in that class. Practically all the woodland was at one time owned in connec- tion with the farms. At the present time a good many tracts, large for the region, have been acquired. These are owned by wealthy men, in connection with their summer homes, or by THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 367 lumbermen. Some of the lime, brick, and brass companies own large tracts, while a good many lumbermen own from one to several thousand acres apiece. There may be a few holdings within the region of over 10,000 acres apiece, but such areas are unusual. Large holdings of woodland are apt to be made up of many scattered lots rather than a single extensive tract. The states do not figure prominently as forest land owners, although Connecticut has at least one forest reserve within the region. Several private water companies and municipalities own large tracts located on the watersheds of their reservoirs supplying drinking water. This class of owners is usually inter- ested in forestry and in many instances are already handhng their lands under forestry principles. Standing timber is usually sold without the land, the owner retaining this. If the land is sold with the timber the whole farm usually changes hands. Forest Protection. Forest Fires. — The forest fires in the sprout hardwoods region are surface fires, feeding on the litter of the deciduous leaves. Sometimes in dried-out swamps ground fires occur. The sur- face fires are common in uncut timber of all ages as well as on cut-over land, but the severest fires are on areas covered with slash or brush. In thick cedar stands of the old-field type the fires are often severe and take the form of crown fires. Damage from forest fires is felt here principally in wounds at the bases of trees, admitting insects and fungi, which later may cause death. On account of the abundant reproduction by sprouts there are comparatively few absolutely barren areas due to forest fires, as occur in the other three New England forest regions. The stocking of the stand may be greatly re- duced but rarely is entirely destroyed. Sprouts in almost all cases start after the fire. But fires and especially repeated fires on the same area result in changing the composition of the stand. The species which sprout vigorously, of which chestnut is an example, increase in proportion. Fire- 368 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND resistant species, like oaks, increase in contrast to easily killed species. Scrub oak especially is aided in spreading by fires. Light seeded species, like gray birch, soft maple, and poplar, preferring an exposed soil for a seed-bed, increase on the burned Fig. 138. — Chestnut and oak stand 40 years old after a damage cutting which removed over 50 per cent of the stand. The cutting removed trees injured by lire, areas, resulting in a stand of valuable hardwoods mixed with these inferior species. The producing power of the woodlands has in many cases been seriously reduced by repeated forest fires. In length, the forest fire season coincides with that of the white pine region, extending from early in March until late in THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 369 November. In the average year the most dangerous period is in the spring, before vegetation starts, and then after the leaves have dropped in the fall comes a second period of danger. The occurrence of drought may, however, change the season of greatest danger. The lack of extensive coniferous stands and large areas of sandy soils makes the natural fire hazard less than in the white pine region. On the other hand, both regions are equally ex- posed in having a dense population; with many foreigners, care- less about fires, attracted by the manufacturing interests; and in having many railroad lines running through woodlands. Railroads, careless people, and brush burning to clear up land are the three principal causes of forest fires, given in order of importance. As in other regions, a large part of the fires are reported as of unknown cause, but probably the majority of these fires are due to carelessness of people in or near wood- land, which should be classed as the chief cause of fires in the region. Relatively few fires occur in the Massachusetts section of the region,^ as conditions more nearly approach those of the northern hardwoods than of the sprout hardwoods region. The railroads here traverse cleared valleys with an agricultural popula- tion and few important manufacturing industries, and the region is therefore fairly free from this class of careless people. Two chief causes of forest fires are thus lacking in the Massachusetts section. - Methods of Fire Protection. — In so far as an ideal system of fire protection is concerned, what was said in the two previously considered regions applies in the sprout hardwoods region. To avoid repetition the reader is referred for details to these regions and to Chapter VIII. 1 The only portion of Massachusetts included in the sprout hardwoods region is a small area in the extreme southwest corner of the state. The portion of Massachusetts which suffers most lies in the pine region. ^ Further information on forest fires will be found in the appendix, under the heading "Forest Fire Statistics." 370 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The use of specially constructed fire lines is not recommended as a general thing in this region, because of the difficulty of keeping them in proper condition. Prolific sprouting of the cut stumps on the line follows the clearing, while grass and herbs are very troublesome. In sandy soils and those com- paratively free from stone, as is the case in many instances in the white pine region, plowing is possible, and is a cheap and effective method of keeping the line clear. But in the sprout Fig. 139. — A 70 year old stand of mixed oak and chestnut 2 years after a second thinning. Canopy now about .8 density. Present stand 35 cords per acre. Cut in second thinning, 2 years ago, 5 cords per acre. Cut in first thinning, 10 years ago, 8 cords per acre. hardwoods region the shallow, stony soils, and rough topography usually prevent this. Occasionally along the boundary of a tract, where fires may enter from outside, a cleared fire line ten to fifteen feet wide may be of great value. The brushing out of woods roads to give easy access to the forest and serve as vantage points from which to fight fire is advisable. From the standpoint of fire protection the disposal of brush after logging is not necessary. The hardwood tops decay rapidly and are not so easily set on fire as is the litter of leaves on the ground. Hence the tops will not materially assist the THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 371 starting of a fire, though they may increase its severity when once under way. Inasmuch as an ordinary leaf fire on a clear-cut area kills the sprouts which have started, there is no great gain from the fire protection standpoint in removing the brush and tops, certainly not enough to justify the expense of the opera- tion. In making improvement cuttings the tops should be cut up and then scattered so that they lie close to the ground. If cordwood to a two- or three-inch top is taken, practically no extra work in brush disposal is needed. On areas cut clear it is often necessary to throw the brush into piles or windrows to give room for removing the wood. Here there is too much debris to make scattering practicable, so the present practice is preferable. In doing this care should be taken not to make heavy piles of brush on top of stumps which may sprout, or on groups of seedlings. Where a cut-over area is to be planted the brush must be disposed of. This should be done by piling and burning, when- ever possible, while the logging is in progress, in the manner described under the white pine region. The burning of hard- wood tops will usually cost somewhat more than coniferous tops. Methods of Fighting Fires. — Modern methods of fighting forest fires, ^ such as the use of bucket pumps and chemical ex- tinguishers, are the most effective in this region. Probably so far the former has been employed more often than the chemical extinguishers. Protection against Grazing Animals. — There is a great deal of grazing by farmers' stock in the woods, more in the scattered woodlots close to farms than on the larger tracts in the rougher portions. Here the producing power of the forest has often been greatly lowered by grazing, which has brought in grass and reduced the density of the stand. Red cedar is encouraged at the expense of valuable hardwoods, and is sometimes the only reproduction found seeding in under stands of hardwoods which have been opened by grazing. The lands should be » See Chapter VIH. 372 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND cleared and devoted to grazing or else altogether protected from stock and utilized for timber crops. Eventually the separation of the two industries will be the most profitable. Protection against Insects and Fungi. — There are no serious insect pests threatening the wholesale destruction of the sprout hardwood forests. Various borers attack the wood of the chestnut, oak, and hickory, usually effecting entrance through Fig. 140. — The effect of grazing. In foreground, grazed land, formerly wooded. All the growth except cedars kept out by the cattle. To left, ungrazed land thickly stocked with young hardwoods. iire scars. This injury affects the quality of the timber, but can be prevented only by stopping the forest fires which assist the insects in entering the trees. The chestnut bark disease is the most serious pest in the region. Its effect on forest management has already been dis- cussed. In the present state of knowledge it must be classed as a forest pest which there is no practicable way of combating.^ Watershed Protection. — As in the white pine region, water- shed protection is needed here in order to assist in keeping cer- 1 See Chapter VII, where the habits and work of the chestnut bark disease are given. THE SPROUT HARDWOODS REGION 373 tain streams pure for drinking purposes rather than for regulat- ing stream flow.^ To supply the dense population with water there are many private and municipal water companies, whose watersheds should be forested, unless the water is filtered. Summary. 1. This is a manufacturing region, with agriculture second and lumbering of subordinate importance. 2. It is a hardwood region, without virgin timber, the forest being of sprout origin, and with the woodland mainly in small holdings. 3. There is a large per cent of the area which is true forest soil, and this when properly managed will go far toward produc- ing the amount of wood needed by the region. 4. Market conditions are so good as to place the region, so far as New England is concerned, second only to the white pine region in offering possibilities for the practice of forestry. ' See explanation given under northern hardwoods region. CHAPTER XVII. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND. The six New England States have made more progress in forest legislation, in forest administration, and in the general forestry educational movement than any other group of states in the country. It is the purpose of this chapter to point out the general policies that are being pursued in the different states. These various governments have worked out their several schemes of forest administration quite independently of the national government, although no doubt unconsciously taking many ideas from the United States Forest Service as well as from other states. Connecticut, in 1901, first established the po- sition of state forester, in which she was soon copied by Massa- chusetts. Rhode Island was the next to fall into line. Vermont then followed the example of the states to the south, first in establishing a system of fire wardens, then a state nursery, and in 1908 creating the position of state forester. New Hampshire has now followed the other states in all of these lines, so that Maine is to-day the only state without a regular forest service. In tracing the history of this forestry movement in New England a singular fact stands out, namely, that the movement owes its success almost entirely to the foresight of city men, men of large business interests, often entirely unconnected with the forests. Except for the fire protective measures of Maine and northern New Hampshire, it may be said that the lumber- men, who should have been most interested, have done the least for the advancement of this movement. It can be as strongly asserted that the farmers, who, as a class, will benefit nearly as much as the lumbermen, have never taken the initiative in wise forestry legislation, although they have generously supported THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 375 such measures when they have been advocated in the various legislative bodies. One incident of the forestry history of New England which should not be overlooked, and perhaps the only incident that has thus far affected all the New England States, was a con- ference held in Boston in November, 1908. This meeting which was called by Gov. Curtis Guild, for several years president of the American Forestry Association, and now American Ambas- sador to Russia, took the form of a two days' Conservation Con- gress for the discussion of such subjects as forestry, fruit growing, good roads, the shell-fish industries, etc. There were present the governors and governors-elect of the various New England States, the members of Congress from New England and a large number of experts and delegates appointed by the various gov- ernors. The results of this meeting along forestry lines have been much more far reaching than could have been anticipated or even hoped at the time. Throughout the decade since 1901, while the states have been formulating and developing their several forestry policies, a movement quite apart from these influences has been steadily making headway. This movement, with headquarters at Boston, had for its object the acquisition by the federal government of large tracts of forest lands in the White Mountains. Political expediency soon led to the joining of interests on the part of these people with those who were striving for similar national forests in the Southern Appalachians. Several times the ap- propriation bill providing for these purchases passed one house of Congress but failed in the other. It was from start to finish bitterly opposed by Speaker Cannon and was finally held by its enemies to be unconstitutional. Its friends decided, whether wisely or not we cannot say, that such purchases could only be made under the clause in the Constitution which gives Congress the right to regulate interstate commerce. The bill was, there- fore, drafted to provide for the purchase of such forests as have an effect upon the run-ofif of navigable streams. After a number of years of agitation and many discouraging episodes, the friends 376 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND of this movement, notably the Society for the Protection of the New Hampshire Forests, and the American Forestry Associa- tion, were rewarded for their efforts by the passage of the "Weeks' Bill" on March i, 1911. This bill provides a commission for the purchase of forest tracts meeting the aforenamed requirements in states whose legislatures have passed enabling acts. So far New Hampshire and Maine are the only New England States which have made such provision. While the bill provided that the tracts for pur- chase be selected and appraised by the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture and administered by it after purchase in the same way as the western national forests, it also provides that the Geological Surve}^ of the Interior Department is to decide whether or not the proposed tracts affect navigable streams. This branch of the government is apparently not in entire sympathy with the purposes of the bill, and has delayed the work of acquisition so much that at this writing, nearly one year after the passage of the bill, only a few areas in the Southern Appalachians have been purchased, although many tracts in New Hampshire have been approved by the Forest Service. The unfortunate thing about this delay is that at the end of each fiscal year (July i), unexpended appropriations lapse, and can only become^ reavailable by another act of Congress. There are in connection with this law two views which are perhaps equally sound, just as from the first establishment of our federal government there has been the theory of a strong federated government, and the theory of a confederation of strong state governments. The people of New Hampshire have been urgent in their demands for a national forest in the White Mountains, considering the project solely as a great park, and, therefore, as a money outlay. The time will come when it will be realized that well-managed governmental forests are some- thing more than parks; and when the revenue from them exceeds the expenditures for improvements, the states will regret that their lawmakers were not far-sighted enough to provide for state rather than national purchase. It behooves every legisla- THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 377 ture, therefore, and especially those committees having such matters in charge, to carefully consider this question in all its phases before inviting the assistance of the federal government in solving its problems. However, there can be but one alterna- tive. It is inexcusable for any state to decline this splendid offer of assistance unless it is willing to take the necessary measures for the acquisition of state forests on an adequate scale. Section 2 of the " Weeks' Bill " providing for a system of fire protection on the watersheds of navigable streams, is perhaps of more general interest in New England than the part of the bill providing for land purchases. This gives the Secretary of Agriculture $200,000, available until expended, for cooperation with the various states in the prevention of forest fires on the watersheds of navigable streams. The law stipulates that no state shall receive from the federal government, in any one year, a sum greater than it spends itself in the sarhe kind of work. The United States Forest Service, which has the administration of this section in charge, under the Secretary of Agriculture, limited the amount to be spent in any state for the fiscal year beginning July i, 191 1, to $10,000. It further decided that this federal money should all be spent in hiring men to prevent forest fires rather than for fire-fighting equipment, or for extinguishing fires. In many states where a more or less adequate system of fire wardens was already in operation, this law marked a new milestone, and made fire patrol possible, which is a long step in advance of mere extinguishing measures. One of the most important forestry problems of New Eng- land, as well as of other sections of the country, is the taxa- tion of forest lands. It is now very generally conceded by economists that the general property tax is not a just form of forest taxation. Until recently it can probably be said that quite as many land owners benefited by the lax system of taxation as were injured by it, and since overtaxation largely fell on non- residents the system has persisted. But with the present tend- ency to assess all property at its true value conditions have been 378 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND changed. There can be no question that the actual, present value forms the only proper basis for assessment under the present system, and that the rate should be reduced according as the tax list is raised. However, this cannot but work a hard- ship on woodland owners on account of the nature of their property which only produces a crop after a long period of years, but which is taxed crop and land, year after year. Under this system it is quite possible for an owner to have paid in taxes from twenty to fifty per cent of the value of his crop by the time it is harvested. Up to the present time no adequate measures have been taken in New England to meet this serious situation, although several investigations and reports have been made. In a radical measure of this kind which in some states requires an amend- ment to the State Constitution, it is doubtful if conservative New England will take the lead in constructive legislation. Wisconsin, which now stands for progress in so many lines of legislation, has recently issued a report on this subject, with certain recommendations which we believe will eventually form the basis of legislation, not only in the middle West but through- out the country. This report says: "With respect to timbered land the general property tax is administratively unworkable." The substance of the recommendations here made is to allow owners of woodlots not exceeding forty acres in the agricultural portions of the state, and owners of large forest tracts to apply to the State Board of Forestry to have their lands especially classified for taxation. Lands so classified shall be managed under the direction of the State Board. The woodlots shall be assessed at not to exceed $io an acre and the large forest areas at not to exceed $i an acre. In neither case are the standing trees to be assessed. When any trees are cut they are to be taxed at the rate of ten per cent of their gross stumpage value. A similar law would be of great benefit to New England. The various states are here treated in the order in which they adopted definite forestry policies. Section I treats of Forest Administration; Section II, of Forestry Practice. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 379 I. Forest Administration. Connecticut. Administration. A. — Connecticut was the first state in New England to adopt a forestry policy and to employ a state forester, having made a beginning as early as the spring of 1901, when a forester was appointed in the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. All forestry work in Connecticut is under the direction of the state forester,^ who is appointed by the board of control of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station and is a member of the station staff. His office is at the experiment station in New Haven and his salary is paid by the station. The current appropriations by the state and the station avail- able for forestry purposes for the year 191 1 were approximately $10,000. The legislature of 191 1 estabHshed the position of assistant state forester, who is also a member of the Experiment Station staff. Fire Service. B. — The state forester is ex-officio state forest fire warden. Town fire wardens are appointed by the board of selectmen of the various towns, subject to the approval of the state forester. These town wardens are required to divide their towns into two or more districts and appoint district wardens in charge of them. Where city and town boundaries are co-terminous, the chief of the fire department is ex-officio warden. The fire wardens are entrusted with preventing all forest fires and enforcing all laws pertaining to fires. They have authority to arrest without warrant any person taken in the act of violating any of the laws for the protection of the forests. In seasons of drought, wardens may establish patrols, and, in case of fire, may summon male residents between the ages of eighteen and fifty, may destroy fences, plow land, and set back fires. * The present state forester is Mr. Samuel N. Spring. 380 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The fire wardens are paid at the rate of thirty-five cents an hour for all time spent in the performance of their duties as wardens; the pay of other employees at tires is fixed by the selectmen, but is not to exceed twenty cents an hour. All bills are paid by the town in which the lire occurred, after first being sent to the state forester for examination and record and after being approved by the selectmen. The towns are annually reimbursed for one quarter of this expenditure by the county and one quarter by the state. A law requiring permits to be secured from the fire wardens for the burning of brush during certain seasons of the year has aided in lessening the number of fires started from burning brush. In July, 191 1, the state forester entered into an agreement under the Weeks' law with the United States Secretary of Agri- culture to cooperate in the prevention of fires on the watersheds of navigable streams in Connecticut, as he was authorized by Act of the General Assembly of 191 1. This act provided that the State Forest Fire Warden shall take such steps as he deems necessary to provide for the prevention and control of fires in groups of towns, may appoint and equip patrolmen, establish and equip fire lookout stations, etc. Patrolmen are given the right to arrest, without warrant, offenders of the forest laws. One thousand dollars was allotted Connecticut in 191 1 under the Weeks' law but no expenditures were made, since the fall season was not dry. Educational Work. C. — The Yale Forest School was established as a graduate department of Yale University in 1900, and has taken a leading part in the training of professional foresters, especially for the rapidly growing government service. The Connecticut Agricultural College at Storrs offers a three- hour course in forestry during the senior year, and special lectures are given by the state forester. There are, however, in Connecticut no forestry courses open to farmers and farm boys other than the regular students of the Agricultural College. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 38 1 All forest extension work is under the direction of the state forester, who with his assistant lectures before organizations of the state, holds forestry exhibits at the agricultural fairs, and in other ways is doing much to arouse an interest in forestry. The press of the state has been rather indifferent to the needs of the state from a forestry standpoint and, although friendly to the cause, has not been as aggressively back of the movement as in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Much of the progress in Connecticut has been due to the activities of an unusually energetic forestry association which has given splendid support to Dr. E. H. Jenkins, the director of the experiment station, who originated the present forestry movement in Connecticut. Through its presidents. Prof. H. S. Graves, now forester of the United States, and Mr. Theodore L. Bristol of Ansonia, and its secretary, Mr. Frank Stadmueller, the Connecticut Association has done much not only in fram- ing legislation, but in the general educational movement of the state. State Forests. D. — As Connecticut was the first state in New England and one of the first in the country to employ a state forester, it was also one of the first to purchase state forests. While it cannot be said that the legislature has come to a full appreciation of the value of state forests, the beginnings made in this direction are encouraging. There can be little doubt that state forests, especially where large areas are planted, do more to arouse public interest in forestry than anything else. This has been noted especially in the case of the state forest in Union, in the northeastern part of the state. At the time this forest was pur- chased there was not only no interest in forestry in that section of the state, but there was an open attitude of derision. Within two years of its purchase and planting, this attitude was almost entirely changed to one of interest, so that now it is one of the most progressive parts of the state. Several large private hold- ings within a few miles are now being managed under forestry 382 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND principles, and, in the summer of 1911, a fire station was main- tained cooperatively by several adjoining towns, a thing which would have been impossible five years previously. The first state forest in New England was purchased by the first state forester, Mr. Walter Mulford, in Portland, near the geographical center of the state. This tract of hardwood sprout land consists of a little over one thousand acres. Many por- tions have been given improvement thinnings, and open areas have been planted. A series of special experiments in group thinnings was begun in 1905, supplemented by the establishment of sample acres with control plots to determine the effect of various grades of thinning. Another smaller forest was purchased in Simsbury to demon- strate the possibiHty of preventing forest fires in one of the worst situations in the state, a sand plain traversed by a railroad which had been responsible for almost annual conflagrations. Through the cooperation of the state, the town, and the railroad, these fires have been practically eliminated and the land planted with pines. The present areas of the state forests are as follows: Portland noo acres. Union 287 acres. Simsbury 130 acres. Total 15 1 7 acres. One of the chief needs of Connecticut is an extension of this state forest policy into every portion of the state and the creation of at least half a dozen other tracts large enough to be handled economically. The original act making the purchase of these forests possible Hmited the purchase price to $4.00 an acre. At that time the price was suflicient but the funds available were entirely inadequate. The General Assembly of 1909 appro- priated $5000, available until expended, but this could not be wisely invested because of the restriction on the price and the fact that land values had risen. This maximum price for land has now been increased to $8 an acre. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 383 State Nursery. E. — As early as 1901, the experiment station started in Windsor an experimental forest nursery for the raising of various kinds of forest seedlings. In connection with it, a series of experimental plantations on sand-plain land were started and have been uninterruptedly continued so that to-day they form the most interesting experimental tract of forest plantations in New England, amply demonstrating what species are and are not suitable for sand-plain planting. Many people have been saved the expense and disappointment of planting such lands with catalpa, poplar, and maple, and have been taught the value of Scotch, red, and white pine by an inspection of these plantations. In 1906, it had become apparent that the only reason that forest planting was not extensively carried on among private owners was an absolute lack of plant material at reasonable prices. The experiment station, therefore, adopted the poHcy, which has since been followed in other states both in and out of New England, of furnishing forest seedlings at cost price. Not being able to supply the demand, large quantities were imported from Europe and distributed at wholesale rates. Forest plant- ing became so popular that an extensive private nursery company has been estabHshed,^ the first company started in New England for the avowed purpose of raising seedlings at prices conducive to forest planting. With the establishment of this company and others in more recent years, it has become unnecessary for the state to maintain a nursery to supply stock for private planters. A small state nursery will be maintained to grow stock for planting on the state forests. Taxation. F. — The General Assembly of 191 1 very properly appointed a commission consisting of the state tax commissioner, the state forester, and three others to investigate the taxation of woodlands, and report a bill to the next General Assembly. It is hoped ^ The North-Eastern Forestry Company, New Haven, Connecticut. 