UNIV. OF TORONTO LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from . University of Toronto htto://www.archive.org/details/forestryquarter12newy ORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME XII PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A BOARD OF EDITORS Axe \3 ae Ve 4 With Three Plates, Four Cuts and Three Diagrams BELLEFONTE, PENNSYLVANIA 1410 H St., N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. 1914 BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. Fernow, LL.D., Editor-in-Chief Henry S. Graves, M.A., Forester, U. S. Forest Service RAPHAEL ZON, F-.E., U. S. Forest Service FREDERICK DuNLAP, F.E., University of Missourt T. S. Wootsey, JR., M.F., U. S. Forest Service Ernest A. STERLING, F.E., Consulting Forest Engineer, Philadelphia, Pa. Crype |LeaviTt, M.S5.F., Commission of Conservation, Ottawa, Canada FILIBERT Rory, B. 6., University of Michigan Hucu P. Baker, D. Oec., Syracuse University R. C. Bryant, F.E., Yale University SAMUEL J. ReEcorpD, M.F., Yale University RICHARD T. FISHER, A.B., Harvard University WALTER MuLrForp, F.E.., Cornell University A. B. REcKNAGEL, M.F., Cornell University Cy. D7Howe. Ph-D., University of Toronto JH. Waite MA. B.Se.F., University of Toronto Asa S. Wituiams, F.E. P. S. Ripspae, Business Manager, Washington, D.C. é d THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE. To aid in the establishment of rational forest management. To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of interest to professional foresters of America. To keep the profession in touch with the current technical literature, and with the forestry movement in the United States and Canada. Manuscripts may be sent to the Editor-in-Chief at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, or to any of the board of editors. Subscriptions and other business matters may be addressed to Forestry Quarterly, 1410 H St., N. W., Washington, D. C. — CONTENTS Page A Suggestion for Securing Better Professional Terminology,............ 1 By P. S. Lovejoy. Graded Volume Tables for Vermont Hardwoods,..................... 5 By I. W. Bailey and P. C. Heald. Red and White Fir—Xylometer Cordwood Test,..................08. 24 By R. W. Taylor. A Comparison of the Doyle and Scribner Rules with Actual Mill Cut for Second Growth White Pine in Pennsylvania,................. 27 By N. R. McNaughton. Loss Due to Exposure in the Transplanting of White Pine Seedlings,.... 31 By E. A. Ziegler. Eitectivernertlizersmny NUnSeries.\. ic /.cis cis’. alysis 8 ood siepioveheie leita a nites 34 By G. A. Retan. The Relation of the Surface Cover and Ground Litter in a Forest to KOSTO TIM MER OI CPN Sin fo Sisetie res su S Ieee ee aOR ke 37 By M. J. Gleissner. Forest Maxation Activity in Massachusetts)... 2... osc soc cee ees 41 By H. J. Miles. Cost sceonnrs tor. Reconnaissatice SUCVEYS,: . 6 cei ase» be ceees wi ube es 44 By A. B. Connell. Forestry in America as Reflected in Proceedings of The Society of Amer- LEER STS GOLS, «SER e AWN Rey. 5 ER ee EEO ea. PRON.) luted (en aye 47 By B. Moore. Peataehiasentiee, Mindete sii oi) s a ws ey Beau ht dn atid ot ein ae aa 137 By L. Crowell. ee Mecnanmicau tree, Planter oe: Gidea se i muneieees bee eeeu a eee ae. 139 By F. T. McLean. me News lcisieins Instrianaenit, Seni 2s’: Wace seus tok. 6 lela ten bed 140 By H. W. Siggins. A Proposed Method of Preparing Working Plans for National Forests,.. 145 By J. C. Kircher. PLC CUMAMICY SCCM er Pay nie y talteta hc amet he LO POS Never rere near eeteee wy Wie 158 By J. Bentley, Jr. Paotsmmmestinda tino” Members 1.32). ais.< gies oie ares A doled ov PABA sS oe 0 6 167 By L. Margolin. gate (Ua SUS DE SE eRe ERM ACS ee nv ec 193 By E. J. Fenby. Bark Disease of the Chestnut in British Columbia,................... 201 By J. H. Faull and G. H. Graham. Reforesman ce ut-over Chestnut Lands 055. 3..:)0 4s.) esas bec cloa dceeees 204 By E. C. M. Richards. The Administration of a Forest Experiment Station,.................. 211 By G. A. Pearson. The Probable Origin of the Forests of the Black Hills of South Dakota,.. 223 By P. L. Buttrick. Beueo: Denidrolory in Forest: Botany,.... 0.0 f.2-. cece cee eeeceeas 228 By H. de Forest. Cone Borer vs. Squirrel (an Important Correction) ................---- 238 Results of an Experiment on the Effect of Drying of the Roots of Seedlings Pern VY ibe Ean <...2 s swis ty 2b ab Me cae vi was oe Oe See 311 By F. W. Haasis. iv Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine,............-ceee cece cece eens cc ens By A. T. Upson. The Relation of Crown Space to the Volume of Present and Future Stands Of W esterncy ellow, Ritic. since e teeetioae ce tiae Wine ae ois Seen By G. A. Bright. Notes on Strip Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance,..............-- By A. F. Kerr. Obtaining Verticel Control of Practical Value with the Abney Hand Level, By W. J. Paeth. Mae wise of the Abney mand Level, : <2 2s ie ciane © c° 559 Elm-tree pests, ref............. 97 Entomology, cambium miner, br. 277 Ontario society, report, 1912, TIE, ieee Racine eee nares 98 URIGKSON Mie Masartas ass 4 cect 370 Erosion and surface cover, art.. 37 Estimating errors, art.......... 167 Eucalyptus for lumber, ref..... 94 MONO STAM TEk aay seer sya s 99, 463 European war and forestry, c... 656 Evaporation in pine, br........ Zit Even-aged stands, determination of site qualities, ref...... 457 Excelsior, manufacture, br..... 488 Moplari(aspen) Mss. . .. ss. .2 652 Excursions, Germany, ref...... 641 Exotics, in Saxony, br......:.. 471 Experiment stations, adminis- CLAMOMMAT GA. seca 22 lee 211 VANOIGL: op leomet titties vest cael ch ewes 201 Federal forestry, policy, ref..... 123 OWUEISHIpwhiantihee tee Ne ke. 647 UE Waele) Sy cetcb).eron serene 8 Sevens 193 Fence posts, preservation, ref... 95 Fertilizers in nurseries......... 34 in pine woods, fef........... 641 Filipino forestry, ref........... 639 Mimance, aims, tef........6.... 641 cost growing timber, art...... 432 damage valuation, br........ 481 forestry revenue, Quebec, n.. 652 interest rates and taxation, Gl a5 464 new ideas, br 475 Vii Finance, planting as an invest- EHIONG, ATba sale sedi ose. veraeaiee ce practigey felines! 45.4 saat 2s forest problems, ref.......... 95 stumpage appraisal, art...... 376 Minnis Bre Ae ss ls he eae 476 timber revenue, Canada, n... 652 New Brunswick, n......... 652 value increment, br.......... 478 Finland, statistics, br.......... 119 BinsBalsam reve. ee oe 256 Douglas, in Denmark, br..... 116 distillationsbr es cease ee 487 growth tables, rev........... 440 Red and White, cordwood... 24 PIPES ereb see: ok se ea ae 94 as cultivators Diss see ae ae 473 damage to mature timber, ref. 457 western Yellow pine, ref. .. 457 {MSUTANCE. Din eer Ace 282 Frances Drie va seh 3 Ase: dee 111 manual, Connecticut, ref..... 612 plans, organization, art...... 381 protection, br....... 112, rev. 251 Appalachiahsy ai... 24. 4 296 British (Cohiumbiasny 55... 128 Californiayreten 4. 456, 639 Canada 294, 295, 500-502 co-operation in U.S., ref.462, 499 Maine ref sees seh. Lok gale. 262 NOVEL Tse omens he cae 472 anid: post office, Mie <33.0.. ; 503 Pathways; Mes ncte oe 127, 500 range huder, "art. 6 2.435). 137 report, California, 1913, rev.. 462 statistical methods, ref....... 464 Tamalpais directory, ref..... 615 use in silviculture, art....... 193 warden’s manual, ref........ 458 Florida National Forest, enlarg- DAU IDs Ha: ase SR es 647 Bailes TeV cvtdcc toh ae es ee 453 Food movement, art........... 559 Dr POREST @hes art. cscs: 228, 429 Forest, finance, damage by droumihty br x08. te as 280 reserve funds, br.......... 278 geography, Russia, br........ 100 and temperature, br....... 106 influences, on climate, ref.... 97 on evaporation, br........ 271 interception in pine forest, Dita ee ee eae cere 270 AmINUSSiay Dik. cecil cee 468 Yellow pine forests, rev. ... 258 laws, Maryland, ref......... 460 ofpanizationy broi eek bah seg 495 studies, National Forests, ref.. 94 tables, Douglas fir, rev....... 440 and transpiration, ref........ 292 and weather br. 2.58. 2 oe ACs Guijo for decking boats, n...... 648 Gun stocks, from walnut, ref... 461 GUTHRIE, ec ALL sites 35a 381 Gypsy moths reteset... 5 = 458 Control, eye pee ek ete es 249 HAASISA F:: Wi artnet eee a 311 Hardwoods, heart rot, br....... 102 Vermont, volume tables, art. . 5 HEALD P''C. att. (.ace eee 5 Heating; death, ref... /.; =). cee 496 Hemlock ref > 30: ..cths >. eee 639 diseases, réf ..: 6.5. 0o) 2 nee 457 Himalayan forests, ref......... 94 History, Leipzig forest, br...... 120 Hongkong report, ref.......... 616 Horse chestnuts, as food, br.... 638 Idaho, Potlach, protection asso- ciation, TEV. see ee ee 240 fimberisalesn-. o:-eee saosin 303 TEIACK 6.95, 7aLe be ere 520 Increment on all-aged stands, TOES a SES eR ae ee 457 estimates’. brs) ::ti eee 475 value, how determined, br.... 478 and weather; ‘br.- 4s. tener 277 and yield regulation, br...... 279 India, administration, br....... 286 Bengal report, ref..........- 616 Central Provinces, report 1911-125. 26F 2 hiss ee 99 irrigation revenue report, 1910—13emete a. . <2 eee 463 Indiana, arbor days, n......... 650 floodiof 19013 wwebes. 2. tee 614 report of State board of forestry, 1913, ref....... 263 Insects in-seeds, ref..c....:. seen 639 Insurance, fire, in France, br.... 111 Investigations, forests, ref...... 94 Investigative Committee, report, POV i OCR rion LS 597 Ireland, forest management, ref. 615 forestry society, ref.......... 265 transactions, 1912, ref..... 265 Italy, buying forests, br........ 490 forest conditions, ref......... 125 JSENICER AS I, Gots... 2. 8 397 Japan; forests Gr... .. s. «s/s ck 620 June-bug, combating, ref....... 94 Juniper Por pencil wood, n...... 649 Kaibab Forest, sale of timber, n. 647 Kentucky, report of State Fores- ter, 1913, reficie strc r: «+ > 462 woody plants, rev........... 242 KERR, An Bemartprecrs cee a -.elt!o:- 341 IKING, PA@ satires. «|-'--+ = 578 KIRCHER, 1 Oe 145 Korea, afforestation, Bree cents 467 KorsTIAN, C.F, art. . 408 Wabor-stanistics, ref........5.5 6. 94 Laurentide Company, survey and nurseries, n......... 652 Legislation, federal forest policy, PEL ea igh al ois ruebite naa noe: ale 94 forest laws, Maryland, ref.... 460 LAK ATOM Ele Layla savan ie) tnt 94 gipsy and brown-tail moths, n. 650 plant disease act, Canada, n.. 650 state forest laws, ref......... 94 yocenien. compensation laws, Uae Light dots and windbreaks, ref.. 264 Light, solar energy, br......... 104 Loading logs, device, br........ 482 Loblolly pine, management, rev. 246 Lodgepole pine as pole timber, n. 649 resin as preservative, n...... 649 EEE T ot os eae a x Y's Ses 649 EEG 50s ES Cee eae rea 304 volume table, art............ 319 Log rules compared, TBE tor ae OUD watianilltettarersisc sess tee 27 comparative study, art....... 390 NOUN CIOVE ATG s:.o res ssepoes = = 395 Scale IDECCH Sr sic cis vests aS tees Sh 23 INGLE Pee Miata sale is shelve aya lS acta 21 Mellownbireht.2-.4.)2h sais ce 36 7 Logging, flumes, rev........... 453 cable transport, br.......... 117 camp Sanitation, ref......... 614 overhead systems, ref........ 461 Longleaf pine for paper pulp, ref. 456 Teproduchion: art... s6.5<6 5 532 Lookout on National Forest, ref. 461 Louisiana, report of conservation commission, 1914, ref.... 462 LOVETOY (PO Sic attest iio diiac, oni. 1 Lower Ottawa Forest Protective aSSOCIATION M.)s) 64sec. 650 ISMEBBEND Ey ICs artes 6.2 sa Splat Lumber dock, municipal, ref.... 461 eucalyptus for; teb......%..~ 94 RGGUESELY, TEV «6 os npc cece oo 601 mac railroads, fef....... 25. 455 manufacturing, accounts, ref.. 612 Pummetyrel ws ee ee 461 wos 486 Lumbering, 0 eee 94 Lumbermen and national de- velopment, ref.......... 123 1x MclLEraAn Bs Tcarte 26a ac: 139 MACMIEEAN SH R= arte es... 432 McNaueuTon, N. R., art...... 27 Mahogany, borers, br.......... 628 Maine, fire protection, ref...... 262 Kennebec Valley protective association, ref.......... 614 Mangrove for tan bark, br..... 118 Manitoba, a forest province, ref. 462 Maplewlog scale}: seycetert aya. AM sugar industry, Canada, ref... 462 Maritime provinces, wood in- dustry jrevienn pee: 607 MMAR GOLING Wis, antsy. eerie 167 obituary notice . i035: Lives 510 Maryland, forest laws, ref...... 460 growth period: ref... :..veeees 639 report of State board of fores- try, 1912 and 1913, ref... 460 Massachusetts, forestry associa- PONTE Oe, oe Ren ee case 459 DVAZES Aes peat eee sean 2c 129 State Forester, 1913, rev... 241 onitaxabion rele eaeee. 459 Measures, conversion of, c...... 130 Mensuration, dendrometer, art.. 141 increment estimates, br...... 475 new method of cubing, br.... 474 stem analyses, art:.......... 158 Michigan, forestry report, 1913, Reb ett e tiie S 2 eR mation. 3, fe 461 protective organization, n.... 126 report of public domain com- mission, 1911 to 1913, ref 461 MED ES) EA: es Althea Neston Gave Mill cut and log scales......... 27 WASLE SUSE SIMs Drs, eh ital 506 Mitrar, W. N., Toronto forest School iat eee cine 653 Milling, elements of cost, ref.... 461 Mine timbers, ref............. 456 Mineral “substances and foliage, SEO eee ah ne eee 623 Misuesgia: report of State Fores- ter, 1913, 172) eat ee 461 Mixed stands, production, bre: 470 vs. pure stands, production, Dies Cham eee ae oth are chs 275 Montana, forest school, new, n. 653 Moor cultivation, ref.......... 125 Cerrmay he by eek ue go Vie 292 NMinone ) -Bemare rt siiiiidcl sk shen 47 Pane ash, berries as food, Ne tre Mee ete cae 641 Municipal forestry, New York, bask Sacase tecture atten 460 Mogens EROS hartecs Sapte ey 3 546 National Forests, areas, ref..... 93 reservation commission, rev.. 77 Natural regeneration, generali- ties, Dre aon. - sing dees 469 soil preparation, br.......... 269 Nevada, diseases, rev.......... 244 New Brunswick, crown timber- lanids Few) <3 <_ Go2 New Hampshire, forestry report, TOTS -Tehes feet Re coee 2 458 report, tax commission, 1913, ea) ecb A tenene pa ge geo 459 society for protection of forests, 13 ET ee an tah os 262 New Haven Water Company, working plan, rev....... 74 New Jersey, planting, ref....... 96 report of forest park reserva- tion commission, 1913, TEL co tee RR es LS 460 forest influences, rev......... 258 trees and shrubs, ref......... 98 New South Wales, botanical re- parc 4Oes cee sh. os Ss: 264 commercial trees, ref........ 616 New York, Conservation Com- mission, report, 1912, ref. 97, 1913, 72 Ea oe at eee a 462 conservation ‘law, FEL. Koes ss 612 lands in forest preserve, ref... 263 State Forester, report, rev.... 241 wood-using industries, ref.... 96 Nigeria, forest department, n... 506 North Carolina, association re- POLE Riek Pest sg... cas cer 613 FOTES PH ONCYs, TEL o. a. ais <, eee 613 timber resources, ref...... 460, 461 North Dakota, forest school, n.. 308 ares planting. Ter).= 3c ss. os < 264 North-Eastern Foresters, meet- “ISS Ree Re ne 8 646 Norway, fire insurance, br...... 282 ame yy TOL OD A). pasa os eee 266 Nova Scotia, geographical study, REMC Ae? tet ue oe Pee 495 Nurseries, blight on conifer, rev. 86 combating larvae of June-bug, EE De on dria al shepe acute rhe fa 94 drying roots of seedlings, art.. 311 PETMAN ss oay2, ct crite nae ne 34 loss in transplanting......... 31 Stockaablchts stef oa") 3.0 Sen 93 WA PALasnte, (DI. +4 pie oven: 101 Ohio, plant catalogue, ref...... 613 survey of Sugar Grove Basin, he SW TOPS EE RRC Oklahoma, trees and shrubs, ref. 97 Oregon, National Forests, re- adjustment, Nk cseee es 303 State Forester, report, rev.... 240 BOIS TED Meek Ce eee 462 x Organization, rev... .:. 22-926 593 state forest, ref ....\.>.2)- eee 94 Cwnership policy of forests, ref. 125 Oxford, forestry, br... = 7seeeee 289 epurse, Tel i625 ee ~ , 292 Pacific coast forest, ref......... 639 shippers’ association, ref..... 456 Panera? Wo). art 25334 cee ene 347 Panama canal and lumber trade, RETR 6 eee A 5 ee Aen ae 291 and lumber industry, ref..... 461 Panama-Pacific Exposition, Phil- ippine exhibit, n....2... 648 Paper pulp from aspen, ref..... 610 from longleaf pine, ref....... 456 Parasites Teh. 5 64. Pace ee 458 Of Fung be. 2) 25 Rs ee 467 Parks /Bayaria® bre «see 494 Pasture; plants; tet)... : 5-7 eee 98 Patternmaking, woods for, ref.. 96 Payine- locks, ‘br... seers 485 Peace river, B. C., sources, ref.. 124 PRARSDN> GAM arts. 2 <2 ae 211 Peat, plantations on, ref....... 124 Pennsylvania, planting, Let sisXe 639 wood-using industries, ref..613, 640 Peridermium pint, ref 497 Philippine Islands, forest school, TOV Coos ee we fe eee 82 forestry, Teh as. ese ones 461 exhibit, #1) 1k See 648 report, 1913 ;reyv. a9 up seer 81 Pike’s Peak, planting, ref...... 124 Pine, Lodgepole, volume table, art. 3 be eee eee 319 seed supply, for Germany, br. 626 thinminp results; br. 225). 25a 273 value increment, ref......... 497 bibe tise White, management, TEE ees tA Ss White, bark disease, br...... 276 Pinus insignis in New Zealand,n. 306 radiata, morphological insta- bilityearels Ho <:. SAmaee 495 virginiana, disease, br....... 276 Planting; forest, refs cere oe 94 as an investment, art........ 538 methods in Ireland, ref...... 615 New Jersey, ref............. 96 in Pennsylvania, ref......... 639 Piles PRE Teh. tid ees ee 124 fOD Spelter. rel. \ os USaeaeeee 97 BOIS (Abe. <2. 1s. shies eee 139 Poisoning by conifers, ref...... 292 Policy, federal forest, ref. ...... 94 Polyporus dryadeus, br......... 101 Poplar (aspen), excelsior, n..... 652 Powell National Forest, fire TECOFG; N... 2 oe eee 649 Practice vs. theory, br......... 493 Preservation, fence posts, ref... otrfimber, refs ice eaaecion es Preservatives, treatment, TESS: 1) Paap eee and chemistry of wood, ref... Of itarsy re hee rier ise swe kyanizing, fefe2.--..-:+..... resistance to creosote injec- ELOMPEREW errs ries aio oa aia Price, O. W., obituary notice... Prices, wood, in Prussia, br..... Private (individual) forestry, economic factors, ref......... Proceedings, society of American oresters,; refi...) 230.% Protection, associations, n. brown-tail and gypsy moths, re Canadian Northern railway, n PERE RAIN ciah cee CREM Ele ee coy cooperative, ref........... hill slopes, br...... DESUS; [Misi otea eerie cus cite oie ve 4: « Washington, refoso. 0. a. 3k Prussia: budget, bre ss. 2p. 2. forestry report, ref.......... Public forests, control, ref...... lands, classification, ref...... Pulp industry and forestry, ref. . Pure vs. mixed stands, produc- TOMI OTN He aes A oar th Quebec, forest service,n....... protective association, n..... forestry report, 1913, ref..... revenue from forests, n. Queensland, public lands report, 1912, ref TION aint ya pete. ees cao Bn Gereriiatiy, is)... bis 2s Mauer ties, metal vs. wooden, Rainfall ‘eta growth, ref. Range, control, 1... ..05.... 296, Ci ANG EASA ey ae NR a Re OG eD Arnel) sh wha et improvement, ref... .93, rev BESPCCINE, TEV. ..): Case nes =< Reclamation, national, ref...... sand dunes, ref Reconnaissance, ests, ref Seanapping, art, i... ss. and working plans, ref....... Red cedar, western, ref . {phe Red pine, ‘Minnesota, Tae ee Redwood, volume table, ref. National For- xi Reforestation: Tel so: kre). |ae sis 5 458 I TANCCMOTE titi Akan cic tee ae 110 National Forests, ref........ 94 Regulated forest model, art..... 511 Recalation rey eiAa ws 2 sexe re 593 Reproduction, damage by snow, OTe ey ble hes Bede 457 Reservewtunds wore 5 a. ssa 278 RETAN, G. ine Atta Steen eae nerd a 34 REVIEWS: Adams, C. C., animal ecology. 70 Anderson, Pooch and EW; chestnut blight fungus. .... 86 Barnes, W. C., grazing.. . 84 Berlin Mills Company, woods departments. 0 5.7) cee 598 Betts, N. de W., and Heim, A. L., woods for telephone POLES np eneccn pi eo eee nent 256 Boyce, W. G. H., and Lewis, R. G., wood-using indus- tries, Maritime Provinces.. 607 British Columbia, lands re- OTUs MUONS h awe sega aa teen ree ae 88 Brown, N. C., and Moon, F. F., elements of forestry.... 595 Bruce, E. S., flumes and flum- EES Te Oe oy Seas OC vers Ree ot 453 Burgess, A. F., gipsy and brows-tail moths: \vooue. <: 249 Burrows, W. B., bird life..... 72 California, report, State Board ofsHorestry 1913). eens 453 Garmen, H., woody plants of Kentucky ie pis eerie. 242 Gerry, Eloise, Tyloses....... 257 Hanzlick, E. J., Douglas fir, growth and yield.......... 440 Hartley C., blights of conif- erous nursery stock....... 86 Hawley, R. C., working plan.. 74 Heim, A. L., and Betts, N. de W., woods for telephone NOLES Ara wee ation etmek. 256 Hosseus, C. C., Siam, explora- [BOLO Prada same as Be eh a 91 Howe, C. D., and White, J. H., with discussion by B. E. Fernow, Trent Water- Shed suryews. kira eos" 435 Kempfer, W. H., timber..... 252 Lewis, R. G., and Boyce, W. G. H., wood-using industries. . 607 Lumber Industry, part IV.... 601 MacDougal, D. T., report, Director Botanical Research 260 Massachusetts, report, tenth, State Forester, 1913....... 241 Meinecke, E. P., manual, forest tree diseases........ 244 Moon, F. F., and Brown, N. C., elements of forestry.... Nallis, J. C., woods for manu- facture Of boxes: ....2--+:- National Forest Reservation Commission, report, 1913.. Newlin, J. A., wooden barrels, New York, Conservation Com- mission, report, 1913. Oliver, F. W. (editor), British Botany, TIALS rater eres eens Oregon, report, State Forester, Pearson, G. A., forest in- HITTENICES 0. Seaehrracro edetei ct ate ,> Peters, J. G. (editor), fire pro- tection by States.......... Philippine Islands, report, Director of Forestry, 1913. Philippine Islands, report, Director of Forestry, on Forest School, 1913....... Potlatch timber protection association, report, 1913... Rankin, W. H., and Stewart, F. C., wintering of Cronar- tium ribicola Record, S. J., mechanical properties of wood........ Rosenbluth, R., woodlot forestry Sa it i Gh DR A de Roth, F., forest regulation.... Russia, report of department of ‘public domains). 22-7 Sampson, A. W., range im- provement... 2... i.2-2s55 reseeding grazing lands. Sterrett, W. D., Loblolly pine, management BE IS Gite Ol Stewart, F. C., and Rankin, Weikl., wintering of Cro- nartium ribicola......... Teesdale, C. H., resistance to creosote injection....... Toronto University, Fores- ter’s Club, silvics, Cana- Gian trees. oi. 2 lee U. S. Forest Service, report, ” investigative committee. . Ward, W. F., beef cattle, shrinkage RAPE cee White, J. H., and Howe, C. BD: with discussion by B. E. Fernow, Trent Water- shed Survey aca. ares Williamson, A. W., cotton- WOO sy sec uhern eal eee one Wilson, E. H., Western China, DOLANIY =. sce eke - einer 595 609 77 255 . 241 260 240 258 251 xii Yale Forest School, biograph- ical records: 2 jaeee eee Zon, R., Balsam fr 2oeeeee RicHArps, B.C: M., attasoeeee Road drag, how to use, ref.... ROECINS. Mc art... <.-7 eee Root character and climate, rev. competition, br..........-.. Rot, dry in timbers, rev. on the heart of hardwoods, br. ROTHROGK Je LS ICS x: 2,0 sts r= Russia, Asiatic, forests, 10) ae forest influences, br.......... TOCCSULY (AE ae ee orice < Transcaucasia, conditions, br. Turkestan forests, br. 52... -- - Rust, fungus, Cronartium, rev.. new, ref White pine, protection, br.... St. Maurice Protective associa- tion; Québec, ese seee Sal, economic value, ref........ Sand dunes, reclamation, ref.... hills, BS cea vegetation, PEL ft ene oe eee SAUNDERS, Dr. W., TIOLICE So em eee eres Sawmill firstansU.19-7 Obes. 4 - Saxony, state forests, he SCHENCK, C. A., appreciation. . Scotland, forestry report, ref.. forestry, TEER ye rer ee os Seasoning of timber, rev....... Seed, distribution, Philippine Islands ern co catee oe insects, ref. and seedlings, key, ref....... sources, influence, br........ See drying of roots, effect, sires EAT Ue oh oso)» shee ae Selection, Nature’s law, ref..... SySter ere. 45 ol ass = eae Sequoia gigantea, increment, br. Shade trees, ref rural and city improvement, ref LTO les areleir terse «-- Shelter oe planting, Ireland, re Siam, exploration, rev......... SIGGING: (Ele Wiyatbaei .. 5... + Silvics, Canadian trees, rev..... Silviculture, chestnut lands, art. fe nif Fumes woe. cts. sR Cispas Bure, AIL... ......cae extensive and intensive, br... Silviculture, mixed stands, br... 470 natural regeneration, br...... 469 root competition, br......... 108 Single tax in taxation, art. . 546 Site quality and soil depth, br.. 268 smoke, damage, brio. .:5...-. 102 Soap weed, commercial value, n. 648 Societies American Foresters, meeting, Ithaca, n....... 299 proceedings, ref........... 611 protection New Hampshire forests, meeting, n....... 47 Soil, acidity, ee oe See 613 HARUCKIAMTCD bes crtrs, cnc Soo foes 292 depth and site quality, br.... 268 MALT Oi hers heats es caer els, «30s 103 maps and instruction, br..... 623 moisture, effect of cover, br.. 272 and plant associations, ref.. 640 physiology, br 268, ref. 496 preparation for natural regen- ELatlONn yO Leet. a osc 269 PETG Ls saa ee AT oes 632 surface cover and erosion, art. 37 Solar energy, influence, br...... 104 South Australia reports, 1912-13, MEL HUs See eek 99 administration, 1912-13, ref.. 264 South Carolina, wood-using in- usStries tela wo: 96 Southern States, resources, ref.. 495 NPAMMOnestsm Dia vee sec c eas 268 DEONSE DR Os et anc as ee | ao OE Sprag industry, Pennsylvania, IRE SORE. 6 a a elier Reg aa 291 Spruce, bud worm, ref......... 95 commercial planting, ref...... 639 leatenmnensreiee 044-5 ts 95 natural regeneration, br...... 470 value increment, ref......... 497 Wiel a Tables iie enc ale seks 114 Spur shoot of pines, ref........ 495 Squirrels, damage, art......... 238 Starch reserve and products of birch and maple, ref..... 495 State, forests, administration, ref. 457 for Massachusetts, ref..... 459 SIZE MATE VAM critic ce thsi te 520 vs. national control of forests, HEN aie SASTE RET Crs aa 98 Statistics, Alsace-Lorraine, br 119 BAGeI MRE A: ereht ate. s soec 288, 636 BAVA ODES Gort. sic. si, LS, O30 mem, bres se an ZO, Teirball Fei 10] 0) apa ne Py 119 ~ Great Britain, DE etic ito st :. 635 Piss 2 i ae ee 94 Prussia, [50° och eae eee ee 488 Sweden, THEI», «\ eaten ORE ee eae 125 Switzerland, br. 286, ref. 497, br. 637 Stem analyses, art 158 Stock ranges, application of re- connaissance, ref........ 457 Strip mapping for reconnaissance, ALG RA ee ee aa ee 341 selection, thinnings, ref...... 497 Structure, Tyloses, rev......... 257 Stump removal by blasting, ref. 610 Stumpage, appraisal, formulae, Eel Hoy a eee Ne Ary ea Ee one 376 use of railroad, ref......... 461 value in Minnesota,n....... 507 Survey, Abney hand level con- trolMantecs stan eee 347 Galbleyer vase ror) Vc soee eras 371 Cosivaccount antes yee eee 44 reconnaissance and working DIANS steieme nce ee es 124 Stripunapping: art. 29..< 4k. 341 ID WiInteR Moan tee 4 ee 305 Sweden, conditions and practice, DIR eNO shale ata 617 TEPOrts Tele seer se eo fos 497 Statistics mre iene snes oe one 125 Switzerland, Berne report, ref. . 463 development) br: 2222. ova. - 267 EXCURSION Teh demi oeeee ee ee 124 forest distribution, ref....... 125 forest officers, ref. 463 statistics, br. .286, ref. ‘497, ‘br. 637 Tan bark, mangrove, br........ 118 Taridamace apna eon eee 275 Taxation forest Tel a.\s. eee. 94 Frances Dr suk yokes Renita ie 288 Massachusetts, art........ 41, 544 reports, New Hampshire and Massachusetts, ref....... 459 and single tax. cations: 546 ON StU pages lies Sere 304 TayLor, R. W., art. 24 Telegraph poles, qualities, ‘ref... 266 Telephones, tests, rev. : 256 Temperature and plant geog- Papaya tases ways ame rst s 106 Merminolopys AGA: css ern coe 1 committee, progress report, n 641-646 forest Dotatty art snes 228 Termites, resisting timbers, br. 285, ref. 292 Theory vs. practice, br....... 493 Thinnings, beech and pine, re- ESTAS] OVE A Sari eee Daa Rag ee 273 degrees of influence, br....... 471 LNAMCE MDL ea asl sie sia oa ee 476 in moth infected woodlands LE e Segue ete 612 pine, grades, results, br...... Bis Timber, bonds, pitfalls, art..... 548 identification, ref............ 463 Timber, mature, damage by fire, preservation, eb- ae eee resources, North Carolina, TEL. OA ee er eet 460, ATIzOnatiiie ey eat ee T dao, ih oy par shade ten che aak Supply Wass rebsae ae ae tests, failure and compression, ATG sn citar a ety hy reese nays e's Tools, tree planter, art......... ‘Lorrey pines reba ke. ski caec fs LOUMEY A]. Wesatbens ferene os ea calibre, significance, Ti scenes pint, fighting, br...... Transcaucasia, conditions, br... Transpiration and growth and distribution, ref......... Transplanting loss............. Trees, distribution, GATES ells eee chs 3k one photographs, prizes,n....... planter, mechanical, art...... SUNSCEY,, Tebsa. wee oie Trent Watershed Survey report, Uneven-aged stands, determina- tion of stocking, ref...... Union, amalgamated wood work- ers, ref United States, forests, ref...... timber supply, ref Mirson; AC’ Taree ER Se si 8 aha fee) © ehulie lb impressions of German, ref... waste, ref. lekker faeee 124, Valuation, damage, br......... sew formula, Driessen ent we New ddeas. Drier sabe stems chen soil, approximating . BA stumpage appraisal, SS aa Value increment determining, br. Veneer industry, history, br. Vermont, report of State Fores- ter; 1913) web ra otecia Volume and crown space, rela- {iON} art eee ee Yellow pine, art........... tables, construction, ref...... PLAaded ay hod See ee eae Dar ew eee ale ees le 461 462 376 478 484 262 XiV Volume tables, Redwood, ref... 98 Walnut for gun stocks, ref...... 461 Warfare and forests, br........ 289 Washington, forest law, ref..... 98 Waste mill; use, 21; <.. 5 -eeeee 506 iiAliZabion, TEL. :.. <.... «eee 124 Wasteland planting, Ireland, ref. 615 relorestation, ref... <3. sae. 458 Weather influence in growth, br. 277 Western forestry and conserva- tion association, proceed- dp, Shae Ter =. fos a: 264 re States, tree distribution, Re ee Ee en on 650 Western White pine, manage- MEN LS Let are meee vee 94 Yellow pine damage by fire, 1s ee WE 80s ara por 457 West Virginia, workmen’s com- pensation law, ref....... 96 White Mountain reservation, n. 504 White pine, bark disease, ref.... 615 blister rust, ref... 24 2... eee 457 rust, protection, Br.:. 5... ¥-- 472 second growth, log scale...... 27 seed, device for planting, ref.. 95 seedlings, transplanting...... 31 SiViciibune; Tel: ace see o = ee: 95 Willow, basket business, br .... 483 enckefsbatsS, wet ash cess 640 Windbreaks and light soils, ref.. 264 Wanter criisine maa ene 305 Wireless telegraphy,n......... 651 Wood, identification, br........ 467 mechanical properties, rev.... 600 preservatives, association, n.. 505 Woodlot, care of, ref........... 462 determination of value of tim- DE tebate ote. cece Nee 460 PQPESURU ERNE ES oak + cs eae 437 Wood-using industries, New MOmMe are cs. 2. + eee 96 Mout Caroling -rel.< . «Ssh 96 Wood wastes, utilization, ref.... 462 Working plans, rev............ 593 MELMOGS DIM. c,.< ample ears 115 for National Forests, art... .. 145 Portland, Me., State forest, Yale forest school, biographical RECOM RCV. cee kok svc. ors WOMAIMG etn G .< oe. a ac teers 330 PER ree cnicle's ck Cee XV Yellow poplar, Tennessee, ref... 263 Yield, tables, method, Arizona Yield, conifers, France, br.....- 482 and New Mexico, ref.... 457 regulation and increment, pr... 219 use in predicting growth, on National Forests, ref... . 94 mete Oe lity seeiae ve orepnrekates es 3's 457 tables, one only, br.....-- rE rreae in uneven-aged stands, ref.... 457 compared, br.....------:> 113 Norway spruces, br.....--- 114 ZrecueR, E. A., art......------ 31 xvi JOURNALS BRIEFED Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd Zeitung L’Alpe American Forestry American Lumberman Barrel and Box Botanical Gazette Bulletin of American Geographical Society Bulletin of American Institute of Mining Engineers Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden Bulletin de la Société Dendrologi- que de France Bulletin Société forestiére de Franche- Comté et Belfort Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science Canada Lumberman and Wood- worker Canadian Forestry Journal Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen Comptes Rendues Academie des Sci- ences (Paris) Cultura English News Experiment Station Record Forest Leaves Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt Gardeners’ Chronicle Hardwood Record Indian Forester Jahresbericht Vereinigung angew. Botanik Journal of Agricultural Research Journal of the Board of Agriculture Lesnoy Journal Lumber Review Lumber Trade Journal Minnesota Forester Mississippi Valley Lumberman Mitteilungen der Deutschen Land- wirtschaftlichen Gesellschaft Mitteilungen aus der Kgl. Sdachs- ischen forstlichen Versuchsanstalt zu Tharandt Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Centralanstalt far forstliche Ver- suchswesen Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural In- telligence and Plant Diseases Municipal Journal and Engineer Mycologia Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Forst- und Landwirtschaft New York Lumber Trade Journal Ohio Naturalist Philippine Journal of Science: Botany Pomona College Journal of Eco- nomic Botany Praktische Blatter far Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz Proceedings of the Natural Sciences Proceedings of the Society of Amer- ican Foresters Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada Phytopathology Academy of Quarterly Bulletin of the Canadian Mining Institute Quarterly Journal of Forestry Revue des Eaux et Foréts Rhodora Rod and Gun Science Schweizerische Zeitschrift fir Forst- wesen Sierra Club Bulletin Silva Skogsvardsforeningens Tidskrift Southern Industrial and Lumber Review Southwest St. Louis Lumberman Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch Timber Trades Journal Timberman Transactions of the Forest Experi- ment Stations, St. Petersburg Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society West Coast Lumberman Woodcraft Wood Worker Yale Review Zeitschrift ftr Forst- wesen und Jagd- ERRATA On page 137, volume XII read in 8th line: “strap iron’ for “‘scrap iron;’’ in 19th and 20th lines: ‘‘minutes’’ for ‘‘feet.”’ aeeetenes ERRATA By a peculiar accident Mr. Korstian’s article was printed twice, namely, on pages 177 to 192 and pages 408 to 424. The first printing contained a few typographical errors, which do not occur in the second printing. In the article by Mr. Haasis a few errors occurred, which do not influence the sense, or else correct themselves. p-vdl2e read) Apr: <6-a:.m..d Mar 6. a.m: 8 Deek9) asm. 12.5 p. 318 shift exposure headings one place to the left, leaving out o, and inserting 1 hour before 2 hours. In the article by Mr. Upson, change in table on p. 324: in 5th column 365 to 385; in table on p. 326: headings should read D.B.H Feet Ties Lineal Aver. Ht. Feet Ties Lineal Aver. Ht. Inches B.M No. Feet Feet B.M. No. Feet Feet “AN INDEX to the first ten volumes of the FORESTRY QUARTERLY has been compiled and will be printed if a sufficient num- ber of subscribers can be secured. {] These ten volumes, containing 4,000 pages, covering the development in tech- nical knowledge for the last decade, are an invaluable refer- ence work which becomes most readily accessible by such an index. {It is calculated that the INDEX volume will require about 100 pages, and that if the majority of subscribers to the journal subscribe to the Index, it may be sold at $1.00. Send orders to American Forestry Association WASHINGTON, D. C. APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION 1410 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I hereby signify my desire to become 4” Annual Member and sub- of the AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION, _ , contributing Member (S10) and enclose $ for dues. : iit mothe Glee Se Ne Ree ee ember Very truly yours, a Patron ($1,000) Name sMe eid see es ee on oe P. O. Address D. E. LAUDERBURN Forest Engineer Timber estimates, forest surveys and maps, inspection of logging operations, management of private holdings, fire prevention, appraisal of damage by fire, gases or trespass, tree planting Metropolitan Life Building New York, N. Y. FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vou. XII.] MarcH, IQ1T4. [No. 1. A SUGGESTION FOR SECURING BETTER PROFESSIONAL TERMINOLOGY. By P. S. Lovejoy. Most of our new words and phrases arise either by direct translation from another language in which they are already in use to express the identical idea, or, through the more or less gradual adaptation of words and phrases already in our own lan- guage. The first source is illustrated by our use of “working-plan” ; the second by “‘reconnaissance.” Further terms originate by di- rect manufacture from established roots, as “silviculture” or “dendrology,” or by new combinations of old words, as “lookout- station.” It is usual for such professional words and terms to differentiate as the profession develops so that their definition is different from time to time. Any new term is likely to become permanently grafted into our professional language and has rather great possibilities for use or abuse. An unfortunately adopted term may become very mischievous. If a term is short, easily spelled, self-defining, legitimate in derivation and accurate in significance, it is likely to be a good term. Our need for new terms and phrases is constant. The in- troduction and adoption of new terms is too easy: the results are often unhappy. An illustration of the perversion of terms is found in the current use of ‘“wo1king-section” and ‘“‘working-circle.” The use of the terms in Schlich is constant and consistent. Forest Ser- vice Bulletin 61, properly intended to be the official dictionary for professional terms, retains the terms but exactly reverses the definitions. This seems to have been a clerical error, but the 2 Forestry Quarterly. recent literature of the Forest Service is apparently in the way of perpetuating the inadvertence. The term “working-section,” as used by Schlich, seems to have been dropped entirely. The results are confusing and the situation would seem to be quite un- necessary. Another illustration of an unhappy term is “reconnaissance.” When the word first came into use in the Forest Service it was legitimate and accurate even though clumsy, foreign, long and miserably easy to mis-spell. It signifies ‘‘preliminary survey” and had been used in this sense for many years. But the character of our forest surveys changed rapidly; the use of the word was continued. It now signifies “‘the linear and topographic survey and mapping, estimating and reporting upon of forest lands.’ It often involves all sorts of further details of logging, grazing, alienations, soils, tree diseases and ecology. Much of this work is to-day of the most intensive and accurate kind and involves a very large degree of permanence. The inadequacy of the word early became evident and we have “jack-rabbit surveys” for the original “reconnaissance” and “intensive reconnaissance” for the rest. But why “reconnaissance” at all? By the word we mean “finding out what we have and where it is.” That is “taking stock.” ‘Taking stock is “inventory.” Why not say inventory when we mean just that? An objection against the use of “inventory” in this sense has been urged, to the effect that “it smacks too much of common business.” ‘To some foresters this might not be an insuperable objection. This might also be said of the objection that “it would require the re-filing of pounds of correspondence and another circular letter.’’ The phrase “germinative force’ has recently been introduced to express a new measure of the rate of seed germination. The need of some such phrase would seem to be evident; but is the phrase wholly satisfactory? Certainly it is far from self-ex- planatory and the use of the word “force” is actually misleading. In order to use the new conception conveniently we need some form of abbreviation or numerical expression. We have to ex- press a per cent. of a per cent. What shall we call that? If the whole matter is not to be left to work itself out by in- dividual preference, accident and whim, there should be some representative professional body to pass upon all new terms and Securing Better Professional Terminology. 3 phrases. In the absence of such a body is it not likely that foresters in America will soon find themselves in a hopeless tan- gle of terminology? Ample precedence for such an experience can be found in many sciences and professions. Let us have a standing committee in the Society of American Foresters, the duties of which shall be somewhat as follow: (1) to consider and revise current terminology (2) to note or receive all new professional terms and phrases and to pass upon their suitability, recommending their adoption or rejection. | (3) to recommend new or other terms for all terms rejected, if deemed desirable. (4) upon application, to consider and recommend terms for any conception deemed worthy of fixation in our profes- sional language. EDITOR'S NOTE TO THE ABOVE ARTICLE. The Editor, having to handle the manuscripts of his contribu- tors, desires to express his full sympathy with the above proposi- tion. He is often filled with sadness at the lack of uniformity not only, but of linguistic sense in the choice of terms. There are any number of clumsy, misinterpreted, misunderstood terms which recur in the contributions to the- Quarterly. He desires to recall his longer article in Vol. UI, p. 255, written more than eight years ago, when reviewing the U. S. Forest Service Bul- letin 61, which tried to establish a terminology. He there laid down some principles which may bear repetition in this connection. We hold that technical terms are merely conveniences for quick and precise speech and should be first of all tested by that object. To attain it, they should conform as much as prac- ticable to at least the following four requirements, important in order of their sequence: (a) A term should be necessary. As long as common lan- guage is sufficient to precisely state the idea, special terminology is superfluous, except, perhaps, for special cases or special writ- ings. A corollary is that, as long as an accepted term employed in other sciences or arts expresses precisely the conditions or ideas to be expressed, there is ‘no gain in coining a new word. 4 Forestry Quarterly. (b) Words which are current with well established mean- ings should not be employed as terms in another sense, especially where it is likely that ambiguity would be introduced by the simultaneous use of the ordinary sense and the term meaning. (c) Age is a virtue: a long-established, sufficiently well de- fined and understood term should not be lightly discarded or supplanted unless very considerable improvement were gained. Convenience, we repeat, is the object of language, and it is more convenient to use established language than to fish for new words. (d) Terms should be as short and as nearly as possible self- explanatory. It is, of course, well nigh impossible, nor is it necessary, that a term explain all that is implied in it: it is the very impossibility of doing so that leads to the use of special terms which to the initiated at once convey the full explanation. But, if the term suggests its own explanation, it will be the more acceptable. (e) Finally, the word or word combination should have a term-quality. This is, perhaps, the most difficult requirement to define or to discover: it is like taste in art, it requires a language sense which by instinct or intuitively rejects the un- suitable. A word infrequently used in common language has thereby more term-quality, than one in common use; a Roman word more than a Saxon; a brief combination more than a long one; a compound more than a phrase; an unusual compound more than a common one. If the term fulfills all these conditions, it is perfect; by so much as it fails, it is deficient and open to criticism, calling for improvement. We may add, that there is a movement on foot to have a Committee of the Society of American Foresters revise the terminology—a most excellent proposition! Such committee may then be made permanent or self-perpetuating. GRADED VOLUME TABLES FOR VERMONT HARDWOODS. By Irvinc W. BaiLey, Harvard University, and Puintip C. Heatp, Harvard University. Approximately one half of the data upon which the following volume tables are based was secured by senior students of the Harvard Forest School in April and May, 1913. During this period the members of the class were engaged in mapping and estimating the timber upon the township of Somerset in south- ern Vermont. he primary object in collecting material for graded tables was to focus the attention of the students upon local methods of logging, milling, and grading hardwoods, and to afford essential experience in studying the effects of such fluctuating factors as forest type, tree form, defect, method of utilization, etc., upon the graded yield of logs and trees. Al- though each student spent but three out of eight weeks in this type of preliminary training before undertaking the final task of estimating standing timber, much instructive and reliable in- formation was obtained. The facility with which material for graded volume tables could be collected made it seem advisable to secure sufficient additional data to justify the construction of tables for beech, hard maple, and yellow birch. With this plan in view one of the writers and Mr. George W. Kimball, M. F., spent the month of June, 1913, in the locality previously visited. Before passing to a detailed description of the results of this investigation it will be well perhaps to discuss briefly certain points that are significant in the construction and use of hard- wood log scales and volume tables. An elementary principle but one which is not always sufficiently emphasized is the theorem that no greater degree of refinement should be used in any detail of a problem than is justified by the homogeneity of the material and the accuracy of methods used in other phases of the problem. Of course the accuracy of these details should be properly correlated with the accuracy desired in 6 Forestry Quarterly. the results. For example, in the determination of the ‘Modulus of Rupture’ and ‘Crushing Strength’ of timber, values are read not infrequently to units or decimals. These figures are the averages of a large number of individual tests. Unfortunately, wood, like most organic matter, is an extremely variable material and dif- fers to a marked degree in different representatives of the same species and in different portions of the same tree. Fur- thermore the same piece of timber will vary greatly with changes in its environment. Thus the ‘Modulus of Rupture’ or ‘Crush- ing Strength’ of a given kind of wood represents an average of many widely fluctuating values. As yet no satisfactory method has been discovered for determining, @ priort, the variation of a given piece of timber from the normal or average strength values of its class or grade. Since a structure is in most cases de- pendent upon the strength of its weakest member the engineer and architect must allow for these fluctuations by the use of the so-called ‘factor of safety, an approximate and arbitrary fig- ure. Therefore, elaborate methods of testing timbers, and values which record units or decimals are refinements that are not justi- fied except perhaps in theoretical researches when the investigator endeavors by means of carefully selected small specimens to ana- lyze certain factors that produce variation in the strength of wood. In a similar manner the contents of logs and trees fluctuate greatly with variations in certain natural and economic factors of which the most significant are form, defect, and methods ot logging, milling and utilization. Thus, log scales and volume tables, compilations of averages, are inherently inaccurate except when applied to more than a limited number of logs or trees. Furthermore, they are untrustworthy unless the natural and economic factors to which they are standardized are homologous with those which prevail in regions where they are applied, or unless accurate converting factors are available. The problem of successfully standardizing tables to given conditions and of using in each step of the process a justifiable degree of accuracy is a difficult undertaking. For, even in the case of homogeneous bodies of coniferous timber, volume is subject to considerable variation due to differences in method of logging, milling, and utilization; a point that has not always been sufficiently em- phasized in the construction and use of volume tables. Graded Volume Tables. 7 Hardwood timber is heterogeneous and extremely sensitive to fluctuations in the economic factors mentioned above. There- fore, it appears to be true that, until our methods of utilization are matured and become less plastic, ‘general’ volume tables based upon a large amount of data, collected from a wide area, cannot be applied in any given region with sufficient accuracy to justify the cost of their construction. If ‘local’ volume tables are to be employed it must be demonstrated that they can be compiled rapidly and inexpensively and that their use yields more reliable and accurate estimates than existing rule of thumb methods. For many reasons it is to be hoped that this can be ac- complished. At present, however, reliable information in regard to the yield of logs and trees is possessed by a comparatively limited number of individuals. These persons, by long and in- timate contact with lumbering operations, both in the woods and the mill, have acquired a more or less accurate knowledge of the yield of certain types of timber when utilized by methods with which they are familiar. Unfortunately this type of in- formation is intangible, and non-accumulative since it is buried with those who possess it. Thus the owner or purchaser of timber is dependent upon the judgment and, what has proved in practice to be even more important, the honesty of one or more individuals. Local volume tables carefully standardized to natural and economic factors would serve not only as guides in given regions, but would furnish data for comparative study, the determination of the effect of variation in form, defect, and method of utilization, and the construction of reliable converting factors. As has been stated above, if local tables are to be used in estimating hardwoods, rapid, inexpensive and reasonably ac- curate methods of compiling, tabulating, and standardizing data must be developed. A common practice in collecting material for volume tables is to number the logs in each tree as they are measured in the woods, and subsequently record their contents as they pass through the mill. In the experience of the writers this procedure has been slow and expensive, due to the fact that in most medium sized and large mills a considerable period of time elapses usually between the felling of the trees and their arrival at the mill. Moreover, if the officials of lumber companies or the woods foremen are secretly hostile to the con- 8 Forestry Quarterly. struction of the tables, as several consulting foresters have found to be the case, an effective means of frustrating the work is to delay sending numbered logs to the mill. This difficulty can be avoided if the contents of trees measured in the woods are com- puted from a log scale or ‘tally’ made at the mill. Errors in- herent in this procedure are in most cases not excessive, par- ticularly if butt logs are separated into a class by themselves. Variations in ‘defect’ and method of logging, milling, and utiliza- tion have so much weight in the case of hardwoods that the usual fluctuation in the taper of the upper logs of a tree are for prac- tical purposes negligible. In other words the process of follow- ing numbered logs from the woods to the mill is a refinement that is not justified by the accuracy of other phases of the work and of the final application of the tables. A second procedure which deserves attention is the elimination from volume table data of all defective and poorly shaped trees. Graves in his ‘Forest Mensuration’ states, _ “Care is required in the selection of the trees for measurement. It is the rule to measure only sound trees, because volume tables show the full contents of sound trees. It might appear that the tables would be more practical if based on average trees, including those partially defective. But a table made up in this way would be extremely unre- liable, for it is well known that the defects of trees differ greatly in different situations; so that a table based partly on defective trees would be useless in eliminating trees whose defects are different from those of thé trees observed in the construction. Again, any such defect as in- jury by fire, insects, disease, wind, or ice would entirely vitiate a table constructed for trees showing another defect than the particular one in question. Whereas a table based on sound trees may be reduced for un- soundness in logs.’ In most portions of the Northeastern United States a large percentage of the hardwood trees are defective or deformed. To sort out and measure only sound, straight logs and trees is laborious and expensive. Furthermore, if tables are based upon selected trees they must be discounted whenever they are used even if the timber and methods of utilization resemble closely those where the tables were compiled. In addition the construction and use of tables based upon sound trees presupposes an ac- curate knowledge of the exact effect which different types of abnormalities have upon volume and grade. Unfortunately these converting factors are not available at present, and are difficult to analyze because the influence of a given abnormality is not a constant quantity, but fluctuates widely with variations in meth- Graded Volume Tables. 9 ods of utilization. Since an intensive study must be made of natural and economic factors before applying volume tables in a given region, and much depends inevitably upon the judgment of the estimator, it would appear to be nearly as reliable to apply a “blanket” discount to a table of average trees as to one based entirely upon sound specimens. ‘A third source of unnecessary expense, in the construction of volume tables, may result from the super-polishing of tables dur- ing the process of tabulation. Recurving and replotting pro- duce uniform results which are superficially attractive, but tend to show a greater degree of accuracy than is justifiable. Fur- thermore, in wiping out irregularities there is always the danger of concealing the effects of natural and economic factors which should be evident in a table standardized to given conditions. Volume tables are not intended for the determination of the ex- act contents of individual trees. When applied to many trees irregularities due to a limited amount of basic data produce er- rors that are largely compensating. The writers realize that the tables given below are open to numerous criticisms. In the first place more attention should have been given to the study of local methods of utilization and their effect upon grades and volume. In all probability the com- putation of grades for trees of each diameter was not justifiable. However, in as much as these tables are purely experimental it seemed wiser to record the grades than to express them in per centages for groups of trees of different diameters. In using the tables, the cruiser may combine the trees into such groups as he thinks most useful, and quickly determine the percentages of the grades for each group. It should be kept in mind that the data for these tables were secured incidentally, in the course of other investigations. DESCRIPTION OF LocAL CONDITIONS. t. Topography and Types. Topographically the region is composed of hills and ridges lying between the spurs or branches of the southern extension of the Green Mountains. ‘These hills and ridges are interspersed with numerous level and swampy tracts of considerable size. As a result there is a great diversity of types. The steep upper 10 Forestry Quarterly. slopes of the higher mountains which are rocky and have little soil, are covered with spruce. It is on the middle and lower slopes of these mountains, and on the lower hills and ridges between them, that the hardwood is found. Here the soil is good and fairly deep, and the hardwood occurs sometimes in a pure stand and sometimes with a varying mixture of fir and spruce. The bottom lands are covered largely by a spruce type with scatter- ing hardwoods, and the swamps by a typical one of spruce and fir. In many places the hardwood slopes have been cleared and used for agricultural purposes. The farms, however are, now largely abandoned, and the pastures and fields are “coming up” either with a hardwood growth, or a growth of pasture, spruce and fir. The country has been largely cut over for spruce, and there is now little old growth spruce in the region. Conse- quently varying degrees of density occur in the hardwood stands, ranging from those which are always pure hardwood to those in which there are a few scattering hardwood trees left after the removal of spruce. 2. Tree Form. The hardwood trees in this region are for the most part two log trees. The merchantable length seldom exceeds 32 feet at which height the trees begin to branch. In the smaller dia- meters there are of course a number of trees from which only one log is cut, and in the larger diameters a number of three log trees occur. ‘The following is the percentage of one, two and three log trees as obtained in collecting data for the volume tables. Birch: 23% one-log, 62% two-log, 15% three-log; Maple: 22% one-log, 60% two-log, and 18% three-log; Beech: 37% one-log, 58% two-log, 5% three-log trees. In connection with these facts it should be borne in mind that a tree having a merchantable length of 32 feet might be cut either into two 16 foot logs or into two 10-foot logs and a 12-foot log. 3. Defects. Nearly one-half of the logs cut were defective or abnormal in some particular. These logs have been classified according to their defects and their classification is given in an accompany- ing table. In addition to showing the number of logs possessing the various defects, this table also shows the way in which these Graded Volume Tables. Il defects offset the volume of lumber sawn from the logs. This is done by dividing the logs into four groups. In group I. are put those in which the defect has decreased the volume of the log 10% or less from the volume of a straight and sound log of the same dimensions. Group II contains those logs in which the defect has caused a decrease of 10-20%, group III a decrease of 20-30%, and group IV a decrease of 30% or more. Under the head of “butt defects’ are included butt logs in which butt rot, “‘dote,” or some form of decay is present at the butt of the log. In addition to lowering the total board foot contents of the log these defects may, in cases, also lower the grade of what is actually sawn. In large logs where there are only four or five inches of butt rot, which does not extend more than a few feet from the butt, the effect is slight upon the volume of the log. ‘Top defects” include all defects due to rot in the top logs, and also defects in the top of butt logs. Top defects are com- monly more serious than butt defects. This is due largely to the fact that butt defects occur, in the majority of cases, near the center of the cross section, and, in addition, to the fact that there is a greater percentage of shorter lengths among top logs, which makes the trimming of bad ends difficult. Under the head of ‘crook’ are included longs in which there is a sharp bend or twist. Most of the crooked logs are of smaller diameters, and when a crook is present in a large log it does not have a serious effect unless the abnormality is a severe one. Crook influences volume, but has little effect upon grade. Un- der ‘sweep’ are included curved logs or logs with a gradual bend. As in the case of crook, sweep is confined largely to logs of small diameter. When it occurs in large logs it is not serious unless the defect is pronounced. Under such circum- stances it will affect grade as well as total volume. This is due to the necessity for cutting across the heartwood. ‘Knotty’ logs which have abnormally large or numerous knots and are al- most exclusively composed of top logs of the smaller diameters. As a rule grade is affected more than volume. ‘Seams’ affect both volume and grade, due largely to the penetration of rot along these cavities. “Shake’ is rarely found in beech and maple, being confined almost entirely to birch logs of the largest dia- meters. In addition to affecting volume it has a most decided effect upon grade, in some cases almost the entire volume of 12 Forestry Quarterly. a shaky log being No. 3 Common. Miscellaneous defects in- clude such defects as fire-scars, “burls,”’ forks, logs split in felling, etc. When a log had more than one defect it was placed in that class of defect which was considered to be the most serious. The accompanying table gives an idea of the prevalence of each de- fect and its influence on volume. This table includes only such defects as were apparent in the log and does not include defects which were disclosed by sawing. In birch and maple there were few hidden defects, but the beech “opened up” poorer than ex- ternal appearances would lead one to expect. 4. Woods Practice. It was the practice in the woods to utilize the trees up to their first branches or in the case of the smaller trees to a diameter of eight inches. In other words, the smallest logs sent to the mill were supposed to be 8 inches, top diameter. Practically no logs were taken above the first branches. This practice causes a large amount of material suitable for cooperage stock to be left in the woods, in the form of short lengths. Logs were cut into 10, 12, 14 and 16 foot lengths, and as a rule were sawed to good advantage. The usual stump height at which trees were cut was about 20 inches for trees under 15 inches D. B. H., and 28 inches for trees over 15 inches D. B. H. 5. Mill Practice. In the manufacture of the logs at the mill a single action band-saw cutting a }” saw-kerf was used. The lumber was graded before seasoning. ‘This was done according to the grad- ing rules of the National Hardwood Lumber Association. Clear boards not wide enough to go into firsts and seconds were as far as possible graded as clear strips. ‘There was also a con- siderable amount of No. 1 Common strips. In order to avoid a further complexity of grades, both these grades of strips were included in the No. 1 Common grade. A small amount of No. 2 Common strips was placed in the No. 2 Common grade. By far the greater part of the output of the mill was sawed into one inch stock, sawed 14” to allow for shrinkage—85% of the birch, 90% of the maple, and 70% of the beech went into this size. While the data were being collected a considerable amount Graded Volume Tables. 13 of dimension stock was sawed for construction purposes about the mill and yard. It amounted to about 20% of the total cut of beech, and less than 5% of the birch and maple. All this dimension stock was graded as No. 3 Common “Stickers,” which were taken as much as possible from beech, and to some extent from the poorest maple and birch, were also graded as No. 3 Common. At one time, during the collecting of the data, there was a special order for 3 inch stock, 12 feet long, which was graded as No. 3 Common, but in reality was an intermediate grade between No. 2 and No. 3 Common. ‘This tended to in- crease the amount of No. 3 at the expense of No. 2 in the 12 foot class, and its effect is plainly seen in the birch log rule. In the case of the two highest grades in birch, namely firsts and seconds, and firsts and seconds red, considerable two inch stock was sawed, more especially in the red grade. However, the amount in comparison to the total was small, less than 5%. In the maple and beech there were sawed from time to time small lots of 14”, 12” and 24” stock but the combined amount of all these thicknesses was less than 5% of the total. In all cases the boards were sawed 1” thicker than the standard dimension to allow for shrinkage. ‘The beech as a whole was of poor quality, but the amount of No. 3 Common was undoubtedly increased considerably by the large amount of dimension stock and stickers sawed from this species. It will be noted that in the ten foot class in the birch log rule, there is a greater proportion of the poorer grades than in the longer lengths. This is particularly no- ticeable in the No. 1 Common Red and in the No. 2 Common grades. It is probably due in part to the fact that the longer logs can be trimmed more advantageously and a limited percent- age of short lengths is allowed in the upper grades; but largely to the fact that the greater proportion of the 10 foot logs were top logs and hence knotty and of poorer quality. The mill crew, e. g. sawyer, edgeman and trimmer man, were men of average skill, all having had previous experience in hardwood mills of other regions. Merruops UseEp. The following statistics were obtained in the woods: D. B. H. stump height, diameter inside and outside bark at stump and at small end of each log, length of each log, total height of tree, 14 I. TABLE No. TABLE OF DEFECTS Beech Maple Birch Forestry Quarterly. Sd0'T 923493f9qT 1970 4a2Q pup %of pamnpay ausnjo %Y%o0E—oe paonpay auenjo A %,02—OI paonpay aunjo 4 ssa’yT puv Yor pamnpay auinjo 4 SSO'JT 2214499Jaq 1240, 4a2Q pup %0F paonpay auinjo 4 %L0&—oz paonpay auenjoA4 %,0zZ—OL pamnpay amnjo 4 ssa’J pup %or pamnpay aunjo 4 SSO'T 321329f{3q 1010, 4a2Q pun %okF pamnpay ausnjo 4 %0E—O2 pamnpay 2uinjo 4 %0e—OL paonpay ausnjo ssa’T pup %or paomnpay awnjo 4 29 20 I2I 69 42 2! 18 TAN AMO - A NmMsnowr-n _~ Nee . % 2 % ‘Gis S as = ~~ = %S & Bs. SS AD x2 ales ~ SSS Ss Secs e 3.8.2 = = 6 =a QHOHKCHHS 320 170 79 47 427 81 co) N Q 171 I0Q 1072-658 271 Total % Defective—s51 % Defective—45 % Defective—43 Graded Volume Tables. 15 description of defects and form of tree. Measurements of butt logs were recorded in a separate column. In making the mill tallies the logs were measured for length and diameter at small end, and visible defects were inspected and de- scribed. The volume and grades of boards cut from each log were tallied on cards printed for this purpose. Here again butt logs were separated from upper logs. During the process of tabulating the results, the effort was made to secure separate log scales for non-defective butt and non-defective top logs. Owing to the number of grades in birch and the somewhat limited amount of data in the case of the maple and beech, this plan was abandoned. All logs, defective, non- defective, butts and tops were then averaged together and form the basis of the log scales given below. As may be seen in table No. 2 the effect of the form of butt logs is well marked only among the larger diameters. It should be kept in mind that a high proportion of the bigger butt logs are defective, and the loss in volume due to this cause seems to offset more or less the gain produced by the ‘swell’ of the butt. Furthermore it should be noted that the average tree contained two logs, one butt and one top log, and therefore errors in the log scales due to non- separation of butts and tops would tend to compensate more or less when the mill tallies were used in the preparation of volume tables. In tabulating results data were averaged in the usual manner and curved once. Cost oF PREPARATION. As has been stated previously one half of the data for the tables were secured by inexperienced student labor. The rest of the data were collected and tabulated by more experienced men and affords a better basis for estimating conservatively the total cost of constructing the tables. The time consumed in measuring 1200 trees in the woods, 3500 logs in the mill, and tabulating the results was two months for two men. This gives a total cost of from $200-$300 for the preparation of the log scales and volume tables.* It should be kept in mind that the data used were secured in a one band mill *Cost of labor figured at $50 per month per man—current wages paid to graduates of leading forestry schools by consulting foresters. 2 16 Forestry Quarterly. cutting approximately 20,000 feet of lumber in one ‘tower,’ and the grading was done by an employee of the mill. In a two band mill three or even more men would be essential to secure the data, but the increase in the size of the crew would, of course, be more or less offset by the greater number of logs tallied each day. Furthermore, in many cases, it might be necessary or desirable to replace one of the crew by an expert grader. How- ever, even with such increases in the expense of securing the mill tallies the cost of the tables would not be greatly increased, since a considerable saving in the cost of tabulating the results would be made by not computing grades for logs and trees of each diameter and length. CoNCLUSION. These facts have convinced the writers that local volume tables can be prepared rapidly and economically if based upon mill tallies made from all merchantable logs. In estimating large bodies of timber local volume tables of this type appear to sim- plify the methods of cruising and to place less emphasis upon the judgment of the cruiser. For, instead of estimating the con- tents of each tree and discounting for defect, the cruiser records diameters, which can be measured, and used-lengths, which can be accurately estimated. If the given conditions which local tables represent are carefully described these volume tables may perhaps be used in other regions by carefully studying and com- paring defects, methods of utilization, etc., and applying suitable converting factors. Furthermore, if the data upon which local volume tables are based are systematically recorded and kept available, as should be done in all cases, it would be possible in time to construct valuable ‘general’ tables by combining the data from many localities. At the same time by comparative studies the effects of variations in defect, form, and method of utilization could be determined, and reliable converting factors obtained. However, careful tests must be made to determine whether local tables afford in the hands of men of moderate experience more reliable and accurate estimates than existing methods of ‘cruising’ hardwoods. In conclusion the writers wish to thank Mr. H. S. Janes for innumerable kindnesses. Graded Volume Tables. 17 Taste No. 2. YELLOW BIRCH LOG SCALE. Compariscn of Non-Defective Butt Logs, Non-Defective Top Logs and Average of all Logs. Total Contents in Feet Board Measure, Mill Tally. Wah See RS) ak TU en Diameter 5 B Q & Diameter 3 ae & Diameter 3 Fay i Se at Sf Sai at SSN SHAN ASS at tre ASS iN Sen =e) Small Nh es ie) Sead egos ee Bee eat) Thy EDR CA es OMe Ok wn ty (ESI ieee 07) UMS Thy Ue (iaches), > 20S) 847 (Inches)! 2) 2) 2.86) (Inches) ), 3) 21) 88 & = S 5 ip Sh as Ss 8 Ss S a SUN esi er ssy ONS SSIS A aS Fy EY Sot Se 7 TOO 20) 420 13 TOW O70 70 19 IO 170 150 156 L220 2Ou 20 12 90 go &o 12 200 180 180 IW B(e1 BYo) Yo, I4 100 I00 100 14 240 220 220 1G; SOnweON 20 16-120 I10 110 16 270 260 250 8 TOW 208 20020 14 10 90 80 80 20 10 190 170 160 12) 30) 30) 30 12 100 100 100 I2 220 200 200 I4 40 40 40 I4 120 120 110 14 260 240 240 16 40 40 40 16 140 140 130 16 300 290 280 9 LOt 1309 3030 15 IO 100 90 90 21 IO 210 190 180 L2eAO MAO AG, 1220 eT ON TLC, 12 250 220 220 14 40 40 40 I4 140 140 130 I4 290 270 270 16 50 50° SO 16 160 160 150 16 340 320 310 10 10 40 40 40 16 tO 110 110 110 22 10 230 210 200 P25 Oe SON SO 12 140 130 130 12 270 250 250 14 60 60 60 14 160 160 I50 I4 320 290 290 16 60 60 60 16 190 I&o 180 16 370 350 340 II LOW SO) SO) 50 17 IO 130 120 120 23 10 260 230 220 12 60 60 60 12 160 150 150 12 300 270 270 14 70 70 70 14 190 [80 170 14 350 320 320 10 80 80 80 160 220 230 200 10 420 380 370 12 10 60 60 60 its IO I50 130 130 24 10 280 250 250 12) 70) 70.7O 12 180 170 170 I2 330 290 290 14 80 80 8&0 I4 210 200 I90 14 380 350 340 16 100 gO 90 16 240 230 220 10 450 410 300 o6f St Se ov oc1 Se SHI QI ozz of Se ob of SI oF ove Sf Sz oF S6 Sz ozI FI O61 OF Joc Se SS = Sir ese OOZ1OP se SE 502 0f 00 cI OLIeOPes OG Oca ay eat OF; O8meseaedowst. so Ob OZ OF ve Oblaso Ores Or sc eaters. Offn0b esc Or SIT) Se) off OI Goz of Sz oF oO SI Of oze oF Sz ob S6 Sze Sor tI ofr of oz Sf 05 SI “oz OLeese Oc Obes sOGe sR) cl oS1 of Si o£ oF o1 Sz oz of Se of Sh OF OO OI £z Ogle se Oc ObesOce- 51 OF orf of Sz oF oI SZ OII QI OgIior Sr 9SE SS «or Sc BAOb = Ge. Of 00 [Se 400 71 oS1 of oc S€ ob o1 SI ose SE oc SE So Se o£ ZI Oft Of -Sir. -oS-.0f_ or (40 ooz~ oF Sz of oF of SH oI CE Oll Sz oc Sz o2 O1 OI . of o€& Sz oF ool Sz 6 QI oSi Se Sz of Sb o1 SI — of2 of Sz SE og Sz SL FI o€1 Sz. 0-08 SES. Sx eo O7e-0. (06:08 00 - Ge 00. <2I OL of. Sr-Se-—-S2 5" or is Opt.ob. se-0r St. - Se SC Or lc O60-S2.-0c- 022 S1- aS S ogzot Sz oF 06 Sz o£ QI (0) Sh baleen ope 0) Sa Se pee) GQ oz of oz SE SL oz OO Fi OlIse—08 Se Se S01 OOLZ Ob Oe Ose ase e045 ol OOMOES Site Oceee a <> og1 Of oz OF Of o¢ Of OI oz og $z oz oz or S G oSz of Sz oF og oc $$ gr OLT-4e.- Se. of S08r-G 5 = oz oF of SE of oc Sb FI O01. SZ a2 Se oc-S, —S oa ogi Of Si of of $1. oF - 21 OR OGG Tee OC a Seg OST uc Oc OF 20 Oc. Se OL 61 oL Oz O% oO OI [> ™ m =) IP s s Spe sg Sas Cay) Ss soos 4 SG = & @ & ‘pup OB © co See \ | NY ps! = : Sn ss) = e b Slane GQ Xk = yous Simio t= Ste. 25 mae re eer eens a y S By 2 AdJIMDIT & a jaaq “yyOuayT Q& RI Jy gl PI £1 (sayouTy) Bae | yoms 1D PEEL @ f YO] IW ‘adnspapy pavog 499,1 ‘Sbo’T O€S1 sispg—sapvay Aq auinjo 4 “ATVOS DOT HOUTA MO'TIFA 18 ‘€ ‘ON TGV, or NMmmnowmwMod ~~ win wW jaa ‘ypOuUa'T SS ee ee i i el ae a Il ol 6 IN (SaYyIuT) “pug []DmMS 4D 42,001 Us nr Breast High (Inches) Diameter d Length: 1 & 2 Red. No. tC Red. win U1 Ut Graded Volume Tables. TasLe No. 4. YELLOW BIRCH VOLUME TABLE Volume by Grades—Basis 505 Trees. Feet Board Measure by Mill Tallies. 12 feet. 14 feet. 8 fe Re y S 2 i y S \) i) SEY Nesta, Lagan lites db SSOINCOMMM CSTR MMS BM heeas eee Ne ose Dia NO Rar BC SES Wey: 30 5 15 10 15 I5 40 10 15 Gh BS ES ae Sih) LO as Bu 15) 201,20) 60 5 15 20 TO 20) 620) 20):70 10 20 20 FO) 25\) 2020), 80 BLO! N25 020 Ty 25) 020) 2000 5 i 0)\) 030) 40) 20 30 2 20 100 10 52030 20 20 30 20 25 110 10 5 130). 35))/25 LS) LON 35 35) 20. 20) TO 4535) 25 25 15 50 35 20 38 15 55 35 25 40 20 65 35 25 BO (20) 79 35) 25 16 feet. 20 feet. TO) 1S) 15/40 5 20 15 20 15 50 10 25 6.) TS))'20))20) 60 5 15 25 £O)})20)).20)) 20) \'7o Sone TO)12504201) 201700 10 30 30 I5 25 20 25 90 SP LOnPsOn So 20 30 20 20 100 5 Bo 40 30 25 30 25 25/120 10 SP stey Woy nese, 30 35 25 25 140 LST LOM SSN Asn se 40 35 20 25, 150 20) LOW TAS 50/130 45 35 25 25 170 30 15 50 50 30 55 35 25 30 190 35 ES) OO nim aes 60 35 25 30 200 40!) :20;)\70.) 55") 35 65 40 25 30 220 BOW) 25) 75. OO!) 35 80 40 25 30 250 65)/,) 30") 85.) 60135 BRBBARS No. 3C 19 20 U. sed Length: aS) A uioiiest) ce Ne SQ bd a N 10 Il 12 13 14 15 10 5 L7a LO TOs NG 22 20 30 20/35 22) ) 2A5 2350 24 65 Used Length: 12 13 14 15 TOP 0s LO TOW DS, TOM 2! 20 30 210i). is 22 45 28001. 150 2Ay. Os Used Length: 15 16 10 ie7 110) Tess aS LQ) / 25 20/30 20 1. bA0: 22 45 2 55 240) 70 Used Length: I 10 TF NLS TO viele IQ 25 200) 0 ZT tA 22 45 23 55 2475 Forestry Quarterly. YELLOW BIRCH VOLUME TABLE. 24 feet. 22 feet. = fe Sy SASH yeah SPO Wes ig Vai etien Niet eae ale eS S20 25) 50 BAS 125112511 70 BrZzon25 SO) Leo 5) (25 30 30 90 TO 20 30 30 100 5 15 35 30 35 120 10°25 40 30 40 150 10 30 45 30 45 170 10 40 50 30 45 190 TO 45 50 35 50 210 Hy ISS (GIs) Sty SiO zt) 15 65 60 35 50 260 20 70 60 35 50 280 25 80 60 40 55 310 30 90 60 40 55 340 26 feet 10 20 30 30 90 IO0 30 30 30 100 10 35 | 30 (35 110 BS 4035) 740-739 5 25 45 35 45 160 LO SS DON 5a SOmLOo 10 45 55 35 50 210 IO 55 60 40 50 240 15 60 60 40 55 260 15 70 65 40 55 280 20 75 70 40 60 310 25 8&5 70 40 60 330 30 100 70 45 60 370 30 feet. 5 20 40 40 45 150 5 30 45 40 50 180 IO 40 55 40 55 210 10 50 60 40 55 230 15 55 65 40 60 260 1565 65 45 60 280 20 75 70 45 60 310 25 80 70 45 65 330 30 90 75 45 65 360 35 110 75 45 65 400 34 feet. IO 35 50 45 50 200 10 40 60 45 60 230 TOMI SS NGO nd 5) 1 G5ne50 15 60 70 45 65 280 15 70 70 §0 65 300 20 80 75 50 65 330 25 90 80 50 70 360 30 95 80 50 70 380 35 115 80 50 75 430 I & 2 Red. WC Red. No. 5 10 10 20 30 40 50 55 65 70 80 90 105 28 feet. 35 35 35 35 35 40 40 40 40 40 45 32 feet. 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 85 36 35 45 55 60 70 80 go 100 120 45 30 90 35 110 35 120 Diameter at Small End (Inches) 7 10 II 12 13 6 Length, Feet LO len lo Bs oe | OmmOoOddONMNUMuN Graded Volume Tables. ne: No. TaBLeE No. 5 MAPLE, LOG SCALE. Volume by Grades—Basis 943 Logs Feet Board Measure, Mill Tally. (Inches) 14 10 18 19 20 21 22 Used Length: ee & 3 Qe & a Soe =f 2 S az 68} Q oo 10 iI 12 13 5 14 10 15 10 16 15 17 20 18 30 Used Length 10 II 12 5 13 5 14 10 15 15 16 20 17 30 ie: *"ao Used Length: 10 II 12 5 13 5 14 10 15 15 16 25 EZ 35 18 45 Used Length: 10 II 12 5 13 5 14 10 15 15 16 25 17.10 185 18 50 Forestry Quarterly. Tasie No. 6 MAPLE VOLUME TABLE Volume by Grades—Basis 301 Trees. Feet Board Measure, by Mill Tallies. 