UNIV. OF TORONTO LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/forestryquarterOSnewy PR Tidus? Aagcd — ) "FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME V PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION of a BOARD OF EDITORS With Seven Plates and Twelve Diagrams ae me oe (i Y ‘ \° ITHACA, N.Y. 1907 BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, L. L. D., Editor-in-Chief. HENRY S. GRAVES, M.A., FILIBERT Ror, B. S., Yale Forest School University of Michigan RICHARD T. FISHER, A. B., Hucu P. BAKER, M. F., Harvard University State College of Pennsylvania ERNEST A. STERLING, F. E., RAPHAEL ZON, F. E., Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. Forest Service FREDERICK DUNLAP, F.E., CiypE Leavirt, M.S. F., Forest Service Forest Service CONTENTS. Page Forest Manapement:in Southern. Pines, 30.0 ei) sb ia alee ele eo bielers I By Max Rothkugel. Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves, ..........ecceceeceeee® II By Frank J. Phillips. Railroad Forest Plantations, Some Mistakes Made in Establishing “TD LAV eyari yt 13 es le i RR Te AU Lge eR a a SOA ARR Ue UI 20 By Prof. R. C. Bryant. New Method of Measuring Volumes of Conifers, ................+. 29 By B. E. Fernow. Table for Determining the Financial Increment Per Cent. of Trees Basedioni their) Market \Walhtwe (ios penn Fe here cy oehiersvaissa oleae eee 37 By Nils B. Eckbo. MSpeapS Se EIRP CURA IF). apo ra leh lieicterdl ale slehalletsoalerelalelatale areteie eulelalaimore caine 41 By Barrington Moore and Robert L. Rogers. Neate om ropical Wood). Supplies: ei). eso eis ie eleigialo ose alaloss 51 y B. E. Fernow. The Sprout Forests of the Housatonic Valley, Connecticut, ........ 121 By G. Frederick Schwarz. UTC DOL ESE (RpATI Hb 6 52 stat hohe le habe ay ahedullade telond a lahelollaleie alallotere ceeiale aan 154 By Ernest Bruncken. California Red. Fir in the Tahoe Forest Reserve, ...........0. 00005 159 By M. B. Pratt. Seance Government) Pimber se ie eiielulalalaleielelciale oe ogleteeels 166 By T. S. Woolsey, Jr. Some Fundamental Principles of Silviculture as stated by Prof. Sy SIre Ss 6 100 1" eI MR Ay a a A aU 174 Translated by R. Zon and A. T. Boisen. The Formation of the Annual Ring of Wood in the European ILS iHlay senayalid ake ee Ys chy tenttd capt 6 eAMnMin, AOL Alan On HU EN UNS ual A Ha ar AA 259 By Prof. W. A. Buckhout, State College, Pa. NBME CTARISEN Nive 2/2 MAN LOT UnIh SLE OF a) ci Ars A AO 268 By W. J. Ward, Forester, Brookings Lumber Company . Wbherbereshi laws or Caliqormian sei Oke aly Ware aie 278 By Geo. B. Lull, State Forester. Treatment of Hardwood Lands in South Western Connecticut, .... 283 By Ralph C. Hawley. SEMEN TESESHOL UATICANSAS LHL k i OI N Nain ot ATM enna ae 206 By Samuel J. Record. Anmbrective screen | Tom Nurseries ee ee eee ee ec a 307 By E. J. Zavitz. Beonomic hhinning of White Pre iio en le Ua 368 By Austin F. Hawes, State Forester. Pie OHNO FV COLA TES aie rN ART UE UMP TE Ihara 373 By B. E. Fernow. Humbering, 1mithe, Philippine | Tslands. os eiie es ale 205 Siclals eels 385 By H. D. Everett, Forester. The Treatment of Fence Posts to Increase Durability, ............. 390 By Prof. Hugh P. Baker. AGO M OTS STONED le OURS Fike ya ies as ol volo Vella alo lente lasllese say pariatchale 403 By A. B. Recknagel. CURRENT TPE RAR i ois hoc te goal eie's seis 54, 190, 302, 405 PERIODICAT, TE VIRIATWIRG, ) 5 be ha eae ou esas ons 86, I97, 312, 412 Forest. Geography and) Descriptiony .....050006.. 00-000. e lee 197, 412 Botany, and | Zoology yee iiy ste oisiasatdiet Maher ah areloiere ove 80, 199, 312, 414 iv Page. Soil. Water andiGlimate ieee renee ieee eee ee QI, 202, 324, 417 Silviculture, Protection and Extension, ......... 95, 204, 330, 420 Mensuration, Finance and Management, pean Ge 99, 221, 337, 430 Utilization, Market, ands Technology. snc cus ce.cnee 102, 231, 348, 4. Statistics and History, SE) oO 3 at a let i ENT A ace eat 107, 237, 349 Politics wand myecislationy en iase cities eerie oe eee oe II2, 438 Miscellaneous cise thao sscyan sere Lie ie tee eres eae cles 116, 246, 354, INE WS WANED IN ODES eae cae @ punts ceoeieasl ea ie aie 117, 248, 355, 440 INDEX TO VOLUME V. Altes) masgnitica; article, ): 2/024 e8i 0. aces eee -EOeRREE Acchimatizationyicy oe cee ceer eer eee e eee LLC EEELene Ae Or trees MNIOPeNs pW senior e eee Altitude, Influence on Increment, ................... Anniialcminewormationvanticle wes ance ee ee eror Apple MWood, 110 tes os cya erter el Novos Glee theta octavian Atkansas, fonests:wanticle. epee nee a soneek cer enercre IA Sh esilvics as alaticcmetectiner Meer EEO coe eee Australia’ timberitestsay- fee ee Reo eee eee (RIGID Tomes Ietesbhaea) Yee basa dao Cocisocddadasepdoas Avalanches) prevention cece ee er oe ee eerie. ~Averagevlog a iCruise article. ....e ee ake oes Baden: sstatistics oe herd: eee eee REEL ORG one BAKER. . H.-P wartselendt 05 1:5, Uae Rupees esc 20 rae et es Ae Banks of Pik, (ey ke a At ae ane EN AL RE Bark, (pet: Centerpinedie.nc een ete otns neato area eae Bavaria. StaliStiesi cat. 2s ee eeiee been eon ae Beech sblood Moneini aor earccasacier cee eho ee eee Bitdsyalosteninig- Bene kee. eet deel eee eee bRoeien oe Bogs, Alpine wivalties.0s4. cb comes C eee ee eee ae BOTSEN AG tie sctranslator wi yes ec Le eR has antes be Botany andEZoologyaus saree cee tee bee ae Black Locust, Baas iRlantations weerere aa aero “ce o}ee-* 2 ae je)e(elelese 96 ¢le 4.0)\8 sie. (ele @\0) 2) es 2 « ield, BRUNCKEN, 4s) ‘article, 5 hatics Ricci HONS cickers Lae taya bg Wa BRYANT So? °C aaeticle, } 2) som eeh ete te eiie cise BUCKHOUT, W. AL article Veit sveweasmekhioentte ee California, conditions, SHAE BAS CPA AAO oOO tence ood S forest laws, Phy oleate es sled See eee HEPONE, sTEVIEW,. eitike wie emereltewee seis oteitieiee ‘Calipers for small dimension, MBA Ue 5 Sac omem naam ao “ec LECOLGINL KECONOMY: + wei ccoetek hate Ciel ie ere caiees =H TIED: bra h2eecicaie la: Sree ehaba beet he tolers les otelel ove pe aR Kereta Canada, Forest Poltcys ists sh erase See ene ee eee Map Wvork, 2). hess Olt casio. Ukaite eee a3 Coppice, iti Connecticuts article, )i.. c'cae ea lank aibnie 5 Composite; JRESiLES | fosic/.\us wibeela eit mea bisa’ 5 SELECHION, | 5,5 nctriatte sek piston ey ne re eeent ae eae woodumarket: ino ee eer eee eee ate Catalpa, Use tor Railroad W1es, ). incieenteies melon me Cedar for pencil wood, Leview,, s/k:. vide wsaieies np 6 esi sie Climate;;relation toulncrement, cece nus eek wieeians Climatic: Varieties, Ne pie ice cke Gott bieiere Seue RRM ie eit ot OnetG Climbing: apparatus, crisis isn islsicteng isis tapieieie ole isle wks alee Competition OF TE TEQS i's oy wis vos a0 bp ble ee ean eek eeu Composite SBDrest)’ ls isies dee os aig k Se ameainets etude ns Congressional ours; sarticles, .s.skis 8 os bineiathiseaietrnys Connecticut repotty TEVIE Ws ++i see clear ome ER @ oleae) s) ese. 0») viele So diese oe eerane 174 ed eee Barnell: Colleme: Borest, \...000ieh acess scecdvas MereMIAbOL, IP uSSlan ce raid weiss cas oe scenes ae “ Damage, by fumes, apparatus, ................ Damping Off, time for spraying, ............. i DETTETOSp OELHAVG EE 6 by 2s eine PNSEASES AeNOUAPATASILIC) (J. 2) oe cee levee a leboeties So RITES, i FETCTENCE Sy wos, cue wig eee de GASHHONA PINE Wace ok Sie Cae Economie forestiere, review, ................. PAREMIEIANTSD TOLES, a8 rd 0 5 die chala sw sp alerelanote ees leenicitynin loses. . |; oso dio walee pek.oe oheete Beeunatine. by average 10g oo oce. De cece cls Pee ty Ds Articles-<.\c0se conus eet: Bexoucespecies: in Germany, 2... vere eee 221 Mexico; “cOmmbersy.:c\ists aleiosis Sis se Saco eek RUSE AN IG es Etats hee a ee 90 Michigan, FEPOTt,. TEVIEW Ls soiiee UE aed HOMES Nis we tec a Car 191 FOFEStLry® “PLORTESS, ssssiese vine a Geers ORw WES MIG ITE cle SER 451 Malls, modern; notes sis aoa eae 6:0 & Sind be HR AIO CN es Pope he's eee 106 MOORE, BARRINGTON, Jarticle,,.0cs2 Rah wires «cs be 41 Naval stores, notes. ois ches wis es cian « Wk arty ain ares tes oF thee a 105 New Mexico, forest reserves planting, article, .............s...-00: II News and “NOtESi. iiirerciitiesace ayy wiv aniahs te stvna BoLaOaRei aah vas Ai 117, 248, 355, 446 Nomenclature, 11 \COMrt, Wies dite dg eihica ioe devo eck ae iain is 116 Nurseries, effective “SCLOOT vide ois denice esie me ok emia ely inc ee 367 ime a — = vii Page OVA COMIPCERIOM ss ic eich hve a eiara ale v ovale sieves MaretePere Mleterk. sie Aniuh aerate ties 315 BIKES Ral FOAGH Ee LatytaTiony Meine corp Haile ob ae eRN RR Rd isle k « lelalctere renee 27 MOCALIO: LOLESEN CONGUE TRS AN ph gid ic) 6 ctw 's (cee a NMA AOK cle asteruk eeneeae 382 Precon; Skandia bree ig esis ty gers spree Ghorea ee leeRer es Glee er cra cig er ates 246 Penssylvania Ko@rest) Leos lation) ..'. «sss edavilaleewsidlens a6 clotentl 447, 455 Periodical eirenatsreyy ey eae goss Gece eee aera 86, 197, 312, 412 EAN ACHO LOR VMADGMEISECES Hh 's.c'e'seyt dis vcolol ep Grate Mn ereiete Sard lols ols slclet Gaba 315 PELE Pe SPAIN F,article,. «60a bh deoaenaltee Sauvies feb oeals II Philippine Islands, lumbering, article, iy BREE BE re aed) Sah bate 385 FOTESENWOR KK TIOCeN eos ou ee ene awe 448 mS working plan, Everett, FEVIGWS ssc nse emo ee ene 50, 63 - FEPOLE, TEVIGW y's) 5:5 0'f) 5d sinnely acai aia s OR ee aE Waa 8 65 " tinben tests. Leview,.// 5/4 4ifvase cvs wad ae ae ME he CO 70 PREC GIDERPIOME piesa Neen h ta eny a4 5 oa 2 ean eT ERE Af 314 Pacie dome leat) Peview yal eek SOM Mo erin 70) Be TA ee a ee 307 WHELILG A ANIMA U TIO Syste ey cv ae nant ay Sten, Tay Ou LAW aad AA Ea ARR NON eh 259 Pines, Southern, Forest Management, article, ....................- I BlantineOnyheath lam dss ie ci ye ho he Ue 020) RE Pee 212 > Mound Methods (Sore yeas peters iu hs oy CRO tk a 330 “ VSoeNatural Remenerationy) sc8 sis cee uo alee oe 421 a PRS SE WUENLS 20 1) Ve SIN ONG SS A110. Soe Ac oe a A 05 - PRGA ALI CTE. iy aisychals cyare cloaked ean ad da delete aac lee 20 HY E/E] oie SUT 0a S10 01 DA ga Aa LI RUAN SR oR Aen YEP Cao) SFU 423 12 CUTS De Eo (0s RR AS 112, 438 U2 12 SEMIS RI MA 80 a) (a nO EO Re A er eA a 159,165 Ranelnnnence on! Change Of Wise. a a ee ks 436 «CERISE eo} 22 Fe UN ee eee Ie aU Ut) PLES ae a em RT yuce pt III, 233 “STENT hI ON EA LAU RT NEI CP HI RR RC 112 “8 TST ERS (0 30 URE aes LD ee Se Op ALON en nT) 244 Private Forestry, ENCOUTAM|MI|M Ee No yeep pee yay NON ter ere ai ae 438 PIER tet GECSE PONMTICS!,) ci asdigiiy Pi ei Steak UNAM NSE otacer ste un Lease 438, 442 3 POT EOS ee NT OM Cee HOT AU al SU a a RM Meta eR 352 e POMEMCLAN DITEEAII uri loa MLO Sih 0 Or tea Oe ae aaa en 438 PMO CIT EHITEC: PLOT 218) iN ea De. ILE Dre WOOD 105 MBER ACHE EATEOA Ieee yn seis Li GW Sl uiratans Mu atl oN A tg tae 102 alceada fOnest: plantations y aEtie) ey uti aaem alle, yee gure ane ete at 20 ig 13) Ea art Co UR tae TA A eg Sy UL Ny ae 250, 364 ri BUGS VoMRRCEAN Payer ayn cvelie ache uh) Muliice Ladle Oe au RIK Ie a) Sane Mts 253 "FSIS Goss 6 5137 tens Og ODOM EN CR Agar Ge A 103 of HES) IGHELRACHOS) Ws a nt) ORO ei ye Vier a ae 102 Nema RO HC HOLESESUR CS aI ae hak TN ah As CRRA Ae na 419, 420 LPT TSS 7) Pie gu (el COM I PN OD May aye ny! 206, 301 ORO RNP EN CPG D et AE AETICNE: | 21)! /o wan didicy ue eistaeelars cE ee 403 REVIEWS: Paear eS) REDOLE TOO ileal lve clsoting yuaebreese Bice eae eee 65 British; India, Administration: Reporés (40s osuekgs goa) otek oak 82 @aliornia. State. Foresters) Report )o seen ees ogee eae 78 Sleaients.| Plant, Physiology, 76 yl ese ha i fy! vk eg 405 Connecticut state, Borester’s Report. seen sc «hn ase ee oe bee 309 English Quarterly Wournal, of Porestryjietveciy ey oot kc eee 83, 190 Everett’s Negros Occidental Working Plan, ................6+- 59 PEMA SEL ISTO VENI CED, «2a. a/'2 act SL pero fre ei skets «a pyr okh CL 54 Forest Service, Use BOOK 2) .12/) Rea ic Td Sig 2S SORT A 306 feat @iner sie ninppIMe: WOO. Tests; cities es ny ode sce @waae cee 70 ar Per Sa Postal et Myer e s/s.nh eee ee OER ok ha oe Dae 407 Rawat, Comiaussioners Report) i/oiiitl te dss ila hssis ve Auacdouen 75 EXOT IO Se MBM AMMIRRTES oa. °9,5) 5c Wine aol en eis odie dig LORIE a toe 305 ERTEEECLS Reem C050 A V0.5 56: «soi nlc gh le OA HR vay Vt wa dla 9 cee MEARE ES 302 Hufnagl, Holzhandel, Sade) Seal San bheher cram neue cat tata aval pio eetes LR Si 304 Jahresbericht, MEMMIN A 4035 aa, 2.) <2 tas lose ptekeaetasaigl Hore. sha reia lang SEE a 408 Vili Page. REVIEWS, continued: Julius, Western Australian Timber WDEStS; Voc) s.jacteae Ne Oe 302 Laris, .Holzhandelssebrauchseyeceicis oo. cos etree ee ee 305 Maine; Comutissioner’s (Repetighi cose ss. =o). 0s cee eee 77 Mathey’ Sie xplottation,( 5.2: Asem et be. oc. Oo eee 57, 406 Merritt and Whitford’s Bongabon Working Plan, ............. 63 Michigan, :Commission Reports jaeeceiess-> shed. ss. one ee IQI New ‘Hampshire, Society, Repotivtec: joes chase e Oocke eeee 8I Rhode Island, Commissioner’s Report, ......¢25.5..222.....00. 82 Schwarz, Long Leat Pine; oc, aint: tale A. - Seen Geeks eo eee 307 Southern Woodlands, Journal, Ek Lene MUS. x hee ha aN edea a eS 190 Walmots Forest Iaflvences, v.13. /ocu seas sh eo ee 57 Wisconsin, State: Forester’s Report;-...\ 29.4 bs o2s5.0. 2 oeee eee 73 Rhode disland,. report imeviewsnecen:s soeoehac cele gee ee ee 82 RODGERS, Ro US acticle yawn secon echeate doe eee ee 41 Rotation and diameter, Spare tahctabenohs tolceyelomsh eke uated valle co Sates (6 7a es arte en ee ae 347 a thinning, SEE Aaa Aen Ae ee eae ES Ad GRIESE UN A 8 436 ROTHRKUGEL SMA Ke article Jeni. eg Cael iiatt |) aol ole ee I Roots, effects on Grass and ler CS A SRE moe LTS en RNC Pa 329 “. \ stricture andubiologysss..qe cent tei et ee eee 201 Russia, ‘market conditions, > iccr. iis cece bee an ae ee ee 197 Ap MOvement: FOTCES, Lay ced ora yada OR eres eee ee 88 sand “Soils. Cultivation,) oj. cds 0 O.k hee ee eae eek Oe eee 423 SaAxOny; (StaHSHess. 25 so. ie cibemind CAs ities aaa ee hee eee 108 Scaling, government timber, article, 22.5.2 5£ 22: 2s oe oe See 166 SCHWARZ. AG; SHRUB AD Farticle, 2. i tejan7 Bite seek epee 122i = Schiffel’s Method of Measuring Conifers, ..........:.....-.-.se--e peed Supply Ga-c 6 ieee eee SEER By RA Cee: COraeIee 2075 2123 A Ne OMS HIG: Varo tao ate lejos Mae eicoalaere t otet Rinks bigs SiG. ale See en 204 “ “testing of Scotch: pines. preemie teeter tee OTe ee 205 pelecHion COPpPICelss \ oa!iz atari ae aR ede Rees ee ECS ee O7 forest; -Difhiculties,, -ERcELee ee ee GRRL cickist eke aoe ee O7 =e forests, telling bhudgetinios keane: cee ete eee eee eee 338 te Sl, wonking iplan, \. hi... cee sik ee cote be Sa eee OP eee 345 Silviculture, fundamentals; (Mays fee cen cones ee «ecole 174 notes, Sowing Vs, Plantings, ve in.!n 2 > ss? un ere eee eee 05 ie protection sand) ‘extension! )).. 522% .seeee ese ae Q5» 204, 330, 420 r tenetsca/s S76 ie SRG EEE ES erst Ree tires Seni ee nee ee 420 Slavonia; TOTeSESY 23 vk isae a tee cee ROR Peete eet Rees 412 Smells, and “Insects... seeleetekt he ee ee rok bbe Reel Bea oer eee 420 Soil; Pastunes, PTeServaHlOns seca ete wh eiehoaleh-luetav aw Nelelcieetele cxalele SE ee 324 = Water and Climates acts su heel eane cece a ort, een eee QI, 202, 324, 417 Sowite. ws: olan... Vu Uae eek cape chee Ny Gh le cee a miate ene ante 05 Space ‘number, for measuring Stands; 1. te aise. - os cereale reer 221 So \ “Palen, elie b ee & Neues teubed 2 le ois.b ole, © Soar RUNS Renee eC NS ee eae ec 224 Spacing, inilnence,on prodtction,.).55.. here cee eee eee 213 WDATK ALHESEELATIOW., +.1:)c-- ss siso stares bya be tarctelers siclal Atco eRemeIR Eis cs oe oP 08 Sprout forests; anticle, «i. \. cn sls bi ess oh cared oo Creer eee ceo is ee 121 Spruce; LOT, Hse isisk btiad eh 2G on ee URIs One eles sok. ane 86 : migration in Sweden, 720.es. hak mae cites wien eee ee 312 of MEW | SPECIES, Ebel s ech uke cosa CORRES SATE tees vs cs eee 314 es DEOGUCHON; 152). visa b.6 es iss ereels el PEER EDs as 0 sit eee 215 Statistics and HUStony, raves b:+ ios kdb ok SRT TNR EES cee ue ee 107, 237, 349 Baddest, 0s sppis Hess os pW S Eee wa LOS sss soe 243 ¥ Bavaria, staheeNptaSopiele:Slal a: wie et Sela eta Peiwtata tea wate iis ki’ fel e hele aan 107 Es Great Britain Supplies, 3 2. esiciig mathew castes «afeatehte sient 109 i ELOSSE, "a ais 2 Vise d Wiaelec, 0.0) Aaialale Ore aaeaott cay tele a alo ota arnt 352 4 Prussia; labor'cost, \s 6 cis sied iba Ga teenies ls a cern 352 x TIS OF PTIGES, |. sd ss 0.5 Bo dalen hd ee ea VAs Aye Cee II2 zi SaXOMnmys | bso iis sled beau. cesta pawcae meee beet ee Mee ee 108 J J ix Page Statistics, continued : SEUIIG IE ICES Ta Ss ort go's chia alotente a Mamaely eisieiasa) sw avaiplalalats Ill . ry Soper late cc cicate sie sore! ease a nao shecnreidelen'a slnn.e sels we a ela atary 244, 245 Pe Mee NEM tr eet a’ doo's\! os niches eaMitarate niet die ac oyaln on Seton 110, 237 ) Stumpage ERS Sar eta iata «2 ticcae'd clon» 0 bree eieteatdinlal rim im cle; o/e\ = x nietard III | Set eEREECLY Pots sas oso ab stand alecelere AMete wed ld @celel ep /aicetefete 233 ; Sweden forest COMAILIONS, .... 26... es pe wedeaenesesisncencncecwae 413 = PrEAE Sts | COMGIELOTG.: eye. oiere ail cvese eksiere ciersreel olebaretctetek abel ay atintslcisierels 197 " Switzerland, FOLESE POLICES, js § Dasacid rein a oi erneehaf eee a Mietalolais ie viel erals II5 c cantonal forest management, ......00c00. 0 ssc. woe 245 i GEACTSELCS yy ch ei a se ee ea ade aaa ead a eetemteratee gas oie 8 244 : paabarikk Gals. Calsfornias) <2 5 oay seca vias 's «ud eeislnsle nea rate ees ams 105 ; Taxation, Principles, NESS SUAS Ceo G stds atau ere ta eet eet ete 441 of Woodlands, ATEICION FSA jepsraeete hee obehetactebectare: Tele 373 | = iT Gbmenlaclda Gee bouinemamebecnobUsoicno or vOOOL éio cp ecbe 112 Testing, grading of structural timbers, ...........-..eeeseeeee cress 350 PEST ChE I TETIEEE EULES, 5 wie. d.0) = « re.n.0.n:vintetnle wis einiae 6 foieholeyeneietanane at aveyalialset~\ 233 Al; hinning, Heck’s Method, RRR PERE Seti hihi. aS td ped Bian 334 influence on production, 55 SAE ONS Gu TNS, poe Ure rev ME Ret en SFAOLG 215 EACTICEH Secale Pheu is cicjols atofelaser asta shekad epee nth sk Redere teal ae 425 £ Phavel WMoLaha Ol MAN iESmoGoeb Er onGomdGbeAs dd dodiopdooeoueuewon 430 ss White Pine, Kconomy,rarticle, 72:7. .secaiesden sso «ss 308 eat PetELEStSe AUStalias LEVIEWs ty cetlerierd 2 cle cleieletatteysiey helebe|lelefeter<\ t-te) 302 MEME CHACE | CAIs! OL, )s,c/-ja lars tiara its s etait a diaetena cteatclsiayele/= lola seiale{el sels 233 shrade ot wood 1m. Hurope, LeVISWs cee secre cl eleeicielolel ele) clels/s/cls) -1-1=)=1-1 tel 304, 305 ‘Tropical Wood Supplies, notes, . 05.5. coce teem ese see eecesewness 5I Turpentine from Pulpwood, ............. ee eee cee escecee eee e ee eees 105 LMCI CHEVGLS Sos) Sy = sich cca Sespetov tote ps Sas oh ei heap olsl toieta crater ots anejm elas etshere re 105 Utilization, Market and Technology, ..............-...- 102, 231, 348, 436 . Fa(O1 SOU OY] Aa REE OH Oty 6 GOL ROIS HIS TIC COCR OC BIO ROM SIGe Ber 232 Wangs, timeline, % Bob oon couconooeboooeag ugnduouds Doo Cue dODEIES OS 199, 207 Mette TOLESE PLOCUCHOIN 6.0.1) o2lci- «ine « oe ales 2100 wise) sin iatolatsiqmieio'~alelae:e 198 “ Woods, Growth, ........ 2. see cee cee ce eee e cence eceeteneees 315 PRA Se TIS yooh ote ses aie) enc crelnyo aiioley Sela =) wiasietacaia) wieseleso™ala\ «js ie /d/0/0/ n'a) ce e\olel= 233 Oe WON TRU VG ee UTELCLO Sty foie asain pein aiers oid. chs’ alone wate) efole ein shategein fo ieisieyel-s 268, 277 Waste, Utilization Dye Distillation, Reviewsn ss tecnesse- teeta rset 407 Wikitet OW s OLESE Milena acyern cise) siecle) cia are Steielie\e) cleyey ol s\elatokn! eint= QI, 325, 417 *« supply, influence of forests, Wilmoteneviews cece ceecte te 57 White Pine, economic thinning article; 6 cc. 5 ./sjc/s\e-.eleisiels cleie sieve eas 308 “ring growth, article, ............se eee eeeeeeee ee ceees 250 Wand, influence-on' different SpeCies)) 6.1. edae sels eens ejeinw wicies 216 Cia Sieiwecie Abibakbtoiles, MON y AnT Adamo SHEme CoM ponc reed caun hots Otc 419 MMUTTETHOGS (OL PLOLE CHO! yar yeioice sinless sieicterelssiotetereyeteraeiercealteret 217 uA TEIMIENCE ON LEE STOWE). C)..5 at) Keles a) sleislers alaiel sielaje, Giadetni ste) a/sfasclate PUMESEAEC EMER SE ge cictea so ants Salers ay start o eieies oh vere nro mictodetetayaiefatoter © alaieorata a cpatal 87, 201 WIS COMIN TEPOLty FEVIEW, fats c/c:0 «cele seiaiciere/ ois ore xl ale pi slohtanniera\ = < a aie/e)s Malate We \iviwdrts GBizcyoy on! Pd ee oem eomcic cot dic coca cbae tocpebeaolceason: 80 } Wood Distillation, Harper’s Review, «06: .cccs.ecc.ccecsesecsteces 407 = EPRCHAM EC LOE) SCs oie ac. e whee oro eet MOURNS ok tol allel ciel ara \0 e/a nintddate 437 Po aS) | ca ISR eae by 3 BR cde olay bb.clcuae Bre Had pid ort 105 RAEMIG GE CMEC Ite, TE VACNU se c:. «s,s saa ss ocd oumatamtalel ena 'efess le 0idigy sistas abeldore 190 A OCC SH rims ait ALCICL.: (. i. .iccuisieterneees im ale ols) aye-a's alale tern nya aie 166, 173 , Rite le COP PIC mere e aie a ics 01s, © «i n'a. spore nrepateeetetatevore la) daiareloielsseiei vieheietstetels 143 mreld “Fables, praeiples: 1) CONStLUCtION, caieiaje-i< «0 «mies « 2 = slow ciuiesl atch 229 A Rs) TNE RRC aa. rs © cjaia, «oo dja AO ease: @ Die) Siaid shale Sie Srvc ae 367 RANDY Bess TR AMSRRMEMEMN ics cs cic ale cy aia ata Matopdle wis! le) eva wisle was wietmatalae 174 vi ,, 4 - FORESTRY QUARTERLY VoL. V] MARCH, 1907 [No. 1 FOREST MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHERN PINES. Opportunities for foresters to secure employment with lumber companies in the southern pine region are beginning to develop. But as yet the duties required of a man holding such a position in the United States are indefinite in character and but slightly un- derstood. For this reason, the eighteen months’ experience of the writer as forester for a large lumber company, logging Lob- lolly Pine and other species at Hell Hole Swamp near Charles- ton, S. C. may prove of interest, as illustrating in one case what was expected of the forester and how the problems which arose were handled. On my arrival at Hell Hole Swamp, Mr. C. S$. Chapman, who had made a working plan for the tract, was busy instructing a tree marker to mark all pines above 14 inch D. B. H. Soon the writer was left alone to bear the inquisitive scrutiny of the na- tives, who knew only that we were trying to keep out fires, that I was the “fireman.” Necessarily the prevention of fires was the first work to be undertaken. But how to obtain protection? A man who never had this problem to solve probably does not see the danger and does not worry, but after some experience when he realizes that at any minute Io or 100 acres of the finest reproduction may be destroyed, he understands that to keep fire out is, in the South, the most vital and troublesome part of a forester’s work. To this problem, therefore, I shall devote the larger space. The freeing of the negroes and the invention of matches are the causes underlying the setting of forest fires in this region. Before the war when rice culture was booming and the land was owned entirely by intelligent rice planters, special stress was laid on keeping the woods “rough” (dense). Indeed, the woods were kept so “rough” that one could hardly see a deer unless it jumped 2 Forestry Quarterly over a road. The purpose of keeping the woods in this condi- tion was to favor the raising of cattle and perhaps on certain areas with a view of raising hoop poles. The fact that on the same area 25 cows were then raised to one now, and that not half as many died in the spring, is not yet realized by the modern cattle raiser. In contrast to the North where the fire danger lasts only for a few months, in the South protection is needed through the whole year. In character, the fires are ground or grass fires, except in very dry seasons when the swamps dry out and then the humus itself may burn, and with it the lateral roots of the pine and cypress. After such injury these trees are blown down by the first wind; while the red maple which grows in the swamps falls down and covers the ground even before any wind blows. The effective system of protection finally adopted may be out- lined as follows: 1. A good saddle horse (bought at the forester’s expense!) is indispensable to cover ground quickly and become acquainted with the ground. Horses raised in the woods which know how to travel through swamps and open woods and do not weigh over goo pounds are the best. 2. A detailed knowledge of the whole tract, must then be ob- tained, locating all places which need immediate protection, noting the distances between certain points, observing every road, slough, swamp and little creek, and even the cow and hog trails, (for the purpose of back firing). This involved a lot of riding, and it took me half a year to become familiar with the tract of about 45,000 acres. 3. The boundary line not being visible, it was made the first work to locate it by painting white or red rings on trees along the line. This was needed to prevent fighting fires on another man’s land, to facilitate patroling service, to note the adjacent areas where fires must be stopped, and to know the people living around the tract. 4. An effort was made to establish friendly relations with the natives because four-fifths of the fires could be kept out if their co-operation was obtained. The fires are set mainly by the cat- tle and sheep men, who inherit the bad habit of burning the woods during March, and by coon and “fire” hunters. I never Forest Management in Southern Pines 3 threatened to report the hunter found shooting in the closed season, but rather instructed him to be careful with the fire pan, or even hunted with him and, by example, taught him to be care- ful about fires. Many cattlemen tried to make me believe that the fires in this country are set by careless people and negroes who did not own any cows, but I proved them wrong since most of the fires occur at one and the same time of the year (in March), whereas, if the fires were set by careless people or those indif- ferent to stock interests, they would occur at any time of the year. Since these men believe that they cannot do without a burning I made agreements to burn every February several acres near their houses, a so-called “calf” or “tick” burning, which suited both parties. This worked all right and afterwards we were not much bothered with fires. 5. On dangerous days after the dew was gone fire patrolling was done by two good men. ‘This patrol was needed about 300 days a year. These patrol men should live on a road, or near places which need special protection. They should be men who are respected, or even feared, and who have few enemies. It is not necessary that the patrolmen be always strolling around the tract, they can do a certain amount of work every day, as e. g. the girdling of dogwood or rotten hardwoods (where this is re- quired) or the chopping down of myrtle bushes. This latter is best done with a sort of a chisel on a handle 5 feet long so that the myrtle drops from the stump and remains standing up. If it bends or falls over, many pine seedlings are injured. An axe cannot be used for this work, as more pine than myrtle would be chopped down. Myrtle is a bad weed to contend with, although it sheds many leaves which keep the grass growth off and pre- vent high flames; but it retards considerably the height growth which is needed so badly in order to bring the pines in the short- est time to a height where fire protection is not needed. A herd of goats is doing good service in keeping down myrtle and other bushes. 6. A handcar on the logging road was found to be a necessity to carry the men and tools to work, or quickly to a fire. In ob- serving a fire shining on the sky at night, the distance may be very deceptive if one has no experience. But by a ride of two miles on the car up or down the track, observations may be made 4 Forestry Quarterly of the bearings of the fire from each end of the route, and its location can be accurately obtained by intersection, and time can be saved in reaching the exact spot. 7. The tools needed for hoeing fire lines and fighting fires are: A good small steel hoe costing 85 cents, and a file with which to sharpen the hoe; a good axe, and a double bitted axe, one sharp side to chop logs, the other blade for roots; a cross-cut saw with hollow back (to prevent bad pinching); a brush hook; a rake about 10 inches wide with long prongs. The rake should not be too wide or it catches between roots. The handle of the rake frequently gets loose when the lower part is burned. To prevent this, each rake should be fixed with a wire so that when it gets loose the rake will stay on the handle. These small items are important, for nothing is so annoying when fighting fire as bad tools which may break at a critical mo- ment. A dozen or more handles made of light wood should be kept on hand. Other wood, as ash or black gum, springs when green, and a man when hoeing fire lines the whole day becomes tired using such a handle. Avoid big and cheap rice hoes, as they bend and do not keep sharp. 8. Fire lines are effective aids in controlling fires. Aside from roads, creeks and swamps, two kinds of fire lines are to be dis- tinguished, namely, hoed lines and burned lines. The hoed fire lines are the safest and in the end the cheapest. The width used was 4 feet, the cost averaged one cent per pace. Straight lines in the form of a hollow furrow were marked out with a hoe and then hoeing was commenced on both sides. The ground, loos- ened by the hoeing, was raked into the grass; and in this way the grass close to the line was covered up, really making the line wider. This prevents high flames close to the line and keeps hogs from rooting back the dirt into the line. It is advisable to make the lines perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind, Before staking out a line for the protection of several hun- dred acres, one must go thoroughly over the ground, especially around the edges, to find out the best place to which to tie on the line, as to a swamp, a creek, or a road. Otherwise the fire may work around the line. Old railroad tracks and cable roads as a rule should be selected as fire lines since there are no tops or other Forest Management in Southern Pines 5 obstacles to clear away, the removal of which often makes the construction of lines expensive. Lines should be hoed over in September when the grass stops growing, and after December first when the leaves have fallen. From this time until May, the lines must be kept clean, being fre- quently swept with a broom, or raked. Wind and heavy rains bring leaves and pine needles into the lines, and when the water evaporates the needles mark the water line and give a chance for fire to cross the line. Cattle and hogs will travel on the lines, which improves them. All dead trees with rotting sap within 100 paces of the line should be cut or the ground around them raked clear, for if they catch fire they may throw sparks across the line. Fire lines along main lines of railroads should be hoed 100 paces from the track on both sides and the space between burned when the wind blows toward the track. Most fires start close to the track from cinders blown from the ash pan on windy days. A spark arrester for wood firing engines, made in Indiana, proved a total failure when lightwood was burned, because soot closed the holes of the wire and stopped the draught. They may be applicable where oak and other hardwoods are burned, but they cannot be used in the southern pine belt.* Burned lines are satisfactory along property lines and in long- leaf pine stands. Since here the width of the line does not affect the cost much, it can be made fom 10—30 paces wide. Dead trees outside the area to be protected must be cut and along property lines this may be done on the neighboring tract. The important question is how to burn the lines. One man with a hoe scrapes a furrow on the side of the line toward which the fire will blow. A large bunch of dead grass or needles is then gathered and drawn along with a rake on the other side of the line and the fire set in this. If the fire burns away from the line it is whipped out with the top of a longleaf or loblolly pine sap- ling. A sack soaked in water is another good tool to whip out fire. Where there is longleaf pine litter, a strip is raked on both sides of the line before firing. The best time for burning is toward evening or at night. Never burn on bright windy days. When the fire runs away from the line more damage than good *See description of an efficient spark arrester in this issue, p. 98. 6 Forestry Quarterly is done. ‘To prevent accidental fires, burned lines should be made on both sides of much traveled roads to the distance of 5 paces from the edge of the road. ‘This is especially needed where many negroes pass, as they frequently build little fires on cool mornings. The disadvantages of burned lines are that they are good only for one season and are dangerous to burn. Moreover, some spots will not burn, as for example, through a little slough or around ponds, and to prevent fire from crossing in a dry time after the water has evaporated these spots must be burned over in a separate operation. g. Experience has shown that protection on each area should not start until the lumbering is completed; but the area to be cut during the succeeding year should be burned each winter, other- wise it is impossible to prevent fire around the steam skidders. If the grass is not burned before the trees are cut, the slash fires are very hot and may kill seed trees and other polewood. Besides the engines and skidders there are many other dangers while lumbering is in progress. First the tie cutter in cooking his dinner may leave a fire burning, then comes the right of way cutter, and later the sawyer who will surely burn the grass to kill the rattlesnakes. For three reasons the grass ought to be burned before lumbering: 1. It makes the cutting of the right of way cheaper. 2. It reduces the danger of cordwood stacked along the track for the engine being burned up. 3. It facilitates the marking of seed trees. The only work necessary on the cut-over areas is the removal of the slash from around the seed trees, chopping into the sap of standing dead trees, and finally the burning of all the debris. When all this is done and the railroad track has been removed, then, and then only fire protection should commence. To repeat briefly: First burn the grass before the timber is cut, then burn the slash, and finally protect the cutover land. On places where the cutover area remained “rough” by acci- dent and good reproduction has started, it is hard to secure pro- tection on account of the unburned slash. If a fire runs through such land, it is very hot and kills everything outright. Such burned areas will not recover for 10 years. Grass takes posses- sion of the ground and seedlings only start singly and develop in bushy form. Yet there are places where it is justifiable to leave Forest Management in Southern Pines 7 cutover areas “rough.” This is true of isolated pine islands where the skidder remained only for one set up, usually at the end of the track. To secure protection here, a man must watch the skidder until the skidding is finished. Such islands sur- rounded by swamps have a chance of remaining unburned for many years. 10. For how long a period is protection required? The young Loblolly Pine thickets need protection until they are twelve feet high. A maximum of about eight years is required for the re- production to attain this size. With seed trees present it takes from one to three years, according to site quality, for the seed- lings to become established and reach the height of one foot. Five years more must elapse before a height of twelve feet is reached. When the thicket is twelve feet high the first judicious burning takes place. The time must be carefully selected and the burning should be done against the wind. Select either the time just after a rain, when the litter is superficially dry, or a cloudy calm day in January or February, or night for the burn- ing. Blocks of from ten to thirty acres only should be burned over at one time. By this fire very few pines will be thinned out, but nine-tenths of the fire danger has passed. Definite results will soon be available from permanent sample plots established on this tract. The time when fire hurts seedlings at least two to three feet high is in spring when the new buds are about one inch long. At the same time, when hurt in winter the seedlings have no re- cuperative power at all. This may be due to the fact that the bark when the sap is “up” does not heat as much as in winter when the sap is “down.” Cost of Protection. For $1,000 a year the area logged by three steam skidders can be protected, provided that the fire protection commences a year after the lumbering is started and the money is spent regularly every year after that time. Do not hesitate to spend money on patrolling service, especially during March, for while it may cost $300 or more, the results secured justify the ex- penditure. Notes ON MANAGEMENT. The management of Loblolly Pine stands depends on the method of lumbering and the admixture of other species. Here 8 Forestry Quarterly the lumbering is done with steam skidders and in cutting the trees no wedges are employed. Both practices, and especially the skidder cable, when the sap is up and in big timber, are destruc- tive to trees of smaller diameters. Small trees of fourteen or even sixteen inches D. B. H. are present only in patches or are not of the desired species. Another very important factor is the slackness of the logging superintendent towards the saw bosses in regard to the rules about “cutting marked trees only” and “low stumps.”’ The presence of Pond Pine as an inferior species in the forest also has an influence on the management of Loblolly Pine. Pond Pine in number of trees comprises 50 per cent. and in volume over thirty per cent. of the Loblolly Pine stands. It is mixed singly or in strips and occurs in belts around savannas. When in- terspersed singly or in strips, Loblolly Pines are the largest trees, hence the ordinary lumbering leaves Pond Pine as unprofitable trees to cut, or as seed trees. The result can be seen everywhere in South Carolina and Georgia, that Pond Pine forms the second crop, or the future stand. When it forms a belt around savan- nas it is almost pure, Loblolly Pine being only of scattered oc- currence. The reason why Pond Pine takes possession of such areas is, aside from the site quality, that it resists better than Lob- lolly the heavy grass fires, and moreover it has the capacity to sprout; frequently even Pond Pine cross-ties can be seen sprout- ing. All these factors made the rigid diameter limit method un- successful, and its use out of the question so long as the forester is not the logging superintendent. I am afraid this point will not be fully appreciated. A method involving less work and that to be done by the for- ester himself, because each acre needs his judgment, must be de- vised. The marking of trees above 14 inches D. B. H. was done formerly by one man at a cost of $35.00 per month. This system has now been changed to the following scheme: Three men, each provided with a pail of whitewash and a brush or pine twig, paint a white ring around each seed tree, and put on two white spots below stump height to identify the seed trees if they should be cut. One day’s work per week is sufficient to keep ahead of three steam skidders. I, myself, picked out each seed tree, and trained the men to learn to distinguish the Loblolly from the Pond Pine. Forest Management in Southern Pines 9 One strip 100 paces wide can be marked at the same time. As seed trees were selected trees 12 inches and over in D. B. H. which were not liable to be smashed by big trees leaning towards them and were not burned at the butt. The number per acre varied from one to three, depending on the size of the seed tree, the admixture of Pond Pine, and the relative danger from fire due to the nature of the underbrush and the locality. One good- sized Loblolly Pine per acre is sufficient to start a good repro- duction after the ground has been wounded and ploughed up by the skidding of logs. But in case after two or three years a fire should kill the young seedlings, then the conditions for germina- tion would be only a fraction as favorable as immediately after lumbering, and more than one tree per acre would be required. In patches such as old rice fields which have grown up since the war and which contain much Loblolly of small diameters, no marking or cutting was done. In swamps and along their edges where Loblolly reproduces best the old trees decrease in number, and it would be best not to cut any pine. Just the reverse, how- ever, was done, all the pine being cut and the hardwoods left. The logs from the tract are towed 50 miles to the mill and the hardwoods would sink, hence they are not cut. One large pine ought to be left near each set up of the skidder, because, as a rule, for two acres around the skidder the ground looks as if it had been ploughed. It would be a good plan to collect some seeds in October each year and to sow them on such places. Experience has taught that our method of tree marking has secured excellent reproduction. If the diameter limit method is not used how will the sustained yield called for in the working plan be secured? The seed trees were to be considered as an intermittent yield and the young pine seedlings originating from the seed trees as the second crop. But the seed trees can not be utilized without doing great dam- age to the young second crop and hence must be left standing. So the second crop will consist of the second growth and the mother trees. There will be nothing to harvest except here and there, until the present crop of seedlings is mature. Therefore, calculations on second crop can be based only on good silvicul- ture, and not on figures. The most successful forester will be he who 1s able to raise a thrifty young growth! 10 Forestry Quarterly OPPORTUNITIES FOR PLANTING. The open savannas with high grass and open stands of short- boled pines where reproduction comes too slowly—and fires are frequent—are at present unproductive lands. Planting of Lob- lolly Pine is the only way to bring such areas under forest with- out a long period of costly protection. Young seedlings could be raised in plots on the ground, or better, taken from the woods in places where the soil is loose, as under Dogwood. ‘The plant- ing should be done on rainy days in strips, 50 paces wide, and the strips 100 paces apart, for the present time. I have planted one acre with seedlings one foot high. Of course, the grass must be burned for several years around the planted strips. The savannas grown up with thicket and usually covered with almost stagnant water offer another chance for planting. Such thickets must be first burned over in a dry time. This would temporarily destroy the thick undergrowth. Meanwhile cotton- wood cuttings can be planted which will outgrow the thicket and ought finally to shade out the bushes, or even to a certain extent drain the savannah. Cottonwood already grows scatter- ingly in such places. There were 3,000 cuttings ordered for this purpose, but at the time of the writer’s departure they had not arrived. MANAGEMENT OF LONGLEAF PINE. The only way to secure and raise Longleaf Pine is to keep hogs off the tract. They are ten times worse than fire. In the case of this tree judicious burning, for example burning on a winter night, would make fire altogether harmless for the young seedlings. But the hogs eat nothing but seedlings during the winter. They root them out and eat the part just above the root. And before another seed year (five year intervals) occurs, the last seedling of the previous crop is chewed up. The danger done by hogs could be well demonstrated by fencing off a small area and comparing reproduction inside and outside of the fence. Max ROTHKUGEL.. PLANTING ON NEW MEXICO FOREST RESERVES. Few states have a greater need for reserve planting and intensive utilization of forest products than New Mexico. Areas capable of supporting high-class timber growth are confined to a few mountain ranges and are small in extent compared with the size of the region dependent upon them. Moreover, the Terri- tory is remote from the great forest centers and should be made as self-supporting as possible. Lumber values have risen steadily during the last decade and prices for the better grades are already prohibitive to poor people. Wood of all sorts, including the poorest of the native species used for fuel supply, is in high demand. Careful management which will prevent wasteful utilization of the remaining sup- plies and maintain the best possible stands of growing timber will materially benefit the entire Territory. Such action will be of especial benefit to the agriculturists and miners, who form a very large percentage of the population. Water supply is considered the most important factor in future development. Considerable study has been given to this ques- tion by the Reclamation Service, various city authorities, and those interested in ranching. Increase in population and further development of natural resources depend very largely upon bet- ter regulation and increase of flow, and in more conservative use of the available water. All the forest reserves have been well selected to serve their purpose. They have been located at the headwaters of many of the most important streams and usually where the timber was be- ing rapidly removed by short-sighted or unscrupulous operators. But the mere creation of the reserve is not sufficient. To main- tain the proper balance in the development of the various indus- tries it is necessary that the present forest be managed from the most conservative standpoint. As far as practical it is essen- tial that all understocked forest areas and all forest land lacking tree growth should be made more highly productive. Reproduction varies in each reserve. The principal influences limiting it in the past have been over-grazing and fire. Climatic conditions also limit reproduction to a considerable extent over the entire Territory. Seed years of most species occur at inter- 12 Forestry Quarterly vals rather than annually and, since unusually severe climatic conditions may prevail during these seed years, there may be almost an entire lack of reproduction for a considerable period. Satisfactory reproduction depends on good seed crops followed by favorable climatic conditions. Even during the most favor- able years, however, the season of drought, which lasts from the time the snow melts in spring until some time in July, or early August, limits seedling growth considerably. Artificial forestation, then, becomes necessary on a large scale. In the most important of the various reserves different objects in planting assume various degrees of prominence. These depend on the general requirements of people in and about the reserves and, to a greater extent, on the prevailing site conditions. Gila Forest Reserve. A planting station under competent technical supervision has already been established on the Gila Forest Reserve. This sta- tion is intended primarily to supply seedlings for planting on the watershed which supplies Fort Bayard. This particular planting area is quite limited in extent and is covered with an open stand of pinon, junipers, and scrub oak. The project becomes of more than ordinary importance, however, because of the heavy ex- pense incurred by the Department of War in establishing and maintaining Fort Bayard as a sanitarium for the treatment of tuberculosis, for which within recent years the water supply has proven inadequate. The Department of War and the Forest Service are co-operating to the fullest extent in improving the water supply. With the entire exclusion of grazing, and con- siderable forest planting it is thought that the water supply will be materially increased and made adequate for all demands at the Fort. The nursery was established in the spring of 1905, and at present occupies nine-tenths of an acre. Two hundred thousand two-year-old Bull Pine have been transplanted in the nursery and field planting will be started during the coming year. The work is especially interesting since seedlings of all the species planted have made a very satisfactory growth, even on the heavy adobe soil. Field planting will be much more difficult on this water- shed than on most of the other proposed reserve planting pro- Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 13 jects, since climatic conditions are more severe and the soil is shallow, rocky, and largely a heavy adobe. During the past field season detailed examinations were made of the Lincoln, Jemez, and Pecos River Forest Reserves. Sev- eral large sites on which forest planting is highly advisable were selected. All of these projects show considerable variation in character and in each of the reserves the need of planting and the expected results are entirely distinct and should be treated separately. Lincoln Forest Reserve. The Lincoln Forest Reserve probably illustrates the need of reserve planting more fully than any other reserve in the Terri- tory. It was created on account of the protective value of the forest on stream flow and to conserve the limited timber supply. These become of more than usual importance when consideration is given to the fact that the reserve and adjoining areas are thickly populated. Before the creation of the reserve, surface fires had been common and had materially reduced reproduction. Added to this was the severe grazing to which the reserve was subjected. Naturally there has been a wide diversity in the use of timber by the numerous settlers. Portions of the reserve are honey- combed with mining claims, all of which show some timber cut- ting. In a large number the entire stand has been removed. In accessible coves and on favorable slopes some lumbering has been done. All classes of settlers used the reserve supply for fuel, posts, and construction timbers, and were usually wasteful in their methods of exploitation. The creation of a reserve to protect small owners and retain an efficient forest cover was pre- eminently necessary. But the creation and conservative management of the reserve are not sufficient to supply all present needs, secure good regu- lation of run-off, and provide for the future. The forest* at low elevations and on moderately level land, is an open stand of Pinon Pine, Alligator, Juniper, One-seeded Juniper, and Gamble Oak. Open stands of Bull Pine occur on slopes at moderate eleva- tions, while Englemann Spruce occurs in limited dense stands at * See “Forest Conditions in the Lincoln Forest Reserve, New Mexico,” by F. G. Plummer and M. G. Gowsell, U. S. Geological Survey. 14 Forestry Quarterly high elevations. On che whole it is a forest in which there is a remarkably large proportion of low-class material. The sanitarium at Fort Stanton requires 1,200 cords of wood per year from reserve land. Naturally the large number of settlers secure a considerable amount under “free use permit.” Already there is a scarcity of the dead and down timber which has furnished these supplies. It seems impossible that the pres- ent stand of live timber will prove adequate in supplying future demands and at the same time retain a sufficient forest cover. There is also strong need for an improved water supply. The Rio Bonito and Rio Ruidoso watersheds comprise one-third of the reserve lands and furnish a large percentage of the water available for the Hondo irrigation project. Besides this, the numerous ranchers along these stream courses are practically dependent upon this water supply for their entire support. Analyses of soil from the valley of the Hondo show a greater fertility than the famous valley of the Nile, and only a very small fractional increase in total water supply will necessarily mean a large increase in the productiveness of the region. Ow- ing to decreased forest cover, floods have been increasing in frequency and severity during the last ten to fifteen years, and there is considerable local demand for flood prevention. An added need for better water supply and greater timber production is caused by the recent influx of settlers who intend to practice “dry farming”’ or a system of partial “dry farming.”’* Many of these farmers who use intelligence in selection of sites will undoubtedly succeed and become permanent settlers. This has already caused an increased demand on the timber supply of this reserve. Moreover, this system of agriculture depends to a large extent on conserving all moisture which results from natural sub-irrigation. Since the forest increases the amount of water available for such irrigation, the condition of forest cover is bound to have considerable influence on the success of such farms in and adjoining the reserve. There is, then, a stong and diversified demand for forest plant- ing on this reserve. The field investigation was carried on with three main considerations in view. 1. The improvement of ex- isting forest. 2. The enlargement of the forested area. 3. The *Modified Campbell system of “dry farming.’ Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 15 determination methods which will insure success in forest plant- ing. THe IMPROVEMENT OF ExistTING Forests. At least two-thirds of the drainage basin of the Rio Bonito and Rio Ruidoso is forested with open, understocked stands. Cutting is more permissible on level or moderately level areas than on slopes, where there is greater danger of injury to site. A large proportion of this woodland is stocked with Juniperus pachyphloea and Juniperus monosperma, and natural reproduc- tion will have to be depended upon to a considerable extent, since artificial propagation of these species is difficult. Pinon, Gamble Oak, and suitable introduced species should be planted experimentally, however. Site conditions because of a denser soil are as a rule less favorable for planting on the level than on the slope lands. - Slope land comprises an immense area, and is covered with a scattering stand of Bull Pine, Scrub Oak, or a mixture of the two. Many of these sites have supported dense stands in the past and the examination proves that practically all are capable of maintaining a better class of forest growth. Close compara- tive examination of sites shows that many of the best stands of slope timber are growing over areas where the soil and the amount of moisture supplied are identical with that of brush land or of the sparsely timbered areas. Conditions are so closely similar that it is advised that all slopes which are now lacking timber growth should be planted in the near future. Bull Pine, with a possible understory of Gamble Oak, seems best adapted to this site, and will, if planted, accomplish the desired results. THe ENLARGEMENT OF THE FoRESTED AREA. There are thirty or thirty-five sections of land entirely lacking timber growth, with the exception of small areas covered with brush and an occasional individual tree, or small groves of coni- fers. Most of this land is covered with a stand of broad-leaved mountain grasses, though grama grass is found in limited sec- tions. This open land, located largely on slopes, is one of the direct causes of the frequent floods. The soil on these sites varies from the usual adobe two to three feet in depth to a shal- low gravel of granitic origin. Similar soil and exposure prevail 16 Forestry Quarterly over large areas of timber land. Furthermore, where there are occasional seed trees, as on Loma Grande, iimited natural re- production occurs. From these indications it is believed that forest planting can be accomplished with satisfactory results. The annual precipitation amounts to seventeen to eighteen inches at stations lower in elevation than the planting sites. Tue PossisLe Success oF Forest PLANTING. In all cases it is aimed to start work on sites which are in great need of planting and at the same time afford the greatest natural advantages. Planting should begin on protected slopes where soil and moisture conditions are most favorable, but it should be limited in extent until the best methods are determined for car- rying on the work extensively. Over most of this area it is thought that Bull Pine, Mexican White Pine, Red Fir and Gamble Oak will prove the most satisfactory indigenous species. Robinia neo-mexicana should be tried on north slopes. It is hoped that some introduced species will prove more satisfactory than any of the native species and the following have been re- commended for trial: Incense Cedar, Sugar Pine, Scotch Pine, Austrian Pine, Pinus muricata and Pinus contorta. Jemez Forest Reserve. This reserve contains the best body of Bull Pine south of Idaho. At high elevations there are excellent stands of Engel- mann Spruce with slight mixtures of Red Fir and White Fir. The reserve is considered of greater importance for timber sup- ply than for protection, although its value in this latter respect is great. The northern portion of the original reserve and a large por- tion of the recent Tres Piedras addition have been burned over by ancient forest fires. These fires have almost entirely de- stroyed the dense coniferous forests which formerly prevailed over the entire area. The burned area covers about twenty-two sections lying west of the Chama mountains, and also comprises nearly two-thirds of the drainage area of the Rio Antonio and its tributary the Rio Los Pinos.* Clear cutting for lumbering * This river received its name from dense pine forests which grew for- merly upon its banks, Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 17 was carried on over the rest of this drainage basin. The result is that out of two hundred thirty sections originally forested only fifteen to twenty sections retain a dense stand of conifers. Pos- sibly one-fourth to one-third of the drainage basin is covered with a second growth forest of Aspen and Scrub Oak which is of decided inferior value compared with the previous stand. Aside from the small area of coniferous forest and this poor woodland, the remaining portion of the watershed is entirely lacking in timber growth. Grasses and sedges have followed all fires. A species of Carex (probably) grows over the mesa land at high elevations, and forms in most cases a complete ground cover. Slopes are largely characterized by several species of bunch grass but are frequently over-grazed and in need of forestation to prevent erosion. On most of the burned area there is still considerable fallen timber. Judging from this and the uninjured stands on this area, as well as on the Tierra Amarilla grant, the original stand must have frequently reached 25 M board feet per acre, and an average of at least 5 M board feet per acre. The soil varies from four to sixteen inches in depth on mesa land, and from three to five feet at the bases of slopes. Most of it has an adobe base. Forest planting is advisable from several standpoints. This area once supported the highest type of coniferous forest and could do so again, thus furnishing a timber supply which would be of great future value to New Mexico and Colorado. Inci- dentally the forest growth would materially benefit water supply. The watershed adjoins the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, con- tains numerous roads and is easy of access for a mountainous country. Natural regeneration in and about the small stands of living timber is entirely insufficient. Finally, planting can be carried on for several years with little or no interference to the present industry of sheep grazing. It is recommended that Bull Pine be planted over moderately level areas and on south slopes up to an elevation of nine thou- sand feet. On north slopes and at high elevations Engelmann Spruce, Red Fir, and White Fir are recommended, with prefer- ence for the first named species. Very small stands of dense re- production occur on both these classes of sites where seed trees 2 18 Forestry Quarterly have been left, and where the seedlings have been given a fair chance for growth. These small stands of reproduction com- bined with excellent site conditions show the possibilities of forest planting in this region. The Pecos River Forest Reserve. The work advised on the Pecos River Reserve is much more limited in extent. It is confined to city watersheds, and planting will undoubtedly prove difficult. Santa Fe Creek, with its head- waters in the western portion of the reserve, supplies water to Santa Fe; while the Rio Gallinas, with headwaters in the east- ern portion of the reserve, serves a like purpose for Las Vegas. Most of the planting areas are at high elevations or on areas where the soil conditions are unfavorable. In both cities, how- ever, there is a strong demand for improved water supply. This necessitates planting, even though the possibilities of success are not as great on these areas as is the case in the Jemez Reserve and on portions of the available sites in the Lincoln Reserve. Conclusion. Forest planting is essential to the proper development of the Territory of New Mexico. The degree of watershed develop- ment and suitable supply of forest products will determine to a great extent the future prosperity of the region. Present forests in most cases are inadequate on account of the limited area and a comparatively low productiveness. Forest planting, so planned that the forests will be improved and extended presents the only means of meeting the increasing demand for forest products and also lays the foundation for a proper watershed development. Success in forest planting depends upon the solution of purely technical problems. Proper methods can not be developed with- out extensive experiments, on the ground, with a wide range of species. Climatic conditions are such that only the most pains- taking work, regardless of method, can give hope of good results. Planting at various seasons will be required in order to deter- mine the time at which trees may be planted with least injury from seasonal drought. Satisfactory plans for the future can be made only with such means as a foundation. The expense of planting in the near future will be necessarily high. A fair demonstration of the relative merits of various Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 19 species under different forms of treatment should be the first aim. Only when this has been determined will it be essential to confine the cost of planting to the lowest amount possible. FRANK J. PHILLIPS. RAILROAD FOREST PLANTATIONS. SomE MisTAKES MADE IN EsTABLISHING THEM. For a number of years there has been considerable discussion on the part of the railroads about the decreasing supply of cross- tie and construction material. In most cases they have taken no active steps to provide for a future supply and when measures were taken these were usually misdirected, costly and unsatisfac- tory. Stone, brick, concrete and steel have partially replaced wood for many purposes such as bridges, culverts, station houses, cars, etc., but notwithstanding this substitution the consumption of timber by railroads rapidly increases each year. So far, steel, con- crete, or other similar forms of cross-ties, of which many have been invented, are not as yet considered by American engineers as satisfactory substitutes for the wooden cross-tie most in use. It is possible, as many claim, that steel ties are not adapted for use in the United States, but in the various tests made in this country frequently the prejudices of the parties directly interested were not laid aside and the ties given a fair and impartial trial. Although the superior officials of the railroad sanctioned the test, the subordinates who actually performed the work have usually had no faith in the undertaking, and their very attitude was such as to insure the failure of the experiment. Among the objections offered by railroad engineers against the use of steel cross-ties may be mentioned the following: They are hard on the rolling stock because the track is so rigid that it does not yield to the weight of the passing train as it does when wooden ties are used; they do not hold firmly to the ballast; they have a tendency to become brittle and break when subject to heavy traffic; the track is expensive to keep in repair, and the first cost of the ties is now too great to warrant their use. For these reasons, real or imaginary, railroad engineers strongly favor wooden cross-ties and will continue to do so until a marked improvement is made in existing substitutes. For a large array of facts that steel ties have elsewhere given satisfaction, over 35,000 miles of steel track being in existence, see Bulletin 9 Forestry Division. The timber resources of the United States upon which the Railroad Forest Plantations 21 railroads must depend for their supply of cross-ties have now be- come so depleted that not only has the quality become inferior and the price higher, but difficulty is experienced by railroads, in non-forested regions, in securing a sufficient number of cross- ties for their needs. Necessity, therefore, has forced the railroads to give thought to the source of their future supply, and for this reason they have become interested in practical forestry. About thirty years ago, as a result of a propaganda work con- ducted by ardent enthusiasts of forestry, some interest was aroused among railroads. The conservative management of woodlands was unknown and advocates of forestry urged the people to plant trees to replace the forests which were being reck- lessly exploited by lumbermen. The first efforts, in fact all efforts up to the present time, have been devoted, therefore, to establishing forest plantations because this was the measure advocated at first by those interested in the subject of forestry. This idea has been a hard one to overcome, and it is only during the past year that a prominent railroad, for the first time in the history of forestry in the United States, has determined to acquire and manage forest lands for the produc- tion of cross-ties. Many mistakes were made in establishing a growth not only in early plantations but in the more recent ones, because the rail- roads were ill-advised as to the relative merits of the various tree species suitable for producing cross-ties, the methods of cul- tivation demanded by the different soils in the various parts of the country and the care required by the plantations in order to insure success. The interest of the individual railroads has, with a few excep- tions, been enlisted through the personal efforts of enthusiastic but non-technical men who have placed before railroad men, busy with the conduct of a road, a scheme which was neither adapted to their needs nor practical. In other business matters men who conduct the affairs of railroads have shown business ability, but in matters pertaining to forestry they usually have shown poor business judgment and have engaged in forest work under impos- sible conditions, because they have allowed themselves to be in- fluenced by men who do not come to them as properly accredited foresters. Quick results are desired, and the man who comes be- 22 Forestry Quarterly fore them with a proposition to plant trees which in 15 years will produce several cross-ties and fence posts per tree can secure their attention and enlist their interest far more easily and quickly than a named forester who tells them that such results can be se- cured only after a longer period has elapsed. Time and dearly bought experience have proved to some of the railroads that sat- isfactory results cannot be secured from the plantations in a few years. The importance of the selection of proper species for planting has not been given due consideration. Trees should be selected which will furnish a tie of considerable hardness, and the tree from which the cross-tie is cut should be of comparatively rapid growth, and be capable of renewing itself readily after cutting in order that a new crop may be quickly and cheaply secured. With the heavy motive power and rolling stock and the high speed now attained, cross-ties are subjected to considerable wear under the rail. This may be overcome in softer woods to a con- siderable extent, by the use of suitable tie plates, but on curves and other places where the strain is greatest a soft tie cannot be used with safety. Rapidity of growth and ease of reproduction while impor- tant factors should not be given too much weight over hardness ; such species as the Ailanthus, Paulownia and others possess these qualities, but are totally unfit for use as cross-ties, the wood being too soft. In general it may be said that satisfactory cross-ties cannot be produced in the United States in less than thirty or forty years. Durability in contact with the ground is not so important as the factors above mentioned because this quality may be secured at a comparatively low cost by means of chemical preservatives. Many tree species in the various parts of the United States are adapted, to a certain degree at least, for the production of cross-ties. Notwithstanding this, in making the majority of railroad plantations, only two species have been used, and for various reasons they are among the least desirable of the species eligible for this purpose. These two species are Catalpa and Black Locust and the reasons for their selection are not difficult to discover. The selection of the first species may be attributed largely to the Railroad Forest Plantations 23 wide advertising the tree has received at the hands of ardent admirers who had and apparently still have, unbounded faith in the possibilities of the tree. Unfortunately they were able to convince certain railroad officials that Catalpa cross-ties possessed all the good qualities which cross-ties should possess, and none of the faults; and that in a period of fifteen years, each tree planted would produce five cross-ties and other valu- able material. Under favorable soil and climatic conditions, Catalpa, when properly cultivated, makes a rapid growth, but so far has never produced the cross-ties within the period named. Catalpa has been planted for many years, on a great variety of soils and on a wide range of territory, and although many plantations have reached an age of 25 years or more, so far as known, the trees in none of the plantations have reached a size suitable for cross- ties. The tree is well adapted for pole and fence post pro- duction in a short rotation. In regions where fence posts are high in price, farmers may profitably devote a very small portion of the richer soil of their farm to such purposes, but past ex- perience has well demonstrated, that on the class of soils usually devoted to forest growth, Catalpa cannot be grown, advan- tageously, for cross-ties. This tree requires a rich, fresh, well drained soil, and since such soils are well adapted for agricultural purposes, railroads will find that they cannot afford to hold such lands for forest pur- poses, when cheaper lands can be secured. The poor soils may not produce timber in the same length of time, nor in as large quantities as the rich soils, but the cheapened cost of production when the inferior soils are used, far more than offsets the time and extra yield gained by the use of agricultural lands. A number of the large Catalpa plantations made by railroads have failed of their purpose, because the silvical characteristics of the tree and their relation to the physical character of the soil were not understood. The plantation of the Illinois Central Railroad at DuQuoin, Illinois, offers a good example of this. The plantation was es- tablished some years ago on a fine, poorly drained silt soil. A portion of this site was covered with Pin Oak (Quercus palus- tris), Post Oak (Q. minor), Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styra- 24. Forestry Quarterly ciflua) and other trees capable of enduring the existing soil con- ditions. Land in the vicinity is poorly adapted for agricultural purposes and only small crops reward the diligent efforts of the farmer. The site is totally unfit for Catalpa because of the excessive soil moisture, and the trees have made a very poor growth. The trees in this plantation, the latter about 200 acres in extent, were planted at a large expense and will never reach cross-tie size, the only yield which can be secured will be a comparatively small number of posts. Ignorance of the silvical characteristics of the tree has also been displayed in Eastern Virginia, where the Norfolk and West- ern Railroad owns several thousand acres at Ivor along its right of way. These lands were acquired for fuel purposes many years ago when wood-burning locomotives were in use on the railroad. Although good cross-ties can now be secured by this railroad at a reasonable price, the officials, because somewhat interested in the production of cross-ties and having heard much of the rapid growth of Catalpa, determined to establish small experi- ment plantations. The land is largely covered with an excellent growth of Loblolly Pine (P. taeda), a tree extensively used for cross-ties in Texas and other Southern States, but not yet in demand for this purpose in Virginia. The permanent water table is only 18 to 24 inches below the surface, making the site an unfavorable one for Catalpa. With considerable labor 16 acres of land were cleared of the pine and the few Sweet Gum and Water Oak which stood upon them, and Catalpa trees were planted, at a large cost. The plan- tation was visited by the writer during the summer of 1905, a few months after the trees had been planted, and the foliage of the majority of the trees looked yellow and sick. Had the railroad been properly advised, they would have un- derstood that the conditions were distinctly unfavorable for Catalpa, and that Loblolly Pine could be grown on the land at a greater profit than any other tree. In fact this pine will rapidly re-seed the area and crowd out the Catalpa unless steps are taken to prevent the encroachment of the surrounding forest. A further instance may be cited of the plantation made by the Illinois Central Railroad at Harahan, Louisiana. ‘The soil con- Railroad Forest Plantations 25 sists of a rich alluvial deposit and was formerly employed for agricultural purposes. Louisiana is outside the natural range of Catalpa, and the tree when planted in this region, where the growing season is long, and the soil very rich, made such rapid growth that the wood was so weak and “‘cheesy”’ that it was un- able to support the heavy foliage of the tree. Winds have broken the weak stems and many trees in the plantation have become mere broken poles. On less fertile soil the tree might have grown successfully but under existing conditions the plantation is not a success, Various other instances where extremely poor judgment has been exhibited might be mentioned, and in nearly all cases the significant fact is evident that the physical character of the soil has been disregarded in the selection of sites for Catalpa plan- tations. It is scarcely credible that a body of men usually conserva- tive in business affairs should be ready and willing to expend, freely, large sums of money upon projects about which they are not properly informed. A study and analysis of the propositions placed before them, or consultation of any trained forester would have saved them from needless expense and costly mistakes because any one acquainted with tree growth and especially with the Catalpa could have informed them that the latter can not be grown profitably on all classes of soil and over a very wide range of climatic conditions. Some railroads have dis- covered the mistakes they have made and now appreciate that the large profits and quick returns promised from Catalpa plan- tations partake too much of the nature of our present “get rich quick” schemes to place much reliance upon them. The only extensive plantations of Black Locust made by rail- roads have been established in the State of Pennsylvania by the Pennsylvania Railroad. This railroad owns numerous tracts of land along its right of way which have been acquired during improvement of the roadbed or for the purpose of controlling some watershed from which water for the motive power and for the shops are secured. Many of the former tracts consist of portions of farms which at one time were used for agricultural purposes and under 26 Forestry Quarterly ordinary conditions would be more valuable for that purpose than for forestry. The railroad frequently secured more lands than were needed for the purpose of improvement, because usually a whole farm could be purchased for a sum but little in excess of the cost of damages which the Company would be forced to pay for a portion of the farm. In some cases also it was found advisable to acquire lands in order to do away with objectionable rights. The policy of the railroad has been to refrain from leasing or selling these lands, and since the railroad itself carries on no agricultural operations, the lands remained unproductive until a few years ago when the subject of planting these lands to trees capable of producing material for cross-ties was taken under consideration. In selecting a species for planting several important factors were overlooked, one of which is of sufficient importance to render the work already done of questionable value. The rail- road had sufficient foresight to select an indigenous species, but the choice of Black Locust in preference to other native species shows that the selection was not made after a careful study of the merits of all the tree species eligible for the desired purpose. Black Locust is a hard wood, durable in contact with the soil, but in tracks which are not well drained and ballasted, difficulty is experienced in removing and respiking seasoned ties when the track has been disarranged by the heaving action of frost. However, ties made from this wood are very satisfac- tory, when they can be secured and, if available in sufficient quantities improved methods of spiking would be devised. Although the tree is a rapid grower and thrives on a variety of soils, it is so subject to the attack of an insect (Cyllene ro- bineae) that trees seldom reach a sufficiently large size to make cross-ties. Trees which do reach this size are usually so weakened by numerous cavities made by the borings of the insects that the wood cannot be used with safety. Due to ignorance the railroad believed that it was planting “Yellow” Locust and not “Black” Locust. It was claimed that the former was not only a different species but the wood was superior and more free from the attacks of the locust borer. There may be some difference in the character of the wood Railroad Forest Plantations 27 of Black Locust when grown on different sites, but it is a well known fact that the Yellow Locust and Black Locust are not distinct species, and it is questionable if the wood from any one tree is more free from insect attacks than that from any other. Throughout the State of Pennsylvania the locust borer occurs in greater or less numbers wherever the Black Locust tree grows and although the trees are attacked to a greater extent in some regions than in others, there does not appear to be any reason for the belief held by some that the condition of partial im- munity is permanent. Many instances were seen in Pennsylvania where the natural growth of Black Locust from three to four inches in diameter were badly attacked by locust borers, and already the insects have appeared in the earlier plantations which have reached this size. The indications are that as rapidly as the planted trees reach this size, they will become infested, and although it is quite certain that some trees will reach a size sufficiently large for cross ties, yet it is equally certain that the yield of ties secured from these plantations will be insignificant in compari- son to the yield which might have been secured by the exercise of the same amount of time, energy and money, had more suitable species been used. Entomologists have not discovered any practical method of combating this insect, and until a suitable scheme is devised, it is unwise for any person OT corporation to expend large sums of money in planting this tree, for the failure of the enterprise can be foretold in advance. The region in which the plantations are located is adapted to the growth of Chestnut, Red Oak and many other trees, and on soil suited for their growth it is a better policy to encourage the formation of forests of the first two species, either by natural or artificial means, because they are reasonably free from the danger of destruction from insect or other pests, and returns from them can be calculated with considerable accuracy. Chestnut and Red Oak are slower growers and produce a softer and less durable wood than Black Locust, but under or- dinary conditions cross-ties can be secured in thirty-five to forty years. The softness can be overcome by the use of proper tie 28 Forestry Quarterly plates, and durability can be readily secured by treating the wood with chemical preservatives. Dissatisfied with the results secured, the Pennsylvania Rail- road in 1906 requested the co-operation and assistance of the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture in the examination of its holdings and in outlining a forest policy to be followed in the future. The report submitted recommended that the planting of Black Locust be discontinued at once. Tentative plans for the im- provement and management of the existing properties were out- lined and suggestions made regarding the purchase of additional lands in regions where trees suitable for cross-ties could be raised within a reasonable period of time and at a low cost. The result of the investigation was so favorable that the rail- road has employed a professional forester to look after the forest interests of the railroad, and put into force a policy which will provide for the production of a large proportion of the cross-ties required by the railroad twenty to thirty years hence. This appointment marks the beginning, in this country, of practical forestry by railroads, and it is hoped that other rail- roads will undertake soon the management of forests for the production of the wood supplies needed by them. The experimental era of forestry is past, and there is no reason why railroads should expend large sums of money in forest work from which no results can be secured. Technical advice on forest subjects can be readily secured, and if railroads will exer- cise the same business ability in dealing with forest matters that they do in handling their other affairs, there will be no seri- ous mistakes made like those which have occurred in the past. R. C. Bryan’. NEW METHOD OF MEASURING VOLUMES OF CONIFERS. Unquestionably the most important development in mensura- tion in later years is the substitution of the “form quotient,”’—as elaborated (after Schuberg’s proposition) by Schiffel—for the form factor. We refer the reader who wishes to familiarize him- self with the development of this most useful aid in measuring tree volumes to the articles by Dr. Clark in Vol. I, pp. 6-11, 56-61 of the QUARTERLY, and to the briefs in the same volume p. 154, and in Vol. II, pp. 186, 261-265. See also a brief descrip- tion of the method in Graves’s Mensuration p. 188. As a result of further investigations Schiffel reports* from the Austrian Experiment Station the important discovery that “all conifers (the European fir, spruce, pine, larch) can be approxi- mately but sufficiently accurately cubed upon the basis of one and the same form quotient table.” Larch is characterized by rapid taper, fir by cylindrical form, spruce by standing between larch and fir, pine by having the upper half of the bole cylindrical. Nevertheless practically the form of boles shows similar relations, and the most important factors which influence form, site and density, react similarly in all. Hitherto two methods of volume and value determination of stands have been practiced, namely the one based on direct fell- ing of sample trees, a circumstantial and expensive method, or the one based on volume tables 17. e. tables constructed from series of previous measurements of sample trees. The applica- bility of such volume tables, based on diameter b. h., height and form factor, if they exist at all (with us yet few are in exist- ence), is circumscribed by the great variation of sites and cor- responding forms, they are not very reliable, so that even the carefully constructed and classified (according to species, site and age class) German volume tables give results with errors up to 15 per cent. As Prof. Clark has pointed out, in our forests, the result of natural forces without silvicultural care, such great variations in age classes occur that errors must still be greater. * Ueber die Kubirung und Sortierung stehender Nadelholzschafte. Cen- tralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, December, 1906, pp. 493-505. 