384 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND that this report when made will receive more serious consider- ation on the part of the legislature than did a very admirable report on this subject made in Massachusetts in 1905. The only special forest tax law at present in Connecticut is one exempting forest plantations from taxation for a period of twenty years. This exemption takes effect immediately after planting. The law as amended by the General Assembly of 191 1 very unfortunately does not limit the exemption to lands of low value. There is, therefore, nothing to prevent the owner of valuable city lots thus securing exemption, provided they are at least an acre in size. Massachusetts. Administration. A. — Massachusetts was the second New England State to estabhsh the position of state forester,^ having passed the law providing for that ofhce in 1904. The state forester is appointed by the Governor, and is ex-officio a member of the State Board of Agriculture. Under him are three assistant foresters in charge respectively of moth work, forest management, and nursery work. There are also assistants in charge of forest fire work, and of moth-disease work. The moth work is organized under fifteen divisions, each in charge of a division superintendent. The appropriations are $20,000 for forestry proper, $5000 for lire prevention, and $315,000 for moth work. Fire Service. B. — Town fire wardens are appointed by the selectmen upon the approval of the state forester. These wardens are responsible for extinguishing fires, and are empowered to appoint deputy wardens and to employ such assistance as is needed. Wardens have the right to cross lands and set back fires without being Hable for trespass. In towns so voting, a written permit from the fire warden is ^ The present state forester is Mr. Frank W. Rane. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 385 necessary to build a lire in the open between March i and De- cember I. The state forester may use part of his appropriation not to exceed $2000 a year for paying the traveling expenses of wardens to conventions within the state. The state law requires that every locomotive be provided with a spark arrester. The legislature of 1910 prohibited the flying of fire balloons. Another provision of the Acts of 19 10 permits the state forester to reimburse every town up to $250 for money spent by the town for apparatus to be used in extinguishing or preventing forest fires, provided an equal expenditure is made by the town and that such assistance cannot be rendered to towns with total valuation of property exceeding $1,500,000. The state appro- priates yearly $5000 for the expenditures under this law. Another of the 1910 acts, intended to lessen the number of fires set by foreigners in southeastern Massachusetts, provides that it is unlawful for any unnaturalized, foreigii-born person to pick wild berries, or flowers, or to camp or picnic, upon any land of which he is not the owner in Barnstable or Plymouth counties without written permission of the owner or owners of the land. Massachusetts received in 191 1 an allotment of $1800 under the Weeks' Bill for the prevention of fires on the watersheds of the navigable streams. Only a portion of the sum was used, this being expended for hiring patrols, lookout men and assistants. Educational Work. C. — Harvard maintains in connection with its School of Applied Science a two years' forestry course, open to college graduates. The laboratory and lecture work at Cambridge is supplemented by field work on the Harvard forest, a tract of 2000 acres at Petersham, Massachusetts. The Massachusetts College of Agriculture at Amherst has now established a course in farm forestry and it is intended in connection with this course to carry on extension work. Al- together this seems to be the most useful forestry work thus far undertaken by any of the New England agricultural colleges. 386 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND The state forester does a great deal by means of publications, lectures, and exhibits to arouse an interest throughout the state in better forest management. The Massachusetts Forestry Association has been an active agent in arousing public interest in forestry, in the care of shade trees, the prevention of fires, and the control of the injurious forest insects. State Forests. D. — Massachusetts has no state forests in the true sense of the term, although the state owns five reservations aggregating 15,000 acres, including the Blue Hills, Graylock Mountain, Wachusett Mountain, Mount Tom, and Mount Everett. There is also a law giving the state forester authority to pur- chase tracts of not exceeding eighty acres in extent and of reforesting the same. In connection with this, there is a clause making the repurchase of these lands possible by the expendi- ture of the original price, the cost of planting, interest, etc. Under this law, 3000 acres have been planted in various parts of the state. The wisdom of this policy has often been ques- tioned. Judging from the experience of other states there seems to be little reason for the state to undertake the planting of private lands, which it virtually does under this provision, if the original owners care to repurchase. State Nursery. E. — The state maintains a nursery at Amherst, which was established largely for the purpose of selling trees to land owners at cost price. The annual output of the nursery is needed largely to supply stock with which to plant the small tracts secured under the reforestation law. Forest Taxation. F. — A commission, appointed in 1905, to investigate the question of forest taxation recommended the following: THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 387 1. "That the value of the land without the crop be assessed as cut-over land; and that the value of the average annual cut in cords, or board measure, which the forest might advanta- geously bear, be assessed and added to the value of the land — the sum to be the total assessment." 2. "That the law be restricted in its application to woodlands which the owner agrees to manage under a forest-working plan, which (i) fixes the average annual cut, (2) has been approved by the state forester, and (3) is subject to his inspection; that the working plans be revised at least once in ten years, or the owners forfeit their privileges, etc." Unfortunately these recommendations were never passed by the legislature. They, perhaps, were not the best that could be devised, but are certainly far ahead of any taxation scheme at present in force in any state in the Union. His Excellency, Governor Foss, in a special message, urged, upon the legislature of 191 1, the importance of giving this question prompt and serious consideration. He recommended a constitutional amendment which would enable the general court to enact such legislation relative to the methods of taxing wild or forest lands as will serve best to encourage the develop- ment of forestry in the Commonwealth. The following resolve, based upon the Governor's message, was passed by both branches of the legislature in July, igii. Resolved: That it is expedient to alter the constitution of the Commonwealth by the adoption of the subjoined article of amendment; and that the said article, being agreed to by a majority of the senators and two-thirds of the members of the house of representatives present and voting thereon, be entered on the journals of both houses, with the yeas and nays taken thereon, and be referred to the general court next to be chosen; and that the said article be published, to the end that if agreed to in the manner provided by the constitution, by the general court next to be chosen, it may be submitted to the people for their approval and ratification, in order that it may become a part of the constitution of the Commonwealth. 388 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND ARTICLE OF AMENDMENT. Full power and authority are hereby given and granted to the general court to prescribe for wild or forest lands such methods of taxation as will develop and conserve the forest resources of the commonwealth. Control of Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. G. — The control of the gipsy and brown-tail moths was turned over to the forestry department in 1909, and, as is indicated under "Administration," by the relative size of the appropria- tions, this work has naturally assumed greater proportions than the regular forestry work of the department. Besides the state appropriation of $315,000, the cities and towns spend on this work $350,000, property owners pay as a special tax between $150,000 and $200,000, and there is spent on state parks and other public lands nearly $200,000, so that altogether nearly $1,000,000 a year is spent in Massachusetts in the suppression of these insects. Of recent years the United States government has cooperated with the state in this work. The total expen- ditures in the state from May, 1905, to January, 1910, were: State, $5,500,000; United States, $417,763.84. As stated under "Administration," the moth work is organized under fifteen divisions. All of the various methods of suppression are used, but binding the trees with burlap and tanglefoot for the gipsy moth is not as much in use as formerly, owing to the great expense of putting it on, and tending it. Spraying in residential sections against both insects has been confined mostly to wooded roadsides, private property, and small wooded areas, where the infestation menaced orchards or shade trees. Arsenate of lead has been extensively used, and with great success. Perhaps the greatest hope of the final control of these disas- trous insects is by the introduction of natural enemies. Many thousands of parasitic insects have been planted in various localities. Several varieties of insects have been tried and have successfully survived our winters. The most promising varie- THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 389 ties have been imported in vast numbers from Japan and from Europe. These varieties include the Calosoma beetle, a small green beetle, several species of flies, and smaller insects. It is confidently hoped by the experts that in a few years these para- sites will multiply and keep the gipsy and brown-tail moths in check, as has been the case in their native habitat. Another form of natural enemy which is giving much encour- agement to those engaged in the work is a fungous disease, Entomophthora, which affects the caterpillar of the brown tail, and in a few days results in its death. Spores are given off from these dead caterpillars, which are blown about by the wind, and infect others so that the disease spreads easily. In May, 1909, another species of Entomophthora, which attacks the gipsy moth, was successfully imported from Japan. There is also a so- called " wilt disease," which attacks the larvae of the gipsy moth. Altogether there certainly seems to be abundant reason to hope that these two insects, the worst forest insects so far imported into America, may be soon controlled, although probably not exterminated, by natural enemies. Rhode Island. Administration. A. — The ofhce of Commissioner of Forestry was created in 1906 by Rhode Island, which was the third state in New England to establish such an office. The commissioner ^ is appointed by the governor for a period of three years. The appropriation available is $1500 for salary and expenses. Fire Service. B. — The town council of every town appoints a town forest fire warden, and in towns having over 4000 acres of woodland two or more district wardens are appointed in the same way. The town and district wardens are paid thirty cents an hour, and employees at fires eighteen cents an hour, and a minimum of five ^ The commissioner of forestry is J. B. Mowry of Chepachet, R. I. 390 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND hours' pay is allowed to all persons ofiScially summoned to a fire. All expenses incurred in extinguishing fires are borne one-half by the state and one-half by the town. The wardens have power similar to those of Connecticut to summon aid, etc. During periods of drought the town warden may require the district wardens to patrol their several districts subject to the approval of the town council. There are in the Rhode Island fire law two or three provisions peculiar to the state. For example : ' ' Whenever any two or more adjoining towns, having an aggregate of 8000 or more acres of woodland, or whenever any number of forest owners whose woodland in any two or more adjoining towns aggregates 4000 acres, shall build and equip a lookout station and connect the same with telephone, the town fire warden is authorized to appoint a watchman who is paid one-half by the town and one-half by the state." An- other clause provides: " In any town having 1000 or more acres of woodland that the fire warden may have three-quarters of the expense of his telephone paid by the state." The Rhode Island law also provides a number of checks: for example, no warden is to be paid for more than three hundred hours' services in any one year whatever the danger from fire. Employees are not to be paid for over one hundred hours in a single year." The state is not liable for an expenditure of over $300 for ex- tinguishing fires in any one town. There is also a check clause preventing more than two lookout stations in a county from drawing state money. The Rhode Island law prohibits the setting of fires in the open air between March i and December i, except by written per- mission of the town or district forest warden, and except, further, that debris, etc., may be burned by the owner or lessee, agent, etc., on land devoid of inflammable material. Educational Work. C— The Commissioner of Forestry advises forest owners, upon request, in regard to the management of their forests; delivers addresses on forestry, publishes bulletins and reports, and in THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 39 1 various other ways stimulates a better interest in forest manage- ment throughout the state. State Forests. D. — No legislation has thus far been passed looking to the establishment of state forests, although the measure has been recommended by the Commissioner of forestry; and there can be no doubt that state forests would have great educational value. Taxation. F. — Rhode Island has an ineffective law providing an exemp- tion from taxes on plantations, similar to the laws of several other states. No serious attempt has thus far been made to revise the general system of taxing woodlands. Control of Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. G. — The fighting of the gipsy and brown-tail moths, both of which occur in Rhode Island, is under the direction of the experiment station. Between May, 1905, and January, 1910, there was expended in this state on this work: $33,000 ^ by the state and $38,000 by the United States. Vermont. Administration. A . — The position of state forester was created by the legisla- ture of 1908. The state forester is appointed by a State Board of Agriculture and Forestry consisting of the Governor, the Di- rector of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and two others appointed by the Governor, one every two years. The forestry department of the state is connected with the University of Vermont through the state forester,' who is professor of forestry in the College of Agriculture and forester of the experiment sta- tion. The appropriation made by the legislature for agriculture and forestry is divided according to the needs of the two de- ^ See " Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts," 1910. 2 The present state forester is A. F. Hawes. 392 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND partments by the State Board. The forestry apportionment for the year beginning July i, 191 1, was $11,000. Fire Service. B. — The state forester is ex-officio state fire warden. In every organized town of the state the first selectman is ex-ofhcio for- est fire warden. While this is not as good a system as that of Connecticut, where the fire wardens are appointed especially for their work, in most cases it proves effective. The state forester is authorized to appoint fire wardens in the unorganized towns or gores, and to appoint district wardens in parts of towns where it is difficult for the first selectman to act. Fire wardens are paid at the rate of $2 per day for time employed in performing the duties of their office. They have the right to call on all male inhabitants of the town for assistance, who are paid at the rate of $1.50 per day. Expenses for fire fighting are borne by the town, but if in any town the expense exceeds, in any one year, five per cent of the grand Hst,^ the balance is paid by the state, upon approval of the bill by the state forester. So far as is known, Vermont is the only state which has this kind of a pro- vision for a division of expenditures and it may be highly com- mended, since the greatest benefit accrues to the poorest towns, which are usually those most in need of forest preservation. The county game wardens are also ex-ofificio fire wardens. The governor has authority to postpone the hunting season if he beHeves that serious danger of forest fires will result thereby, but as the open season on deer has now been put over into November, there is little likeHhood of this again being necessary. The fire wardens have the authority, upon obtaining consent of the state forester, to establish patrols in dangerous locahties. The state forester is authorized to pay the expenses of fire wardens to local meetings to discuss matters pertaining to forestry and the prevention of fires. * It should be stated here by way of explanation that Vermont has a unique system of taxation, by which the grand list of a town is one per cent of the total valuation of property instead of the grand total as in most states. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 393 Whenever a forest owner or group of owners shall establish a lookout station on the summit of a hill or mountain, and con- nect the same by telephone with some regular telephone line, the state forester is authorized to furnish a watchman for such stations, at a salary not exceeding $2 a day. Up to the present time only one such station has been established, namely, that on the summit of Camel's Hump, a mountain recently given to the state. Under the provisions of the "Weeks' Bill," Vermont received for cooperative lire protection $2000 for the year ending Dec. 31, 191 1. With this fund, a system of federal lire patrolmen was inaugurated in the most dangerous districts of the state. These patrolmen, who were paid $2 a day, were employed during dry weather in patrolling railroads and other points of danger. The cooperative agreement did not go into effect until July i, 191 1, and was not in good working order until the driest part of the season had passed. During the latter part of the season, when not needed for patrol, these men were employed in mapping their districts and making trails. Only about one-third of Vermont has been mapped by the United States Geological Survey, and good maps of many of the worst fire districts are entirely lack- ing. Town maps are on file in the offices of most of the town clerks. These maps, together with those of the large lumber companies, were corrected in the field, and all reduced to a uni- form scale of 2000 feet to the inch. In cooperation with the Green Mountain Club, the Forest Service is laying out a system of trails connecting the more important mountains which can serve as lookout stations. Considerable trail construction was started in 191 1 by the patrolmen, and will later be continued on an extensive scale. All trails are laid out with an Abney level on a maximum grade of fifteen per cent. Vermont suffers less from forest fires than any other state of New England, partly because there are few extensive unbroken coniferous forests, partly because the railroads practically all pass through agricultural valleys instead of forests, as in some states, and partly because the inhabitants largely follow agri- 394 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND cultural pursuits. In recent years, the most serious fire seasons have been the early summer of 1903, the late summer and fall of 1908, and May, June, and July of 191 1. Educational Work. C. — The most important line of forestry work in Vermont at present is the educational work which is being carried on in a number of ways. The state forester addresses granges, clubs, and numerous organizations, and accompanies the commissioner of agriculture on regular institute trips. Forestry exhibits are displayed at the agricultural fairs, and on the "Better Farming Special " trains. During the summer, the state forester, in cooperation with the University, maintains a two weeks' school of forestry and horti- culture on the "Downer State Forest" in Sharon. This course is open to boys over sixteen years of age. The object of the school is to teach the farm boys the actual operations in forestry and horticulture, and much of the time is devoted to field work. The University of Vermont at Burlington offers several courses in forestry with the aims of teaching the agricultural students enough forestry for their later practice in farm man- agement, and of fitting students for the professional forestry schools. During the winter's short course, several forestry lec- tures are also given the farm boys attending. The press of Vermont, including "The Vermonter," the state magazine, has taken an active part in furthering the develop- ment of forestry, and recognizes that the betterment of forest conditions is as necessary to the welfare of the state as good roads and improved methods of agriculture. The Vermont Forestry Association was largely instrumental in starting the forestry movement in the state, and still actively assists in arousing interest. State Forests. D. — While Vermont has not yet adopted any very extensive policy of state forest purchase, it has made a modest beginning THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 395 in this line. The small areas thus far acquired, whether by gifts or by purchase, are chiefly valuable for their demonstration possi- bilities. Planting is the chief line of work needed on most of them, and a series of planting experiments have been established on the state forests in Plaintield and Sharon. On the latter, a small nursery is also maintained, while in Plainfield the tract offers exceptional opportunity for thinnings, and various silvicultural operations. The other two tracts are Bromley Mountain and Camel's Hump, which are most interesting on account of their splendid views, and, therefore from a forestry standpoint, as lookout stations. The total area of state forests, January i, 191 2, is as follows: Plainfield 530 acres Sharon 300 acres Camel's Hump 1000 acres Bromley Mountain^ • 850 acres Total 2680 acres 1 The title of only one hundred and six acres of this land rests with the state, although the remainder has been placed by deed permanently under the management of the state forester. State Nursery. E. — One of the first and most effective agencies for arousing public interest in forestry was the state nursery, which was estab- lished on a small scale by the legislature of 1906, and has since been considerably enlarged. This is located at Burlington on land furnished by the University, with a branch on the state forest at Sharon. During the few years that this nursery has been in operation, over one million seedlings, mostly of white pine, have been sold at cost price, to the land owners of all parts of the state. Taxation. F- — The system of forest taxation is the same in Vermont as in other parts of New England. The only special tax law relat- ing to forestry is one exempting plantations from taxation for 396 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND a period of ten years. So far, only two planters have applied for this exemption. Most of the plantations made were unin- fluenced by this law, and it may be considered, therefore, of practically no importance in bringing about forestry work. New Hampshire. A dministration. A. — The forestry work in New Hampshire is under the direc- tion of an active forestry commission of three members, and of a state forester ^ appointed by this commission. The first state forester was appointed June 22, 1909, with an office at the cap- itol in Concord. The appropriation available for the forestry work for the year ending Aug. 31, 191 2, is $18,500 made up as follows: For fire prevention $5500, for reimbursing towns for one- half of expense fighting forest fires $4500, salaries and adminis- trative expenses $7700, nursery $800. Fire Service. B. — The state forester is ex-officio fire warden, and appoints, upon the recommendation of the selectmen and others, one fire warden, and such deputy fire wardens as he deems necessary in every town and city. The state forester also has the authority to remove any fire warden from office. In seasons of drought, and when directed by the state forester, the wardens are required to patrol the woods, warn campers, hunters, and fishermen of the danger of forest fires, and post notices of the law. They also have authority to arrest, without warrant, anyone who builds a fire after receiving due warning. Wherever he desires, the state forester may appoint one warden over a group of towns or unin- corporated places, and for better organization has divided the state into four forest districts, each under a chief fire warden. The fire wardens are charged with the duties of extinguishing all brush and forest fires, and may summon assistance. The remuneration for services of wardens is fixed by the forestry ^ The present state forester is Mr. E. C. Hirst. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 397 commission and the state forester. The state and town share equally the expense of fighting forest fires. Permits must be secured for burning brush near woodland between April i and November i of each year. The state forester is authorized to build and equip lookout stations on the mountains. Thirteen of these are at present in operation, and at least five more will be ready for the spring fire season of 191 2. Five temporary stations are in operation during dangerous seasons in southern New Hampshire. On account of the numerous high peaks in the state, the views are more broken than in the more rolling country of northern Maine with its occasional high mountains, and, therefore, less country can be protected from one station. Although it is no part of the state service, the work of the New Hampshire Timberland Owners Association should be mentioned in this connection. This is an association of the large timber owners of the state on the basis of a payment by each of one cent an acre a year for the land to be protected. About 1,000,000 acres are thus represented. This association employs a trained forester, who in turn hires a large number of patrolmen in dry seasons. The association also maintains suppHes of fire-fighting tools at a number of convenient points, ready for immediate use in time of emergency. New Hampshire received in 191 1 for fire prevention, under the Weeks' Bill, v$72oo. Under the cooperative agreement, this money was expended for patrol on the forested areas of navigable streams. Twenty-four patrolmen were on duty from June 4 until late in October. The most important duties of the patrol- men, when covering their routes, were putting out small fires, warning persons they met about fire danger, and recording the names of parties going into the woods. About sixty small fires, caused by campers, fishermen, or smokers, were put out by the patrolmen, and their reports to the district chiefs show that 4200 warnings were given. The educational value of the patrolmen's work in New Hampshire deserves especial mention. The num- ber of warnings given would indicate that many people have 398 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND been restrained who otherwise might have caused fires through carelessness. Several of the patrolmen have reported larger fires and rendered valuable assistance in putting them out. During damp weather when there was no danger from fire, the federal patrolmen were used to good advantage on permanent improvement work, aiding in the construction of six new moun- tain lookout stations, constructed by the New Hampshire Timberland Owners Association. They also helped in the con- struction of telephone lines, brushed out old trails, and cut new ones, and rebuilt old camps, and built new camps for temporary headquarters. There is a state law requiring portable sawmills to be pro- vided with spark arresters, and giving the power of inspection to the state forester. Educational Work. C. — The state forester takes an active part in forestry edu- cation, speaking before organizations, holding exhibits, and in various other ways forwarding the forestry work among private owners, as by the inspection of private tracts, and giving advice. He is greatly aided in this work by the Society for the Protec- tion of New Hampshire Forests, an organization which employs a trained forester who does a great deal of lecturing. It is largely through the efforts of this society that the Weeks' Bill was passed by Congress and that the position of state forester in New Hampshire was estabhshed. One of the educational measures taken by this society has been the creation of several local forestry associations to bring the forestry work nearer to the people. The State College of Agriculture has now engaged a forester, and offers courses in farm forestry, aiming especially to bring about a better management of the woodlands of the farms. State Forests. D. — There are at present three forest reservations belonging to the state. One of these, the Monadnock Reservation, com- prises six hundred acres, and the other two, the Haven Reser- vation at Jaffrey, and the Walter Harriman Reservation at THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 399 Warner, are smaller tracts of sixty and two hundred and ten acres respectively. The legislature of 191 1 provided for the pur- chase by the state of a tract of 11,000 acres in Crawford Notch, which will be under the management of the state forester. The revenue received from the sale of products from the state forests reverts to the state treasury. State Nursery. E. — A nursery was started by the forestry commission in 1 9 10, there being quite a demand for nursery stock. The leg- islature of 191 1 appropriated, for the establishment and main- tenance of a state nursery for 191 1, $500; for 191 2, $800; and for 1913, $300. One nursery is located at Gerrish. Here are raised white, red, and Scotch pine, Norway spruce, European larch, ash, basswood, chestnut, and red oak, with a present stock of about 700,000 seedHngs and 100,000 transplants in all. Another nursery is located at Pembroke, and is devoted entirely to white pine transplants. Three hundred thousand seedlings and transplants have been distributed through the ofhce of the forestry commission, since starting the nursery work in 19 10. Two private nurseries have recently been established in New Hampshire, so there is little question of a sufficient supply of home grown nursery stock within a few years. Taxation. F. — The taxation problem in New Hampshire is much the same as in other states. An investigation of the matter was made a few years ago by the United States Forest Service and state in cooperation. Maine. Administration. A. — Maine, which has the largest forest area of any of the New England States, is the only one which does not employ a trained state forester. It has, however, a forest commissioner,^ ^ The present forest commissioner is F. E. Mace. 400 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND who has charge of the lire service, which is perhaps the best in New England. Fire Service. B. — In Maine, since the spring of 1909, the organization for fire protection has been under the control of the forest com- missioner. Under the law, passed by the legislature of 1909, the wild lands (virtually the spruce region) of Maine were formed into an administrative district known as the Maine For- estry District. A tax of one and a half mills on the dollar is levied on all property, in the district, to be used for protection of the forests from fire. This tax has made available the sum of $63,945 for each of the years 1909 and 1910. The unexpended balance of the tax in any year continues available for the pur- poses of the law. The forest commissioner is given control with ample powers. He has divided the district into subdistricts with a chief forest fire warden in each, who in turn may have dep- uty forest fire wardens. The forest commissioner is specifically authorized to construct and maintain lookout stations connected with telephone, to patrol the woodlands, when necessary, and to equip and maintain depots of fire-fighting tools. The chief fire wardens and deputy fire wardens can summon assistance of citi- zens, when necessary, to extinguish fires. The law plainly provides for the development of a comprehensive system of pro- tection. The eighth report of the forest ^commissioner of Maine shows what has been accomplished during the years 1909 and 1910. In the field force are listed three hundred and sixty-seven men, thirty-nine as chief wardens, and three hundred and twenty-eight as deputy wardens and patrolmen. Patrol is usually along lines where traffic is passing, --such, for example, as railroad fines and waterways, frequented by river drivers and sportsmen. Twenty-four lookout stations are in operation, located on high mountains with the widest possible outlook. Some of these command a view of from 100,000 to 250,000 acres of timberland. THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 401 Outfits of fire-fighting tools, such as axes, pails, shovels, and mattocks, have been purchased and distributed through the district at convenient points. These tools are usually kept in special tool boxes. The average annual expenditure, for the years 1909 and 1910, for the Maine forestry district has been $57,838.70, of which amount an average of $27,493.80 was spent for patrol. During the year 191 1, the available funds were expended before the end of the fire season, but disastrous results were fortunately pre- vented by fall rains. Maine was the first state in the Union to make use of mountain lookout stations in fire protection. The first station was estab- lished and maintained cooperatively by the lumbermen and the state on Squaw Mountain. Now the system has been adopted in many parts of the country, and can be used to advantage in all mountainous regions. Nowhere else in the country is there a system of fire protection so completely and thoroughly covering a wooded region of equal size as in northern Maine. The nearest approach to it is found in some of the cooperative fire-protective associations in the northwest, and in the organization of the forest service in pro- tecting the national forests. Conditions in Maine have been especially favorable for the development of such a system. The chief place among the natural resources of the state, which the forests hold, give those connected with the forest industries the controlling position in state politics. The majority of the wild land owners have long recognized the vital necessity of fire protection. Many of them employed private patrols before the present law was passed. The first private efforts at protection date back more than ten years, and were the forerunners of the present complete state system of control. The great advantage of placing the patrol under state direction supported by a tax, levied on all property in the Maine forestry district, is that all owners are compelled to cooperate and pay their share. The cooperative associations of lumbermen, as organized in New Hampshire and elsewhere, 402 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND do not often succeed in getting all owners, large and small, to join. They are, therefore, often compelled to protect lands of non-members, owing to the danger of fires spreading from these lands to lands of members. Another advantage of the Maine system is that there is no large force of regular patrolmen, but, instead, a big force of wardens always available, who can be called out to patrol at short notice, and kept at work only as long as actually needed. This gives great elasticity to the patrol system, and works for economy. In the organized towns of Maine, the selectmen act as fire wardens. One provision, which is peculiar to Maine, permits any person whose property has been injured by a forest fire to collect damages from the town in which the injury was caused, provided the injury was caused "in consequence of the negli- gence or neglect of the selectmen in performing the duties required by the law." Educational Work. C. — The State University at Orono was one of the first in the country to offer instruction in forestry, establishing a course in 1903. It has developed a four-years' under-graduate course in forestry, somewhat similar to that of Pennsylvania State Col- lege, with the purpose of developing trained foresters in four years instead of six as at graduate schools. The professor of forestry has done some extension work among the farmers' organizations of the state, but no definite policy of propaganda has yet been estabhshed. There is in the state a forestry association. State Forests. D. — Maine has no state forests in the sense of the newly ac- quired forests of Vermont, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, or of the forest reservations of New York and Wisconsin. Most of the immense forest territory, once owned by the state, or by Massachusetts before Maine came into the Union as a sep- arate state, has been disposed of, some to pay off soldiers of the early wars, some to educational institutions, but much of it THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 403 was sold to lumber companies and other individuals. One thou- sand acres in every unorganized town was held by the state against the day when that town should be settled, and, when a town was organized, this land was turned over to the town for school purposes. There are still sixty-nine of these tracts so held by the state in as many unorganized towns. These lands are under the control of the land commissioner, and bring in some revenue to the state from time to time as timber is sold from them. Maine is, therefore, fortunate in having, under state ownership, larger tracts of land than any other New England state, and it is very much to be hoped, from the standpoint of forestry, as well as from that of the school system, that some change of policy can be effected whereby such portions of these tracts as are true forest soils may be permanently managed by the state under forestry principles; the income from each individual tract to be paid by the state to the town after it is organized, for school purposes. Under such a plan this land could be managed to produce a larger permanent income than in any other way. The state would realize a considerable income from the un- organized townships, and the school systems in towns, hereafter organized, could rely definitely on a fairly steady, or increasing income. Such tracts would also serve the educational and pro- tective purposes so valuable in state forests. Insects. G. — Both the brown-tail and gipsy moths are present in southern Maine. The work of exterminating them is under the state entomologist. During the period from May, 1905, to January, 19 10, there has been expended on this work by the state, $95,000, by the United States, $50,000. II. Forestry Practice. Lands Under State Ownership. A . — From the foregoing pages the following summary of the lands in New England under state ownership has been derived. 404 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND At the time of writing (January, 191 2), no national reserves have been acquired, although it is probable that such national forests will soon be established in New Hampshire. STATE-OWNED FORESTS OF NEW ENGLAND. State. Area in acres. Maine 69,000 900 2,000 18,000 1,500 New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Connecticut Total 91,400 This total of about 91,000 acres of land, owned by the states of New England, forms less than four-tenths of one per cent of the forested area of the six states, and when it is considered that very little forestry is at present practiced on the large school tracts of Maine, or the reservations of Massachusetts, it will be realized that they are at present of very little value so far as the real practice of forestry throughout New England is concerned. The New England States should own at least ten per cent of their total forest area, and should manage these public forests for revenue production, which would also furnish the best possible practical examples of forestry to private owners. Lands Under Corporate and Private Ownership. B. — The large pulp concerns of northern New England control the largest areas of forest lands upon which forestry principles, even of a rough nature, have thus far been practiced. These companies, which own expensive manufacturing plants, usually located on waterpowers distant from the forests, are dependent largely upon their own tracts for a permanent supply of timber, and the maintenance of their business. Partly because they have often stripped land clean in their past operations, and partly because they represent large capital in agricultural states, these corporations have become very unpopular. In many cases, the THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 405 smaller lumbermen have been as much at fault as the large pulp concerns, but in a smaller and less conspicuous way. These two factors, the necessity of a permanent supply of wood, and the public attitude of antagonism, have led several of the large pulp companies to introduce some kinds of forestry measures. In Maine, these measures have been largely confined to the avoiding of waste in lumbering such as the substitution of the saw for the ax in felling, by cutting lower stumps, and higher into the tops, by removing all lodged trees, and by the use of inferior material for skids and corduroys. In Vermont and New Hamp- shire, silvicultural measures are being introduced by at least one of these companies.^ Some of the lumbering is being done ac- cording to foresters' marking with special reference to securing spruce reproduction. This same company is building up a large nursery for the pur- pose of supplying seedlings for the replanting of their waste and cut-over lands. Very Httle has as yet been done by the large lumber companies toward the introduction of forestry principles in their cuttings. Some have experimented, in a small way, with planting and con- servative cutting, but so far on a scale not at all comparable to their cutting operations. The fire-protective organization of New Hampshire lumbermen is the most effective move toward forestry thus far made by New England lumbermen. As mentioned in the discussion of the spruce region, many of the large hotel companies of northern New England, especially of New Hampshire, own the forests surrounding their hotels, and realize the necessity from the aesthetic standpoint of pre- serving them. Some of these companies are realizing the ad- visabiHty of practicing forestry on these lands, and it is to be hoped that they will all be maintained in a productive condition, and not merely as pleasure tracts. The well-managed forests of Europe furnish abundant proof that good management not only does not detract from the beauty of a forest, but rather en- hances it, and makes it available to a greater number of people. ' The International Paper Co. 4o6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND In southern New England, the most extensive forestry work is being done by the various water companies, many of which own large forest areas for the protection of their water suppHes from contamination. The practice of forestry not only main- tains these lands in a condition for retaining the water in the soil, but makes possible an annual income, from the watersheds, which would otherwise have to be administered at an expense. The lands owned by these companies are largely made up of farms, which have been purchased to do away with undesirable drainage. Much of the land is, therefore, of good agricultural value, but cannot be used for farming because it cannot be fertilized. Such lands are, therefore, being afforested, and, on account of their fine quaHty, should become some of the most productive forest lands in New England. Woodlands, already existing, are being thinned, and in some cases whole tracts are being managed after a detailed working plan, very much like those prepared for some European forests. In fact, the forestry being carried on upon such lands is probably the most intensive form at present in use on any considerable areas in New England. Many public institutions, such as hospitals, schools, and col- leges, own forest tracts varying in size from a few acres up to the large college grants of several thousand acres. A number of such tracts are now being managed upon forestry principles with a view to a permanent and increasing income. Probably the most extensive area of this kind is the Dartmouth College Grant in northern New Hampshire. A class of land owners which is growing very rapidly, especially in southern New England, is composed of city people who have purchased summer homes in the country. With the develop- ment of good roads and the use of automobiles an ever-increasing number of these people are making their permanent homes in the country. They have found by experience that dairying and most other forms of farming cannot be practiced profitably through the employment of expensive help, and that country life can usually be enjoyed with the minimum expenditure of money and worry on lands largely devoted to forests. The THE PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 407 practice of forestry gives to such owners a form of work which they can often supervise themselves, and which gives them a more intimate knowledge of the various parts of their estates than they would otherwise have. Many owners of this class, especially in Massachusetts and Connecticut, have planted large tracts of waste lands, and are systematically thinning their woodlands. The greater portion of the forest land of New England is still owned by the farmers and lumbermen, who are for the most part mismanaging it, much as they always have, for only a few of these owners are here and there planting or making forestry cut- tings. One cannot fail to realize, however, that the past few years have seen a considerable change in the general attitude of these owners. They are apt to think twice before they clean the evergreens off an old pasture, and they cut their winter's wood supply in many cases more or less after a crude selection system. In these and various other measures there is an indication that forestry is to be gradually adopted by many people, who will never realize that they have changed their methods. It is very difficult to form any estimate of the total area in New England at present under forest management, especially because there is no well-defined line between old-time manage- ment and the crude forestry measures which in many cases are little more than the expression of a desire for better management. If management with the aim of permanent profit rather than for present gain alone is the line of distinction, it is estimated that five per cent of the forested lands of New England are so managed at present. If, however, the application of the term "Practice of Forestry" is restricted to lands upon which cultural operations are actually being practiced, it is doubtful if even one per cent of the entire wooded area could be classed as under forest management. In the future it is probable that less forest land will be owned by farmers and lumbermen, and more by the governments, state and national, by large estates, and by companies formed with the express purpose of practicing forestry. CHAPTER XVIII. THE YIELD TO BE EXPECTED FROM NEW ENGLAND FORESTS UNDER PROPER MANAGEMENT. The previous chapters have brought out the fact that New England has large areas of waste land suitable for forest growth but now bare, and has even greater areas of forest land, only partially stocked or occupied by slow-growing species or those of inferior value for which trees of higher value and faster growth could be substituted advantageously. Reckless cutting, forest fires, and the grazing of stock are largely responsible for the deplorably bad silvicultural conditions of many stands. The woodlands of New England on which forestry actually is prac- ticed are, as explained in Chapter XVII, insignificant in amount compared to the total forest area. For these reasons it follows naturally that the present annual growth must fall far below what the forest lands of New Eng- land are able to produce. The object of this chapter is to com- pare present annual growth with what may be expected from the same territory when the forests are placed under scientific management. Estimating the annual growth for the forests of New England is, in the present state of knowledge, no easy task, and all that can be done is to obtain an approximation to the truth. In Circular No. 159, entitled, "The Future Use of Land in the United States," the United States Forest Service estimates the annual growth per acre for the forests of the United States at twelve cubic feet.^ This average for the whole country is be- ^ Cubic feet are chosen as the unit for this discussion because it more accurately expresses the entire growth of a forest than do other units, especially board feet, in which unit there is oftentimes no growth over extensive areas. 408 YIELD TO BE EXPECTED FROM NEW ENGLAND FORESTS 409 lieved to be altogether too low for New England, since the forested lands are better stocked, the soils are of a greater productive power, and the forests contain large areas of second-growth stands (ordinarily more productive in a given time than virgin stands). It will be safer to place the annual growth per acre of the forested area of New England at thirty cubic feet, and apply- ing this figure to the area forested gives about 757,000,000 cubic feet as the total annual growth. This growth, however, is more than offset by the annual cut for lumber, pulpwood, ties, poles, cordwood, etc., which is esti- mated to reach 850,000,000 cubic feet. There is not such a large discrepancy between annual cut and annual growth as exists in many other sections of the country; the growth in some cases being far below the annual cut and in a few regions greater than the cut. The ideal arrangement is to have the yearly growth equal the amount cut, or slightly exceed the latter, since then it is usually possible to continue the annual cut indefinitely^ without fear of exhausting the supply. As the annual cut of the New England forests is only about 12 per cent greater than the growth there would appear to be no immediate danger of the local wood supply being exhausted; although the quality of the timber cut is deteriorating from year to year, the bulk of the present cut coming from second-growth stands or from lands already culled of the highest grade material. Moreover, while the annual growth is nearly as large as the cut, yet in quality it is much poorer than the latter. The abundance of inferior species and the partial stocking of many areas (resulting in the production of knotty trees) are the prin- cipal causes for the poor quality of the annual growth. Thus with the decreasing quahty of the cut, and of the growth, the pro- ductive power of the forest lands must fall off; if not in amount, certainly in grade of product. This is unnecessary and should not be allowed to continue as under scientific management of 1 Even though the growth is equal to the amount cut the latter cannot be indefinitely maintained unless the forests are fully stocked and unless stands of young, middle-aged, and old timber are found occupying fairly equal areas. 4IO FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND the forests the quahty of the wood produced and the actual amount annually grown can be greatly improved over present conditions. In order to learn what results in the way of increased growth and better wood production may be secured through forestry, it is necessary to turn to the countries where forestry has been in practice for considerable periods of time, and where accurate records of the results are kept. No tracts in New England have been under treatment long enough to furnish the desired infor- mation. Certain of the European countries provide the best illustrations for our purpose, and in the following table the aver- age annual growth per acre is given, together with the forested area on which based, for several countries. ANNUAL GROWTH PER ACRE IN CUBIC FEET, TOGETHER WITH THE FORESTED AREA FOR VARIOUS COUNTRIES.i Country. Austria. . . . Belgium. . . . France .... Germany. . Holland. . . Hungary. . . Switzerland Forested area. Annual growth, cubic feet. 23,996,266 1.303.735 24,021,587 34,989,675 617,567 18,692,000 2,140,012 ' The figures are taken from Bulletin No. 83 of the U. S. Forest Service, entitled " The Forest Resources of the World." The annual growth per acre is seen to range from 37.9 to 58.2 cubic feet. It should be remembered that in these European countries the classification of lands into those suitable for agri- cultural and forest use is farther advanced than in New England, and that while in the latter region some soils suitable for agri- culture are still forested, this rarely occurs in the European countries, where only the poorest grade soils are forested. Hence the forested areas of the European countries may be expected to have a somewhat lower productive power than those of New England. Some of the countries with the poorest and YIELD TO BE EXPECTED FROM NEW ENGLAND FORESTS 411 shallowest soils show the best growth, — see Switzerland/ for example, with its annual growth of lifty-one cubic feet — ren- dered possible only by the best management. The forest soils of New England certainly are capable of pro- ducing as much per acre as those of Switzerland or Germany, or in round numbers fifty cubic feet per acre annually. Such an annual growth can only be secured after years of forestry work, though a gradual increase over the present growth should begin soon after proper treatment is started. While for the entire forested area of New England an annual growth of fifty cubic feet per acre may be considered as fairly representing the possibilities, yet on small portions a much higher annual growth can be secured. Instances are frequent in European practice of relatively small tracts annually produc- ing from seventy-five to over one hundred cubic feet per acre. Such a production indicates either that the soil is of good quahty or that the forest is stocked with fast-growing species. The difference between stands of fast-growing and slow- growing species and the effect of quality of the soil on produc- tion is shown clearly by the following comparison between stands of oak and spruce grown in Saxony on five qualities of soil. YIELD PER ACRE IN CUBIC FEET AT 100 YEARS FOR FULLY STOCKED STANDS OF OAK AND SPRUCE IN SAXONY. Quality classes. I II III IV v Oak: 6960. 69.6 14,910. 149-1 5660. 56.6 11,520. 115. 2 Cubic feet. 4360. 43-6 8130. 81.3 3070. 30-7 4730. 47-3 1520. 152 1900. 19.0 Mean annual growth.. . Spruce: Yield per acre Mean annual growth. .. This table indicates, for example, that a forest of oak would produce on quahty I soil, 69.6 cubic feet per acre annually, in 1 The soils of Switzerland are probably not as sandy or infertile as those of some other regions, but on account of their elevation and shallowness are often inferior. 412 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND contrast to 149. i cubic feet for spruce, or comparing stands of two qualities having the same species, that spruce on quahty I annually produces 149. i cubic feet per acre, but on quahty V only 19.0 cubic feet. Second-growth white pine stands in New England furnish a good illustration of large annual production. Taking the data from the Yield Table for white pine in " The Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts," for stands fifty-five years old, gives the following result: YIELD PER ACRE OF WHITE PINE STANDS IN MASSACHUSETTS ^ AT 55 YEARS, IN CUBIC FEET. Quality Classes. Yield per acre Mean annual growth . 8575 156 7200 131 Cubic feet. 6015 109 1 It should be understood that these figures are for unmanaged forests, while the European figures are for forests which have always been well managed. It is easily within the possibilities throughout much of New England to develop forests of white pine and other fast-growing species which will produce annually 100 or more cubic feet per acre, and an average growth of 50 cubic feet is thought to be a very conservative figure of what may be accomphshed through forestry. The average quality of the product will be greatly increased, as one of the main objects of forestry is to grow the better grades at the expense of inferior material. Low-grade -material, such as cord wood, must always form an important part of the yield, either as material which is sold, or in undeveloped regions as material which must be left in the forest and wasted. But whereas in an uncared-for forest perhaps 60 per cent of the volume may be low-grade material, ultimately the same forest may be so managed that possibly only 40 per cent of the output is of poor quahty. The results of management in Europe show YIELD TO BE EXPECTED FROM NEW ENGLAND FORESTS 413 that a steadily rising percentage of the better qualities may be expected in the yield. For example, the "workwood per cent," as the percentage of the annual cut suitable for higher grade products is temied, increased in the state forests of Baden from 30 per cent in 1878 to 40 per cent in 1904, and in the state forests of Prussia rose from 47 per cent in 1890 to 63 per cent in 1907. A comparison of present financial returns from New England's forests with those received from forests abroad is instructive and indicates what opportunity there is for improvement. Based on statistics for 1909, the annual gross value of forest products cut in New England is estimated at $85,000,000. A large share of this value, however, is consumed by the expenses of manufacturing and bringing the material to market, so that the net value, or value standing in the forest, of the annual cut falls to approximately $20,000,000. From this net value there must still be deducted such items as the cost of administering the forest lands, of protection and taxes. These various charges are estimated to equal $5,000,000 a year, leaving $15,000,000 as the annual net returns from a forested area of 25,238,458 acres, or $0.59 per acre per year. This return would be less were it not that the annual cut exceeds the growth at the present time. Figures of net return per acre vary widely in the different European countries, and of course vary from year to year in the same country, but the tendency year by year is towards higher net returns, although the cost of management is constantly rising. Single private or communal forests of relatively small areas often yield annual net returns of from $8 to over $15 per acre, while instances of even higher yields are on record.^ From the values in the preceding table it can easily be seen that the present net return per acre of the New England forests is very low. Results, fully as good as those in Europe, can be ^ See "Forestry Quarterly," Vol. VII, p. 471, where a private tract of six thousand acres in Suabia, composed 92 per cent of spruce (a very profitable species), is mentioned giving an annual net return of $17.47 per acre. 414 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND secured here, of from $1.50 to $5 per acre for the large forest areas, and much higher returns on exceptionally situated and intensively managed forests; but of course it will take time. Forestry has been practiced in the countries from which these figures have been taken for fifty to one hundred years, and the net returns increased from little or nothing to the present amounts. The following table shows the net annual income from forested areas in several European countries: Country. Forested area, acres. Net returns per acre.i For year. Remarks. Switzerland (TheSihlwald).... 