12 feet. 1S) b i uy Ss Ss = = 10 ae) 10 10 10 10 IS 10 20 15 30 15 35 I5 35 15 20 feet. 5 15 10 IS 15 I5 15 20 25 20 35 20 45 25 50 2 55°25 28 feet. IS 20 20 20 2r 20 35 25 40 30 50 30 55 30 65 30 36 feet 20 25 30 30 40 30 50 35 55 35 65 35 70 40 RAZ No. 3C BISESSS Total 100 110 16 feet. 1.6) b ~ N S) 3 2, = 5 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 20 15 30 20 35 20 40 20 40 20 24 feet. 5 15 10 20 15 20 20 20 30 20 40 25 45 30 50 30 60 30 32 feet. 15 25 20 25 25 25 35 30 45 30 50 30 60 30 70 35 40 feet 30 35 40 35 50 35 55 40 65 45 Diameter at Small End (Inches) 8 9 10 II 12 BEN VEG, ae ae S™= Ss Sia ~~ Used Length: 10 5 II 5 12 10 13 15 Mag. S\>' 20 IS 10.20 TOTS) 25 17: 20° 25 18 20 30 Used Length IO Il 10 I2 20 13 5 25 14 10 30 TS. 10 '35 16 20 40 7a 25 AS IG) 30: 55 Length, Feet 10 Tones, MUN Graded Volume Tables. No. 1C Taste No. 7 BEECH LOG SCALE. Volume by Grades—Basis 631 Logs. Feet Board Meaure, Mill Tally. (Inches) 13 16 TasBLeE No. 8. 10 BEECH VOLUME TABLE Ses eens te S S 5S AL te 12 feet. 10 25 40 IO 25 40 10) 30) «50 15 30 60 ee he) 15 35 80 ES a 5 oO I5 40 I00 20 40 IIO 24 feet. 20 50 8&8 20 50 go 25 See ETO 30 60 130 30 65 140 30 70 160 35.75; 180 35 80 200 % ~ Volume by Grades—Basis 220 Trees. Feet Board Measure, by Mill Tallies % d ~ & RASRABRSERSAARSRASABB No. 1 23 RABYRRBBRBBARBAARRAG No. 2C g % Total IS 45 70 80 20 50 90 25 50 I10 25 55 120 25 60 140 25 60 I50 30 65 170 32 feet. RED AND WHITE FIR. XYLOMETER CORDWOOD TEST. By R. W. Taytor, Forest Assistant. The test was carried on in the woodyard of the Crown Colum- bia Paper Company at Floriston, California, the immediate ob- ject of which was to ascertain as accurately as possible the ex- act cubic contents of an average cord of Red Fir cordwood such as is used in making paper pulp. The ultimate object was to ap- ply the factor thus obtained to a Red Fir content volume table so that estimates made in reconnaissance work in the Red Fir region could be readily and accurately converted into cord meas- ure. The Xylometer used was a galvanized iron tank 2.465 ft. in diameter and approximately 44 ft. high, graduated on the inside in 1/100 of a foot. Each stick of cordwood was immersed separately and its volume recorded. ‘The cords were piled after the sticks had been immersed, making each one as far as it is possible to do so, of the standard dimension 4’x4’x8’. The wood measured was a mixture of red and white fir cut from the Crown Columbia Paper Company’s holdings near Flori- ston, California, averaging 35% Red Fir (Abies magnifica) and 67% White Fir (Abies concolor). As far as can be ascertained, both by inspection and measurements, there is no difference in the form of the red and white fir cordwood. This is borne out by the figures in the table, which show that the cubic con- tents of the various cords bear no relation to the percentage of the two species. Moreover, the average number of sticks per cord of the 25 cords is 60. A stack of cordwood containing 10.87 cords and 91% red fir and 9% White Fir measured in another part of the yard averaged 58 sticks to the cord. Thus it will be seen that the size and form of the sticks of the two species are practically the same. The accompanying tables show the result of the test and the resultant factor applied to the volume table. Graded Volume Tables. 25 DETAILS OF XYLOMETER TEST OF 25 CORDS. a8 " Percentage 4 se = S a ~ == : = SS le es aS = ESA “< SO en Nea VL ey%s 0) = ok x = ~_ eas = = SU nah ASR en NE SI ata ete Rt ss wo z z S) te ma Q 16) & = I 69 6 I S 18.82 89.74 13 87 2 54 I I 4 16.03 76.44 6 04. 3 53 5 2 16.59 79.11 rt 89 4 64 7 I 18.58 88.60 12 88 5 GI 4 2 I 16.81 80.16 20 74 6 59 4 2 2 17.80 84.88 17 83 7 OI 7 I I 17.08 SI.44 Ii 89 8 55 3 i 15.91 75-87 4 06 oO 61 A I 16.08 80.97 8 02 10 57 3 1 16. 37 78.06 25 75 II 62 8 19.590 7Q.11 BF 63 12 60 fo) I 2 15 75), 34) 34 66 me 690 7 i 16.01 70.34 25 75 T4 70 8 I I 18.43 87.88 33 07 15 67 6 I I I 18.26 87.07 I 84 i) 58 3 I I 16.48 78.58 40 60 17 Or 6 I 17.06 81.35 42 St 18 57 3 I 2 16.31 TR Aa 56 44 19 59 (6) 2 16.21 Wipoee 60 4O 20 69 6 I 19.38 78.11 38 62 21 61 7 2 16.76 79.92 47 53 22 64 4 I 18.40 87.74 61 390 23 61 6 I 2 7a 83.78 75 25 24, 60 6 2 16.87 80.44 63 37 2 57 8 I 2 17.04 81.25 58 42 Motalse nts Utne 32 13 15 26 425.14 2027.24 818 1682 Average percord 60 5 I 17.00 81.06 33 6 Average length of & Gigewad g it. Forestry Quarterly. CORDWOOD VOLUME TABLE. RED FIR. (Abtes magnifica) Tahoe National Forest, California. Height of Trees, feet ive) FB SPECS? RAR BURBS gS 5 Si Me SE ae Or ea Oe en a. Tee SH FSOHSASBSSHRT Me" 86 (ser 8. Oe ee le (ele ve, 90)” eee eet rt nee wot tp BANRACRAARBONRSSRH BE Se Pe ee er ee eee ee ae Te” S16 Si Soh seen pie ink Mealy One Oe Pi Cn) areal ck Le an ieee Yi eet Tee oa, eT Tul hy Be Nd TSN Pa head ey SEAR SHRBSTRSS BEER SHSRBS TRSASS SS gyre sie) “Werle 40 tale 6 re “eS a ae, eg ees a6 Nig nets wk re ABRAFSSLIA? BERS SBISgRS oe ae. OL es ser, 8 SP ee a ee a al a6 cet lip eon HHH HHH NANA ANA AN ew GS BRS RBZBS LK SIVSRRG Cee | Se ke Rue. Let Te OLbT @ dia eB ale Oe dt brace Ree Pe eek esl. 56)" Ore te ear BED mel? Ae ee RAK SSIS EEK TIAN SF mH COIN me SBIQSAVERS SSB ASS a TT eh TR ier ela pe ae tea ee TERA SAGES LSBSRAASS a ae ee eee ell ee eee eee Ble a PT ae Teal eA hie WON tony See CO a at 9 CAR Ber Me Let eae Pee Yee: SRITLYASTRARASS a), OU Sale C86 ee ek, te a 00, TAD RBOR RS One cord=81.06 Basis of cord equivalent Xylometer test of 25 cords: Cu. iit. A COMPARISON OF THE DOYLE AND SCRIBNER RULES WITH ACTUAL MILL CUT FOR SECOND GROWTH WHITE PINE IN PENNSYLVANIA. By N. R. McNaucuHuron. The fact has long been recognized that the old log rules, de- signed for use with virgin timber of large size, give results which are far from accurate when applied to our present stands of second growth timber. The reasons for this inaccuracy may be roughly outlined as follows: (1) As stated above, the rules were designed for use with old trees, hence a greater proportionate reduction was neces- sarily made for defects, such as shakes, rot, etc. (2) Logging and milling operations were conducted on a less intensive scale than at present. Measurements were less accurate, and the waste in the woods and at the mill was greater than it is to-day. (3) Most of the rules are based on incorrect and inflexible formulas or diagrams. By the statement that the formulas and diagrams are inflexible it is meant that they cannot be modified easily so as to be made applicable to local methods of manufac- ture and local species and grades of logs. It has been the custom of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry to base its sales on actual mill cut, or on scale by the Doyle Rule plus twenty-five per cent. This latter is a tacit recognition of the painful inaccuracy of this rule in present day use, and the same words apply in greater or less degree to al- most every other log rule commonly employed. To determine just how far the old rules fall short of actual mill cut under average conditions, the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry authorized the collection of data, a part of which the following tabulations summarize. This data was collected in Cameron county, Pennsylvania, during 1g12. The logs came from a stand of second growth white pine about seventy-five per cent. pure, which was killed by fire in the spring of I9gITI, and was cut the following winter. Only normal, sound, white pine logs were taken; that is, an attempt was made to secure 28 Forestry Quarterly. a fair average lot of logs, but no log was taken for which a scaler would not allow full scale. About eighty per cent. of the logs were sawed into inch boards, and the remainder into two inch plank. All lumber was square edged. The mill was portable, with a capacity of about 10,000 Feet BR. M. dailv. The saw was circular, and cut one-fourth inch kerf. Edging and cutting to lengths were done as economically as possibly, and there was little unnecessary waste in slabbing. The minimum sizes were eight feet in length and four inches in width. Even lengths and widths only were cut. Table 1 gives the averages of the mill cut for logs of each inch diameter class in the different log lengths. Table 2 gives corrected values for Table 1, obtained from curves. Taste No. 1. ACTUAL MILL TALLY OF LOGS BY LENGTH AND DIAMETER AT SMALL END INSIDE BARK. io Ft. Logs i2 Ft. Logs 14 Ft. Logs 16 Ft. Logs18 Ft. Logs % ae tne Se a9 12 as) 2) ONS q ee ise bt eG hee SoS a Sis.) SPOR SS) ee SN O&y HX OB oH OS w =~ NA Go ~~ HRS ies SSessu % gs es Ves BES @ oS Bx Tew gs SSgesas 2= SO 5s BS SM 5S BS SM 5 BM BAGS d DD Ss BS = Ss 4 “4 4 4 mes BS a ee es eS sa = s&s ga s ge 28 = 8 235 = 838 aire 3 Be Bie 3 Nis 5 8 58 = & hy) | SS 3 S38 S38 8 Ss | m a x se os x . 10 15.00 20 10 30.00 20 II 13.63 22 15 20.00 30 12 12.50 24 20 15.00 40 13 II .54 26 25 12.00 50 14 10.71 28 30 10.00 60 16 9.38 32 35 8.57 70 18 8.33 36 40 7.50 80 20 7.50 40 45 6.67 go 25 6.00 50 50 6.00 100 30 5.00 60 60 5.00 120 35 4.29 70 70 4.29 140 40 3-75 80 80 3-75 160 50 3.00 100 go 3033 180 60 2.50 120 100 3.00 200 70 2.14 140 110 2.73 220 80 1.88 160 120 2.50 240 90 1.66 180 130 231 260 100 1.50 200 140 2.14 280 110 1.36 220 150 2.00 300 A PROPOSED METHOD OF PREPARING WORKING PLANS FOR NATIONAL FORESTS. By JosEpH C. KIRCHER. The writer has seen no recent working plans for private hold- ings, so that these cannot be criticised. In the Forest Service, however, there has been in the past a great deal of agitation for at least preliminary plans for all of the Forests. To accomplish this, an outline for a plan was prepared and submitted to Forest Supervisors. The preliminary plan was to be based on this out- line. A number of these have now been written. A review shows them to be failures so far as the administration of the forest is concerned. On the other hand, the time spent upon them has not been wasted, since they bring together data which will be useful, in writing practical plans. The outline submitted to Supervisors called for complete infor- mation in regard to timber, silviculture, etc. A brief tabulation of the subjects, which is as follows, shows this. 1. Timber. Estimates, Descriptions, Forest Types, Timber Operations, Object of management, Silvicultural systems, Regulation of yield, Sales, Free Use, Record of Timber Business, Timber Reconnaissance. 2. Forestation. Policy, Areas requiring forestation, Methods and Species, Detailed Plan, Record of Operations, Nursery. 3. Investigations. A number of subdivisions were placed under each of these sub- jects. The outline for District 3, which included a number of tabulations, contained 23 pages. With such a formidable array of subjects before them, supervisors were naturally confused, for they could not see that much would be accomplished by the plans. The result was that most of the preliminary plans were simply routine reports, in which the really important points were lost in a mass of details. They were really long reports on past accomplishment. As preliminary working plans they have failed. 146 Forestry Quarterly. They were written, not with the idea of aiding in the manage- ment of a forest, but simply as a report called for by the District Forester. After being written they were promptly filed. For example, most of the plans devote much time to silvical and type descriptions and past timber operations. Of the future and of silviculture they say very little. In fact some of them say nothing of this. On several of the Forests working plans have also been made by specialists. These have for the most part also failed for the same reasons. An added reason for the failure of these plans is that most of them were written with the idea of publication, instead of making them plans, which would actually aid in ad- ministration. Plans written so as to be interesting to the lay- man, will rarely be of actual practical value in the administration of a forest. The main reasons for the failure of past plans of the Forest Service are as follows: 1. They are long reports and largely silvical. 2. They give in detail unimportant considerations and often slight the important ones (Good silviculture). 3. They fail to take local and American conditions into con- sideration (Accessibility). 4. They are too academic. 5. They attempt to regulate the yield by scientific and mathe- matical principles, based on insufficient data without reference to local conditions. 6. They are not practical. 1. They are long reports which are largely silvical. Most of the plans are very long. For the proper administration of a forest, plans must be short and concise since the man on the ground does not care to, nor has he the time to go through a long report to look up some point, say on policy, especially when the greater part of the report consists of silvical data. The im- portant facts and deductions may be hidden somewhere among unimportant details. The result is that the plan is not referred to when it should be. Instead, the Supervisor makes a guess at the point in question. Large parts of the plans consist of silvical data. Much of this Preparing Working Plans. 147 information is known to every man who has been on the Forest for some time. The more technical part of it is not necessary for every day administration. For this reason local men get the idea that the plan contains mainly data which they cannot use. The result is that it is filed and seldom referred to. Plans to be of use must discard all useless data. The remainder must be a clear cut and concise statement of policy and facts which are essential in administration. It is not the object of the writer to belittle silvical data, because these are of importance. They, however, have no place in the plan proper, but should be separately filed or placed in the appendix for reference. 2. They go into detail and emphasize unimportant details and slight the important consideration. Plans to be practical should go into details on timber sale and free use policy and silviculture. Yet in the plans submitted, these points are often dismissed after being merely mentioned, while much space is given to silvical data, etc. Such data should be relegated to an appendix. In many of the plans policy and silviculture are disposed of in a page or two, while many pages are written on silvics, etc. This is undoubtedly a mistake, for it makes the plans useless. The difficulty seems to be in the out- lines which must be followed. Fortunately good silviculture has not actually been slighted in the field. 3. They fail to take local and American conditions into con- sideration. It must be remembered that the National Forests usually con- tain the most inaccessible stands in their respective regions. They consist of the timberlands which no one considered desirable before the forests were created, or else they would have passed into private ownership many years ago. This point seems to have been overlooked in many instances. For example, there are plans outlining cuttings, which because of the inaccessibility of timber cannot be made for many years. The consideration of markets has been largely overlooked also. It is a foregone con- clusion that without a study of markets an intelligent timber sale policy cannot be established. There is a further consideration. It is needless to talk of prac- tising forestry until cutting can be done. Until sales can be made, therefore, it is useless to dream of future receipts. 148 Forestry Quarterly. 4. They are too academic, ie., they fail to apply common sense and good judgment in regard to future management. Aside from the purely silvical discussions, plans have in most cases followed closely European ideas as expressed in books. The trouble has largely been that there was no system of Ameri- can forestry, and that plans were in many cases made by men of too little experience. The foundation of their forestry education has naturally been European practice. This has been so thor- oughly drilled into men that it takes a long time for them to get away from it. For this reason such books as Schlich’s have been freely consulted in the preparation of plans. The following of European methods has been done at a sacrifice of sound business judgment. 5. They attempt regulation of yield by scientific and mathe- matical principles, based on insufficient data without reference to local conditions. Most of the plans attempt the regulation of the yield, although they are silent on its distribution. The favorite method is by volume based on mathematical formulae. The methods used so far have been nothing less than mathematical slight of hand. The basis of such calculations has not always been sound. ‘Thus, in one case elaborate calculations have been based on timber estimates, which are perhaps 50 per cent. below the truth and upon increment measured on 200 trees in a virgin stand. It is the writer’s opinion that the regulation of the yield on most of the National Forests is at the present time of little importance. The forests are practically all virgin and forestry cannot be practised until many of the stands are cut. The annual cut should, there- fore, be based upon local conditions such as markets and accessi- bility regardless of whether this cut will be larger or smaller than one based on mathematical formulae. One of the standard Euro- pean methods may, however, be used as a check. 6. They are not practical, i.e., they do not work. All of the foregoing discussion tends to show that the plans are impractical for the administration of the forest. This is a fact which has several times been brought to the attention of the writer by Supervisors. If this is true, then a radical change in working plans is necessary. The time and effort spent upon past plans is, however, not Preparing Working Plans. 149 wasted, since they bring together most of the data available in the files of the Forest, so that they may later be used for working plan purposes, and further data may be supplied where the present plans show that there is a lack. Before taking up a proposed solution of the working plans, the conditions which are met on the National Forests and the Forest Service policy in regard to its timber holdings must be scrutinized. Based upon these two considerations a new work- ing plan system is proposed. The conditions to be met on National Forests may be consid- ered under three heads: 1. Inaccessibility of stands, and large investments required to open up such areas. 2. Markets (local and export demand). 3. Large stands of over-mature timber. 1. Inaccessibility. For the most part the timber controlled by the Government comprises the most inaccessible forests in the country. For this reason it is difficult to place Government tim- ber on the market. In many localities, therefore, no timber can be put on the market until the more accessible private holdings have been cut. In other places, to bring the timber to market requires large investments and, therefore, large logging opera- tions. All of these conditions must be considered in connection with working plans. For example, if because of inaccessibility no timber can be sold from a certain forest for 10 years, it is useless for the working plan to designate certain stands for cut during this period. Or, if the Forest Service desires to sell tim- ber from a certain forest and must sell say 1,000,000 M. feet to justify an investment, it is useless for the plan to prescribe an annual cut of 10,000 M. feet, even if this is the increment plus the per cent. of growing stock which should be cut per annum to give a sustained annual yield. The question is not so much “What should be sold” as “What can be sold.” It must be granted that to practice silviculture, cutting must take place in the virgin stands of the National Forests. If, then, because of inaccessibility, very large sales must be made to place timber upon the market, the plan of cutting must be such as to allow this. In other words, the annual yield will have to be es- tablished largely upon what can be and must be done, and not upon the basis of a sustained annual yield. 2. Markets. A detailed study of markets is essential before a 150 Forestry Quarterly. working plan is attempted. This is necessary, since, if there is no market for timber, there is no chance for sales. Then again, if there are no sales on a forest and the Forest Service desires to make some, it must study markets to find out whether sales are feasible. The character of the market, competition, etc., will have a direct bearing on sales, and, therefore, upon working plans. Markets are of two kinds—local and export. Wocal markets must first be considered. These ordinarily consume a very small amount of the timber. Whether they are small or large, the supply for local consumption must not be endangered by supply- ing export markets. It is, therefore, important to make a study of local markets, and to predict the local market for some time in the future. If, as is generally the case, there is a large surplus after the local market is satisfied, export markets must be con- sidered. A study of these is of importance, since, if the products of a certain forest cannot enter into direct competition in the general markets with like products from other producing centers, it is useless to try to make sales at the present time. On the other hand, a study of markets may show a very desirable logging chance and a good opportunity for a sale. ‘The working plan should, therefore, recognize the market conditions which exist. 3. Large stands of over mature timber. It is desirable to re- place the large amount of virgin and over mature stands within the National Forests by young thrifty stands. For this reason it is more important to sell timber even if the annual growth is greatly exceeded than to hold the cut strictly to a sustained annual yield. An additional argument for the rapid cutting of the over- mature timber on the National Forests is found in the fact that the timber producing area of the United States is being constantly decreased. ‘This will ultimately result in a timber shortage, which will probably not come, as supposed by some, as a sudden catas- trophe but in the form of a slowly diminishing supply, to which the United States will adjust itself in part. This condition can be met much more effectively by the National Forests with a young thrifty stand of timber yielding its full annual increment than with old deteriorating material. It is believed that the Na- tional Forests can, by extensive cutting of over-mature timber, be converted into good producers before the “pinch” is felt. Preparing Working Plans. I5I Forest Service Policy. The timber sale policy of the Forest Service, as expressed in Amendment 163 (of March 21, 1913) to the Timber Sale Section of the National Forest Manual (issued December 1, 1911) is as follows: “Sales of small amounts of timber are preferred and will be encouraged by every means possible. In no instance will more timber be sold under one contract than is necessary to cover the cost of improvements which must be constructed for its exploita- tion and to permit logging and manufacture under practical and economical conditions. ‘Timber which can be practically logged under Classes A, B, and C sales will be reserved for operations of this size as far as such demand exists. Class D sales, where larger investments must be made and more timber handled, will ordinarily not exceed 75,000,000 feet in amount and five years for removal. “Where the inaccessibility of the timber requires very large in- vestments for railroads or other improvements, enough stump- age will be contracted to justify the outlay for these purposes and the size of operation necessary to make the enterprise feasible. The cutting period in such instances will be determined by prac- tical logging and manufacturing conditions. “There are no fixed limits as to the size and period of sales of inaccessible timber requiring expensive improvements. The prin- ciple of contracting enough to justify the outlay will govern in each instance. It will, however, seldom if ever be necessary to exceed 1,000,000,000 feet, or a cutting period of 25 years. “In lieu of the sale of a large amount of timber, the contract may specify that certain areas, in addition Reserved areas. to the stumpage purchased, will be reserved from sale until the termination of the con- tract and then offered for competitive bids. A reserve available to the improvements of the purchaser is thus held, while the terms under which it may be bought are left for future adjustment and will necessarily be subject to advertisement and competition in the regular manner. Such agreements to offer additional blocks for sale will be made only in accordance with the plan of manage- ment adopted for the unit or watershed concerned. ‘This method will be used where acceptable to purchasers. It is preferred to the sale of larger bodies in the initial contract. In the management of watersheds or other units, the construc- tion of new and competing mills will be en- Stable industries couraged to such a number as can operate encouraged. for a reasonable period in accordance with prevailing standards in the industry. Pri- vate timber available for such plants, both as to situation and 152 Forestry Quarterly. ownership, will be considered together with accessible National Forest stumpage. A number of small mills is always preferred to one or two large plants; and wherever the accessibility of the timber and other local physical conditions permit, the development of the industry by small or medium sized operations will be strongly encouraged. “As far as practicable, the rate at which timber is sold from any unit will insure a reasonable operating life Reservations for for new mills constructed in connection future operations. with sales. Future sales to establish mills can not be guaranteed, and the National Forest timber will not be administered so as to give particular mills a monopoly; but the amount to be cut from year to year will be regulated, so that established plants, if there are successful competitors for the timber offered. can be assured continued op- eration for reasonable periods.” In accordance with this policy large sales are being made where timber is inaccessible and requires large investments to place it upon the market. This policy disregards sustained annual yield, but it is justified from a silvicultural standpoint, since without doing this no timber could be placed upon the market. It is also a sound business policy. The Proposed Plan.* The main difference between past plans and the proposed sheme for National Forests is that under the new system, the material is so arranged as to be more easily handled, and that the plans become actual plans of management, which are a live issue of practical value in the administration of the National For- ests. Forest management, sales regulation and systematic silvicul- ture will be carried on by means of: 1. Card records to be kept up to date by annual additions or corrections from the annual plan. 2. Annual plan by Supervisor. This should include any pro- visions which are necessary in the periodic plan. 3. Maps by specialists (including reconnaissance sheets). * This follows the informal district instructions to be tried out during 1914 before being put into effect; these were prepared by the writer and Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr. Preparing Working Plans. 153 4. An appendix file to comprise all data on silvics, logging, etc. These to be filed by subjects and to be cumulative. 5. Preliminary plan to be made by specialists. 6. Final plan—not to be attempted at present. 1. The card records will consist of all data which are ordinarily tabulated. ‘Tabulations are kept on separate sheets. They in- clude tabulations of areas of types, estimates of timber, sale costs, records of stumpage rates, minimum stumpage prices, timber cut and sold, limitation of cut, lumber prices, percentage of lumber grades, species, etc. These tabluations are kept to date by annual additions to the information. The information for the revision is obtained from the annual plan. 2. Annual Plan. This is made in winter by the Supervisor. It includes the following information: General conditions of the Forest, cost of handling sales, limitation of cut, minimum prices, proposed changes in silviculture manual, recommendations for silvical report, sowing and planting, timber sale policy, seed col- lecting (to be submitted August 1), working plan modifications, converting factors, free use, timber sale advertising, trespass, timber reconnaissance, new sales proposed, protection of timber resources, stock excluded areas, brush burning and proposed in- vestigative projects. Under each caption there are sub-heads, which suggest the in- formation necessary and desired. Practically all of the informa- tion wanted is data which are called for from Supervisors during the course of the year. The annual plan, therefore, accomplishes two things. It brings together all the information which super- visors must submit to the District Forester during the year, and it gives the Supervisor a chance to bring to the attention of the District Forester in a systematic way certain facts about his For- est, which cannot be discussed in any other place. This plan should be brief, and only subjects in which the Supervisor desires to bring changes or new policies to the attention of his superiors, should be discussed. The annual plan, in other words, is to be a practical business measure. This will also give a chance to remedy any defects in the periodic plan. In other words, if the periodic plan contains anything which is not practical and does not work, the Supervisor here has a chance to remedy it. 3. Maps. These are of great importance, as everyone will 154 Forestry Quarterly. admit. Here should be included type, stand, reproduction, plant- ing and timber sale maps. They should be prepared on a base map showing topography. The type map may show the aliena- tions. Others need not. All maps (or part of them only) may show logging units, inaccessible areas, protection forests and such other necessary data. In addition to these maps, topographic township plats, section sheets (reconnaissance), and logging unit descriptions will be maintained. These descriptions will be detailed and comprise all forest description data necessary for timber sale work. They will be the most detailed descriptions of the whole plan. The description of each logging unit should be a separate report. 4. Appendix. This will comprise, in separate folders in the files, information of permanent value. From year to year this information should be built up. It need not necessarily be com- piled, although all information on a certain subject should be placed in the same folder for compilation in the future. Data on silvics, lumbering, costs, scaling, marking, brush disposal, plant- ing, insect control, etc., etc., will be included here. 5. The preliminary plan. In the past, preliminary plans have been considered by some as mere inventories of resources. They should be more than this, however. This inventory under the plan here proposed will come under the card records and the ap- pendix file. The preliminary plan on the other hand will be a true plan of management for the forest. The fundamental basis for the preliminary plan is that the for- est is the largest unit for the plan, that the plan should not be for over IO years, that it shall be made by a specialist, and that it should be revised annually. It has been found that, unless the forest is taken as the largest unit for a plan, so many difficulties arise that the plan is not prac- tical. Separate plans may, however, be made for parts of a forest if they are distinct units, which should be handled sepa- rately. The continuity of the stand of timber generally deter- mines this. Ordinarily, plans have covered a full rotation in a general way and a period of from Io to 20 years very definitely ; that is, plans have been attempted for a complete rotation. The writer con- siders plans for policies, cuttings, etc., for a period of more than Preparing Working Plans. 155 IO years as mere paper work at the present stage of the develop- ment of the National Forests. It is thought, therefore, that to be of practical value they should be confined to a ten year period or even less. It must be conceded that to be of the greatest value, plans must represent the best thought of the District. Therefore, to secure uniformity and to obviate the need of rewriting much of the ma- terial submitted to the District Forester, a special corps of forest plans men must be organized. These men must have knowledge of timber and logging requirements, and at the same time be able to present the data collected in a clear concise and systematic way. In short, they must be practical foresters of a high type. It is not proposed that these men make the plans independent of the Supervisor. On the contrary, the plan should be drafted in closest co-operation with him. The Supervisor must be consulted on all points of policy, for there should be joint responsibility. Field assistance, necessary to complete the plan, should be rendered by him. Annual re- vision of the plan is provided for in the Supervisor’s annual plan. At the end of the period which the plan covers a new one should be made by a specialist. The preliminary plan should cover approximately the following points: Introduction (very brief); Markets; Past Lumbering (very brief) ; Forest types (very brief). In the introduction the objects of the management should be discussed. This is very important. A discussion, for each im- portant type, of the kind of product desired, with special refer- ence to present methods of cutting, should be given here. Markets must also be taken into consideration. Clear-cut conclusions as to how to attain the ends desired must be drawn. The silvicultural methods (by type and logging unit) are to be discussed, covering the objects and methods of cutting and pro- tection after lumbering. The plan need not go into details in reference to logging units on which no cutting is probable in the 10 year period of the plan. The timber sale policy is one of the main points in the plan. Here should be discussed the proposed timber sale business, such as restriction, development, encouragement, location and regula- tion of sales. It really shows what business is to be transacted and the business policy of the forest. 156 Forestry Quarterly. The free use policy (very important) should be discussed as shown under timber sale policy. There should be a discussion of yield based on timber sale and free use policy (above) and the fixing of the annual or periodic yield. According to this, yield regulation must be subordinated to silvicultural requirements and to market. It is clearly valueless to impose a limitation of cut, which is impractical, because of the necessity of a large annual cut to justify commercial logging. At least until the over-mature timber is removed the policy of a sus- tained annual yield need not be applied. Even a periodic sus- tained yield need not be attempted until it is clearly and posi- tively necessary for reasons of public policy. In other words, it is unnecessary to pursue an academic ideal of sustained annual yield. In the discussion of the yield problem, however, it will be ad- visable to check the practical requirements with an academic estimate of the yield capacity by formula, volume, area or such other theoretical checks as can be applied. This will necessitate a short discussion on rotation, which will be based on the class of material which it is desired to produce and not upon financial or volume returns. Distribution of yield should also be discussed, i. €., areas cor- responding to logging units which should be cut in order of im- portance. The discussion, while it should be practical, should consider these areas both from a silvicultural and market stand- point. The plan will really constitute in itself a concession that policy and silviculture must overtop regulation. It is not intended that the outline for a preliminary plan should be rigidly followed. It is given merely as a suggestion of the kind of material to be included in the plan. The writer wishes to convey the idea that preliminary plans should be practical and for short periods; that they should be as brief as possible yet omit no essential details; that they should be based on actual local conditions; that they should contain more policy and less theoretical regulation of yield than in the past, and that although the conclusions should be based on silvical facts, these facts need only be referred to and need not be a part of the plan. 6. Final Plans. It is believed that the time is not yet ripe for final plans. As far as the writer is aware, no practical prelimin- Preparing Working Plans. 157 ary plan for a national forest has yet been made. When one of these has proved practical after several years use, it is time enough to talk of final plans. The system of annual and preliminary plans and other data, described above, has not been put into actual practice. If plans on this basis are attempted a great many stumbling blocks will probably be encountered and during the progress of the work numerous changes may be necessary. It is believed by the writer, however, that the general scheme is sound, and that by following it a practical form of forest management may be established for the National Forests. The writer intends this article to stimulate discussion on this very interesting, yet most difficult of the problems which the Fed- eral Forest Service has to solve. STEM ANALYSES. By JoHN BENTLEY, JR. From the experience gained in instructing several classes in the subject of volume growth in individual trees, it is apparent that the method described in the text books in use in this country is difficult of comprehension by the average student of forest mensuration. As a general rule, the problems of height growth and diameter growth are handled by the majority of students quite readily, but they frequently have difficulty in mastering the subject of volume growth as exemplified in “stem analyses.” In searching for the cause of this trouble, it appears that much of it arises from the form in which stem analyses are usually re- corded in this country; and the object of this discussion is to recommend a more logical tabulation of the data usually included on a stem analysis blank. It will be remembered that the blanks provided for stem analysis by the Forest Service (Form 334, “Tree Measurements’’ ) include a page in which the measurements on each cross-section of the tree are recorded in columns numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., (which represent decades), the values showing the “distance on average radius from heart to each tenth ring.” If, as is gener- ally the case, there is not an even multiple of ten annual rings on the section, the measurement of the odd years is recorded under column 1, (since the measurements begin with the inner- most period and proceed outward), and from that point on, the difference between the values in any two adjacent columns repre- sents a decade’s growth. So far, so good; but when the measure- ments for the second and subsequent cross-cuts are recorded, the measurements in each case are tabulated beginning in column I again; and since there is almost always at least ten years differ- ence in the total ages of successive cross-cuts, and sometimes twenty, or more, the measurement for the last, or current decade, falls, not in the column for the corresponding decade on the pre- vious cross-cut, but in a column to the left. Glancing down the numbered columns, then, we find a series of measurements each one of which represents a different decade in the tree’s life- Stem Analyses. 159 history. An example of this method of tabulation is shown in Professor Graves’ well known book on “Forest Mensuration,” page 264, where the age of the tree at cross-section number 1 (stump) was 60 years, and the last measured radius was conse- quently recorded in column 6. The age of the second cross-cut was 50 years, and the last measured radius was recorded in col- umn 5, etc. When the volumes of the several sections are computed for different decades there is a very large chance that the wrong pairs of values for cross-sectional dimensions will be selected, because, instead of being arranged one under the other in the same column, the dimensions of the cross-cuts belonging to any particular age of the tree are found in different columns, and they must be selected by counting backward from the last recorded measurement. ‘This is one point at which the average student has difficulty, and one which can be obviated entirely by the use of a more logical method of tabulating the measurements. A second point at which there is usually some difficulty is in the doubling of the measurements given for radii, so as to obtain the corresponding diameters. The form already referred to reads: “Distance on average radius from heart to each 1oth ring — inches” and the student not infrequently forgets to double the value recorded for the radius, in order to obtain the diameter. While this may seem like a trivial point, it is, nevertheless, one which often leads to slight errors in doubling, or neglecting to double at all; and when the use of a scale reading 2 : 1 would obviate the necessity of recording radii, and permit the recording of diameters directly, it seems wise to take simple precautions and eliminate the chances of errors, by recording diameters in- stead of radii. Stem analysis rules as now made by instrument- makers, usually make readings of this kind easy by supplying two scales,—one graduated to inches and tenths, for measuring di- ameters, and the other for measuring radii graduated to half- inches and twentieths, but reading as doubled inches and tenths, so that radii may be read directly as diameters. The stem analysis blank would therefore read, preferably, over the columns pro- vided for the measurements: “Average diameter of section, by decades,” instead of “Distance on average radius from heart to each roth ring.” A third point,—and one which is a source of frequent errors 160 Forestry Quarterly. in computing the volume of the tree at different periods—is the somewhat laborious and involved method of determining the dimensions of the tops (above the last cross-cut), in preceding decades. These tops are generally regarded as cones (see Graves’ ““Mensuration,” page 292), and their volumes computed as such. The difficulty arises in obtaining the heights of the sev- eral cones as they appeared further and further within the top, or down the stem, with each preceding decade. The method de- scribed by Professor Graves, namely, to take a distance propor- tional to the number of years required to grow the distance be- tween the two sections in question, thus assuming a regular rate of growth for the period, is quite accurate, but it is likely to confuse the student, and has been the cause of more errors in com- putation than any other one factor, according to my observation.* In German text books the method described for obtaining the volumes of the tree in preceding decades frequently disregards these small cones, or tips, because the sections into which the tree is divided for analysis are short,—rarely more than 2 meters. The volumes are therefore relatively insignificant. In this coun- try, however, where we have to compute stem analyses from trees where a top of 15, 20, or even 30 feet is left, it becomes necessary to include these tops, and their dimensions at different periods, otherwise the calculated volumes would be inaccurate to such a degree that they would be of no scientific value. Some way must be devised, therefore, which will yield accurate results, and at the same time will be readily understood and applied by the student. In the hope of simplifying the work of making and recording stem analyses, and eliminating some of the obvious causes for mistakes in the calculations, the following suggestions are made. Nothing new or original is claimed for these suggestions; on the contrary, they have all been prompted by a perusal of the stand- ard German text books. They are presented here simply for the purpose of showing how the work may be made more logical, and *It has even led to an error in the very example chosen to illustrate the method (page 291 in “Forest Mensuration”), where, in the computations for the tree as it was 30 years old, the length ascribed to the tip is 4.75 feet. Since the tip at that age comprised 10/16 of the length of the section (10 feet) it should evidently be 6.25 feet, and not 4.75 feet, as printed. Sten: Analyses. 161 at the same time more comprehensible to the mind of the average student of forest mensuration. First, as to the methods of tabulating the measurements taken in the field. Figure 1 (page 162) shows a revised form filled in with data from a White Pine, in which the usual measurements are recorded, together with a few additional ones which will ren- der the computations in the office less liable to error. For con- venience, the spaces in which the measurements are recorded are both named and lettered, to correspond with the following list; and in the discussion which follows the several columns will be referred to by letter. (a) The number of the section; the stump being considered No. 1, the top of the first log section No. 2, etc. (b) The age of the section, i.e., the age up to that section, and the number of annual rings on that section. (c) The length of the section, expressed in feet and tenths. (d) The diameter, outside bark, of each section, in inches and tenths. (e) The diameter, inside bark, of each section, in inches and tenths. (f£) The width of the bark at each section. (g) The width of the sapwood at each section. (h) The average diameter of the several sections, by decades, as explained in the following paragraphs. (j) The diameter, breast-high. (k) The total age, obtained as explained in the following para- graphs. (1) Clear length. (m) Used length. (n) Merchantable length. 162 FIGURE I. SAMPLE FORM OF STEM ANALYSIS BLANK. WO ees veseeeses.pectes (White Pine) We ele el ene! es 0- 0 erenn.e 0 bre oC e eres e orl Dts Locality Forestry Quarterly. 2 | —s Y — = | _ - | ~ -_= So 8 [se AAs EE) sede) Ss ne M000 TOON Ss oO SSysranwts Q LENS eh aR ea AL Ss = 3 oO She rons Ss) 3 Pea rf ser = ON 1 FH00 0 1N + H = WG AAG NMHO SS Ss i = WO 1010 H'000 a ee ie S otronwrno = i nl & oar hae ~~ Q COMHA | © wn +NURWO D> nH | Ss Lt 3 SS AN HO NY I oatH “oo as oO NO nN ped | mn 4 og Lad E* ~~ = ——S INO OO NINA (3) dos fo yypry SRR HH RHR OTMOA AHHH (F) 440g fJouUIPIM | ASSccososdéc RNs iNMmMe Oo TOON (2) qt'-¢d Syste anwda - INH Qxtincoc At (Pp) q:0'7qG NOO +A AnNw+a0 ONNNNODOOCOON i} (9) 436ua’T HOON A Tt SdN & Clear length, Died NCRUth mao ci sno weti sat sexes Urace tno (ML) WIEFCROMIAUIGEICNGEN, AX Mie Exposure: a Thriving Existing Dead Remarks aes xisting Sun Dead Remarks Thriving Existing Dead Remarks Shade Thriving Existing Sun Dead Remarks White Pine a 2. Missing; b 1. Missing. cultivator. ) TABLE III. Showing condition of the transplants at the conclusion ment, June 20th, 1914 (62 days after the exposures). Minutes. Forestry Quarterly. O I0 20 30 40 50 60 I I I I iS) Pah Aa I 2 2 I I of the experi- Hours. 5 I I I b 6 I I I b 7 8 910 “we (1 “Thriving” white pine found cut off by “Thriving” indicates plants that are putting out new leaves and seem firmly established. “Existing” indicates plants that are not putting out new leaves and seem unlikely to recover. The missing plants were chiefly cut off by the wheel cultivator knives. VOLUME TABLE FOR LODGEPOLE PINE. By Artuur T. Upson. General experience has shown that timber sale and intensive reconnaissance estimates demand the use of reliable volume tables for different classes of forest stands. By no other means can results be obtained with certainty and as little expense. Besides the elements of accuracy and uniformity, a table must involve those of simplicity and ease of application. The Lodgepole pine stands found growing in the Colorado Rockies are homogeneous only in composition and age and vary in their physical develop- ment as a result of the fertility of the soil and the relative alti- _tude, which conditions give rise to three site qualities. The deep, moist soil at the low altitudes represents conditions for the opti- mum development of the species and consequently forms the zone occupied by quality I, pine; the second quality occurs under the conditions represented by the thinner, drier soils of the mid- dle slopes; and the upper slopes and ridges present the conditions of soil and relative altitude which induce the poorest develop- ment of pine, and fix the zone occupied by site quality III. The amount of ground cover beneath the stand is a fair indicator of - the fertility of the soil, and consequently of the quality of the site, for in | it is usually abundant and in III almost lacking. Volume tables for Lodgepole pine in this region then, should be divided into three site qualities. Such a site-quality volume table may assist in the preparation of a site-quality map. The writer has had the opportunity during the past year to gather volume data on 2015 Lodgepole pine trees on the Arapaho Forest, Colorado, and to compile a volume table which gives vol- umes of sawtimber and linear feet of props for each D. B. H. class by three site qualities. The data were gathered in stands in which cutting and logging were in progress, the measurements on the entire trees just as they lay after felling and bucking into logs and props, and before the swampers had an opportunity to disturb the top or before the skidders removed any of the logs. The usual procedure in measuring was followed. Since in the Rocky Mountain region the smallest piece which 320 Forestry Quarterly. can profitably be sawed into lumber is six inches at the small end, and since the Forest Service timber sale contracts in this region usually specify that all material down to six inches in the top will be scaled by the Scribner Rule, Decimal C, a volume table which gives accurate results must include scaled material to this minimum size. All log scales were read from an ordinary 30” Forest Service Scribner Rule scale stick, after the average diameter had been secured, and the scale was recorded in one of the extra columns, headed “Scrib. Dec. C.” If the log was defective, proper deduction was made and the resulting scale recorded in the column, “Defect Scale,’ which therefore, signifies the scale after the defect, if any, has been deducted from the gross scale. In this region mine props are utilized to a minimum diameter limit of 5 inches inside bark, and this was usually adhered to in the operations on which the present data were gathered. The length of the top above the 6-inch point was measured to the nearest foot and recorded as the next section after the last sawlog. The amount of material in the top which was 5” or more in diameter inside bark, was measured and recorded in feet in an extra column, headed “Linear Feet,” and on the same line as the total length of the top. Under “Remarks” in the right-hand column, notes on the amount of character of any defect or on utilization were entered. Under “Remarks” at the bottom were placed the estimate of the site quality and utilization notes. In volume measurements the “Age” column and the reverse side of the form were not used. A brief and concise forest description was written for each set of measurements collected in a given stand and designated so as to apply to certain tree numbers. An endeavor was made to select trees which were fairly representative of that particular stand. However, it was necessary that measurements be taken in very good and very bad stands as well as in average ones, in order that the entire range of merchantable Lodgepole pine might be represented by the data. The “Used Length’ is that portion of the tree between the stump and the 6-inch point which has been utilized. The “Mer. (merchantable) Length” is the entire length between these points and may be greater or the same as the “Used Length.” The “Clear 21 =< Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 2 Length” is seldom entered as it is of no special importance since Lodgepole pine is seldom capable of yielding clear Iumber. Data for Sawlog-Tie-Prop Table. In securing measurements on trees cut into ties, the record is modified so as to present the use of the data for both a sawlog- prop table and a sawlog-tie-prop or simply tie-prop volume table providing a column for “No. Ties’ and a double set of “Totals.’’ The bole of 11” to 15” trees to a point approximately 10” in diameter, is usually cut wholly into ties, and above that point to a 5” minimum diameter, into prop material. From trees 16” to 20” D. B. H., one or more sawlogs are butted off until tie dia- meters are reached, when the remaining portion of the bole is cut into ties and prop material. In measuring trees cut wholly into ties and props, the figures as mentioned above are so recorded as to furnish data for both kinds of volume tables. Each tie is recorded as an 8.0’ log, the d. i. b. and d. o. b. determined as with logs and actually scaled, gross and defect, and the log is also tallied as one tie. Beyond approximately 10”, the point where props begin, the pieces down to 6” are entered only as logs. From 6” to 5” the regular prop is entered in the “Linear feet’? column opposite ‘“Top.” Two lines of totals are computed for all columns except “Length.” The upper line of totals furnishes data for the tie-prop table; the lower line for sawlog-prop table. In measuring trees cut into logs, ties and props, the manner of recording the data is simply a combination of that usual for logs and that for ties and props. Although in this method of double recording a slight inac- curacy occurs in that no overrun of length is allowed in the ties and large props, nevertheless, this seldom makes a total dif- ference of more than 1.5 feet in the total height of the tree and is more than offset by the fact that data for two different tables are combined in one set of measurements and recorded on a single tally sheet. Determination of Site Qualities. The simplest and probably the most accurate method of de- termining the site qualities of stand is that of Bauer, who uses 322 Forestry Quarterly. the total yield in cubic feet, as related to age, as the criterion of quality.* Another method is to use heights instead of volumes. This method is based on the experience that the height of an even-aged stand is a reliable index of the quality of site and it has been proved that the classification of sample plots by this method and by that of total volume leads to practically the same results. Since Lodgepole pine in this region occurs in remarkably pure and nearly even-aged stands of fairly uniform density, it was safe and a reasonable assumption that, in determining the site quality of stands in which the measured trees grew, the D. B. H. in inches of the individual tree could be substituted for the aver- age age of the stand; the total height of the individual tree could be substituted for the average height of the stand. This allows the site qualities to be determined by the use of curves plotted on D. B. H. in inches and the total height of the tree in feet in the following manner: All measurements were tabulated by inch diameter classes and two-foot height classes in a semi-final table, to determine the num- ber of trees of each class. The diameters were then plotted as abscissae on a rectangular system of co-ordinates and the height in feet as ordinates. Be- side each point plotted the number of trees of that class was noted. The comet-shaped band of plotted points was carefully scrutinized and those which represented abnormally high or unusually low trees for a specified diameter class were thrown out. Then a curve was carefully drawn through the average maximum points, which represented the maximum heights for all diameters of trees of site quality I, and a curve through the minimum points represented the minimum heights for each diameter of site quality III trees. Then the ordinates, on each vertical diameter line, were divided into three equal parts and curves drawn through the two points of division. These curves, therefore, bounded the data for each site and indicated the maximum and minimum heights for the three site qualities. Curves were finally drawn through the centers of each of the three bands and the average heights for each were read off and tabulated in the volume table. *Graves’ “Forest Mensuration,” pp. 325-326. Schenck’s “Forest Mensuration,” pp. 60-61. Schenck’s “Forest Management,” pp. 16-17. Schlich, Volume III, pp. 102-104. Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 323 After the maximum and minimum heights for each site quality and D. B. H. class were determined, the tree measurements were gone over again, and the volumes in feet B. M. and the num- ber of linear feet of props were grouped by diameters and site qualities, totalled, averaged, and expressed in a semi-final table of the following character: TABLE I—SITE I. Volume Ft. B. M. Height in feet DBH No. of Decimal C. Linear feet from curves Inches Trees Total Aver. Total Aver. Max. -Min. Aver. 6 7. fe) fo) 150 21.4 57 46 52 7 II 31 2.8 116 10.5 64 53 59 etc. etc. Tables 2 and 3 were similar to Table 1 except they showed data for sites II and III respectively. In these operations the gross scales instead of the “Defect Scales’? were used, since a table compiled from measurements of perfect trees is more valu- able than one which includes the local average defect. In se- curing the original data, defect deductions were only made to ascertain how defective were the local Lodgepole pine stands. The method described above was employed in compiling the semi-final tables for the tie measurements except that only trees 11” to 20” in diameter were used, and the results recorded in a semi-final table of the following character: TABLE 4—SITE I. Noi Nosot Hts. in ft. from DBH No. of Vol. Feet of stand. lin. ft. curves. Ties to 5” Inches Trees BM Aver. Aver. Aver. Max. Min. Aver. II 10 ) 2.66 34 88 74 81 etc. to T5\) 16 10 138 4.40 23 102 89 96 etc. to 20” Tables 5 and 6 were similar to Table 4 except they represented data for sites II and III respectively. These six tables were made a permanent record, for by so doing it will, with little office work, be easily possible to add data on additional trees at a future date without tearing apart or reworking the present data. 324 Forestry Quarterly. Compilation of Final Volume Tables. In order to round off and harmonize the values given in the fourth column of Tables 1 to 3, the average volumes for each diameter class were plotted in the usual manner, and curves were drawn for each Site Quality, due weight being given to LODGEPOLE PINE. Site Quality Volume Table. ARAPAHO NATIONAL ForEsT, COLORADO COMPUTED FROM ACTUAL SCALE OF LOGS AND PROPS: SCRIBNER RULE, DECIMAL C. Values read from curves—Basis 2015 trees. Site Quality 1 Site Quality Site: Quality. m D.B.H. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver. Ft. Lin. Ft. Aver. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver. in By Mae rops Cre BM Props Total B M Props Total ts Ft. Ht. Ft. Ht. Ft. 6 a) 20 52 fe) 18 40 to) 15 30 7 25 10 50 20 10 47 15 10 35 8 45 10 65 35 10 53 30 10 40 9 65 10 71 55 10 58 45 10 45 10 go 10 76 75 10 63 60 10 49 II 120 8 81 100 8 67 80 7] 53 12 150 8 85 125 8 71 100 7 56 13 185 8 88 150 8 74 125 7 Xe) 14 220 8 gI 180 8 m7, 150 7 62 15 260 8 04 215 8 80 175 7 Si 16 300 7 96 250 7 82 200 6 68 7 ~, 340 7 97 ~=—- 280 7 84 = 225 6 70 18 380 7 315 a 85 250 6 72 19 420 7 Qe S50 ae ee 280 6 73 20 460 7 99 365 7 86 310 6 74 21 500 7 100 420 6 87 pee Hy 122 540 7 100 460 6 87 ¥23 585 7 101 24 630 7, 101 STUMP height equals 1 foot. Volumes in feet, B. M. include all ma- terial down to the 6-inch diameter in the top; linear feet from this point to a minimum of 5 inches. This table is built from perfect trees, there- fore, does not allow for defect. those points which represented the largest number of. trees These three curves each showed uniform increases of volume with diameter, but did not always show uniform progression for the same diameters in different sites. Theoretically this latter uniformity could have been obtained by again plotting the values from the first set of curves for each diameter class in the three sites, but since for each diameter class there would have been but three points, it was found difficult to draw uniform average Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 325 curves. Consequently, a uniform progression of values in the horizontal columns was secured mathematically.* The same general method of harmonizing the values in col- umns 3 and 4 of Tables 4, 5 and 6 was used. It was impossible to harmonize the linear foot values from LODGEPOLE PINE. Site Ouality Volume Table. ARAPAHO NATIONAL ForEsT, COLORADO BASED ON STUMP DIAMETER OUTSIDE BARK FOR USE IN TRESPASS CASES. Computed by conversion of D. B. H. Table and stump measurements of 2015 trees. Values read from curves. Site Quality 1 Site Quality m Site Quality mm D.O. B. Feet Lin.'Ft. Aver. Ft. Lin. Ft. Aver. Feet Lin. Ft. Aver. Stump BM Props Total BM Props Total B M Props Total Hite Ne Be. Be Ht. Ft. 7 fe) 20 2 fo) 18 40 ro) 15 30 8 25 10 58 20 10 46 15 10 35 9 40 10 64 35 10 52 30 10 40 10 10 70 50 10 57 45 10 44 60 iL 85 10 75 70, 10 62 60 10 48 -- TIO wine 135 12 8 79 go 8 66 75 7 51 13 8 O3nt Ho 8 69 95 7 54 Ey elo 8 87-135 8 72 105 7 57 15 195 8 90 160 8 75 125 7 60 16 225 8 03 185 8 78 145 Gj 63 17 255 8 05 210 8 80 105 Zi 65 18 290 7 235 7 82 185 6 67 19 32 7 97 = 265 7 83. 205 6 69 20 360 7 98 205 7 84 230 6 70 21 =. 395 i; 99 32 7 85-255 6 71 22 430 7 99 360 7 85 285 6 71 23 465 7 . OOF). 305 6 SO ars 6 72 2 505 7 100 430 6 87 25 545 7. TOE) 465 6 87 26 585 7 IOI FOOT note same as in regular D. B. H. Volume Table. columns 6 of Tables 1, 2 and 3 by a series of curves since little apparent relationship seemed to exist. The method which was employed in determining the linear foot values for the different site qualities and diameter classes was similar to the Arbitrary Group Method of computing volumes of woods. As 6” trees yield only prop material, the linear foot values assigned to them were almost identical with the true average secured by the *Schenck’s “Forest Mensuration,” pp. 58-59. Fgh w A + ay 326 Forestry Quarterly. actual field measurements. The remaining diameters were arbi- trarily grouped into the following: Pole: Groupere..!. « -.: tO TO sO eo El Tie Groupyec ao. ss < EL tour g asda. Sawlog-Tie Group, ..15” to 20” D. B. H. Sawlog Group, ..... 20" toV2a6 HEE aap The arithmetical mean number of linear feet of props was then computed from the averages secured by actual measure- ments for each group in each site quality, and the result used LODGEPOLE PINE. Site Quality Volume Table. _ARAPAHO NATIONAL Forest, CoLorapo FROM ACTUAL SCALE AND COUNT OF LOGS, TIES AND PROPS; SCRIBNER RULE, DEC. C. Values read from curves and harmonized with those of regular Vol. table. : Basis, 206 trees. Site Quality I Site Quality III D.B.H. Feet Cin Fo, Alver” Bre See. serer. Keet Lin.) Aver. ~ Ties Inches B. t Ht. Feet BM. Ties Feet Ht. Ft. II fe) 2.70 32 81 fe) 2.00 26 67 12 oO 3.55 29 85 fo) 2.80 24 71 13 fo) 4.35 26 88 te) 3.45 22 74 14 fo) 5.00 24 gI fo) 4.00 20 re 15 fe) 5.60 23 04 fo) 4.45 20 16 140 4.20 23 96 120 3.55 20 82 17 155 4.00 22 97 130 3.30 20 84 18 190 3.70 22 08 160 2.95 20 85 19 245 3.20 21 99 205: 2.45 19 86 20 320 2.50 2I 99 270 1.80 19 86 Site Quality IIT II fe) 1.25, 20 53 12 fo) 2.00 19 56 13 fo) 2.55 18 590 14 fe) 3.05 18 2 15 fe) 3.40 18 65 16 100 2.90 18 68 17 105 2.60 18 70 18 130 2.20 18 72 19 165 1.70 17 73 20 220 1.10 17 74 Trees smaller than 11” yield only small sawlogs and props. From trees 16” to 20”, one or more sawlogs are butted off before ties are made. Trees over 20” usually made wholly into sawlogs and props. Props include all material from last tie to 5” point. No allowance made here for defect. Stump height=1 foot. é Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 327 in the final volume table. A similar method was used in the sawlog-tie-prop table. In addition to the general table, a volume table which can be used in working up trespass estimates, etc., was constructed based on stump diameters outside bark and site qualities, after the following manner: All stump diameters outside bark for each D. B. H. class were tabulated and the average secured, (e. g., the stump d. o. b. of a 11.0” D. B. H. tree was found to be 12.4”). Then on a system of rectangular co-ordinates the average stump diameters out- side bark were plotted as abscissae and the volumes in feet B. M. for their corresponding D. B. H. (taken from the regular vol- ume table based on D. B. H. and site qualities) were plotted as ordinates. The values for the final stump d. o. b. table were secured by reading from the curves, the volumes for the even stump diameters. This gave immediately uniform progression of values in both the vertical and in the horizontal columns. Conclusions. . There are two ways of applying a site-quality volume table, one of which may be used to check the other. The inexperienced estimator by use of a hypsometer may take the total heights of ten to twelve trees and by comparison with the average heights given in the table for each diameter, determine the quality of site. Should very accurate results be desired, interpolation between the values for two site qualities may be made. The experienced man may judge site qualities by careful observation of the stand, taking into account the height of the trees, the character of the soil, the relative altitude, and the nature of the ground cover. Since the determining factors of site quality of pine stands are fertility, depth and moisture content of the soil, and since the characteristics of the soil vary almost directly with the relative altitude above the valley bottom, and since the density of the ground cover is an index of the fertility of the soil, this means of determining the quality is reliable and at the same time simple. This makes the work progress rapidly in spite of the fact that to apply this table it is necessary to make a site-quality map. As mentioned before, this map is extremely valuable in reconnais- sance; and the same is true in timber sale work, for when a 328 Forestry Quarteriy. site map is included the usefulness of the timber sale map does not cease with the completion of the sale. One of the good points of a site-quality volume table for Lodge- pole pine based on d. o. b. on the stump instead of D. B. H. is the ease with which it can be applied in computing the volume of tim- ber cut in trespass. ‘Trespass usually occurs in good stands which yield much brush and under which abundant advance growth is found. These conditions necessitate, in logging, heavy swamp- ing which causes the removal or misplacement of the tree tops, the only indicators of the total or merchantable heights of the trees. For these reasons other forms of volume tables cannot be used with as great accuracy as the site volume table, for in the latter the estimates may be secured by the use of the soil factors as means of determining the height of the trees. Sawlog-tie-prop tables of any form are valuable only as indi- cators of how certain pine stands will run in sawlogs, ties and props. Asa rule accurate estimates of these classes of material on specific operations cannot be secured for the following rea- sons: A tie table can only give results for ties of certain specifica- tions (7”x7” in this case), while on the other hand, railroad tie contracts call for ties varying from 6” to 10” faces, and their tie inspectors are not uniformly rigid in their inspections, often al- lowing undersized ties to be “run through.” Moreover, the de- gree of utilization of trees practiced by the tie choppers varies. Some will cut and others will not cut into ties, large tie-sized trees, small tie-sized trees, trees swelled at the base, and limby- boled trees. These variable factors make it undesirable to spend too much time and money in the preparation of tables which give results in feet B. M., number of ties and linear feet of props; for that reason the site-quality, sawlog-tie-prop table given in this article is based on but 206 trees, and yet it serves the purpose for which it was intended. Since this volume table is probably the first of its kind for Lodgepole pine, a good deal of comment has been made in re- gard to its accuracy and its applicability to all Lodgepole pine stands. The table can, of course, only be used for large averages, like any other volume tables it does not give correct answer for in- dividual trees. Check tests on 62 trees, taken at random, gave Volume Table for Lodgepole Pine. 329 for 30 trees higher scale than the table, for 20 trees lower and for 12 trees the same volume; the differences altogether averaged 2.18 ft. B. M. per tree, or 1.2% for stands higher than the detail scale. In using the volume table on any specific work of estimating, it must be kept in mind that this table gives the contents of the bole in feet B. M. to a point 6” in diameter. In the event that this minimum limit is raised, as may be the case in sales where the operator can satisfactorily show that he cannot dispose of the smaller material, the results given by this table must necessarily be reduced to allow for this portion of the bole between 8” and 6” which is not utilized. THE RELATION OF CROWN SPACE TO THE VOLUME OF PRESENT AND FUTURE STANDS OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE. By GeorckE A. BricuT. The most striking feature of a stand of Western Yellow pine is its open character. This peculiarity is the first thing which strikes any one looking upon such a forest for the first time. Even growing on the best soils and under favorable climatic conditions, it would be difficult, if not quite impossible, to find a full or normal stand of Yellow pine over an area of forty or even ten acres. There appear openings even where the very best conditions for the growth of this tree occur, as well as in lo- calities where conditions are less favorable. This peculiarity of Yellow pine stands is due to five primary causes, as follows: (1) fire, (2) insect infestation, (3) windfall, (4) root competition and (5) light competition. (1) In stands of Lodgepole or Engelmann spruce a fire will kill most of the trees that it touches and the ground is practically cleared for an entirely new stand, which generally comes in quickly and evenly, the light seeds of these species being blown for considerable distances. In the case of Yellow pine, on the other hand, comparatively few trees are killed by a single fire. Openings are only made here and there in the crown cover by the destruction of one or a few trees at best. On deep, moist soils the damage done by fire is less than on dry soils or where the soil is shallow; also reproduction is here far less precarious. For these causes primarily the openings on dry soils are apt to be large and more frequent, although the trees, once having obtained a start, make good growth. In a report by Mr. Munger he discusses the damage done to Yellow pine by surface fires. A table taken from this report follows: Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 331 TABLE I. Showing for the average acre, on three representative areas, after surface fires, the number of trees per acre of Yellow pine and their proportions in the total stand, in four classes, according to the damage which they sus- tained in the fire. Burned Felled Scarred to by by OE: Total Death Fire Fire No. % of No. % of No. % of No. % of No. % of Trees Total Trees Total Trees Total Trees Total Trees Total per Stand per Stand per Stand per Stand per Stand Acre. Acre. Acre. Acre. Acre, Wallowa INTE op is g Average 1-72 5-12 7-70 32.59 8.92 37.75 17.83 75.46 70 Acres. nas N. F. jones 160) |) 2.12 (8:70 30.00; -9.27' 32.92 > 18.57) .65.04 30 Acres. Wallowa eal 50) ) 52 ABU OTE O34 25.23 |\| O02): '27.24)\) 420) 55:30 30 Acres. It will be seen from this table that surface fires in Yellow pine have a decided tendency to thin out the trees, especially if the fires are repeated many times during the life of a stand. But, if the damage to the large trees is considerable, the damage to the seedlings, saplings, and poles is very much greater. Indeed it seems almost certain that in times gone by, when the Indians were in the habit of setting great numbers of fires to drive game, very few seedlings were able to reach maturity solely because of the frequent fires. (2) Insects, especially bark beetles, have also had a strong tendency to thin out forests of Yellow pine. The most de- structive of the bark beetles working in Yellow pine is the Den- droctonus species, of which there are a considerable number of varieties. These beetles work in colonies, flying from one group of trees to another and killing each group in succession, thus opening up spaces of considerable size in the forest. The injury wrought by these beetles is usually more severe than the injury done by fire, and beetles are harder to subdue than fire. They are probably present in all Yellow pine forests in Washington and Oregon. In the Black Hills, a few years ago, 332 Forestry Quarterly. it often happened that every tree over large areas was killed by them. (3) Windfall is not a serious menace in a Yellow pine stand, even where through any one of the various causes the stand may have been considerably thinned. It rarely causes large openings, picking out a tree only here and there. In future stands it will be possible still further to minimize the loss by wind by cutting out the weak and top heavy trees. (4) Root competition may exert a slight influence toward keep- ing a stand of Yellow pine open, but it is believed that this is by no means a very important factor. It would, however, exert a very important influence on the character of a stand, were it not for the fact that Yellow pine is most intolerant, so that the trees, in order to obtain the amount of light which they require for their best development, must be separated by a distance suf- ficiently great to preclude root competition. The roots of Yellow pine rarely extend farther out from the tree than the limbs of the crown in normal trees growing on good soils. This was observed by measurements taken, from time to time, on a great many trees which had been recently toppled over by the wind. This estimate should be conservative, as the trees which are most readily thrown by the wind are those whose root systems are superficial and accordingly broad. The area of the crown of a Yellow pine forms, therefore, a good working index of the area of its root system. Rain falling upon the earth soaks, for the greater part, straight down with very little lateral spreading, at least until it has sunk below the level where it will be available for the roots of trees. Rain, therefore, which falls beyond the immediate reach of the roots is, for the most part, lost, as far as the trees are concerned. That root competition is not very severe, even directly be- neath the crowns of large Yellow pines, is shown by the fact that seedlings often spring up and make good growth in such places. In a Forest Service Bulletin discussing reproduction of Western Yellow pine in the Southwest, the author of that publication shows it to be a fact that reproduction is more prolific under the partial shade of the old trees than it is out in the open. The seedlings derive more benefit from the partial shade than harm from root Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 333 competition. In other words, the shutting off of part of the sun’s rays by the foliage of the big trees and the attendant de- crease in evaporation from the soil more than offsets the moisture absorbed by the large trees, and reproduction is consequently here able to get a start, which would not have been possible for it in the open. It has been frequently noticed in dense thickets of Lodgepole pine where a few very large old larch were still left standing, that the Lodgepole reproduction was very much thinner, or entirely absent within 15 or 20 feet of the trunk of the larch. This cir- cumstance was undoubtedly due to the fact that the large trees absorbed so much of the moisture that none or little was left for reproduction. Light did not enter into the matter to a sufficient degree to account for the phenomenon, as very little shade is cast by such trees. It must have been root competition. However, as it would be impossible to grow Yellow pine of the size of these larch within a distance of 40 or 50 feet of one an- other because of the light requirements of the species, there is no fear of root competition taking place to any serious extent. Were no other factor involved, it would be possible to judge the correct spacing of Yellow pine according to the area oc- cupied by the roots as judged by the crowns, and the approxi- mate number of dominant trees that could stand on an acre could be found by dividing the area of the crowns in square feet into the area of an acre in square feet. But the light re- quirements of the species compel a wider spacing of the trees than is demanded for the development of the roots. (5) This extreme demand of Yellow pine for light, or intoler- ance of shade, has played its part along with the other factors al- ready mentioned, in keeping the forests composed of this species open. It will always necessitate that the trees be spaced well apart. The crowns require light from the side as well as from the top, in order that the tree may thrive and make good growth. The large, irregular spaces primarily due to the rav- ages of fire, insects, and wind are, however, entirely unneces- sary and represent only so much waste ground from the stand- point of timber production. Moisture, which might be available for tree growth in these openings is now lost through evapora- tion due to the unbroken rays of the sun and drying effects of 334 | Forestry Quarterly. the wind, whose movement is unchecked by the obstacle which might be afforded by the trunks and foliage of trees. In other parts of the forest, the trees are usually so crowded together that many are suppressed to such a point that, if not eventually killed, their growth is very nearly nil, and they serve only to absorb moisture and nutriment from the soil, that had much bet- ter go to the dominant trees standing in the light. By proper spacing it will be possible in future stands to avoid root competi- tion and allow the proper amount of light to reach each plant, for its best growth and development. On good, average soils supporting average stands of pure Yel- low pine, containing no large openings, it was found that on ten different sample plots comprising in all 60 acres, there was an average of 33 trees per acre, nearly half being either suppressed or intermediate, as a result of their persistingly growing in groups. The suppression, however, was evidently not primarily due to root competition but to light competition, because no matter how closely together the trees stood, none appeared sickly until they were over-topped by some of their associates, and the light shut off. As soon as this occurred, they rapidly lost ground, and many perished. If the suppressed and intermediate trees occur- ring in these plots had been distributed evenly through the open places in the stand, none would have been suppressed, as each tree large and small over 12” D. B. H. would have been sup- plied with a crown space of 1320 square feet, which is greater than is demanded by any but the very largest of pines, as we later will show. By observing single acres, it will be found that more than 33 trees can stand within the limits of an acre and thrive, and there should accordingly be no reason why the number of trees over large tracts, where the essential conditions are the same as on the single acre, should not be equally large except as the openings are caused by accident. By the suppression of fire and insects, and care to guard against conditions resulting in windfall, forests can be put in a position to return the maximum yields of which they are capable. Fires and windfall are comparatively easy to control. Beetles, it is feared, however, will always prove to be a serious problem. It is a characteristic of Yellow pine to fill quickly with repro- Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 335 duction gaps caused by the death of old trees through one of the above mentioned causes. In this respect, Yellow pine behaves in a manner just the reverse of fruit trees which do not thrive well where another tree, especially of the same species, has re- cently stood. Old cut-over areas of Yellow pine frequently have growing on them a fine stand of reproduction, while the sur- rounding area which had never supported trees is still bare, al- though the conditions for tree growth appear practically identical. This has been noted frequently on small patches of timber cut on the lower units of tree growth, where climatic conditions are more or less severe. In times gone by the frequent fires killed out the patches of reproduction about as soon as they occurred, but since the fires have been in large measure stopped, reproduction has come in very thickly in most Yellow pine forests, and its abundance points to a heavier future stand than the existing stand. This abund- ance is decidedly out of proportion to the comparatively small number of old trees in most Yellow pine forests which make up the present stand. Just how much the forest can be made to yield after the in- juries resulting from fire, insects, and wind have been reduced to a minimum, will depend on the number of dominant trees of merchantable size which it will be possible to grow on an acre without crowding. This number will depend on the amount of space required by each tree, and for this purpose it was neces- sary to find the actual average area occupied by the crowns of Yellow pine of various diameters, and to add to this area the proper allowance of space around the periphery of the crowns which would admit the sufficient amount of side light. For this purpose the actual areas of the crowns of 113 Yel- low pines of diameters ranging from 12 to 42 inches D. B. H. were measured and the results of this study are shown in the following table and curve. ‘Che crowns were measured by standing immediately under the periphery in five or six different places and measuring from each place the distance in, to the center of the tree. These dis- tances were then plotted on a conveniently large scale, the shape of the crown drawn in, and the area determined by a planimeter. These results were finally evened off on a curve. There appears 336 Forestry Quarterly. a very distinct relation between the diameter of the tree and the size of the crown. The crowns of only normal, dominant trees were chosen for this table. It was observed that the crowns of Yellow pines whose D. B. H. TABLE II. Showing the relation between the diameter b. h. and the diameter and area of the crowns of dominant, normal, Western Yellow pine in Oregon. Average Average Area of Average Basis Area of Crowns Diameter Dabehe Number Crowns Evened of Inches of Not Evened on Crowns Trees on Curve Curve Fr. ‘Son Le So. Fr. 12 2 100 100 II 14 5 190 160 I4 16 6 195 210 16 18 4 235 250 17 20 10 260 285 19 22 14 330 32 20 24 12 375 360 21 26 16 400 390 22 28 17 410 420 23 30 3 400 455 24 32 II 555 500 25 34 3 440 550 26 30 5 620 605 27 38 3 52 665 29 40 fo) Oo 735 30 42 I 795 820 31 TABLE. III. Showing, for various diameter classes, the distance at which Western Yellow pine must be spaced in pure stands in order that all trees will be dominant. Actual Diameter Distance apart of Trees should De Be a Crowns stand, allowing INCHES. from for space beyond Table II. Periphery of Crowns. FEET. FEET. 12 Il 16 16 16 22 20 19 27 24 21 31 28 23 35 32 25 40 36 27 44 40 30 50 Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 337 are from 12 to 20 inches are not suppressed by the crowns of other trees of the same species and of similar size, if the edges of the crowns are separated by a space of from 5 to Io feet. In the same way trees having a D. B. H. of from 22 to 32 inches require a space of Io to 15 feet between the edges of their crowns, and, for trees 34 inches D. B. H. and over, a propor- tionately larger space, say of 15 to 20 feet is required. This extra distance between the crowns should then be added to the diameter of the crowns shown in Table II, to obtain the total distance at which the trees should be separated from one another. The crowns of trees are in reality circular, but for the sake of insuring a conservative estimate, they will be considered as square. Thus the number of dominant trees of any D. B. H. class which it will be possible to grow on an acre can be deter- TABLE TV: WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Relation of Crown Space, Number of Trees and Volume. 2 : 2 = =| 2 wo = ¥2, = S és 2 = oO co 2 Sg po Ss ie E5 a z £ AES Sarena: Meir he Me y © eae ev A eS Oo E = ooh e ‘<9 ae = 5 See a es u cS we Ug SBE «gs oo aes BS ue pe oo 28s (se Se (ee) wee ee yee Peas || BOw BON =e SON He) Sir < a) < i Z L a) BH 75 12 100 256 168 16,800 39 16,800 100 16 210 484 go 18,900 43 22,000 133 20 285 6290 60 17,100 30 28,000 183 24 360 961 45 16,200 37 37,000 262 28 420 1225 36 15,120 35 46,000 348 32 500 1600 2 13,500 3g 51,000 425 36 605 1936 22 13,310 31 57,800 495 40 735 2500 17 12,495 .30 56,700 mined by squaring the figures given in Table III representing the distances at which the trees are spaced, and dividing the result- ant product into 43,560, which is the number of square feet in an acre. From these calculations the table IV could be constructed, adding ages and volumes from other compilations in the District office. 338 Forestry Quarterly. This table shows that the density for all diameter classes is less than .5 and that it decreases as the diameter increases. This compensates for the greater intolerance of old trees as compared with young trees, and for the greater shade cast by tall trees as compared with short trees. The volume which an even aged stand of Yellow pine may be expected to produce in a certain time, having a normal num- ber of dominant trees per acre as permitted by the crown space requirements of the trees, is also shown. In order to compare the results of this table with conditions as they actually exist in the wild state, ten sample plots com- prising altogether 60 acres and composed of pure Yellow pine were chosen. A summary of these plots is given in Table V which follows: TABLE V. Showing summary of 10 sample plote taken in pure stands of Yellow pine in Oregon. Average Average Total No. 1B Sle ate Size No. of Trees of Trees Locality of Trees per Acre above of Plot on above T24 Plot Acres. Plot. ge De Bs TEL Inches Palmer Jct. 5 170 34 21 Palmer Jct. 5 190 38 23 Palmer Jct. 4 IIQ 30 19 Palmer Jct. 4 176 44 19 Palmer Jet. 6 159 26 21 Whitney 20 660 33 21 Whitney 10 301 30 22 Austin 4 124 KR 22 Spray I 30 30 2i Prineville I 33 33 24 These sample plots were taken in stands where no large open- ings occurred, the endeavor being to find as even a crown cover as possible. They do not by any means represent maximum yields, however. It is noticed in these plots that the average number of trees per acre falls below the figures given in Table IV. The average diameter for the different plots varies between 19 and 24 inches. According to Table IV the number of trees per acre of 19” trees should be about 68, and for 24” trees, 45. On the sample plots respectively but 44 and 33 trees were grow- ing on an average acre. It was very evident that these plots were Crown Space of Western Yellow Pine. 339 by no means fully stocked. Their average density hovered around two-tenths and was generally less. The last two sample plots of one acre each were studied more intensively than the other plots. The acres of the crowns were carefully measured and plotted on maps where the irregularity and broken character of the forest cover, which was of pure Yel- low pine, is strikingly illustrated. Especially is this noticeable in the one case, where many of the trees are so crowded together as to be very much suppressed, while if distributed at regular in- tervals over the plot, there would have been ample space and to spare, for every tree to have reached its best development. Prob- ably these clumps of mature trees are the survivors of a dense thicket of seedlings such as are seen everywhere throughout the Yellow pine forests. If root competition for water were an especially important factor in keeping Yellow pine forest as open as they are characteristically found, it does not seem likely that the species should be so often found crowded together in TABLE VI. A summary of two I-acre sample plots taken in stands of Western Yellow pine in Oregon. TREE CLASS Plot Total. No. Trees on each Plot. Volume of Plot—B:; F. iy 4 Density of Crown Cover. 1D), 38), Iai ore Average Tree. Inches. Dominant Number. Intermediate Number Intermediate Sup- pressed No. Suppressed Number. woe hotala. JN B. 33 a) WO Pe 3s N OF Nv on groups. Large spaces do not occur around single trees, as a rule, but around groups of trees. It seems probable that the crowding together of the species rather affords a measure of protection by shading the ground and thus lessening evaporation. When the trees grow into poles and veterans, the competition for light is the factor which thins out their numbers more especially than the competition for moisture. In the second case the stand is more uniform than in the first, but the same grouping of the trees is still evident enough. In the first case the average tree is 21 inches D. B. H., the volume, 340 Forestry Quarterly. therefore, should approach 31 M., and in the second case where the D. B. H. of the average tree is 24” the volume should approach 37 M. As a matter of fact, the volumes on these two acres are respectively only 16,600 and 31,000 B. M. Probably many years will be required before it will be pos- sible, in this country, to obtain very extensive normal forests of Yellow pine. Trees will be spaced, not usually by planting as is the case in most of the German forests, but they will be spaced by means of the axe. ‘That is, the stands will be thinned out, as the increasing size of the trees require, and the spacing will consequently be more or less rough. On very dry soils it will be necessary to make the spacing greater than on moist, for the reason that on a moist soil a tree can put up with a greater degree of shade. The shade is compensated for by the increased allowance of moisture. It has been the endeavor in this report to deal exclusively with average conditions of soil and climate as they exist. Extreme conditions of soil and climate will al- ways require special treatment. In conclusion, it may be said that possibly various statements in this report may lend themselves to criticism as not being suf- ficiently backed up by evidence. It was necessary to make this study entirely a side-issue along with more immediately imperative work of another sort, so that the procuring of much field data was impossible. It is felt, however, that the subject treated is an important one, and, before concluding, it is desired to call at- tention once more to the method described earlier in this report, of measuring the areas occupied by the crowns of Yellow pine, which, it is thought, yielded very satisfactory results. The importance of knowing the crown area of trees of all species, for different diameter classes will become increasingly important as it becomes more and more possible and necessary to practice intensive forestry in this country. In planting and thinning, it will be of value in determining the most advantageous spacing of the young trees. In forest management, it will as- sist in estimating the probable future yield of stands. By means of sample plots, the various habits and peculiarities of the different species can be graphically shown and compared in a most instructive manner. NOTES ON STRIP MAPPING FOR INTENSIVE RE- CONNAISSANCE. By A. F. Kerr. The objects of intensive reconnaissance are to secure: Ist an accurate map, 2nd an estimate of the timber, and 3rd other data necessary for the proper management of the Forest—all at a rea- sonable cost. The strip survey has been generally adopted as the best system for securing this information, for the following reasons :—The gridiron arrangement of the strips permits of the simplest and most effective methods of control, and the most accurate location of details in mapping, and it fits well into the rectangular scheme of the Land Office Survey. The gross estimates are practically reduced to a mathematical basis, and may be worked up for con- veniently sized, legal subdivisions. The application of correc- tion factors for defect, etc., require judgment, but the bulk of the estimating can be done by inexperienced and, consequently, low-salaried men. The question of control is an extensive one in itself and, for that reason, will not be considered here. In general the location of data on the strip map depends upon pacing for distances and the aneroid barometer or Abney hand level for elevations. Topography is shown by contours or form lines drawn as the mapper proceeds along the compass course. This system is usually applied in one of two ways. Since the Abney level is merely a substitute for the barometer in either plan it need not be considered separately. By the one method which was commonly used, “form lines” are drawn on each strip in accordance with the barometer readings, and entirely independent of the form lines on adjacent strips. That is, the form lines of adjoining strips are not con- nected in the field but simply serve to indicate the direction that the contours will take on the finished map. These form lines are drawn on the map as final contours, in the office, in accordance with the “corrected” barometer readings. By the other method actual contours are drawn, and are con- 342 Forestry Quarterly. nected as far as possible in the field. They are based, not upon barometer readings alone but, upon differences in elevation deter- mined by the barometer and checked by judgment and by angle and distance. In other words this map is completed in the field, and is dependent to a certain extent upon the judgment of the topographer. Barometer and time readings are recorded upon the field map at regular intervals as in the first case, but are dis- regarded until the map is turned in for final adjustment. The important difference between these two methods is, that in the first case form lines are not connected in the field while in the second case form lines are connected in the field. It is for the purpose of discussing the relative merits of these methods that this paper is written. The barometer and a reasonable ability to pace constitute the new topographer’s chief assets, and perhaps because of the rela- tive accuracy of the barometer, he is inclined to place unlimited confidence in it. Considering now the method first described :—the topographer starts from a control stake of known elevation and when the barometer shows a change equal to the contour interval to be used he unquestioningly indicates it by a line drawn across the strip, showing the general direction of a contour at that point. Other form lines, at irregular intervals, are drawn to indicate minor changes in slope. He proceeds along the compass course concentrating his attention upon the mechanical factors, his pacing and the barometer. Important topographic features will be noted superficially, but the business of properly indicating barometer form lines on the strip occupies his mind. He misses the general scheme of things entirely. Succeeding strips will be done in the same manner. Each strip is a unit in itself, since no individual contour, and therefore no particular land form of one strip is actually connected with the complementary elements of the same land form on adjoining strips. It is seldom that an important topographic feature is complete in a single strip, and if the portion on each strip is sketched as a detached fragment the feature as a whole is lost. No matter how careful the topographer may be, work done in this manner will become mechanical and the form lines across the strip will be simply a graphic representation of the barometer readings taken. Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance. 343 It is a fact, that should require no argument, that a map made in this manner can be no more accurate than the topographer’s mental conception of it. If he does not connect his lines on the sheet and thus develop a complete and tangible representation of succeeding impressions he can not retain a clear idea of the country over which he passes. A given land form seen from one strip may have a decidedly different appearance when seen from the next strip, and the form lines representing it may be entirely unconformable. In the office a case of this kind can be settled only by guess work. Following such a method the mapper will perhaps develop speed and, to some extent at least, his sketching ability, but his judgment of perspective, of topographic forms, and of the inter- relation of physical features will certainly remain latent. The stock argument in favor of this method is that “owing to atmospheric changes which can not be allowed for in the field the topographer is liable to connect form lines of different eleva- tions.” Such an argument is in itself an admission that the work is being done mechanically. It says in effect that the barometer readings must stand, and that the topographer may not use his judgment as to whether or not the reading is correct. It is based on the assumption that a topographic map depends for its value upon the exact location of certain contours, rather than on the proper relationship of the contours to each other. If it were possible to locate contours accurately throughout their entire length, and at close enough intervals, the resulting map would necessarily be a correct representation of the topo- graphy. But with reconnaissance work in rough country and heavy timber it is only possible to approximate their locations, at points from an eighth to a quarter of a mile apart, and usually at vertical intervals of 100 feet. It is evident that under such cir- cumstances the exact location alone of a few points will not give a very reliable map. To produce a reasonably accurate map under the conditions which ordinarily obtain, requires an understanding of physio- graphic features, of the interrelation of land forms, of perspec- tive, and more than this it requires topographic sense and imagina- tion. To concentrate attention on the strip line and to locate contours 344 Forestry Quarterly. by arbitrary barometer readings is to develope only the mechanical ability of the mapper, and to positively weaken his topographic sense. A completed field sketch made in such a manner will show scarcely a single definite feature. The lines on it merely suggest the form which the draftsman is supposed to develope. It is practically unintelligible until it has been thoroughly worked over. In this process it usually loses whatever character it may origin- ally have had, and takes on the wooden appearance of the conven- tional map, with long regular curves, contours uniformly spaced and streams all traced in the same pattern. Whatever the method of securing the data, the purpose of a finished, contour map is to convey to the user a correct and definite impression of the topography of the country which it covers. It is obvious that no contour can be accurately drawn on the map until it is first developed in the mind of the topo- grapher. Therefore, anything which will give him a better grasp of the details or a more thorough knowledge of their arrange- ment, will tend toward the production of a better map. If the mapper can be made to actually see and appreciate the controlling topographic features of an area, the problem of rep- resenting them on the map sheet will offer little difficulty. The plan of connecting in the field, contours of approxi- mate elevation, isa means toward this end., It is simply the application to strip mapping, of a principle of extensive recon- naissance in which large areas must be mapped from a few points. In such work it is impossible to depend altogether on artificial means for the location of contours, and the topographer is forced to rely to a certain extent upon his eye and his judgment. Ap- plied to strip mapping it does away with the purely mechanical use of the barometer and with the idea that “the draftsman can distribute the error,” and it places the responsibility for the ac- curacy of the map squarely upon the topographer. The barometer is used as far as it can be relied upon, but the actual location of many of the contours on the ground is largely a matter of judg- ment. The fact that the contours of separate strips must be connected makes it essential that special thought be given to every feature. The lines can not be drawn carelessly, merely as a suggestion to the draftsman of the probable direction of the final contour. They Mapping for Intensive Reconnaissance. 345 are, in the best judgment of the topographer, the final contours themselves. Intermediate form lines to show minor changes are used only in exceptional cases, as their presence confuses the map and there is little advantage in putting indefinite data on the field sketch which will be eliminated from the final map. It may be argued that, since only a limited portion of the area he is covering is visible to the mapper, he should not attempt to sketch in those portions which can not be seen. There is no rea- son however to suppose that this part of the map can be supplied any more accuately in the office. The details are in the field, and there the topographer has the advantage of being able to see at least a part of the feature he wishes to represent, and from this can make a reasonably good estimate of the unseen portion. In the office it is a sheer guess. In order that the field sketch may be retained exactly as it is turned in, a carbon copy is made and the corrected barometer readings placed on it. The necessary adjustments are then made on the copy. Such adjustments usually consist in a slight shifting of some portions of the map in order to correct for errors in bearing and distance, and to check up the contours with the cor- rected elevations. It is very seldom that any change in the rel- ative positions of the contours is required, and the finished map loses none of the character of the original sketch. To sum up:—the first method encourages the use of the baro- meter as a crutch, and bases its claim for accuracy chiefly upon the accuracy of the barometer readings. Nothing definite, in the manner of representing topographic data on the field sketch is required, and nothing definite is ob- tained. Since it is the mechanical element that is emphasized, rather than the personal there is little improvement in the quality of the maps produced. By the second method the location of the contours is based to some extent upon the topographer’s judgment. The barometer readings are used especially in making the final adjustments, that is, backed by the best judgment of the topographer, as well as by the barometer. Every feature must be shown on the field sketch in a complete 346 Forestry Quarterly. and definite form. No gaps are left to be filled in by a drafts- man. The map is a direct expression of the topographer’s personality, and will improve in quality as the topographer gains in experience. The first method is unsatisfactory in many respects, under conditions such as those found on the west side Forests. The second method is suggested as a possible improvement. The foregoing observations are based on a thorough trial of both methods, covering areas aggregating over 50,000 acres on the west slope of the Cascades, and on the opinions of several topogr2phers whose combined experience covers at least six season’s work. [The experience of the Forest Service corroborates the con- clusions of the writer, and the Service’s instructions for 1913 definitely provided for the use of the second method only. Ed.| ~ an, OBTAINING VERTICAL CONTROL OF PRACTICAL VALUE WITH THE ABNEY HAND LEVEL. By WILLIAM J. PAETH. Method and system become of more and more importance as the work of Reconnaissance is done on a more intensive scale. The object of the survey is to obtain, at all times, as much data of standard value as possible, in a given time, and with the amount of money allowed for the work. In order to approach this ideal, the method and system of doing the work must be adapted to the conditions encountered while doing each portion of the work. Any one system will not result in this maximum efficiency, at all times, and under all circumstances. Understanding, however, the nature and effect of the local conditions under which the work is being performed, the method and system can be chosen scientifically to meet the peculiar de- mands of the situation, and this method and system should be changed at will as soon as changing factors and influences war- rant the use of another method. The maps obtained by cruising methods now employed vary greatly in character and accuracy, depending upon the degree of intensiveness with which the work is done. However, maps of the greatest practical value and efficiency must be consistently accurate within the limits of accuracy determined upon for the type of map being made. To be consistently accurate the vertical control and the horizontal control must be obtained with equal degrees of precision. It would be out of place to obtain the horizontal control accurately and to plot the vertical control from less accurate vertical location. A practically accurate forest map is not always obtained unless all the factors affecting the accuracy of the methods used are considered and understood. As stated before, methods must be chosen to fit local needs. Circumstances may affect the balance in accuracy between verti- cal and horizontal control and in order to make the map con- sistently accurate new methods of obtaining either the horizontal or vertical control must be adopted. To illustrate; the compass man may be able to work within the prescribed limits of error 348 Forestry Quarterly. imposed upon his work in horizontal location, at the same time however, local factors may so influence his work in obtaining elevations with an aneroid that the vertical location will be de- cidedly less accurate than his horizontal location. As a conse- quence a large error is introduced into the horizontal location of the contour. The importance of the accurate horizontal location of con- tours is apt to be overlooked when only the representation of the general character of the topography is desired in the topo- graphic map. Maps prepared by extensive methods, on a scale of one or two inches to the mile, will be of this kind, and these extensive maps will be consistently accurate because the horizontal control and the vertical control are obtained with relatively equal accuracy. If however, a map is prepared by supposedly intensive methods the resulting map is more than a general representa- tion of the ground and in order to give this technical character to the topographic map prepared by intensive methods the com- passman must appreciate the necessity for preserving the balance between accuracy in vertical and accuracy in horizontal location. The accurate horizontal location of a contour is perhaps of greatest importance to the timber appraiser, the logger, and the trail and road builder. The minimum grade of a haul is de- termined by the difference in elevation between two points and the horizontal distance between these two points. A topographic map having this quality of consistent accuracy will show the timber appraiser, logger and road builder a fairly accurate ap- proximation of the grades within the limits of accuracy of the map. An inconsistently accurate map will not, because the horizontal location of the contour is not reliable. As a rule, in the construction of forest maps it is more dif- ficult to get accurate results in the vertical location than in the horizontal. The error in horizontal location can be corrected and distributed between stations along the strip line so that the final results will be well within the standard limits of ac- curacy. Experience has demonstrated, however, that corrected aneroid elevations, under some conditions, still exhibit an error in vertical location, when compared with bench marks, out of all proportion to the error in horizontal location. Under favor- able circumstances, on the other hand, the elevations secured The Abney Hand Level. 349 with the aneroid compare favorably with bench marks and the resultant accuracy is well within the limits of the precision of the horizontal control. In order to secure a consistently accurate topographic map of greatest practical value to the timber appraiser, logger, trail and road builder, and forester, the conditions affecting the work with the aneroid should be studied, with the end in view, that some other method of obtaining vertical control may be substi- tuted at the time when local factors affect the work with the aneroid so unfavorably as to destroy the value of the results for the construction of the type of forest map desired. The Aneroid Barometer. The aneroid is not always an accurate instrument and the errors encountered in working with the aneroid can hardly be controlled by the man in the field. The elevations are not secured by geometric principles. The levels are determined by an intricate mechanism which measures the weight of the column of air pressing upon the top of a shallow cylindrical box. The top is composed of corrugated metal so elastic as to respond to changes in pressure. ‘The interior of the box is in vacuum. When the atmospheric pressure decreases the elasticity of the corrugated top presses it outward, and when the atmospheric pressure increases the top is pressed inwards. ‘This movement of the corrugated top is communicated to an indexed dial by means of a complex system of multiplying levers, chains, and springs. The possibilities for error in the mechanism of such an instrument are apparent. No system of office corrections will compensate for them. The errors caused by the daily and hourly changes in atmospheric pressure can be eliminated by determining these changes with a stationary barometer in camp and correcting the elevations taken during the day in the field. This, however, can only be done with an accurate camp baro- meter, preferably a mercurial barometer. Two aneroids read in camp will often vary considerably even if not moved and it can not be determined which is the more accurate. The errors peculiar to each instrument in the field however, can not be de- tected and remain undiscovered. Errors in the aneroid readings 350 Forestry Quarterly. often become obvious to the compassman and he has no means of accurately correcting them. The instrumental errors of the aneroid are outlined as fol- lows in Wilson’s book on Topographic Surveying :— 1. The elasticity of the corrugated top of the vacuum chamber is affected by rapid changes in pressure. 2. The readings are affected by changes in temperature which it is impossible to readily compensate. 3. The different spaces on the scale are seldom correct relatively one to the other, but the scale of pressure in inches is more accurate than the scale of feet since the latter contains the error due to the formulae by which it was graduated. 4. The weight of the instrument affects its indications, its readings differing in accordance with the position in which it is held. 5. It lacks in sensitiveness frequently not responding quickly to changes in altitude. 6. The chains and levers sometimes fail to quickly respond to the movement required of them. 7. Because of its containing so many mechanical parts these are sub- ject to shifting or jarring by movement made in transporting it, the only remedy for which is frequent comparison with known altitudes or a mercurial barometer.” It is readily understood that most of these errors are different for each instrument in the field and that no office correction can eliminate them.. No corrections based on camp readings can re- move the errors in the field barometers caused by other factors than atmospheric changes. ‘The only possible method of cor- recting or eliminating these other errors of the aneroid is in the field by the compassman. The compassman must study the cause of these errors and must not rely too much upon the camp corrections applied by the camp draftsman. In order to get the best results with the aneroid the instru- ment must be handled carefully and intelligently. The errors introduced by changes of conditions must be recognized by the compassman and topographer. Ignorance of all the factors influencing the accuracy of the results of the use of the aneroid will depreciate the value of the map, and this depreciation will not be due to any defect of the instrument itself. Understanding clearly the cause and nature of the errors encountered it is pos- sible to draw some conclusions as to the conditions under which the aneroid is most favorably used and to determine approxi- mately under what conditions the aneroid is an unsuitable in- strument. Conditions Favorable to the Use of the Aneroid. 1. The change in slope or topography must be gradual. Ab- The Abney Hand Level. 351 rupt and steep slopes are unfavorable because it has been found that the aneroid is most liable to show instrumental error when there is a sudden change in pressure under which conditions the aneroid is not able to respond as quickly as is required. If there are abrupt changes in elevation and slope the aneroid will act sluggishly and the first reading will not be accurate. The com- passman must wait a few minutes and allow the instrument to settle. Where these abrupt descents and ascents are made fre- quently much time will be lost in waiting for the aneroid to read correctly. Herein lies the objection to the use of the aneroid in rough and rugged country. Where the change in elevation is gradual the instrument adjusts itself to the change in atmospheric pressure while the compassman paces along the line. No time is lost then in waiting for the aneroid to read correctly and large instrumental errors are not so apt to occur. This is the case in uniformly sloping country where the slopes are rounded and the grades are not changed abruptly at definite points. Such country is most favorably adapted to the use of the aneroid. 2. In country where the strips can be run with some speed and where it is possible for the compassman to finish the mile be- tween base line benchmarks within a comparatively short time the aneroid can be used satisfactorily. Frequent comparisons with known elevations will thus compensate the errors in the readings of the aneroid. Wilson on this point says:—“Where the changes in slope are not great and the journey is made with considerable speed and when the time consumed in travel is comparatively short, the aneroid may safely be used for dis- tances as great as three to five miles though in such cases the aneroid may not check out within a contour interval on the next comparison.’ In smoothly sloping country where the topo- graphy is not broken the compassman can work with greater speed than where the topography is rough and rugged. As a consequence he will be able to compare his aneroid readings with base line benchmarks within short intervals of time. However, the speed with which the compassman can run the strip is not the only factor in determining the working speed of 352 Forestry Quarterly. the crew. Topography will influence the speed of the com- passman, and timber cover will determine the speed of the esti- mator. Where there are many species the estimator will work slowly. Where there are only a few species or only one the estimator will work fast. Thus where both topography and timber cover conditions favor speed in the work of the recon- naissance crew as is the case in uniformly sloping Yellow pine country, conditions are very suitable for the use of the aneroid. The strips can be run with speed and frequent comparison with known elevations will correct the errors in the elevations taken along the strip. 3. Weather conditions must be favorable to the use of the aneroid. Wilson states:—“It frequently happens as on the ap- proach of a storm or change from stormy to clear weather that atmospheric pressure will change in a few hours by over an inch. This means an apparent change in elevation at one place of over 1000 feet or more.” In winter cruising on the Crater Na- tional Forest the corrections of the great aneroid variations caused by the unsettled weather conditions will introduce errors of over 300 feet in the final corrected results. It has been found almost impossible to correct these big errors caused by the daily weather variation in the winter time. The aneroid is most suit- able only when the weather conditions are settled. The Abney Hand Level. Realizing that the aneroid is liable to introduce errors in the horizontal location of contours when that instrument is used under unfavorable circumstances, the following methods have been outlined in order to substitute a geometric system of ob- taining vertical control. It should be borne in mind, however, that the trigonometric methods here mentioned should not be used with the object of doing work of high precision. The sole aim of the use of these methods is to bring the work of obtain- ing vertical control within the proper limits of accuracy which limits can not be attained with the aneroid under prevailing unfavorable conditions. If these methods of using the Abney are used with a clear conception of the degree of precision to be attained the mapper will not waste time in attempting to do work of too great refinement. The Abney Hand Level. 353 The work in vertical location along the strip is valuable only to guide the office man in the positioning of the contours upon the form line field sketch turned in by the compassman. Consequently if the field man preserves the general profile of the strip the elevations secured along his line will be accurate enough for all practical purposes of the work. The precise elevations of particu- lar points along the line are of no moment. ‘The relative value of the slopes the one to the other along the line are of intense practical value to the man in the office when plotting the final map. Errors in absolute elevation along the strip line are con- trolled by the precise elevations of the base line stakes at each end of the strip line. In order to handle the Abney intelligently the compassman must clearly understand the theory of the Abney level and its practical application in obtaining elevations along the line on a strip sur- vey. The geometric principle is readily understood; the slope is measured either in degrees or per cents of slope; the tangent of the vertical angle represents the per cent of slope; the two are synonymous; in descending a slope of two per cent the com- passman drops two feet in elevation in every 100 feet of hori- zontal distance. The real difficulties in the use of the Abney are encountered in its practical application. The compassman is too apt to be confused by every little irregularity of the ground. Before at- tempting work with the Abney the compassman must under- stand that the object of his work is to obtain a general profile of the ground along the strip. The final map is drawn on a scale of four inches to the mile. The small irregularities which attract the attention of the compassman are lost sight of in the preparation of the final map. The accurate approximation of the per cents of the slopes along the strip becomes the guide of the office draftsman when he expresses the character of the various slopes by contour lines. Then the value of the slope data be- comes most apparent and the desire for the representation of the minor points of relief is recognized as impractical and unneces- sary. The compass man need not sight upon any definite object. His sight must be largely influenced by judgment and this judgment can be practiced so that the compass man will be able to approxi- 354 Forestry Quarterly. mate the slope of the ground accurately without having definite points of sight. The final resulting profile by this method of sighting will be sufficiently accurate to be of real practical value in plotting the final map. The errors in profile by this method will never be too large to destroy the value of the work. A profile drawn from eleva- tions taken with an aneroid would at times show glaring errors in slope which errors would be detected at once in the field by the compassman with an instrument based upon a geometric principle such as the Abney. Aneroid reading frequently will show errors of fifty feet in descending an abrupt slope of 200 feet in less than five chains. The compassman must make an all too apparent error with the Abney in order to introduce this same error into his profile. Yet the aneroid reading stands and the error remains uncorrected by the office corrections applied to re- move the errors caused by weather and temperature changes. The compassman will usually be able to take the sights illustrated. Snags and trees are usually found in bodies of dense brush. Furthermore the compassman can obtain the heights of the snags and low trees sighted upon with sufficient accuracy by guess alone. If the situation calls for greater accuracy in the determination of the height of the tree or snag the com- passman can obtain the height of the snag or tree using the Abney as a hypsometer. The compassman should always bear in mind that he is not re- quired to do work of precision. He is asked to exercise ac- curacy in judgment and to cultivate obtaining practical accuracy in results without paying attention to distracting details. Always bearing in mind the nature of the final map the compassman will be able to recognize the important topographic features and he will lose sight of the insignificant points of relief. Then in tak- ing his sight he will be able to sight parallel to the general slope of the ground or avail himself of other means of sighting as trees, shrubs, etc., to obtain the slope profile. His judgment and ingenuity will improve and speed will come with practice. In order to do accurate work the adjustment of the instrument must be checked before using it. Simple diagrams and instruc- tions are shown in figures 1 and 2 explaining how to check the adjustment of the level and how to adjust the instrument The Abney Hand Level. 355 when the same has been found to be out of adjustment. Two methods are illustrated. The first method is the best when it is possible to place two boards or stakes at equal elevations with a Figuce One Adjustment of The Goncy Level Adjustin a 2 rege) inattument at Odegracr before adjs sting Tre Lint of Sight 2. Beng ihe line of sight on aneqval Clevatien with Ry ihe epper edge ef Stake A Holding the mstroment . pecFect\4 Nerel signt tothe other shake. TE dhe lime of aignt does not shrike ihe vppec edge oF 4ha Stake B the tine oF Sight and the bovble tine are not pacattel BR Tuem ahe adjusting xrews beongimg ane wvbble line porelicl tothe line oF sigh?, Tre inshtoment is in adj ur mant epbie 1s dead center while siqnts bined. The two stakes are wailed at equal elevations Ke franc? of level shevid be sed to establish the Jercls. slong “init Tree bere! Trees at least 100 feet opact level or a transit. These adjustments can be made in the main camp at the beginning of the years’ work, and with care the hand level will remain in adjustment for a long time. If through accident the level is thrown out of adjustment and the crews are in sidecamp where a level or a transit is not available, Method 2 will answer the purpose. A Simple Method of Working with the Abney Hand Level. This method of keeping field notes is proposed in order to simplify and shorten the work of the compassman. It is recognized 356 Forestry Quarterly. that one of the chief objections to the use of the hand level in reconnaissance is in the matter of speed. However, this ob- jection can be removed if the compassman avoids doing work Figure Two. A Field Method of Testing the Adjustment and of Adjusting the Abney Leve/ Te Test:— Clomp at O°ocr O%. ' “4 Cut anotch in Tree */ ae Notch A. Holding the instrument erFeetly level sight to Tree #2. where this sight strike Tree #2 cut another notch S& 2. Proceed to Tree *2 and holding the sastrume nt perfectly level sight back to Tree #1. TF the line OF sight vpon Tree #/ from noteh & does net strike notch A the level is net im adjustment, Mark lhe Point where the sight From notch 8 strikes Tree #/ with anclkeh C. = Ty ae Trees ebout 100 apart. 76 Adjusti— I. Measure ~jhe distence between lhe notches A-C. Cut a new nolek O” half way between notches A-C 2 Froceed to & and adjust with the adjusting screws Shewn in Figure One until the bvbegle is dead center while sighting From Bto Oo! A tne connecting notthes 6 and 0” 4S a Trve Level Line Avoid moving the imdex arm iF the orm is ~lamped to Ihe graduated are. unnecessary for the purposes of sketching topography. It must be strictly understood by the compassman that his absolute ele- vation along the strip line is of no consequence in making his form line field sketch. He must work with speed and he has not the time to perform the numerous arithmetical calculations ac- curately to determine his absolute elevation on the line. Running the strip, the compassman enters the precise elevations of the base line stake on the map sheet; he determines the line of the strip with the compass; he then sights parallel to the slope of the ground along the compass line with the Abney and enters The Abney Hand Level. 357 the reading on the map sheet. He paces along the line until a change of slope is encountered. He marks this position on the map sheet where the change in slope occurs. The slope reading now applies to the horizontal distance along the line between the point of the first reading and the position where the change in slope occurred. Having marked the point on the line where there is a change in slope the compassman takes another sight parallel to the slope of the ground along the compass line and proceeds as before. It is desirable to take several readings at different points along the same degree of slope, in order to get better average approximation of the slope. The compassman does not attempt to run a line of levels; the object of the field work is not to establish a set of absolute ele- vations along the strip line, but in most cases the compassman is working between two base line stakes having precise eleva- tions, and if he preserves the relative value of the slopes in per cents or degrees along his lines between these two bench marks at each end of his line the office draftsman can determine the absolute elevations of the slope station in the office. The field man however does not, attempt to perform this unnecessary work. These datas are as valuable as a set of absolute elevations. The compassman sketches the topography passed over along the strip. The guess of the man in the field as to the form of the country is better than the guess of the man in the office. The field man draws fine form lines following points of equal eleva- tion. He does not attempt to draw these form lines separated by known contour intervals. The man in the field is not drawing contours but sketch lines. These sketch lines are supposed to show the man in the office that the points on the sketch line to one side of the strip are of the same elevation as the point of in- tersection of the line of strip and the sketch or form line. By clamping the Abney at O degrees or per cent the form line can be traced to some distance on each side of the line. It is an established rule to sketch only the country already passed over and lieing behind the compassman. The direction of sketch lines is governed by streams and valley lines, peaks and ridge lines. These points of topographic control are of great assistance to the man in the office when plotting the map; hence the field data obtained with the Abney include the 358 Forestry Quarterly. profile of streams and valley lines expressed in degrees or per cents of slope. When the line crosses a stream the compassman plots the di- rection of the stream upon his map sheet. If he carries an aneroid alone the office man gets only an idea of the horizontal location of the stream. The compassman equipped with the Abney hand level after having plotted the stream on the map sheet, takes a sight straight down stream and up stream. He then enters upon his map sheet the gradient of the stream, valley or draw. From this data the office man can calculate the drop of the stream or valley in feet and he can plot the exact location of the contours crossing the stream bed. The final map will show the true character of the stream, valley or draw with more accu- racy than a map prepared from less detailed vertical control data with the aneroid. The compassman also notes the difference in elevation between a ridge, peak, lake, etc. and the point of observation on the line. Often low leaks, lakes and spurs or ridges lie to one side of the line. The compassman sights to the top of the peak or point of the ridge, and obtains the vertical angle or per cent of the slope to that point with his Abney. The point is located horizontally by intersection. The absolute elevation of the point is not neces- sary to the man in the field. The field man only determines the difference in elevation between his position on the line and the point sighted at. The sight is plotted so that the man in the office will know from what position on the line the sight was taken. In the same manner, the difference in elevation between lakes, valleys, draws, etc., and the position on the line can be determined. The sights are all plotted on the map and the difference in elevation in feet entered on the line indicating the sight as either a plus or minus difference. The man in the office, when he calculates the elevation of the point, of observation on the strip, then adds this difference of elevation to secure the absolute elevation of the point sighted at. It can not be too often repeated that the field man does not need absolute elevations to draw sketch or form lines. The dif- ference in elevation between his position and the points to one side Se The Abney Hand Level. 359 of his line are sufficient to guide him in drawing his sketch form lines. Passing Obstacles Encountered Along the Line. When obstacles are met with along the line, making an offset necessary, the work of the compassman can often be simplified and much sighting with the Abney avoided if the compassman practices a little ingenuity in meeting the peculiar needs of the situation with original methods and application of the Abney principle. A few special cases are cited for example. 1. Cliffs. Assuming that the strip ends on the edge of a steep cliff. The compassman marks his position with a stone, a cut branch, etc., and, having plotted the edge of the cliff on his strip, he can make the offset without further sighting. Having made the descent the compassman offsets back again to the line and marks his position on the strip. From this new position on the line he can sight back upon his former position on the cliff, and knowing the horizontal distance between his first position on the cliff, and his present location on the line, he can obtain the difference in elevation between these two points. Drawing a heavy line to indicate the sight, he enters upon the map sheet, between the two points of sight, the difference in elevation in feet and the degree of per cent of slope. He then proceeds along the line as before, entering upon his map sheet only the per cent or degree of slope of his line. 2. Dense Bodies of Brush where no offset can be made. As- suming that a dense body of underbrush separates two open spaces. The compassman may find it convenient to sight upon the tip of a tree on or adjacent to the line, on the opposite side of the brush. Marking the point of sight on his line, he proceeds through the dense brush without further sighting until he emerges from the brush, coming opposite the tree sighted upon along his line, he marks the position. Having determined the horizontal distance between his point of sight and the tip of the tree, he calculates the difference in elevation of his point of sight and the tip of the tree. Quickly pacing out from the tree he ob- tains the height of the tree, and adds this height to the difference in elevation. He has now obtained the difference in elevation between his point of sight on the opposite side of the brush and 260 Forestry Quarterly. the point on the line at the base of the tree, the tip of which was sighted upon. 3. Crossing Exceptionally Steep Ravines. When crossing very steep ravines, one accurate sight to the bottom, going down, and one to the top, going up, will suffice, although the form of the sides will suggest changing degrees of slope. On very steep slopes the horizontal distance between contour intervals on the map does not differ much for a change of 5% in slope or more. It will be sufficient under the circumstances mentioned to show upon the map sheet only the difference in elevation between the two edges and the bottom. At the bottom of the ravine the com- passman should indicate the grade of the ravine by sighting straight down the water course. He enters this reading as a per cent or degree of slope upon the stream or valley line. 4. Lakes and Marshes. When offsetting to pass lakes or marshes, the compassman can do away with sighting for obvious reasons. With judgment he can ascertain the point on the line at the opposite side of the marsh or lake which has the same elevation as the point where the offset was made. 5. Sighting in Dense Brush. Sometimes the compassman will find it convenient to sight upon the tops of dead snags or stumps, etc., on his line ahead of him. ‘Taking a sight upon a snag or stump in the brush ahead of him, he proceeds without further sighting until within a few chains of the stump or snag. A sight from this point on the line will give him data for a sufficiently accurate approximation of the height of the stump or snag. Then the compassman can calculate the difference in elevation between the point of his first sight and the point on the line opposite the stump or snag. In brushy areas the compassman will frequently find such opportunities to do accurate sighting. The error in elevation introduced by error in pacing will be corrected when the horizontal distance between the two points is corrected by the office man, or the camp draftsman. For sights taken parallel to the compass line, the angle or per cent as well as the difference in elevation should be entered upon the map sheet, the angle or per cent being placed on one side of the line, indicating the sight, and the difference in elevation between the two points on the other side of the line, indicating the sight. Tying in. At the end of the strip the compassman enters the precise ele- The Abney Hand Level. 301 vations of the base line stake (if attainable) on his map sheet. Thus his line begins with a precise elevation and closes in on a precise elevation. Figure Four The Fina/ Mop The Field Mop Scole /6=//Yi/e or Form-Line Field Shetch 5490 Bose line 5470 Ss =, S : 5. 5535" uses eo 3am Boseline ara et. GBaselize BM. A sample map is shown in Figure 4 to illustrate the field work of the compassman using the Abney hand level. Such field notes will furnish the officeman with a greater wealth of detail than is furnished by a set of aneroid elevations taken along the strip. Furthermore, this detail is all of practical value to the logger, trail builder, herder and all practical woodsmen. The final map will express the true character of all the running streams. The gradient of mountain streams does not vary uni- formly. There are frequent narrow inaccessible gorges where 362 Forestry Quarterly. the streams become rapids, and again the stream will flow upon an underlying shelf of harder rock for some distance on a smooth grade. ‘The compassman can indicate very approximately the changing character of the stream as he encounters it on his strips without an Abney hand level, but when the field man gathers all this data, not haphazardly and by guess alone, but with good judgment aided by a practical instrument, the value of this data is greatly enhanced. The logger is interested in the character of the draws, ravines and gullies, and even a rough map should give the logger an ap- proximate idea of his logging chance. The draftsman can express the true nature of all the draws and ravines on the final map with the field data furnished by these methods. The inaccessibility or accessibility of timber, from the logger’s point of view can be determined approximately from such a map, and the closer examination of the ground can then be made more intelligently. The collection of these data may introduce a greater cost on an area basis, but the total cost on a basis of the relative value of the final map will be much lower. } Office Work in Plotting The Final Map. With such field data the camp draftsman is called upon to do much of the work usually done by the man in the field. In order to shorten the increased work of the office man as much as pos- sible a profiling scale has been designed as illustrated in Figure 5. This rule is to answer the purpose both of obtaining the eleva- tions of the slope stations on the strip line and of interpolating the contours.* The profile in Figure 4 was drawn from the field data on the sample strip shown in the same figure. This profile has been pre- pared in order to illustrate the character of the data and to make the work of the office man more easily understood. 1. Horizontal Closure. ‘The error of horizontal closure is cor- rected first and this error of closure is distributed along the line between the slope stations pro ratio to the distance between sta- tions. The greater part of the error is thrown between stations *See also the following article. The Abney Hand Level. 363 having the greatest horizontal distance between them. Having corrected the area of line and pacing, the draftsman proceeds to correct the vertical control obtained from the field data. 2. Vertical Closure. Beginning with the precise elevation on the base line stake, the draftsman works across the strip obtaining the elevations of all slope stations. These operations are very simple and can be performed with speed. At the end of the strip the draftsman compares his calculated elevations with the base line stake elevation. If there is a sufficiently large error to correct, this error is distributed along the line, pro ratio to the difference in ele- vation between the slope stations. A large part of the error is thrown between stations having a large difference in elevation than between slope stations having small difference in elevation regard- less of the horizontal distance between slope stations. It is im- perative that the draftsman calculates the elevations of the slope stations only after he has corrected their position horizontally on the strip line. The error due to pacing will affect the vertical control unless the horizontal control is corrected first. Having corrected the errors of horizontal and vertical closure the next operation is the location of the contours upon the form line field sketch turned in by the field man. The Location of Contours on the Form Line Sketch. The form lines are an absolute index to the direction of the contour crossing the strip line and the office man is not to inter- fere with the field sketch. The man in the field was on the ground when the form lines were drawn and his guess in the field is more valuable than the guess of the man in the office who may be unacquainted with the country being mapped. This form line as drawn by the man in the field is the guide line for the contour. A contour drawn at an acute angle to a form line would be revealed as an obvious error to the office man were he at the spot in the field to compare his contour as drawn with the actual topography. In plotting these Abney field notes the draftsman should conform strictly to the form lines drawn by the man in field, having first corrected their horizontal location if an error in horizontal closure has been made by the man in the field. The contours will then represent the true character of the topography of the country mapped. The finished map will have 364 Forestry Quarterly. a real practical value instead of merely having the appearance of a topographic map. The draftsman can locate his contours on the strip by drawing a profile for each strip and then projecting the contours on the strip as shown in figure 4. This method is simple and easily un- derstood but it has the disadvantage of being a very slow method. The plan here proposed is an adaptation of a practical method used by Professor H. H. Chapman of the Yale Forest School for locat- ing contours with an Abney. Chapman's Method. The draftsman has the following data: the angle or per cent of slope; and the horizontal distance to which this slope ap- plies. Tables can be prepared showing the number of contour in- tervals in a given horizontal distance for each degree or per cent of slope. Thus, on a 15% slope there will be a fifty foot con- tour interval every five chains, approximately. If this slope ap- plies to 18 chains of the strip the draftsman has 3 3-5 contour intervals. Assuming that the base line stake has an elevation of 5810 feet, the first 50 foot contour will be located about four chains from the base stake, the second contour nine chains dis- tant, the third fourteen chains, and there will be a remainder of 3-5 of a contour interval to apply to the next degree of slope. When sketching contours in the field, and the field man has time to perform these mental calculations, the above method is easily used. In the office where the calculations must be made with speed, a mechanical device will be of value. The profiling rule designed is based upon the same principle as the above method. ‘This scale automatically divides the strip into contour intervals and locates the contour on the strip. This scale can be graduated for either per cents of slope or degrees of slope. The graduations of figure 5 are based on a horizontal scale of 16 inches to the mile. For each degree of slope or per cent of slope there is a fixed horizontal distance between contours. By graduating this hori- zontal distance between contours, plotted on a field scale of 16 inches to the mile, into drop in feet the rule will show the drop *See next article. The Abney Hand Level. or rise per chain or unit of horizontal distance along the slope of the given de- gree or per cent. on the map sheet. Thus the draftsman does not have to calculate the distance to the position of the contours. He scales the distance directly with this rule and the whole opera- tion is performed with speed and precision. The camp draughtsman is not called upon to do much arithmetical work. The office work is done by graphic methods and speed will become a matter of practice. Arithmetical cal- culations are tedious and speed is very much influ- enced by mental fatigue. Using this rule the eleva- tions of the slope stations can be obtained by reading the drop in feet from the rule and adding or subtract- ing the difference in eleva- tion to the elevation of the preceding slope _ station. The position of the contour can be read directly from the rule. In order to explain the character of this rule and its application the whole operation is here explained in full; applying to the strips shown in Figure 4. -ATNY -ONITISOUd - Geeel | OF $/ O/ & 00s ve S& OS ISE OF gS SS 00 “9 Se 0% SE OE OS 4 bi (oan Se “ <= U1bY 9 129A LPO U! DOW) BY | atl | VAL sadyo LOF 365 alli : ieeaet 6 —_ | < —— Shae a SS ° i 3 ey << ny = ‘ | OAT BINS 306 Forestry Quarterly. Obtaining the Elevations of Slope Stations with the Profiling Rule. 1. The elevation of the base line stake is 5535 feet. The strip is being run due north. From slope station No. I on the base line to slope station No. 2 on the slope reading is—20%. ‘Taking the rule and applying the graduations for the 20% slope:—place the O point of the scale on the base line station. Read to slope station No. 2. The drop is found to be 99 feet. Subtracting 99 feet from the elevation of the base line stake gives the elevation of slope station No. 2 as 5436 feet. 2. The elevation of the base line stake is 5470 feet. The strip is being run due south. From the base line stake south the first slope reading is 8%. Taking the graduations for 8 per cent the drop is found to be 26 feet. Subtracting 26 feet from the elevation of the base line stake 5470 feet gives the elevation of the slope station as 5444 feet. The slope station is on the edge of a dense body of brush. 3. The compass man has sighted upon the tip of a tree on or ad- jacent to the line, on the opposite side of the body of brush or in the brush as the case may be. The slope reading to the tip of the tree is plus 10%. Applying the 10% graduation the drop in this case will be a rise. The rule gives a 26 feet rise. Adding this ele- vation to the elevation of the slope station, 5444, gives the tip of the tree an elevation of 5470 feet. The compassman has ob- tained the height of the tree and has entered on his map sheet the height as 55 feet. Subtracting 55 feet from 5470 feet gives the elevation of the Slope Station at or near the base of the tree sighted upon as 5415 feet. 4. On the strip starting from base line stake 5535, in the swamp from slope station 5361 and from 5369 the compassman has intersected the small knob to the right of the line. From slope station 5369 the slope reading is plus 20 %. The rule gives a 57 foot rise to the tip of the knob. Adding 57 feet to the ele- vation of slope station 5369 gives the elevation of the knob as 5426 feet. Locating the Contours Between Slope Stations on the Strip. 1. On the strip ending with Station 5480 :— The last slope reading is 5%. ‘The elevation of the last slope station is 5480 feet. ‘Taking the rule graduation for the 5% slope The Abney Hand Levei. 367 the graduation representing O feet is placed upon the station 5480. This station is on the contour. Reading to the 20 foot graduation the first contour 5460 is found to be about 6 chains from station 5480. 2. On the strip ending with station 5470, the last slope read- ing is 8%. The elevation of the last station is 5470, ten feet above the 5460 contour. Taking the rule graduations for the 8% slope the 10 foot graduation is placed upon the station 5470. Reading to the 20 foot graduation the next 20 foot contour 5460 is found to be about two chains from the slope station 5470. Observe that this system is identical with Chaprnan’s method; the only difference being that this adaptation is a mechanical solu- tion of every problem, and that the office man can perform the work with speed. A thorough study of figure 4 will explain the character of this rule. The graduations represent the drop or rise in feet per chain for each degree or per cent of slope. This rule is based on per cents of slope on a scale of 16 inches to the mile which scale is to be preferred to a smaller scale in intensive mapping. Summary of Office Work. A brief resume of the draftsman’s work is as follows :— 1. Correction for horizontal closure. 2. Graphic calculation of the elevation of slope stations and correction for vertical closure. 3. Obtaining elevations to one side of the line. 4. Drawing con- tours in strict conformity with the form lines of the field sketch. These operations are all simple, and easily understood. Speed will become largely a matter of practice. The correction of aneroid elevations takes considerable time and value of the final result is not always satisfactory. The draftsman can per- form all his office work using this rule described as quickly as preparing a creditable map from aneroid data. In thus using graphic methods almost entirely one of the chief objections to the use of the Abney is removed and the draftsman will be able to meet all demands for speed made upon him in his work. The greater wealth of detail furnished by these Abney field notes may call for more work in plotting the data supplied. The practical uses however, to which a map can be put should be the 368 Forestry Quarterly. real index of its value and the cost of a map on an area basis alone is not a fair measure of the efficiency of the methods used in the preparation of the map. Experimental mapping with the Aneroid Barometer and the Abney Level. Under certain conditions the use of the aneroid is accompanied with so many objections that the choice of another instrument would be decided upon provided the new method was of proven value. However, if such methods deserve any attention at all they ought to be given a thorough trial experimentally first. The experimenter has in mind the following sets of conditions: 1. There are two broad types of topography. The first type is the uniformly sloping type where the slopes are not very steep. The second type is the broken and rugged type. 2. Further there are two kinds of timber cover. Where the trees are mostly of one species the estimator will work fast. Where there are many species the estimator will work slowly. 3. There are two kinds of weather conditions, the settled, and the unsettled. All of these three factors will enter into the experiment. Each of these factors influences the accuracy of the work done with the aneroid or else have such an influence that the compass man may have spare time to use slower but more accurate methods than the method with the aneroid. The degree of accuracy to be attained in the work is fixed and uniform. The object of the experiment shall be to determine with what instrument and with what method can we secure this de- gree of accuracy at the lowest cost, under the conditions existing at the time the work is being done. In this problem it is understood that the aneroid is incapable of recording changes in elevation of less than 25 feet accurately, Country so flat as to fall within that class is not considered in this connection. Experiments could be made as follows :— 1. A section, 640 acres, is selected to represent a type. >. Base lines are established for this section of land to be used for this experiment. Let us assume that the north and south The Abney Hand Level. 369 section lines are supplied with good vertical and horizontal control stakes providing for the double running of the forty. 3. These sections of land are mapped as carefully as possible by three crews of equal efficiency. a. The first crew will make as careful a map as possible using the aneroid. b. The second crew will make as careful a map as possible using the Abney. c. The third crew will make an absolutely accurate map using the transit. Each strip crew will use the same primary control and this con- trol will cost the same for each method. 4. Careful cost figures will be kept of the work done by each method. 5. The final maps will be plotted and tracings made of each map. ‘The tracing of the aneroid map will now be laid over the tracing of the transit map and the degree of error absolutely determined. The tracing of the Abney map is then laid over the transit map and the error determined. The cost figures kept will give the total cost of the final map by each method. The ex- perimenter will now have absolute knowledge of the relative ac- curacy and cost of each instrument and method for each type of topography, timber cover, and weather condition. The choice of instrument and method can now be made in- telligently in order to obtain the most valuable results, Such a scientific choice of methods by the reconnaissance party chief will result in the obtaining of maps of equal value although the separate portions of the work were done under widely different conditions. The aim always should be to maintain the standard set for the type of map being made. In the use of a new instrument and new methods there is in- troduced a loss of time and efficiency which will disappear with practice. This point should be borne in mind when studying the practical value of the method for the use of the Abney Hand Level here proposed. THE USE OF THE ABNEY HAND LEVEL. By M. L. Erickson. For two winters I have experimented with the use of the Abney level in timber reconnaissance with the view of using it as a sub- stitute for the aneroid barometer. For winter use the aneroid barometer has proven very unsatisfactory. Probably the main reason for this is the constant great change in atmospheric pres- sure distributed over small areas. The atmospheric changes apparently vary and change greatly in areas as small as a square mile. It was found that careful camp aneroid readings taken hourly failed to provide the desired corrections of the field read- ings, for even after these corrections were made it was nothing uncommon to still find an error of 200 to 300 feet. Perhaps, the aneroids we used were not sufficiently high class to register true atmospheric pressure. At any rate, I have found it necessary to abandon, for the most part, the use of the aneroid barometer in winter cruising and I think, the Abney level should be substi- tuted for the aneroid in summer work also. The use of the Abney hand level was found to work satis- factorily practically in ali forest conditions. The greatest ob- jection to it at first was the amount of computation necessary to determine elevations. It involved long office work and I did not care to employ the Abney so long as its use seriously increased the cost of the work. ‘This winter, however, I have prepared a table by which all office computation is eliminated, and the ele- vations can be carried in the field and noted on the field sketch. Mr. W. J. Paeth has devised a scheme by which the office compu- tation due to the use of the Abney is very materially lessened, and I think his plan is practicable and cheap enough where a draughts- man is employed steadily in the office. But I was not satisfied until all office computation was eliminated and also the added expense of a camp draughtsman. This winter’s experience has demonstrated that the office computation is not necessary and the use of the Abney was found to be entirely practicable. The table used is based on readings in per cent, but similar tables can readily be prepared for Abney levels graduated in de- The Use of the Abney Hand Level. B71 grees based on horizontal distances expressed in paces, chains, or any other equivalent. For our use I prefer the Abney level gradu- ated in per cents and prefer to express distances in double paces TABLE FOR USE OF ABNEY LEVEL. % Distance in Paces (5.28') . I5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 ZR VOn Gy PB NB Sin! So Naar tn an AS Say LO LOM LOM MOM LO ncn MIS DSi DSi 20h F201 20020 OSS LOMO MLO LO TaN MTom Sw 20ne ZO) E20 25nn25wii2s ni 2h Visaih ao GU SMLOM LOM LON Ton Veni 2One2ONnZOmne5n2Oi/20nisOinaOus5 ens 5u AG VA LOO MLOWN DS ES) ZO) 2025) i 25) Ou sOmi she 35) 040) AOnwAS) 4500 50050 360 30 35 45 55 65 75 8&5 90 100 IIO 120 130 140 150 155 165 175 185 38 30 40 50 60 70 80 9g0 100 IIO 120 130 140 I50 160 165 175 I85 195 40 30 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205 42 35 45 55 65 75 85 I00 IIO 120 130 140 I50 160 170 180 195 205 215 44 35 45 55 70 80 95 I05 II5 125 135 150 160 170 I80 195 205 216 230 46 35 50 60 75 85 95 IIO 120 130 145 155, 165, 180 190 205 215 225 240 48 35 50 65 75 85 100 IIO 125 135 150 160 175 I85 200 210 220 235 250 50 40 55 65 80 90 105 II5 130 145 155, 165 180 190 205 220 230 245 260 52 4065 70 80 95 IIO 125 140 I50 165 180 I90 205 220 235 245 260 275 54 45 55 70 85 I00 IIO 130 145 155 170 185 200 215, 225 245 255 270 285 . 56 45 60 75 90 105 II5 135 150 160 175 195 205 220 235 250 260 280 205 58 45 60 75 95 IIO 120 140 155 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 275 200 305 60 50 65 80 95 IIO 125 140 160 175 190 210 220 240 250 270 285 300 315 64 50 70 85 100 IIO 135 I50 170 I85 200 220 235 250 270 290 305 320 335 68 55 70 90 IIO 125 140 160 180 I95 215 235 250 270 285 305 325 340 360 72 60 75 95 II5 135 150 175 190 210 225 250 265 285 300 325 340 360 380 76 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 350 380 405 80 65 85 105 I30 I50 170 I90 210 230 250 275, 205 315 335 300 385 400 425 5 90 I10 135 155 175 195 220 245 265 290 310 330 340 380 400 420 445 © 90 115 140 160 185 205 235 255 275 305 325 345 370 305 420 440 465 0 95 115 145 165 190 210 240 260 285 310 335 355 380 405 425 450 475 (equal to 5.28 feet). It will be noticed that the elevation table gives the reading in the nearest 5 feet, which was found to be sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. Thus using the multiple of 5 for elevations, makes mental calculation easy. Any error introduced by reading the elevation closer than 5 feet is very small, for all such errors are compensating. The per cent 372 Forestry Quarterly. indicated in the table is given in the nearest 2 per cent. Ordinar- ily, it adds nothing to the practical accuracy of the work to read the Abney closer. When long sights are taken the exact per cent can be read and the elevation determined a little closer by interpo- lation. The paces, too, are indicated in the table to the nearest 5. It seems to add nothing to the practical accuracy of the work to indicate this more closely. The use of the table is very simple. The compassman first sets up his compass, secures an alignment, and then sights with the Abney level at some object along the compass course at approximately the height of his eye. The slope (plus or minus) is then noted on the field map, as indicated in the accompanying sketch. The compassman then paces to the object sighted at, which is usually a point where the slope changes. He then refers to the table already prepared and pasted on the front cover of his tatum holder and directly determines the rise or fall in elevation. He adds or subtracts this to the elevation previously established at the starting point. This takes but a mo- ment’s calculation and usually it is a mental one. The true ele- vation as determined is noted on the map to the left of the strip line. The station indicated in paces is set down on the map at the right of the strip line. He then draws a form line contour through the station and proceeds with his observation for the next station. It is always best to sight at some object approximately the height of the eye, but this is not at all necessary, especially when long sights are taken. For distances over 75 double paces the dif- ference in per cent by sighting at an object several feet above or below the height of the eye is so small that it can not be read on the Abney scale. It is not advisable to take observations for distances much over 200 paces unless the object sighted at is very distinct. Because the table does not give direct differences in elevation for horizontal distances greater than 100 double paces it should not be assumed that this difference in elevation can not be obtained. For distances over 100 double paces note the read- ing for 100 double paces and then add to it the reading for the additional distance. The sum of the readings gives the dif- ference in elevation between the two points. In cruising the most economical crew is 2 men. The compass- ee The Use of the Abney Hand Level. 373 man takes the course with a compass and the grade readings with an Abney and carries his horizontal distance by pacing. There are numerous practices in the field that the topographer soon learns to employ. I. Sight a definite object on ground. Determine elevation at that object and then add 5 feet for distance ground to eye. 2. Sight at peculiar markings on trunk of tree (black knots, scars, wood-pecker holes, etc.). Add or subtract difference in feet above or below approximate height of eye. 3. Sight at peculiar definite limbs in tree. Make approximate allowance for distance above eye. 4. Sight at top of a tree or snag. Determine height of tree by any of the simple methods and add this to elevation determined for the top of the tree. A great help in plotting the contours between strip lines when the course follows steep side hills is to note with the Abney the slope up or down by plus or minus; the direction of slope being indicated by arrows. The exact location and elevation of points of ridges or other topographic relief not directly on line with the compass course can be determined. The location is determined by bearings from two stations taken with the compass, and the vertical angle is taken from one of these stations with the Abney level. Knowing the distance and the vertical angle, the elevation of the object can be easily computed. The Abney is a great aid in checking one’s own work in the field. Often observation from stations along the strip line to tops of peaks, ridges, cabins, ponds or other objects already located will give a check on the elevation previously determined. Incidentally the tallyman need depend on no other instrument for determining the number of logs or height of trees. On very steep hillsides, through dense brush, or across difficult obstructions it is often unsatisfactory to pace the distance. The Abney level can be used to determine the horizontal distance as well as the vertical difference in elevation. Example: The crew arrive at the brink of a very deep canyon with precipitous walls. The compassman determines an object on the opposite bank for his course, then with the Abney level 374 Forestry Quarterly. takes readings at the base and the top of a tree on the Opposite bank. The first reading at the base of tree is 2%, the reading at top of tree is 20%. The vertical angle then is 18%. Arriving at the opposite side the height of the tree is measured and found to be 150 feet high. For every 100 feet of horizontal distance . . . I Oo there is a vertical distance of 18 feet, therefore 2 x 100=833, distance across the canyon. The difference of elevation between the two banks is .o2 x 833 or 16.6, or 15 feet expressed to the nearest five feet. Since the observation was taken at the base of tree 5 feet (height of eye above ground) should be added to this reading. The above method of determining distance was employed many times last winter and it works out beautifully. While aneroid barometers with the most careful use and careful corrections were daily giving us errors of 100 to 200 feet, our re- sults from the use of the Abney level were checking within 5 and 10 feet. Occasionally, one makes an error of 20 feet in a two- mile strip. The greatest error made was 35 feet in running a dis- tance of 24 miles. Such small errors are easily distributed. Every individual would not be adapted to use the Abney hand level with practical success. Curious as it may seem, those that are inclined to be too precise and fussy often make the biggest errors. The compassman using the Abney must keep ahead of the cruiser ; he can not take time to make a second observation, he can not afford to lose his object sighted at, he can not consume extra time in making more close computations than are necessary, and he must learn what features of topography to omit. Numerous short sights requiring reference to the table frequently should be avoided. One learns to estimate small differences in elevation to the nearest 5 feet and it does not add to the accuracy of the work to take observations for short distances involving small dif- ferences of elevation. In going through patches of dense, tall reproduction where long sights can not be secured one learns to estimate the difference in elevation as he goes along and checks this by estimating the average per cent of slope. After a few days’ practice it is sur- prising how close one checks up on this work. Often just before reaching a big patch of brush or reproduction The Use of the Abney Hand Level. 375 a sight can be secured on a tree or snag at the further edge of the patch. This should always be done when possible to avoid esti- mating the difference in elevation as the course is projected through the brush. Just as big a day’s work should ordinarily be accomplished by a two-man crew using the Abney as with the aneroid barometer. We could double run eight forties a day in rather difficult going, and that is certainly satisfactory. In our work last winter we ran a transit level through ap- proximately the middle of the area covered by reconnaissance. Absolute bench marks were established at section line intersec- tions and at other points where necessary. From these bench marks, base lines usually 2 miles apart were run with the Abney hand level. In establishing base lines, especially long ones, with the Abney a little more accurate computation is employed than for regular strip cruise work. Distance was measured with a chain and elevations were computed to the nearest foot. Our base line surveys with the Abney proved very satisfactory. A two-man crew can run and blaze about 24 miles of base line per day. T 31 S, R 3 E, within the Crater National Forest, was cov- ered last winter in this kind of a reconnaissance survey, and it is the only large area on the Forest mapped with a high degree of accuracy. One valuable feature in using the Abney is the fact that a contour map of any fineness desired can be secured with scarcely any additional work or increased cost. Ten-foot contour inter- vals can be sketched in on the field map as easily as 25 or 50-foot contours. The Abney hand level has undoubtedly come to stay as an- instrument useful in reconnaissance work and if the right men are secured to use it, it will supplant the aneroid barometer. Some improvements in the Abney hand level should be made to make it more convenient and less liable to get out of adjust- ment. The graduated arc should have about twice as great a radius. It should be graduated in both degrees and per cent. The tangent graduation should extend to 200 per cent, and the case for it should be arranged so as to carry on the belt instead of over the shoulder. STUMPAGE APPRAISAL FORMULAE. By Donatp Bruce. While there are a number of different formulae in common use at the present time in appraising stumpage, they may be classified into two distinct types. The first is based on the principle of allowing a certain percentage of the operating cost as profit and considering the difference between the selling value and this cost plus this profit as the stumpage value. The second allows as profit a per annum percentage on the invested capital. The most common example of the first class is what is generally known as the Forester’s formula, expressed mathematically as fol- lows: X=S—O—.op (O+X) or simplified S be —O I.op Where S=selling value; O=operating cost, including deprecia- tion, interest on fixed investment, etc. ; p=per cent profit allowed; and X=stumpage. It will be noted that in this particular formula, interest on the fixed investment is included as an operating cost. This is not, however, an essential characteristic of this type of formula. The characteristic formula of the second type is as follows: op C A Where C=average capital invested, and A the average annual output of the operation; the other letters retaining their above defined meanings. xX—=$—_O— The main complication in this case is involved in the determina- tion of the average investment and the method of charging off depreciation and profit. Several quite complicated formulae have been devised for this purpose, of which the most accurate but per- haps the most intricate is what is known as Hunter’s formula. Stumpage Appraisal Formulae. 377 There are advantages inherent in each formula. The oper- ating cost method is simpler to apply while the other is con- sidered to be more accurate though possibly more difficult of application. It is, however, an error to claim that either formula is universal in its application. It can be shown that cases are possible where each gives ridiculous results unless the profit per- centages are varied through an extreme range. To thus vary these percentages widely almost nullifies the value of the formula since it places the final decision squarely back on the judgment of the appraiser. The customary percentages with the Forester’s formula are from 15 to 20 per cent. and for the investment formula from 10 to 15 per cent. The following examples will show cases in which widely different figures must be used. While these cases are hypothetical, the figures used are typical of log- ging chances in western Montana and northern Idaho. The conditions are extreme, but yet are actually met. Case 1. An easy logging chance of about 22,500 M. B. M. to be handled at the rate of 7,500,000 a year; largely direct skidding to the river bank where the logs can be sold in the deck. Estimated cost of logging, ........... $3.00 per M. Estimated cost of improvements and equipment (including interest) ..... .45 Motaly cost) of Operation.) suse aa $3.45 Average sale value of logs, .......... 6.50 Margin for profit and interest, ....... 3.05 Average investment, improvements, .. $1,000.00 Average investment, equipment, ...... 4,000.00 Average working capital, ............ 5,000 .CO Total average investment, ...... $10,000.00 By the investment method: allowing 15 per cent. per annum profit on the average investment gives as total profit, $1500 on 7,500 M. B. M.; profit per M. 20c; stumpage ($3.05—20c) = $2.85. It is obvious that this profit of 20c, while a fair return on the invested capital, is a ridiculously small margin over the esti- mated operating cost and one which would not justify a logger in undertaking the job. By the Forester’s formula, on the other hand ; allowing 20 per cent profit, the stumpage amounts to $1.95, and $1.10 is allowed for profit. ($1.95=$6.50—$3.45—20% X ($3.45 378 Forestry Quarterly. +$1.05) (approx.). This figure is quite consistent with the actual stumpage values current in the sales of this character. The profit allowed on this basis would, however, be 82.5 per cent. return on the invested capital. Obviously this is a case where the investment method is practically valueless. Case 2. A railroad chance of 400,000 M. B. M. to be handled at the rate of 20,000,000 a year; expensive construction in- volved, but otherwise cheap logging. Estimated cost of logging, ........... $4.00 per M. Estimated cost of improvements and equipments (including interest)..... 3.00 per M. Total Ycost! or. operation, (suse atoeeane & $7.00 per M. SHOMINAG EMRE ries ies bide hoki Rema eae .50 per M. BAN) OU WANS AL SN Ty WR ear mR uk es 1.50 per M. Wialtte Ot alO ssi icant ke. Siacler eea apts mine ete $9.00 per M The stumpage and profit above given are determined by the Forester’s formula allowing 20 per cent. profit. ($.50=$9.00— $7.00—20% X ($7.00+$.50). Checking this by the investment method we find the following results: Average investment for improvements, .......... $300,000 Average investment for equipment, ............. ,000 Wiorkaniotica pital. ise demetcr cin Oe Ghee han ee ee rn einai 100,000 Viotal ‘average investment wens eee seceite. esata $480,000 $1.50 profit per M. on 20,000 equals $30,000 per annum, which is 64 per cent return on $480,000. In this case, then, the re- sults of the Forester’s formula are shown to be ridiculously low when checked by the investment method. On the other hand, a 15 per cent. profit on the investment would equal $3.60 per M., or over 50 per cent. of the operating cost. This, however, is so high a profit that the stumpage is more than wiped out, indicating that in this present case the chance cannot be handled at a reasonable profit. The case, however, is distinctly one where an operating cost formula is of little or no value. Under certain conditions then, each formula is useless unless checked by the other. When analyzed the reason for this is that the prospective purchaser demands, and justly, assurance of two things, first, that he will obtain a reasonable return on his invested capital and second, that he has a reasonably wide Stumpage Appraisal Formulae. 379 margin over the cost of operation as an insurance against the many minor hazards inherent in the logging business. In the first case above described the return on the capital was ample, but the margin over the operating costs was so ridiculously small that no .sane logger would attempt the job since the least accident such as a period of bad weather might easily wipe out all profits. In the second case the margin on the operating cost was ample but the return on the money in- vested was insufficient to interest capital. Obviously both de- mands must be met. Neither formula alone can measure both. The investment method, of course, defines absolutely the return to the invested capital, while the operating cost method is an excellent measure of the margin necessary above the cost of operation. ‘Therefore, both should be used, constituting a double minimum. ‘Thus used, the range of percentages in each may be kept reasonably low. With the percentages standardized, the formula which gives the lower profit must govern. his simultaneous use of the two methods brings in question at once the advisability of including interest as a cost in the operating cost method. This practice, which has become al- most universal since its adoption in the Forester’s formula, has something in its favor where the investment method is not used as a check. To include interest makes a formula which is in a sense a hybrid between the two methods. Extra profit is allowed in the form of interest for extra invested capital not fairly represented in the operating cost. This compensation is, however, only partial since the interest rate is invariably (and necessarily) low, say 6 per cent, as compared with the profit rate. Further, its inclusion tends to confuse the results. Neither the margin over the real operating costs nor the return on the investment is shown. The profit allowed consists of three factors: 1. A percent on the operating costs (which may be earned several times a year). 2. A per cent. per annum of a part of the invested capital, (usually only the fixed investment), and, 3. A per cent (profit) on this last percentage since the latter is carried as a cost item. And these three factors are so confused that analysis is dif ficult. When both formulae are used, the interest charge should 380 Forestry Quarterly. unquestionably, in the opinion of the writer, be omitted. The necessary return on the capital is obviously shown by the in- vestment method, and, as previously suggested, the straight op- erating cost method is an admirable measure of the margin necessary. The $6.00 logging job involves roughly twice the chance of unforeseen costs as does a $3.00 job, and demands approximately twice the margin. This is not true, however, where interest on invested capital is added as a cost. The same logging chance handled by a railroad instead of by driving may well involve less operating cost but greater invested capital. It is obviously, however, a more stable proposition and can be handled on a lower margin. The decreased operating costs and the correspondingly lower margin necessary should be reflected by the operating cost formulae while the increased capital in- vested can better be expressed and handled by the investment method. While, in general, both formulae are necessary, in certain specific cases it can be seen from inspection that one or the other will give the lower stumpage rate and hence govern. Small sales similar in character to that first described ordinarily in- volve such a small investment that the operating cost method can safely be applied without check. This is a great advantage to the seller of stumpage since appraisal of these small chances must usually be made by men of narrow experience who, while thoroughly competent to estimate logging costs, are somewhat at sea on questions of invested capital. To summarize, it is felt that (1) if stumpage is to be ap- praised by formulae, both the operating cost and the investment methods must be used and the lower stumpage indicated adopted, and (2) that interest on fixed capital invested should not be in- cluded as an operating cost. STANDARDIZATION OF FIRE PLANS, ORGANIZA- TION, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS IN DISTRICT. TLL. By JoHN D. GuTuRIE. An interesting and productive conference was held at the District Forester’s offices in Albuquerque, N. M. in March, 1914. The Supervisors of the Datil, Coconino, Sitgreaves, Gila, Apache, Pecos and Jemez Forests, with certain of the District officers, acting as a committee, considered the standardization of fire plans, organization, methods and equipment. The desire of the committee was to find out how far the District should go in making the features of the present annual fire plan standard, with the idea of making all instructions of the plan, upon which the committee agreed, as mandatory hereafter for the entire district. It was realized that local conditions had to be considered in any attempt at standardization, yet it was felt that certain pro- visions of the fire plan and certain methods and equipment could well be made uniform for all forests in Arizona and New Mexico. This committee went on record as adopting the following: Discovery of Fires and Method of Reporting. As standard the triangulation system of detection, from pri- mary lookout stations, to be supplemented by riding patrol only on those portions of a forest which cannot be covered from lookout stations. On forests having adequate telephone communication fires will be reported to both the supervisor and district ranger or fire chief. Rank of Officers. It was decided that ordinarily the primary lookout man will rank next in authority to the district ranger or fire chief. No objections, however, will be made if the fire organization is such that patrolmen should outrank lookout men. The im- 382 Forestry Quarterly. portant consideration is that instructions to lookout men and patrolmen must be definite in this matter of rank in order to fix responsibility for action. In the ideal fire organization, pa- trolmen will be essentially fire fighters. Under this heading there was considerable discussion regarding the giving of an appoint- ment as forest guard to lookout men and patrolmen, who might in many cases be excellent men for these positions yet who were not ranger material, and in a way were performing the work of day laborers. Some of the committee held very strongly that no new men should be given a guard’s appointment who would not possibly later develop into ranger material, and that all look- out men and patrolmen should be day laborers. As opposed to this view it was pointed out that the Forest Service has em- phasized very strongly that every member of the forest force whether he be supervisor, deputy, forest assistant, ranger or guard is an integral part of the fire organization, and each man must realize a sense of responsibility if results are to be ex- pected, also that there is no more important position in the fire organization than that of lookout man, that the qualifica- tions for the duties required were peculiarly exacting. In view of these facts the point was made that it did not look consistent to consider the lookout man as a mere day laborer, that it could not be expected that his sense of responsibility would be aroused or that he would feel that he was part of the fire organization if he were a day laborer, paid so much per day, and liable to be dropped any day, that by giving him an appointment it would in itself be impressed upon him that he was a forest officer and a part of the fire organization, and that he had certain re- sponsibilities and duties. The statement has been made frequently that the Forest Ser- vice should not give guards’ appointments to all men used tem- porarily on the forests; that a forest guard should be an assistant to a ranger; that the Service should reserve this title for men who have decided to enter the Service work to become eventually rangers, and that it is not desirable to give men serving in such capacities the power to arrest. It is extremely seldom that the actual power to make arrests is made use of by any forest of- ficer—there is no need of it—and therefore it is not felt that Standardization of Fire Plans. 383 that question in itself is worth considering. There are certain men on almost any Forest, who by reason of several summers’ experience as guards and of their intimate knowledge of the country and local conditions, make the very best possible guard material. These very often are men who do not intend to be- come rangers, who own ranches and who could not pass the ranger examination if they took it, and others in exactly the same class who are too old to take the ranger examination. These men are glad of the opportunity to earn some money dur- ing the summer, make excellent guards, but would not be willing to work as day laborers at all. The solution of this matter is that there should be special positions of lookout man and patrolman, to be appointed as such. Surely every field forest officer realizes that there is no more responsible nor important position than that of lookout man—then why not recognize it by making a special appoint- ment ? Divorcing Protection From Admuinistratton. Until protection can be absolutely divorced from administra- tion, fire plans cannot be considered perfect. On those forests where the administrative work during the fire season is of such a character that it can either be neglected entirely or handled by the district rangers without interference with their protec- tive duties it may be said that the two are now already divorced. On large forests containing extensive stands of timber, the first step to be taken toward divorcing protection from adminis- tration is the establishment of fire units, with the assignment of a fire chief in charge of each unit. Such units will be made without regard to the boundaries of administrative districts. If two or three administrative districts are included in whole or in part in a fire unit, their respective rangers in charge will con- tinue the administrative work and will be called on only in the event they are needed for actual supervision of fire fighting. Un- der this system, the organization for fire protection is separate from the administrative organization until there is a large fire or a number of small fires. This means that a district ranger in charge of an administrative district will not be called upon 384 Forestry Quarterly. until the need for his services has been indicated by the fire chief or supervisor. Rate of Wages. The maximum wage for inexperienced men as either lookout man or patrolman will not exceed $60.00 per month, together with subsistence, which will not cost over $15 per month; this subsistence to be furnished by the Forest Service. Inexper- ienced patrolmen who will be so situated that there is no necessity for the Service to furnish subsistence will be paid not to exceed $75 per month. Experienced lookout men and patrolmen (those who have rendered one years’ service or more and whose services because of their detailed knowledge of local conditions, are in- valuable so that they could not be replaced), may, in the discre- tion of the supervisor, be recommended for a wage greater than $60. The District Forester will be informed of the facts in such cases, and his approval secured in advance. Instructions to Protective Force. Either the supervisor or a competent member of his force specifically designated will, in advance of the fire season, or as soon as the special protective force is on the ground, per- sonally instruct each man as to his duties. This will not take the place of written instructions. This field inspection will give the opportunity to orient protractors. The importance of im- pressing upon each officer the necessity of discipline must not be overlooked. It should be made clear to a lookout man that he must remain at his post until permission for leaving is secured from either the supervisor or the fire chief or district ranger, as the case may be. To relieve the monotony of a lookout man’s duties, if it can be arranged without detriment, he can be al- lowed to exchange positions with a patrolman for a week or more; this is to be done only after specific authority has been given. Co-operation. Inter-forest boundaries will be practically disregarded in con- sidering protection against and fighting of fires. On those forests which adjoin Indian Reservations, supervisors will personally take up the matter of co-operative fire protection to ascertain if mutual arrangements can be made. If such ar- Standardization of Fire Plans. 385 rangements can not be made, the District Forester will, after being duly informed of the facts, take the matter up with the Forester. ‘The idea, as indicated, will be to work from the bot- tom up rather than vice versa. Supervisors will write to local postmasters calling to their at- tention the matter of co-operation, as indicated in an Order is- sued by the Postmaster General in 1913. Before the beginning of the fire season a circular letter should be sent to each permittee; the letter will be in the nature of an appeal—instructions and commands must be avoided. Cards or posters containing the Six Rules will be given as wide distribu- tion as possible; fire signs and notices are to be posted in well chosen location, avoiding the “bunching” of them. Large painted fire signs (2x3 or 4 ft.) well placed at the entrance to a Forest or occasionally along a well travelled road should possibly be of greater benefit than a larger number of ordinary signs posted indiscriminately. The fire campaign must at all times be an active one; in so far as possible—following .up circulars with personal talks, and preparing fire news items for local papers whenever there is a “lead” for a story. Per Diem Guards. Per diem guards will be appointed on every Forest where the class of men suitable for this position can be secured. They will be considered as a part of the fire organization. Such ap- pointments are conducive to responsibility and quick action in time of fire, where no other forest officer happens to be in the immediate vicinity. The appointment of per diem guards at the rate of $.35 per hour for time actually worked in fighting fire together with the fact that rangers can now act as notaries in administering oaths, should remove any possible objections to the plan. The rates of pay for fire fighters are to be: Laborers, $.25 per hour—maximum; Cooks (regular experienced) $.35 per hour—maximum; Foremen, $.35 per hour—maximum. Instructions in the time book (form 875), which was sent out in 1913, will be followed in determining the time of fire fighters. Ordinarily the officer in charge of a fire will keep the time of fire fighters. Studying the Efficiency of Lookout Stations. One very important feature of the 1914 fire plan will be the 386 Forestry Quarterly. thorough study by the supervisor or a competent forest officer whom he may designate, of the efficiency of lookout points, be- fore new points are selected and towers erected. Generally it may be said that every forest has a few prominent peaks and they have been selected as lookout stations as a rule. What is wanted is to know accurately whether these points already se- lected really cover the areas they are supposed to. To deter- mine this, go to a lookout point and take bearings on all prom- inent points in the area covered by the lookout, as well as bear- ings in canyons and on natural boundary features, making an estimate of the distance to all such points and plot them on the map so that a meander line can be drawn around the “seen” area. Where nearby ridges or other small peaks are so located as to interfere with fires on their far sides being readily discovered, special note should be made of these con- ditions, so that they can be checked from other lookout points. If after checking the area of efficiency of all lookout points, it is found that there are certain areas that can not be seen from any of them, the advisability of establishing another primary lookout or, if none is available, the location of a patrolman’s route will be in order. Fire Maps. The present fire map, a sample of which was sent out in the spring of 1912, has been adopted as the standard fire pro- tection map for the district. This means the adoption of all the information as given on that map. When there is a riding patrol the routes of patrol will be indicated. The organiza- tion diagram will be placed on the map. The protractor should be drawn directly on the tracing at each primary lookout point. On the forests where the tri-colored base map is now in use or where there is any reason for not placing the protractor on the tracing, the transparent protractor will be pasted on the map. Where there are inter-forest primary lookout points, a double arc, with the projected bearings from the lookout point of an adjoining forest marked on each arc, should be on the border of the map, so that a correct bearing may be had from the lookout point of such adjoining Forest. In order to get this it will be necessary to give each Forest its proper location with Standardization of Fire Plans. 387 regard to adjoining forest maps and strike a circle with a radius long enough to reach from the exact location of the look- out point to the border of the map. Maps of inter-forest areas comprising a fire protection unit will be prepared as rapidly as possible. Report Forms—Equipment and Supplies. A blank form to be used by lookout and patrolmen as a daily report was adopted for general use; likewise a blank report form to be used by the supervisor, fire chief or district ranger in recording the daily reports from the lookout and patrolman was adopted. On Forests inadequately provided with telephone communication, where the so-called mail box system is used for checking the work of patrolmen, a suitable galvanized iron box was adopted, as well as a blank form for the purpose of record- ing the visits of lookout men. Standard supply lists will be left with each store-keeper living in or near the Forest and necessary arrangements made so that he can send immediately when requested the supplies specified in the list. The standardization of subsistence supplies for fire fighters was thoroughly considered, but no list adopted, due ap- parently to the great variation in local conditions. With the intent of avoiding possible criticism or comparisons between adjacent Forests, the following list of food supplies, when supplied by the Forest Service to lookout or patrolmen was adopted as standard: Beans Fresh meat Flour Coffee Baking soda Lard Dried fruit Tea Pepper Salt Canned milk Bacon Canned tomatoes Sugar and syrup or jam Canned corn or peas Macaroni and rice Baking powder Potatoes It was felt that the above list gives sufficient opportunity for selecting a diet that can be relished by the most fastidious employee. The total cost of supplies that may be purchased 388 Forestry Quarterly. from this list for one man for one month will not exceed $15.00. The following equipment for a lookout station was made standard: The fire maps; A metal protractor 14 inches in di- ameter; A metal sight alidade 14 inches long, with a pointer on one end, and hole in center to fasten in center of protractor. The sights will be at least 6 inches high. Where needed a lookout watch-box, or shelter, is to be con- structed. The telephone installed on the tower, and if pos- sible a second one installed on the ground or in the lookout’s cabin, which must be as near as possible and convenient to the lookout point or tower. The tools will be a rake, axe, shovel, and saw. In reference to the type of telephone to be used in enclosed towers of lookout shelters, considerable discussion did not re- sult in standardization. Some favored the adoption of desk sets or regular wall sets, while others believed the use of the metal box telephones should be continued. Standard equipment for a patrolman will be as follows: 1 axe; 1 shovel, hoe or rake, with handle; Emergency rations; Instruc- tions in writing; Forest Service key, at the discretion of the supervisor. An upright galvanized metal tool box was adopted. This box is very stoutly made, knock-down style, 27 inches wide and 30 inches deep and 8 feet tall. The door is 4 feet 10 inches tall by 2 feet 4 inches wide, and the bottom of the door is 16 inches from the base of the box. ‘There are two racks inside on the back wall for holding rakes, shovels, axes, etc., and on each side a shelf for storing canteens, water bags, etc. The space in the bottom will hold food supplies, pack outfits and other fire box equipment. ‘The box is water and rodent proof. On the inside of the door of the box will be posted a list of the tools in it— a duplicate of this list will be kept in the ranger’s office, and also in the supervisor’s office, if desired. A standard list of tools for boxes was considered, but not deemed advisable. There should be a rodent-proof box at all places where a reserve food supply is kept. This should be made of galvanized metal similar to the tool box. Pack train outfits will be kept at strategic points for the purpose of bringing in supplies to fire fighters, if in the judg- ment of the supervisor such outfits are needed for efficient pro- ‘ Standardization of Fire Plans. 389 tection. Before purchasing burros, mules or horses for this purpose the approval of the District Forester is necessary. Use of Improvement Crews. Wherever it is possible to do so, improvement crews during the fire season should be placed on work where they can be avail- able for fire fighting, thus giving an additional reserve supply of fighters in case they are needed. ‘The foreman will have a wagon and team, or some other means of transportation, and will be equipped with a portable telephone and enough emergency wire to conveniently reach the telephone system. In case of fire he will be called on to go to it immediately, with his crew if necessary. Awards. The committee decided that the plan of.making awards should be tried out this season. These are to be given to Forests hav- ing at the end of the fire season the best record in fire protec- tion. A first and second prize will be given. The award will consist of a framed official letter for posting at the Forest head- quarters, designating the winning Forest, together with a list of the entire Forest personnel, copies of the letter being sent to each member of the Forest force as well. The first prize will be designated by a blue ribbon attached to the letter; the sec- ond by a red ribbon. The awards will be determined on: 1. highest percentage of class A fires; (2) smallest average acreage per fire, including all classes of fires; (3) inspection reports Inspection. The committee went on record to the effect that it is of the first importance for the supervisor himself to personally in- spect the workings of the protective plans in the field. Monthly field plans for the supervisor’s office force must provide for this during the fire season and will be scrutinized by members of the District Office with this end in view. The committee fully discussed the following, but did not feel at that time that standardization was practicable; pack saddles and outfits; nested cooking equipment; water packing outfits for use on pack animals; electric storage battery; lanterns for tool boxes. A) COMPARATIVE, STUDY :OF “TWO/LOG RULES As APPLIED TO TIMBER IN CENTRAL NEW YORK. By JoHN BENTLEY, JR. It is a well known fact that there are a great many log rules in use in different parts of the country, and that the values given in these rules vary within wide limits even for logs of the same size. Differences of 25% or more are not uncommon in logs of the smaller diameters, and while the relative differences in logs of large diameter are not so great, the absolute differences are sufficient to cause one to marvel that the same log could by any chance yield such uncertain quantities of lumber. The factors influencing the board foot contents of logs are, of course, numer- ous; but with sound logs and a definite allowance for saw-kerf, it seems that any log rule constructed on sound principles should be able to stand comparison with the actual mill cut of a num- ber of representative logs. ‘That the same log, when scaled by the Doyle rule should yield only 16 board feet, and when scaled by the Scribner rule should yield 32 board feet seems absurd, and yet these are the figures assigned by these two rules for a log sixteen feet long and 8 inches in diameter. If the differences were fairly constant, one might feel inclined to excuse such dis- crepancies on the ground that saw-kerf and slabs were allowed for in different degrees; but when one follows these same two rules to a log 48 inches in diameter, and finds the relative posi- tions just reversed,—that by the Doyle rule the log contains 1936 board feet, and by the Scribner rule 1728 board feet, it then be- comes obvious that the rules can not both of them be con- structed on sound principles. What are we to do? What, in particular, is the man to do who is not familiar with the in- consistencies of log rules? Some people may even be buying by one rule and selling by another rule, ignorant of the fact that there may be a difference of from 10 to 20 per cent. It has long been the desire of the writer to test the accuracy of the “Universal” Log Rule, devised by Prof A. L. Daniels, of the University of Vermont, and published by him in Bulletin No. 102 of the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, in A Comparative Study of Log Ruiecs. 391 1903." This rule appeared to be based on principles entirely sound; and when compared with other rules, it seemed to have escaped the errors which are often so noticeable. It was de- cided, therefore, to test the “Universal” Rule in a way which would prove its accuracy when applied to logs of various dimen- sions, and afford a comparison with some other rule in com- mon use. The opportunity came when a small portable mill was found in operation not far from Ithaca. Three students* were assigned to a study involving a test of the “Universal” Rule and the Scrib- ner Rule. The method consisted in scaling numbered sound logs of different sizes by both log rules, and then comparing these results with the actual product of those same logs, when measured as lumber. In this way it was possible to discover whether the differences were constant, and if so in what degree, so that some definite conclusions could be drawn as to the relative accuracy of the rules when compared with the mill- cut. While it might be argued by some that a portable saw- mill hardly affords ideal conditions under which to study a problem of this nature, let it be said that the logs that are bought and sold in New York state to-day are more likely to be sawed at a portable mill than at a large stationary mill. The day of big lumbering operations in New York, except for a few in the Adirondack Mountains, is past. A great deal of work in other sections of the state, where woodlots rather than large forests are the rule, is done by portable saw-mills. And they are operating in some remarkably good pieces of timber, woodlots that have been protected and preserved for two gen- erations or more, where stands of 25,000 feet, B. M., per acre are occasionally met with.* In the case now under consideration, the mill was a small one, with a 52-inch rotary saw cutting a kerf of 4 inch. The logs were mostly White Pine and Hemlock, although a few hardwoods were also included. The logs were sawed into inch- boards or two-inch planks, the proportion of the latter being ap- * See also Forestry QuartTerty, Vol. III, p. 330. *Messrs. H. B. Steer, C. S. Hahn and P. C. King. *The stand per acre in the present instance averaged 25,000 bd. ft. The writer knows of one acre of nearly pure pine in New York State, that was cut a few years ago, yielding 50,000 bd. ft. 392 Forestry Quarterly. proximately 30%. While leaving some things to be desired in the way of equipment and efficiency, the operation was typical of much of the work being done by the portable saw-mills in the state. The number of logs scaled and measured was 62, of which 24 were White Pine, 21 Hemlock, and 7 hardwoods. They -anged in size from 8 to 16 feet in length, and from 6 to 28 inches in diameter. The smallest log scaled and sawed was 8 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. The largest log scaled and sawed was 10 feet long and 28 inches in diameter. Each log was scaled by both the “Universal” Rule and the Scribner Rule, and a tally kept of the actual product, measured as it came from the saw. The logs were divided into seven groups, based on the amount of lumber indicated in the scale, as follows: Group I, included all logs scaling from I to 50 board feet; Group II, included all logs scaling from 51 to 100 board feet; Group ITI, included all logs scaling from 101 to 150 board feet; and so on, Group VII, including all logs scaling more than 300 board feet. (Table 2 shows the number of logs in each group. ) Table 1 is a summary of the results, showing only the amount of the over-run in board feet, and expressed as a percentage. This table shows the “Universal” rule to approach quite closely to the actual mill cut. Table 2 shows in more detail, just how the over-run was distributed, according to the size of the log. This Table is very instructive in respect to the fact that the greatest percentage of over-run, in both rules, occurs in the logs of small diameters. This would indicate that the rules are inaccurate for the very small logs, and since in any “run” of logs there must always be more small ones than large ones, this ten- dency of log rules to undervalue the small logs should be re- membered. In the larger sizes, particularly from 16 inches in diameter to 26 inches in diameter, the differences noted are not so great. In this connection, it is interesting to note that a sound log 10 feet long, and 28 inches in diameter, scaled 364 board feet by the “Universal’’ Rule, 360 board feet by the Scrib- ner Rule, and the measured lumber from this log amounted to just 364 board feet. It would seem, therefore, that our log rules, —most of them—are not liberal enough with the small logs, and in these days of close utilization, the small logs may often count for a good deal, in the aggregate. A Comparative Study of Log Ruies. 393 Table 3, showing the mean over-run in board feet for logs of the several groups, discloses the fact that the Scribner rule is less reliable than the “Universal.”” The mean over-run for the Scribner is about double that of the “Universal” in all groups excepting Groups V and VII. This confirms the figures shown in Table 1, where the percentage of over-run on all logs is nearly in the same proportion for the two rules. It is acknowledged that in a study of this kind there is some opportunity for the lack of skill on the part of the scaler in dis- counting for defects to affect the figures to such an extent that no definite conclusions could be reached. If the full scale were allowed on defective logs, then the mill-cut would be quite likely to fall short of the scale, and conversely, if too liberal a discount were made the mill-cut would greatly exceed the scale. In the present instance the conditions were favorable to a high degree of accuracy, because the logs were most of them sound, and the task of scaling called for the exercise of judgment chiefly in the matter of determining the average diameter, and proper al- lowances for slight crooks in the logs. The general conclusions reached in this comparative study of the two log rules may be stated as follows: (1) Both the Scribner and the “Universal” Rules give a sound log less than can be produced from it under favorable con- ditions. (2) Both rules fall short by larger percentages in the small logs than in the large logs. The scales apply with the greatest accuracy in logs of medium size, that is, from 16 to 26 inches in diameter. (3) With sound logs, the mill-cut may be expected to over- run the Scribner scale by about 10% and to over-run the “Uni- versal” scale by about 5%. (4) All things considered, the “Universal” Rule will give bet- ter results than the Scribner Rule, but both run low for the logs of small diameters. Note.—The “International” Rule, as printed by Dr. J. F. Clark in “Forestry Quarterly,” Vol. IV, page 79, may be adapted to allow for a saw kerf of % inch by applying a reducing factor of 95%. This was done, and the logs by this scale would yield a total of 7,435 board feet, or only 2'%4% less than the actual mill cut. It may be said, therefore, that the “International” Rule, when adjusted to allow the proper amount for saw-kerf, will undoubtedly give very good results. 304 Forestry Quarterly. TABLE I. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Total Scale Over-run Percent Total No. How scaled. (board (board of of Logs. Teet) feet) Overrun. 62 By Scribner Rule 6.847 778 10.1% By “Universal” Rule 7.104 431 5.6% By measurement of sawed lumber 7.625 Rey NE Nuri gk 202 TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF OVER-RUN. Daniels “Universal” Rule Scribner Rule. Net Net No. of Amount Per-cent. Amount Per-cent. Group. of jo of of Over-run. Over-run. Over-run. Over-run. I.-( a— 50 bd. ft.) 145 bd. ft: 21.7% 221 bd. ft. 27.9% II. ( 51—100 bd. it.) 93 10.3 169 17.4 III. (101—150 bd. ft.) 22 2.0 III 9.4 IV. (151—z200 bd. ft.) 36 3.9 71 9.3 V. (2z01—250 bd. ft.) 129 6.0 143 5.9 VI. (251—300 bd. ft.) —34* —4.5 23 77 VII. (300+ bdsetts)) 40 3.9 40 3.8 (Average) (Average) Motalveswere sec 431 5.6% 778 10.1% *Under-run. TABLE, MEAN OVER-RUN, FOR LOGS OF DIFFERENT SIZES. Mean Over-run, Board Feet. No. of Group. Daniels’ “Universal” Rule. Scribner Rule. I. ( 1— 50 bd. feet) 6.6 9.2 II. ( 51—100 bd. feet) 8.5 16.9 III. (101—150 bd. feet) 2.4 723 IV. (151—200 bd. feet) 72 17.7 V. (2z01—250 bd. feet) 14.3 13.0 VI. (251—300 bd. feet) TIS 23.0 VII. (301+ ~—sibbd. feet) TBs 128 THE YOUNGLOVE LOG RULE. By Wa. W. W. Coron. The Younglove Log Rule is mentioned in the Woodsman Hand- book and also in Graves’ Forest Mensuration, but the author states that he was unable to obtain the rule and could find out very little about it. Consequently, when a few months ago I was looking in a local hardware store for a caliper to measure logs with, I was rather surprised to find that the only one in stock was a Younglove Scale Caliper. Upon making inquiries, I discovered that the Younglove Rule had at one time been the only one in use in this section of the State (Fitchburg, Mass.) and that even up to the present time saw mill owners and people selling logs throughout this locality claim that the Younglove Rule is the only one to be used. As there was so little known about this rule, I thought it might be of interest to others to learn more about it and I have therefore sought out the following information. The Younglove Rule was originated by Tyler Younglove, who was born in Fitchburg about 1812. He was a carpenter by trade and worked for many years in a local saw mill and lumber yard. About 1840 he worked out this rule and in later years, together with his son, manufactured calipers and sticks for measuring sawed lumber. After his death, his son conducted the business enlarging it to some extent and made scale sticks and calipers of all kinds. He died a few years ago, and with him died the secret of his log rule. A grandson of Tyler Younglove, Mr. Wm. K. Younglove, is now a captain in the Fire Depart- ment in Fitchburg, and through his courtesy I was allowed to look over the papers and other effects of his late father and grandfather. Among these, I ran across one copy of the mill table for log measure which is in my possession. No record, however, could be found of the principle upon which the scale was made. I have talked with a number of old residents who knew the old gentlemen in life, and the general opinion is that the table was constructed from diagrams and from actual meas- urements of logs at the mill. In comparing it with the other 396 Foresiry Quarterly. tables given in the Woodsman Handbook, I find it corresponds very closely to the Baxter Rule. For logs over 20” in diameter, the contents of logs given is slightly less than in the Baxter Rule. By applying Prof. Daniel’s Method given on page 34 of Graves’ Forest Mensuration, we find the formulae for this table to be V= D*+9/20 D—7. According to Mr. Wm. Younglove, his father would never im- part the secret of making this to anyone, and often boasted that it would die with him. Since his death, there have been no more Younglove Calipers made, and I believe at the present time I have in my possession the last one ever placed on the mar- ket for sale. From those who have used this rule, I find that the best results are obtained from taking the diameter outside the bark at the small end of the log. I have used the caliper myself this year in measuring logs, cut from a small woodlot near by, and have taken measurements both at the small end, and one third of the way from the small end. These logs have been marked and I hope to follow them through the mill at some later date to see which measurements tally up the best. It would seem that the table would give very fair results for the measurement of small diameters but runs rather low for dia- meters above 24 inches. (The logscale itself was submitted, but is not printed for lack of practical interest.—Ed. ) PROGRESS OF THE U. S. FOREST SERVICE. AS REFLECTED IN THE FORESTER’S REPORTS FOR 1911, 1912, 1913. By ALEXANDER J. JAENICKE. Any one familiar with these annual reports will realize that it is impossible to adequately give an idea of their contents in a brief abstract such as this purports to be. An annual report con- cerns itself with the activity and the plans of the U. S. Forest Service, and this is discussed in an exceedingly concise and not at all detailed manner. An abstract, therefore, must necessarily omit much that is exceedingly important; in fact, nothing but a general idea of the contents can be given. The report for 1911 is really Mr. Graves’ first report, the 1910 Report being the last one of Mr. Pinchot’s administration. In - abstracting Mr. Graves’ reports for I91I, 1912 and 1913, it was thought best to consider them together rather than separately in order that the growth and progress of the Forest Service during these three years could more easily be traced. In the following pages, when the year IQII is mentioned, this will mean the fiscal year IQII, or the period between July 1, 1910 and June 30, IgII and. similarly for the other years. All three reports are much alike as regards the order in which the various topics are taken up, and this sequence will be followed in this brief, the main topics being indicated by headings. Classification of Expenditures and Receipts. For the years 1911, 1912 and 1913, the annual expenditures of the Forest Service have been between $5,000,000 and $6,000,000. Thus these years have seen no marked rise in the annual appro- priations. Under the heading of salaries and general expenses, over 90% of the annual appropriation was used each year, less than 10% being used for the permanent improvement of the National Forests. Consequently the administration and protec- tion of the National Forests has cost an annual average of 24 cents per acre while the improvements have amounted to less than 24 mills per annum. The receipts of the Forest Service can be classified under the following three heads: 398 Forestry Quarterly. 1. Timber. 2. Grazing. 3. Special uses. In 1911, the total of these receipts amounted to slightly over $2,000,000. In 1912, there was an increase of $100,000 and by 1913 the total annual receipts were practically $2,500,000. The average distribution of these receipts is roughly about as follows: Timber—55 %—$1,350,000. Grazing—40%—$1 ,000,000. Special uses—5 %—$150,000. In the future, there is no doubt but what the receipts from timber will show the greatest increase, although steady gains in grazing and special use receipts can be confidently looked for. Organization and Personnel. Perhaps the most noteworthy of mention here is the tendency toward the reduction of supervisory officers in Washington and in the districts. The officers in Washington were decreased by placing increased responsibility upon the district officers, and these in turn were reduced in number by gradually increasing the responsibilities of the supervisors. In addition, during Mr. Graves’ regime, there has been much attention paid to the organization of the protective force and the investigative work. ‘There has been a marked increase in ef- ficiency in both as a result of this re-organization. The classification of the forest force at end of the year 1912 was as follows: SUPEEVISOLS: inte pime ah crip tama eta element 147 Deputy) SUPErVISOTS)! wiareiiatspiers Mais felaiemiclera tein g2 AAMC LS 34) Ye hs, td tence tees eee tetas Gin foke Restate 1393 OTE hc 6 Crete amma CMO RV LLP DU SAGE ola AN bse) elit) SEI ra 780 Forest examiners and forest assistants, ..... 156 CN gM ane gran CaM Sepe UCaTS A ey eer 5 AR 17I Miscellaneous lumber men, experts, hunters, 'o) ov E a EARS POPE GER, Pe “isle ARehN | yaa GAY Yt 156 Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 399 The previous year the Forest Service numbered 2624 men. These figures are indicative of the very gradual increase which may be expected in the future, in contrast to the rapid increases in the earlier history of the Service. Area and Boundaries of the National Forests. During the past three fiscal years, the area of the National Forests has remained practically the same, amounting to ap- proximately 187,500,000 acres at end of the fiscal year 1912, in- clusive of Alaska. Exclusive of Alaska and Porto Rico, the National Forests at the end of 1912 included roughly 160,600,000 acres. ‘This area is distributed in approximately 160 National Forests, a National Forest thus averaging slightly over one mil- lion acres. Exclusive of the acquisitions under the Weeks Bill, National Forests exist in 20 states, California leads in the area of National Forests within its borders with almost 28,000,000 acres. Idaho and Montana follow closely with almost 20,000,000 acres in each of these two states. The policy which has governed recommendations for additions and eliminations since the fiscal year 1911, may be briefed as follows: Lands to be retained within the National Forests: 1. Lands wholly or partly covered with brush which are valu- able for watershed protection, or open land on which trees may be grown, unless their permanent value is greater for cultivation than for protection. 2. Lands wholly or partly covered with timber and under- growth which are more valuable for growing of trees than for agriculture. 3. Lands not possessing timber or brush which should be in- cluded in National Forests for administrative reasons. Lands to be eliminated from National Forests: 1. Lands not wholly or partly covered with timber or under- growth upon which it is not expected to grow trees. Claims and Settlements on the National Forests. The claims on the National Forests may be divided into two large classes: 1. Homestead claims. 2. Mining claims. 400 Forestry Quarterly. Claims within the National Forests are constantly the source of much annoyance and trouble because of the frequent attempts at fraud. During the fiscal year 1913, 1,690 individual tracts of land in the National Forests passed into private ownership through the patenting of claims. These included: FLomesteadjclaimise icine) iseniatevhivale Marek s totes 977 Desert) landiclatis, Mice eesiaie eonenaye arabete anes 6 Timbers Stone tela. (yi ght ii tee calaee Ne 35 Mirren cl agtiis NA ah a Ne Uae eae 639 Woall Ne laiimise ie eye fet MCk SUR UMMC ENA MAN he as ere 24 Miscellaneous claims, tii2) seis cde akira Clete voltae 5 In 1911, this total was almost 3000, while in Ig12, it had dropped to 1500. ‘There are several reasons for this, but they cannot be discussed here. Suffice it to say, that the criticism that the Forest Service hinders homesteading and prospecting is un- just, and not substantiated by facts. Those who have been foiled in attempts to patent fraudulent claims have naturally been the chief opponents of the present “claim policy” on the National Forests. Land Classification. This work was seriously inaugurated in 1909, but the work has seen its greatest development since the fiscal year 1912, because of previous experience gained, and the increased appropriations. The purpose of the work in Mr. Graves’ own words is “to segre- gate and make available for the establishment and development of homes, all National Forest land which will serve its best pur- pose by being brought under cultivation.” In general the work includes the following: 1. Classification of areas where the amount of land chiefly valu- able for agriculture warrants large eliminations. 2. Detailed classification of considerable areas. 3. Examination and classification of single scattered tracts for which prospective settlers make application. Timber Sales. The total stand of timber on the National Forests inclusive of Alaska is approximately 600,000,000,000 board feet. Of this Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 401 about 350 billion feet is overmature and mature. The annual yield is roughly estimated at slightly over 6 billion feet. With the proper deduction for local requirements near the various National Forests, over 54 billion feet are available for timber sales to supply the general market. Timber sales are rapidly increasing. Comparison of the fiscal years 1912 and 1913 brings this out clearly: Near. Total sales (ft. b. m.) Stumpage Value 1912, 800,000,000 $1,600,000 1913, 2,000,000,000 $4,500,000 The aims of the National Forest Timber policy may be sum- marized as follows :— 1. Prevent losses by fire. 2. Utilize ripe timber in such a manner as to insure restocking of the land and continuance of production. 3. Sell timber at the proper price. 4. Sell ripe timber so as to prevent speculation. 5. Prevent monopoly of public timber and maintain competi- tive conditions in the lumber industry by its sale, 6. Provide for requirements of local communities and settlers. 7. Make timbered lands of agricultural value available for proper settlement and use. 8. Make the National Forests self-sustaining, and yield revenue to the various states to offset loss in taxes. The most important factors influencing the sale of timber are: 1. Distance of larger bodies of N. F. timber from markets and transportation facilities. 2. Condition of the lumber markets. 3. Difficulties in logging—topography exceedingly rough on many portions of the National Forests. 4. Presence of privately owned timber tributary to same markets as National Forest timber. The relative importance of these four factors vary from year to year, and their fluctuation results in corresponding changes in timber sale receipts. A brief classification of the timber sales by years will clearly show their rapid growth in total values :— 402 Forestry Quarterly. VALUE. Less than Over Year $1oo $100-$500 $500-$1000 $1000-$5000 $5000 Total. IQII 5144 327 70 73 30," 5058 IQI2 5279 378 78 92 ASS eye 1913 5606 209 73 142 62 6182 Protection. Fire losses are reported by calendar years, and not by fiscal years. The calendar year I910 was an exceptional one for severity, and especially to be regretted is the large loss of life which took place in the fight against the fires. The following summary will give a general idea of the acreage burned over on the National Forests during the past three years for which figures are available: Calendar Year. Timbered Area per 1000 Acres. IQIO 19.90 IQII 1.78 IQI2 0.91 Lightning, railroads and campers cause almost two-thirds of the fires which occur. Half of the discovered fires burned over much less than an acre, 25% burn over between 0.25-10 acres, and the remaining 25% burn over more than 10 acres. About 3000 fires are annually fought on the National Forests. It is difficult to get at the exact cost of fighting these fires, since the time spent on them by regular forest officers is not considered in the annual reports. The present efficiency in the protective work of the Forest Service is due to: 1. The rapid development of permanent improvements such as telephones, look-out stations, etc. 2. Preparation of detailed fire-protection plans on a large num- ber of forests and their rigid execution. 3. Co-operation of private owners and railroads. Aside from protection from fire—there are also the following phases of the protection problem: Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 403 1. Protection against pollution of streams. 2. Prevention of insect depredations. 3. Control of forest-tree diseases. Reforestation. It is estimated that there are 7,500,000 acres on the National Forests which must be reforested by artificial means. In ad- dition to this, the natural regeneration on 1,000,000 acres cut over annually by timber sales must be taken care of. A great deal of the work of reforestation is still in the ex- perimental stage, and hence in many sections of the country, extensive and expensive plantations are not yet justifiable—dis- trict 3 and district 5 are examples of this. In 1912, the following tentative distribution among the dis- tricts of the area to be reforested annually was agreed upon :— District Acreage I gooo 2 6000 3 500 4 6000 5 500 6 gooo Direct seeding, under which the tree seed, is sown upon the ground with or without simple forms of cultivation, and the growing of seedlings in nurseries under ideal conditions to be transported into the field when of suitable size—these are the two general methods used in reforestation work in the Forest Service. In the matter of direct seeding, three problems are con- fronted, i.e.: 1. Seed supply. 2. Rodent injury. . 3. Cheap culti- vation. In 1913, the reforestation work covered approximately 30,000 acres. About 24,000 acres was sown at an average cost of $4 per acre—6ooo acres planted at $11 per acre. Most of the seed used was collected by Forest officers. In 1913, 40,000 Ibs. of coniferous seed was collected at an average cost of $.78 per Ib. The nursery stock used was obtained from the various forest nurseries on the National Forests. The cost of seedlings in 1913 404 Forestry Quarterly. was $3 per 1000, and $5 for transplants. These figures will un- doubtedly be materially reduced in the future. Of the 30,000 acres reforested in 1913, the following is the species distribution : Species Acreage Moi las Ae ee Wines Wie ay elapse, 10,000 Western ‘Yellow. pie, (2.0 oie dec 7,000 Western) White pines nen aioe ae 7,000 Bod Bepales ier ie icant ENON 2,000 MaSceHaneousi ici ui amc enc le 4,000 30,000 acres. The most notable thing in connection with the reforestation work, is the rapid decrease of per acre costs from year to year, and the increasing success of the work. The experimental work in connection with reforestation is still, however, of first im- portance. Range Management. Over 20,000,000 head of stock are partially dependent on the National Forests for forage. The system of range control de- vised and placed in operation by the Forest Service has won the approval of the vast majority of the western stock growers. To further increase the efficiency of this system, the following studies are under way :— 1. Exact character and condition of all forest lands. 2. Distribution and economic importance of all the herbaceous plants. 3. Natural, artificial methods of reseeding valuable herbaceous plants. 4. Most efficient methods of handling live stock to conserve the range. 5. Character and extent of damage by stock to forests, water- sheds, and methods of minimizing these injuries. A study of the number of stock grazed under permit, shows a gradual increase in the carrying capacity of many forests. This is due to:— 1. Increased forage production. 2. Better knowledge of the ranges. Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 405 3. Improvements in handling stock. 4. Better distribution of stock. 5. Gradual substitution of shipping by railroad for trailing. Some of the notable things which indirectly contribute to the success of the present grazing policy of the Forest Service include :— Protection against disease. Protection against wild animals. Prairie dog extermination. Protection against poisonous plants. Co-operation of Forest Service with live-stock associations. Gee Whee Water-power Development. In spite of the fact that the regulations make it impossible to grant permits for a term of years, power development on the National Forests is rapidly increasing. It is estimated that at least 12,000,000 horse power can be developed on the National Forests from natural stream flow. This can of course be greatly increased by storage reservoirs. To again quote Mr. Graves, “The purpose of the administration of the water power sites on the National Forests is to encourage power development in every way possible, while safeguarding the interests of the using public.” Since water-power development in the National Forests has aroused so much discussion recently, it may be well to summarize the main features of the Forest Service policy with respect to this development :— 1. The speculative holding of the power sites is prevented. 2. Provision is made for complete and prompt development together with continuous operation. 3. A return is secured for the power site privilege. 4. Permittees are required to abide by certain regulations. 5. The capitalization of the value of the privileges conferred by the permit is prohibited. 6. Sufficient power is retained by the Forest Service so that the placing of unjust burden on the consuming public is prevented. Permanent Improvements. The chief improvements carried on by the Forest Service on 406 Forestry Quarterly. the National Forests include roads, fire lines, telephone lines, trails, bridges, fences and buildings. By the end of the fiscal year 1913, these improvements had a value of almost $3,500,000. Ten per cent of the receipts of the National Forests are de- voted to the building of roads primarily for the benefit of the public. In addition to this, 25 per cent of the gross receipts of the National Forests reverts to the states for the benefit of county schools and roads. In the fiscal years 1913 and 1914, the ten per cent item will have amounted to considerably over $200,000 per annum, while the 25% item will mean an annual $500,000 for the present fiscal year. Acquisition of Lands Under the Week's Bill. Up to the end of the fiscal year 1913, the National Forest Reservation Commission approved for purchase a total of slightly over 700,000 acres. These lands are located in 14 purchase areas in the Southern Appalachians and White Mountains. The states in which these lands are located are: Maine, New Hampshire, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, Tennessee and Georgia. The work of the Forest Service in fire protection in these pur- chase areas has already resulted in a great improvement in the local sentiment on the forest fire question. Improvement work on these lands has already been begun. Most of the land which has been bought is in a cut-over or culled condition and in many cases only the inferior species are left. Plans have already been made for the management of these areas, especial attention having been given to the grazing busi- ness and special permits, as well as to the timber sale business and the proper restoration of the areas. Co-operation With States. The Weeks Law which began its operation on March I, IgII with an original appropriation of $200,000 to be expended in the various states with a limit of $10,000 in any one state in any one year has been productive of much good. Among the benefits which have resulted because of this co-operation are :— 1. The shaping of forest policies and forest legislation in vari- ous states. Progress of the U. S. Forest Service. 407 2. Increased activity of the public and the legislatures in the forestry movement. 3. Increased efficiency in all lines of forestry work in the vari- ous states because of the interchange of ideas on effective methods of State organization and fire control. National Forest Investigations. At present there are nine forest experiment stations. Re- forestation problems are given the most attention. The following phases of reforestation are given the greatest attention :— 1. Methods of seed extraction. Methods of direct seeding. Nursery work. Methods of field planting. Studies in the breeding. Factors governing production fertility of tree seed. AU ANG mara In addition, mensuration studies, thinning experiments, studies in forest management, forest influences, efforts of grazing, are only a few of the things to which the experiment stations devote their attention. Silvicultural and dendrological studies are carried on by the Washington investigative force. Other studies given consideration by the Forest Service are those that deal directly with forest products. Among these studies are :— Utilization of National Forest timber. Wood preservation. Wood chemistry and distillation. Timber physics. Pulp and paper investigations. Industrial investigations. Qe Nee Conclusion. In this abstract, as little attention as possible has been given to mere figures and statistics. It was deemed far more important by the writer to outline the scope of the work of the Forest Serv- ice, and to give briefly the policies which govern this work. Much that is essential and important had to be omitted in order to give this digest the brevity that is demanded of it. EXPLOITATION OF CROSSTIES IN NORTHERN NEW MEXICO.* By CLARENCE F. KorstIan. The following data on the various operations in the exploita- tion of crossties is based on the methods employed by a company which has been operating for the past six years in Northern New Mexico. The area which is now being exploited lies on the west slope of the Sangre de Christo Range, at elevations of 8,000 to 11,000 feet above sea level. The lower slopes of these moun- tains merge into rolling hills and gently sloping mesas. The up- per portion of this area is quite rugged, consisting of deep can- yons which have steep slopes. Mostly the timber is found on the mesas, slopes and ridges. The soil is usually of sufficient depth to cover the underlying rock so that it does not interfere with logging to any great extent. Hewn Ties—Woods to River. The following species suitable for hewn ties are found in this locality: Western Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), White fir (Abies concolor), Engle- mann spruce (Picea engelmanni), Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and Limber pine (Pinus flexilis). Western yellow pine, Douglas fir, and white fir are the most important species on the area now being cut. The following defects were found common to Western Yellow pine: stump and heart rot, cat-faces, mistletoe and injury caused by the pine bark-beetle. The cat-faces were caused by fires, oc- curring from 25 to as much as 100 years ago, and by removal of the inner bark for food by Indians, a custom which has been discontinued but which seems to have been prevalent 25 to 50 years ago. ‘Trees having stump rot and cat-faces require long- butting which not only increases the waste but results in a lower grade of ties. Mistletoe and the bark-beetle cause the trees to *The writer is indebted to Assistant Forest Ranger Wayne Russel for assistance in collecting the data contained in this article. Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 409 become pitchy and burly, which renders them difficult to work. Generally, however, Western Yellow pine is not difficult to work but is heavy to haul. Douglas fir is usually sound, being the least defective of the species used for ties. It makes the most desirable ties because of its durability and lightness, but is not liked by the majority of tie makers because of its hardness. White fir is very soft and easy to work, and for this reason is preferred by any of the tie makers. It is often seriously infected with stump and heart rot. The policy of seldom marking White fir above 18 to 20 inches D. B. H. has been adopted for this locality, because trees above this diameter usually show considerable rot, White fir makes the least desirable tie because the wood is soft, brittle, and does not hold the spikes firmly. When creosoted it makes a fairly satisfactory tie as evidenced by the fact that the railroad company, in this section of the country, accepts white fir ties together with those of the other species without discrimi- nation. Trees from 10 to 16 inches D. B. H. are suitable for hewn ties, although the tie makers prefer those from I1 to 13 inches D. B. H. At the lower elevations where cutting is now in progress the trees average 2.7 ties per tree. This figure is kept rather low, due to the marking for cutting of all suppressed and defective trees, from which at least one tie can be made, and the short-boled timber toward the lower limit of the Yellow pine type. Three classes of hewn ties are made; squares, firsts, and seconds. The butts of large trees are made into square ties, which are not less than Io inches on the face, and do not exceed 8 inches in thickness and 8 feet long. First class ties are 8 inches wide, 7 inches thick, and 8 feet long. Only one inch increase is allowed in thickness or length. Second class ties must be 7 inches thick, so long as the log is large enough to permit, and under no circumstances less than 6 inches thick and 6 inches wide. No ties under 6 inches by 6 inches, or over 11 inches by 8 inches, are accepted by the tie inspector. The company’s agreements with all of their tie makers contain a stipulation which states that all timber of the proper size for hewn ties must be cut and if sound shall be made into ties. It not sound, it must be cut into every four feet sufficiently to show the defect. All ties must be smooth and of uniform width and 410 _ Forestry Quarterly. thickness. The specifications further state that all ties must be free from shake, loose knots, rot, score hacks, and bark. The per cent of the different classes, according to the past season’s cut, is approximately as follows :— Class Per Cent MIGQUATOSS (AP sralrrare ee Une. Seana peat to) eae Ar SES tM cele acta eicun ees thet ene Pace ean 35.8 DECOR Arie eee ls Bi ele tae’> wien tiem aera RS 52.7 Drys (made from dead timber), ...... 6 Ge) a ST eg MOEN eae 7 Ns at YEN 2.6 MBotal ec oe oi wats eects whe te tee 100.0 Making. Areas are allotted to the contractors who in turn subdivide them, alloting small areas to subcontractors who are held re- sponsible for the proper utilization on their area. A full crew usually consists of three contractors, about 40 subcontractors, and approximately roo laborers, most of whom are Mexicans who make their homes in Northern New Mexico. From one-third to one-fourth of the laborers are from the State of Chihuahua, Mexico. These are the most efficient and rapid tie makers, each man averaging about 25 ties per day, while the natives average only 18. A few Picuris Indians have worked at intervals but can not be depended upon for steady labor. An unskilled laborer in this locality receives $1.50 per ten-hour day, without board. The subcontractor organizes his gang, consisting of from two to five men, and pitches his tent or some simple shelter close to water which may be near his area, The matter of available water has a great bearing on the desirability of any area. It is difficult to get men to make ties in timber that is more than a mile from a spring or stream. The tie makers or, as they are commonly called, “tie hackers” use the following tools and equipment; one 4 to 44 pound double- bitted axe and one 12 inch broad-axe to each man, and one 5 to 6 foot cross-cut saw, one steel wedge, one light sledge hammer, one 8-foot measuring pole and a bottle of kerosene (to cut the Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 4II pitch from the saw) to every two men. These are furnished by the tie makers themselves. Enough trees for the day’s cut are notched by the men, work- ing singly, in such a manner that when they are felled any crooks the trees may contain will be perpendicular to the ground. The object of this is to face the tie so that when finished it will lie flat on the ground. Care is also taken with small trees that their greatest diameter is perpendicular to the ground. This gives the ties the widest possible face and necessitates less scoring. After the trees are notched two men fall them with a cross-cut saw. Two methods of scoring are employed. In the more prevalent method followed by the native Mexicans the chopper stands on the fallen tree and with the axe cuts into its side at an angle of about 45 degrees at intervals of about six inches. The Chihua- huans, in scoring, stand at the side of the fallen tree and split large slabs from its side until it is nearly the desired size. This method requires more skill on the part of the chopper but is more rapid and leaves no possibility of the score hacks showing after the tie has been faced. The limbs are chopped off as they are reached in scoring. In facing, the maker stands on top of the tree in all cases and with the broadaxe works the two faces to their desired size and smoothness. The “cant” or faced tree is then bucked into 8-foot lengths with the crosscut saw. The unfaced sides of the larger ties are hewn until they become rectangular, making them into squares. The bark is then peeled from the unfaced sides of the remaining smaller ties. As this requires no skill it is often done by boys or apprentices. The following prices are paid for making the ties :— SOMANESH bie: mati ala tiesae erie vate Bios GMs $0.14 TR VG iN, Piast s Caetiara iy ates Phe trials Chita so) lites ab 0.12 JEU aay no ACES Sy META aise Wk AU Fea Cie ke 0.10 SECONGSS, acevo tendee Para ate cold anota hs 0.08 The average price, including the culls for which nothing is paid, is $0.09 per tie. The contractors sublet the making at prac- tically the same prices, expecting to make their profit on the haul from the woods to the river. In timber averaging three ties per tree, two men, making 40 ties 412 Forestry Quarterly. in a ten-hour day, will spend 14 hours felling, 34 hours limbing and scoring, 3 hours facing, 1 hour bucking, 1} hours peeling. At this rate the average cost of each operation is as follows :— |S) Lg) A ga ag aE gE ek $0.01I per tie Limbing and Scoring, ....... GIB Oe acing: am ey Si Zor aes ay Ae te MICKA) (iaiay tty Layo metian ik LOGE Fara LeU At Mp MAIR EON bee Meey Bac SEV TOR ES MPLT ees ed Oca iene Uw Gieoe Witueeg POON One man making 20 ties per day of the average grades earns $1.83 per day. However, loss of time due to getting supplies and inspections and the wear and tear on tools reduces their daily wage to approximately $1.50 per day. The season in which most of the hewn ties are made is between May first and October first. While the better tie makers prefer to work during the summer, some of the less skillful prefer to work during the winter, because the frozen timber is less liable to sliver, rendering it easier for the less skillful man to make a smooth face on a crooked-grained or knotty tie. Brush Disposal. All limbs are lopped from tops which are left in the woods. Large limbs are cut up so that when piled the piles are about four feet high and eight feet across. The piles are placed from ten to fifteen feet from the nearest top, tree, reproduction or other in- flammable material, except in extreme cases which would work a hardship on the operators. Such cases are left to the discre- tion of the Forest Officer in charge of the sale.. As a rule each tie maker piles his own brush for which the operators pay him $0.03 per tree, or approximately $o.o11 per tie. Skidding, Hauling and Yarding. The contractors are desirous of allowing a month or two to elapse between the time the ties are made and the time they are hauled in order to take advantage of the weight lost in drying. In some cases it is possible for the haulers to drive to where the ties lie in the woods and load them directly on their wagons. Where this is impossible skidding is necessary. Skidding is usual- Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 413 ly done by a man and one horse. A chain about six feet long having three or four grabs about 18 inches apart is used. The grabs are driven into one of the faces near the end of the tie. Two to four ties are skidded at each trip. Where more ties are skidded at one time an extra chain is needed. With the use of an extra chain three ties are skidded in front and two or more trail- ers are hooked to the rear of these. The number of ties skidded in a day by one man and horse varies greatly with the distance which they are skidded and obstructions, such as underbrush, rocks, steep slopes, and arroyos. A man and horse can skid 500 ties in a ten-hour day on the mesas, which are comparatively level and free from underbrush, or where the skidding distance is short. In the canyons and on the brushy slopes of the Douglas fir type, or where the ties must be skidded 200 yards or more or where they are scattered, one man and a horse can skid but from 150 to 200 ties per day. The ties are loaded on wagons which have been lengthened enough to permit two tiers of ties to be piled end to end. An average load for a team of the small native horses is about 25 ties. Ordinarily each man requires about one-half hour to load the ties and bind them on the wagon with a chain. The average haul from the areas at present allotted the con- tractors to the yards at the river is about two miles, all of which is down grade over comparatively good roads. For this haul they receive $0.09 per tie for all classes. Subcontracts are let at different prices, varying according to the distance the ties must be hauled and the accessibility of the areas. The haulers receive from $o.05 for the shorter hauls to $0.10 for the longer and more difficult ones, with an average of about $0.065 per tie. The haul- ers are required to construct all but the main trunk roads, many of which are county roads. The number of trips a man and team can make in one day varies from two on the longer hauls, or where skidding is difficult, to four trips on the shorter hauls or where skidding is easy or unnecessary. One man and team can skid and haul an average of 75 ties per day. At this rate he earns about $4.86 per day actual time, but considerable time is lost due to breakdowns and inclement weather which considerably re- duces the haulers’ average wage. About fifteen minutes are required for the hauler to unload and pile his load in the yard. In piling, two ties are laid on the 414 Forestry Quarterly. ground about five feet apart. About eight ties are placed across these forming the first tier. Other tiers are then laid upon these, the ties of each tier being at right angles to those of the tier below. The piles contain about fifty ties each and are placed two feet apart. The piles are placed as close to the edge of the water as possible, and not more than five piles back from the river, to prevent carrying the ties considerable distances when they are put in the river in the spring. Each contractor furnishes or rents his own yard. One con- tractor yarding about 50,000 ties this year paid $50.00 yard rent, or $0,001 per tie. However, as the majority of this year’s ties are yarded on rich agricultural land which is under irrigation, this is believed to be slightly above the average an- nual cost of yarding. Sawn Ties—Woods to River. Sawn ties, at present, are being made only from Western Yellow pine and Douglas fir. The entire operation from the felling of the timber to the delivering of the tie at the river is covered by contract with one contractor, who in turn lets sub- contracts for the cutting and hauling of the saw-logs to the mill and the hauling of the ties from the mill to the river. Logging. The logging does not differ from that of any other small operation in Northern New Mexico. Felling, Limbing, and Bucking. These operations are usually covered by a single contract. Only 16-foot logs are cut for which the choppers receive $0.75 per M. feet, Doyle scale. Skidding and Hauling. Skidding and hauling are included in one contract. On some of the steep slopes it is necessary to skid as much as an eighth of a mile. The length of haul varies from one-fourth of a mile to three miles. The average haul is about one and one- half miles, for which $3.00 is the average price paid. Milling Equipment. The contractor uses a portable mill having a daily capacity of about 10 M. feet B. M. The mill is composed of one 45-horse- eS ee Crossties in Northern New Mexico. 415 power boiler, one 35-horsepower engine (which runs the cir- cular saw, feed and edger), one 6-horse power engine (which runs the cut-off saw), friction feed with cable, edger, and cut- off saw. The cost of this mill is approximately as follows: Boiler and 2 engines, second hand, ....... $650.00 Mandrel, husk, feed works, carriage and CRACK Te Wena aie what sa hahaa ig a 300.00 Two 60-inch circular saws, new at $100 each, 200.00 need Gen NEWihsauiuia ser aciets sole see sk ae 250.00 One 30 inch cut-off saw, with attachments, . 35.00 Preight and aula ey enn ei a ink useless 100.00 ALOT: hss) athe CR en Seriya st br 5 etal Gs $1,535.00 The mill has been used in this condition for five years, and, with considerable repairing, can probably be used for about five years longer. Moving Miil. The mill was moved a distance of six miles and set up in the winter on a trestle work about eight feet above the ground. The rollway is also on trestle work, and because of the small space available for the mill site, contains an angle of nearly 45 degrees. When the ground thawed in the spring the foundation settled, making re-inforcement of the foundation and realignment of the machinery necessary. The water supply failed with the approach of the dry season. In addition to a delay of about a month this necessitated an additional expenditure of about $100.00 for water development. The angle in the rollway requires the services of an extra man for turning logs, and even then often causes delays. The banking ground for logs is inadequate and it has been necessary to stop logging at times because of the lack of space. The edger is on the opposite side of the carriage track from the saw. The logs used in the trestle work and rollway contain about 20 M. feet, B. M. The trestle work rendered flooring of the mill neces- sary, and this required 2 M. feet of lumber which would not otherwise have been needed. About 3.5 M. feet B. M. were used in roofing. The cost of moving and setting up the mill under considera- tion is estimated at about $600.00, but for the reasons given 416 Forestry Quarterly. above, this cost is considered excessive. Another mill of about the same capacity was moved the same distance and set up in this locality for less than $200.00. The contractor expects to be able to cut 4,000 M feet B. M. at this set. This gives a cost of $0.15 per M. feet. Sawing. The mill, when running at full capacity employs, in addition to the contractor who is foreman and filer, the following crew: Is 1 AR Sec $4.50 per day FUSE Sib 210 (28 AD a a ew nH aU CUE ch 2.50 per day DS Mionitaaler (OW) 3). \uia) Oa eeesetese niet 1.75 per day 1 Be ey 2a 8 81 ot PAU ERA DES MIRON le aE LD I.75 per day iL MRALCHEE NSEELETONN CR. Aa), ish. Ao eraan ere 2.25 per day 1, Fie OY = 28 2 1 ee RMN eR Ke 1.50 per day i aL Ff 0 bch ca ha aA RR NE RM EMAL db 2.00 per day Oh Oi 0.12 a9 RR A AC 2.00 per day Lipa elo s0 Te cA ace) 6 WEAN MOE fe Sea Ue Be 1.50 per day WES CFG 9 ik yar ea Ro SRN te aS AA 1.50 per day D Man “wheeling isawdtist )o0 one. 1.50 per day Motakh dathy® wasel |i. cla ye es $22.75 Allowing contractor’s wages, ......... 4.50 Dotallpayi moll hey fa Ce Ae $27.25 per day With an average cut of 10 M. feet per day, the average cost of sawing is $2.72 per M. feet. Depreciation of Plant. As it is estimated that the mill will have no wrecking value at the end of five years, it is now worth about one-half of its original cost, or $767.50. An annual cut of 2,000 M. feet would require $153.50 to be charged off annually, or $0.077 per M. feet. Interest on Investment. The present value of the mill and the value of tools, belting and equipment aggregates $1,000.00. With an annual cut as

Glenada 39 years......... 510 9.0 225.7 7503 75 13.7 76.9 2800 9,726 Saddle Mt. 38 years...... 281 10.7 175.4 6477 gO 14.7 106.0 3929 20,661 From this table it is evident that a densely stocked stand has a backward effect upon the growth of the individual tree, as there is no other factor which might have had influence upon the tree growth. The most noticeable effect of the overstocking is that the Saddle tract with nearly 50% less trees per acre than Glenada nevertheless has a larger average D. B. H. and only 13.6% less yield in cubic feet. Still more favorable to Saddle is the com- parison of trees 12 inches D. B. H. and over, for Saddle has go trees, Glenada only 75 and the cubic volume of these stems in Saddle is 29% greater than in Glenada; the board foot volume 42% higher. This is because on the Glenada tract only about 15% of the trees are 12 inches or over, D. B. H. while on the Saddle tract 32% are of merchantable size. Accordingly, density is a prime factor in the development of Douglas fir stands, especially where the largest quantities of saw timber are desired at the earliest possible time. In agreement with the Austrian experiments by Bohdannecky and Schiffel, and the Russian plantations of Douglas fir by Dr. Schwappach, Mr. Hanzlik reaches the following conclusions in re- 450 Lorestry Quarterly. gard to the present stocking of Douglas fir stands in western Washington and Oregon :— 1. The immature stands contain from 25-50% too many stems. Heavy thinnings are necessary for increased increment and will give a fairly good money return, at the same time benefiting the stand silviculturally. Stands on the better quality soils require very little thinning after 70 to 100 years of age. 2. Mature stands of the better qualities are probably very little overstocked; on the poorer qualities the stocking is too heavy due to an excessive number of trees under 12 inches D. B. H., which no doubt retards the growth of the larger trees. 3. In even-aged mature stands (over 100 years of age) of the first quality a stocking of about 100 trees per acre at maturity will produce the greatest yield in board measure as practically all the trees in the stand are of a merchantable size (12 inches or more Ano. Ei). 6. Comparison of Yield on Bench and Bottom Land. The con- clusion is reached that land which is considered as first class agri- cultural soil will not always yield as large a forest crop as land which is classed as inferior for agricultural crops. Mr. Hanzlik also shows that Douglas fir makes its best growth on a slope rather than on level land and that one of its requirements is that the land be well drained. 7. Methods of Determining Site Qualities of Douglas Fir Stands. Mr. Hanzlik compares the four chief methods of de- termining site quality: 1) by optical inspection. 2) by the use of the height growth of the dominant trees, 3) by the growth of the stand in cubic volume, 4) by the density factor (based upon the assumption that the height, basal area and the age of a stand are related by a constant factor). Except for some slight discrep- ancies, this factor agrees with the site quality as determined by the growth of the stand in cubic volume. The factors are be- tween 200 and 500; for division between Quality I and Quality II 400 is an appropriate number, while 300 separates the second quality from the third (on scale of five qualities II-III and III-V). Dr. Adam Schwappach has briefed Mr. Hanzlik’s report in the October, 1913, number of the Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagd- Current Literature. 451 wesen* and has converted the yield tables into metric measure. He comments on the great height growth and comparatively poor volume production which these tables show. He calculates volume in cubic feet the stand-form-factor a HaResee HAGA ER ) for all trees at 140 years of age and finds the factor to be .32, .35 and .37 for the three site qualities respectively, which is very low. This, Dr. Schwappach attributes to the volume tables; Mr. Hanz- lik himself says that his volume figures are very conservative. Furthermore, as Dr. Schwappach points out, the tables are for final yield only and do not take into account the intermediate yield from thinnings which, in Norway spruce, aggregate about 50% of the total production. Even allowing 20% increase over Hanzlik’s final yield figures to allow for trees dying out,the yield of the Douglas fir is only 20% greater than that of Dr. Schwap- pach’s own figures for Norway spruce, Site Quality I, age, 120 years. Comparing Hanzlik’s figures with the latest Saxon yield table for spruce, printed in F. Q., Vol. XII, No. 1, p. 114, one finds at age 100 years for Site Quality I:— Mrouglas firs. 17,600 cubic feet per acre. INEM Ay SPEC) 0 CEAMOEGIW Wome Rebun —an increase of only 17% over the Norway spruce. Assuming the stand-form-factor to be the same at 120 years as that of Norway spruce—i. e. .44—and using the values for height and basal area as given in the table, the yield becomes for 120 years, 27,880 cubic feet as against 20,700 cubic feet per acre. “One sees, therefore,’ says Dr. Schwappach, ‘‘what an influence the method of volume determination has and how carefully the data must be analyzed before the American figures can be used as a comparison with the production of German species—in this case with the production of spruce and fir.” Dr. Schwappach concludes from Mr. Hanzlik’s figures that the plantations of Douglas fir in Germany are yielding, at least in youth, just as much as similar stands do on their native sites. Be By Re “Ertragstafeln fiir Pseudotsuga Douglasii,” pp. 652-657. 452 Forestry Quarterly. Dry Rot in Factory Timbers. Inspection Department of the Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies. 31 Milk St., Boston, Mass. 1913. Pp. 34. Illus. A brief summary of the results of investigating several thou- sand beams in buildings, more than one hundred of which were “examined chemically and microscopically.” The pamphlet deals exclusively with southern yellow pine timbers, since this wood is the only one now used to any extent in the East for heavy mill frames. Attention is called to the great confusion in the commer- cial names used to describe the southern yellow pines, and to the indefiniteness of some of the terms used in rules for the inspection of timbers. The difficulty of identifying the various southern yel- low pines is also brought out. After discussing briefly the various causes of dry rot and the influences which encourage it, the pamphlet mentions some of the preservatives which have been used to arrest decay. The following observations are made: 1. “The percentage of resin in hard pine can be taken as an index of its power of resistance to dry rot. 2. “Hard pine lumber 12 inches square or larger is practically not obtainable with sufficient natural resistance to withstand fungus in a moist atmosphere. 3. “The non-resinous and sappy hard pine, which is obtainable is not safe to use for the important parts of a building without antiseptic treatment. 4. “Holes through columns, narrow spaces between beams and hollow spaces in floors or roofs are of no value in preventing dry rot, and serve to rapidly spread it to all susceptible material. 5. “Heating a new building to 115° F., for twenty-four hours, or more, several times has a value well worth its cost in preventing serious dry rot damage. 6. “Of the various antiseptic treatments in practical use at pres- ent, corrosive sublimate appears to be the best adapted to mill timber. Modification of the present process may be necessary when deeper penetration is required.” 1: OW): 5 Current Literature. 453 Annual Fire Report, 1913. California State Board of Forestry. Sacramento, 1914. Pp. 94, illus. This is a review of the forest fire situation in California during the past year. The State Forester points out that his office must rely upon Federal Forest officials for reports on fires in the National For- ests and upon 1,300 voluntary unpaid fire wardens for all reports of fires outside of the National Forests. The latter class of men fail to make reports, hence the statistics given probably do not come very near the actual truth so far as the whole State is con- cerned. The year 1913 appears to have been more unfavorable than any for some time past, a total of 559,370 acres being burned over at a loss of $511,077. The reported acreage burned during 1912 was 156,241 acres with a loss of $31,906. The most unfavorable months for fires are September, August, July and October. Several pages are devoted to a description of a few average fires which occurred during the year 1913. This is followed by a discussion of protective associations operating within the State; the character of assistance rendered by the Federal Government and to proposed legislation. An appendix contains a copy of the early and also the present forest laws of the State. Rais. Flumes and Fluming. By Eugene S. Bruce. Bulletin 87, De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1914. Contains an analysis of the methods of constructing box and V-shaped flumes, cost of construction and upkeep. The bulletin is well illustrated and contains tables showing the amount of water required to fill flumes at the various depths with given grade per- cents, weight of water, velocity of water when filled to various depths at different grades, and estimates of material. Besides being of interest to the profession itself, the bulletin unquestion- ably contains material which would be of great value to lumber- men. TEAS) WF: 454 Forestry Quarterly. A Naturalist in Western China. By E. H. Wilson. London, England. 1913. 2 volumes, pp. 251-229. The writer of these two volumes has made four separate ex- peditions, covering nearly I1 years since 1899, into western China, for the purpose of collecting botanical specimens and plant in- troductions. The first two explorations were in the interest of the well-known house of Veitch, and the last two for the Arnold Arboretum. An introduction by Professor Charles S. Sargent, of 37 pages, contrasts the forest flora of eastern continental Asia with that of eastern North America. According to this, in general, the American trees are larger and more valuable than the related Chinese species; while the shrubby members are less showy. The 129 natural families represented in the two regions are dis- cussed in detail, and a very interesting comparison made as to representatives of each in the two areas. Reference may be made to the Coniferae, which is represented in China by 14, and in eastern North America by 9, genera. China lacks the Tax- odium and Chamaecyparis of eastern North America, while the genera Libocedrus, Cupressus, Cunninghamia, Pseudolarix, Kete- leeria, and Fokienia have no eastern American representative. In eastern North America 15 species of Pinus occur as contrasted with 8 in eastern Asia. In Picea and Abies, however, the advan- tage lies with China, with 20 and 9 species respectively, as against 3 and 2. The numerical representation in the remaining genera is approximately equal. Summing up, of the 129 families, 92 fami- lies are common to the two regions; 12 occur in eastern North America, not in eastern Asia; and 25 occur in eastern Asia not in eastern North America. Owing to the greater variety of topo- graphy the forest flora of China is richer in genera than that of eastern North America. Of the 692 woody genera in the two regions, 155 are common to both; 158 are found in eastern North America and not in eastern Asia, and 379 occur in eastern Asia and not in eastern North America. Of the tropical genera, 76 have reached Southern Florida, and 89 southeastern China. It is concluded that the number of species of trees and shrubs is proba- bly nearly equal in the two regions. The first volume is largely an account of the various journeys, Other Current Literature. 455 with special reference to the manners and customs of the non- Chinese races inhabiting the China-Thibet region explored, but much botanical information accompanies the narrative. The bulk of the material of botanical interest, however, is to be found in the second volume. The nature of this is indicated by the following headings: the flora of western China; the prin- cipal timber trees; fruits, wild and cultivated; Chinese materia medica; gardens and gardening; flowers cultivated; principal food-stuff crops; trees, shrubs and herbs of economic importance ; tea and tea-yielding plants, and the tea industry. on We OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Workmen's Compensation Laws of the U.S. and Foreign Coun- tries. Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Whole No. 126. Washington, 1914. Pp. 477. Hearings before the Committee on Agriculture, House of Re- presentatives, 63rd Congress, 2d Session, on H. R. 13679—a bill making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915, and report on the bill. Washing- ton, Government Printing Office, 1914. Statement of H. S. Graves, Chief Forester, Forest Service, is given on pp. 239-312 inclusive. Report on the Agriculture Ap- propriation Bill so far as it refers to the Forest Service is given on pp. 662 and 686-692 inclusive. The appropriation for 1915 is $5,399,079, an increase of $143,577 over 1914. Grazing Homesteads and the Regulation of Grazing on the Public Lands. Hearing before the Commission on the Public Lands. March, 1914. Washington, 1914. Pp. 504. The Lumber Industry and the Railroads. By John R. Walker. Published by the Southern Hardwood Traffic Bureau, Memphis, henn,.\ Pp. '15- A statement made on behalf of the Southern lumber interests in the general advance rate case before the Interstate Commerce Commission at Washington, D. C., February 20, 1914. The article is a plea against the proposed 5 per cent advance 456 Forestry Quarterly. in the freight rate on lumber in the territory east of the Mississippi river and north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. History of the Pacific Coast Shippers’ Association, and organiza- tion of wholesalers and manufacturers of Pacific Coast forest products. Compiled and edited by F. D. Becker and S. B. Bel- lows. Published by the Association. Seattle, Washington. Jan- uary I, 1914. Pp. 8o. The Country's Forests. U.S. Department of Agriculture. For- est Service. Washington, 1914. Pp. 14. Our Timber Supply. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Washington, 1914. Pp. 8. Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest. By J. B. Knapp and A. G. Jackson. Rep. from West Coast Lumberman, Seattle- Tacoma, February 1, 1914-March 1, 1914. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Pp. 24, illus. Section 1. Forest Characteristics of Western Red Cedar. Section 11. Utilization of Western Red Cedar. Systematic Fire Protection in the California Forests. By Coert DuBois. For forest officers in District 5, U. S. Forest Service (not for public distribution). U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. Washington, May 29, 1914. Pp. 99, illus. An excellent manual dealing with methods and means of fire prevention and control. Suitability of Longleaf Pine for Paper Pulp. By H. E. Sur- face. Bulletin 72, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washing- ton, DAC. 2914.) Pp. 26. Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. By N. De W. Betts. Bulle- tin 77, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 34. Pot emne | Other Current Literature. 457 Cost and Methods of Clearing Land in the Lake States. Bry H. Thompson. Bulletin 91, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 25. New Facts concerning the White-Pine Blister Rust. By P. Spaulding. Bulletin 116, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. 1914. Pp. 8. Uses for Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. By J. C. Nellis. Farmers’ Bulletin 582, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Washington, D.C. 1914. Pp. 24. Stock-watering Places on Western Grazing Lands. By W. C. Barnes. Farmers’ Bulletin 592, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 27. The Road Drag and How tt is Used. Prepared by the Office of Public Roads. Farmers’ Bulletin 597, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. 1914. Pp. 15. Proceedings of The Society of American Foresters. Volume IX, Number 2. Washington, D. C. 1914. Pp. 149-292. Contains: Forest Administration for a State, by A. F. Hawes; Recent Ecological Investigations, by H. deForest; The Use of Yield Tables in Predicting Growth, by E. E. Carter; The Meas- urement of Increment on All-aged Stands, by H. H. Chapman; Determination of Stocking in Uneven-aged Stands by W. W. Ashe; Yield table Method for Arizona and New Mexico, by T. S. Woolsey, Jr.; Yield in Uneven-aged Stands, by B. Moore; Determination of Site Qualities for Even-aged Stands by Means of a Site Factor, by E. J. Hanzlik; Damage by Light Surface Fires in Western Yellow-pine Forests, by T. T. Munger; Fire Damage in Mature Timber, by J. A. Mitchell; Diseases of the Eastern Hemlock, by P. Spaulding; An Improved Method of Infiltrating Wood with Celloidin, by A. Koehler; The Applica- tion of Range Reconnaissance to the Southwestern Stock Ranges. A. D. Read; Damage to Reproduction by Snow, by R. H. Boerk- 458 Forestry Quarterly. er; The Use of Wood in Gas Producers, by R. Thelen; The Dis- tinguishing Features of the True Firs (Abies) of Western Wash- ington and Oregon, by E. J. Hanzlik; Reviews. A Classified List of American Literature on Forestry Subjects for General Reading and Reference. ‘Timely helps for farmers. Vol. 7, No. 8. Orono, Me., 1914. Pp. 53-60. The Brown-tail and Gypsy Moths and Parasites. Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Vol. xii, No. 4. Augusta, Me., £13) (Pp: 18! The Fire Wardens’ Manual. State of New Hampshire, Bulle- tin 5, Forestry Commission, 1914. Pp. 72. “Tt is the special aim of this bulletin to instruct the wardens how they may perform their services easier by the use of sys- tematic methods, and make their work more effective. The pur- pose is also to show how the warden service may benefit by the work of lookout watchmen, patrolmen and other employees, and how the wardens can assist and keep a check on the other kinds of work.” The Chestnut Bark Disease—Control: Utilization. New Hamp- shire Forestry Commission, Bulletin VI. Prepared in co-opera- tion with the Bureau of Plant Industry and Forest Service. Con- cord, April, 1914. Pp. 40, illus. Contains a summary of present knowledge on the spread of the disease in New Hampshire, and facts in regard to the utilization of chestnut wood. : Reforesting Waste and Cut-over Land. Bulletin IV, New Hampshire Forestry Commission. Concord, February, 1914. Pp. 27, illus. Treats of the importance of reforestation both to landowners and the State; gives information on how trees for reforestation may be secured and how they should be planted. Forestry in New Hampshire. Twelfth report of the Society for the protection of New Hampshire forests. N. p., 1914. Pp. 96. Illus. 1 map. Other Current Literature. 459 Third Annual Report of the New Hampshire State Tax Com- mission. Concord, N.H. 1914. Pp. 148. Report of the Commission on the Taxation of Wild or Forest Sands. Boston, Mass. 1914. Pp. 97. Massachusetts Forestry Association, Its Work and Character. Bulletin No.) 109... N. p.,, 1914: Pp. 4: What Does a Shade Tree Mean to You? Bulletin 110. Massa- chusetts Forestry Association. N. p., 1914. Pp. 4. State Forests for Massachusetts. Massachusetts Forestry As- sociation. Bulletin No. 111. N. p., 1914. Pp. 8. Tenth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts, 1913. Boston, 1914. Pp. 114. A Preliminary Working Plan for the Portland State Forest. By W. O. Filley and A. E. Moss. Seventh report of the State For- ester. Forestry Pub. No. 10. Rep. from report of the Conn. Ag. Exp. Sta. Pp. 391-420. 2 maps. Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. 1913: Part VI, Seventh Report of the State Forester. By W. O. Filley and A. E. Moss. New Haven, Conn. 1914. Pp. 39I- 419. A Forestry Arithmetic for Vermont Schools. By A. F. Hawes, State Forester. Vermont For. Pub. No. 14. Burlington, April, 1914. A unique forestry publication designed to create an interest in forestry in the common schools of the State. This bulletin is to be used as a supplement to the regular arithmetic text-book now used. Forest Fires. Bulletin 10, New York Conservation Commis- sion. By W. G. Howard. Albany, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 52. 460 Forestry Quarterly. Third Annual Report of the Conservation Commission, 1913: Divisions of Lands and Forests and. Fish and Game. Albany, N. Wi Pp 366: Methods of Determining the Value of Timber in the Farm Woodlot. By J. Bentley, Jr. The Cornell Reading Courses, Volume III, Number 62. New York State College of Agricul- ture at Cornell University. Ithaca, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 133-164. Rural and City Shade Tree Improvement. University Exten- sion Service in Forestry, New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse, N. Y. 1914. Pp. 15. Possibilities of Municipal Forestry in New York. By N. Brown. New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse, N. TQI4,\, Pp. 19. i. x: The Lumber Industry. By R. S. Kellogg. Published by Alex- ander Hamilton Institute, New York. 1913. Pp. 104. Ninth Annual Report of the Forest Park Reservation Com- mission of New Jersey, 1913. Union Hill N. J. Pp. 82. Report of the Maryland State Board of Forestry for 1912 and 1913. Baltimore, Md. Pp. 56. Contains a review of the work performed during the years 1912-1913. The chief features of note are the authorization given by the last legislature for the purchase of lands along the Patapsco river for a State Forest Reservation; an extension of the fire pro- tection system ; the completion of the forest survey of the State in 1912 which was begun in 1906; the examination of 6,000 acres of private land, chiefly woodlots; and the marked extension of for- estry knowledge in the State through addresses and illustrated lectures. Forest Laws of Maryland. Maryland State Board of Forestry. Forestry leaflet No. 15. Baltimore, Md., 1914. Pp. 8. Timber Resources of Warren County. Press Bulletin 115 of Geological and Economic Survey. Chapel Hill, N. C. 1914. Pp. 4. a= on. Other Current Literature. 461 Timber Resources of Orange County. Press Bulletin 116 of Geological and Economic Survey. Chapel Hill, N. C. 1914. Pp. 4. Forestry Report. State of Michigan, 1913. State Game, Fish and Forestry Warden. Lansing, Mich., 1914. Pp. 16. Report of the Public Domain Commussion, Jan. 1, 1911, to June 30, 1913. Lansing, Mich., 1914. Pp. 67. The Control of damping-off Disease in Plant Beds. By J. John- son. Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. Research Bul- letin 31. Madison, Wis., 1914. Pp. 59. Third Annual Report of the State Forester. Minnesota For- estry Board. December 31, 1913. Pp. 147. Illus. Illinois Arbor and Bird Days. Compiled by H. T. Swift. Springfield, Ill. 1914. Pp. 7. The Ames Forester. Volume II, Published by The Forestry Club of Iowa State College. Ames, Iowa. 1914. Pp. 68. Contains the following articles: Impressions of German Utilization; Red Pine an the Minnesota National Forest; A Lookout on the Sopris National Forest; Stumpage Appraisals Involving Use of a Railroad; Ex-12, Ex-Guard, Ex-Ranger; Grasses of the National Forests of the Rockies ; The Manufacture of Walnut Gun Stocks in Iowa; A Summer Camp for Ames Foresters. A Study of the Vegetation of the Sandhills of Nebraska. By R: J. Pool. Lincoln, Neb. 1013. Pp. 312; plates. The University of Washington Forest Club Annual. Volume II. Seattle, Wash. 1914. Pp. 74. Contains, in addition to a review of the year’s club meetings, letters from the field and a roster of students, the following articles: Lumber Publicity; Overhead Systems of Logging in the Northwest; Forestry in the Philippines; The Panama-Canal and the Lumber Industry of the Northwest; The Elements of 462 Forestry Quarterly. Cost in Milling; Seattle's Municipally Owned and Operated Lumber Dock; Growth and Reproduction of Western Hemlock ; Changes in the College of Forestry During the Year. First Biennial Report, State Forester of Kentucky, 1913. Frank- fort, Ky. .Pp.104. Report of Conservation Commission of Louisiana, 1914. New Orleans, 1914. Pp. 136. Third Annual Report of the State Forester. State of Oregon. Salem, 1914. Pp. 46. The Forest Protection Problem in California. Circular No. 5, State Board of Forestry. 1914. Pp. 7. Annual Fire Report, 1913. State Board of Forestry. Cali- fornia. Pp. 94. Manitoba—A Forest Province. By R. H. CampbelJ. Circular 7, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1914. Pp. 16. Chemical Methods for Utilizing Wood Wastes. By W. B. Campbell. Circular 9, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. 1914. Pp. 6. The Care of the Woodlot. By B. R. Morton. Circular 10, Forestry Branch, Ottawa, Canada. 1914. Pp. 16. Co-operative Forest Fire Protection. By G. E. Bothwell. Bul- letin 42, Forestry Branch. Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 28. Report of the Commissioner of Dominion Parks for the Year Ending March 31, 1913. Canada Department of the Interior. Ottawa, 1914. Pp. 96. The Maple Sugar Industry in Canada. By J. B. Spencer. Bul- letin No. 2B, Dominion of Canada, Department of Agriculture. Ottawa, 1913. Pp. 64. IIlus. This bulletin contains a brief historical review of the industry; Other Current Literature. 463 a statement of its present extent and importance; a discussion of sugar grove management ; the sugar-making plant and its opera- tion; marketing; the future of the industry; and the objects and aims of the Co-operative Maple Sugar Makers Association. The Training of a Forester. By G. Pinchot. Philadelphia and London. 1914. Pp. 149. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. Volume II, Part 10, and Volume III, Part 1. By J. H. Maiden. Sydney, N. S. We) t914.)) Pp. 201-311, Pls) 85-88; and pp!) 1-22, Pls.) 9-92. Annual Irrigation Revenue Report of the Government of Ben- gal, 1912-13. Calcutta, 1914. Pp. 60. Annual Report of the Woods and Forests Department for the Year Ended 30th June, 1913. Perth, 1913. Pp. 9. Boletin de la Sociedad Forestal Argentina, Ano I., 1913. Buenos Aires. Forestry. Education Department, Victoria. Circular of In- formation No. 17. Melbourne, 1913. Pp. 16. Identification of Timbers. By P. J. Drew. Department of Forestry, N. S. Wales. Bulletin No. 7. Sydney, 1914. Pp. 7. Preservation of Outdoor Timber. London Board of Agricul- ture and Fisheries. Leaflet No. 284. London, 1914. Pp. 4. Rapport du département fédéral de l'intérieur sur sa gestion en MOUs. ern, TOL4. |) Pp. 16, Amtliche Mitteilungen aus der Abteilung fiir Forsten des K. Preussischen Ministeriums fiir Landswirtschaft, Domanen und Forsten 1912. Berlin, 1914. Pp. 47. Etat der schweizerischen Forstbeamtem mit wissenschaftlicher Bildung. Bern, 1914. Pp. 21. 464 Forestry Quarterly. Das Fachwerk und seine Beziehungen zum Waldbau. Von G. Baader. Giessen, 1914. Pp. 67. Beitrage sur einheitlichen Ausgestaltung der Wald brandsta- tistik. Von Heinrich Gaertner, 1913. Kiel, Gartenstr. 4. A Pamphlet written from the standpoint of the needs of forest fire insurance, giving plans of securing the necessary statistics for a rational insurance. Grundziige der Waldwerts berechnung auf volkswirtschaftlicher Grundlage. Von Offenberg. Berlin, Paul Parey, 1912. Discusses the choice of interestrates for taxation purposes as differing from those for regulating purposes. a — i . PERIODICAL LITERATURE. FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. Of the 368,000 acres of forest on the Forests island over half is commercial, less than of a fifth private forest, and 30 per cent is Corsica. State Forest (French) and under good ad- ministration, accessible by excellent road systems constructed during the last 50 years. Neger enthuses particularly over the coniferous mountain forest. From the sea- shore to about 3000 feet the characteristic Mediterranean tree flora, called macchia, prevails, composed of a variety of broadleaf trees and shrubs of little economic value. This is followed by a narrow belt of open chestnut forest, Castanca vesca—the chest- nut and olive being the most important food trees of the island, hence this region having the densest population—sometimes up to 4000 feet, old veterans of over 1000 years old being not rare. Above the chestnut zone, up to 4500 feet, the conifer forest ex- tends, while strange to say the timberline is formed by a broadleaf forest, in which the beech (up to 100 feet high) is the dominant species and Abies pectinata its concomitant with Betula verrncosa, Alnus cordata, Ilex aquifolium. Neger explains this peculiar, un- expected distribution by the absence on the island of the northern timberline conifers, the coniferous forest below being made up of the Mediterranean species Pinus pinaster and P. corsicana with Abies pectinata. ‘The pines show a magnificent development, diameters going sometimes up to 5 feet and heights to over 150 feet. The two pines are not easy to differentiate without cones except by habitus, the Corsican pine remaining pyramided to old age and presenting a clear bole, the Pinaster pine assuming a rounded crown and remaining branchy. Seed production is very plentiful hence natural regeneration easy. Although the stands appear a picture of health, fungi are not absent, and mistletoe is sometimes unusually developed. Die Bergwalder Korsikas. Naturw Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Land- wirtschaft. April, 1914, pp- 153-161. 466 Forestry Quarterly. In the barren land of Herzegovina, ei- Forestry forts for some years have been directed in. the to reforestation, in order to save the Balkans. country from becoming a desert. The Venetians and Romans once drew supplies of timber from that region, but now there is little left. In many places bare mountains of stone occupy regions of former forests; but the people are planting trees and trying to make them grow. One of the common methods is to blast holes for the trees with dynamite and carry soil to fill the pit. Some places have be- come covered with green vegetation in two years. No grazing is permitted at first on newly planted mountain slopes. Sheep are the first animals to be admitted to these new pastures, the year following cattle are admitted, and finally goats when the shrubbery is high enough to care for itself. Parallel plots of these reserves are laid out over the province, so that when one plot is entirely reserved, the next plot is open to sheep, the third has sheep and cattle, and in the fourth, sheep, cattle and goats graze together. Very strict forestry laws exist and violations are subject to imprisonment. Instead of jailing the men, however, they are used for forest work. Hardwood Record. The great forest of the Amazon basin is South 1100 miles long east and west by 750 miles American north and south, an area of nearly a mil- Forests. lion square miles. The woods are tropical species; among which there are none that are suitable for construction purposes. Very little cutting has been done and that for the common woods of commerce, cedar, mahogany, rosewood, lignum-vitae, fustic and ironwood, and these cuttings extend only a few miles back from the coast, and the principal ports and rivers. Railroads charge exorbitant rates. There are no solid stands of single species, but instead there are hundreds of species growing thoroughly mixed and scattered. The wood of most species is so hard that a narrow-bitted ax specially formed is used. American Lumberman, I913. Periodical Literature. 467 About 47 per cent of the total area of Afforestation Korea is still under forest, although reck- in less cutting has almost denuded the moun- Korea. tains, especially in the Southern part. The government has established nurseries with the idea of educating the people to the importance of tree plant- ing. Several large firms have started reforestation and have plans for planting up areas varying from 4,000 to 30,000 acres, totaling more than 50,000 acres. The area of the whole country is about 60 million acres. The trees found in Northern Korea are Chamae- cyparis, larch, fir, birch, pine and others; in the Southern part, oaks, walnuts and pines. American Lumberman, February, 1913. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. W ood A few points in wood identification are Identification. brought out in an article, not signed but apparently from the Forest Service, in the Hardwood Record: 1. Hollywood—fibers are marked with spirals. 2. Cucumber—vessels with ladder-like or scalariform markings. Tulip poplar—vessels with ordinary bordered pits. 3. Birch—vessels with scalariform markings. Maple—vessels with ordinary pits. 4. Willow—marginal cells of pith rays irregular and different from the rest of the ray cells. Cotton-wood—ray cells all alike and elongated in one di1- rection. 5. Hackberry—same as willow in (4). Elm—same as cottonwood in (4). Analogous to the use of parasites in Parasites combating insect pests, a method which of has been so successfully inaugurated by Fungi. American entomologists, Dr. Tubeuf pro- poses to fight fungus pests through their parasites, and discusses as a first example the parasite of the Peridermium strobi, the white pine blister rust, which we are 468 Forestry Quarterly. trying hard to keep out of the country. In the yellow aecidia of this rust there lives a lilac colored fungus, Tuberculina maxima, which spreads over the mycelium of the blister rust under the bark and forms conidia, which as the bark splits are dispersed over the blister rust aecidiae, suppress these and inhibit fur- ther spore formation, thus hindering the spread of the disease. It requires, however, experimentation to find out how far the ef- fect of the parasite goes, to determine whether this biological method of fighting the disease may become practical. Biologische Bekiampfung von Pilzkrankheiten der Pflanzen. Naturw. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Landwirtschaft. Jan., 1914, pp. II-I9. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. Russian investigators are active in try- Forest ing to establish the truth of the influences Influences. of forestcover. The forestal significance of the retention of precipitation of crowns is under discussion in the Journal of the St. Petersburg Foresters Society. Five year observations show that in a pine forest of .6 to .7 density 23% of the precipitation was retained by the crowns; of snow I2 to 15% was so retained. In the majority of cases (50% of the rainy days) from 26 to 50% remained in the crowns; the lighter rainfalls, which are more frequent, na- turally are retained to a greater extent. With regard to snow the wind plays a role; the severer winds benefiting the soil by larger masses being deposited, while rain is more rapidly evaporated and lost to the vegetation. A technical expertise regarding the devastating floods in Trans- caucasia, especially on the southern slopes, which annually de- stroy millions of property with loss of life, states the affected water basins as 13142 square werst and estimates the needed preliminary expenses for reboisement work at over $800,000. Conditions are more difficult than in the French Mountains, since the streams rise at elevations of 8000 to 11000 feet, the slopes are steep, and the rocks easily disintegrating sandstone, with marl, clay and lime layers. The forest region extends to 7000 feet; the forest area is partly Periodical Literature. 469 in private hands, badly used and should be declared protection forest, and pasturing should be prohibited; in some districts na- tural regeneration will be successful, in others, planting is neces- sary. Das V Heft des Lesnoj Journal, May, 1913. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. Jan., 1914, pp. 51-58. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Natural In a thoughtful article, Forstmeister Regeneration. Lieber develops his ideas on natural re- generation, which he summarizes in the following rational prescriptions: 1. Preparation of stands for natural regeneration must be be- gun in early youth by means of thinnings in such a manner that a special preparatory felling is not required and so that richer or poorer seed years find a larger part of the stands ready for the reception of seed. 2. The decision whether regeneration is to be begun depends on whether sufficient desirable volunteer growth is at hand; and its development dictates the progress of fellings. 3. The fellings are to be conducted not only with reference to the needs of the young growth but with regard to the best utili- zation of the old growth. Both considerations have equal rights ; the ‘‘ripeness” of the trees to be removed must be determined. 4. Keeping foremost in mind the object of the management to secure highest yield the desire to form a certain stand in form and kind must be kept in the background. Change in species and form one must not fear because of a preconceived plan. 5. It is equally justifiable to finish the regeneration in a short time as to extend it over a long time as considerations sub 3 in- dicate, The transition to a selection form or to the real selection forest may in some places satisfy the needs. 6. Consideration of yield regulation must not deter the choice of a method of silviculture which is difficult to regulate if better yields can thereby be secured. Yield regulation is a servant of 470 Forestry Quarterly. the management, it must not become the master and demand forms, because they are easier to obtain or to judge. Ueber natiirliche Verjiingung. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. Apr-, 1914, pp. 181-195. Forstmeister Bauer (Bavaria), believing Natural that the spruce is one of the species which Regeneration is adapted to natural regeneration and has of large areas under such management comes Spruce. to the conclusion that only on I and Il site is this method of regeneration tech- nically and financially successful. On poorer sites, natural regeneration remains poor, so that, if no thinning is done (which is expensive) in 50 years only bean and hop poles are found, and at 30 years stands are hardly over man- height, while 10 year old plantations side by side have reached that height. He recites the disadvantages of natural re- generation on poor and medium sites; enormous loss in incre- ment; loss through poorer values of the wood product; great cost of cultural measures to remedy these defects; more punky wood due to injuries received in gradual removal of timber and reduction of workwood per cent; execssive cost in moving ma- terial from seeding area which alone would pay for planting. Technisches und finanzielles Versagen der Natur vrjiingung in reinen Fichtenbestinden auf Bodden mittlerer. Bonitat. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralbhatt, Oct., Nov., 1914, pp. 520-522. Dr. Wimmenauer compares the produc- Production tion of mixed stands of beech and pine, of beech and oak, beech and larch by ascer- Mixed taining the cross section area per cent in Stands. which each participates in the composition and compares their volume proportionately to what the normal yield tables for the single species calls for. He finds beech and oak produce more in pure stands if the participation of oak exceeds 2 per cent. In the mixture of pine and beech similarly an admixture of 50 per Periodical Literature. 471 cent at least of the light needing species is desirable and favoring the same by reducing the beech. Zur Frage der Mischbestande. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung, March, 1914, pp. 90-93. : Dr. Kunze reports from the Saxon ex- Influence periment station the results of 50 years of of thinning experiments in a stand of Scotch Degrees pine, 20 years old at the start which on of three sample plots was thinned ten times, Thinnings. lightly (a), moderately (b) and severely (c). The final measurements were made in 1912 when the stand was 70 years old, by the method of sample trees, due attention having been paid to stem classifica- tion. The results agree with what other investigators have found. Severe thinnings are most effective; they do not curtail the height growth, but on the contrary stimulate it more than the other two degrees. In total production the c-grade furnished 22.7% more than the a-area, and 15.6% more than the b-grade. It appears, however that the three areas were not equally stocked at the be- ginning, which vitiates the value of the figures. The severe thin- ning did not lengthen the crown but on the contrary shoved the crown up in proportion to the great height growth; the crown diameters also show great regularity in gradation, as appears from a comparison of branchwood to bole wood, the boles being also more cylindrical. Mitteilungen aus der Kgl. Sachsischen forstlichen Versuchsanstalt zu Tharandt, Band I, Heft 2, 1913. The attempts at the introduction of Exotics exotics for forest purposes in Saxony dates in back only ten years. The results are dis- Saxrony. cussed by Neger. Expectations were in many cases not fulfilled. Causes of failure were mainly damage by game and misplaced expectations on the ability of exotics to thrive on untoward sites and especially to severe frost conditions which the clearing system followed to an extreme in Saxony has produced. Abies concolor has failed for Ae Forestry Quarterly. both causes; A Nordmanniana is discarded; Pseudotsuga, the green form succumbs to frost, the blue form from Colorado is hardy, although relatively to the green slow, grows faster than spruce in some locations, the form from British Columbia has not thrived; in the hill country the green variety seems to hold its own. Picea sitchensis is only fit for the mildest locations; Piccea pungeus, valueless. Pinus banksiana (divaricata), the same. Pinus Strobus suffers much from game, besides from Peridermium and Lyda campestris, but is resistant to drouth and frost and is soil improving. Larix leptolepis suffers from drouth more than the native, its resistance against the larch disease is its best recommendation. Clamaecy paris lawsoniana needs high degree of humidity and side protection, suffers from game and is given to form double leaders. The most successful species has been Quercus rubra on poorer soils than the native thriving and growing rapidly, also Populus canadensis in overfiow lands. Der Stand der Anbauversuche etc. Naturw. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Landwirtschaft. Jan., 1914, pp. I-II. Dr. Tubeuf dismisses as unpractical the Fighting proposition of Eberts to spray the Ribes White Pine host of the White pine rust with Bordeaux Rust. mixture on account of the impossibility of protecting the underside of the ieaves which is more liable to infection than the upper side. Bekimpfung der Ribes-bewohnenden Generation des Weymouthskiefern- blasenrostes. Naturw. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Landwirtschaft. March, 1914, pp- 187-189. M. Canon advocates fire lines planted to Novel Fire a shrub called ‘‘Mille pertuis,” which is Protection said to resist fire, to grow densely up to 18 inches in height, and to remain in foli- age the entire year. Canon advocates the use of this shrub in central France for covering fire lines. This presents a new idea which might be applied on this continent. TO Seas Revue des Eaux et Forets, April 15, 1914, pp. 270-271. Periodical Literature, 473 Glover gives an interesting account of Light Firing the progress which has been made in the in Punjab toward light firing in Chir pine Bnitish India. forests to prevent the excessive damage that occurs after a forest has been success- fully protected from fire a number of years and then subjected to a general conflagration. The forest conference of last year re- solves : That the principle of Departmental firing in Chir for- ests, coupled with the regular method of regeneration be accepted * * and that experiments regarding the feasibility of introducing a similar scheme into the Kangra Division be carried out. Details of the methods followed are described. The firing is usually done during the winter months, the object being “to keep the fire line moving regularly and evenly down hill.” The article concludes with an account of the damage to a tree crop, under- growth and soil cover, and the writer summarizes the experiments as showing “most conclusively that, except in regeneration areas, woods can be fired on a larger scale without doing appreciable damage to the Chir.” It is recommended, however, that the selec- tion system be abandoned for these areas, and that a uniform system be adopted as being more suitable, since the regeneration could then be protected more systematically. It is argued that there is no reason why forests where trees are tapped for resin should not be similarly burned provided the bases of the tapped trees are first cleared of needles and grasses, as is now the practice on the Florida National Forest in the United States. TS. W., Jr. Departmental Firing in Chir Forests in Punjab. Indian Forester, June, 1914, pp. 292-300. An anonymous writer describes the poor Natural Regeneration results which have followed the use of the of Deodar. selection system, the selection system in groups, and the group system in the deodar forests of the Himalaya Mountains in British India. A new method was proposed early in 1914 which bids fair to give success. The entire layer of decaying vegetable debris was dug up, raked together into heaps along with the larger refuse 474 Forestry Quarterly. in former exploitations and burned. The ashes were then scattered over the treated area, which was subse- quently planted with deodar or a mixture of deodar and kil (Blue pine). Results have surpassed all expecta- tions. ToS. W.,9e Annual Regeneration of Deodar. Indian Forester, 1914, pp. 306-300. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. The Hungarian Forstrat Marton de New Method Zsarolyan proposes a new way of esti- of mating closely the bole contents of stand- Cubing ing trees by the introduction of what he Standing Timber calls conus cubic numbers. He starts with the idea that the upper diameter of whatever log length is considered can be more readily and with less error estimated in tenths of the measured b. h. d than in inches. If V is the volume, D the b. h. d, d the upper diameter and / the log length, then d=(0.x)D and pp 1D az = | : l J}? — i — Re wee Des aan ane A] pr il. 9 . I * The figures calculated for various x are the conus cubic 2 ~ numbers. The formula can, however, be still further simplified 21 8 tained the values for (1-++-ox?) and carried out the multiplication with 0.3927, we get rounded off conus numbers 1 gee. 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 9 AB.) (AO! AG) CARA 750) 55 0) OO Oe aieeg into V= (1-++0.x )*1]=D?0.3927(1-+0x?)1, and having ascer- This series easily memorized does away with the need of tables or cumbrous calculations: with the upper diameter estimated as .5D the conus number, with which DXI must be multiplied is also .5; for every additional tenth 5% is to be added, for every tenth below 5% to be deducted. Neues Verfahren zur Bestimmung des Kubikinhaltes von stehenden Stéimmen. Allgemeine Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. March, 1914. pp. I13-II4. Periodical Literature. 475 Hans Honlinger, who has written a New Ideas book on “Practical Forest Valuation” on (Praktische Waldwertrechnung) briefly Forest answers his critic by showing that the dif- Valuation. ference between the soil rent theory and his own consists in that the former charges the expenditures entirely against the soil and none against the stock, which is the reason that negative soil values may be figured out, although the forest rent is positive. Honlinger distributes the expenditures in the same ratio as the incomes against soil and stock. Briefly the difference in the formula would be: i Y'—1ra / im Bs Soil rent: 1. Forest value =————-; 2. Soil value=-— — .Op 10D at ini —rA; Stock value= Yr — Topeak In formula 2 and 3 the for- est income (from formula 1) appears distributed on stock and soil, but the forest expenditures charged entirely to soil; while in formula 3 no expenditures are charged. Ho6nlinger’s formulae Y"™ra r (Y"—ra) Y'—ra_ ~=r( Y™—ra) read : F=——_—. 5; S=-—_-______ ; §t= —______ —___—_ .Op I.op'—I Op I.op'—I Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Dec., 1913, p. 564. Kirchgessner points out that while in- Facts crement should be the basis of utilization, and it is not easy to determine it, subjective Estimates elements affording much variation. Esti- im mates move on a middle line; the better Increment. sites being underestimated the poorer far- ing better. He then proceeds to compare the actual yields during the last 70 years of management of ten communal forests of medium quality in Baden, some 2000 acres, with the latest estimates of increment. The comparison is most flattering to the estimator, for while the ten positions figured on actual returns show on the average an increment of 58 cu ft. p. acre (varying from 49 to 71), the estimate averages 55 (varying from 50 to 64) cubic feet per acre. 47 Forestry Quarterly. To show how the calculation is made we translate the sums of the items: Area, 2,070 acres; total cut in 70 years, 5,724,000 cubic feet (of which 25 per cent in thinnings) ; latest estimate of stock, 10,630,- 000 cubic feet; stock estimate 70 years ago, 2,000,000 cubic feet ; increment in 70 years by adding cut and present stock, and de- ducting previous stock, 14,354,000 cubic feet; from which incre- ment per year and acre can be determined and compared with the increment estimate. Zuwachsschitzsung verglichen mit dem tatsdchlichen Ertagsergebniss. Forstwissenschraftliches Centralblatt. March, 1914, pp. 149-150. Professor Dr. Wimmenauer reports in Financial great detail and with ample tabulations Aspects results of experimental thinning in the of dominated stand at the station of Hesse, Thinnings carried on within the last 25 years, some 17 areas for pine and beech on plots of two-thirds to two and a half acres being reported. The inquiry was directed not merely to volume but to value production. For the latter to overcome the difficulty of dividing into assortments a value meter (Wertmeter) calculation was introduced. For beech, where at the age of 79 years workwood is as yet not developed, the value meter was determined by assuming brushwood to be half in value of timberwood, hence if there were 60 fm of the latter and 40 fm of the former, this would give 80 wm, value- meter. For pine the calculation was made differently. Since the relation of assortments in a stand is primarily dependent on the mean diameter of the stand, the assortments corresponding to each such diameter were ascertained and their values in the local market ascertained (since only relative values are to be deter- mined), and then a quantity of wood of the value of 10 Mark was accepted as valuemeter. For illustration: to a 40 cm diam- eter corresponds 40% of sawtimber at 22.6 mk, 40% of building timber at 17.1 mk 10% fuel wood over 3 inch at 5.3 mk and 10% brushwood at 0.6 mk; this makes the average value 16.5 mk. Such a tree would then contain 1.65 value meters. The results are somewhat unexpected and disappointing. The beech areas show that total volumes as well as increment per cents under a, b, and c, i. e. light, moderate, and severe thinnings in Periodical Literature. 477 the understand (par le bas) vary irregularly and differ very little, while in d and e, i. e. thinnings in dominant and selection thin- nings which were made in a few cases did not show much better. The total average showed hinnine degrees. , 2.2. u.c ee a b c d e WidLIDeTHeters) / 2 Sia. iia eaten nt 100 98 102 106 92 Inierement per \cents))5)\s/o-he.4he 4. 4.1 4.5 ASN ALO The thinnings in the subordinate stand of pine showed also no tangible result, the increment per cent for a, b, and c thinnings being 4., 4.1, 4 respectively, the volumes 96, 100, 96. A much more satisfactory experiment with different methods of calculation was carried on by the author independently in beech. The procedure started with the thought that a thinning produces two effects: an increase of increment on the remaining stand which is expressed by the difference of the increment per cent of the thinned stand (z) and that of the unthinned main stand (y) ; and on the other hand, an earlier money income which can earn interest (p) instead of the increment per cent (1) of the subdominant stand of the unthinned stand, so that, if the original dominant stand was H, the thinned stand D, a precise financial expression of a thinning would be: MS=H(s—y) +D (p—z). In practice, recognizing five stem classes, the per- formance of each of them would have to be ascertained and the sum found. The three experimental areas were thinned every 5 years, alto- gether 5 times (original ages 67, 67, 63), the first one, with thin- nings in the subdominant, tree classes I-III; the second, by selec- tion thinning, tree classes III-V; the third one by thinning in the dominant, tree classes IJ-IV. A fourth area lightly thinned was used to determine increment per cents y and -r of the form- ula, while the increment per cent z of the thinned stands was for each stem class in each area calculated from the 20 year period. The following results appear. petty CLASS») 5/0)3:< teh ohees I II III IV V BEAR Giluiasicnte eis Sea eres 2 2.2 33 3.6 3.8 fie Ca Cee ae eR aE E2 ot 3.6 4.3 3.9 Payee a § Zi! Str, il Sela, 2.4 3.6 3.8 3.5 3.1 PAIR OIL) 2 Ria Sia seh Uastia 19 is 3.6 4.0 3.9 4.1 478 Forestry Quarterly. The different kinds of thinning exhibit characteristic results. After moderate thinning in the subordinate stand the stouter stem classes benefit generally more. In the selection thinning ir- regularity is striking. In the thinning par le haut the maximum increment comes to the middle class III. Nevertheless, the in- crement per cents of total volume are little different, as in the previous case, varying only as 3:3.7:3.4:3.6. Applying now the ascertained data to the formula and choosing p=3, the final result makes the three different kinds of thinning as 152.1: 75.2: 147.8. That is to say the selection thinning is financially only half as effective as the other two kinds, which are pretty nearly alike in their results. ‘The second object of thinnings, the money interest instead of wood increment, is particularly advantageous in the thinning in the subdominant, not so in the thinning par le haut, and least in the selection thinning. The increase in increment on the main stand appears as 86: 113: 129 for the three kinds of thinning. The author believes to have proved that in the statistics of thinning practice only exact calculations yield reliable results. Durchforstungsversuche in Buchen-und Kiefernbestanden. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung- March, 1914, pp. 84-90. Kunkele in a very elaborate article of Determining 50 pages develops a method of evaluating V alue the value increment per cent of standing Increment trees, as well as stands, which should be sufficiently accurate and at the same time simple. ‘The article is divided into five parts: Influences deter- mining wood prices; mathematics of price curves; value incre- ment of single trees; value increment of stands; helps and ex- amples of the use of the new formulae. In the first part some interesting data are brought showing, that length of log influences the price only of small sized sticks essentially [masts? Ed.]; quality of wood influences price more than length, especially in pine and that increasingly with size; but by all odds the greatest influence on price is exercised by diameter, increasing up to a cer- tain size which varies with species. A table giving prices for 24 species paid in the Baden State forests exhibits the precise variations. An idea of the relative value of species may be Periodical Literature. 479 gained from the diameter which in different species command a price of 20 cents per cubic foot (cut logs): black locust 6 inch; ash, 10 inch; walnut, 11 inch; oak, 13 inch; basswood and maple, 15 inch; pine and larch, 16 inch; elm, 17 inch; beech, 24 inch. Translating the price per cubic meter into approximate values per M ft B. M. for 12-16 inch logs, cut in the woods the following prices are found: ash and walnut, $44; oak, $27; basswood and maple, $25; pine and larch, $22; elm, $20; poplar, $21; birch, $18; chestnut, $17; spruce and fir and beech, $16. Different species show then, different price movement per unit. In oak, while length does not vary the price more than 15% at most, the diameter may vary it by 1700% over the smallest diameter (6 inch). Here fame plays a role, oak of the Spessart commands three times the price of logs in other forests. In beech the influence of diameter may increase price by 300%; in other broad leaf species by 400%, the rise beginning only with medium diameters. Spruce and fir show price increases for length in different size classes varying from 3 to 35%, for quality from 10 to 21%, but for size up to 200%. In pine the price rises with the diameter up to 500%, so that while the smallest logs bring 8 cents per cubic foot, the largest may bring 40 cents. It is also interesting to note that the cost per cubic foot of making logs averages for all kinds and sizes just about I cent (about $1.25 per M ft. B. M.) which means 1 to 10% on the final value; and transportation from the woods to the woodyard averages for all German forest product 4 cents per cubic foot. This influences the prices in the forest by from 2 to 20%, and that all assortments alike. Market price increments in the last decade for beech pro- gressed regularly 1% annually, but oak 3 times as much and in some places over 4 per cent annually for medium sized logs (16-20 inch middle diameter). Oak has experienced such con- stant price increase in the last decade, especially in the Spessart mountains so that “the sum of all increments in spruce cannot measure up to the mere price increment of oak; in other words, the oak in the woodyard unused brings better interest than the spruce in the forest. The mathematics of the price curve is then developed in great detail with the use of calculus, and after critical reference 480 Forestry Quarterly. to other formulae (Schumacher’s rule) the author’s own formula is constructed, not quite so simply as the author promised. The upshot of it is that Schumacher’s rule, “the values per unit rise with the diameters in arithmetic progression,” is only partly true, the curve being represented by a number of straight line parts; which by shifting of the abscissae zero axis to a determinable degree can be made straight: the prices then are in direct propor- tion to the changed diameters. The amount of shifting (s) for different diameter classes (D to d) is capable of mathematical expression; being for straight lines ese —D when P and p are the prices for the two diameters; and for curved parts, Ax Tiss T er open ee To determine the price increment per cent, Pressler’s well known diameter increment per cent formula, somewhat modified, 200b D-+nb ’ the investigation is made, and b=average periodic ring width, namely Pd=: in which m=number of years for which during 7 years, is modified to -. This holds if the mea- 200b D+nb-+s surement is made in the middle of the log length, for measure- ment at other places, the coefficient 200 must be varied; if breast high, to 240 or 300 for .8 and .g density (change of form factor!), and if measured at Pressler’s “increment middle” to 160 and 130 respectively for the two densities. Going into the discussion of the value increment of a tree, the author reviews the various methods hitherto employed, and then develops his own formula starting from the conception that this increment is composed of the increment 1. of the log volume (v') times unit price (q'), 2. of volume of other wood (v7) times its unit price (q?), 3. of the participation of the log volume in the total volume (.:) or in the total value (z) in hundreds of the unit. The final result of the consideration of these factors . : 200bz yields the formula of value increment percent: pral= apie: nbs P+p D—d D+d ce —_———., andzg = to which Spee x 7 eae aati xq. (I—*)P, Periodical Literature. 481 In determining the value increment of stands Borggreve’s method, modification of Schneider's formula for volume incre- ment is applicable, measuring from Io to 30 trees and collating ee ‘Clipe D i D-+s j Sa.(P) K, the constant, being 200 or varied as above. A graphic table and other helps for easier calculations, etc. are given, too elabo- rate to reproduce here. An example may elucidate the procedure: The value incre- ment per cent of a pine is to be ascertained measuring d. b. h. 45cm, the bored cores show in the last period (opening up 2 years ago) a width of 1.2 cm, 1. e. a ring width of 1.5 mm; density of stand .7, height and form increment=o. From a table we obtain 200 P—p _ cna ar URE i the data properly summed up by pval.=- wages; FOr-s,,Z, ete. and find) s==39; z=.91 ; p= n P-+-p : _, _ 400X.15 200X.1 5X OF the value per cent then is pv a eae 7 TERE LI 4512+ which (read from graphic table) reduces to 2.7%. An ex- tensive literature reference on the subject ends the article which was written for a doctor’s thesis. By Bo Beitrige zur Ermittlung des forstlichen Wertzuwachses. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt. Sept., Oct., pp. 465-511. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania Damages holds that, in an action to recover damages for for the loss of growing timber by fire Destruction caused by the defendant’s negligence, the of measure of damages was not the value of Timber. the wood destroyed, but the injury to the farm as a whole by the destruction of the timber, where much of the timber was young and not marketable, and had no value as wood, but was growing into value and added to the value of the land it covered, and the whole of it added to the value of the farm of which it was a part. Bullock vs. Balti- more & Ohio Railroad Co., 84 Atl. R. 421. American Lumberman. April, 1913. 482 Forestry Quarterly. After discussing some of the inconsist- Yield encies in the method of yield regulation in of Conifers France, M. Hatt cites some silver fir- in France. norway spruce growth per cent figures for Silver fir and Norway spruce which are extremely significant. These are summarized as follows: On “gres vosgien’ soil, with a rotation of 135 to 144 years, the average production during the past ten years was 80 cubic meters per hectare (1145 cubic feet per acre) or a growth per cent of 25; in stands partly on “gres vosgien’”’ and partly on “gres bigarre”’ soil the production was also 80 cubic meters per hectare for 10 years, or 27 per cent. In the second case, the rotation was 144 to 150 years. On granite soil with a rotation of 144 years the production was 70 cubic meters for 10 years, (1000 cubic feet per acre) making 21 per cent. TS We Revue des Eaux et Foréts, April 15, 1914, pp. 254-257. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. Two well guyed trees or gin poles, one Log-Loading on each side of the track and 200 to 400 Device feet from it, have a 18 inch cable stretched tight between them 40 to 60 feet above ground. A special carriage that can be racked in either direction at the speed of about 800 feet per minute, rides this line. The lifting line and this carriage are operated by a 3-drum, 4-cylinder loader. The lifting line, handled by the lower drum, is fastened as a tail-hold to one of the guyed trees and then passes through the two lower sheaves of the carriage, looping down to a special block in the bite of this line. This gives the engine a block purchase on the log. The lifting and racking lines are handled independently. The advantages of this system are: (1) no roll- way or landing place is needed; (2) the landing is never blocked up, for the logs can be delivered by the yarder anywhere between the track and the guyed tree 4oo feet away; (3) any log can be picked up to make up a load; (4) timbers 160 feet long are handled; (5) it is a safer system than any of the old ways; (6) Periodical Literature. 483 a greater choice of settings for the yarding engine is afforded; (7) the machine can also be used to spot cars. American Lumberman, January, 1913. ; The village of Liverpool, N. Y., with its Basket Willow 1400 inhabitants, was the first place in Business this country to start the manufacture of m willow baskets. About 50 years ago the New York State. | Germans there made baskets from willow for their own use around the home, and from this the demand grew to some 350,000 baskets annually at the present time, with shipments all over the country in car-load lots. Almost every family is now engaged in either raising the willow or cleaning it, or making the baskets. Raising willows was formerly restricted to the back yards, and almost every German had a small patch, but now some farm- ers make it a business and have 40 to 60 acres of them. Cuttings are set about a foot apart and from each a cluster of 40 to 60 rods will grow annually after the third year. Considerable care is required to keep up good yields: the ground must be kept free of weeds; when cutting, the rods are clipped close to the ground; moist soil, although not necessarily swampy soil, is needed. When full grown, an average yield is about 3 tons of rods per acre each year; and they are worth about $18 per ton, green. The rods are 3 to 5 feet long usually, although some reach 8 or 9 feet ; the latter are not much in demand. After the willows are cut, they are steamed and the bark peeled off by hand, and the rods sorted into 4 or 5 sizes. It is dirty work to strip willows of their bark for they are slimy and wet. The peelings are “thrown into the back yards, and when they will hold no more they have to pay to have them carted away. No use has been found for the bark. No machine has ever been invented to strip willows successfully. There are 150 basket factories in Liverpool, all doing hand- work. Almost every basket-maker has a shop in his house. One man can make 5 hampers a day or a dozen waste-paper baskets, and all of the work is done by the piece. Formerly 15 hours constituted a day, but now the hands work “only twelve hours.” 484 Forestry Quarterly. The average wage for the basket-maker is $1.75 to $2.00 a day. Labor conditions are peculiar in that “no one is learning the trade,” and as a result hands are scarce and they do about as they please, although many work all their lives in one factory. There are four sizes of hampers made; clothes, market, office baskets, and cat and dog baskets. Some years as high as 35,000 clothes baskets alone were made. The Barrel and Box. Ig12. As a rough estimate there are about History 1000 veneer eStablishments in the United of the States, using approximately one-half bil- V eneer lion feet of lumber yearly. There is an Industry. annual production of veneer in 34 States: the leading States are Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Arkansas, Missouri and Wisconsin. Practically every kind of wood is used; the leading ones in the order of prominence are gum, yellow pine, maple, poplar, cottonwood, oak, birch, elm, basswood and beech, besides foreign woods in less amounts. There is evidence of veneer cutting in one form or another back as far as history goes; but those early efforts were hand- work and have little connection with modern veneer making. The use of fine face veneer in cabinet work seems to have started with Sir Ishambard Brunel in 1799 at the Chatham dock yards. Here he had the first steam saw-mill in England. He equipped a shop at Battersea about 1805, and developed the practice of sawing veneer from mahogany and rosewood. About this time he invented the veneer-saw, pretty much as we know it today, and cut veneer as thin as 1/16 inch with great precision. Since that time there have been many veneer cutting machines invented,all of which may be classed under three heads: sawing, slicing and rotary cutting or peeling. The rotary veneer cut- ting industry was just attaining importance in the woodworking world 15 to 16 years ago. About that time there were some pre- tentious experiments tried at making built-up lumber, which proved unprofitable. The origin of the rotary cutting is obscured a little, but some of the old writers claim, without clear references however, that it originated in Russia. ‘The best data seems to give Gen. Bentham in England credit; for the rotary method Periodical Literature. 485 might logically develop from a power planer that he built. This machine had some resemblance to a huge hand plane mounted on slides, power driven, which in operation sliced thin pieces from a block of wood. The pieces were used at first for making light packages (hat-boxes). From these machines the modern basket factories developed, and since they had a greater capacity than was needed to supply the basket demand, the natural step for some outlet was the development of the plain veneer and the built-up lumber industry. St. Louis Lumberman, December, 1912. Australian hardwoods such as karri and Block Paving jarrah, also the so-called Canadian red- im wood and Baltic redwood, are used for England paving-blocks in England. The blocks are and usually 9x3x5 inches in size and are creo- France. soted to about Io fbs. per cubic foot of wood. Red gum blocks from America with medium to light traffic lasted 10 years, the other woods men- tioned above last 15 to 20 years. (Other consular reports re- lating to the use of wood blocks in England appeared May 20, 1908, May 21, 1910, September 13, I911; in Germany, August 3, 1910, October 7, 1910; in Italy, March Io, 1911.) In France, pine from the Landes (in Southwestern France), “karre,” a wood from one of the French colonies, teak, oak, and beech, all creosoted, are used for paving. A wooden lath 2 inch thick is placed between the rows of block to form a space which is then filled with concrete and gravel. In Paris most of the leading avenues and public places are paved with wood blocks. Southern Industrial and Lumberman Review. January, 1913. The standard wood for cigar boxes is Cigarbox Spanish Cedar. It is supposed that this Wood. cedar has a beneficial effect on the flavor of high grade cigars, although nothing definite can be said of the effect a box made of balsam fir, for example, would have on the cigars packed in it. The increased cost of the cedar has brought many substitutes into the market; where a solid cedar box formerly cost 7¢ now it is tic. The 486 lorestryy Quarterly. substitutes, other than veneers of the cedar, make a cheaper looking package, and the dealer knows that the cigar will be judged to a considerable extent by the box in which it is packed. The principal substitutes are veneers of the cedar or basswood or gum, basswood stained without veneering, or covered with paper printed to resemble the grain of cedar. Many combina- tions are used. One box may have a solid Spanish cedar top; the sides of gum stained on the inside and veneered with cedar on the outside; the ends unstained gum but veneered with cedar on the outside; the bottom of soft elm stained a cedar color. Most of the material is re-sawed to 4 or 3/16 inch thickness. The cedar veneer is cut 1/100 to 1/40 inch thick. American Lumberman, November, 1912. The figures below are taken from data W eights given in Service Circular 213 for the first of column; from the official estimated Lumber. weights of air-dry lumber as published by the Hardwood Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation of the United States for column 2; from similar official estimated weights both dry and green as published by the Na- tional Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association for columns 3 and 4 except the figure for white pine in column 4 which was taken from Forest Service Circular 213. Weight per M Feet. Absolutely Air-dry Air-dry Green dry eerie is eae cee 3470 tbs. 4000 4000 5750 ESRI os basse eee a 3435 4000 4000 5500 Hard) vlaplesin ou nds: 3341 4000 3300 5400 Dor wwMaple ity oe 3222 3000 3300 5000 Wilste, Pine 2. 53). ove 2032 2400 2500 3535 American Lumberman, April, 1913. A number of problems concerning hard- Hardwood wood distillation are suggested by Dr. L. Distillation. F. Hawley in a pamphlet issued by Arthur D. Little, Inc., chemists and engineers, Boston, Mass. The questions deal with the value of different Periodical Literature. 487 species of wood as affected among other things by the products obtained, the amount of heat needed, the moisture content of the wood, the relative value of different parts of the tree, and re- covery of products from escaping gases. Hardwood Record, April. 1914. ‘The results of four experiments carried Douglas out on a commercial scale to determine the Fir value of distillates from Douglas fir Distillation. stumps, along with other supplementary investigations, show that distillation as an aid for clearing land is entirely out of the question, according to G. M. Hunt of the Forest Service. The processes employed were steam distillation with and without subsequent extraction, destructive distillation, and combined steam and destructive dis- tillation. The experiments are described in detail in a 3,000 word article, and the summary brings out a comparison of the yields of Douglas fir to those of Norway pine and Longleaf pine, although not an exact comparison. Turpentine Other Oils Pax Rosin eielasy HE ... 7s). s I- 4 gal. 3- 8 gal. 15 gal. 75-150 tbs. Norway pine..... 8-18 “ 10-20 “ 300) 7. “ee ee Longleaf pine....10-20 7-16 25-45 “ The yield of charcoal is about the same for each. While the yields of acid and alcohol cannot be compared, those from Doug- las fir are so low that it is doubtful if they could be profitably saved. Besides the small amount of product, other things stand in the way of profit. The products are different from those of Norway and Longleaf, and are not favored on the market. The large stumps make expensive handling, and, besides, the mill-waste is more easily handled and is much more than sufficient to supply the Pacific Coast demands, even if the market would take kindly to the products and all of the eastern materials were driven out of competition. Timberman, April, 1914. 488 Forestry Quarterly. By far the greater quantity of excelsior Excelsior. is made from small, second-growth bass- wood and poplar, although considerable is made from cottonwood, balsam, spruce, and willow. The wood is usually cut in 4-foot lengths, and peeled in early spring. The peeled wood produces cleaner excelsior and dries quicker. Poplar (probably Aspen) requires a year to become thoroughly seasoned. Green or damp wood is unsatisfactory because it clogs the ma- chinery and is apt to become mouldy when pressed in bales. After the wood is seasoned it is cut square ended into 16-inch lengths. Open air seasoned wood is preferred to kiln dried. There are two classes of machines: an upright double-head machine and an 8-block horizontal machine. Both are adjustable for different grades of excelsior. Excelsior is usually cut from 1/32 inch to 1/8 inch wide and about 1/100 inch thick; these machines can however, be adjusted to cut from 1/64 to 1/2 inch wide and from 1/500 to 1/50 inch thick. The double upright machines require about 5 horse-power each and have a capacity of 1 ton per day, that is approximately 1 cord of 4-foot wood. The horizontal machine cuts about 5 tons per day. Excelsior is selling at $18 to $22 per ton and the finer wood- wool at $30 to $35. The cost of production varies for $3 to $5 per ton. Many of the large consumers have plants of their own. The best grades of excelsior are made from basswood. That not more of this is used is due probably to its scarcity and to the high price of the stumpage. Cottonwood is the favorite excelsior wood, contributing 43.3 per cent of the total amount consumed. It was used by manufacturers in 18 States—U. S. Bureau of Census Report for IgII. Canada Lumberman and Woodworker. October, 1913. STATISTICS AND HISTORY. The Prussian budget for the year 1914- Prussian 15 contains some interesting figures. It Budget. is marked by increased receipts and ex- penditures along most lines, as for many years. For the state forests, an area of 7,518,159 acres, (or 6.7 million productive) receipts and expenses are estimated as follows :— Periodical Literature. 489 Regular FECeIPES Mie Niu wie e 6) s'e $36,660,000.00 Resular) jexpemsesaiie suiyiciaintels a. 16,160,000.00 Neb tinconaevomuiiee. aaceiessic $20,500,000.00, or just about $3 per acre; the expenditures being 44% of the gross in- come. Besides, there is an account of extraordinary expenses and incomes, largely made up of sales and purchases of forest land ; the excess of expenditures over receipts, being $1,013,000.00; $700,000 alone are to be spent on adjusting rights of user. Of the receipts, wood sales are predicted to yield 387,176,134 cubic feet (57 cu. ft. per acre) at a value of $34,200,000.00 (about g cents per cu. ft.). Special Uses are estimated to bring in $1,740,- 000.00 ; the chase $190,000.00. The income for wood has in the decade increased by 43%, but the expenditure by 66% in steady rises. Among the expenses there are the interesting items of $60,000 for telephones and $310,000 for road building. The personnel for the current year comprises :— ‘ 1 QOberlandforstmeister; 5 Landforstmeister; 33 Oberforst- meister; 88 Regierungs—and Forstrate; 822 Oberforster and Forstmeister; 5167 Revierforster and Forster (Ranger); 49 Waldwarter (Forest Guards); altogether 6165 persons. The annual forestry conferences among 18 groups of higher forest officers, described in Forestry Quarterly, Vol. VI, p. 444- 445 are to be continued and $4,500 are set aside for additional travel costs arising therefrom. eA Bm het Der Etat der Domdanen Forst-und landwirtschaftlichen Verwaltung fiir das Etatsjahr 1914-15. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, April, 1914, pp. 140-144. Dr. Wimmer reviews a 32 page booklet Private Forests by Oberforster Maucke, dealing with the of regulations governing privately owned Germany. forests in the various states of Germany. The publisher is Paul Parey, Berlin. The exact title of the book is given below. Aside from communal and corporate forests, there are in Ger- *For equivalent position in U. S. Forest Service, see “ The Prussian Forest Service” Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XI, No. 1, p. 48. 490 Forestry Quarterly. many 12,490,051 acres of privately owned woods, that is, 36% of the total forest area of Germany. (In the United States 395,- 000,000 acres, 72% of the total 550,000,000 acres of forest, are privately or corporately owned.) The author favors complete freedom of management (except in protection forests) encouraged by instruction and co-opera- tion on the part of the government. This is already the case in Prussia and Saxony; in southern Germany restrictive laws are still in effect, dating from a time when the value of the forest was small. As means of improving the condition of privately owned forests are cited :—Extension lectures ; advice on the ground by neighbor- ing state foresters, especially at the time of planting and of cut- ting; forming of associations; and the creation of a division of forestry in the agricultural council (Landwirtschaftskammer ) as has been done successfully in eight provinces of Prussia and lately also in Baden. In Saxony, prizes are offered for the best managed private forest. The author urges the need of a most careful census of all privately owned forests in Germany in order to get a clearer picture of existing conditions. A Bake Die zur Erhaltun~- der Privatforsten ... in den deutschen Bundesstaaten erlassenen ... Bestimmungen.” Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung. April, 1914. Pp. 134-135. According to an article by de Bendictis, Buying Forests the Italian Government recently purchased in 2,859,018 acres for the price of $215,157. Ttaly. Other purchases are also listed. This is particularly significant when taken in con- nection with the recent purchase in France of the Forest of Eu belonging to the Duke of Orleans, who was forbidden by the State to make a sale to a private company, on account of the doubt which had been cast on the conservatism of future man- agement. This forest was located in the Districts of Dieppe and Neufchatel. A total of 2,301,258 acres was purchased for a total of $2,100,000 or in round figures at 91 cents per acre. This forest was chiefly hardwood, coppice, high forest and coppice under standards. TuS: Wajt. Revue des Eaux et Foréts, April 15, 1914, pp. 267, 268 and 272. Periodical Literature. 491 POLITICS, EDUCATION AND LEGISLATION. New instructions for the preparatory Forestry Training training in Bavaria and Wurttemberg wil in be of especial interest to those readers Bavaria of the “Quarterly” and of the “Proceed- and ings” who are familiar with the require- Wiirttemberg. ments in Prussiat and Austria* and in our own countries of Canada and America. In Bavaria, after the four year course at the University of Munich and passing of the theoretical examination at the close thereof, the government takes on a certain number of candidates for the administrative service—called Forstpraktikanten—who must serve a 3 years’ apprenticeship; 19 months on National Forests, 17 months in a District Office. The first year is spent on a designated forest where the supervisor introduces the candidate into all the various lines of work granting him opportunity to actually carry on some of the work. Emphasis is laid on instruc- tion in the technical and business procedure. Details to neighbor- ing forests where work of special interest is in progress, are ar- ranged. At the end of the first year, the apprenticeship is continued on another forest, selected, this time, by the applicant himself. The object of this second year is to broaden the training of the first year; the applicant may be assigned the regular work of an Assessor (equivalent to our Forest Examiner) or of a Ranger. Next comes the office experience where the applicant is de- tailed first of all to the Working Plan Section: from May to Octo- ber in actual field work. Besides assisting in the making of work- ing plans, he must independently prepare the plan for a certain unit—that is, do all the work necessary thereto. He gets his expenses for this work and a stipend of $1.20 a day! The following 11 months (November-September) are spent in learning the District Office procedure. This ends the time of preparation; the final or state examina- *See “The Prussian Forest Service,” Forestry Quarterly, Vol. XI, No. I, pp. 42-50. +See “A Glimpse of Austrian Forestry,” T. S. Woolsey, Jr., Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 7-37. *The working plan practice in Bavaria will be found described in “The Theory and Practice of Working Plans,” John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1913, PP. 147-159. 492 Forestry Quarterly. tion comes in November. This examination is a written one but reference books—such as Lorey, “Handbuch der Forstwissen- schaft” are allowed. Eighteen problems, covering the various phases of forestry, are assigned, three hours allowed for each: a total of 54 hours. The papers are marked independently by three higher officials of the Bavarian Service. The Wiirttemberg instructions provide for three examinations, similar to the Prussian schedule. 1) Preliminary examination in the basic sciences, 2) Referendar-examination at the close of the University course and 3) Assessor-examination after 24 years of practical apprenticeship.* The number of candidates chosen for the government service from among those who passed the pre- liminary examination may be limited and those not chosen given certificates. Three months of practical experience in the woods must precede the Referendar-examination. The 24 years of practical apprenticeship are without pay, they are to be spent as the ministry decides. However, two semesters of advanced work at a university may be counted in with this. At the end thereof, comes the final or Assessor examination—a very ‘stiff’ one. The time of training in Wiirttemberg amounts therefore to 12 years of school (through the Gymnasium or about the equivalent of our sophomore year) plus 8 semesters of technical study, plus one year of military service, plus 24 years of apprenticeship: a total of 194 years. In Bavaria it is an even 20 years (with us the 10 years of school, 4 of college and one or two of postgradu- ate work for the Master’s degree, makes a total of only 15 or 16 years). A. B. R. Die neuen Bestimmungen ... fiir den bayerischen Forstverwaltungs- dienst Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, June, 1914, pp. 203-205. Die Vorbereitung sum Forstdienst (Wurttemberg). Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, May, 1914, pp. 173-174. MISCELLANEOUS. There are some 20 active forester’s as- German sociations of more or less local character, Foresters besides the Deutscher Forstverein which Associations. covers the whole empire and comprises 2177 members (1913), the local associa- tions showing a membership of over 4000, who represent pro- +See “The Prussian Forest Service,” F. Q., Vol. XI, No. 1, pp. 42-50. Periodical Literature. 493 fessional men and timberland owners. An account of the topics under discussion is given. Die deutschen Forstvereine, thre letzten Versammlungen und Beratungs- gegenstande. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-u. Jagdwesen. May, 1914, pp. 296-302. At the closing exercises of the Yale The Theoretical Forest School on February 25, 1914, Dr. Us. Fernow delivered an address on this sub- The Practical. ject.* In it he pointed out how the so- called practical man usually proceeds on the basis of unformed empiricism. Along much the same lines Forstassessor Weber argues in an essay on Science and Experi- ence. That mere personal experience can ever displace careful scientific investigation is untenable. On this most authors are agreed. Occasionally some empiricist argues that experience is the best teacher. Among these Forstmeister Frombling takes the view that personal experience alone can teach the forester how to proceed, on the ground that the exceptions to many important rules are so numerous that scientific generalizations are worth- less and for the exceptions experience alone can furnish the an- swer. Has not Pfeil, himself, said: “‘ask the tree, it will teach you?” Answering this, Weber points out that science and practice must work together and be in constant reciprocity, that the prac- tising forester must never lose sight of the scientific develop- ments and must keep in constant touch with these. He must not forget that he alone, depending on his personal experience, can make no real progress and that, without application of strictly scientific methods of research in forestry, no lasting results can be secured. Granting that generalizations are worthless, indi- vidual experience is of necessity too circumscribed to furnish an adequate substitute. Careful scientific research, alone, can cover the field. Just because the theories of today do not solve all problems of practice is no reason to throw away theory. It is the aim of science not to solve all riddles—for this must always be impossible—but to probe deeper and deeper into the reason of things. Mere experience can not go as far as this, can not point the way with any assurance of success. Only when theory offers its sisterly hand to practice, when speculation is added to ex- *See Yale Forest School News, Vol. II, No. 2, pp. 15-18. 494 Forestry Quarterly. perience can science thrive. It is interesting to note that this antagonisin between theoretician and practitioner has for more than a hundred years been discussed in forestry literature, Weber quoting the expressions of early masters. Among these, Moser in 1757 in his Principles of Forest Economy hits the nail on the head: “The road to wisdom and judgment by way of personal experience alone without systematic teaching is a rough and very uncertain one: few travel it without stumbling and many fall. Only with a good scientific knowledge as a basis will experience make us wise. Without such basis it would be difficult to see what to observe, how to differentiate between the accidental and the essential. Moreover, this road is long!” AB de Wissenschaft und Erfahrung. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, April, 1914, pp. 117-126. The Bavarian Government has recently Forest set aside five areas on the Austrian frontier Parks containing 343 hectares, in order to retain in the original forest cover in its primeval Bavaria. condition. With the artificially pure stands which forest management generally finds most profitable covering larger and larger areas, it seems very desirable to retain a few examples of the old mixed stands. In these parks all cutting and other use will be forbidden. Like- wise, hunting and fishing will not be permitted so that these parks will also form game refuges. The Bavarian Government has already set aside for the same purpose 77 hectares of peat bog and some stands of old oaks. K. W. W. Naturschutz in den bayerischen Staatswaldungen. Forstwissenschaft- liches Centralblatt, May, 1914, p. 291. Not long after the colony at Jamestown First was founded the colonists began to manu- Saw-mill facture lumber in a crude way and a cargo in of ‘“clap-boards” was exported from United States, Virginia in June, 1607. As early as 1625 a saw-mill with upright saws run by water- power was established near the present site of Richmond. St. Louis Lumberman. Other Periodical Literature. 495 OTHER PERIODICAL LITERATURE. American Forestry, XX, 1914,— Sixteen Thousand Miles of Forested Shore Line. Pp. 319- 340. British Columbia coast conditions. The South’s Forestry and Water Resources. Pp. 377-379. An Epitome of National Reclamation. Pp. 393-402. Forestry on the Country Estate. Pp. 1, 101, 165, 261, 356, 448, 501. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, XLVI, 1914,— A Method of Estimating Rainfall by the Growth of Trees. Pp. 321-335. A Geographical Study of Nova Scotia. Pp. 413-419. The Ohio Naturalist, XIV, 1914,— Starch Reserve in Relation to the Production of Sugar, Flowers, Leaves, and Seed in Birch and Maple. Pp. 317-320. The Botanical Gazette, LVII, 1914,— The Significance of Tracheid Calibre in Coniferae. Pp. 287-307. The writer concludes that there is considerable evidence that the width of spring tracheids is largely decided by two factors, systematic affinity and available water supply. Morphological Instability in Pinus radiata. Pp. 314-319. Deals with shoot proliferation. The Spur Shoot of the Pines. Pp. 362-384. Winter as a Factor in the Xerophily of Certain Evergreen Ericads. Pp. 445-489. Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1914— Fuel Oil in the Southwest. Pp. 1023-1070. 496 Forestry Quarterly. The Classification of Public Lands. Pp. 1139-1141. Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Landwirtschaft. Erkankungen durch Luftabschluss und Ueberhitzung. Von C. von Tubeuf. February, March, 1914. Pp. 67-88, 161-169. Discusses especially the influence of stagnant water on Ash, and of tarring wounds. Hitzetot und Einschniirungskrankheiten der Pflanzen. Von C. von Tubeuf. Jan. 1914. Pp. 19-36. Discusses the effect of mechanical strangulation of tissues and similar results produced by various fungi, as well as of frost, heat and drouth. Gibt es natiirliche Schutznuttel der Rinden unserer Holzge- wichse gegen Tierfrass? Von Franz Heikertinger. March 1914. Pp. 97-113. Demolishes convincingly the theory of protective means of plants against animals. Nochmals Hitzeschaiden in Waldpflansen. Von Dr Munch. April, 1914. Pp. 169-188. Addition to a previous article discussing in detail the effect of heat much more frequent than supposed and as important as frost, upon forest trees. - Aus dem Miinchener Exkursionsgebiet. Von C. von Tubeuf, May, June, 1914. Pp. 217-258. A richly illustrated account of the exotic flora in the valley of Bozen, Tirol. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt. Beitrage sur Physiologie des Bodens. Von Dr. Bernbeck, Jan. 1914. Pp. 26-44. Discusses soil depth (absolute vs. physiological) ; improve- ment of forest soils by choice of species and mechanical means. A ~ =e i Other Periodical Literature. 497 Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Jagdwesen— Neue Wege der Forsteinrichtung. Von Oberforster Hiss. July, 1913. Pp. 447-454. Untersuchungen iiber den Wertzuwachs von Kiefer und Fichte. Von Geh. Rg.-Rat Prof. Dr. Schwappach. August, 1913. Pp. 502. Der Blendersaumschlag und sein System. Von Prof. C. Wagner. (Review by Dr. Kienitz). November, 1913. Pp. 727-41. Einfluss hoher Essen auf die Verbreitung der Rauch- schiiden. Von Oberforstrat Reuss-Dessau. December, 1913. Pp. 782-90. Der Kienzopf. Von Oberforster Haak. June, 1914. Pp. 3-46. A very full account of investigations into the disease occasioned by Peridermium pint. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen— Reisenotizen aus Skandinavien. Schweden und seine Holz- ausfuhr. Von Prof. M. Decoppet. April, 1913. Pp. 105- Doi) Maye bp. taAg-55':) tune) July.) P pe Tes-or. Centralblatt fur das gesamte Forstwesen— Zur Praxis der Waldwertsberechnung. Von Dr. Theodor Glaser. January, 1913. Pp. 1-11; February, Pp. 49-60. Der Voranschlag fiir die verschiedenen Zweige des staat- lichen Forstdienstes und fiir die Staatsforste und Domanen insbesondere fiir das Jahr 1913. January. Pp. I-11. Schweizerische Forststatistik (Ljiterarische Berichte). (Dr. Pittauer).. February, 1913. Pp. 77-So. Ein altbekanntes Kinderspielzeug als Lehrbehelf fiir die Forstwirtschaft im allgememen und dem Walbau insbeson- dere. July, 1913. Pp. 327-32. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd- Zeitung— Die Sonnenenergie im Walde. Von Max Wagner. June, 1913. Pp. 185-200. 498 Forestry Quarterly. Chemie des Holzes unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Impregnierungstechnik. Dr. F. Moll. April, 1914. Pp. 126-132. A very full discussion of the chemical composition of wood and its reactions to various chemicals. NEWS AND NOTES. Co-operation between the government and the State against forest fires is made possible by the Weeks law, and has already been taken advantage of by the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Michigan, Wisconsin, Min- nesota, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. Under the terms of the co-operative agreements, the Secretary of Agriculture may terminate the co-operation at any time that he finds it not to be conducted in a satisfactory manner. In this way the responsibility for organizing and maintaining the work is placed upon the State, which must, therefore, keep its system up to a good standard of efficiency in order to have the co-operation with the government continued. Forestry officials of the depart- ment of agriculture act as inspectors to keep the department in- formed as to how the States are handling the work. Under this plan a great advance has been made in the development of effi- cient state systems of fire protection. An agreement entered into between the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State of Michigan provides for an expenditure by the government of not to exceed $5,000 a year toward meet- ing the expenses of forest fire protection in Michigan. In Montana co-operative agreements involve the Forest Service, the State, and the Northern Pacific railroad. These have just been renewed to extend through the fiscal year to June 30, 1015. The agreement with the State provides that federal and State patrolmen shall form one single force for handling forest fires, which force acts under the direction of the forest supervisor in charge of the nearest national forest. This arrangement, as is intended, “secures the greatest efficiency and avoids duplication of patrol.” The agreement applies to all government and State lands lying within the exterior boundaries of the National Forests in Montana. The agreement between the railroad and the Forest Service provides for similar patrol arrangements. The government allots the State the sum of $3,500 a year, to be expended for salaries of federal patrolmen, and the State agrees 500 Forestry Quarterly. to spend at least an equal amount for fire protection purposes of any character. One of the most progressive railways in matters of fire pro- tection is the Boston & Maine, which operates in both the United States and Canada. In addition to following the general practice of most railways in burning off the right of way each year, to re- duce grass fires, the Boston & Maine has adopted the policy of co- operating with land-owners along their lines, in getting the in- flammable debris disposed of on a narrow strip adjacent to the right of way. It is recognized that in some cases sparks from locomotives will fall outside the right of way, which usually ex- tends fifty feet on each side of the center of the track. Fires are likely to start in this way and cause serious damage before they can be extinguished. Similarly, the danger from small grass fires starting within the right of way is greatly increased by the presence of inflammable debris, such as old slashings, immediately adjacent to the right of way fence. So far as possible, the Boston & Main Railroad secures the active co-operation of owners of such lands in burning the debris at a safe time. Where this is impracticable for any reason, the Company does the work at its own expense, unless the land owner objects. The Company re- ports that on seventy-five such places last year, the fire hazard was materially reduced in this way. This is good business policy from the point of view of the railway, since the elimination of forest fires means in the long run not only decreased damage claims, but also increased freight and passenger revenues. The Company states that the adoption of the above policy means very little added expense, since the section men handle the work on rainy days, when there is no track work they can do. This is also the safest time for burning such debris, since the fires can not spread beyond control. The Pennsylvania Railroad has also adopted a policy closely similar to the above. According to the Fire Inspection Department of the Board of Railway Commissioners for Canada, the railways throughout the Dominion are doing very much better this year in the matter of fire protection than has ever been the case before. There has News and Notes. 501 been better compliance with the requirements of the Board, and a far greater degree of co-operation between the various agencies interested in fire prevention. In particular, the railways are co- operating much more closely than previously with the fire protec- tive organizations of the Dominion and Provincial Governments. The situation has also been greatly improved by the increase, in number and strength, of lumbermen’s co-operative fire protec- tive associations, of which there are now two in the Province of Quebec protecting a total of nearly 14,000,000 acres. In the past, railways have always been regarded as one of the principal causes of forest fire destruction. This situation is now being rapidly changed, by the increasing care given this matter under the requirements of the Railway Commission. The fire hazard is being reduced by the expenditure of large sums by railway companies in disposing of inflammable debris on right of way. Great care is taken to keep the spark arresters on loco- motives in good order. Through the more dangerous sections, special fire patrols are maintained, and everywhere railway em- ployees have received special instructions regarding the reporting and extinguishing of fires in the vicinity of the track. Reports received by the Chief Fire Inspector of the Board in- dicate that to a very much greater extent than in previous years the fires in the vicinity of the railways have been adequately handled by the railway employees, and that most of the serious fires reported as occuring in May, originated at a distance from the railways, frequently escaping from settlers slash-burning operations. The Canadian Pacific Railway has reorganized the local ad- ministration of the special fire patrols on its western lines, re- quired by the Board of Railway Commissioners, by placing the matter under the direction of its Forestry Branch of which Mr. R. D. Prettie is Superintendent, with headquarters at Calgary. The new arrangement affects the handling of fire protection work on all lines of the C. P. R. running through forest sections west of Fort William, Ont. The C. P. R. Forestry Branch has previously been closely associated with fire protection work, through the assignment of inspectors, but the new arrangements will greatly 502 Forestry Quarterly. increase its scope by giving it administrative control as well. The new plan is altogether logical in an age of specialization. The Dominion Parks Branch has just gotten out a new fire warning notice of striking and attractive form for use in the National Parks throughout the Dominion of Canada. The new notices are made of tin and the face with baked enamel. The initial cost is higher but this is amply justified when the superior lasting qualities of the tin over that of the cloth notices is taken into account. The lettering is in red and black sufficiently large to be easily readable at a distance. At the top of the notice is a picture of a forest fire, depicting in a vivid manner the ravage and devastating influence of fires to the timber resources of the country. Wireless telegraphy has been brought into use in connection with protection of forests from fire. It is now possible for rangers in the remote regions of The Pas and Fort Churchill to communicate almost instantly with the Forestry Branch at Otta- wa. This is probably the first practical application of wireless telegraphy to forest fire protection in America or elsewhere. An electrical engineer recently stated that “in the near future the wireless telephone will not only progress far ahead of the wireless telegraph, but take its place.’ When instruments are perfected suitable for forest use, incalculable benefit for getting fires quickly under control will result. The British Columbia Forest Branch, by widely distributing various styles of posters, etc., reiterating the danger from un- watched small fires, made efforts early this year to seek the co- operation of all people in the woods to prevent forest fires. Per- haps the two notices that will prove most striking are the forest fire law printed in six languages on a single sheet, and a pocket- size grindstone, on the enamel holder of which the user is cau- tioned against fires. A report comes of a co-operative association for the prevention of forest fires formed by ranchers within and adjacent to the News and Notes. 503 Sierra National Forest, Cal. When using fire for clearing land for farming, it will be done on a community basis, members of the association being present to prevent the spread of fires. The Post Office department of the United States two years ago enlisted in the campaign against forest fires by instructing rural mail carriers to report fires to the proper officials, lists of names and addresses of local fire wardens and patrolmen being supplied the carriers. This year wardens and patrolmen have been instructed to seek out personally the mail carriers to discuss a plan of action to be followed. Manufacturers of hunting, camping, and sporting goods are be: ing asked for their co-operation also. It has been suggested that their business profits during seasons when fires are fewer, and so it would be well for them to issue with their goods printed slips of warning. Railways print such warnings on time-tables. They would aid still further if sportsmen’s and campers’ special tickets showed a brief warning printed in red. In F. Q., vol. XI, p. 617, reference was made to the enlisting of Indians in the work of fire prevention. The following will be of interest as a result of asking the Indians for co-operation in this important national duty in Canada. Owing to the precedent and example of Dominion Forestry Branch fire wardens, the ingrained carelessness of the Indian, for he has frequently and not always unjustly—been accused of criminal carelessness with fire, has been supplanted by an en- thusiasm for forest conservation. Several hundred Indians last sunmer promised to observe every precaution to prevent forest fires, and, as the Chief Fire Ranger writes, “The fact of no fires this summer is proof positive that the majority of them have faithfully kept their pledge.” During the course of the summer 63 Indians voluntarily visited the Chief’s headquarters to discuss the plans of the Branch in the matter of conserving the remain- ing forest in western Canada. Many of these Indians are sufficiently well educated to serve as fire rangers, and the Dominion government has enlisted quite a number of them in the fire-ranging service, finding that their 504 Forestry Quarterly. knowledge of the country and their enthusiasm for the work make them admirably adapted for this service. It is said that the best times of day to see forest fires from look- out stations are just after daylight and just before sunset. On the Deerlodge National Forest in Montana one lookout station has the record of reporting accurately, by distance and di- rection, a fire that was 60 miles away. Residents of Wallace, Idaho, now claim that results of the disastrous forest fires in northen Idaho in 1910 are being made evident in the changed flow from a watershed then burned over, which furnishes the city its water supply, not only for domestic purposes, but also for the development of electricity for power and light. In view of the situation, the Forest Service has under- taken to reforest the denuded watershed. Some planting has al- ready been done and eventually all of the watershed which is included within National Forest boundaries is to be reforested. A little more than 33,000 acres in the White Mountains have just been approved for purchase by the government at a meeting of the National Forest Reservation Commission. These are in two separate tracts, both in New Hampshire, the larger containing 31,100 acres on the watershed of the Pemige- wasset river, a tributary to the Merrimac. Most of the conifers have been cut to make paper pulp, but there are good stands of beech, birch, and maple of considerable value. With fire kept out there is said to be excellent promise of a new stand of spruce. The smaller purchase consists of several areas lying on the watersheds of Little river and Gale river, both tributaries of the Connecticut. These lands cover 2,000 acres in the locality of the noted Franconia range and are contiguous to lands already ap- proved for purchase; hence they go far toward giving the gov- ernment a solid body of land in this locality. The forest has been cut over and consists chiefly of the northern hard-woods, though some spruce remains from the original stand. At the same time that these White Mountain areas were ap- proved, the Commission also approved the purchase of the Pisgah News and Notes. 505 Forest in North Carolina, from the George W. Vanderbilt estate. These tracts bring the total eastern forests up to 1,077,000 acres. The Massachusetts Forestry Association is energetically work- ing for visible progress. In addition to the contest noted in the first issue of this volume of the Quarterly, the Association this year announces a contest to encourage reforestation by the estab- lishment of “town forests.” The prize is to be 50 acres planted to three-year-old White pine transplants, 1200 to the acre. There are over 40 different log rules now in use in the United States and Canada, showing a variation of over 50 per cent in the amount of lumber they ascribe to a log of any given size. Prob- ably the best rule yet formulated is the International log rule prepared by Dr. J. F. Clark (F. Q., vol. IV, p. 92), when Chief Forester for Ontario. So far as stumpage dues are concerned, it is safe to say that very often the lumbermen pay for only half the merchantable lumber the average log really contains. It is possible that when a bonus is paid by lumbermen in addition to stumpage dues this makes up for the loss in scaling. It is significant that when the British Columbia government recently decided to increase the royalty paid on timber cut in the interior of the province, it stipu- lated that the B. C. log rule should henceforth be used in that region instead of the Doyle rule, thus increasing by 45 per cent the amount of estimated lumber in the logs cut. The only final remedy would seem to be the adoption of a gen- eral rule such as the International, or, better still, the substitu- tion of cubic measurement of logs, a practice which has long been in operation in Europe where high lumber prices make accuracy not only desirable but necessary. The American Wood Preservers Association in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Service recently issued a report on wood preservation. 1832 is the date given for the introduction into this country of the Kyanizing process. This was followed a few years later by the Burnett and the Bethel processes. All three processes, are largely in use today. The report gives the progress in number of pressure plan‘s 506 Forestry Quarterly. as three in 1885, 15 in 1895, and, skipping to the present time. 117 in 1913. In Great Britain and many European countries today practically eyery wooden crosstie and telephone or telegraph pole receives preservative treatment; while in the United States less than 30 per cent of the 133 million crossties annually consumed are treat- ed, and the proper treatment of an annual consumption of 4 mil- lion poles may be said to have scarely commenced. Nevertheless, the impregnation of wood, with oils and chemicals to increase its resistance to decay and insect attack, is becoming an important in- dustry, and the report states that the most notable progress yet recorded was made last year. In southern Nigeria, on the west coast of Africa, the British government has done much to encourage the practice of forestry, eight hundred villages now have communal plantations of rubber trees. The natives supply the labor, the native chiefs the land, and the Forestry Department the seeds, technical knowledge and tapping appliances, the profits being divided equally among the three co-operating parties. A Vancouver lumberman has estimated that ‘‘one ton of refuse goes to the burners for every M feet of lumber cut.’ In his own saw-mill he has eliminated this waste by breaking up the refuse into small pieces which are manufactured into fuel briquettes at a cost of only $3 per ton. In this connection it has also been learned that a large lumber company in British Columbia is erecting a $50,000 plant, which will have a daily output of about 30 tons of such briquettes, which will sell for about $5 a ton at the mill. Manufacturers have found that Red Alder from the Pacific coast makes a white, smooth, springy clothespin. As a result of this fact, a clothespin factory, said to be the first on the Pacific coast, may be established at Portland, Ore. Zentaro Kawase, professor of Forestry at the Imperial Uni- versity of Tokio, Japan, has been making a tour of the national News and Notes. 507 forests of this country to learn the government’s methods of sell- ing timber and of reforestation. At a State timber auction in Minnesota, aggregating some 40,000,000 feet sold at approximately $250,000, pine stumpage ran from $6 to $12 averaging $9, spruce, $4 to $5, tamarack and cedar $3 to $4, Jack pine $4 to $5, bakam $2 to 3. The premium paid in some cases amounted to over 140 per cent on the ap- praised price. Mr. Ralph Sheldon Hosmer, who for a number of years offici- ated as Superintendent of Forestry, Bureau of Agriculture and Forestry at Honolulu T. H. has been appointed Professor of Forestry at the New York State College of Forestry, Cornell University in place of Walter Mulford who assumes the new professorship of Forestry at the University of California. American foresters are beginning to compete for positions in foreign services. The latest development in this direction is the call of Mr. Douglas Mathews from the Philippine forest service to take charge of the timber holdings of the British North Borneo Company. The same bureau has furnished Mr. H. M. Curran to organize a forest service for the Argentine government. We regret to learn from Major George P. Ahern that he is forced to resign his position as Director of the Philippine Forestry Bureau on account of trouble with his eyes. He will return in November, taking up his residence in Washington with a view of doing missionary work on behalf of the Islands. Mr. Sher- fessee will replace him in the position of Director. For fifteen years Major Ahern has held the position. He cre- ated the bureau and has brought it to noteworthy efficiency in spite of many drawbacks. Major Ahern began as a propagandist of forestry practice when Captain in the regular army, stationed in Montana some 20 years ago giving public lectures after he had sufficiently informed himself. In 1897 he secured the appoint- ment of military instructor at the Agricultural College at Boze- man and immediately organized a class of students to study forestry. This was terminated when the Spanish war broke out 508 Forestry Quarterly. in 1898, and when civil government was established in the islands Captain Ahern was the logical candidate for the position as the Director of the Forestry Bureau. His intelligent enthusiasm and capacity for organization are responsible for the success of the bureau. Overton Westfeldt Price, Vice-President of the National Con- servation Association and formerly Associate Forester of the United States Forest Service, died on June 11, at his family home in Fletcher, North Carolina. The ultimate cause of death was a nervous disorder from which he had suffered intermittently for years and which had returned in a sudden and acute attack only a few days before his decease; the immediate cause was a self- inflicted wound which was in itself a symptom of the malady. His untimely death removes from the profession of forestry in Amer- ica one of its best known and ablest members, at the very height of his powers and to its material loss; while it leaves in the hearts of those who knew his capacity for friendship, his loyalty to noble ideals, his superb courage and fighting power, his stainless honor and rectitude of motive and deed, a vacancy that will not soon be filled. The breakdown which closed his life may be traced back to his work in the Forest Service, where for years he had thrown him- self ardently into the upbuilding of a system of national forestry. In this work he developed extraordinary powers of organization and administration. During the last two or three years of his term in public office particularly, he carried the main burden of internal administration of the Forest Service, doing his utmost to leave his chief, Mr. Pinchot, free to deal with the larger questions of policy and to wage his fight for national conservation. Under the strain imposed upon him by the conditions which immediately preceded the conclusion of his official responsibilities his strength was taxed to the utmost verge; and he never subsequently regained perfect health. Mr. Price was born on January 27, 1873, in Liverpool, England, whither his parents had gone from North Carolina to live after the close of the Civil War. He received his earlier education in that country and at the Episcopal High School near Alexandria, : News and Notes. 509 Va. After a special course at the University of Virginia he took up work at Biltmore under Mr. Pinchot, and was thus one of the first Americans to turn towards what was then almost an unknown profession in the United States. One year later he went to Ger- many to obtain a complete technical preparation for his life work. Two years at the University of Munich were supplemented by a year of practical experience in various European forests. This work abroad was largely guided by the friendly counsels of Sir Dietrich Brandis. On his return to America he engaged in prac- tical work at Biltmore and in the North Woods. In June, 1899, he entered the Division of Forestry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture as agent; a year later he was promoted to the position of Superintendent of Working Plans, and in 1901, when the old Division of Forestry was raised to a Bureau, became its assistant chief. The transfer of the National Forests to the charge of the Forest Service in 1905 gave a new and broader field for the em- ployment of Mr. Price’s remarkable organizing and executive ca- pacity ; largely to him belongs the credit for the work which estab- lished national forestry in the United States on a sound and per- manent basis. In January, 1910, his connection with the Forest Service was ter- minated ; and he shortly afterward became Treasurer, and subse- quently Vice-President, of the National Conservation Association. At the time of his death he was also consulting forester to the gov- ernment of British Columbia, forester of the Letchworth Park Ar- boretum, and adviser in forestry matters of the estate of the late George W. Vanderbilt. In addition to a number of reports and articles on forestry, he was the author of “The Land We Live In,” an admirable popular book on conservation written especially for boys, and of a work still in manuscript, on business organization. To the latter subject his attention had been especially turned in connection with the study of the Government’s business system made by President Roosevelt’s so-called “Keep Commission,” or Committee on Departmental Methods. Though not himself a member of that committee, Mr. Price had much to do with its work and with the organization and direction of the numerous assistant committees which carried out in detail the various sub- divisions of the inquiry. In this work as well as in that which he performed as Associate Forester he rendered a public service of permanent value. 510 Forestry Quarterly. As a technical forester Mr. Price made very substantial contri- butions to the development of American practice, not so much in the form of published writings of his own as through directing the work of others and through the influence which he exerted on the organization of the work of the Government in the field of for- estry. H. §. G. Bie esse aes SN giiae Suelo We record with great regret the loss of Mr. Louis Margolin in the wilds of the Sierra of California in June. He started out from the Dinkey Ranger Station in the Sierra National Forest to get to a camp some 12 miles away, but did not make his ap- pearance. Some weeks later his torn shirt with card case, diary and other papers in the pocket was found in Dinkey Creek, an affluent of Kings River, along and across which his trail led, leav- ing no doubt as to his unfortunate fate. A thorough search along both rivers has failed to bring his body to light. Mr. Margolin held the degree of F. E. from Cornell University, 1904, having completed his course at Harvard University. Since 1905 he was, with the exception of about a year and a half in private employ, a member of the U. S. Forest Service. At the time of his death he was in charge of the reconnaissance work and working plan activities of the Service in the National Forests of California. Girdled Pine. Severed Fork. Foop MOVEMENT IN TREES. (See article page 559.) Model of Regulated Forest. FORESTRY QUARTERLY VoL. XII DECEMBER, 1914 No. 4 A MECHANICAL MODEL OF A REGULATED FOREST. By O. L. SPonsLER AND FE. C. LUEBBEN. A mechanical model designed to demonstrate the growth of a “clean-cut and planted” forest, under regulation, was built and used as a part of the annual exhibit given jointly by the students of the Engineering Department and of the Forestry Department of the University of Michigan. The incentive for making this model was a desire to impress, at a glance, the idea that a forest can have a crop of timber to harvest at regular intervals and that all of the different sizes are gradually becoming larger. We wanted to show a series of 10 areas, each with a different age class ranging from 1 to 10; and we wanted the stand on each area to slowly grow taller, while the people were looking on, until the end of its rotation, when it would disappear and a new crop start on the denuded area. We did not intend to show an ideal area arrangement of the age classes of a forest, and the model does not do that; but rather we wanted to visualize a growing forest and convey the idea of crops harvested at regu- lar intervals. At least 10,000 people saw the exhibit and the majority of those who were interested in this model, which in- cidentally formed quite a center of attraction, readily saw the points we wanted it to demonstrate. We mention this to show that the model is worth while and worth more thought. Our first model, the one described and illustrated, is a very crude affair in construction and had to be built in a hurry, so simplicity was a necessity. The single cam idea on a main shaft for raising each compartment, was adopted as the simplest and most easily made, after quite thoroughly considering various arrangements of two cams for each compartment, individual and main shafts, racks and pinions, and sprockets and chains com- bined in many different ways. 511 512 Forestry Quarterly The general construction is shown in the accompanying photo- graphs, and a few of the details which may not be clearly evident are described here for the benefit of anyone wishing to build a similar machine. The model is 7 feet long by 18 inches wide and 40 inches high. Each of its 10 compartments consists of a piston with the “trees” fastened to the rectangular piston-head. This piston-head is 7x17 inches, of 1 inch soft pine and the “trees” are arranged in 7 rows, 10 “trees” in 4 rows and 9 in 3 rows, making 67 “trees” in all for each compartment. The “trees” are centrifuge brushes, 9 inches long over all, the brush part is 3 inches long, 1 inch di- ameter at the bottom and 34 inch diameter at the top. The bristles were stained green with Eastman’s transparent photo colors. The ring at the end of the handle was bent at right angles and fastened to the piston-head by two staples. The piston rod is 2 inches square by 12 inches long. The lower end bears directly on the cam. In order to reduce friction here, the bearing parts were smeared with soap and then oiled. The cams are made of % inch hard maple. The dimensions are given in the sketch. The shaft is of % inch gas pipe and has holes drilled at regular intervals to receive the pins which fasten the collars in place. The collars are of 7% inch hard maple 134 inch diameter. Each cam is nailed to its collars in such a position that its straight side is 36 degrees in advance of its neighbor on the left. Thus each compartment is raised one- tenth of its full height, higher than its neighbor on the right. We have demonstrated that the model will work nicely and that it is worth developing into a neater and more finished form, and are now planning a few improvements which are suggested here. The wooden collars are to be replaced with metal and keyed to a solid steel shaft. Instead of a direct crank attach- ment to the shaft, a bicycle sprocket and chain will be used in order to gear down the shaft revolutions, and bring the crank to a more convenient height. The top of the model will be made a few inches wider and instead of ™% inch stuff, 7, inch cypress will be used and the holes through which the “trees” appear made 1% inch instead of 1 inch. Underneath the piston-head a coil spring will be used to reduce the jar when the compartment falls after reaching maturity. The piston-rods will be made round instead of square. Model of a Regulated Forest 513 All of the mechanism is, of course, hidden from view when operating and an attempt will be made to make the “forest”? more realistic by dipping the stems of the “trees” into a thick brown paint, and by making a brown forest floor and a green meadow surrounding the compartments. The principal part of the cost of material is in the brushes, which amounted to about $15.00. The rest of the material cost less than $5.00, and the labor was donated. [It may be of interest to add that many years ago, the well- known Dr. Robert Hartig, of Munich, had constructed a model of a regulated forest with age-class distribution, which, while omitting the moving picture show idea of the above model, was designed true to nature in relative dimensions and number of trees per unit area, in each age class, in which respect the above fails. A duplicate of Hartig’s ‘“Waldspiel’ was exhibited at the World’s Fair by the United States Forestry Division and after- wards found its way back to the Museum of the Department of Agriculture at Washington.—[ Editor. ] THE CREATION OF AN IDEAL. By James B. Berry. While the correlation of theory and practice in American forest schools is usually very good, it is, one must admit, far from per- fect, since the student is not brought into actual contact with practical problems until after his period of training is over and he is on a salaried basis. In other words, his possibilities, whether great or small, remain dormant during his period of training, and it remains for his employer to bear the expense of his further development, to see whether he possesses the “making” of a forester. Certainly this is unjust to the employer, for he must shoulder the responsibility of the student’s training with- out any guarantee that the time and expense will be repaid. As conditions become intensive and competition stronger the dis- crepancies of the present system will become more apparent and will, undoubtedly, be righted in the process of economic evolution, which will in all probability be somewhat similar to that which has taken place in Germany. The German forestry student must have completed four years of work of University grade before he may come up for the State examination, the successful comple- tion of which entitles him to further training and a position in the Government Service. Up to this time he may or may not have had “field work’”—if he is the son of a forest official, his training has been very good indeed ; otherwise the chances are that he has had little training outside of his University or Forest School courses.* ‘That is to say, to the son who expects to follow his father in the profession, come greater opportunities than come to the man whose father is in another profession. Before completing the four-year course of study it is possible for the student to have obtained considerable practical experience, either through inspection of operations on various forests or by secur- ing actual employment in a survey or estimating crew; although *The writer overlooks that in most German State forest services, the young men entering the forestry career are required to spend one-half to one year on a forest under guidance of the manager, doing practical work and becoming acquainted with the business—Editor. 514 Creation of an Ideal 515 the latter opportunity is open usually to the sons of forestry of- ficials only—for favoritism exists even under the German system. In addition to this work, occurring during vacation periods, the school year offers many excursions, of from one day to a week's duration, besides some practical training in the use of instru- ments, particularly in connection with the courses in Mensuration and Surveying. The excursion inspection work is very good, al- though it is not possible always to arrange for the inspection work to follow closely the class-room work. As a rule the entire teaching force of the forest school takes part in the excursion, each professor drawing attention to illustrations of his own par- ticular course or courses. Thus, the German forest student, up to the time of taking the State examination, has had a high grade of training in theoretical forestry, very good inspection work of practical operations and sufficient training in the use of instru- ments to make him entirely conversant with their care and opera- tion. It is entirely safe to state that, if the student has had the advantage of “position,’ at the time of examination he has had a correlation of theory and practice unequalled in America ; yet he is not considered as being fully equipped for his profession. Up to this time his training has been “memory work” very large- ly ; in the future it is to be of a nature to develop his executive ability—in other words, a preparation to shoulder responsibility. Successful competition in his State examination carries with it the designation “Practicant” (in Bavaria),and he enters on a train- ing period extending over three or four years, varying somewhat in the different States. The first year of this period, during which he receives no salary, the practicant has further opportunity for the formation of ideals. He is, in reality, an advanced student in forestry—a graduate student, if you please. He has been as- signed to some forest where he is directly under the supervision of some forest officer—Supervisor (Oberforster), Forest Assis- tant (Forstassessor), Office Assistant (Adjunkt), Ranger (For- ster). He is “under the supervision” of these men, yet his rela- tion is rather that of a student to his teachers—they do not have the right to place him at manual labor—he is there to be devel- oped and purely manual labor is not a means to this end. Much of his time he is in the forest with some one of these men, asking and answering questions. A sample day with the Supervisor 516 Forestry Quarterly might be as follows: The Officer keeps up a rapid-fire series of questions: “What species of tree is that? This? What species is that log? How do you know it is that species? What habitat does it prefer? What grade of lumber does it make? What’s the matter with this tree? What species is this fruiting body? Is there any method of control? What insect did this work? Which of these trees would you fell in making a “light” cutting under the shelterwood system? How would you fell that tree? Is it sound? What would you estimate the volume of this tree to be? See how the stump analysis compares with your volume table. What quality of site is this? How would you regulate cutting on this slope? How would you secure reproduction of oak? Estimate the material, labor and cost of this stream regu- lation,’ and so forth. There may be no particular order, yet the questions are pertinent and of a character to bring out the best in aman. The forest officer gives explanations and makes correc- tions and suggestions, stating the results of his experiences. One not accustomed to this work is much surprised at the earnest enthusiasm which is present; the personal relation is invariably good, yet the practicant shows every respect for his superior in rank. Various work is planned and the practicant makes studies of practical forestry problems. In the office he becomes conver- sant with the working plan and the system of account-keeping. No one who has not been through such a “graduate” school can appreciate the wonderful correlation of theory and practice which is achieved, nor understand the rapid development in manly quali- ties. It is more like a year of private tutorage, and the practicant’s ability to think and plan for himself is developed to a high degree. After the first year, the practicant receives a small salary and is given opportunity for further development. Perhaps he is given charge of some line of experimental work, gathering data for volume tables, or working up some problem in connection with regeneration. Whatever is the character of this work, he carries it to its completion and feels the entire responsibility of the enter- prise. The last year, if his work has been very good, he is placed in charge of a small area of forest over which he has full super- vision. In this way there is a gradual development of ability dur- ing the entire period and the result is a man of high efficiency—a professional man worthy of a good position. If his work has Creation of an Ideal 517 been entirely satisfactory, he is given the promotion standing of Forest Assistant (Forstassessor), although some of the States require a further examination for this promotion. Seldom is the entire period, as practicant, spent on one forest; usually he goes from forest to forest and from district to district so that he may see the best in each branch of work. In this way his training re- mains broad, and he retains his power to think independently. The countries of Europe have never failed to recognize the value of the German educational system, especially in its appli- cation to forestry, and practically all of the educational Institu- tions now have regulations limiting the number of foreign regis- trations to a certain per cent of the total. Foreign students pursue the same courses as the German, take the State examinations and, usually, spend at least one year as practicant. Most of these men must take a further examination upon their return home, for few of the countries recognize the standard of State examination of the others. A few of the countries require that their students in forestry spend at least a portion of their period of preparation in Germany. England requires aspirants for the Indian Service to spend one year following the university course in practical work in Germany, and, in order that these men experience no financial difficulty, makes them an allowance of $1,500 for the year. Under a special arrangement with the Government these men receive the training of practicants, although they are given greater latitude in the choice of work. Semi-monthly they sub- mit reports, in German, to the Home Office, describing the work performed and giving the data collected. Italy, Greece, Rou- mania all require that their students in forestry spend at least a portion of the time in Germany, although they offer no financial inducements. Occasionally, German governments arrange foreign tours for members of her Forest Service and it is expected that this feature of the work will grow rapidly in the future. There should, in fact, be an exchange of forest officials between the different countries, for such an exchange of ideas would be most helpful to all concerned. Of especial value, however, is an inspection of German forest conditions to representatives of those countries whose forestry is in the embryonic stage. It is all very well for students to study methods of managment from books, but there 518 Forestry Quarterly can be no real conception, no ideal, without a visual impression of such a method in operation. Photographs and models may serve upon which to hang theory, but practical forestry demands practical demonstration. Germany is very fortunate in the ex- tent of this demonstration work. Here the systems of management have been localized and, as one travels from one locality to another, he meets with demonstrations of each of the principal systems: clear-cutting, shelterwood, group, selection, advance growth. Many of these systems are already in the second rota- tion and the visual impression becomes an ideal for that particu- lar system. Later on, as one attempts the application of a system of managment, he has a very real image toward which to work— something very different from photograph or a model. In this way, the man who is to become thoroughly efficient goes on gathering ideals so that whatever branch of work he takes up he has a clear and definite idea of what he is trying to achieve. Without this ideal, his work must be largely of an experimental nature. The forester will not find all of his ideals in Germany, or even in Europe—many of these, particularly in utilization and trans- portation, he will find in America—yet in Germany he will find the best demonstration of system of management, and this is admittedly the foundation of the science of forestry. With these statements as a basis, there are several suggestions which I would like to make for the consideration of American foresters. 1. Lengthening the period of training for students in forestry, so that the man who has completed his training may be a thor- oughly efficient man in his profession. Perhaps this could be best achieved through the introduction of a practicant period extend- ing over one or two years—placing the graduates of forest schools under the supervision of thoroughly efficient technically trained men and making the period one of practical advanced study. In this connection it should be borne in mind that “practical’’ does not imply “improvement work,” but rather the “practical appli- cation” of the theories of the science of forestry. When the forester becomes a “common laborer” he does not merit the re- spect afforded a “workman.” This period of training should not be spent on one forest but the practicant should be given opportu- Creation of an Ideal 519 nity to visit the different forests of the several Districts, thus becoming conversant with the best work along each of the several lines of forestry. In this way he forms his ideals—the prerequi- sites of future efficiency. 2. Arranging for a few practicants, or forest officers of higher grade, to spend a few months in European forests under inten- sive treatment. ‘This work could be planned so that ten or a dozen men each year would have the opportunity. Detailed plans as to routes, features of forestry to be studied, character of reports would, of course, be necessary. Perhaps it would be pos- sible for these men to receive the courtesies afforded the English forest students. At any rate the entire work should be planned to build ideals. 3. The bringing about of a closer relation between America and those countries in which the practice of forestry is intensive ; best achieved, perhaps, through an exchange of forestry officials. This would, of necessity, be limited to a few men each year or every other year, and the exchange period would extend over one or two years. These men would be given every opportunity they are offered at home for development and, during this period, they would be able to determine how much of the work could be put into practice on their own State forests. Such an arrange- ment would prevent much of the duplication of work which is going on at the present time—not that the several countries desire to duplicate work, but that they do not know, and often cannot learn, what other countries are doing. In addition, each man would receive a stimulus which would result in a fresh impetus of enthusiasm and greater efficiency. THE SIZE, OF STATE FORESTS: By: JS A0uLIcK. Thirteen of the United States own forest land aggregating about 3,250,000 acres. New York ranks first with 1,645,000 acres and Pennsylvania second with 1,000,000 acres and 130 perches. The area of State-owned forest land in these two States comprises three-fourths of the total State-owned forest land in the United States. The first requirement of every kind of soil management is the division of the aggregate area into suitable parts, 7. ¢., into ad- ministrative units and managerial units. This is true in forestry as well as in agriculture, horticulture, and gardening. A systematic organization of a forest, which presupposes a subdivision of it, is a prerequisite to orderly procedure. It facilitates the directive, inspective, executive and protective function of the personnel. This article will consider the division of State-owned forest land into administrative units. Special reference will be made to the forests owned by the State of Pennsylvania, because in them organized forest management has been in operation for some time. Pennsylvania owns at the present time 1,000,000 acres of forest land located in 26 counties and purchased at a total cost of $2,277,962.31 or an average of $2.27 per acre. The area owned in the 26 counties varies from 1,176 acres in Wyoming and 3,538 acres in Lackawanna to 126,155 acres in Potter and 126,777 acres in Clinton. The total acreage of State-owned forest land in the last two named counties comprises more than one-fourth of the total owned by the State. The major part of the State-owned forest land is located in the rough or mountainous part of the State, and usually found in rather large contiguous areas. Most of it is located in the northeastern, north-central, central, and south-central part of the State. In order to facilitate the direction and inspection of the various forestal activities, a grouping into districts has been proposed and in part inaugurated. The dis- tricting will be worked out primarily on a geographical basis. A district may simply embrace the forest of.a single county or it 520 Size of State Forests 521 may include those of a number of counties. A proposed scheme of districting the State-owned forest land is as follows: District 1. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in the northeastern part of the State. District 2. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in the north-central part of the State. District 3. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in the central part of the State. District 4. To comprise all State-owned forest land located in the southern part of the State. Some have suggested a division of District 2 into two separate districts on account of the large acreage of State-owned forest land in it, and a division of District 3 into an eastern and western part on account of its elongated form and its large acreage. A few, rather small, and isolated areas, such as those located in Dauphin and Westmoreland counties, may not be embraced by the proposed districting. They must be treated independently or included in the most convenient district. Future purchases by the State may modify the proposed districting. Each District will be in charge of a forest officer known as a District Forester. The duties of a District Forester may be limit- ed to the forest land owned by the State, in which case he could oversee 10 to 20 State forests with a total area of 200,000 to 400,000 acres, or they may embrace also other functions, namely, the supervision of all Fire Wardens within the District, as well as the giving of technical advice to private owners and co-operating with the officers of Forest Protective Associations which are be- coming numerous throughout the State. In the latter case he would not be able to oversee nearly so large an area of State- owned land. Each District will usually comprise a number of executive charges formerly known as State Forest Reserves but now known as State Forests. A State Forest then is an area in charge of one executive officer known as a Forester. At the pres- ent time the State-owned forest land of Pennsylvania is divided into 49 State Forests with a technically trained Forester in charge of each one. Each Forester is assisted by 1 to 6 Forest Rangers and usually a permanent labor force. In some in- stances the Forester is assisted by a recent graduate from the Forest Academy who is serving a period of apprenticeship, usually 522 Forestry Quarterly of one or two years’ duration, prior to being given charge of a -State Forest. A State Forest may be isolated, as the Buchanan State Forest, or it may be a part of a large contiguous area, as the Pine Grove, Caledonia, and Mont Alto State Forests. The last three are collectively known as the South Mountain State Forests. The eight contiguous State Forests which comprise all the State-owned forest land located in the Seven Mountains in the central part of the State are collectively known as the Seven Mountain State Forests. The area in charge of one executive officer varies considerably in size. ‘This is true in the National Forests of the United States, the State Forests of Pennsylvania, and the State Forests in the different States of Germany, where forestry has been practised for almost two centuries. The State Forests of Pennsylvania vary from 4,145 acres (Nittany State Forest) to 60,000 acres (Sinnamahoning State Forest). Their average area is about 20,000 acres. A large number of factors influence the size of a State Forest, i. e., the area placed in charge of a Forester. The following are the most important factors. 1. Intensity and Kind of Management. The more intensive the management the smaller should be the area under one Forester or in one executive charge. The kind of operations which the annual budget contains and the amount of money allotted for them indicate in part the intensity of manage- ment. State Forests which are very productive and yield high returns should be smaller than those which yield little and are practically unproductive. It is quite evident that a Forester can handle a much larger area under extensive management which consists mainly of informing the public concerning the importance of forestry, protecting the area from organic and inorganic agen- cies, regulating the cutting operations, planting unproductive areas, and waiting watchfully for the economic time and the de- velopment of public sentiment, than he could handle under inten- sive management, which considers in addition to the above enumerated fundamentals also such technical subjects as incre- ment, the determination and regulation of the yield, the subdivi- sion of the forest, age-class and growing stock conditions, ete. The development of a Demonstration Forest is contemplated in Size of State Forests 523 Dauphin county where the State owns 3,358 acres. This acre- age is small in comparison with the other State Forests, but is of ample size for a forester in view of the intense and detailed activities required in a demonstration forest. Under extensive management as one finds on the National Forests, a Forest Super- visor often has more than 1,000,000 acres under his charge ; under conservative management as one finds in the State Forests of Pennsylvania, a forester has charge of about 20,000 acres on an average, while under intensive management as one finds in the forests of the State of Saxony, Germany, a Forstmeister, or Oberférster as he is called when first appointed, has charge of about 4,130 acres on an average. 2. Species, Forest Structure, and Means of Regeneration. Hardwood species are more difficult to handle than coniferous species, and mixed stands more difficult than pure stands. The natural forests of Pennsylvania are mixed, with the hardwoods species far in the majority, hence a forester will not be able to handle as large an area as if they were pure and coniferous in structure. On account of the recent artificial establishment of large areas the forest structure is changing. The transition is gradual and cumulative in favor of the conifers. Natural seed re- generattion is a more extensive method of reproduction than arti- ficial regeneration, hence wherever natural seed regeneration is the prescribed method of reproduction a forester can handle a larger area than where artificial regeneration is in practice. 3. Degree, Kind, and Amount of Utilization. The total amount of material that is utilized annually has an in- fluence upon the size of a forest. The greater the productivity, which manifests itself in the annual or periodic yield, the smaller the area of a forest should be. Under extensive management the total yield consists of the final yield but as the management becomes more intense the intermediate yield becomes more im- portant and may amount to as much as 50 per cent of the total yield. At present the thinnings in the State Forests amount to little, but in the future they will amount to more. If history will repeat itself we may be able to anticipate the growing importance of 524 Forestry Quarterly thinnings by a study of the development of thinnings in the Municipal Forest of Heidelberg, Germany. Average Annual Yteld of Years. Thinnings per Acre (Cubic Feet). SOV USAO ee einer evepere ioc ue eicliele pian Neca ee eee 4.2 SAIS SORE Ree erected coins eevee cl eden rete eee 0.35 SSS o 0S URI ro nents NUS ETON tn MONE asi tS Gone 8.82 1861-1870 6.86 SHAT SS OR TOE a eee 2. Spe ee 7.28 PSE MODUS 2 Ne iiex 5 Sete © Gibea Stash Sites oteamaesede arahiog Hes 13.16 UofUD St he UO Ry Sea RSA i is Bah eS Mar 24.36 Toys BOY are Area ieteols 3.5 SLAG Ai EOIN SIOiOS Garo 34.72 AO OT= 1909 wie oe Rey eee ee ee Dane cae nn 44,94 A forester who is required to make extensive thinnings, clean- ings, damage cutting, cannot handle as large an area as he could if such operations were absent. In regions with a dense popula- tion one finds greater demands for small material, especially fuel- wood, which is absent in sparsely settled regions. The sale of small material and of small lots as well as the filling of special and small orders complicates the work of a forester. The satis- fying of a local market tends to reduce the area of a forest. The degree or extent to which a forester refines his production before he sells them will help determine the area which he can handle properly. He may sell the material upon the stump, or he may fell it and cut it into logs, poles, posts, ties, cords, etc., and then sell it, or he may refine it still further by running it through the sawmill, and then dispose of it. 4. Number of Trained Men Available. During the formative period of any art or business the number of technically trained men able to handle it is usually very small. Forestry was no exception to this. In response to a constant de- mand for trained foresters many forestry schools have sprung up. In 1898 the first forest school in the United States was es- tablished at Biltmore, North Carolina. In the same year a second one was established at Cornell University. To-day 24 forest schools prepare men for the practice of forestry as a profession and 50 more given general or special instruction in forestry. On January 1, 1908, the State of Pennsylvania owned 752,492 acres of forest land. At that time only 10 men, trained especially for the position of forester upon the area, were available with an Size of State Forests 525 average of more than 75,000 acres per man. Three years later, January 1, 1911, the total acreage had increased to 933,115 acres. By this time 40 foresters were available with an average of 23,328 acres. At the present time the State owns 1,000,000 acres which is in charge of 49 foresters or an average of a little over 20,000 acres per forester. In time the average acreage per forester will be reduced to about 10,000 acres. The training, which the executive managers of forests in America have, varies widely. In Germany it also varies, but less widely, because each State has some prescribed qualifications which a man must be able to meet before he can be promoted, and the prescribed qualifications in the several states approximate each other. The German Oberforster is about 40 years of age when he is appointed to this position. He holds subordinate positions up to that time. It has, however, been recommended that the limit be lowered so a man could attain this position not later than at the age of 36 years. In America only a few executive mana- gers have as yet attained this age. The salaries which these trained executive managers receive bear comparison and are given below: State. Annual Salary. WURINELEMADE TOR a sist che Seiten cre sath! fore elements $725-$1125 LESS reese a ee ER oa ec aeets ee Nc. habe SIGNS Shale EROS 700- 1500 2 GRUSSIL eT Ne each tects Seed a raiacac cl een he ERE 750- 1800 AR OEN eer Nae SPIN Ge cho las alah 2 cisedicvshe te bole ol eter ee ra een 975- 1875 Bavanianer gerne tasers es 8 Stl irc ws 2 Re ee eo meee 1200— 1800 VECera Wats 32 hice CoE RINE a ne ee a pee, Mie REY 2 Bal 720- 1500 5. Number and Kind of Assistants. The larger the number, and the better the training of the assis- tants to a forester are, other things being equal, the larger the area that he can handle. A forester who has another subordinate forester assisting him, and in addition has a large number of permanent and emergency rangers, a large permanent labor force, and a satisfactory office force and office equipment, certainly can handle a larger area than a forester who has very little and poorly trained assistance. The number and kind of subordinate officers should be determined by the area of the State Forest and the intensity of management. 526 Forestry Quarterly 6. The Time a Forester Necessarily Devotes to Office Work. The ordinary duties of foresters are alike in kind but differ in degree. All have office work and forest work, but the amount of office work some have far exceeds that of others. The apportion- ment of time for forest work and office work helps to determine the area which one forester can handle. The office work of a forester is diversified, consisting of such items as correspondence, reports, bookkeeping, making of working plans, utilization plans, and planting plans, preparing cost reports of prospective operations, advertising and reporting wood sales, etc. A certain amount of office work for a forester is natural, but too much means that his work in the forest is managed poorly or given into the hands of a subordinate, in which case the forester plays simply the role of an inspector, which is very unsatisfactory. In cases of excessive office work a clerk, either permanent or temporary, depending upon the amount of office work, should be supplied. Up-to-date equipment should be found in the office of every forester to facilitate office work. The office work upon some of the State Forests of Pennsylvania is starting to become burdensome. It will become more burden- some as the management becomes more intense. Conditions are not different in Germany. An accurate diary kept by a conscien- tious Forstmeister shows that he spent during the year only 132 days of 9.4 hours each in the forest and 128 days at office work. A forester who must spend one-half of his time in the office cer- tainly cannot manage as large an area as one who spends only one-fourth of his time there. A forester should spend at least 4 whole days per week or their equivalent supervising in person his forest activities. 7. Auxiliary Duties of the Forester. A forester who has no duties aside from those on the State Forest upon or near which he is located, can manage a larger area than if he has many or extensive outside duties. A forester may devote little or much time to informing the public concerning the importance of forestry, to assisting private owners in developing their woodlands, in cooperating with the numerous Fire Pro- tective Associations which have sprung up in recent years. In some forests considerable time may be devoted to the location and supervision of camp sites, while in others little time may be re- Size of State Forests 527 quired. Five large and eleven small forest-tree nurseries are operated in connection with State Forests in Pennsylvania. The amount of nursery work which a forester must attend to will in- fluence very decidedly the amount of forest land which he can handle in connection with the nursery. The number and kind of his assistants is a very potent factor. One forester, without trained assistance, cannot manage a nursery with an annual yield of one million seedlings and at the same time handle properly a State Forest of 25,000 acres. The area under the charge of a forester should have such a size that his entire time will be com- pletely used up without being overburdened either by office duties or by technical forestal activities. In addition to his official duties he must have time for personal development as well as scientific and managerial investigations. Last, but by no means least, he needs some time for his family. His isolated location brings many family tasks to him which men with homes in more popu- lous regions are not required to fulfill. 8. The Situation, Form and Coherence of the Forest. A certain amount of State-owned forest land may be so sit- uated with regard to other State-owned forest land that it will become necessary to include the former in a State Forest even though its acreage may be somewhat excessive or somewhat be- low that which a forester could carefully and conveniently handle. For example the Stuart State Forest, named after ex-Governor Stuart, contains only 8,749 acres. It is located in eastern West- moreland and western Somerset counties. It is so distant from other State-owned forest land that the acreage cannot be in- creased. Contemplated purchases may increase the acreage. Hence its isolated situation primarily determines the area of this State Forest. The form of the area also influences the total acreage which a single executive officer can handle. If the area is in a compact block approaching a square or regular in outline one can handle a larger area, other things being equal, than if the area is decided- ly elongated and very irregular in outline. The Poe State Forest is on an average two miles wide and 14 miles long. The distance around this area is about 45 miles, while it contains only 14,000 acres. The same area could be in a block with a perimeter of less 528 Forestry Quarterly than 20 miles. If such were the case, it undoubtedly could be managed more easily. Coherence is also a factor which influences the size of an executive charge or State Forest. If the total area is in one compact mass, the area allotted to one forester can be larger than if his forest consists of scattered patches, blocks, and ranges. The Buchanan State Forest, named after ex-President Buchanan, consists of two parts separated by a distance of six miles. The total acreage is 10,973 acres, 6,760 acres in one part and 4,213 acres in the other part. With the same effort, the forester could manage a larger area if it were in a coherent block. Interior holdings also make management more difficult. In case of scattered tracts too much time is spent on the road. 9. Topographic and Climatic Factors, Location of Forester’s Headquarters, and Means of Locomotion and Communica- tion. In a rough and mountainous country one man cannot handle as large an area as in a level or rolling country. In regions with intense and prolonged winters and in regions with heavy and extended rainfall a forester can spend less time at activities in the forest than in regions with less rainfall and with a longer open season. The location of the headquarters is a factor in determining the size of the areas over which a forester can take charge. The most favorable location from the viewpoint of accessibility is usually within the area or at the side of it. In some cases this is impossible and the forester may be compelled to live at a short distance and sometimes at considerable distance from his forest. The means of locomotion is closely interrelated with his headquarters. He may be able to look after his forest better with headquarters on the outside of it than by having them within if he has good means of locomotion in the former case and poor in the latter. Good railroad and trolley service may aid him considerably. Good roads will enable him to drive, or ride on horseback or a motorcycle. A few foresters have automo- biles, which are very helpful to them where good roads are abundant and ramify through the major part of their forest. Telephone communication with subordinate, coordinate and su- perior forest officers will enable a forester to take charge of a Size of State Forests 529 larger area than the absence of it. The more important State Forests are now well equipped with telephone communication. From the above classification one can see that the number of factors which influence the size of the area under one execu- tive officer are many. It is impossible to classify the factors in order of their importance. Their importance varies with the general environment of the area. In some cases it is the conjoint influence of a number of factors, rather than the influence of a single factor. These factors have their influence under intensive as well as under conservative and extensive management. On account of these numerous factors and their influence under all kinds of management, one can never expect to have State Forests of equal size. We have been and are still learning much from German ex- periences and experimentations in forestry. The executive man- ager of a forest in Germany is known as a Forstmeister or Ober- forster, in the National Forests of the United States as a Forest Supervisor, and in the State Forests of Pennsylvania as a For- ester. The average acreage under the charge of one of these executive managers in several states of Germany is given below: State. Area in Acres. TSEEB Oy a7 3, sical cel Ota Soe ee eT aD REVO OCG Ud Lod 4,130 LB GIO eas Shs: HO ir nae a RR SR RM PR EEE tokens a 5,000 Wiiehbemibergi ys Noss. 3) ect uel. eee ee ere 6,175 STATIS CIN WELA eds yore itso ael eke a bs aeeatN cle RR a 6,250 QEAOTIM IEE re ts Ssh Siti 2s 212 hatahel ar Aes WO Se ae ee 8,000 BAVA eared coe kiN eT) LEAD ya LGPL ne 8,250 1 BYEVGYEI01 8 vos See eA eae a ne cane DR RRC TCE NON fee PIAL 9,000 IPTG Lees Vg reees ekes rea 2 dyed Ren oa Re A, WO oR a 11,500 AISACEMIEOLT AIM Eo). tscece Sikes a Se ee 14,000 The average area under one executive manager or in one executive charge varies from State to State and changes from year to year in the same State. In 1908 it was 7,700 acres in the State of Bavaria, and in 1911 is was increased to 8,250 acres. These average figures for various States are interesting and in- structive, but they do not give one any idea of the variation in size of forests in charge of one executive officer within one 530 Forestry Quarterly and the same State. The subjoined data will show the variation within the State of Wurttemberg: 1 Executive charge with less than 2,500 acres 7 i charges ( 5%) with 2,500- 3,750 “ 22 m im (14%). * 3,750- 5,000 “ 50 sf od (33%) or 5,000- 6,250 “ 43 sy ef (29%) “ 6,250- 7,000 “ 20 x % (1397) 7,000- 8,750 ‘“ 7 ay re (5%) 8,750-11,250 “ 150 Executive charges with a total area of 925,000 acres or an average of 6,175 acres to each executive charge. From the above outline one can see that there are in Wurttem- berg 30 executive charges, i. e., one-fifth of the total number, that have less than 5,000 acres, and 80 or over one-half of the total number, that have less than 6,250 acres. These figures are of a comparative value and will act as a guide for those who are concerned with the allotment of areas to forests. In Ger- many a single executive charge may comprise State, Municipal and Communal forests which make the forester’s work more difficult. The subjoined data of 10 of the 49 State Forests of Penn- sylvania will show their wide variation in size: State Forest. Area in Acres. ING BeaRE yrds ck ove isnot, he CRM shee Grattan SNA let Gate eg aed ote 4,145 Mic Glia ee ee Sr acabaeee, On OR Pe Uae yok die eo ramede Cone oe 6,093 Start re ere ete ERE Pe De Poi Soar enc eee nadernet OPA: 8,749 Buchanan tte ewe eR A At) ee Cet mL Aree oot dee ie 10,973 (Bro) ojbh mata epee MMAR MORE S| ROA At ME Ht DPS Pe eee a vane Vie Ee 15,000 1S irr LL Fire Ars aaah ak Ser vere sede pin UA tS el han pe! 23,290 Caled ontiat: HA ce is aoe Se es eae cee semen ore ds 26,700 Blaclawelllyt see wee Ret ay assi eancteses uence Suthers Rah beak eve ae 29,000 Wross Fore ee ee ee enn eee aie 59,592 Sinnamahoning wees ese ee eine hel ame eerie: 60,000 One cannot help but realize that the factors which influence the size of the area under the charge of one executive officer are operative in all countries. The degree of their importance varies, however, within the same country, the same State, and often the same local region. That the size of State Forests varies at the present time can be seen in the above tabulation of the State Forests of Pennsylvania and that they will ever continue to vary can be inferred from the tabulation given above of the forests of Wiurttemberg, where forestry has been in practice for more Size of State Forests 531 than a century. We can never hope to have all our State Forests the same size. It is, however, desirable that an attempt should be made to equalize them as far as the results of the equalization prove to be practical. The truism that “history repeats itself” stands out clearly when we see how the development of forestry in Pennsylvania recapitulates the development of forestry in Germany. No doubt we will pass through exactly the same course of development, only at a greater speed, on account of our present economic condition and the many theoretical and practical lessons which we have and can still learn from the experiences of the countries and States of Continental Europe. If we cannot adopt their results, we may at least adapt them, and if we cannot adapt them, they will at least suggest problems to us and indicate the best means of avoiding circuitous methods of procedure in solving them. NOTES ON GERMINATION AND REPRODUCTION OF LONGLEAF PINE IN SOUTHERN MISSISSIPPI. By P. lL. Burrricr In the spring of 1914 the final term of the senior class of the Yale Forest School was held on the holdings of the Great South- ern Lumber Company in Marion County, Mississippi. Marion County adjoins the Louisiana State line on the south and is drained by the Pearl River. The following data were partly collected by the students in assigned work and later tabulated by the writer, who added ob- servations of his own. They do not make a complete account of Longleaf pine reproduction, but present some data which may be of some value to others studying the problem. The region lies within the Longleaf pine belt in what is known locally as the pine ridges. The surface of the country is quite undulating and rather more hilly than most of this pine land. The forest is pure Longleaf pine and practically all virgin. The section has been settled for nearly a century, but save for small agricultural clearings the forest has not been disturbed by the ax. Since the first settlement forest fires have been an annual occurrence. Early every spring the woods are burned over, exposing the mineral soil, and, as a result, undergrowth is the exception rather than the rule. While individual fires do little damage to the mature timber, their cumulative effect, by killing the old trees and preventing the growth of others to take their place, will probably be the gradual elimination of the forest. Comparatively few trees under 100 or over 300 years are found. The average age is about 220 years. What little reproduction is found is in scattered groups and is totally insignificant in area compared with the forest as a whole. It is evident that, if con- ditions continue as they are, in another century the forest will ‘Acknowledgments are due to the Yale Forest School for permission to use the data, and to Professor H. H. Chapman, of the School, for sug- gestions as to field study and criticisms of this paper. 532 Germination of Longleaf Pine 533 be reduced to widely scattered groups of trees, and later will disappear entirely. The assigned work for the class consisted in individual studies to determine the following points: 1. Number of seeds deposited from seed trees at different dis- tances from their bases. 2. Per cent of seeds germinating on different types of ground cover’: pine needles, grass, hardwood litter, litter of varying ages and depths. 3. Effect on reproduction of fire and other agencies. The study was made by taking small-sized sample plots (gen- erally one foot square) under various conditions, but on sites unburned that season, and counting the seeds and _ seedlings on them, and noting the distance from the seed trees. Since but one crop of seedlings was present, there was no danger of includ- ing those of more than one age-class. The year 1913 was a seed year for Longleaf pine in this region. The seed fell during the fall and winter and began to germinate in February.* By the time this study was made, in late March, the germination period was practically over. The seedlings bore cotyledons fully expanded and the root system was often two or three inches long. During or shortly after germination much of the ground was burned over, destroying most of the seedlings. A few escaped and some showed signs of at least a temporary recovery from the effects of the fire. According to the best evi- dence, seed years in the region occur about every seven years. Seed Dissemination: The greatest distance given for the fall of seed from the base of a seed tree was 150 feet* (from a tree on the edge of a field). The average maximum distance was 140 feet. Several observations were made to the effect that the radius of seed dissemination seldom exceeded the height of the seed tree. The dominant trees of the stands in the region average about 120 feet high. The amount of seed falling on about sixty plots one foot * This percentage is of course smaller than would be obtained from seed tests in a nursery, and should not be compared with them. ®*U. S. Forest Service reports that by early December, most of the seed had germinated, little seedlings of 2 or 3 inches high being found growing in great numbers, and that at that time groups of seedlings were found by the Conservation Commission of Louisiana as far distant as 300 feet from the nearest seed tree.—Ed. 534 Forestry Quarterly square at different distances from the bases of seed trees has been plotted on cross section paper and a curve drawn which curve shows the relation between distance and distribution. From this curve a table was read, which shows that the maximum amount of seed falls between 20 and 30 feet from the base of tree. This table might be of use in connection with other data in fixing the number of trees to be left per acre under some systems of forest management. Average Number of Seedlings Growing at Different Distances From the Base of Seed Trees. Distance (feet) No. Seedlings per Sq. Ft. — S Oo Soi peice ta ean tee rteph eee SCNUNONNwWOOMNONUAS Germination : A mathematical average of the germination counts on 753 square feet (.017 acres), under all canopy and ground cover conditions, was 48%. The average maximum was about 60%. ‘The average minimum was about 25%. The percentages seldom ran over 65 or under 25%. Classifying the plots according to their ground cover, we get the following germination percentages : Onvone-year crep Of pine meedlesss 00-2 te ae 50%* Gy RRETASS ths ss, Wedd ee: daa eS Cr ee 53% Onenarawood litter)... 1.02. ex vesce eens aerate 28% The difference between the results from pine needles and grass are too small to leave room for generalizations. Individual ‘These figures average 44 instead of 48%, the difference being due to the necessity of excluding certain plots for which no site data were given. Germination of Longleaf Pine 535 opinions, as expressed by the students, vary as to which affords the better germination site. Both, although different in appear- ance, generally offered much the same conditions for germina- tion, the ground having been burned over immediately before, so that seeds could easily reach the mineral soil. As to hardwood litter, the results seem conclusive; not only was germination much lower, but it frequently did not occur on well-seeded areas where there was an excess of litter. Plots were taken on pine litter of upwards of four years’ accumulation, but not in suff- cient numbers to afford reliable averages. It was evident, how- ever, that the germination per cent decreased in proportion to the depth of the litter, and seemed to disappear altogether when a litter of four or five years’ accumulation was reached. It seems that the chief requisite for germination is that the seed be in contact with the mineral soil. Although occasionally seeds germinate on rotten stumps and logs (but grow only a few weeks), none germinate on litter so deep as to prevent instant contact with the mineral soil. The study shows an average of 2.6 seedlings per square foot for all sites, or 113,256 per acre (counts on 543 square feet). If 25,000 seedlings per acre be regarded as full stocking, such a crop as fell in the fall of 1913 should be ample to provide for reproduction. Judging from statements of the local inhabitants, this was about an average crop for a seed year. Destruction of Seedlings: Since there is actually no new forest growing up, the question immediately arises: What becomes of these seedlings? As has been intimated, fire kills the major portion of them before they are fairly started. Late summer and fall fires account for'the loss of many more. Summer drought and the shade of the old trees, light as it is, cause many more to succumb. Under the combined effect of these factors, only an infinitesimal portion of the seedlings survive the first year. To discover the fate of those seedlings which did escape and get beyond the first year, the writer made a study in the next older seedling age class. A sample plot was taken on a site where conditions were such that part of the crop of the seed year of seven years ago had survived. The results from the study of this plot give much information on the stocking, 536 Forestry Quarterly rate of growth, and fire resistance of the seedlings. Following is a copy of the notes taken on this plot: Date: April, 1914. Size of Plot: One-quarter acre, square. Site: Crest of a lateral ridge between two water courses one- half mile from their sources. About 25 feet above stream bot- tom. Plot represents conditions prevailing for three-quarter mile along summit and upper slopes of ridge. It is in an old turpentine orchard. Soil and Moisture: Soil a sandy loam, locally considered fit for agriculture. Moisture conditions slightly better than average for the section. Seed Trees: None on the plot. Nearest, 100 feet distant. At that distance plot is well surrounded with them. Average height, 80 to 100 feet. Overhead Cover: Four pine saplings, 4 to 20 feet high, about 15 Spanish, Willow and Black Jack Oaks from 3 to 7 feet high, and from 1 to 3 inches in diameter. Ground Cover: Grass 2-3 density, 2 inches high, a little oak brush 1 foot high, but not interfering with the pine seedlings. Many down trunks of old turpentined trees. Seedlings: Age, all, 7 years; size, range from 1 to 12 inches high; tap root, 1 to 2 feet long. Number, total, 759; under 3 inches, 381; between 3 and 6 inches, 330; over 6 inches, 48. One Shortleaf pine seedling. Fire, etc.: Plot shows evidence of having been burned annually ever since the seedlings started, but unfortunately it is impossible to tell whether it was burned the first year or not. The last fire, about six weeks previous to the making of the study, had killed but two seedlings, although it destroyed the needles on all save a few of those under 6 inches high. Extended to acre terms there would be slightly more than 3,000 seven-year seedlings on this area after it had been burned annually for at least six years. Even this number should be enough to provide for full stocking at maturity if only normal losses occurred. The chief thing which the plot shows, is what may be expected in the way of stocking and growth, in spite of annual fires, when overhead and ground cover conditions are favorable. : Vad og a - : Ls Ficure 1. Seven-year-old Longleaf pine seedlings in the foreground. They have been burned annually for at least six years. Compare with growth of unburned seedlings shown below. ‘+= ni, % oe ses ied SR As chy & es Ficure 2. Seven-year-old Longleaf pine seedlings grown on an open field and never burned. Compare growth with those above. Germination of Longleaf Pine 537 Seedling Growth: That Longleaf pine seedlings are capable of making a much better growth than that indicated by this plot is shown by the accompanying photographs. Figure 1 is a view taken on the plot, the small black spots representing the seedlings. Figure 2 shows a group of seedlings of the same age which average two feet and over high. ‘They come from the same region, but grew on an open field and never had to contend with fire. The field was abandoned some fifteen years before and was well turfed before the seed fell. While soil and moisture conditions may have been slightly better in this field than in the old turpentine orchard where the other photograph was taken, they could not possibly have been sufficiently so to account alone for the great difference in size. Assuming even as much as one- half the height growth shown in Figure 2 to be due to superior soil and moisture conditions, it is evident that fire has retarded the height growth of the seedlings shown in Figure 1 more than 50 per cent. A group of 15-year-old Longleaf pine saplings grown on an old field averaged 3 inches in diameter and 20 feet in height. This shows that Longleaf pine can make a very rapid growth when conditions are in its favor. Summary: The conclusions from the data here presented may be summarized briefly as follows: (1) Longfeal pine seeds are not apt to be carried more than 150 feet from the seed trees which stand in the woods; (2) Longleaf pine seeds will not germinate on a heavy litter; (3) germination takes place best on mineral soil from which the litter has been burned; (4) most of the seedlings perish from fire, drought or shade before the end of the first season; (5) seedlings one year old will often with- stand surface fires where the litter is only the accumulation of a single year; (6) with soil, moisture and light conditions favor- able Longleaf pine seedlings can withstand annual fires after their first season for at least ten years and may be able to with- stand them many years more; (7) such fires, however, retard their height growth at least 50% for the first decade. FOREST PLANTING IN NEW ENGLAND AS AN INVESTMENT.* By J. W. TouMEy. The desirability of an investment increases with the inter- est returns, the increase in the value of the property and the diminution of the risk of impairment of the capital. A govern- ment bond fetches a low rate of interest, but the capital is not diminished and the risk of impairment is very slight. On the other hand an unseasoned industrial bond may return nearly twice the income but the risk to capital is correspondingly increased. The greater the risk the higher should be the return in interest, the less the risk the lower the return. In Europe, forest property is classed with government bonds and other high grade se- curities which involve but little risk of impairment of capital. One reason for this is, forest soil or the land itself without the growing timber is gradually increasing in value the world over. The last two or three decades in New England have seen forest soil increase to from two to four times its former value. If we start therefore with a piece of denuded forest land having a present sale value of one to five dollars an acre, and plant it with timber, at the end of the rotation when the trees are cut and the land again denuded it ought to be worth two or three times its former value. In the discussion of planting in New England as an invest- ment we are inclined to turn to Europe and argue that since with their lower cost for labor, higher wood values and less danger from fires they cannot secure higher interest returns than 2 to 4%, but we hope in this country that forest plantations will earn even this low rate of interest. This argument, however, does not hold, because interest returns depend almost entirely upon the soil value upon which it is figured. It is the custom in Europe to increase soil value with increased earnings from the forest so that necessarily the interest on the *Read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. 538 Forest Planting as an Investment 539 capital appears to remain low. In other words, if soil value in Prussia had not been increased in the calculation during the past fifty or sixty years the forests would now show an earning capacity of possibly 8 or 9 instead of the present 2 to 4 per cent. In figuring interest from plantations in New England we have a decided advantage over Europe in our low value of forest soil, viz., from one to five dollars per acre. This value combined with the cost of planting brings the cost of the established forest usually well under twenty dollars per acre or but one-fourth to one-half the cost in Europe. Because of this great difference in soil value in Europe as compared with New England our products from plantations may sell for less than one half that in Europe and still we are able to earn a much greater interest _on the investment. The income from a forest plantation as an investment is determined primarily by the initial cost, 1.e., the cost of the forest soil and the cost of planting. If our initial investment is too high, no forest is capable of earning an ac- ceptable rate of interest. Even under the most favorable con- ditions of private planting as an investment in New England it is my belief that the initial cost should not exceed twenty dollars per acre. In private forestry the great indirect value of the forest or the benefit which comes to the entire community disappears as an incentive for planting waste and idle land. Here the incentive for planting and managing a forest is based entirely upon the income in dollars and cents which the investment in the land, the cost of planting and the cost of maintenance will return. New England has many examples of plantations made thirty- five or more years ago, which have already been cut and have returned 6% compound interest or more on the investment. Many other plantations have been measured in recent years and the growth shows an equally large earning capacity. The same earning capacity is shown in thirty-five to seventy-year-old fully stocked second growth stands, which are no more productive and usually less so than well-established plantations. Dwellig, of Massachusetts, reports the cutting of 200 cords of White pine from two acres of fifty years’ second growth. Stock- bridge, of Massachusetts, reports the cutting of one hundred thousand feet of five-eighths-inch box boards from two acres of 540 Forestry Quarterly thirty-year-old second growth. In the spring of 1871 and in the spring of the following year, three acres of poor, exhausted meadow in Westmoreland, N. H., owned by Elijah Wyman, were planted at from six to seven-foot intervals. This tract of three acres was sold by Mr. Wyman in 1904 for $350 to Mr. Leon Hall. In 1911 Mr. Hall sold the tract for an even $1,000. A stand of White pine established in Switzerland by planting was accurately measured when forty-two years old. The yield per acre was 77 3-4 cords, or an average increment of approxi- mately 1.8 cords. At a stumpage value of $8.50 per thousand feet board measure, which is no higher than in some localities in New England, its value per acre was $9.30. ‘These are only a few of the large yields recorded from plantations of White pine and fully stocked second growth stands. From results already obtained not only in New England but abroad it appears that one can expect from fully stocked plantations and second growth stands on first quality sites under a fifty-year rotation a maximum yield of one hundred cords and an average of at least sixty-five cords per acre. The study of a large number of fully stocked sec- ond growth stands in New England on first quality sites gave an average yield of nearly seventy cords per acre at fifty years. These figures of maximum yield and high value per acre should not be taken as an index of results to be expected from general planting. They do show, however, what has and what can again be attained in the most favorable localities. Experience has shown that the average yield of White pine in fully stocked second growth stands on third quality sites is less than forty cords per acre at the end of fifty years. Plantations of White pine made in southern France on very poor soil in 1873 gave an annual increment of only about one-half cord per acre at the end of thirty-eight years. It costs as much and usually more to estab- lish a forest by planting on poor sites as it does on first quality sites, while the yield may be but one-half or one-third as much. In New England where the value of all forest soils is relatively low a handsome profit may well result from plantations on first quality sites, while a loss would result from planting the same species on third quality sites because of the small difference in initial cost and the great difference in yield. The high yields and values obtained from plantations and second growth stands Forest Planting as an Investment — 541 of White pine on first quality sites in New England, under a rotation of thirty-five to seventy years, only takes into account fully stocked stands accessible to a good market. The average yield on first quality sites in New England is likely far below these figures because of the fire hazard and the damage from other external agents. So also the value of the product would be less were our inaccessible waste lands planted because of the poorer market. In my opinion the recent investigations of the National Forest Service, and other investigations as well, clearly show that 4 to 6% compound interest is well within the possibility of second growth stands of White pine on plantations when the soil value and the cost of regeneration falls below fifteen or twenty dollars per acre; when the rota- tion is between thirty-five and seventy years; and the property is located near a present or prospective market comparable, for instance, with that at Keene, N. H., at the present time. Although even under present conditions forest planting by private individuals may be a profitable investment, it is my belief that indiscriminate planting with all sorts of species, on all classes of sites, under all conditions as regards damage from external agents and in all localities as to markets is a very poor investment for the owner of denuded forest land in New England. In general, the returns from coniferous woods are much greater than from broad-leaved species on the same quality of soil. Europe, with a relatively small proportion of broad-leaved forests, is increasing her coniferous stands and decreasing her areas of hardwoods. Thus today we find the celebrated Sihlwald of Switzerland and the Wienerwald of Austria being rapidly changed over into coniferous stands. New England with her large areas of hardwoods, which reproduce abundantly by natural means, has little or no need for the planting of hardwoods. She has great need for the planting of conifers, particularly White and Red pine. To my mind these are the only species that give rea- sonable assurance of success in planting as an investment in most parts of New England. Although we have no plantations of Red pine old enough to determine increment and value, plantations up to fifteen years of age in southern New England show an even better growth than White pine under similar conditions. Because: of the relative freedom of this species from insect and fungus. 542 Forestry Quarterly damage it is my belief that future studies will warrant its ex- tensive use in New England either in pure stand or in mixture with White pine. Under present conditions forest planting in New England as a profitable investment for private individuals must, I believe, meet the following conditions: 1. Be confined to the species which have an established market and which experience has already shown produce the highest financial return. ‘These species are chiefly White and Red pine. 2. Be confined to first or possibly in some localities to second quality sites, because the initial investment on such sites is but little less than on third quality sites and the yield is much greater. 3. Be located near a good present or prospective market, where an outlet can be found for thinnings and all classes of wood products at remunerative prices. 4. Be confined to areas where the fire hazard has already been practically eliminated. 5. Be confined to states or localities where the problems of forest taxation have been satisfactorily and permanently ad- judicated. 6. Be confined to sites where the market value of the denuded land is ten dollars or less per acre. When plantations can be made in New England that meet all of the above requirements the investment is, I believe, of high grade and gives assurance of returning a large income on the capital invested. Only a small part, however, of the waste and unused lands of New England meet all of the above requirements. As more and more of these requirements cannot be met, the in- vestment in planting becomes less and less attractive and finally, if it is done at all, must be done by the State or community. The earnings of governmental and communal forests, unlike private forests, cannot be measured by the interest return on the investment alone, derived from the sale of forest products. It must be measured also by the influence of the forest on the industrial, economic and social life of the community. The in- direct value of forest growth to the community as a whole, par- ticularly on land unfit for agriculture, is so great that govern- mental and communal forests must be classed as sound and Forest Planting as an Investment 543 excellent investments even when the direct return in interest on the investment is very low. It must, therefore, be left to the State and the community to reforest by planting the idle and waste lands in New England that on account of their location or quality are not attractive as a planting operation by private capital and which, under natural conditions, will not reclothe themselves with desirable stands of timber. It is well to leave to private capital the planting of such areas as can be planted with reasonable assurance of a profit on the investment. Such areas in New England are relatively small, and we can be sure that private capital will not wander much beyond these limits. The State and community, however, must assume their responsibility, and purchase and reforest areas that private capital cannot profitably undertake. They can do this when private capital cannot because they measure their profits not only in wood products, but in the indirect value of the forest to the community. Investments made by States and smaller governmental units in waste and denuded lands unfit for agriculture and in planting them with valuable timber are fundamentally sound. ‘They are unlike most other governmental investments such as expenditures for public buildings, roads, etc., in that they soon begin to return an income on the expenditure while the others do not. It is my contention that at least a part of the present large expenditure by our States and communities for public improvements should be spent in the purchase of denuded land that the private citizen cannot afford to own, much less to reforest and improve it by re- establishing the forest. TAXATION OF FORESTS IN MASSACHUSETTS.* REMARKS BY PROFESSOR CHARLES J. BULLOCK.’ In 1912 Massachusetts adopted a constitutional amendment permitting the classification of wild and forest land for the purpose of taxation, and the following year a commission was appointed to draft a new law for the taxation of forests. Last January this commission submitted its draft of a scientific forest tax law which was adopted substantially without amendment and given the title of The Forest Classification and Tax Act. The enactment of this measure marks the end of a large campaign, carried on through many years, for a system of forest taxation that would encourage the conservation and development, rather than the destruction, of the forest resources of the State. The new law does not provide a new method of taxing all wild and forest lands, but, like those recently enacted in other States, is limited in its operation to lands registered under its provision. Such registration may be made with the clerks of cities and towns, after the assessors have determined that the land is suitable for forestry purposes, and have made separate valuations of the land and the timber growing thereon. Land may be classified either as woodlot or plantation, the former being defined as land having on it timber of merchantable value, the latter being land without such timber. By registering his land the landowner receives the benefit of the new system of taxation. Lands registered under the Act of 1914 are exempt from other taxation, and subject to, (a) forest land tax, which is levied at the land rate upon the bare value of the land excluding timber; (b) forest product tax, which is levied on all timber when cut, and upon any other income as it accrues; and, in the case of woodlots, (c) forest commuta- tion tax, which is levied upon standing timber taxed in the year 1913, and at the valuation of that year. The land tax will, of course, be very small upon land that ought to be used for forestry purposes. ‘The tax on the product will be levied at the *Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Protection of New Hampshire Forests. ‘Harvard University. 544 Taxation of Forests in Massachusetts 545 time when the owner is receiving an income from his land and can afford to pay a tax; and is in line with the provision of recent legislation in other States. Forest commutation tax, however, is an innovation. Proposals to abolish taxation of standing timber and to introduce a tax upon timber when cut, long encountered opposition in Massa- chusetts, and in other States, from forest towns that derived a large part of their revenue from taxes on standing timber. The commutation tax will have the effect of insuring during the life of timber now standing, the revenue that the town received in 1913. It will, however, prevent all increase of timber valua- tions, and will therefore prevent an increase of the taxes levied in 1913 on standing timber. This condition is to continue until 1919 when the commutation tax levied upon land thereafter registered will be the amount of tax paid in respect of standing timber in the year prior to registration. When timber standing upon land at the date of registration is cut, forest commutation tax comes to an end, and such land thereafter is subject only to forest land and forest product taxes. In return for the benefits of the new system of taxation, owners of registered land will be required to plant any portion of such land not already forested, to cut timber in such ways as to encourage natural reproduction or, failing this, to replant, and to make suitable disposition of slash. Enforcement of this part of the new law will naturally fall to the State Forester, whose office is materially enhanced in usefulness and importance by the enactment of the law of 1914. While the duties imposed upon landowners may at first thought appear somewhat formi- dable, there is in reality nothing in them that is not actually for the interest of the landowner. The law simply prescribes good forest management and discourages slovenly methods; and this will be apparent to landowners as they become familiar with its provisions. The law also makes suitable provision for consolidating small woodlots into forests; expressly authorizes the formation of cor- porations, without limitation of term, to engage in forestry under its provision; and finally permits the withdrawal of land from registration under suitable conditions. What it will accomplish, it is too soon to predict ; but in the opinion of those best informed, the law of 1914 offers capital an opportunity to engage in forestry upon reasonably attractive terms in Massachusetts. FOREST TAXATION AND THE SINGLE TAX.* By Louis S. MurpuHy. The report of the sub-committee on taxation of the Fifth National Conservation Congress last November would lead one to believe that the adoption of the single tax would not leave a tree standing or even permit one to grow, in other words, would force the destruction of the forests and absolutely discourage anyone from attempting the practice of forestry. This con- clusion has as a basis the general statement of single tax propa- gandists to the effect that “virgin forests are a part of land, a free gift of nature, and should consequently be taxed as land or as a land value.” On the strength of such a statement their as- sumption follows that the value of the land and the value of the timber are to be added together and taxed on an annual basis. But the assumption is in error in at least two fundamental particulars. The assumption first of all ignores the fact that the term “land” has an economic as well as a common meaning. It is patent that if interpreted in its economic sense the above statement is perfectly intelligible and clear; otherwise it is not. Land in the economic sense comprises all the elements of nature, the rocks and soil, the forests, the minerals and the waters. When it is understood that the above basic statement simply means, therefore, that the forest—the virgin growth—is a part of nature and that its value should consequently be taxed as a natural value, must we conclude that the only way open to us is to tax it as land surface is taxed? Herein lies the second error in the committee’s assumption that it is necessary on the theory that being a single tax there can be but one way to apply it, or some single-taxer may have said so, misled, undoubtedly, by the archaic general property tax idea. The single tax is simply a tax on the utility values in nature. There is nothing whatever in either the spirit or the letter of the single tax doctrine requiring that timber be taxed annually. *Read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. 546 ‘ Forest Taxation and the Single Tax 547 There is, consequently, nothing in reason to prevent the tax being applied in the form of a cutting or yield tax. In fact it can be shown that such method of application is the one simple and sensible way to apply it to timber and mineral resources as well. Both of these resources have a utility value entirely different from the utility value of either the soil or a water right. The two latter may be used, so far as we know, year after year, indefinitely, and it is therefore proper that they be taxed annually. But a given group of trees in the forest or a given portion of a vein of ore once cut or mined may not be so utilized again. That value which attaches to them in their natural state, therefore, cannot justly be taxed more times than it can be taken from nature. In the case of the forest, nature may produce more trees in the same place, but their value will be a new and entirely distinct value. And if, therefore, we tax a piece of virgin timbered land by laying an annual tax on the market value of the bare ground and a yield tax on the value of any timber that is cut, how will this force the destruction of our forests? Such a method of taxing forests, the committee tells us in the main body of its report, will not force the cutting and destruction of our forests, but will aid in their conservation and conversion into well-man- aged and regulated forests. The committee’s fear that the adoption of the single tax will operate to the detriment of the practice of forestry may likewise be set at rest. As a tax exclusively levied upon natural values, labor and capital values of all kinds are expressly exempted under the single tax. Now those who have attempted to practise for- estry themselves or have induced others to do so know that it involves the investment of both labor and capital. So that to the extent that forestry is practised under a single tax régime there would, to that extent at least, be a decrease in taxes on the value of the forest until with the planted or regulated forest there would be no tax on the value of the forest at all. The soil would, of course, be taxed annually according to its market value as it should be. Instead, therefore, of being destructive in its effects, the single tax would be constructive so far as our forests and forestry are concerned, whether applied to the virgin forest, the planted forest or any of the transitional forms. PITFALLS OF TIMBER BOND ISSUES. By MontTcoMERY ROLLINS. Although the Timber Bond in its present form is somewhat new, yet the idea of loaning upon timber land is by no means new. It is an old custom, but the loan was made in the usual form of an ordinary real estate mortgage and of a size so that the whole amount might be taken by a single individual or an institu- tion, but as the need and desire arose to borrow larger amounts, it became necessary to resort to the bond plan in order that the loan might be divided up among many holders as being too large for a single investment. Besides, the industry had been divided into small units dependent upon the portable sawmill, but the more enterprising manufacturers realized the waste incident to operating small tracts, so the tendency to consolidation and cen- tralized ownership, as it were, entered into logging and milling— the same as in other industries. The larger financing incident thereto, caused recourse to the investment banker. Thus it was, that about 15 years ago, the timber bond actually came into prominence. Although the first issue was in the early “nineties,” yet it is rather a strange fact, as we view it today, that the interest rates prevailing were 5%, whereas, of late years, 6% has been the rul- ing rate on securities of this nature. In this connection, it is somewhat amusing to have read a re- cent publication of a society interested in social science, one issue of whose magazine is devoted to timber bonds as investment securities. It is evident that most of the articles appearing there- in are the efforts of men directly or indirectly interested in the sale of the wares discussed, for, although the fact was probably not realized by the publishers, their pages were used as an ad- vertising medium to boom bond issues of the class we are con- sidering, and several misleading statements were incorporated. To illustrate: take the matter of the interest rate; evidently the writer who was treating that subject was somewhat new to the in- 1 Read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Protection of New Hampshire Forests. 548 Pitfals of Timber Bond Issues 549 vestment business, for, certainly, if he had been closely identi- fied with that branch of banking during the last decade of the nineteenth century, he would have realized that he could not explain the present? 6% prevailing interest rate on timber bonds by declaring that it was because the securities were somewhat new, but that, in time, they would be better appreciated and sell upon a 5% basis. ‘The reason why timber bonds are now being placed at 6% as against 5% about 15 years ago (of which latter fact the social science writer evidently was quite ignorant) is not to be accounted for by his method of reasoning, for, in truth, up to comparatively recent days, rates have been increasing rather than decreasing. However, this rising rate has not been confined to Timber Issues alone. But that is quite in line with much of the enthusiastic litera- ture which is put out, especially by some bankers, as they call themselves—and who reckon not of the hereafter—who suddenly bloom out with an office selling such issues, and who have had little, if any, previous training in the very serious business of selecting and marketing investment bonds. There is no question but that, as a class, timber bonds have suffered much abuse, due both to the lumbermen and the bond houses. Such issues ought to be among our most desirable securi- ties, because the property behind the mortgage is a staple product which should find a ready market. A commodity of this character undoubtedly has some good loaning basis. The present condition of the market (which has been one of increasing suspicion as re- gards the attitude of many investors towards timber issues) would seem to be due, therefore, to unnecessary causes. For some years previous to nineteen hundred and eight or nine, there was a phenomenal increase in the value of timber holdings throughout this great country; so steady and rapid was this in- crease that lumbermen grew to believe that there was no top to the market price of their properties. During the last two or three years, however, they have watched the pendulum swing in a lessened arc, and prices have been sagging, if moving at all, so that in the present market, there are bargains to be had which would not have been dreamed of three or four years ago. ?’This article was prepared by Mr. Rollins, just previous to the outbreak of the present European War.—Editor. 550 Forestry Quarterly Again, touching somewhat historically upon this subject, it is interesting to note that the first outlet for timber bonds was largely among the lumbermen themselves. Such investments were then attractive, for the lumbermen could not be deceived by false statements or values. Having shown his faith in the value of the security, confidence was then established with outside investors who, through the continued prosperity of the lumber market, were deceived into believing that almost any issue of like nature was good. But the investor was not alone misled in this regard, for the bond houses were imposed upon in much the same way, with the result that instead of these concerns dictating to the lum- bermen as to the terms of the mortgage, the lumbermen, to a great extent, actually took the whip hand and obtained pretty much what they desired. Is it not a generally accepted fact that a good many lumber companies sold their properties to the bond- holders at fancy figures, and retained their equities (if such they were) or, at least, temporary additional profits, through their stock ownership? Another evil which has crept into the business within the last few years, is that of the investment bankers attempting to strad- dle the fence, so as to speak. ‘They had seen so much money made in the lumber industry that some of them decided that it would be to their advantage to become stockholders in the enter- prises that were being financed. When they assumed this position, their judgment was naturally and unquestionably warped, to the detriment of the investor. But the present condition of the timber security market is not altogether due to the mishandling of the issues. It has been caused, in part, it is believed, by a wrong principle in issuing the bonds; and here we come to the serial or sinking fund feature— in other words, the method of ultimate redemption. There are instances where bond issues have been readily purchased by in- vestors, because of the large amounts maturing serially or of the large sinking fund requirements, the investor supposing that the quicker the issue should be retired the safer the investment. This is very fallacious reasoning; it boots little that any form of re- demption, dependent upon earnings, shall be greater than the ability of the concern to meet the same. Any company that is obliged to force its product upon the mar- Pitfalls of Timber Bond Issues 551 ket, no matter what the condition may be, in order to meet the charges for interest and principal, is poorly financed. Thus it is a fair conclusion that no bond issue should be burdened with maturities or sinking fund provisions such as to force an un- economical marketing of the product securing the mortgage. Too many issues have been put out in such form, and the market has been glutted with an oversupply of lumber, largely because bond houses, with the idea of increasing the salability of the issues, have wrongly financed them as above suggested. Serial bond issues are desirable upon tracts that are being cut off, although a straight long term mortgage may be more desirable upon properties that are not being lumbered, but, in the latter case, it must be provided that in case lumbering begins, bond re- demptions shall also begin or a sinking fund become operative proportionate to the depletion of the values. It is all too true that we are faced, probably, through the aid waste of our heritage, with a future scarcity of wood, yet that may not be so imminent as to justify the placing of a sentimental value upon a timber property, for it is not likely that the scar- city will be so seriously felt as to materially enhance the value under the mortgage during the life of the issue, for in mortgages based upon all natural resources which are being exhausted, such as mines, oil wells, timber lands, etc., it is a principle of finance not likely to be disputed that the loan shall be such as, through some plan of redemption, to all be retired considerably within the estimated life of the property itself. Future values, therefore, should not be seriously considered; rather hard, bed rock worth based on present and more or less recent known commerical ex- perience. Of great importance is it that the last maturity shall fall due while there still remains ample stumpage to protect the holders. The ordinary sinking fund method is by a payment to the Trustee of so much per thousand feet or cord of lumber marketed. Thus a sinking fund itself is a movable factor, and one should not be beguiled into supposing that the amount of the sinking fund, as estimated by the then output of the mills, may be as great in succeeding years. The better timber may, at the moment, be that which is being operated, or market conditions may change. 552 Forestry Quarterly Under the serial form, a given amount of bonds matures yearly, regardless of the output of the mills. Another objection to the sinking fund plan is that the amount of money turned into the Trustee is dependent upon the honesty of the officials, unless a plan for a periodical audit of the accounts has been provided. Then, again, a not over discriminating man- agement may select and cut the more choice tracts first, with re- sults naturally undesirable. It may be said here, that in timber bonds, more than in most security issues, the good intentions of those managing the prop- erty is an element to be reckoned with, and, perhaps, therefore, it is all essential that the mortgage itself should provide also for a periodical inspection of the property. This is in order to as- certain that the provisions of the mortgage, which, in themselves, should properly safeguard the investor, are being complied with. Where timber companies are using their machinery for the manufacture of lumber or pulp for other concerns, a certain pro- tection should be given the investor so that he shall benefit by the earnings received from such outside sources as an offset against the natural wear and tear of the mortgaged property. In some instances, a form of sinking fund is provided for buy- ing additional stumpage each year to offset that cut. This pro- vision may be fully as safe as an actual cash sinking fund or a serial form of redemption, but it is a provision, nevertheless, that places so much confidence in the hands of the officials of the com- pany, that many experienced financiers are not favorably inclined towards its adoption. The character of the timber thus purchased may be far inferior to that which has been cut. Thus all the conditions as regards the purchasing of such stumpage should be as carefully passed upon by an expert employed in the interests of the investor, as in the case of the whole property at the time of the issue. It is just as necessary that timber land replacing that cut should come up to the requirements of the careful investor as that originally covered by his mortgage. Under the serial form of issue, it is natural that the first maturities should be the safer. This fact appeals to banks which are legally permitted and do invest in timber issues, thus the earlier maturities are naturally selected by those more experienced investors. Upon the other hand, the ordinary investor more Pitfals of Timber Bond Issues 553 naturally inclines to the longer term bond as providing a more per- manent form of investment, consequently, but not necessarily always, assuming the greater risk. The conditions attached to the application of sinking funds differ, but the best form is that which applies the money, as raised, directly to the extinguishment of the debt for which it was created, thus avoiding any possible loss by temporarily investing it otherwise. But my argument has lead me ahead of the natural order of things, for the examination of the property and its valuation by timber experts of large experience is a primary consideration. Too many timber bonds have been sold upon a “dressed-up” circular. One reads, for instance: “Our cruisers estimate so much timber” or “Our cruisers estimate the value of the timber to be such and such; the mills, railroads and permanent improvements amount to so much.” The above statements, which may show fine figures and make the issues attractive from the standpoint of the circular fabulist, can, at the same time, be very misleading. The timber bond in- dustry unquestionably developed a new cruiser, viz., the “Timber Bond Cruiser.” From experience, it has been learned that the old lumbermen’s cruiser, whose office was a tent in the woods, and whose duty it was to get reliable and conservative facts for his employer, who was to buy the timber on his estimate, was a much more reliable and careful checker than a majority of the “timber bond cruisers” whose offices are in some twenty-story office building in a metropolitan city. It is very easy for the latter to estimate that on a rough piece of land the loss by wreckage, when the timber is cut, may run as high as 25%. It is also easy for him to include, in the stand, timber such as over-mature hemlock, in some sections, or hardwood in others, that only find a profitable market under most favorable conditions. In the estimated value, the same thing holds true. There never was a circular issued that stated such a fact that because of the inaccessible location of a certain portion of the tract, the timber on it is worth so much less than other timber nearby, more favorably located. Again, it is very easy to add the cost of the logging railroad and sawmills to the value of the property, but this is liable to lead to 554 Forestry Quarterly a financial fallacy. When the timber becomes cut off, the mill and railroad may have no further value. Consequently, while these properties will undoubtedly increase the value of the stumpage for the purpose of operation, nevertheless, conditions may be such that a very heavy depreciation should be provided to take care of their final charge off. No matter how excellent the timber may be, its accessibility for milling and market purposes is even more important. For in- stance, of what value would be the best electric light plant in the world located in the midst of the Desert of Sahara? Upon the other hand, a more or less run down property may have great potential value in the center of a thickly populated area where its earnings will not only provide revenues for satisfactory dividends, but a surplus for the proper rehabilitation of the property itself. Thus a good milling site, rail or water transportation facilities, and all such conditions as enable one to economically and scienti- fically harvest and mill the product, and furnish an outlet for profitable conversion into money, are imperative. For fear of omitting a possible asset from the standpoint of the bondholder, I will mention the value of the land itself after the timber has been stripped. It is undoubtedly true that some lumber companies have marketed cut-over land for more than the original cost of both land and timber, but that will be hardly a fair statement as based upon present conditions, or, at least, it will be a misleading statement, because the values which would now be placed upon timber properties for loaning purposes are quite different from the cost of such properties when acquired, perhaps, many years ago, at prices immensely below present values. It is to such as those that the rare occasion of selling the land at greater than the original cost of the whole property must apply. Then the character of the soil beneath the timber is im- portant if this factor is to be counted as an asset at all—whether such land would be adapted to agricultural purposes, its location as regards marketing agricultural products, and the like. At times, mineral values have been found underlying the timber, but such exceptions must be classed along with the usual chances of mining. It would be useless to attempt the discussion, in a limited paper, of the hundred and one features to be considered in the drawing Pitfalls of Timber Bond Issues 555 of a mortgage for the full and ample protection of the bond- holder. There are so many things to be considered that, after all, one must place a good deal of reliance in the character of the bond house offering the securities and in the reputation for ex- perience in the drawing of such mortgages of the lawyers em- ployed by the house. Personally, it would not satisfy me to know that a house had made a specialty of timber bonds only and had dealt in so many dozens of those issues! I would much prefer to seek an old established bond house which has had the experience incident to handling corporation issues of various kinds, for only in such a training can the wide knowledge necessary for the pro- tection of the bondholder be acquired. Therefore, it is almost useless to elaborate here on such facts as the following: that all titles to the tracts must be clearly shown upon the records; that the mortgage must be a first mortgage, or that the legal wording of the mortgage will vary according to the State in which the land is located, and according to other condi- tions, the same as in all corporation mortgages, etc. But it may be worth while to suggest that there should be conditions included such as that the maker of the mortgage must safeguard the prop- erty by installing a fire patrol system and other methods of protection ; that the property as well as the books shall always be open to inspection, and that regular sworn statements of earnings shall be rendered to the bond house; and so on. Taxation of timber lands is a vital matter to be considered, particularly so in the case of long time bonds covering proper- ties bought for speculative purposes rather than immediate cut- ting. Where the timber is rapidly being marketed, the question of exorbitant taxes is not so material, but in timber that is to be al- lowed to stand for any considerable time—covered by what are termed “Holding Loans’—one must be assured that the local taxes are not likely to eat up a great deal of its value. I am not very enthusiastically inclined towards guaranteed securities, unless guaranteed by a corporation, and even then, there are many pitfalls, but timber bonds, when guaranteed, often carry the endorsement of an individual. Unless that individual puts up marketable securities, for the value of his guarantee, I should not care to accept it regardless of the timber value. He is no more than human; he may be rich today and poor tomorrow. 556 Forestry Quarterly Thus the merits of the investment should be judged entirely aside from the guarantee. This does not assume that the latter is an undesirable feature, it may prove very desirable; everything else being equal, it should not be refused. The great danger lies in that the guarantee of some very wealthy man may be so alluring as to blind the bond house, and cause omissions ordinarily in- corporated for the protection of the buying public. Many will remember that one of the great factors which led to the widespread losses in farm mortgage investments during the early 90’s, was the fact that they were guaranteed. Also, those who, only a few years ago, so confidentially bought irrigation se- curities in immense numbers through one of the leading banking houses in the Middle West, have cause for serious self reproach, because the guarantees have proved absolutely worthless. A man’s guarantees cannot very well be limited. The tendency is that, when once entering upon this vicious form of greasing the ways for security marketing, no sane limit is ever exercised, so that even if guarantees to a certain value might prove safe, it is almost unheard of that the guarantor ceases his pernicious methods within such limits. There is also a legal phase to be considered here, viz., the status of an investor holding a guaranteed security in case of recourse upon the guarantor, who may be forced into financial difficulties thereby. The bondholder would merely come in with all the other unsecured debts of the guarantor, all of whose property may-have been mortgaged or put up as collateral for other loans, and thus his endorsements prove of little assistance. One more consideration which I shall attempt in this discus- sion is the fire hazard, for many objections have been harbored by investors that timber bonds are more than ordinarily risky in- vestments, because of the danger of having their property wiped out by fire. This belief is certainly very much exaggerated, and, in the large proportion of timber issues, mostly without founda- tion. This risk from fire to timber properties has in some ways greatly diminished, due to government and state fire wardens and patrols, and the general better education of the public as well as the keen desire natural to the lumber companies for protec- tion against such a fearful plague. Pitfals of Timber Bond Issues 557 Upon the other hand, because of the railroads pushing back into the wilderness, spreading sparks in territory never before traversed by a locomotive; because of the almost universal use now of the type of cigarette which does not go out but consumes itself to the last ash after it has been carelessly thrown aside by the thoughtless smoker ; because of the increasing trend towards camping life and one thing and another, the fire hazard has not only increased, in some ways, but the area of such risks has been enlarged. No matter, therefore, with what assurance the vendor of a tim- ber bond may argue with a prospective buyer as to the lack of risk from fire, yet it is practically impossible, in some stands of timber, to wholly elminate such a risk; thus certain odds prevail upon an issue of this nature as against an insurable property like manufacturing plants or other combustible improvements. I think it is fair to say, however, that as yet no large bond issue has been put in jeopardy by a devastating fire, although there must have been countless instances where such fires have only been averted by prompt action—so the risk cannot be escaped. An enthusiastic dealer in bonds of this class will declare that there are other greater dangers to the standing tree than fire; that insects, animals, storms, etc., are more damaging. This is prob- ably true the world over, but it would not be true in the case of a given tract—the insect, animal and storm destruction upon one side as against fire upon the other. The latter might wipe out the entire area in forty-eight hours. So, too, a cyclone or hurri- cane might sweep through a narrow tract, but, even then, the timber would not be destroyed, and it could be salvaged im- mediately, although, to a certain extent, fire swept timber may also be salvaged. So let us guard against misleading statistics and misleading statements ; statements which tell only half the truth as suggested by the great destruction going on in standing timber from in- SECIS, CLG. As a final word, it seems economically unsound that one should loan money upon security which must, according to the contract, be depleted in intrinsic value in order to pay off the loan, and which really is opposed to usual practice, as most other corpora- 558 Forestry Quarterly tions contemplate the payment of indebtedness from earnings rather than through a depletion of the properties. An instance might be cited of a timber bond issue which does meet this requirement. The debt is secured by mortgage upon a segregated tract of land. It was provided in the mortgage, that, during the life of the issue, no timber should be cut upon the land so segregated. The issue was guaranteed by another company, and the guarantor covenanted that he would deposit with the trustee a certain number of dollars per thousand feet of its cut on additional and surrounding land, so that the debt might be liqui- dated without lessening the value of the property securing it. Nevertheless, many issues which have not met the rigid re- quirements of the foregoing somewhat sweeping conclusion, have been profitable and satisfactory investments, and probably many others will prove equally so. THE PROBLEM OF FOOD MOVEMENT IN TREES. By S. B. ELLiort. The old theory regarding tissues in which food materials move, namely, the sieve tubes of the bast, would appear faulty when we have to deal with girdled trees. There are examples of trees completely girdled which nevertheless continue to live and grow for years, showing that food materials must descend with- out the bark and bast, and food materials and water must ascend in sufficient amounts in the older portions of the wood. It is also interesting to note that this takes place in contfers, which are without tracheal tubes, the latter being known to assist in food movement of broadleaf trees. We can add one good illustration to the collection of evidence. A young White pine girdled about 18 inches above the ground by some rodent (the teeth marks being visible) by which bark, cambium, and some sapwood had been removed supported three whorls of branches above the girdle, but had no leader nor branches below the girdle. No bark had formed on the girdled part. The diameter below the girdle is 2.2 inches, at the girdle 2.1 inches, at 6 inches above girdle 3.9 inches, halfway between first and second whorls 3.8 inches and halfway between second and third whorls 2.2 inches. A counting of rings shows 13 (possibly 14) above and 8 at and below the girdle, showing that the tree had lived at least 5 years after being girdled without supplying food to the roots except what could have passed out- side of bast tissues through old wood.* (See frontispiece. ) Some of the questions raised by the conditions given in the above description are: First, Why did not the tree die when so severely girdled; second, since it continued to live, why did the lower portion between root and girdle not continue to grow; and, third, why has that part between second and third whorls of limbs made so little growth each year as to appear, by diameter measurement, to have remained stationary? *An account of a similar case is found in the U. S. Forestry Division Bulletin 22: The White Pine. 559 560 Forestry Quarterly First, the sapwood being practically uninjured, the mineral food must have passed from the roots to the leaves. Second, because the lower portion ceased to grow we know that food necessary for growth had no means of passage from the leaves; or at least growth was infinitesimal, while enough food must have passed to keep the roots alive. The answer to the third question regarding the apparent non- increase in size of the still growing section between the second and third whorls, remains an enigma. If the injury to the tree were great enough and the root de- velopment very much retarded a much reduced supply of mineral food and especially water would be furnished. This supply would be drawn upon to the usual amount by the leaves of the first whorl of branches, and, only a scant supply being left for their requirements, the upper leaves were not able to elaborate sufficient food to that part of the trunk to enlarge it. A second case, also a White pine, presents even more inter- esting features. This unusual specimen is still alive and all its parts are thriving. It was originally a forked tree, one of the forks having been severed from the mother tree, the man in the picture touching this fork. Its history relates that in 1882, for the purpose of securing pitch, a large chip was cut from beneath the fork of the branch now without support of stump (about 2 1-2 feet from the ground), the cut, however, not being of sufficient depth to entirely sever the branch from the stem. It is not known at what time the complete separation shown in the illustration occurred. (See frontispiece.) Natural grafting between the two forks has taken place in three, probably four, places. The two branches of the forked tree unite 8 feet above the severed end for a distance of 5 feet 4 inches. ‘The second union is 2 feet 8 inches above the first, and is 1 foot 8 inches long; while, again, 6 feet above this junc- tion, the third graft is seen, where a large limb from the rooted tree is joined to the severed branch almost at right angles. There are no live branches below the first junction on either stem, and it is probable that the dead ones had ceased to live before the cut was made, for the tree is found to have been grow- ing in dense shade. The growth in height of crown of the severed branch for the last decade averaged 7.5 inches per annum, Problem of Food Movement 561 this crown now being more vigorous and thriving than that of the rooted tree. Splendid results have been attained by Nature’s endeavor to heal the wound at the base of the severed trunk. The diameter measurements of the severed branch in com- parison with those of the trunk supported by the roots are level with the shoulders of the man standing by the tree (or trees) 12.25 inches and 17 inches; and at the first junction 12 and 13 inches. So, while in the rooted tree the taper is 4 inches, that of the severed branch is only one-quarter inch. That a reversal of the natural taper has been taking place probably ever since the cut was made is borne out by careful measurements of a photograph of the tree taken 12 years ago from the identical point from which the one here produced was secured (Forest Leaves, vol. 8, p. 168), which give the relative diameters at the lower end as 8.5 and 13 inches, and by such other data as can be secured. The tree stands near Mont Alto Furnace in Penn- sylvania. Increment cores taken at both the lower and upper ends show that the annual rings are larger at the upper end. The important features brought forward by this case are the continual healthy growth of the severed stem below the graft and the more rapid increase at the junction end of the branch than at the severed end. Manifestly the same forces are work- ing here as in the first case, and the cambium layer is alone active in the severed stump, though, as mentioned before, it is not known how long natural feeding from both roots and leaves was going on before the lower end swung free from the mother trunk. Roots, live limbs and leaves being absent, the reason the upper end grows faster must be because that end gets a larger supply of food, the upper end not allowing any more food to pass its doors than is not actually required for its own growth. AN APPRECIATION OF DR. SCHENCK.* By AusTIN Cary. When Dr. Schenck gave up his work among us, American for- estry lost its most picturesque figure, also one of its strongest individual forces. Carl A. Schenck, a trained Hessian forester, came to this coun- try in 1895 to assume the management of Mr. George Vander- bilt’s forest estate in North Carolina, succeeding Mr. Pinchot, who started the work. Here he found the only field at that time open in America which was suited to his training or tastes. Here he could plant and thin, and try experiments. Here he could build roads for the orderly and permanent working of a forest property. Here, without necessity of producing immediate profit, he could lay out a plan of development and improvement that had in view income, and that on a limited scale, only at the end of twenty years. All this Dr. Schenck, being not only a well trained but a bright man, could do most competently; but he did much more than this. His system of protection, in the first place, was an original and effective one. Then, finding that to get his products to mar- ket, methods of operation and transportation were required suited to the country and of a style new to him, with the utmost energy he set himself to meet the situation. His experience at this point was interestingly related at the last Pacific Logging Congress. In the end and in the main, he succeeded, and the fact was a triumph for his persistence and ingenuity. Incident- ally, he acquired, as he often expressed, a great admiration for the competence and initiative of plain American men. Those men are very blind to facts who look on the Vanderbilt property as a fair sample of genuine American forestry, as that must be conducted on a large scale. As a matter of fact, it was a German forest district transplanted to America, made possible by a benevolent millionaire. It was, however, a mighty useful thing to have among us, and no man in the world, probably, * Written in June. 562 An Appreciation of Dr. Schenck 563 was better fitted than Dr. Schenck to develop its possibilities or’ more competent to play it up. Many interesting lessons might be drawn from the history of the Pisgah Forest, which history, as a private owner’s attempt at forestry, has just now closed. Among them is one too im- portant not to mention in passing. The writer in the spring of 1900 made a break in his own work in the Maine woods by paying a visit to this contrasting field. With all his admirable adaptability, Dr. Schenck was in many ways a high-class German still. ‘This was shown particularly in his treatment of labor. Any man in the Maine woods who would talk to woodsmen as Dr. Schenck did would get his head cracked on the spot. North Carolinians took it differently; they laid low, and took out their grudge with a fire later on. The lesson that forest managers must make allowance for the rights, interests and feelings of local populations is one not likely to be too strongly taken to heart. Dr. Schenck’s experience on the estate, his acquaintance all over the country gained through forestry meetings, and his con- sulting work seem gradually to have liberalized his views. That liberalizing process further developed after he severed his con- nection with the estate, and ran his school peripatetically, and was completed seemingly under the stimulus of contact with the lumber industry in the Pacific Northwest. His admiration for Northwestern lumbermen, their ingenuity, force and daring, hardly knew bounds. ‘Through this contact, apparently, he filled out his sympathy with the lumbering industry. It was a marvelous thing for a man to do—to come over here from that country in all the world where the individual is most restricted, and where the most intensive forest management any- where in force is fortified by a century of science, of popular training, of established practice of the art—with this background behind him to sense the contrasting conditions of a much newer country, and sympathize with our lumbering industry in its present form; but that Dr. Schenck did. It is not to be wondered at that in his reaction he went somewhat to extremes. Some such strong reaction as his to balance opposite tendencies in the for- estry profession of the day, in fact, was needed. At the bottom of Dr. Schenck’s teaching there seem to have 564 Forestry Quarterly been three primary ideas. The first was, that forests exist for the people, and not the other way around, as some apparently would have it. The people, too, in his view, were not posterity alone, but included the people of today, and from that classification the members of the lumber industry were not excluded. Another thing he taught was that the economy of existing forest measures, the future of forest land also in large measure as well, was not mainly a matter of planting, thinning and other silvicultural operations on a minute scale, but was bound up with the methods and organization of the industry at large, and in great measure depended on its prosperity and success. Under financial pressure and low prices for lumber, he saw that neither good economy nor protection are possible, while fine silvicultural measures must be dropped out entirely. The third thing that Dr. Schenck made the subject of much teaching was that conditions in the industry will be improved from the inside, and cannot be greatly changed in any other way. The idea of regulation from outside in advance of proved necessity and of plans laid out for an owner without consideration of his financial circumstances and business organization, were things that filled him with disgust. To these effects ran the weight of Dr. Schenck’s teaching. Plenty of other men in the country hold much the same ideas, The weight that Dr. Schenck gave them arose from the fact that he was a trained and recognized forester, a German one at that. Criticism and a negative position are easy. The Biltmore Forest School was Dr. Schenck’s contribution on the positive side. Here his chief aim was to train men for the lumber in- dustry. Biltmore in the old days was a school not mainly of the class-room, but of the woods, and after it began its travels, the same character prevailed. Whatever his classes may have gotten in Europe, in this country they went where actual logging and mill work were going on, and studied those processes face to face; and when they left the school, the majority of the men found places in the industry. This, however unsatisfactory it may have looked to the systematic educator, was effective work nevertheless. Dr. Schenck brought his men in contact with realities and showed them how to react upon them. The sons of or An Appreciation of Dr. Schenck 56 lumbermen and others had their wits sharpened, their horizon broadened; got starts and slants that will direct their thinking and modify their actions through all their succeeding lives. Dr. Schenck in the last number of “Biltmore Doings,” suffer- ing doubtless under intense disappointment, minimized his own results. He need have no such feeling as long as the young men whom he stimulated and taught were of the right stamp to start with, and at the finish got foothold in the industry. Results will be in evidence in due time, all the sounder for being a little delayed. If, on the same occasion, he forgot some men who have reached prominence in other lines, it is but fair to remember the set purpose of the man, to work through the industry itself. In the hurry and scramble of actual life, men do not always carefully consider their words or maintain a position of nice balance. It was so with Dr. Schenck, as has been indicated above. Of an intense nature, his reactions and sympathies were strong. When, for instance, as he did before the Society of American Foresters, he said that forestry was anything that had to do with the woods, he went to an extreme, and his friends had to take him up. Forestry in any meaning sense is no more that than it is German forest practice introduced on a large scale in America today. Both are extremes, and the sensible, practical mean lies between them. ‘This, as far as private land in large areas is concerned, consists in the first place, as all so far agree, in good utilization and in protection that is efficient and on an adequate scale; and these things we know depend, in turn, on the maintenance of values. Further than that, forestry includes in some cases conservative cutting, reservation of young and thrifty stands and cheap measures for re-stocking, all under con- ditions imposed by sound finance. These things, to be sure, are not ideal, but they are practicable to an extent, and they secure something that is actual and worth while. All are in operation at one place and another within the industry today, carried out under actual business organization; and extension of these de- sirable things halts mainly for lack of men so equipped and so placed as to carry them out. To the extension of the area over which those things should hold, Dr. Schenck’s school contributed ; being, in fact, in that line, the most effective thing we had. The two-year plan that was in Dr. Schenck’s mind when he quit 566 Forestry Quarterly looked almost ideal. Those who criticize, for the most part, have not grasped the fundamental aim. It is hard to write of the Biltmore School as a thing of the past. We shall miss Dr. Schenck, and the country has lost a force that was highly useful. Nobody will grudge him anything good that he carries back home. We wish he might find a way to return to work among us. If ever he feels like coming back for a visit, there are men all through the country, from one coast to the other, whose pleasure it will be to take hold and “give him the time of his life.” *We regret to state that it is creditably reported that Dr. Schenck fell in battle in France. NOTES ON FORESTRY IN RUSSIA.* Education. The Imperial Forest Institute at St. Petersburg was founded 110 years ago at the time the Russian Depart- ment of Forestry was established. At this school, a great deal of research and experimental work is carried on by foresters and other scientists; and the results are applied in the Depart- ment of Forestry. The qualifications for an instructor are a wide range of experience in forestry in Russia and the study of forest conditions in other countries, preferably Germany, France or the United States, for a period of at least one year. Forest school graduates must spend one summer on a private or national forest, engaged in investigative work, before they are admitted as Forest Assistants. The requirements for the posi- tion of Forest Supervisor are technical training, about five years’ _ experience as a Forest Assistant or a Deputy Supervisor, and the construction of at least one working plan. Investigations. ‘The investigative work is entirely carried on by experiment stations with the exception of a portion of it which is done at the Imperial Forest Institute. Forest Super- visors and Forest Assistants attached to forests do not pretend to carry on any of this work, but merely put into practice the results obtained by investigators. There are twelve experiment stations in the country, all located within easy access to a railroad station, this being considered highly important. The average annual appropriation for an ex- periment station is 10,000 rubles.* Each station is in charge of a director with two or three assistants, and in addition to this permanent force a number of students are added in the summer time. The buildings at experiment stations are of a pretentious char- acter. A 3,000 ruble house is provided for the director, and smaller houses for the assistants with families. There are also *From conversation with M. Tkatchenko, member of Superior Forest Special Committee of the Russian Department of Forestry. * 1 ruble=100 copecks—$0.73. The ruble is practically of the same rela- tive value with our dollar for commercial purposes. 67 wn 568 Forestry Quarterly private rooms for visitors, while separate buildings are main- tained for office, library, laboratories, ete. Yearly, in February, there is a meeting of the Central Com- mittee for investigative work held in St. Petersburg, to which come all directors and assistants at experiment stations, together with professors of forest schools and specialists in allied lines of research, such as plant physiology, ecology, and meteorology, who are specially invited, and if these latter deliver lectures their expenses are paid by the Government. At this meeting the work of the past year and plans for the next year are discussed ; the studies to be carried on during the next year are decided upon and allotments of funds are made for each project. There is a Superior Committee on Experimental Work which passes on all reports and decides which are to be published. This committee consists of three members. Utilization. Russia furnishes one-half of the lumber supply of Great Britain and one-third of that of Germany. Great Britain gets principally Pinus sylvestris and Picea excelsa; Ger- many the same, but in addition some Quercus pedunculata and some Alnus. A large amount of wood is exported to Germany for mine timbers, Picea excelsa being the principal species used for this purpose. The following is the average scale of timber prices per cubic foot: Oak, 18 to 36 cents; Spruce, 10 to 22 cents; Pine, 15 to 25 cents; Larch, 12 cents, and Ash, 18 to 55 cents. The best grade of pine and oak brings 2,000 rubles per hec- tare® ($590 per acre) on the stump; average quality for 800 rubles per hectare ($236 per acre). Three hundred rubles per hectare ($88 per acre) is the minimum selling price for any timber and this is for such species as birch, aspen, etc. ‘The land cannot be sold. Pine is the wood principally used for ties and these are some- times treated with creosote or zinc chloride before they are laid. Larch is also used to some extent. The ties are sold by the cubic foot. An engineering corps has entire charge of the preservative treatment of timber and this is completely outside the jurisdiction of the Forest Service. Pinus sylvestris is the chief source of naval stores. The cup and gutter system is used. *1 hectare=2.471 acres. Forestry in Russia 569 Milling operations in Russia are on a much smaller scale than in this country. In Archangels 275,000 cubic feet is a good average cut for one mill. In Northern Russia the usual top limit for cutting is 5 inch with a log length of 20 feet, though this last may vary. After cutting, in North and East Russia, the logs are driven to the mills in streams. In West Russia there is some river driving, but the usual means of transportation is here by canals and rail- roads, while in Central Russia the only means of transportation is by railroads. The net annual income of the Russian National Forests is $40,000,000 to $45,000,000. Management. ‘There are ten divisions for management work and making of working plans. Each division has a chief called a Revisor of Management, and this chief has three or four assist- ants. ‘These so-called “Taxators” perform the necessary field work with the assistance of two technical men and several laborers to aid in running the compass, chaining, etc. The chief of the management division visits the forest in queston to deter- mine if the method is satisfactory. If so, he sends the prelimi- nary plan to the Department of Forestry at St. Petersburg. Before the field work is started a conference is held between the District Forester or Revisor, the Chief of the Management Divi- sion, the Taxator and the Supervisor. After one and one-half years the working plan is supposed to be completed and is sent to the Department of Forestry which, in turn, sends it to the Forest Special Committee in St. Petersburg. Reports of this Committee must be sent to the Vice-Secretary of Agriculture for his approval or disapproval. It is composed of ten to fifteen members, the chairman at present being Mr. Orloff, Professor of Management and Mensuration in the Imperial Forest Insti- tute—the best man in his line in Russia. One member must read the plan and bring up the main points in one of the com- mittee meetings, when it is either accepted or rejected, and if the latter is the case, the working plan must be modified or in some instances entirely reconstructed. In Central Russia the minimum cost of making a working plan is from four to five cents per acre and up to 7 cents, which includes maps, survey and the necessary mensuration work. 570 Forestry Quarterly Every ten years the working plan must be revised and each revi- sion costs approximately 3 cents per acre. In 1765 A. D. an excellent survey of the whole of Russia was made and the work- ing plan maps are based on this. Very fine boundary maps have been constructed for most of the national forests. A good average size for national forests in Central Russia is 7,500 to 12,000 acres, while in Northern Russia they approximate those of this country. In Central Russia where subdivisions exist a compartment contains 100 desiatins* or 270 acres, and on the best National Forests only 25 desiatins or 67 acres, while in the North of Russia it often contains 64 square kilometers (15,810 acres). For working plans, the area is carefully mapped and sample plots accurately measured in order to determine the actual con- tents of the stand. Sample trees are felled and measured, and the volume of the stand is computed by the Urich method. In Northern Russia the selection system is used for Scotch pine, while in Eastern and Central Russia the strip system, followed by artificial regeneration, is applied to the same species. Economic conditions are the reason for this difference, Northern Russia being very thinly populated and the timber values are relatively low, hence a more intensive and consequently more costly system of management cannot be profitably applied. Ona good quality of locality the stand (shelterwood-compartment) method with cuttings at fifteen year intervals is used. For spruce in the north, from St. Petersburg on, the shelterwood system, with two or three fellings instead of the four called for in the complete system, is used, if the seed years are poor and if there is a ground cover of dense grass, it is necessary to aid natural reproduction by planting. The corridor system devised by Mr. Molchanoff for use in the State of Tula in Central Russia has been very successfully applied to oak. This is used where a mixed type of young aspen, maple, ash and poplar occurs. All the trees are cut out in narrow strips (“corridors”) three and a half feet wide, with intervening strips fifteen feet wide, in which the stand is left untouched. The corridors are then planted or sown to oak. The stand in the fifteen foot strips then acts as a nurse, cleaning *1 deésiatina—=2.7 acres. ee Forestry in Russia 571 the oak without shading it or, in Mr. Tkatchenko’s terms, “giv- ing the oak an overcoat without a hat.” These other species are cut out year by year, as is necessary when they interfere with the oak, and are used for fence posts, etc. In Central Russia the size of the timber at the end of the rota- tion is calculated very closely and often it is cut to a ten inch limit on a hundred year rotation. Sometimes, after cutting, the land is given over to the peasants for agriculture for three years and then again planted with trees. Very few grazing fees are collected, because there is little grazing in the forests; furthermore, it is the policy to permit the peasants to graze their stock free, thus making them friendly to the Forest Service. The loss by fires is much less in Russia than in this country, due to the fact that the dry seasons in Russia are less severe than in parts of the United States and that peasants must go to a fire within a radius of fifteen wersts® (approximately 9 miles) without compensation ; but beyond this distance they receive pay for their work. Mensuration. The cubic measurement is used entirely in Russia. Two hundred and twenty cubic feet, comparable to our 1,000 board feet, is the unit of timber sale work. In scaling, each log is cubed as the frustrum of a paraboloid. In accurate investigative work for determining the rate of growth, the tree is cut at the surface of the ground so that the entire age may be ascertained. The error which enters when the tree is cut at some distance above the ground, and the total age found by adding the number of years required by seedlings of the present day to reach that height, is considered a great one. The rings of annual growth are counted and measurements taken much the same as in our work, though in many cases the distance to each fifth ring, instead of each tenth ring, is measured. Whether the rings are counted from the outside in or from the inside out depends upon the character of the investigation. If a volume study is being made, the first method is used; if only the rate of growth in diameter is desired, the latter method is em- ployed. Complete stem analysis work is never carried on in con 54 American mile=1.5 Russian “wersts.” 572 Forestry Quarterly nection with logging operations, because the sections cut under such conditions are of varying length, and usually too long for accuracy. It is thought that too many errors arise from inter- polation. The length of sections into which the tree is cut for investi- gative work varies from one to three meters, according to the accuracy desired. Frequently the sections are only one meter long. Sometimes the wood is used for fuel, but usually it is left to rot after all the desired data has been obtained. The diameter at each section is taken north and south, east and west, and in the direction of the prevailing winds. The direction of the longest and shortest diameters and radii are also recorded. When sections are longer than one meter, taper measurements are taken at this interval throughout the length of the stem. In computing the volume of the tree at different ages, the formula for the paraboloid is employed. Thus, the tree is com- puted as a single length, and is not divided into sections com- puting the stump, logs and top by different formule as in this country. The Pressler increment borer is used in rough work only. For accurate work it has been found very unsatisfactory. The Russian method of curving the growth data is much the same as ours. A great deal of stress is laid upon form factors and annual growth per cent. The growth is usually shown in tables by decades. Nursery Practice. Russian nursery practice is nearly the same as that in vogue in this country. Most of their methods have been obtained from Germany. Sometimes the “transplant board” and “trencher” are used for transplanting, while some- times “dibbling” is practised, or a notched board is laid along the edge of a trench, into which the seedlings are placed by hand. The term for the transplant bed is the “school,” taken from the German. Very little water is given to nursery stock which is to be planted on xerophytic sites, because it is considered best to get the stock as well adapted to dry conditions as possible before it is planted on such a site. It was found in one of the Russian nurseries at one time that Forestry in Russia 573 many of the young seedlings were dying from frost killing, while the thermometer readings at the usual height gave temperatures slightly higher than freezing. However, when the thermometers were placed on a level with the tops of the seedlings instead of at the usual height it was found that the temperature was several degrees lower than freezing. Planting and Seeding. ‘There is in the Russian Department of Forestry a branch of planting for work after fellings have been made and another branch for planting on difficult treeless sites. This latter work has been highly successful. Both of these branches are entirely separate from the main division of planting. The first White pine plantation was established over one hun- dred years ago by Mr. Shatillow on his estate “Mochowje” at Novosilin in the State of Tula, Central Russia. On favorable sites 85% is a good average of living seedlings in a plantation; and on very poor and exposed sites 20% is considered excellent. Ball planting is practised on the most diffi- cult sites, for in such places this method is considered cheapest in the long run. When conifers are planted the stock used is nearly always 2-years transplants. Planting on the steppes has proven very successful until the trees are in their thirtieth or fortieth year; then the trees begin to die at the tops, and finally the whole tree dies. The soil is very rich and well adapted to agriculture, but investigations show there is too much Na,CO, and Na,SO, for trees. It is considered by Professor Kravkoff that there is a deficiency of N,O, and P,O, in the soil. The salts CaSO, and CaCO, are present in considerable quantities, but are considered indifferent. Recently it has come to be a rather general opinion among Foresters that a better root system is obtained from direct seed- ing than from planting. The seed spot method is used to a great extent, but considerably larger spots are made than is the practice in this country. The soil is cultivated before broadcast sowing and it is a common practice to rent the land to the peasants for agricultural purposes for a few years before sowing the seed for forest trees. Cost of Planting, Eastern and Central Russia. The cost of 574 Forestry Quarterly planting pine seedlings on dry soils, 9,600 per desiatina (3,855 per acre), can be figured as follows: Labor (per desiatina) O65 torOso0sborseidaysie a+ = = ee 0.8- 1.1 rubles DAO 50. Pe eNAR GAYS... 5 > acs ose es 58-1 Bo BAO) ase Woman GAYS... bis. tia.-c% 11.4-20.2 “ Ppt Pee ptatrs oak cy sen tens eheiece ole 1370-33 OSE PECIACIC 2 =. -F™ Other Periodical Literature 641 Mountain ‘“‘Ash’” Berries as Food. Pp. 637-638. Readily eaten by birds. In some parts of northern Europe ground into flour. Chief use is in preparation of a game jelly. Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, XXVIII, 1914,— Discussion on Forestry in Scotland. Pp. 121-138. Mostly resolutions to the Government regarding assistance to the cause of afforestation. Position of Scottish Forestry in Regard to the Development Fund. Pp. 138-153. Associated with the preceding article. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, 1914,— Uber den Streit um die forstlichen Reinertrage. Pp. 221-224. A commonsense definition of the financial aims of forestry. Weitere Mittetlunger uber die Wirkung von Diingungen in Forchenkrippelbestanden des wirtt. Schwarzwaldes. Pp. 228- 931. ~ States on the basis of experiments (among others with Banksian pine) that the favorable influence of once fertilizing and scarifying the soil surface lasts only a few years. Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Forst- u. Land- wirtschaft, 1914,— Aus dem Miinchener Exkursionsgebiet. Pp. 294-311. Gives interesting details of what may be seen of forestal interest within reach from Munich. NEWS AND NOTES It is the aim of the Quarterly to publish interesting news as to the activities and whereabouts of men in the profession. It is hoped to do this more fully than heretofore by the appoint- ment of one of the editorial staff to look after this field. To this end all readers having news of interest are requested to write Mr. A. B. Recknagel, Department of Forestry, Cornell University, ithaca, N:7Y: In running this Department it is the intention to do for the whole profession what is now covered by such local publications at the Yale Forest School News, the Field Program and the monthly news letters of certain Districts in the Forest Service. It is to be understood that in a Quarterly only news that can lay over two months may be printed. The President of the Society of American Foresters during the summer sent out a letter to the members inviting them to co- operate in making the Society more effective, suggesting some methods of doing so, and asking for suggestions. Out of a membership of around 250, only 9 replies were received. Mem- bers who read this and feel guilty are asked to re-read the “round robbin” and mend their ways! Pursuant to the expressed desire of the Society of American Foresters (see page 300 of present volume), the President ap- pointed a Committee of 21 members to revise and standardize the terminology of forestry terms. The membership of the committee comprises ten schoolmen, six members of the U. S. Forest Service, two State Foresters and three Canadians. The members of the committee are: Messrs. H. P. Baker, W. B. Barrows, R. C. Bryant, W. M. Drake, E. H. Frothingham, A. Gaskill, J. M. Gries, A. F. Hawes, C. D. Howe, B. P. Kirkland, Clyde Leavitt, P. S. Lovejoy, W. N. Millar, A. B. Recknagel, S. N. Spring, J. H. White, W. W. White, Ellwood Wilson, K. W. Woodward, T. S. Woolsey, Jr., and A. E. Ziegler, and the President. The committee was subdivided into five sub-committees, each having under advisement the terms referring to certain groups of subjects. Following is the list of the subcommittees: Silvi- 642 News and Notes 643 culture, Silvics, and Forest Description; Organization, Mensu- ration, and Management; Utilization and Protection; Valuation, Administration, and General Terms; Collating Committee. The following letter of instructions was all that was sent to the members of the committee, leaving otherwise each subcom- mittee to devise its own way of procedure. “It is proposed to revise and explain the forest terminology, with a view to securing as far as possible uniformity of usage; selecting the terms in use which are preferable, and establishing a synonomy. “This revision may be based upon Bulletin 61 of the U. S. Forest Service, keeping in mind that this first attempt at a termi- nology is neither exhaustive nor in some respects acceptable. “To make the work of a large committee practicable, it would appear desirable to classify by subjects, each subject or class of subjects to be assigned to a small subcommittee for first con- sideration, its findings to be submitted to a collating committee. The report of this committee is then to be submitted to the whole committee, and the final findings, with appropriate argu- mentation, to be printed for discussion by the profession at large before final acceptance. “First, attention should be paid to those terms the use of which is doubtful or not uniform and to those lacking in term value, leaving out of consideration those which appear generally accepted. “The first duty of each subcommittee should be to assemble the terms in use referring to its particular subject or subjects, and report same to collating committee without fear of overlapping, the collating committee acting as reviser. “The Committee is to consist of 19 members from the Society, with three assessors from the Canadian Society of Forest En- gineers, thereby giving the decisions an international character. “It is expected that the chairmen of the subcommittees will do the work, securing from the other members of each subcommittee their criticisms.” The work of the committees can naturally proceed only slowly, and so far only progress reports can be made. The following statements have been made by the chairmen. Subsection on Silviculture, Silvics and Forest Description: “The members of this subsection met in May at Ithaca at the time of the opening of the Forestry Building. It was decided to take the terms in Bulletin 61 of the Forest Service relating to the subjects assigned and modify, reject or add to these. Each member was 644 Forestry Quarterly to prepare a separate list. Such list of terms and definitions have been prepared by four of the five members. Compilation and review of these, together with a study of their present usage in forestry literature, has been delayed but is now under way. The compiled results will shortly be resubmitted to the members of the sub-section and to others for criticism and suggestion.” Subsection on Organization, Mensuration and Management: “This committee was organized for work on April 16, under the following plan of campaign: Based on Bulletin 61 and other avail- able sources, a list of the terms in use referring to our par- ticular subjects was compiled by the chairman and submitted to each one of the subcommittee for criticisms and suggestions. These criticisms and suggestions were compiled and sent to each member of the subcommittee for a final vote; terms favored by the majority of the subcommittee to be referred to the collating committee for further action. “In accordance with this plan the nomenclature for Forest Organization was sent out to the members of the subcommittee under date of 29 May, criticisms and suggestions being asked for by June 15. Owing to inevitable delays all the critcisms and suggestions were not received and sent out to all the members of the subcommittee for final vote until August 21. As yet only two members of the subcommittee have responded with their decisions on the Organization terminology; however, the others should be received before long. “Upon the suggestion of Mr. T. S. Woolsey, Jr., the draft of May 29, together with the compiled criticisms of August 21, were sent to the Forester on August 21. Under date of Septem- ber 24, the acting chief of forest investigations writes, ‘Your terminology for Forest Organizaion is now being gone over by various members of the Washington office. As you know, it takes some time to secure comments on anything of this sort from a number of different men, and I am afraid that it will be hardly possible to return the material to you by October 1. I hope, however, that the suggestions may be secured and compiled so as to reach you not later than October 15.’ “The same plan was followed in the terminology for Forest Mensuration. The first draft was sent out to members of the subcommittee under date of July 23, and replies were asked by News and Notes 645 August 15. Up to the present all but one member of the sub- committee have replied with criticisms and corrections. Reply from this member should be received shortly, whereupon the compiled comments will be issued to the entire subcommittee for a vote. “Owing to the geographical position of the members of this subcommittee, everything has had to be done by correspondence, which, of course, involved delay. It has also been difficult to get action during the field season. The tentative draft of the terminology for Forest Organization includes 72 terms; the one for Forest Mensuration comprises 76 terms.” One of the University members of this committee reports: “Since receipt of draft with committee comments, our faculty has held five two-hour (++) sessions, bringing out a tentative defi- nition of 19 terms only—about an hour per term for the five of us. We found that we did not know very much about our own usages, that we differed among ourselves as to exact mean- ing and practice, that it was necessary to re-define terms we had thought finally done with, etc.” Then, after elaborating on the difficulties and the necessity of much work to come to any conclusions, he continues: “Our faculty has found the work so interesting and profitable that we propose to go on through the lists as rapidly as practicable—for our own benefits alone.” Sub-section on Valuation, Administration and General Terms: “Tt will be at once evident that the Valuation terms, or better the Forest Finance terms are engrossing the bulk of the com- mittee’s effort, since the need for concise scientific definition is greatest in finance. Exactly here is one of the weakest spots in English forestry literature, so that this committee’s task is not one of the easiest. “This method of procedure is to construct a tentative alpha- betical list of the terms needing definition, erring on the side of too many terms rather than too few. A hasty review of the English literature on the subject is made in doing this and the terms admitting of ambiguous or conflicting use are specially marked. This list is then used as a guide to the detailed work. “The committee endeavored to divide the work alphabetically, and when the chairman has assembled the manuscripts, it is to be submitted entire to each member of the committee for sug- 646 Forestry Quarterly gestion on terms submitted by other members. The final draft is then made for the central collating committee.” The subcommittee on Utilization and Protection has divided the field geographically among the three members, the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast being one assignment, the North, East and Lake States being another, and the Appalachian and Southern region a third. Each member of the Committee is to make not only a revision of the logging terms contained in Bulletin 61, but also to prepare a list covering the terms used in lumber maunfacture. Results are placed on “three by five” library cards, in order that they may be readily classified. One member has already defined some 250 terms, and hopes to greatly increase these during the next month. “I have found it somewhat difficult to properly define some of the terms in a brief and concise manner, but I think that we will be able to work that out satisfactorily before long. It has seemed both to Kirkland and myself that it was very desir- able that special stress should be laid on the terms used in manu- facture, since at the present time there is no glossary of such terms available, and personally, | have devoted more attention to this part of the work than I have to the logging terms.” The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway has announced that con- tracts have been let and other arrangements made for the in- stallation of crude oil as locomotive fuel on their passenger engines to be operated between Prince Rupert, B. C., and Jasper, Alta., a distance of 718 miles. It is expected that this instal- lation will be complete by next June. The announcement does not cover the use of oil-burners on freight engines, it being under- stood that these will continue to use coal, at least for the present. The entrance of the Grand Trunk Pacific into the list of oil- burning railways will nearly double the oil-burning mileage of Canada, the total of which is 726 miles at the present time, all in British Columbia. This is made up of 477% miles of Canadian Pacific lines, 134 miles of the Esquimalt and Nanaimo, and 115 miles of the Great Northern. A most successful and enjoyable meeting of the Society of North-Eastern Foresters was held from July 18 to 20 in the News and Notes 647 timber holdings and mills of the Berlin Mills Co., in New Hamp- shire, the members and their friends to the number of some 25 being the guests of the Company under the excellent personal guidance of Mr. W. R. Brown. A special feature was a visit to the areas logged under Mr. Cary’s advice some ten years ago. Without anybody familiar with the ground and the detail of previous condition and treatment this visit was, however, not as instructive as it might have been. In the selection forest the influence of any operation can be studied only by carefully ascer- tained detail descriptions before and after. This meeting was followed by the meeting of the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests at Gorham, N. H., which as usually was full of meat. The new taxation laws of Massachusetts, Vermont, and Connecticut were explained and “forestry investments” discussed. The most important feature, however, was an arraignment of the procedures of the commis- sion having in charge the purchase of forest reservations in the White Mountains, for having neglected to acquire virgin timber before logging where scenic beauty and protection require it. Owing to war conditions the Forestry Convention, which had been arranged by the Canadian Forestry Association in Halifax, September 1 to 4, was indefinitely postponed. A bill appropriating $1,000,000 for the purpose of enlarging the Florida National Forest has been introduced in Congress, showing that the idea of federal ownership of forests is accept- able even to the Democratic states. The Kaibab Forest in Northern Arizona is a very heavily wooded region, containing two billion feet of timber, more than half of which is mature and ready for the axe. The government has decided to sell the mature timber to the highest bidder, under fixed terms. An investment of large sums of money, possible only where returns can be spread over many years, will be needed. The necessary railroad extending the length of the tract will open the region to tourists and campers, who will find here much beauty; the sawmills will give employment to many and other uses of National Forests will also induce settlement. 648 Forestry Quarterly The Philippine Bureau of Forestry was to make their first shipment of material for exhibition at the Panama-Pacific Inter- national Exposition to be held at San Francisco by October 15. Their building at the Exposition is to be finished entirely in Philippine woods. Species so foreign to Americans will arouse interest. Representatives of the Bureau, competent to give information on all branches of forestry and lumbering, will be in charge, and the hope has been expressed that the result, for the Islands, will be an increased export trade in the commer- cial woods. Primitive and modern logging, by means of moving pictures, will also be a feature of the exhibition. Distribution of seed of native trees has been begun in the Philippine Islands by the Bureau of Forestry. The Bureau of Education is co-operating and the Bureau of Public Works will utilize all trees that can be spared for planting along roads. The species found by experiment to thrive under adverse conditions and at the same time to be valuable for market are: Teak, Molave, Narra, Lumbang, Lanutan and Tuai. Guijo, a Philippine wood, is being investigated by the Forest Service to determine its possible use in decking boats and ships. Hitherto the navy department has used mostly of the domestic woods, Longleaf pine, Sugar maple and beech. This brings to mind the fact that the first known forest reser- vations in this country were made for naval material. Mr. Ngan Han, Chief of the Forestry Division of China, visited the Philippine Islands for several months for the purpose of studying Bureau methods, investigating both field and office work thoroughly. Mr. Ngan Han is a graduate in forestry from the University of Michigan. Settlers in Western Kansas are cutting and marketing soap weed, or Spanish bayonet (Yucca bacata), to supply the demands of soap manufacturers, the tops and roots being the parts of value. Though its qualities have long been known, the harvesting of soap weed is just now becoming commercially important. News and Notes 649 This weed has been a nuisance, its nature being to spread over . extensive areas and kill off other vegetation. For the sake of range improvement, the government desires to rid the forage areas of all such injurious plants, and so Forest Service officers hope that the commercial demand for soap weed will reach such proportions as to not only take an otherwise useless product but also eradicate it from areas utilized to supply forage to cattle and sheep. From the Indian reservations of New Mexico and Arizona, Juniper is furnished as material for pencil wood. One of the uses for blight-killed chestnut that should not be continued is that of crating stone. Quarry owners have found that this wood leaves an indelible stain on marble or granite. The Powell National Forest, Utah, has passed 10 successive years without a forest fire. Sixty little Lodgepole pine trees to the square foot were counted in Southern Idaho in the spring, from seed sown broad- cast on the snow. The dry summer following, however, killed all plants not sheltered. The barking of Lodgepole pine trees, at various periods before cutting them for use as telephone poles, in order that the effect of the exuded resin as a preservative may be secured, is being tried in the Beaverhead National Forest. Lodgepole pine, when given preservative treatment, compares well with red cedar as a pole timber, the latter untreated and outside its own region being dearer than the former. Fire-killed Lodgepole pine showed a strength, under test, equal to 80 per cent of that of live red cedar. The increased price of creosote since 1912 of from 7.25 to 10.04 cents per gallon led to an investigation relative to the compara- tive economy of treating piles. Taking as basis the price of 10 cents per foot for untreated and 30 cents for treated Douglas fir piles, the length of life of untreated piles as eight years, and 650 Forestry Quarterly the investigative result that an increased cost of one cent per gallon raised the cost of treated piles one cent per linear foot, it was found that the treating of piles would be economical up to 22 cents per linear foot, a creosote cost of the same amount per gallon. Port Orford cedar, though sufficiently light, has been found to be too coarse and brittle for the manufacture of artificial limbs. It was tried as a substitute for English willow. The United States Department of Agriculture is to inaugurate a tree distribution system in the Western States. Mr. W. A. Peterson, superintendent of the newly established Field Station at Mandan, N. D., which is to be the distributing center, recently visited the nursery station at Indian Head, Sask., with a view to collecting informaton as to the method of handling the work in Canada. The State Board of Forestry of Indiana appointed two arbor days for this year, one in the spring, the other in October, and requested that the many hands of the people of the State make light the labor of planting 1,000,000 trees. The Forestry Board outlined its share of the work by offering to assist people to a knowledge of what species are suited to certain localities, and what care is needful to these trees. A railroad company and two individuals have been fined recently for shipping lumber from an area quarantined on account of the gipsy and brown-tail moths. The existence of this quar- antine, under the Plant Quarantine Act of Agust 20, 1912, was given general publicity throughout the quarantined area by send- ing copies of the order to all transportation companies and to individuals, as well as by extensive newspaper advertising. On November 9, 1914, an Order-in-Council was promulgated at Ottawa, Canada, viz.: Plant Disease Regulation II, under the Destructive Insect and Pest Act (9-10 Edward VII, Chap. 31), reading : “The importation into Canada of the following species of the News and Notes 651 genus Pinus and their horticultural varieties, viz.: White pine (Pinus Strobus L.); Western White pine (Pinus monticola Dougl.) ; Sugar pine (Pinus cembra L.), and all other five-leaved species of the genus Pinus is prohibited.” In the last issue of ForEsSTRY QUARTERLY reference was made to the use of wireless telegraphy for the purpose of speedy trans- mission of news of forest fires. Our statement that practical application of this science was first put in use for this purpose, and that but recently, by the Dominion Forestry Branch has been corrected by the information that wireless telegraphy has been a regular part of the forest protection service of British Columbia for the past three seasons, the Dominion wireless stations on the coast weekly reporting fires visible from the stations, and, also, when conditions are especially dangerous, giving the location, weather, direction and velocity of wind, enabling guards to reach the danger zone possibly in time to check incipient fires. The St. Maurice Forest Protective Association of Quebec patrolled last year somewhat over 11,000 square miles, a little over 16 per cent of the provincial lands under license, with only 11 men, Of the 306 fires, 115 were started by settlers, 17 by river drivers, 8 by sportsmen and 17 by railways. The Govern- ment contributes $1 per day per man. There were 8 lookout stations and 15 miles of telephone wire constructed and 200 miles trail cut. The patrols traveled 60,800 miles, the total expendi- tures were $23,000. It is calculated that fire losses had been kept down to 1-1,00 of 1 per cent of the timber values involved. As a result of the work done by the St. Maurice Forest Pro- tective Association, there has been incorporated this year another association under the name of the Lower Ottawa Forest Pro- tective Association, for the purpose of protecting against forest fires the districts in which are the Nation, Lievre, Rouge and Gatineau Rivers. The area of timber limits protected by this Association has grown during the summer from about 9,000 square miles to 11,812 or 7,500,000 acres. Forty-nine rangers under a manager and four inspectors are permanently employed and these in turn employ temporary help when needed. Forty convictions of settlers for starting fires without a permit have 652 Forestry Quarterly been secured, and it is expected this class of timber fires will be more rare from now on. The provincial revenue for Quebec from forests last year was $1,760,466, with an expenditure of $327,383, $90,000 for forest service and inspecting, only $18,000 for fire protection, and $5,000 for forestry education. The Laurentide Company, having completed, under the forestry division, a survey of its limits of 2,350 square miles of land, mostly timbered, and a map, showing drainage, roads, portages and trails, lookout stations, telephone lines and timber condi- tions, proposes now to enlarge its forest nurseries as a provision for replanting large areas of non-agricultural and cut-over lands. Another step toward forest management! This progressive company is also experimenting with reindeer to take the place of dogs. The timber revenue of the Dominion amounted to only $434,- 196, the result of the cut of 375,000 M feet and some 500,000 railroad ties, lumber sale prices ranging from $13.80 to $18.30 at various mills. There are 7,371 square miles under license and 970 square miles under permit. The sales of lumber in the West ern Prairie Provinces are reported as 1,434,000,000 feet B. M., but it appears that only about 25% comes from home sources, the bulk coming from British Columbia, and nearly 20% from the United States. The crown timberlands of New Brunswick in 1913 furnished 270 million feet B. M., yielding stumpage dues of around $300,- 000. About 65% was spruce and pine; fir somewhat over 20%, cedar and hemlock about 10% and hardwoods a little over 1%. Other products added some $14,000 to the revenue. Douglas fir makes up 68% of the cut of British Columbia, and the cut has increased 38% during the last two years, all other kinds showing decreases. Poplar (Aspen) is coming more and more into use. Latest News and Notes 653 statistics show that 5,000 cords are used in Canada for the manufacture of excelsior, employed largely in packing furniture. Dominion government forest reserves and parks in the Western provinces total 28,027,424 acres. Two prizes of $100 each are offered for two photographs of the largest tree of a nut-bearing variety in the United States— chestnut, oak, walnut, butternut, pecan, etc—and of the largest broadleaf tree which does not bear edible seeds—elm, maple, tulip, poplar, etc. Photos of cone-bearing trees will not be included. These prizes are offered by two members of the American Genetic Association, Messrs. Charles Deering, of Chicago, and W. A. Wadsworth, of Genesco, N. Y. The contest closes July 1, 1915. It is hoped in this way to find out in what situations and under what conditions trees attain their best growth, and later, perhaps, to secure seeds, cuttings, grafting wood, etc., from the regions where such trees thrive, for purposes of propagation in less favored districts. The University of Montana has now a Forest School, a new department opened this session, with Dr. Dorr Skeels, an expert logging engineer of the Forest Service, as Dean. Missoula, in which city both the University and the Federal Forest Service are located, is the center of an important forest region and of a rapidly growing section of the country. Mr. W. N. Millar, for the past two years with the Dominion Forestry Branch as Inspector of Forest Reserves in Alberta, has been appointed to an assistant professorship in the Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto. Previous to his leaving the United States Forest Service, to take charge of the work in Alberta, Mr. Millar was in charge of the Kaniksu National Forest. Professor James B. Berry, formerly of Pennsylvania State College, is in charge of the newly established Forest School, of the State College of Agriculture at the University of Georgia, 654 Forestry Quarterly at Athens. This forest school is the only one in the Southern states offering a four-year course leading to the degree of Bache- lor of Science. Mr. James B. Berry, who has spent some time in Germany, wrote interestingly this summer, under date of July Ist, as follows: “T have just completed my first year in Germany and am very well satisfied with the results. I must confess that the University courses are not markedly stronger than ours at home; yet because of the “post-graduate” work, the correlation of theory and prac- tice is better. I have been able to visit many of the forests of Germany, and everywhere I have found much that is interesting. The localization of theories, which has taken place in the past, makes each locality a new study... . “Forstmeister Meister of the Sihlwald, Zirich, is just complet- ing 40 years of service on one forest and is to be retired this fall. I think his forest is in better condition than any I have visited thus far. “While in Zurich I met Dr. Engler and his staff of assistants. My inquiries as to the card index of international forestry de- veloped the fact that the man who inaugurated the idea had left Zurich, and that the present force had not had an opportunity to take it up. I think the real difficulty lies in the fact that no one had any conception of the enormity of the task, and that it was not until after the collection of data had really started that any idea was had of the amount of work necessary to carry it to a successful completion. One of the assistants told me that the work might be taken up again at almost any time, provided suff- cient support were forthcoming.” On September 13, Dr. Wm. Saunders died at London, Ont., ending a most useful life in his eightieth year. The older generation of foresters and forest reformers remem- ber him as one of the early pioneers, not only in making propa- danga but instituting practical measures in the direction of for- estry work. In 1882, he was one of the three commissioners sent by the Canadian Government to the Forestry Congress at Cincinnati, who invited the Congress to meet in Montreal that same year. News and Notes 655 As organizer and director for more than 25 years of the re- markable string of agricultural experiment stations of Canada, as early as 1886 he planted demonstration areas to test the be- havior of different species and in different spacings under forest conditions at the Central Experiment Farm at Ottawa and at all stations. It was he who inaugurated the growing and distribution of plant material in the prairie section, which now under the Forestry Branch has reached such large dimensions. One of the most interesting and, for a northern climate, most complete arboreta owes him its conception and close personal attention. In the remarkably sane development of the agricultural experi- mental work of Canada Dr. Saunders, with rare versatility, kept his hand on every detail, and unquestionably was in all matters of agriculture the best informed man of Canada, and that not in an amateurish but more or less specialist manner. With all the characteristics of efficiency, he combined a kindly and gentle disposition, which made him friends wherever he appeared. We need not recite the ephemeral honors by which the con- temporaneous generation tried to distinguish him—his work will live forever, and be his greatest distinction! Dr. Bernard Borggreve, known by his literary activity and especially by his selection method of thinning, even to American foresters, died in his seventy-eigth year in April of this year. He was retired as Oberforstmeister. For many years he was director of the forest academy at Minden, a highly suggestive teacher, but pugnacious to the extreme in literary warfare. Mr. R. H. Campbell, the Director of the Forestry Branch of the Dominion of Canada, who attended the diamond jubilee con- ference of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society at Edin- burgh in July last, was made a Colonial Honorary Member of that body. COMMENT. The great war, as everybody by this time must have realized, extends its blighting influences to the remotest corners of the earth and into the smallest concern of the single individual, of combatant and neutral nations alike. Even the Forestry Quar- TERLY is no exception, for an important part of its raw material, the European forestry literature, is to a large extent, cut off. The German and Austrian magazines have ceased to arrive since August, and the probability is that they have ceased to be issued. We still receive, albeit belated, Swiss and Scandinavian publi- cations, but the French have been discontinued or have at least not reached us. That most serious consequences must appear in time may be inferred from the contemplation that in this war from 12 to 15 million men are withdrawn from useful productive occupations— and that the most efficient portion of population—while the less efficient portion has to feed these millions; that daily not less than 30 million dollars are wasted in destruction of materials, leaving out of consideration the destruction of capital values in the war zones ; that five billion dollars’ worth of trade (Germany’s export and import trade) is practically entirely stopped, and that half the world’s trade (that of the warring nations) to the extent of some 25 billion, is jeopardized; and the neutral nations see their trade injured proportionately. At this juncture we are naturally inclined to speculate as to what the influence of the war on forest administrations may be. In our neutral nation, the financial depression which is in part here, in part still to be accentuated, will bring naturally in its train industrial depression, discourage enterprise, reduce not only exports, but home consumption, and hence curtail logging and mill operations. Such setback may also be inimical to forestry work, wherever such had been begun by private forest owners, for retrenchment is the word, and this can be most easily applied by pruning off unnecessary innovations. The same feeling of the necessity of retrenchment may also be reflected in the public services. At least expansion is not likely’io be permitted; the forestry movement will be at a standstill while more urgent 656 Comment 657 interests demand attention. In Canada, the same conditions prevail and in addition the call for men and for public expendi- tures for the war, as well as reduction in industrial enterprise, will also at least prevent extension of forestry work, if not cur- tailment. In the European, especially the warring nations, the questions of personnel and labor supplies are probably of greater impor- tance than the market question in the practical field of forest ad- ministration, although the problem of securing forest supplies may also influence the latter, and that sometimes in unexpected places. The first definite views of this latter influence comes from Switzerland. Strangely enough it is the supply of fuelwood that is mainly deranged and in its turn is deranging silvicultural operations, as we think possibly in part favorably. The usual import of 80,000 cords, which figure in the total wood import of some 35 million dollars, as well as the supply of coal is in diffi- culty. The federal government advises, therefore, the cantonal governments to take measures to meet the difficulty. The result will be a considerable increase in thinning practice besides in- crease of fellings in fuel forests. Great Britain, which relies practically for all its forest supplies to the extent of around 160 million dollars on importations, has her imports to some extent curtailed, and in some respects has already suffered lack. The Forestry Association points out that mine props and similar material could be supplied from native woodlands but for the excessive railroad freight charges which forbid traffic except by water.