30 Forestry Quarterly Hence, to design a more accurate and at the same time less ex- pensive method, independent of volume tables, 7. e. applicable directly in each individual case has been Schiffel’s endeavor. His method, moreover, allows also much more readily than the usual volume tables a differentiation into grades or sizes of the log material. His method is based upon the practical ability of measuring diameters at different heights of the standing tree, say at one- quarter, one-half, three-quarters of its height (d4, d4, d?), and upon the theoretical consideration that these diameters have a constant relation to the breast-high diameter (D), this relation expressing more or less closely the form. If all four diameters : f SOR: 4 ; are used, this relation, the form quotient 3)= q, describes, of course, the form more closely, but it has been found that the re- lation of the median diameter d}, which for the sake of simplicity we will designate with d, diminished by a corrective coefficient or constant c, determined for each species, furnishes sufficiently 2 accurate results, so that the volume, Y =) hX (q—); the expression q—c, therefore, is equal to f (form factor). The corrective c has been found for Scotch Pine as .2, for Nor- way Spruce .21, for our Balsam (by Clark), and for several other conifers not far from .21, and now Schiffel has constructed formulas and tables applicable for all conifers. The practical difficulty of measuring the median diameter is according to Schiffel satisfactorily overcome by modern dendro- meters. (See footnote.) But in order to obviate the necessity of measuring the diameter in each case he develops a method and tables which require merely a classification of stands into form classes according to site, species, crown length, height and diam- eter, when by finding in the classification table the corrsponding form quotient, the volume data can be read from the form quo- tient table. After pointing out, that form and volume are closely related; * See Centralblatt, etc., 1808; see also description of Burton’s “Bilt- more Pachymeter” in vol. IV, p. 8 of the QuARTERLY. New Method of Measuring Conifers 31 that accurate formulas for measuring of natural forms are im- practicable, hence that we must form groups and find character- istic relations of dimensions; that the more comprehensive the groups the less accurate the results; the author develops his formula which is to substitute the form quotient (q) for the form factor (f), namely, c feo ed oy te gh a, b, c being coefficients which differ with different species; but a practical average value of these coefficients for all conifers over 20 feet in height has been established by numerous investigations which permit the definite change of the formula into 32 f= .14 + 6677+ — (1); qh and from this, when a and ad are the areas corresponding to the diameters D and d, at breast high and median— V =h (.14 a+ .66a3 + om) (2) The last member of this formula can be neglected with low heights; with heights over 60 feet its value lies bteween .032 and .o1; assuming the average of .02, the formulas change into the approximate formulas f = .16 + .66q* (3), and V = hh (.16a + .66a4). (4) In words, the volume of a run of coniferous trees is a func- tion of average height and the areas at breasthigh and at half the height. A table shows comparisons of results according to this formula and according to actual sectioning. The largest error in single stems with the approximation formulas was 10%. In regular stands on any site, no matter how grown, the average error in using equation (2) if at least three sample trees are used, will not exceed 4%. The measurement of the median diameter, therefore, produces a considerable increase in accuracy of volume determination above the usual volume table method. 32 Forestry Quarterly For practical objects of differentiating log classes, the author has developed the relation of the form quotient at one-quarter and three-quarter of the height ( q, and q,) to the form quotient at one-half the height (q) namely, q, = -46 + .469q? + *) (5) gh -20 a= 14 + 66g — =) (6) gh and, since dj = Dq 3 d3 =Dq , » the two diameters are readily calculated. Applying for the last correcting members of the two equa- tions the experimentally determined averages, we secure the ap- proximation formulas for use with trees over 60 feet in height: q,= -485 + .46q? (7) q,— -13 + 669? (8) The degree of error in these formulas moves within the same limits for single trees as stated for the above formulas 1 to 4. The comparative table, demonstrates the general applicability of the formulas, and brings proof that in spite of the many forms which species, site and density produce, it is possible with suffi- cient accuracy to determine in all cases form and volume by measuring two diameters and height. No need of pointing out that form quotients and form factors do not correspond; with increasing height the form factors de- crease while the form-quotient remains the same. But the form quotients determined from the relation of diameters at three- quarter and one-quarter height, or at half and one-quarter, or at three-quarter and half height, remain approximately alike, so that for conifers probably quite generally these form quotients are form factors independent of the heights. A form quotient table based upon the foregoing formulas (see sample on p. 36), giving for different heights under the median form quotient the corresponding form quotient at one- quarter and three-quarter heights, the form factor and a calcu- lated breast high diameter, permits reading off the necessary data New Method of Measuring Conifers 33 for calculating the volume, if the median diameter has been measured. If this, according to the author, easy measurement is to be avoided, and only one diameter (D) and h are to be measured, it is possible to find an expression for g as a function of hk and D (which is, however, only very roughly approximate and appli- cable only for large averages) by the consideration that, as is well known, on a large average of all sites and densities with equal heights and decreasing diameter the form factor dimin- ishes. Such a relation between height, diameter and form quotient was found in the following formula when D is expressed in centimeters : h—t h—t q= .385 + .345 a ar 0326 ( a ) (9) from which follows— h—I a (10). V36.7q + 16.27 — 5.3 It is this average D thus calculated which figures in the form- quotient table. It would, therefore, be possible to use this table with measurement of height and one diameter, but this the au- thor does not feel warranted in recommending, except for rough approximations of the form-quotient. This diameter is, how- ever, to assist in classifying trees into form classes. To arrive at this classification it is taken into consideration that form is in general a function of density and site, which influences height, and the character of the crown, length, density and form also aid in the classification. Between the tree of the open with long, dense, regular crown and the slender, small-crowned whip in the dense stand as ex- tremes, the variations range themselves. The author recognizes, without reference to species, five form classes: I, very tapering; II, tapering; III, medium; IV, plump (Vollholzig); V, very plump. A form-class table (see sample on p. 36) then per- mits the determination of the form quotient of the class, and with this the use of the form quotient table without having meas- ured the median diameter. 3 34 Forestry Quarterly In estimating the form class, the habit of the species, height, diameter, site class and crown development must be considered. The following hints for classification are given by the author: For larch and pine, classes I to IV are usually sufficient and the average quotient for larch may be found as .65, for pine .66, while spruce is rarely found in class I, except when grown in the open, its average form quotient being .68, for fir, the plumpest, .70. Trees grown in close cover fall usually within the three middle classes. All stouter trees have a lower, all slender trees a higher form quotient, the dominant trees being the most taper- ing. Small crowns, except in entirely suppressed, or diseased trees are a sign of plumpness (cylindrical). The length of the crown, however, differs according to species (lightneeding and tolerant) and hence the species must be considered in applying this criterion. So does the site and height influence form differ- ently with different species. With the same species, same height and same site, the poorer site (slower height growth) has the plumper boles. On good sites, the codominant and laggards are the less tapering. In estimating, the procedure which the author proposes is first by judgment according to species, site and density to estimate the form class of the stand as a whole. Then, on the basis of height, crown character and diameter of the average tree, estimate its form quotient within this form-class, which would be applicable to the stand; then estimate what form quotients correspond to the several diameter classes, keeping in mind that in normal stands the difference between the lowest and highest diameter class will not exceed .10, so that if the average tree had been esti- mated to have a form quotient of .66, the lowest form-class might be estimated at .70, the stoutest at .62. This “form-class method” the author considers an improve- ment on the usual volume table method because it takes into con- sideration the individual character of the stand and in addition permits the differentiation into log sizes by means of the calcu- lated diameters at quarter and three-quarter height. We can afford here only to call attention to this important ad- vance in mensuration and to give a sample of the two tables, which are naturally in the metric system, in order to show their arrangement. New Method of Measuring Conifers 35 It certainly would be worth while for those in this country who have to measure stands to investigate more closely the applica- bility of the method and of the figures furnished by Schiffel, and develop its practical application. B. E. Fernow. [See Tables on following page.] 36 Forestry Quarterly FORM CLASS TABLE. q x Ioo: 54| 58 62| 66) 70| 76| 80 Form Class:| I | II | III i IV | Vv eee ___ Diameters b b h. centimeter Io L2|05E 8.3 20 35 30) 259 22 I9) 17 24 53| 43} 36) 31] 274 23) 21 30 | 67| 541 45] 391 34) 29] 27 36 81) 651 54! 471 418 35| 32 40 go} 72) 61| 52§ 46] 39] 36 FORM QUOTIENT AND FORM FACTOR TABLE. Height (2. GO.) Sige dy a 2.3 er m qilqs| £{| D Gi | qs f| D qi qs| f | cm cm to §=—_: |861397|476] _12.1)872/415|492| 11.3)882/435|509 15 |840/407/459| 18.8/852|426476| 17.6/863/444/493 20 |830/412/451| 25.5/842/430|469| 23.91854|449|486 25 |824/415|446| 32.3/837/433/464| 30.2/848/452/481 30 — |820/41 7/443) 39 |833/436/461| 36.5/844)454\478 35 |817/418)441) 35.7/830/437/458) 42.8)841|455|466 40 |815/418)439| 52.4)/828|438/457| 49 |839|456/474 TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FINANCIAL INCRE- MENT PER CENT. OF TREES BASED ON THEIR MARKET VALUES. This table was worked out by Erling Overland, Forest Esti- mator in the Norwegian Government service, with whose permis- sion it is here republished. The object of the table is to find the rate of interest which the growth of standing trees is earning, based on the market value of their contents. The table, in the form in which it is printed, is of universal application. The price increment per cent. can be obtained from it for any species, Or any variation in market values, provided the growth is measured in the English or Norwegian inch. The latter, on which the table is based, is about .03 larger than the English unit,—a difference not large enough to affect the validity of the table. Before the table can be applied, the necessary data must be ob- tained, namely, the contents of trees of each inch class which may be taken from a volume table and the net values for each inch class. This value may be obtained either directly by em- ploying market values of stumpage or, if preferred, from a cal- culation of the value of the marketed product minus the cost of the marketing. The proportion existing between the values for trees of each inch class and that of the next lower is then found by dividing the former by the latter. This proportion gives the basis for the application of the table. In column F are given proportions from 1.1 to 4.0. If trees of 15-inch diameter are worth 1.6 times as much as trees of 14-inch diameter, their rate of price increment per cent. will be found opposite the figure 1.6 in column F, and it will, of course, depend on the rapidity of growth, as shown by the number of rings in the last one-half inch of the radius: the greater the number of these, the lower the rate. If for instance 12 rings are found on the last one-half inch of the radius, which would be equivalent to 1 inch in diameter in 12 years, the per cent. will be found to be 4, for the given prices. Having obtained the needed proportions by dividing the value of each inch class by that of the next smaller, the diameter classes 38 Forestry Quarterly represented by each proportion obtained, are entered in the blank column headed “Dimensions,” and the table is complete. For example, the contents in board feet and the net values may be based on a stumpage value of $10.00 per M board feet. 8 trees contain 30 board feet. Net value $0 30 “ec “ec ce “cc ce “cc 9 47 47 Io “ce “ec 65 “ce “ce “ec cc 65 ce ce “ce ce “ec “ce 88 II go 12 e ce TIO cé “ce ce “cc I Io 13 “ce it 140 “cc “cc “ce “cc I 40 14 “ce “ce 180 “ec “cc “ ce I 80 15 ce ce 220 ce “e ce “a 2 20 Then F, or the proportion between the inch classes is found: Net value of 15” tree: Net value of 14” tree or 2.20: 1.80=1.2 “ce “c “e ce “e 14” “ec ee ree “ce “e 1.80: 1.40=1.3 ce “ce “ce 12) ‘é “ee 6é iss 12” “ce “ec 1.40: DiG— he “ce ee ce T2” ce ce &é “ec Teles ce “ec I.10: 881.3: Tie, “ce “cc ce ce 10” ‘é ce 88: 6524 10 OF Obs aya “ce “ec “ee oi ee “ce “ec “e Su ce ce Eby fs .30=16 Fill in under Dimensions: £4 sto WS. opposite 1.2 Hi tO.42 212. dOULs 109 stay 6 eS g” to 10”, 10” to 11”, ) aie Bon, 4 ane and so forth. Next find the number of years required to grow 4 inch in ra- dius (I inch in diameter) for each diameter class. This is most easily done by means of an increment borer, but a knife or axe may sometimes do. When 4 per cent. interest is desired, it can be at once seen how rapidly the trees of each class must be growing in order to earn this rate of interest on the investment, and whether it is more profitable to cut or leave them. In other words, we can deter- mine the financial ripeness of the stand. If 4 per cent. interest is desired and the above example is used, then: Determining Financial Increment 39 8” trees should be cut when they require 12 years to grow to 9g” 9” ‘ec e “ce “cc “e se 9 “ec “ce “ec Io” TO” ae ce oe “ce “e “ce 9 “e se “ce Tene’ a bad “ce ‘ “ee ae “ce ‘ 4 “ce “ee “cc To! to" oe “ce “ce ae ce ee 4 “cc “ce “ce 13" Bas se oe “ “ec “ec “e 7 “e “ce “ec 14" 14” oe “ce “ec ae “cc ae 5 “ “ec “ Te” smaller diameters will be found to grow more slowly than the In even-aged stands which are to be practically clear cut, the larger. At the same time, the larger trees, to earn the same rate of interest, must grow more rapidly than the smaller. So it will probably be found by the application of such a table, that the per cent. of increase in value for the whole stand can be determined from a very few measurements. The table is of equal value in uneven-aged stands, as in even- aged, since the rate of increase of each diameter class is deter- mined separately. In fact there are probably few conditions in America to which it cannot be successfully applied as a guide to determine the advisability of holding standing timber and as a rough indication of the most profitable rotation. Nizs B. Ecxzo. Forestry Quarterly 40 ‘ATAALUVND AULSAUAOW 19Seuvy ssoutsng wor Adod & szu99 O1 ye PeY 9q ABUT 91GB} QA0Q# Jo saIdoD *I9MOT 7X9 OY} PUB SSBID YOUT M10 Jo on[wA Jou UIaMjoq BOT}IOdOIg—7 ——— ovis rlerit oe 9 cle-aleaieolaglegle 292108981 626/Pors ost|PEl| oriizgesile Zoszosepryessooloy) 6 G9 VS HOGS IP aos aT 9|VOLOOL PCL EB SS IESOTo TOS SEI] OPIS OTF alla ages Ts|gOPLIg 26/68] |8'8||9'¥|2'V[6'F|19/¢'9)9"9|2'g[0'9/'99'9/6'9'8 APASSRCOON 2) col dd oc B10 1,6 ee tt PUD TRIG sees ae ee LETH Verse oF G9 G69 Oy oso LF 20e FI 6RG lo OT/gII[9 VC] O'VI)9 a1/8 ziI9 Ob Fel6'6e AES 5 ay (9 S||F Fg F]2 F/6 [1 a]6"a[9'G]2'4]0'9, 8 999027282686 8/9 6 [POLE IIe Bt] Let/6at|p 21/1 02.8 £3) SOS 0) as a sle' vr vo rL v6 HI aly'a[9 Wear os oS HSL 92182 Bir TOOT St € él eripriser Per ere TERRE ISIE AO ee ey pts rodeeogleabojsarojrzjozverelre [ee rors it{ostla brisorft rly zee zejeaelvoawvely et S'6||' [eb y Hap HEP TOs 99°98 916 9.9916 9.2) Pe ETTaHoe petlozozarsesreieies, 2's ]0'F|1 Vie F PFO FSF Io9/F 42 910 9,¢'9)2'9 12.9 211828 |b 6 retenieatoc Ca UGE (5 eee aS Seiamaarne seems Tels fo HN err ro"r9 vo ale'ala ofprelroloo 6 os uB 208 [16 [66 [eorfozty gt BogPageege or vozive; g|eelo'efo Fa ret V2 HPT a Ps[9 ai'ois'92 IT LOLS |e's [96 [V0 [1 O2|9 ¥2)9 18]2 FP) a ello 6]2'¢6" : ovary ro re vlogegieos 199969 F262 [a6 [ve feos 921 a voilp 6r[2 82/9 08 [6 3] cores rele 89.99 {6 96999)r 22 Ke E oe fos jeotrel Lelaareeresreceorszoies ostiegeseeese rales ve [oor uieeregt ces avo Bt 88 [V6 | ‘vIlg 211 120 20/9 26] ee eae se a g'9'8'9 ez (62 [26 bale suo 1218 le 11/e eto 91/F o2|1'83,6 o Hevravdes (65 [as ralavacca rerun recat eee eros FI alr9. [69 [ry Ic GPCR LEARNT LLCS See ee rade pare [rg [ae | sifeshog gy) ial eu ene fear} —_____ ae tH ——— 9L pees er IT9 [69 |6 9 t{[9 19 re 1] gle ose a a8 s [ap [po tro [6 o'r] 1p 19°19 1] ogee 26 we les [ir lop io fos CUT GE TES I YET NTE Nae} Ae e 8 a2 [ie |¥e [es ries les Ba oz es TSC Cl poeaueaenapeseas mes e160 81/61 loz |a2 fre ee Iss [ss joy paleo he jopier| 31/90 Life rst fer for | ozlesfoztis sts ieo lee ler I RUE RGG HRSG ca HCL dfonjvo2zo leo [80 [eo | a1 iri [or [ot [ve [og [ov llr 4] 4g | celselwelzcioa}ae/ve/ee] 26] veloc ler ferferfor[auf vt j wt | at pat eae (ot 8) ep SNOISNIWIG *snIpey 24} JO YOUY JIBpY 388] 242 UO sBuTy aanae: jo Jaquiny CGNV'TYHAO ONI'TUA Ad HITGVL LUNHNAYONI IVIONVNIA NOTES ON BALSAM FIR. The following study was made in the north central part of Maine on Frenchtown, an unorganized township lying on the Moosehead Lake watershed. It is roughly 7 miles east of the Lake on a direct line from Lily Bay, which is 12 miles north of Greenville Junction, the terminus of a branch line of the Bangor and Aroostook Railroad. Attention was confined to the determination of a single main point, namely, to what extent the fir is replacing the spruce on different types after different methods of cutting, with the view of ascertainng the best practi- cal methods of handling the land so as to maintain the propor- tion of spruce wherever possible, and to get the best results from the fir. To properly determine this point it was necessary to make as careful observations as possible on the tolerance of the fir, power of recovery after suppression, its resistance to windfall, its soundness at different ages and under different conditions, and its rapidity of growth as compared with the spruce. Tolerance. Notes taken under various conditions of situa- tion and growth tend to show that in this region fir is less tolerant than spruce. The facts pointing to this conclusion are: 1.—In dense stands there is less young fir than spruce, and in such stands spruce continually shows better thrift than fir. 2.—In close stands fir prunes itself better than spruce. Several instances were found of increased growth in height and diameter after a period of 80 to 88 years’ suppression but it is doubtful if these trees would grow to a merchantable size. The age limit after which good recovery is obtained after suppression, was indicated to be approximately 50 to 60 years. Windfall. In situations which are even slightly exposed in this locality, fir is particularly subject to windfall after it reaches a diameter breast high of 15 inches. Unlike the wind- thrown spruce which is nearly always uprooted, the fir with few exceptions is broken off at a height of from 5 to 10 feet from the ground. If the tree is attacked by fungus rot, as many of them are, by the time it reaches a diameter of 15 to 18 inches the heart-wood is so weakened above the butt that it is easily thrown by wind. 42 Forestry Quarterly Windfall is most prevalent on the slopes having a north- westerly aspect. Results of Observations of 301 Wind-thrown Fir. Av. hgt Average Percent Type obeeresGons batt pturap, UPFooted D. Bs es ieee feet butt PAE, Sous erent 82 80 5 2 15 97 Lower slope, .. 193 182 7 II 16 04 Upper slope, .. 37 30 6 7 14 81 Soundness. The soundness of fir timber depends chiefly on the percentage of fir in the stand. It must also vary somewhat with the situation on which the tree is found and with the soil and moisture conditions under which it is growing. How far these latter influences affect the tree it was impossible to deter- mine, except to note that the age limit of sound trees is greater on the higher elevations. That is, on the flats the fir dies out of the stand at a comparatively young age, approximately 50-60 years, whereas on the slopes and upper slopes it is found perfectly sound at 72 years, and even at 118 years it is only very slightly injured by rot at the centre. This applies to fir in a mixed stand. In a pure stand of even-aged fir, caused by windfall (or other accident), the trees begin to be attacked by rot as soon as they are 8 inches in diameter and between 50 and 60 years old. But the stand may safely be allowed to grow for 10 to 20 years longer till the trees reach a diameter of between 13-14 inches and an age of approximately 70 years. If they are left any longer than this the trees will be broken off by the wind, as described in the paragraph above on windfall. The yield of such a stand, of pure fir 60-70 years old, on lower slope, taking everything down to 11 inches inclusive as merchantable, and proportion of unsoundness was found to be: Vield Per Acre of Pure Fir Stand. Per cent Unit of measure Total volume Volume of Volume of of per acre. Sound Unsound Unsound Cubic Weetier oid emareaberiine 617.5 450.8 166.7 27 BOard), sPCEL, wep on ituteleccnmioke 3,705 2,704.7 1,000. 3 27 The best silvicultural method of treating land of this kind would be to cut the fir down to a diameter limit of 10 inches or possibly lower, exercising care to leave the spruce to seed up the area. If a ten-inch diameter limit is used, there is a fair chance Notes on Balsam Fir 43 of a second cut after 25 years. This will accomplish two re- sults: First, the stand will eventually contain a very fair proportion of spruce; and, secondly, the fir which will then be left will occur in mixture, and hence will no longer be so subject to rot, and therefore much more valuable. Growth. Although it was impossible in the limited time to obtain the large amount of data which would be required for an exhaustive study of growth, yet enough measurements were taken to show the relative growth in height and diameter for compari- sons needed in this study. For the purpose of the study it is necessary to divide the trees into two classes: Ist. Those which have been suppressed in early life and at- tained their normal growth after the removal of the cause of suppression either by cutting, windfall or natural death. These are the trees which have grown up under natural conditions, and, with the exception of the pure stands on the areas of old windfall, they form the greater part of the mature fir. 2nd. Those which have never been suppressed. These repre- sent the increase in the proportion of fir after cutting or wind- fall. That is, they are those trees which were not in the origi- nal under-story, but were seeded in after the opening was made. In view of the increase of the fir after cutting, this class will assume more importance in the future. On account of the comparatively recent cutting in this stand, it was impossible to get many measurements on mature trees to show the growth of this class. But such figures as were obtained are suggestive. The mean annual, minumum annual and maximum annual growth of the first class of trees during and after suppression is shown in the following table: Increase in Growth After Suppression. (Lower Slope—Spruce and Hardwood Type. Based on 43 Trees.) Period Mean annual Min. annual Max. annual growth, inches growth,inches growth, inches During suppression, ............. .044 .O14 .056 PATEeT SUPPLeSSION). lavcee welsies hes .158 .044 286 This shows the enormous stimulus which the growth receives after suppression is removed, the rate being more than three times as great as it was during suppression. 44 Forestry Quarterly Under the best conditions of growth rings were found .31 of an inch wide for a single year. A maximum growth in height was 1.6 feet for a year; while a fair average of height growth under good conditions is 1.1 feet per year. The following table shows the rate of growth for the last two decades. Rate of Growth for Last Two Decades. (Based on 51 Trees.) Ment tAcianIUGrOmEn Time required to grow Thick- one inch ness of Age Class Tetadecade Deeds before Taek) eae ae Inches Years Inches Sapling up to 3 in. DAB IEG ttesse: .056 .036 18.1 28.6 .08 Mature up to 13 in. Dr Be Hise see .18 .138 535 fay 527, Overmature — over ie sto ID) be Jak .150 .19 6.6 5-3 -33 In a stand of pure fir yielding between 3000 and 4000 feet B. M. per acre, a mean sample tree of this first class which had been suppressed for 46 years before attaining its normal growth was taken. It contained 31 cubic feet or 186 board feet mer- chantable timber, taken down to 6 inches. It was 98 years old, 13.6 inches breast high and 68.6 feet high. Its average growth during suppression was .038 of an inch, which increased to .252 after suppression. The following table from the analysis of this tree will show what the fir can do under ordinary conditions: Rate of Growth in Height and Diameter of 98-Year-Old Fir. (Suppressed 46 Years.) : Diam. Diam. 164 ft. Diam, 32 ft. Diam. 48 ft. SS ae stump above ater above seam anets ime. 10 Bhs 41 20 z: 95 30 10. 1.4 40 14.7 1.9 50 19.4 aye. | 60 25-3 4.2 1.2 70 32.5 rhe gyyi 1.5 80 41.6 9.5 out Bay go 55- 12.6 8. 6. 2.1 100 70. 15.2 Ti 8.9 Sak From such figures as could be obtained for mature trees which had never been suppressed, averaging 54 years old, the mean Notes on Balsam Fir 45 annual growth was found to be .225 of an inch, and the number of years required for trees of this class to grow I inch was 4.4. The following table will show the difference between the rate of growth of fir and spruce, the figures on spruce being taken from R. T. Hosmer’s “A Study of Maine Spruce,” in the Report of the Forest Commissioner of Maine for 1902: time as great as it was during suppression. Comparative Rate of Growth of Spruce and Fir. Mean annual growth No. of years to Species inches grow one inch DRIER ITS (Gd) 25 cis AGA) eats asc! o's crave .126 8. Fir, natural condition, .......... . 180 5.5 Bar masuppressed,” 6.2.5. bt. c ces 225 4-4 Reproduction on Forest Types after Lumbering and Windfall. Flat type. A certain part of this type is virgin stand except for a culling here and there of the best timber made 30 years ago, when methods of lumbering were more crude and no tree with the slightest defect could be taken. Hence the present conditions are practically those which have been obtained under the influence of natural agencies without the interference of man. This stand may be divided into two sub-types according to the composition. First there is the nearly pure spruce, containing approximately 85 per cent. spruce, 10 per cent. hardwoods and 5 per cent. fir, and secondly the spruce and hardwoods, contain- ing 55 per cent. spruce, 40 per cent. hardwoods and 5 per cent. fir. Although in each case in the mature stand the fir is greatly outnumbered, yet in the understory it makes a much more prom- inent showing. In the pure spruce stand it forms 35 per cent. of the coniferous reproduction, with 65 per cent. for the spruce; whereas in the spruce and hardwood stand the young fir actually surpasses to a slight extent the young spruce. Still in spite of the apparent abundance of the fir in the young growth in this type, its scarcity in the mature stand and the high percentage of rot, tends to demonstrate that in the long run, under natural conditons, it is unable to compete successfully with the spruce, and, however abundant it may be in the understory, it will never amount to much in the old stand. When, however, the large spruce is cut, as it necessarily must be, the fir is given an in- creased chance at the expense of the spruce. 46 Forestry Quarterly The following tabular form illustrates the contrast between the mature stand and understory. Proportion of Spruce and Fir in Mature Stand and in Understory. Mature Stand Understory Type Spruce sae: Fir Spruce Fir Per cent. Per cent. Pure / Spices asso oboe 85 12 iB 65 35 Spruce and Hardwood, ........ 53 43 4 46 54 In studying the effect of windfall on the flat type, enough examples were seen to establish the fact that wherever areas of spruce have been blown down, nearly pure stands of fir follow. _ Spruce flats, subjected to windfall 61 years ago, show an average composition indicated by sample plots as follows: Composition of Stand following Windfall. (Flat Type.) Taken to 8 in. D. B. H. incl. Taken to 2in. D. B. H. incl. Per cent, Per cent. Fir 84 57 Spruce 8 23 Cedar 2 6 Yellow Birch 2 5 Maple 3 5 White Birch 3 Beech I I Total 100 100 The decrease in percentage of fir when trees under 8 inches are taken, shows how the fir will eventually be replaced. Slope Type. The greater proportion of slopes are covered with a mixed stand of hardwoods (yellow birch, white birch, beech and maple), with spruce and fir in varying proportions, and with white cedar in the swales. On a spruce and hardwood slope a virgin stand which was beginning to open up of itself because of over-maturity, had an approximate composition, considering trees over 12 inches, of 56% spruce, 22% fir and 22% hardwoods. Wherever the stand was opened up by wind-thrown, or by the dying out of old trees, hardwoods comprised the bulk of the young growth, while spruce lead the fir in a proportion of 5 to 4. The young fir, how- ever, did not show the same thrift as the spruce, and under a continuance of the conditions which have heretofore prevailed, the spruce would probably maintain its predominance over the fir. Notes on Balsam Fir 47 In the case of a pure or nearly pure spruce stand, there is always the danger of windfall on exposed situations. In the event of such a windfall where the mature spruce has a large pro- portion of fir in the understory, a dense stand of nearly pure fir follows. A pure spruce stand which was blown down 56 years ago had the following composition to-day. Composition of Stand following Windfall. (Slope Type.) Down to 8 in. D. B, H. incl, Down to 2 in. D. B. H. incl. Per cent. Per cent. Fir 87 52 Spruce 21 Maple 7 II Yellow Birch 6 9 White Birch 3 Cedar 3 Beech I Total 100 100 If there is a scand predominantly spruce, that is about 70 per cent. spruce, with a fair proportion of hardwoods in mixture, and windfall occurs as a result of cutting part of the spruce on exposed situations, the future stand will be composed principally of hardwoods and fir. The hardwoods to a great extent sur- vive the windfall and hence are left to seed up the area, while the fir which is already present in the understory in abundance comes in still more abundantly in the opening, and hence leads the spruce in the new stand. The resulting composition on such an area was found to be 40% hardwoods, 32% fir and 28% spruce. Where clear cutting of the spruce is resorted to on ac- count of the danger of windfall the same consequences will fol- low. Hence on a tract of this kind it is advisable either to cut much more lightly than elsewhere, or to cut in strips so chosen that the timber left will be protected from windfall. Where hardwoods and conifers are present in about equal proportion, the amount of hardwoods and fir which will come in after lumbering increases with the heaviness of the cutting. On a small area which had been carelessly slashed over 26 years ago, the composition was found to be roughly 70% hardwoods, 25% fir, and only 5% spruce. Even the most careful cutting cannot help diminishing, to a certain extent, the proportion of spruce and increasing the hardwoods and fir. Nevertheless very fair results 48 Forestry Quarterly haye been obtained by the method of cutting to a 12 inch breast high diameter limit, at present employed by the company oper- ating on this township. The composition on an area cut over in this manner was found to be: Stand of Cut to 12 Inches D. B. H. Species Old Stand Understory (Left after cutting) Spruce 26% 26% Fir 10% 21% Hardwoods 64% 53% This shows that the spruce in the young growth is exactly equal to the spruce left in the old stand after thinning, while the fir has increased more than double. Hence the spruce, in this case, has been diminished by precisely the amount which was cut, although this amount will vary, with different situations. The figures make it appear as if the proportion of hardwoods had de- creased from 64 per cent. to 53 per cent. But it must be con- sidered that the spruce has been cut and hardwoods left so that the original proportion of hardwoods before cutting could not have been roughly over 40 per cent. of the total stand. Hence in reality the hardwoods have increased from approximately 40 per cent. in the original uncut stand to 53 per cent of the new growth. There is no doubt under the prevailing conditions that this method is the best practical one for retaining the spruce which can be devised. Although to prevent the great increase of fir, if that species continues to be of as little value to the company as at present, it should be entirely cut out, even if not utilized, wherever logging operations are carried on. Spruce Slope Type. This type is found on the mountain sides at higher elevations than the spruce and mixed hardwood slope. The composition is practically pure spruce growing where the soil is extremely shallow, or in a large part of the type almost en- tirely lacking, the roots of the trees and a layer of moss forming the only covering of the large loose boulders. In a mature stand the trees range from 2 to 15 inches in diam- eter, growing very close together. The understory is also of pure spruce with only about 2 per cent. of fir. When such an area is clear cut, as it is generally necessary to do on account of ex- posure to windfall, the fir and hardwoods come in but are still Notes on Balsam Fir 49 well behind the spruce in percentage of the whole stand. The resulting composition of the young growth found on such a type cut over 8 years ago was 60 per cent. spruce, 22 per cent. hard- wood and only 18 per cent. fir. When the growth on the spruce slope has become somewhat over-mature and is beginning to open out of itself, we find the fir still composing only about 2 per cent. of the old trees, but form- ing approximately 50 per cent. of the understory. The explana- tion of this state of affairs is found in the respective require- ments of the two species. The spruce, on account of its ability to grow with almost no soil, will cover the poorest and rockiest situations where nothing else can subsist. Then as better soil and moisture conditions are developed by the action of weather- ing and of the roots of the trees, other species will gradually come in, Cutting an over-mature spruce slope then will bring in more fir than cutting on a younger slope. The spruce, however, will probably continue to be predominant in the natural course of events; because it will take such an area which has been clear cut a long while to contain merchantable timber anyway, and the spruce will always beat the fir out in the long run, on account of its greater longevity. Reproduction on Burned-Over Land. In contrast with the cases previously cited, it is interesting to note that on the areas of burned-over land, which were studied, spruce always leads the fir in the young growth. A tract of flat land lying along the north shore of Roach Pond which was entirely burned over 38 years ago and which, at present, is occupied by a good stand of White Birch, Yellow Birch, Poplar and Cherry was found to contain an excellent un- derstory of young spruce, while the only young fir discovered was limited to a narrow strip along the water edge. This fir in no case reached 25 per cent. of the composition of the understory. Over the burnt area birch and poplar seeded in the year follow- ing the fire, the spruce 6 years after, and the fir not until 8 years afterwards. On a slope, on the other hand, which was burned over 33 years ago, young fir was found in greater abundance than on the flat 4 50 Forestry Quarterly occupying approximately 40 per cent. of the understory to the spruce’s 60 percent. _ The explanation of the preponderance of the spruce over the fir in the young growth on these burned-over areas, seems to lie in the different soil and moisture requirements of the two species. Whereas the spruce can adapt itself to a soil leached by fire, the fir requires more moisture in the upper layers, and hence is only found seeding in along the water’s edge or on well drained slopes. Summary. A summary of points in regard to the character of fir may be here briefly stated: ; 1. Fir is less tolerant than Spruce. 2. Fir is especially subject to windfall in this locality, after a diameter of 15 inches breast high is reached. 3. In pure stands fir is subject to rot at the butt after the age of 50 years is reached, particularly in moist situations. In mix- ture with hardwoods the percentage of rot is smaller and the trees are usually sound up to an average age of 85 years. In considering the treatment of the forest with relation to fir, the following point may be emphasized: 1. In virgin stands on a flat or lower slope type under the in- fluences of natural agencies (exclusive of accidents due to wind- fall and fire), fir occupies less than 5 per cent. of the stand. On upper slopes the percentage is considerably higher. 2. After windfall in a pure spruce flat or slope, a pure stand of fir follows. After windfall in a spruce stand containing hard- woods, a stand of predominantly hardwoods and fir results. 3. On a mixed hardwood and spruce slope the proportion of fir is doubled after each cutting. If the cut is too heavy, the fir will surpass the spruce in the next generation. 4. On a pure spruce slope which has to be cut clean on ac- count of danger from windfall, the fir will increase from ap- proximately 2 to 20 per cent. 5. Although the fir is seen to be so abundant in the young growth after cutting, it is probable in many cases that it will eventually die out and its place be taken by the spruce. At the same time it must be considered that while the fir is growing it is not only retarding the spruce but occupying space, and hence causing just so many years’ loss of growing time to that species. BARRINGTON Moore, and Rosert L,. RocErs. NOTE ON TROPICAL WOOD SUPPLIES.* In the year 1900 the long predicted timber famine made its entrance into the United States, if a sudden rise in prices is the characteristic of dearth. It came on time, exactly as predicted. In that year the price of White Pine lumber, up to that time our principal staple, jumped all at once to almost double its previous value, and all other ‘umber staples increased in price rapidly, and have crept up ever since. Builders of houses especially, have begun to realize that the time of wood for building ma- terial is begining to pass away; other, better materials are be- coming relatively cheaper. This, the substitution of other ma- terials, is, of course, the first, best and natural remedy for the rapid increase of timber famine prices. All efforts at introduc- tion of forestry methods and at re-forestation are designed, and can be effective only for the days of a much more distant future. The opening up of the timber resources of the tropical coun- tries to the south of us has been often pointed out as our ulti- mate recourse. It becomes, therefore, of interest to learn what we may expect from this quarter, to learn what the character of the woods and the character of the forests in these warm coun- tries is, with a view to the possibility of substituting their pro- duct in our lumber market. Quality, quantity and expense are the three considerations of the market. We must realize first that our enormous lumber consumption consists to the extent of from 65 to 75 per cent. in soft wood material, only a little over one quarter, outside of fuelwood, comes from hard woods. And the soft woods which are most in demand are those of the conifer tribe, which furnish the best all round materials for the most varied uses, and especially for build- ing and box manufacture, two of the most important uses of wood. Moreover these conifers, pines, spruces, firs, grow gre- gariously on large areas, hence are most readily and economically logged. If we examine the woods and the forests of tropical countries, we find that the areas of coniferous wood are exceedingly lim- ited, that the character of these is as a rule inferior to our north- * Read before the Association for Advancement of Science, Dec., 1907. 52 Forestry Quarterly ern product, and that woods of the greatest hardness make up the bulk of tropical growth. There are some few exceptions to this rule. Just as we find among our broadleaf trees a few species which produce a soft wood that can be used in substitution of coniferous material, so there are to be found a few tropical spe- cies of that description. Hitherto, from the tropics, only fancy cabinet woods, in which hardness is a virtue, have been able to secure recognition in the markets, and the character and behavior of the soft woods of the tropics is hardly known. The presumption is, that, just as our soft-wooded broadleaf trees, which form a small proportion of our broadleaf forest, furnish only an inferior substitute for coniferous wood, the tropi- cal soft-wood species will be of the same category; in addition, the climate will introduce difficulties in handling the material in such a manner as to avoid the shrinking and warping, the work- ing of the wood, which is the greatest drawback of all wood ma- terial except the coniferous. As far then as this portion of eventual substitutes is con- cerned, we can be sure, that it will be of much inferior character to what we have been accustomed. The next question is that of expense. The long distance to which lumber would have to be freighted not only from seaports but from interior sections, and not only to seaports but to interior sections, will in itself be for a long time an unsurmountable ob- stacle in the utilization of these sources of supply, but other natural conditions in the character of the forest growth create additional difficulties and expense. The character of the tropical forest differs very greatly from the northern forest, in that it is composed of a much greater variety of species, growing by no means gregariously as our most important species do, but participating in more or less equal de- gree in the composition. Hence to secure a quantity of any one class of wood large areas will have to be picked over, as is now done when the expensive cabinet woods, mahogany and cedar, are exploited. Another factor, increasing the cost of expense in logging, is the fact that the trees of commercial size are as a rule much more Note on Tropical Wood Supplies 53 scattered than with us, in other words small quantities per acre of valuable forms and sizes is the rule. There are, of course, exceptions to these general features. There are on the plateau lands of Mexico extensive pineries in accessible locations, but compared with our requirements neither in quality nor quantity comparable to our own. Otherwise, tropical conifers are usually confined to inaccessible locations. There are lowlands, as for instance along the Magdalena River in Columbia, which bear heavy forest growth of commercial character, and contain even large proportions of soft woods that might be exploited profitably. But the general prevailing condi- tion is as we have described. In addition there are climatic and populational conditions, which are by no means to be overlooked in the problem of exploiting and marketing whatever supplies would be really available. The resident population is in most locations neither sufficient nor efficient, and the climate is not favorable to logging work. Even if the labor necessary to carry on logging and milling en- terprises could be eventually attained, efficient superintendence is still more difficult to secure under the undesirable social and climatic conditions. At any rate, cheap logging, which the low wage apparently warrants, will actually not be realized. We come then to the conclusion, that but little comfort can be expected in dealing with our timber famine, approaching and in progress, by securing supplies from our southern neighbors. While the increase in wood prices will perhaps make the profit- able exploitation of favorably located tropical forests possible, neither the character of their woods, nor the quantity they can supply promises to satisfy our needs readily. B. E. Fernow. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. GrRAvEs, in Charge. A Brief History of Forestry, in Europe, the United States and other Countries. By Bernhard E. Fernow. New Haven, 1907. Advance Copy. The study of the development and practice of forestry in for- eign countries is very important for every forester. There is a common prejudice against the methods of forestry employed in other countries on the ground that our forest conditions and economic conditions are peculiar and that on this account there- fore, foreign methods are not applicable in this country. It is, of course, true that we cannot take European methods, appli- cable to forests which have been under management many years and apply them without modification to forests of different spe- cies, different form, and different silvical character. The prac- tice of forestry tends, however, to bring about more or less arti- ficial forms of stands which ultimately must be handled by methods very similar to those practiced in other countries. Most of the methods which we are practicing today are in reality modi- fications of methods practiced in Europe and as our silviculture develops we will approach more and more to the systems prac- ticed there, although undoubtedly some methods peculiarly American of silviculture will be developed. It is of great im- portance, therefore, that the student understands not only the practice of forestry in other countries, but how the present meth- ods have been developed. When one studies the development of forestry abroad one is immediately surprised to find that many methods which are now used in this country were used in Ger- many and elsewhere many years ago. One finds that in the early days in Germany a rough selection method by diameter limit was used, similar to that employed in Maine, that oak pole- woods were treated as we are in many cases handling our south- ern New England woodlands, and that many of the other methods of silviculture now employed by us have their counter- parts in the history of the different countries in Europe. In the same way, many of our methods of mensuration which some have supposed to be original with us were used in Germany when the Current Literature 55 forests were irregular and unorganized. The development from these early beginnings to the refined methods of to-day is of great use in aiding the American forester in the development of silvicultural policies and in other work of organization. For this reason I welcome Dr. Fernow’s History of Forestry, which places in the hands of the student an excellent historical outline of the development and practice of forestry in the im- portant foreign countries. Dr. Fernow devotes a large space in the book to the history of forestry in Germany. This is in part due to the fact that there are much more complete records of the history of forestry in Germany than in other countries, but chiefly because, in the opinion of the author, forestry has there reached a higher plane of development than elsewhere. Dr. Fernow calls attention to the strong German influence which is to be found in the growth of forestry in most countries, including Austria, Hungary, Switz- erland, Russia, the Scandinavian States, and India. Even France did not remain uninfluenced by German ideas. The history of forestry in Germany is divided into three periods, namely, to the end of the middle ages, second, to the end of the 18th century, and third, the modern period. The author describes for each of these periods the political conditions of the country, which have a bearing on forestry, the development of the laws of forest policy, the progress in silviculture, forest or- ganization, mensuration, natural science, experimentation, litera- ture, etc. It is interesting to read of the controversies between the so-called practical men and those well trained in forestry. Apparently every country has to pass through the same contest between those who recognize the scientific character of the basis of forestry and those who regard the practice of forestry as essentially utilization. Foresters will be interested to compare the controversies toward the end of the 18th century in Germany with those of the present time in this country. The book covers also the history of forestry in Austro-Hun- gary, Switzerland, France, Russia, Finland, the Scandinavian States, the Mediterranean Peninsulas, and Great Britain and her colonies. The advance copies of the book in the hands of the reviewer were still incomplete. It is the author’s design before final publi- 56 Forestry Quarterly cation to add an account of the history of forestry in Japan and the United States. Austro-Hungary is of particular interest to Americans be- cause of the large amount of private land, some of which is in large holdings. A study of the plans of co-operation between the State and the private owners is of peculiar value to us, as we are developing State forest policies in this country. One is naturally interested in Norway, Sweden, Russia, and other coun- tries which export timber and still have extensive virgin forests. With regard to India Dr. Fernow makes the point that, “Con- trary to a frequently expressed idea that the conditions and problems of India are comparable to the conditions and problems of the United Staces, so that the example of Great Britain in India rather than that of any European country might serve us in the United States, the writer thinks that the very opposite is true.” He admits, however, that there are certain points of similarity in problems, especially those dealing with fire, irriga- tion, organization of extensive areas, etc. I think that Dr. Fernow does not place enough emphasis on the value of the In- dian experience in silviculture. One finds in the teakpole man- agement a counterpart of our American polewood management of hardwoods; of the longleaf pine problems in the native chir of the Himalayas, of some of our Pacific Coast problems in the management of deodar, of Rocky Mountain conditions in the spruce of the mountains, and of chaparral in the management of scrub. Their methods of working plans and their experience in administration also seem to me of great importance. Their work is of special value to the American forester also because the re- sults are written in English. I would encourage students to study Indian forestry, not only in Dr. Fernow’s history, but also in the Government reports and other publications. Dr. Fernow has presented his material in a clear and readable style. While a great deal of it will be of interest to laymen, it is essentially designed for technical foresters who are already familiar with the principles and methods of silviculture, mensura- tion, and other branches of forestry. I commend this book to every forester as a valuable contribution to American literature. H. S. G. Current Literature 57 Traite’ d’exploitation commerciale des bois. Par Alphonse Matthey. Tome premier. (Paris, 1906). 488 pp. Price, 15 fres. This very exhaustive and profusely illustrated treatise on forest utilization is a decided addition to the French forestry liter- ature, enlarging on Boppe’s Cours de technologie forestiere. Although mainly intended for unprofessional lumbermen, some chapters are treated with a fullness which such readers hardly demand, indeed, the volume is as comprehensive and the treat- ment as thorough as any professional forester may demand. The volume is divided into five books. The first book on the constitution of wood contains in its first chapter a grouped description of many species of wood with very good illustrations of typical blocks showing schematically the microscopic structure. Some American and other exotic species are included. ‘The second book on Faults and Diseases of Wood is particularly well illustrated with colored plates showing the discolorations of fungus diseases, and with many black prints. A short “book” of 45 pages disposes of methods of stacking, drying and impregnating with preservatives, the weakest part of the volume. The fourth book treats of the tools, from the stand- point of the American reader also imperfectly. The last and longest book on methods of transportation is perhaps the most complete, although here too, as in all European publications, lack of familiarity with American methods is a serious detriment. Nevertheless there are many points of interest to be found which do not appear in English literature; especially interesting is a comparison of cost of transportation by different means. B. E, F. The Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the Water Supply. By S. Eardley-Wilmot. Indian Forest Service. 58 pp. 8° Calcutta, 1906. The author divides his subject into two parts. I. European Research into Forest Influences. II. Application of results of European Research to Indian Conditions. Introductory to the general discussion of the subject, attention is called to the fact that during the 4o years since the creation of the Forest Service 58 Forestry Quarterly but little attention has been given to joint influences, particularly the mechanical influence of the forest on the water supply. This was largely due to the great demands upon the Forest Service in the creation of state forests and in settling the state ownership of forest and waste lands. Also later in protecting and managing these lands. Recently the question of forest influences has come prominently before the people of India. There is, however, but little public record based upon scientific observation in India, regarding the influence of forests on climate, water supply, etc. France is se- lected by the author to supply the facts and statistics bearing upon the subject. French researches along these lines have not only continued for a long time, but the French Forest Staff are giving careful attention to forest influences at the present time. Furthermore their results have only recently been made known. In France the subject is of very large importance because of the extended areas in that country threatened by the consequences of denudation. In the first part of the paper, forest influences are discussed under the following heads: 1—Influence on air temperature. 2—Influence on soil temperature. 3—Influence on humidity of the air. 4—Influence on atmosphereic precipitations. 5—Influence on springs. 6—Influence on the amount of water withdrawn from the soil. 7—Influence on the regulation of torrents. 8—lInfluence on avalanches, g—Influence on moving sands. In the second part of the paper there is presented an interest- ing discussion of the river systems of India and the importance of the forests in their bearing upon variations in stream flow. The author’s Indian theories based upon European facts, are as follows: : I—Speaking generally the water supply of India is probably more than sufficent for the requirements, agricultural and indus- trial, of the country if not allowed to run to waste. 2—The storage and regulation of this supply can be automati- cally and efficiently carried out by natural laws. > ———~_ Current Literature 59 3—Provided that man permits the application of these laws, the distribution of water can be efficiently carried out by him in such localities where physical conditions do not prohibit it. 4—If, on the other hand, interference with these laws is per- mitted the water supply is liable to become deficient or irregular and its distribution impossible or at least difficult. s—It is necessary therefore to aid the forces of nature in this respect and where necessary to prohibit such action as hinders or diminishes these forces with a view to reaping their full benefit in these localities when this may be possible. By specific illustrations the forest is shown to be the most important factor within the control of man, in the regulation of water supply. Where forests do not exist or are not maintained the agriculture is dependent more or less entirely on the flow of the rainfall from the surface of the soil and it does not afford a certain livelihood to the inhabitants, consequently frequent famines are likely to occur. A Preliminary Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of the Insular Lumber Company, Negros Occidental, P. I. By H. D. Everett, Forester in charge of Forest District No. 8, and H. N. Whitford, Ph. D., Forester, Chief of the Division of Forest Products. Bulletin No. 5, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry. Manila: Bureau of Printing 1906, pp. 54, plates XII, maps I. This bulletin is of special interest because it describes the first working plan made for the management of a tract in the Philip- pine Islands, which is being lumbered on an extensive scale. The tract described has added importance because it is being lumbered by a company organized in the United States, who pro- pose to carry on more extensive lumbering operations than have been previously undertaken. The tract covered by the working plan is located in the north- ern part of Negros Occidental and comprises an area of approxi- mately sixty-nine square miles, ninety per cent. of which is heavily forested. The operations are being conducted under a license agreement granted by the Philippine Bureau of Forestry which gives to the 60 Forestry Quarterly Insular Lumber Company the exclusive privilege of cutting tim- ber on the tract for a period of twenty years. The tract is especially well located with reference to water transportation because the Himuguan River which flows through the tract is navigable for a distance of several miles from the coast, and lumber barges can be loaded directly at the mill, from which point they proceed to their destination without reloading. It is one of the few places where steam logging can be carried on successfully and profitably, and it is here a necessity because the logs are too large to be handled by animals. Three forest types are distinguished; namely, waste land type, river valley forest type, and upland forest type. The two latter are natural and the first is the result of clearings. The commer- cial forest is very largely composed of the upland forest type and covers broad gentle slopes and ridges leading to the foothills and peaks of Mt. Silay. The elevation above sea level varies between 150 and 1,200 feet. The forest is characterized by a dominant stand of large overmature trees belonging to the family Dipterocarpaceae. Six species of the above family com- prise over 90% of the commercial trees, 16” and above in diam- eter. An estimate of the standing timber on the tract showed an unusual amount of merchantable timber per acre, for a tropical forest, for nearly all the large timber is one genus and is in de- mand in the local markets. The amount of standing timber was determined by making a strip method survey of 135 acres of the concession, about 1% of the area. The result showed a stand of 50,000 ft. B. M. per acre of trees 16” and above in diameter, without making any allowance for defects. MANGACHUuPAY Shorea (sp.) though constituting but 21% of the total number of trees per acre furnished 45% of the above estimate, while Shorea squamata, constituting 15% of the total number of trees furnished 21% more. The genus Shorea com- prises 86% of the merchantable timber on the tract. This is a condition rarely met, because the forests of the Islands are usually very mixed and consist of many genera, the greater number of which are not in demand at the present time. The timber on this tract is usually defective, being attacked by an unknown fungus. For this reason it was found neces- Current Literature 61 sary to make heavy allowances for defects, this allowance varying with different species. Allowing for defects the average stand of timber 16” and above in diameter per acre is 33,450 ft. B. M. and 20” and above in diameter 32,050 ft. B. M. (Doyle’s Scale). The total stand of merchantable timber is estimated at 1,207,000,- ooo ft. B. M. The Insular Lumber Company has in operation on the tract a small circular saw mill of a daily capacity of 15,000 ft. B. M. and a logging outfit consisting of a fifty horse power road engine equipped with one mile of 1” cable and 1 mile of $” “messenger” cable, and a 40 horse power yarding engine equipped with 2,000’ of }” yarding cable. The methods of yarding and hauling to the rollway are similar to those employed in steam logging on the Pacific coast. The logs are floated down the river from the rollway to the mill, but a narrow gauge logging railroad is now under construction and in the near future logs will be handled from the forest directly to the mill and the road engine will then be used for skidding purposes. The logging crew consists of one American logging superin- tendent who receives a salary of $2,100 per year and an Ameri- can assistant receiving $2.00 per day. The remainder of the crew, forty-two men, consists of natives who receive an average daily wage of about twenty-five cents. The above crew handles from 5,000 to $10,000 ft. B. M. of logs per day at an verage daily cost of $22.50. The average logging cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. is $3.50. The mill crew consists of three Americans; a sawyer at $2,000 per year, a book-keeper at $75.00 per month and a setter receiv- ing $2.00 per day, and twenty-eight Filipinos receiving about twenty-five cents per day. The average daily labor cost at the mills being $21.00. The cost of manufacturing lumber and de- livering it by barge, in Manila 400 miles distant, is $18.60 per M ft. B. M., of which charge transportation is $5.00 and the average government stumpage charge $1.25. The company receives on an average more than $30.00 per M ft. B. M. in Manila for green lumber, so that the proportion shows a good profit. The company has now under erection a 100,000 ft. double band 62 Forestry Quarterly mill, and are contemplating the erection of a tie treating plant if contracts can be made with the railroads which are now being built to supply them. The principal competitors of the lumber manufactured by this company will be American Redwood and Oregon Pine which are shipped to Manilla in large quantities. Oregon Pine is not well adapted for use in the tropics because it is readily attacked by the “anay” or white ant, and the product of the mill of this com- pany should find a ready sale in large quantities in competition with this wood. It is to be hoped that the company will make a success of their venture and that in a comparatively short time the Philippines may be in a position to produce at a low price the lumber demanded by her native markets. Large sums of money have been paid each year for foreign timber because the methods of lumbering in vogue in the Islands were too crude and inadequate to furnish, at a low cost, the con- struction of timbers demanded, and the advent of a corporation having the ability to install a large logging and milling plant and place native timber in the market should be welcomed with much satisfaction not only by consumers of lumber but by the govern- ment itself. A number of tentative recommendations are made for the management of the tract which will be enforced until a more de- tailed study can be undertaken and other changes made which further safeguard the forest. It is proposed to adopt two differ- ent systems of management, one for lands agricultural in char- acter and the other for lands non-agricultural in character. In the former case the forest will be treated under a clear cutting system and as fast as logged will be turned over to agriculturists for settlement. No attention will be paid to young growth and the main efforts of the inspection force will be directed toward securing the utilization of all merchantable timber on the tract. Where the land is non-agricultural in character the selection system will be practiced, and the forest will be managed with the idea of securing a continuous yield of the six species at present forming the greater part of the merchantable stand. Care will be taken to leave sufficient seed trees to provide for a future yield but at present no provision will be made for a regular and sustained annual yield. Current Literature 63 On the non-agricultural land the maximum diameter limit has been set at 20 inches, and all logs from trees, which have 50% of clear sound lumber must be utilized. Provisions are made for the utilization of the inferior species for construction purposes and for the payment of charges on excessive amounts of timber cut for such purposes. The plan provides for the permanent assignment of a ranger to the tract whose duties shall be to patrol the tract and prevent forest fires and the making of clearings; to inspect the lumber operations, and to look out for the general interests of the Bureau of Forestry. This plan while preliminary in character and, as stated by the authors, inadequate in many ways, is a stepping stone towards the better management of the Philippine forest, and as such is to be greatly commended. Re Cabs A Preliminary Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company, Bongabon, Min- doro, P. I. By Melvin L. Merritt, Forester in charge of Forest District No. 5 and H. N. Whitford, Ph. D., Forester, Chief of the Division of Forest Products, Bulletin No. 6, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906. Pp. 55, plates XIV, maps 1. A tentative working plan for the management of a tract of public forest, 55 square miles in area, situated on the south-east- ern coast of the Island of Mindoro. The area at present is being exploited by a lumber company holding a twenty year license agreement. This agreement grants the Company the exclusive right to cut and gather forest products over an area of approxi- mately eighty-five square miles, a portion of which was not in- cluded in the working plan prepared. The forest conditions differ markedly from those found in Negros and more nearly represent the conditions found in the average commercial forest of the Islands. The tree species are more abundant but the amount of mer- chantable material is much less, because of the lack of market for many species. The map accompanying the working plan shows the extent of 64 Forestry Quarterly the various types of forest, the latter being based largely upon the characteristic trees found within the areas. The maximum yield of merchantable timber, 20” and above in diameter, was found upon the “Narra” type, and amounted to 12,200 ft. B. M. (Doyle Rule) per acre. Seventy-seven per cent. of this amount was composed of species representing three genera of the family Dipterocarpeae. In an upland type of forest known as the “Hagachac” (Dipterocarpus lasiopodus) type the yield of timber is estimated at 11,284 ft. B. M., three species in the family of Dipterocarpeae furnishing 91% of the amount. The lowest yield 4,464 ft. per acre, is found in “mixed” type growing in rich bottom land. The species on this type are very numerous, but large trees are scattering and species having a merchantable value, are not abundant. A study of the tables showing the stand per acre of trees 16” and above in diameter shows a variation between 15.8 trees per acre in the “mixed” type to 26.9 trees per acre in the “Narra” type. Volume tables for three different classes of trees are given; namely, for Narra, a low growing tree; Amuguis a medium height tree, and one for Dipterocarpeae which are tall and straight. The value of these tables is not apparent since