2,560 $7.69 1907 Chiefly beech under management since 1802. Wurtemburg (State forests) 468,790 6.74 1906 Belgium (State forests). . . . 62,600 4. 16 1906 Hesse (Crown forests) . . . 166,215 4.00 1902 Bavaria (State forests) 2,088,592 3-5° 1909 Prussia (State forests) 6,396,172 2.52= 1907 Much of the forest is on very poor soil. Austria (State forests) 2,573,000 .80 1911 Forestry poorly de- veloped compared with the other states listed. 1 Usually the larger the area of a country the smaller are the net returns per acre. 2 The Prussian state forests have increased their net return per acre from $1.36 in 1890 to $2.52 in 1907. High returns per acre from the business of forestry can only be secured by intensive management requiring large annual ex- penditures. For example, the state forests of Bavaria in 1909 gave gross returns of $6.11 per acre of which $2.61 were taken by expenditures, leaving $3.50 per acre as the net return. In the Prussian state forests the same year, gross returns amounted to YIELD TO BE EXPECTED FROM NEW ENGLAND FORESTS 415 $4.35 per acre, expenditures totaled $2.41, or considerably more than the net return of $1.94 per acre. In conclusion, what may be expected of forestry as an invest- ment? It offers the only method of making profitable large areas of land in New England, but even thus it may not neces- sarily offer a highly tempting field for investment for the average landowner. Briefly, the growing of timber crops in New England, as a business, may be expected to pay from 3 to 6 per cent on the investment, depending on a variety of factors, among which the following three are especially important, the quality of the soil, species grown, and the location of the tract with reference to markets. Forestry is not a business paying high dividends and, if judged by the dividends paid, must be classed with investments affording good security to the principal in- vested. Hence if it is to attract private capital it must offer good security for the principal invested. Until recently the practice of forestry in New England has not offered a secure investment at all comparable with a good 4 per cent bond, owing principally to the great danger from forest fires,^ but public sentiment for protection of the forests from fire has crystallized within the last few years and taken shape in the form of action by the state authorities with the cooperation of the Federal Government to insure better protec- tion. Already much has been accomplished to lessen the fire hazard, and it is believed that now protection for a given tract can be assured at reasonable expense. With protection assured, and with productive soils, valuable, fast-growing species of trees suited to the soils and excellent markets, there is no reason why growing timber crops in New England should not be considered as a secure investment. When once a tract is brought into proper condition, steady returns are received annually, but owing to the length of time and the investment involved in waiting for this condition to be 1 The probability under present methods of taxing forest lands, of being compelled to pay excessively high taxes is another drawback to the practice of forestry. 41 6 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND attained as well as the low rate of interest many private owners will undoubtedly be unable to practice forestry. To the state, municipalities, and to corporations with ample funds and a per- manent existence, forestry offers an excellent investment. To all owners of non-agricultural lands it offers the oppor- tunity of obtaining the greatest permanent profits from such lands. APPENDIX. FOREST FIRE STATISTICS. The statistics given here have been compiled from the reports of the state forestry departments of the six New England states. As these reports are for states and not for forest regions it has been necessary to combine figures from several states in order to obtain totals for the four regions. The reports are not full enough in some instances, and often do not cover enough years for a fair average and are not arranged with sufficient uni- formity to give this compilation complete accuracy. However, it is believed that the tables faithfully picture conditions in the four forest regions, and in acreage burned over, damage done, and cost of protection are conservative. The total annual loss from forest fires in New England is nearly $1,000,000, which, as shown in Table I, is composed of three items: First. Damage as ordinarily reported. Second. Cost of protection (including fighting fires). Third. Damage not ordinarily reported. The amount of the first represents the damage as given in by the fire wardens and patrolmen, and is mainly to merchantable material. Very rarely is damage to unmerchantable material properly estimated and reported. Where trees nearly of mer- chantable size are injured the damage to them is sometimes reported, but more often even this is omitted. Damage not ordinarily reported consists of injury to young growth, ranging from trees a Httle under the merchantable size to small seedlings or "reproduction" as these small plants are collectively termed. In'ury to the soil and to seed-bed con- ditions is also included in unreported damage. Fire injury to the soil has been previously described in Chapter VIII. Fre- 4t8 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND quently fire results in an entire change of seed-bed conditions. Usually these changes result in the seeding in of a less desirable tree. The damage caused by such a change in the composition of the stand must be charged against the fire. TABLE L FOREST FIRE LOSSES FOR AN AVERAGE YEAR IN NEW ENGLAND. Region. Area annu- ally burned over, acres. Damage ' as ordinarily reported. Damage - not ordi- narily reported. Cost of protection and fight- ing fires. Total ' ex- penditure or loss due to forest fires. Spruce ^ Northern hardwoods ''. White pine' Sprout hardwoods*.. . . All New England 40,000 3,600 66,500 48,500 $150,000 8,000 315,000 181,000 $75,000 7,000 100,000 50,000 $60,000 " 3>500 32,500 9,000 $285,000 18,500 447-500 240,000 : 58, 600 $654,000 $232,000 [05,000 $991,000 ' Based on reports of the local forest fire wardens and patrolmen. 2 Includes injury to reproduction, to young growth, to soil and seed-bed conditions. 3 Secured by adding together the amounts in the three preceding columns. * Based chiefly on the seventh and eighth annual reports of the Forest Commissioner of Maine, giving data for the years 1907, 1908, 1909, and 1910. While the reports of the Vermont and New Hampshire state foresters have been consulted the data in these last two states does not cover so many years. s The basis for this estimate is the average annual expenditure for 1909 and 1910, by the State of Maine within the territory of the spruce region. 8 For an average year, based on available figures for the years 1907-8, 1909-10. ' Based on averages for from two to four fire seasons. 8 This estimate is based on the report of the State Forester of Connecticut for 1910, printed in the Biennial Report of the Conn. Agri. Exp. Station, for 1909-1910, and on the Fifth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Commissioner of Forestry. TABLE II. COMPARISON BETWEEN REGIONS IN THE AMOUNT SPENT FOR FIRE PROTECTION. Region. Per cent of the forested area an- nually burned. Cost of protec- tion (including fighting fires) per acre pro- tected. Per cent of total value of forest lands spent annually for pro- tection. Forested area valued at.i .0026 .0010 .0140 .0356 .ooiS^ $.0038 .0010 .0067 .0066 .0170" A of 1% A of 1% A of 1% A of 1% $4 per acre ^ Northern hardwoods. . White pine 6 per acre 8 per acre Sprout hardwoods United States National Forests 10 per acre 1 These values are the ones used in getting the figures in the preceding column and are believed to be extremely conservative especially for central and southern New England. 2 Based on the value of the wild lands of Maine, as assessed for the year 1906. ' Season 1909. * Average for 1909 and 1910. This is really the cost of administrating the National Forests and includes cost of protection. APPENDIX 419 Probably the most noticeable thing in Table I is the small area burned over and the low damage in the northern hard- woods region as compared to the other three regions. This is more accurately shown in Table II. From this table it is seen that in the northern hardwoods region only .001 of the forested area is annually burned over as against .0026, .014 and .0356 respectively in the spruce, white pine, and sprout hardwoods region. It is all the more striking since less money per acre protected is spent here than in any of the other regions. The northern hardwoods region is naturally comparatively immune from forest fires, as has been explained in discussing the forest fire situation there. The tables clearly show that the well-settled regions have a more serious fire problem than the unsettled regions. Compare the per cent burned over and cost of protection for the spruce and sprout hardwoods region, and compare the latter with the United States National forests where only .0018 of the forested area was burned over in 1909. The amount of money spent annually for fire protection (in- cluding fighting fires) should be looked upon as an insurance premium paid for the protection of the forest. To show the rate of premium now paid, column 4 of Table II gives the per cent of the total value of the forest lands spent annually for fire protection. This ranges annually from one-fiftieth of one per cent in the northern hardwoods region to one-tenth of one per cent in the spruce region. By comparison with rates paid for insurance on buildings in cities where the best fire protection is afforded and fire hazard is enormously less than in the forest, the absurdly low rate now paid for the protection (insurance) of forests from fires will be at once apparent. Sentiment for the better protection of the forest is rapidly growing in New England, and the state organizations for forest fire protection are each year becoming more efiicient. The increase of public sentiment should result in making available larger sums of money for fire protection and this, with the greater efficiency of the organization, will undoubtedly re- sult in a lessening of the annual forest fire loss BIBLIOGRAPHY. This bibliography is not intended to cover all material bearing on the trees and forests of New England, but an effort has been made to include such books, pamphlets and articles deahng with forestry problems as might prove of practical value to the reader. Nearly all the reports and bulletins issued by the various state forestry departments will be found listed here, as well as such of the bulletins and circulars issued by the United States Forest Service, as bear on New England conditions. State and federal publications, reports of forestry associations and societies, current articles and a few books make up forestry literature at the present time. The material is arranged alphabetically according to authors. Ayres, Philip W. Annual Reports of Society for Protection of New Hamp- shire Forests. Concord. (Commence with 1902.) Ayres, Philip W. Commercial Importance of the White Mountain Forests. Circular 168, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 32 pages. 1909. Ayres, Philip W. Is New England's Wealth in Danger? New England ]\Iaga- zine, March, April, May, 1908. Bowman, Isaiah. Forest Physiography. New York. 730 pages. 1911. Bradley, Reginald R. Suggestions for Handling Pulpwood Lands in Eastern Canada. Forestry Quarterly. Vol. VI. Ithaca. Pages 220-228. 1908. Bristol, T. L. Some Practical Results of Forestry in Connecticut. Fifth Annual Bulletin, Connecticut Forestry Association. Hartford. Pages 13-17. 1907. Brixton, W. E. Tenth Report of the State Entomologist, contained in Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Part IX of Biennial Report of 1909-10. New Haven. Pages 657-712. 1911. Bronson, Elliott B. Discussion of the Connecticut Forest Fire Law. Proceed- ings of the Connecticut Forestry Association. Hartford. Pages 20-23. 1909. Bryan, A. Hugh. Maple-sap Sirup: Its manufacture, composition and effect of environment thereon. Bulletin 134, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 10 pages. 1910. 420 BIBLIOGRAPHY 421 Bryant, Edw. Sohier. Practical Forestry for Waterworks. Reprinted from Journal of the New England Waterworks Association. Vol. XXV. Boston. Pages 243-246. iQii. Card, Fred W. Forests of Rhode Island. Bulletin No. 88, Rhode Island Agri- cultural Experiment Station. Kingston, R. I. 39 pages. 1902. Carr, M. S., and others. Soil Survey of Washington County, New York. Ad- vance Sheets, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 59 pages. 191 1. Cary, Austin. Unprofessional Forestry. Forestry Quarterly. Vol. IV. Ithaca. Pages 183-187. 1906. Cary, Austin. Practical Forestry on a Spruce Tract in Maine. Circular 131, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 15 pages. 1907. Cary, Austin. A Manual for Northern Woodsmen. Published by Harvard University, Cambridge. 250 pages. 1909. Chandler, B. A. Vermont Summer School of Forestry and Horticulture. .A.mer- ican Forestry, Dec, 191 1. Pages 735-740. Clark, A. M. Trees of Vermont. Bulletin No. 73, Vermont Agricultural Experi- ment Station. Burlington. 50 pages. 1899. Clinton, G. P. Report of the Station Botanist, contained in Connecticut Agri- cultural E.xperiment Station Report for 1908. New Haven. Pages 849-907. 1909. Connecticut, State Forester. Forest Survey of Litchfield and New Haven Counties. Connecticut Forestry Pubhcation No. 5, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. New Haven. 47 pages. 1909. Connecticut, State Forester. Instructions to Fire Wardens and Others, Relative to Forest Fires in Connecticut. New Haven. 40 pages. Connecticut, State Forester. Annual Reports of the State Forester of Con- necticut. New Haven. (Commence with 1906.) Connecticut, State Forester. Chestnut in Connecticut, and the Improvement of the Woodlot. Bulletin No. 154, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. 41 pages. 1906. Cook, H. O. A Forest Fire-wagon for Massachusetts Towns. Bulletin of the Harvard Forestry Club. Vol. I., pp. 42-43. Cambridge. 1911. Cotton, J. S. Improvement of Pastures in Eastern New York, and the New England States. Circular No. 49, Bureau of Plant Industrj', U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 10 pages. 19 10. Curtis, E. D. The Practice of Forestry by a Connecticut Land Owner. Pro- ceedings of the Connecticut Forestry Association. Hartford. Pages 24-31. 1909. Dana, S. T. Paper Birch in the Northeast. Circular No. 163, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 37 pages. 1907. Defebaugh, James Elliott. History of the Lumber Industry of .America. Vol.11. New England. Chicago. Pages 1-301. 1907. Eddy, E. M. C. Cooperation of a Town and Railroad for Fire Protection. Pro- ceedings of the Connecticut Forestry Association. Hartford. Pages 16-19. 1909. 422 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND FiPPiN, Elmer O. Soil Survey of the Connecticut Valley. Fifth Report Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washing- ton. Pages 39-58. 1904. Fisher, R. T. An Account of Operations in the Harvard Forest, 1908-09. Bulletin of the Harvard Forestry Club. Vol.1. Pages 1-9. Cambridge. 191 1. Fox, Wm. F., and Hubbard, Wm. F. The Sugar-maple Industry. Bulletin No. 59, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 56 pages. 1905. Goodrich, L. W. Forestry. Reprinted from Journal of the New England Waterworks Association. Vol. XXIV. Hartford. Pages 345-352. 1910. Gould, H. F. Some Preliminary Investigations concerning the Ratio between DBH and DIB at Stump for White Pine in Massachusetts. Bulletin of the Harv^ard Forestry Club. Vol.1. Pages 44-45. Cambridge. 1911. Graves, H. S. American Forestry. Proceedings of the Connecticut Forestry Association. Hartford. Pages 32-40. 1909. Graves, H. S. The Management of Second-growth Sprout Forests. Separate 525, Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1910. Washington. Pages 157-168. 1910. Graves, H. S. Notes on the Rate of Growth of Red Cedar, Red Oak and Chest- nut. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. III. Ithaca. Pages 349-353- IQOS- Graves, H. S. Principles of Handling Woodlands. New York. 320 pages. 1911. Graves, H. S. Forest Mensuration. New York. 437 pages. 1906. Graves, H. S., and Fisher, R. T. The Woodlot. Bulletin No. 42, Forest Ser- vice, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 89 pages. 1903. Hawes, a. F. Economic Thinning of White Pine. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. V. Ithaca. Pages 368-372. 1907. Hawes, A. F. Review of the Forestry Situation in Connecticut. Fifth Annual Bulletin, Connecticut Forestry Association. Hartford. Pages 5-13. 1907. Hawes, A. F. The Forests of Connecticut. The Connecticut Magazine, Vol. X, No. 2. Hawes, A. F. Forestry. The Salvation of a Wornout Connecticut Town. New England Magazine, September, 1908. Hawley, R. C. Treatment of Hardwood Lands in Southwestern Connecticut. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. V. Ithaca. Pages 283-295. 1907. Hopkins, A. D. Bulletin No. 28, Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. Hopkins, A. D. Some of the Principal Insect Enemies of Coniferous Forests in the United States. Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1903. Pages 265-282. Hopkins, A. D. Contributions Toward a Monograph of the Bark-weevils of the Genus Pissodes. Technical Series No. 20, Part I, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 67 pages. 1911. Hopkins, A. D. Barkbeetles of the Genus Dendroctonus. Bulletin No. 83, Part I, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 169 pages. 1909. BIBLIOGRAPHY 423 Jones, L. R. Forestry in Vermont. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI. Ithaca. Pages 234-236. 1908. Jones, C. H., and others. The Maple-sap Flow. Bulletin No. 103, Vermont Agricultural E.xperiment Station. 140 pages. 1903. (Bulletin No. 105, by J. L. Hills, is a popular edition of Bulletin No. 103. 28 pages.) Kempton, Harold B. Planting of White Pine in New England. Bulletin No. 45, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 40 pages. 1903. Kirkland, a. H. The Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. Bulletin No. i. Office of the Superintendent for suppressing the gipsy and brown-tail moths. Boston. 27 pages. 1905. Lee, Ora, Jr. Soil Survey of the Orono Area, Maine. Advance Sheets, Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1909, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 37 pages. 19 10. Maine, Forest Commissioner. Biennial Reports of the Forest Commissioner of Maine. Waterville. (Commence with 1892.) Massachusetts. Mountain Parks of Massachusetts. Woodland and Roadside. Page 23. Boston. June, 1909. Massachusetts, State Forester. Reforestation in Massachusetts. Boston. 35 pages. 1910. Massachusetts, State Forester. The Chestnut-bark Disease. Boston. 7 pages. 1911. - Massachusetts, State Forester, Laws Relating to Forestry and the Sup- pression of the Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. Boston. 67 pages. 1910. Massachusetts, State Forester. We Must Stop Forest Fires in Massachusetts. Boston. 43 pages. 1909. Massachusetts, State Forester. How to make Improvement Thinnings in Massachusetts Woodlands. Boston. 21 pages. 1910. Massachusetts, State Forester. A Study of the Massachusetts Wood-using Industries. Boston. 37 pages. 1910. Massachusetts, State Forester. Annual Reports of the State Forester of Massachusetts. Boston. (Commence with 1904.) Massachusetts, State Forester. The "Wilt Disease," or "Flacherie," of the Gipsy Moth. Boston. 60 pages. 1911. Massachusetts, State Forester. Forest Working Plan for Land of City of Fall River on the North Watuppa Watershed. Boston. 30 pages. 1909. Massachusetts, State Forester. Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts. Boston. 50 pages. 1908. Massachusetts. A Harvard University Forest. Woodland and Roadside. December, 1907. Mass.achusetts. Moth Work. American Forestry. Washington. Page 501. August, 191 1. Metcalf, H. The Present Status of the Chestnut-bark Disease. Bulletin No. 141, Part V, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Wash- ington. 19H. 424 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND Metcalf, H. The Immunity of the Japanese Chestnut to the Bark Disease. Bulletin No. 121, Part VI., Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. Pages 3-4. 1908. MooNEY, C. N., and Byers, W. C. Soil Survey of the Nashua Area, New Hampshire. Advance Sheets, Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1909, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 34 pages. 1910. MooNEY, Charles N., and others. Soil Survey of Merrimack County, New Hampshire. Advance Sheets, Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1906, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 39 "pages. 1908. Moore, Barrington, and Rogers, R. L. Notes on Balsam Fir. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. V. Ithaca. Pages 41-50. 1907. New Hampshire, Forestry Commission. Reports of the Forestry Commission of New Hampshire, under dates of 1885, 1891, 1893 and 1894. New Hampshire, Forestry Commission. Biennial Reports of the Forestry Commission of New Hampshire. Concord. (Commence with 1895-96.) New Hampshire, Forestry Commission. Forest Laws and Organization of the Forestry Department. Concord, N. H. 63 pages. 1911. New Hampshire, State Forester. Forest Laws of New Hampshire. Bulle- tin No. I, New Hampshire Forestry Commission. Concord. 17 pages. 1909. Peters, J. G. Cooperation with States in Fire Patrol. American Forestry. Washington. Pages 383-384. July, 1911. Pettis, C. R. How to Plant and Grow Conifers in the Northeastern States. Bulletin No. 76, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. Page 36. 1909. Rhode Island, Commissioner of Forestry. Laws Pertaining to Forests. Providence. Page 17. Rhode Island, Commissioner of Forestry. Annual Reports of Commissioner of Forestry of Rhode Island. Providence. (Commence with 1907.) Rodgers, D. M., and Burgess, A. F. Report on the Field Work Against the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth. Bulletin 87, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 81 pages. 1910. Schwartz, G. Frederick. Sprout Forests of the Housatonic V'alley. Forestry Quarterly, Vol. V. Ithaca. Pages 1 21-153. iQo?- Spalding, V. M. The White Pine. Bulletin No. 22, Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 179 pages. 1899. Spaulding, Perley. The Blister Rust of White Pine. Bulletin No. 206, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 88 pages. 1911. Spaulding, Perley. European Currant Rust on White Pine in America. Cir- cular No. 38, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Wash- ington. 4 pages. 1909. Spaulding, Perley. Present Status of the White Pine Blight. Circular No. 35, Bureau of Plant Ipdustry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 12 pages. 1909. Spring, Samuel N. Natural Replacement of White Pine on Old Fields in New England. Bulletin No. 63, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 32 pages. 1905. BIBLIOGRAPHY 425 Start, E. A. Known by Their Fruits. American Forestry, September, 1910. Washington. Pages 535-539- iQio- Stephen, John W. Lopping Branches in Lumbering Operations. Reprint from the Fifteenth Annual Report Forest, Fish and Game Commission, New York State. Albany. Pages 94-102. 1909. SuTER, H. M. Forest Fires in Adirondacks in 1903. Circular No. 26, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 15 pages. 1904. Thomson, E. H. Agricultural Survey of Four Townships in Southern New Hamp- shire. Circular No. 75, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Washington. 19 pages. 1911. Vermont, State Forester. The Management of Vermont Forests with Special Reference to White Pine. Bulletin No. 156, Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station. Burlington. Pages 100-139. 191 1. Vermont, State Forester. Annual Reports of the State Forester. Burlington. (Commence with 1909.) Vermont, State Forester. Preliminary Statement Regarding the Forestry Problems of Vermont. Publication No. i, Vermont Forest Service. Burling- ton. 13 pages. 1909. Vermont, State Forester. Forest Fires in Vermont. Publication No. 2, Ver- mont Forest Service. Burlington. 48 pages. 1909. Vermont, State Forester. Instructions to Forest Fire Wardens and Woodland Owners Regarding Forest Fires. Forest Service Publication No. 7. Burling- ton. 19 pages. 1911. Von Schrenk, Herman. Some Diseases of New England Conifers. Bulletin No. 25, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 56 pages. 1900. Weigle, Wm. G., and Frothingham, E. H. The Aspens. Bulletin No. 93, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. ^:i pages. 1911. Wentling, J. P. Wood Used for Packing Bo.xes in New England. Circular No. 78, Forest Service, U. S. Department of .'\griculture. Washington. 4 pages. 1907. Westgate, J. M. Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. Bulletin No. 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. 36 pages. 1904. Wilder, Henry J., and Belden, H. L. Soil Survey of the Vergennes Area, Vermont — New York. Si.xth Report Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington. Pages 73-94. 1905. Wildes, W. K. State Forests in Vermont. American Forestry, May, 191 1. Washington. Pages 253-256. Wilson, James. Report of Secretary of Agriculture on Southern .Appalachian, and White Mountains Watersheds. Senate Document No. 91. Si.xtieth Congress. Washington. 39 pages. 1908. WooLSEY, T. S., Jr. Strip Thinning. Proceedings Society of American Foresters. Vol. II. Washington. Pages 38-41. 191 1. TABLES. It has been the aim of the authors to gather together all the reli- able tables at present available, which contain figures showing vol- umes and growth for New England trees and forests. The principal log rules used in the region have also been included. In connection with the practice of forestry such tables are of great value, and it is unfortunate that as yet, owing to the recent rise of the movement, more information has not been obtained. The field is very incom- pletely covered and indeed for many important species data is en- tirely lacking. For certain trees, such as white pine and chestnut, comparatively full studies have been made, and many valuable tables are available. Except for tables XII and XXXIV, none of the tables given here are original, but have been taken from various sources, of which acknowledgment has been made in the preface. Also, in connection with each table will be found a statement as to the source from which it was secured. The tables have been arranged in the following groups: Log Rules. Volume Tables. Growth of Individual Trees. Yield Tables. 426 TABLES 427 LOG RULES. TABLE in. — SCRIBNER LOG RULE. (Decimal " C ")2 Length in feet. Diameter Diameter in 6 8 10 12 14 16 in inches. inches. Contents in board feet. 6 05 0-5 I I I 2 6 7 0.5 I I 2 2 3 7 8 I I 2 2 2 3 8 9 I 2 3 3 3 4 9 10 2 3 3 3 4 6 10 II 2 3 4 4 5 7 II 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 10 13 14 4 6 7 9 10 II 14 15 5 7 9 II 12 14 15 16 6 8 10 14 16 16 17 7 9 12 il 16 18 17 18 8 II 13 16 19 21 18 19 9 12 15 18 21 24 19 20 II 14 17 21 24 28 20 21 12 15 19 23 27 30 21 22 13 17 21 25 29 33 22 23 14 19 23 28 33 38 23 24 15 21 25 30 35 40 24 25 17 23 29 34 40 46 25 26 19 25 31 37 44 50 26 27 21 27 34 41 48 55 27 28 22 29 36 44 51 58 28 29 23 31 38 46 53 61 29 30 25 33 41 49 57 66 30 31 27 36 44 53 62 71 31 32 28 37 46 55 64 74 32 33 29 39 49 59 69 78 33 34 30 40 SO 60 70 80 34 35 33 44 55 66 77 88 35 36 35 46 58 69 81 92 36 1 Taken from "The Woodsman's Handbook." 2 The total scale is obtained by multiplying the figures in this table by 10. Thus the contents of a 6-inch 8-foot log are given as 0.5, so the total scale is 5 board feet. A 30-inch 16-foot log is given as 66, or a total scale of 660 board feet. 428 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE IV. — DOYLE LOG RULE. Length in feet. Diameter in inches. 8 10 12 14 16 Contents in board feet. 6 2.0 2.5 3-0 3-5 4.0 7 4-5 5-6 6.8 7-9 9.0 8 8 10 12 14 16 9 12 16 19 22 25 lO 18 23 27 32 36 II 24 31 37 43 49 12 32 40 48 56 64 13 40 50 61 71 81 U 50 62 75 88 100 15 60 75 91 106 121 i6 72 90 108 126 144 T7 84 106 127 148 169 i8 98 122 147 171 196 19 112 141 169 197 225 20 128 160 192 224 256 21 144 181 217 253 289 22 162 202 243 283 324 23 180 226 271 313 359 24 200 250 300 350 400 25 220 276 331 3S6 441 26 242 302 363 423 484 27 264 330 397 463 530 28 288 360 432 504 576 29 312 391 469 547 62s 30 338 422 507 591 676 31 364 456 547 638 729 32 39? 490 588 686 784 33 420 526 631 736 841 34 45° 562 675 787 900 35 480 601 721 841 961 36 512 640 768 896 1,024 TABLES 429 TABLE v. — MAINE, HOLLAND, OR BANGOR LOG RULE.i Diameter in inches. Length in feet. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Contents in board feet. 10 12 19 27 32 42 SI 65 75 89 II 14 21 30 36 46 57 70 81 98 12 15 23 33 39 51 62 78 90 107 13 17 25 36 43 55 67 85 98 "5 14 18 27 39 46 59 72 92 105 124 15 19 29 41 49 64 78 98 113 133 16 20 31 44 52 68 83 105 120 142 T7 22 33 47 56 72 88 III 128 151 18 23 35 5° 59 76 93 118 13s 160 19 24 37 52 62 81 98 124 143 169 20 25 39 55 65 85 103 131 150 178 21 27 41 58 69 89 109 137 158 186 22 28 43 61 72 94 114 144 165 19s 23 29 45 63 75 98 119 150 173 204 24 30 47 66 78 102 124 157 180 213 25 32 49 69 82 106 129 164 188 222 26 33 50 72 85 III 134 170 195 231 27 34 52 74 88 115 140 177 203 240 28 36 54 76 92 119 145 • 183 210 249 29 37 56 79 95 123 150 190 218 258 30 38 58 82 98 128 155 196 225 266 I Jiameter in inches ■ Length in feet. 15 16 17 ., _!'„ 20 21 22 23 24 C intents in board fe et. 10 lOI III 128 145 169 189 210 227 250 274 . II III 123 142 160 1S7 209 232 250 274 298 12 121 134 154 174 203 227 252 272 300 327 13 131 145 167 189 220 246 273 295 326 357 14 141 157 179 203 237 265 294 318 351 384 15 151 168 192 218 254 284 315 340 376 412 16 161 179 205 232 271 302 336 363 401 439 17 171 190 218 247 288 321 357 386 426 466 18 181 201 231 261 305 340 378 408 451 494 19 192 212 243 276 322 359 399 431 476 521 20 202 223 256 290 339 378 420 454 501 549 21 212 23 s 269 305 356 397 441 476 526 576 22 222 246 282 319 373 415 462 499 551 604 23 232 257 29s 334 390 435 483 522 576 631 24 242 268 307 348 407 454 504 545 601 659 25 252 279 320 363 424 473 525 567 626 686 26 262 291 333 378 441 491 545 590 651 713 27 272 302 346 392 458 Sio 566 613 676 741 28 282 3T^3 359 407 475 529 587 635 701 768 29 292 324 371 421 492 548 608 658 726 796 30 302 335 384 436 509 S67 629 681 751 823 Taken from "A Manual for Northern Woodsmen.' 430 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE VL — NEW HAMPSHIRE LOG RULE. Diameter in inches. Length in feet. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 Contents in board feet. I 3 7 10 8 ".I *ii 12 9 10 II 12 13 14 II II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 32 33 34 35 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 15 IS 13 15 16 4 5 6 2 6 7 ■'8 9 10 I 3 4 20 17 18 7 "8 20 19 5 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 '18 19 20 21 25 25 23 24 25 9 II 13 15 16 17 18 6 30 8 10 12 13 14 15 16 27 28 30 7 9 II 35 29 t 30 31 32 33 34 f^ 37 3« 39 40 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 '28 29 30 31 14 17 2 6 '8" 10 12 13 35 15 16 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 40 40 43 9 14 17 20 21 22 12 IS 18 48 10 16 19 45 50 • Taken from "A Manual for Northern Woodsmen." TABLES 431 TABLE VL — NEW HAMPSHIRE LOG RULE. — Continued. Diameter in inches. Length in feet. ^^ 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Contents in board feet. 12 21 25 27 29 32 34 37 39 42 45 48 51 54.0 57 61 13 ■• . 20 25 29 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58.0 62 66 14 2 0 . . . 34 37 40 43 46 49 53 56 60 63.0 67 71 15 •• '26 31 43 46 49 53 56 60 64 68.0 72 76 16 .. • 25 30 '36 39 46 49 53 56 60 64 68 72.0 77 81 17 .. 35 ■45 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 77.0 81 86 18 2 s ••• 31 ■40 44 51 55 59 63 68 72 77 81.0 86 91 19 .. - 30 '36 39 50 54 58 62 67 71 76 81 86.0 91 96 20 45 49 57 61 66 70 75 80 85 90.0 96 lOI 21 3 0 . . . '36 40 60 64 69 74 79 84 89 95 -o 100 106 22 45 49 '58 63 67 72 77 83 88 94 99.0 105 III 23 .. • '36 40 '56 65 70 76 81 86 92 98 104.0 no 116 24 .. 45 50 68 74 79 84 90 96 102 108.0 115 121 25 3 5 39 '56 61 '66 71 77 82 88 94 100 106 113. 0 120 126 26 .. 45 49 74 80 85 91 98 104 III 117. 0 125 132 27 '56 '66 77 83 89 95 lOI 108 115 122.0 129 137 28 4 0 . . . '63 74 80 86 92 98 105 112 119 126.0 134 142 29 .. ■ 45 50 55 '60 65 71 83 89 95 102J109 116 123 131. 0 139 143 30 .. 85 92 99 105,113 120 128 1350 144 152 31 •• '64 '82 88 95 102 109116 124 132 140.0 148 157 32 4 5 50 55 60 72 '78 91 98 105 112 120 128 136 145 0 153 162 33 • 74 94 lOI 108 116 124 132 140 149.0 158 167 34 '64 70 '83 90 97 104 112 ii9!r28 136 145 154.0 163 172 35 4 9 55 '60 100 107 115 i23ii3i 140 149 158.0 167 177 36 . 74 81 '88 95 102 no 118 i26!i35 144 153 162 .5 172 182 37 . 70 105 113 122 130 139 148 157 167.0 177 187 38 . '65 ... ICX3 108 116 125 133 143 152 162 172.0 182 192 39 5'6i 'k'l 95 III 120 128 137 146 156 166 176.0 187 197 40 75 90 io6 114 123 131 140'iso 160 170 181. 0 191 202 432 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE VIL — VERMONT LOG RULE. Diameter in inches. Length in feet. 6 7 8 Q 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 Contents in board feet 8 12 16 21 27 33 40 48 S6 6S 75 8S 96 108 9 13 18 24 30 37 4S S4 03 73 84 96 108 121 lO IS 20 27 34 42 SO 60 70 82 94 107 120 135 i6 22 29 37 46 ss 66 77 90 103 117 132 143 i8 24 32 40 SO 60 72 84 98 112 128 144 162 19 27 3S 44 S4 66 78 92 106 122 139 157 175 21 29 37 47 S^ 71 84 90 114 131 149 169 i8q 22 31 40 5^ 62 76 90 106 122 141 160 181 202 Diameter in inches. Length in feet. 19 20 '■ 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Contents in board feet. 8 I20 133 147 161 176 192 208 225 243 261 280 300 9 I3S ISO 1^5 181 198 216 234 253 273 294 315 337 lO 150 167 184 202 220 240 260 282 304 327 350 375 II 16^ 183 202 222 242 264 286 310 334 359 38s 412 12 180 200 220 242 264 288 312 338 364 392 420 450 13 iq6 217 239 262 287 312 339 366 395 425 456 487 14 211 233 2S7 282 309 336 36S 394 425 457 491 525 IS 226 250 276 302 331 360 391 422 456 490 526 562 TABLFS 433 TABLE VIII. — CLARK'S INTERNATIONAL LOG RULE.i Length in feet. Diam- eter in 8 9 10 n 12 13 14 It 16 17 18 19 20 inches. Contents in board feet 2 6 10 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 20 25 25 30 30 7 IS 15 15 20 20 25 25 30 30 35 35 40 45 8 20 20 25 25 30 35 35 40 45 45 50 55 60 9 25 30 30 35 40 45 50 50 55 60 65 70 75 lO 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 85 90 95 II 40 45 50 55 65 70 75 80 90 95 105 no 115 12 50 55 65 70 75 85 90 100 105 IIS 125 130 140 13 60 65 75 85 90 100 no 120 130 140 145. 155 165 14 70 80 90 100 no 120 130 140 150 160 17s 185 195 15 80 90 105 115 125 140 150 160 175 i8s 200 215 225 i6 95 105 120 130 145 160 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 17 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 245 260 275 295 i8 120 13s 155 170 185 205 220 240 255 275 29s 310 330 19 135 155 175 190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350 370 20 150 170 195 215 235 255 275 300 320 345 36s 390 410 21 170 190 215 235 260 285 305 330 355 380 405 430 455 22 185 210 235 260 285 315 340 365 390 420 445 475 500 23 205 230 260 285 315 345 370 400 430 460 490 520 550 24 225 255 285 315 345 375 405 440 470 500 535 565 600 25 245 275 310 345 375 410 445 475 510 545 580 61S 650 26 265 300 335 370 405 445 480 520 555 595 630 670 70s 27 290 325 365 405 440 480 520 560 600 640 680 725 76s 28 310 350 395 435 475 520 560 605 645 690 735 780 82s 29 335 380 425 470 510 560 605 650 695 740 790 835 88s 30 360 405 455 500 550 600 645 695 745 795 845 895 95° 31 385 435 485 540 590 640 695 745 800 850 905 960 1015 32 410 465 520 575 630 685 740 795 850 910 965 1025 1080 33 440 495 555 610 670 730 790 850 905 970 1030 1090 1150 34 470 530 590 650 715 775 840 900 965 1030 1095 1 160 1225 35 495 560 625 690 755 825 890 955 1025 1095 1160 1230 1300 36 525 595 665 735 800 875 945 1015 1085 1 160 1230 1305 1375 H 560 630 705 775 850 925 1000 1075 1150 1225 1300 1380 1455 38 590 665 745 820 895 975 1055 1135 1210 1295 1375 1455 IS3S 39 620 705 785 865 945 1030 IIIO 1195 1280 1365 1450 153s 1620 40 655 740 825 910 995 108s 1170 1260 1345 1435 1525 1615 1 70s 41 690 780 870 960 1050 1 140 1230 1325 1415 1510 1605 1700 1795 42 725 820 915 'lOIO IIOO 1200 1295 1390 1490 1585 1685 1785 1885 43 760 860 960 1060 "55 1260 1360 1460 1560 1665 1770 1870 1975 44 800 90c 1005 mo 1215 1320 1425 1530 1635 1745 1855 i960 2070 45 835 945 1055 1 160 1270 I1380 1490 1600 1715 1825 1940 2050 216s 46 875 99c IIOO 1215 11330 1445 1560 1675 1790 1910 2030 2145 2265 47 915 1035 1150 JI270 1390 1510 1630 1750 1870 1995 2120 2240 2365 48 955 1 08c 1205 .325 ,1450 11575 1700 1830 1955 2085 2210 2340 2470 I By permission of Judson F. Clark. ' The contents are for logs sawn with band saws cutting one-eighth inch kerf. 434 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE IX.— LOG SCALE FOR WHITE PINE, 1-INCH BOARDS.' Based on the measurement of 1209 logs sawed in Massachusetts mills. — Circular saw, j-inch kerf. Diameter, inside bark at small end, in inches. Length of log, feet. Contents in board feet. 13 17 17 21 22 27 29 35 37 44 47 55 S8 68 70 82 83 97 96 113 III 131 26 32 40 51 64 79 98 115 136 158 Diameter, inside bark at small end, in inches. Length of log, feet. Contents in board feet. 104 117 131 129 146 i6s 184 206 230 25s 280 310 340 150 170 192 220 243 272 300 330 180 205 230 256 288 1 Taken from "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts." TABLE X. — LOG RULE FOR SECOND-GROWTH WHITE PINE.» — SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. (Cut into both square and round-edged boards; circular saw, j-inch kerf.) Based on measurements of 5177 logs. Length of log, feet. Diameter, inside bark at small end of log, in inches. Length of log, feet. Diameter, 10 12 14 10 12 14 at small end of log, in inches. Basis, 613 logs. Basis, 191S logs. Basis, 2649 logs. Basis, 613 logs. Basis, 191S logs. Basis, 2649 logs. Contents in board feet. Contents in board feet. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 5 8 13 18 24 30 38 47 56 66 77 7 10 15 21 28 36 46 56 68 81 96 9 12 17 24 33 42 52 65 80 97 115 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 89 102 112 130 149 169 189 211 235 260 284 134 'H 176 198 222 247 275 304 333 364 398 13 > Taken from Biennial Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission for the years iQos-1906. TABLES 435 TABLE XL — LOG RULE FOR SECOND-GROWTH HARDWOODS.^ — SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. (Cut into 1 5-inch, round-edged boards; circular saw, |-inch kerf.) Based on 1831 12-foot logs. Length of log, feet. inside bark at small end 10 12 14 of log, Contents in board feet. 4 6 8 10 5 9 II 13 6 13 16 19 7 18 22 26 8 25 30 35 9 32 39 46 10 42 51 60 II 54 65 76 L ength of log, feet. inside bark at small end 10 12 14 of log, in inches. Contents in board feet. 12 68 82 96 13 «3 100 117 14 100 120 140 15 117 141 i6s 16 137 i6s 193 17 160 192 224 18 i«S 222 259 Taken from Biennial Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission for the years 1905-1906. TABLE Xn. LOG RULE GIVING VOLUME OF CHESTNUT LOGS 8 FEET LONG IN TIES.i Diameter, out- Diameter, out- side bark at Number of Class. side bark at Number of Class. small end, in ties. ties. inches. inches. 7 Second 16 2 First 8 Second 17 2 First 9 First 18 3 First 10 First 19 3 First II First 20 4 First 12 First 21 4 First 13 First 22 5 First 14 First 23 6 First IS 2 First 24 7 First 'Taken from Bull. 154 of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. 436 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND 1 1 M ^ ^^ ?=S S S- J2^ {:; ic 2 vS' ^ Si |:r S Ss"^ ?^ ?: S; gvS ^ ^ S;g ^ S^g§ 8. 2 M M CO TT >0 1^C30 O -o t^ ■* VO M H l^ M lo O rtoO fOOO "500 rOOO MMMMI-l ^ Tj-rct^tot^^Tj-ooo MOO O loioOt^OO t^-i ^i-i M r^\0 O^ O M t-w->^iot^O ^ r-i OO-O-. H ■:}• OO oo IN CO >O00 ro OnM3 lo^o 00 m mD in OOO 00 H M (N fo "d- >o J^oo O w ro >^00 O <^i i^ooo M ^t^O Tt-r^M loo rooo m i^ m o m MIHMMMCNrO<^^-*'*lO>0 lOVO ^O t^ t^OO OO 0> " O lO TJ-VO MOOiOiNDOro OOVO IN M rOOO >0000 roOf^OM ^<3 O" 'i-r^O rOt^O t)-:-.w LoO-^t^ MMMMHMININININrOCOrO^Tl-TtLOto lOO O so t^ !>. o C> t^so sot^OiNioOioiN o t^vo >or^O<^>JlO>o0>0 t^OO M COlOt^O" Tj-so CO w T)-0 O IN lo O 0>0 lO SO >0 t^ . ^ O ro t^ M T)-00 H ■*t--0 0 t^ t^co 00 00 OO OO 00 t^ r^O to iT) M M M 0. coco^tor^oo OM ^. ^;oj^OM jojo^ O cojo^M ^^O j^so O^ « s$R^!;;^Sj;?^=s°s s^i^^cS ^^ ?ic^^^^ ;??rg>cS ^ a?:ss c;>?^;^ 1-1 M OvO 00 O " color^O00 M lOtOM tJ-COOh ^0 t^oo O O M c^ CO '^ too t^oo O O M c^ CO ^ too t^oO o O m (n co -sj- too TABLES 437 Tt On ->NO 00 On 1 -CX5 On On O ro -^ Th lr>o NO t^OO lONO OO fO Tj- lONO t^ONw O O CXD >0 T^ rOOO M On rOOO M ro ■* >o VD t^oO On On O rO fO -^ ■«1- lo lONO NO NO f^ t^oO Tj- r^ T^ M Tj- vooo (s looo (s >ooo oj lo on M c< ro •^ •* lONO r^ t^ r^oo OO CO On On 0> O to ro r^ Th OO'OO^OO'N looo O c) looo O oi looo O ts looo O Taken from U. S. Forest Service Circular 163. « New Hampshire rule. TABLES 441 TABLE XVIIL — PAPER BIRCH/ MERCHANTABLE VOLUMES, BY DIAMETER AND MERCHANTABLE LENGTH. Based on measurements of 396 trees. Merchantable length in feet. Diam- eter, breast high. 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 Volume. Inches. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. 5 6 7 8 9 10 1-7 2.4 3-3 4.2 5-3 7 12 17 23 29 35 2.0 2.9 3-9 5-2 6.6 8.1 10 16 21 28 34 41 49 2.3 3-4 4.6 6.0 7-5 9.2 II. 0 13 19 25 32 40 48 56 2.6 3-9 5-3 6.8 8.5 10.3 12.2 15 22 29 37 46 55 64 73 2.9 4-3 5-9 7.6 9-5 ii-S 13-5 15-7 18 25 33 42 51 61 71 82 3-2 4.8 6.5 8.4 IO-5 12.7 I5-0 I7-5- 20.1 21 28 37 47 57 68 80 92 105 118 5-4 7.2 9.2 II. 4 13.8 16.4 19.2 22.7 27.0 31 41 52 64 76 89 103 13 14 138 Merchantable length in feet Diam- eter, 40 44 48 52 S6 60 breast Volume. Inches. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. 5 6 "5.8' 35 "6.3' 7.0 ... 7 7.9 8.4 49 9-3 II. 6 '4 9.9 12.4 57 72 8 10. 0 57 10.8 62 13.2 76 14.0 80 9 12.3 69 133 75 14.2 81 15. 2 86 16. 1 92 17. 1 99 10 14.9 83 16.0 90 17.2 97 18.4 104 19.4 III 20.6 118 II 17.8 97 193 107 20.7 115 22.2 124 23.6 134 25.2 142 12 21.0 114 23.0 125 24.8 137 26.7 148 28.6 160 30.6 168 13 24.9 133 27.4 146 29.8 160 32.3 174 34-9 187 37-5 200 14 30.0 154 33 0 170 35-9 185 39-1 201 41-5 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Circular 163. 442 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XIX. — PAPER BIRCH/ SOLID CONTENTS PER STACKED CORD FOR SPOOLWOOD BOLTS OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, IN THE ROUND. Average diam- eter of stick. Sticks per cord. Solid wood per cord. Average diam- eter of stick. Sticks per cord. Solid wood per cord. Inches. Number. Cubic feet. Inches. Number. Cubic feet. S 6 7 8 135 io6 8S 6o 82.0 86.7 91.4 96.0 9 10 II 12 57 47 39 32 100. 0 102.8 104.6 105.2 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Circular 163. TABLE XX. — CHESTNUT VOLUME TABLE FOR SPROUT TREEvS.i PISGAH, NEW HAMPSHIRE. Based on measurements of 658 trees. Height in feet. Diameter, breast high, 60 70 80 90 100 in inches. Vo lume of used length, including bark , in cubic feet. 8 7-7 10. 0 8.5 II . I 9-7 130 9 14.4 10 12.4 14. 1 16.4 18.0 II 15.0 17-3 20.0 22.0 25-4 12 18.0 20.9 24.0 26. s 30.2 13 21. 1 24.7 28.0 31.0 35-1 14 24.4 28.3 32.0 35-7 40.0 15 28.0 32.7 36-5 40.6 451 16 32.0 36.8 41 .0 45-6 50-3 17 36.0 40.8 45-9 50.8 56.1 18 39-9 45-0 510 56.1 62.0 19 43-7 49-5 56.4 62.0 68.3 54.0 62.0 68.0 74.8 68.1 74-4 81.3 ' Taken from Biennial Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission for 1905-1906. TABLES 443 TABLE XXL — CHESTNUT! VOLUME TABLE IN CUBIC FEET, LITCHFIELD AND MIDDLESEX COUNTIES, CONNECTICUT.^ Based on measurements of 218 trees. Diameter, breast high. Height of tree n feet. 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 Volume in cubic feet. 0.2 •4 0.3 • 7 1.2 1.9 3 0.9 1.6 2.6 3-7 S-o 6.5 8.4 IO-5 12.8 iS-4 18.2 2.1 3-3 4.6 6.2 7-9 10. 1 12. 5 153 18.4 19.7 25.0 28.8 32.6 36. s 40.5 44-3 49.0 S 6 S-6 7-3 9-4 II. 8 I4-S 17.9 21-5 25.2 29.2 33.6 38.1 42.7 47-4 51-4 58.5 65.0 71.0 78.0 85-5 93-0 7 8 II. 0 13.6 16.6 20.7 25.0 29.1 33-8 38.8 44.0 49-5 55-5 61.5 68.5 75-5 83.0 91 .0 99-5 108.5 9 17.8 22.6 27.4 32.1 37.7 43-4 49-5 56.0 63.0 70.0 78.0 86.0 950 104.0 114. 0 124.0 19.0 24-3 30.0 35-3 41-3 48.0 5S-0 63.0 70-S 79.0 85.0 97.0 106.5 117. 0 1^8 0 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 24 25 140.0 Volumes include stem and topwood, with bark, up to a minimum diameter of 2 inches. Average stump heights vary from 6 inches for small trees to 21 inches for large ones. 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 For volume of trees under 8 inches diameter, breast high, twenty-one measurements made in 190S at Hyde Park, N. Y., by Mr. J. G. Peters, were combined with those made in Connecticut. 444 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXIL — CHESTNUT 1 VOLUME TABLE IN BOARD FEET^ LITCHFIELD COUNTY, CONNECTICUT. By International 2 Log Rule. Based on measurements of ii8 trees. Height of tree in feet. Diam- 50 60 70 80 90 Diam- eter (inside breast high. l?ark) of top. Stem. Top- wood. Stem. Top- wood., Stem. Top- wood. Stem. Top- wood. Stem. Top- wood. Inches. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Inches. 9 10 ^8 M 6.Q 22 8.0 7 lO 26 5-2 32 6.2 40 I 48 6.9 56 6.6 7 II 42 4-9 50 6.2 50 2 69 7.2 80 7.0 8 12 ss 4.« 68 6.1 78 3 92 7-5 107 7-7 8 13 74 4-7 87 6.1 100 5 116 7.6 133 7.8 8 14 92 4.6 107 6.2 122 6 141 8.4 160 8.6 8 15 no 4-9 127 6.6 147 8 2 168 9.0 190 9.8 9 16 129 5-1 150 6.9 172 8 7 196 10. 0 222 II-3 9 17 18 174 198 223 250 276 30s 333 363 396 6.9 6.9 6.9 7-1 7-9 7-9 8.5 9.2 9-7 200 9 10 3 n 226 II . 2 255 291 328 368 409 451 493 538 583 13s 150 17.0 19.2 21.4 23-7 9 10 227 257 ^88 257 292 327 363 12.6 19 20 10 4 6 13-6 15-2 16.8 10 1 1 10 21 318 350 385 1 2 13 15 t6 19. 1 21.3 24-3 23 24 25 27.0 8 479 520 31.0 35.8 457 t8 7 Note. ^ The volume in "topwood" (top and branches) was obtained by subtracting the aggre- gate cubic volume of sawlogs to a top diameter of 6 inches, inside bark, from the total used volume of the tree, in cubic feet (to a minimum diameter of 2 inches, outside bark). ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 Ten per cent deducted for circular saw kerf. TABLES 445 TABLE XXIIL— CHESTNUT! VOLUME TABLE IN TIES, LITCHFIELD COUNTY, CONNECTICUT. Height of tree in feet. 50 60 70 80 90 Diam- breast high. Volume. Ties. Top- wood. Ties. Top- wood. Ties. Top- wood. Ties. Top- wood. Ties. J»?. Basis. Inches. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. Trees. lO I 9.0 I 10 3 I II. I I lO-S 3 9-5 4 II I 8.2 I 9 6 2 10 7 2 10.4 4 9 8 9 12 2 7-5 2 0 3 10 4 3 10.3 4 10 I 9 13 3 6.9 3 8 3 3 9 7 4 10. 0 5 10 2 II 14 3 6.2 3 7 8 .=; 9 4 5 10. 0 8 10 3 17 IS 5 6.1 5 7 6 5 9 3 6 10. 0 9 10 7 6 16 6 6.0 6 7 2 7 9 I 7 10.2 9 II 2 14 17 18 6 A 7 8 Q 0 8 10.7 10 12 7 6 7 7 8 S 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 9 6 8 9 9 9 10 9 10 ii-S 12. I II IS ■^ II 19 8 12 1=; S 6 9 13-5 14-7 13 17 S 4 9 T 10 11 14 10 4 3 s 4 7 9 9 8 14 14 15 18 16.8 T7 21 8 4 23 24 25 18.8 Z'^ 2 5 13 15 13 14 21.6 19 29 34 I 2 16 8 24.4 0 All first-class ties — 6"X8"X8'. iVo/e. — The volume in "topwood" (top and branches) was obtained by subtracting the aggre- gate cubic volume of tie logs to a minimum top diameter of 9 inches, outside bark, from the total used volume of the tree, in cubic feet (to a minimum diameter of 2 inches, outside bark). I Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 446 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXIV. — RED OARi VOLUME TABLE IN CUBIC FEET AND BOARD FEET, SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. Based on measurements of 683 trees. Used length in feet. Num- Diam- ber of eter, board breast 10 20 30 40 50 feet per high. cubic foot of Volume. log. Inches. Cu. ft. Bd. ft.2 Cu.ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. 5 T 7 7 2.3 3-2 4. 7 3 f, 6 2 9 14 IS 22 7 2 0 6.0 29 7-5 9.2 II .4 34 43 58 73 4 8 8 •^ 6 18 6.0 30 7.5 39 9 /\ 6 25 7.5 40 9.4 48 I 10 5 7 31 9.1 SO II-3 60 13.8 17-4 99 4 II 7 0 37 II. 0 b3 139 74 16.4 90 20.5 118 s 12 8 3 44 I3-I 7« lb. 3 89 I9-S no 23 -9 143 7 13 9 5 54 IS -7 93 19.2 107 22.9 132 27.4 174 8 14 II I OS 18.3 109 22.2 126 26.5 160 31.8 208 5 9 IS 21.2 124 25.8 149 30.7 190 3b. I 243 6 I 16 24.2 143 29.2 173 3S-0 225 41.2 288 6 2 17 27.8 163 33-3 201 39-9 262 46.8 330 6 4 18 31.2 181 37. « 232 45 0 308 53 -o 378 6 6 19 34-9 202 42.0 265 .50.7 3.50 ,59-3 428 6 8 20 223 300 50.7 405 478 7 0 Ave rage 5 57 Taken from Biennial Report of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission for i9os-igo6. ' Actual mill cut in i^-inch round-edged boards, allowing J-inch for drying and dressing. TABLES 447 TABLE XXV. — RED, BLACK AND SCARLET OAKSi VOLUME TABLE IN CUBIC FEET, NEW LONDON COUNTY, CONNECTICUT; HYDE PARK, NEW YORK.= Based on measurements of 441 trees. Height of tree in feet. Diameter, breast high. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 inches. Volume in cubic feet. 2 0.3 0.4 ■9 1-5 2.4 3 4 1 .0 2.0 2.8 4-2 5-7 7.0 8.7 IO-5 13.0 16.4 21.0 25-3 30.2 2.6 3-6 50 6.6 8.5 10.9 13 -I 16.0 19.7 24-3 29.0 34-2 40.0 6.0 7.6 10. 2 13.0 15-7 19.0 22.3 27.7 32.6 38.1 44.1 7 8 8.9 12.0 15-2 18.4 22.1 26.2 31.0 36.3 42.0 48.2 54.6 61.0 68.0 9 10 17-3 21 0 II 25.2 293 34-3 40.0 45.8 52.4 59-1 66 0 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 74.0 Volumes include stem and topwood, with bark, up to a minimum diameter of 2 inches. Average stump heights vary from 5 inches for small trees to 21 inches for large ones. ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. g6. 2 Volumes for trees under 9 inches diameter, breast 1 Hyde Park, New York, by Mr. J. G. Peters. 1, are from measurements made in 1905 at 448 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXVL — RED, BLACK AND SCARLET OAKSi VOLUME TABLE IN BOARD FEET, NEW LONDON COUNTY, CONNECTICUT. By International Log^ Rule. Based on measurements of 175 trees. Height of tree in feet. Diameter, breast high. 50 60 70 80 Diameter (inside bark) of top. Volume. Stem. Top- wood. Stem. Top- wood. Stem. Top- wood. Stem. Top- wood. Inches. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Inches. 9 10 II 12 14 24 35 48 6.4 6.8 7-5 8.5 17 30 45 60 8.0 8.2 8.8 9-4 21 38 56 75 9,6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 7 8 2 49 68 89 IO-5 IO-5 10.6 13 62 lO.I 77 10.8 94 10 9 113 10.9 8 14 78 II. 4 9b II. 9 117 II 9 140 II. 7 9 IS 16 95 114 12.9 14.9 117 140 133 151 141 168 13 14 0 2 168 198 12 . 1 12.9 9 9 17 18 19s 224 254 15 t6 t. 9 7 229 263 300 134 139 15-5 10 19 t8 10 Note. — The volume in "topwood" (top and branches) was obtained by subtracting the aggregate cubic volume of tie logs to a minimum top diameter of 9 inches, outside bark, from the total used volume of the tree, in cubic feet (to a minimum diameter of 2 inches, outside bark). 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 Ten per cent deducted for circular saw kerf. TABLES 449 TABLE XXVIL — RED, BLACK AND SCARLET OAKSi VOLUME TABLE IN TIES. Based on measurements of 159 trees. Height of tree in feet. Diameter, 50 60 70 80 breast high. Volume. Basis. Ties. Top- wood. Ties. Top- wood. Ties. TOP- wood. Tie?. Top- wood. Inches. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. No. Cu. ft. Trees. 10 I 8.4 I 10.8 I 12.9 I 15-0 24 II I 9.0 I 10.8 2 12.6 2 14.2 35 12 2 9.8 2 II. I 2 12.6 3 13 -I 33 13 2 II. I 2 12.2 3 12.7 4 12.5 30 14 2 12.3 4 I3-0 S 13 I 5 12.4 13 15 4 13-7 4 14.0 5 13 -5 7 12.2 12 16 4 15-7 4 153 6 14.2 7 12. I 5 17 18 , 7 8 14.6 14.8 IS-2 8 4 2 II-5 II. 8 19 8 II .\1I first-class ties — 6' X S'X 8'. Note. — The volume in "topwood" (top and branches) was obtained by .subtracting the aggre- gate cubic volume of tie logs to a minimum top diameter of 9 inches, outside bark, from the total used volume of the tree, in cubic feet (to a minimum diameter of 2 inches, outside bark). ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 450 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXVIIL — SECOND-GROWTH WHITE OAK^ VOLUME OF CORD WOOD IN CUBIC FEET, HYDE PARK, NEW YORK.» Based on measurements of 349 trees. Height of tree in feet. Diameter, breast high, 20 30 40 50 60 Volume of cord wood in cubic feet.' 0.2 ■5 •9 .8 1-4 2-3 3-4 4.8 3 4 5 6 I . I 18 2.7 4.0 5-7 7-7 3-2 4.8 6.6 9.0 II. 8 15-3 19.6 24.6 5-7 7-9 10.6 7 8 9 136 17-3 22.6 28.0 13 32.2 > Measurements by T- G. Peters of the U. S Forest Service in 1905. 2 This table may be used for other second-growth hardwoods to be cut into cord wood. ' These volumes include all the tree that may be utilized for cord wood down to i inch in diameter. A cord made up of mixed diameters of second-growth wood is considered to contain 80 cubic feet ol solid wood, and this table can be reduced to cords by dividing by 80. TABLES 451 TABLE XXIX. — WHITE AND CHESTNUT OAKS 1 VOLUME TABLE IN CUBIC FEET, NEW LONDON COUNTY, CONNECTICUT; HYDE PARK, NEW YORK.2 Based on measurements of 293 trees. Diameter, breast high. Height of tree in feet. 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 Volume in cubic feet. 2 0-3 0.4 ■9 i-S 2.4 3 4 5 6 I.O 2.0 2.9 4-2 5-7 7-4 9-3 II. 2 133 15-7 2.6 3-6 5-0 6.6 8.7 II. I 13 -7 16.5 19-3 22.4 25-9 6.0 7.6 10.3 13-5 16.5 19.8 23.1 26.9 310 35-5 40.5 7 8 8.9 12.2 16.0 19-5 23.2 27.2 31-5 36.3 41-7 47 -S 9 10 18.9 22.6 11 26.8 12 31 .4 13 14 IS 16 36.3 41.6 48.1 SS-o Volumes include stem and topwood, with bark, up to a minimum diameter of 2 inches. Average stump heights vary from 6 inches for small trees to 21 inches for large ones. 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Ser\^ice Bull. 96. 2 Volumes for trees under 9 inches diameter, breast high, are from measurements made in 1905 at Hyde Park, New York, by Mr. J. G. Peters. 452 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXX. — WHITE AND CHESTNUT OAKSi VOLUME TABLE IN BOARD FEET, LITCHFIELD COUNTY, CONNECTICUT. By International^ Log Rule. Based on measurements of 26 trees. Height of tree in fee Diameter, breast high. 50 60 70 Diameter (inside Volume. bark) of top. Stem. Topwood. Stem. Topwood. Stem. Topwood. Inches. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Inches. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 29 41 56 72 90 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.1 6.1 23 36 50 66 84 104 126 149 7-7 7.8 S.x 8.2 8.5 8.6 8.9 9-4 30 47 66 85 107 130 156 180 9.2 9-4 9-4 9-5 9-7 9.9 10.3 10.8 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 Note. — The volume in "topwood" (top and branches) v cubic volume of tie logs to a minimum top diameter of g volume of tree, in cubic feet (to a minimum diameter of 2 ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. - Ten per cent deducted for circular saw kerf. 'as obtained by subtracting the aggregate inches, outside bark, from the total used inches, outside bark). TABLE XXXI. — WHITE AND CHESTNUT OAKS^ VOLUME TABLE IN TIES, NEW LONDON COUNTY, CONNECTICUT. Based on measurements of 25 trees. Height of tree in feet. Diameter, breast high, in inches. Topwood. Cu. ft. 9-7 9.2 8.9 7.2 5-6 Topwood. Cu. ft. II. 7 ii-S 10.9 9-7 8.7 Top\\ ood. Cu. ft. 14 13 12 II II 10 6 10 3 All first-class ties — 6"X8'XS'. Note. — The volume in "topwood" (top and branches) was obtained by subtracting the aggre- gate cubic volume of tie logs to a minimum top diameter of 9 inches, outside bark, from the total used volume of the tree, in cubic feet (to a minimum diameter of 2 inches, outside bark). 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. TABLES 453 TABLE XXXIL — CORDWOOD CONVERTING FACTORS.i Converting factors for second-growth hardwoods, by D.B.H. classes, with corresponding diameters of the average four-foot stick in the tree or in the stack. With the aid of this table the volume in cords of single trees can be secured by dividing the volumes in cubic feet given in tables XXI, XXV and XXIX by the "cubic feet per cord " values given in this table for a tree of the same diameter, breast high. If it is desired to convert the contents in cubic feet of an entire stand into cords, the average diameter, breast high, of all the trees in the stand should be found, and the " cubic feet per cord " value corresponding to this diameter should be used. While these converting factors are intended especially for chestnut and oaks they can be used safely with other hardwoods. Chestnut. Black Oaks. White Oaks. niomA+^r i-ZldincLcr, breast high. Diameter, Cubic feet 2 Diameter, Cubic feet Diameter, Cubic feet average stick. per cord. average stick- per cord. average stick. per cord. I 0-9 1.8 2 ""63 " ....^.^... ""e's" I 8 ■■■63'" 3 2.6 70 2.5 69 2 5 69 4 3-3 75 31 74 3 I 74 5 4.0 79 3-6 77 3 5 76 6 4-7 83 41 80 3 9 79 7 5-2 85 4-5 82 4 2 81 8 5-8 88 4.8 84 4 5 82 9 6.2 89 50 85 4 7 83 lO 6.7 91 5-3 86 4 9 84 II 7.0 92 5-4 86 5 0 85 12 7-4 93 5-6 87 5 I 85 13 7-7 94 5-7 88 5 2 85 14 7-9 94 5-7 88 5 2 85 15 8.2 95 5.8 88 5 3 86 i6 8.4 95 5-9 88 5 4 86 17 8.5 95 5-9 88 i8 8.7 95 6.0 89 19 8.9 96 6.0 89 20 9.0 96 21 9.2 96 22 9-3 96 23 9-5 97 24 9.6 97 25 9-7 97 26 9.8 97 27 10. 0 97 28 10. 1 97 29 10.2 97 3° 10.3 97 31 10.4 97 32 10.6 98 1 ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. Solid cubic feet. 454 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXXIIL — HEMLOCK.i VOLUME IN BOARD FEET, SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. Height of tree in feet. breast high, 3o 40 so 60 1 70 Board feet per I cubic foot of log. Diameter of last log inside bark. Basis. Volume in board feet.2 6 S lO 17 26 36 47 60 Number. Inches. Trees. 4 17 40 57 57 41 42 17 14 14 6 8 7 8 9 lO II 12 13 14 IS i6 17 20 28 36 46 58 72 88 107 126 148 30 39 49 59 72 86 104 125 148 171 197 42 50 60 71 86 103 124 147 172 200 233 ""86" 103 123 148 173 204 240 281 5 5 S 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 0 3 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 I 2 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 5 7 317 > Measurements by L. Margolin, U. S. Forest Service in cooperation with the state of New Hamp- shire, New Hampshire Forestry Report, 1905-1906. 2 Actually cut out with a circular saw. One-half of cut went into scantling and the other half into I -inch boards. TABLES 455 TABLE XXXIV. — HEMLOCK. VOLUME IN BOARD FEET, VERMONT RULE. Based on 400 trees. Diameter, breast Total height of tree in feet. high, in inches. 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 8 a' 53 9 SI <5(5 60 76 66 74 81 93 118 140 160 120 153 180 214 248 1^3 13^ 160 185 132 217 13 15 241 284 16 214 250 293 335 380 248 283 330 372 415 282 317 364 408 454 320 360 405 450 498 17 18 454 Hot 19 5C0 545 21 455 491 520 497 540 582 626 675 545 594 650 712 777 590 22 650 23 24 25 710 780 836 26 742 790 840 897 97l 1040 1100 906 968 1040 1100 27 28 29 30 The figures underscored indicate the average height of the trees in each diameter class. 456 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXXV. — WHITE PINE.i VOLUME IN BOARD FEET, SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. Diam- Height of tree in feet. eter, breast high, in 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 no 120 Basis. inches. Volume in board feet.2 5 6 8 13 18 24 32 41 12 20 28 36 44 53 63 73 84 95 15 23 34 45 56 70 84 100 117 137 158 181 209 238 270 302 Trees. 7 41 .11 27 39 53 69 85 103 125 148 173 200 230 261 297 336 379 425 29 44 62 81 102 126 151 180 210 241 277 313 352 393 436 480 522 566 7 8 9 lO 93 119 147 177 210 243 282 III 411 460 506 553 597 639 674 706 737 156 177 164 146 137 91 61 88 70 68 138 168 200 238 277 321 370 421 475 % 634 681 727 769 809 846 II 12 13 14 15 i6 17 18 228 270 312 362 415 471 531 598 660 720 779 834 899 942 994 1046 245 293 348 406 470 540 610 682 750 820 887 958 1030 1 105 1180 "688' 763 840 918 990 1065 1135 19 20 44 35 23 16 23 24 25 26 19 9 12 II 27 1578 ' Measurenients by L. Margolin, U. S. Forest Service in cooperation with the state of New Hamp- shire, New Hampshire Forestry Report, 1905-1906. Stumps averaged about i foot in height. 2 The volume given is actual saw cut. Sixty per cent was round-edged and forty per cent squared, 70 per cent i-inch boards and 30 per cent Zj-inch plank. TABLES 457 TABLE XXXVI. — WHITE PINE.i VOLUME IN BOARD FEET, MASSACHUSETTS. Scaled by rule made from mill tallies. Volume to 4-inch top. Stumps taken at 5 foot. Total height in feet. Diameter, breast high, in inches. 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 Board feet. 1 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 10 15 20 25 30 20 30 35 45 55 65 75 90 30 40 50 60 75 90 105 120 135 155 175 50 65 80 95 "5 135 15s 175 195 215 240 260 280 305 65 85 105 125 145 165 190 215 245 270 300 325 % 420 450 515 550 "5 145 170 200 23 s 265 300 335 370 405 445 485 525 570 620 66s 715 200 230 260 300 340 380 420 465 510 555 605 650 700 750 800 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 855 905 27 ' Taken from "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts." 458 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXXVII. — WHITE PINE.i VOLUME IN CORDS, MASSACHUSETTS. Volume to 4-inch top. Stumps taken at J foot. Logs scaled by caliper rule. Diameter, breast high, in inches. Total height in feet. .c .c .c .c .c '3 >3 >7 1 .04 •OS ■07 .09 .11 •13 •15 ■17 .26 • 31 •36 • 41 .46 • 52 •58 .64 .70 • 77 •85 .92 1 .01 1.08 1. 16 ' Taken Irom "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts.' TABLES 459 TABLE XXXVIIL — WHITE PINE.i VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET, MASSACHUSETTS. Volume outside bark, up to a 4-inch top. Stumps taken at | foot. Total height in feet. breast high, ^ 3 40 50 60 70 80 90 Cubic feet. 5 I 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 ... 8 6 3 4 4 5 6 9 7 9 II ■ • 13 .. 16 3 4 0 7 6 6 9 2 4 6 7 10 12 14 17 20 23 26 30 •3 .1 .8 .0 .0 .6 .6 ■4 •7 .8 •5 7 9 12 15 17 21 24 28 32 36 40 44 49 52 7 8 0 0 9 8 7 6 5 0 9 12.0 I5-0 17.9 21.4 25-3 29.2 32.5 37-9 42.3 47.2 S2.6 57-9 63.2 69.1 74.9 81.3 87.1 94 0 20 24 29 34 39 44 49 56 61 67 74 82 89 98 104 112 9 9 8 7 6 5 8 7 S 8 7 0 3 I 9 6 28.7 33.7 38.7 43.6 49. 5 55.9 62.3 69.1 76.9 84.8 92.6 101.4 no. 8 119. 0 128.8 ' Taken from "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts.' 460 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XXXIX. — SPRUCE.i VOLUME IN BOARD FEET BY THE NEW HAMPSHIRE RULE, 2 GRAFTON COUNTY, N. H. Height in feet. breast high. 40 50 60 70 80 in inches. VoU me in board feet 7 18 25 30 35 8 29 38 45 53 9 42 53 61 71 10 58 67 78 91 II 76 84 94 no 12 96 100 112 130 13 14 IS 16 113 129 130 151 148 172 194 166 195 219 186 219 245 17 18 208 244 275 272 308 305 343 19 20 346 400 Table by T. S. Woolsey, Jr., 1903, published in "The Woodsman's Handbook." ' Cutting to a top diameter limit of 6 inches. TABLES 461 TABLE XL. — SPRUCE. 1 VOLUME IN BOARD FEET." Diam- eter, high. Total height of tree in feet. 30 40 50 65 75 90 105 120 25 35 45 60 70 85 100 120 ^35 15s 170 185 205 235 25 40 50 65 80 100 "5 135 155 170 190 210 235 265 300 330 360 400 45 55 70 90 110 125 ISO 170 185 210 235 260 295 330 360 400 440 80 165 180 190 205 205 225 230 250 255 280 290 320 325 355 3bo 390 395 430 435 470 480 515 150 170 19s 220 250 275 310 350 38s 425 465 510 555 315 350 390 430 470 510 550 600 650 1 Taken from "A Manual for Northern Woodsmen." Mr. Austin Gary, the author, considers tables XL, XLI and XLII applicable to other coniferous species with certain modifications. For balsam fir he advises a deduction of 8 per cent. 2 Based on 2500 trees scaled in 16-foot log lengths up to 6 inches in diameter by the Maine log rule and discounted from 5 to 10 per cent. 462 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE XLL — SPRUCE.i VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET OF ENTIRE STEM INCLUDING BARK.* Diam- eter, breast high, in inches. Total height of tree in feet. 40 45 so 55 60 65 70 75 80 90 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 4-9 6.3 7.8 9.8 12.0 5-3 6.9 8.6 10.8 13-5 16.0 18. 5 22 5-8 7.6 9-5 12.0 iS-o 18.0 21 24 28 31 6.5 8.5 10.6 13-4 16.5 19.7 23 27 30 34 38 43 47 52 56 9.6 12.0 ISO 18.2 22 25 29 33 37 41 46 5° 55 60 14 17 20 23 27 31 36 40 44 49 54 59 65 72 79 87 96 21 25 29 34 38 43 47 52 58 64 1° 84 92 100 27 32 36 41 46 51 56 62 69 76 82 88 95 104 34 39 44 49 55 61 67 74 81 87 93 100 108 63 70 77 85 11 105 114 123 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 Taken from "A Manual for Northern Woodsmen." 2 Based on 2500 trees. Bark is estimated to form about 123 per cent of the total volume. TABLE XLIL — SPRUCE.I VOLUME IN CORDS." Diameter, breast high, in inches. Total height of tree in feet. 55 1 ?o 75 13 16 19 20 22 22 24 26 26 28 30 30 32 34 34 3b 39 38 40 43 42 45 48 46 50 54 50 55 59 56 60 65 62 66 72 • 05 .06 .08 .10 • 15 .18 1 Taken from "A Manual for Northern Woodsmen." » Derived from Table XLI by deducting a fair allowance for waste in stump, also volume of top above 4 inches diameter, and dividing by 96, the usual number of cubic feet, solid wood, in a piled cord. TABLES 463 TABLE XLIIL — SPRUCE.i VOLUME OF UNPEELED PULP WOOD IN CUBIC FEET, SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.^ Diameter, breast high, in inches. Height of tree in feet. Volume in cubic feet. 109 Trees. 29 98 128 i6s 161 113 78 63 42 55 56 49 38 44 30 1 Taken from "The Woodsman's Handbook." 2 Stumps varying from j to ij feet and tops above 4-inch diameter point are excluded. To reduce cords divide by 100 or point off two places. Some use 95 or 96 cubic feet per cord. Bark equals per cent of total volume. 464 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND GROWTH OF INDIVIDUAL TREES. TABLE XLIV.— ASPEN.i RATE OF GROWTH BASED ON QUALITY OF LOCALITY. Based on measurements of 409 trees. Total Total Diam- Total vol- Diameter, vol- eter, vol- Age. breast high, out- Height. exclud- breast high, out- Height. ume, exclud- breast high. Height. ume, exclud- side bark. ing ing bark. ing bark. bark. bark. Years. Inches. Ft. Cu. ft. Inches. Ft. Cu. ft. Inches. Ft. Cu. ft. 5 1-3 11 0.6 7 0.2 4 10 2.7 21 I 6 15 I.O 8 20 5-3 40 I .0 3 8 32 2.4 17 30 8,0 55 7-5 5 8 45 2.0 3.0 28 40 10.4 66 16.5 7 8 56 7.0 4-7 39 05 50 12.7 75 27-5 9 4 b5 13.0 5.« 50 2 60 14.8 81 42.5 10 9 71 19.0 7.0 57 5 70 17.0 «5 62.0 12 3 74 25.0 8.2 61 8 80 19.2 87 «2.5 13 4 75 31-5 9-3 64 12 90 21.3 88 104.0 14 3 77 37-0 10.5 66 16 100 23-3 89 126.0 15 I 78 42.5 II. 7 1 66 20 ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. TABLE XLV. PAPER BIRCH. 1 HEIGHT AND DIAMETER GROWTH. Height. Diameter, breast high. Age. Seedlings.2 Sprouts.' Seedlings. Sprouts. Years. Feet. Feet. Inches. Inches. 5 5 10 0. 2 0.7 10 13 19 I.I 1.8 15 22 28 2.2 2.9 20 30 36 3-4 4.0 25 37 43 4.4 4-9 30 44 49 5-3 5-6 35 49 55 6.1 6.3 40 54 60 6.8 6.9 45 58 65 7-5 7.5 SO 62 70 8.0 7-9 55 65 74 8.5 8.4 60 68 78 8.9 8.8 65 70 75 80 71 74 76 78 80 82 9-3 9-7 85 90 81 • Taken from U. S. Forest Service Circular 163. 2 Based on measurements of so trees. 3 Based on measurements of 30 trees. TABLES 465 TABLE XLVL — PAPER BIRCH. 1 VOLUME GROWTH. Age. Total stem volume. Volume, N H. rule. Seedlings.2 Sprouts.' Seedlings. Sprouts. Years. Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Board feet. Board feet. 20 1.8 25 30 2.3 3-6 3-2 4.6 13 19 16 35 5-2 6.1 22 26 40 6.9 7-7 29 34 45 8.6 9-5 37 43 50 lO-S II. 4 46 52 55 12.3 135 55 61 60 14. 1 155 64 71 65 70 73 82 17.7 75 80 193 20.7 90 97 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Circular 163. 2 Based on measurement of 50 trees. 3 Based on measurement of 30 trees. TABLE XLVIL WHITE PINE.i GROWTH IN VOLUME AND HEIGHT. Rich lowland, 109 Upland pasture, 73 Sandy soil, 16 Wet swamp, 47 trees. trees trees. trees. Age. Volume. Height. Volume. Height. Volume. Height. Volume. Height. Years. Cu. ft. Ft. Cu. ft. Ft. Cu. ft. Ft. Cu. ft. Ft. 10 .8 8 .6 9 ■4 5 •3 4 15 1.8 15 I .2 16 5 14 ■ 4 10 20 30 23 2.0 24 I 4 23 I.O 16 25 5-5 31 4-5 32 2 5 30 1.6 22 30 9.0 39 7-5 40 4 0 36 2.7 28 35 13-5 46 II-5 47 6 3 40 4.0 34 40 19-5 52 16.6 53 9 3 44 6.0 39 45 26. s 57 22.0 59 12 5 48 8.3 43 50 35-0 62 27.7 64 16 0 SI 10.7 48 55 43-5 66 34-5 69 19 8 54 14. 5 51 60 51-5 69 41-7 73 23 6 57 18.6 54 65 60.0 71 49.0 76 27 5 59 23.0 57 70 68.0 73 56.0 80 31 2 61 27.2 60 75 80 75-5 84.0 93-5 75 77 79 80 82 35 39 42 3 63 65 31.2 62 84 87 89 90 91 34-8 65 85 90 95 100 8 38.0 68 41.0 70 43-5 1 Taken from " Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts.' 466 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND YIELD TABLES. TABLE XLVIIL — PAPER BIRCH, YIELD PER ACRE. (100 PER CENT) BIRCH STANDS. PURE Penobscot, Piscataquis, Somerset and Franklin counties, Maine. (Data gathered by R. L. Marstoa for Paper Birch Study, 1903-1907.) Quality I. Quality II. Age. Average Yield of trees Average Yield of trees diam- eter, breast Average height. Total, yield. 6 inches and over in per- centage of total diam- eter, breast Average height. Total yield. 6 inches and over in per- centage of total high. yield. high. yield. Years. Inches. Ft. Cu. ft. Per cent. Inches. Ft. Cu. ft. Per cent. 15 2-3 24 710 0 1.8 21 410 0 20 3 4 33 1020 4 2.6 28 580 0 25 4 5 41 1340 27 3-4 34 770 18 30 5 6 48 1700 46 4-3 40 lOIO 35 35 6 4 54 2ogo 63 5-0 45 1290 50 ■ 40 7 2 58 2520 75 5-7 49 1580 63 45 7 8 62 2950 85 6.3 53 1890 73 50 8 4 65 3340 91 6.8 56 2220 82 55 8 8 68 3660 96 7.2 59 2530 89 60 9 2 70 3940 98 7-6 61 2810 94 65 9 6 72 4190 100 7-9 64 3060 97 70 10. 0 74 4450 100 8.2 66 3300 100 Note. — These sample plots were taken in unmanaged stands. All plots with a density less than 50 per cent were discarded. All plots containing less than 40 per cent birch were discarded and the remainder reduced to loo per cent birch by dividing the actual birch yield by the percentages of the total basal area formed by the birch. Hence the table applies only to pure birch stands of aver- age density (quality I, 83 per cent and quality II, 75 per cent). For the yield of a mixed stand, containing, for example, 60 per cent of birch, a corresponding reduction would be made in the yield. The number of trees per acre was exceedingly irregular and was, therefore, excluded from the table. The volume given is total stem volume, though the lowest measurement taken in the sample trees was at 4.5 feet, and this disregard for butt swelling makes the yield conservative. Based on 20 quality I and 26 quality II, sample plots. TABLES 467 TABLE XLIX. — CHESTNUT TYPE.i GROWTH IN HEIGHT, DIAMETER AND NUMBER OF TREES FOR THREE QUALITIES OF SOIL,^ CONNECTICUT. Quality I. Qualit> II. Quality III Age. Height of D.B.H. of av- Num- ber of Height of D.B.H. of av- Num- ber of Height of D.B.H. of av- Num- ber of dominant trees dominant trees dominant trees trees. erage tree. per acre. trees. erage tree. per acre. trees. erage tree. per acre. Years. Feet. Inches. Trees. Feet. Inches. Trees. Feet. Inches. Trees. 15 38 3-2 1000 30 2.6 1 160 .21 2.0 1360 20 50 4-4 830 40 3 6 930 30 2 7 I180 25 58 5-4 680 48 4 5 800 37 3 5 990 30 64 6.4 55° 54 5 3 675 44 4 3 790 35 70 7-3 460 60 6 I 560 50 5 0 670 40 74 8.1 400 64 6 8 490 55 5 6 580 45 77 8.9 350 68 7 5 425 59 6 2 500 50 80 9.6 310 71 8 2 370 62 6 8 4SO 55 83 10.3 280 74 8 8 335 64 7 3 400 60 85 10.9 260 76 9 4 300 67 7 8 360 65 87 II. 6 235 77 9 9 280 68 8 3 330 70 88 12.2 220 79 10 5 255 70 8 7 310 75 90 12.8 200 80 II ° 240 71 9 2 290 ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. - For trees over 2 inches in diameter, breast high; based size. Quality classes based on height of dominant trees. normally stocked plots, | to j acre in 468 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE L. — OAK-CHESTNUT TYPE.i GROWTH IN HEIGHT, DIAMETER AND NUMBER OF TREES FOR THREE QUALITIES OF SOIL,^ CONNECTICUT. Quality I. Quality 11. Quality III. Age. Height of D.B.H. of av- Num- ber of Height of D.B.H. of av- Num- ber of Height of D.B.H. of av- Num. berof dominant trees dominant trees dominant trees trees. erage tree. per acre. trees. erage tree. per acre. trees. erage tree. per acre. Years. Feet. Inches. Trees. Feet. Inches. Trees. Feet. Inches. Trees. IS 35 2.9 II30 28 2.5 1 180 23 2.0 1500 20 46 4.0 910 38 3 3 950 31 2 8 1070 25 55 4-9 750 46 4 I 770 38 3 3 1000 30 62 5.8 610 52 4 8 675 43 3 9 855 35 68 6.6 525 57 5 5 610 48 4 4 755 40 73 7-4 455 61 6 I 530 52 4 8 700 45 77 8.2 400 65 6 7 470 55 5 3 620 50 80 8.9 360 68 7 3 425 58 5 7 570 55 83 9.6 320 71 7 8 390 60 6 I 525 60 85 10.3 290 73 8 4 355 62 6 5 475 65 87 10.9 270 75 8 9 325 64 6 9 445 70 89 II-5 250 77 9 4 305 66 7 2 420 75 90 12. 1 235 78 9 8 285 67 7 6 390 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 For trees over 2 inches in diameter, breast high; based on normally stocked plots, 5 to j acre in size. Quality classes based on height of dominant trees. TABLES 469 TABLE LL — OAK TYPE.i GROWTH IN HEIGHT, DIAMETER AND NUMBER OF TREES FOR THREE QUALITIES OF SOIL 2 CONNECTICUT. Quality I. Quality II. Quality III. Age. Height of D.B.H. of av- erage tree. Num- ber of Height of D.B.H. of av- erage tree. Num- ber of Height of D.B.H. of av- erage tree. Num- ber of dominant trees. trees per acre. dominant trees. trees per acre. dominant trees. trees per acre. Years. Feet. Inches. Trees. Feet. Inches. Trees. Feet. Inches. Trees. IS 25 2-5 1320 22 2.2 1400 18 I.Q 1550 20 38 3-5 960 31 3 0 1060 25 5 1290 25 49 4-5 740 40 3 9 795 32 3 2 ICK30 30 57 5-5 575 47 4 6 675 37 3 7 880 35 63 6.4 475 53 5 3 575 42 4 2 770 40 68 7.2 405 57 6 0 485 46 4 7 656 45 72 8.0 350 61 6 6 430 49 ^ 5 I 560 50 75 8.7 310 64 7 I 390 52 5 5 515 55 78 9-4 280 67 7 6 355 54 5 8 480 60 80 10. 0 260 68 8 I 325 56 6 2 450 65 82 10.6 240 70 8 5 300 58 6 5 400 70 84 II . I 220 72 8 9 280 60 6 6 375 75 86 II. 6 210 73 9 4 25s 61 7 I 345 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 For trees over 2 inches in diameter, breast high; based on normally stocked plots, i to J acre :e. Quality classes based on height of dominant trees. 470 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE LIL— YIELD IN CORDS i FOR THREE TYPES AND QUALITIES OF SOIL,^ CONNECTICUT. Chestnut type 3 Oak-chestnut type.s Oak type.3 Quality. Quality. Quality. Age. I. II. III. I. II. III. I. II. III. Years. Cords. 15 16 12 9 12 10 8 9 8 6 20 23 18 13 19 16 12 15 12 10 25 30 24 18 28 22 17 23 18 14 30 37 30 23 36 28 20 30 24 17 35 43 35 27 41 33 24 36 28 21 40 48 40 31 46 36 27 40 32 24 45 53 43 34 49 40 30 44 35 26 50 57 46 37 53 42 32 48 38 29 55 61 49 39 56 45 33 SI 40 30 60 63 51 41 59 47 35 53 43 32 65 66 53 42 62 49 37 55 45 34 70 68 55 44 64 51 38 58 47 35 75 70 57 45 66 53 39 60 48 36 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 For trees over 2 inches in diameter, breast high. Based on selected, normally stocked plots I to § acre in size. Plots varying in basal area by not more than 10 per cent of the average were considered normally stocked. Quality classes based on average height of dominant trees. Yields computed in cubic feet by volume tables, to minimum diameters of 2 inches, outside bark, and reduced to cords by table of converting factors. Chestnut converting factors used for chestnut type, black oak factors for oak-chestnut type, and white oak factors for oak type. ' A sub-type included in the mixed hardwoods type of the sprout hardwoods region. TABLES 471 TABLE LIIL — CHESTNUT TYPE.i YIELD IN LUMBER AND ADDITIONAL CORDWOOD,^ CONNECTICUT. By International Log Rule.' Quality. Age. I. II. III. Lumber. Additional cord wood. Lumber. Additional cord wood. Lumber. Additional cordwood. Years. Board feet. Cords. Board feet. Cords. Board feet. Cords. 20 300 21 25 1,400 27 30 2,850 30 900 27 35 5,100 29 2,100 29 900 24 40 8,200 28 3.700 31 1,800 26 45 11,000 28 5.400 31 2, goo 26 50 13.800 28 7.700 29 4,100 26 55 16,500 27 9.900 28 5.500 25 60 19,100 25 12,000 26 7,000 24 65 21,600 24 14,000 25 8,400 22 70 23,900 22 16,100 23 9,800 21 75 25,700 21 17,800 21 11,100 19 ' Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. - Based on 123 normally stocked plots, from | to j acre in size. Cordwood converting factor used = 80 cubic feet per cord. 3 Xen per cent deducted for circular saw kerf. TABLE LIV. ■CHESTNUT TYPE.i YIELD IN TIES^ AND ADDI- TIONAL CORDWOOD.' Quality. Age. I. II. III. Ties. Additional cordwood. Ties. Additional cordwood. Ties. Additional cordwood. Years. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 Number. 25 76 140 225 320 435 565 710 855 975 1075 Cords. 29 34 37 38 37 35 32 29 26 25 24 Number. 20 55 100 150 215 290 365 440 510 575 Cords. 29 33 36 36 35 33 30 28 26 25 Number. 20 45 75 no 145 190 235 280 330 Cords. 25 28 30 31 31 30 29 28 26 1 Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bull. 96. 2 All first class — 6'X8'X8'. 'Based on 123 normally stocked sample plots, from i to J acre in size. Cordwood converting ctor used = 80 cubic feet per cord. 472 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE LV.— WHITE PINE.i YIELD PER ACRE, SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. (Data gathered by L. Margolin for Graded Mill Tallies, 1906.) Quality I. Age. Number of trees. Basal area. Mean height. Volume. Current annual increment. Mean an- nual incre- ment. Years. Sq. ft. Ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. 25 2430 190 33 3,100 124 124 30 1840 215 41 4,367 253 145 35 1250 230 48 5-850 296 167 40 870 238 56 7-033 236 176 45 640 243 64 8,000 193 177 50 510 246 70 8,767 153 175 55 430 249 75 9.475 141 172 60 380 252 80 10,100 125 168 65 340 255 84 10,633 106 164 70 310 258 87 . 11,100 93 158 75 280 261 90 11-567 93 154 80 260 263 93 12,000 86 150 85 240 266 95 12,383 76 146 90 220 268 97 12,767 76 142 Quality II. 25 2430 163 31 2,700 .08 108 30 1840 183 38 3.700 200 123 35 1250 195 45 4,850 230 139 40 870 212 52 5.800 190 145 45 640 221 59 6,600 160 147 50 510 228 65 7.300 140 146 55 430 233 71 7.925 125 144 60 380 236 76 8,500 115 142 65 340 238 80 9,000 100 138 70 310 241 84 9.450 90 135 75 280 244 87 9,900 90 132 80 260 247 89 10,300 80 129 85 ■ 240 250 91 10,650 70 125 90 220 253 93 1 1 ,000 70 122 Quality III. 25 30 2430 1840 150 165 28 2,30b 3,033 92 lOI 35 146 35 1250 176 42 3.850 163 no 40 870 185 48 4,567 143 114 45 640 191 54 5,200 126 116 50 510 197 60 5.833 126 116 55 430 201 66 6,375 108 116 60 380 205 71 6,900 105 115 65 340 208 75 7,367 93 113 70 310 211 79 7,817 90 112 75 280 213 83 8,233 83 no 80 260 216 85 8,600 73 107 85 240 218 88 8,917 63 105 90 220 221 89 9,233 63 103 Taken from "The Woodsman's Handbook. TABLES 473 TABLE LVL— WHITE PINE.i YIELD TABLE IN BOARD FEET, CORDS AND CUBIC FEET. Age, years. i-inch boards. Cords. Cubic feet. i-inch boards. Cords. Cubic feet. I-inch boards. Cords. Cubic feet. 25 10,825 25 I 2080 6.750 16.4 1300 3,975 10.8 750 30 19,900 44.0 3750 12,500 31.2 2740 7.500 18.2 1400 35 31.150 60.4 5420 24,400 49.0 4375 16,950 .S5.8 3035 40 40,650 70.6 6590 32,800 .58.0 5300 25,200 46.2 4080 45 49.350 78.0 7420 40,600 64.8 6075 32,100 51.8 4785 50 55.150 84.2 8035 46,500 70.0 6725 37,550 56.6 5475 55 59,650 89.2 8575 50,550 74.8 7200 42,100 60.8 6015 60 63,600 93-4 9075 53,200 79.2 7655 44.550 64.6 6340 65 67,050 97.2 9550 56,600 83.0 8050 46,150 68.4 6550 ^ Taken from "Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts." TABLE LVII. WHITE PINE.I YIELD PER ACRE, SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE. (Data gathered by L. Margolin for Graded Mill Tallies, 1906.) Age. Volume- Age. Volume. Quality I. Quality II. Quality III. Quality I. Quality II. Quality III. Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Years. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. 20 4,600 3.150 1,700 60 57.300 47,400 37.500 25 8,400 5.900 3.450 65 61,850 51,850 41,850 30 15,100 10,800 6. 550 70 65,900 55,800 45.700 35 24,950 18,050 11,200 75 69.750 59.500 49.250 40 33.550 25,000 16,450 80 73,300 62,850 52,400 45 40,750 31.450 22,150 85 76,700 66,000 55.300 50 47,450 37,800 27,650 90 80,050 69,000 57.950 55 52,350 42,550 32,750 1 Taken from "The Woodsman's Handbook." 2 Volume in board feet is round-edged bo.xboard material. 474 FORESTRY IN NEW ENGLAND TABLE LVIIL -WHITE PINE. SOUTHERN YIELD PER ACRE OF THINNINGS, NEW HAMPSHIRE. (Data gathered by L. Margolin for Graded Mill Talli Quality I. Trees under 5 inches in diameter, breast high. Quality II. Trees under S inches in diameter, breast high. Quality III. Age. Total thinning per acre. Total thinning per acre. Total thinning per acre. iiil Years. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Cu. ft. 1350 1730 1980 2120 2240 2280 2280 2260 2200 2100 1950 1700 Bd. ft.2 2,000 4-500 6,800 8,700 10,100 11,200 12,000 12,300 12,300 11,900 11,100 9.500 Cu. ft. 830 660 480 270 60 Cu. ft. 900 1380 16S0 1900 2040 2100 2100 2000 1850' 1630 1300 860 200 Bd. ft. 750 3.300 5,600 7.500 8,900 9,900 10,400 10,600 10,300 9.500 8,000 5,000 1, 200 Cu. ft. 750 600 450 300 150 Cu. ft. 600 1090 1440 1640 1750 1800 1780 1700 1590 1420 1200 920 650 370 Bd. ft. 2200 4300 5800 6900 7600 8100 8300 8200 7800 6900 5600 4000 2300 Cu. ft. 600 500 400 300 200 80 1 Taken from "The Woodsman's Handbook." 2 Volume in board feet is round-edged boxboard material. INDEX. Advance growth, 75. Age, of trees, 172; of stands, 178. Agriculture, 290. Animals, injuries from, 97, 137; preven- tion of damage, 262, 293, 339, 371. Aphid (pine bark), 103. Arborvitas, 52, 203, 246, 269. Areas of New England forest regions, 197. Ash, white, 58, 269, 276, 288, 298, 311, 3^3, 325, 346, 351, 355, 361, 364. Aspen, see Poplar. Assimilation, 4. Austria, 177. Back fires, 152. Baden, 178. Balsam, 48, 184, 202, 222, 246, 269. Basswood, 58, 246, 269, 276, 288, 346. Beech, 57, 203, 246, 268, 271, 276, 288, 346. Bibliography, 420. Bingham purchase, 190. Birch, black, 269, 346, 353. Birch, gray, 56, 298, 304, 309, 311, 345, 351, 352,362. Birch, yellow, 54, 203, 246, 268, 276, 288, 298, 312, 325, 346, 364- Birch, paper or white, 55, 203, 231, uses of, 248; tables, 440, 441, 464, 465, 466. Birds, damage by. 97, 113. Black Hills national forest, 155. Blight, white pine, 129. Blister rust of white pine, 124, 341 Bowdoin grants, 191. Bo.x industry, 329. 324, 351, 269; 442, Brown-tail moth, no, 340, 388, 391, 403- Brush piling and burning, 260, 292, 338, 370, 380. Calipers, 157. Cambium, 105, 119, 172. Cannon, Speaker, opposition to forestry, 375- Cary, Austin, 162. Cattle, damage by, 99. Cedar, red, see Juniper. Cedar, northern white, see Arborvitas. Cedar, southern white, 298, 301, 316, 346. Chemical extinguishers, 147, 149. Chemicals required by trees, 2, 5. Cherry, black, 299, 311, 313, 325. Chestnut, 60, 269, 298, 300, 311, 313, 325, 345, 347, 349, 355, 356, 364; tables, 435, 442, 443, 444, 445, 467, 468, 470, 471. Chestnut bark disease, 118, 341, 355, 359, 372. Cleanings, 34, 324. Cleveland, President, 190. Climate, influences of, i. Clinton, Dr. G. P., 121. Codominant, 81. Composite form, 16. Connecticut, 379. Connecticut Agricultural College, 380. Cooperage staves, 249. Coppice, simple, 12, 16, :i2, 191; cop- pice with standards, 16, 2i3i pole- wood coppice, 35. Cordwood converting factors, 453. Cornell Forest School, 21. 476 INDEX Cost of planting, 72. Crown class, 81. Crows, damage by, 98. Cubic contents of logs, solid, 436; stacked, 437. Currant rust, see Blister rust. Cutting, cost of, 168. Damage cutting, 91. Dartmouth grant, 190. Deer, damage by, 97. Defebaugh, history of the lumber in- dustry of America, 186, 190. Dominant, 91. Doyle log rule, 428. Driving logs, 240, 286. Duff, 30. Dwight, President of Yale, 191. Educational work, 349, 380, 385, 390, 398, 402. Electricity for fuel, 258. Elm Leaf beetle, 113. England, 184, 186. Estimating tire damage, 152, 155. Estimating timber, 156; money value, 165. Evelyn, John, 185. Even-aged forest, 14, 180, 309. Excelsior, 249. Final cutting, 29. Fir, see Balsam. Fires, causes, 136, 256, 291, 334, 369. crown, 131, 256, 333. extinguishing, 146, 261, 292, 339, 37:. fire service, 379, 384, 389, 392, 396, 400. ground, 133. lookout towers, 139, 257, 292, 337, 390, 397, 400. northern hardwoods region, 291; pine region, 332; spruce region, 254; sprout hardwoods region, 367. patrol, 140, 257. 337, 397. prevention, 138, 257, 292, 335, 369. statistics, 417. surface, 132, 291, s^t,, 367. Fire lines, 142, 370. Forest regions, 196, 200. Forest tent caterpillar, 114, 295. Forestry associations, 381, 386, 394. Forestry, purpose of, 15; practice of, 403, 404; net return from, 413; as an investment, 415. French method, 84. Fungi, 118, 263, 295, 340, 372. Gipsy moth, 108, 340, 388, 391, 403. Goats, damage by, 100. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 185. Grades of thinning, 82. Graves, H. S., 171. Growth, 171; annual, 408; diameter, 174, 179; height, 175, 179 ; of indi- vidual trees. 464; volume, 176, 179. Guild, Gov. Curtis, conference called by, 375- Hardwoods, log rule for second growth, 435- Harvard Forest School, 385. Hauling, cost of, 168. Hedge hogs, damage by, 262. Heeling in, 68. Heins, 125. Hemlock, 49, 203, 246, 269, 271, 288, 298, 300, 314, 346, 349, 359, 364; tables, 454, 455. Hewitt, Dr. C. Gordon, 107, 112. Hickory, 184, 346, 347, 357, 364. Pligh forests, 12. Hogs, damage by, 100; for killing grubs, [03, 105. Hopkins, Dr. Humus, 6. Hypsometer, 157, 175. Improvement cuttings, 74, 313; sched- ule of; 92; method of controlling, 93- Income, see Revenue. Increment, see Growth. Industries, 243, 288, 329, Insects, loi, 262, 295, 340, 372. INDEX 477 Intermediate, 8i. International log rule, 433. Irregular forest, 15. June bugs, 116. Juniper, 52, 351, 362. Katahdin, elevation of, 291. Kearsarge station, 139. Lady bugs, 185. Larch, see Tamarack. Larch, European, 51, 276. Larch sawfly, in, 262. Liberation cuttings, 76. Light, relation of light to tree growth, 2,4- Lightning, as cause of iire, 138. Logging, cost of, 158; methods, 235, 285, 327, 362. Log rules, 159, 427. Lookout stations, 139. Lopping of branches, 141, 258. Lumbering, 235, 285, 327, 362. Lumber, 245; origin of word, 189. Lumber industry, 189, 245, 246, 288, 329. 364- Maine, 399. Maine Forestry District, 400. Maine log rule, 429. Manufacturing, 290, 329, 364. Map making, 162, Maps, forest regions, facing 197; rail- road lines and forest regions, facing 199. Maple, red or soft, 54, 298, 301, 304, 309, 311, 312, 324, 325, 346, 347, 350. 353. 361, 364- Maple, sugar, 53, 203, 268, 271, 276, 288, 298, 346. Maple sugar industry, 289. Maple sugar orchard, management of, 279. Maple worm, see Forest tent caterpillar Markets for forest products, 242, 287, 328, 364. Marking, 93. Massachusetts, 384. Massachusetts Agricultural College, 385. Mattock, 67. Maturity, 178. Mice, damage by, 97. Micheaux, 197. Mixed forests, 10, 11. Moles, damage by, 97. Naval stores, 187. New Hampshire, 396. New Hampshire log rule, 430. New Hampshire State College of Agri- culture, 398. New Hampshire Timberland Owners Association, 397. Nitrogen, 6. Normal stands, 180. Northern hardwoods region, 197, 198, 265,418. Novelties, 248. Oak, chestnut, 345, 347, 349; tables, 451, 452, 468, 469, 470. Oak, red, 62, 184, 269, 276, 298, 300, 311, 313, 325, 345, 347, 349, 355, 357. 364; tables, 446. Oak, white, 62, 184, 298, 311, 345, 347, 364; tables, 450, 451, 452, 468, 469, 470. Oaks, black, tables, 447, 448, 449, 468, 469, 470. Oil for fuel, 258. Ownership of lands, spruce region, 251; northern hardwoods region, 290; white pine region, 332; sprout hardwoods region, 366; state re- serves, 404. Patrol, 189, 191. Pepys, Samuel, 184. Pinchot, 302. Pine, pitch, 42, 298, 301, 316, 325, 345; manufacture of naval stores, 187. 478 INDEX Pine, red or Norway, 41, 202, 231, 314, 316, 325. Pine, Scotch, 43, 316, 325. Pine, white, 37, 183, 189, 192, 202, 231, 269, 276, 297, 303, 309, 311, 313, 317, 318, 324, 325, 345, 351, 355; tables, 434, 456, 457, 458, 459- 465, 472,473,474. Planting, opportunities for, 65, 231, 276, 313, 324, 325, 355, 359; methods, 67; heeling in plants, 68; size of plants, 69; pure versus mixed plan- tations, 70; spacing, 71; cost, 72. Polyporus schweinitzii, 123, 263. Poplar, 59, 203, 231, 269, 309, 324, 346, 353; tables, 438. 439, 464- Poplar, yellow, see Tulip tree. Porcupines, see Hedge hogs. Potash, 189, 191. Preparatory cutting, 30. Prices of lumber, 167. Pruning, 95. Pulpwood, 193, 243, 246. Pumps, spray, 147, 149. Punk, 127. Pure forests, 10, 11. Pure planting, 70. Quality, 10. Rabbits, damage by, 90. Railroads, logging, 241; as cause of fire, 136, 155- Regular form, 15. Removal cutting, 30. Reproduction cutting, 74. Reserve form, 16. Revenue of European forests, 414. Rhode Island. 389. Robinson, History of Vermont, 192. Root development, 5. Rossing bark, 260. Rot, white heart, 126. Rotation, 87. Saw mills, introduction of, 185; port- able, 194, m spruce region, 239; in northern hardwoods region, 286; in white pine region, 328; in sprout hardwoods region, 363. Scandinavia, 184, 186. Scotland, 184. Scribner log rule, 427. Seed cutting, 29. Seed spots, 67; cost, 73. Seeding or sowing, 66. Selection forest, 15. Shakers, 98. Sheep, damage by, 100. Shifting sands, 326. Ship building, 187. Silvicultural systems, 17; see also Sys- tems of reproduction. Silvicultural characteristics of trees, 37. Skidway, 166. "Snaking," 237. Soap solution, 105. Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, 398. Soils, 5; chemical composition, 7. Spacing, 71. Spaulding, P., 124, 128. Spark arrester, 136. Spools, 248. Spores, 119. Sprout hardwoods region, 197, 198, 342, 418. Spruce destroying beetle, 105, 262. Spruce budworm, 106, 262. Spruce, red, 45, 184, 202, 216, 222, 223, 246, 269, 288; tables, 460, 461, 462, 463- Spruce region, 197, 200, 418. Spruce, Norway, 47, 231, 276. Squirrels, damage by, 81. Stand, 8. State administration, 379, 384, 389, 391, 396, 399- State forests, 381, 386, 391, 394, 398, 402. State nurseries, 383, 386, 395, 399. Stumpage, 166, 169. Summer resort business, 194, 249, 289. Suppressed, 81. INDEX 479 Systems of reproduction: dear cutting, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 217, 221, 222, 225, 226, 228, 283, 285, 314, 316, 318, 325, 327, 359, 360. coppice, 31; simple coppice, 32, 283, 325, 356, 360; coppice with stand- ards, 33. pole-wood sprout, 35, 324, 357, 360. selection, 17, 94, 217, 221, 222, 223, 277, 321, 359- shelterwood, 27, 226, 266, 279, 284, 318, 320, 324. Tamarack, 50, 203. Taxation, 377, 383, 386, 391, 395, 399, 415- Thinnings, 79, 228, 278, 280, 321. Tolerant, 4. Tools, for fires, 147. Toothpicks, 248. Toys, 248. Traction engines, 240. Trails, 146. Trametes pini, 122, 263. Transplants, 72. Transpiration, 3. Tulip tree, 63, 346, 351, 361. Two-storied forests, 16, 309, 349. Types, definition, 7, 8. birch and poplar, 205, 211, 228, 269, 272, 283. hardwood, 205, 207, 223, 269, 277. hemlock, 299, 300, 314, 346, 348, 359. how to identify, 199. mixed hardwoods, 299, 311, 324, 346, 356, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471- mixed hardwoods swamp, 346, 350, 360. old field, 205, 215, 226, 269, 273, 274, 284, 285, 312, 325, 346, 351, 361. permanent and temporary, 9. pine and inferior hardwoods, 29, 308, 323- pitch pine, 299, 301, 316. Types, pure white pine, 299, 303, 31S. 346,351,361. soft maple swamp, 299, 312, 325. spruce fiat, 205, 206, 220. spruce slope, 205, 209, 217. swamp, 205, 222, 269, 272, 283. waste land, 299, 312, 325. white cedar swamp, 299, 301, 316, 346, 351, 361. Uneven-aged forests, 14, 181, 202. University of Maine, 402. Valuation survey, 162, Vermont, 391. Vermont log rule, 432. Vermont University grants, 190. Volume tables, 158, 438. Von Schrenk, 122. Wagons for fires, 150. Washington, Mt., elevation of, 200. Waste, avoiding waste in woods, 232, 405- Water, relation of, to forests, 2. Waterilow, influence of forests on, 145. Watershed protection, 263, 295, 341, 372. Weeks Law, 140, 376, 380, 385, 393, 397. Weevil, white pine, loi, 340. West Indies, 184, 187, 189. White Mountains, 200, 207, 209, 217, 250, 253, 263, 375. White pine region, 197, 198, 296, 418. Whitewood, see Tulip tree. Winthrop, Governor of Connecticut, 186. Woodchucks, damage by, 188. Workwood per cent, 413. Wurttemberg, 178. Yale Forest School, 380. Yarding, 239. Yield from New England forests, 408. Yield tables, iSo, 304, 321, 466. Short-title Catalogue OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF JOHN WILEY & SONS New York London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are sold at net prices only. All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated. AGRICULTURE— HORTICULTURE— FORESTRY. Armsby 's Principles of Animal Nutrition 8vo, $4 00 * Bowman's Forest Physiography 8vo,' 5 00 Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual: Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement 12mo, 1 50 Part II. Systematic Pomology 12mo, 1 50 Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage 12mo, 2 00 Practical Farm Drainage. (Second Edition, Rewritten.) 