the author states that the figures were not secured within the tract, but were compiled from data, collected in the provinces of Bataan, Tayabas and Negros. The soil in the area studied in Mindoro is alluvial in character, while the Dipterocarpeae forests of Bataan and Negros in which the measurements were secured grew upon soil formed by the disintegration of volcanic rocks, in situ. Further, the rainy and dry seasons are very distinct in Bataan and Negros while in Mindoro the rainfall is more equally distributed throughout the year. The regions from which the data were secured are, with the exception of Tayabas, too far removed from Mindoro to safely apply figures of tree growth secured in them, to the latter province and it is doubtful if the form and size of the trees growing under such widely divergent conditions have sufficient similarity to warrant combining meas- urements made from them into a simple volume table. Logging on this tract is carried on in a primitive way, Current Literature 65 although a wooden tram road has been constructed from the forest to the beach. Water buffalo are used for skidding, and for motive power on the tram road. The character of the forest and the yield per acre are not such as to warrant the use of steam machinery, at least for the present. The average cost of felling, and skidding to the beach, a dis- tance of 14 miles varies between $4.85 and $9.00 per M ft. B. M. Contracts are occasionally made at $6.00 per M ft. B. M. The company has in the tract a portable saw-mill of a capacity of 10,000 ft. B. M., but so far only a limited amount of timber has been sawed. The cost of lumber delivered in Manila varies between $12.50—$17.50 per M ft. B. M. and since the greater part of the timber retails at $30.00 or more per M ft. B. M., a good profit should result from their operations. The main features of control recommended for the tract are that no Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd) shall be cut which are not marked by the forester and that no trees of other species, less than 20” in diameter d. b. h. shall be cut. Rules relating to the protection of young growth are included as well as other details in regard to the time and manner of cutting and protec- tion of the forest. The Bulletin concludes with a list of plants thirty centimeters and over in diameter found growing on the tract. ey Coibe Annual Report of the Division of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, for the period from July Ist, 1905 to June 30th, 1906. Major George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry, Manila. Bureau of Printing, 1906. Pp. 27, plates 16. This report is of great interest because it deals with the reoganization of the Bureau of Forestry and discusses the char- acter of the work how being conducted by it. In October, 1905, by an act of the Philippine Commission the Bureau of Forestry was reorganized and the classification and appraisal of all forest products was transferred from the Bureau of Forestry, which had performed this work since the American occupation, to the Bureau of Internal Revenue. This transfer rendered unnecessary the services of the greater part of the large force of rangers and officials connected with the 5 66 Forestry Quarterly Division of Inspection and the latter division was abandoned. The office and field force of the Bureau was reduced from 171 men to 55 men, and thirty forest stations in the provinces were abandoned. The Islands were divided into 10 forest districts, each in charge of a forester, whose duties are as follows: ““Map- ping the district; study of the forest resources; location and in- spection of cutting areas; data for a preliminary working plan for one concession in each district; official reports and other correspondence; licenses; inspection of the agricultural char- acter of land desired to be taken as homesteads, for purchase or lease; registration and inspection of private woodlands to be exploited for the market; caifigin or clearing permits; collec- tion of data, giving cost of gathering forest products, transporta- tion, labor; investigating future fields for forest exploration, etc: In addition to the above work some of the foresters are con- ducting investigations along special lines, such as gutta percha and rubber production in Mindanao, Mangrove swamps and their products; caifigins, etc. A uniform system of mapping commercial and non-commer- cial forests, cultivated and uncultivated lands has been adopted, and as rapidly as possible maps are being prepared showing the topographical features and forest areas of each District. Special silvicultural studies are being conducted and the re- sults will be published from time to time, as sufficient informa- tion becomes available. The act reorganizing the Bureau provided that, “For the period of five years from the date of the passage of this act, any resident of the Philippine Islands may cut or take, or hire cut or taken, for himself from the public forests, without license and free of charge, such timber, other than timber of the first group, and such firewood, resins, other forest products, and stone and earth, as he may require for housebuilding, fencing, boat build- ing, or other personal use of himself or his family. Timber thus cut without license shall not be sold nor shall it be exported from the province where cut.” While this privilege may have proven a great boon to the poor people of the provinces, it is an unfortunate thing that in the administration of the public forests of the Islands, the Philippine Current Literature 67 Commission should have adopted such a shortsighted forest policy. For a period of five years the Bureau of Forestry struggled to build up a system of management and protection for the public forests which would not only render readily accessible to the people the products of the forest, but would at the same time safeguard the forests and insure their perpetuation, The act granting the free use of timber for the purposes mentioned above, applies nominally for a period of five years, but it will be difficult to put in force more strict measures at the expiration of this period, and the way is opened for the estab- lishment of rights of user in the forests which may prove em- barrassing to the forest department at a later date. It is a mistake to grant parties power to enter public forests and without license cut where and when they will, because their actions cannot be controlled. Indiscriminate and unrestricted cutting in a very short time will do great harm to the forest and the damage cannot be repaired within a long period of time. The sweeping changes made in this act are unnecessary, because before the passage of the act needy residents of any province could secure, from forest officials stationed in the prov- inces, a gratuitous license permitting them to secure from the public forests, free of charge, sufficient timber for the construc- tion of a house, boat, agricultural implements, etc. Such licenses could be secured by needy applicants, but parties of means were prevented from securing the free use of timber. By the license method the control of forest operations re- mained in the hands of the government and the forest could be managed in a conservative manner. If the former scheme was not sufficiently elastic, it could have been made so very readily, and it is to be regretted that the law-making body of the Islands felt called upon to sacrifice the future interests of the country to the greed of the present. There always has been opposition manifested by a considerable element of both natives and Americans against any scheme of governmental supervision and control of forest operations on public lands because such supervision and control does not permit them to exploit the forests for their benefit. No doubt it was the influence of this class of people who were not eligible to free 68 Forestry Quarterly use of timber under the former act, which brought about the change of the law. The class of natives who should receive the privilege of the free use of timber for domestic purposes, require but a small amount, preferring bamboo wherever it can be used because it is easier to transport and to work. The cutting and use of timber cannot be controlled in a satis- factory manner under existing conditions, and the way is opened for the fraudulent use of timber and other forest products. The Philippine Commission which is charged with the care and wise use of the public forests has certainly laid itself open to just criticism and by the shortsighted policy adopted has shown that the Commission does not appreciate the value of the forest lands entrusted to their charge, and that they have failed to profit by the experience of the United States, whose forest re- sources were so recklessly handled. It is unfortunate that a backward step has been taken in the administration of the forests of our insular possessions, for there practically virgin forests exist which if properly protected and managed would continue indefinitely to be a most valuable asset of the Philippine government. It is to be hoped that the situation will be appreciated before it is too late and steps taken to stop the backward progress of forest administration. In the Philippines as in various parts of tropical Asia, the practice of shifting cultivation is prevalent. Large areas of forest are annually destroyed by the natives for the purpose of clearing a small area on which a few crops are planted and the land is then abandoned. Stern measures were adopted to stop the practice, but impris- onment and fines failed to secure the desired results. In India the forest department encountered similar difficulties, but there they have been able to turn what appeared to be an undesirable practice to good use by encouraging the natives to plant teak seedlings on the lands, before they are abandoned. The class of natives in the Philippines engaged in making such clearings are frequently ignorant and ill informed as to the law, and but little is gained by the imposition of a fine upon them or by imprisonment because they have no funds with which to pay Current Literature 69 a fine, and imprisonment is no hardship because they are fed without exerting themselves to secure the food. Shifting cultivation has been practiced for so many genera- tions that the right to practice it cannot wholly be denied the people. The present practice of the Bureau of Forestry is to issue per- mits for making caifigins, permission being refused for clearing tracts covered with large or valuable timber. The Director of Forestry recommends that the law be changed and municipal presidents given authority to grant permits only on such areas are are designated by the Chief of the Forest Dis- trict. This will prevent the clearing of lands where such clear- ings are undesirable and the waste of large amounts of timber each year. Marked progress was made during the year in the investiga- tion of market timbers by the timber-testing laboratory. In ad- dition to the mechanical tests, especial attention was given to the behavior of the woods in the dry kiln and in various processes of manufacture. Reliable information regarding the mechanical properties of thirty of the more important woods is now possessed by the Bureau of Forestry, and the accumulation of data on many other species has been carried on to a considerable extent. Mention is made of the intention to establish a Division of Forest Products. Since the report was written this division has been established to carry on the following lines of work: “to investigate the amount, character, value and uses of Philippine forest products and to bring this information to the notice of Philippine and foreign markets; to make special efforts to find new uses for native woods and to bring out the useful qualities of certain abundant woods not as yet sought by the native lumber- man.” The field before this division is certainly a broad one and work along the lines suggested is urgently needed. There was a marked decrease over the previous year in the number of licenses of all classes, except gratuitous, which were issued. This was largely due to the passage of the act permit- ting the free use of timber. The amount of timber cut under license decreased 50,000 cubic meters, and the revenues from the public forests was lower than during any previous years, except 70 Forestry Quarterly 1go1, the first year the Bureau of Forestry was established. This reduction in revenue amounting to more than $32,000 was due largely to the free cutting of timber for personal use. The Bureau of Forestry is now largely engaged in scientific work and in the examination, classification and mapping of the forest lands. But little progress can be made in the wise ad- ministration of the public forests until the act permitting the free use of timber, without license, is abolished, and the control of logging operations again placed directly in the hands of the Bureau. R, Cl Mechanical Tests, Properties, and Uses of Thirty Philippine Woods. By Rolland Gardner, Manager of the Timber Testing Laboratory. Bulletin No. 4 of the Philippine Bureau of For- estry, Manila, 1906. 69 pages, seven tables, and twelve stress diagrams. Contains also three pages description of the lumber industry in the islands. The material presented is necessarily of a preliminary nature, giving in a simple and readable form the results of tests made thus far. The publication is particularly valuable as a popular introducton to the mechanical arid physical characteristics of the numerous and greatly divergent kinds of wood in commercial use. From this view alone it is established as an important publication, but it is also of interest in a lesser degree from the technical standpoint. In the introduction by H. N..Whitford, it is stated that the results “represent the present knowledge of the subject and are not to be considered final, for such results can be obtained only from a large number of tests of properly identified botanical ma- terial from many locations and habitats.” In the beginning is given a simple and clear explanation of the methods and terms used in making the tests and calculating the various strength values which should be understandable even to one familiar with the subject of mechanics. Following this are the three principal tables of results from crossbending, longitu- dinal compression and shearing tests, and 11 stress diagrams of transverse compression. A few hardness tests are tabulated. Current Literature 71 Next is given a cyclopaedic list of the species, giving their quali- ties, uses, derivation, and concurrent names. In the tables in which the average, maximum and minimum values are given for each group of tests, the results are grouped into three moisture conditions, over 35 per cent., 20 to 35 per cent. and under 20 per cent. It is unfortunate that the tests were not all made in the green or soaked condition as they would then have been comparable. Judging from our American woods (See Bulletin No. 70, Forest Service. “The Effect of Moisture upon the Strength and Stiffness of Wood’’) the strength should begin to increase rapidly when the moisture falls below 30 per cent. and the author himself states that the strength increases quite rapidly below 30 to 35 per cent. Therefore, tests made at varying moisture degrees of less than this cannot properly be averaged. An increase of as much as 400 per cent. in strength may occur in some of our woods from the green to the very dry condition, yet in the tables in one instance tests from 1.7 to 19.2 per cent. moisture content are average together. The column given for ‘‘moisture over 35 per cent.” should therefore be used where actual strength values are wanted. In this column an average compressive strength of 8,000 lbs. per square inch is given for Ipil from Palawan, although considerable variation appears in this species, that from another locality being only 5,450 and individual specimens varying from 2,390 to 9,470. The same remarks apply to the crossbending tests of these species, although in the latter tests Tindalo comes out slightly ahead with a modulus of rupture of 15,000. Of the weaker woods Colantas from Albay has an average strength of scarcely 3,000 per square inch, and a modulus of rupture in crossbending of 5,650. Banuyo falls below Colantus in bending tests, with a modulus of rupture of 5,140, but has a compressive strength of nearly 3,300. Comparing these with our own familiar woods, green Red Spruce has a compressive strength of 2,400 and a modulus of rupture of 5,200 while the same strength values for Hickory are 6,100 and 8,800 respectively. The table of shearing strength shows excessive irregularity, a variation of over 600 per cent. being averaged for one species. The specific gravities given in the tables are evidently not that of the dry wood, but of the green wood less the moisture. fe Forestry Quarterly What these figures represent is not clearly stated, but it is ap- parent that no account was taken of the shrinkage. Presuming these woods to shrink at least as much as our chestnut, the values given in the column headed “Specific gravity of dry wvod” should then be increased by at least 10 per cent. to be what the heading indicates. Taking them as they stand, it is a surprise to find that none of the woods average as high as .go and but few .85. Of the lighter woods, the average specific gravity given for Lauan is .45 and for Mayapis .40. Our red spruce has a specific gravity (actual dry wood) of .41 and hickory of .89. Sequoia gigantea is as low as .2Q. Johnson’s “apparent elastic limit” is given also in the tables, but no good reason is shown why this value is used at all. Quoting from the text, the author makes the following inter- esting statements : “Most Philippine woods are brittle, Dungon and Malugay being the only ones which have been investigated and found to possess the property of toughness to any considerable degree.” “Yacal and Guijo are among the stiffest woods.” “A strong wood is not necessarily stiff, nor is a stiff wood necessarily strong.” Speaking of the durability of woods, the author says that “in temperate zones ten years is considered a long life for an un- treated tie, but in these islands the extremely durable woods, like Ipil and Molave, are known to have been in the ground for more than ten years without any sign of decay.” Arango and Betis are highly valued because of their durability in sea water where subjected to attack of the teredo. The tests were made almost entirely upon timber purchased in the market. All beams were either 34 by 34 inches or four by 4 inches, with span of 60 inches. The longitudinal compression specimens were of the same cross section as the beams and 8 inches long. The transverse compression tests were made in a similar man- ner to which a rail presses across a tie, but with two widths of compression blocks, so that the effect of the cutting edges is calculated as distinct from the direct compression of the fibres beneath the block. Stress diagrams for these tests are given. i Pie Be Dai 55 Current Literature 73 First Annual Report of the State Forester of Wisconsin, 1900. Madison, 1906, 67 pp. The appearance of the First Annual Report of the Wisconsin State Forester marks an epoch in the history of Wisconsin’s for- ests. It tells of conservative interests strong enough to pass a comprehensive code of forest laws, a state definitely committed to a forest reserve policy, and executive forces fit to cope with the Herculean task of the reboisement of the Pineries. In the spring of 1904 Mr. E. M. Griffith of the Forest Service was appointed State forester. He entered, a lone scout in the van of forestry, as the rear of the army of Pine Barons pulled out for the South and the West. His first summer’s reconnais- sance revealed a considerable amount of good hemlock and hard- wood still standing; but lone black ram pikes towering above a barren of charred slash, or at best a crop of fire weeds for the most part marked the trail of the despoilers of the pine. The conservative forces, led by Hon. John M. Olin of Madison, had succeeded in reserving some 40,000 acres of State land about the headwaters of the Wisconsin. A few of the more farsighted lumbermen were already considering forest replacement on their cutover lands and the paper companies were alive to the impera- tive need of insuring a permanent supply of pulp wood. The large water power interests, particularly of the Wisconsin River, were suffering so much from irregularity of flow that they had bought many of the driving dams on the northern lakes and were seeking to control their streams by this reservoir system. The summer folk who frequent Wisconsin’s beautiful lake re- gion, were pleading for forest protection. So the lone forester soon found allies and in the spring of 1904 Mr. E. M. Griffith of the Forest Service was appointed State Forester. Backed by the conservative interests, he went to the Legislature in the winter of 1905 and obtained the passage of the present Forest Code. To carry out its provisions, the law provides for a State board of forestry consisting of the president of the university, the di- rector of the geological survey, the dean of the agricultural de- partment, the attorney general, and one other member to be ap- pointed by the governor. They appoint the Forester at a salary of $2,500 and he selects his assistant at a salary of $1,500; their technical training being certified to by the U. S. Secretary of 74 Forestry Quarterly Agriculture. In May, 1906, Mr. F. B. Moody, a graduate of the Michigan Forest School and a man of wide practical experience in Maine, was appointed Assistant Forester. Fire protection was the first requisite to any forestry work. “The law provides that the State forester shall also be state fire warden and that he shall appoint one or more town fire wardens for those organized towns in which he deems it necessary. ‘The fire wardens have the authority to call upon any citizen to assist them in fighting fires and both they and those whom they sum- mon receive such compensation as the town board may allow, not to exceed 25 cents per hour and subject to the approval of the forester. They have the power to arrest without warrant and, most important of all, can absolutely prohibit the setting of any fires during a dangerously dry time.” The system has been in operation hardly long enough to pass judgment upon it. Over 300 wardens have been appointed and 20,000 notices posted. Their reports for 1905 show 160 fires, 76,000 acres burned, the service costing $1,500. Most of this area was cutover land which the people not unnaturally regard as fitted only for their pyro- technics. The information as to origin is rather meagre, but indicates that 60 per cent. of the fires are caused by settlers clear- ing land and burning for pasture, and 17 per cent. by campers. An admirable feature of the law is that it admits of cooperation between the State and lumbermen as is done so beneficially in Maine, and it is highly encouraging that the railroads have been eager to assist the State wherever possible. Trespass on State and Federal land has been one of the black- est spots in the history of the State, a crime fostered by a lenient government too largely controlled by the lumber kings. A halt has been called. Double stumpage values are now collected and criminal as well as civil action brought, and as the forester says: “The man who deliberately steals timber is gradually coming into his own, and is looked upon as twin brother to the horse thief.” But even more significant than these important protective measures is the creation of the forest reserves. All State lands in the northern part of the State, some 234,000 acres, have been turned over to the board of forestry. In addition, Congress passed Senator La Follette’s bill granting 20,000 acres of vacant government land, justifying the gift from the fact that the Wis- Current Literature 75 consin reserves control important tributaries to the Mississippi. It is a cardinal policy of the State that only absolute forest land shall be reserved, the forester being empowered to sell all agri- cultural land and scattered forties. ‘The proceeds from sales of State lands together with the receipts from all forest products constitute a fund which shall be disbursed only for the pur- chase of lands to be added to the reserve, for its protection and improvement, and the employment of the necessary assistance therefor. Moneys from the sale of Federal lands is to be used only for forest replacement on the permanent State reserves. The control of stream flow is determining the selection of lands. A fairly compact body of 130,000 acres has been chosen about the splendid lakes in which the Wisconsin and Chippewa systems head. A second reserve is being formed about the St. Croix, and the State has been promised the donation of a con- siderable area along the Brule. Some 47,000 acres of In- dian lands, comprising the finest forests remaining in Wisconsin, are claimed by the State under the swamp land grant of 1850; but however the title is decided, the lands will be conservatively lumbered in codperation with the Forest Service. Not the least of the forester’s effort has been directed toward instructing the people, upon whose enlightenment depends the ultimate solution of the vast problems of the pineries. The latter half of the report sets forth in simple words the basic principles of forestry, vindicated always on the ground of sound finance. Such are the achievements of the conservative forces which Mr. Griffith has led for less than three years. He and the people he serves are indeed to be congratulated on having so vigorously grappled the task; at last proclaiming the welfare of the State to be above the spoilers’ unchecked greed. Raby N. Second Report of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry of the Territory of Hawai. Honolulu, 1906. 240 pp. The most important work done by the Division of Forestry in Hawaii in 1905 was the creation of forest reserves. Besides the two reserves set aside in 1904, three new ones were created in 1905 and two more up to March 1906, the total area of these seven being 68,901 acres. These reserves have been accurately 76 Forestry Quarterly surveyed and mapped and the principal points on the boundaries marked with permanent monuments. They will be constantly added to as the government leases expire. The planters are becoming more interested in forestry through the enthusiastic and most creditable labors of Mr. Ralph S. Hosmer, Superin- tendent of Forestry and one firm has already turned over to the Board the management of some of its forest land. In forest extension, advice and assistance has been given in the form of planting and working plans and the distribution of seeds and seedlings at cost. Three rubber plantations have been started on the island of Maui, the Ceara rubber being mostly planted. November 3 was proclaimed by the Governor as Arbor Day, and 3,554 plants were set out by school children on that day. A new forest fire law, modeled upon that prepared by the U. S. Forest Service for California was passed. While this law provides admirably for a fire-fighting organization and estab- lishes penalties there is no money available for carrying out its provisions. Some of the Koa forests are being lumbered by private con- cerns under regulations such as the observance of a diameter limit, protection from fire and of young growth, and prevention of waste, imposed by the Superintendent of Forestry. Very durable telephone insulator pins are being manufactured at Hilo from the native Ohia Lehua. An interesting experiment in the durability of treated and untreated ties of the exotic Iron- wood (Casuarina equisetifolia) was started in cooperation with the Oahu Railway and Land Company. The interesting reports from the District Foresters on the sev- eral islands show that forest areas exposed to the ravages of cattle are more susceptible in their weakened condition to the attacks of insects, but that when once protected from cattle and fire these areas will soon revert to a healthy and vigorous growth of native trees. On the island of Kauai from one district over a hundred head of cattle roaming wild in the woods were exter- minated. Through the energetic work of Mr. Hosmer the creation of new reserves will still hold first place. The next step, a most im- portant one, is to establish a proper system of forest reserve ad- Current Literature 77 ministration. So far, the reserves have been practically only on paper, but it is to be hoped that the coming Legislature will appropriate sufficient funds to enable Mr. Hosmer to carry out his plans for an efficient ranger service for the administration of the reserves. Cine Report of Forest Commissioner, Maine, 1906. Augusta, 1906 pp. 218. This report closely resembles preceding biennial reports. The brief notes on trees are an innovation, and an amplification of the information concerning each species, would make this part of much greater value in future reports. Professor Tower’s work- ing plan for Indian Township is an excellent piece of work and should be of value to owners of similar tracts of forest in eastern Maine. The major portion of Bulletin 24 of the Forest Service is included in the report with the purpose of extending ele- mentary knowledge of forestry. The illustrations throughout the volume are well chosen and add greatly to the value of the various articles published. In connection with the portion of this report dealing with the progress of forestry in the State, some facts are of especial in- terest. Until 1903 progress in practical measures of State for- estry had been slight. In that year an appropriation was made to begin educational work in forestry and to carry out a system of fire protection for unincorporated townships. The fire warden system was modified in 1905 to provide better fire pro- tection by dividing the State into districts in which the fire wardens report directly to the chief warden and he in turn to the commissioner. The chief wardens are given the right of arrest without warrant. The most important part of the law was the provision for adequate fire patrol in seasons of great fire danger. The 1906 report shows that the system, thus inaugurated, is efh- cient. An additional point of interest is the success of lookout stations. Several of these have been established on suitable points and maintained by cooperation of the State with certain lumber companies. The use of a range finder for locating fires from these stations and the reporting of fires by direct telephone connection with the house of the chief warden have been success- ful, and these measures may well be utilized in other States. 78 Forestry Quarterly Educational work in forestry has been centered in the State University. Outside of this, lectures of instruction have been given to a limited number of clubs, farmers’ granges, and normal schools in the State. The recommendation of Professor Tower in the 1906 Report that Indian Township, Washington County, be made a State Re- serve would inaugurate a new policy of great value to the State. One phase of forestry as yet untouched is the practical cooper- ation by the State with landowners in making plans for forest management of woodlands and for forest planting. There is great need for such practical instruction in forestry in southern Maine, especially, and in other parts of the State. Much wider general instruction for the people by means of addresses is also essential. This work naturally constitutes part of the duties of a State Forester, and it cannot be expected that the professor of forestry at the State University can perform such work in addi- tion to his present duties. The next step in the progress of forestry in Maine should be the apointment of a technically trained man as State Forester in the State Department of Forestry. Besides the duties already mentioned the State Forester would be of great assistance to the Commissioner in directing the forest fire service of the State and superintending work on State Reserve land. A movement is now on foot to form a Maine Forestry Association, and such an organization should encourage this further development of for- estry in Maine. ». N.S: Report of the State Forester of California, for 1905 to 1906. Sacramento, 1906. 39 pp. Those who have followed State forestry work and especially those who are interested in systems of fire protection, will wel- come the first public report of the California State Forester. The office of State Forester was created March 18, 1905, and the first officer, Mr. FE. T. Allen was succeeded by Mr. G. B. Lull, the present incumbent on July 1, 1906. The report covers the entire period since the creation of the office, and is presented in such an order and in such a manner, as to illustrate the arguments and aims of the forester. Current Literature 79 The first part of the report is largely educational and discusses the effect of fire on the forests of the State, the influence of for- ests on stream flow, and the function of the State in regulating its resources. A brief retrospect of the forestry movement in the State, as well as a sketch of the co-operative work between the Forest Service is given. So far no technical forestry has been accomplished by the State, but a planting plan for one lumber company is now in preparation. The all absorbing problem so far has been that of fire protec- tion. The present system which was drawn up carefully unde1 the guidance of the Forest Service and modified somewhat before passage by the State Legislature provides for fire districts, and wardens to be appointed by the forester for these districts. Wardens do not patrol, but have the power of arrest and serve without pay, unless remunerated by private individuals or coun- ties. Efforts have been made to persuade each county to appro- priate money to repay the wardens for actual service performed. So far only ten out of thirty-seven counties have responded. Three of these have appointed their Game Wardens, chief fire- wardens, with patrol duties, and this has proved to be the most satisfactory method. The wardens in the other seven counties are paid only for time spent in fighting fires, and aside from the posting of notices, nothing is done towards prevention. The present system was considered more or less of an experi- ment, and has served its purpose in as much as it has established a forest fire-warden system, although not a perfect one, yet one, the good results of which the people apreciate, and it has se- cured this protection at a minimum cost to the State. Probably, only in such a State as California where its citizens are accustomed to propagandist work, and where private individ- uals often serve the public free, could the present system of vol- untary fire wardens be of any practical value. The wardens generally have performed yeoman service, in dis- tributing circulars containing the laws, in posting warning no- tices, and in fighting fires, but they are not efficient in convicting offenders against the fire laws, and naturally are not required to patrol. 80 Forestry Quarterly Magistrates also are loth to involve the counties in the expense of prosecution, so that arrests and convictions are few and con- fined mainly to the southern counties where timber is scarce. Most of the fires occurred during the dry period from May to November, and from the 120 reports sent in to the forester’s office, the following causes were attributed: Unknown and miscellaneous, (3. scoc ese) otc eee 51.02% Sparks, xin ain) cman ve walaeci a R. T. FISHER Foreign Journals, .......... B. E. Fernow, R. Zon, E. DUNLAP Propagandist Journals, .......0ecceres Nielas take eale H. P. BAKER MMT OUPILLS 0 2.57 a9. eon) o's) wale «sehen a mish F. Roru, J. F. KUMMEL FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. A very interesting report on forest condi- Conditions tions and wood trade in Russia, Finland, mm Sweden and Norway by an expert forester Northern is published by the German Department of Europe. the Interior. The report gives also insight into the silvical changes which similar methods of exploitation as practiced in our country have brought about. The effect of the Russo-Japanese war had occasioned a de- pression in export trade which in the years 1904 and 1905 re- sulted in an estimated decline of 25 million dollars of trade. Now both demand and prices are on the rise. Mills are being moved northward where stumpage is still plentiful and cheap. Swedish sawmill men, especially, are buying logs in northern Finland, where the government owns 8o per cent. of the stump- age, taking them in large rafts along the coast to their mills. The development of North Russian stumpage is proceeding slowly on account of the unsatisfactory water conditions of the broad rivers (Petchora and Dwina) and the financial trouble of the government, which forbids expenditures for improvement of canals and rivers. A certain district, the Kola peninsula and adjacent territory, accessible to the Baltic, the White and the Arctic Sea, will be most immediately developed. Small dimension material for mine props, pulp and charcoal wood is being more and more marketed. This demand could be made favorable not only to the pocket of forest owners, but to the growth conditions of their forest, if properly supplied, but it is more likely to lead to devastation. Only 50 years ago spruce in the northern forests had no value; the stout pines alone were cut. As a result the spruce secured preponderance in the composition, and, where not killed by fire, it suppressed gradually the pine. 198 Forestry Quarterly This change has been often detrimental by changing the soil more and more into swampy conditions, with consequent decrease of increment, and finally moor formation. Large areas of such stagnant spruce moors exist, which, before pine can return, will have to be drained and the spruce removed. Large areas consist of pine and spruce mixed in all stages of transition to spruce forest, where timely reduction of the spruce would re-establish desirable proportions of the mixture. Very large areas consist of natural moors or swamps (as in Canada), which can never pro- duce sizeable material and where, therefore, the utilization of small dimensions is the only rational thing. Unfortunately thrifty young growth in other parts has been largely cut to supply this demand and the government regulations have not been able to prevent it. There is a law, applicable to a large part of Sweden, limiting the diameter to which an owner may cut (the favored 12-inch rule, we believe!), except by permit from a government officer, and export tariffs on mine props and pulp wood exist also. The effect of this law is double-edged, for it also makes diffi- cult the utilization of minor material in cases where the interest of the forest would be thereby subserved. Hence a large number of competent men are working for the repeal of these laws. For the same reason the foresters in Finland are opposed to the export tariff (of 1/3 cent per cubic foot) on small dimension stuff, in- augurated in 1906, because it hinders the conscientious forest manager more than it prevents the conscienceless forest butcher in squandering his thrifty young stands. Waldbenutzung und Holzshandel in Nordeuropa in den Jahren 1005/6. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 73/74. That in Europe giant trees used to exist is Age, Size attested by some measurements in a Fir and forest (Abies pectinata) on the slopes of Production the Emme in Switzerland. Here on five im and one-fifth acres old trees, managed in Virgin Forest. selection forest, have been allowed to grow to ages of over 250 years. Of the 574 firs, which with 34 spruces and 7 beech, compose the stand (118 trees to the acre), 16 reach diameters over 3 feet and heights of over 130 feet, with 156 reaching diameters of 20 to 36 inches and heights over 118 feet. The average volume Periodical Literature 199 per acre is over 11,000 cubic feet, but the best corner of the oldest trees would measure at a rate of over 27,000 cubic feet. The tallest tree measures 176 feet, with a diameter of 58 inches and over 1,400 cubic feet in the bole, perfectly sound and clear to about one-half its height, the crown just beginning to round off (cessation of height growth). This tree is estimated from count- ings on other stumps to be about 300 years old. A companion measures 163 feet height, and 56 inch diameter. Several count- ings on stumps show the following relations: Diameter of Stump— Annual Rings. inches. 61 255 (95 years suppressed) 48 280 (105 years suppressed) 38 260 34 275 (several periods of suppression) 30 180 26 130 During the period of suppression the first two trees made only 4- and 8-inch diameter, respectively. Diz grossen Tannen auf Diirsriitti im Emmenthal. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, March, 1907, p. 77-85. FOREST BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. That botanical species are not constant in Climatic their forms but are subject to continuous Varieties. changes by mutations, sudden variations and reactions to the factors of environment, is a well accepted fact. The most important of the latter factors are the climatic conditions of the site, which produce morphologi- cal and biological variations, so that the same species living under different climatic conditions can be recognized more or less readily as having produced climatic varieties. Plants with short genera- tions can experimentally be varied in a short time, while in nature thousands of years may have been required to produce the variation. The recognition of the existence of these climatic varieties is of greatest moment to the forest-grower. We have, therefore, briefed the important contribution of Doctor Cieslar on this sub- 200 Forestry Quarterly ject in another place and under a different heading as a silvicul- tural subject. Here we brief only the botanical portion of his exposé. Nobody doubts to-day that the species of trees in regard to bio- logical moments, like rate of growth, time of leafing, of leaf fall, of flowering, habitus, have not always been the same as now. Most of the species have, since the ice age, made wide peregrina- tions, changing their climate, while also the climate changed in their sites. For Norway Spruce it seems proved that the spe- cies in Sweden is still moving southward coming by way of Fin- land from the continent, while the pine has come from the south. Changed exterior conditions produce morphological and biolog- ical variations in the organism and these produce variations in habit which then are acquired ones. The proof that these are ac- quired characteristics is most readily found by studying them on a species which like the Norway Spruce, ranges from the base of the Alps to the 6,500 foot level. That these acquired habits are inheritable has been asserted by Lamark, and proof of the fact has been furnished from all fields of botany, the most striking of which are rehearsed by Cieslar. Englemann succeeded by long continued influence of colored light in changing the color of an alga of the genus Oscillaria and in propagating this color in the progeny. Ricinus communis is a woody tree in the tropics, not so the European form, which is an annual and remains so even in the hot house, while the seed from the tropical locality when sown in a hot house produced the woody form, which did not flower until three years old; an intermediate form is found in Egypt (v. Wettstein experiment). The fungus Puccinia Smilacearum was for ten years limited by Klebahn upon Polygonatum multiflorum as only host, which weakened its ability to infect its usual hosts Convallaria majalis, Majanthemum bifolium and Paris quadrifolia the stimulus of Polygonatum having changed the habit, and the change becoming an inheritance through the spores. Goebel produced striking changes in the fungus Micrococcus prodigiosus, and the changes were the stronger and the more persistent the longer the influential stimuli were continued, The intermediate forms which are found in nature between two exclusive fields of distribution are also in response to changed Periodical Literature 201 surroundings and their acquired characters become hereditary. The fact that the floras of the seacoast and those of high Alps in all parts of the world bear the same physiognomy and are anal- ogous (convergence phenomena), is also a good proof of adap- tations becoming hereditary. The recognition of the fact of hereditary characteristics due to locality make the question of seed supply one of the most im- portant in forestry. One of the most interesting generally instructive places for the study of this question is to be found in Vilmorin’s testing grounds at Barres, now owned by the French government. Here the genus Pinus is represented with 72 species and varieties; P. silvestris alone with 30 different numbers, the seed locality of which is known. [See continuation on p. 207. ] Die Bedetitung Klimatischer Varietéten unserer Holzarten fiir den Waldbau. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Jan., 1907, pp. 1-4. Investigations on 416 species of plants by Winter Period Howard showed that there is no necessary of rest period in growth and _ respiration. Trees. More than half the species investigated budded forth from cut twigs in winter when kept in a temperature of from 15 to 22° C. Others could be forced to do so by various means, like etherizing, frost, drying, keeping dark. The most difficult to induce to sprout were Carya, Fagus, Fraxinus, Liriodendron, Quercus, Juglans regia. ‘Twigs of species from the Mediterranean, however, Buxsus, Ficus, etc., when transferred from the cold to the hot house did not bud; in these apparently the rest period is fixed. Jahrbuch fir wissenschaftliche Botanik, 1906, p. 516 ff. At the meeting of the International Asso- Structure ciation of Forest Experiment. Stations in and September, 1906, a program for the study Biology of the structure, growth and physicological of functions of roots was proposed, with a Roots. view to the use of the information in silvi- culture. The investigations are to be made on trees in the open, on bor- 202 Forestry Quarterly der trees, and trees within stands to find whether differences in structure are produced by different factors, and especially how working the soil to different depths, and various fertilizers and competition with roots of other plants influence root formation. The period of root growth, the influence of root rot and loss of parts in different soils, the influence of depth to water table or impenetrable strata are also to be investigated. Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- suchsanstalten 1906. Centralblatt f. g. d. Forstwesen, Feb., 1907, p. 86 The value of a bird fauna to counteract in- Fostering sect damage has led one of the leading of ornithologists of the world, v. Berlepsch in Bird Life. Thuringia, to develop and observe in their results various devices for fostering bird life. Their construction and their value are discussed in a longer article by Kullmann. The surprisingly favorable results of the systematic protection of birds for a long series of years prove the methods correct and worthy of imitation They are: 1, increase of species and numbers by properly constructed breeding places (as described) ; 2, construction of brush heaps in open spots for ground breeders, and traps for their enemies, until a breeding shrubbery can be established; 3, feeding birds in winter by spe- cially devised methods; 4, providing water tanks; 5, decimating enemies systematically ; 6, co-operation with all neighbors. Die Berlepschen Vogelschutzbestrebungen. . . . Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. Febr., 1907, pp. 50-50. SOIL, WATER. AND CLIMATE. After extensive discussions the Interna- Humus tional Association of Forest Experiment Formations. Stations has adopted a final classification of humus formations for use in forest de- scriptions, limiting itself to the formations on forest soil. Since the Association has also undertaken to translate its classification Periodical Literature 203 into English and French, in order to secure uniformity of terms we defer the details until that translation materializes. Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- suchsanstalten in Woiirtemberg, 1906. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Feb., 1907, pp. 72-76. Bogs covering mountain tops have usually Value been looked upon as reservoirs holding in of themselves the water from heavy rainfalls Alpine Bogs. and doling it out to the soil beneath and to the brooks taking their rise along their lower edges. In the Harz mountains, Kautz reports, the spread of these bogs has been accompanied by severe floods in the streams heading in bogs, which latter are held responsible for the same. The flow of small streams from the slope just below the bog is intermittent; gullies that remain dry the greater part of the time become torrents after heavy rainstorms. The detritus from the upper slopes near the bog appears scattered far down the river courses but the stones are angular, indicating recent re- moval from their bed. Since the bog itself is to all appearances and in common report of recent growth, covering soil once occu- pied by forest growth, it is probably correct to attribute the floods which bore this detritus down stream to the bog itself. How such results might come from a bog is clearly presented. At all seasons the whole area and depth, possibly excepting a few centimeters at the surface, is saturated with water. Light show- ers complete the saturation of the surface while heavy storms result in immediate loss of water along the whole lower edge of the sponge-like mass. The water pressure is transmitted more rapidly than the flow over the surface of bare soil would be, re- sulting in torrents such as have caused the recent floods in the Harz streams. For control a series of large ditches with moderate grade run- ning along the face of the slope should be provided to carry away the flood waters slowly and to curb the downward exten- sion of the bog. Later remedial measures would look to the drainage of the bog preparatory to planting it to forest as the proper way to permanently hold back the flood waters. Die Bedeutung der Hochmoore in der Koniglichen Oberférsteret Stber im Harz. Zeitschrift fiir Forst und Jagdwesen: October, 1906, pp. 668-682. 7 204 Forestry Quarizrly SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION. During the seasons 1903 to 1906 inclusive, Experiences the fourth to seventh years of its existence, in the tree seed testing station at Eberswalde Seed Testing. has according to Schwappach made from 150 to 180 odd tests each year, the number rising gradually. Most of the tests were coniferous seeds, Scotch Pine, Norway Spruce, and Larch. The average viability lay near 75 per cent. for the pine, 80 per cent. for the spruce, and 40 per cent for the larch. Special long time tests on White Pine seeds ran through nine months, when 82 per cent. had sprouted. Such protracted tests are no criterion of the value of seeds for planting, and commercial tests are limited to eight weeks’ dura- tion. Shortened to this period but 55 per cent. of the White Pine had sprouted, and 50-60 per cent. is about the best that can be expected of this species. During the early years of the operation of this station methods of testing have been under improvement, results here attained being checked with results from the same seeds tested elsewhere, especially at Zurich. The porcelain dishes used were changed for others free from calcium carbonate, and the temperature was raised from 20° C. to 25° C., these changes giving more uniform results. And lastly the tests are now carried on in the light and not in darkened chambers, for light has a decided influence on the sprouting of some seeds, but apparently not of others. Further it was found that fir seeds sprout better in sand than in dishes and give higher results in autumn than in spring. The value of seeds from trees of different ages was found to vary. The heaviest seeds came from trees under 50 years old but their viability was low. Again seeds from very old trees— nearly 150 years,—though moderately heavy gave also a low germination per cent. ‘Trees, 80-100 years old, bear seeds of moderate weight but they show the highest viability. Compara- tive vigor of the seedlings produced from these seeds is now being studied. Darkness of color of pine seeds was found to go with a higher viability agreeing with results obtained in Sweden. Even when stored most carefully, each year brings depreciation of sprouting per cent., but to an even greater degree lowers the Periodical Literature 205 vigor of seeds, that is, the rapidity with which viable seeds sprout. In two years the number of seeds sprouting in 28 days fell off 60 per cent. Mitteilungen aus der Priifungsanstalt fiir Waldsamen in Eberswalde. Zeitschrift tur Forst und Jagdwesen, August, 1906, pp. 505-515. In the very earliest stages of their develop- Test ment seedlings of Scotch Pine show differ- of entiation into clearly marked types charac- Pine Seed. ized mainly by the vigor of growth in the root. In seedlings which have the inher- ent capacity of growing quickly into healthy young trees the root develops first, and attains a length of I to 2 centimeters before the cotyledons leave the protection of the seed. This early growth of the root is the only way in which the seedling can per- manently care for its own needs. In testing the viability of seeds between folds of moist flannel Hook found that some seeds merely absorb water, possibly burst- ing their seed coats but pushing out no growing point. There is no question about their worthlessness. Some, however, go fur- ther and send out a root-tip which either remains short and per- fectly straight or else twists and bends upon itself again and again as it grows. Occasional monstrosities occur which put forth the cotyledons first, leaving the radicle inclosed in the husk incapable of further development. All such aberrant types of development are to be reckoned as due to worthless seeds. The viability of a sample of seeds is represented by the number of healthy normal seedlings produced. Conditions in the germinat- ing tests are so much more favorable than those met in the seed- beds that individuals at all backward in their development are to be cast out. Light is of direct influence on germination of Scotch Pine seeds whether it be the bright light of day or that of kerosene lamps, one-fourth to one-half candlepower, 9 feet distant. Unprotected seeds exposed to direct sunlight produce fewer seedlings, which may be due however to unfavorable conditions of transpiration. But in diffuse daylight as with seeds protected by folds of flannel or by a layer of earth the influence of light is beneficial, germina- tion being hastened and the number of healthy seedlings being in- creased. Unfavorable light conditions thus interfere with the 206; -* Forestry Quarterly best development of seeds planted too deeply. As in photosyn- thesis, so here, too, it is the rays of the left half of the spectrum, the broad red waves, which are potent rather than the chemically active violet rays. Dark colored seeds suffer more than light colored when sprouted in the dark. Tests in diffuse light give more uniform results though source and intensity must also be considered; artificial light of constant intensity gives most uniform results. The optimum temperature for germinating Scotch Pine seeds is 24° C., but variations of a few degrees are of small importance. Because of the water they evaporate the damp seeds are cooler than the surrounding air, hence it is recommended to keep the germinating chamber at Dow NG. It is of prime importance to know how to interpret germina- tion per cent. figures—to know in what relation indoor results stand to what is attained in the nursery rows. In planting seed of 60 per cent. viability shall we use one and one-half times as much seed as required of 90 per cent. seed? Inquiry reveals that the value of seeds for practical planting falls off much more rapidly than the viability indicates. Of course the seeds must not be mixtures of portions with various viabilities. Indoor Results. Outdoor Results. Viability. Vigor. Sprinkled Daily. Unsprinkled. 95 % QI % 75. %o 39 Ye go ‘ 78 “ 63 26 “ go “ce 57 ae 52 . 10 “ee &4 “ Obs Istshon 18 “ 60 “ 2I “ 25 “ 3 “ Another problem is the influence of humidity of the atmosphere in the drying chamber where seeds are extracted from the cones. When seeds are dry and are heated in dry air they may be ex- posed to a temperature of 80° C. without hurt; but, as they come to the kiln, fresh cones are never dry, and the seeds they contain suffer if heated above 50° C. Just below this point lies the tem- perature at which kilns for separating Scotch Pine seeds from the cone should be operated. Thorough and vigorous ventilation is of great value in preventing the humidity from rising too high. Ueber die Keimung und Bewertung des Kiefernsamens nach Ketmpro- ben. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen. July, 1906, pp. 441-475. Periodical Literature 207 Dr. Cieslar, the well-known investigator Importance and author, reports in an exceedingly inter- of esting article from the Austrian Experiment Seed Supply. Station the results of experiments through 17 years with seeds derived from different localities. [See botanical part on p. 199.] The species are Picea excelsa, Pinus silvestris and Larix Euro- paea. The question which was the object of the experiments was “whether and to what degree the influences of high altitude on the typically decreasing rate of growth and on form, and the characteristic phaenology of the highland trees were hereditary, and what deductions for forestry practice, especially for planting in high and low altitudes the answer involves.” In a preliminary investigation it was found that weight of cone and of seed of spruce decreases in general with the altitude, first more slowly, towards the upper limit more rapidly; and the same change takes place with higher latitudes. In the very first years it was found that both spruce and larch from higher altitudes or latitudes, when planted in lowland situations grow slower than those grown from lowland seed trees, and the larch showed in the first 8 years the peculiar form of crown of the highland trees as well as the late leafing and early leaf fall. The hereditariness of characteristics was unmistakable, and the question was only whether it would continue to show itself. In addition to the original plantations in 1890 two other series were begun in 1894 and 18096, the one with seed collected from area horizontally very limited, but showing considerable altitu- dinal variation, the other by planting seeds from different alti- tudes in different altitudes, one station at 227 m, another at 1380 m, and an intermediate one at 800 m. Altogether 53 sample plots furnish the basis for the tabulations and deductions after respec- tively 17, 13 and II years. The spruce plantations from seed of lower (below 1000 m) situations not only grew much more rapidly in height, but closed up much more rapidly, a most important point both from the standpoint of soil protection and development of stand, as well as cost of plantation (fewer plants needed). ‘The lowland spruces closed up in 1903-1905, while the highland spruces are still far from closing up. Heights of 112 to 140 cm. compare with heights 208 Forestry Quarterly of 50 to 75 cm. for highland seedlings and 29 cm. for Swedish seedlings, while those from intermediate elevations run from 70 to 95 cm. That a change in rate is not soon to be expected is indicated by the trend of the height curves which run still in the same sense in the later as in earlier years. Most strikingly is this relation exhibited by the plants from seed collected within a narrow horizontal field at 510, 860, and 1140 m, which at 12 years show heights of 110 to 121, 94, and 58 to 59 cm. respectively, the height curves running almost parallel. An interesting fact was brought out by the unusual summer drouth of 1904. While on the dry soils unsuitable for spruce the lowland plantations lost 20 to 21 per cent., the highland and Swedish plots were almost exterminated, losing 80 and 73 per cent. While the highland spruces have a relatively better devel- oped root system, absolutely those of the lowland type are stouter and strike deeper, reaching into a more reliable source of water supply. The experiment of locating plantations at different altitudes showed that the relation of lowland to highland seed supply re- mained the same, the tallest plants come from lower altitudes, while those from higher altitudes show about half the height growth, and their closing up condition is also as above noted. The author calls attention to the fact that locally favorable situ- ations may occur in high altitudes, and that, therefore, besides the altitude the growth conditions of the stand must not be over- looked, in other words the characteristics of growth in the mother stand will have become hereditary and repeat themselves. The altitude, therefore, also can only be a relative term, for in the southern Alps the spruce finds favorable localities higher up than in the northern (Tirol). Of other characteristics it was noted that the highland spruces are apt to make double leaders and are many-branched and fuller in foliage. It was determined that in the rapidly growing low- land spruces 1g needles corresponded to 1.646 respectively 1.899¢ wood, while in the highland spruces this relation remained usually below 1.000g of wood. ‘The question arises whether the assimi- lation of the latter even at lower levels and under all conditions is slower, than that of the highland type, and whether the same Periodical Literature. 209 may not hold true for the transpiration which would account for the death by drouth, Regarding frost hardiness the following significant remarks are made: ‘‘a greater absolute frost hardiness cannot be ascribed to the highland spruce; young shoots of either type will be killed with equal assurance by certain temperatures. The relative frost hardiness, however, 7. e. the probability due to time of budding, that a plant with tender shoots will be hit by frost temperature, is greater for the northern and highland spruce, planted in lower or more southern situations; because they bud later. The later a plant buds in the spring, the safer in general it is against frost damage because the low temperatures occur more rarely as the season advances; but it may nevertheless happen that an early budding plant escapes on account of the time of occurrence of the frost, which just happens to hit the later comer while the new shoots are still tender. Silvicultural deductions are made as follows: In lowland plantations it is most advantageous to use seed from a similar locality, which, produces more rapidly growing plants such as can escape the competition with grass, are less likely to be crowded out in mixture with other species, and shorten the period of frost danger because growing quickly out of the frost region. The earlier closing up of such rapidly developing material (8 to IO years) is a great advantage and will allow a reduction in plant material. Instead of the lately advocated spacing of 4 feet for poor, 5 feet for medium, and 5.5 feet for best soils, the spac- ing may be enlarged by one foot or so when using thrifty mater- ial, and a saving of 20 to 30 per cent. in cost may be effected without danger of delaying the closing up too long. Plants grown from heavy seed (not less than Iog per 1000 seeds) collected from thrifty lowland growth will repay the trouble of securing it. For planting in high altitudes the high- land spruce finds its optimum condition, while the lowland spruce is depressed in its rate and the loss from frost and snow pressure - is greater. In the trial plantation at an altitude of 1380 m ina very unfavorable situation the rate of height growth of plant material from lower levels was at first greater than that of high- land stock, in the fourth year they were alike, but in the next two years it fell behind. While the plantation of highland stock in 210 Forestry Quarterly the first six years had lost 20.6 per cent. of the plants; the loss of lowland stock had been 42.7 per cent. The gradual decline of the latter was also noticeable in color and character of foliage, suffer- ing from snow pressure, while the highland stock was most thrifty, so that here also the use of seed from a similar locality is indicated. But the growing of seedlings for use in such situations should be done in lower altitudes to avoid the difficulties to which in the critical early youth the plants would succumb. [The same could be said regarding growing of stock for our dry plains country.—REY. | If grown in nurseries at medium altitudes the seedlings of low- land spruce are retarded in height growth, becoming stockier, and then form most desirable plant material for use in higher altitudes, for they will then not suffer so much from snow- pressure, which otherwise troubles the lowland spruce trans- planted into high altitudes. Comparison with stock from northern seed leads to the con- clusion that it is not desirable to use it, for slow growth is its inheritance, and poor root development leads to heaving and loss by drouth. Experiments with larch, which have been going for 20 years, showed the same relations as those with spruce. The lowland larch produces a better, heavier wood, which is due to more favorable climatic conditions, but this as all the other silvical characteristics are hereditary. Regarding the behavior of Scotch Pine there are besides the author’s series a line of experiments by Dr. Schott which have been taken into consideration. Northern stock is found to lag behind in increment in every respect in comparison with stock from middle Europe; also shorter needles and lighter wood are typical of it. This retarda- tion of growth of northern stock is also maintained in high alti- tudes, so that the use of such stock is not advisable anywhere: seed of home production insures best results. This has also been proved in Sweden, so that the use of other than Swedish seed is forbidden by the forest administration. ‘The same has been ex- perienced in Finland, Schott experimented with pine seed from 62 different localities. Great variation was observed in physiological characteristics of Periodical Literature. 211 the plants, in budding, flowering time, ripening, and wood growth, form, color, rate of growth. The greater the difference of the regions of supply the more striking the difference in ap- pearance of the plants. The results, after 2 to 3 years only, are formulated as follows: (a) The pine seedlings from home grown seed are stoutest in growth; they bud early; yearlings are not; two-year-olds hardly affected by “Schiitte,” and the affected plants recover. (b) Seeds from North Germany and Belgium furnish similar satisfactory results and produce a very stout root system. (c) Seeds from northern Russia, Sweden and Norway pro- duce the smallest plants, they bud the earliest, their foliage is thin, increment small. They resist “Schiitte” well. (d) Seedlings from seeds of western Hungary, hill country, remain smaller than the home grown, suffer from “Schttte” much, and form side branches in the fall. (e) Seedlings grown from southern French seed, mountain country, remain small and succumb to the “Schiitte.” The pine being originally endemic in the whole of Southern and Western Europe, had after the ice age been displaced by the deciduous species and crowded to the North East, remaining only in islands in Southern France, Austria-Hungary and South-west- ern Germany. These widely separated, climatically different re- gions, naturally produced climatic varieties with a number of transition forms. Older authors recognizing these differences have named them e. g. Pinus silvestris wralensis Fisch., P. s. nevadensis Christ., P. s. haguenensis Loud., P. s. altaica Ledeb., P. s. rigensis Desf. The deduction is made that pine seed of foreign derivation is not to be used without question. If home grown seed cannot be secured a seed supply should be found which physiologically or biologically promises adaptation to home conditions. The end result of all these experiences and discussions is, that it is essential in forest planting to use seeds from localities which climatically correspond closely to the conditions of the locality where the plant material is to be used. Die Bedeutung Klimatischer Varietiten unserer Holzarten fiir den Waldbau. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, Jan., Feb., 1907, pp. I-19, 49-62. 212 Forestry Quarterly Similar experience regarding the influence Influence of seed supply to those reported above, of have been had with the Scotch Pine. Seed Supply Trials of 22 years’ standing at Eberswalde m with pine seed from Finland and Norway Pine. show at the age of 22 a lower height, by 1 to 1.64 m, a smaller diameter by 1 to 1.8 cm than those from home grown seed. A plantation of 750 acres made with seed of southern French origin (6500 lbs.) is calculated to have suffered a loss of over $6,000 by reason of slow growth; the difference of three-year olds being in height 65 to 94 : 30 to 49 in needle length 6.9 : 2.4, in favor of the home origin. It is proposed to institute more complete investigations in this direction. Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- suchsanstalten 1906. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Feb., 1907, p. 82/3. Forest planting on heath land is always a Planting difficult undertaking because the mineral on soil is too poor to support any sort of Heaths. growth as well as the heath itself which naturally covers it, and because the heath has strengthened its hold immensely by forming above the min- eral soil a vegetable soil so rich in humic acids and sour humus constituents that it makes tree growth impossible. Forest plant- ing on heath land is at best difficult and is liable to be very expen- sive unless intimate knowledge of soil conditions demanded by the species to be planted is used to advantage. ‘The problem is often complicated by the presence at shallow depths of hard pan or bog iron ore. In any case, according to Greve, the first operation is to burn off the surface with as little injury to the ground cover and vegetable soil as possible. Then the surface of vegetable humus is to be thoroughly mixed with the upper portion of the underlying min- eral soil but is under no circumstances to be buried by deep plow- ing with steam plows. In such burying of the little humus which heath soil contains lies the cause of many failures. Hard pan may be broken when necessary by using a subsoil plow, but this may not be needed. For two years the ground should lie fallow Periodical Literature. 213 before a plantation is made; in most cases lupines sowed the second year may profitably increase the nitrogen in the soil. A rolling cutter or Randall (disc) harrow should be used to work the soil and humus together after plowing and before sowing to lupines but the soil is best not broken just before planting. The decayed lupine roots offer openings in the soil along which tree roots find both humus and nitrogen as well as desirable aeration. Drainage by narrow open ditches is often required before heath land can be reclaimed or even burned over. Scotch Pine is almost alone available for planting but it is doubtful if Pine will supply humus in necessary amounts to the soil. Under- planting with oak or beech is strongly recommended to prevent deterioration of the soil. Flachbearbeitungs—V erfahren bei Heideaufforstungen. Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Jagdwesen, September, 1906, pp. 581-604. In a long and lengthy article of 24 double Douglas Fir pages John Booth, the owner of the well- in known Flottbeck nurseries, sings the praises Europe. of Douglas Fir for forest planting in Europe. It was by his influence through Bismark that the German forest administrations were induced to systematically begin the introduction of exotics some 30 years ago. Foresters being naturally and properly conservative, they did not quickly and unconditionally change allegiance to the new introductions, and, being empiricists, raised tenable and unten- able objections to the displacement of the native species on a large scale before more of the behavior of the new ones in new surroundings was found out. The same notions or lack of proper notions regarding ecological adaptation, which we have heard discussed in the United States regarding European species prevented a rapid realization of the wishes and hopes of the enthusiastic reformers, who, like Booth, naturally had to take a polemic attitude. Unfortunately most of the experiences re- garding the behavior of the exotic species was gained from park specimens and were not convincing to the foresters, while silvical behavior was known only during the early stages. Booth has here carried together what experiences there have been had with his special favorite, Pseudotsuga taxifolia. As is natural, the collection of such statistical data must be one-sided ; 214 Forestry Quarterly failures are not so apt to be recorded, and there are none on record here. The conclusion from the many (100) exhibits coming from England, France, Belgium, Denmark, various parts of Germany, Switzerland, Italy, is, that in Europe Douglas Fir thrives on almost any soil, from sea shore to Alps, grows much more rapidly (doubly as fast) than any of the native species, has none or hardly any enemies, is more frost-hardy than the native species, and will make surely a wood “which in its poorest quality is equal to the best quality of spruce or fir, and in its best quality is close to larch.” It has sustained this favorable judgment on alluvial sand, sand dunes and pine site of IV class, as well as on the various grades of loamy soils, even in hard and dry soils where spruce succumbs. The best record as to growth is furnished by the measurements of a 29 year old plantation of somewhat over one acre on Prince Bismarck’s own estate. The plantation on loamy sand (spruce III class) was set out one-half with 4 year old Douglas Fir, spaced 4 feet, and one-half with Norway Spruce, spaced 34 feet square. The volume of the Douglas Fir at 29 years was 407 fm as against 207 fm for the spruce, or twice as large; the latter ranged from 6 to 16 m in height and 4 to 20 cm in diameter; the Douglas Fir from 8 to 22 m in height and 4 to 32 cm in diameter. A value calculation on the basis of price ruling for spruce, owing to the better dimensions as well as to larger quantity, made the fir around $250 as against $oo for spruce, or nearly three times as large. Dimensions of older trees up to 70 years—the Douglas Fir was discovered and first seeds imported between 1827 and 1829— show that the same differences of dimensions will be maintained ; the oldest on record, between 50 and 7o years, showing diameters of 60 to 96 cm. [Some peculiar notions regarding climatic adaptations and varieties creep out during the discussion: Frost hardiness seems to be referred to low winter temperatures, not to early and late frosts, and a distinction as to frost resistance is made between the “green” and the “gray” variety. Booth maintains that the “green” variety, which comes from the Pacific Coast, is the “absolutely” frost hardy one. The “gray,” slower growing one, Periodical Literature. 215 he thinks, has been planted by mistake, and he also holds that there is a great similarity between the East American climate and the English and German one. (sic!) No wonder that such errors and incongruities make the know- ing plant ecologist skeptical as to other facts in Mr. Booth’s ex- position. He should revise his knowledge of zonal distribution by referring to the article on climatic varieties briefed in this issue. We know, the reviewer believes, that Douglas Fir from the Pacific is not hardy on the Eastern Coast, which differs climati-, cally as widely as it does from the English climate. The Ger- man experience as to climatic adaptation should, therefore, be accepted with caution for Eastern United States.—REv. | Die Douglas Fichte seit threr Einfithrung nach Europa (1828-1906). Allgemeine Forst-u. Jadgzeitung. Jan., Feb., Mch., Apr., 1907, pp. 5-10, 45-50, 87-93, 113-118. An enormous product of Norway Spruce is Spruce reported from a Wurttemberg experimental Production. area, which with now 300 trees to the acre, 79 years old, had by only slight thinnings furnished 5400 cubic feet and had a present volume of 9630 cubic feet, altogether 15,000 cubic feet, which corresponds to an in- crement in the last 30 years of 330 cubic feet per acre per year. In the same neighborhood an 83-year-old spruce stand on sand soil of first quality, having been more severely thinned contained 243 trees of excellent development and form, with 60 feet of clean bole and near 40 feet of crown. In 25 years the thinnings had furnished 6810 cubic feet and the present volume was 9200 cubic feet, closely approaching the former stand. In a 30 year old stand five degrees of thinning on a quarter acre each had been practised for 10 years. The best increment was attained with a light thinning (B degree) which left 1500 trees to the acre, the increment being 177 cubic feet per annum. Severe thinning in the dominant proved itself not adapted to the spruce, for within Io years out of the 1400 trees left in the sub-dominant 820 died, the spruce not being able to support the shade of the spreading isolated trees of the dominant; of the 800 of these left in the 10 years nearly 10% had succumbed. The influence of various spacing in plantations in rows, 8 m 216 Forestry Quarterly apart is exhibited by five trial plantations of one quarter acre each, on glacial drift, at the time 31 years old, as follows: AGC EAM Oe Rea ae eee I II Ill IV V Spacing: {ROL given einem te m.. I 7225 1.50 | 2:00 .0e2ram Original number, ........02..-.- 10576 7676 6940 6044 4712 PH ESCNESNUM DERE Atta eran pista a eicke 2730 2499 2292 2148 1776 Cross section area of stand,..m*.. 25.6 273 27.9 26.6 27.6 Diameter average tree, .....cm.. 10.9 11.8 T2565 12.6 14.1 Average Wevgntis . cen eek « WG aD LS7, 12.4 rans 1235 1307, Present volume, ........... fm.. 241 274 283 2590 280 Total increment in 31 yrs.,..fm.. 464 437 437 408 434 Crown length of dominant, ..m.. 6.0 7.8 MET lp ef AS. 8.8 BreadiN oj (Cnown,, .- assess mM.. 2.8 2.9 AAG) 2.0 Be These results would all in all give the spacing of 1.5 m, or say 24x5 feet, the preference. The diameter in the direction of the rows (difference of spacing) compared with those vertical thereto were in I and II respectively .5 mm and .I mm smaller in II], IV, Visegeee 2.2 mm larger. In another set of such trial plantings in 10 various spacings varying in both directions, the spacing of 3x5 feet (1IxI.5 m) showed after 30 years the largest product (272 fm) and the largest yield in thinnings (30 fm), while the widest spacing (3x2 m) showed the smallest result (151+8 fm), besides, the trees spaced 2x2 m and 3x2 m were short, branchy and still with crowns to the base. ‘These trial plantings showed that square spacing gives the best results. A number of other interesting results in larch, fir and beech stands are recorded in the same report. Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- suchsanstalten. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, March, 1907, pp. 124-127. In continuation of the article by Emeis Influence briefed on p. 96, the author discusses the of behavior of different species under the in- Wind. fiuence of strong winds. Norway Spruce, which had been used for wind mantles, has in the long run not proved efficient, being either broken when 30 to 4o years old or succumbing to drying out due to the continuous motion of its slender stems in wind swept exposure. This latter effect is observed even in 15 to 20 year plantations. Large groups in the deciduous forest are apt Periodical Literature. 217 to be broken, only single intermixture in beech forest furnishes satisfaction. Larch is less liable to breakage, but strong winds lead to a broom-like development, damaging its usefulness. Fir supports longest and best the untoward conditions of wind and weather. Its thick glossy foliage resists wet and cold and it thrives on poorer soils than it is often given credit (like our Balsam!). Yet under the strong sea-winds it is apt to lose the end buds and make double leaders. The American White Spruce and the Austrian Pine are the best adapted to such exposed positions, where the soil is adapted quire the wind.” In the mixed forest, when crown cover closes up, they succumb in the wet climate under consideration except to them. They require open position, and, the author claims, ‘‘re- on the windswept exposures. Birch (White), when 5 to 6 m. high, mostly dies down to its base, sprouting then uselessly in these open situations exposed to the sea-winds. The history of these windswept heaths of Schleswig-Holstein in general is the impoverishment of many enterprising agricultur- ists, yet within short distances climatically favorable conditions permit flourishing farm industries. To protect the fields earth walls are thrown up and planted with the dwarf shrubbery de- scribed, “Knickbusch,” to break the force of the winds. Co-operative work to improve conditions is advocated by the writer. Ungiinstige Einfliisse von Wind und Freilage auf die Bodenkultur. All- gemeine, Forst-u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 41-45. This theme was discussed at the meeting Measures of the Saxon forestry association. The ot only possibility is prevention by systematic Protection effort to secure wind-firm stands. In addi- Against tion, since in the modern forester’s forest Wind Damage. as many sound, cylindrical clear trees as possible are to be grown, the close stands must be provided on the endangered side with a wind mantle of windfirm trees and an interrupted crown surface. Forest pro- 218 Forestry Quarterly tection must borrow from all other branches of forestry, notably silviculture and forest regulation. In Saxony the extensive planting of spruce, historically forced upon the administration, as the speaker pointed out, has accentu- ated the necessity of looking out especially for wind damage, and the speaker contends that Saxon foresters have done all that hu- man ingenuity could invent. The preventive measures lie in the manner of planting and in the aftercare. Instead of sowing or bunchplanting, the use of first class plants set singly, and drain- ing or proper distribution of water over the ground have been the silvicultural measures. Lately, admixture of broadleaf spe- cies, not in single individuals, but in rows along the outer boun- daries and through the spruce plantations vertical to the wind direction has been introduced. In the aftercare appropriate thinnings play the main role, and especially preparatory thinnings which have in view the estab- lishment of windfirm portions in extensive even-aged stands pre- paratory to possible severance fellings. In the conduct of the fellings, the cutting of strips in echelons and the unregulated selection felling have been abandoned, and a combination of strip and nurse-tree system starting from the lee- ward, or else direct clearing have been introduced. By progres- sive fellings. proceeding from the leeward side, a slanting roof of crowns is to be secured. The establishment and care of wind mantles has been lately specially prescribed by official orders. The main aim is to secure on a strip of 20 to 40 m. a number of well rooted and full crowned trees in single open position, using in planting about 1,600 trees to the acre, but in the course of years thinning them out to I in 10. Our White Pine, Scotch Pine, Larch, and broadleaf trees are available for this purpose. The windmantle is not to be a close wall changing the direction of the wind, but a real “wind break.” Measures of forest regulation which have been found desirable are the evening out of boundaries, avoiding projecting angles, the introduction of lower rotations; the progress of fellings from the leeward to the windward and proper locations of age classes for which the clearing system gives the quickest opportunity, which also requires a desirable systematic sub-division. Severance fellings which originated in Saxony are one of the Periodical Literature. 219 best means to counteract wind damage. They are to be made of sufficient width; “the not insignificant sacrifices of productive area have paid for themselves abundantly in Saxony.” Forma- tion of small felling series are another means of reducing wind danger. Bericht iiber die 50. Versammlung des Sachsischen Forstvereins. All- gemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 65-67. The methods employed in Switzerland to Prevention prevent or reduce the damage from ava- of lanches are described by Prof. Engler Avalanches. in some detail. The first great work on this subject was published by Dr. Coaz in 1881. The practices in Austria were described in a volume by Pollack in 1891. As in the treatment of torrents both mechanical means and reforestation are employed. The mechanical means consist of horizontal ditches, terracing, setting rows of posts, or, on rock, of T iron connected by wooden braces, snow bridges, walls of stone, or earth walls, sheds, wire netting, etc. All these structures have the object to make the movement of the snow at places in the region of the origin of avalanches impossible, or at least to limit it, to prevent the sliding on the ground and the blowing, the formation of snow shields which in breaking off are apt to occasion snowslides, or else to quiet the moving snow. The author discusses at length the forces which the works must withstand, quantities and density of snow, friction and co- hesion, etc. Details of caluculations are given. The conclusion is reached that a maximum depth of 6 to 10 feet and a weight of 25 lbs. to the cubic foot of snow will be usually sufficient to pro- vide against. A table gives the calculated pressures to be with- stood by the works, and careful determination of dimensions for different classes of works are presented, and a few pictures illus- trate their disposal. Rows of well seasoned piles 5 to 6 feet long, split to 5 or 6 inch face, driven into the ground to half their length, 14 to 2 feet apart, the rows according to the steepness of slope from 8 (at 40°) to 40 (at 30°) feet apart, can be useful only where the soil is deep enough and only in the upper slopes near timberlimit, as a 220 Forestry Quarterly temporary works before reforesting. Where reforestation is impossible or too difficult or the rate of growth too slow, and in very snowy and steep situations, where the ground is liable to landslides, pilework is not applicable. It must altogether not be overlooked that after the works have been established the soil must take up the water of the melting snow masses which for- merly went down as avalanches and this on permeable loam soils is apt to produce landslides. Such places must be drained by open ditches. Pile works especially must be carefully maintained in good order for a long time to be effective, and that is expen- sive, so that walls and terraces although somewhat higher in first cost are more satisfactory. The piles may be used in less unfavorable situations, smaller locations within the forest area, and in combination with walls and terraces to reduce cost, the character of soil and slope furnishing the basis for choice of works. A combination of walls and terraces is the most effective pre- ventive of avalanches. The most effective height of a dry wall is 4 to 6 feet and about 3 feet at the top, at the foot at least 4 feet. The base is best cut into the slope and made somewhat slanting towards the mountain side. To prevent somewhat, wa- ters from penetrating the wall and to protect it generally, the top is covered with sod, deeply cut, or after placing first earth on it so that the sod will grow. With stone close at hand and labor at $1 per day the cubic foot of such walls may cost 3.5 to 4 cents. The main points to keep in mind in constructing such walls are that they must not slip on their foundations or turn over their outer edge. A table shows for different grades and with dimensions as above the distances at which walls should be placed, the horizontal distances varying from 20 feet (at 45°) to over 100 feet (at 30°) as outside limits. Horizontal terraces of 14 to 3 feet width, with the balk built up on the down slope side give added stability to the snow when placed behind walls and piles. By themselves they will be rarely found efficient. As regards the ability of forest to prevent avalanches, it must be admitted that in even-aged, open forest snow on steep, slippery ground may get into motion; only in well stocked selection forest is entire security to be attained, when dense young and middle- Periodical Literature. 221 aged groups and old timber alternate. Dense, even-aged young growths also furnish protection, but they thin out with age and become less effective. At timberlimit on steep slopes even the uneven-aged forest becomes too open to be effective, and only solid, permanent walls will furnish protection. Since then the effectiveness of reforested areas which are naturally even-aged, diminishes with age, assistance by artificial works, walls and ter- races must in such conditions be planned for, and these even when dilapidated in combination with the forest growth remain effective, like anything which increases unevenness of the ground. Leaving of high stumps is, therefore, a proper measure. The forest is effective not only by the mechanical barrier of the stems, but less snow reaches the ground (as much as 40% less in coniferous stands) much being intercepted by crowns, and the blowing being prevented. In reforesting, all means should be employed which make it easy gradually to change the even-aged into uneven-aged forest. This is done by holding over any existing volunteer growth which does not hinder the plantation, by proper mixture, by avoiding planting in rows and instead planting in groups, 3 to 5 plants to the group, the groups 6 to 12 feet apart, avoiding depressions near the foot of plants, where snow would accumulate and persist, retarding growth, hence also no planting should be done on the balks of terraces. Early beginning of group wise reproduction will secure the desired end. Ueber Verbau und Aufforstung von Lawinenziigen. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, March, April, 1907, pp. 93-102, I41-161. ; MENSURATION, FINANCE, MANAGEMENT. Mr. Schleicher, whose investigations into Rapid, Accurate the value of the space number for meas- Method uring the volume of stands were briefed of in vol. IV, p. 166, has in a long article elab- Measuring orated with all detail the proper methods of Stands. employing this aid. The method by sample areas, which was known as far back as the seventeenth century, admittedly requires a large amount of judg-- 222 Forestry Quarterly ment in selecting the sample and properly relating it to the un- measured parts. The value of this method and the limitations of its application are discussed at length on the basis of a series of investigations which, the author concludes, justify Dr. Kuntze’s declaration that the “sample area method of determin- ing the volume of stands should finally be entirely discarded.” After pointing out the defects of the hitherto proposed use of the space number, he develops his new method, which involves the measuring of circular sample plots according to Zetzche’s proposition merely for the purpose of determining the factors of the space number; namely, the determination of the average di- ameter of the stand, and the determination of the average stand- ing room. Before beginning operations the stand to be measured must be superficially studied in its character by a reconnaisance, and on an outline map the direction should be noted with pencil which it is desirable to travel in order to touch more or less uni- formly the differences in the stand conditions. Then with a light but stiff lath or bamboo of say 10 feet (3 m.) length, which can be easily held horizontally at arm’s length walk through the stand in the noted directions, stop at regular intervals and caliper all the trees which can be reached with stretched arm tangent to the lath in a radius with the breast of the observer as center. The size of the area enclosed varies, of course with the personal equation of the observer and must be calculated for each accord- ingly. To avoid duplication the lines traversed should be marked by paper tags or otherwise. The results of each small sample plot are kept separate. The distance of sample plots from each other (measured by stepping) should be uniform, longer in regular and large stands (say 75 to 80 paces), shorter in irregular and smaller stands (50 paces), so as to secure a larger or smaller number of samples as desirable. No attempt at selection of plots should be made but the regular interval kept which insures a bet- ter averaging than would be secured by selection, hence while walking observe the soil cover rather than the character of the stand: nor should there be an attempt to reach trees, but on the contrary to enclose each time as near as possible the same area. In the plain, a uniform distribution of sample plots is easy; in mountainous country it is best done by starting from the lowest Periodical Literature. 223 portions and running lines in more or less parallel directions along and up the slope. In very irregular topography it is ad- visable to make first subdivisions, and operate each separately. The calipering is, of course, done by diameter classes. Since the sample plot measuring is done to determine standing room and average diameter, the four to eight diameter classes lying near the presumable average diameter (estimated beforehand) should be made closer, say 1 inch or half-inch, while the stouter, slimmer classes may be taken more summarily and do not need to be cali- pered, but merely counted. The average diameter is found by dividing the total number of trees in the middle diameter class and the four lower and higher diameter classes into their total cross-section area, and finding the diameter corresponding to the quotient area The middle diameter class is readily found according to. Weise’s pre- scription by counting to 40 per cent. in intolerant, 45 per cent. in tolerant species from the stoutest class down. In regular stands the dameter of the goth or 45th per cent. tree has approximately the arithmetical mean diameter. The side (s) of the square of average standing room may be read from a table which is constructed upon the consideration that in a regular stand in which trees stand 44 m. apart a cir- cular plot, if a 4 m. radius is used, would contain 4 stems; if the trees were 33 m. apart, 5.78 stems; if 2X2 m. 12 stems, and so on. From the platted curve of this relationship all interme- diate positions can be found. For a 3 m. radius the following table can be deduced. Average Side of Standing Room when Radius of Sample Plot equals 3 m. Number of Side of Number of Side of Number ot Side of stems on standing stems on standing stems on standing plot room plot room plot room 32 —30.5 I 12.4—I1I.5 LZ 6.4— 6 2.4 30.4—26 Dot II.4—I0.5 1.8 5.9— 5.5 vig = 25.Q9—22 hoe 10.4— 9.5 1.9 5.4— 5 2.6 21.9—18 1 9.4— 8.5 2 4.9— 4.6 2.7 17.9—16 1.4 8.4— 7.5 ZA 4.5— 4.3 2.8 15.Q—I4 Bes 7.4—7 PIE 4.2— 4.1 2.9 13.Q—I2.5 1.6 6.9— 6.5 263 4 — 3.9 3 The average number of trees per sample plot is of course found by dividing the number of plots into the total number of trees found. 224 Forestry Quarterly = . s 3 Now the space number is a ae and the cross-section area for tha may be read from the following table: SPACE TABLE mn mn nD © o © o o o = “ 5 = a} a 3 bond — a) 2 a oa 2 = a gi z ae 5 a8 = os = og tes on aNd ahead AEP: Lani ~~ Ll a4 — oY — o — S aie = aes 3 & & "ey rev ao a a D fq Dn fQ n Q om om om 12 54.54 | 15 34.90 | 18 24.24 £235) | (50:27 || 1525 -°324690)|| 515-55 22205, 13 46.47 | 16 30.68 | I9 21.76 13.5 43-09 | 16.5) °-28:85))| 19's)" 20:66 14 40.07 | 17 27.18 | 20 19.64 14:5 ) 537-300) 2725) 25-05") 20.5 6:00 21 17.81 | 24 13.64 | 27 10.77 21.5 16:99'|'124°57 — 13.08 | 2725 10138 22 16.22 | 25 12.56 | 25 10.02 22.5 Ue || Boni 12.07 | 28.5 9.67 23 14.85 | 26 TEO2 )e2G 9.34 22°50 dd4'22 2655) br.ES 2015 9.03 [To translate qm per ha. into square feet per acre multiply by 4.35] It is claimed that this method of volume measurement gives results very closely approximating individual calipering, saves labor, one assistant being sufficient, and requires 24 to 4 times less time. It is not to be recommended for stands of less than one acre and in very open, or very irregular stands. Neue Methode zur raschen und genauen Ermittlung des Holzgehaltes ganzer Bestinde. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung, March, 1907. pp. 77-89. Dr. Ramann has inventetd an apparatus for Measuring measuring light effects, which can be prac- Density. tically applied for determining density of crown cover. ‘The apparatus records light intensities in absolute measure of normal candle power. Sixty measurements can be made in one hour. The apparatus is based on the principle of the metal Selenium becoming an electrical con- ductor by the influence of light in proportion to the intensity of hs Periodical Literature. 225 the light. It consists of a selenium cell connected by wire with a explained by the fact that this diameter is not in any relation to exactly measures the intensity. Fiinfte Versammlung des Interationalen V erbandes forstlicher Versuchs anstalten in Wiirttemberg, 1906. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1907, p. 128. Calipers ingeniously constructed on the Small principle elucidated by Gleinig (see p. 102 Dimension of this volume) for measuring small dimen- Calipers. sions are manufactured in four sizes and gradations by Wilhelm Gohler’s Wittwe at Freiburg, Saxony. Model A with 2 cm. divisions, fit for measuring mine propes from 6 to 20 cm., costing 9 mks, and Model D with 1 cm. di- visions running from Io to 30 cm., fit for calipering small trees below 12 inches costing 18 mk, seem the most practical. The former is especially useful for woodchoppers to find the diameter at which to cut. A much simpler caliper, however, is the home-made one of the construction indicated in the schematic figure, which is best cut out from a sufficiently stout sheet of iron, supplied with a wooden handle, or, not so well, out of a board. 3 4 5 6 Die Forstmeister Gleinigsche Grubenholz Kluppe “Einfach,’ and Eine alte einfache Stangenkluppe. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. March, Apr., 1907, pp. I10, 146. A series of trial measurements by Dr. Economy Hemman, reported with tabulated detail, of brings out the fact that calipering with Recording Calipers. Wimmenauer’s automatic recording calip- pers—besides being more accurate—saves half the time and two-thirds the cost of calipering with ordinary calipers. 226 Forestry Quarterly The proportion of hourly performance with the two instruments was: in pure, level spruce stand, 1:1.9; in mixed spruce, pine and hardwood understand, I :1.4; in old open beech stand with dense undergrowth, 1 :2.6; in general, on 62,050 stems, 1:2. Dispensing with the tally keeper and saving in time reduced the cost in the proportion of 2.7:1. The excess in purchase price of the registering calipers over the common of 65 Mark (39,144 stems costing with ordinary calipers 126 Mark), is refunded with interest at 3% after 32,078 trees are calipered. Die finanziellen Vorsiige der selbstregistrirenden Wimmenauer schen > > Kreisflachenzahlkluppe. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. Mch., 1907, PP. 93-96. In presenting the results of form factor Form Factor measurements the Forest Service gives this of very clear explanation of the form factor: Trees. “Any one estimating timber or having any connection with the woods end of lum- bering knows that one species of tree will scale and cut more lumber than another of exactly the same diameter and height. This is due to the shape of the tree. The one will be full bodied and keep its diameter well up into the short, bushy top, while the other is more slender with more rapidly tapering logs and long, narrow top. In the East the old White Pine was an example of the full bodied tree, the Hemlock of the tapering tree. In the West Yellow Pine grown in the Black Hills, Arizona, or the lower Rockies is much fuller bodied than the same species on the west slope of the Sierras in California and Oregon. Douglas Fir in the Rockies is fuller bodied than the same species around Puget Sound. The cause of this difference is that the form of the tree is by nature different in different species of the same locality, or environment causes different forms of the same spe- cies under widely different conditions and localities. ‘Thus White Pine and Hemlock vary in the Fast under the same condi- tions, and Western Yellow Pine of the Black Hills varies radi- Periodical Literature. 227 cally from Western Yellow Pine of the upper Sierras in Califor- nia. The cause of the latter difference is the slower growth and open forest of the Black Hills against the very rapid growth and dense forest of California. In estimating, a lumberman mentally makes allowance for this difference in form. It can however be expressed accurately by comparing the volume of the tree with the volume of a cylinder of equal diameter and height. Thus if a tree 24 inches in diam- eter breast-high and 100 feet in height had a volume of 157 cubic feet, and a cylinder of the same dimensions had a volume of 314 cubic feet, the relation would be 157/314, or 4, or deci- mally .50. This mathematical relation is called a form factor. If the volume of another tree of the same dimensions were 188 cubic feet, its form factor would be 188/314, or .60, which would show a more full bodied tree and would scale 60/50 or 120 per cent. of the first tree’s scale, were the same number of logs cut from each, From a large number of accurately measured trees the Forest Service has established the average form factor for Lodgepole Pine in Montana to be .55 with a range of from .58 for 6-inch trees to .42 for 22-inch trees. Douglas Fir in Idaho and Wyom- ing varies from .58 for 10-inch trees to .40 for a.40-inch tree, with an average of .49 for merchantable trees. Western Yellow Pine in the Black Hills has an average form factor of .53 which does not vary much. In the Sierras of California it is .42 with a range from .45 to .39 as extreme averages—a very small variation. In other words, Western Yellow Pine in the Black Hills would be expected to give a scale of 55/42 of the scale of a tree of the same dimension in the Sugar Pine—Yellow Pine belt of California. This would be more than 4+ more in the former region and is further greatly increased by the closer cut- ting in the Black Hills where better local markets are found for the lower grades of lumber.” Forest Service Trade Bulletin No. 15. May 17, 1907 228 Forestry Quarterly From the Austrian Experiment Station Bark Schiffel reports interesting investigations Per Cent. into the thickness and contents of the bark im of Scotch Pine, which may correspond to Pine. conditions in some of our own pines. The investigations were made on 136 trees. It was found that for volume determination satisfactory results can be secured by measurements on stump, breast-height, 4, 4 and 2 of the height, when the volume is found by the formula— v=.6 The results show, that the thickness of bark (different from spruce, fir, larch) varies very greatly in different regions of the bole and, expressed in per cent. of the diameter with the bark, is greatest on stump and top diameter, while at ? height it reaches a minimum. With age, increased diameter and height both bark thickness and volume per cent. sink, with an exception at breast- height, where such a lawful decrease is not observable. This is galvanic dry battery and galvanometer, which latter rapidly and the height, as the other diameters are. Altogether the measure- ments lead to the conclusion that while age and diameter (density and site quality) may have an influence on thickness of bark, prac- tically it is mainly a function of the height. In a given case the base one-quarter of the bole showed a bark per cent. of 19.2 (at stump 26.1), which in the second quarter had fallen to 10.4% (at 45 feet 6.4%), and at three-quarters had again risen to 14.2% (at 60 feet 18.2%), the average of the whole shaft being 14%. While for the bole with bark the form factor was .451, without bark it was .505; without bark, the pine is equal to the spruce in taper. A practical deduction may be made from these rela- tions: Measured with the bark, the top logs contain proportion- ately more wood than the butt logs. The difference of bark per cent. in different parts may vary from 7 to 20 per cent. The volume per cent. in trees of 60 to 125 feet in height, varies between 16 and 12 per cent. Hence in making reductions for bark when measuring standing timber, the height of the stand must be taken into consideration. Stirke und Inhalt der Weissfohrenrinde. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst- wesen. March, 1907, pp. 102-108. Periodical Literature. 229 At the meeting of the International Asso- Principles ciation of Experiment Stations, Flury mn points out the need of better agreement on Constructing the principles which should rule in the Yield Tables. making of yield tables. For volume determination, he admits, the different sample tree methods, if samples are successfully chosen, give good results, but not for the determination of increments. Especially the methods of Speidel and Kopezky with volume curves, in which the diameters of the different sample trees appear as abscissae and the volumes taken from volume tables as ordi- nates are criticized. A better method is to use as abscissae the cross section areas and the volumes corresponding to these, these points forming the basis for the equalizing curve, which, how- ever, is also liable to errors. Sa. ah A undoubtedly gives the correct average height, yet in practical ap- plication of the yield table, when it is customary to determine the height of the stand to be compared by arithmetic means, a correction becomes necessary, for the latter is always smaller than the correctly calculated height of the yield table. The yield tables should, therefore, contain both heights. Regarding age determinations, it has been found that when the age was determined as arithmetic mean of the age of all sample trees a later survey of the stand often shows a higher age than the addition of the actually passed time to the originally deter- mined age would make it. Lorey has pointed out, that not only an absolute growing older of stands takes place but a relative aging by virtue of the dying out of younger age-classes, so that the remaining trees show a greater average age, hence the above experience. Whether the actual or the “managerial” age should determine has been a mat- ter of controversy, the reporter deciding for the latter, siding with Lorey. Lorey had investigated the height and diameter development in the narrow-ringed center of long suppressed young growth and decided to assume as their correct age the number of years which these trees would have probably needed to make their diameters and heights under ordinary circumstances. In the Sihlwald the reporter found that suppressed spruce, cut As regards calculation of height, the formula h = 230 Forestry Quarterly out in A and B grade thinnings, showed a loss of 8 years in their age as determinable by the whole, while those coming out in the C and D grade showed their proper age. In another investiga- tion on spruce sample trees, he found that almost 80 per cent. of the trees below the arithmetic mean stem had a lower age than the calculated one. Regarding the determination of site quality by either volumes or heights, the latter because most independent of the treatment of the stands and least changeable is the best index, yet since the volume is the important item it should also be considered, but such volume determinations must not be adopted promiscuously for large territories as site qualifiers. A great source of error is found in the determination of the form factor through the use of only a few stems instead of whole stands. This is the reason that the laws of the relations of form factors appear often contradictory. Great discrepancies in yield tables of different authors and with different species arise also in volume and stem numbers due to different site classification and different treatment of stands which have been used for the yield tables, whereby some stands become really unserviceable for comparative study and should be ruled out. The experiment stations must investigate the influence of a certain factor without reference to what the practice may de- termine in its application. Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- suchsanstalten. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1907, pp. 117-121. UTILIZATION, MARKET, TECHNOLOGY. Acknowledging the woodchoppers’ aver- Felling sion to any new tools, the foresters’ business Apparatus. is innovation all around, new ways of look- ing at things, new methods, perhaps new tools. An innovation in tools is ‘Buttner’s Baumwinde,” which we may call felling boom, the invention of a German forester, the accompanying picture describing it and its application. It en- ables the wood chopper to throw a tree, even a leaning one, in Periodical Literature. 231 any desired direction, without cutting a kerf by merely cutting off the stouter roots, and then pulling the balance. Besides throwing the tree with least labor precisely where wanted, it per- mits to cut the butt as close to the base as possible, which may mean a saving of 8 to Io per cent. of saw material. It is also a good and simple stump puller and can be used as loading appar- atus or general power work. The lower portion, a steel plate rack with pinion and curble, a winch, weighs 325 lbs, the push pole adding 125 Ibs. the cost being about $60 in Austria, but can probably be built for less. It can develop a power of from 25000 to 50000 lbs. with two men at the winch. It takes three to four minutes to adjust the device to the tree and two to three minutes to throw it after the roots have been severed, which may require as much as fifteen minutes. | i Mae B_ i il y Z 4, < ) FE ee Ee aS TUN WN Oeics Cc “Tipps Gym. a Wij In some trial fellings at Mariabrunn, under favorable conditions (deep and stout root system and tenacious soil, the trees having 232 Forestry Quarterly very stout branches, hence precision of direction essential), 7 trees of about 70 feet height and 14 inches diameter of various species were quickly and satisfactorily thrown, the device was declared excellent, wherever it is desirable to use it. A number of testimonials in a circular by the patentee are of the same tenor, among them one referring to the felling of 25 beech trees, with an average diameter of 3 feet, leaning over a neighboring spruce stand; these had been left standing because of the unavoidable damage, if the felling had been attempted by usual means. It is claimed that a gang of woodchoppers can, in a given time, fell twenty to thirty per cent. more trees with this device than in the ordinary way. The device is patented, and H. J. Bild- hauser, No. 44 Broad street, New York City, has control of the patent in the United States. Biittner’s Baumwinde. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Feb., 1907, pp. 62-67. A series of very interesting articles upon Notes “The Utilization of Wood Waste by Distil- on lation,” written by W. B. Harper, M. &., Utilization. is appearing in the St. Louis Lumberman. They treat the subject in great detail and are well illustrated —The St. Louis Lumberman, February 15, 1907, and later. There is located at Lynchburg, Virginia, a plant with a capacity of thirty to forty cords daily, which is experimenting with a re- cently discovered process by which paper pulp can be success- fully manufactured from the longleaf pine. In experimenting on a method for extracting turpentine from the slabs and edgings by a mechanical or chemical process it was discovered that the wood was available for paper pulp, particularly fit for straw board. It was found that a cord of the yellow pine would pro- duce about a ton of pulp and from 20 to 30 gallons of turpentine. In as much as the present waste in sawing equals almost 50 per cent. of the contents of the log, this process, if it can be devel- oped to a point where the cost will allow a general marketing of Periodical Literature. 233 the product, will mean a great saving to the lumberman.—The Southern Lumberman, February 10, 1907. “The once despised tamarack has come to the front to stay until the supply shall have been exhausted. Substitutes for white pine in box making have carried tamarack into the list. One concern in Michigan manufactured over one million feet of tam- arack lumber in 1906.”—American Lumberman, February 2, 1907. } A continuous rise in stumpage and log Prices prices is noticeable in the sales reports of from Switzerland. Stumpage The advances for logs are generally in more than I cent or over 10% per cubic Switzerland. foot over the previous year, and in many instances two to three times that amount, ranging between 14 and 20 cents per cubic foot (or, say $30 p. M. BM.) in the woods, the haul adding usually from I to 3 cents. Holzhandelsbericht Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, from month to month. The following comparison of wages paid Rise in the hemlock camps of Wisconsin and in Michigan in 1896 and 1906 will explain in Wages. part the increased cost of lumber. In these prices board is included. Deine SS ie Ae se ay RRR Da ae ae Lg $16 $31—$45 SOSTBNT TS S g eR ce ee I cea 13 24— 35 WEA GUS Aro, tise. Ei th he YE oleh aedld lain iaialetyelaa sae s 14 30— 38 MPRVARC ES treo VK eet gree ci die xls 6 otters de eR OE 20 35— 48 eITRP EN Ss evict tte rad WraneohNe tous cuceisseckooranits/bel aon 13 28— 35 PERI PITEEGCHIICL Se to. 2) oysr5. 5, rio; AMC dls) exo dig 20) Pe ovapoaxepoas) bla ere 16 28— 35 PPPOISTUNE LS) grey, Pein tc) 2 nxaiare Oat Meters viet, c chi oie soem 35 45— 75 “va he VCS ae PS aoe! Ao a va Re en iat tant 40 35— 85 Northwestern Hemlock Manufacturers Convene. American Lumber- man, February 9, 1907. The detailed method for timber testing Rules adopted by the fourth meeting of the In- for ternational Union for Testing materials, at Timber Tests. Brussels, in September, 1906, are essentially as follows, as reported by Schwappach: 234 Forestry Quarterly I. Origin of Material. Site and stand from which taken; growth of the tree and form of bole and crown; origin and silvicultural treatment. Age. Sea- -son of felling. Kind and amount of drying before testing; posi- tion of test piece in the bole. The height from which test pieces are to be cut depends upon the purpose of the tests. To obtain average figures for the whole tree take beams 7-10 meters from the ground and compression , pieces just above or below. For testing poles for use as sup- ports—mine props—take the middle portion. To study the influ- ence of height on strength take specimens every 6 meters. In tests made for whatever purpose the height of the piece from the ground should be noted. II. Characters Evidently Affecting Strength. On the longitudinal faces note course of wood fibers (grain) and knots. On cross section note breadth of annual rings and variation; the linear measure of the annual rings in one square centimeter surface; the form of the ring, whether annular or excentric; proportion of spring and summer wood, though this may be drawn from the specific gravity where a large number of pieces are concerned. III. The Technique of Testing. A. STRENGTH. Compressive strength is the most important knowledge to be gained of structural timber; next come bending and shearing strengths, and lastly tensile and splitting strengths. Compressive strengths are the best for determining variations in strength in different parts of the same stem, in wood from different sites and from stands differently thinned, etc. Because the rate of loading is of importance, all loads are to be applied at the rate of 20 kg per sg. cm. per minute. The moisture per cent. at the time of test is to be determined, and strengths reduced to 15 per cent. moisture for comparison. 1. The Compression Test. A complete compression test determines: (a) the fiber stress at the elastic limit; (b) the modulus of elasticity; (c) the fiber stress at the yield point; (d) the compression with increasing Periodical Literature. 235 load up to the yield point; (e) the quotient i aie A when Specific gravity the moisture per cent. is normal (15%). The maximum load is to be measured on cubical test pieces, while fiber stress is to be determined on prisms square in section and in length equal to three times the depth of one side. The test shall be made between smooth plates, one of which is move- able, as with a spherical head, and the fiber must be straight and parallel to the load. The sides of the pieces are to be planed; careful sawing of the ends is as good as planing. For general values test pieces are to be cut quarterly from the stem so that the rings run diagonally; for special detailed studies pieces are to be cut so that the rings run parallel to one side. The proportions of sap and heartwood should be given when they occur; pith should never be present in any test piece. 2. The Bending Test. Bending tests are to be made on rectangular beams, supported on roller bearings at both ends and loaded in the middle. Local comparison is avoided by applying the load through a hardwood block as wide as the beam, one-tenth as long as the span and one-eighth as thick as the beam. For general values beams are to be cut quarterly, four from a round stick as with compression pieces; for detailed studies the rings should run parallel to the direction in which the load is applied. Actual position in each test is to be indicated in a sketch. A complete bending test shows: (a) The fiber stress at the the maximum load; (d) a stress-strain diagram showing deflec- elastic limit; (b) the modulus of elasticity; (c) fiber stress at tion with increasing load up to rupture; (e) the work at the elastic limit and at rupture. Beam deflections are to be read to 0.01 mm. The elastic limit is to be determined from the stress-strain diagram in the usual way, the fiber stress to be calculated for the maximum load, as- suming this rate of deflection to be maintained. The work done is to be reduced to a normal beam, 10 x 10 centimeters in section and 1.5 meters long, for comparison. 3. The Shearing Test. Shearing tests shall be made both along the radius and at right 236 Forestry Quarterly angles thereto along the rings on rectangular projections, the load of the fibers. The load is to be applied to a surface one centi- being applied parallel to the axis of the stem and to the direction meter high and, when radial, 5 centimeters, when tangential, the height to which the load is applied. Stress at failure only is 3 centimeters wide. The length of the shear shall be four times calculated and any indentation is disregarded. 4. The Tension Test. Tension shall be measured on plates I cm. thick and at least 2 cm. wide and 22 cm. long, preferably prepared from split ma- terial so that the rings run parallel to the faces or to the edges. 5. Cleavage Test. The form of test introduced by Nordlinger is to be followed with the plane of cleavage both along the rings and along the radius. In case the material is not long enough for these tests, Rudeloff’s method may be substituted. Only the maximum strength is observed. B. MOISTURE. Moisture is to be calculated in per cent. of the dry weight. When possible, use the whole piece for moisture determinations ; in large pieces, discs 2-5 cm. thick and including the failure shall be removed directly after the test, using a hand saw. Drying is to be carried on in a well-ventilated oven at temperature a few degrees below the boiling point and until variations of three- tenths per cent. of the dry weight no longer occur. The pieces are to be cooled to the temperature of the room in a dessicator over sulphuric acid before weighing. Fifteen per cent. is to be regarded as the normal moisture per cent. for making tests and results are to be reduced to this for comparison. C. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. For determining specific gravity the volume is to be measured on carefully squared and planed pieces or to be found by sub- mersions, using Friedrich’s precise xylometer. Small-sized pieces are to be protected against the entrance of water by painting with linseed oil or dipped in a solution of paraffine in benzine. Such treatments introduce no appreciable error. Large pieces absorb so little water during the brief submersion as to render these pre- cautions unnecessary. Periodical Literature. 237 D. SHRINKING AND SWELLING. Variations in volume are to be determined directly by sub- mersion or by linear measurements on squared sticks. The simultaneous change in weight is also to be noted. E. DURABILITY. Uniform methods for determining durability can not be formu- lated due to lack of information. Dr. von Tubenf has undertaken to supply this need. Priifung der technischen Eigenschaften des Holzes. . . . Zeitschrift fur Forst und Jagdwesen, January, 1907, pp. 56-64. SEATISTICS AND HISTORY. The annual statistics of the lumber produc- Statistics tion in Maine, Vermont, New York, Penn- of sylvania, Maryland and West Virginia as Lumber Cut. compiled from the reports of 807 operators by the American Lumberman indicates a total of 2} billion feet. Of this, Hemlock comprises 46.4 per cent.; Spruce, 17 per cent.; White Pine, 9 per cent., and mixed hardwoods, 27 per cent. The salient feature of the statement is that the east is not going to be out of the manufacturing busi- ness at a very early date. It is significant to note that the meeting expressed disap- proval of the methods advocated and practiced by the United States Forest Service regarding the testing of commercial sizes. The reports of the cut in Virginia, North and South Carolina give a total lumber production of 14 billion feet against a cut of one billion in 1905. This shows an increase of 50 per cent. The number of firms reporting, however, was 25 per cent. greater than in the previous year. Of this total cut, one billion or about 65 per cent. was North Carolina Pine, indicating a gain of 42 per cent. over that of 1905; Longleaf Pine, 8 per cent.; White Pine and Cypress, 5 per cent.; Hemlock, 14 per cent., and hard- woods about 20 per cent. By States, North Carolina leads with 238 Forestry Quarterly 50 per cent. of the total cut, Virginia comes next with 33 per cent., and South Carolina, the least, with 17 per cent.—American Lumberman, March 23, 1907. Statistics for the northern pine cut for 1906, aggregating 3,293 million feet, naturally show a continued decrease of 10 per cent. over that of 1905. This, however, is less than the decrease of 13 per cent. that occurred the year previous, and of 12 per cent. in 1904. According to districts the cut last year was dis- tributed as follows: West of Chicago District, 2.8 billion feet equals 85 per cent.; Chicago District, 407 million equals 12 per cent.; East of Chicago District, 81 million equals 3 per cent. The Chicago district comprises all of the territory which ships lumber to Chicago by boat, such as Eastern Wisconsin, Upper Michigan and the west shore of Lower Michigan. Furthermore, the westward trend of operations is shown by the figures indicat- ing a decrease of only 8 per cent. in the district west of Chicago, over twice as much or 17.7 per cent. in the Chicago district, and almost twice as much again or 33 per cent. in the district east of Chicago. Other figures for the cut by districts and in total are given for each as far back as 1873. They show the rise of the lumbering industry to a maximum pine cut of 8.6 billion in 1890 and again -in 1892, followed by a constant decrease to the past year, when the cut was less than that in 1873. The shingle output shows a total of 1.2 billion. This is a 20 per cent. decrease. Lath on the other hand shows an increase of 13 per cent., the total aggregating 1.2 billion pieces, While the increase in the pine output amounted to some 371 million feet, this was partially made up by an increased produc- tion of hemlock, especially in Wisconsin, of 118 million or 9 per cent. over that of 1905, making the total hemlock cut 1.3 billion feet. This was distributed as follows: Chicago District, 440 million equals 33 per cent.; West of Chicago District, 640 million equals 48 per cent.; Michigan Railroad, 151 million equals 12 per cent.; Saginaw District 88 million equals 7 per cent.—American Lumberman, February 23, 1907. Statistics issued by the Northwestern Hemlock Manufacturers’ Association compiled from reports of 238 concerns in Wisconsin Periodical Literature. 239 and Michigan indicates a cut for the year 1906, of 974 million feet of hemlock, 256 million lath, and 212 million shingles. Of this amount Wisconsin is credited with two-thirds and Michigan one-third.—American Lumberman, February 9, 1907. No changes of importance are shown in the grand totals of northern hardwood production during the year 1906. There was turned out in the neighborhood of 1,044 million feet which is only .4 per cent. increase over the cut of 1905. In round numbers the cut for the past six years has been as follows: 1906, 1,044 million feet BM.; 1905, 1,040 million feet BM.; 1904, 1,044 million feet BM.; 1903, 800 million feet BM. ; 1902, 730 million feet BM.; 1901, 790 million feet BM.; 1900, 940 million feet BM. It is evident that the hardwood lumbering industry has reached its greatest development in this region and that the future will show little, if any increase. While the output during the past six years has increased ma- terially, the number of mills has decreased from 771 in IgoI1 to 512 in 1906, and the average cut per mill has increased from 1.1 million feet in 1901 to 2 million in 1906. This plainly indicates a tendency toward consolidation and centralization of operation, for the number of firms decreased 28 per cent. and the average cut per mill increased 38 per cent. The distribution of the 1906 hardwood cut was as follows: West of Chicago District, 409 million equals 39 per cent.; Chi- cago District, 336 million equals 32 per cent.; Michigan Rail- road, 200 million equals 19 per cent.; Saginaw District, 99 mil- lion equals Io per cent—American Lumberman, March 2, 1907. The Michigan Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association has is- sued a tabulated analysis of the hardwood lumber industry in that State during the year 1906, and the outlook for the year 1907. A comparison of the actual cut of the year 1906 and the estimated cut for the year 1907 shows a decrease in the amount of beech, birch and rock elm; a slight increase in the amount of soft elm; an increase of about Io per cent. in maple (due to in- creased production of flooring), and the amount of basswood and ash remaining about the same. 240 Forestry Quarterly The following figures for the cut of 1906 represent 80 to 85 per cent of the total hardwood cut: Ash, 84 million feet; Baswood, 26 million feet; Beech, 43 mil- lion feet; Birch, 29 million feet; Rock Elm, 3 million feet; Maple, hard and soft, 241 million feet; all others, 15 million feet. Total, 387 million feet—Hardwood Record, February 25, 1907. Reports from 896 operators in yellow pine, cypress and cen- tral states hardwoods give the following estimate of the cut of 1906,— Yellow pine, 5.8 billion feet, estimated total, 7.5 billion; cy- press, exclusive of South Carolina, 718 million feet. Of the yel- low pine production, Louisiana leads with 26 per cent.; Mis- sissippi, Texas, and Arkansas, each 16 per cent.; Alabama, 13 per cent.; Florida, 8 per cent.; Georgia, 5 per cent. In Cypress, Louisiana also leads with 82 per cent.: Florida comes next with 8 per cent.; Arkansas, 4 per cent., and Ala- bama, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Ten- nessee and Texas, 6 per cent. The hardwood cut in the Central States aggregated 2.1 billion feet. This included the product from Alabama, Arkansas, Flor- ida, Georgia, Indiana, Indian Territory, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee and Texas. ‘Tennessee leads with 22 per cent.; Arkansas, 17 per cent.; Mississippi, 10 per cent.; Indiana and Ohio, each 9 per cent., and all the others 33 per cent. The species cut were as follows: Oaks, 38 per cent.; Yellow Poplar, 15 per cent.; Gum and Tupelo, 14 per cent.; Elm, 3.3 per cent.; Ash, 2.8 per cent.; Hickory, 2.8 per cent.; Walnut, 1.5 per cent.; all others, 22.6 per cent—American Lumberman, March 9, 1907. Reports from the coast indicate record breaking shipments of Redwood during February, when the total movement aggregated over 39 million feet, an increase of 50 per cent. over that of Feb- ruary, 1906. A similar large gain was shown in the reports for the month of January, so that the total shipments for the first two months of this year amounted to almost 73 million board feet as against 49 million the year previous. Practically all this gain was Periodical Literature. 241 in shipments to San Francisco.—American Lumberman, March 23, 1907. The report comes from the State of Washington that during the fiscal year of 1906, there was produced a total of 10$ billion shingles, which equaled 684 per cent. of the total output of shin- gles in the United States. This was the production of 459 mills representing a daily capacity of 48 million, an increase of 12 per cent. over that of 1905.—The New York Lumber Trade Journal, February 15, 1907. An estimate of the winter’s log cut in the Province of Ontario, compiled by the Ontario forestry officials, shows one billion feet of pine, 70 million feet of hemlock, 1.5 million spruce, 1.2 million cubic feet of square timber, 100,000 cords pulp, and 44 million ties—American Lumberman, February 23, 1907. Detailed reports of the amount of imports Imports of various woods into this country show for that it is no small item and, moreover, is 1905. on the increase. During the fiscal year ending June, 1906, the total quantity of mahogany imported equaled 36.6 million feet with a value of $2,500,000. This was an increase over the previous year of 15 per cent. in quantity and 25 per cent. in value. All other cabinet woods showed an increase from $1,077,000 in 1905 to $1,244,000 in 1906. The importation of logs and round timbers amounted to 100 million feet; hewn and square timber, 256,000 cubic feet; lum- ber, 950 million feet; shingles, 900 million, and wood pulp, 157,- 224 tons. The total value of all of these items exceeded $21,- 000,000, and all except the wood pulp showed an increase in quantity—American Lumberman, March 9, 1907. Almost without exception statistics of the Exports export trade during 1906 in “lumber and in manufactures thereof” show an increase 1900. over 1905. The total value represented in 1906 was over $77,000,000 as against $60,000,00 in 1905 or an increase of 28 per cent. Of the several 242 Forestry Quarterly kinds, that of sawed timber aggregated 597 million as compared with 494 million in 1905, an increase of 21 per cent.; hewn tim- ber remains practically the same with 3.45 million cubic feet in 1906. ‘The value of all timber and logs exeeded $17,000,000 as against $11,000,000, which was the very large increase of 55 per cent. It is perhaps still more interesting to compare this with the value of the imports which for all those classified as “wood and manufactures thereof” amounted to over $40,000,000 and repre- sented an increase of 25 per cent. over that of 1905. The excess of exports over imports was valued at $36,000,000 or go per cent. more export than import. In 1904 the exports exceeded the im- ports by 116 per cent. Thus it is apparent that the tendency is towards an equalization of export and import of wood material. American Lumberman, February 23, 1907. No absolute figures as to yellow pine ex- Export ports are available, since the custom house of reports specify merely sawed lumber, tim- Yellow Pine. ber, staves, etc., without naming the kinds. The following figures are the total export of all timber from the Southern States, and therefore include some cypress and considerable hardwood export, particularly from New Orleans and Mobile, but by omitting all Virginia and Maryland, which are large exporters of yellow pine, it may be assumed that these figures approximately represent the exports of yellow pine sawed lumber and timber. TOON Vice Pe NAP tee SNS Gites eee 378 million feet BM. TITS: Os kicks bd bed dis VO te ia cable Re gate 47 s TOE EL shig te kA Esk Se ee 42 . DOI A OE cine shuts Ge 4A ta tel nts Wines Rion SEO) LOGOS eth tone mira each Gt nse late whee Ae 620). EQOL PY ceo ias & Stace ee eee ba a a oe 6800.5 LOA SMG SEA SU Nahs Slats Wie teraleahecaee at edete ia ere rf aay TOO Ss ibs eid Bae osha is eta bem een 502. 08 LOA, Wye Sates Xen Se ts aie ety ae 830. BOOS 7h ya sod vase Wot ace S RUE Ra cee 306. = Lotaltor ten wears sci. a tee 5.954 million feet BM. Periodical Literature. 243 A close examination of these exports for 1905 shows that the various States in the order of their importance was as follows: Florida, 33 per cent. ; Mississippi, 21 per cent.; Alabama, 15 per cent.; Texas, 13 per cent.; Louisiana, 9 per cent.; Georgia, 6 per cent.; North and South Carolina, 3 per cent.—American Lumberman, February 9, 1907. In connection with the Agricultural Exhi- Statistics bition at Karlsruhe in 1906, full information of regarding the notable forest administration Forest Managementof Baden was furnished in statistical tables. im This country, famous among Americans on Baden. account of the Black Forest (a mountain range, not a forest!), vies with Saxony for first rank in excellence of its forestry system. Of the round 1,350,000 acres of forest only 17.6 per cent. are state forest, but the corporation and municipal forests which oc- cupy nearly 50 per cent. of the forest area also not only under direct control but for the most Part under direct management of the state forest administration (for which the government charges a small fee), hence 67 per cent. of the forests is surely well man- aged, and 33 per cent. of the forests is surely well controlled in its management in so far as for “clearing or, in its conse- quences, similar cutting” a permit must be secured from the state forest administration. How this restriction has worked may be seen from the statement that in 20 years from 1882, 3,467 permits were asked for, 3,417 were issued, and round 5,000 acres were cleared. Due to the rise of prices improvement in the manage- ment of private forests is noticeable, for while in 188> nearly 30 per cent. of the private forests were reported as destructively lumbered, in 1902 this per cent. appears reduced to 12. During the 25 years, 1880-1904, private owners have reforested nearly 12,000 acres and the state and corporations about 14,000 acres, while clearings reduced the forest area by only 7,500 acres, a gain of over 18,000 acres. To foster this reboisement work the state sells plant material cheaply, pays small premiums and subven- tions; in the years 1900 to 1904 $6,000 were thus paid in effect- ing the reforesting of about 1,500 acres, this area needing the protective cover. The distribution among species and classes of 244 Forestry Quarterly management shows that over 50 per cent. is coniferous forest, and even private and corporation forest shows over 45 per cent. of this type. Only 16 per cent. is coppice and coppice with stand- ards, 8.5 per cent. in transition from the latter to timber forest. Of the 84 per cent. of timber forest, not 8 per cent. are in selec- tion forest, and over 26 per cent. are under a clearing system, 58 per cent. under nurse-tree or group system. The results are admirable, for the total gross income of all the forests with a cut of 76 cubic feet per acre is $7,000,000, and, since the cost of administration requires only 30 per cent. of the gross income, a net result of round 5 million dollars is obtained, which figuring at 3 per cent. makes the value of this property 165 million dollars. Prices have risen from 1850, when the cubic foot of all kinds and sizes brought 4 cents, to 74 cents in 1900. In the state forests specifically, every financial item has more than trebled in that period, namely, the gross income from I to 3.5, the expenditures from I to 3.4, the net income from I to 3.66. The state forests are, of course, the best managed, and show the largest cut, namely, 81 cubic feet per acre or $6.07, while the corporation forests have a budget of 72 cubic feet, due to a large percentage of deciduous wood, servitudes, forests in transition to timber forest, and more conservative calculations. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1907, pp. 135-I4I. The cut for 1906 in Switzerland was for Activities State forest (93,000 acres) 179,872 m’*, in for corporation forests (1,300,000 acres) Switzerland. 1,725,909 m*, altogether 1,915,781 m*, or 1 ID9F—S ’ 5 67.6 million cubic feet. From the 800 acres of nurseries of the federal government .5 million plants, mostly conifers, were furnished for planting, and some 20,000 pounds of seed were sown in forest and nurseries. Over $100,000 were spent on reboisement work, the federal government contributing about three-fifths of that sum. Plans for over $300,000 of such work were approved, with a two-thirds grant of the government. Over 170 persons participated in the eight short lecture courses Pertodical Literature. 245 of two to eight weeks duration, given in various parts of the fed- eration to underforesters and others. Aus dem Jahresbericht des eidg. Departments des Innern, Forstwesen, 1906. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fir Forstwesen, April, 1907, pp. 136-138. The decennial revision of the working plans Cantonal of the Bernese cantonal forest department Forest exhibits the change of conditions in a well- Management. managed forest area of now round 35,000 acres, mostly timber forest, during the last 40 years. The area during this period has been increased by purchases, by nearly 30 per cent. and its tax value is now placed at $3,000,000. The wood sales, which in the first decade aver- aged $130,000 per annum, now amounts to $210,000 ($6 per acre). This increase in excess of the proportionate increase in area is accounted for by changes in four directions, namely an increased main felling budget from 1,500,000 to 1,670,000 cubic feet; an increase to almost double the amounts for thinnings, or altogether a rise in cut from 1,750,000 to 2,120,000 cubic feet (60 cu. ft. per acre) ; an increase of the workwood per cent. from 30 to 38 (maximum 42) per cent.; and the rise of the average price for wood from 7 cents to 9 cents per cubic foot (in 1905 to 12 cents; see log prices above!). Regarding the rotations the report says that they are to be gradually increased in some of the holdings, because “‘the less private forests are managed for saw timber production, the more obligation in the public forests to produce these sizes.” “This is by no means a sacrifice on the part of the State, on the contrary it insures larger yield of material and money; only it requires a larger wood capital in older age classes than firewood produc- tion.” “This measure has, however, not had a depressing effect on the sustained yield, for the stock corresponding to the higher rotations was mostly already in existence, so that we are in the fortunate position of simultaneously being able to raise the rota- tion and the felling budget.” For road building during the next decade $10,000 are allowed. Der neue Wirtschafts plan iiber die bernischen Staatswaldungen. Scheizerische Forstzeitung, March, 1907, p. 100-104. 246 Forestry Quarterly Recent compilations credit Oregon with Oregon 300 billion feet of standing timber with a Forests. present value when manufactured of 4} billion dollars. It is claimed that the State contains one-sixth of the total amount of standing timber in the country. The estimated cut in 1906 was 2 billion, in 1905 13 bil- lion; and in 1904, 1 billion—American Lumberman, March 23, 1907. In a paper read before the State Farmers’ Forest Resources Institute of Kentucky, Mr. H. M. Hale, of of the Forest Service, gave some interesting Kentucky. estimates of the forest resources of that State. The total stand of timber was esti- mated at nine billion feet, of which White Oak leads with 28 per cent., Red and Black Oak represent 21 per cent., Yellow Poplar 19 per cent., Chestnut Oak and Chestnut, each 13 per cent., and White Pine and Hemlock together 6 per cent. The annual value of the forest products was roughly put at $14,000,000. Of this 5 per cent. represented lumber, 25 per cent. tight cooperage, 7 per cent. ties, and 3 per cent tanbark, veneer and mine props.—The Southern Lumberman, March 10, 1907. MISCELLANEOUS. An interesting case of political rather than Rights forestal import is under discussion and legal of adjudication in Prussia referring to the in- Officials. voluntary retirement and pensioning of the well-known, late director of the forest acad- emy of Minden, Dr. Borggreve. He was pensioned before the legal age of retirement undoubtedly because of his outspoken criticisms of government policies had made him offensive, and he is contesting the right of the government to remove him prematurely, since this injures his financial condition, and be- cause the enforced premature pensioning can legally be effected only if the immediate chief of the officer declares that “the officer Periodical Literature. 247 on account of bodily or mental infirmity is permanently incapable of attending to his work; which declaration had not been made, and everybody who knows the vigorous claimant knows it could not be made. The legality of taking recourse to judicial procedure was sus- tained in the first court. But in the second instance the judgment was against the claimant, and the case has been appealed. The remarkable democratic provision of the law will probably be tested to the very last resort, the Landtag. The question of the methods of education Forestry for foresters have lately been strenuously Education. discussed in the European journals. Espe- cially the conditions at the Prussian forest academies have been severely criticised, and their transfer to the University or else their greatly improved and extended curricu- lum demanded. Weise, the director of Miinden, lately resigned, has issued a forceful pamphlet on the subject. We note with satisfaction that a reform in Baden has copied almost precisely the plan, which was originally adopted in the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell University, namely a four years’ course, in which the fundamental branches are completed during the first two years, the forestry branches in the last two years, and two six weeks’ practicums in the woods, only that the first practicum there antecedes the entire course, in- stead of both following the forestry studies. Die Ausbildung fiir den héheren Forstverwaltungsdienst. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 63-65. NEWS AND NOTES. E. A. Stertine, In Charge. In April of this year the University of Toronto established the first forestry school in Canada as a separate Faculty (one of five faculties composing the University), with Dr. B.-E. Fernow as Dean. The course will be an undergraduate one, with a curriculum similar to the one originally adopted at the New York State Col- lege of Forestry, but the entrance requirements have been raised above those accepted by the other Faculties of the University. The four-year course leads to the degree of Bachelor of the Science of Forestry, and after three years’ practical employment and presentation of a thesis the degree of Forest Engineer (F. E.) is conferred. A three years’ course leading to a diploma as Forester will also be instituted. The sessions begin on Octo- ber 1. It is expected that the government will set aside a large reservation for practice and demonstration ground, where the juniors and seniors will spend a six to eight weeks’ term at the end of the academic work, besides visiting lumber camps during the Christmas vacations. Since the University is financially able to satisfy the needs of a first-class school, and the forestry inter- ests of the Province of Ontario, which has not less than 45,000 square miles of timber lands in its possession, are considerable, the future of this new institution would seem assured. The Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph, which a year ago instituted a course in farm forestry and established nurseries for the purpose of distributing plant material to farmers, is affiliated with the University of Toronto, and this affiliation will be made closer by having Mr. E. J. Zavitz, in charge of the course and the nurseries, act as instructor in the University also. Mr. A. H. D. Ross, M. A., M. F. (Yale), is expected to be a member of the Faculty. A rather striking evidence of the broadening field of forestry practice in this country and abroad is shown in the plans of the men graduating from the Yale Forest School this year. For- News aud Notes 249 merly most of the graduates took up government work, and either remained permanently with the United States Forest Service or went from this Field of training into private work after a few years. This year, out of the 29 men in the graduating class, only 15 have taken the civil service examination. It is interesting to note the plans of the remaining 14 graduates. Those to enter foreign service are: Mr. C. C. Robertson, who will enter the Department of Forestry in the Orange River Col- ony aiter visiting the forests of England, France and Germany ; and Messrs. G. C. Piche and Avila Bedard, who expect to take up work with the province of Quebec, the latter after further study in Europe. Mr. E. S. Woodruff has accepted a position with the New York State Forest, Fish and Game Commission. The men who plan to engage in private work are: Messrs. Stephen M. Crowell and Clyde S. Martin, who are to work for the Weyerhaeuser syndicate on the Pacific Coast; Messrs. Jack Bentley and C. P. Miller, who are to be employed by the Ritter Company in West Virginia; William Menter, who has a position with Mr. Millard; W. C. Shepard, with the Pennsyl- vania Railroad, and Messrs. B. T. Harvey and Raymond Davis, who go with pulp concerns in Maine. The only graduate to go into entirely independent work is Mr. Hoyt Weber, who will open an office as Consulting Forester in Connecticut. A new scheme of organization in the U. S. Forest Service went into effect on April 17, as Service Order No. 132. It is an at- tempt to perfect an organization for handling with greater econ- omy the rapidly growing volume of business attendant upon the intensive administration of the National Forests. This is pre- sented in the form of a somewhat elaborate chart which shows the relations of the various branches, offices and sections to each other and to the head office of the Forester and Associate Forester. One of the aims was to reduce the number of independent offices reporting to the Forester, and as a paper organization this seems to have been accomplished since the main units of administration, called branches, are reduced to four: Grazing, Operation, Silvi- culture and Products. Each of the above “branches” is sub-di- divided into two, five, three and three offices respectively, each 250 Forestry Quarterly office having its own chief, who is responsible to the head of his respective “branch.” The offices in turn are sub-divided into sections, each nominally under a chief. In effect, it reduces sey- eral offices which formerly reported direct to the Forester, to a place under a branch, and elevates several sections to the rank of semi-independent offices. In the office of the Forester are grouped Law, Information, Dendrology and Inspection, the first and third of which were formerly offices. It is, of course, difficult in a scheme of this kind to secure a natural grouping, which probably accounts for the curious grouping of “Publication” under “Products,” “Computing” and “Drafting” under “Wood Utilization,” etc. As part of its forest policy the Pennsylvania Railroad estab- lished several large plantations this spring on vacant lands adja- cent to the right of way. These lands in most cases were ac- quired in connection with the straightening and widening of the main line, and in order to escape excessive cost of right of way and damages by reason of stream changes in drainage, or to avoid expensive overhead or undergrade crossing entire farms were often purchased. The utilization of these lands is obviously an economic proposition, and in many cases forest planting promises the highest returns, in addition to a step towards providing for a future supply of cross-ties and construction woods. It also offers an object lesson to land owners adjacent to the railroad lines. The planting this year was confined to lands near Altoona and Mt. Union in west central Pennsylvania, where 280,000 red oak, 180,000 black locust, 7,000 European larch, 5,000 tamarack, 6,000 Scotch pine, 2,500 chestnut, 10,000 pin oak and 1,000 hardy catalpa were planted—a total of about 791,000 trees. In addition nearly 75,000 seedlings were set in transplant rows and 135 pounds of seed planted in the nursery at Hollidaysburg, Pa. The species planted in the nursery, in addition to the above, includes such trees as Norway Spruce, Arborvitae, and Norway Maple, which will be used for screens or snow fences, or for ornamental planting. The spring field work of the Senior Class of the Yale Forest School is being conducted this year at Grandin, and in Shannon County, Missouri, on the lands of the Missouri Lumber and Min- News and Notes 251 ing Company. The students, 27 in number, left New Haven, March 3, and reached Grandin March 7. The work will occupy a period of three months. Although the entire endowment fund of $150,000 promised by the National Lumber Manufacturers Association to the Yale Forest School for the purpose of founding a Chair of Applied Forestry and Practical Lumbering has not been raised, a large portion of the fund is now available for use, and its accessibility has made possible the reorganization and extension of the pres- ent course in lumbering. Through the kindness of Mr. J. B. White, general manager of the Missouri Lumber and Mining Company, the entire plant at Grandin has been thrown open to the students, who have an ex- cellent opportunity to study logging, transportation, milling and manufacturing methods. In order that suitable practice in surveying and estimating might be obtained the lumber company constructed two camps in Shannon County for the use of the students. These camps are frame structures, each 16 by 32 feet in size, and are located in the center of the company’s holdings, 26 miles from Winona, Mis- souri. This camp is in charge of Mr. H. H. Chapman, Instruc- tor in Forestry, who trains the men in surveying, estimating, and laying out and determining the costs of logging jobs. He is as- sisted in this work by Mr. J. C. O’Dell, a timber cruiser and surveyor of thirty years’ experience. The students have made a topographic map of an area go square miles in extent, comprising a portion of the holdings of the company. This map was prepared under the direction of Henry Gannett, Geographer of the United States Geological Survey, who spent four weeks in camp supervising the field work and the assembling of the data into a map. The main lines of the sur- vey were run with transits and the secondary part was made by running traverses up the largest ravines or on the most prom- inent ridges and sketching in the topography on a traverse board. The elevations were determined from barometer readings, checked by a line of levels run through the tract. The map shows all artificial features, such as roads, trails and buildings, and also the direction and elevation of all ridges. Ele- vations are shown by 20-foot contour intervals. A party of three 252 Forestry Quarterly men ran an average of four to five miles of secondary traverse per day, without appreciable error of location or distance. The map will be of assistance to the lumber company which has al- ready begun active logging operations in the region. Since the completion of this map the students have been re- locating the original survey of 1821, blazing the original lines and marking corners, and have begun to estimate the pine timber on the tract. The field work in camp occupies eight weeks’ time and the re- maining four weeks are spent in Grandin studying milling, manu- facturing methods and grading, and in Reynolds and Center counties studying the logging methods employed by the company. This work is under the direction of R. C. Bryant, Instructor in Forestry. The company operates about 40 miles of main line and many miles of spurs and has a very competent equipment of rolling stock and motive power. Two mills are in operation in Grandin, one of which has a maximum capacity of 150,000 feet B. M., cuts pine, and the other which has a capacity of 10,000 to 12,000 feet B. M., cuts oak of several species. A shingle and lath mill, dry kilns, extension yards, a large planing mill, small but well-equipped shops, a general company store, and a hospital constitute the main departments aside from the mills. The students have an unexcelled opportunity to study, in detail, the general scheme of the plant and the methods of conducting a large lumber business. The grading of yellow pine lumber is given especial attention for the successful forester must understand thoroughly this phase of the work before he can direct intelligently any forest operation of which logging forms a direct part. Mr. George K. Smith, secretary of the Yellow Pine Manufac- turings Association, visited the camp and gave several talks on grading lumber, lumber prices, lumber associations, their objects and methods, etc. The term closes June toth, at which time the students scatter to all parts of the United States, some to join the United States Forest Service, others to engage in private forest work, or to enter the employ of lumber companies. News and Notes 253 The German Foresters Association has at present 1,897 mem- bers, which gives an idea of the number of practising foresters and forest owners of higher grade in the Empire. On March 1 of this year, at the age of 85, died the veteran teacher of forestry, Prof. Dr. Karl Gayer, one of the leading lights of modern German forestry, before his retirement pro- fessor at the University of Munich. He is especially known by his classical volume on silviculture, in which he preached return from the rapidly growing practice of clear-cutting to natural re- generation and mixed forest, and altogether a closer adherence to the methods of nature and the basing of silviculture on biological study. This volume, published 27 years ago, now in its fourth edition, has been translated into French, and is unquestionably the best book on silviculture. Gayer’s “Forest Utilization” (Forstbenutzung) is another clas- sic handbook on the subject. The Pennsylvania Railroad engineers who investigated the re- cent wreck which occurred on a mile stretch of track equipped with steel cross-ties, reported that “if the accident had occurred on the section of track laid with wooden cross-ties it is our judg- ment that less injury would have been done to the track structure” and they recommend that, “on account of the fact that the damage subsequent to the derailment was more serious than would have been the case with wooden ties, that the remaining steel ties should be removed.” Beginning with its issue of February 1st, The St. Louis Lum- berman commenced the publication of a series of papers trans- lated from the German, entitled “Concerning American Fores- try,” by Professor Jentsch and Dr. Riebel, who visited this coun- try during the World’s Fair at St. Louis, for the purpose of mak- ing a report on the lumbering conditions of the United States. While many of the facts presented in these articles will be famil- iar to most persons in this country who are interested in forestry and lumbering, it is of considerable interest to learn what im- pression conditions and methods in the United States made upon the distinguished foreigners. 254 Forestry Quarterly In the readjustment of boundaries of national forests some four million acres of land suitable for settlement have been re- leased this year, which thereby become open to entry. Homesteading of agricultural lands within the reservations is also permitted under Act of June 11, 1906, which is largely taken advantage of, especially by stockmen. The Forest Service seems to welcome these settlements on the limited agricultural areas. M. Smith, Jr., Cornell, 04, who has been in the employ of the Federal Forest Service during the past three years, has resigned to accept an appointment as an Assistant State Forester of Cali- fornia. Mr. Smith assumed his new duties on May Ist, filling the vacancy made by the resignation of Raymond Tyler, who re- turned to the Federal service after a year with the State. State forest work in California is showing increased activity with the opening of the dry season. The State Forester is busily engaged in procuring the financial co-operation of County Boards of Supervisors in an attempt to prevent and extinguish forest fires. Last year eleven counties, mainly in the southern part of the State, appropriated sums for this purpose ranging from $250 to $1,500 per county. Although the fire season is only just open- ing, two new counties in the northern part of the State, which has always been considered indifferent to forestry, have been added to the list. These are Lake and Mendicino, which have appro- priated $500 each. It is hoped that before the close of the present dry season many more counties in the northern part of the State will be won over. Associations of stockmen and irrigators, which have always been interested in preventing forest fires, are manifesting unusual interest this spring. The State Forester is co-operating with many powerful organizations of this kind, all of which are paying the salaries and expenses of the patrolmen appointed fire wardens. Several lumber companies also are showing gratifying interest. The planting season in California has ended. During the past winter the State Forester has co-operated with the Union Lumber Company, Fort Bragg, one of the largest owners of redwood timber on the Coast, in preparing a plan for the planting of eucalyptus among redwood sprouts on land cut over by this com- News and Notes 255 pany. The redwood sprouts are of varying ages, but in most cases stand too far apart to produce merchantable trees. The object of interplanting with Eucalyptus is to force these sprouts into rapid height growth by the lateral shading of the more rapid-growing eucalypts. Co-operation with the Central Counties Land Company, which owns over 35,000 acres of land on Clear Lake in Lake county, has resulted in the construction of a 40’x128’ lath-house, for the propagation of Eucalyptus and ornamental species which will be used for commercial and ornamental planting on the holdings of this company. The land of the company extends in a narrow strip around the borders of the lake, with a frontage of 74 miles, and includes also blocks of varying area located in the valleys four or five miles back from the lake shore. The object of plant- ing is to ornament the holdings near the lake, which will be sold for residence purposes, and to establish commercial plantations on the holdings remote from the lake, where colonies of settlers will be placed. Actual planting will be commenced next winter with the seedlings grown in the lath-house now under construc- tion at Lakeport. Assistant State Forester C. H. Sellers is in charge of the construction of the lath-house and the establishment of the nursery. Two important bills relative to State forestry were introduced in the last Legislature. One provided for the assemblying of all provisions relating to punishment for setting forest fires, for the more certain conviction of those arrested, and for the more equal _ distribution of the fines collected. This bill became a law. Un- der its provisions the dry season which was formerly defined as “the period between May 15 and the first soaking rains of autumn or winter’ was changed to read “a dry season.” In the past some trouble has been experienced through defending attorneys seek- ing to prove that “a dry season” did not actually exist at the time when fires were started, because in some cases a little sprinkle had occurred between that time and the previous May 15. The fines, which formerly varied from $50 to $1,000, were changed to $25 as a minimum and $500 as a maximum. This change will result in the conviction of a larger percentage of those who violate the 250 Forestry Quarterly forest laws, in as much as it will eliminate the objection of many magistrates to imposing a fine greater than the value of the prop- erty destroyed. It will also place the jurisdiction of cases before the justices, while formerly the maximum fine being over $500 placed the jurisdiction in the Superior Courts and made long, ex- pensive trials, which were objected to by the counties, which for- merly received no portion of the fines. The disposal of fines also has been changed. Previously the State received the entire sum, but under the new law the county in which a conviction is pro- cured divides the net fine equally with the State. The other bill related to the administration and personnel of the State Forestry Department. This bill passed the Assembly without opposition, but was amended in the Senate in such form that it threw a greater burden on the State than on the several counties. On this account it was vetoed by the Governor. The opposition to this bill in the Senate was led by Senator Weed, a former lumberman and at present Chairman of the Board of Supervisors of Siskiyou county, who objected principally to the section giving power to the State Forester to compel lumber com- panies to clear up dangerous slashings, and to compel county offi- cials to clear the brush from their rights-of-way. The defeat of this bill forced the Department to forego some improvements that were contemplated, but as the old law containing the provi- sions objected to still stands, the power to compel lumber com- panies to take care of their cut-over land and counties to clear their rights-of-way is retained. The Fifteenth National Irrigation Congress is scheduled to meet this year in California, at Sacramento, during the first part of September, and will be accompanied by an Interstate Exposi- tion of irrigated-land products and forest products. ‘The intimate relationship between water supply and forest cover has given an impetus to forestry development in the West which no considera- tion of the question of husbanding forest supplies could have secured, and it is only fit that the forestry interests should be fully represented at the meeting. Another propagandist forestry journal has been launched in the mafiazine of the Georgia Forestry Association, Southern lWood- News and Notes 257 lands, the first number appearing in April under the editorship of Prof. Alfred Akerman, Professor of Forestry at the University of Georgia. The educational value of such local publications cannot be over estimated. With the month of May the Forest Service has begun to add to the monthly Field Program a very useful section of Notes, con- taining brief references to new developments in the different branches of the service. HARVARD UNIVERSITY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on application to W.C.SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, Mass. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year graduate course is offered, lead- ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. Grad- uates of collegiate institutions of high standing are admitted upon presentation of their college diploma. The Summer School of Forestry is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pa. The session in 1907 will open early in July and continue seven weeks. For further information, address HENRY S. GRAVES, Director, New Haven, Connecticut UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Offers a four-year course in forestry leading to the degree of Bachelor of the Science of Forestry. For further information address B. E. FERNOW, Dean, Faculty of Forestry University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vou. V] SEPTEMBER, 1907. [No. 3 THE FORMATION OF THE ANNUAL RING OF WOOD IN THE EUROPEAN LARCH AND THE WHITE PINE. Our forest trees increase their trunks by an annual layer or ring of wood of varying thickness, according to conditions of soil and exposure. This has been so long known and has such slight exception that it is universally accepted, and forms the basis of al! our calculations. The phenomena and conditions of the for- mation of this layer are known in but small part and are largely inferences from our general knowledge of plant physiology and the laws of growth. Especially the time during which the annual ring is formed, how its formation progresses, and when it is finished, has been rarely made a subject of definite investigation. According to Robert Hartig’s and other investigators’ findings the duration of cambial activity varies, as well as its beginning, with climate and species disposition. It lasts longer than leaf activity in oak and beech, shorter in other species. The bast formation continues much longer, mostly until cold or dry weather sets in, and mostly ceases during the latter part of August. In single trees (open stand) the upper portions cease first; in dense growth, the lower (temperature?). In poorly fed individuals, the base stops early, even to the absence of the ring. The total time of cambial ac- tivity differs with the species. With beech it begins late and lasts two and one-half months, with oak four months, with Scotch Pine and Norway Spruce three months (May, June and July; lower parts: June, July, August). Time of forming different parts of the ring varies and seems uncertain, probably dependent upon weather conditions. Beech (50 to 150 years) had formed one- third by middle of June, one-half by beginning of July, three- fourths by end of July, the whole by middle August. Oak begin- 260 Forestry Quarterly ning the end of April had formed one-half by middle June, the whole by middle August (but not in branches). The writer, some years ago, made a series of observations through four seasons on two trees, one a European Larch (Larix Europaca), the other a native White Pine (Pinus Strobus), which are worth while recording, especially for the striking divergence of the results in the White Pine, which goes far to explain the remarkable productive capacity of that species. Presumably, there are considerable differences between all species of trees with respect to the progress of wood formation. These particular ones were chosen chiefly because of con- venience, satisfactory specimens being near at hand, so that the necessary frequent measurements could be readily taken. It may Le noted, however, that the European Larch and the White Pine are probably the best representatives of opposite poles of the evergreen class—opposite, at least, in their practical forest re- lations. It was hoped also, that some relation might be established between the rate and time of growth on the one hand and meteorological conditions on the other, although the length of time during which the observations were conducted is confessedly very short. Likewise the constancy of habit of a species from year to year, and also in general, the comparative value of these two species for wood or timber production might be more clearly and positively brought out by these observations. But for each and all points the figures and results obtained should be made to speak for themselves. The European Larch used is one of a group of six set as very small trees for landscape purposes, but rather closer than ordinarily, the particular tree in question being six feet and ten feet, respectively, from its nearest neighbors. Trees of other kinds surround this group at moderate distances, so that the conditions are more those of a rather thin and open forest than 2 park. The trees were about forty-five years old. The records are such that the variations can be but a year or two either way. The individual selected for measurement is now (1907) about 474 inches in circumference, breast high, and 68 feet in height. It seems to be making a height growth of a few inches per year. ae Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 261 One of the group is larger, girthing 55 inches, and two are smaller. Two trees were removed a few years ago. The White Pine stands but a stone’s throw away under nearly similar conditions. It is further away from its fellows, how- ever, and has less of clear trunk and a better chance to develop side branches. One or two series of lower branches have been pruned off within the last few years. It is approximately the same age as the Larch, and is 55 feet high. It has a circum- ference of 50 inches; the level chosen, however, was inadvertently made about 12 inches higher than in the Larch. The measure- ments were taken by a steel tape at intervals of a few days, vary- ing as seemed necessitated by the changes in growth rate. Several small nails were driven slightly through the bark at a uniform level, so that the tape line should be accurately and uni- formly applied to the circumference, and care was used to keep the bark surface as even as possible throughout the season, and to avoid taking note of any false enlargement through swelling of the outer bark during wet weather. It is believed that no great error has entered, although it seems probable that, during the latter part of the season particularly, it is not possible properly to take into account the effect of the breaking away of the bark, its swelling in wet weather or its drying and curling at points along the line of measurement. The observations were made during the four years 1897, 1808, 1899 and Ig00. It will be seen that in each case the growth of the layer of wood began during the last week in April. The exact day seems im- possible to determine, at least by this method. Moreover, sea- sonal differences of temperature and moisture, which doubtless there were, seem to have had no appreciable effect upon the time of beginning of the layer. The beginning of wood formation is likewise practically coincident with the appearance of the new leaves of the Larch. Upon this point a second record of another observer gives the date of leafing out of the Larch as April 22nd, 1897, 25th in 1898, 22nd in 1899, and 25th in 1goo. 262 Forestry Quarterly Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 263 Dine Larch Nw Fn nw @ Hw HEsttesag pages 264 Forestry Quarterly In the annexed diagrams attempt is made to show the varia- tions in seasonal growth. Starting with the last week in April, the tracings in dotted line and solid line show the course and fluctuations in Larch and Pine respectively. Horizontally is marked the time in five-day periods to beyond the end of the growing season. Vertically, by relatively large spaces, sixteenths of an inch of circumference increment are shown. The first and perhaps most obvious point of difference is in the greater abso- lute growth of the White Pine, it being credited with nearly 15-16 in 1897, 16-16 in 1808, 15-16 in 1899, and 10-16 in 1900, while the Larch shows 12-16, 13-16, 10-16 and 9-16 respectively. This result was not unexpected. Knowledge of the two species at this age, under various conditions and in various situations had per- haps already determined this point. The second point brought out is the longer growing season of the Pine. Its growth continues well up to and into September, while the Larch grows but little, I incline to think not at all, after July, although the tracings vary somewhat in different years. I am disposed to credit this latter variation, at least in part, to the drying and curling of adhering bark plates or swelling in wet weather, causing a false appearance similating true growth. What bearing, if any, this difference in length of growing season has upon the so-called “spring”? wood and “summer” wood por- tions of the annual ring is not clear. The wood layer of the White Pine is notably of the spring formed type, the summer formed being relatively small in amount and not sharply de- fined, while that of the Larch always shows a liberal portion of summer formed, the cells of which have very thick walls and are highly resinous. It is doubtful whether these two parts of the annual layer (better called primary and secondary), have such relations to the seasons as to warrant continuing to call them spring and summer formed. Certainly the summer growing tree in this case forms relatively the least amount of so-called “sum- mer’? wood, and the one which grows but little, if any, after mid- summer, the most. In order to gain light upon this point, attempt was made micro- scopically to examine the annual ring at two different times of the year. Small blocks were cut out of each tree on the 19th of June, 1900, and the 21st of December of the same year. These —————_————— Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 265 were sectioned, stained and mounted in balsam and photographed from the microscope. The cutting, particularly of the Larch, proved difficult with the means at hand and the photographic scale is rather too small to satisfactorily show the full ring of the year. The ring, more- over, was this year, 1900, the thinnest for the four years of ob- servation, and the difference between the species the smallest. Although the Larch was 1/16 inch less in circumference meas- ure, the section of the ring in the microscopic slide proved to be a trifle the thicker. The greater hardness of its summer wood and the easy separation of the wood rings from one another and from the bark gave also a less clear result. Nevertheless if cor- rectly represented in these sections, and I believe there is no doubt on that score, the two species may, season for season, be legitimately compared with one another as to their wood rings. It is plain that on the 19th of June the Larch in spite of its larger cells and the imperfection of the scale, had made the greater growth. At that date in each species a little less than half of the ring is still in the active condition with abundant cell contents, and neither shows any tendency to the thickening of walls, which is the visible evidence of summer wood when ma- ture. On the 21st of December, both had, of course, completed the year’s ring, and the essential difference between the two species is marked. The Larch has greatly thickened the walls of over a third of its ring without materially flattening the cells, except a layer or two at the extreme periphery, while the Pine has slightly thickened a much smaller area, but has, in addition tangentially flattened a much larger proportion of them. It becomes obvious from a comparison of these sections that the full history of the annual ring can be obtained only by a series of sections made at intervals during the year. The me- chanical difficulties in such a study would be considerable, even then there would be the variations between the lower and upper parts of the trunk, between limbs and trunk together with such as are due to meteorological causes, as have been shown by the in- vestigation of Hartig and others.* * Pop. Sci. Monthly. 1883. 22, 204. 266 Forestry Quarterly The Pine shows generally greater uniformity in amount of yearly growth. Perhaps also there is a little less sudden fluctua- tion during the season in the case of the Pine, but it is not very marked. ‘The sharp fluctuations all occur early in the season; such as occur later are slower and less violent. It may be sur- mised that a correlation exists between the sharp and sudden ac- celerations of growth and the temperature and moisture condi- tions, as have been noted by Child} in the Red Maple, but no at- tempt was made to determine this. Incidentally these structural and physiological differences have their bearing upon the geographical distribution of the two trees. The Larch with its high alpine, narrower range, and short and cool season location quickly forms its annual ring in two or a little over two months, while the White Pine of lower latitudes, wider range, and longer growing season is more leisurely, taking double the time and forming a thinner and softer walled wood. It is probable that this particular Larch tree (Larix Europaea) has passed the time of maximum yearly growth. It is not in the most favorable soil and surroundings, and is likely to mature early even though it may grow slowly and add thin rings of wood for many more years. Certainly there is nothing in our know- ledge of these two species of trees to warrant expecting as long life and as great bulk of wood from the Larch as from the Pine. Experimental plantings of Larch, so far as I have known them, have been on too small a scale and either too crowded or too loosely grouped to give the best conditions. This species, how- ever, has several advantages where quick growth and use are desired. The trees can be advantageously grown a little closer than pines; while not free from disease and injury they are but little troubled by the pine tree weevil (Pissodes strobi) which so grievously mutilates our young pines and spruces, destroying the leading shoot and seriously checking growth. The wood is harder, heavier, more durable and better withstands strains of all kinds. ‘These qualities fit it for many uses where it would be sheer waste to employ White Pine. Altogether, the European Larch is sufficiently well known in various details of growth and structure of wood to warrant recommending it for artificial plantations in the northeastern states. +For new data on this subject see this issue, p. 316 ff. Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 267 On the other hand, our native White Pine (Pinus Strobus) has superior staying qualities. While not as slow growing in early life as the spruces, it is considerably less rapid than the European Larch. But when the Larch has approached or even reached maturity the Pine is still growing at an increasing rate and passes its maximum probably many years later. Hence, it is capable of producing a much greater bulk of material on the same area. In the beginning of the year 1897 the Larch girthed one-fourth of an inch more than the Pine; in April, 1898, they were equal. In April 1907 the Pine exceeded the Larch by two and three-fourths inches. This indicates that between the 4o and 50 year under the given conditions the Larch has reached its maximum rate of diameter growth, and is then surpassed by the White Pine. It may be worth while to call attention to the “double ring” which appears clearly on the section of the White Pine, and to put the old query, apparently still unanswered, what determines the formation of the “summer wood,’ and what gives rise to a double ring? Is it varying bark pressure? And furthermore, have we absolute proof that the condition and structure of the ring remains fixed as at the end of the year, or may not after all a change take place, obliterating for instance such double rings? W. A. BuckHovt. State College, Pennsylvania. “AVERAGE LOG” CRUISE. So many and varied are the duties incumbent upon the forester under present conditions in the United States, and so great is the scope that his training is popularly supposed to cover, that it is often with difficulty the younger men in the profession meet the initial tests imposed upon them. This is especially true in the first associations between the young forester and the lumberman. Often the ability of the forester is judged by how he acquits himself at his first test and from its result the whole cause is either belittled or fostered. The lumberman will often listen interestedly to statements and theories and will then propound a trite question, based on his exact knowledge and testing to the extreme the accuracy of the forester’s snap judgment. How often, on a tour of inspection with a lumberman, is the conver- sation interrupted by— ‘“‘How much will that tree cut?’ “What would you place as the average yield of the slashings we are now in?’ ‘What will this tract go to the acre?’ And on the ability of the forester to assume the position of an expert cruiser, is largely judged the value of the practice that he is recommend- ing. Lucky is he who can closely approximate the facts as known to the lumberman, for his case is nine-tenths won. In the general condition of our American forests no more difficult practical test is imposed upon the forester than to correctly estimate the volume of the standing timber. Our national, state, and private data for volume are entirely inade- quate to cover the multitude of variations in our forest growth. Specialized, they are good; generalized, they are often most misleading; individualized, they are at times ludicrous. Thus, to devise a method of estimating that will meet the exigencies of all conditions it is necessary to leave the beaten track and to enter the field of an adaptable table of volume. For two years the writer has been examining and purchasing timberlands on the Pacific coast. Probably two million acres have been looked over and group-estimated. Some 200,000 acres have been carefully estimated by him or by men under his super- vision. ‘The ‘‘average log” method of estimating evolved in that Oe ee ee “Average Log” Cruise. 269 experience, but which is now far from perfected, permits of many objections on practical and theoretical grounds. Nevertheless it is simple, and admits of a surprising degree of accuracy, as shown by actual woods and log scales. To obtain a detailed estimate of a timber tract the work is grouped under two captions, (1) field work—collecting data, (2) office work—computing data. In order to better understand the method it may be well, however, to first consider the underlying principles and theories governing the work. I. PRINCIPLES. It is readily apparent to the forester that work in complicated forests of mixed species, such as exist throughout the United States, is greatly handicapped by the use of volume tables pre- pared in other localities. These tables can apply only to the given species for which they were prepared. Furthermore their error under extreme conditions, or if used in individual cases (incor- rect use), is often 75 per cent. or even more. Thus in a mixed stand of five merchantable species, five distinct volume- tables must be used, each subject to wide error. It is therefore im- practicable, often impossible, in the limited time allowed to ex- amine a tract, to correctly estimate the stand on this basis. Fur- thermore a large force of well-trained, experienced cruisers at correspondingly high rate of wage would be needed to do the work by the ordinary method of cruise. It was therefore neces- sary to devise some means for treating all trees uniformly regard- less of species, and to apply some system of reducing their con- tents readily to board feet. For a long time no good method for doing this was found. Many theories were worked out and discarded. Finally an old cruiser, whom the writer happened to meet, suggested the key- note in a then unheard-of formula for obtaining the scale of the average log of a tree. This formula, to the writer’s great interest is presented as a rule of thumb in Professor Graves’ Forest Men- suration, p. 153, and is as follows: Subtract 60 from the square of the middle diameter and multiply by 0.8, thus giving the con- tents in board feet of the average 16-foot cut in the tree. The volume of the tree in board feet is then easily calculated by multi- plying the volume of the average log by the number of 16-foot logs in the tree. This formula was checked on many trees of 270 Forestry Quarterly varying forms and species, and the writer has yet to find a case where the results given do not closely coincide with the actual scale. ‘The results thus found are necessarily based on the suppo- sition that the tree is sound. All cull deductions are made later from cull scales or tables based on previous experience. With the fundamental principles given, the application natur- ally evolved. For expediency in the woods the trees should be measured at breast-height. Some hypothetical top diameter or taper must be chosen and heights determined, to permit office computation. In deciding upon top-diameters the personal equa- tion of the forester is involved. His decisions must be based on species, form, economic conditions, etc. Aside from the com- mercial limitations, which must be known by the forester, the other points are practically all embodied in factors of site. These factors may be readily approximated by a general survey of the tract in question, the height growth being the fundamental con- sideration to be noted. This may be done in one or two days, and a few hours at night will complete the tables necessary. If the forest is homogeneous one table will suffice. If conditions vary greatly, make tables to match. As a concrete example the writer will cite the table that he is now using for work in some 40,000 acres of exceedingly tall “yellow fir” (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). AVERAGE Loc TABLE. D1: B; Dit. at 5. a; Vol. at By Es Vol. inches Feet B. M. inches Feet B. M. 14 83 25 290 15 100 26 315 16 116 27 339 17 132 28 364 18 148 29 386 19 170 30 413 20 183 31 444 2006 32 472 22 226 33 501 244 34 527 24 266 35 557 “Average Log’ Cruise. 271 D. I. B. Di lta. at B. H. Vol. at B. H. Vol. inches Feet B. M. inches Feet B. M. 36 585 44 865 37 625 45 904 38 658 46 932 39 686 47 960 40 721 48 989 41 757 49 1018 42 798 50 1047 43 834 After the preliminary examination of the tract, the following top diameters were decided upon. Fifteen inches* was taken as the lowest diameter breasthigh for the estimate and 12” its cor- responding top diameter (short piling). For 45” D. bh. a top diameter of 24” was chosen. The intermediate middle diameters for each inch D. bh. class were figured from a plot on cross-sec- tion paper. In order to insure that margin of safety desirable in any esti- mate, the ratio between D. bh. and top diameters (as just stated) was figured by straight averaging instead of by the (proper) use of the areas of circles. Thus the middle diameters of the average log table as used, represent a double means of safety, in being less than the mathematical average between the end circles, and also in that the tree form is herein treated more as the frustrum of a cone than that of a paraboloid. As matters of interesting comparison the following results are presented. In result I the values as given are from the table actually in use. I. V=(D2—60).8 D at bh Diatec. Av. D. Board Logs feet in tree 35 20” BTR 557 X6=3342 board feet In Record II the same form is cubed as the frustrum of a para- boloid. iT. V=Sh=4.4315 sq. ft. XK 96=425.424 cu. ft. * All diameters given are measurements inside the bark. Fir bark varies too much to allow of other standards. 272 Forestry Quarterly For reducing this to board feet, a co-efficient of 8 (8:12) is used in rough practice for the large circular and top saws, and 9 for the ordinary band. With very large logs, in canting for U. G. flooring, and balance in dimension stock; and sawing with most improved bands Io is sometimes allowed. Thus: 8=3403. board feet; 9=3829. board feet; 10=4254. board icom Actual scale by Spaulding rule of 6-log tree 35” D. i. b. at D. bh. to 20” top gives the following result (III): Log. Scale Diameter. Board Feet. I 33 796 2 31 701 3 29 612 4 27 528 “ils 24 412 6 20 276 35325 Based on middle diameter reduced by 1” for taper and scaled by Spaulding rule, the result IV is obtained: Middle diameter (35”—20”)=27.5” 28” log= 561 2 27.5=approx. 544; hence the 6 log tree=3264. Comparing the methods, we find then: Method. Board Feet. I. 3342 3403— 8 is 38290— 9 4254—I10 1 BT 3325 [V. 32604 * Limbs. “Average Log’’ Crutse. 273 It is interesting to note the volume for such a tree as given in a Forest Service volume table prepared by Mr. E. T. Allen in Cowlitz county, Washington. Herein a tree 35” outside bark at breastheight, (D. A. B.) cutting to a 12” top, scales 2545; to a 16” top, 2295 board feet. The measurements here, however, were taken outside the bark at breast height. Figuring bark at 5”, about right for good Yellow Fir of this size, a 40” tree in Mr. Allen’s table is comparable with the 35” tree under consideration. Thus a 40” scale 3340 to a 12” top, and 3.070 to a 16” top. The Cowlitz growth is similar to the growth for which the Average Log table was made. Compare with this Cowlitz, or localized volume table, the more general one of an average of six counties in Washington cutting to about 26” top diameter (also from Mr. Allen’s work)—36” tree (no 35” class is given), 1,962; 40”, 2,496 board feet. In order to approximate the volume of the Cow- litz tree (3,340) a 46” tree from the general table is necessary (3395). It will be noted that the varying of the cutting limits is partly responsible for these differences. Still it would not be difficult in Cowlitz county to find areas where a 35” (D. i. b.) tree would show 8 logs to a 20” top. In this case we would have by the average log table 4,456 feet, against a possible 3000 feet for a tree of corresponding diameter read from the general table. Referring again to results I, II], and IV, it will. be remarked that I is in the excess. This seems dangerous. But comparison with result II shows its safeness, and also that it is close enough to prevent any “errors of omission” in passing by a good tract because of an underestimate. On this principle a complete table of volume is figured for the range of diameters and heights encountered in the tract to be estimated. It is desirable, from many points of view, in the estimate of a tract to procure data of the distribution of the stand and also for crude maps, etc. For this the ‘forty cruise’ is well adapted, and to this has been fitted a further adaptation of the full circle method. Where the U. S. rectangular surveys prevail the best system for a detailed cruise, to the writer’s mind, is as follows: Given a section of land (640 acres) to estimate, the crew con- sists of one tally-man, and one line-man, who also paces the dis- tance. The ground has been viewed previously, though perhaps 274 Forestry Quarterly only from a distance, and the trend of the topography determined. The crews are instructed to cross this trend, thus getting a truer average of stand as influenced by site, in cafion, on bench, slope and ridge. The line-man is supplied with a pocket sight compass and a small tally register to count his paces. ‘The start is made from a government corner, and the section line that parallels the trend of the country is followed. A government “forty” is + mile square, and the line-man knows that it takes 500 of his steps to travel this distance (250 double steps, commonly known to the western cruisers as “D. Ps.” [double paces], is the usual unit of measure for + mile). The method of pacing is usually to start with the left foot, and press the plunger of the register, which is held in the right hand, each time that the right foot strikes the ground. The line-man thus paces off 125 D. Ps. along the section line to the middle of the boundary of the forty, and then turns a right angle. A circle that contains an acre is slightly less than 118 ft. in radius, or approximately 23 D. P. The line-man, therefore, takes his sight and starts. As he registers 2 paces, he calls “Back,” and the tally-man notes a tree, bush, or well-defined mark to serve as an outer limit, to the rear, for his circle. The line-man on reaching 25 D. Ps. calls “Center” and the tally-man comes up. The line- man then proceeds to 48 and stops after calling “Fore.” Thus the tally-man is at the middle of a line 46 D. Ps. in length. He has a sight 23 D. Ps. to the rear, and the line-man is 23 D. Ps. in advance of him. It is thus an easy matter for him to swing his eye in a circle covering an acre and to count the number of sound merchantable trees therein. ‘These he tallies in their proper col- umns in his book. He then studies his trees and determines ocu- larly the average or sample-tree on the acre. This he measures with a diameter-circumference tape, and then deducts for the thickness of the bark. The diameter inside the bark at breast height he then records. Given this, he knows to what top-diame- ter limit he can go. He then steps back to the center of the circle, or to any convenient point, and estimates the number of 16’ logs to the given top diameter. Herein enters the judgment of the tally-man. But he soon learns to size his trees very well, and if he errs at all it will be on the safe side. His notes might then read thus: “Average Log” Cruise. 275 Section Town Range Date First Forty SE* SE* Siar Fir. Red Cedar. White Cedar. Hemlock. I 15 7/38 2 4/27 8 4/22 I 6/20 Thus there are on the first circle counted fifteen fir trees whose average merchantable length is seven logs, and whose average diameter inside the bark at breast-height is 38”. The count completed the line-man steps off four more D. Ps. to 52 and again calls “Back.” Then comes “Center” at 75 and “Fore” at 98. The count is taken at 75. This method is con- tinued across the forty, counts being taken with centers at 25, 75, ¥25,975 and 225 D. Ps, At 250 D. Ps. the line of that forty 1s crossed and the next forty entered. While facing the distance in thus sub-dividing the forty, the line-man takes such topographical and lumbering notes as may be required. As the claim or forty is completed, the tally-man notes the “Claim Factor,’ C. F. This is his own idea as to whether or not he has been travelling through a fair average of the forty. If he decides that he has he notes C. F. O. K. But if he thinks that for some reason, which he states in notes, the five counts do not represent a fair average he expresses this relation by, say, C. F. 4+ meaning that to the stand computed from the five actual counts must be added 4 to get the full estimate. With C. F. 1—, that amount must be deducted. If there are any prairies, burns, or barrens on the forty their area and location are noted. The C. F. however, ap- plies only to the timbered areas, the open spaces are taken care of in the computation. Second growth is also noted, and also items of interest to the forester according to his directions. When the day’s work is completed the sheets are sent to the office. Ill. OFrrice Work. The computation in the office from the data for each forty is exceedingly simple. It amounts to merely substituting for the fraction, expressing the form of the tree, the board feet in the tables for the corresponding diameter and log-lengths. This sam- ple tree volume is multiplied by the number of trees to the count, and the stand for that species is entered in its proper place. Each 276 F orestry Quarterly count and each species is thus treated. It will be readily seen that on a full forty, five acre-counts represent 4 or 123 per cent. of the area as actually scaled. Therefore, with C. F. O. K., the total of the five counts has merely to be multiplied by 8, thus giv- ing the total stand of each species on the forty. These totals cross-footed into a grand total give the entire merchantable yield of the forty. If the forties are not full for any reason, 1. e. frac- tional government lots, presence of burned areas, or grass land, the average acre is found from the counts and its value multi- plied by the acreage of timber in the forty. Changes in totals due to + or — in the C. F. are also made accordingly. The speed and cheapness of this method, coupled with its ac- curacy, greatly lends it to a wide trial. There is also an advan- tage of secrecy, in that the tally and line-man do not know what the full estimates are. Good woodsmen may be readily secured in many places where experienced cruisers are at a very high pre- mium. In ordinary “going” two men can cover 320 acres a day in the heavy coast fir, 480—8o0o0 acres in mountainous pine lands, and occasionally up to 1280 acres in flat, open, pine lands. The cost of these men will rarely exceed $6 and expenses for the crew, and will occasionally go as low as $4.50 per day. An experienced cruiser commands $10 or more, and his one or more line-men $2 to $3 per day. Furthermore, they cannot cover ground as fast, and it is doubtful if they can do it as well as the cheap crew under the system just outlined. When once a man becomes acquainted with this method he can easily carry with him the average size of the trees passed. This, on a rapid examination, will be constantly shifted and adjusted, but with very little attending mental effort. It is merely averag- ing and comparing, two duties that the eye fulfills daily. Counts on acres over a tract may be made even while strolling along on a horse. A small tally register will quickly and safely record the trees, and it is only necessary to remember the number of counts in order to easily secure the average acre. The eye soon gets to measure the 118 feet of the radius and the count may be made about as fast as the head may be turned. Experience will soon tell of diameters, and practice in computing will carry a clear recollection of the scale of the average logs. ‘Thus when a snap judgment is requested on the contents of a tree, the stand on an “Average Log” Cruise. 277 acre of virgin timber or even of cut-over, or, perchance, of the forest of the last six hours, the answer will be forthcoming im- mediately, and it will not be far from the facts of the case. The system of the average log, with minor changes, has been employed by the writer for about a year. Many are the objec- tions that may first be raised regarding the volume theory. On short, quickly tapering trees the results do appear large against log scale. Still the ordinary log scales do not approach the mill scale on short-boled timber. The true test of the system will be from the woods directly to the results on the grading table. As yet the writer has had no opporttinity for checking in this way. In this, time alone will tell. A year’s use, and that in limited practice, is, however, no cri- terion on which to judge the value of the system. New objec- tions are bound to be entered. The writer would request all for- esters who can, to utilize the system, and to report wherein the tables may be improved. New formulas may be devised that will more closely cube the average log. Criticism is wanted about all things, and suggestions desired on all phases of the system. ‘The more the “Average Log” method is used, the more severe will be its ““‘try-out,” and therein only may the system be perfected—if it proves at all worthy of the same. W. J. Warp. THE FOREST LAWS OF CALIFORNIA.* During the 35th session the Legislature of California enacted forest laws which were approved by Governor Pardee on March 18, 1905. They mark the renewed adoption by California of a movement to perpetuate the forest that has found favor within recent years by the National Government and by a majority of the States. Here, as elsewhere, legislative action followed a period of propaganda for the purpose of creating a realization of the need of pursuing methods favorable to forest preservation. The progress of the agitation work was marked in this State first by the passage of an act in 1885 entitled, “An act to create a State Board of Forestry and to provide for the expenses thereof.” This board was functionally a bureau of education. It issued three reports which were botanical in character. In 1887 it was endowed with police powers and given an appropriation of $29,- 500. In 1893, however, this board was abolished. From 1893 to 1903 there was no surface indication of the un- dercurrent of feeling in favor of forest preservation. Yet this period was one of marked need and of rapid development along other lines. It was the decade during which the lumbermen from the Lake States and Southern pineries flocked to California to invest in timberlands, and during which time the State disposed of the bulk of its sole forest possessions by the sale of school lands for the ridiculously low price of $1.25 per acre. Then, in 1903, those in favor of forest preservation made another stand and secured the passage of an act empowering the State Board of Examiners to contract with the Federal Bureau of Forestry to study and report on the forest resources of the State with recom- mendations regarding the best means of conserving them. This study has been in progress ever since, but will end on July 1st with all its objects attained. Before it had progressed a year, enough was learned to warrant the recommendation of a policy for the State to pursue with reference to her forest lands. ‘These recommendations were submitted by the Bureau of Forestry in the form of a bill which provided for the appointment of a State *A paper read at Petaluma June 7, 1907. The Forest Laws of California. 279 Forester and two Assistant State Foresters, and in addition a field force of ten district fire wardens. The bill made provision for technical assistance to forest owners in the management of their property, advisory aid to those desiring to establish forest plantations and included punitive restrictions in the use of fire on forest land. ‘These latter were to be enforced by the fire wardens under the supervision of the State Forester. This bill failed of passage in its original form chiefly because the Legislature was not assured the time was ripe for such an elaborate system, and because of an objection, ill-grounded in my opinion, to the policy of making the taxpayers as a whole bear the burden of protection more or less local. Some men doubted the necessity or practicability of any action; others felt that the work would be educational at best. A compromise was effected at the last moment by hastily cutting out of the bill nearly all the provisions for a field force and leaving only the means of maintaining an agitation bureau at Sacramento, with which local interests could co-operate if they should see fit. The result was the Act of March 18, 1905, under which State forestry work is being conducted. Its underlying principle is that the State’s duty ends with urging and permitting its interested in- dustries to protect their forest resources at their own expense; and the machinery it provides for this purpose in the insufficiently altered detail of the original bill, devised for a wholly different system. But although this was as far as the Legislature was willing to go in the beginning, the apparent policy expressed was not expected to serve permanently. The measure was intended to be experimental; to provide means by which the people and the administration could learn by mutual experience the possibili- ties of the movement and the equitable share of expense to be borne by each. The knowledge thus gained was to guide the enactment of new laws. Forestry work under the new law began on July 12, 1905, when the Board of Forestry was organized and a State Forester was appointed. The general policy for early work consisted of a lively campaign against forest fires, because it was recognized that they constitute the chief destructive agency in California, and until their prevalence is decreased activity along the other two lines is of doubtful practicability. Education and publicity 280 Forestry Quarterly were aimed at first, rather than rigid enforcement of the penal sections, both because no machinery for the latter existed and be- cause it was not deemed advisable to risk making the movement unpopular in the beginning. During the following year it was possible to reap some of the benefits created by the agitation of the first year. Among the achievements can be noted the co-operation of ten counties which appropriated sums ranging from $250 to $1,500 to pay the claims for salaries and expenses of the fire wardens acting within them. These ten counties had 103 fire wardens. There were 128 em- ployes of the Forest Service, acting under State appointment, who did good work in enforcing the law on private lands within, and contiguous to, the forest reserves where their Federal au- thority did not apply. Their claims were paid by the Forest Ser- vice. In addition 136 men accepted appointments as volunteer fire wardens to protect their own or their employer’s interests. These men either bore their own expenses or were paid by their employers. Of all the fire wardens appointed none received any money from the State. From the fire wardens and other sources it was learned that 120 forest fires, exclusive of those in the forest reserves, occurred last year. The fire wardens worked on 76 of them. More than 650,000 acres of forest land were burned over, destroying in some cases only the vegetation, in other cases houses, stock, and valua- ble timber. In every case, however, the loss to the State was a real one, for it meant either the direct destruction of taxable property or the lowering of productive power. During the sum- mer 24 arrests were made for violation of the forest laws and 16 persons were convicted and fined. It may be said then that the forest laws are very useful. On the other hand, this cursory view of the situation would be very misleading, did it not admit great need for their improvement, both in detail and general scope. Their object will not be at- tained without still further assumption of responsibility by- the State, for the theory of voluntary co-operation upon which they are based is too ideal. ‘The indifferent element of the population is still too large. The present system leaves the regions where indifference predominates unprotected, whereas it is the one really in greatest need of protection. Let me illustrate by citing the ob- The Forest Laws of California. 281 stacles to be overcome in securing county appropriations as a means of preventing fires. This condition obtains excepting in the southern counties: (1) The mountain counties which are the timber-bearing ones in California are sparsely settled; are assessed highly already for their necessities such as roads, bridges, buildings, etc., and hence are literally too poor to spare any of their funds to protect their forest property. (2) The valiey counties, which are our agricultural and horti- cultural sections depend for lumber, fuel wood, fence material, stakes and even for the water to grow their crops on the protec- tion of the forests in the mountain counties. Yet the valley coun- ties cannot appropriate money to be used in the neighboring mountain counties even if they would. (3) Then consider the county of San Francisco. The cry is heard that the city should not be taxed to protect the forest, but I tell you that it should. Does not the city of San Francisco use mountain water? Do not the inhabitants of San Francisco de- light in excursions through the mountain forests? Is the city not dependent for existence itself on a plentiful supply of lumber for building purposes? It is useless to attempt to solve this State- wide problem by local applications. The forests of the State must be protected by the State if they are ever protected. I[ believe that the State should have an appropriation for forestry purposes large enough so that it could meet the counties half way. Let the State and each forested county bear jointly the expense of maintaining one fire warden, who shall have no other than patrol duties; who, in case of a fire shall take active charge, summon men, secure provisions, etc., and at other times shall go about among the people instructing them regarding the forest laws, se- curing their confidence and enlisting their support. The men called upon by a warden should be paid for their services from the joint appropriation made by the State and the county in which the services are performed. At present the wardens have the authority to warn men out to fight fire and they may be fined if they refuse to go, yet there is no fund from which they can be paid unless the county bears the expense. The State cannot justly refuse to accept its share of this burden. There is just one other feature of the forest law I want to call 282 Forestry Quarterly to your attention. It is provided that there shall be two Assistant State Foresters, who shall receive a salary of $1,200 per year. Whether the requisite is general address and ability to enlist con- fidence and co-operation in a new movement or, as it will be more and more, technical and practical training in forest work, it cannot be obtained at this price. It is absurd to leave the solu- tion of a problem involving millions, and by its nature requir- ing enterprise and originality, largely to depend upon the im- pression made by men who must be secured for less compensa- tion than is received by a minor clerk or mechanic. Unless this situation is improved the State will fail, at least partially, to meet the demand for assistance which it is trying to encourage. Owing to the low salary it has been found impossible to secure technically-trained men as assistants, yet technical training in forestry is as essential to the forester as the study of medicine is to the physician. For example, before giving advice in plant- ing, except the tract is small and in a well-known region, it is necessary to visit the tract and make a close study of the many natural factors important to tree growth. A tract of forest land, real or potential, is to the forester what a patient is to the physician, and the former must be quite as sure as the latter that the treatment recommended applies to the particular case at hand. “Absent treatment’ is unsafe. To prove that there is a call for this work I need only state ‘the fact that since last August I have received applications from 30 landowners for advice in planting a little over 75,000 acres of land. Planting plans for 65,000 acres have been made in this period and general advice has been furnished for much more. In most cases the examinations have been made too hurriedly, however. This situation will not be fully met until a more liberal salary permits the securing of technical men who can be relied on to do part of the work. These improvements can be secured if there is a universal demand for them, and I look to the California Promotion Com- mittee to continue its good work in creating this demand and focussing it on the next Legislature. Gro. B, Luu. TREATMENT OF HARDWOOD LANDS IN SOUTH- WESTERN CONNECTICUT. The purpose of this article is to outline in a preliminary way the methods of treatment which appear the best adapted to the hardwood stands typical of southwestern Connecticut. Emphasis has been placed especially on theoretical considerations, but since market conditions in this territory are most excellent, the practical and the theoretical are both attainable in the average case. The forest products most in demand are telephone and tele- graph poles, piles, and ties, making possible comparatively low rotation. Cordwood, the chief output of thinnings, except at distances of over six miles from a market, can be disposed of profitably. For the owner who has only a temporary interest in the forest, no change from the present system is advisable. But where the land is held permanently it is believed that the quantity and quality of the yield can be best increased under some such sys- tem of management as that here outlined. As yet but little definite data on the results of treatment have been secured. This is but natural, as the scientific management of Connecticut woodlands is just beginning. So the exact results of many of the operations advised cannot be accurately stated. As more information is gathered regard- ing the results of treatment, better methods may be developed. Southwestern Connecticut is essentially a region of mixed hardwoods with chestnut, oaks, (red, white, black, scarlet, chest- nut,) hickories (pignut, mockernut, shagbark) and soft maple as the leading wood producing species. The composition of the forest may range from stands of chest- nut, oak, hickory, or maple to complex mixtures containing 10 or 15 commercial species. Mixtures are much more frequent than pure stands. Owing to the fact that the woodlands have been cut over again and again and usually cut clear, timber of a large size is rare. As a further consequence of the clear cutting the present stands are chiefly of sprout origin, while the trees in 284 Forestry Quarterly a single stand are of practically the same age. Surface fires running at short intervals—often annually—over the same area are responsible for serious injuries to the forest. But few stands can be found which do not show the effects of fire, either in poor soil conditions and lack of thrifty seedlings and saplings, or in the scarred and hollowed butts of mature trees. The amount of fire damaged timber which dies each year from the direct injuries or the subsequent attack of fungi is undoubtedly large, though no definite estimate can be made at this time. Were these surface fires stopped the condition of the forest would improve rapidly. An even aged mixed forest of sprout hardwoods showing too plainly the harmful effects of forest fires characterizes the wooded areas of southwestern Connecticut. The treatment for this par- ticular type of woodland only is here considered. Without doub: these sprout stands of mixed hardwoods form the prevail- ing forest type, usually referred to as the Mixed Hardwood Type. Before taking up the detailed consideration of its management it may be well to enumerate the other chief types and to distinguish them from one another. On swampy land stands of soft maple or of mixed hardwoods thrive, but they differ from the mixed hardwood stands already described by the absence of chestnut and hickory and most of the oaks, which give place to species capable of growing in ex- cessive moisture. The swamp hardwoods thus furnish a type by themselves needing special treatment. Another very extensive type, the Old Field Type, is found on fields formerly under cultivation or in pastures which are now growing up again to forest. The trees are of seedling origin and vary greatly in age. These two points, together with the presence of red cedar, and grey birch, serve to separate such stands from our main type of hardwoods. The old field type at first con- tains but a small percentage of chestnut, oak, and hickory; but gradually these species increase in proportion and by their more enduring qualities drive out the grey birch and red cedar. They tend gradually to approach the mixed hardwood type in char- acter and after being cut over once, change into this latter type. 3esides the main types, other minor types occasionally exist. Stands of the mixed hardwood type may be separated into two classes for the purposes of this article: Treatment of Hardwood Lands. ' 285 1. Untreated stands first taken under management when 30 or more years of age. 2. Stands from early youth under forest management. The general method of treatment for the two classes is the same, but as the details differ somewhat each class will be considered separately. I. Untreatep StTanps First TAKEN UNDER MANAGEMENT WHEN 30 oR More YEARS OLD. In an untouched forest allowed to grow naturally a vast num- ber of inferior trees accumulate, ranging all the way from indi- viduals already dead to others just becoming over-topped. That the competitive struggle for existence in such crowded stands is intense is well known to every forester. Nor is it necessary to enlarge on the need of, and benefits to be derived from thinning the stand. The point to be emphasized is that, while even in well managed forests dead and suppressed material gradually gathers between thinnings, yet in the forest which has remained untreated until middle age, the accumulation of these classes of trees is much greater. Indeed the presence of large quantities of dead and suppressed trees may serve to characterize untreated hard- wood stands. This characteristic indicates the line along which treatment must be first directed. The stand must be freed of the excessive quantity of inferior trees and improved by being brought into condition for healthy rapid development. A preliminary cutting of this nature is a true thinning, but since the stand has previously been untreated the inferior material has accumulated and exceeds in amount the quantity which would come out from a stand of the same age, but regu- larly thinned in the past. To express the same idea in another way, a preliminary cutting and thinning made in accordance with European standards, whether of grade A, B, C or D, removes, in taking out the same classes of trees, a higher percentage of the total volume than is laid down in European textbooks for the different grades of thinning. In many cases a preliminary cutting is more than a thinning, in that occasional gaps may be made in the canopy by removing badly diseased trees. It is then an improvement thinning rather 286 Forestry Quarterly than a thinning in the more restricted and technical sense of the word. To illustrate the difference between preliminary cuttings made (1) as an ordinary thinning, and (2) as an improvement thin- ning, tables 1 and 2 have been prepared, each one representing one-quarter acre. Table 1 was taken in a stand about 40 years in age which had been but little damaged by fire, insects, and fungi. Table 2, on the other hand, represents a stand approxi- mately 10 years older which has suffered severely from fire and the subsequent attacks of fungi. In the former stand a pre- liminary cutting (thinning) was made, taking out dead, sup- pressed, overtopped and a few intermediate trees. In the case of such tolerant species as beech, black birch, and hard maple certain suppressed and overtopped individuals were left, provided they did not interfere with the main stand. The purpose of the cutting illustrated in Table 2 was to remove dead, suppressed, overtopped, and part of the intermediate trees, but also to take out all the badly damaged trees which probably would not survive until the next cutting (10 years hence). ‘Thus openings in the crown cover were allowable and as a consequence (although the cutting did not have this end in view) a certain amount of seed- ling reproduction may be expected. At first glance the two tables seem to show similar thinnings. But on observing the stand of 7” and over D. B. H. we find that out of 50 trees in Table 1, 9 are removed, or 18%, while in Table 2 out of 43 trees 11 are cut, or 26%, indicating a much heavier cutting in the main stand in the improvement thinning than in the ordinary thinning. The number of trees per plot in Table 1 is more than twice as great as in Table 2, due to the difference in age, and to the fact that on the latter plot more frequent fires have hastened the death and decay of small trees, and also because small beech, birch, and hard maple, tolerant species and able to grow under a cover of oak and chestnut, abound in Table 1 but are lacking in Table 2. The number of trees 7” and over in D. B. H. corresponds quite closely on the two plots. ‘The figures at the foot of Table 1 serve to support the statement in a previous paragraph that a preliminary cutting in an untreated stand removes a larger per cent. of the volume than the amount usually credited to such a thinning. For this Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 287 chinning taking out dead, suppressed, most of the overtopped, and a few intermediate trees, without breaking the cover would be classed as a Grade C thinning (see QuarTrERLY, Vol. — p.—), and theoretically would remove not over 15% of the volume of the stand. As a matter of fact fully 29% was cut out in this stand. Probably 25% of the volume represents a fair average. The character of this style of cutting is well brought out in Table 3, which gives the stand before and after cutting with the trees tallied by crown classes. The figures were taken in the same type of stand as those of Table 1, the two plots lying within 100 yards of each other and representing the same thinning. It is seen that all the dead and suppressed trees were removed, together with more than half the overtopped and about 1/3 of the intermediate trees, representing 23% of the total volume. No dominant trees were cut. The large percentage of over- topped trees left after the cutting are composed mostly of hard maple and black birch. Where the preliminary cutting is largely an improvement cut- ting the volume per cent. removed will vary greatly, depending chiefly on the extent to which the stand is damaged, probably never falling below 20%. Five to ten years after a preliminary cutting the average stand will need further treatment. Whether another thinning or a cutting to secure reproduction is in order will be determined by the age of the stand and by the length of the rotation on which it is managed. With the prevailing market conditions a rotation of more than 80 years is inadvisable for the average owner; and where stands are taken under management at 30 years of age or younger, a 60 to 70-year rotation is sufficiently high. This would hold especially for mixed hardwoods with a considerable percentage of oak. If chestnut occurs pure or in predominating amount, a much lower rotation, say 40 to 50 years, can frequently be used to advantage. Whatever the length of the rotation a time will finally come when the question of harvesting the old crop and providing for a second crop must be considered. The customary method in the past has been to cut clear, harvesting the entire crop at one time and obtaining reproduction by sprouts. Under certain circum- z t a Cz s z I ~~ S 3 2 Q . : ey ~ 4 S ~ S) hy ip eee =] ° ot or : rs ia ‘rejdog 288 ————— ‘6% = OWHIOA UT SUTUUTY JO "JUS. 1og ‘spo g'z = (poxpo}s pure yo Aypenjoe) Jno JuHoUy ‘spo 6 = (poazeUultjsa) purys [20], ee | € eae eticiemeas 20 | I I Betta ee, eu *AIOWOIH Li ve zs os M1 of Lk Je] Seet} Joquinu [ejJoy, ‘jnd S901} Joquinu [P}OT, Li Bia sxeninitp fers — —— ee) oe Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 291 5 to 10 years, depending on the rapidity with which seedlings spring up, should be used in cutting off the mature timber. Often after a preliminary cutting (improvement) as previously noted, conditions favorable for seedling reproduction are created. Where such a cutting has been made late in the rotation it may serve as a preparatory reproduction cutting. But frequently when the preliminary cutting takes place early in the rotation it will be necessary to allow the stand to close up and suppress the advance growth which has arisen prematurely. The methods of reproduction outlined for mixed hardwood stands and for pure chestnut should be applied whether the two types occur on distinct areas of considerable extent, or, as is quite common, in small groups. In a woodlot of any size, groups of chestnut are apt to be distributed among mixed groups of oak and other hardwoods. These groups of chestnut, even if com- posed only of the trees on two or three stools, should be repro- duced by clear cutting, while the small areas covered with mixed hardwoods are handled in a series of reproduction cuttings. Thus a combination of the seed method with the simple coppice system is applied to the same body of timber. The percentage of the volume taken out by the reproduction cuttings in mixed hardwood stands will vary greatly. In the first cutting, influenced by the condition of the seedbed and by the amount of advance growth on the ground, the percentage cut in stands previously thinned may run from as low as 15 to over 50. The succeeding cuttings before the final one, necessarily reniove a much higher percentage than the first; or rarely under 50 per cent. of the total volume. II. Sranps From Barty YoutH Unpser Forest MANAGEMENT. So far in southwestern Connecticut very few stands have from early youth received careful treatment. But perhaps the most comprehensive view of the treatment required by a mixed hard- wood stand can be secured by outlining its management from youth onward. This will include a partial repetition of the treatment advised in the case of untreated stands. The first operation for which there is need in the young stand is a cleaning. A cleaning as distinguished from a thinning has for its object the regulation of the mixture of species in 292 Forestry Quarterly the stand, and the favoring of seedlings as against sprouts; and being made ordinarily in young growth it usually fails to show a financial profit. After a woodlot is cut clear a great many undesirable species seed in and compete with the valuable sprout and seedling growth. Such worthless species as grey birch and poplar by their rapid growth may overtop and suppress oak and hickory. Often sprouts are found shading seedlings of the same species. As the latter are wanted in the main stand, it is desirable to cut out the hindering sprouts. Such operations are cleanings. They can theoretically, in the majority of cases, be employed to ad- vantage after the ordinary clear cutting. Of course, where a fully stocked stand of thrifty sprouts or valuable seedlings occu- pies the ground after cutting, a cleaning is unnecessary. Whether in stands successfully reproduced by successive cuttings, a clean- ing will be required cannot be definitely stated. In pure chestnut stands cut clear, cleanings are unnecessary. The age at which the cleaning should be made will depend on the density of the stocking and the rapidity with which the young trees close together. It should not be made until the crown cover is complete. Between the ages of 10 and 15 years will be the best period. If longer delayed, a cleaning will be too late to accomplish its purpose. Fifteen sample plots each of from 1/16 to 1/8 acre in size, taken in an 8-year old coppice in which a cleaning had just been made, produced the following figures: The chief species were chestnut, white, black, red and chest- nut oaks, hickory, grey birch, poplar, and soft maple. Average number of trees per acre before the cleaning, 6,800. Number of trees removed by the cleaning ranged from 15 to 45% of the total number, average 30%. No salable wood produced by the cleaning. Cost of the cleaning, $2.00 to $2.50 per acre. The cleaning would have been more effective here if delayed a few years, as the canopy had scarcely closed in many places. While undoubtedly cleanings furnish valuable aid in regulat- ing the mixture, it is extremely questionable whether they are justified on a financial basis, at an expenditure of $2.00 per acre. <.eS Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 293 By the time the young stand is 20 years old the need of a true thinning will be felt. If no cleaning has been made at an earlier date, this first thinning will aid in regulating the mixture. But in stands of this character (which have lacked a cleaning) many individuals of undesirable species will have gained such positions that they cannot be removed by the thinning without creating large gaps in the forest cover. No reliable data is yet at hand to show the volume per cent. which can be removed. It will probably fall somewhat below that removed by the preliminary cutting shown in Table 1. A thinning in 20-year old stands ordinarily will at least pay the expenses. Following the first thinning at regular intervals of 5 to 10 years, successive thinnings afford the necessary treatment which the stand demands until the time for reproduction arrives. In pure chestnut stands or wherever sprout reproduction is sought by a clear cutting system, the successive thinnings con- tinue right up until the crop is cut clear. In stands otherwise handled when the time for reproduction arrives, reproduction cuttings, as have been already described, are initiated. Unless protection from forest fires can be obtained, manage- ment of hardwood lands on a permanent basis should never be attempted. The same is true as regards protection from grazing. Grazing, however, is here a lesser evil and is confined almost wholly to small woodlots adjacent to farms. The control of this evil is in the hands of each individual owner and presents few difficulties. Control of the frequently recurring surface fires presents an altogether different proposition. The damages to the producing power of the soil, and to the crop caused by these fires are too well understood to need elaboration here. Control of forest fires while devolving to a certain extent upon every owner is at the same time in its broadest aspect a matter requir- ing State effort to be effective. Each owner, however, when putting his forest land under management can take such pre- cautionary steps as will help him to prevent the entrance of fire on his land and to control it should it once get started. By disposing of the limbs and tops left after thinnings and cuttings, danger of a severe fire can be avoided. If brushy tops 204 Forestry Quarterly are allowed to remain untouched, they dry out, and, rotting slowly, present for a number of years a serious fire trap. The ordinary surface fire reaching an area covered with these tops increases greatly in violence and becomes very difficult to control. In order to confine the fires to light surface fires which do less damage and can be controlled more easily than hot brush fires, the brush and tops should either be burned after the cutting or lopped into small pieces and scattered over the ground. When tops are cut up so that after being scattered they lie flat on the ground, decay soon starts and the tops almost immediately cease to be inflammable. This method is perhaps the best in dry weather, when it would be dangerous to burn the brush. When the cutting goes on in the winter time or in wet weather, the tops and limbs can be thrown by the choppers directly onto fires and burned. By choosing small openings for the fires, the standing trees escape injury. The cost of disposing of the logging debris is low. When the workmen become familiar with the operation, burning the brush can often be included in the cutting price without greatly in- creasing the latter. One case near New Haven can be cited where burning brush has been carried on for five years. At first somewhat higher, the contract price per cord for cutting and piling wood cut out in thinnings has been reduced to $1.00 to $1.10, which includes the burning of the brush. Lopping of the tops instead of brush burning could be contracted for at the same price. Where the brush is disposed of in a separate operation about ten cents per cord of wood cut should be allowed. The maintenance of fire lines is often urged as the best method of protecting woodlands. But whether in the particular type of forest and region under consideration the expense of constructing and maintaining fire lines is justified by the results secured is debatable. A large percentage of the wooded area lies in com- paratively small blocks interspersed by farmland. No fire lines are here required. In other places where continuous forest spreads over considerable areas the woodland is broken into sec- tions by the country roads, and further subdivided by the numer- ous woods roads. ‘These roads in case of need can act as lines for fighting fire and for back firing, even if not kept as fire lines constantly bare of litter. Only occasionally do big tracts of a Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 205 thousand or more acres occur untraversed by country roads and even such tracts ordinarily have woods roads. Instead of spending money annually for the construction and maintenance of fire lines, it is believed that the small owner can better protect his hardwood stands by personal work among his friends and neighbors, looking toward the establishment of a better sentiment regarding the setting and fighting of forest fires. The names of towns could be given which, formerly overrun by frequent surface fires, in the last few years as a result of a better understanding among the inhabitants of the damage done by fires, now are nearly immune. By inculcating the spirit of carefulness in setting fires and of willingness to fight them when started, the private owner can accomplish more toward protection than by constructing fire lines. What has been said regarding fire lines should not be taken as applying to other regions however near, or to other types of forest. Fire lines properly arranged and cared for undoubtedly further excellent protection, but in this particular case their maintenance appears unwarranted. Raupu C. HAWLEY. THE FORESTS OF ARKANSAS. The State of Arkansas covers an area of 52,000 square miles. Originally this entire area was clothed with forests with the ex- ception of about goo square miles of prairie land located mostly in Prairie and Arkansas counties. Fully 80 per cent. of the State remains in woodland, of which two-thirds is commercial forest. This places Arkansas in the foremost rank of the timbered States and makes it the center of unusual activity in the lumber industry. The delay in opening up these vast forests is more than com- pensated by the present vigor of exploitation. Geographically, the State is divisible, roughly, into upland and lowland. The lowland, comprising three-fifths of the area, occupies the east and south portions of the State. Along the Mississippi River it lies in a low, level strip 50 to 100 miles wide. South of the Arkansas River and west of these flood plains is a gradually undulating region which ascends northward to the Ozark Mountains. The upland occupies the entire northwest portion of the State. Conforming to these general topographic divisions we recognize three forest regions. They are (1) alluvial bottoms; (2) rolling lowlands; (3) Ozark Mountains. Within each are several types, usually difficult to define because of the gradual transition of one into another. The State’s location, diversity of topography and soil, together with a moderate, humid climate, are especially favorable to the occurrence of a rich and valuable flora. There are fully 60 tree species of commercial importance growing within its bounds. 1. The alluvial bottoms are the flood plains along the Missis- sippi, Arkansas and Red Rivers and their tributaries. The land is low and flat, covered with dense forests interspersed with lakes and marshes, and submerged frequently by the river floods. Practically every river and bayou running through this region is characterized by a rather narrow strip of bottom land adjacent to either bank, becoming narrower as one leaves the main region. There are occasional low ridges lying parallel to the Missis- The Forests of Arkansas. 297 sippi. The most important one is known as Crowley’s Ridge and lies between White and St. Francis Rivers. The soil of the bottoms is deep and rich. It is made up of layers of sand, loam and clay which have been deposited by the rivers during flood time. The fallen leaves and twigs do not have a chance to accumulate on the surface but are covered over by the alluvial deposits. Were it not for the frequent inundations such soil would be exceptionally valuable for agriculture, as are the drier ridges along the river banks. Three types are distinguishable, viz: Ridge, glade and slough. The ridges are long, low, meandering elevations above water level during the overflow season. The species of merchantable importance most commonly found on these situations are red gum, 40 per cent.; cow and white oak, 30 per cent.; white and green ash, Io per cent.; cottonwood, 5 per cent.; together with sycamore, mulberry, white elm, persimmon and hackberry. As- sociated with them are many inferior species, such as red and silver maple, boxelder, slippery elm, dogwood, honey locust and pawpaw. The glades occur between the ridges just described, being fre- quently interrupted by cross ridges. During floods water backs up from the sloughs and stands for several months, often being withdrawn by evaporation or through percolation.- The char- acteristic species are red and black gum; cow, willow, swamp white and red oak; hackberry, pecan hickory, red maple, white elm, river birch, willow, cottonwood and cypress. There is usually a dense undergrowth of sedge, elbow-bush, poison ivy, wild grape, cane and coarse wiry grass. The sloughs are covered with water most of the year. Cypress and tupelo gum are the only species occurring in this type, which is relatively least important. It is more prevalent in the immedi- ate proximity to shallow rivers and their tributaries than farther back where only the ridges and glades are found. Reproduction is usually lacking. The alluvial bottoms afford special inducements for conserva- tive management. Most of the land is not naturally cultivable and much of it cannot be reclaimed with reasonable expense. Tree growth is very rapid and reproduction is readily secured. 298 Forestry Quarterly Most important of all, the danger from fire and wind is extremely small, making expensive protective measures unnecessary. Best results can be secured by clear cutting in strips not ex- ceeding 600 feet in width and at right angles to the prevailing winds, leaving strips of standing trees of the same width. All of the inferior species should be removed or destroyed. Logging with steam skidders is recommended. ‘They can be placed along a railroad at the end of each strip to haul in the logs for a dis- tance of one-half a mile or more on each side of track. In this way little swamping is required, heavy hauling by teams is un- necessary and the ground is put in good condition for seeding. Its advantages over the selection system are that logging is made easier and cheaper, marking of trees is obviated, and better natural reproduction of the desirable species is secured. The reserve strips should be cut over as soon as the young growth on the intervening strips begins to bear seed, which will be in about 20 or 25 years. By this method the second cutting will equal the first, and subsequent crops are assured. 2. The rolling lowlands comprise about one-fifth of the State’s area. The soil varies from deep, stiff sandy loam in the flats to gravelly clay on the ridges. It is poorly adapted to agriculture unless heavily fertilized. Tree growth is usually rapid and in most instances will afford better returns than farm crops. The forest may be divided into three general types. They are ridge, flat and creek bottom. The ridges are usually well-drained and occupied mostly by shortleaf pine. In many places it is the only species, but the hard- woods encroach where the soil conditions become more favor- able. The principal species are Spanish and post oak, rarely above medium size. Wax myrtle and huckleberry form the prin- cipal underbrush. The flats are largely covered with loblolly pine associated with hardwood growth peculiar to moist soil. The prevailing species are red and black gum, white, Spanish, post and willow oak, hickory, red maple and holly. The ground cover varies from weeds and grass to dense thickets of wax myrtle, brambles, sumac and hardwood sprouts. Loblolly pine will grow on the uplands and also in the creek bottoms, but the shortleaf is con- fined to the better drained soils. The Forests of Arkansas. 299 The creek bottoms are similar to the Mississippi bottoms in character of tree growth. The principal species are gums, willow oak, red maple, cypress and loblolly pine. It is here that the lob- lolly attains its largest dimensions but it occurs only as scattered individuals among the hardwoods. The stand of timber on the rolling lowlands will vary from 5,000 to 15,000 feet per acre, with a probable average of 7,000 feet. Growth of the pines is quite rapid where they have suf- ficient room, and reproduction is usually excellent in all openings and abandoned fields. The wood of the two species cannot be readily distinguished, and since loblolly pine grows faster than shortleaf, it is to be preferred. From 40 to 60 years is required for a tree to attain merchantable dimensions. Nearly all of the timber now cut is over 100 years of age. ‘The selection system of cutting is applicable to this region, the proper diameter limit varying from 12 to 16 inches at breastheight. Windfall is common, especially on the flats, and much damage is also caused by insect attacks. But by far the greatest danger is from fire and all successful plans for continued lumbering in this region must provide adequate protection. Probably the best system is to burn the slash at a time when the least damage will result to the young growth and standing trees. From that time until the seedlings have reached a height of six feet all fires must be rigorously excluded. This can be done by patrolling the lands during the danger season and burning out fire lines 200 feet wide to connect with roads and streams. When the pines are six feet high the tract should be carefully burned over at a favorable time in order to lessen the danger of a more serious conflagration later. In this way lands may be adequately protected at annual cost of about 4 cents per acre. The price of pine stumpage has risen enormously within late years. Fifteen years ago it was possible to buy timbered land for from $1.25 to $2.50 per acre, or from 10 to 30 cents per thousand feet for the timber alone. At present such timber is worth from $2.00 to $4.00 per thousand. The next five years will probably witness a continued increase. 3. The Ozark region occupies the northwest portion of the State and comprises about two-fifths of the entire area. North of the Arkansas River are hills and irregular, poorly-defined 300 Forestry Quarterly mountains, reaching their culmination in the Boston range. South of the river the ridges are steep and well-defined. ‘They attain their greatest altitudes in Mounts Magazine and Fourche, whose peaks rise 2,800 feet above sea level. The soil of this region is mostly rocky, shallow and sterile. There is great variation in the composition and quality of the forests, due to differences in elevation, and conditions of soil and moisture. Three common types are distinguishable, viz: ridge, slope and river bottom. The ridge type occupies the crests of the ridges and some of the poorest knolls and foothills. The soil is very poor and stony, and subjected to the action of severe winds. The trees are small, short and scrubby. The prevailing species are blackjack oak, red oak, black locust, chinquapin-chestnut, wing-elm, and hickory. The open undergrowth consists of huckleberry and briars. The slopes are usually well wooded, the timber being best near the base of the hills and gradually entering the ridge type. The forests of the north slopes are better than on the south, due to difference in the moisture conditions. South of the Arkansas River shortleaf pine is a very important tree and is especially abundant on the south slopes, though usually in open stand. It is of fair quality but of smaller dimensions and closer grain than that grown on the rolling lowlands. It makes its best development in the gulches and on the lower slopes. ‘Trees in mixture are red, white and post oaks, chinquapin chestnut, black locust and cherry. White oak is the principal tree on the north slopes. North of the Arkansas River the shortleaf pine occurs sparingly. The most important trees are the oaks, gums and black walnut, chough most of the walnut has been removed. The river bottoms are usually narrow and much of the ground has been cleared for farming. ‘The prevailing species are syca- more, black and red gum, white, red, willow and burr oak, black walnut, basswood, holly, red maple, beech, elm and hickory. The forest is usually dense and with much underbrush. Trees reach their largest dimensions in such situations. The forests of the Ozark region are being seriously injured by fire. ‘The reproduction of pine is largely prevented and an unde- sirable growth of inferior hardwood sprouts results. Proper ng ocinaee The Forests of Arkansas. 301 management of these forests will include fire protection, removal of inferior species and cutting by the selection system. The State of Arkansas as a whole is not well adapted to agri- culture. Most of its area is absolute forest land and if properly managed will become a prime factor in the future prosperity of the State. If present methods are continued, most of this land will become barren and unproductive. ‘The total amount of standing timber in the State is approximately 100,000,000,000 feet, of which pine comprises one-fifth. The total cut for the year 1906 was nearly 2,000,000,000 feet, the largest in the history of the State. At this rate 50 years will be required to cut off all of the timber, assuming that the factor of growth will be offset by de- terioration and waste. In all probability the rate of cutting will increase so materially that the available timber supply will be largely exhausted within, 20 years. Most of the Pine mills wil! cut out within 1o years, while the cypress industry is rapidly near- ing an end. The time is certainly opportune to begin active work in forestry instead of waiting as so many other States have done until the forests have been destroyed. So far the policy has been wholly destructive, and little thought has been given to the perpetuation of so valuable a resource. The National Government has lent assistance by withdrawing from public entry nearly a million acres of vacant land in the Ozark region as a proposed national forest. It marks a good beginning, but since most of the lands are private property it remains for the State to demonstrate to the owners the practicability of forestry and to direct and encour- age their efforts. SAMUEL J. RECORD. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. Graves, in Charge. Economic Forestiére. ‘Tome III. By G. Huffel. Paris 1907. 5i2 pp: Price, TO at. The third volume, completing the great work of Professor Huffel, forms a worthy part of the whole series of studies. It is composed, like the other volumes, not as a systematic textbook, but as independent studies which permit diversions, and dispro- portions of matter which would be welcome but not permissible in a more methodical textbook. The principal subject of this volume is Forest Management or Forest Regulation. As in former volumes the historical element plays a considerable role, and, indeed, a whole study of nearly 200 pages is devoted to the history of the subject in France. This historical treatment is in our days most useful as well as entertaining and forms the at- tractive feature of the treatment. Certainly the usage in France and its historical development are clearly and interestingly brought out. Such a work deserves a longer critical review, but limitation of space forbids at this time to bring more than this mere notice, which hardly does justice to the value and importance of the work. BO Eaae Western Australian Timber Tests, 1906. The Physical Char- acteristics of the Hardwoods of Western Australia. By G, A. Julius. Perth, 1906. 36 pp. 72 plates. These tests, some 16,000 in number, the first of their kind on Australian timbers, were undertaken in the Railway Department of the Government. They were executed according to the methods devised by the former U. S. Division of Forestry (so acknowledged), which set the standard everywhere for this kind of testing. The results develop the superior quality of Australian hardwoods, of which 21 species and varieties were tested, most of them belonging to the Eucalyptus. The tabulated results are also exhibited in curves and a long series of photographic repro- 4 w 3 % 4 t 4 3 a a ee San! ee ee Current Literature 303 ductions of typical breakages are given, as well as descriptions and illustrations of the apparatus of most modern character, the whole publication being of the first order. The following interesting general deductions are made: (1). Timbers in which the grain is closely twisted and inter- woven are in general very hard, dense and heavy; high in com- pressive strength both edgewise and crosswise, and also in shear- ing strength along the grain; comparatively low in moisture relatively to the straight-grained timbers, they are low in tensile strength, and therefore to a certain extent less strong where used as “beams.” Such timbers are Wandoo, Tuart, and York Gum. (2). Timbers in which the fibres are straight and even, are relatively less hard and dense, and are lighter ; considerably higher in moisture percentage when green; stronger in “tension,” and therefore generally stronger as beams, but correspondingly lower in compressive strength and in shearing strength along the grain. Such timbers are Karri, Red Gum, Blackbutt, and Jarrah. (3). Timbers lying midway between these two conditions, although not so “dense” and “hard” as those coming under the first heading, are in general stronger than either; such timbers being Yate, Salmon Gum, and Morrell. (4). Timbers coming under the first and third headings in general are to be found either in districts where the rainfall is comparatively light (such timbers being Wandoo, York Gum, Salmon Gum, and Morrell) or in localities where the soil is porous and does not retain the moisture, such as the sandy coun- try to which Tuart is almost wholly confined. The straight-grained timbers are to be found in districts with a heavier rainfall, and particularly in soils that hold the water. (5). In every case, in the timber grown in the dry districts— viz: Wandoo, York Gum, Salmon Gum, and Morrell—the moist- ure percentage is very low, the average of the four, when green, being 28 per cent., and the sap is of a thick viscous nature. These timbers, when cut, season very slowly, and shrink to a comparatively small extent in seasoning. In timbers growing in loose “porous” country, such as Tuart and Yate, the moisture percentage is higher, averaging 37 per cent., and the sap is of a more fluid nature. 304 l’orestry Quarterly These “season” more rapidly, but shrink very little in the pro- cess, this being markedly the case with Tuart. In the straight-grained timbers—Karri, Jarrah, Red Gum, and Blackbutt—the moisture percentage when green averages 60 per cent., the sap being very fluid; and these timbers season more rapidly and shrink to a greater extent than those with lower initial moisture. The strongest timber, probably the strongest in the world, and far ahead of all others, is one as yet practically unknown, Yate (Eucalyptus cornata) which developed a breaking load of 35,000 pounds, five times the usual specifications for wrought iron. The average figures for it are 24,200 for tension, 21,500 for cross- bending, 11,600 for end compression, 3,200 for shearing, with a green weight of 79 pounds per cubic foot. Salmon Gum (Euca- lyptus salmonophloia) and Ironbark (E. Sideroxrylon) from New South Wales are close neighbors to this strongest wood. It is a tree growing to 24 or 3 feet in diameter and 100 feet in height, common in the southwest portion of the State. The relations of density, weight, moisture and strength, .so fully brought out by the tests of the U. S. Division of Forestry, were fully corroborated in these tests, except for tensile strength (unreliable tests !). The remarkable durability, particularly of Jarrah and Wandoo, was demonstrated on sleepers, for over I9 years in service (with a 20-inch rainfall in four months, the remainder of the year being very hot and dry). Some Jarrah piles were found sound after 72 years, “although completely saturated with saltwater,” the author says instead of “because.” ‘These were not even attacked by Teredo. Holding power of spikes were also tested. If there were more likelihood of importing these timbers, it would pay our railroad companies to study these reports. As it is, at least those engaged in testwork will find suggestive reading in this volume. B. E. F. Handbuch der Kaufmdnnischen Holszverwertung und des Holzhandels. Von Leopold Hufnagl. Second edition. Berlin, 1907. 340 pp. Price, mk. 8. Although naturally written for the conditions prevailing in a 4 Se ee ee ee ee es Current Literature 305 Europe, this treatise on wood markets and wood trade, perhaps the first and only one of its kind (possibly with exception of the following one), contains much of general interest both for the student of political and industrial economy and for the practi- tioner. Certainly the conditions and methods of wood trade in the various European states are nowhere so fully discussed. The book is divided into five chapters. ‘The first treats of the methods and usages of wood sales and wood trade in general, including measurements of wood, tariffs,. statistics and calcula- tions as regards choice of sortiments, mill enterprises, etc. ‘The second chapter discusses the various sortiments of wood and their most advantageous preparation and use in various indus- tries; the third treats in detail of saw-milling; the fourth dis- cusses the trade according to species and their best use; the fifth deals with methods of transportation. The financial side is everywhere made prominent, and in the suggestions regarding calculations for the most advantageous utilization of the wood- crop lies the main feature of the book. Even if much of the business methods described is of no direct value to us, there is always something suggestive in what others are doing, and, as we are just in the period of changing methods toward a more thorough and rational utilization those in actual commercial forest management will benefit from the perusal of this thoroughly practical, yet scientifically sound volume. B. E. EF: Holzproduktion, Holzverkehr und Holzhandels-gebraiiche in Deutschland. By Eugen Laris. 1907. 349 pp. Price, k. 7.20. This book, of somewhat similar import as the preceding, confines itself to the description of usages, written and unwritten, in the German wood market, and has less general, although prob- ably considerable local value. Ueber Diingung im forstlichen Betriebe. By Dr. M. Helbig. Neudamm, 1906. Price 3 mk. Contains in convenient form, critically viewed, all that is known about the use of fertilizers in forest growing, with a full list of the literature. It contains also a discussion on the nutri- 306 Forestry Quarterly tive elements of the soil, tabular statements of the requirements of various crops and other material in the same line. The financial results receive full consideration without opti- mistic tendencies. When an expenditure of 48 mark per hectar for a lime dressing was found in the fourth year to have lost all influence, the profitableness of the use of fertilizers, except in rare cases, becomes questionable. Mitteilungen aus der Kaiserlichen Biologischen Anstalt fir Land—und Forstwirtschaft. Heft 1 und 2. Springer, Berlin, 1906. The Biological Institute for Agriculture and Forestry, which formerly was a branch of the Imperial Health Department and became independent in 1905, has begun to issue, besides its leaf- lets, non-periodical Mitteilungen. Among the forestry subjects investigated the rust on Pinus Strobus, and the aphids on Abies are found. The Use Book. Regulations and Instructions for the use of the National Forests. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, July I, 1907. 248 pp. A revised and enlarged edition of the Use Book, containing the latest rules for the use of the National For- ests. The Use of the National Forests. U.S. Forest Service, Wash- ington, D. C., 1907. 42 pp. This publication is apparently designed as a primer to show the policy of the Forest Service on the National Forests. It is published in attractive form as a booklet, bound in cloth, and profusely illustrated with excellent photographs. It is written in very simple and clear style, and explains in a popular way what the purposes of the National Forests are, and how they benefit the public. This publication should go a long way toward allay- ing the suspicions of the western people, and in popularizing the work of the Forest Service. It is understood that the book was written by Mr. F. E. Olmsted, District Inspector, National For- ests, although his name does not appear on the title page. ~~ ’ News and Notes 359 Standard Size of Sawed Timber.—Rough timbers when sawed to standard size, shall mean that they shall not be over 4 in. scant from actual size specified. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in, shall measure not less than 11? in. x 11? in. Standard Dressing of Sawed Timbers.—Standard dressing means that not more than } in. shall be allowed for dressing each surface. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in. shall after dressing four sides, not measure less than 114 in. x 11g in. STRINGERS. No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show not less than 8o per cent. of heart on each of the four sides, meas- ured across the sides anywhere in the length of the piece; loose knots, or knots greater than 14 in. in diameter, will not be per- mitted at points within 4 inches of the edges of the piece. No. 2. Longleaf Yellow Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged, except it may have I in. wane on one corner. Knots must not exceed in their largest diameter } the width of the face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes extending not over 4 of the length of the piece are admissible. Caps AND SILLS. No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir—Shall show 85 per cent. heart on each of the four sides, measured across the sides anywhere in the length of the piece; to be free from knots over 24 in. in diameter; knots must not be in groups. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir and Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged, except it may have I in. wane on one corner, or 4 in. wane on two corners. Knots must not exceed in their largest diameter + the width of the face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes extending not over } the length of the piece are admissible. Posts. No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show not less than 75 per cent. heart, measured across the face any- where on the length of the piece; to be free from knots over 24 in. in diameter, and must not be in groups. 360 Forestry Quarterly No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir and Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged, except it may have I in. wane on one corner, or $ in. wane on two corners. Knots must not exceed, in their largest diameter, } the width of the face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes shall not extend over + of the length of the piece. LONGITUDINAL STRUTS OR GIRTS. No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show one face all heart; the other face and two sides shall show not less than 85 per cent. heart, measured across the face or side anywhere in the piece; to be free from knots 14 in. in diameter and over. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged and sound; to be free from knots 14 in. in diameter and over. LONGITUDINAL X-BrAcES, SASH BRACES AND SwWAy BRACES. No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show not less than 80 per cent. heart on two faces and four square edges; to be free from knots over 14 in. in diameter. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged and sound; to be free from knots 24 in. in diameter and over. Mr. L. D. Van Rensselaer, of Ithaca, N. Y., advertises insur- ance against fire for standing timber and for cut wood lying in the forest. In Michigan a bill was passed by the Legislature, withdrawing 40,000 acres of Agricultural College lands from sale, with a view of ultimately turning them into a forest reservation. The Senate also passed a bill providing for a commission to investigate the question of reforesting, but we are not informed that it has be- come a law. The State of Washington has entered the number of States providing educational facilities for forestry in connection with the College of Agriculture, Prof. W. S. Thornber in charge. News and Notes 361 The State Forester of Maryland has begun a detailed study of the forest resources of the State by counties. The work done by the Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in sev- eral counties is being revised and greatly extended to give accu- rate and complete reports. In addition to this, two counties not heretofore studied have been taken up in detail and will be com- pleted before the end of the season. After August 15th the State Forester will co-operate with the Forest Service in examining lands in western Maryland for the proposed Appalachian Na- tional Forest. In connection with the plans of the Santa Fe Railroad to propa- gate eucalyptus on a large scale in California, EK. O. Faulkner, manager, Tie and Timber Department, will go to Australia about the middle of September to study the various species of eucalyp- tus in their native habitat. It is understood that species suitable for railroad cross-ties will be planted in southern California; so the question of rapid-growing species suitable to the soil and cli- mate conditions of the land acquired, and which will take treat- ment readily, is to be carefully investigated. This recognition of eucalyptus by such a commercial organization should give added impetus to the planting of this tree where conditions are favorable. That the policy of wood preservation by the Northern Pacific Railroad is to be put on a more permanent basis is evident from an official circular to the effect that Mr. Andrew Gibson was ap- pointed Superintendent of Timber Preservation and Tie Treating Plants, on August 1. The Company now operates treating plants at Brainerd, Minn., and Paradise, Mont. The following changes in the teaching staffs of the Forestry Departments in several western colleges have been made: Prof. F. G. Miller, of the University of Nebraska goes to the University of Washington, at Walla Walla, his place at Lincoln being taken by F. J. Phillips, of the Forest Service; while E. O. Siecke, also of the Forest Service, is to teach in a new school of Forestry es- tablished in connection with the State College of Washington, at Pullman. Professor Phillips graduated in forestry from the University of Michigan in 1906 and Professor Siecke did like- 362 Forestry Quarterly wise from the lowa State College of Agriculture and the Me- chanic Arts the same year. Both have had wide experience in the extension of the Forest Service. Prof. H. P. Baker has left the Iowa State College of Agriculture to organize the Depart- ment of Forestry which Dr. Fernow instituted at the Pennsyl- vania State College. The registration at the Yale Summer School of Forestry at Milford, Pa., has this year been exceptionally large. It will be recalled that Yale conducts two courses in connection with its summer school: first, the regular summer term which is required of the Junior Class; second, a short course designed for pros- pective rangers, woods foremen, and others who wish a short general course of forestry. This year sixteen men are taking the short course and fifty are enrolled in the long course. The summer work is in charge of Prof. H. S. Graves, who has associated with him this year in the technical forestry work Prof. H. H. Chapman, Dr. A. H. Graves and Mr. N. C. Brown, and in the work of surveying Prof. J. C. Tracy, Mr. C. S. Farn- ham and Prof. Wheeler. Mr. H. H. Chapman has recently been promoted from the position of instructor in Forestry to an assistant professorship. Prof. J. W. Toumey is inspecting, for the Forest Service, the work of planting on the national forests. Mr. R. C. Bryant, who has charge of the work in lumbering at Yale, is travelling in the South inspecting the plants of different large manufacturers of lumber. Mr. R. C. Hawley, instructor in Forestry, is working during this summer for the Bureau of Corporations in connec- tion with their investigation of the amount of standing timber in the country. The fall term of the Forest School opens October Ist. S. B. Detwiler, who received his training at Yale and Univers- ity of Minnesota, has left the Forest Service to become assistant to Prof. Green at the University of Minnesota. John Foley left the Forest Service to become assistant to F. A. Sterling, forester to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. Max Rothkugel has re-entered the Forest Service. i Pi 3 > + News and Notes 363 Mr. Robert C. Rosenbluth (Yale, ’o7) after entering the Forest Service July 1st resigned at the end of the month to ac- cept a similar position in the Philippine Bureau of Forestry. Mr. Rosenbluth sailed early in August to enter upon his duties in the islands, Dr. W. C. Geer (Cornell, ’02) severed his connection with the Forest Service August rst to accept the position of superintendent with the B. F. Goodrich Rubber Company at Akron. Ohio. Dur- ing the past year Dr. Geer has made an exhaustive study of the destructive distillation of wood. The legislature of Massachusetts this year improved upon its forest legislation by consolidating and re-organizing the forest warden system and making the appointment of forest wardens (formerly forest fire wardens) subject to approval by the State Forester. The measures for preventing forest fires due to loco- motive sparks are also improved by enforcing the use of spark arresters and burning over right-of-way for 200 feet each side as well as cleaning up unimproved land adjoining. It also pro- vides for a trained forester who has had a technical education as State Forester, with a salary of $3,000 per annum. The Dominion Government of Canada in its Department of the Interior has begun to publish in elegant style a preliminary edition of a set of maps of the Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta and of the railway belt of British Columbia on a scale of 124 and 7.89 miles to the inch respectively. This scale permits the showing by color of character of ownership down to quarter sections, namely, homesteads patented, unpatented and entered, Indian Reserves, Forest Reservations, Timber Berths, and Special Grants. The information is corrected to July 1, 1907. In addi- tion the character of the country, whether prairie, park country, chiefly wooded or timbered is indicated. A broken line in gold, limits these various types of country of course only approximately. It would appear that while outside of British Columbia there is little timber four commercial use, the country is nevertheless largely woodland, where wood for local use should be husbanded, for Canada is a country practically 304 I orestry Quarteriy without coal. Just 12 forest reservations, mostly small ones, are located in various parts of the prairie country, besides 8 larger ones in the Railway Belt. Altogether there appears to be much more settled country in these sections than one is accustomed to think and the country open to entry is mostly away from rivers or rail. That forest planting is part but not all that enters into the practice of forestry by private corporations is an axiom of the profession. Despite the propaganda, for some years past the unfortunate fact remains that little reliable data is available on the cost of private planting in the East. Since the utilization of waste lands by planting is part of the forest policy of the Penn- sylvania Railroad, figures on the cost of the work done this spring may be interesting and suggestive. The planting was done during April and May on ten sites in three localities between Harrisburg and Altoona. The seedlings used were I to 3 years old, purchased for $5.25 per M. Where Italians planted the trees 6’ x 6’ in holes prepared with mattocks, the cost was $5.12 per 1,000. With American labor and the trees planted 4’ x 6’ apart in furrows 5’ apart, the cost was $7.85 per 1,000 in one place and $4.82 in another. The greater expense in the one case was due to clearing brush and resetting fences. In all 448,226 seedlings were planted at an average expense of $6.04 per M. If their purchase price were included the set-out trees cost $11.29 per M. or $15.93 per acre. The species handled are shown in the following table: Number Species of seedlings planted ERS CANE aR he | Ne Mele ea anise Ror oe cn en 252,154 Black GOCust, es tee sat ee atten Rises 175,716 BMaropean Wakely k Uae eet ees 6,970 Bite: Da kes! iy eatwreie aayanerk alate peat meee ore 4,570 MCOLEN Ee MIG, cu supe Ree eae eens 3,500 hike 90 hy: (ol aR ENR Se me ear tT ote 3,000 RG TESTLLUR Gs i tao sfo-lesn sha ab ete aks Dut Aceh teh aera 2,316 f H ‘% > bJ News and Notes 305 Circular No. 23, issued from the office of the Second Vice- President of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System, under date of July 24th, 1907, states that: “Mr. Hermann von Schrenk is hereby appointed Consulting Timber Engineer, with headquarters at St. Louis, Mo. Effective August 1, 1907. A circular letter dated July 1st gives the further information that Dr. Von Schrenk is to be one of a firm of Consulting Timber Engineers. His associates being E. B. Fulks, and Alfred L. Kammerer. This follows Dr. Von Schrenk’s resignation as Pathologist in charge of investigatons of timber diseases and methods for preventing the same, in the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. This firm has established a technical labo- ratory and consulting office at St. Louis, devoted to the prosecu- tion of investigations into the uses of timber, and are prepared to carry on investigations and make reports on all problems dealing with the utilization of timber, the closer adaption of all kinds of woods to special uses, and determination as to the kind and value of various preservative processes. BRRATALIN VOL. V, N@e2- The following serious errata have, after proofreading, crept into tables and plates accompanying the article on The Sprout Forests of the Housatonic Valley, which readers are asked kindly to correct. Page 125, Plate II, Fig. 3. In the title change “at right” to “at base.’ Page 129, Table II. In fifth column, drop “25” to line below In eleventh column, reverse “17” and “18”. In seventeenth column, change “4” to “3”. Page 134, Plate III. Interchange titles, and insert in title for lower figure, “two Chestnuts” after “Hickories.” Pages, 140, 142, 144. In the title of these diagrams, interchange readings so that dominant seedling trees are represented by heavy dots, suppressed sprouts by light unbroken line. HARVARD UNIVERSITY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on application to W.C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, Mass. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year graduate course is offered, lead- ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. Grad- uates of collegiate institutions of high standing are admitted upon presentation of their college diploma. The Summer School of Forestry is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pa. The session in 1907 will open early in July and continue seven weeks. For further information, address HENRY S. GRAVES, Director, New Haven, Connecticut UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Offers a four-year course in forestry leading to the degree of Bachelor of the Science of Forestry. For further information address B. E. FERNOW, Dean, Faculty of Forestry University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vor. V] DECEMBER, 1907. [No. 4 AN EFFECTIVE SCREEN FOR NURSERIES. Screens for shade in evergreen seedling work, form one of the factors in adding to the cost of plants. A simple and cheap form of screen being used in the Government nurseries at the Agricul- tural College, Guelph, Ontario, is shown in the illustration ( frontispiece ). This screen is made in a machine which was constructed for the manufacture of picket fence. A four foot lath is used and is woven with six strands of wire as shown in the cut. The screen was made and delivered for seventy cents a rod. A comparison with the screens previously used, might be of interest, taking for granted that the supports are the same in both cases. The old screen was made by nailing lath on a frame 4 ft. x 10 ft. requir- ing six screens for a sixty foot bed. The material (lath, strips and nails) for the sixty foot bed would cost about $3.75, without the labor. The woven roll ready to place on supports costs about $2.55 per sixty feet. The advantages in handling these screens are obvious. In re- moving or replacing the screen it takes less time to handle this roll and it can be so placed that it will not interfere with weeding or other operations. The screens in the illustration have been in use three seasons, and appear as though they would give ser- vice for several more years. E. J. ZAvItz. ECONOMIC THINNING OF WHITE PINE. Low prices for chestnut cordwood have so far prevented any widespread interest in improvement thinnings in the New Eng- land woodlot, and enthusiasm in forestry has therefore centered about planting. To the owner of a white pine lot, however, thin- nings may be made a source of revenue not to be despised. Such thinnings from an eight acre lot in Connecticut recently brought the owners a net income of $354.55—or $44.32 per acre. This grove of pines is situated on the boundary between the towns of Windsor and Bloomfield, Connecticut, about three miles from the former village, and ten miles from Hartford. It is owned by the Loomis Institute, an educational establishment anxious to preserve it, not only for financial and esthetic pur- poses, but to maintain a place for the study of applied forestry by the students. The average age of the trees is fifty years, although there are groups considerably older from which the others evi- dently seeded. The land was originally under cultivation, but is a light sand soil characteristic of the region, largely abandoned during the last century, but now quite extensively used for tobacco by means of heavy fertilization. The many pine groves throughout Southern New England have suffered severely from a cause which is still unsettled. Pro- fessor Stone, of Amherst, believes the death of large numbers of pines throughout New England to be due to a winter injury to the roots. Whether this is the primary injury or not remains to be proved, but certainly the roots of these trees have suffered extensively. Windfalls have been very numerous, and in every case, even of trees apparently in good health, the roots were found to be all rotted off, nothing remaining to hold the trees. In some of the trees the foliage has turned brown and died, which may point to fungus disease or injury by insects. An examination by Dr. Britton, State Entomologist, showed that while some were infested with a number of borers, these usually confined their attention to the dead or dying parts of the trunk and were not species liable to directly cause such injury. Economic Thinning of White Pine. 369 The insects found were identified by Dr. Hopkins as Tomicus pint; Pityogenes sp.; Pytho Americanus, and Pytho niger. An examination of the roots by Dr. Clinton, Botanist of the Experiment Station, showed that the mycelium of some hyme- nomycetous fungus was present in the dead roots and to some extent on the surface of the living. This fungus was not deter- mined, as its fruiting stage was not present at the time of the examination in March. It is, of course, possible that the fungus was present merely as a saprophyte. The high mortality in this grove was well shown by’ survey plots indicating that 15% of the standing trees were dead. ‘This is not the whole story, however, as dead trees have been cut out from time to time for esthetic reasons and enumeration showed that the average number of trees per acre alive and dead was 292. Professor Graves in his “Forest Mensuration” shows for Scotch Pine that the normal number of trees in stands fifty years old are: on Quality I, 464 trees; Quality III, 848 trees; Quality V, 1588; and Spring in his bulletin No. 63 of the U. S. Forest Service shows that the average number of trees in New England white pine groves fifty years old is 400, or 108 more than the grove in question. There is a white pine plantation seventy years old in northeastern Connecticut with 524 trees per acre. Besides the dead trees which were mostly of diameters under twelve inches, there were a great many partially or nearly sup- pressed trees with very slender stems and almost no tops. The unevenness of the stand, which might have been avoided by early thinnings, had resulted in many large openings and corresponding dense spots. The diameters of the live trees ranged from six to eighteen inches with little difference between the trees of small and large diameters. This grove has escaped damage from fire and the result is a most encouraging reproduction of white pine. While many lum- bermen of New England are becoming interested in forest plant- ing, they overlook entirely the possibility of perpetuating forests by natural reproduction. The advanced groups of pine seedlings in all the openings of this grove and the innumerable little seed- lings scattered throughout all point to the possibility of harvesting the mature timber in such a way as to get complete reforestation. It was determined to make a light thinning for the three-fold 370 Forestry Quarterly. purpose of improving the growth of the best trees while utilizing the dead and inferior trees and for assisting the reproduction already started. The thinning was primarily “Improvement” and on account of the great danger from windfall was made con- servatively, many trees being left, which under other conditions would be cut. All dead and dying timber was cut and all sup- pressed trees ,and where there was not too much danger from windfall, intermediate trees interfering with the development of better individuals. It is hoped that the increased opportunity for crown development will result in growth of new roots and that the stand will become more wind firm before it is time for another trimming in six or eight years. All trees to be removed were marked twice: once at breast height to be plainly seen, and once on the roots for checking up after the work. The marking required about two days’ labor. The following table shows the stand of one representative quar- ter acre. The volume in board feet are obtained from Mr. Haw- ley’s Volume Table published in an annual report of the State Forester of Massachusetts : Survey of One Quarter Acre. Diam. No. of Vol. of No. of Vol. of No. of Vol. of Breast Trees Trees Trees Trees Others to Others to High Left Left Dead Dead Be cut Be cut Inches Board Ft, Board Ft. Board Ft. 6 3 90 2 60 7 6 300 6 300 8 2 130 2 130 3 195 9 7 700 4 400 10 7 771 I 110 II 6 840 2 280 12 7 T155 I 165 13 6 1,140 14 5 1,075 I 215 15 4 16 3 810 I 270 17 2 600 18 19 2 800 ‘Total, ‘51 Q,000 14 965 18 1,550 Average Per Acre. Number Volume B. M. Treesttojbe eth 3 Sieuics Oocr ee ae lesen ete 204 36,000 DOAd trees ee ae eee lary Aer eter oho ents 56 3,860 Other trees: tos Descuts sic, ou nis ccioetien te vise kivighs 72 6,200 Dota lyst fia Pie asd eee viv salar Goe wba acne tars Bole ney Cok Ar eS oe 46,060 Economic Thinning of White Pine. 371 Number Volume B. M. Trees alive, eo a aimebid dV viene gig bie via pinlg aaah 276 42,200 Pen CPI wR TIVE CERES, eS tk eta pned ued eamee ne 83 gI ESET Cs Re a faa ae IR OA ce pee MS 128 10,060 Wer cent of trees to be ctit, .. ccs csc cwe sae wea ge 37 21 In the above table, the volumes of the dead trees are given in board feet just as the others, but as a matter of fact, only a few of the dead trees were sound enough to be sawed into lumber. Three quarter acre plots similar to the above were surveyed in the grove and the results are given in the following table: Surveys of Three One Quarter Acre Plots. ~c Trees Left Dead Trees Other Trees to Be Cut . No. Vol. B. M. No. Vol.B.M. No. Vol. B.M. I 51 9,000 14 965 18 1,550 2 42 8,250 8 630 9 770 3 47 6,050 10 1,305 20 1,085 ST Se 140 23,300 32 2,900 47 3,405 Av. per % acre, 47 7,767 II 966 16 1,135 Av. per acre, .. 188 31,068 44 3,864 64 4,540 Total volume to be cut per acre, ........ 8,404 feet B. M. Total volume to be cut from 8 acres, ..67,232 feet B. M. After the trees were marked, the various lumbermen of the region were asked to bid on the stumpage and inquiries were made as to letting out contracts for the cutting, hauling and saw- ing, and the final value of the finished lumber. While it seemed possible that a greater profit might be realized by doing the lum- bering themselves, the trustees of the Institute were too busy to undertake the supervision, and the stumpage was therefore sold to a lumberman of Windsor who set up a portable mill on the lot. He paid six dollars per thousand for lumber and one dollar and a quarter for cordwood, cutting all dead trees and tops into wood. The work was done carefully, only one unmarked tree being in- jured in the felling. After the cutting a few more trees were marked and cut, amounting perhaps to two thousand feet, board measure. The lumberman’s figures of the cut were accepted. These were: ign Meee: Gh SOOO, ds te Sevese ah ety $310 80 Se eee WON, ete! fs o's 2 ccc nwde age 4 43 75 372 Forestry Quarterly. Allowing five hundred feet of lumber as the equivalent of one cord of wood, the thirty-five cords equal 17,500 feet. ‘Therefore the total volume cut was 69,300 feet, almost exactly the estimated amount plus the volume of the few trees marked later. Besides illustrating the feasibility of improvement thinnings in white pine this grove shows very well what may be expected in the way of financial results from such pine forests in Southern New Eng- land. The stand before cutting contained in all 40,000 feet per acre. It had therefore, grown an average of 800 feet per acre per annum, worth at $6.0co—$4.80. The land around it covered with brush is worth about $8.00 an acre. Undoubtedly if it has produced 800 feet without management, it can be made to pro- duce 1,000 feet by a little care, and will then yield its annual revenue of $6.00 per acre, and as prices increase the revenue will be larger. There is every reason to expect that by judicial cut- ting this forest can be made to produce such a revenue perpet- ually. In the case under consideration the money received from the thinnings was expended in burning tops, clearing out brush to favor reproduction, and in planting an adjoining piece of waste land to pie. AusTIn F, Hawes. —— Ee ne aaa ak mops; TAXATION OF WOODLANDS.* The subject of the taxation of woodlands has been for some time urged as one which is of importance to the development of forestry practices in the handling of timberlands. And the dis- cussions have charged the absence of such practices to excessive taxation, which forces the lumberman to be satisfied with a mere rapid exploitation instead of management for future crops. Two main questions arise when discussing forest taxation: First, What points must be considered in securing the assessment of an equitable tax? Second, Will such equitable taxation or else tax reduction or exemption secure the application of forestry practice to timberlands? The first thing to recognize is that very widely differing kinds of property, of widely different value, are liable to be taxed as woodland. There are at least three classes of woodland: the virgin uncut marketable timber; the cut-over lands with promising growth of value; the stumplands without value, unless through special effort. And a fourth class may be added, as yet little developed, namely, of artificial plantations. That these three or four classes deserve different treatment will be readily admitted. What are the points regarding the first class, the uncut tim- berlands? It is property of high value, immediately available by mere exploitation—by destructive lumbering. It is also capable of being made a continuous revenue producer, by conservative lumbering. How does the tax assessor approach it? In all political questions—and taxation is a political question in the broadest sense—principle and expediency 7. e. theoretical and practical considerations are involved, and, especially in a com- munity still in the pioneering stage, the latter considerations, those of expediency, will often outweigh the force of acknowl- edged correct principles. The argument that the timber land owner, being the richer man, possesses greater tax-paying faculty, 1. e. can afford to pay a relatively higher tax rate than the poorer *Presented at the Conference of the Lake States at Saginaw, Nov. 1907. 374 Forestry Quarterly. settler, is sufficient to justify the neglect of the principle of jus- tice and equal treatment. The argument that the settler has in view permanency, continuity in creation of values from the soil, continuous improvement, that all his work tends to form a perma- nent asset for future assessment and taxation, while the lumber- man has in view merely exploitation and the removal of values which he has not created—this argument, at least in a pioneering community, very naturally and properly weighs with the tax assessor so as to set the principle of justice at naught. He naturally favors the farmer, and “sticks” the logger, whose greater wealth enables him to contribute at a higher rate towards the development of the country, the county, the township. It is human nature to do so, and human nature forms an unavoidable third factor in solving political questions. While the tax assessor maintains equality in the rate, he considers inequality in valuation justifiable according to tax faculty; effectiveness rather than jus- tice is his aim. He also takes into consideration the attitude of the owner. It is this attitude towards his property that distin- guishes settler and lumberman, and that seems to explain and to justify a seemingly unjust distribution of the burdens of taxation. If it could be shown that the timberland owner had the intention of making his property the basis of a permanent enterprise, the case would perhaps be looked at differently, but until such bona fide change of attitude can be shown, I fear, practical considera- tions will favor continuance of present practice. In this connec- tion a few questions may be formulated, which should be consid- ered as pertinent from the practical point of view. 1. Does the lumberman as a rule buy land, or does he buy timber? That is, does he consider in his purchase the soil and its capacity for production, or only the product? 2. Is any lumberman known to have bought timber for any other purpose than exploitation or speculation ? 3. Does not every lumberman with business capacity, in buy- ing timber, anticipate the tax assessment and discount it in his price? 4. Has actually any lumberman been induced to cut his timber in order to avoid the tax rate, or are not other motives than ex- cessive taxation invariably or usually the reason, or at least more potent reason, for his removal of it? Taxation of Woodlands. 375 5. Has any lumberman become poorer by risking the higher tax rate, when compared with the settler and his lower tax rate or assessment? 6. Does not the lumberman shift the tax on the consumer of his goods, wholly or in part, the tax being counted as part of the cost of production? 7. Does not, in view of the rapidly increasing stumpage value, the tax rate appear to be a relatively small matter? In Ontario, at least as far as I can find out, there is as a rule no complaint on the part of the timberland owners on this score of iniquitous tax. On the contrary, although in a given case, which lately came to my knowledge, the per acre assessment is not changed after the timber is cut, the owner is satisfied, and un- willing to clamor for justice, because in comparison with the stumpage price and possible future values of timber and land the average assessment of cut and uncut lands is fair enough. Timberlands have been, and are still, among the most profitable properties, and these more than any other properties increase in value by ‘‘unearned increments.” Even the principle of jus- tice seems to be satisfied by charging profitable properties with higher tax assessment than unprofitable ones, and this principle of uneven assessment, is found in all systems of taxation. While then, in pioneering communities and considering the attitude of the exploiter, a higher assessment for timberlands would appear justified than for farm properties, yet even here some just and fair principle should be applied in the assessment, and a check to arbitrariness supplied. That forest properties are mostly unfairly taxed admits hardly of doubt, especially when it is considered that such properties do not receive the protection or other considerations they are entitled to from the municipalities which collect the tax. Not only does there seem to be no uniform principle behind the assessor's method, but the ability of the assessor to make a true and reasonable valuation is often doubtful, and his assess- ient is more or less a guess, a “hit or miss”, but mostly a “miss”’. There are only three equitable methods of assessing land prop- erty; namely, by the actual or estimated sale value as it stands with improvements, which supposedly represents its income pro- ducing value; by the actual or estimated average income or 376 Forestry Quarterly. profit or revenue which it produces; by the possible or eventual income or profit or revenue it might produce—its productive power, its rent value; or else, a tax system in which any two or all three methods are employed, supplementary to each other, might be devised. In the case of the rent value assessment it is not the actual yield, but the yield capacity that is assessed, no matter whether the owner lets the land lie barren or uses it not in a manner most suitable to its capacity, and leaving out of consideration whether the land bears forest or is improperly stocked. What it could under reasonable management produce by its annual growth or increment, can be established for a forest acre as well as for a farm acre. In the case of the income tax the actual net income is assessed, but in forest properties it may also be conceived to consist in the money value of the annual wood increment on the actual stock, no matter whether this is harvested annually or inter- mittently, or not at all, for if not utilized it becomes capital, re- invested income, invested in woodgrowth; and if it is thrifty crowing timber it increases the rent producing capacity of the property by the increased wood value which comes with in- creased size. Logically, the assessment based on actual income would ap- pear the most reasonable, for eventually all taxes must be paid out of income. The practical objections are that it is difficult to ascertain actual income, and that properties allowed to lie idle would escape taxation to the detriment of the community; hence, a mixed system is more likely to produce satisfactory results. It is, of course, irrevelant in principle whether the tax is assessed directly on income, actual or potential, or on its capitalized value, although in practical operation one or the other method may appear preferable. In the end expediency will vary the application of the method under different condi- tions. Thus in the old settled countries with fully established per- manent communities and practically unchangeable conditions the rent value method may be practicable, while it would be pre- Taxation of Woodlands. 377 posterous to apply it to the unsettled conditions of communi- ties in the pioneering stage. With regard to forest properties it has been urged that the timber is really a crop and not a part of real estate, hence, should not be taxed any more that the farmers’ crop. But those advocating this theory overlook that the crop idea involves the idea of human effort, and that in most cases in this country the grown timber is an asset secured without such effort. Only when an effort has been put forward to make the soil produce can we speak of a crop. Here again the attitude of the owner and the condition of the forest is of moment in character- izing the stand either as accumulated capital to be taxed, or as growing crop to merely serve in determining the capital value of the soil, which is then the taxable property. At any rate, it would appear reasonable to distinguish in the assessment between the soil value and the stumpage value, the former to be based on the productive capacity of the soil either for farm use or for forest use, and the tax on stumpage to be based on market values, and, of course, to cease when the timber is removed. In this connection it should not be overlooked that if stump lands are to be assessed on their farm value, that the cost of preparing them for farm use is properly deducted from the final farm value. When you come to analyze the assessor’s procedure, you will probably find that unconsciously, or half consciously, he makes such subdivision in his mind, although the assessment is stated in a lump, and the methods of arriving at the valuation are only crude guesses. One of the latest contibutors to the discussion of equitable timberland taxation, having first raised the crop idea, somewhat inconsistently contends that “land should not be taxed at all, but the timber after it is cut into logs. This would relieve the necessity for cutting half-grown trees, allowing them to grow to maturity first.” He then raises the very practical point that “a crop of logs is a definite value, obtainable from scale bills, while the value of wild land is something on which no two timberland explorers ever agree.” It has been pointed out again and again that timberlands afford no income until the timber is cut, and since taxes are, or ought 378 Forestry Quarterly. to be, paid out of income, the tax should be levied when the timber is cut, assessing the actual cut at its fair stumpage value. The principle would appear just, but the practical objection to this method is that administrations have annual needs for funds, and cannot be dependent on the whim of owners as to when and how much they propose to cut, and hence an annual tax must be levied. The method of assessment must therefore be modified to meet this necessity, which is, perhaps, also best done by a separation of land tax and stumpage tax. This is the principle on which German forests are taxed, and it may be of interest to briefly recite the latest development in forest taxation in that country, although the methods may not be applied directly under our conditions. In that country forestry practices, 7. e. management for con- tinuity being general and to a large extent enforced, all forest properties are treated in the tax scheme from that point of view. While there are variations in the method of assessment in the different States they all are, in the last analysis, based on the productive power of the soil and the tax is assessed usually both against the income and the capital invested in the business. When a sustained yield management exists, i. e. one which yields an anual cut, the capital represented in the growing stock or timber is considered taxable as well as the income, while in intermittent management, instead of the growing stock, the soil rent value, 7. e. the soil considered on the basis of its produc- tive capacity, is the taxable property. In Wurttemberg a revision of the tax law was effected in 1905, following closely the Prussian precedent. Both state and county taxes are assessed against forest property. For state purposes the taxable income is the actual sale results, cash or credit, of the regular cut, principal and intermediary harvest. The domestic consumption of the owner at local average prices is considered in- come as well. Extraordinary cuts are taxed if they are made to secure cash or to change the use of the area, as for farm purposes; but, if occasioned by natural disaster, like windfall, insect pests, snow breakage, etc., the results are not considered taxable income, for this enforced cut is considered a misfortune, a loss against the owners’ interests, because it disturbs his regular management. As expenses are charged not only all the usual expenditures Taxation of Woodlands. 379 incurred in the management, but the cost of new plantations also, and bad debts of former years if they had been figured as in- comes, but costs occasioned by extraordinary cuts, including those of reforestation, do not figure any more than the incomes from such untimely utilization. Besides this income tax the hitherto customary realty or soil tax is continued at a reduced rate. This is based not on the in- come, but on the possible net yield—the possibilité of the French—and this yield capacity is determined once for all by ex- perts, after classification of the land according to quality. This assessment of the so-called ‘‘tax capital,” which does not consider individual conditions or special methods of management, is sup- posed to hold good for a long period, and is changed only when changes in use and in property conditions arise. For municipal taxation this tax capital forms the basis, the annual county or town expenditure, as far as not otherwise satis- fied, being apportioned among the owners. The rate on the tax capital varies from year to year, and in 1906 was 20 mills—the same as on real estate in Toronto. The rate on incomes is de- termined every two years. The law, however, states a normal rate on a sliding scale, which varies between 2 and 5 marks, ac- cording to size of income. It is evident that we have not yet reached such stable condi- tions in the lake states to permit the application of this method, but it is, at least, suggestive. It may be of interest to add that the forest soil in Prussia is assessed in the tax lists upon the basis of a net yield varying from 18 cents to $1.25, averaging about 50 cents, while farm soils are taxed on a basis of a net yield of 81 cents to $3.96, or, $1.82 on the average. I may not, without exhausting my time, analyze in detail the conditions of the other classes of woodland, stumplands, good and bad, from the standpoint of the tax assessor, except to point out that the attitude of both owner and assessor are naturally changed when the timber is cut, and hence entirely different principles and practical considerations enter. But still, expediency, 1. e., justice to the commonwealth or to the communal interests as a whole in the broadest sense, rather than theoretical personal justice, will probably dictate the procedure, and the attitude of the owner 380 Foresiry Quarterly. towards his cut-over lands will, and ought to, influence the assess- ment. At this point my second main question comes in: how far may the taxing power be utilized to favor the introduction of forestry methods in the treatment of woodlands, 7. ¢., to induce owners of timberlands to make them permanent revenue producers? This, no doubt, is the question which interests this convention even more than the first, namely, that of just taxation. The principles which would justify the consideration of such woodland properties dedicated to forest purposes as special objects for tax release or exemption have been rehearsed again and again and are familiar. It is claimed, with more or less good reason, that forest growth is a condition beneficial to the com- munity at large, through its influence on climate and water flow. I call your attention to the fact that these influences are not under all conditions evident or proven, and that the location of the forest areas has much to do with the value of their protective function. That is to say, not all forest growth has protective value. Another argument is, that the long time involved in producing forest crops, the risks involved in this kind of crop and various other characteristics of the business of forest cropping are dis- couraging elements to private enterprise, and hence, taking also into consideration the general need and the general benefit which come to the community at large, this business is considered as needing the encouragement of an infant industry by reduction or exemption from tax. I have, myself, again and again, attempted to show that for- estry is a business sui generis, that owing to the long time element mainly, it is exceptional, and may, therefore, justify exceptional treatment even by the tax gatherer. But, admitting all the argu- ments in favor of the principle of partial or entire tax release as a theoretical proposition, two practical questions must not be lost sight of, namely, first, the difficulty of devising and administer- ing an adequate tax release law, and the still more important question: Is there any reason for expecting that the benefit of the tax release will offset the objectionable features of the for- estry business from the point of view of private enterprise. There have been and there are, as you know, statutes in various Taxation of Woodlands. 381 states designed to encourage forestry by tax release, tax exemp- tion and bounties. If you will investigate the results of the earlier attempts at such encouragement, you will find that they are practically mil. And if you will scrutinize even the newer legislation you will find that it is mostly not only crude, imprac- ticable to administer and from the forester’s point of view inade- quate, but they usually limit the area which is to enjoy the release to small wood lots, as if a larger area devoted to timber growth would not be a:benefit to the community. They limit the kind of trees to be considered eligible for tax release specifically, instead of in general terms. They prescribe lowest limits of the number of trees which would never produce satisfactory results. They limit the length of time for which the release is given, without adequete reasons. While I would not deny the possibility of framing adequate legislation and its practical administration in states where com- petent forest commissions are in charge, I wish to raise doubts as to whether this encouragement can reasonably be expected to do much good, except perhaps in the case of the small farmer’s wood lot. When it comes to raising a nation’s and even a state’s log supply—the much more important problem—the maiter is very different. Even with the small wood lot plantation the benefit of tax release compared with the necessary expenditure on one hand aad compared with the financial result of the venture on the other hand, can hardly be adequate. At best the tax release would average barely more than 10 cents per acre, which at 5 per cent. would at the end of 30 years have accumulated to $7.90. But to plant the acre and keep it in condition the expenditures would certainly not have been less than $1o in the first place, and at the end of the period would have accumulated to $50. That is to say, you invite the owner to invest six times the amount of the release to secure its benefits, if this were the amount and time for the tax release. On the other hand, if a log proposition of white pine were involved, I have no doubt that with the increase in timber values in 60 years the original investment of $15.00 would prove a 12 per cent. investment, and more likely 20 per cent. would be realized. How does such encouragement compare with that of the tax release? 382 Forestry Quarterly. But, on the other hand, will even the promising returns from a forest growing venture induce private enterprise to engage in this business, the profits of which are so long in coming, the risks of which are not only great, but the future of which is clouded somewhat in uncertainty ? If I were for a moment to abandon the position of the charg- ing judge and express an opinion, I would declare that forestry is the business of the state, or the community, if for no other reasons than because of the long time element involved; that only large capital and large continuous corporations can really afford to go into this long-winded business, and that to such the small tax releases cannot possibly act as an inducement. The sooner, therefore, the stumplands either by abandonment for tax or otherwise fall into the hands of the state or corpora- tion, and the sooner these realize that the future of timber sup- plies and favorable monetary returns are their concern, the simpler will become the tax question. There is one other form of taxation which has sometimes been believed to have a bearing on forestry practices, namely, a cus- toms tariff. I remember a committee of lumbermen waiting on me at Washington to ask me to assist their tariff agitation by an argument which should show that a tariff of $2 per 1,000 feet would promote forestry. I promised to do so, if they in turn could vouch that at least one-half of this tax on the public would find its way from their pockets into the woods for improved practice. Needless to say, that the argument was not called for. Where, as in Germany, a well established forestry system needs protection against the imports from exploiting countries, the argument might appear reasonable, but as a matter of fact, even there the tariff duty was counterbalanced by a reduction in freight rates of the exploiting countries, and has not had the desired effect. Theoretically, an import duty on lumber should make timber lands so valuable as to induce the conservative use of them, practically such a result has not been experienced, the present dollar being a greater attraction than the possible future two. CONDITIONS IN ONTARIO. I may be expected to add a few words as regards conditions in Ontario, my newly chosen field of activity. As is well known, Taxation of Woodlands. 383 the bulk of forest properties, some 90,000 square miles, is owned by the crown, or virtually by the province, and hence pays no taxes. The so-called “ground rent” which is paid by the lumber- men, holding timber limits from the crown, in addition to the stumpage dues and the bonus, can hardly be classed as a tax; it is rather a payment per unit area irrelative of values for the privilege of continuing to hold on to the limits. It can be readily demonstrated that the present method of selling timber limits, while, for the moment financially successful, is really destructive, and inimical to forestry practice. But this is a subject which does not belong here. Regarding the taxation of privately owned lands, and timber lands especially, the same or even a greater lack of equitable and uniform methods of assessment than in the states exists through- out Canada. Since only towns and municipalities raise direct taxes and no uniform law of taxation exists, each assessor is a law to himself, and an all pervading principle of assessment is not discoverable. On the whole the burden has not been great, and hence clamor for tax reform has not been heard. Lately, however, some municipalities had undertaken to levy excessive taxes on crown timber limits, and this provoked appeal to the courts, which naturally declared the limits exempt. Ontario, in its 222,000 square miles of country, equal in size to the States of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, exhibits such a great diversity of cultural and populational conditions, that necessarily from region to region at least different points of view and different methods of assessment must continue to prevail for a long time to come. The southwestern portion, the rich agri- cultural section, bordering on the lakes, where the bulk of the 2,500,000 people live, is almost destitute of timber, and even farmers’ wood lots are scarce. The northeastern part is largely covered with cut-over timber limits and stump limits, and since the agricultural soils are rather scanty, this will be eventually the great forest region. It is from this region that I cited the case of a timber land owner who is satisfied with tax conditions. Con- ditions of transportation rather more than taxation are the promi- nent considerations. North of Lakes Huron and Superior the districts of Rainy River, Thunder Bay, Algoma and Nipissing, a 24 384 Forestry Quarterly. territory of some 90,000 square miles is, still almost entirely in the woods, to a large extent of inferior character, and mostly still government land where the tax gatherer has not yet found entrance. In the agricultural regions the government of the province has very properly, for the last two years, begun to en- courage forest planting on waste lands by furnishing cheap plant material and advice. Whether the municipalities will release these plantations remains to be seen. There is on the statutes an act, passed in 1906, providing for the exemption of woodland from taxation, one acre in ten, and not more than twenty-five, with the usual limitation of numbers of trees ridiculously low, and limitation of species. ‘The applica- tion of this law is optional with the council of the township, and so far does not seem to have found acceptance anywhere. On the whole, as far as I have been able to ascertain the tax question in Ontario is not a burning one, like such others as fire protection, export tariffs, settlers’ restrictions and reform in timber limit sales. In conclusion, while I may have left the impression that not much hope is to be placed on the use of the tax power for ad- vancing forestry practices, I am convinced that the discussion of the subject of taxation must be of considerable educational value, and that the effort to devise an equitable and uniform tax assess- ment, wherever such uniformity is practicable, is to be encour- aged. B. E. Fernow. ee a eee ee Cnseees_- LUMBERING IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Although the future prosperity of the Philippine Islands de- pends mainly on their agricultural development, yet it is generally recognized that the proper exploitation of the extensive Philip- pine forests will add exceedingly to the future prosperity and also aid greatly in agricultural development of the country. More than one half of the land area of 120,000 square miles in the Islands is forested, that is, covered with a tree growth. Of the 60,000 square miles of forest, 40,000 square miles are in the more thinly settled islands of Mindoro, Samar, Palawan and Mindanao, or about eighty per cent. of their total area. This leaves 20,000 square miles of forest in Luzon and the other well settled islands, or about 30 per cent. of their total area. It must be admitted however, that large parts of this timbered area cannot be considered commercial forest by lumbermen. Scattered stands of small unmerchantable trees and inaccessible mountain forests cover considerable areas. Estimating con- servatively there are 25,000 square miles or 16,000,000 acres of timber per acre on this area is a conservative estimate, giving a scale. An average yield of 2,500 board feet of merchantable timber per acre on this area is a conservative estimate giving a total supply of forty billion board feet. The total annual cut in the Islands is now about forty million feet or only one-tenth of one per cent. of the probable supply. This cut is an insig- nificant item of the annual growth in these forests. The forests under conservative treatment should furnish an annual supply of at least 400,000,000 feet without seriously affecting the timber supply of the future. The timbers of the Islands include a great variety, ranging from the Benguet Pine and Calantas, or soft tropical cedar, to the extremely heavy and hard Dungon and Mancono. In general, Philippine woods are hard and heavy yet there are not lacking abundant supplies of light and strong construction timbers which can well be substituted for the White Pine, Oregon Pine and 386 Forestry Quarterly. California Redwood, which are imported. Lauan is a fairly soft, strong wood and can well take the place of White Pine and California Redwood. Apitong, harder, heavier and stronger than Lauan, is equal or superior to Oregon Pine and Longleaf Pine, for general construction. Lauan and Apitong and the other species of the same family, Dipterocarpaceae, are not only the most abundant timbers occurring in the archipelago, but they are very large trees. Timbers up to ninety feet in length can be secured from them. ‘They are also excellent finishing woods, equal to most American woods used for interior finish. The following comparative figures of weight and strength are taken from Bulletin No. 4, Bureau of Forestry, ‘Mechanical Tests, Properties and Uses of Thirty Four Philippine Woods.” Compression ; aaeihele cia Cross-bending. zs £ £2 otyaites I = | gees g 2. 8 % 5 Ih Nea 3 ues = = ee = w VY S > aa) =] a of ws ss n 2 a sta} od = ae = ae Oo n S NAME. e, ah = Ds : eRe 35 832 3 36o 4a S 12) S =~ on Bom eT Oo os o eS; +; oS Dele 1 oa o 2 te 5 £2. 6.230 ia") n & a ws fo ia) Sm 80 & ws wo woo = = are < £0 Sie 33 3) ov o om oF oO S re} > > & > > x < < < < < < PAAR olen sent ee Phil.Is. 12.4 6,180 10.4 9,760 1,653 .446 Cer On) Pate A ig cle veo U.S. he 5,700 qe 7,900 1,680 .51 California Redwood, ...U.S. 13.3 5,560 12.3 9,110 1,320 .445 A DItON es iii, sous Phil. Js. 14.4° 73,250 14. 11,620 2,144 .645 Ou ledd,| aes cin eae ise UW... 15. 6900 15. 10,900 T6000 cus ORE a Een Brae Phil.Is. 14.6 7,940 13.7 15,150 2,158 .708 Witte Oak os Seance ae Was 12. 8,500 12. 13,100 2,090 .80 Bignit Hickory: ines Urs: I2. 10,900 12. 18,700: 27s ee Dineony 4.8 ski oie Phil. Is. 10.7 9,420 11.6 17,110 2,209 .857 Geer EPA SOP OREN EBRD, 8 Phil Is; 0g.a) \ 0220. | eS one 2,583 .843 WMolave; ees ce ceed eee Phil. Is. ' 1237’ “8330 10.4 8580 1,614 .785 Some of the finest cabinet woods in the world are found in the Philippines. Ebony, Acle, Narra, Camagon and Tindalo give the greatest choice in beautiful color and grain. These and others would make superior substitutes for the American cabinet woods. Lumbering in the Philippines. 387 which are so rapidly disappearing. For Cherry and Mahogany, Narra, Tanguile, Balacbacan, Calantas and Lumbayao, though differing somewhat in grain and hardness, can be used; for Black Walnut, Acle and Banuyo can be used; and so on, every American furniture wood having numerous Philippine substi- tutes. Besides there are valuable woods such as Ebony, Cama- gon and Tindalo which have no counterparts in the United States. The principal commercial woods are equal to our best Ameri- can hardwoods and can well take their place. At present Phillipine lumber is produced almost exclusively for the local demands. In the fiscal year 1904-5 the Islands used about seventy-five million board feet of lumber, of which they produced about forty million feet. The remainder was im- ported from the Pacific coast. It seems anomalous that a country so rich in timber should not produce more than one-half of the supply necessary for its own people. The reasons are that lum- bering is generally on such a small scale and with so inefficient methods, and facilities for transportation of timber among the islands at present are so poor that Oregon Pine is sold in Manila and other large cities, cheaper than most native lumber. Conditions demand the development of a modern lumber in- dustry and the installation of large sawmills and suitable trans- portation facilities so that Philippine lumber can dominate in the Philippine Islands and penetrate to foreign markets. Large operations, well capitalized and efficiently managed, are necessary if the Philippine people are to receive a proper economic benefit from the possession of their valuable forests. The company desiring to establish a large lumbering opera- tion in the Philippines cannot study too carefully the factors governing the lumber industry here. These factors are the character of the forests, the accessibility of the timber, trans- portation facilities, labor conditions, stumpage prices and market conditions. CHARACTER OF PHILLIPINE ForESTS. A lumberman demands in a commerical forest, accessibility, _comparatively few species per acre, most of which are mer- chantable, and enough merchantable timber per acre to permit the use of modern logging methods. Large areas of Philippine 288 Forestry Quarterly. forest although containing the most valuable timber fail to answer these requirements. In general Philippine forests are tropical rain forests, most of which in the world are found in Central and South America and in the East Indies. They are generally characterized by an exuberance of tropical growth and a bewildering variety of tim- ber species. The greatest variety of forests is found in those regions subject to an island climate as in the Philippines. The many types of forest in the Philippines are all of economic im- portance. In Benguet and neighboring provinces at an altitude of more than two thousand feet are the open pine forests. Along the coasts, especially at the mouths of the rivers, are extensive salt water or tidal swamps, known as manglares, from which come firewood, tanbark and dyebark. The low coast flat is another forest type, characterized by scattered trees of Ipil and a few other valuable species The tangled forests of the deltas and river bottoms present the greatest variety in species but are not satisfactory for extensive lumbering Finally there is the ex- tensive hill or upland type of forest which is the most suitable for lumbering operations The upland forests are the most extensive and are the ones in which the lumbermen will be most interested in the future. There are two general classes of upland forest, depending generally on soil conditions. On rocky, exposed, and thin-soiled uplands the forest is thinner and is characterized by a smaller proportion of commercial spe- cies. Here Molave, Narra, Tindalo, Acle and other of the most valuable trees are found scattered through a stand composed mostly of small unmerchantable trees. The other type of up- land forest is found on the better, deeper soils. Here is gener- ally found a fairly dense stand of large trees principally mem- bers of one family, Dipterocarpaceae. The best example of this type is the forest in northern Negros where the Insular Lumber Co. is now operating. Here Balacbacan, Red Lauan, Almon, White Lauan and Apitong make up a stand of 32,000 feet B. M. of merchantable timber per acre. ‘This type of forest naturally answers best the requirements of modern logging and upon it will largely depend the development of an extensive lum- Lumbering in the Philippines. 389 ber industry. Both classes of hill forests are found throughout the Islands. Good examples of the former are the tracts of the Philippine Lumber and Development Co. in Camarines; the Tayabas Sawmill and Lumber Co. in Tayabas; the coast forest of southern Negros. Examples of the latter are, besides the forests of northern Negros, those of the mountains of the Bataan peninsula and east of the head of the Cagayan River in Cagayan and Isabela Provinces. The Bureau of Forestry is gradually locating and roughly mapping the best commercial forests of all these types. The information thus collected is available to all interested parties. ACCESSIBILITY OF CoMMERCIAL Forests AND TRANSPORTATION. The commercial forests are found either along the coast where the timber can be skidded directly to the beach and loaded in suitable harbors, along navigable and floatable rivers, where it is skidded directly to the rivers and floated or rafted down them, or at some distance inland, so far from deep water that short rail- roads are advisable or necessary. As long as timber remains close to the beach and large rivers, logging is easy and cheap; requiring but little capital. In such forests there are a large number of small operators, cutting insignificant quantities of timber. But these forests are being fast destroyed by the farmer. Lumbering, in the future, will be in the extensive forests some distance from the coast where carabao will not serve for hauling and logging railroads are indicated. The difficulties and expense in transporting lumber to the markets are great. A lumberman who does not own his own boats is handicapped. Few of the interisland steamers are adapted for carrying lumber and freight rates are high and some- times prohibitive. From the island of Palawan to Manila, a distance of about three hundred miles, the freight rate for logs is about $30 gold per 1,000 feet, B. M. Such rates are mani- festly absurd. From Manila to New York, thousands of miles, the rate is only $15 gold per 1,000 feet, B. M. Only the good prices in Manila make it possible to ship native lumber under such conditions. A company operating on a large scale should own its own 390 Forestry Quarterly. means of transportation from the woods to the market. The Insular Lumber Co., who are operating more extensively than any other lumbermen in the Islands, have a fleet of steamers and barges to transport the sawn lumber to the markets of Cebu, Iloilo and Manila. Freight from their mill in the island of Negros to Manila costs them less than $5 per 1,000 feet, B. M. It is reasonable to expect that lumber can be shipped between most points in the islands at a cost not exceeding this figure. LABOR CONDITIONS. The oft repeated saying that Filipino labor is inefficient does not apply in the lumber industry. Dollar for dollar of outlay much better results will be secured, both in the woods and in the sawmill, from Filipino labor than from American labor. The Filipino has a natural aptitude for running machines and is easily taught. Given a good American foreman it is surprising how well a Filipino crew can handle a sawmill. They work for small wages—$.25 and $.75 (gold) per day—and, given fair treatment, make fairly steady and permanent workmen. In the thinly settled forest regions it is necessary to import labor from the more thickly settled districts. Yet there are tracts of commercial forests so located that there is an abundant and good supply of labor available in the regions themselves. The Insular Lumber Company is located in the sugar growing district of Negros where labor is abundant and cheap. It has found no difficulty in securing a force of several hundred men most of whom it pays $.25 per day. The laborers are satisfied and work well. A lumberman will not find the labor problem a difficult one. He will find that he has escaped many of the vexatious labor difficulties of the United States to meet comparatively few in the Philippine Islands. Patience and fairness in treating the Filipinos will secure most excellent results. SrUMPAGE PRICES. The Philippine Government sells its timber unusually cheap. The government charges range from $.25 to $1.25 gold per cubic meter, Or approximately $1.00 to $5.00 per 1,000 board feet. Lumbering in the Philippines. 391 $1.00 per 1,000 board feet is charged for Lauan which sells in Manila for $35 per thousand board feet. Similar grades of California Redwood for export are worth $25 to $30 in San Francisco and stumpage at present cannot be secured for less than $2 per thousand feet. The cheap Philippine stumpage is still more marked in the fine cabinet woods. For Narra and the other most valuable woods, it is but $5 gold per 1,000 board feet, less than pine stumpage in some parts of the United States. MARKETS. The lumberman, however, is not satisfied alone with a satisfac- tory forest, cheap labor and stumpage and good transportation, but probably wants to know first what the market is for Philippine timber. Approximately 80,000,000 feet B. M. of lumber is used each year in the Philippines; of this more than thirty-five million feet is imported, being mostly Oregon Pine and California Redwood. The imported timber is being driven out of the Islands’ markets by the cheaper and more abundant kinds of native timbers. About 5,000,000 board feet has recently been added to the con- sumption of native timber by the decision to use native lumber almost exclusively in construction for the U. S. Army in the Philippines. China and Australia used of American pine during the past year 85,000,000 and 63,000,000 board feet respectively, a large part of which demand can be furnished by the Philippine Islands when their Apitong and Lauan have been introduced in those markets by large lumber companies properly equipped and capitalized. Per 1,000 feet B. M. LGC De TS wha IA eee LP EAP A AY RG Py Vr $ 35 00 to $ 45 00 in TIES 5 A, OS a ae fed rs ad 50 00 Mee Bt asisicl elo capers aq ts x ois totaal ncaa 49 00 “ 70 00 Teneo) rn As Sta Ohad 107 50 “ 150 00 CE oI BR A ats a> Ae ee 80 oo “ 100 00 eG ehy Lcliehichip 5 aca io cereus dlurarS ave onhote 125; 60 % I50 00 PCRtIRCHAG ue ytkD tie, 2 47 50 “ 60 00 Sr Ue See oo an yt ee go 00 “ ~—s- 112 00 epan Pimepe ti aesss aes tose. 37 50 California Redwood, ........... 47 50 292 Forestry Quarterly. It is evident from these prices that a lumber company, properly — equipped and managed and operating on a suitable timber tract, should be able to deliver many kinds of native lumber in Manila at a cost about one-half of these prices. Cheap labor and low stumpage offset the increased expense of machinery and manage- ment in the Philippines. Experience has shown that Lauan can be logged to a sawmill for less than $5 gold per 1,000 board feet, sawn for $3 and delivered in Manila for a total cost of about $15.00. There should always be an opportunity for small operators in supplying the local provincial demands but the growth of a lum- ber industry worthy of the Islands will depend on the investment of considerable capital. Lumbermen should be prepared to handle the lumber in all stages from the forest to the market. In this way they can compete successfully, not only in the Philippine, but also in Chinese, Australian and even American markets. The following distances to markets show the advantageous position of the Philippine Islands in competition with the Pacific Coast: al . . a 4 — al op ~ — Ay f A (apis = =) = Ay om Od a8 wk DISTANCE FROM = 3 = i) eee 00.S 587) x = S Se Ss ss w 3 ‘5 oO =o ea =e ©) = ee wn an Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Seattle, Us SivAs cue O40! aero! eee eee 6,300 6,200 6,800 Cadiz, Negros Occ. .... 400 140 70 800 1,300 3,370 Bongabon, Mindoro, ... ZOO}. Bioeeeaaeeee 700 1,200 3,570 A market for Philippine lumber should also be secured in the United States. Most Philippine timbers are unexcelled for cabi- net work, interior finishing, etc., where beautiful hard woods capable of high polish are required. Such woods are rapidly dis- appearing in the United States. The difficulty has been that there were no lumbermen in a position to supply a strong demand, Consequently the fine Philippine woods are still unknown in the United States. The Insular Lumber Company has taken an im- portant step in developing an American market by shipping to the United States sample lots of its Balacbacan, a beautiful red wood, which is very abundant in Negros. Lumbering in the Philippines. 393 The lumbermen, however, who now contemplate lumbering in the Philippine Islands can not figure entirely on what the market may be but must depend mostly on what it is now. He must feel that he can secure his share of the local trade. The following were the prevailing prices in Manila, August I, 1907, for some of the principal native woods, Oregon Pine and California Red- wood. PRESENT LUMBERING OPERATIONS. Lumbering at present is mostly carried on in a crude, inefficient way by numerous small butters, few of whom cut a significant amount. ‘There is also a great waste in logging. Skidding and hauling are done with carabao, which are poor draught animals for this purpose. Several carabao are needed to move an ordi- nary log and much of the timber is too large to be hauled by them. In this kind of logging the requirements for cheap log- ging are lacking, and the output is necessarily small. Islands. The following is a list of sawmills now operating with their location and output: List of Sawmills. Maximum LOcaTION. daily output Principal Markets. (board feet). Witetibimmbsn tan Wee Sud 8 eee 30,000 Manila. 5 POR A eae Saeed aL A CEN 20,000 6 a FN) UNAS ee ee aR ey oe 20,000 ; es RS iach tia ts ee chotonn es 10,000 of re eel eet aS SE Le 10,000 of Cadiz and Sagay, Negros Occi- 15,000 Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and dental. New York. Cadiz and Sagay, Negros Occi- 60,000 Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and dental. New York. Gattarat, Cagayan, 2 sides selves (a) Local. Fiuelisen, Lepanto-Bontoc, ....:. 1,500 e Batt On SCUSTICL: | ves. 1. 5 oietele «o's 2,500 < $ BAe a, hay -fetavs als ears 3,500 a a Sie be aS Zo 3 es 4,000 ie Bayombong, Nueva Viscaya, ..... (a) - SaieatOniay Vatlac,.”.. Joes shia 2,500 Manila. MUR Eatt batlaCy cere scp etoee (a) Local. oOlnaO, Pangasinan, iiccccicc ae es\e (a) y Pinamalayan, Mindoro, ......... 5,000 Manila. Mamburao, Mindoro, ........... 5,000 Local. WMansarin, Mindoro, ..c...0..20% 10,000 Manila. Guinayangan, Tayabas, ......... 15,000 . “ Ragay Gulf, Ambos Camarines, .. (ai) 304 Forestry Quarterly. Maximum LocaTION. daily output Principal Markets. (board feet). Maclobanwlveytes ve cins seca eee eee 3,000 Local. Palompane Leyie, ee emeee rene 4,000 Cebu and local. Dumaguete, Negros Oriental, .... 3,500 Local. Lolo: Miloilos Nee aeons 4,000 Iloilo. Isabela, Basilan* Island) 222.2. 222 6,000 Zamboanga. Zampoanea Moron cass veces (a) Local. Cotabatos Moro aces ae eee ee (a) United States Army. Parang, wiMlono: wi. seme miseries eis 6,000 x 4 2 Mara li MOTTON seers rice. (a) . s ef Sibuguey Bay, Moro, ........... (a) Local and Philippine Ry. (a) Small ee $0 AI hg Et pS I Lumbering in the Philippines. 395 the best type with a capacity of 100,000 board feet and should manufacture at least 60,000 board feet per day when a mill crew has been trained. ‘This company is able to sell Lauan and Api- tong cheaper than other lumbermen and can sell it in Manila at a much lower price than that prevailing for Oregon Pine or Cali- fornia Redwood. ‘Their operation is an example of what can be done in the Philippines by a well equipped company operating with modern methods. Donkey engines are employed to skid the timber to a logging railroad on which the logs are hauled to the mills. ‘The company’s steamers and barges carry the lumber to Manila, Iloilo and Cebu. Another operation worthy of mention is that of Mr. John Gib- son in Mindoro. He is operating over a large tract in which Narra, often called the Philippine Mahogany, is fairly abundant. His mill is located in Manila, to which he transports the logs in his own steamers. Other companies operating on large tracts are the Philippine Lumber and Development Company in Camarines, the Tayabas Sawmill and Lumber Company in Tayabas, and Williamson and Redding near Zamboanga. Considerable interest 1s being shown by capitalists in Philippine lumbering. The Bureau of Forestry has recently received a number of applications for exclusive licenses for large timber tracts. SuITABLE TIMBER TRACTS AVAILABLE. In pursuance of. its policy to do everything possible to stimu- late the forest industries of the Philippine Islands, the Bureau of Forestry, during the past two years has located and roughly mapped timber tracts suitable for large operations. It is now in a position to give definite information regarding some such tracts to prospective lumbermen. In northern Negros are sixty square miles of dense virgin forest, similar in species and equal in yield to the forest of the Insular Lumber Company which adjoins it. This forest covers the slopes of Mount Silay, ranging in elevation from two hun- dred to four thousand feet above the level of the sea. About forty square miles lie below one thousand feet and are an ex- 306 Forestry Quarterly. cellent lumbering proposition for a company with a large capital. The new railroad in Negros is planned to pass within three miles of the edge of the forest. A company could build its sawmill on this railroad, run its own logging railroad into the forest and ship its lumber to a port on the coast to be loaded for Cebu, Iloilo, Manila or Hongkong, and New York. On the forty square miles most accessible is a total stand of about 800 million board feet of merchantable lumber, enough to supply a mill cutting 50,000 feet per day more than fifty years. It is a Dipterocarp forest, that is, composed mostly of Lauan, Apitong and Tanguile. In the well forested region of northwestern Mindoro is another suitable tract of forty square miles. It is located southwest of lake Naujan and about thirteen miles from Calapan, the provin- cial capital. This also is a Dipterocarp forest composed mainly of Almon, Lauan, Tanguile and Apitong.. A rough survey showed an average stand of about 20,000 board feet per acre or a total of 512,000,000 board feet standing on the forty square miles. ‘The topography is suitable for lumbering, characterized by clay hills running up to eight hundred feet above sea level. The slopes are gradual, making logging easy. Logs may be rafted across the Lake and down the river to the coast, or a tramway built direct to Calapan which is about twelve hours by steamer from Manila. In addition to this tract there are others somewhat smaller in the same region which deserve attention. On the peninsula of Bataan across the Bay from Manila, cov- ering the slopes of Mariveles mountain is another forest tract suitable for a large lumbering operation. Although logging is much more difficult here than on the other tracts mentioned, the proximity to Manila makes it a good proposition. Extensive lumbering will soon begin on this tract. Other important forests which will soon be explored and studied by the Bureau of Forestry are found east of the Cagayan River in the Province of Isabela and Cagayan, in the undeveloped southern portion of the island of Negros, on the Agusan River in Surigao, Mindanao, and on the Sibuguey Bay, Moro, Mindanao. These forests are said to be accessible and suitable for exploita- tion on a large scale. Many other good commercial forests will be investigated as soon as possible. > Lumbering in the Philippines. 397 OBTAINING A TRACT OF TIMBER. The public forests of the Philippine Islands are not sold, but are exploited under a license system. Small cutters generally operate under ordinary yearly licenses for definite small areas. In the case of large operations involving the investment of considerable capital in permanent enterprises, exclusive licenses are granted for periods up to twenty years for definite large tracts of timber, which licenses are practically equivalent to consessions. Application for tracts not exceeding 2,500 acres in area are forwarded by the Director of Forestry, after due investigation, to the Secretary of the Interior with recommendations. The Sec- retary may then grant an exclusive license if he decides that it is to the public interest. For an area of more than 2,500 acres, when the Secretary of the Interior is convinced that the granting of an exctusive license is to the public interest, proposals for bids to secure the said privi- lege are published in the Official Gazette and other newspapers. The license will then be granted to the highest and best bidder who offers to install the most complete and efficient plant most promptly and to do the greatest amount of annual development work and who furnishes the best bond as a guarantee of per- formance. The right to reject any and all bids is expressly reserved and in general it may be stated that no exclusive license will be ap- proved except upon a reasonable showing that the licensee will be able within the period fixed in his license actually to exploit the resources of the forest tract covered by it. The man who means . business must show the government that he really intends to develop the tract he secures an exclusive license for and will protect the interests of the public in the concession. The exclusive license agreements are contracts between the Government and the lumbermen. The latter can feel assured that if they comply with the forest laws and regulations and show good faith that they will be entirely safe in making large inves- ments and installing permanent modern plants. The Bureau of Foresry is now in a position to assist lumber- men desiring to locate here. Some have recently made applica- tions for exclusive licenses for large tracts and have found the 308 Forestry Quarterly. maps and information furnished them by the Bureau, of great value. ‘Trained foresters with two or more years of experience in the Philippine forests will be placed at the service of lumber- men to assist them in finding suitable forest tracts. The available publications of the Bureau will be sent on application to interested parties. Lumber is bound to become one of the greatest sources of wealth in the Philippine Islands. The growth of the industry may be slow but present indications point to a bright future for Philippine lumber. H. D. Everert. Bureau of Forestry, Manila. THE TREATMENT OF FENCE POSTS TO INCREASE DURABILITY. The past two decades have witnessed a wonderful develop- ment of the agricultural resources of our middle West. We no longer find open stretches of prairie of great extent, but fields and pastures and wood-lots divided by fences of various kinds, which call for a large number of fence posts. The census of 1900 re- ports the annual production of fence posts in the regular logging camps of the country as 8,715,661, while no figures exist to show how many times greater than this is the annual cut from the home wood-lot. By taking the total number of farms and their acreage and making a conservative allowance for posts in fences enclosing these farms, it has been estimated that upwards of 1,000,000,000 posts are set each year. This figure can hardly be realized be- cause of its immensity, but we may approach realization when we know that the above number stated as required each year would make a fence, with posts a rod apart, 121 times as long as the greatest circumference of the earth. This enormous annual consumption of posts on our farms, to say nothing of posts used by railroads and in our villages and cities, is causing an increasing scarcity of post timber, until one must pay now from 15 to 30 cents for only fair grades of hard wood and cedar posts. To simplify the fence post problem on our farms and to de- crease the large expense of fencing, many are now turning to the use of various preservatives which at a small cost will increase the life of the post two or three times. It is true that many are tempted to use substitutes of various kinds, such as cement and iron posts. It is believed that a thorough trial or these substitutes will turn the farmer back to the use of a wooden post thoroughly treated with creasote or some similar antiseptic. Four things are necessary for the decay of timber, namely, air, warmth, water and some fungous growth. If we can eliminate any one of these factors of decay, we can preserve wood almost indefinitely. All processes of timber treatment are based upon 25 400 Forestry Quarterly. this fact and treatment is given simply to prevent the entrance of a fungus. The value of any method of treatment lies then in the value of the preservatives used as an antiseptic, in its power to hold itself in the wood, and in its cheapness and ease of applica- tion. Too often lack of time causes the farmer or stockman to go to his wood-lot and cut the posts when they are needed, which may be at any season of the year. The posts are then set without peeling or seasoning of any kind. What is the usual result? The posts, because of the presence of bark and because green will go out in from 3 to 5 years when if cut at the right season of the year, peeled and thoroughly seasoned they would last from two to three times as long. The best time to cut hard wood posts is in late summer or early autumn when the “‘sap is up,” or during the time which the lum- berman calls ‘the second running of the sap.” If the posts are peeled immediately and ricked up so as to allow free circulation of air between them, they will season rapidly and be much more durable than as if cut during the winter or early spring. Sea- soning may be aided by allowing the fallen trees to lie on the ground after cutting until the leaves are thoroughly wilted. It would be practical business economy for the user of posts to keep a considerable number cut and piled so that when needed he would always have a seasoned post. METHOops oF INCREASING DURABILITY. One of the cheapest and a very effective method of increasing durability is thorough seasoning. With fence posts this may be accomplished as described above in from 8 to 16 months, de- pending upon the species, size and whether properly peeled and piled. Under no circumstances should posts be stood on the end during seasoning, as when so piled the post absorbs water and a condition which invites the entrance of fungi is brought about. Since 30 to 60 per cent. of the weight of green timber is due to the sap present in the wood, it will be seen readily that seasoning is also an important factor in case of handling and cost of trans- portation. Treatment of Fence Posts. 401 A method formerly much used and of considerable value js that of thoroughly charring over a slow fire the portion of the post which is placed in the ground, breaking as little as possible of the charcoal from the post during setting, Water and smoke seasoning are methods sometimes used when unusually thorough seasoning is required. There is no doubt but what immersion in water dissolves such soluble substances in the wood as starch, sugar and tannin. The leaching out of these materials takes away the substances which often invite the en- trance of insects and fungi. The U. S. Forest Service has been carrying on a series of experiments in Michigan and Wisconsin in which Cedar and Tamarack telephone and telegraph poles are being submerged in water for varying lengths of time. ‘The time required for seasoning by these methods is the chief drawback. We often see a combination of linseed oil and charcoal dust advised for increasing life of timber. Linseed oil is good but not nearly so effective as creosote, and a mixture of linseed oil and charcoal dust is more disagreeable to handle, more ex- pensive, and less effective in increasing durability than creosote. Numerous salts, such as those of zinc, copper, iron and mag- nesium are often used and they have a high antiseptic value, but as they are easily leached out of the wood and not as easily ap- plied as creosote they are undesirable for use in preserving fence posts. Some of our railroads are using chloride of zinc very ex- tensively in the treatment of ties, but the ties are only used in the dry climate of our southwest where there is comparatively little danger of the leaching out of the salt. Antiseptic salts and oils are applied to timber to increase dura- bility. First by pressure in cylinders, second by natural pressure, third boiling in liquids, fourth in the case of oils by application with brush or merely soaking the timber in the ofl. The pre- servative may have simply a physical effect on the wood, by en- crusting the cell walls, or may have a chemical effect, by com- bining with the wood fibres or cell contents. From all standpoints, the best material so far found for in- creasing the life of fence posts is the oil of tar or some trade com- pound in which the oil of tar is the active principle. Creosote is the most common form of this oil used in timber preserving plants 402 Forestry Quarterly. of the country and by farmers and stockmen in preserving fence posts. The most usual method of applying oil to posts is by painting the lower half of a seasoned post with the hot oil. Two coats will be more effective than one, and if this process is followed, by allowing the lower end of the post to stand in the oil for several days it will be more effective. The manufacturers of trade preparations containing tar oil usually advise this method of ap- plication because it is simple and easy and by testing it has been found to be fairly effective in preventing decay. By experiments carried on in several places in this country, it has been found that the most valuable method of treating posts with creosote or other oils is to boil the lower 36 to 40 inches of the second post in a shallow tank. By giving this treatment from four to six hours the lower one-third of the post will take up from four to eight pounds of the oil. When evenly absorbed it has been found that this amount is sufficient to increase the life of the post by three to four times. Such soft wooden fence posts as those of soft maple, boxelder, cottonwood, and willow can be treated at a cost of from 6 to Io cents and when so treated will last as long as the best grades of white cedar. A tank which would be perfectly satisfactory for this work could be built and set in place upon any farm for from ten to fifteen dollars. Experiments along this same line are being carried on by the United States Forest Service and splendid results are being ob- tained. It is impossible to estimate the importance of making it a practical thing for the many wood-lot owners of the state to utilize for posts the trees which are of little value for Jumber. Hucu P. BAKER. “CONGRESSIONAL TOURS.” The last six months have seen a new departure in co-operative work with private owners, a change from the old method of elaborate working plans (?) or wood lot examinations which did little real good, and at best reached only a small percentage of the population. The copious distribution of literature on for- estry is not enough; for in order to be of any profit to the recipi- ent he must be already instructed in the subject, otherwise his reading will be desultory. In order to interest the farmer in forestry, it is necessary to put it up to him personally and show him clearly (1) what to do, (2) the advantage it will be to him to do so. We must not forget that the chief appeal is to a man’s purse strings, when urging him to take up a new thing. This new departure is the “Congressional Tour” as it has come to be known, or “Farmers’ Institute” as the Congressmen prefer to call it. One of them aptly named it “A Tour of Material De- velopment,” and this, in truth, is what it is. The credit of evolving this scheme belongs to Captain Hob- son, of Alabama, who was the first to organize a tour. The “experts” were chosen from the Department of Agriculture—the Bureaus represented being that of Plant Industry, Soils, the Office of Roads, and the Forest Service. The Hobson tour was such a great success that other Southern Congressmen hastened to follow suit, and now there have been besides another tour in Alabama, three in Georgia, two in North Carolina, two in Ten- nessee, and one in Mississippi. These tours have, in all cases, been fully advertised and the attendance, if not large, representative. The audiences varied in number between fifty and two thousand, with the average some- where around one hundred and fifty. The talks were plain and matter of fact. The “experts” con- tented themselves with “’splanifyin’”’ and “argifyin’”’ and left it for the Congressman to put in “de rousements’ if he saw fit. Politics were not mentioned and many of the audiences were, I believe, secretly disappointed because of the lack of invective and personal recrimination which characterize the political speech. “er 404 Forestry Quarterly. Questions from the farmers were encouraged and in this way the real need of the people brought out. It was much more of a “heart to heart” talk than a set speech and consequently the cases of listeners going to sleep were very rare. Indeed the interest throughout was good and the real needs of the farmers were met as never before in the old days of bulletins and voluminous long- distance reports. It is not a pleasant thought that in spite of all the propaganda work which has been done, the knowledge of forestry encountered was largely negative. It can only be explained by the fact that the methods employed were not conducive to overcoming the local spirit of indifference which expressed itself in “We folks don’t know nothing about nothing, and we don’t want anybody to tell us nothing about nothing.” No, the men on the tour found a virgin field as far as forestry is concerned, and it was necessary to start out with a brief ac- count of what forestry means and the need for it throughout the whole country, and how that need could be best met in the im- mediate region. To this end I found the most effective means to be a couple of enlarged photographs showing “‘the right and the wrong way.” One was of “skinned” land in northern Michigan, the other a cutting area on the Minnesota National Forest. These two pictures, illustrating, as they do, the difference between Improvident Exploitation and Conservative Lumbering, served to draw and hold the interest of the audience and to impress the point on them better than any verbal description. Great interest was shown in the conservative treatment of farm timbers, especially fence posts. The simplicity of the open tank treatment and its adaptability to the ‘“‘sorry” second growth trees appealed to the farmer as a good common sense proposition, and inclined him to think favorably of “the forestry business.” It was in the town of Andover, New Hampshire, that an old farmer told me that “there ain’t much forestry in Andover.” Wherever these tours have been held they may not result in much intensive forestry, but if the farmers will realize the value of their woods, cut conservatively and utilize completely what they do cut, a great deal of good will have been accomplished. A. B. RECKNAGEL. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. Graves, in Charge. Plant Physiology and Ecology. By Frederic Edward Cle- ments, Ph.D. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1907. Pp. 15+ 315 with 125 illustrations. Two years ago Professor F. E. Clements gave to advanced students of botany a very interesting and instructive volume en- titled “Research Methods in Ecology,’ in which he marked out the field of plant ecology, described apparatus and methods of experimentation and of recording observations, and discussed the terminology of the subject. This has now been followed up by a textbook “based largely upon ‘Research Methods,’ but contain- ing matter new or re-written” and adapted to meet the require- ments of undergraduate students of the lower years. As to the plan of the book, as stated in the preface, “the plant is first considered as an individual, with respect to factor, func- tion, and form, and then as a member of a plant group of forma- tion.” The author’s point of view is that physiology and ecology are essentially the same, and that a study of the vital activities of protoplasm, or of the living organism should properly be merged with a study of the living plant in its relation to the factors of. the habitat and its adaptations to these factors. It need scarcely be pointed out that Professor Clement’s view 15 not the orthodox one. Pfeffer in the introduction to his Pflanzen- anatomie maintains that description of the relations subsisting between the plant and its environment, or its struggle with the variable and external conditions presented to it” lies quite out side the province of a textbook of physiology. Ecology, or bionomy is clearly defined as “the sum of our knowledge with regard to the vital economy of the plant, and its relations with, and adaptations to, its dead and living organic and inorganic sur roundings,” and tersely by Haeckel (Systematische Phylogenie) as the “principles of plant economy.” Whatever may be thought of the author’s creed, there is no question however, as to his enthusiasm, and his book will be wel- 5 406 Forestry Quarterly. comed as a distinct addition to our useful elementary text books of botany that deal with the subject of ecology. Chapter I, on irritability in plants serves as a brief introduc- tion to what follows. Chapters II and III deal in a very sug- gestive manner with the water of the habitat, and with such physiological matters as absorption, conduction and transpiration in which little new is presented. That an exact and statistical study of the physical factors of the habitat should be emphasized is highly to be commended. Chapter IV deals similarly with light. . Chapter V, the least satisfactory of all is given over to a brief exposition of Respiration, Nutrition, Growth, etc. Pur- porting to be a textbook of Physiology, one cannot help express the view that such important phenomena are all too superficially and briefly expounded. Chapter VI is entitled “Adjustment to Gravity, Contact and Shock.” The two succeeding sections are purely ecological, dealing with adaptations of plants to water and light, while the third is philosophical, a chapter on Evolution. The remainder of the book is given over to an account of plants as members of plant groups or formations and is well done. Methods of studying vegetation, the plant formation, aggregation and migration, competition and ecesis (establishment of migrating plants), invasion and succession, and alternation and zonation are discussed in turn with a freshness and enthusiasm that give character to this latest addition to the ranks of elementary botanical texts. J. HLF. Traité D’Exploitation Commerciale Des Bois. Vol. Il. By Alphonse Mathey. Paris, 1908. 835 pp., 429 plates. Price, 20 fres. This second volume adds over 800 pages, profusely illustrated with explanatory cuts, to the 488 pages of Vol. I, making probably the most ambitious work on Forest Utilization. While the first volume was devoted to timber physics, including preservative processes, and to logging methods, this volume dis- cusses the saw-mill practice and the application of wood in the arts and industries. The author does not only record the prac- Oe ee Se ee Current Literature. 407 tice but is full of suggestions as to improvement of the practice, and especially as to uses of various woods now neglected. He criticises indeed, the inefficiency in the use of wood at home, although viewing the matter from our usage here it would appear most efficient. The book is most profusely enriched with tabulations, and cost and price questions occupy much of the discussions. The volume is divided into eight books, each sub- vided: into chapters. The first book is devoted to cordwood and its uses for fuel, charcoal, pulp and other fibre uses. The second book dis- cusses small dimension material, used in turnery, inlaid work, and posts, poles, props, etc. The third book treats the measurement and classification of logs, and the utilization and classification of barks; the fourth with lumber ready for use, and railroad ties. The saw-mill practice is treated in the fifth, cooperage and other split ware in the sixth book. Small wooden ware—the small forest industries—fill one part of book seven, and the great in- dustries a second part. Finally, the eighth book discusses the by-products, tan, cork, naval stores, distillation. While, to be sure, the work is written entirely from the standpoint of French usage, by a French forester, and would perhaps, not interest the average American forester, no teacher, or especially investigator in the subject of forest utilization can afford to overlook this work, written in lively style. Especially as the time for more careful and intensive use of wood in our own country approaches will the value of this volume increase. BoB. Bs. Utihzation of Wood Waste by Distillation. By Walter B. Harper. 1907, pp. 156, 20: St. Louis Lumberman, St. Louis, Mo. Price, $3.00. Next to fire, the difficulty of disposing of the enormous wood waste which especially in virgin mixed woods forms the larger bulk of the contents is the greatest hindrance to satisfactory re- production, especially to natural regeneration. Indeed these two impediments go together. If the wood waste could be removed, fires would not be half as detrimental. Hence any development of methods for using the inferior wood materials must be con- 408 Forestry Quarterty. sidered a boon to forestry not only from the economic but also from the silvicultural point of view. It is rare that a trade paper produces contributions even to technical literature which have more than ephemeral value. Mr. Harper’s articles on the utilization of wood waste by distillation is a distinct exception and the St. Louis Lumberman deserves credit and is to be congratulated for its enterprise in publishing, now in book form, such a treatise of permanent value. The work, while mostly a compilation, is done with the proper scien- tific spirit and at the same time with due regard to the practical questions. Especially the financial aspects are taken care of. This is the more to be commended as this essential condition of success is so often overlooked by those who are concerned only in the technical possibilities. Unfortunately from the forester’s point of view, the author confesses, that no economical or successful method of utilizing the waste in the forest, even of pine and fir has been developed—and the outlook is not promising. It was such use we had in mind when speaking of the subject of waste in relation to reproduction in the forest, but our hopes aroused by the broadness of the title of the volume were disappointed, for it deals after all only or almost exclusively with the distillation of pine wood, refuse at mills and especially selected in the woods. The practical utiliza- tion of the enormous hardwood forest waste is still an unsolved problem, except its limited use in expensive wood alcohol plants. To give an idea of the contents of the volume we may give the headings of the thirteen chapters into which it is divided, namely: Introduction; Historical Connection; from which we learn that wood distillation dates back to the beginning of last century; Principles of Distillation; Apparatus necessary for destructive distillation; Refining Methods; Special Combi- nation of Apparatus; Execution and Processes; Refining Pro- cesses; General considerations for the establishment of plants; Composition of wood and products of distillation; Yields and Disposal of Products; Chemical Tests and Combinations; Chemical Control of Plant. The chapters on apparatus and processes are fully illustrated and occupy over half the space of the book. B. E. F. es Other Current Literature. 409 Jahresbericht tiber Veréffentlichungen wid wichtigere Ereig- nisse im Gebiete des Forstwesens, etc., fiir das Jahr 1900. Frankfurt, 1907. 100 pp. This annual report, which is published as a supplement to the Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung is a most valuable index to the literature in the field of forestry and cognate subjects. The field is divided into nine sections, each being reviewed by a specialist. Unfortunately, Germans have not yet learned the con- struction of a good index. To find out what has been published on any given point it is necessary to do much hunting through the pages with greater chances of missing the reference than would be the case if the clearer latin print were used. Naturally the references are mainly to German literature, although an attempt is made to include some French and English publications. Nevertheless it is a valuable work indispensable to any one who would keep au courant with the development of the profession. OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. A Key to the Genera of the Native Forest Trees and Shrubs of Indiana, based chiefly upon Leaf Characters. By Stanley Coulter and Herman B. Dorner, Lafayette, Ind., 1907. 24 pp. Price 20 cents. A new edition, including the shrubs. Farm Weeds of Canada. By Geo. H. Clark and James Fletcher. Published by Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 1906. 106 pp. 2° 56 plates. This unusually well illustrated volume with colored plates includes, of course, the common weeds of the Northern United States. Besides the latin and various common names and a description, the time of flowering, method of propagation occurrence by localities, the injury it does, and the remedies are given. Forest Planting Leaflets, (U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Circs. 76, pp. 3; 77, pp. 4; 82, pp. 8; 83, pp. 3; 84, pp. 4; 85, pp. 4; 86, pp. 3; 87, pp. 4; 88, pp. 5; 890, pp. 4; 9°, pp. 3; OI, pp. 4; 92, PP. 4; 93, PP- 45 94, PP. 3; 95, pp. 4). These leaflets treat 410 Forestry Quarterly. of the form and size, habits and growth, economic uses, methods of propagation, planting, cultivation, and care of the following species of trees, which are given in order corresponding with the circular numbers above: Silver maple (Acer saccharinum), Cottonwood (Populus deltoides), Hardy Catalpa (Catalpa spe- ciosa), Russian Mulberry (Morus alba tartarica), White Ash (Fraxinus americana), Slippery Elm (Ulmus pubescens), Box- elder (Acer negundo), White Willow (Salix alba), Black Wal- nut (Juglans nigra), Tamarack (Larix laricina), Osage Orange (Toxylon pomiferum), Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus dioicus), Green Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata), Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), Black Cherry (Prunus serotina), and Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). Proceédings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol. 11., No. 1, July, 1907. Contains the following articles: Some Philip- pine Forest Problems, by R. C. Bryant; Striking Features of the Forest and Water Situation in California, by E. A. Sterling; Some Problems in Hawaii, by Ralph $. Hosmer; Some Prob- lems in Forest Education, by Henry $. Graves; Object and Methods of Establishing Permanent Sample Plots, by W. D. Sterrett; A New Explanation of the Tolerance and Intolerance of Trees, by Raphael Zon; Forest Fire Insurance in Germany, by Samuel J. Record; A Rough System of Management for Re- serve Lands in the Western Sierras, by W. B. Greely; Some Government Timber Sales in the Southwest from the Practical and Technical Standpoint, by T. S. Woolsey, Jr. Silvical Leaflets Nos. 1 to 14, U. S. Forest Service, 1907. These comprise Alpine Fir, Port Orford Cedar, Engelmann Spruce, White Fir, Lowland Fir, Sitka Spruce, Nobel Fir, Red Fir, In- cense Cedar, Bigcone Spruce, Yellow Cedar, Western White Pine, Western Larch. Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for the years 1905 and 1906. Harrisburg, Pa., 1907. 149 pp. Twelfth Annual Report of the Forestry Commission of Minne- sota for the year ro06. St. Paul, Minn. 149 pp. Other Current Literature. 411 Twelfth Annual Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Com- mission of New York. Albany, N. Y., 1907. 209 pp. Fifth Report of the Forest Preserve Board of New York. Albany, N. Y., 1907. 35 pp. Annual Report of the Superintendent of State Forests of New York. Albany, N. Y., 1907 . 39 pp. Prolonging the Life of Mine Timbers. By John M. Nelson, Jr. Circular No. 111, U. S. Forest Service ,Washington, D. C. 22 pp. Use of Dead Timber in the National Forests. By E. R. Hod- son. Circular No. 113, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907. 4 pp. Wood Distillation. By W. C. Geer. Circular No, 114, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907. 8 pp. Second Progress Report on the Strength of Structural Timber. By W. K. Hatt. Circular No. 115, U. S .Forest Service, Wash- ington, D. C., 1907. 39 pp. The Waning Hardwood Supply and the Appalachian Forests. By William L. Hall. Circular No. 116, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907. 16 pp. Location, date of Latest Proclamation, and Area of the Na- tional Forests in the United States, Alaska, and Porto Rico. U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Oct., 1907. Pflanzenphysiologische Studien im Walde. By Max Wagner. Berlin, 1907. 177 pp. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. In Charge: BOtnICOl | JOWPAIS: voirecls Nis Sa he ae ec ee R. T. FisHEer Foreign Journals ....2..... B. E. Fenrow, F. Dunuap, R. Zon ELOPESUN GIST SOWIHAIS ta oer shoei cha ee Wine ee ete H. P. BAKER T PARC PO GIS Nk ae te ane age F. Rory, J. F. KuMMEL FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. The characteristic features of Slavonia’s Slavonia’s forests, according to Martin, are the ex- Forests. tent of the old stands of nearly pure pedunculate oak, the volume of marketable wood they contain, and the size of the trees. Forest conditions, either physically or economically, are far from what they should be. The stand is open and the soil occupied too largely by un- dergrowth; nearly all the trees are stag-headed, due only to their extreme age. The increment is less than 40% of the nor- mal, the stock about 35%, while there is almost no approach toward a proper distribution of age classes. Most of the area is occupied by over-matured trees and the young growth has lacked nearly every care that should have been given it. Natural regeneration alone is practiced. The area is closed to grazing and the undergrowth of adventitious species is re- moved. After the mast has fallen the entire stand is removed at once and a thicket of brush springs up. Under this protec- tion, which is heavy enough to be an impediment, the young trees grow, kept alive by the rich soil, and at length break through and overtop the thicket. The stands so produced are very un- even and some form of gradual removal of the parent stand extending over several years would give better results. But the management in Slavonia is extensive throughout and, on the whole, fair results are attained. Stumpage is sold in large lots after careful estimates, usually to French or German syndicates owning large saw mills in the neighborhood. The price is very high and firm, giving best evi- ? Periodical Literature. 413 dence of the strength of the market for large amounts of oak. The best grades of oak are worth 3$ times as much as the cor- responding grade of ash, and 5 times as much as beech of the same grade. Slavonia’s forests cry out against unthinking conservatism in forest management. Here the observer is impressed more than anywhere else with the foolishness of retaining, as a definite policy, old stands past their prime. The conditions in the stand go steadily downward from bad to worse and the prospects for return to the proper distribution of age classes and to normal ac- cretion are pushed farther into the future. As a warning against over-zealous conservatism these forests well repay study. The forester can best apply to the soil whatever conservatism is in him. Stands require a century for their growth and finally must be renewed, soils once exhausted renew themselves more slowly still, if at all. Mitteilungen iiber die forstlichen Verhdltnisse in Slavonien. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. Pp. 719-727. Nov. 1906. At the International Agricultural Con- wedish gress, at Vienna, Dr. Anderson explained Forest why Sweden was so favorably located for Conditions. forest exploitation, pointing out that the number of drivable streams and _ their water conditions are so favorable for transportation from stump to ocean, as in no other country. Twelve large rivers of an average length of 200 miles each traverse the entire forest area of 50,000,000 acres (48% of the whole country), and some 30 shorter rivers of 60 to 120 miles in length, add to the transporta- tion means in the lowlands. ‘The fall in these rivers varies from 5 to 8 feet per mile, the most favorable for driving and rafting. The harbors are free from ice for six to seven months, and the ice in the rivers breaks up at the mouth first, also a favorable feature. Precipitation at 3,000 feet altitude is 900 mm, at 5,000 feet altitude 3,000 mm, 70 to 80% of which is carried off by the rivers, as against 30% in Middle Europe, giving rise to good spring floods which carry the wood from the small to the main rivers. The total length of rafting waters is about 12,000 miles, and to each mile 3 to 6 square miles of forest. 414 Forestry Quarterly. In 1865 the transport of logs, 12 to 30 feet long, cost between 6 and 7 cents; in 1902, about 3 cents for a distance of around 120 miles. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October 1907, p. 436. FOREST BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. The importance of the different require- Measurement ments of light by different species and of their relation to other factors like water Light Requirements absorption and transpiration has, since Gustav Heyer, been fully appreciated by silviculturists although only empirical data without any exactitude have been at the basis of the classification into tolerant and in- tolerant species. The well known physiologist, Wiesner, attempted 15 years ago to determine more accurately and numerically the light require- ments, and devised an improvement on the Bunson-Roscoe method of measuring light (Photometrische Untersuchungen, Vienna, 1893), which others have also followed, in which a chlorsilver paper is exposed until the color changes to a constant tone of a scale. Actually this is only measurement of the chemically active rays of the light. Dr. Cederbaur, of the Austrian Experiment Station, has through two years tested the method and has found it inadequate. The first question to be settled is, which light rays are required by the trees—the quality of the light—before the quantitative de- termination can be of value. It has been demonstrated that the chlorophyll in the single leaf has selective power. Referring to Frauenhofer’s spectrum, the maximum absorption lies between the lines B and C (red), considerable absorption takes place at F (blue) and at G (violet) and H (indigo), while at C and S$ (orange, yellow) the absorption is small. The degree of absorp- tion varies with different leaves and the number of leaves above each other; a sunleaf of the beech absorbs much more than a shade leaf. Exposing a spectroscope under a uniformly close each other; a sunleaf of the beech absorbs much more than a beech stand absorbs different rays from an oak or a pine stand. All absorb red rays, between B and C, also rays at F and towards Periodical Literature. 415 H, but in different degrees. The light-needing pine and larch absorb very similarly in red, blue, and violet, while the shade en- during species, spruce and beech, absorb blue and violet more strongly than red, and also some yellow. Ash and oak stand be- tween these extremes and allow considerable quantity of indigo rays to pass through. To determine the quantity of the different kinds of rays ab- sorbed, a rather crude spectral photometer was used, in which a benzine flame, with a range of not over 500 meter candle power, served as standard of comparison. While absotutely the figures may not be reliable, the author claims at least relative value for the measurements. They show that the tolerant species absorbed nearly 10 times as much of the red rays than the intolerant. For example the measurements of one day with cloudy sky may be given, the numbers referring to units of the spectrum of the benzine flame permitted to pass through. red orange yellow green blue indigo violet ECON CRCCISO, \oics sedis oss 2 7 12 100 40 200 100 Pinus Stlvesiris; 2.0... 150 200 470 soo+ 500+ 500+ 200 Larix europaea, ...... 50 80 (ere) 250 200 500-++ 100 Quercus pedunculata, ... 24 100 100 100 150 250 50 From all measurements it appeared that spruce, fir, beech ab- sorbed strongly in red, blue to violet, while pine, larch birch ab- sorb less of these rays and very little of indigo. A pine, therefore, overtopping a spruce leaves it very little red light but much blue and indigo which the spruce is able to utilize. A spectrum below a fir or spruce reproduction under larch or pine becomes very poor in red, blue, indigo and violet, the light being sifted a second time by the undergrowth. Altogether, red rays are absorbed most intensely, green least so, blue and violet somewhat less than red, except by the shade en- during species which also absorb indigo and yellow. The author having demonstrated the method, and that the quality of the light must be taken into consideration, expects with an improved apparatus to furnish the definite data for a classifi- cation of the species. Das Lichtbediirfniss der Waldbaiime und die Lichtmess methoden. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Aug., Sept. 1907, pp. 325-330. 26 416 Forestry Quarterly. Investigations on over 2,000 trees of Scotch Heartwood Pine by Pilz have developed the manner in Formation. which heartwood formation progresses in this species, and probably some more gen- eral laws of this process. The practical value of the investiga- tions is readily understood when it is considered that heartwood and sapwood differ greatly in technical value. ‘The durability of the former is well known, and Gayer points out that it is in direct proportion to the intensity of the color, and “‘since heart- wood is superior to sapwood in nearly all properties, the amount of heart in the total wood volume is of moment in the sale value.” The tabulation shows that the heartwood formation begins early, below the 30 year; that the number of sapwood rings at the butt remains larger than those of heartwood to old age (at 230 years the relation is 83 to 150) ; that heartwood rings form a per cent. of all rings up to the 65 years of 29%, from 70 to 95 years of 39%, from 100 to 150 years of 44%, over 150 years 56%. The following unexpected results were had. The countings from different sites, provided a large number was averaged, did not show great differences, but on the same site within the same age class, especially in old trees (over 100 years) showed great variations. In one case the variation was from 32 to 89, in another 43, 46, 47, 50. The progress of heartwood formation is not the same in all parts of the tree, the number of sapwood rings at the top is smaller than at the butt, 7. e. the change takes place in younger wood earlier than at the base. The average of 214 trees showed sap to heart 60 to 42 rings at the butt, 36 to 28 rings at the top, that is, 24 rings which were still sapwood at the base were already heartwood at the top. Even I m above the butt a similar increase in heart is noted, so that while in young trees, at the base 25% of the rings lie in heart- wood, at I m 33% are heart, and in old trees the relation is 33% and 50%. Measurements on 761 of 115-year-old pines showed in the average at the base 178 mm sap and 279 mm heart, or 37 per cent. of the cross section, at the top 93 mm sap and 173 mm heart, or 42 per cent. of the cross section. ‘The analysis of a tree from meter to meter, showed that the maximum of heartwood forma- tion lay between 4 and 12 m above the base cut, varying here Periodical Literature. 417 between 35 and 44 per cent. of the cross section, while below it sinks gradually to 22 per cent., and above to 14 per cent. The cause of heartwood formation is still an open question. It is known that the heart does not participate in water conduc- tion, the cells being dead and certain materials, coloring matter, tannins, etc., being deposited in lumen and wall. It is likely that the more water is required the less tendency to heartwood exists. There being a relation between water requirement and transpira- tion, it is to be expected that broad crowned trees form less heart than small crowned, those on warm sites or open stand where transpiration is rapid form less than those in humid sites or dense crown cover, unless the influence of light tends the other way. Incidentally the author refers to the importance of such a study with a view of finding out how to influence heartwood formation. Germany produces 1700 million cubic feet of wood of which 700 million is workwood. In addition, in 1906, she imported 476 million, mostly workwood of high quality, 86% of which is conif- erous. Not only quantity but quality of production needs to be considered. Einiges tiber die Verkernung der Kiefer. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagd- zeitung. September 1907, pp. 265-272. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. The Russians have lately given much atten- Forest tion to the investigation of forest cover in Influences. relation to hydrologic conditions and have come often to negative results. Under the title of Principles of Forest preservation, Wysotzki discusses in the organ of the Russian Forestry Association the relation of forest cover to water conditions adversely, based largely on Rus- sian “‘discoveries.’”’ We know now, he says, that forest growth pumps its needs of water from great depths and preserves mois- ture only near the surface. Hence it lowers the ground water table, and hence also the water level of streams during summer, although this effect is reduced in mountainous regions. Its in- fluence, therefore, is useful only in preventing the run off of rain water; as regards the moisture that has penetrated the soil it 418 Forestry Quarterly. can only be detrimental. Hence the hydrologic role of the forest must be judged in each single case. A general judgment is im- possible. The deterioration of waterways, which is ascribed to devasta- tion at the headwaters, is to be credited not to a diminution of the running waters but to denudation, broadening of stream beds and filling them with the wash and debris from the deforested parts. The ideal cover for dry rocky sites with dry climate is, the author claims, a gravel or rock debris with sand and soil under- neath which holds the moisture. Sand areas do not increase their water contents by being for- ested, on the contrary, the large entirely bare sand wastes, other things being equal, carry the most water. Their dryness is only on the surface. Only their denudation and filling up of river beds from their wash are detrimental. Hence forest and brush- land should be kept along the river courses and wherever on account of the slope soil washes are likely. As regards the influence on the humidity of the air, by the fact that the forest pumps up water from the depths and retains a large amount of precipitation, it increases transpiration and cools the atmosphere. This is undoubted for the forest interior. But this effect is soon dissipated in the open. In a moist climate and for small countries like Sweden, according to Hamberg, the influence is almost nil, only for large continents like Siberia, the influence on the humidity of the climate is acknowledged. Yet the author admits that the forest conditions of the North German plain, of Denmark, southern Sweden, of the Russian West Provinces, must be of real significance for the vast Russian interior plain and even for a part of Central Asia and Siberia, and he draws the conclusion that forest preservation has for Russia only a meaning in the cited West Provinces. The influences on temperature and winds are also minimized by the author, and altogether the conclusion is reached that forest influence is by no means as potent as has been claimed. ‘The author relies, to be sure, only on his philosophy without bringing new data, and in the subsequent discussion was charged as de- Periodical Literature. 419 sirous to promote a toning down of the existing laws of forest preservation. Lesnoj journal. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. September 1907, pp. 318-320. The windbreaking effect of forests is prob- Forest ably one of the most evident forest influ- and ences, but has rarely been studied carefully. Winds. St. Murat, director of the Meteorological Institute of Roumania has made a special study of the retarding effect of forest growth on wind velocity. He finds that at 500 meters about (1640 feet) the effect is lost, that at 50 to 100 meters the retardation may amount to 4 to 74 miles an hour, varying of course according to the initial velocity of the wind; after 100 meters the velocity again increases until it is re-established at 500 meters. Annals of the Roumanian Academy, 1907. After Science. October 1907, p. 518. Earlier studies of the influence which Forests forest cover exerts upon rainfall have been and reviewed in these columns again and again. Rainfall. Data for the provinces of West Prussia and Posen have now been worked up by Schu- bert and are here summarized. Further work has been carried on in Liberia, and Swedish data are introduced and shown to agree closely with results obtained in Prussia. Correlating these three series of data it may be stated generally that at altitudes under 500 meters an elevation of 100 meters increases the rainfall 8-12%—the higher figure for the drier region—while in a coun- try averaging 15-25% forest an increase of 10% in the forested area gives a corresponding increase of 1 to 2% in the rainfall. The data from West Prussia and Posen were obtained as usual from paired stations one within, and the other the same distance from the edge of the forest in the open field. When summarized such data show that a rain-guage 1 kilo-meter within the forest registers not more than 1to 2% more rainfall than an instrument in the open 1 kilometer from the forest. This is the upper limit and carries with it the error due to wind. 420 Forestry Quarterly. Wind tends to reduce the amount of rainfall measured by a guage and the same is true to greater extent of snowfall. Taking advantage of this difference the author proposes to use the ratio of the additive correction to be applied to an exposed guage dur- ing rainy weather to the further additive correction to be ap- plied during snowy weather as a measure of the influence of wind. This ratio he finds pretty constantly equal to 0.17-++0.04, the vari- ation being due to wind velocity. In this way the upper limits of the excess of rainfall measured in forests is reduced further until the excess itself becomes problematic. Comparisons of the methods of measuring the influence of winds on the behavior of rain guages with guage measurements checked by anemometers shows satisfactory agreement. Wald und Niederschlag und die Be-einflussung der Regen-und Schnee- messung durch den Wind. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagdwesen. Novem- ber 1906, pp. 728-735. Although the result of the observations at Forests seventeen comparative stations in forest, and forest edge and in the open, of the rainfall Rainfall. through five years in the Letzlinger forest showed the greater precipitation in the forest and the least in the open, Dr. Schubert points out that this does not show an influence of the forest, for the observed difference in the catch of 5.2 per cent. is compensated by cor- rections for snowfall and for difference in exposure of the gauges as regards wind, in other words the probability of error is about equal to the apparent difference in amount of precipitation. The influence of wind on measurement of rain and snow in gauges was made a special study furnishing the correction factor. Der Niederschlag in der Letzlinger Heide. Zeitschrift f. Forst-und ‘Jagdwesen. August 1907, pp. 509-513. SILVICULTURE AND PROTECTION. The aims of silviculture with regard to the Silvicultural production of large increment and good Tenets. quality has been a subject for discussion by authorities at the International Agricultural Congress at Vienna last May. It is worth while to brief the wis- Periodical Literature. 421 dom expressed in the form of referee’s findings, to show that many silvicultural questions are still unsolved, even in the father- land of forestry. The question whether pure or mixed stands are preferable, according to Schwappach, is still an open one, the friends of the mixed type prevailing in the literature, while in the practice pure stands gain more and more ground. The attempt to grow mixed forest according to recipe is usually a failure. The cause of the frequent failures lies in the fact that the stands are not tended according to the original plan. Often a few years neglect suffice to turn a hopeful young mixed growth into an open branchy pine stand, or the most beautiful oaks in a spruce stand into thin spindling poles. Regarding even-aged and uneven-aged stands Schwappach very properly declares, that the selection forest is, to be sure, the natural form, but a well managed selection forest is a very labor- intensive form, which requires of the manager a high degree of intelligence, and the most accurate knowledge of local conditions, almost of every single stem, a requirement which is probably rarely attainable. Moreover, he asks whether the evenaged tim- ber forest does not produce as much or even more than the selec- tion forest. Speaking of artificial and natural regeneration Schwappach warns against the exaggerated partiality for natural regeneration, which is to be forced like a kind of legerdemain even under un- suitable conditions. On the other hand he warns against false economy in plantations. Reuss, who advocated natural regeneration, admits that in gen- eral this method is quite unreliable and in many cases not satis- factory from the standpoint of a sustained yield. But in artificial regeneration stress must be laid on securing good seed material from healthy vigorous trees, ripe and properly kept. Regarding planting he uses the following significant language: “Objected to on account of its obvious disadvantages, often maligned on principle, often much discredited through various misapplications and failures, the method of planting has after all everywhere victoriously conquered recognition as the surest prop of rejuvenation, the ultima ratio, to which the manager every- 422 Forestry Quarterly. where turns when natural regeneration and sowing has left him in the lurch. Especially where any difficulties of soil are encoun- tered, planting becomes the sole sovereign of the field, and, in spite of all resistance of theory and practice, it stands to-day, un- touched and unassailable, the most important and most widely used form of reforestation, which, if correctly executed, is capable of securing sound and thrifty stands, which as regards volume and value production equals, nay excels, any other form of re- generation. To be sure, planting calls for considerable knowl- edge and care, much more than is usually given to it. It sounds perhaps absurd and unreasonable but is correct and important to demand that planting, an act of force par excellence composed of unnatural operations should, as far as possible, conform to nature’s demands, if the disadvantages and dark side are to be successfully overcome.” Regarding the further tending of stands by thinnings, the speaker rehearses the accepted rules that during the period before the culmination of height growth the crown-cover be little inter- rupted. Frequency, rather than degree of thinning, is import- ant. When the first object, good, clean shafts of proper height, is attained, severer thinnings are indicated to secure the maximum of diameter increment. Since, with age and increasing crown diameter, the removal of any member makes a considerable break in the crown cover, the return of the thinning comes in longer intervals, and since violent changes produce undesirable response in the ring growth to the detriment of wood quality the thin- ning should after all be slight. He advocates the selection of an élite predestined to become the final harvest which, by an annular opening of the crown cover, can be developed in the most desir- able manner, Another speaker bringing in the field of statistics and ques- tions of market, pointed out that the wood exports of all export countries had doubled in the last 20 years; that Germany in the last 40 years liad quintupled its import of wood, while the pro- duction of the home forests had in the last 70 years increased only by two thirds. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, October 1907, pp. 382-387. Sg IO te Nin Be, nage ine rs Periodical Literature. _ 423 In an article which breathes the woodsy Cultivation flavor of a practitioner lacking academic of precision, Schenk v. Schmittburg describes Sand soils. the troubles of growing pines in the poor sands of the Main valley, in which some academically accepted theories are being disturbed. Not only is the soil a poor diluvial sand but the locality is one of the most rain-poor of Germany, especially in summer, insect pests abound in the dry situation, especially June bug and Tortrix species, game is abundant and damaging young plantations, labor too expensive and hardly obtainable. Thirty year old plantations, when clearing followed by sowing was practiced, seem to show that conditions then were not as bad as now. For successful planting under these conditions the author advocates two methods of soil treatment, namely removal of the soil cover and deep plowing. “Here in our sand—lI should perhaps say: in spite of our sand, the loosening of the soil cannot be deep enough; only, it soon becomes too expensive.” The author, therefore, places special value on baring of the surface, which not only allows more rain water to penetrate but also utilizes the dew. These ad- vantages outweigh the disadvantage of the insolation, which, after all, dries out only the surface. To further benefit from the larger moisture supply below, the plants are set deeper than usual, even shallow rooted spruces are placed with the roots hanging down, which physiologically appears wrong: the first need is to start the plant, later it can secure the horizontal spread of the root system. The labor trouble is such that machine work becomes neces- sary—the use of two plows, one following the other immediately, the first a surface plow with disk coulter knife close before the nose of the plow to prevent roots from catching the latter, fol- lowed by a subsoil plow of similar construction. A double plow combining the two functions is not as serviceable. With these plows broad furrows are opened and either stout plants are set or seed is sowed in the furrows. The success of the latter method, namely sowing, has, contrary to expectations, given excellent results, better than plantations and sowings exe- cuted in different manner. The amount of seed used per acre was rather plentiful, namely 12 lbs. to the acre mixed seed of Scotch Pine, White Pine and 424 Forestry Quarterly. = Spruce in proportion of 10 : 2 : 2. The cost of this method is of course, less than planting, but, the author states, cheap methods have no value under such conditions. Erfahrungen iiber die Kiefernkultur in dem Diluvial sand, etc. Allge- meine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, October 1907, pp. 339-346. A long series of trial plantings conducted Silvics for 40 years on various soils with the Euro- of pean Ash may be of interest, as in some Ash. respects this species resembles our own White Ash. The results of the observa- tions are formulated by Neumann as follows: ‘The best silvicul- tural success is attained on the overflow lands of natural water courses, on fresh to moist, loose, permeable humous to peaty soil. To be avoided are impermeable soils, or those with impermeable subsoil, heavy clay and loam, as well as poor thin sand soils, too wet and sour soils, and frosty situations. Ash is not fit for pure plantations, where it soon ceases to grow and permits the soil to deteriorate. Nor is it fit to mix it with other species in rows, where the same unsatisfactory conditions as in pure stands re- sult, even when a number of rows of the admixture is placed between two rows of Ash. The rapidly growing Ash with a spreading habit is apt to suppress the admixture entirely. It is, therefore, best used in single specimens or very small groups within groups of oak, beech, and Black Alder. On account of its liability to frost and the usually dense sod on soils where it thrives, it should be planted in larger sizes and a soil cover by underplanting of shadier species be provided. The volunteer erowth in the neighborhood of old mother trees can be very well used either for transplanting in nursery rows or into the woods. Another speaker doubted the advisability of artificial cultiva- tion, leaving to natural regeneration the propagation of the species, which takes place readily wherever old seed trees exist. A third speaker doubted the necessity of providing an under growth, because Ash “loves a sun warmed foot,” and “a volun- teer undergrowth establishes itself mostly under it.” Pommerscher Forst verein. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, October 1907; p. 364-5. Periodical Literature. 425 It appears that among German foresters Know Nothings the same misplaced patriotism has _ pre- m vented an earlier and more persistent effort Germany. to introduce exotic species into German forestry, which has characterized the atti- tude of some of our compatriots in such matters. John Booth, the veteran nurseryman, who has labored for years for the intro- duction of exotics, has found that in 1820 the University of Heidelberg offered a prize for an essay on the value of intro- ducing foreign species. This essay which secured the prize, whose author has remained obscure, named—86 years ago !—the very species which in rgo1 were declared by Schwappach to have proved their right to recognition by the experiments began nearly 60 vears later. In 1721—just 100 years earlier—Reaumur in France had made precisely the same recommendations without making any impression. Even to-day there is considerable op- position to the use of exotics, based on ignorant conservatism. Die Universitit Heidelberg und die auslindischen Holzarten. Allge- meine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. August 1907, pp. 279-282. According to Rave it has been at a rela- Practice tively recent time that German foresters m departed from the thesis “the more volume- Thinnings. capital the more increment” and recognized the new truth that smaller volumes_ may afford not only larger increment percentages but even increments of larger volumes. The present tendency is to increase the yield by increasing the value and amount of the thinning, and by in- creasing the value of the main crop even to the extent of dimin- ishing the volume. Under the supervision of the experiment station at Eberswalde numerous sample areas throughout Prussia are being regularly thinned in accordance with carefully elabor- ated plans and accurate data kept of the results of the special treatment given each plot. The lines along which progress is promised have been indicated by the forest officer under whose direct supervision this work has been done. These are roughly as follows: In young stands of beech, cut out all wolf trees where there is 426 Forestry Quarterly. any chance for nearby trees to fill the gap. There had best be no choice made during the earlier thinnings of trees to be held for the final crop. The earlier thinnings are solely to relieve the stand, so far as possible, from injury by its own too vigorous members. The effort should be to give no individual an advantage but to grow a stand of young trees of even size, height and crown de- velopment, which means even vitality. Removal of over-vigor- ous trees as soon as they appear never results in injury to such a stand. Older stands which have not received such care earlier can not be so treated. Here care must always be taken to further the growth of certain trees which are by this act selected for retention until the final cut. All suppressed beech is usually to be held in young stands and removed later so far as its value permits; but there are exceptions to this general rule depending on density of the stand and quality of the site. On very rich limestone soils, where beech thrives best and seed-years are frequent and heavy, it is well to retain sup- pressed growth throughout the life of the stand to prevent prema- ture, undesirable regeneration after thinning. When suppressed erowth is absent as is the case in most stands grown under past practices special precaution must be taken to destroy this adven- titious growth before actual regeneration of the area is attempted, and to this end the method of thinning must often be varied. The treatment of oak during the early years of its growth fol- lows closely that outlined for beech, but greater stress is placed upon the need for retaining suppressed trees in order that the boles may be kept clear and the production of water sprouts held in check. Water sprouts are always found in pure stands of oak but the proper use of beech as a second story keeps the oak clear. In pure oak forests advantage is taken of the growth of water sprouts and a second story of suppressed trees is produced by allowing some of the weaker individuals to become overtopped and stag-headed before a thinning is made. Abundance of light then makes a new crown from water sprouts that have covered the stem, while corresponding sprouts on the stems of the main stand are killed by the full crown overhead. Attempts at under-plant- te * esa ee - ‘ ¢ i 4 t | Periodical Literature. 427 ing mature stands of oak are not usually satisfactory. For the best results the beech must be of the same age as the oak, must be carefully cut back and kept out of the upper crown level and must not be removed until the oak itself is removed. When thinnings have reduced the number of trees per acre to twice what the number is to be in the mature stand, definite choice is to be made of that half of the number to be retained and no effort spared to favor these. At this point the immediate end in view in removing trees from the stand changes radically. No tree is removed which does not interfere with one of these selected trees and every tree is removed that does so interfere. In the best stands choice must be arbitrarily made between neighboring trees exactly alike in every way. There may be some hesitancy about removing one tree to make place for another no better, but the increment justifies the removal in every case. With spruce or pine a second story as undergrowth is not re- quired, for these trees clear their boles readily and protect the soil sufficiently. Only on poorer soils and in the case of Pine is under-planting (with beech) for soil protection sometimes ad- visable late in the life of the stand. On better sites forests of either species are rendered more pro- ductive by severe thinnings: this is especially true of spruce. The increment varies directly as the living crown surface in which assimilation takes place. In dense stands the crown cover is smooth; severe thinning fills this smooth surface with cuplike depressions so that its area is greatly increased. At the same time the increment is more valuable, being distributed over fewer stems. A concurrent advantage is that this breaking up of too dense stands renders them firmer against wind and against snow pressure. Uber Durchforstungen von Laub-und Nadelhdélzern. Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Jagdwesen. November 1906, pp. 736-748. Forest plantations in reclaimed heather land Non-parasitic in Prussia have to contend with adverse Diseases, soil conditions in middle and later life as well as in the first year of their growth. Deep cultivation and proper measures for rendering the humus 428 Forestry Quarterly in the soil available for tree growth may result in marked thrift in the early life of the stand. From observations on spruce at Libberstedt it is evident, says Graebner, that during the middle life of the stand, or even later, the untoward soil conditions reme- died at planting time may set in again and result in the death of the roots by suffocation. At first the main roots strike deep into the soil and grow vigor- ously. Year by year the litter collects and does not readily decay in the damp climate; the soil is covered more deeply and freezing is prevented. In this way an agency active in maintaining healthy soil conditions is removed. ‘The soil becomes almost impervious to air and is at the same time farther removed from the action of air by the thick cover of wet litter above. Finally the deeper roots die outright some season when the weather emphasizes the unfavorable soil condition in which they are growing. Under the continued influence of these conditions the lateral roots which re- main alive grow on their upper sides only, forming narrow, board- like plates. When the deeper roots are small as when the change in the soil is gradual, the tree may tide over the crisis and live on, supported by the lateral roots. In the opposite event it succumbs. The effects on the tree both in appearance of crown and foliage and in minute structure, the growth and decay of the elements at the base of the stem and in the roots is described in detail. De- terminations of resistance offered by soil samples to the passage of air were made and are here recorded. Damp raw-humus which was slowly pervious to air under pressure of half-a-meter of water became entirely impervious when packed firmly. In and under heavy soil covers of moss and litter enormous pseudolenticels develop on the bases of coniferous stems and by the failure of the secondary corky growth of the stem to extend across them, entrance is given to injurious fungi and serious damage results. In a number of instances the mycelium of the root-rot (Polyporus annosus) was detected in these pseudolenti- cels. Measures to remedy stands suffering from an accumulation of litter may easily go too far and result in immediate death of the diseased stand. Removal of the raw-humus is indicated but must 2 ec hs Keats 7 4 4 A mM i F Periodical Literature 429 be done either in strips or in patches only, and not over the whole area at once. Beitrége sur Kenntnis nichtparasitarer Pflanzenkrankheiten an forst- lichen Gewichsen. Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Jagdwesen. November 1906, PP. 705-719. That insects are sensitive to certain smells Insects has been long recognized and used to keep and them from doing damage, but that they are Smells. also attracted by other smells and influenced by them in their biological relations seems to be a new discovery by the Russian, S$. Golowianko. His obser- vations refer to the May beetle (June beetle), the larva of which is so destructive underground to young pine plantations. The author finds a relation of its occurrence to the existence of unde- composed humus materials, on which it feeds exclusively during the first year of its underground life. The female is attracted by the smell of humus to deposit its eggs, just as Coprophagae, ‘Arenicolae, etc., follow smells. White sand remains unmolested, but plantations in sinks of gray soil succumb. On soil, only re- cently covered with grass, the beetle does not lay eggs, altho the rootlets would furnish good feed. The more humus a soil con- tains, the stronger the smell, the more attractive it is to the beetle. Smell is decreased by shade, either of litter, weeds or stand, increased by humidity and by insolation. A large-sized, open area—a cut—because of the increased inso- lation and consequent smell, attracts beetles more than smaller areas. The burning of the soil increases the smell and is attrac- tive. On the other hand buckwheat smell is objectionable; smoke also; charcoal pits are avoided. Since it is possible to increase the humus smell on certain areas and thus to attract beetles, this may be used to keep them from more valuable areas and to bait them. To do this the areas must be tolerably large, kept without vegetation and furrowed or hoed before the beetle flies. The attempts to reduce the damage of the beetle by growing grain in the infested areas for some time to reduce the humus, the author believes to be good policy, although experiments have 430 Forestry Quarterly failed to produce results, which has been due to the manner in which they were conducted. Lesnoj Journal, 1906. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. September 1907, pp. 320-21. In discussing means for preventing Spraying ‘Schutte’ or damping-off at the Pommer- against anean forestry association meeting, it was Damping-off. accentuated that to be effective spraying must be done at the right time namely, when the fungus spores are being sown, which is in July and August. The proper mixture of the copper-lime liquid can and should be controlled by the discoloration of curcuma paper. MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT. An interesting contribution to the question Influences of the influence of exposure and altitude is on contained in a series of measurements on Increment. over 6500 firs (Abies pectinata) by Usener, which probably express at least the rela- tionships for other species on similar sites in a degree. Relying upon diameter measurements of trees 60 to 200 years old, the south exposure showed invariably the maximum de- velopment, then follow in descending order, east, north, west and plateau, without, however, any uniform regularity, from age class to age class. The differences between the first (.S.) and last position (plateau) vary from 8 to 16 cm, the larger difference generally to be found in the older age classes. Similar increase of difference with age is found in other positions, the difference between South and East exposure varying from o to 15 cm, between East and North from 0 to 19 cm. The North some- times showing, however, better diameters, as occurs also when West and North diameters are compared. Diameter measurements classed by altitudes varying by 200 meters brought out the fact that the zone 400 to 600 showed maximum development, the diameter of all age classes decreasing, although only slightly, both at lower and higher altitudes. For instance the go-year and 100-year classes show the series: 4 4 Periodical Literature. 431 Altitude 9o-year ro0-year 200—400 40 cm 42 400—600 41 44 600—800 39 AG S800—1000 35 38 cm On a smaller number of trees a calculation of value increment was made which may not prove uninteresting. The average 100-year old tree was analyzed as regards the sortiment classes and the six-year average of prices was applied, the periodicai value as well as volume increment being calculated M—m 200 by the well known formula ——— || ——. The different M+m n classes of stem wood vary in price from 16 cents to 8 cents, split billets 3.2 cents, small round billets 2.8, and brush 2.5 cents per cubic foot. This makes the total value per cubic foot of the tree from the 50 to the 170 year change from 6.3 to 10.8 cents, or for timberwood alone from 8 to 12.8 cents. Adding a calculation of price increase in the market based upon the actual increase for 20 years of 2.35% as the initial figure the following results were obtained: Age 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 139 140 150 160 170 Volume per cent. (a) BL Ae 2k Rls 8) 6h eb Sh an ae SU A: Value per cent. (b) EB Bucks Ol 1 kcOnb Ou aia een ie 0. Price increase percent. (c) 2.4 23 22 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.56 18 12 11 41.1 11 11 a and bandc per cent. 6.3 5.8 53 48 43 3.8 34 3. 2.7 2.4 2.2 2 19 These calculations refer, to be sure, to the single tree only, and with regard to whole stands they have value only as far as the increment per cent. of the single stem is a factor of the volume increase of the total stand, the stem number, or else the volume of the whole, being the other factors. Increment per cents of single stems and volume increment of stands often move in op- posite direction. After a severe thinning the increment per cent. of the stem increases but the total volume increment is decreased. Moreover, in the mixed stands in question, the result of selection forest treatment, other difficulties arise, making a reasonable calculation of the increment per cent. of the over-mature stands hazardous. Yet, to get at least an approximation of the truth, a method had to be devised, by utilizing the measurements and figures for the average trees to the actual trees in the calipered 26 432 Forestry Quarterly stands, leaving out all trees with less than 20 cubic feet corres- ponding to a diameter of 9 inch. It was found that there were then on the average just 100 trees to the acre with a volume of 8.475 cubic feet and a market value of $848, and an increment (volume+value+-price) of $21.50. Making the comparison from decade to decade, with full realization of the difficulties in age determinations, etc., the author presents the following per acre tabulation: Age Stems Volume Value Increment Per cent. No. Criske: (a, b and c) $ $ 100 105 7,805 740 24 3n2 IIO QI 8,050 798 22.66 2.9 120 80 8,580 845 21 aie 205 130 73 8,037 938 20.16 252 140 69 9,295 960 19.20 2. The application is self evident. If rot does not do any damage the holding over of such old stands for reasons of management does not entail a great loss. Zuwachsuntersuchungen an Tannen. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. September 1907, pp. 305-310. The aims and methods of regulating forest Aims use—forest regulation—formed a subject of for discussion at the International Agricul- Forest tural Congress at Vienna, and, as usual, Management. very divergent opinions were heard. Sev- eral speakers pronounced the principle of profitableness as the only tenable, or at least the prominent, aim. V. Guttenberg declared for such regulation as would secure the “highest” forest rent and a “satisfactory” interest on the capital represented by soil and stock, which could best be attained by the method of stand management, not however, confining the work- ing plan to the next decade as Judeich advocates, but extending it to several decades. Stotzer on the other hand, advocating the index per cent. and a soil rent calculation as basis for the financial aim, considers the old schematic (Fachwerk) methods good enough. A radical divergence of opinion was expressed by Kopetzky who also advocated the use of forest for grazing purposes under systematic reeulation, Periodical Literature. 433 Where, he says, a population can only by the aid of forest pasture maintain the live stock necessary for a settlement, forest management must take this into consideration. Where it is in the interest of the state to favor the cattle industry in regions specially adapted to it, the most profitable use of the pasture must be bal- anced with the most profitable use of the forest, so as to make the total resulting income a maximum. Rise in prices of milk and meat products will force this policy. While in the last cen- tury the industries concerned in transforming, transporting and distributing materials have reaped the best recompense, the pro- duction of materials, which seemingly was only a means to an end, is bound to secure its reward, and forest regulation, a sub- ject of national economy, must take cognizance of it. With the change of social forms, of human communal life, the aims of forest regulation must change. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October 1907, pp. 438-440. In that part of Prussia lying to the left of Problems the Rhine, and more specifically between of the Nahe and Mosel in the highest mountain Management. masses of the lower Rhine, lie four forest districts forming a continuous forest area of 16,000 ha. (40,000 acres) extent. During the seventeen years between 1885 and his retirement in 1902 this area was under the supervision of Forstrat Otto Kaiser. His work has made its deepest imprint here in the splendid system of woods roads de- signed to render every part of the forest accessible to the highest degree, and no less to serve as a basis for a permanent system of subdivision for the area. Of this achievement we already have the report in two volumes, “Forest Subdivision” (‘‘Eintheilung der Forsten”’) Berlin, 1902, and “The Technical Works of Subdi- vision” (Ausbau der wirtschaftlichen Ejintheilungen) Berlin, 1904. Now we have a brief discussion of the more general prob- lems these districts have contained, a review of historical develop- ment and, as always, a strong care for what the author believes, the true interpretation of the facts and the course of action they indicate. Geological conditions and soil, silvicultural conditions and the condition of the game are taken up in detail. 434 Forestry Quarterly The rocks are: above, Taunus quartzite bordered below with a talus of the same rock mixed with sandstone more or less weath- ered into a loamy soil. Third and lowest is a shale. Schist and sandstone outcrops and the soils, resulting from their weathering, occur in places. The upper formation is dense and carries little water, the soil, a light shallow sand, stony and dry ane very poor, is absolute forest soil. The lower talus and sandstone is richer in water and gives rise to numerous springs. Here the soil is heavy and stony; deep, fresh, and better adapted to tree growth than above. The low- est shale stratum yields a light, shallow, clayey soil, poor in lime and sand but rather rich in potash. Rock analyses are given so far as they have been made. Beech and oak made up the forest in this as in the whole adjac- ent region. Growth conditions, especially in the poorer soils at high altitudes, give chance for but poor development. Though nature was once able to maintain forest growths of these species over nearly the whole area, human activity has so altered things that attempt at renewal fails. A change to conifers, to spruce es- pecially, is clearly indicated, while the beech is to be retained in the lower altitudes wherever good soil and protected situation favor it. The oak must probably be dispensed with. This is a radical change from the importance which up to our author’s coming had been attached to the beech and oak in this forest. Radical though it may be, only by this change can best results be secured. The poorer quartzite soil of the higher ridges is fitted for nothing but spruce. It is even dubious whether under spruce an income can be depended upon; even so, some cover must be main- tained and under spruce, soil conditions at such altitudes improve as under no other species. Soil conditions in the heavier loam zone next below are better; but spruce here makes excellent growth while beech thrives much less satisfactorily. There are islands of richer soil in protected situation and upon these beech may profitably be retained. The lowest zone made up of clay soils from shale rocks is hardly richer than the second, only the ex- posure is milder. More beech may be retained here, but still spruce should predominate as elsewhere. Game was most abundant in this region in 1880. Under this ROD eee Se Periodical Literature. 435 term are included first in order of importance the red deer, and in much smaller numbers the roe, and at an earlier date the wild boar. The wolf which, too, found harbor in these forests is now probably exterminated. The boar is much less plentiful than for- merly, though during the past 30 years the average kill per year has been 4co head. Early in the eighties the damage inflicted upon adjacent prop- erties assumed such large proportions that the forest officers under ministerial direction and with the willing aid of the whole community enclosed about two-thirds of the state forest with a deer fence. The first winter after this work was completed was very open. The second winter, 1884-5, was one of the severest known, being equalled or approached only by that of 1859-60. Game suffered heavy loss in numbers and severe decline in vi- tality. The three winters following were but little less severe and the reduction game would otherwise have suffered was aggra- vated by the enclosure holding the starving animals at high alti- tudes. Hay was furnished as liberally as it could be procured, and every care taken but still the loss was severe. A large per- centage were bucks of which the ratio was but one to three does at the time the fence was closed. The weakened deer were mean- while attacked by botflies and loss every winter amounted to sev- eral hundred. The inclosing fence is fifty miles long and cost in its day $9,000. It seems not improbable that the purpose could have been better attained otherwise than by this fence; but be that as it may the need for it has now disappeared and further maintenance at in- creasing cost, now that the structure is 25 years old, will be more and more unprofitable. The chase alone is sufficient to keep the stand of game as low as desired. Forest conditions have suffered from the confinement of the deer. Young trees have had their bark torn away and heavy damage to whole stands has resulted, the final yield being reduced in amount and in quality. Young trees set out have suffered severely from browsing and plants coming up from seed sown have been eaten off by the acre. For the forest an unconfined range will bring nothing but advantages. Finally hunting rights upon adjacent holdings will become more 436 Forestry Quarterly valuable upon the release of the game within the inclosure. Thus the prime reason for the inclosure is removed and its maintenance, much more its renewal, at heavy expense is out of the question. Beitrige sur Betriebs und Ertragsregelung der Walder. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. January, February 1907, pp. 21-44, 91-103. A simple diagrammatic method of explain- Rotation ing rotation and thinning and the net reve- and nue of forest management and of showing Thinning. the influence of changes in the first two on the third cannot fail to be of service. Schu- bert has developed such graphical representations of the methods of changing from one rotation to another, from one degree of thinning to another, and of the simultaneous change of both rota- tion and thinning over the whole as over a portion of the normal forest. The calculation of the differences in net revenue arising from these changes is also carried out and represented on a system of rectangular co-ordinates. ‘These diagrams relieve the paper of much of the mathematical maze usually found in such discussions and make clearer the reasons underlying and demanding such changes. Umtrieb, Durchforstung und Reinertrag. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagd- wesen. January 1907, pp. 8-21. UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY. The high price of certain woods in the Price English market forces users to seek for and cheaper substitutes. The price of White Change Pine firsts fetching £34 turns buyers to of canary colored whitewood. This new de- Use. mand raises in turn the price of this com- modity to from 3s 3d to 4s, and this price again makes former users of this wood look for the cheaper cot- tonwood as a substitute at 2s 6d, and “hazel” pine ( Banksian?) at about 2s 3d. Scarcity of oak and proper grades are commented on, and oak shipped from Japan and Tasmania has begun to be a rival of the American, which is said to be poorly manufactured a at cn fi eh Periodical Literature. 437 under “slap dash” methods. “There are those among the prophets of the trade who do not hesitate to predict that it will be but a couple of seasons before the export of Pine deals from the ports of St. Lawrence will virtually cease,” owing to a huge home demand. New woods find now ready consideration. Canada Lumberman, October, 1907, p. 22. Black walnut which, until lately, furnished Prepared about 80% of the fine furniture in Germany, Furniture is being to a large extent superseded by Woods. native woods, oak, elm, birch, also pine and spruce. These latter, which are unsatisfac- tory in color, are first prepared in the following manner: The freshly felled wood is at once placed in soil mixed with lime and other materials and left for 3 to 5 months, which im- parts to the wood a remarkably fine color, so that it can be used without staining or painting. The color changes throughout and is supposed to be due to a change of the tannins. Moreover this treatment—the tanning of the wood—reduces or entirely cures the wood of its worst feature, swelling and shrinking, so that solid hardwood like beech may be used without fear from that source. To reduce the liability to indentation, the springwood in coni- fers is removed by machines operating a kind of metal brush. Another method of using native woods for furniture is in cross- sections which furnish a durable face. Centralblatt f. d. g. Fortswesen, October 19067, p. 368. Lately a sale of pine timber was made by Cost the Ontario government on Georgian Bay, of which brought $12.26 as a bonus for the Logging. right to cut, besides the $2 stumpage dues per M feet actually cut. It is calculated that the logging may cost $5 per M, towing $1, and sawing $3, making the total cost of production $23.26. To this is to be added a towing loss of 75 cents, and 6 per cent. interest on the money invested, which will make the total somewhere above $25 for the product on the market. The Canada Lumberman, October, 1907, p. 20. 438 Forestry Quarterly From a report of the German consul at Wood Riga, interesting side lights on the wood Markets market conditions of Europe are gleaned. of Riga is one of the principal export ports, Europe. shipping during the last six years at the rate of around 48 million cubic feet. A stagnation in the business was noted in 1905 due to labor strikes and lack of log supply, but enough old stock on hand allowed a continuance of shipments to the amount of 46.5 million cubic feet. In 1906 prices rose “because shipments from America had been reduced, and the buyers in Western Europe had to a larger extent to look to Russia for supplies.” Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. October 1907, p. 367. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. It is well known that the remarkable in- Prussian dustrial development of Germany in the last Provincial 30 years is due to the well organized educa- Information tional and administrative systems. To Bureau. foster the interests of agriculture and for- estry in Prussia there were organized, since 1899 and later, in every province which desired it (now 8 or 9) one or more so called “Landwirtschafts Kammern” or agricul- tural information bureaus. These are entirely outside of the administrative departments. They are divided like our Depart- ment of Agriculture into divisions, the forestry division being one of them. Every seven years a report of the activity of these bureaus is made, which is as varied as the work of our depart- ment, the first of which reports (1901-1906) has just appeared. The work of the forestry divisions can be classified under fif- teen heads. I. Advice to private forest owners, as consulting engineers for which the owners pay. The bureau in Brandenburg had in 1905-6 some 78,000 acres in 43 parcels of 1,200 to 5,000 acres each under permanent advice, for which a fee of over $2,000 was collected. ‘The bureau in Posen had also over 70,000 acres under advice and the bureaus of other provinces smaller areas. II. Temporary or occasional consultations were given in some 4 i { Periodical Literature. 439 200 cases covering nearly 250,000 acres, also paid for. This usually ends in a permanent arrangement. III. Special technical expertise and financial calculations in sales, divisions among heirs, estimates of stands, plantations, thinnings, cuts, etc., is also paid for, some hundred cases having been attended to. IV. Working plans, just as is done by the Federal Forest Ser- vice, is a rapidly growing function of the bureaus. In Branden- burg of the 38 working plans called for, 26 involving somewhat Over 50,000 acres were completed at a charge—a definite tariff exists—of $6,350. In Pomerania 45 working plans comprising 65,000 acres, in Posen, over 100,000 acres in one year were com- pleted and smaller areas in other provinces. V. Wood Sales with a view of a better use of wood materials and keeping owners informed as to market conditions or even conducting the sales. In Pomerania, for instance, sales to the amount of $230,000 were effected, the fee for which is I per cent. to cover expenses of scaling, valuation, advertisements and sales. Especially a combination of small owners is attempted to avoid the expense of many small sales. VI. Securing seed and plant material, to protect the small owner from fraudulent practices. This service is given nearly gratuitously, including seed testing, guarantee from the seller, in- spection of nurseries. Lower price is usually also the result so that the small fee added still leaves an advantage. In this the forest administration also aids with cheap plant material. The bureau of the Province of Saxony, in 1906, negotiated 9,200 Ibs. of seed and 2,400,000 plants, of Pomerania in 1905, 25,000 lbs. worth $4,200, of Posen over 7 million plants and 8,000 lbs. of seed. VII. Reforestation of waste lands and poor pastures. With regard to this work which is considered specially important the plan of the different provinces is not uniform. In Saxony the assistance is given to private owners, only when it can be shown that reforestation without aid exceeds the financial ability of the owner, and in the case of corporation work, which is considered a care of the State only when the subsidies from the State are not sufficient. Furnishing of plant material and only in rarest cases 440 Forestry Quarterly of cash is the form of this aid. In no case is the assistance to be more in value than half the estimated cost (by an expert). The planting is done under supervision of the bureau, and a register is kept of all plantations. The applications must be made before September 1. A second subvention for the same plantation is not to be given. Care is taken not to furnish this aid for “luxurious” completion of plantations or for areas cut under the regular management. Especially associated efforts at reforesta- tion are to be encouraged. The funds for this assistance come from the State Treasury and have not been sufficient to satisfy all applications. Yet in 6 years over 600 owners with over 2,000 acres received subventions of nearly 5,000 lbs. of seed and over 5 million plants to the total value of nearly $4,000. In Brandenburg a special reforestation fund was started in 1g02 by setting aside the income from the forest administration. Here the subventions are given mostly to corporations, munici- palities and associations, some $2,500 so far. In other provinces the payment of money subventions is usual. VIII. Price quotations for wood are collected and published, mostly weekly, which is also an advantage to the State forest and other forest administrations. These are distributed without charge. IX. Formation of forest associations, not to discuss but to practice forestry, so-called Waldgenossenschaften, is encouraged, but, with the exception of Hanover, where 48 such associations with 7,500 acres have been brought into existence to secure the benefit of united action and uniformity of management, no suc- cess of note has been accomplished, and the desirability of trying enforced association by law is discussed. X. Mutual Fire Insurance. ‘This idea has so far not material- ized. In 1901 a number of private owners in Brandenburg (mostly city corporations) were ready to pool nearly 200,000 acres and negotiations with a fire insurance were entered into, but the demand for an initial insurance fund of $750,000 pre- vented the arrangement. In other provinces the Munich-Glad- bach fire insurance company is usually recommended, but since its premiums are still rather high, owners are usually advised first to use the money for better protection by fire lines, ete. The Periodical Literature. 441 proposition for the State to deposit without interest charge the desired security fund has not found acceptance. XI. Forest Loans are made in Silesia and East Prussia by the admirable mutual provincial credit banks, separating soil and stand. This method has been found desirable because it was found that the forest owning farmer in need of funds cleared the very areas of forest soil, in order to secure on the new “farm” soil a higher mortgage loan. XII. Forest protection is especially fostered in the direction of insect predations. The Posen bureau, e. g., negotiated at low prices 65 pumps and 35,000 lbs. of copperas, for fighting the “Schutte,” which has grown to dangerous dimensions. The cost of the work itself came to only 42 cents per acre with satis- factory results. XIU. Experimentation is not yet much developed but assist- ance has been given in Saxony and Brandenburg, to determine value of manuring, and in introducing exotics. XIV. Employment agency. Not only are proper contracts drawn between employer and employed, but efficient employes are recommended and to some extent their efficiency guaranteed. Some 32 foresters were employed in Pomerania through the me- dium of the bureau. XV. Education is fostered through lectures and addresses before agricultural societies and short courses designed for owners and underforesters. A better education of the latter is attempted by sending experts of the bureau, as examiners, to the private foresters’ associations and by employing such in the forest divisions. Brandenburg and Saxony support in part a private underforesters’ school. In Hanover, of 19 lectures be- fore the Agricultural Society, 18 were given in forest work with practical demonstrations in planting, marking for thinning, etc. Similarly the bureau of Brandenburg carries on regular courses. This, in brief, and without exhausting all the activities re- ported, are the admirable and strenuous efforts to foster private forestry in a country which has been noted for over one hundred years for its State forestry. Die Forstabtcilungen der preussischen Landwirtschaftskammern. All- gemeine Forst u. jagdzeitung. August, 1907, pp. 288-206. 442 Forestry Quarterly Just as in this country the principles of Forest just taxation of woodlands forms still a Taxation. subject for discussion in the old countries. A contribution towards this question was furnished in the following resolutions agreed to at the Interna- tional Agricultural Congress, at Vienna. 1. The income from extraordinary cuts shall remain exempt if occasioned by natural accidents, even in intermittent manage- ment. 2. ‘The income from forests under intermittent management is to be taxed separately from other taxable income. 3. Tax is to be assessed only on actual income, not on expected income. 4. Costs for new plantations of hitherto blank areas are to be deducted from the taxable income of the taxpayer. 5. In those states in which the soiltax (which is considered antiquated), is still in vogue, it is desirable to take measures for reducing its rigidity as far as possible, by ascertaining the net yield under consideration of surrounding conditions. 6. Favor in taxation is to be given to protective forests, tax exemption for new plantings, tax reductions in case of damage by natural agencies. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October 1907, p. 436. In a thoughtful article Martin contrasts Forest the policies of the two leading German Politics countries. Few planting projects have at- m tracted such wide attention as that going Austria on in the Karst of southwestern Austria, and both on account of the natural difficulties, Prussia. of severe climatic conditions to be over- come, and because of the great political importance of reclaiming these devastated areas. Yet this very region, now being planted at such expense, but a few centuries ago furnished the lumber from which the fleets were built which made Venice the mistress of the seas. The soil of the Karst is of limestone origin and the bed rock is hollowed out into caves, through which most of the rainfall drains away, so that the soil is extremely dry. Successful plant- Periodical Literature. 443 ing is impeded further by grazing privileges and by lack of pro- tection against the sun, which is important in this warm climate. Austrian pine succeeds best, with Corsican pine and other maritime species near the shore and Scotch pine farther inland. Larch and fir thrive in the higher altitudes. Broadleaved species, even the black locust, have not proven of any value. Planting of large, vigorous plants, with the addition of some rich soil in the hole, is the method chosen. The political policy of non-interference, of “Jaissez-faire,”’ is responsible for the Karst. The direct causes are improper usage and pasturing by sheep and goats. In Austria-Hungary, the Karst covers some 230 square miles. This example of the ex- treme effects of a “do-nothing” policy, in forest protection, brings us to a consideration of the policies of different European states in this regard. The states of southernmost Europe have adhered to this policy of non-interference with private interests in forest matters and have depended entirely upon private enterprise to maintain forest, where forest should be. The most northern states, Russia and Scandinavia, have until recently, followed the same _ policy. France, Austria-Hungary and Germany have on the other hand, recognized the state’s duty to care for the interests of the whole communities, where they conflict with personal interests and of the interests of future generations, when the foresight of the present users of the forest threatens to fail. The degree of recog- nition varies. In this respect, as in her whole political history, France has had widest experience. Here and in Prussia, the policy of close supervision of private forests is steadily gaining ground, while in southern Germany and in Austria-Hungary, supervision in minute detail is already practiced. The Prussian law regarding protective forests is not broad enough or far reaching enough. In trying to proportion the cost of establishing protective forests (and establishment must usually be by planting, which is in itself a disadvantage), too many factors are drawn into the consideration of each case and too great cost is laid upon the complainant who calls this law into use against an adjoiner. Besides, he must prove that the results to be expected will exceed the cost entailed, which, reasonable though it may look, does not permit of numerical proof. 444 Forestry Quarterly. The provisions of the Prussian protective forest law may be applied, (a) when drifting sand threatens injury to adjacent property, public property, rivers or canals; (b) when on steep slopes, public or private property below is in danger of being flooded with talus or landslip, or when a landslip threatens in- jury to property above the area in question; (c) when the forest in question directly protects the banks of a stream; (d) when removal of the forest would diminish the flow of a stream; (e) when removal of a forest would expose arable land to the de- teriorating action of winds. In Hungary protective forests are defined by ministerial pro- clamation as follows: 1. Areas lying at timber line upon which forest growth must be maintained to protect protective areas lower down. 2. The upper edge (strip 75 rods wide), of all forests ex- tending to timber line. 3. Forests on steep slopes where clearing might lead to land- slips, gullying, ete. 4. Forests whose sudden removal would seriously affect the productivity of adjacent fields or endanger public or other works. These measures deal clearly with only such forests as are pro- tective in the narrowest and most immediate sense of the word. There is a less clearly definable protection afforded by nearly all mountain forests and this has escaped attention for the very reason that the influence is so general and indefinite. Should ex- tensive clearings be undertaken in mountain forests now outside state jurisdiction, the shortcomings of the law would be quickly noted. The definition of protective forests is not general enough. The remedy lies in determining, as is done notably in France, what forests are protective by careful study of local conditions and local tendencies in forest management, and extending the area of protection where excessive cutting makes it necessary. The doctrine of full restitution, where private forests are pro- claimed protective and subjected to state laws governing such, has impeded the extension of these laws. ‘Though individual freedom may increase the recognition of the rights of whole com- munities has been less rapid. Historically, the protective forest law of 1876, marks the turning point in Prussian policy, the departure from the laissez-faire policy, adopted in 1811. This } Periodical Literature. 445 law at first glance seems to have produced little result; there are less than 200 acres in Prussia now subject to its provisions. But indirectly, it has brought vaster results if we ascribe to it all the benefits the abandonment of the laissez-faire policy has brought. The state has other potent means by which its influence for good is exerted upon private holdings. By buying up and reforesting all sorts of waste lands, by controlling public and private corpora- tions to holding forest lands, by levying fees for numerous privi- leges involving the use of public forests, and by actively determin- ing the limits of various crops an immense amount of good has been done by the Prussian state. Higher wood prices, even for wood of the poorer grades, has tended to increase the forest area, especially in regions with a ready outlet to market. Die Richtung und die Erfolge der Waldschutzpolitik in Osterreich-Un- garn im Verhdltniss zum gegenwartigen Stande der Waldschutzpolitik in Preussen. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagdwesen. February 1907, pp. 76-91. NEWS AND NOTES. EF. A. Stertine, In Charge. As a result of a resolution adopted by the 15th National Irri- gation Congress, California will probably try out an entirely new policy as regards the control of lumbering operations on private lands. It is, in short, a plan to restrict timber cutting and to prevent the denudation of drainage basins at the headwaters of streams valuable for irrigation. Since most of these Jands are privately owned it remains to be seen whether the State, through the office of the State Forester, can dictate to the lumberman the manner and extent of his cutting. It is simply a case of the minority (the lumbermen) being forced to sacrifice, for the sake of the many (the agriculturists). Precedent is found in State action which restricted, and eventually practically stopped, hy- draulic mining because the debris worked injury to agricultural lands in the valleys and interfered with the flow of streams. In the case of lumbering operations, restrictions can probably be imposed, which will protect the irrigationist, and at the same time, permit the use of most of the merchantable timber on the important catchment areas. In connection with this action, or better preceding it, must come intensive fire protection. A care- fully lumbered slope, if allowed to burn over, it will be little better as a watershed cover, than the scene of unrestricted cut- ting. Reports from various parts of the country indicate that the seed crop of most species will be very poor this year. Mr. L, C. Miller, who has returned to Washington from two months in the field, where he has been personally directing seed collecting operations for the Forest Service, reports that practically no seed can be obtained in Southern California. The only places where collecting could be done satisfactorily were the Sawtooth, Henry’s Lake and the Lewis and Clark National Forests. In these forests red fir and lodgepole pine were the only species which fruited heavily, although a limited quantity of Engleman spruce News and Notes. 447 seed was obtainable. In the East the chestnut crop was almost a total failure and the few nuts collected were held by dealers at from $9 to $12 a bushel. The production in the southern Appalachains was more plentiful, but few of the nuts reached the dealers. The crop of acorns was also light, although those who placed early orders for the more important species, will probably get them filled. In the Adirondacks white pine and Norway pine seed were fairly abundant, but it is reported that the crop in the Lake states, particularly of Norway pine, was very light. Forest legislation in Pennsylvania made little progress at the last session of the Legislature, although the machinery for the en- forcement of the State forest fire laws was considerably im- proved and rather rigid measures adopted to prevent forest fires on lands in which oil wells or gas wells are situated. This last Act provides for a close season each year from the Ist of April to the 20th of May and from the 1oth of September to the 10th of November, during which time it shall be unlawful to burn fallows, stumps, logs, or debris of any kind in any forest lands on which there are producing oil or gas wells. Excepting during the close season named, fires may be set upon such lands by securing written permission of the local fire warden and by having him present when such fires are started, with other res- trictions regarding setting fire during a strong wind, having help enough present to control it, and guarding it until it is entirely extinguished. Section 2 of the Act requires that any owner or lessee of forest lands under the above head shall at least once each year remove all brush and debris from within 100 feet of all wells or rigs and also all inflammable material within 100 feet of the right of way of any railroad company operating through oil lands. Section 3 names the duties of railroad com- panies in the oil country and requires them to keep their right- of-way clear and to take other measures towards preventing and extinguishing fires and makes them liable for damages to the owners of any property destroyed and also subject to a penalty of $100 for each violation of the Act. Although such legislation as that mentioned above is a step in advance, there still remains 27 448 Forestry Quarterly the need for more systematic action which will give to the State as a whole an effective code of forest laws with the necessary machinery for their enforcement. ‘The tendency seems to have been to pass rather too drastic laws covering minor points with- out sufficient co-operation between the Legislature and the Forest Commission to solve the main problem. The present unsettled condition as regards forest taxation for example is sufficient to discourage those desiring to plant or maintain forests, yet the partial solution which has advanced in the form of a new bill failed of enactment. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company has decided to establish a new nursery near Morrisville, Pa., and will develop about 12 acres for this purpose. This change of results from the fact that the nursery near Hollidaysburg, Pa., was found to be too small and generally unsuited for a main distribution point and most of the work will be concentrated at Morrisville, where about 300 bushels of acorns and chestnuts will be planted or stored this fall, and a large amount of coniferous seed planted in the spring. During the fiscal year 1907-1908, the investigation and study of the forest resources of the Philippine Islands will be made a much more important branch of the work of the Bureau of Forestry than in former years. The Division of Forest Products, organized last year to collect and place in an available form in- formation concerning Philippine forests and forest products, has been enlarged and its name changed to Division of Forest In- vestigation. Three foresters and three rangers will devote their entire time to the work of this division. Up to a little less than two years ago the collection of the taxes on forest products occupied nearly all the time of the forest officers, leaving little opportunity for forest investigations. The transfer of the work of collecting taxes to the Internal Revenue officials, however, allows much more time for purely technical work, The division of Forest Investigation, as its name implies, will aim to secure and place in the most available form, information regarding the forest resources of the Islands. For the present News and Notes. 449 its principal work will be to locate and map the forest lands and to determine approximately how much and what kinds of timber can be secured from each place. This work will be done as rapidly as possible and large areas will be covered during the coming year. Detailed studies of the forests will be made in a few places, though mapping and exploration come first in the plans. When the location and character of the existing forests are determined, tracts suitable for modern lumbering operations can be designated, forests which should be protected can be reserved, and a definite forest policy can be outlined for the future. Other lines of investigation will also be carried on. ‘The most important of these will be a thorough test of different timbers for railroad ties and paving blocks. Only a few of the most valuable of the Philippine timbers are now accepted as ties, and it is highly important to determine what kinds of wood, if any, may be substituted for these. Tests will be made on a number of the most promising kinds. The duties of administration will now be performed by a Division of Forest Administration having a field force of six foresters and about eighteen rangers. This division will attend to the licenses for the collection of forest products, to the in- spection of lumbering operations, to violations of the forest laws and regulations, to the examination of homesteads, etc. By this new division of labor it is believed that the work of the Bureau will be rendered much more effective and that better results will be secured. As far as possible each division will co-operate with the other to make the work of each more efficient. Within the next few months, a comprehensive scheme of re- districting a number of the National Forests will be put into effect. The principal changes will occur in Oregon, Washington, California, Montana, Idaho and Colorado. Under the new plan, the administration of the Forests will, in many cases, be greatly simplified, by making divides or mountain summits the division line between administrative units, rather than valleys. As a re- sult, a Forest Supervisor having headquarters in a valley town between two mountain ranges, will, in general, administer the slopes of each range draining toward his headquarters, rather 450 Forestry Quarterly than both slopes of the same range of mountains, as previously. Tn this way, Supervisors will be enabled to keep in communica- tion with their rangers all through the winter months, instead of being cut off by snow during a considerable portion of the year, as heretofore. The change will also be a great convenience for the users of the forests, who in the past have frequently found it impracticable to reach the Supervisor’s headquarters in order to transact business with him, without going a long dis- tance around. During October a very profitable series of ranger meetings was held in Oregon and Washington. In California, similar meet- ings were held in November. It is planned to hold a series of ranger meetings and also a number of Supervisor meetings in Colorado and South Dakota during the month of February. In addition to rangers and Supervisors, these meetings are attended by Inspectors and by representatives from the Washington office. By this means the efficiency of the field force is very greatly in- creased. At the beginning of November, approximately 163,000 acres of agricultural land in the National Forests had been listed under the Agricultural Homestead Act, approved July 11, 1906. A large force of examiners has been engaged all through the past field season in making examinations of lands under this Act, and when the reports are all received and action taken, the total area listed for entry will have reached a sum considerably in excess of that named. Lands in the National Forests for ranger headquarters or other administrative purposes are not listed under this Act but are withdrawn from all forms of entry for the permanent use of forest officers. Cabins and pasture fences have been constructed during the past season on a large number of sites thus withdrawn. In addition to the $500,000 set aside by Congress for the con- struction of permanent improvements on the National Forests, $100,000 has been set apart for the same purpose, by the Forest Service, from its regular appropriation. Practically the whole $600,000 has been allotted to the various Forest Supervisors, and the money will be expended by the close of the fiscal year, June News and Notes. 451 30 next. Of this amount, a large sum has gone for the construct- ion of telephones, and the balance principally for roads, trails and cabins, and for pasture and drift fences. Through this expendit- ure the administration of the National Forests will be greatly sim- plified. This, however, marks but the beginning of the improve- ment work which must be carried on in the Forests, and it is greatly to be hoped that Congress will see fit to make an ap- propriation this winter for its continuance during the fiscal year 1909. Upon recommendation of the Forest Service, there have been withdrawn from entry, in western and northwestern Arkansas 1,421,120 acres of public land, for the proposed Arkansas and Ozark National Forests. It is expected that final action with regard to the creation of these Forests will be taken some time during the early months of 1908. Early in November, the total area of National Forests in the United States, Alaska and Porto Rico reached 161,633,894 acres. The total number of National Forests was 162. Of the area named, practically thirty-five million acres were added within the preceding twelve months. Under the terms of the amendment to the Agricultural Appropriation Act, no further forests or ad- ditions to existing forests can be created, without special Act of Congress, in the states of Oregon, Washington, Montana, Wyo- ming, Idaho and Colorado. Just prior to March 4, 1907, the date on which this Act was to take effect, proclamations were signed by the President adding approximately seventeen million acres to the National Forest area. This included within permanent reservations practically all the remaining Government timber- lands in the states named, in which the percentage of alienations was not too high to render administration impracticable. It is probable that no further additions will be made to the forest area in these states. Some comparatively slight additions are, how- ever, contemplated in other states and territories, for which tem- porary withdrawals have already been made. During the month of October there were placed on the Wich- ita National Forest and Game Preserve fifteen buffaloes from the 452 Forestry Quarterly New York Zoological Park, of which Dr. William T. Hornaday is Director. A high woven wire fence has been erected, enclos- ing the buffalo range, and every precaution taken in order that the » animals may not become infected with the Texas fever tick. The litigation regarding the status of the Cornell College Forest has proceeded on its dreary way through the first stages, with the result that the Appellate Court has ruled adversely to the con- tentions of the Attorney General that the Act establishing the College was unconstitutional and that it was unconstitutional for the State to purchase the tract and hand it over to Cornell Uni- versity. The litigation will now proceed on the ground that under the law prescribing the management under forestry practices the Uni- versity exceeded its powers by making a contract for selling all the wood, or at least some of the provisions of the contract may for the same reason be invalidated. The initial semester of the Forestry course at the Pennsylvania State College has opened with a very promising attendance and good prospects for a thorough course of instruction under Prof. H. P. Baker. Ejighteen men are classified in the first three years of the course with a promise of five additional men at the beginning of the second semester. A new instructor will be ap- pointed to the Department by February 1, 1908. A temporary frame building two stories high was built for the work last year. In it over 70 large specimens of the trunks of mature trees, ex- hibited at the Chicago Exposition, and nearly 200 small speci- mens collected from the roth Census are installed. For a work- ing library there are $300 worth of Forestry books purchased by Dr. B. E. Fernow, which with those already in the College library make a fairly large collection. In connection with the academic course, which calls for about 45 hours per week, special stress will be laid upon practical work, and as soon as arrangements can be made the men will be required to spend at least 4 weeks in lumber camps in various forest regions. Notable progress in forestry has been made in Michig’an in 1907, which may be briefly summarized as follows: ee ee re CNN tg News and Notes. 453 1. Legislation—The following new forestry measures were passed: a. A forty thousand acre tract in Iosco and Oscoda Counties was set aside from the lands owned by the Michigan Agricultural College, to be managed as a Forest Reserve by the Michigan Agricultural College. b. The fire warden law of 1903 was abolished and in its place a law was passed making the game wardens forest wardens. Thus it is really a State-paid patrol. It is right in principle, but there is much criticism as to the details of the plan. c. A law was enacted creating a special “Commission of In- quiry, Tax Lands and Forestry” which is independent of the permanent State Forestry Commission. The special Commission is a temporary body composed of ten members, non-paid but al- lowed all the means necessary to do its work. The personnel as appointed by Gov. Warner is of the very best and is non-political. It represents a variety of business activities and is composed entirely of representative citizens. The duty of the Commission is to report to the next Legislature the forest conditions and needs of the State, and to draft a set of forestry and tax laws. The report is to. be printed and ready for distributtion by Oct. I, 1908. The personnel of the Commission is: B. D. Graham, President, Grand Rapids; C. V. R. Townsend, Negaunee; Geo. B. Horton, Fruit Ridge; A. L. Palmer, Kalkaskia; Chas. B. Blair, Executive Agent, Grand Rapids; A. B. Cook, Secretary, Owosso; Francis King, Alma; D. B. Waldo, Kalamazoo; W. E. Osmun, Montague; Carl E. Schmidt, Detroit. A bill to create a State Farm Forester was introduced and was very favorably considered. It was, however, withdrawn at the request of the friends of the Michigan Agricultural College, who claimed that this line of work could and would be attended to by the Agricultural College. For the first time in the history of Michigan a special para- graph was devoted to forestry in the Governor’s message. 2. The Michigan Forestry Commission.—The Michigan For- estry Commission is continued as before, except that Arthur Hill, of Saginaw, is replaced by W. M. Mershon, of Saginaw. 3. The State Forest Reserve-—During the fiscal year 1906- 1907 over three thousand dollars’ worth of dead timber was sold 454 Forestry Quarterly from one of the two districts of the Reserve, while there was an expenditure of less than one thousand dollars, thus proving that the Reserve can readily be made self-sustaining and more. Over 60 miles of fire lines have been built. The fire patrol this year prevented all fires. The forest plantations, the nurseries, and the natural reforestation are progressing as well as could possibly be expected. 4. Forest Schools—The Forest School of the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, gained fully 50% in attendance, the students in forestry now numbering over ninety men. The plan- tations of the Saginaw Forestry Farm, at Ann Arbor, are becom- ing a valuable object lesson not only for school and experimental purposes, but for the general public. These plantations are es- tablished jointly by the Forest School of the University of Michi- gan and the U. S. Forest Service. The Forest School of the Michigan Agricultural College, at East Lansing, lost its Director, Prof. E. E. Bogue, by death. The position was filled by the appointment of Prof J. Frederick Baker. 5. Private Forestry.—The Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co. have in- creased their staff of foresters and are planning reforestation on a large scale. Hon. W. B. Mershon and associates are preparing for extensive reforestation of a tract on the Ausable River. John Newhall and Sons are carrying on good forestry work on Mani- tou Island. Nelson Mickelson, of Grayling, and R. Hanson, of the same place, are gathering up lands and making preparations to convert these into regularly managed forest properties. Hon. Carl EF. Schmidt, of Detroit, is carrying on work in reforestation at Cedar Lake, Iosco County. Application has been made to the Governor by lumbermen, offering to manage certain forest areas as regular permanent forest properties if the matter of taxation can be equitably ad- justed, 6. Distribution of Seedlings—The Forestry Commission dis- tributed over 60,000 seedlings for experimental plantations among various land owners in the State. 7. Public Sentiment.—The forestry sentiment among the people, among legislators and with the press, is steadily growing. One of the best illustrations was the enthusiastic meeting of the News and Notes. 455 Northern Michigan Press Association at Traverse City, where, without any suggestion from “forestry enthusiasts,” an entire evening was devoted to forestry, and reforestation was strongly advocated. 8. Forestry Convention—A forestry convention was held at Saginaw, Nov. 12 and 13, 1907. Four sessions were devoted to the third annual meeting of the Michigan Forestry Association, an organization with between six and seven hundred members. Two sessions were occupied by an important conference of the forestry officials of the Great Lake States and Ontario, with the aim of bringing concerted action in the several commonwealths. Representatives were present from Ontario, Michigan, Wiscon- sin, Minnesota, Ohio and Illinois. Several resolutions expressing the opinions of the convention upon important forestry matters were adopted. It was decided that a committee consisting of one member from each state and province of the Great Lake re- gion shall be organized whose duty it shall be to draft a set of forestry laws, which latter shall be submitted to the respective legislatures. During the past summer wide-spread publicity has been given to certain tentative plans looking toward the control of the flood- waters of the Ohio River and its two main tributaries. Promi- nent dailies and other periodicals throughout the country have published news notes and editorials apparently inspired by some authority which do not hesitate to point out that the ultimate control of these floods depends upon forest plantings on a scale surpassing anything ever attempted on this Continent. The various articles in question point out that at least 2,000,000,000 trees must be planted and give the impression that this wholesale planting will prove an effective method of meeting the flood problem. Just what authority there may be for these statements is not known, but it would certainly be interesting to learn what has been the basis for their publication. Competent observers, fa- miliar with the area about the headwaters of these streams are of the opinion that forest planting could be of little benefit for the very obvious reason that there is compaiatively little land which could be planted and in addition there are practically no 450 Forestry Quarterly » . me absolutely denuded areas. It is quite apparent that the ments given to the press were based upon a general theor: than upon any proper examination of local conditions. the Pennsylvania forests at the headwaters of the A River have been wastefully exploited and it may be asst 1 all probability that floods are more frequent and destructive 2 a result, it yet remains the fact that, in spite of the frequent fires, ‘ the cutover areas are at present covered with tree growth of va- a rious sizes and the problem there is one of forest protection rather Kae. 5. than artificial reforestation. ‘There is little doubt that it is of benefit to awaken a wholesome interest in forestry and to point — t out the advantages of well managed forest, but it is surely open — aa to question that interest should be aroused by statements which trade on the lack of knowledge of the readers. Saale A 5” * at , i = - : * ” 8 6 3 a Y, , © ; yt ‘ i - ; a < - ca » - ws The Sprout Forests of the Housatonic Valley of Connecticut. Plate I Fig. 1.—Chestnut Slope Type. Fig. 2,—Oak Ridge Type. 2 ee = ot ees Fig. 3.—Interior of a Mixed Slope Forest. Plate IT. Fig. 1.—Shagbark Hickory Sprout with new, Fig. 2.—Stub of an Old Chestnut Sprout show- independent root system. ing three generations. Stub of former tree at trowel. Fig. 3.—Chestnut Sprout with Old Stub and Fig. 4.—Parent Stock and Independent Root two Decayed Roots (near middle) System (at right), and New Root System (at right), Plate IIT "®& Fig. 1.—One and Two Year Old Seedlings taken from a Sprout Forest Beginning at trowe l'wo White Ast two Hard Maples, Pignut, two Shagbark Hickories, White Oak u urs old stnut Oak, Red Oak Fig. 2.—Seedling Sprouts Beginning at left Sassafras, Bitternut, Red May W t A Plate 1V * * desi? Fig. 1.—Underground stem of Pignut Hick- Fig. 2.—White Ash, showing recent sprouts ory with sprout killed in recent and former sprouts (at left) burned surface fire, showing Fungus at in same fire. Base, followed by two others. Fig. 3.—A Clump of Butternut Sprouts killed by fire. Shows form of growth leading to accumulation of litter among the old, half-decayed stumps June MA 4 cae We ee Deceniber White Pine Larch June uropean Larch in 4 E al ring of White Pine and Cross Sections through annu and December ; = ae a ‘SOLIOSINN 1OF UdITIG GUI[[OY 1) Keane . ri) io SD Forestry quarterly uf F77 ve5 Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY STORAGE