12mo, 1 50 Fuller's Water Supplies for the Farm. (In Press.) Graves's Forest Mensuration 8vo, 4 00 * Principles of Handling Woodlands Large 12mo, 1 50 Green's Principles of American Forestry 12mo, 1 50 Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) 12mo, 2 00 * Hawley and Hawes's Forestry in New England 8vo, 3 50 * Herriek's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol 8vo, 4 00 * Kemp and Waugh's Landscape Gardening. (New Edition, Rewritten.) 12mo, 1 50 * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making 8vo, 1 50 Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration 12mo, 1 50 Record's Identification of the Economic Woods of the United States. (In Press.) Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops 12mo, 1 50 * Insect Pests of Farm, Garden, and Orchard Large 12mo. .3 00 * Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest 12mo, 1 25 * Solotaroff's Field Book for Street-tree Mapping 12mo, 0 75 In lots of one dozen 8 00 * Shade Trees in Towns and Cities 8vo, 3 00 Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50 Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, 7 50 WoU's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen 16mo, 1 50 ARCHITECTURE. * Atkinson's Orientation of Buildings or Planning for Sunlight 8vo, 2 00 Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50 Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads . .4to, 5 00 1 Birkmire's Architectural Iron and Steel 8vo Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings Svo, Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings Svo, Skeleton Construction in Buildings 8vc Briggs's Modern American School Buildings 8vo Byrne's Inspection of Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction, 16mo Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo * Corthell's Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations 12mo * Eckel's Building Stones and Clays Svo Freitag's Architectural Engineering Svo Fire Prevention and Fire Protection. (In Press.) Fireproofing of Steel Buildings Svo Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary Inspections. (Fourth Edition, Entirely Re vised and Enlarged.) 12mo * Modern Baths and Bath Houses Svo Sanitation of Public Buildings '. 12mo, Theatre Fires and Panics 1 2mo * The Water Supply, Sewerage and Plumbing of Modern City Buildings, Svo Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods Svo Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds 8vo Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book 16mo, mor. Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration Svo Monckton's Stair-building 4to Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations Svo Peabody's Naval Architecture 8vc Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture Svo Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. . 16mo, mor, * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Series: * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition 16mo, mor, * Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition 16mo, mor, * Plumbers', Steam-Fitters', and Tinners' Edition. . . 16nio, mor, * Stone- and Brick-masons' Edition 16mo, mor, Sabin's House Painting 12mo, Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry Svo, Snow's Principal Species of Wood Svo, Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8v Shee Law of Contracts S v Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture Svo Sheep Wilson's Air Conditioning 12mo Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans tor a Small Hospital 12mo, S3 50 2 00 3 50 3 00 4 00 3 00 4 00 1 2.J 3 00 3 50 2 50 1 50 3 00 1 50 1 50 4 00 9 00 2 00 5 00 5 00 4 00 5 00 7 50 2 00 4 00 5 00 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 50 1 00 1 50 3 50 6 00 6 50 3 00 5 00 5 50 1 50 ARMY AND NAVY. Bemadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitrocellulose, and the Theory ol the Cellu- lose Molecule 1 2mo, 2 50 Chase's Art of Pattern Making 12mo, 2 50 Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion S^'o, 3 00 * Cloke's Enlisted Specialists' Examiner Svo, 2 00 * Gunner's Examiner Svo, 1 50 Craig's Azimuth 4to, 3 50 Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph Svo, 3 00 * Davis's Elements of Law Svo, 2 50 * Treatise on the Military Law of United States.' 8vo, 7 00 * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial. . .Large 12mo, 2 50 Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships Svo, 5 00 * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery 12mo, 3 00 2 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo $4 00 * Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification Large 12mo, 2 00 Hamilton and Bond's The Gunner's Catechism 18mo, 1 00 * Hoff 's Elementary Naval Tactics 8vo, 1 50 Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire 8vo, 4 00 * Interior Ballistics Svo. 3 00 * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery Svo, 6 00 * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables Svo, 1 00 * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. 'Vols. L and II. .Svo, each, 6 00 * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.) Svo. half mor. 7 50 Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, mor. 1 50 * Mercvir's Attack of Fortified Places 12mo, 2 00 * Elements of the Art of "War Svo, 4 00 Nixon's Adjutants' Manual 24mo, 1 00 Peabody's Naval Architecture Svo, 7 50 * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying Svo, 2 50 Putnam's Nautical Charts Svo, 2 00 Rust's Ex-meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star-Finding Tables.' Svo, 5 00 * Selkirk's Catechism of Manual of Guard Duty 24mo, 0 50 Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War I8mo, mor. 1 50 * Taylor's Speed and Power of Ships. 2 vols. Text Svo, plates oblong 4to, 7 50 * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing. 24mo, leather, 0 50 * Weaver's Military Explosives Svo, 3 00 * Woodhull's Military Hygiene for Officers of the Line Large 12mo, 1 50 ASSAYING. Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis Svo, 4 00 *Butler's Handbook of Blowpipe Analysis 16mo, 0 75 Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe. 1.6 mo, mor. 1 50 Furman and Pardoe's Manual of Practical Assaying Svo, 3 00 Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. .Svo, 3 00 Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis Svo, 3 00 Miller's Cyanide Process 12mo, 1 00 Manual of Assaying 12mo, 1 00 Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). .. 12mo, 2 50 Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying Svc , 3 00 Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) Svc, 4 00 * Seamon's Manual for Assayers and Chemists Large 12mo, 2 50 Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining Svo, 3 00 Wilson's Chlorination Process 12mo, 1 50 Cyanide Processes 1 2mo, 1 50 ASTRONOMY. Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers Svo, 2 50 Craig's Azimuth 4to, 3 50 Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares Svo, 3 00 Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy Svo, 4 00 Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy Svo, 3 00 Hosmer's Azimuth 16mo, mor. 1 00 * Text-book on Practical Astronomy Svo, 2 00 Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy „ . .Svo, 2 50 * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy .Svo, 3 00 Rust's Ex-meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star- Finding Tables Svo, 5 00 * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy 12mo, 2 00 CHEMISTRY. * Abderhalden's Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (liall and Defren.) Svo, 5 00 * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende.) 12mo, I 25 Alexeyeflf's General Principles of Organic Syntheses. (Matthews.) Svo, 3 00 Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis Svo, 3 00 3 Armsby's Principles of Animal Nutrition 8vo, $4 00 Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.) Lar^e 12mo, 3 50 Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Kartford Meeting. 1906 8vo, 3 00 Jamestown Meeting, 1907 8vo, 3 00 Austen's Notes for Chemical Students. 12mo, 1 50 Bernadou's Smokeless Powder. — Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule 12mo, 2 50 * Biltz's Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry. (Hall and Phelan.). . . 12mo, 1 25 Laboratory Methods of Inorganic Chemistry. (Hall and Blanchard.) 8vo, 3 00 * Bingham and White's Laboratory Manual of Inorganic Chemistry. .12mo. 1 00 * Blanchard's Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry 12mo, 1 00 * Bottler's German and American Varnish Making. (Sabin.) . .Large 12mo, 3 50 Browne's Handbook of Sugar Analysis. (In Press.) * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo, 1 50 * Butler's Handbook of Blowpipe Analysis 16mo, 0 75 * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.) 8vo, 3 00 Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).8vo, 3 00 Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers 12mo, 2 00 Tests and Reagents 8vo, 3 00 Cohnheim's Functions of Enzymes and Ferments. (In Press.) * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) 12mo, 1 25 Dannerth's Methods of Textile Chemistry 12mo, 2 00 Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo, 4 00 Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 00 EissJer's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 00 * Ekeley's Laboratory Manual of Inorganic Chemistry 12mo, 1 00 * Fischer's Oedema 8vo, 2 00 * Physiology of Alimentation Large 12mo, 2 00 Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe. 16mo, mor. 1 50 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12mo, 2 00 Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.) 8vo, . 5 00 Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells. )8vo, 3 00 Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 2 vols! 8vc, 12 50 When Sold Separately, Vol. I. $6. Vol. II, $8. Fuertes's Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50 Furman and Pardoe's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 00 * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry 12mo, 2 00 Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers 12mo, 1 25 Gooch's Summary of Methods in Chemical Analysis. (In Press.) * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Large 12mo, 1 25 Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) 12mo, 2 00 Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) 12mo, 1 25 * Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 00 Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.) 8vo, 5 00 * Haskins and Macleod's Organic Chemistry 12mo, 2 00 * Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol 8vo, 4 00 Hinds's Inorganic Chemistry 8vc, 3 00 * Laboratory Manual for Students 12mo, 1 00 * HoUeman's Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry for Beginners. (Walker.) 12mo, 1 00 Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) 8vo, 2 50 Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.) 8vo, 2 50 * (Ekeley) Laboratory Manual to Accompany HoUeman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry 12mo, 1 00 Holley's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.) * Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, 3 00 Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo 3 00 Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .8vo, 1 25 Johnson's Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, Steel- making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, 3 00 Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 00 -Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in Organic Chemistry. (Tingle.) 12mo, 1 00 4 Leach's Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control 8vo, $7 50 Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) 8vo, 3 00 Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.. 8vo, 3 00 Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis 8vo, 3 00 Lowe's Paint for Steel Structures 12mo, 1 00 Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 12mo, 1 00 * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making 8vo. 1 50 Maire's Modem Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 2 00 Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory 12mo, 1 50 * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe 12mo, 0 60 Mason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.). . ; . . . 12mo, 1 25 Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 8vo, 4 00 * Mathewson's First Principles of Chemical Theory 8vo, 1 00 Matthews's Laboratory Manual of Dyeing and Textile Chemistry 8vo, 3 50 Textile Fibres. 2d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 00 * Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.) Third Edition 12mo, 1 25 Miller's Cyanide Process 12mo, 1 00 Manual of Assaying 12mo, 1 00 Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). . .12mo, 2 50 * Mittelstaedt's Technical Calculations for Sugar Works. (Bourbakis.) 12mo, 1 50 Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry 12mo, 1 50 Morgan's Elements of Physical Chemistry 12mo, 3 00 * Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers 12rno, 1 50 * Moore's Experiments in Organic Chemistry 12mo, 0 50 * Outlines of Organic Chemistry 12mo, 1 50 Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories 16mo, mor. 1 50 * Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws 8vo, 4 00 MuUiken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds. Vol. I. Compounds of Carbon with Hydrogen and Oxygen. Large 8vo, 5 00 Vol. II. Nitrogenous Compounds. (In Preparation.) Vol. III. The Commercial DyestufTs Large 8vo, 5 00 * Nelson's Analysis of Drugs and Medicines ]2mo, 5 00 Ostw^ald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.) 12mo, 1 50 Part Two. (Tumbull.) 12mo, 2 00 * Introduction to Chemistry. (Hall and Williams.) Large 12mo, 1 50 Owen and Standage's Dyeing and Cleaning of Textile Fabrics 12mo, 2 00 * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry 12mo, 1 00 * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) . . 12mo, 1 25 Penfield's Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of Domestic Production 8vc, 1 00 Pictet's Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.) 8vo, 5 00 Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 00 Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- ence to Sanitary Water Analysis: 12mo, 1 50 * Reisig's Guide to Piece-Dyeing 8vo, 25 00 Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- point 8vo. 2 00 Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 00 Rideal's Disinfection and the Preservation of Food. 8vo, 4 00 Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory 8vo, 1 25 Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vo, 4 00 Ruddiman'8 Incompatibilities in Prescriptions '. . .8vo, 2 00 Whys in Pharmacy : 12mo, 1 00 * Ruer's Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson.) 8vo, 3 00 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, 3 00 Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (OrndorfT.) 8vo, 2 50 * Schimpf's Essentials of Volumetric Analysis Large 12mo, 1 50 Manual of Volumetric Analysis. (Fifth Edition, Rewritten) 8vo, 5 00 * Qualitative Chemical Analysis • 8vo, 1 25 * Seamen's Manual for Assayers and Chemists Large 12mo, 2 50 Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students .8vo, 2 50 Spencer's Handbook for Cane Sugar Manufacturers 16mo, mor. 3 00 Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses 16mo, mor. 3 00 5 J2 50 3 50 3 00 1 50 3 00 4 00 5 00 1 50 3 00 4 00 5 00 2 00 3 00 1 50 1 50 1 25 3 50 1 50 1 50 7 50 3 00 Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, Stone's Practical Testing of Gas and Gas Meters 8vo, * Tillman's Descriptive General Chemistry 8vo, * Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis, (Hall.) 8vo. Quantitative Analysis, (Hall.) .8vo, Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supples 8vo, Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.) 12mo, Venable's Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, Ward and Whipple's Freshwater Biology. (In Press.) Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. 1 8vo " " ■' •• Vol. II 8vo. Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, * Weaver's Military Explosives 8vo, Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering Students 12mo, Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic 12mo, Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, Wilson's Chlorination Process 12mo, Cyanide Processes 12mo, Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, Zsigmondy's CoUcids and the Ultramicroscope. (Alexander.). . Large 12mo, CIVIL ENGINEERING. BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEER. ING. RAILWAY ENGINEERING. * American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book. (Mansfield Merriman, Editor- in-chief.) 16mo. mor. 5 00 Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments 12mo, 3 00 Bixby's Graphical Computing Table Paper 19'i X 24^ inches. 0 25 Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying. Vol. I. Elemen- tary Surveying 8vo, 3 00 Vol. II. Higher Surveying 8vo, 2 50 * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, 3 50 Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 * Corthelt's Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations 12mo, 1 25 Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares 8vo, 3 00 Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo, 1 00 * Eckel's Building Stones and Clays 8vo, 3 00 Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage 1 2mo, 2 00 * Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo, 5 00 Plemer's Phototopographic Methods and Instruments 8vo, 5 00 Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 00 Frei tag's Architectural Engineering 8vo, 3 50 French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo, 2 50 * Hauch and Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates. . . 12mo, 1 25 Hayford's Textbook of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo, 3 00 Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors.) 16mo, mor. 2 50 Hosmer's Azimuth 16mo, mor. 1 00 * Text-book on Practical Astronomy 8vo, 2 00 Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth 12mo, 1 25 * Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level 16mo, bds. 0*25 Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geod- esy 16mo, mor. 1 50 * Johnson (J.B.) and Smith's Theory and Practice of Surveying. Large 12mo, 3 50 Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, 2 00 * Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt's Sewage Disposal 8vo, 3 00 * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 1 50 Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors 16mo, mor. 2 00 Nugent's Plane Surveying 8vo, 3 50 Ogden's Sewer Construction 8vo, 3 00 Sewer Design , , 12mo, 2 00 6 * Ogden and Cleveland's Practical Methods of Sewage Disposal for Resi- dences, Hotels, and Institutions. 8vo, 81 ,50 Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo, 2 00 Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering. 8vo, half leather, 7 50 Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4tQ^ 5 qq Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.).8vo! 3 00 Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry gvo, 1 50 Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) gvo, 2 50 Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50 * Tracy's Exercises in Surveying 12ino, mor. 1 00 Tracy's Plane Surveying 16mo', mor. 3 00 Venable's Garbage Crematories in America gvo, 2 00 Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo,' 3 00 Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo', 6 00 Sheep! 6 50 Law of Con tracts gvo, 3 00 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture 8vo, 5 00 Sheep, 5 50 Warren's Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 * Waterbury's Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 2iX5f inches, mor. 1 00 * Enlarged Edition, Including Tables n:or. 1 50 ■Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 16mo, mor. 1 25 Wilson's Topographic, Trigonometric and Geodetic Surveying Svo. 3 50 BRIDGES AND ROOFS. Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges.. Svo, 2 00 * Thames River Bridge .'Oblong paper', 5 00 Burr and Falk's Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges 8vo, 5 00 Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations 8vo,' 3 00 Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Small 4to,' 10 00 Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to' 5 00 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations gvo] 3 50 Greene's Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo,' 2 60 Bridge Trusses "gvo! 2 50 Roof Trusses 8vo, 1 25 Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses 8vo' 2 50 Heller's Stresses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations.. . .8vo', 3 00 Howe's Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel gvo,' 2 00 Symmetrical Masonry Arches gvo', 2 50 Treatise on Arches gvo, 4 00 * Hudson's Deflections and Statically Indeterminate Stresses Small 4toi 3 50 * Plate Girder Design gvo, 1 50 * Jacoby's Structural Details, or Elements of Design in Heavy Framing, 8vo! 2 25 Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 00 * Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Structures. New Edition. Part I gvo, 3 00 * Part II. New Edition gvo,' 4 00 Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses gvo, 2 50 Part II. Graphic Statics gvo, 2 50 Part III. Bridge Design 8vo,' 2 50 Part IV. Higher Structures gvo] 2 50 Ricker's Design and Construction of Roofs. (In Press.) Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches gvo, 2 00 Waddell's De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers 16mo, mor. 2 00 * Specifications for Steel Bridges 12mo. 50 HYDRAULICS. Barnes's Ice Formation gvo, 3 OO Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Is.suing from an Orifice. (Trautwine.) gvo, 2 00 Eovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, $5 00 'Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels. Oblong 4to, paper, 1 50 Hydraulic Motors 8vo, 2 00 Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering). .Svo, 3 00 Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems , . 16ma, mor. 2 50 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 3 00 Folwell's Water-supply Engineering Svo, 4 00 Frizell's Water-power Svo, 5 00 Fuertes's Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50 Water-filtration Works 12mo, 2 50 Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) Svo. 4 00 Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo, 1 50 Filtration of Public Water-supplies Svo. 3 00 Hazelhurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works Svo 2 50 Herschel's 1 15 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal Conduits Svo, 2 00 Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge Svo, 2 00 Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and Maintenance. Svo, 4 00 * Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. Svo, 3 00 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand- point.) Svo, 4 00 .* Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics. 9th Edition, Rewritten Svo, 4 00 * Molitor's Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices Svo, 2 00 * Morrison and Brodie's High Masonry Dam Design Svo, 1 50 * Richards's Laboratory Notes on Industrial Water Analysis Svo, 50 Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- supply. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged Large Svo, 6 00 * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 4to, 6 00 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies Svo, 5 00 * Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 6th Ed., enlarged... .4to, 6 00 Water-Supply of the City of New York from 165S to 1895 4to, 10 00 Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large 12rao. 1 00 Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables Svo, 1 50 Wilson's Irrigation Engineering Svo, 4 03 Wood's Turbines.... Svo, 2 50 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. Baker's Roads and Pavements Svo, 5 00 Treatise on Masonry Construction Svo, 5 00 Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00 * Blanchard and Drowne's Highway Engineering, as Presented at the Second International Road Congress, Brussels, 1910. Svo, 2 00 Bleininger's Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. (In Preparation.) * Bottler's German and American Varnish Making. (Sabin.) . .Large 12mo, 3 50 Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering Svo, 7 50 Byrne's Highway Construction Svo, 5 00 Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 16mo, 3 00 Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 6 00 Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineer- ing Svo, 4 50 Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics. Kinetics Small 4to, 7 50 Vol. II. The Stresses in Framed Structures, Strength of Materials and Theory of Flexures Small 4to, 10 00 * Eckel's Building Stones and Clays 8vo, 3 00 * Cements, Limes, and Plasters Svo, 6 00 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 * Greene's Structural Mechanics Svo, 2 50 HoUey's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.) * Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, 3 00 s * Hubbard's Dust Preventives and Road Binders Svo, $3 00 Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels. Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, 3 00 Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Large Svo, 6 00 Keep's Cast Iron gvo! 2 50 Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 Lowe's Paints for Steel Structures 12mo, 1 00 Maire's Modem Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 2 00 * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics. Vol. I. Statics 12mo, 1 25 * Vol. IL Kinematics and Kinetics 12mo. 1 50 * Vol. III. Mechanics of Materials ]2mo, 1 .50 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo. 5 00 Merriman's Mechanics of Materials .■ Svo, 5 00 * Strength of Materials 12mo, 1 00 Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users .\2mo, 2 00 Morrison's Highway Engineering c = « . = . .Svo, 2 50 * Murdock's Strength of Materials 12mo, 2 00 Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations Svo. 5 00 Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture Svo, 2 00 Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavement Svo, 3 00 Richey's Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16mo, mor. 5 00 * Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 1 50 Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor. 4 00 * Stone and Brick Masons' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 1 50 * Ries's Clays : Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses Svo, 5 GO * Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working Industry of the United States Svo. 2 50 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish Svo, 3 00 * Smith's Strength of Material 12mo, 1 25 Snow's Principal Species of Wood Svo, 3 50 Spalding's Hydraulic Cement 12mo, 2 00 Text-book on Roads and Pavements ' 12mo, 2 00 * Taylor and Thompson's Concrete Costs Small Svo, 5 00 * Extracts on Reinforced Concrete Design Svo, 2 00 Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced Svo, 5 00 Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts Svo, 8 00 Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy.. . .Svo, 2 00 Part II. Iron and Steel Svo, 3 50 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents Svo, 2 50 Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials Svo, 4 00 Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction. Second Edition. Revised and Enlarged Svo, 3 50 Waterbury's Cement Laboratory Manual r2mo, 1 00 * Laboratory Manual for Testing Materials of Construction 12mo, 1 50 Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber Svo, 2 00 Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel Svo, 4 00 RAILWAY ENGINEERING. Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches, mor. 1 25 Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00 Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location 16mo, mor. 1 50 * Burt's Railway Station Service 12mo, 2 00 Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book 16mo, mor. 2 50 Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables Svo, 1 50 Crandall and Barnes's Railroad Surveying 16mo, mor. 2 00 * Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations Svo, 1 50 Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad. (1879) Paper, 5 00 Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 * Gilbert Wightman and Saunders's Subways and Tunnels of New York. Svo, 4 00 Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . 16mo, mor. 2 50 Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Rm- bankments Hwo, $1 08 Ives and Hilts's Probleras in Surveying, Railroad Surveying auu Geodesy Ifimo, mor. 1 50 Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers 16mo, 1 00 Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers 16mo, mor. 3 00 * Orrock's Railroad Structures and Estimates 8vo, 3 00 Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, mor. 3 GO Raymond's Railroad Field Geometry 16mo, mor. 2 00 Elements of Railroad Engineering 8vo, 3 50 Railroad Engineer Is Field Book. (In Preparation.) Roberts' Track Formulae and Tables 16mo, mor. 3 00 Searles's Field Engineering 16mo, mor. 3 00 Railroad Spiral 16mo, mor. 1 50 Taylor's Prismoidal Formulje and Earthwork 8vo, 1 50 Webb's Economics of Railroad Construction Large 12mo, 2 50 Railroad Construction 16mo, mor. 5 00 Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Large 12mo, 5 00 Wilson's Elements of Railroad-Track and Construction 12mo, 2 00 DRAWING. Barr and Wood's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing Svo, 3 00 * " " " Abridged Ed Svo, 150 * Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry Svo, 1 50 Blessing and Darling's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.) Elements of Drawing. (In Press.) Coolidge's Manual of Drawing Svo, paper, 1 00 Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- neers Oblong 4to, Durley's Kinematics of Machines Svo, Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application Svo, Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective Svo, Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing Svo, Elements of Mechanical Drawing Svo, Jones's Machine Design : Part I. Kinematics of Machinery Svo, Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts Svo, * Kimball and Barr's Machine Design Svo, MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry Svo, Kinematics ; or. Practical Mechanism Svo, Mechanical Drawing 4to, Velocity Diagrams Svo, McLeod's Descriptive Geometry Large 12mo, * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting Svo, Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) Svo, Moyer's Descriptive Geometry Svo, Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, * Reid's Mechanical Drawing. (Elementary and Advanced.) Svo, Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design.. Svo, Robinson's Principles of Mechanism ,. » Svo, Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo, Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design , Svo, Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) Svo, * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong Svo, Tracy and North's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.) Warren's Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective. .Svo, .Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo, Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . . . 12mo, General Problems of Shades and Shadows Svo, Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Forms and Shadow 12mo, Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing 12mo, Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry 1 2mo, Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and Klein.) Svo, Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying Svo, 10 2 50 4 00 2 50 2 00 2 00 2 50 1 50 3 00 3 00 3 00 5 00 4 00 1 50 1 50 1 50 3 50 2 00 5 00 2 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 2 50 1 25 3 50 7 50 1 00 3 00 1 00 1 50 1 25 5 00 3 50 * Wilson's (V. T.) Descriptive Geometry gvo jj gg Free-hand Lettering gyp' j qq Free-hand Perspective 8 vo,' 2 50 WooJf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo' 3 00 ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende.1 12mo, Andrews's Hand-book for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches mor' Anthony and Ball's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measure- ments j2mo Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) Large 12mo! Benjamin's History of Electricity ."gvo' Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis .....'. .8vo' * Burgess and Le Chatelier's Measurement of High Temperatures. Third Edition g^^^ Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. ' (Boitwood.).8vo,' * Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony 12mo! Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo,' * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) 12moi Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . . 16mo, inor.' Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery) . (von Ende. ) Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) ."svo,' Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo! * Getman's Introduction to Physical Science 12mo' Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay ) '.'.'. ."svo! * Hanchett's Alternating Currents 12mo' Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) ICmo, mor.' * Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery .' .8vo^ Holman's Precision of Measurements gyo' Telescope-Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large 8voi * Hutchinson's High-Efficiency Electrical Illuminants and Illumination.' Large 12mo, * Jones's Electric Ignition ' g^^ Karapetofif's Experimental Electrical Engineering- *Vol. I g^. *Vol. II. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ^''.['.'.'.'.'..Svo Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines .8vo,' * Koch's Mathematics of Applied Electricity Small 8vo,' Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) gvo' * Lauffer's Electrical Injuries lOmo' Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.). ...!.... .... .8vo! * Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. .8vo! * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols, I. and II. 8vo, each| * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light. . . '. .8vo', * Morgan's Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers 12mo,' * Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering .~8vo! Norris and Dennison's Course of Problems on the Electrical Characteristics of Circuits and Machines. (In Press.) * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design 4to. half mor, Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. J, „ , , .^, Large 12mo, * Rosenberg s Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee— Kinzbrunner.) . .8vo. * Ryan's Design of Electrical Machinery: * * Vol. I. Direct Current Dynamos gvo^ Vol. II. Alternating Current Transformers . . .8vo,' Vol. III. Alternators, Synchronous Motors, and Rotary Converters, (In Preparation.) Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Text Book of Electrical Machinery 8vo, Schapper's Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry. .... 12mo,' * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat gvo' * Timbie's Elements of Electricity Large 12mo', * Answers to Problems in Elements of Electricity 12mo, Paper Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Large 12mo, Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining gvo' * Waters's Commercial Dynamo Design gvo 11 1 25 1 25 1 00 3 GO 3 00 4 00 4 00 3 00 1 50 3 00 1 25 5 00 2 50 4 00 3 00 1 50 2 50 1 00 2 50 6 00 2 00 0 75 2 50 4 00 3 50 2 50 2 00 3 00 3 00 0 50 3 00 3 00 6 00 4 00 1 50 2 50 3 50 2 00 1 50 ' 50 2 50 1 00 1 50 2 00 0 25 2 00 o 00 2 00 LAW. * Brennan's Hand-book of Useful Legal Information for Business Men. 16mo, mor. * Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, * Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, • * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial. . Large 12mo, Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, mor. Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, Sheep, Law of Contracts 8vo, Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture 8 vo, Sheep, MATHEMATICS. Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. (Bocher.) 12mo, * Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 8vo, Byerly's Harmonic Functions 8vo, Chandler's Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus 12mo, * Coffin's Vector Analysis 12mo, Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations 12mo, * Dickson's College Algebra Large 12mo, * Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large 12mo, Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 8vo, Fiske's Functions of a Complex Variable 8vo, Halsted's Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo, Elements of Geometry 8vo, * Rational Geometry 12mo, Synthetic Projective Geometry 8vo, * Hancock's Lectures on the Theory of Elliptic Functions 8vo, Hyde's Grassmann's Space Analysis 8vo. * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, paper, * 100 copies, * Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches, * 10 copies, Johnson's (W. W.) Abridged Editions of Differential and Integral Calculus. Large 12mo, 1 vol. Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates 12mo, Differential Equations 8vo, Elementary Treatise on Diflferential Calculus Large 12mo, Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo, * Theoretical Mechanics 12mo, Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares 12mo. Treatise on Differential Calculus Large 12mo, Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo, Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. . .Large 12mo, Karapetoff's Engineering Applications of Higher Mathematics: * Part I. Problems on Machine Design Large 12mo. * Koch's Mathematics of Applied Electricity 8vo, Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . 12mo, * Le Messurier's Key to Professor W. W. Johnson's Differential Equations. Small Svo, * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, * Ludlow and Bass's Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other Tables 8vo, * Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, Macfarlane's Vector Analysis and Quaternions Svo, McMahon's Hyperbolic Functions Svo, Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and Series 12mo. * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics. Vol. I. Statics 12mo, * Vol. II. Kinematics and Kinetics 12mo. * Vol. III. Mechanics of Materials l2mo, 12 S5 00 2 50 . 7 00 2 50 1 50 6 00 6 50 3 00 5 00 5 50 1 50 1 00 1 00 1 00 2 00 2 50 1 50 1 50 1 25 2 50 1 00 1 50 1 75 1 50 1 00 5 00 1 00 0 15 5 00 0 25 2 00 , 2 50 1 00 1 00 1 50 1 50 3 00 1 50 3 00 3 00 3 50 0 75 3 00 , 2 00 1 75 1 00 3 00 2 00 1 00 1 00 1 25 1 25 1 50 1 50 Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert S. Woodward Octavo, each $1 00 No. 1. History of Modem Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. No^ 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. No 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyper- bolic Functions, by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Func- tions by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis. by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors, by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions, by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations, by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable, by Thomas S. Fiske. Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, Solution of Equations 8vo, * Moritz's Elements of Plane Trigonometry 8vo. Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one. Large 12mo, Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus Large 12mo, Smith's Historv of Modern Mathematics ;^°' * Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable. .8vo, * Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 2iX5f inches, mor. * Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. Weld's Determinants Svo, Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, Woodward's Probability and Theory of Errors 8vo, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 4 00 2 00 1 00 00 ^ 50 •A 00 1 00 2 00 1 00 1 50 1 00 2 00 1 00 Bacon's Forge Practice. 12mo, 150 Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50 Barr and Wood's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 00 * •• •■ '■ Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 * Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 1 50 * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, 3 50 Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo. 4 00 * Carpenter and Diederichs's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 00 * Clerk's The Gas. Petrol and Oil Engine 8vo, 4 00 Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working 12mo, 1 50 Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe 12mo, 1 50 Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00 Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En- gineers Oblong 4to, 2 50 Cromwell's Treatise on Belts and Pulleys 12mo. 1 50 Treatise on Toothed Gearing 12mo, 1 50 Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making 12mo, 2 00 Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 00 Flanders's Gear-cutting Machinery Large 12mo, 3 00 Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 3 00 Rope Driving l^mo, 2 00 Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers 12mo, 1 25 Goss's Locomotive Sparks Svo, 2 00 * Greene's Pumping Machinery 8vo, 4 t)i) Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors^ 16mo, mor. 2 50 ' Hobart and Ellis's High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery 8vo, 6 00 Hutton's Gas Engine- .Svo. 5 00 2 00 Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing Svo, Elements of Mechanical Drawing Svo, 2 50 Jones's Gas Engine S^'O- 4 00 Machine Design: Part I. Kinematics of Machinery Svo, 1 50 Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts Svo, 3 00 * Kaup's Machine Shop Practice Large 12mo * Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-Book 16mo, mor. Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, * Kimball and Barr's Machine Design 8vo, * King's Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Trans- mission 8vo, * Lanza's Dynamics of Machinery Svo, Leonard's Machine Shop Tools and Methods Svo, * Levin's Gas Engine 8vo, * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean)..8vo, MacCord's Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism Svo,- Mechanical Drawing 4to, Velocity Diagrams Svo, MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases Svo, Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) Svo. Mehrtens's Gas Engine Theory and Design Large 12mo, Miller, Berry, and Riley's Problems in Thermodynamics and Heat Engineer- ing Svo, paper, Oberg's Handbook of Small Tools Large 12mo. * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. Small 4to, half leather, * Peele's Compressed Air Plant. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Svo, * Perkins's Introduction to General Thermodynamics 12mo. Poole's Calorific Power of Fueis Svo, * Porter's Engineering Reminiscences, 1855 to 18S2 Svo, Randall's Treatise on Heat. (In Press.) * Reid's Mechanical Drawing. (Elementary and Advanced.) Svo, Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. Svo, Richards's Compressed Air 12mo, Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo, Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design Svo, Smith's (O.) Press- working of Metals Svo, Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion in Alcohol Engines. (Woodward and Preston.) Large 12mo, Stone's Practical Testing of Gas and Gas Meters Svo, Thurston's Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. 12mo, Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work. . .Svo, * Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor 16mo, * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong Svo, Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo, * Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 2j X5f inches, mor. * Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann — Klein.) Svo, Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Hermann — Klein.). .Svo, Wood's Turbines Svo, MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering Svo, Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineering). Svo, * Greene's Structural Mechanics Svo, HoUey's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.) * Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, Steel-Making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Svo, keep's Cast Iron Svo. * King's Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Trans- mission Svo, Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, Lowe's Paints for Steel Structures 12mo, Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 14 $1 25 5 00 2 00 3 00 2 50 2 50 4 00 4 00 4 00 5 00 4 00 1 50 I 50 3 50 2 50 0 75 2 50 12 50 3 50 1 50 3 00 3 00 o 00 3 00 1 50 3 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 3 50 1 00 3 00 1 50 1 25 7 50 1 00 1 50 5 00 5 00 - 50 ^ 50 6 00 4 50 -' 50 3 00 3 00 6 00 2 50 -, 50 7 50 1 00 2 00 «4 00 6 00 ] 00 2 00 2 00 3 00 J 00 X 25 8 00 2 00 3 50 2 50 1 50 3 00 Maurer's Technical Mechanics gvo, Merriman's Mechanics of Materials Svo, * Strength of Materials 12mo. Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo. * Murdock's Strength of Materials 12mo, Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish Svo. Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines ]2mo. * Smith's (H. E.) Strength of Material 12mo." Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., Svo. Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering Svo, Part II. Iron and Steel Svo, Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents Svo, * Waterbury's Laboratory Manual for Testing Materials of Construction. 12mo, Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo. Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the Preservation of Timber Svo. 2 00 Wo:d's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings' Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel Svo, 4 00 STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram. Third Edition Revised and En- larged I2mo. 2 50 Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) 12mo, 1 50 Chase's Art of Pattern Making 12mo, 2 50 Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat Motors Svo. 5 00 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electiic Traction Pocket-book. .. . ICmo, mor. 5 00 * Gebhardt's Steam Power Plant Engineering Svo, 6 00 Goss's Locomotive Performance Svo, 5 00 Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy r2mo, 2 00 Hirshfeld and Barnard's Heat Power Engineering. (In Press.) Hutton's Heat and Heat-engines Svo, 5 00 Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants Svo, 5 00 Kent's Steam Boiler Economy Svo, 4 00 Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector Svo, 1 50 MacCord's Slide-valves Svo, 2 00 Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to. 10 00 Miller, Berry, and Riley's Problems in Thermodynamics Svo, paper, 0 75 Mover's Steam Turbine Svo, 4 00 Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 12mo, 1 50 Tables of the Properties of Steam and Other Vapors and Temperature- Entropy Table Svo. 1 00 Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. . . .Svo, 5 00 * Thermodynamics of the Steam Turbine Svo, 3 00 Valve-gears for Steam-engines Svo, 2 50 Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers Svo, 4 00 * Perkins's Introduction to General Thermodynamics 12mo. 1 50 Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. (Osterberg.) 12mo, 1 25 Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. Large 12mo, 3 50 Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management 12mo, 2 00 Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice 12mo, 2 50 Snow's Steam-boiler Practice Svo, 3 00 Spangler's Notes on Thermodynamics 12mo, 1 00 Valve-gears Svo, 2 50 Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering Svo, 3 00 Thomas's Steam-turbines Svo, 4 00 Thurston's Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indi- cator and the Prony Brake Svo, 5 00 Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs. Construction, and Operation Svo, 5 00 Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., Svo, 10 00 Part I. History, Structure, and Theory Svo. 6 00 Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation Svo, 6 00 15 Wehrenfennig's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water. (Patterson ) 8vo, $4 00 Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 Whitham's Steam-engine Design. 8vo. 5 00 Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .Svo, 4 00 MECHANICS PURE AND APPLIED. Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering). . Svo, * Mechanics of Internal Work , Svo, Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineering). Svo, Notes and Examples in Mechanics Svo, Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools .12mo, Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanicb: Vol. I. Kinematics Svo, Vol. II. Statics Svo, Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, Vol. II Small 4to, * Greene's Structural Mechanics Svo, * Hartmann's Elementary Mechanics for Engineering Students 12mo, James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. Large 12mo. * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics. . . . 12mo, * King's Elements of the Mechanics of Materials and of Power of Trans- mission 'Svo, Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics 12mo, * Vol. II. Kinematics and Kinetics 12mo, * Vol. III. Mechanics of Materials 12mo, Maurer's Technical Mechanics Svo, * Merriman's Elements of Mechanics 12mo, Mechanics of Materials .■ Svo, * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo, Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, Sanborn's Mechanics Problems Large 12mo, Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo, Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo, Principles of Elementary Mechanics 12mo, MEDICAL. * Abderhalden's Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and Defren.) Svo, 5 00 von Behring's .Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) 12mo, 1 00 * Bolduan's Immune Sera 12mo, 1 50 Bordet's Studies in Immunity. (Gay.) Svo, 6 00 * Chapin's The Sources and Modes of Infection Large 12mo, 3 00 Davenport's .Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Varia- tions 16mo, mor. 1 50 Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.) Svo, 6 00 * Fischer's Nephritis Large 12mo, 2 50 * Oedema Svo, 2 00 * Physiology of Alimentation Large 12mo, 2 00 * de Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.) ... Large 12mo, 2 50 * Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.).. . .8vo, 4 00 Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry . .Svo, 1 25 Lassar-Cohn's Praxis of Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) 12mo, 1 00 * Laufifer's Electrical Injuries. 16mo, 0 50 Mandel's Hand-book for the Bio-Chemical Laboratory 12mo. 1 50 * Nelson's Analysis of Drugs and Medicines 12mo, 3 00 * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) . .12mo, 1 25 * Pozzi-Escot's Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.). . 12mo, 1 00 Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) 12mo, 1 00 Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions Svo, 2 00 Whys in Pharmacy 12mo, 1 00 Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Omdorff.) ....8vo, 2 50 16 6 00 3 00 1 50 4 50 2 00 1 50 3 50 4 00 7 50 10 00 2 50 1 25 2 00 3 00 2 50 7 50 1 25 1 50 1 50 4 00 1 00 5 00 4 00 3 00 1 50 3 00 3 00 1 25 * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology 12mo, $1 25 Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students 8vo, 2 50 * Whipple's Tyhpoid Fever Large 12mo, 3 00 * WoodhuU's Military Hygiene for Officers of the Line Large 12mo, 1 50 * Personal Hygiene 12mo, 1 00 Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance, and Suggestions for Hospi;al Architecture, with Plans for a Small Hospital 12mo, 1 25 METALLURGY. Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis 8vo, 4 00 Bolland's Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms used in the Practice of Moulding 12mo, 3 00 Iron Founder 12mo, 2 50 Supplement 12mo, 2 50 * Borchers's Metallurgy. (Hall and Hayward.) 8vo, 3 00 * Burgess and Le Chatelier's Measurement of High Temperatures. Third Edition 8vo, 4 00 Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects 12mo, 1 00 Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor. 3 00 * Iles's Lead-smelting 12mo, 2 50 Johnson's Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, 3 00 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 Mstcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, 2 00 Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). . 12mo, 2 50 * Palmer's Foundry Practice Large 12mo, 2 00 * Price and Meade's Technical Analysis of Brass 12mo. 2 00 * Ruer's Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson.) 8vo, 3 00 Smith's Materials of Machines 12mo, 1 00 Tate and Stone's Foundry Practice 12mo, 2 00 Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts , 8vo, 8 00 Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering, page 9. Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents 8vo, 2 50 XJlke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00 West's American Foundry Practice 12mo, 2 50 Moulders' Text Book 12mo. 2 50 MINERALOGY. * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo, Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, Butler's Pocket Hand-book of Minerals 16mo, mor. Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper. Cloth, * Crane's Gold and Silver , 8vo, Dana's First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy". .Large 8vo, Dana's Second Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo, Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography 12mo, Minerals and How to Study Them 12mo, System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather. Text-book of Mineralogy 8vo, Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects 12mo, Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, * Eckel's Building Stones and Clays 8vo, Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor. * Groth's The Optical Properties of Crystals. (Jackson.) 8vo, Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) 12mo, * Hayes's Handbook for Field Geologists 16mo, mor. Iddings's Igneous Rocks 8vo, Rock Minerals 8vo, 17 1 50 4 00 3 00 1 00 1 25 5 00 1 00 1 50 2 00 1 50 12 50 4 00 1 00 1 25 3 00 3 00 3 50 1 25 1 50 5 00 5 00 Johannsen's Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. 8vo, With Thumb Index $5 00 * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blow- pipe 12mo, 0 60 Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 00 Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 00 * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Minert.' Tests. 8vo, paper, 0 50 Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of Domestic Production 8vo, 1 00 * Pirsson's Rocks and Rock Minerals 12mo. 2 50 * Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters 12mo, mor. 1 25 * Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties and Uses 8vo, 5 00 * Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working industry of the United States 8vo, 2 50 * Rowe's Practical Mineralogy Simplified 12mo, 1 25 * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 2 00 Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, 2 00 MINING. * Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions Large 12mo, 3 00 * Crane's Gold and Silver 8vo, 5 00 * Index of Mining Engineering Literature 8vo, 4 00 * 8vo, mor. 5 00 * Ore Mining Methods 8vo, 3 00 * Dana and Saunders's Rock Drilling 8vo, 4 00 Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects 12mo, 1 00 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo. 4 00 *= Gilbert Wightman and Saunders's Subways and Tunnels of New York. 8vo, 4 00 Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor. 3 00 Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo, 5 00 * Iles's Lead Smelting , 12mo, 2 50 * Peele's Compressed Air Plant 8vo, 3 50 Riemer'sShaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.)8vo, 3 00 * Weaver's Military Explosives 8vo, 3 00 Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten I2mo, 2 50 Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation 12mo, 1 25 SANITARY SCIENCE. Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford Meeting, 1906 8vo. Jamestown Meeting, 1907 8vo, * Bashore's Outlines of Practical Sanitation 12mo, Sanitation of a Country House 12mo, Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks 12mo, * Chapin's The Sources and Modes of Infection Large 12mo, Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.) 8vo, Water-supply Engineering 8vo, Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12mo, Fuertes's Water-filtration Works 12mo, Water and Public Health 12mo, Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary Inspections 12mo, * Modern Baths and Bath Houses 8vo, Sanitation of Public Buildings 12mo, * The Water Supply, Sewerage, and Plumbing of Modem City Buildings. 8vo, Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo, Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, * Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt's Sewage Disposal 8vo, Leach's Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control 8vo, Mason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological) 12mo, Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint). 8vo, * Mast's Light and the Behavior of Organisms Large 12mo, 18 3 00 3 00 1 25 1 00 1 00 3 00 3 00 4 00 2 00 2 50 1 50 1 50 3 00 1 50 4 00 1 50 3 00 3 00 7 50 1 25 4 00 2 50 * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, $2 00 Ogden's Sewer Construction 8vo, 3 00 Sewer Design 12nio, 2 00 * Ogden and Cleveland's Practical Methods of Sewage Disposal for Res- idences, Hotels and Institutions 8vo, 1 50 Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo, 2 GO Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- ence to Sanitary Water Analysis 12mo, 1 50 * Price's Handbook on Sanitation 12mo, 1 50 Richards's Conservation by Sanitation 8vo. 2 50 Cost of Cleanness 12mo, 1 00 Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries 12mo, 1 00 Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science 12mo, 1 00 Cost of Shelter 12mo. 1 00 Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- point 8vo. 2 00 * Richey's Plumbers', Steam-fitters', and Tinners' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 1 50 Rideal's Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 4 00 Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo. 5 00 Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 8vo, 2 00 Method and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 3 00 Ward and Whipple's Freshwater Biology. (In Press.) Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 * Typhoid Fever Large 12mo, 3 00 Value of Pure Water Large 1 2mo, 1 00 Winslow's Systematic Relationship of the Coccaceae Large 12mo, 2 50 MISCELLANEOUS. * Burt's Railway Station Service 12mo, 2 00 * Chapin's How to Enamel 12mo, 1 00 Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, 1 50 Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds ' Svo, 4 00 Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist 18mo, 1 00 * Fritz, Autobiography of John Svo, 2 00 Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World 24mo, 0 75 Haines's American Railway Management 12mo, 2 50 Hanausek's The Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton) Svo, 5 00 Jacobs's Betterment Briefs. A Collection of Published Papers on Or- ganized Industrial Efficiency Svo, 3 50 Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures, and the Administration of Workshops.. Svo, 5 00 * Parkhurst's Applied Methods of Scientific Management Svo, 2 00 Putnam's Nautical Charts Svo, 2 00 Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1824-1894. Large 12mo, 3 00 * Rotch and Palmer's Charts of the Atmosphere for Aeronauts and Aviators. Oblong 4to, 2 00 Rotherham's Emphasised New Testament Large Svo, 2 00 Rust's Ex-Meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star-finding Tables., Svo, 5 00 Standage's Decoration of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc 12mo, 2 00 Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider) Svo, 2 00 Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy 12mo, 1 50 HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. (Tregelles.) Small 4to, half mor, 5 00 Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar 12mo. 1 25 19 u i ♦J-i ^? n 1 f*"",'-"^* ^^*T^ UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES