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Forestry Quarterly

VOLUME

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A

Board of Advisers of the Faculty and Alumni

OF

The New York State College of Forestry

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

ITHACA, NEW YORK

1902-1903

PRESS OF

Andkus & Church,
ithaca, n. y.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Announcement i

Cotta's Preface 3

Volume Tables and the Bases on which they may be Built 6

JuDSON F. Clark, Assistant Professor of Forestry at Cornell Uni-
versity.

Difficulties and Errors in Stem Analysis 12

A. S. Wii,i,iAMS, Cornell University.

Adirondack Birds in their Relation to Forestry 18

E. A. Sterung, Field Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Forestry.

Outlook of the Timber Supply in the United States 41,87

B. E. Fernow, Director of the New York State College of
Forestry.

Natural Reproduction in the Adirondack Forests 50

A. KnechTEI,, Forester to the New York Forest, Fish and Game
Commission.

On the Form of the Bole of the Balsam Fir 56

JUDSON F. CI.ARK, Assistant Professor of Forestry at Cornell Uni-
versity.

Forestry at an American Agricultural Experiment Station 81

Walter Mulford, Forester of the Connecticut Agricultural Ex-
periment Station.

Forest Advance Over Glaciated Areas in Alaska and British Columbia . 94
Marsden Manson, Commissioner of Public Works, San Fran-
cisco, California.

Forest Problems in New Hampshire 121

Philip W. Ayers, Forester to the Society for the Protection of
New Hampshire Forests.

Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord 126

Raphael G. Zon, Bureau of Forestry.

New York Forest Fire L,aw 134

Clifford R. Pettis, Forester to the New York Forest, Fish and
Game Commission.

Forestry Quarterly.

Forest Planting on the Plains 140

E. P. Sandsten, Assistant Professor of Horticulture, University
of Wisconsin.

Current Literature and Reviews 26, 62, 97, 145

Periodical Literature 32, 65, loS, 148

News and Notes 36, 75. "3. I55

APPENDIX.

Bibliography of Forestry 163

Olive Williams, Columbia University Library.

Index 173

Vol. I No. i

Forestry Quarterly

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A

Board of Advisers of the Faculty and Alumni

OF THE

New York State College of Forestry

CORNEIvL UNIVERSITY

Ithaca, New York

1902

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Manay^ Year rgo2-j

^' ' '\^'^ Albert F. vSiebold

rRKDERICK DUNLAP CLYDE LEAVITT

Board of Advisers

BERN'" '' Fernow ^^ ^^ John GiFFORD. D.CEc.

* Walter Mulford, B.S.A., F.E.

THE OBJECTS l OK WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE :

... ...^ .w w;e establishment of rational forest management.

To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters in America.

To keep the profession in touch with the current technical lit-
erature and the forestry movement in the United States.

Sift^/e tiumberSy twenty-f Yearly subscriptions, $i.oo.

CHURCH, ITH>.

FORESTRY QUARTERLY.

Vol. I. October, 1902. No. i.

ANNOUNCEMENT.

LIBRARY

NEW YORK,

Although there are a number of pubHcations in the United
States and Canada, wholly or in part devoted to the propagand-
ism of forestry, there are at the present time none which are mainly
or entirely devoted to the professional or technical interests of the
subject.

With the establishment, within the last four years, of tvi^o fully-
equipped special schools of forestry, whose graduates have begun
work in the field ; with the rapid expansion of the field work of
the Federal Forestry Bureau, and of other agencies in technical
direction, professional foresters have multiplied, and the time for
means of communication among those who are building up the
science and art of forestry in the United States seems to have
arrived.

The Forestry Quarteri^y is intended to meet this need.

Besides publishing original articles on subjects of interest to
the profession, and translations of such articles from foreign
sources, it is intended to bring reviews and references to the cur-
rent literature, and also, in brief notes, the news of the for-
estry world, personal and otherwise, with a view of keeping
the readers in touch with the development of their art in all its
branches.

While this journal, in its inception and management, is a child
of the New York State College of Forestry, it is hoped that, as
time passes on, its pages may be used by all or any workers in
the field for the discussion of their problems and record of their
experiences.

2 Forestry Quarterly.

The Forestry Quarterly opens its pages for the freest dis-
cussion of all forestry problems ; it welcomes advice and invites
criticism which may tend to promote our professional knowledge.

Since no past masters of tlie art, but only a young generation
of foresters, just bcgitniing their work, are, for the time being, to
be the contributors and editors of this journal, it must step forth
with due modesty and with the expectation of deficiencies, which
only experience, as the time goes on, can correct.

It is in the main a student publication, designed for students,
both in the field and school. The supervision, by an Advisory
Board of older men, will, however, assure as high a standard as
is possible under such circumstances.

We hope that in the conduct of this journal the spirit of one of
the fathers of modern forestry, Cotta, so simply breathed forth in
the preface of his first work on Silviculture, will be always pres-
ent. To impress this spirit of modesty and yet of critical candor
upon ourselves and upon our readers, we introduce this first issue
with a translation of Cotta's words, which, written nearly a cen-
tury ago, are still largeh" true and come home to us with pecu-
liar force at this time, when the light of forestry is just dawning
in our country.

COTTA'S PREFACK.

If the inhabitants of Germany should leave their country it
would be all grown up with woods within a century. Since
there would be nobody to use them, the soil would be enriched
and the woods would not only increase in size, but in productive
power. If, however, the people returned again and made just as
large drafts as before for wood, litter and pasturage, the wood-
lands, even with the best forest management, would again not
only be reduced in size, but also become less fertile.

Forests form and thrive best where there are no people —
and hence no forestry, and those are perfectly justified who say :
Formerly we had no forestry science and enough wood ; now we
have that science, but no wood.

One could say with the same justice : Those people are health-
ier who do not need a physician than those who do. But it
would not follow that the physicians are to be blamed for the
diseases. There would be no physicians if there were no diseases,
and no forestry science without deficiency in wood supplies. This
science is only a child of necessity or need, and need is therefore
its natural concomitant ; hence the phrase should be : We have
now a forestry science because we have a dearth of wood.

Forestry, however, does not offer au}^ nostrums and can do
nothing against the course of nature. The celebrated physician
Verdey said : ' ' The good physician lets people die ; the poor
one kills them." With the same right one can say the good for-
ester allows the most perfect forests to become less so ; the poor
one spoils them. That is to say, just as the good physician can-
not hinder that men die because that is the course of nature, so
the best forester cannot hinder that the forests, which came to us
from past times, become less now they are being utilized.

German}' formerl}' contained immense, perfect, most fertile
forests. But the large forests have become .small, the fertile have
become sterile. Each generation of man has seen a smaller
generation of wood. Here and there we admire still the giant
oaks and firs, which grew up without any care, while we are
perfect!}^ persuaded that we shall never in the same places be
able, with any art or care, to reproduce similar trees. The grand-

4 Forestry Quarterly.

sons of those giant trees show the signs of threatening death
before they have attained one quarter of the vohime which the
old ones contained, and no art nor science can produce on the
forest soil which has become less fertile, such forests as are here
and there still being cut down.

The good forester then, also, allows the forest to become less,
but only where it cannot be helped ; the poor forester, on the
other hand, spoils them everywhere.

Without utilization, the forest soil improves constantly ; if used
in orderly manner it remains in a natural equilibrium ; if used
faultily it becomes poorer. The good forester takes the highest
yield from the forest without deteriorating the soil, the poor one
neither obtains this yield nor preserves the fertility of the soil.

It is hardly credible how much one can benefit or damage by
the kind of management ; the true forestry science contains,
therefore, much more than those think, who know only its gene-
ralities.

Thirty years ago, I prided myself on knowing forestry .science
well. Had I not grown up with it and in addition had learned it
in the universities ! Since then I have not lacked the oppor-
tunity for increasing my knowledge in many directions, but during
this long period I have come to see very clearly how little I know
of the depths of the science, and to learn that this science has by
no means reached that point which many believe to have been
passed .

Many perhaps may be in the condition in which I was thirty
years ago ; may they in the same manner be cured of their conceit !
Forestry is based on the knowledge of nature ; the deeper we
penetrate its secrets, the deeper the depths before us. What the
light of an oil lamp makes visible is easily overlooked ; many
more things we can see by torch light, but infinitely more in the
sun light. The lighter it grows around us, the more unknown
things become apparent, and it is a sure .sign of shallowness, if
anybody believes he knows it all.

Our foresters can .still be divided into empiricists and scientists,
rarely are both united.

What the former considers sufficient in a forest management is
easily learned, and the systematic teachings of the other are soon
memorized. But in practice the art of the first stands to a

Cottd' s Preface. 5

thorough forestry science in the same relation as the quack medi-
cine to the true pharmacopia ; and the other often does not know
the forest for the many trees. Things look very differently in the
forest from what they do in books ; the learned man stands there-
fore, frequently, left by his learning and at the same time without
the bold decision of the empiricist.

Three principal causes exist why forestry is still so backward ;
first, the long time which wood needs for its development ;
second, the great variety of sites on which it grows ; thirdly, the
fact that the forester who practices much writes but little, and
he who writes much practices but little.

The long development period causes that something is con-
sidered good and prescribed as such which is good only for a time,
and later becomes detrimental to the forest management. The
second fact causes that what many declare good or bad, proves,
good or bad only in certain places. The third fact brings it about
that the best experiences die with the man who made them, and
that many entirely one-sided experiences are copied by the merely
literary forester so often that they finally stand as articles of faith
which nobody dares to gainsay, no matter how one-sided or in
error they may be.

Heinrich Cotta.

Tharandt, Dec. 21, 18 16.

Heinrich Cotta, born in 1763 in Thuringia, said of himself : " I
am a child of the forest ; no roof covers the spot where I was
born. Old oaks and beeches shade its solitude and grass grows
upon it. The first song I heard was of the birds of the forest,
my first surroundings were trees. Thus my birth determined my
calling!" He became the grandmaster of his profession. His
" Anweisung zum Waldbau," from which this preface is taken,
first published in 1817, experienced many editions, the last one in
1865 edited by his grandson Heinrich von Cotta.

VOLUME TABLES AND THE BASES ON WHICH
THEY MAY BE BUILT.

Ever since the sustained annual yield became a factor in forest
management ever}- method of reducing the labor involved in
taking an inventory of the stock on hand has been welcomed by
the forest manager. One of the greatest of these labor savers is
the volume table by means of which it is possible, with a mini-
mum of measurement and calculation, to obtain the cubic content
of a stand in a very satisfactory manner.

The first suggestion of the volume table was that of Cotta in
his " Systematische Anleitung zur Taxation der Waldungen,"
published in 1804. Forest mensuration, like all other branches
of forestry in the early decades of the nineteenth century, suffered
from a lack of exact investigation, and Cotta' s splendid idea was
first developed on a scale large enough to be of practical value
when the Bavarian government, in 1846, instituted a very ex-
tended .study in the form and content of the stems of the more
important forest trees of that country.

The volume tables which resulted from this study, which in-
volved a complete analytical measurement of over forty thousand
trees, were based on Cotta's idea that on the average, where con-
siderable numbers were involved, trees of the same diameter and
height contained equal volumes of wood. These tables were later
translated from the old Bavarian foot and inch measure into the
metric sy.stem by Ganghofer. Ganghofer also improved the op-
portunity to introduce age classes as a third basic factor in his
classification.

The latter half of the nineteenth century witnessed a very great
activity in research along forest mensuration lines, the greater
part of which was directed towards the improvement and exten-
sion of the volume tables. With .some minor exceptions, the
work followed closely the lines of the Bavarian tables as improved
by Ganghofer, and with the exception of the last decade, no
original ideas of nny great value were developed.

The preparation of tables that are to be of wide applica-
tion and permanent value involves the measurement of a very
large number of trees selected from various localities and, as

Volume Tables. 7

may be supposed, is a very laborious and time-consuming work.
This can perhaps be best appreciated by glancing at the labor
involved in the preparation of Baur's volume tables for the Nor-
way or European Spruce, published in Munich in 1891. 55,-
874 stems of Norway Spruce were carefully measured and their
volumes separately calculated. This involved over six million
measurements and as many calculations. Then came the great
labor of digesting, classifying and preparing the results for publi-
cation, which required an additional eighteen months of labor.
The great value of such tables, however, has been a sufficient in-
spiration to lead to the preparation of such tables for all the com-
mercially important species of Europe. These tables are widely
used to-day wherever the species for which they were prepared
are under careful forest management.

Volume tables, as already mentioned, are based on a classifica-
tion of the stems measured into height, diameter and age classes.
The height and diameter measurements are of course fundamental
and must be used as factors for classification in any volume table.
A classification based on these two factors alone, however, was
early found to be insufficient, for great variations in cubic content
constantly occur in trees of the same diameter and height. Vari-
ous factors cause this variation in the form of the stem, among
which might be mentioned age, exposure, soil and climatic con-
ditions, altitude and variations in the light conditions obtaining
during the growth of the individual trees.

The exigencies of table-making limit the factors to be used in
a classification of data for a single table to two. This may be in-
creased to three if the tables are to be a combination of the sim-
pler tables, as many tables being necessary as the third factor is
given divisions. To introduce a fourth factor as a base of classifi-
cation would make the tables so large and complicated that they
would be impracticable.

Recognizing that the two factors, height and diameter, while
fundamental, were not sufficient for practical purposes, age
classes were chosen as a third factor by all except the most recent
workers, and the volume tables for height and diameter classes
were computed for each age class (age classes of forty years were
usually used). Age was selected from among the various factors
as being at once one of the most important factors in influencing

8 Forestry Quarterly.

tlie form of the stem, and being a factor easily determined with
tolerable accuracy.

When used with judgment these tables have proved of very
great value in practical forestry operations greatly lessening the
labor of determining the volume of stands inasmuch as they do
away entirely with the necessity of sample trees, the volumes of
the trees in the various diameter and height classes being read
directly from the table. They are of course not used and not in-
tended for use in the determination of volume in single trees, for
trees of the same age, height and breast-high diameter growing
side by side in the same stand sometimes vary in cubic content
by 20 ''/c or even more. In a stand that is approximately an
average stand, however, these individual variations compensate,
and a very .satisfactory average result may be obtained.

Unfortunately, even in Germany with its intensive management,
variations of a very marked character occur in the form of the
average stem due to other causes than age. Where, as in America,
the forests have developed without care and the silvicultural con-
ditions are merely a result of natural forces and where great
variations in age occur even on very limited areas making age
classes impossible, these variations are of much more frequent
occurrence. The weakness of a table founded on height, diame-
ter, and age classes is shown in that it is incapable of adapting
itself to any variation in the average form of the .stem aside from
that caused by age.

In an effort to overcome this difficulty Schuberg ' in 1891 pre-
pared "correction tables" by means of which it was possible
to take into consideration the changes in the form of stems due
to the various and often varying factors of site and silvicultural
conditions. These tables prescribed that a percentage be added
to or deducted from the amount read in his volume tables for the
Silver Fir according as the stems proved of more or less cylindrical
in form than normal. This variation in the form was determined
by comparing the relation between the breast-high diameter {d)
and the diameter at the middle of the stem (8). The propo.sition
that any variation in the cubic content of the boles of trees of
equal height and diameter, must show it.self in a more or less
cylindrical form of these boles, seems impregnable. That this

' Formzahlen und Massentafeln fur die Weistanne, Berlin, 1S91.

Volume Tables. 9

variation in form from or towards the cylindrical would be well
expressed by the relation between two diameters properly chosen
at different points on the stem is equall}- evident. The breast-
high diameter has been universally chosen as the most practical
point at which to measure the diameter of standing trees. Schu-
berg found from a very careful study of 1352 trees that the middle
point was the most critical point on the stem for a second measure-

meut. This relationship then between ^ and 8 (or X 100 to

d

express it as a per cent.) is capable of expressing any variation in
form due to any factor or combination of factors, such as site, age,
or silvicultural conditions.

In the same year Kunze ^ published the results of a very
thorough study of the form of the stems of the Norway Spruce
and Scotch Pine with regard to this relationship of d to S. Some
10,000 spruce and over 8,000 pines were carefully measured, but
aside from demonstrating the entire practibility of utilizing this
factor in determining the form factor (/") of stems, Kunze failed
to suggest any important practical application.

It remained for Schiffel ^ to develop this idea further, and in
1899 he published his volume tables for the Norway Spruce based

on height and diameter classes and the — relationship. His

d

tables were developed from data obtained by the careful section-
ing of 2,529 trees, in all of which he made a special note of the
relationship between the diameter at breast-high and that at yl
and ^ height as well as that at )4. height (S). He finally con-
cluded that while the ^ height diameter could be safely utilized
when from any cause the diameter at ^ height could not be
measured (obscured by branches, etc.), but that, on the whole,
the diameter at ^ height was the most generally satisfactory.
In this his work is in entire accord with that of Schuberg already
noted.

Schiffel has termed the factor which expresses the percentage
relationship between the diameter at breast-high and that at yi

height ( —r X 100 I \\\Qform quotient, and as the expression

^ Neue Methode z. raschen Berechnung d. unachten Schaftformzahlen d.
Fichte u. Kiefer, Dresden, 1891.

^Fonn und Inhalt der Fichte, Mittheilungen a. d. Forstversuchswesen
Oesterreichs, Wien, 1899.

lo Forestry Quarterly.

aptly expresses the idea of a quotient which is an index to the
form of the bole of the tree I have adopted it, and for short we
shall call it q-^ to distinguish it from q-^ or ^3 which would

represent the form quotient obtained bj' using the diameter at )%
or Yx height, respectively, as the upper diameter.

The form factor and the form quotient of any tree being mutu-
ally dependent for their magnitude on the shape of the bole of
that tree, it follows that they must bear a very close relation to
each other. Schiffel found that this relationship varied some-
what with varying heights of the trees but that in stands of com-
paratively even height, such as mature stands, the variation was
very slight and when the / and the q^ were expressed in per

cents, the difference averaged about 21 which we may term a
constant (C) for that species. This constant, it will be noted, is not
appreciably affected by variations in the form of the stem due to
age, site, or silvicultural conditions, the form factor and the form
quotient being both similarly influenced by such variations.

This then gives us the simplest method that has yet been sug-
gested for the determination of the approximate form factor of a
tree, viz., divide the breast-high diameter into the diameter at
middle height, multiply by 100 and substract the constant, or to
express it as a formula,

( ^ >< ^°° ) - ^ = /
The accuracy of the result will vary from tree to tree, but the
maximum variation in any coniferous tree that would be nearly-
enough normal in development to be selected for a sample tree in
measuring a stand would not exceed 6 per cent. Where a num-
ber of sample trees are taken, the error would be compensating
and could be wholly neglected, provided the c had been carefully
determined for the species.

That the constant should vary in different species was to be
anticipated. Unfortunately very little exact work has yet been
done in testing this point in different species. What has been done,
however, seems to indicate that the variation may after all be con-
fined to relatively narrow limits. The Scotch Pine has been found
to give a C of about 20, while that of the European beech is be-
tween 22 and 23.' The similarity in value of the constant here
between the species varying so widely in habit of .stem growth.

Volu77ie Tables. 1 1

and the closeness of the figure fonnd for the Scotch Pine to that
given for the Norway Spruce suggests the possibiHty of using the
same voUtme tables with sHght correction factors for species which
do not vary all to widely in habit of stem growth.^

The point which will strike the practical man in this connection
is that this method of developing and using volume tables neces-
sitates the measuring of trees at a point where standing trees can-
not be directly measured. So far as the measurements for the
construction of the volume tables are concerned, they must in any
case be made on felled trees, which involves no difficulty. The
same, of course, applies to the measuring of stands where it is
possible to cut the sample trees. Where, however, it is impossi-
ble or undesirable to cut the sample trees, a real difficulty, but by
no means a great one, is met.

Modern improvements in the instruments at the disposal of the
forester has given him several by means of which it is possible to
measure the diameter of a standing tree at any desired point with
accuracy and considerable despatch, provided the point can be
plainly seen. Wimmenauer's Baummesser' is perhaps the most
satisfactory of the cheaper instruments that are at the same time
thoroughly practical. It is a combination of a telescopic diame-
ter measure with a splendid form of Weisse's height measure.
For use in the woods I attached it to a stout camera tripod and
found that with an assistant one could easily take all needed
measurements on one hundred sample trees in a day of ten hours.

Very little has yet been done in the way of developing volume
tables for the American species ; indeed, aside from the Adiron-
dack Spruce and the White Pine, we know but little of the aver-
age form and content of the stems of our varied silva. This is
a field for almost endless research, and it may be that this recent
improvement in methods may be used to advantage in the study.

JuDSON F. Clark.

' See Miiller's Holzmesskunde. p. 221.

^ In another paper I shall give the results of some measurements on the
Adirondack Balsam-Fir which indicated a constant of between 21.5 and 22
for that species.

*For full description see Allgem. Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, 1896. p. 222.
It is made by W. Sporhase in Giessen for 63 mark (|i6.oo). See also
Miiller's Holzmesskunde. p. 182.

DIFFICULTIES AND ERRORS IN STEM ANALYSIS.

Stem analysis includes two separate series of measurements,
namely the determination of increments and of volume.

The exact procedure and sequence of operations, as carried on
under the instructions of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, differs,
depending on the chief of the party, the individuals employed,
the kind of timber, and several other variables. The data to be
obtained is, however, the same, and the method employed is in
general as follows :

The tree when felled is sawed up into sections. These sections,
if the tree is cut solely for the measurements to be taken, should
be made short enough to permit a true reading of the growth
history of the tree, yet they should not be too short to increase
the expense for it makes considerable difference in the cost of
investigations if a man spend thirty minutes measuring up a tree
or forty-five. The sections must be of equal length, of even
feet, preferably even fives in order to facilitate working up of
data.

It will readily be seen that the required length of section should
be in relation to the height of the tree. It would be unnecessary
finesse to take two foot sections of a 150 foot pine ; again ten
foot sections of a 15 foot sapling would be insufficient.

The Bureau practice is as follows : Seedlings three feet, or
under are sectioned every foot above root juncture, saplings
between three and ten feet are sectioned every two feet, trees
over ten feet in height are sectioned every ten feet, intermediate
taper measurements being made every five feet.

Generally however, merchantable trees are not cut purposely
by the Bureau, but measurements are taken on trees as felled and
cut in varying lengths by lumberman.

According to market requirements, these logs may run 10.3,
10.4. 10.6, 12.4, 12.5, 16.5, 16.6, 16.7 feet, etc., the choice
being with the sawyer, who varies the length so as to get the
largest amount of timber out of the tree. The fractions of feet
vary with the ])ersonal c(juatioii of the sawyers', a knot in the

Diffiailties a7id Errors in Stem A^ialysis. 13

log, the roughness of the river drive through which the log must
pass, and other similar causes. This variability of log length
gives considerable trouble in working up the data, but is of course
unavoidable.

The object of the sectioning is in general merely to obtain the
area and height increments, and the thickness of bark, often the
width and age of the sapwood is also taken. The volume of the
stem is computed separately from a second series of measurements.

To obtain the rate of height growth from the cut sections is of
course simple ; the difference between the number of rings on
two adjoining cuts gives the length of time during which the tree
grew in height the length of the intercepted section.

To obtain the diameter growth correctly is neither simple nor
easy. Considerable error is here involved even with care and ex-
perience. This error will be greater on the stump section and
decreases on the upper sections. Ideally a tree is a paraboloid,
its cross section a circle ; really it is an extremely variable form.
Were the cross section a circle, and the annual growth concentric
layers of even thickness all around, the operation would be simple,
the measurements easy. One would merely have to la}^ the rule
across the section from pith to perimeter and count and measure
the ten year periods.

In reality the outline of the cross section is extremely irregular,
especially so on the stump cut. The rate of growth desired is
finally that of the area of each section it must therefore be ob-
tained from an average radius.

At first sight this would seem a simple matter, and so it is on
the upper sections, but the stump presents some difficulty. This
average radius may in general be obtained from the largest and
smallest diameters inside bark, but perhaps the largest diameter
is caused b}'' a sudden prominent root swelling ; it is evident that
a radius derived from this diameter would be two large, a deduc-
tion should be made from the diameter, preferably by the eye
with the calipers on the stump.

The average radius having been determined, it is necessary to
lay it off on the stump. The number of places on which this
radius can be laid off will vary from two in an ellipse to an infinite
number in the circle. Assuming a case in which two only can be
found, would it make any difference which was taken ?

14

Forestry Quarterly.

The following example, taken from actual measurements of a
White Pine section, shows the variability of results and the neces-
sity of judgment in choosing the proper diameter :

Rad. A.
Rad. B.

•35
.20

.65
.80

I
1.20

1.80
2.10

3
330

4.60
4.90

6.60
7

8.50
8.35

10.30
9.70

11.65
10.85

Diam. A.
Diam. B.

.70

.40

1.30
1.60

2
2.40

3.60
4.20

6
6.60

9.20
9.80

13.20

14

17
16.70

20.60
19.40

23.30
21.70

Growth.
Area % A
Area % B

137
121

324
207

223
146

125
120

106
104

65

42

45
35

28
25

Rad. A.
Rad. B.

1 1 ,
13. 1014.75 16.20

12.3014.20 15.15

17
15-75

17.60
16.35

18.20
16.75

18.60
17.60

19

18.40

19.30
19

19.60
19.60

Diam. A.
Diam. B.

26.2029.5
24-60 28.4

32.4
30.3

34.
31-5

35-2
32.7

36.4
33-5

37-2
35-2

38
36.8

38.6
38

39-2
39.2

Growth.
Area % A
Area ^ B

26.4 26.7
28.3, 33.2

20.6
14-5

10.1
07.9

7-1
8.0

6.9
4-9

44
5-1

4.3
9-3

3-2
6.6

3-7
6.5

The choice of the radius should be made with the eye ; choos-
ing the one where the annual rings show the greatest regularity
in width and curve.

It sometimes happens that the average radius can not be
exactly found on the .stump of trees felled in regular logging
operations. The tree has been notched in such a way that the
place where the radius .should be located is in the rough slanting
surface of the notch ; or it may be that a spot of rot appears in
the place where the required radius should be drawn. As a gen-
eral rule, and preferably, such a tree should be thrown out of con-
sideration ; nevertheless in practice there arise cases when it
should be taken. It may be of a diameter especially needed for
completeness or in large timber the necessity of fully employing
the measuring crew when following the sawyers closel}-, without
interruption will make it expedient to use each tree without dis-
tinction. In such cases the measurements can be obtained with
sufl&cicnt accuracy as follows :

Difficulties and Errors in Stem Analysis. 15

a. Find an available radius as nearly equal to the average
radius as possible ; count off the decades on this.

b. Draw a line from the pith, at 90° or less from the radius on
which the decades were counted, make it the length of the
average ladius.

c. Connect the ends of these two lines already drawn by a '
third. Lines drawn parallel to this third line from the decades
marked off on the radius will cut the real radius giving the re-
quired decade lengths. The lines are easily drawn parallel by
means of the rule and a tally sheet for a triangle.

In determining the width and age of the sap wood, a very im-
portant measurement in some species, it will be found that the
average radius seldom crosses the sap at its average width. It is
necessary, therefore, that the width of sap appearing on that radius
be disregarded, and the average width be laid off at the end of the
average radius ; the number of rings to be found in the space
thus laid off Vv'ill give the true age of sap wood.

The first operation in the series of form measurements is to
measure the height of the stump. This is necessary for two
reasons ; first, that the full volume may be calculated ; secondly,
that the " breast high " point on the butt log may be properly
located.

Stumps are measured in height to the nearest half foot ; this
operation would, therefore, at first sight seem simple, yet trees
do not grow regularly, as one would wish ; they grow on side
hills, on boulders, on logs, against one another. Three out of
four times there is no trouble in " declaring " a stump, but the
third time one might throw it into one class or another. The
error here involved might appear to be compensating ; it is not ;
involving the personal equation it is accumulating. One man
will invariably throw the doubtful stump in the upper height
class, another man would throw it in the lower.

The following typical example will show the result of the
error involved.

A stump whose diameter is 41.4" was called two and a half feet
high instead of two feet ; by so doing it was credited with a larger
volume than it really possessed ; by calling the stump a half foot
higher than it really was, the breast high point was lowered one
half a foot on the log, thus occasioning a change in the breast

i6

Forestry Qtiarterly .

high diameter of 1.2 inches ; or in other words calHng a tree 37"
in diameter when it really was onlj' 35.8. The use of this tree
for a volume curve would therefore throw the curve out to the
amount that a 36" tree should differ from a 37" tree, less the
partial compensation introduced by the extra one half foot in the
stump. The following figures will show the amount of error in
the case cited :

Stump ! Stump
Height. Diameter

Difference in

Volume of

Stump.

Difference in
Tree Volume.

Error.

4.6 cu. feet.

16.9 cu. ft. that 16.9-4.6
I should exist. 12.3CU. ft.

Or in words a 37" tree is used which contains 12.3 cubic feet
less than such a tree should contain.

"Tapering " a tree offers little other difficulty, and is subject
to the same rules regarding regularity of distance as the section-
ing of the stem, in fact it would be simpler to take the taper
measurements at the .same places as the section cuts, were it not
that the length of the log is usually too great to give the true
form of the tree if only measured at the log ends. The practice
of the Bureau, therefore, is to take taper measurements on large
trees at every five feet.

The simple operation of "tapering" affords little opportunity
for error to creep in except by improper use of the calipers or by
their inaccurateness.

Ivrror due to the first cause is exceedingly common in varying
degree. It is seldom that two men can taper a tree independently
and get the same results. One will neglect to take the two read-
ings at each place directly at right angles to one another ; the
other n)ay pinch the calipers too hard. With the calipers ordinar-
ily in use, if great care is not used a loss of half an inch in diam-
eter is easily the result.

Error resulting from inaccurate calipers is, of course, quite
inexcusable, and as it is accumulating, very serious. It is caused
by not having the caliper arms parallel. It will be greatest on
the large diameters, for they are measured usually nearer the ends
of the arms.

Difficulties and Errors in Stem Analysis. 17

Example showing the error from " squeezing " calipers Y^" or
having the arms not parallel to the same amount.

True D. bh. ^35.8 True vol. = 347.66 cu. ft. Errorof vol. ^12.50 cu. ft.
False D. bh. =35.3 False vol. = 33516 cu. ft. Per cent, of Error ^3.6.

The error in amount grows with the size of the tree while the
percentage error decreases.

Measurements in general are considered to be free of the ele-
ment of judgment, but it will appear from these considerations
that in forest work this is not so. There is a tendency on the
part of many, especially over zealous new men, to stretch for use-
less and uncalled for accuracy. Such men will be found running
the tape over the bumps and crooks of a hundred and fifty foot
pine and then reading the tape at the end of a very irregular
crown to the tenth of a foot. Such w^ork is not accurate but
merely a show on paper. Discretion as to the degree of accuracy
attempted is as needful as discretion in the manner of measuring.

Other difficulties than those which have been mentioned occur;
for instance the counting of the rings. They are present, how-
ever, only with certain species, or conditions and are to be over-
come by special individual methods.

A. S. Williams.

ADIRONDACK BIRDS IN THEIR RELATION TO
FORESTRY.

We have all learned, it is to be hoped, to look at a forest not as
a mere collection of trees, but as an organic whole, the result of
actions and reactions of all the factors found within its limits.

Technicall}' speaking, there is required a forest canopy of cer-
tain density and a forest floor, both of which conditions must be
produced by a stand of timber trees, not fruit trees ; yet this does
not, by any means, include all of the component factors of the
actual forest. The shade-enduring herbs and shrubs on the
ground, the mosses and lichens on tree trunks and branches, and
a host of other vegetable forms are likewise a part of the forest
whole, since they are products of and entirel}' dependent upon
natural forest conditions for their maintenance. Going a step
further, the worms of the soil, the diptera in the air, the myriads
of insects on leaves and bark, the mammals, and lastly, the birds
in tlie branches may likewise be included. Whether or not an
actual part, it is at any rate true that all of these animal and
vegetable forms do exist and play their important role in the
economy of the forest.

The nitrifying bacteria in the soil are constantly replacing the
nitrogenous elements absorbed by the trees in their process of
growth. Other minute organisms and certain fungi are reducing
by decomposition the fallen leaves and twigs and dead trees into
available plant food, and so on each individual is doing its share
towards the perpetuation of the forest. The larger animate things
are likewise doing their part, but in a totally different, yet equally
efficient way ; their work being found in the extermination of
smaller forms detrimental to tree growth.

No living thing can long exist without a food supply of some
sort, thus it has come about that many of the higher forms of life
fiu'l their source of supply in other forms smaller or weaker than
themselves. When this food supply is found in an animal or
plant which is of value to man, the organism which feeds thereon
is termed "injurious." Thus when an insect lays its eggs under

Adii'oidack Birds in their Relation to Forestry. 19

the bark of a valuable tree and the larvae which hatch therefrom
find this tree a source of food and protection, man designates this
an "injurious insect." Fortunately there are usually other
creatures which feed upon these so-called injurious ones and keep
them in check, and it is in this capacity that the birds find their
field of usefulness.

In the perfect forest there is an exact balance between all these
combating elements, and the proper proportions exist so that the
beneficial factors control and check the injurious agencies. When
this balance is disturbed either way the general equilibrium of the
forest is upset. If the insect-eating inhabitants are removed an
"insect calamity " is inevitable, or it may occur that an animal,
which under restraint is beneficial, becomes a pest when unre-
strained.

In nature the ideal balanced condition never actually exists, yet
in an undisturbed forest the combating forces are so nearly
balanced that marked disturbances are unknown. It is only
when man enters with his axe, gun and tinder box that serious
difficulties arise. In keeping with the growth of scientific wood-
craft, it should then be the aim of every forester to carry on his
work with the minimum disturbance of natural conditions.
Possessed of the knowledge that all things in a forest have a rela-
tion to it, either for good or bad, the forester should know well
and study carefully all these influencing elements so that he may
assist the good in overcoming the bad.

It is to the credit of scientific workers that many of these
factors, especially fungi and insects, have been studied with the
aim of finding means for their control, but it is to their discredit
that the important work which birds do in the protection of the
forests has been largely overlooked, and that these feathered
friends of forestry have received little aid from man, and ineffi-
cient protection from their host of enemies.

It is as consumers of injurious forest insects that the birds find
their chief commercial function in the forest, yet the aesthetic
benefits accruing from their presence and cheering song should
not be overlooked.

Available figures on the bird consumption of forest insects are
not obtainable, but a few figures given by Mr. E. H. Forbush,
Ornithologist of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, will give
some idea of the insect capacity of one of our smaller Adiron-

20 Forestry Qiiarterly.

dack birds. According to his authority an examination of the
stomachs of four chickadees revealed the presence of 1,028 eggs
of the canker worm. The stomachs of four other birds of
the same species contained about 600 eggs and 105 female
moths of the canker worm, the average number of eggs in each
of the moths being 185. Since it is estimated that a chickadee
will eat at least 30 female canker worms per day, it follows that
5,550 of these noxious insects would be destroyed per bird every
twenty- four hours.

Dr. A. D. Hopkins, authority on forest insects, states in his
report on " In.sect Enemies of the Spruce in the Northeast," that
" in hundreds of infested trees examined at least one half of the
beetles and their yonng had been destroyed by birds and in many
cases it was evident that even a greater proportion had perished
from this cau.se alone." The woodpeckers were foremost in this
good work. He estimates also that 100 beetles exist per square foot
of the bark on an average infested tree, and as each tree is
covered by some 60 .squaie feet of infested bark, it is possible for
each tree to support 6,000 individual beetles, 100 trees 600,000, and
so on. If the present number of birds is able to destroy one half
of these beetles, it is apparent that legislation or any scheme of
protection which will increase their number in even a slight de-
gree, will materially decrease the number of ravaging insects.
This becomes the more important when we recall that the beetles
are able to overcome the resistance of a healthy living tree only
when present in large numbers. These figures, while only ap-
proximations, go to show .something of the enormous influence
the birds exert in keeping in check the myriad of injurious in-
sects which abound in field as well as forest. The money value
they represent is beyond computation, yet it certainly runs far
into the millions ainiually. Indeed, the statement so often made
that without birds as in.sect de.'^troyers the earth would not long
be habitable, is not beyond belief when we consider mathematically
the rate at which insects multiply when unrestrained.

The matter appears in even a stronger light when we realize
that about nine-tenths of all animal forms are insects, and that
the disproportionally small number of birds is the only power
which keeps them in check. The capabilities of the birds in a
definite region acquire also a greater significance if the following
somewhat hypothetical case be considered. At a low estimate each

Adirondack Birds iyi their Relatio7i to Forestry. 21

bird will consume dailj^ 30 insects. The total Adirondack region
comprises some 4,000,000 acres, with a bird population per acre
in summer of not less than four individuals. Tlie total dail}''
consumption on this area would then be 480,000,000 insects, or
estimating 200,000 insects to the bushel, some 2,400 bushels.
The disastrous result of these 2,400 bushels of insects if they
were allowed to exist and multiply daily is only too evident.

In the forest the work of the birds is of even greater import-
ance than in agricultural communities because here they are the
only direct means of destroying injurious insects, barring possibly
the work of the so-called " beneficial insects," like the clerid
{Thanasinucs nubihcs') , which is the enemy of the spruce borers
of the genus Dendrodonus.

In the woods, spraying, poisoning and the various other
methods of destroying eggs and larvae cannot be practised, and
the forester must stand a helpless onlooker in the event of an
extended insect attack. Something can be done to protect a grove
of park trees, but with an infested forest area of several hundred
thousand acres in which are millions of trees, nothing can be
done. Fortunately wide-spread devastation of timber, such as
occurred in West Virginia from 1880 to 1893, and in the North-
east some twenty years ago, is rare, which fact is due, no doubt,
to quiet, yet efficient work which the birds are doing day by day
the year round.

During the summer months the swallows and swifts are busy
by day darting through the air in pursuit of the aerial insects
which constitute their sole food supply. When night comes their
places are taken by the whippoorwills and nighthawks to whom
the night-flying moths and millers are legal prey. In open spots
on dead stubs or projecting limbs the various flycatchers sit like
sentinels, leaving their posts only to dart after passing insects,
which they secure by a series of lightning-like thrusts and darts.
Less prominent but equally efficient in their work are the thrushes,
sparrows and other ground birds, who explore among the grass
and fallen leaves for ants and bugs. In the foliage of the trees
the search is continued by the warblers and vireos, while the
creepers, nuthatches and chickadees wind up and down the limbs
and trunk, minutely investigating every inch of bark for eggs
and larvae. The woodpeckers complete the hunt by drilling
through the bark to obtain the ants and borers they hear at work

22 Forestry Quarterly .

within. Witli sucli a division of labor in a body of such inde-
fatigable workers, it is plainly evident that it is necessary only to
have the proper-sized working force to insure complete protection.

The casual observer in the Adirondacks would affirm that the
number of species of birds, as well as the sum total, is small.
Careful observation, however, indicates that the bird population
is greater than is evidenced at first sight. From notes kept in
the vicinity of Upper Saranac Lake for two seasons, the writer
found that the total number of resident bird species exceeded
seventy. Of these the greater number are insect eaters, wholly
or in part, and were present in sufficient numbers to be desig-
nated as " tolerably common." The birds which did not feed on
insects, added their quota of good by destroying noxious weed
seeds.

This list of birds may be roughly giouped as follows :

Woodpeckers. — In our north woods country, the woodpeckers
deserve first place in the category of beneficial birds. Their
chi.sel-like bill, sharp, distensible tongue, and acute hearing en-
able them to locate tree borers, and remove them at a stage
when they are doing the most harm. These birds are often ac-
cused of injuring trees, but with the exception of a single species
(Yellow-bellied sapsucker) they scarcely leave a mark on a
health)' tree. On a sickly tree, which is full of adult beetles and
larvae, they naturally make many holes in order to extract the
borers, but the injury done by the birds is much less serious
than that of the borers if undestroyed, and their removal not
only gives the tree its only chance for life, but prevents the
spread of the infection to neighboring trees. Then, too, their
peculiar bodily structure is especially adapted for capturing many
wood and bark borers, caterpillars and ants which would be in-
accessible to other birds. Since their food supply consist.s of in-
sect forms thus obtained, the number annually destroyed per
bird is enormous.

Mr. Frank M. Chapman, the well known ornithologist, .says :
" It is evident that woodpeckers are great conservators of forests.
To them, more than to any other agency we owe the preservation
of timber from hordes of destructive insects." Dr. Hopkins,
before mentioned, says: " Woodpeckers are the most important
enemy of the bark beetle, and appear to be of inestimable value
to the spruce timber interests of the Northeast."

Adirondack Birds in their Relation to Forestry. 23

Seven species of woodpeckers are found in the Adirondacks,
viz. : — The Hairy, Downy, Artie Three-toed, Banded Three-toed
and Pileated Woodpeckers, and the FHcker and Yellow-bellied
Sapsucker. The first two mentioned remain in their northern
range throughout the year.

Creepers, NzUhatches and Tits. — The arboreal birds most
closely related to the woodpeckers in habit are the above three
groups. They resemble them in their ability to climb readily
upon vertical tree trunks, but differ in that their bills are not
adapted for drilling through bark. The nuthatches and tits do
not use their tails as a support, and climb with head downward
or upward, as it happens, in contrast to the creepers and wood-
peckers, who always climb head upward.

The Brown Creeper is the only one of the genus in America.
Of the nuthatches two species, the Red-breasted and White-
breasted are common. Of the tits the Black-capped Titmouse or
Chickadee, is the species common in northern New York.

The food of these climbers consists of eggs and larvae which
they find in crevices of the bark, varied occasionally by seeds and
small nuts.

Wood Warblers, Kinglets, etc. — In the family of warblers is
included a large number of species which are more frequently
seen than heard. They are small birds which inhabit dense
thickets and the leafy branches of trees, and are for the amateur
the most difficult birds to study. A few are vocalists of rare
ability, but most of them reveal their presence only by a faint
twitter or a flitting glance as they dart from limb to limb. They
winter far south in Central America, but in summer come into
the extreme temperate north to breed, and hence are common in
the Adirondacks. Their food supply is almost exclusively insects,
which they capture in the air or glean from the dense foliage
which is their habitat. A large part of the insects they consume
are harmless in nature, yet many of the smaller leaf-eating insects
fall prey to their diligence. The following species have been
recorded from the Adirondacks : Those bearing the name of
warblers are the Golden-crowned, Yellow-rumped, Black-throated
Blue, Chestnut-sided, Black and white. Black Poll, Red Poll,
Nashville and Parula. Belonging to the same group is the Oven
bird, American Redstart and Ruby-crowned Kinglet.

Vireos. — A group of birds very similar to the warblers in habits

24 Forestry Quarterly.

and habitat, yet slower in their movements and more musical.
Strictly arboreal in habit, they find their food in crevices of the
bark and on under side of leaves. They are not plentiful, yet
per individual are great consumers of eggs and small insects.
The Adirondack region supports four species, viz., the Red-eyed,
White-eyed, Yellow-throated and Warbling Vireos.

Sparrows and Firiches. — A large group of terrestrial birds with
short conical bills which are specially adapted for crushing seeds.
Although subsisting largely on a vegetable diet, they, neverthe-
less, vary it with many insect forms, especially the ants, bugs
and spiders found on or near the ground. In a farming country
or near forest nurseries this family of birds deserves protection
because of the vast quantity of noxious weed seeds they destroy.
(But also of tree seeds, so that their usefulness is questionable.
— [Ed.) Many of them, too, are in the first rank as song birds.
The species seen in the woods and clearings of the Adirondacks
are as follows : Of the sparrows proper the Song, Fox, W^hite-
throated, White-crowned, Chipping and Vesper were noted. In
addition the Junco, Goldfinch, Purple Finch, Rose-breasted
Grosbeak, Indian Bunting and Scarlet Tanager were seen.

Thrushes and Blue Birds. — A family of woodland birds whose
sweet voices and expressive song have made them known and
beloved by all who appreciate bird melody. Usually few in
numbers and subsisting on a combined insect and vegetable diet
their greatest value lies in the restful, uplifting influence of their
song. The species recorded were the Wilson, Wood and Hermit
Thrush and the Robin and Bluebird.

Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. — We now come to a group whose direct
value to the forest is seemingly wanting, as their haunts are the
open fields and marshes, and their food a varied collection in
which insects form an unimportant part. The representative
species are the Red-winged Blackbird, Rusty Grackle, Bob-o-link
and Baltimore Oriole. Seemingly rather an incongruous combi-
nation, but scientifically all one family.

Fly-catchers. — A more important group than .several of the pre-
ceding. Living almo.st exclusively on an insect diet and existing
in considerable numbers, they destroy large numbers of the light-
winged insects, especially diptera. The Adirondack species are
the Kingbird, Wood Pewee, Phoebe and Least Fly-catcher.

Thrashers and Wrens. — Seldom inhabitants of dense forests,

Adirondack Birds in their Relation to Forestry. 25

yet commonly found in scrubby growth on the edge of wood-
lands. Several members of the family, which includes the mock-
ing birds, rank high as vocalists. They are insectivorous birds,
but are too few in number to be of great economic value. The
Brown Thrasher, Catbird and Winter Wren constitute the Adi-
rondack contingent.

Swallows, Swifts, etc. — A group of birds quite abundant in the
Adirondacks, the Swallows being frequently seen in large flocks
over lakes, streams and open fields. They live entirely on insects
which they catch while on the wing. Few birds are more deserv-
ing of protection. The Cliff, Tree and Barn Swallows are com-
mon in the North Woods. Although of another family the Chim-
ney Swift is here included. Likewise the Ruby-throated Hum-
ming Bird, which is a common Adirondack bird, whose favorite
perch is a roadside telephone wire.

Game Birds. — While of no especial value to a forest, the north-
ern game birds deserve protection because of their value as food,
and for the hunt. The red fox is the worst enemy of the Grouse.
Ruffled Grouse is the only common game bird, although the
Canada Grouse and Woodcock are occasionally seen.

Noctur7ial Birds. —The Whippoorwill and Night Hawk are the
two strictly insectivorous, nocturnal birds of the Adirondacks.
The night-flying moths and millers are their chief prey. Several
species of Owls also occur, but they subsist mainly on rodents.

Crows and Jays. — " Saucy, impudent and worthless," describes
the Crows and Jays of the woods. By destroying cutworms the
Crow makes himself useful to the farmer, but in the woods he is a
nois}^ thieving rascal. The Jays are no better. The common
Crow, Canada Jay (Whiskey Jack) and Blue Jay are the repre-
sentative species.

An exhaustive study of the food supply of the forest birds has
never been attempted, but their value in the forest seems so undis-
putable that all possible protection and encouragement should be
given them, unquestionably. If, in addition, steps be taken to
destroy the natural enemies of the birds, to curb the bloodthirsty
spirit of the small boy with his first gun, and to discourage the
useless ^g^ collecting mania of the amateur ornithologist, the
mutually beneficial relations which now exist between the birds
and the forest will be perpetually maintained.

E. A. Sterling.

CURRENT LITERATURE AND REVIEWS.

Forest Reserve Manual for the Information and Use of Forest
Officers. Department of the Interior. General Land Office,
pp. 90. By application at General Land Office.

During- the past three years a strong movement has been made
toward improvement in the management and forest conditions in
the National Forest Reserves. The first step of importance
gained was the appointment last year of Mr. Filibert Roth as
Chief of the Division of Forestry, General Land Office. Mr.
Roth was formerly Professor of Forestry in the New York State
College of Forestry and a Special Agent in the Bureau of Forestry,
Department of Agriculture. As Special Agent he spent consid-
erable time in the Western Reserves and is thoroughly acquainted
with the existing conditions.

Since Mr. Roth's appointment he has attempted a gradual
change in existing management by introducing technically edu-
cated men. The position of Head Ranger has been established.

The Head Ranger is to act as the technical assistant to the For-
est Supervisor. He is appointed after having passed an exam-
ination tending to show his qualifications, experience and effici-
ency in forest work, especially in forest surveying, timber
estimating, scaling, logging methods and the principles of gen-
eral forestry.

Two Head Rangers have already been appointed, also two
technically educated men to the office forces.

The Forest Reserve Manual contains full instructions to all
Forest Officers in the service ; also copies of the rules and regu-
lations to which the reserves are subject, and of all the blanks
used in the administration, such as: Public Timber Sale, Free
Use of Timber and Stone, Report on Mining Claim, Report on
Grazing of Sheep.

The maiuial is intended .solely as a handbook for the Reserve
officers, but will prove instructive to all interested in the reserves
and forest management problems in general.

Sixth Annual Report of the Forest, Fish and Gayne Commission
of the State of Nciv York. pp. 532. Numerous colored
plates and half-tones. (By application to a senator.)

The Commission, in its summary in this report, makes the fol-
lowing important recomniciulations to the Legislature :

Current Literature aiid Revieivs. 27

' ' That the State Constitution be so amended as to provide for
the practice of conservative forestry on the State lands (referring
to a clause in the Amended Constitution, which forbids the cut-
ting of any timber whatsoever on State lands), and for the sale
of dead, dying and mature timber under proper safeguards.

"That the excellent work done by the United States government
in connection with our foresters, as shown by the report of the
United States Forestry Department herewith submitted, be con-
tinued and an appropriation of $3,500, as requested, be made for
that purpose. (See Working Plan for Township 40, T. and C.
P. Bulletin No. 30, Bureau of Forestry). That a force of rang-
ers be appointed for the prevention of forest fires, timber stealing
and poaching on State land. That all town fire wardens be
allowed a moiety of the fine in criminal actions in cases where
they can secure evidence that will lead to conviction for setting
forest fires."

The wisdom of one or two of these recommendations can per-
haps be questioned.

There seems to be no reason why the Bureau of Forestry
should do forestry work for this State. The Commission has
in Its employ men fully capable to conduct any forestry work ;
if it has not enough of them it is in a position to employ more.

Doubt may also be expressed as to the wisdom of the moiety
system. It is little less than a system of bribery to do duty. By
many, money thus given is looked upon as blood money. The
system certainly lacks moral tone. If the State makes laws it
should provide a service, competent and well paid, to enforce
them.

The introduction of a ranger system again in this State, as it
formerly existed, would be folly. The rangers were in general
what the game wardens are to-day, local officials, bound by the
ties of kin, of friendship, of neighborliness, to nearly every man
in their districts. The game wardens are prompt against a
stranger, but the local offenders who go unpunished are number-
less. A ranger service composed of men neither born nor bred
in the locality of their service, a body of men with some instruc-
tion in the aims and significance of forestry, well paid, allowed to
have no other occupation, so that they regard their position as
one of dignity, instead of a mere pick up on which a few spare

28 Forestry Quarterly.

moments were to be spent, snch a body of men would prove of
great value and honor to the State.

Barring these exceptions, we believe that the recommendations
of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission are good, and if acted
on favorabh- and extensivelj' by the Legislature, will cause the
culmination of the series of recent movements for the economic
use of our forest wealth. New York will be the first to have
established rational forest management, as it has been the first in
all movements toward that end.

The body of this year's report contains the most valuable mat-
ter of any ever published.

Bulletin 30. Bureau of Forestry. A Working Plan for Town-
ship 40, T. and C. P., is reprinted.

A History of the Lumber Industry in the State of New York.
(See Bureau Bulletin 34, Bureau of Forestry), is of interest to
the lumberman and industrial student.

Mr. A. Knechtel, B. S., F. E., Forester to the Commission,
contributes a clear, concise article on Methods of Estimating and
Measuring Standing Timber.

A Study in Practical Re-foresting. By J. Y. McClintock, C.
E. Assistant Superintendent of Forests, is an account of a
small plantation on the Girard Estate, Schuylkill County, Penn-
sylvania.

The following interesting data also appears. The amount
of timber, log measure, taken from the Adirondack forests in
1 899 was as follows :

Feet.

Spruce, saw stuff 148,203,491

Spruce, pulp 195,568,623

Hemlock 46,545,772

Pine 33,132,807

Total, 423,450,693

Hardwood 24,296,654

Grand total, 447,747,241

Ninety-five per cent, of the lumber removed from the Adiron-
dacks, it appears, was of coniferous trees, while the original
stand speaking of the average is given by the same authority to
have been 65'/ hardwoods. Speaking generally, therefore, it will
be but a short time before the cut over lands of the region will
be virtually pure hardwoods.

Ctcrreni Literature and Reviews. 29

A History of the Lumber Lidustry in the State of Nezv York. By
William F. Fox, Bulletin No. 34 ; Bureau of Forestry, De-
partment of Agriculture ; pp. 59, PI. 30.

This recent bulletin cannot fail to be of interest to all con-
nected with lumber and lumbering in this State. To the student
of economics, of industrial history, it will also be of value in por-
traying the growth of one of the greatest industries of the country.

The author. Col. William F. Fox, from a boyhood on the rafts
and in the woods of the Alleghanies, to Superintendent of
Forests in New York State, has been intimately connected with
lumbering interests in the State.

The history takes up the industry from its infancy, the pioneer
with his ax hewing rough timbers and hauling them to town
with his ox yoke ; and carries it through its growth to its
splendid maturity, reaching its supreme excellence in the logging
railroad, the steam skidder and the band saw.

The intimate knowledge with which the author tells of the old
rafting days, of the river driving with their attendant romance,
excitement, danger, render the reading more like that of a novel
than a prosaic bulletin or industrial history.

Excellent chapters on the pulp industry, log works, tan bark
and finally, a roll of the pioneer lumbermen are included.

The Western Hetnlock. By Edward T. Allen. Field Assistant,
Bureau of Forestry. Bulletin No. 33, Bureau of Forestry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 55, PI. 23, Figs. 5.

This bulletin is one of a series being prepared by the Bureau of
Forestry treating of the individual tree species of commercial
importance throughout the United States. It was especially
undertaken for the direct economic purpose of overcoming the
false prejudice existing in the lumber trade against the Western
Hemlock, T. heterophylla.

This magnificent timber tree is at present unrecognized in the
trade because of the taint cast upon it by the reputation of the
eastern species, and is only saleable by mixing small quantities
of the best grades with the Red Fir and Spruce.

In this valuable bulletin Mr. Allen treats of the methods of
exploitation, sale and utilization of the hemlock, also giv^es tables
of growth and notes on its silvicultural characteristics. He sum-
marizes :

30 Forestry Quarterly.

1. The wood of the Western Hemlock is far superior to that of
the eastern tree. It is suitable for use in all ordinary building
work ; it furnishes good paper pulp ; it is sufficiently strong and
light to make excellent hardware stock, and is particularly
valuable for indoor finishing. The bark is half again as rich in
tannin as that of the eastern species,

2. The Western Hemlock has now to contend mainly with a
prejudice based on a knowledge of the eastern tree alone. Its
qualities entitle it to rank among the valuable timber trees of the
continent.

3. Under favorable conditions the Western Hemlock reproduces
abundantly and grows very rapidly. Since these conditions are
usually disadvantageous to Red Fir, Hemlock may often be counted
upon to reforest cut over lands where Red Fir would probably fail
to establish itself.

A Working Plan for Forest Lands Near Pine Bhtff, Arkansas.
By Frederick E. Olmsted. Bulletin No. 32. Bureau of For-
estry. Pp. 49, PI. 9, Figs. 9.

This working plan was made by the Bureau of Forestry at the
request of the Sawyer and Austin Lumber Co. The object of the
working plan was to determine whether the present tract of the
company is large enough to furnish a sustained yield equal to
the yearly capacity of tiie mill, and if not, to estimate the ad-
ditional area necessary to secure .such a result.

The holdings of the company consist of 105,000 acres, about
59^, of which is bare of merchantable timber. The land in the
average is covered with a mixed forest of Loblolly and Shortleaf
Pines and hardwoods, the pines forming something over 50'/^ of
the stand.

Passing over the silvicultural descriptions and deductions we
come to Part III, Forest Management, in which several yield
tables and interest calculations are given.

Table No. 15, Page 44, Annual Interest represented by future
cuts on the capital invested in cut over lands, does not seem de-
duciblc from llie stumpa^e values and statement of yearly in-
crement pL-r cent, as given.

On the same page the following statement is made: '' Cutting
to the advised diameter limit of 12 inches, breast high, or about
14 inches on the stump, with stumpage reckoned at $2.00 per

Current Literature and Reviews. 31

1,000 board feet, and the value of cut over lands at $1.00 per
acre, the average annual interest represented by the future crop
on cut over lands is, for a period of 40 years, nearly 9%."

Working out the example on the basis given we come to a very
different result. Entering in the well-known formula for com-
pound interest accumulation [Q = Q X (i.f/'" — i)] the given
values, 6'=$i.oo, n^\o years, /' = 9, we get as interest charge
for the land $1. 00 X (1.09*"— i) =$30.41 ; for taxes and cost of
protection, which are figured (on p. 43) at 5 cents per acre per
annum, an accumulation at the end of 40 years

rC=4(i.^/'"-i)=-°5x3o.4i ]
L .op .09 -■

of $16.89 accrues, or a total cost of product at 40 years of $47.30.

On the other hand table No. 13 gives the yield per acre at the
end of 42 years cutting to a 12 inch D. bh. limit as 6,067 board
feet. Multiplying 6,067 board feet by $2.00, the stated stump-
age value, we get $12.13 as the value of the cut per acre at the
end of 42 years, i. e., the return is $35.17 less than it should be to
yield a 9% interest.

The real interest which the above quoted example will give is
about 5>^ % ; this is considerably different from 9 % . Yet, even so,
if a 5% return can be secured from a forestry investment it is a re-
markably good investment, and the statement still remains true
(Page 44), " that the application of practical forestry to the tract
of the Sawyer and Austin Lumber Company would be a sound
business measure."

The Hardy Catalpa. — Bulletin No. 108 ; pp. 114, PI. 40. Kansas
Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. (Obtainable by
application.)

This bulletin contains a discussion of the methods of making
catalpa plantations, and the probable profits resulting, also a col-
lection of letters from the engineers of a number of railroads giv-
ing their opinions of the catalpa as a tie producer. To the west-
ern tree planter this publication should prove of interest and
value.

Seventh Annual Report of the Chief Fire Warden of Minnesota.
By C. C. Andrews ; pp. 135 ; PI. 16. (By application Chief
Fire Warden.)

The Chief Fire Warden of Minnesota not only attends to the

32 Forestry Quarterly .

duties concerning fire service, but in addition to those of a Forest
Superintendent.

In his report for 1901 Gen. Andrews has incUided, besides the
matter directly relating to the State Fire Service, a series of de-
scriptions of the forestry conditions in European countries.
This matter will be found of value and interest, at least to the
general reader.

The number of reported fires in Minnesota during 1901 was
fifty-five ; burning over 58,400 acres and doing estimated damage
of $42,000.

Proceedbis;s of the Iowa Park arid Forestry Association. First
Annual Meeting, Ames, Iowa ; pp. 80, PI. 25. Price, 25
cents.
The first publication from a newl)' organized society, it is an
indication of the continued interest that is being taken through-
out the country in forestry and allied subjects.

American Public Health Association. Report of the Committee
on the Relation of Forestry to the Public Health. By Prof.
W. H. Brower ; pp. 15. The Berlin Printing Co., Colum-
bus, Ohio.

This pamphlet contains the most concise and accurate state.
ment of the truths regarding the effects of forests on the public
health that has yet been printed.

Sierra Club Bulletin. Vol. IV, No. 2. Merchants Exchange
Building, San Francisco.
Contains a useful recapitulation of Conifers of the Pacific
Slope : How to Distinguish Them. By John G. Eemmon.

Science. Friday, September 12, 1902.

This number of Science contains an article, " On Some Recent
Advances in the Fireproofing Treatment of Wood," by Samuel P-
Staller, which is a general review of the various processes of wood
fireproofing, the qualities requisite in a satisfactory substance and
method of impregnation, and finally a discussion of the Ferrill
process.

The White Ant. By C. L. Marlolt. Circular No. 50 ; Second
Series ; Division of ICntomology ; Department of Agriculture ;
Pp. 8.

A short account of the white ant, its damage and the means of
prevention.

Current Literature and Reviews. 33

The Indian Forester. Calcutta, India.

July.

The Influence of Forests on Cultivation in the Hills. By Ram
Swarup, D. D. R.

White Ants as a Pest of Trees.

Forest Administration in British India during 1899- 1900.

We find here complete figures of the Indian administration,
from which we take the following :

Total area of reserved forests, 86,970 square miles, yielding a
gross revenue of $6,370,000, and a net revenue of $2,661,640.

Danger of Wood Pulp Paper. Publishers' Weekly.

August.

Fire Protection in Teak Forests in L/Ower Burma. By H. C.
Walker.

The Timber Resources of the Australian Commonwealth. By
E. T. Scammell.

In which the following figures are given :

Total Area, Forested Area,

Acres. Acres.

Queensland 427,838,000 40,000,000

N. S. Wales 198,638,000 20,000,000

Victoria 56,245,700 11,797,000

S. Australia 578,361,600 3,840,000

W.Australia 624,588,800 97,920)000

Tasmania 16,778,000 11,000,000

Total 1,902,450,100 184,557,000

Dr. W. Schlich, C. I. E., writes of these figures that " only
about 10% of the area of Australia is under timber forest, and
enough has been said and written to show that these are on the
highway to ruin.

September. This number contains matter of home interest
solely.

Les7ioj Journal. Published bi-monthly by the Forestry Associa-
tion in St. Petersburg.
March-April.

Square Plantations in Steppe Forests. By D. K. Domoslevsky.

The Pine in the Chulym Basin in the Tomsk Province ; its
usual growth and some peculiar ones ; based on the last re-
searches in Siberian forests. By I. G. Frinden.

A Basis for Regulating the Forests bordering the Amour.
By P. Delle and V. Korsch.

34 Forestry Quarterly.

Rate of Growth of Oaks in the Krapevense Forest. By V,
Khichneseov.

A Conference for Revising Freight Rates on Forest Materials.
By V. Sobichevsky.

Appraising Forests for the Purpose of Taxation. By E. Dam-
berg.

Insufficiency of the World's Timber Supply. — A criticism of
the famous French article of 1900.

May-Jicne. Manufacture of Charcoal in Maltzevv's Forests.
By R. Behdevsky.

Observations on the Life and Development of the Bark-eating
Spruce-beetle (Bostrichus). By A. Voronzov.

Annual Report of the Public Forests.

Silviculture in the Forests of Osum. By N. Regisbevsky.

SchweJzerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen.

July. Forstliche Reiseskizzen aus den Diinen uud Landes der
Gascogne. By A. Engler. (mit Abbildungen.) (Schluss.)

A paper on the naval-stores indu.stry, as carried on in Gascony,
in the extensive forests of the Maritime Pine. The two methods
of obtaining the resin, by protracted but not intensive working of
the trees through a number of years, and by rapid inten.sive
"chipping" of the trees, which, under this management, give
large amounts of resin for a few years, and the methods of .separat-
ing and purifying the products are treated.

August-September has little of general interest.

Centralblatt fur das Gesavimte Forstweseyi. The Jul}' number
contains : —

Vorbeugung gegen Ueberschwemmungen. By Oberforster
Franz Pollak in Hainburg-an-der-Donau.

The old question of the influence of a forest cover upon precipita-
tion and on the run-oflf is reopened and the conclusion is reached,
mostly from a perfect knowledge of local conditions, that this is of
considerable importance in relation to the run-off, tending in many
ways to retard it and .so lessen its ability to do serious damage.

Uebereinkunft zum Schutze der fiir die Landwirt-schaft niitz-
lichen Vogel.

Sets forth the articles of agreement and concludes with two lists
of the u.seful and injurious species of birds found in the part of
Europe covered.

Current Literature and Reviews. 35

Die Holzverkoblung in Nord-Amerika.

A brief review of the charcoal industry in the United States, the
methods and the growth of the industry into the earlier primitive
modern wood alcohol and acetic acid factories with their iron
retorts for utilizing the wood most economically.

Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen.

Forstliche Reisebilder aus Nord-Amerika. By von der Heyde,
Kgl. Preuss. Forstassessor.

Notes of a railway journey across the continent from San
Francisco to New York and Washington. The Yosemite and
Yellowstone National Parks were visited but elsewhere few stops
were made in this apparently hurried tour. One of the most
striking scenes and one that left the deepest impression on the
author's mind was the desolate country in the track of forest
fires through Washington, Idaho and Montana, the very regions
in which he had expected to find heavy virgin forests.
Revue des Eaux et Forets.

August 15th. Le Deboisement des Pyrenees. By S. Guenot.

September ist. La Lutte Contre Le Champignon des Maisons,
By E. Henry.

La Vannerie et L'osier. By G. de la Barre.

September 15th. Le Sapin Tend a Supplanter le Hetre en
Montague. By Joly de Sailly.
Bulletin de la Societe Centrale Forestiere de Belgique.

July. Le Nitrate de Sonde en Sylviculture. By J. Huberty.
An extensive article with examples.

La Dessoucheuse Bennett. A paper on an American .stump-
puller,
tion.

August. Les Engrais Chemiques en Culture Forestiere dans
la Region Ardennaise. By C. Delville.

September. The conclusion of the article mentioned in the
previous month.

Les Forets de rAla.ska, translated from The Forester.

Revista de Monies.

July I St. Empleo de la Madera en la Fabricacion de Papel.
By Juan A. de Madariaga. A short paper on the various methods
of making paper and the various substances u.sed.

Septeviber ist. Algunas Observaciones al Proyecto de las Obras
de Defensa de Sevilla contra las Inundaciones. By H. del Campo.

NEWS AND NOTES.

THE FIELD SEASON OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

This year has been the most active and fruitful one in the his-
tory of the Bureau, one division alone, that of Forest Manage-
ment, having had 104 men in the field exclusive of guides, pack-
men, choppers, etc. The chiefs, number of aids, and objects of
work being as follows :

Subject.

Sugar Pine.

Lodgepole Pine.

Working Plan Great N. Paper Co.

White Pine and Hemlock.
Southern Hardwoods.

Working Plan for Linville Imp. Co.

Balsam in Adirondacks.

Forest Conditions of Otsego Co., N. Y.

Log Scales in Black Hills.

Northern Log Scales.

Red Pine.

Maine Cut-Over Spruce Lands.

The following undergraduates of the New York State College
of Forestry were in the field with the Bureau of Forestry during
the past field season : Frederick Dunlap, W. P. Harris, S. McP.
Higgins, J. M. Keeler, G. B. Lull, H. O. Stabler, R. E. Sheldon,
A. C. Weed, K. W. Woodward, A. S. Williams, I. T. Worthley,
W. J. Ward.

No.

of aids.

Henry Grinnell,

7

G. E. Tower,

5

C. S. Chapman,

18

W. C. Hodge, Jr.,

12

R. P. Imes,

ID

Alfred Gaskell,

4

G. S. Cleveland,

3

John E. Keach,

6

Franklin W. Reed,

3

R. G. Zon,

3

G. E. Clement,

3

Covert DuBois,

-

H. D. Tiemann,

2

H. H. Chapman,

4

R. S. Hosmer,

9

The Appalachian National Park Association has called a con-
vention to be held in the Auditorium, Asheville, N. C, October
25th, 5 p. M., in the interest of the proposed National Park.

Arrangements have been made with the Southern Railway
Company for reduced rates. Invitations have been extended to
the Boards of Trade of all the southeastern cities and a general
one to all interested parties.

Notes and News. 37

THE NBW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY.

The College of Forestry, now four years old, has each year
made a gradual but sure growth in the number of students, the
number of registrations having been in the first four years 4, 17,
25, 44 respectively, and 72 in 1902.

The requirements for admission were more strictly enforced
this year, the number of applications having been greater than
the faculty thought it desirable to admit. Ten graduates of other
collegiate institutions were among the new men, some being
obliged to take two years work and others three and four years
for graduation. The following is a list of the men who have
studied at the college, giving their present occupation :

Philip Ayres, i year Sp. , Forester to the Society for the Protection of New

Hampshire Forests.
T. F. Borst, '01, Forester for the Metropolitan Water Board of Massachusetts.
R. C. Bryant, '00, Forester, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.
A. F. Cohoon, i year Sp., Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Washington, D.C.
R. H. Charleton, i year Sp., Assistant, Division of Forestry, General Land

Office, Washington, D. C.
W. W. Clark, '02, Forester, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.
H. M. Curran, i year Sp., Field Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Washington,

D. C.
Prof. C. H. Davis, Sp., Instructor in Forestry, University of Michigan.

F. W. Fassett, Sp., Lumberman, Wellsville, N. Y.

Alfred Haines, i termSp., Instructor in Forestry, Westtown Boarding School,
Pa.

Wm. B. Howard, i year Sp., Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Washington,
D. C.

Abraham Knechtel, 'or. Forester, Forest Commission, State of New York.

Wm. Klemme, Sp., Inspector, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.

J. M. Keeler, ex-'o4. Student Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Washington,
D. C.

C. F. Littlejohn, i year Sp., Lumber Firm, Michigan.

L. Mazzanovitch, i term Sp., U- S. Ranger, Jackson, Wyoming.

W. M. Maule, ex-'o3. Inspector, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.

Walter Mulford, '01, Forester, State of Conneticut.

C. R. Pettis, '01, Forester, Forest Commission, State of New York.

E. P. Sandsten, Sp. , Horticulturist, University of Madison, Wisconsin.

E. A. Sterling, '02, Field Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Washington, D. C.

A. V. Stubenrauch, Sp., Assistant in Horticulture, University of California.

H. J. Tompkins, i year Sp., Field Assistant, Bureau of Forestry, Washing-
ton, D. C.

G. S. Van Wickle, ex-'o3. Inspector, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I.
I. T. Worthley, ex-'o3, Brooklyn, N. Y.

R. Zon, '01, Special Agent, Bureau of Forestry, Washington, D. C.

38 Forestry Quarterly.

The Keuffel-Esser Company of New York have just put an ex-
cellent compass upon the market. It has a needle three inches in
length, mounted in a brass box, with upright hinged sights. It
is the ordinary surveyor's compass in miniature, and is provided
with a ball and socket joint for mounting on a Jacob's staff. The
instrument seems admirably suited for forest work. It is light
enough to be carried in the pocket and used for valuation survey
work, and accurate enough for running interior lines, mapping
trails, roads, etc. Price, $io.

Camp, ioo Mues Beyond all Signs of

CiVIUZATION, NEAR BOLES PrINCIPE. P. I.

August 30, 1902.

My Dear

Sitting here in my tent and waiting for the rain to stop so that
we can go out on a valuation survey, I will write a line to 5'ou
who certainly think I have forgotten all my old friends.

The last three months have been full of haste and hurry for
me. I left Hagger and the Camarines at two hours' notice, went
a few days with Bryant, a little while in Manila, and then had
to start for this forlorn part of the world. In mv party are two
American boys and one Philippino botanist. It took us fifteen
days to make the trip from Manila.

This is the wildest part of the islands ; a few huts and soldiers'
barracks are all the signs of civilization in the region, and they
are so far from the woods that we have to stay in camp near the
place of our work. Our present camp is .situated on the very
rocky sea coast, near a small river. The river has three water-
falls, one of them 100 feet high. The region is all very nice and
picturescjue, but rather rough for work. There are no trails, and
every step we take has to be first cut out. The work is, there-
fore, very difficult and .slow ; we never can finish more than six
to eight acres per day. Frequent rains keep us often in camp ;
that means in a leaky tent. This week we could get out only
three days.

I had to take all our provi.sions from Manila ; canned food is
all wc have.

Notes aud News. 39

Captain Ahern will send VanWickle out here as soon as he ar-
rives from the States. I will be very glad of that. It will make
my work much easier, having another forester here.

Last week we made a long trip up the water shed. Having no
trail we had to follow the bed of the river. In one day we had
to cross the river or some of its tributaries exactly fifty times.
The water in some places was four feet deep, and the current so
strong that we had to form a chain to resist the current. An-
other trip brought us to the mountains inhabited by the Glougates,
the so-called head hunters. Here we had an escort of six soldiers
and came out safely. William Klemme.

At the Yale Forest School thirty-eight students are registered,
twenty-five of them being new.

The school at Biltmore also shows a marked increase, eighteen
students having already arrived. It is probable that this year as
formerly more will enter later.

The University of Nebraska, the University of Michigan and
the Michigan Agricultural College are offering short courses in
forestry branches.

The University of California is seriously considering the estab-
lishment of a forest school. President Wheeler recently issued a
statement calling for endowment funds.

w.>»v-

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Announcement i

Cotta's Preface 3

Volume Tables and the Bases on which they may be Built — 6

Judson F. Clark

Diificulties and Errors in Stem Analysis A. S. Williavis 12

Adirondack Birds in their Relation to Forestry 18

E. A. Sterling

Current Literature and Reviews 26

News and Notes 36

fe;

Vol. I No. 2

Forestry Quarterly

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A

Board of Advisers of the Faculty and Alumni

OF THE

New York State College of Forestry

CORNEIvL UNIVERSITY

Ithaca, New York

1903

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Managers for t/ir '02-J

Asa S. Williams Albert F. Siebold

. ,v,,,<,.,xi^ IC DUNLAP Cl..' i'T

Board of Advisers
Bernard E. Fernow, LL.D. John Gifpord, D.CEc.

Waltk" ^^"'ford, B.S.A.,F.E.

THE OBJECTS lOK WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHI

To aid in the establishment of rational forest management.

To offc , I he publication of technical papers of

interest to professional foresters in America.

To keep the profession in touch with the current technical lit-
erature and tl)'-- <•■■••-'- :■ ••' •- "•' TT..:.. ,, 0..,.. .^

•subscript ii
\NDRUS& CHURCH, ITHA

FORESTRY QUARTERLY.

Vol,. I. January, 1903. No. 2.

OUTIvOOK OF THE TIMBER SUPPIvY IN THE UNITED

STATES.'

As Cotta pointed out a hundred years ago, forestry is a child of
necessity. It is only when the wood supplies grown by unaided
Nature are exhausted or near exhaustion, and when it becomes
apparent that reproduction is not replacing the harvested virgin
crop as rapidly as required, that forestry — systematic utilization
and reproduction of wood supplies — becomes necessary.

While much has been said and written regarding the influence
of forest cover on climate and waterflow as calling for the appli-
cation of forestry, it should be understood that these considera-
tions apply mainly to specified localities, that some of the claimed
beneficial influences are often questionable or at least unproven,
and that moreover, the forest effects may be secured incidentally ;
the supply question remains uppermost, and is the more important.

It behooves, then, every forester to find justification for his art
and for his own existence in the answer to the inquiry which will
bring out the fact that natural supplies are waning, and are not
being replaced as fast as consumed.

Such inquiry involves knowledge on one hand, of the consump-
tion of wood products in the given country, the possibility and
probability of substituting other materials, and the opportunity of
supplying it wholly or in part, by importations and, on the other
hand, knowledge of the amount of standing timber ready for use,
the condition of the forest areas, as far as promise of reproduction
is concerned, and the rapidity with which such new growth may
become available.

' Presented before Section I, American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Washington, D. C, 1902.

42 Forestry Quarterly.

Ten years ago, the Chief Geographer of the United States
Geological Survey came out in print ' refuting the writer's con-
tention that a more conservative and rational forestry policy in
the United States was needed, because, he asserted, the relations
of forest growth to climatic, soil and water conditions are pre-
sumably of no practical significance, and because, in his opinion,
the timber growth in the United States is certainly renewing itself
much faster than it is being consumed.

This year, by a peculiar irony of fate, the Chief Geographer,
now also in charge of the survey of the Federal forest reserva-
tions, furnishes as compiler of the Statistics of the Lumber In-
dustry, in the Twelfth Census,^ the most satisfactory data upon
which to discuss the supply question, and to prove his position of
ten years ago wrong.

As I have pointed out elsewhere,^ both the gathering and the
interpretation of statistics of forest industries are beset with more
difficulties than are encountered in most other industries, largely
because of their very diversified character and the very scattered
and inaccessible locations of their sources. All census statistics
have the tendency to remain below the truth — ' ' some little pigs will
not let themselves be counted " — and the statistics of forest pro-
ducts are probably more subject to this defect than others.

The final object of census statistics is, of course, to furnish
basis not only for comparison between the various industries,
bringing out their relative importance, but also to record the
progress of development from decade to decade.

Unfortunately, for this last object e.specially, the absence of a
uniform method of enumeration from Census to Census, added to
the variable success of enumerators in securing information, ren-
der the data of uneven value ; a direct comparison would lead to
erroneous conclusions ; proper allowances must be made for de-
fects, variable from Census to Census, and only very general de-
ductions as to tendencies are admissible.

With this warning against the mathematical use and interpreta-
tion of available forest statistics, we propose to present the data of

'Washington Evening News, April i, 1893, and other places.

' Vol. IX, XII Census, Selected Industries, pp. 805, 1902.

'Quarterly Publication of the American Statistical Association, December,

189S.

Outlook of the Timber Stt-Pply. 43

the last Census and draw our conclusions as to Wv^ probable status
of the timber supply question in the United States.

The census of 1900 for the first time seems to have secured
tolerably full, although still incomplete, statistics of the lumber in-
dustry of the United States, which show that the estimate of the
writer, made a few years ago, of 40 billion feet B. M. annual
consumption, including all material requiring log and bolt size, is
as near the truth a« it can possibly be stated, for the saw mill
product is placed by the Census as 35 billion feet, precisely the
amount which the writer deduced from the reported saw mill
capacity in 1898,^ and the allowance of five billion feet for unenu-
merated amounts, staves and headings, railroad ties, round and
hewn timber used locally, telegraph poles, etc., is, indeed, hardly
sufficient. Since, however, in the census statistics there are un-
doubtedly duplications, we may perhaps still adhere, for all pur-
poses of economic discussion, to our round figure of forty billion
as representing fairly the present annual consumption. The
summary of the Census (1900) of the saw mills, planing mills and
timber camps stands as follows, saw mill product, output of plan-
ing mills, custom work, etc., and product of timber camps being
mixed together :

Number of establishments (reporting or existing?) 33,o35

Capital invested 1611,611,524

Salaried officials, 12,530 11,260,608

Wage earners, 283,260 104,640,591

Miscellaneous expenses I7.73i.5i9

Cost of materials used 317,923,548

Value of products, total 566,832,984

Saw mill |422,8i2,o6i

Planing mill 107,622,519

Timber camps 36,398,404

Quantity of sawed lumber, M. ft. B. M 35,084,166

Value of same 1390.489,873

The figure of $318,000,000 represents the cost of the logs and
all other materials at the various mills which produced the 35
billion feet of lumber and whatever other products were produced
in the mills. Discrepancies between the total reported output of
the logging camps (26 billion feet) and that of the saw mills
amounting to nearly 40 per cent. (!), are explained by the com-

^ H. Doc. 181, 55th Cong., 3d Sess., p. 119.

44 Forestry Quarterly.

piler as due to failure of small concerns reporting on the former
and to increase in the scale at the mill. There is enough con-
fusion in the various tabulations to also produce various differ-
ences in other aggregates.

The saw mills alone seem to have produced from materials
valued at $226,000,000 a product valued at $423,000,000. In ad-
dition to the 35 billion feet of lumber valued at $342,000,000,*
representing 81 per cent, of the whole, the following materials
were produced at the mills :

Value,
Material. Quantity. Million

Dollars.

Shingles M. 12,102,007 18.9

Hoops, M. 441.327 2.7

Staves, M. 1,664,792 13.7

Headings, M. 124,089 4.3

Bobbin and spool stock, M. ft 40,037 .5

Furniture stock, M. ft 105,305 1.9

Agricultural implement stock, M. ft 33,250 .6

Carriage and wagon stock, M. ft. 82,686 1.8

Pickets and paling, M. 35,804 .3

Laths, M. 2,523,998 4.7

All other sawed products 19.6

The mill product outside the lumber value was therefore round
$70,000,000.

While these represent reported amounts from regular mills and
logging camps connected with them, the independent lumber
camps added 3383 million feet of logs cut for mills, valued at
$20,600,000, and other materials, like logs for export, hewn
timber, railway ties, po.sts, poles, masts, spars, handle and cooper-
age stock, etc., aggregating about $15,000,000.

One very important item which apparently is not included in
the above statements, the pulp wood, forms the subject of a special
census, and adds over two and one-half million cords of log or
bolt size material to the above. The consumption of this manu-
facture alone has more than trebled in the last decade.

In addition to these enumerated amounts, there must be allow-
ance made, not only for what has escaped the enumerator in the
regular wood consuming establishments, but also the ver}' large

' In another table this is reported as ^385, 298,304, and the value of ma-
terials also figures differently.

Outlook of the Timber Supply. 45

amount of fuel wood consumption and other wood cut on farmers'
wood-lots for home use, which in some other part of the Census is
valued at round $110,000,000. According to the Tenth Census,
our consumption of fuel wood was at that time 146 million cords,
or 2.9 cords per capita. Assuming a substantial per capita reduc-
tion of this item, owing to increased use of coal, we may still
place the present fuel-wood consumption at not less than 180
million cords.

Now, in order to place all these items in a form which makes
them comparable to statements of wood production, it becomes
necessary to translate them into a unit measure, the cubic foot.

Such reduction brings the consumption of material for which
log and bolt sizes are indispensable con.servatively to about 7
billion cubic feet, (probably nearer 8 billion,) and since most of
our fuel wood is cut from similar material, we are perfectly safe in
placing our total consumption of " timberwood " (over 3 in.
diameter) for this general discussion at not less than 25 billion
cubic feet, an average figure which the writer has used before as
sufficiently near for an average of the last decade.

The next question is, are we increasing or decreasing our wood
consumption ? That, as the population increases, our total con-
sumption increases, will appear natural, but that the per capita
consumption has also constantly increased in spite of the enor-
mously increased production of coal, iron, steel, and the use of
other substitutes, will not so easily be admitted. For such an in-
vestigation, the defects in the gathering of census statistics above
cited become fatal. Nevertheless, if the disproportionate differ-
ence between the increase of population and of the consumption
is very large, we are safe at least to recognize a tendency.

Taking the census figures as reported for the lumber industry
for the last five decades, the increases from decade to decade show
the following percents :

i860.

1870.

1880.

1890.

1900.

Cost of raw materials 57

132

41

66

31

Value of lumber product _ 60

117

II

88

29

Increase in population^,. 36

23

30

25

22

Or, if we compare conditions at the beginning of the period
(1850) and at the end (1900), in the 50 years the population

46 Forestry Quarterly.

grew by 4.6% 'per annum in the average, namely from 23.2 to

76.3 million, the value of lumber product by 17%, namely from

60.4 to 566.8 million dollars, and the cost of materials by 20% >
namely from 28 to 317.9 million dollars. Making every allowance
for defects in the statistics and for advance in prices, the difference
is so large that a great increase in wood consumption per capita
can be confidently deduced.

If we compare only the figures for the last 20 years, which are
more reliable, we find the Tenth Census recording the value of
products at 233 million dollars, with a saw product of 18 billion
feet, as against the last Census, reporting 567 million dollars and
35 billion feet saw product. In other words, the quantity has
doubled, its value nearly trebled, in these 20 years, indicating a
change in value of 7 per cent annually in the average (or 4^^ per
cent compounding) and an increase in material of 5 per cent
in the average (or 3)^ per cent compounding). The popu-
lation during this period increased by 2.5 per cent in the average,
or, compounding, at 2 per cent, so that it appears that our per
capita consumption of lumber alone has increased at a compound
rate oi i}4 per cent, or an average rate per annum of 2)4 per cent
during the 20 years, not including exports, imports or much other
material not reported.

To assure us that this increase in per capita consumption is a
feature of modern industrial activity and higher civilization, not
confined to the United States, but pertaining to all civilized nations,
we may look at the import statistics of other nations, which give
quantities as well as values.

Great Britain, which is practically dependent on importations,
has large resources of coal, iron and stone and hence uses wood
probably, most economically, has increased its imports during the
last forty years at the rate of over 5% in the average (or com-
pounding at the rate of nearly 3%) while the population increased
by less than i % per annum.

' These figurings are at simple interest on the basis of the figures at the
beginning of the period. If a compound interest calculation is made the in-
crease in consumption will be found at the rate of somewhat more than 5
per cent, in cost of materials, while the population increased at somewhat
less than 2^ per cent., making the annual per capita increase in consump-
tion nearly 3 per cent, compounding, in which allowance for increase in price
is to be made.

Outlook of the Timber Supply. 47

France, which is also relying upon imports to a very large
extent shows a still more striking increase of importations namely
10% per annum for the last 70 years, while the population during
the whole period increased only 20%; here progressive deforesta-
tion may account for the great increase of imports.

But in Germany we know the cut at home has constantly in-
creased during the last 40 years or more, and yet the importations
have also increased. While in 1863 her exports of forest pro-
ducts still exceeded her imports by 125,000 tons, after that year
a remarkable change has taken place, and today Germany is next
to England the largest wood importer in the world, with over 4500
thousand tons excess over exports, worth over 75 million dollars,
an increase of 10% per annum in the average for the last 40 years,
(or, compounding, at the rate of over 4%) while the population
increased only 38% during the whole period. Even the fuel wood
consumption in Germany has not decreased in proportion to the
coal consumption, for from 1872 to 1896 the latter increased 103% ,
while the fuel wood consumption decreased only 18%,

All of which goes to show that a higher civilization and in-
creased industrial activity make more demand for such a service-
able material as wood. In spite of substitutions, new uses arise
to keep up the demand. And we in the United States who in the
sight of plenty are not wont to save, will probably continue to
increase our per capita consumption for some time at least at the
rate of Germany.

How are these increasing demands to be supplied ? When we
have used up our own stores, are there any others to draw on ?

Here we must first of all make a sharp distinction between the
kinds of wood that are needed for use in the arts.

Some years ago the writer was taken to task by one of the
lumber trade journals for asserting that the consumption of co-
niferous ' softwood ' material represented ^ of the total lumber
wood consumption, to which the pines contributed to the extent
of 50%. The present Census brings out precisely this proportion,
except that if the pulpwood is added, the importance of the conif-
erous material is still further accentuated.

The relative importance of the different species is for the first
time more fully and very satisfactorily brought out by the Census,
permitting the following tabulation :

48

Forestry Quarterly.

Conifers.
White Pine

Southern Pine (several species)

Hemlock

Spruce (and Balsam?)

Cypress

Norway Pine

Cedar

Tamarack

Eastern section

Red (Douglas) Fir

Hemlock

Yellow Pine (western)

Redwood _.

Cedar

Sugar Pine

Tamarack

Western section

All others

Total

Hardwoods (broad-leaved).

Oak (various species)

Poplar (Tulip)

Maple

Elm

Cottonwood

Basswood

Gum (Red)

Ash

Chestnut

Birch

Hickorv

Black Walnut

Sycamore

All others

Totals

Quantity.

Million feet

B. M.

7483

9580

i860

1448

496

259

115

9

1736

1560

1000

360

118

54
42

4438
11^5
633
456
415
308

285

269

207

133

97

39

30

208

21,250

4,870
33

26,153

8,633
34,786

Value. I Stumpage.
Thousands j Average values,
dollars. Dollars per M ft.

94,980

80,726

17,832

16,323

6,604

3,022

1,283

104

15,050

16,305

9.235

3,646

1,260

659
338

1,114
268,481

61,174
15,646

7,495
5,240
4,304
3,955
2,748
4,264

2,764
1,658

1,815

1,412

328

4,015

116,818

3-66
1.20
2.56
2.26
1.58
2.88
1.32
1. 00

•77

1. 12
1. 00

1.96

3- 18
2.81
2.66
3-30
1.45
1.50
1.68

3-03
2.71

5-00

The White Pine still leads the li.st, although the three or four
southern species of pines aggregated, exceed it in quantity,
though not in value. The relative accessibility to large quantities
of supplies predetermines, of course, largely the relative po.sition,
especially of the coniferous species, which can be readilj^ substi-
tuted by each other. The stumpage prices given in the table,
which are based on lumbermen's statements of the values of their
holdings, are, in most cases, considerably below the actual prices
now paid.

Outlook of the Timber Stipply. 49

To the statement for spruce, at least 1000 million feet must be
added for wood pulp, and for other species contributing to the
same industry, 300 million ; the cut on farms, which is placed at
nearly no million dollars in value, in part log and bolt size ma-
terial, not brought to mill, will have to be considered, probably,
for the most part, in the hardwood cut.

The hardwoods, to be sure, furnish the bulk of the fuel-wood,
and when it comes to a mere statement of wood volume, represent,
probably, the larger requirement of the total consumption, at least
in the United States. Nevertheless, in the arts and industries,
the softwoods are the important. These are to be found in
quantity QvAy in the north temperate zone, precisely that part of
the world where the wood consuming civilization is most highly
developed. The southern countries produce mainly the highly
ornamental but exceedingly hard woods, which are only of limited
application, hence relatively less important.

The densely populated, highly developed European countries
satisfy their requirements in excess of home production from the
less developed, thinly populated countries to the north and east,
Russia, Norway, Sweden. Austria-Hungary, as well as from
Canada and the United States.

The United States must rely upon its own resources and what-
ever her neighbor, Canada, can spare from its trans- Atlantic trade
with the mother country.

In the next paper, it is proposed, to discuss the conditions of
supply to meet our requirements.

B. E. Fernow.

NATURAL REPRODUCTION IN THE ADIRONDACK

FORESTS.

During the summer of 1901 , the writer was employed in making
a study of the reproduction of the commercial trees of the Adiron-
dack mountains. The work was done on Township 5, Hamilton
County, in connection with a forest survey of the township, made
at that time for the Forest, Fish and Game Commission by the
U. S. Bureau of Forestry.

A proper policy for the treatment of our forests depends, of
course, upon a knowledge of the reproduction of the trees. Such
knowledge is the more important because forests grow slowly.
With annual crops, a year or two may suffice to demonstrate the
truth or falsity of a theory ; but with forest crops it may require a
century for such demonstration. A proper forest policj' has in
view a perpetual forest of desirable species, and if any species is
to be kept in the forest by natural generation, the degree of
cutting must depend upon the facility with which it reproduces
itself in comparison with the reproduction of other species on the
same ground.

General impressions of the manner in which reproduction goes
on in the forest, or in fact, of any phenomenon of the forest, are
of little value. Conclusions should be drawn only from definite
and thorough study of the subject. The method followed in
making mj' study was about as follows : — Quarter-acre circles
were chosen here and there over the township referred to, but
were selected so as to give variety of conditions. Two young
boys assi-sted me. The radius of the circle was actually measured,
the boys running out from the center a tape line to the distance
of 59 feet. The trees just outside the circumference were blazed,
not only for the sake of accuracy, but so that I might be able at
any future time to find any one of the circles, in case such might
become important. The boys then measured off within this
blazed circumference eight squares, each 10 feet on a side, mark-
ing the corners with small stakes. These .squares were taken
upon the forest floor proper, evading old decaying trees that had
fallen upon the quarter-acre plot. From each of these .squares
the boys pulled up all the little growth of the commercial species.
This was done in order to get an actual and accurate count.

Nahiral Reproduction hi the Adirondack Forests. 51

The plants were separated into their different species, and each
species was divided into three classes which were called germi-
nated, seedlings, and juveniles. In the softwoods, or evergreens,
plants so young that they had not yet begun to branch, were called
germinated. Plants that had branched, but were not more than six
inches high, were called seedlings, and plants more than six
inches high but not more than one inch in diameter, were called
juveniles. In the opposite-leaved hardwoods, the ash and the
maple, a plant was not called a seedling until it had three sets of
leaves above the cotyledons or seed leaves ; and in the alternate-
leaved hardwoods not until it had four leaves above the seed
leaves. The seedlings and juveniles were classified as in the soft-
woods. A count and record were made of the number of each
class of each species. The counts on the eight squares were add-
ed together, and the sum was multiplied by 13.61 to determine the
growth upon the quarter-acre at the same rate.

Attention was then given to the old, rotting trunks that had fal-
len upon the quarter-acre plot. The boys pulled up all the little
trees growing upon them, and these were classified and counted
as already described.

All the trees above one inch in diameter found on the quarter-
acre were then calipered. Measurements were read to tenths of
an inch. These larger trees were also divided into three classes for
each species, called polewood, small timber, and large timber.
Polewood consisted of trees from i to 6 inches in diameter, the
latter inclusive. Trees from 7 to 10 inches were called small tim-
ber, and trees above 10 inches, large timber.

It was thought that other species of plants found upon the circle
might have a bearing of some importance upon the question. A
list was made of all these as far as the species could be determined.
Record was also made of the location of the circle, of the degree
of slope, and of the exposure of the plot. The degree of light ad-
mitted through the crown cover was stated in numerals from i to
10. Note was made of habit of growth, habit of branching, form
of bole, and, in fact, anything that would furnish a useful record.

It was intensel}' interesting to note the manner in which the re-
production was going on. The pine, spruce, and hemlock were,
of course, regenerating only from seed. Under the conditions pre-
vailing on that township — virgin forest, dense shade, much duff on

52 Forestry Quarterly.

the forest floor — these species were reproducing almost entirel}' on
the old, decaying tree trunks lying in the forest, and these trunks
were themselves pine, spruce, and hemlock. They were not repro-
ducing on old, decaying beech, birch, or maple trees. Occasionally
an old hemlock was found literally covered with little spruces and
hemlocks, while on the forest floor not a small tree of these species
was to be found upon the quarter-acre. Patches of young spruces,
from one to five or six feet high, were found apparently as if they
had germinated on the forest floor, but upon close examination
these were generally seen to be arranged in rows, which would in-
dicate that they had come from some such seed bed as old logs.
Frequently, too, the undecayed knots of an old hemlock could be
kicked up along the row.

It is true that these species were also found germinating and
growing on the forest floor. It was only, however, where the
mineral soil was exposed, and this is of rare occurrence in the
virgin forest ; usually it occurs only on steep slopes and at the
roots of upturned trees. Even in forests where lumbering has
been carried on, unless fire has burned off the humus, the mineral
soil is not much exposed. Skidding tears up the soil to only a
slight extent, not enough to warrant the assumption that a seed
bed will thus be furnished to reproduce the softwoods in sufficient
numbers to keep up a forest lumbered periodically.

When fire goes through a softwood forest, leaving here and
there a seed tree, the young growth comes up in abundance, for
the reason that the fire not only burns off the humus, exposing
the mineral soil, but it leaves a covering of ashes just suitable,
when leached into the soil, for encouraging the growth of the trees ;
in fact, just the mineral matter that the burned trees took from the
soil, the fire driving off into the air only the elements obtained from
the air. Along the line of the Canada Atlantic Railway from Otta-
wa to Parry Soinid can be seen miles of young White Pine as dense
as it can stand, where the fire has left only here and there a tall pine
with foliage, among the many dead, desolate remains of the once
flourishing forest.

Until spruce began to be lumbered for pulp, many large, defect-
ive trees were left in the woods by the lumberman, and even now
where pine is lumbered not all the trees are taken. It is well
known that defective trees often produce more fruit than those that

Natural Reprodzcdion in the Adirondack Forests. 53

are sound. It is a common practice among orchardists, when wish-
ing to remove an old orchard, to girdle the ,trees a year before re-
moval in order first to secure a large crop. Yet, where lumbering
in the mixed forest has been carried on periodically, if a forest is
left at all, it is bound to be a hardwood forest.

In the great pine forests of Canada, which the lumberman has
cut over even only the second time, the scarcity of young pines is
remarkable. If a fire runs over these lumbered forests leaving a
sufficient number of seed trees, a larger number of young pines
will appear. If, however, this young growth is again soon de-
stroyed by fire it will not reappear in the same abundance, as many
of the seed trees will be killed.

In a forest lumbered periodically, the regeneration of White Pine,
spruce, and hemlock is, then, largely dependent upon the exist-
ence of a good mineral seed bed. In the virgin forest they repro-
duce on old fallen, rotting pine, spruce, and hemlock trunks, and
are found very rarely on the forest floor. The balsam and cedar
in the dense forest reproduce somewhat more freely. In places
where the light is abundant they do fairly well on the forest floor.
The cedar reproduces abundantly from seed in old pasture fields.
In the swamps it is frequently regenerated from root suckers.

The hardwoods, especially the maple, birch, and beech, repro-
duce freely everywhere. The abundant regeneration of these as
compared with that of the softwoods is everywhere noticeable.
Almost any kind of a seed bed seems to be sufficient for them.

The softwoods are more exacting than the hardwoods in regard
to light requirements and are more easily injured by frost.
Nurserymen are careful in raising conifer seedlings to see that the
plants are shaded from the hot glare of the sun, and that the
screens are removed in continued cloudy or wet weather. In the
winter the beds are well covered with leaves to protect the plants
against the frost. No such careful treatment of hardwoods is
necessary. In the forest, then, it is only where the light condi-
tions are good, and sufficient protection is afforded in the winter
that the conifers can be reproduced.

But it is not only in the matter of seed bed and light conditions
that the hardwoods have the advantage, for they also sprout from
the root. Beech roots run frequently above the surface of the
soil, and these when wounded, as by the skidding of logs, send

54 Forestry Quarterly.

up bunches of suckers. Groups of from two to ten trees of
maple, birch, basswood, or in fact nearly any species of hard-
woods, can be frequently found growing from the same root. It
is common in the woods to see four or five basswood trees thus
situated, each more than a foot in diameter. To be sure, such
shoots from stumps or root are generally short lived, but they
take up the light space, and live long enough to produce seed.
To replace a softwood tree that is taken from the forest, another
must be grown from the seed ; but when a hardwood tree is re-
moved, many may spring from the root.

In case of fire, the hardwoods, as is well known, have the ad-
vantage. The softwoods are more open in structure of wood,
have thin bark, especially when young, and are resinous and
hence more easily burned. The hardwoods are not easily burned.
They are so resistant that a belt of hardwoods is often planted as
a protection to the softwood forest.

Since the hardwoods have the natural advantages mentioned,
it is evident that if the softwoods are to be maintained or increased
in the forest, they must receive artificial advantages. In a mixed
forest such advantage might be given by the removal of the hard-
woods, leaving the softwoods. This could be done only gradually,
for with a rapid removal of hardwoods the softwoods would be
overturned by the wind. It is well known, however, that trees
adapt themselves to changed conditions when these are brought
about gradually, and with a gradual removal of the hardwoods
the softwoods would send their roots deeper and become wind
firm.

Hardwoods, however, are difficult to remove. They are heavy
to handle, and since they float only with difficulty they cannot be
sent down the streams. It is only near large cities where fire-
wood is in great demand that the market is strong. Even if they
were removed, as the softwoods are very choice of seed bed, the
latter would not be reproduced sufficiently without special
preparation of the soil. With such preparation of the soil it
would not be necessary to depend entirely upon the seed trees
upon the ground, but seed might be collected from other trees and
sown in the forest.

Perhaps the best artifical advantage that can be given to the
softwoods is to raise them in nurseries from the seed, and trans-

Natural Reproduction in the Adirondack Forests. 55

plant them into the forest. That this is practicable and can be
done at little expense is shown by a plantation of half a million
trees, made last spring, in the Adirondack mountains, near Lake
Clear Junction, by the New York State Forest, Fish and Game
Commission. Over seven hundred acres of land was planted.
The total cost, including the purchase of the plant material, was
only $2,500, or half a cent a tree.

It is diflScult to give a definite statement of cost per acre. The
area planted contains marshy places, ledges of rock, logs, stumps,
and large bowlders. The more of these, the less, of course, was
the cost per acre, as such places had to be skipped in the planting.
No two large areas will have the same topography. Any other
area of 700 acres would differ considerably from the tract planted,
and hence would differ in cost per acre of planting. Perhaps the
fairest way to treat the matter is to give the cost per tree, which,
as stated above, was half a cent.

It should be stated, however, that this exceedingly low cost is
largely due to the fact that the College of Forestry furnished the
plant material at less than cost price. Credit is also due the Col-
lege for being the first to attempt such planting into the brush
and to demonstrate its silvicultural success. At Axton, where it
planted four years ago in the slash, and at Foresters where, three
years ago, a plantation was made in the lumbered forest, it is
estimated that 80 per cent, of the plants are still alive.

The choice of land made by the Commission evades the diffi-
culty of removing the hardwoods, as their planting is done on
burned lands, of which there are 60,000 acres in the Adirondack
Park. Every state has, no doubt, similar areas which afford an
excellent opportunity for planting.

A. Knechtei,.

ON THE FORM OF THE BOLE OF THE BA.LSAM FIR.

Two days leisure on the banks of the Raquette River in the
Adirondacks where pulpwood was being cut gave opportunity for
measuring the boles of ninety-four Balsam Fir trees. The num-
ber is far too small for a satisfactory study, but the results were
so suggestive that they are presented here in the hope that some-
one who has leisure and opportunity may be inspired to take up
the task of determining more accurately the constant for this
species.

The trees measured grew on a sandy loam of somewhat swampy
tendencies on the east bank of the Raquette River, Township 23,
Franklin County, New York, at an elevation of about 1600 feet.
The trees varied in diameter from 6 to 14 inches, and in height
from 50 to 76 feet. A majority were approximately 60 years old,
while a minority varied from 45 to 160 years. They were almost
all quite sound and of thrifty growth. The measurements were
taken in the metric sj-stem to facilitate computation, and com-
parison with the volumes given in Baur's and Schiffel's volume
tables of the Norway Spruce. For the purposes of this note the
more important measurements have been translated into feet and
inches. The stems were measured sectionwise, the sections being
two meters long. The diameter was measured at the center of
each section by calipering twice at right angles, the average of
the two readings correct to the millimeter being taken. The
diameter was similarly measured at ^ and Y2 height. Wherever
irregularities were met the diameter was taken above and below
the point and the mean taken. The total length of stem was
noted, also the length of top above a diameter of 4 inches.

The accompanying figure represents graphically the form of the
stem of two average and two individual trees. The height of the
figure vertically representing the tree height of 65 feet. The
diameters are represented on a somewhat larger scale horizontally.
The line at the center of the figure represents the middle point of
the boles. The curved lines representing the outline of the boles
terminate at breast-height which was the lowest point measured.

The heavy full line represents the average form of 14 trees of
65 feet in height. The influence of the enlarged base of the bole
(root-swelling) is appreciable at the breast-high point, and gives

S>ocV»a«x Z\r At 5«^

Form of the Bole of the Balsam Fir. 57

the stem a neiloid form. At a height of about 11 feet this neiloid
form changes over to that of the paraboloid which obtains to the
top of the tree, becoming to be sure more and more conical as we
near the top, but never quite assuming the form of a true cone.
Similar average diameter measurements of stems of other heights
indicated in each case the same essential features, viz., that the
bole above the neiloid portion at the base is fairly cylindrical up
to the middle point, and that beyond this it falls rapidly away to
a conical form which terminates in a very long slender conical
top, averaging, in the 65-foot trees, 16 feet above the 4 inch
diameter point.

The heavy broken line of the figure represents the average bole
of a Norway Spruce of the same height and the same diameters
at breast-high and the middle point. ^ It will be noticed that up
to the middle point the variation was so slight that it could not
be represented in the figure, but that in the upper half of the
bole the Balsam Fir is markedly more conical than the Norway
Spruce.

The volume of the bole above the 4 inch point (the un-
merchantable portion when cut for pulp) proved to be about 3%
of the whole stem in the trees measured. This is noticeably
larger than that of the Red Spruce of similar dimensions. As
intimated in a previous paper ^ the form factors of all the stems
were calculated from the sectional measurements and were com-
pared with the form quotient obtained by dividing the breast-high
diameter (af) into the middle diameter (S) multiplied by 100.
The results for the individual trees were classified according to
breast-high diameter, height, form factor, form quotient, and age.
The facts brought out by this classification will be indicated
briefly in the following paragraphs, and while the small number
of trees examined must not be overlooked, the results as far as
the data went were sufficiently uniform to induce the belief that
they are in the main correct.

Form Factor: The average form factor for the 94 trees was
45.7. That it fell with increasing height, as all form factors
based on the diameter at breast-high must fall, goes without say-

1 Form und Inhalt der Fichte : Adalbert Schiffel. Mittheil. a. d. Forstl.
Versuchsw. Osterreicbs. Heft 24. 1899.
* Forestry Quarterly, Vol. I., No. i., p. 11.

58 Forestry Quarterly.

ing It also fell with constant heights but increasing diameters,
indicating that the more thrifty trees were relatively more conical.
This fall in the/ was approximately one point for every increase
of .8 inch in diameter.

Form Quotient: The average form quotient (^j^) was 67.57.
The form quotient was found to be influenced in character and
amount in an almost entirely similar manner as the form factor.
This will be fully shown by a study of

The Constant: The constant (<:), i.e. the difference between the
form factor and the form quotient, was found to be 21.87 on an
average of the 94 trees. Variations in height were without in-
fluence upon it as is shown by the following summary :

Number

Height.

Constant

of tret

Trees under 54 feet.

21.6

3

54 to 61 "

21.8

21

" 61 to 67 "

22.

43

" 67 to 74 "

. 21.3

17

" over 74 "

22.1

10

Variations in diameter were also without appreciable effect. The
diameters and their constants are as follows :

Number
of trees.
18
23
23
16
8

The data are as follows :

Number

of trees.

10

43
9

15
8

The only consistent variation observed in the c was a gradual
rise with the rise of the form quotient and form factor, the former
rising slightly more rapidly than the latter, due, apparently, to a
relatively more sudden tapering off above the middle point in trees
which are more cylindrical in the lower half of the bole. This
variation is of practical importance in volume determinations

Diameter.

Constant.

8 to 9 inches

22.2

9 to ID "

22.2

10 to II "

21.6

II to 12 "

21.0

Over 12 "

21.6

)ns in age were without effect.

Age.

Constant.

Under 50 years
Between 50 and 60 years
" 60 and 70 "

22.1
21.2
21.5

" 70 and 100 "

21.8

Over 100 years

21.8

Form of the Bole of the Balsam Fir. 59

where the form factors of the sample trees are taken from stand-
ing trees by the formula /= {~ x 100)— <r. According to the

measurements on these trees, however, the error due to this varia-
tion would be less than =b 2.5%. The figures are as follows :

Form

Number

quotient.

Co7istant.

of trees.

58-60

20.9

2

61-63

21.0

6

64-66

21.3

27

67-69

22.1

32

70-72

22.3

22

73-75

22.9

5

The average constant for the Balsam Fir as shown by this study
proves to be practically 21.9 as compared with 21 for the Norway
Spruce and 20 for the Scotch Pine. The variation of individual
trees from the average was considerable but in no case excessive.
The largest c for a single tree was 24.1, the smallest 19.7, indi-
cating a maximum error in volume determinations from form
factors derived by formula of less than ±6% for individual trees.
This error would be greater for the individual trees where the
middle diameter is measured in standing trees, but as it is a com-
pensating error it would certainly be inconsiderable where a fair
number of sample trees are used.

The two trees of 65 feet height showing maximum variation
from the average of the 14 of that height are shown in the figure by
a light broken line (No. 59, <:= 23), and a light full line (No. 41,
c =■ 20.3) respectively. It will be seen that No. 41 is a very coni-
cal tree (form quotient, 63.6) while with No. 59 (form quotient,
72.4) qiiite the reverse is the case. This illustrates what has
already been said of the c rising somewhat with the rise of the
form quotient. I was interested to compare the volume obtained
by sectional measuring of 54 of the trees ranging in height from
59 to 69 feet with that obtained by using volume tables built on
the older and newer bases. The only tables available for such a
comparison are those prepared for the European or Norway Spruce
by Baur and Schiffel. Measurement by sections gave a volume of
874.7 cubic feet. Schiffel's tables (based on height, and diameter

classes, and the — relationship) gave 898.7 cubic feet, or an error

6o Forest jy Quarterly.

of -f- 2.8%. Baur's tables (based on height, diameter and age
classes) gave 1009.8 cubic feet or an error of + 15.4'^. The re-
sult with Schiffel's tables inspires the suggestion that, where vol-
ume tables are wanting these volume tables ma)' be u.sed for any
coniferous species without any considerable error where the con-
.stant for the species is known.

A partial difi&culty was met, however, in that different species
may be essentially different in their relative height and diameter
dimensions. I found no great difficulty in using Schiffel's tables
for the Balsam Fir, but in an attempt to do the .same with the Red
Spruce I was constantly finding combinations of dimensions for
which there was no corresponding volumes worked out in the
tables, due to the fact that such combinations do not occur in the
Norway Spruce. For example, a Red Spruce cut on Moose Mt.
gave the following measurements: height, 21 meters; diameter,
41 cm ; qy^, 74. On referring to Schiffel's table (p. iii) I found
that he gave volumes for trees of 2 1 meters height and a form
quotient of 74. but only for diameters from 17 to 27 C7n !

JuDSON F. Clark.

Since the above article was sent to the printer a kind friend has
expressed the opinion that the reader has not had a sufficient
explanation of the character of Schiffel's volume tables to ap-
preciate my suggestion that they might be used for our species,
provided the constant for the different species were determined.
I shall therefore review and add a few words to the explanation
given in my previous paper.

The data for these tables were obtained by very careful section-
wi.se measurement of 2529 stems of Norway Spruce. These
measurements were classified according to height, diameter at the
middle point, and diameter breast-high. From these data curves
were drawn enabling the investigator to correctlj^ average his re-
sults and to interpolate for dimensions which were not met in the
preliminary taking of the data. From these curves a series of
tables were constructed from which the volume of an}' tree of
known height, form quotient, and breast-high diameter might be
readily read off without calculation.

The individual trees of any species vary greatly in form, but it
stands to reason that if two trees of the same species measure the

Forvi of the Bole of the Balsam Fir. 6 1

same at breast-high and at the middle point of the bole, and are
of the same height they cannot vary greatly in vohime. This third
factor, the relative diameter at the middle point, is the basic
principle which separates these tables from all others. It is this
which makes the same table applicable to stands of all ages and
grown under all silvicultural conditions, notwithstanding the fact
that changes in environment and development may produce
changes in the form of the bole which result in variations of over
20% in the cubic content of stems having the same height and
breast-high diameter, and grown side by side in the same stand.
Some of the trees from various causes or combinations of causes
are in any stand much more cylindrical than their neighbors. If,
however, we look for the volumes of two trees, varying essential-
ly in form of bole in Schiffel's tables the larger diameter at the
middle point places the more cylindrical tree in a very different
table from that used for its conical neighbor.

Another point in this connection might bear repeating and ad-
dition. So far as the constant has been determined for the dif-
ferent species it has been shown to be remarkably uniform. That
for the Scotch Pine in Europe is 20, Norway Spruce 21,
European Beech 22 to 23, Balsam Fir, so far as examined, 21.9.
I have also examined a few trees of Hemlock, Tamarack, Red
Spruce, White Cedar, and Pitch Pine (/*. rigida) all of which in-
dicated a constant not greatly differing from that of the Norway
Spruce. 37 trees of White Pine, averaging 260 years old and
about 143 ft. in height gave by far the highest result, viz., 24.
This high constant in this case was due to the excessive enlarge-
ment at the base of the boles shown by the trees studied, and is
probably an extreme case. In any event, the constant being
known, it is a simple matter to determine the per cent, which
must be added to or subtracted from the volume read from the
tables for any given species to get the correct content.

The enlargement of the tables so as to provide for all combina-
tions of dimensions which may be met in field work with our
eastern conifers is a large task. My studies in interpolation by
means of curves where necessary has led me to believe that it is
possible that a solution of the problem lies in this direction, very
satisfactory results having been obtained in interpolating for the
Red Spruce and the White Pine,

J. F. C.

CURRENT LITERATURE AND REVIEWS.

Annual Report of the Commissioner of the Geiieral Land Office.

Pp. I20.

Much information of interest and value regarding the forest
re.serves is contained in this report.

Complete lists of the forest reserves are given, together with
their areas, the state or territory in which the}' are situated, and
the per cent of its total area which they cover.

The area* of sixty million acres comprised in the fifty-four
reserves is entirely in the region west of the 95th meridian ; it is
distributed through a great variety of conditions ; in climate, from
the excessive humidity of the Pacific slope to the aridity of the
southwestern deserts ; in timber, from the magnificent volume of
the firs and spruces of Washington to the dwarf cacti of Arizona.
These reserved areas should, both directly and indirectly, prove
of great value to the nation.

The great step of making these reserves having been taken,
there must follow two greater ones : that of maintaining them and
that of properly utilizing them.

The force of rangers employed in protecting the reserves varied
during the past year from 425 to 124. To expect such a force to
protect 60,000,000 acres is nothing less than hopeless.

Concerning the utilization of the reserves, with little exaggera-
tion it may be said that the government receives no direct profit
from them ; only sixty-.six million feet, board measure, and sixty-
six thousand cords of wood having been sold, or in all less than
one-quarter the amount yearlj' taken from the Adirondack region.
On only one reserve, that of the Black Hills does an established sys-
tem of timber sales exist. Indirect profit ensues from the utiliza-
tion of the reserves for grazing ; yet the people as a whole should
not be expected to maintain, at their expense, grazing grounds for
the free use of a few.

* Since the publication of this report the following additional reserves
have been created :

St. Mary Forest Reserve, Montana 1,800,000 acres

Chippewa Forest Reserve, Minnesota 200,000 acres

Kootenai Forest Reserve, Montana-Idaho 1,276,000 acres

Current Literature and Reviews. 63

The government policy of donating public lands to wagon road
and railroad companies is still being actively pursued ; on page 53
the following statement is made :

' ' There have been certified and patented during the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1902, under the several land grants made by Con-
gress to aid the construction of railroads and wagon roads 5,008,-
132 acres of land, an increase as compared with the preceding
year of 2,371,780 acres."

The Hon. Binger Hermann, Commissioner of the General lyand
Office, in summary makes a number of recommendations, of
which the following have special interest :

4. Renews recommendation of a repeal of existing laws with
regard to timber on the unreserved public lands, and the passage
in their stead of a general law which will provide ample protec-
tion for the forests and at the same time furnish a means by which
monopolies, settlers, miners, and others may secure a sufficient
supply of timber for their legitimate needs.

5. Recommends larger appropriation for an increased number
of special agents for the prevention of depredations upon public
timber and protection of the public lands from unlawful entry or
appropriation.

6. Renews recommendation of a change in the law providing
for an exchange of lands embraced in forest reserves held by pri-
vate owners for public lands not in reservation, so as to secure an
approximation in value of the lands relinquished with those
selected in lieu thereof.

Message from the President of the United States : transmitting
A Report of the Secretary of Agriculture in Relation to the
Forests, Rivers, and Mountains of the Southern Appalachian
Region. Pp. 208 ; PI. 78.

This report is the result of extensive investigations authorized
by the last Congress. It includes the following subordinate re-
ports of independent investigators : Forests and Forest Condi-
tions in the Southern Appalachians, by H. B. Ayers and W. W.
Ashe ; lyumbering in the Southern Appalachians, by Overton
W. Price ; Description of the Southern Appalachian Forests by
River Basins, by H. B. Ayers and W. W. Ashe ; Trees of the
Southern Appalachians, by W. W. Ashe and H. B. Ayers ;
List of Shrubs of the Southern Appalachians, by W. W. Ashe ;

64 Forestry Quarterly.

Topography and Geology of the Southern Appalachians, by
Arthur Keith ; Hydrography of the Southern Appalachians, by
H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers ; Climate of the Southern Ap-
palachians, by Alfred J. Henry.

The Conclusions of the Secretary of Agriculture are sum-
marized as follows in his report :

" I. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the highest
peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is
the great physiographic feature of the eastern half of the con-
tinent, and no such lofty mountains are covered with hard- wood
forests in all North America.

" 2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of
the United States, except that of the Pacific Coast. It is often of
extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven
hours, 31 inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year.

"3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by tor-
rential rains, rapidly loses first its humus, then its rich upper
strata, and finally is washed in enormous volume into the
streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as are not eroded by
the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to fill up the harbors on
the coast. More good soil is now washed from these cleared
mountain-side fields during a single heav}' rain than during cen-
turies under forest cover.

' ' 4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appalachians
flow into or along the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf
and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses
are agricultural, water-power, and navigation interests whose
preservation is absolutely essential to the well-being of the nation.

"5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be ac-
complished only by the conservation of the forests,

' '6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood forests
of the Continent. In them species from east and west, from
north and south, mingle in a growth of unparalled richness and
variety. They contain many species of the first commercial value,
and furnish important supplies which can not be obtained from
any other region.

"7. For economic reasons the preservation of these forests is
imperative. Their existence in good condition is essential to the
prosperity of the lowlands through which their waters run.

Current Literature and Reviews. 65

Maintained in productive condition they will supply indispensa-
ble materials, which must fail without them. Their management
under practical and conservative forestry will sustain and increase
the resources of this region and of the nation at large, will serve
as an invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practicability
of forest preservation by use, and will soon be self-supporting
from the sale of timber.

"8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appalachian
region must be protected and preserved. To that end the preser-
vation of the forests is an indispensable condition, which will
lead not to the reduction but to the increase of the yield of agri-
cultural products.

"9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest
destruction continues, will increase in frequency and violence and
in the extent of their damages, both within this region and across
the bordering states. The extent of these damages, like those
from the washing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be
estimated with perfect accuracy, but during the present year alone
the total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum sufficient to pur-
chase the entire area recommended for the proposed reserve.
But this loss can not be estimated in money value alone. Its con-
tinuance means the early destruction of conditions most valuable
to the nation and which neither skill nor wealth can restore.

"10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of
the agricultural interests here described can be successfully ac-
complished only by the purchase and creation of a national forest
reserve. The States of the Southern Appalachian region own
little or no land, and their revenues are inadequate to carry out this
plan. Federal action is obviously necessary, is fully justified by
reasons of public necessity, and may be expected to have most
fortunate results."

The bill for the founding of the Appalachian Reserve which was
so strongly pushed in Washington last year will undoubtedly be
passed this winter. The founding of the proposed Reserve will
mark a new epoch in the forestry history of this country.
Rational forest management inaugurated here will undoubtedly
react favorably on the management of the Western Reserves.

66 . Forestry Quarterly.

Economics of Forestry. By B. E. Fernow. Thos. Y. Crowell &
Co., New York, 1902. Pp.520. 8°. Price, $1.50.

This "reference book for students of political economy and
professional and lay students of forestry," one of a series in the
publishers' Library of Economics and Politics, comes just from
the press as the Quarterly goes to the printer. We can, there-
fore, only give this brief notice of its appearance and of its con-
tents.

The subject is discussed in 12 chapters : First comes an intro-
ductory chapter: The Relation of the State to Natural Resources.
The second chapter : The Forest as a Resource sums up the
character of this national asset " which is second only to agricult-
ure in its importance." The other chapters are : The Forest as
a Condition ; Forest and Forestry Defined ; Factors of Forest Pro-
duction and Business Aspects ; Natural History of the Forest ;
Methods of Forest Crop Production : Silviculture ; Methods of
Business Conduct : Forest Economy ; Principles and Methods of
Forest Policy ; Forest Policies of Foreign Nations ; Forest Con-
ditions of the United States ; The Forestry Movement in the
United States.

An appendix of 78 pages adds a large amount of statistical in-
formation, in which the whole book abounds; and 17 pages of
bibliography, with special reference to American literature, with
a full index, completes the book.

The publishers introduce the volume with a reference to Presi-
dent Roosevelt's expressions regarding the vital importance of
forest supplies, and with the statement that Dr. Fernow " has
here gathered together more facts on this great subject than were
ever before presented within the covers of a single volume,"
which the author in the preface claims to be the first of its kind
in the English language. In this claim the publisher and author
have perhaps not given full credit to H. Doc. 181, by the same
author, which hitherto could claim that position.

The author having been for twelve years in charge of the Fed-
eral Forestry Division in Washington during the period of its
gradual development, which has made its present expan.sion into a
Bureau possible, and as an active officer of the American Forestry
Association during its entire history of existence, has had unusual
opportunities to speak from personal observation and active par-
ticipation in the development of the.se policies.

Ciirrent Literahire and Reviews. 67

Monographia del Castagrio} By Lodovico Piccioli ; Chief Di-
rector of the Forests of Siena. Pp. 178, Fig. 60.

The most comprehensive work on chestnut culture for the
fruit that has yet been pubHshed.

It is especially apropos and valuable in this country because of
the increasing importance of chestnut culture and the work being
done in New York and Pennsylvania on the subject.

It contains chapters on : The Structure of the Wood ; The
Origin of the Cultivated Varieties ; Distribution ; Silvicultural
Characteristics ; Its Requirements ; Collection and Keeping of
the Fruit ; Coppiceing and Grafting ; Nursery Practice ; Sowing
and Planting ; Mature Woods ; Utilization of the Fruit ; Diseases.

A Manual of Forest Engineering for India. By Charles Gilbert
Rogers. Vol. II. Office of the Superintendent of Public
Printing, Calcutta, India. Price, six shillings. Pp. 256.
Fig. 118.

Volume II of the Manual of Forest Engineering for India con-
tains an extensive treatise on road and bridge construction appli-
cable in forest work. The subjects are treated in a practical as
well as a theoretical way. The application of the principles given
would in no way be confined to India.

The work is the best of its kind that has appeared in English.
It will prove of great value to the managing forester.

Report of the Third Anntial Meeting of the Canadian Forestry As-
sociation. 1902, Pp. 128.

The minutes and the papers read at the meeting are printed in
this report. In the discussions a number of points of interest to
Canadians were touched upon.

Thomas Southworth, Director of Forestry for Ontario, brings
together much matter regarding the timber laws and the public
forest lands.

Austin Cary, Forester to the Berlin Mills Company, in a paper^
read before the meeting, gives .some valuable information on con-
servative lumbering of spruce ; from which we make the follow-
ing selections :

' Castanea sativa Mill.

'The Management of Pulpwood Forests.

68 Forestry Quarterly.

" As for conservative cutting of spruce woods, I will say first
and most emphatically that we find it a difiicult and risky process,
one that is likely to bring more loss than gain unless done with
great care and considerable skill. It may be different in other
countries, but that is the case here. Our timber is typically large
and tall ; much of it stands in exposed situations, on ridges and
mountains ; much is on extremely rocky land. The winds are
constantly damaging our native uncut stands, and the thinning of
woods in all such places as above is either entirely impracticable
or must be done with the greatest caution to insure that what is
left standing will not blow down."

' ' According to my observation a logging boss trained to hard
cutting when told that we wish to cut conservativel}' is pretty
sure to leave what he does leave not in the shape of small growth
so much as in strips of scattering timber and odd corners on rough
and difficult ground. This makes the logging show up cheaper,
but it may be, on the other hand, that what is left standing is the
very stuff that most needs cutting of any on the land. In other
words as a first result instead of thinning or conservative cutting
we are apt to get simply slack cutting.

When this has been corrected and the man gets a better notion
of what we are about, his next move is to leave the small growth
uniformly all over the land. This may do in some countries, but
it means loss here. Tall and slender trees left too open, an}^-
thing less than a full stand on divides and knolls, tall timber
shoally rooted on rocky land, these items together may amount
to a good deal in a logging job and all of them are such that
sooner or later they are sure to blow down."

And, finally, this passage is worthy of note, not merely for its
bearing on this particular problem but as a general opinion of one
of our most successful practitioners :

"What has been lately written gives a clue to the motive for
conservative cutting as we practice it. We have not .settled down
to the European idea of sustained yield, of running a business of
a certain volume for ever from a given tract of land. Whatever
has been said, I do not believe that any business concern in the
United States, knowing what it means, has settled on that. The
reason is that we have large tracts of timber that badly need cut-
ting, and the sooner we can get over them, saving the dead and
declining stuff and putting them in shape to grow, the better it
will be. This is the chief motive, and, balanced by considerations
of cost and practicability, is the key to our operations along this
line. Of course, expected growth is a consideration as far as it is
not offset by windfall. Then we believe that in the future better
stumpage can be had on the smaller classes of timber."

Current Literahire and Reviews. "69

Mr. Gary takes a radical stand, and, contrasted with that of
other investigators under similar, almost identical conditions, it is
a startling one. Undoubtedly what our woods now need is less
theory and more practice, less poor measuring, more good silvi-
culture.

Report of the Director of the Experiment Farms, Department of
Agriadttire, Canada, 1901.

In this report will be found a short account of the experiments
in tree planting on Sable Island, an attempt at the fixation of
shifting sands.

Report of the Con7iecticut Board of Agricidture 1901. Pp. 320.

In this report are reprinted two interesting addresses before the
Agricultural Convention :

Forestry for the Farmer, by Walter Mulford, State Forester,
and The Yale Forest School and Its Purposes, by Henry S.
Graves, Director of the Yale Forest School.

Special Report of Capt. George P. Aher7i, in Charge of Forestry
Bureau Philippine Islands. Government Printing Ofl&ce,
Washington, D. C, 1901. Pp. 60, PI. 33.

This report gives an excellent idea of the forest and lumbering
conditions in the islands. The forest service consists of the offi-
cer in charge and the following assistants ; four Foresters at $200
per month, four Inspectors at $150, ten Assistant Foresters at $50,
thirty Rangers at $30, a Chief Clerk at $100, a Botanist at $100
and a Translator.

All timber cut on public land is cut by license. Each ship-
ment of forest products must be classified, measured, and orders
of payment issued, all of which requires considerable training,
inasmuch as one hundred and sixty varieties of native tree species
are received in the market, not to mention many varieties of dye-
woods, gums, resins, etc., with all of which the official must be
thoroughly acquainted and able to promptly classify and appraise ;
this in addition to his duties in charge of the forests of his district,
running his office, and instructing ignorant native loggers in the
rudiments of the forestry regulations.

Each shipment of forest products is inspected by a forestry
official and each log stamped with the Bureau mark. A manifest

7CS Forestry Quarterly.

is made and a copy sent to Manila. The manifest shows the
name of the licensee, location of cutting, dimensions and value of
each log cut, and the name of the tree species. A glance at this
cop3' in Manila shows whether the regulations are being followed.

Under the Spanish administration licensees cut what they
pleased. Trees to be felled were not selected, no minimum size
was prescribed, valuable rubber and gutta percha trees were felled,
and the most valuable woods used as fire wood.

The Philippine Islands contain about seventy million acres, of
which about fifty million are covered with forests. In the neigh-
borhood of densely populated centers and along the main travelled
routes timber is scarce. More distant from these sections "vast
virgin forests are met with, rich in valuable hardwoods, dye-
woods, gums and other products." In the southwestern islands
the virgin forest extends from the water's edge to the topmost
summits of the mountains.

The number of tree species in the islands is astonishing to the
American and marvellous to the European ; .six hundred and
sixty-five have already been listed, one hundred and sixty are in
common use. The qualities and values of these woods vary
greatly.

For purposes of sale the government has classified these into
six groups, the prices, in Mexican money per cubic foot, paid for
state timber in these groups is as follows: Superior, 14 cents;
First, 10 cents; Second, 8 cents; Third, 3 cents; Fourth, 2
cents ; Fifth, i cent. Only groups three, four and five may be
cut for fuel.

The present output of native timber is entirely inadequate to
supply the home market, and large quantities are imported. The
prices current in Manila for superior and first group woods are
$1.50 to $6.00 Mexican per cubic foot. Rough lumber brings
from 25 to 50 cents Mexican per running foot.

Timber : A Coynprehensive Study of Wood in all its Aspects. By
Paul Charpentier, translated from the French by Joseph
Kennel. Scott, Greenwood & Co., London. 1902. 8°. Pp.
437-

The dearth of English books on forestry in general, and espe-
cially on specific branches, leads us to look with eager anticipa-
tion at the announcement of any such work.

Current Literature a7id Reviews. 71

"Timber: A Comprehensive Study of Wood in all its As-
pects," is the ambitious and rather misleading title of a new book
treating on various branches of forestry.

Part I is devoted to a brief study of the histology of woody
stems, and also includes some notes on the chemical composition
and physical properties of wood. Part II is a brief description of
the timber trees of the world, partially illustrated, and with notes
on their value from silvicultural standpoints. The taxonomy is
very antiquated, and in many cases the specific and even generic
name is omitted. The list of timber trees given is extremely in-
complete ; for example, only two American pines (Pinus rigida
and Pinus strobus) are mentioned.

In Part IV is a chapter on silviculture, and one on exploitation,
and a review of the forests and forest resources of all countries of
the world. The forests of Europe and of the French colonies re-
ceive the most attention. In speaking of America the author an-
nounces that a discussion of the forests of the whole continent
would carry him too far and therefore he limits his remarks to
the forests of the State of Maine. One quotation is perhaps
sufficient to indicate the general accuracy of this effort. " Planks
about 100 feet long and 6^ feet broad without a single knot are
current merchandise. The planks are obtained from giant fir
trees. The forests producing these firs are so vast that, although
saw mills of the neighborhood have sold 500,000,000 feet of
lumber per year for the last ten years, the voids made by this vast
consumption hardly seem to have left any trace beyond the forma-
tion of forest paths."

Part V devotes some sixty pages to the decay of wood and
methods of prevention, and to the fireproofing of timber. On
page 304 we are informed that the most essential cause of altera-
tion in wood is found in the "great affinity of its carbon to
oxygen, an affinity which is favored by alternations of dryness
and dampness" and which finally results in " the conversion of
the timber into a greyish or brownish powder " !

Part VI is devoted to the various applications of timber and
other forest products. The chapters on gums, resins, tannin,
dyes and similar products are by far the best in the book, and are
the redeeming feature of a work that is chiefly characterized by
vagueness, inaccuracy and abominable English.

7 2 Forestry Qua rterly .

Leitfaden fur schiveiz. Uyiterfdrstcr- u. Baynnvartenk^irse . By
Dr. Franz Fatikhauser. i Teil. Einleitung, Standortskunde,
Forstbotanik uud Waldbau. Pp. x+182. 111. Bern, 1902.

A handy manual of practical forestry containing brief defini-
tions and notes regarding the forests and forestry of Switzerland
but with little of direct interest to us. It is practical forestry con-
densed for the use of Swiss underforesters.

The chapter on Site we find of more than local value and it is
interesting to note the method of treatment. It is in the chapter
on Forest Botany, however, that the author excites our envy. If
only we had such descriptions of a half-hundred of our principal
timber trees with such emphasis on their silvicultural require-
ments and possibilities as are here given in concisest form for the
Swiss species how much better could the young forester orient
himself in .silviculture !

The chapter on Silviculture proper deals too much with details
of practices which are as yet too expensive for our conditions.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Vol. IvIV. Part II.

Contains a paper. Two Fungus Diseases of the White Cedar,
by John W. Harshberger, Ph.D., which gives an extensive ac-
count of the injury done to the white cedar in the swamps of
New Jerse}' by Gyninosporangitini biseptatjcm and G. Ellisii.

The JVoodsman's Handbook, Part I. By Henrj' Solon Graves.
Bulletin No. 36, Bureau of Forestry. Pp. 148, PI. i, Figs 15.

The major part of this handy little volume is taken up by a
comparison of the 43 different log rules in use in the United
States and Canada. The tables give the log diameters in even
inches from six to sixtj', and the corresponding volumes for 12,
16, and 20 foot logs. A short history and description of the
method of volume determination is given for each rule. The
Scribner, Doyle, New Brunswick, Nineteen Inch Standard and
the Twenty Four Inch Standard rules are given in full.

A number of handy tables for the reduction of logs to square
timbers, for cubic contents of logs, for cordwood measurements
etc., are included. The remainder of the volume is occupied by

Current Literahire and Reviews. 73

more or less rough volume tables of the commoner Eastern
species and short accounts of various field operations and instru-
ments. If this handbook does nothing else than bring before the
trade the incongruities existing in the log rules it will have served
a worthy purpose.

Among Green Trees. By Julia Ellen Rogers, A. W. Mumford,
1902. Pp. 202, 8", $3.00.

This elegant and beautifully illustrated volume does not pre-
tend to be more than a popular book, we nevertheless give it a
mention here because it is the first in the English language to
dwell at length upon the physiology and phaenology of tree life.

Although written in a pleasing style and with a good general
knowledge of tree life, there are unfortunately to be found in it
many of the half-truths, inaccurate and even incorrect statements,
which characterize most popular books quite unnecessarily.

The Lumber Trade Journal, of Neiv Orleans.
Decetnber ist.

The Journal makes the following comment on the departure
of thirty-six men of the Bureau of Forestry to make a working
plan for the Kirby lyUmber Company of Texas.

" The Kirby interests include timber largely en masse and of a
character, both in extent and physical aspect, to invite scientific
manipulation and assure the very best attainable results.

Upon the part of the holders of less formidable tracts, there
is no perceptible disposition to apply similar treatment, and the
prospect for anything like a general adoption of the Kirby pol.
icy is accordingly unpromising. In ordinary or typical cases, the
Journal hears of no similar action in the South and expects to
hear of practically none in the future."

Allgememe Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung, 1902.

Ueber Registrierkluppeii. By Dr. U. Miiller. Pp. 262-266.

A brief discussion of the development of self-registering cali-
pers from the beginnings of Wolf in 1850, serves as introductory.
The body of the paper is taken up with a comparison of the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of self-recording calipers in general ,
and of the three makes known as Hirschf eld's, Wimmenauer's
and Hohenadl's.

74 Forestry Quarterly .

Among the disadvantages of a general character may be noted
the necessity of caHpering the mixed stand once for each species,
an objection which will for a long time preclude the introduction
of such calipers into work in this country. The impossibility of
checking the results obtained by the use of this instrument as well
as the added weight the recording apparatus brings in are items
to be considered.

Revue des Eaux et Forets.
October ist.

Une Invasion de Pissodes. By E. Henry. An account of an
insect {Pissodes notatus), destructive to young pine plantations.
Under the heading, Chronique Forestiere, an account of the an-
nual continental trip of the English Arboricultural Society is given.

November 15th.

Conservation des Bois par I'l^lectricite. By Raymond Brunei.
A description of a process of wood preservation by means of an
electrical injection of a saline solution in the wood tissue.

Lcsnoy Journal.
Jtdy- August.

Statistical Investigations of the Administration of the Public
Forests for the last thirty-three years (1868-98). By G. Daniel-
Bekow. Pp. 675-770.

Observations on the Life and Activity of a new Bark Beetle
{Tomicus vorontzovi) . By A. Vorontzov.

NEWS AND NOTKS.

THE PROPOSED APPAI^ACHIAN RESERVE.

The Lumber Trade Jour7ial of New Orleans in an editorial of
November 15th, has the following to say regarding the project of
the Appalachian Forest Reserve :

" A systematic campaign is on foot to induce the federal con-
gress to provide a fund for the future national control of what is
proposed to be called the Appalachian Forest Reserve, embracing
portions of the Carolinas and Tennessee. In a report to the
president of the United States by the Hon. James Wilson, sec e-
tary of agriculture, covering a topographical description of the
region in question and its physical aspects, the following conclu-
sions are made :

" The preservation of the forests, of the streams and of the agri-
cultural interests here described can be successfully accomplished
only by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve.
The states of the Southern Appalachian region own little or no
land, and their revenues are inadequate to carr}^ out this plan.
Federal action is obviously necessary, is fully justified by reason
of public necessity, and may be expected to have most fortunate
results.

' ' The ' public necessity ' relied upon to procure the desired
legislation has relation principally to the effect of such con-
templated preservation upon the streams as a means of prevent-
ing further devastation of the adjacent slopes and valleys under
cultivation hy floods otherwise sure to afflict that region. The
report under review estimates losses to farmers from floods along
the streams traversing the Appalachian quarter as having ap-
proximated $10,000,000 in a single year. From this alleged cir-
cumstance it is inferred that the devastation thus wrought has
accrued from the previous cutting off of timber from lands
drained by these streams.

" Whether the exigency recited in the report is of a character
to warrant the public expenditnre recommended or not, the posi-
tive facts in the premises do not appear upon the face of the doc-
ument under review to be sufficient.

"If, as recited, the damage from floods during the "present
year" has amounted to $10,000,000, how much of it is due to

j6 Forestry Quarterly.

previous denudation, or, in other words, how much would it
have been had the forests never been disturbed at all ? Is it a
clearly demonstrated fact that the preservation of Appalachian
forests would cure the streams of that or any other region of a
habit of overflowing their banks and causing damage ?

" The /oiirnal is declaring no unfriendliness to the movement at
all, but like others interested in it, this paper would like to see
any hidden or weak or ambiguous or otherwise defective feature
of the case made clear before it is sent to Congress for final legis-
lative disposal."

The Appalachian Forest Reserve project is certainlj' a good
one.

The floods which arise in the region damage the low-land
country. The succeeding dry season threatens the prosperity of
the industries dependent on water power. The deplorable condi-
tion of the inhabitants itself demands remedy. The misuse of
the land as a timber producer calls for prevention. The timber
famine, which the last census shows to be in the near future, all
these are reasons which make it imperative that tlie region be in
government possession.

It is, however, not onlj' important that the government secures
this region, but that when secured it be put under proper manage-
ment.

It is the intention of the promoters of this new reserve project
to have it put under the management of the Bureau of Forestry
of the Department of Agriculture, under the implication that it is
to be used as an experimental area.

If it is to be an experimental area it should come under the
direction of the Department of Agriculture. Yet is not four mil-
lion acres rather large to experiment on, when one hundred
thousand would do as well ?

As a forest reserve with similar functions to the other reserves
precedent undoubtedly decrees that it be under the management
of the Department of Interior. But since the General I,and
Office service is almost entirely composed of political appointees,
and the Bureau of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture,
as a scientific body, is of men with professional education, the
likelihood is that the area would be best managed by the latter.

News and Notes. 77

THE PORKSTRY, WATBR STORAGE, AND MANUFACTURING AS-
SOCIATION OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK/

The membership of this new organization is worthy of notice ;
it is entirely composed of men with timber and mill interests in
the Adirondacks, practically every lumber firm of any importance
being represented. The effect that this associotion will have on
future legislation remains to be seen.

An association with similar professed purposes already exists
as the Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks ; it on
the other hand is composed of men interested in the region for its
aesthetic value, owners of camps and sporting clubs. Between
the two it should be possible to place the Adirondack interests
upon a proper practical basis.

PHILIPPINE NOTES.

Mr. Gifford Pinchot and Capt. Geo. P. Ahern, in charge of the
Bureau of Forestry, P. I., are making a tour of the archipelago
on the Gen. Alava, put at their disposal by Governor Taft.

R. C. Bryant, Cornell '00, has been made Assistant Chief of
the Bureau.

Wm. Klemme, Cornell Sp., has been advanced to the grade of
Forester.

W. W. Clark, Cornell '02, in the absence (because of injury)
of Mr. S. T. Neely, formerly of the U. S. Division of Forestry
has had charge of the wood testing department.

Mr. S. M. Higgins a special student in the New York State
College of Forestry has been appointed forester to the Cleveland
Cliffs Iron Co. This is a very large and influential company in
northern Michigan which owns in addition to large iron and rail-
way interests, one million acres of woodland. It employs large
number of Finnish wood choppers to supply the wood for the
charcoal used in smelting the iron ore. Mr. Higgins will operate
on Grand Island, a beautiful piece of land near the town of
Munising and the famous Pictured Rocks. Although the island

' See Forestry and Irrigation. Vol. VIII. No. 2. November 1902.

78 Forestry Quarterly.

is at present densely wooded and inhabited only by light-house
keepers and employees of the company it is destined to become a
resort of as much importance to the people of Chicago and other
cities as the Adirondacks are to New York. He will have charge
of the general forestry work, fish and game preservation, road
construction and other works which will add to the value and at-
tractions of the island.

STUMP ANALYSIS.

A practice of doubtful utility which has recently been noticed
in forest investigations under a term conve3dng an entirely errone-
ous impression is " stump analysis." * Compared with stem anal-
ysis, to which it would seem related, this process of ascertain-
ing accretion on weathered stumps is entirely worthless. To be
sure diameter and area accretion curves of single trees may be so
obtained, but as these measurements are necessarily taken at
varying heights, the heights of the stumps, the}' cannot be readily
compared iiiter se and will not furnish curves for the stand.

But especially are the curves so obtained of little value as the
data come from the very part of the tree least fitted for use as rep-
resentative, for here irregularities due to accidental injuries —
.shading, etc. — as well as to normal root-swelling and fluting are
most pronounced. These irregularities have been carefully worked
out for the White Pine and very instructive comparisons of curves
derived from the stump section (2V2 ft. from ground) with curves
from higher sections are made in the monograph on the White
Pine.^ Stumps may be of great value to the crui.ser as indices of
soundness, etc., for estimating adjacent stands, but plans for the
future must rest on a firmer basis than such data can ever furnish.

'Duncan, T. \,. Report on the Forest Conditions of the Pillsbury Dona-
tion. Pp. 23. Maps, Plates. St. Paul, Minn., 1902.

Hawes, A. F. A Plantation of European Larch. P'orestry and Irrigation.
Vol. VIII, Pp. 472. (Nov. 1902.)

'The White Pine. By V. M. Spaulding ; revised and enlarged by B. E.
Fernow. (Bull. No. 22. Div. of Forestry. ) Washington, 1899.

See Appendix, Table V, Pp. 107-116.

News and Notes.

79

SKED COI.I,ECTlNG.

The Division of Forest Extension, Bureau of Forestry, during
the past season, has been collecting seeds in various parts of the
West. The work has been carried on to increase the knowledge
of the subject, learning of available localities, of methods of pick-
ing the cones, extracting the seeds, etc., and primarily to obtain
seed for use in the newly established nursery at Halsey , Neb. , and
in the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains. It is hoped
that the details of the experiences will not be withheld from the
profession.

The following table gives the quantities of seeds collected :

Species.

Quantity
in pounds.

Region where procured.

Pinus lambertiana _ _ _ . __

45
30
120
84
II

135
28
18
20
50
14

190

I

32

California.

" ponderosa

California

Rocky Mountains.
Pine Ridge, Neb.
Oregon.
California.

" attenuata.

" edulis _ _ _

Rocky Mountains.
Brainerd, Minn.

' ' divaricata . . _ _ _

Walton, Mich.

Libocedrus decurrens

Juniperus virginiana . _

California.
Rocky Mountains.

N. Platte River, Neb.

Abies con color.

Rocky Mountains.

Picea parryana _

Rocky Mountains.

The Forest, Fi.sh, and Game Commission of New York this
fall collected a large quantity of Red Spruce seed for use in the
State nurseries in the Adirondacks and the Cat.skills. The col-
lections were made at Fulton Chain, Hamilton Co,, from the
fallen tops on the lumber jobs.

Three methods of gathering were pursued : namely, by picking
the individual cones, by cutting the small twigs and whipping the
cones off over the side of the collecting pail, and by stripping, the
picker standing at the tip reaching back on the branch with one
hand on each sideband stripping the cones off into the pail. The
success of the different methodsMepends on the number of cones
on the branches.

8o Forestry Qiiarterly.

Two hundred bushels of cones were collected, they yielded 375
pounds of seed, or nearly 2 pounds of seed per bushel of cones ;
as there are about 120,000 seeds to a pound, in all 45,000,000
seeds were obtained. Fifty-eight bushels were collected by day
labor at an average cost of $.87 ; 142 bushels were collected, pay-
ment being made by the bushel, at an average cost of $.75, giving
an average cost for the 200 bushels of $.78.

The expense of cartage and drying of the cones and extraction
of the seeds brought the final cost up to $1.78 per bushel, or $.95
per pound of seed. This is remarkably cheap, the price quoted
by a large seed dealer being $3.00 per pound.

The results of an experimental planting made by the U. S.
Division of Forestry in 1890 on the sandhills of Nebraska seems
to have proved, that the Banksian Pine, Phi7cs divaricata , is one
of the best adapted species for planting in arid conditions.

The Forestry Quarterly is in position to direct zxiy intending
purchasers of seed of this species to a reliable source of supply at
reasonal)le prices.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Outlook of the Timber Supply in the United States 41

B. E. Fernow, Director of the New York State College of
Forestry.

Natural Reproduction in the Adirondack Forests 50

A. Knechtei<, Forester to the f^ew York Forest, Fish and
Game Commission.

On the Form of the Bole of the Balsam Fir 56

JUDSON F. Ci,ARK, Assistant Professor of Forestry at Cornell
University.

Current Literature and Reviews 62

News and Notes 75

Vol. I No. 3

Forestry Quarterly

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A

Board of Advisers of the Faculty and Alumni

OF THE

New York State College of Forestry

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

Ithaca, New York

1903

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Managers for the Year ipo2-j
Asa S. Williams Albert F. Siebold

Editor Business Manager

Frederick Dunlap Clyde Leavitt

Assistant Assistant

Board of Advisers

Bernard E. Fernow, LL.D. John Gifford, D.CEc.

Walter Mulford, B.S.A.. F.E.

THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHl

To aid in the estaunsmuent of rational forest management.

To offer an organ for the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters in America.

To keep the profession in touch with the current technical lit-
erature and the forestry movement, in the United States.

Single numbers, twenty-/:: Yearly subscriptions, $/.oo.

- second class mail

PRKSS OF ANDRUS & CHtniCH, ITH.VCA, N. V

FORESTRY QUARTERLY.

Vol. I. April, 1903. No. 3.

FORESTRY AT AN AMERICAN AGRICUI.TURAL EX-
PERIMENT STATION.

' ' We are haveing trouble with our hens throats swoollen
sneezeing have lost 4."

Such was an appeal for help addressed to the writer as forester
of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. Perhaps it
did not strike so much wider of the mark than such communica-
tions as these, which are very common : " Kindly send to my
address full information regarding the forestry laws of the high-
way protecting shade trees against trolley companies ' ' ; and
' ' Can you not give some of your attention to beautifying our
rural school grounds ? ' '

Hens' throats, shade trees and school grounds unquestionably
are important. But their care is not forestry.

Connecticut's woodlands and idle lands are almost exclusively
owned in relatively small tracts, ranging from ten to four hundred
acres each.

The importance of the small wood-lot as a factor in American
forestry is recognized. Woodlands held in small parcels form in
their aggregate such a considerable proportion of the forest area
of the country, and furnish materials of such great total value,
that forestry for the farm cannot fail to play an important role in
the future.

Every forester knows that these wood-lots are not yielding any-
thing like what they would yield if a reasonable amount of care
and skill were employed in their management. The complaint
so commonly heard among farmers and other owners of small

82 Forestry Quarterly.

timber lots, that this part of their property is a detriment to them,
is undoubtedly often true. But they would make the same com-
plaint of their gardens if they left them also to Nature's erratic
care. In the latter case, no one would feel pity for the " shiftless"
owners. It seems to be difficult for a layman to grasp the idea
that Nature must be improved upon in the wood-lot as well as in
the garden.

The problem nivolved in the management of a wood-lot located
comparatively near market is essentially different from that of the
remote and extensive mountain area. A Connecticut farmer
would be justified in entering into a degree oi finesse in his silvi-
cultural operations which would probably be impracticable at
present to the American forester at work in a mountain region,
where the margin of profit in handling timber is relatively small.
On the other hand, the carefully developed working-plan for
the mountain area, necessitating perhaps many series of compart-
ments for the proper execution of the ideas involved, requires to
be radically changed when it is applied to the small forest of an
agricultural region. Under exisiting American conditions the one
appears to be largely the problem of extensive supervision ; the
other, that of intensive detail. It is the Dakota wheat farm as
contrasted with the New Jersey market-garden.

There is a great dearth of definite knowledge as to the best
methods of procedure in this market-gardening forestry. Here as
well as in other lines of forest work, we in this country are ham-
pered at every turn by lack of definite American experience, of
clear-cut American object-le.ssons, and of concrete, reliable Ameri-
can data. General principles we may take as our heritage from
Old World toilings. Details of feasible methods of procedure
adapted to our conditions we must learn for ourselves, and the
work has barely begun.

It appears, then, that a large proportion of the general public
still either misunderstands, or is entirely without any understand-
ing of, what forestry really is, and what it aims to do. On the other
hand, if a woodland owner does understand the forester's aim,
and takes him to the wood-lot to ask, " What is best here ? '' or
' ' Just what should be done there ? ' ' can that forester give clear-
cut definiteness to his answers ? Does he know of an}' actual ex-

Forestry at an Experiment Station. 83

periences under similar conditions on which to base his advice?
Have his ideas been tested in practice ? Probably the owner of
that wood-lot cannot afford to conduct an experiment station. Is
it not a serious thing to ask him to pursue any policy of which we
are not sure, involving as it does an extended period of years ?
We tell the farmer that he should regard his timber as a regular
crop and should care for it as such. Are we certain we can tell
him how best to sow and cultivate and reap that crop ?

Evidently here are two important lines of work requiring atten-
tion. To bring to people's minds, and by forceful object-lessons
to impress upon them, what forestry really means ; to work out
the details of a practicable system of utilizing our local non-agri-
cultural lands to the best advantage : these are two prime needs
of the forestry movement in Connecticut.

It is to take part in trying to meet these needs that the Con-
necticut Agricultural Experiment Station of New Haven has
added forestry to its other fields of activity. It would seem to be
work eminently proper for an agricultural experiment station to
undertake in a state where, as in Connecticut, the greater part of
the forest area is owned by farmers.

The Station's work in forestry was commenced in the spring of
1901. Five lines of effort have developed :

1. A study of the forest conditions existing in the State, with a
view especially to suggesting feasible methods of improving those
conditions. A detailed forest survey of one of the typical regions
of the State has been begun.

2. Experimental and demonstration work in afforestation. The
Station owns two tracts of land in the Connecticut River valley
in the northern part of the State. One, about 60 acres in extent,
is an open sand-plain typical of considerable areas in the State.
The other, of about 40 acres, is a wood-lot cut about .six years ago
and very severely burned in 1901. The former is to be used for
experimental forest planting. Nurseries covering .slightly over
one acre and containing perhaps 250,000 seedlings and transplants
have been established to supply stock. Upon the final forest site
several acres have been seeded, and about 20,000 trees planted.
The experiments include methods of nursery practice and care of
seed; tests of species ; methods and cost of planting, and of sowing
seed on the final fore.st site.

84 Forestry Quarterly .

3. Experimental and demonstration work in treatment of the
wood-lot. A little work in cutting and in planting has been done
on the burned-over tract mentioned above. Thinning and im-
provement cutting have been carried on in co-operation with a
private owner in the central part of the State, and considerably
more such work is planned for this winter.

4. Dissemination of information and practical assistance to
woodland owners. Stress is laid upon the value of personal inter-
course with farmers and other woodland owners throughout the
State. Every opportunity is taken to become acquainted with
such men and talk with them, on their wood-lots if possible.
Addres.ses have been given at meetings held under various
auspices, such as the Grange, the Farmers' Institute, the State
Board of Agriculture, the State Forestry Association, and the
Daughters of the American Revolution. Considerable corre-
spondence has been carried on, and is encouraging in showing
interest developed.

The Station makes an offer similar to that of the national Bu-
reau of Forestry. The Station forester will visit any one owning
woodland or idle land in Connecticut who gives reasonable assur-
ance that he seriously intends to carry out some practical forestry
work, and will prepare a planting plan for open land, or sugges-
tions for treatment of woodland, as the case may be. The ex-
pense to the owner is that necessarily incurred by the forester
in traveling to and from New Haven, there being no other
fee.

Several parties have availed themselves of this offer, and
.some planting has already been executed as a result. A co-
operative agreement with the Board of Water Commissioners of
the city of Middletown has been signed, by which the Water
Board agrees to expend not less than $1,000 in the execution of
a planting plan to be prepared by the Station forester. The land
to be planted comprises about one hundred and fifty acres of open
land upon the watershed of one of the citj' reservoirs. The city
also owns about nine hundred acres of woodland on the same
watershed, on one portion of which the Station forester is this
winter to begin thinning and improvement cutting.

The work outlined above \\\:xy be termed the Station work
proper, and is supported by a portion of the income of a bequest

Forestry at an Experiment Station. 85

recently made to the Station. There is, in addition, another line
of forestry effort in charge of the Experiment Station, supported
by State funds.

5. In June, 1901, the General Assembly of Connecticut passed
" An Act concerning the Reforestation of Barren lyands."
The Board of Control of the Experiment Station was directed to
appoint a state forester, who was " to buy land in the State suit-
able for the growth of oak, pine or chestnut lumber at a price not
exceeding $4.00 per acre." The forester was further "author-
ized to plant the lands so bought with seed or seedlings of oak,
pine or chestnut, and such other trees as he may deem necessary
or expedient, at a cost not exceeding two and one-half dollars an
acre." Among other provisions the following may also be of in-
terest : " and with the approval of the governor and the attorney
general, [the forester] may sell portions of the same [the lands]
when thej^ shall command a greater price than the cost and in-
terest thereon."

Two thousand dollars for a period of two years were appropri-
ated for carrying out the provisions of the act.

No comments are necessary upon the imperfections and inade-
quacy of the bill. Nevertheless, it is a step in the right direction.

The Station forester was appointed State forester. A printed call
for offers of land for this " State Park " was distributed, resulting
in the offer of twenty-four tracts, aggregating something over seven
thousand acres, and located in twenty towns scattered throughout
the State. The various tracts have been carefully examined, and
negotiations for purchase are now in progress.

The promoters of the act had in view the afforestation of idle
land. But they now endorse what seems to be a better policy for
the present, a policy to which it is hoped the State may soon give
reasonable financial support. This policy is that the State pur-
chase a limited area, making of it a demonstration and experi-
mental tract : primarily, for showing and for experimenting with
methods of treatment of land already wooded ; secondarily, for
showing and for experimenting with methods of afforestation.
Realizing that the greatest immediate need of forestry in Con-
necticut is to bring about a better system of management of
small wood-lots by private owners, it would seem to be the
function of the State to, firstly, inaugurate a series of careful

86 Foj-estry Qtiarterly.

investigations as to the best methods of treating the Connecti-
cut wood-lot ; and, secondly, to provnde object-lessons. Such
object-lessons should serve both as patterns for private own-
ers of woodlands to follow more or less, and as incentives to
induce such owners to give their lands better care, by showdng
them that their pocketbooks are favorably affected in so doing.

It is hoped that in the near future the State will go much
further, and engage in forestrj' on a sufficiently liberal basis to
accomplish something in the way of regulation of the flow of our
smaller rivers, and to insure to future generations a home-grown
supply of large sized timber. The regulation of .stream -flow of
the smaller rivers is of peculiar importance to Connecticut, be-
cause of the large number of manufactories depending upon
water power.

Such is the beginning of one American agricultural experiment
station's work for forestry.

Walter Mulford.

THE OUTLOOK OF THE TIMBER SUPPLY IN THE
UNITED STATES.*

II.

In the first paper we have seen that the United States will have
to rely for its timber supplj' upon its own resources and whatever
its neighbor, Canada, can spare.

If, as we shall see further on, it is difficult to estimate our own
home resources, is is still more difficult, with so vast and largely
unsettled a country as Canada. Yet a mere knowledge of physi-
cal geography and of the relation of plant production to climate
suffices to discredit the extravagant claims sometimes made re-
garding the natural timber supplies of that country.

The Statistician of the Department of Agriculture, at Ottawa,
making a report on the "Forest Wealth of Canada," in 1895,
sums up the conclusions based on a more or less exhaustive in-
quiry as follows :

ist. The first quality pine has nearly disappeared.

2nd. Of second quality pine there is a considerable supply.

3d. Of other timber woods there is a large supply.

4th. We are within measurable distance of the time when, with
the exception of spruce, as to wood, and British Columbia, as to
provinces, Canada shall cease to be a wood exporting country.

As the Statistician had, before the inquiry, held rather different
views regarding the situation, it is not likely that these deductions
are radical.

As to the spruce supply, it may be stated that an immense area
to the northward and westward, as far as Alaska, contains this
class of timber, but as is to be expected, from soil and climate, it
occurs mostly in scattered open groves, of inferior development,
and, while most important for home consumption, unfit for ex-
port and use in the arts, being in that respect largely on a par
with our own Alaskan possessions.

In fact, in the Eastern Provinces, the true timber producing
area is bounded towards the north by the Heiglit of Land.
Beyond this natural limit there are only along watercourses and

*Presented before Section I, American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Washington, D. C, 1902.

88 Forestry Quarterly.

in limited areas, stands, which are capable of furnishing lumber
trees, the rest is possibly pulpwood, which as the drainage is
northward, away from market, will for a long time remain un-
available.

While, with a scanty population, less than six million at pres-
ent, a country whose climate and soil is largely fit only for timber
growing, the round 300 million acres of actual or potential timber
land in the eastern provinces could be made to supply a consider-
able amount for export beyond home consumption, the same in-
attention to caring systematically for the reproduction and pro-
tection of the timber crop, which is characteristic with us, pre-
vails in Canada for the present.

Moreover, Canada can at any time close the door to further ex-
ports. Indeed there is now a movement in that direction. It has
been ordered that all logs cut on Crown lands shall be sawed
within the Dominion, and a strong effort will presently be made
to stop the export of pulp logs from the Dominion. At present,
this is mainly intended to prevent the raw materials from being
exported, instead of the manufactured product ; but if, at any
time, the reduction of supplies makes it desirable, such restric-
tions can easily be further extended.

We must, therefore, rely mainly on our own stores, and on our
own efforts at home to secure the supplies for the future.

We shall now have to find some answer to the other set of
questions, which concern themselves with the chances for the
supply of these demands from home sources.

First, as to the amount of virgin timber still untouched and
ready for use, we have really no knowledge, and only conjectures
are possible. Yet a not quite unreasonable guess as to the pro-
babilities is possible, if we have some knowledge of the forest
area in different sections of the country, and the usual average
stand per acre, and gather other indications leading to a proba-
bility calculation.

The writer, a few years ago, ventured such a calculation,
having canvassed the situation from many points of view, and
came to a statement* of 2300 billion feet B. M. still available, of

♦Senate Document, No. 40, 55th Cong., ist Session, 1S97.
H. R. Doc. No. 181, 55th Cong., 3d Session, 1898.
See also " Economics of Forestry," 1902.

Outlook of the Ti77iber Supply. 89

which 1400 billion was supposed to be coniferous material.
Although the census compiler is at great pains to show some of
the details of this calculation wrong and below the truth, he
comes finally to the conclusion that the reported total amount of
timber held b}- lumbermen namely 215,550 million feet, is " pro-
bably somewhat more than one-tenth the amount now standing in
the country," practically the writer's figure or less; and adding
up the statements made regarding the standing timber of conifer-
ous material, only iioo billion feet are found by the census
compiler, as the following tabulation of his statements shows :

, Billion feet B. M. ,

Owned by
Species. Standing. Lumbermen.

Southern Pine 300 46.5

White Pine 50 16.4

Hemlock 100 6.8

Spruce (Eastern) 50 8.6

Cypress 65 6.6

Red Fir 300 23.8

Western Pine 125 24.6

Redwood 75 14.3

Sugar Pine 25 3.9

Hardwoods (one-half oak) ? 30.

The difference of the two estimates would appear to lie mainly
in the distribution of these supplies, the writer accrediting the
Eastern States with less, the Pacific Coast with a larger supply.

The distribution of supplies is of considerable importance com-
mercially, for it influences the location of manufacture, and the
cost of transportation to market. With the decrease of supplies
in one region, a shifting of centers of production takes place in
another region.

The Census brings an interesting map showing the present dis-
tribution of the lumber industry. The most intense concentra-
tion of this manufacture is found in the northern section of Mich-
igan, Wisconsin and Minnesota ; in the middle west of New York
and Pennsylvania, in Maine and New Hampshire and on the Pa-
cific Coast in Washington, and on a .small territory in Oregon
along the Columbia River, while the centers of intensive produc-
tion in the Southern states are more widely scattered with refer-
ence to shipping ports along the coast and Mississippi River.

There are also tabulations showing by geographical subdivis-
ions the relative positions of the different territories as contribu-

90 Forestry Qiia^ierly .

tors to the timber product and the changes that have taken place
in this relative position, as far as the defective Census figures in-
dicate. At least, the general tendency of this change in the four
principal sections maj' be seen in this tabulation of the percentage
of total lumber production contributed by them :

Northeastern Lake Southern Pacific

Years. States. States. States. States.

1850 54-5 6.4 13.8 3.9

i860 36.2 13.6 16.5 6.2

1870 36.8 24.4 9.4 3.6

1880 24.8 33.4 II. 9 3.5

1890 18.4 36.3 15.9 7.3

1900 16.0 27.4 25.2 9.6

As supplies gave out, the Northeastern States reduced their
cut ; as railroad development increased, the Lake States increased
their cut, until, in 1890, the highest mark was reached and the
decline began, the Southern States then increased their cut in
proportion. These changes in location are interesting and signifi-
cant, but, for our purpose of forecasting the future, we are con-
cerned only with the supplies as a whole.

Since, owing to change in the standard of the commercial log,
owing to closer utilization and to more careful exploitation and
manufacture, supplies usuall}^ hold out longer than anticipated, it
will be perfectly .safe to accept the writer's higher estimate and
yet find the situation unsatisfactory. For, even, if we double this
estimate, it is apparent that with a cut of forty billion feet, in-
creasing at the rate of at least 5% per annum, we do not have 30
j^ears' supply of old stock in sight, a serious enough situation to
make desirable a more serious, statesmanlike and businesslike
consideration of the forestry problem than it has received hitherto.

We admit that both the census compiler and the writer are
mainly guessing at the amount of standing timber, but there are
enough data at the basis of these guesses to render them worthy
of consideration.

The Census brings the information that the stumpage on the
lumberman's holdings averages 6,700 feet B.M. per acre, or in
the Eastern States an average of .somewhat less than 5,000 feet,
and somewhat less than 25,000 feet in the Pacific States. The
compiler comments correctly, that "the average stand of timber
per acre, being that of selected tracts owned by lumbermen is, of
cour.se, higher than the average of the country or state."

Outlook of the Timber Supply. 91

For the purpose of a possibility — not any more probability — cal-
culation we may assume that the entire forest area of the United
States at one time, say only fifty years ago, contained this aver-
age stand. With such extravagant assumptions we may be justi-
fied in assuming the area involved as 500 million acres, the poten-
tial timber area determined by the vi^riter, rather than the 700
million acres claimed by the U. S. Chief Geographer, in which
all waste land is included ; we would then find a total original
stand of 3350 billion feet. Assuming again that the consumption
of 40 billion at present, has grown to that amount by only a 3
per cent, rate, (instead of the more likely 5 per cent.), from the
original figure, then we would have had a total aggregate cut
during the 50 years of round 11 15 billion feet, and if the in-
creasing rate of consumption continued, the balance would be
used up in less than 35 years.

The 250 million acres of farms cut out from the forest, mostly
wastefully logged and largely burned in log-rolling bees, may be
assumed to have furnished the requirements of the preceding
period.

These probability calculations merely show that our guesses at
the amount of standing timber are not entirely unreasonable, and
they certainly lend color to the assertion, that unless very radical
changes in use and exploitation take place, our virgin supplies
will certainly be used up within less than a generation. But, to
be sure, according to the Chief Geographer, " timber growth in
the United States is certainlj^ renewing itself much faster than it
is being consumed."

The certainty in this respect it would be even more difficult to
establish, than regarding the standing timber, but a probability
calculation is here also possible, by borrowing some figures from
the experience of a countrj^ where timber production is a well-
established business, and accurate statistics are available.

In German State forest administrations, comprising some 10
million acres under good management, the production of timber-
wood (over 3 inch) has constantly increased in response to this
management, until now it may be stated in the large average,
with a rotation of about 100 years, as 43 cubic feet per acre per
year, of which 50 per cent., or round 22 cubic feet are saw log and
bolt size material ; these figures must be reduced by 15 to 25 per

92 Forestry Quarterly.

cent, if private and corporation forests are also brought into con-
sideration.

Hence, if we were to assume that in the unmanaged wild woods
of the United States a production of 40 cubic feet of useful wood
and 15 cubic feet, fit to supply saw material, takes place, we
would, indeed, be beyond reasonable expectation, especially since
fires ravage thousands of acres annually, and the young growth
at least is destroyed on them.

Again ruling out the waste and brush lands, which either by
nature or by ill-treatment have become incapable of producing
any valuable timber growth, the area on which such growth
might take place may be set down as not to exceed 500 million
acres. With such assumption the new growth would represent
7.5 billion cubic feet of log material, — about our present annual
consumption.

Any one who is at all familiar with the condition of the tim-
bered forest areas of the United States will readily agree that not
one-half the assumed production takes place over this vast area.
In the untouched woods, the natural decay offsets the accretion,
while on the culled area, both in the old and young growth, the
larger portion of the after-growth is of weed trees, — not valuable
timber.

Another way of approximating the possibilities — not probabili-
ties— is to assume the reported stumpage on the lumberman's
holdings, namely, round 5000 feet B M. per acre in the Eastern
United States, as representing the average capacity over the whole
forest area. Nature has taken hundreds of years to produce this,
but, assuming the same stand left to nature could be secured in
100 years, then the average accretion per acre and year would be
50 feet B. M. This would not suflfice to supply as much as three
quarters of our present annual requirements of lumberwood, And
how far are our premises below the probabilities?

Not that under good forestry practice even a better average
could not be obtained, for the 50 feet B. M. represent about 10
cubic feet, forest grown material, while the German practice pro-
duces at least over 16 feet of saw material per acre per annum. -^

But we have so far no forestry practice, no silviculture, no sys-
tematic reproduction. Not even protection of nature's crop against

* In exceptional cases on selected small areas as much as 90 cubic feet of
saw material has been attained.

Outlook of the Timber Stipply. 93

the annually recurring fires exists. And these fires, while they
may not destroy or even seriously damage the old crop, as in many
cases and conditions they do not, they kill with absolute certainty
all the young crop, and there is so far but little hope that they
will soon be stopped. What incentive can there be for private
interest in spending money or foregoing immediate revenue for a
crop, which is so readily lost?

We may as well wake up to the realization that our efforts to
secure a more rational treatment of our forest resources and apply
forestry in their management, are not too early but rather too late,
that they are by no means sufficient, that serious trouble and in-
convenience are in store for us in the not too distant future, that
the blind indifference and the dallying or amateurish playing with
the problem by legislatures and officials is fatal.

We can, then, summarize the situation, which justifies the
urgent need of the foresters' art in the United States, from the
point of view of supplies, as follows :

(i) The consumption of forest supplies, larger than in any
other country in the world, promises not only to increase with the
natural increase of the population, but in excess of this increase
per capita, similar to that of other civilized, industrial nations,
annually at a rate of not less than 3 to 5 per cent.

(2) The most sanguine estimate of timber standing predicates
an exhaustion of supplies in less than 30 years if this rate of con-
sumption continues, and of the most important coniferous sup-
plies in a very much shorter time.

(3) The conditions for continued imports from our neighbor,
Canada, practically the only country having accessible supplies
such as we need, are not reassuring and may not be expected to
lengthen the natural supplies appreciably.

(4) The reproduction of new supplies on the existing forest
area could under proper management be made to supply the
legitimate requirements for a long time; but fires destroy the
young growth over large areas, and where production is allowed
to develop, in the mixed forest at least, owing to the culling pro-
cesses, which remove the valuable kinds and leave the weed trees,
these latter reproduce in preference.

(5) The attempts at systematic silviculture, that is, the grow-
ing of new crops, are so far infinitesimal, compared with the needs.

B. E. Fernow.

FOREST ADVANCE OVER GLACIATED AREAS IN
ALASKA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA.

A very interesting group of facts, involving problems of great
import, is embraced in the rate which forests in Alaska and British
Columbia have been and are yet following up glacial retreat.
The rate of retreat of the one and of the advance of the other are
recorded in two ways : ist. By the growth and advance of trees,
and 2d, by the increasing depth of forest litter and humus, due to
the two, three, or more generations of trees which have grown
since the morainic debris, or glaciated surface was left bare by
retreating ice.

After observations upon mountains on which the glaciers were
small remnants, the writer visited Alaska for the purpose of study-
ing these phenomena where they are best marked in the northern
hemisphere. After careful consideration of those glaciers which
would give the most reliable types and at the same time would be
accessible in the short period available for study Mendenhall
Glacier and its former bed were selected for special stud_v. The
features herein described for this locality are in general true for
immense areas which were observed but not closely studied. It
is true that in some instances glacial advance has been recorded
by the destruction of young and even full grown forests ; but
these instances evidently mark fluctuations in the general glacial
retreat which is in progress. After a slight advance the retreat
is again taken up, and for a limited period with greater rapidity
than marks the retreat of neighboring glaciers.

Mendenhall Glacier, in Lat. 58° 25' N., Long. 134° 30' \V.,
occupies the upper portion of a lateral channel jutting off north-
easterl}' from the north end of Gastineau Channel. The glacier
once occupied the whole of this lateral channel, but has retreated
until its face is now some four miles from the junction of the two
channels. This lower end is now entirely filled up with glacial
debris and overgrown with alder, cotton wood and spruce, with
shrubs, mar.sh growth, etc. The lower portion of the filled area
is just above tide level ; the upper is about 150 feet above tide
level.

The front of the glacier is some three miles in length and of
irregular and varying height ; where long continued melting has

Fot'est Advance Over Glaciated Areas. 95

taken place the wall of ice is only twenty or thirty feet high, and
where masses of ice have recently broken off it is several times
these heights.

During the nine years preceding iqoi the retreat, as marked
by a mining stake, has been at the rate of from 40 to 50 feet per
year. But this rate of retreat is recorded for a far greater period
by the forest and scrub growth which flourishes on the former bed
of the glacier, and upon its enclosing slopes. At a distance of
about three miles from the present face of the glacier quite a for-
est of spruce trees has grown, many of which have been cut for
the mines on Douglas Island. Those now standing within two
miles of the face of the glacier are nearly full grown and are evi-
dently the only generation which has ever occupied the locality,
as there are no aged or fallen trunks, and the forest litter and
humus is thin and coarse. The size of one of these trees and its
growth are as follows :

At 2'5 years q inches in diameter.

25

years 9

50

" 16

75

" 20.5

100

" 23

125

" 25.5

150

" 27.5

175

" 30.5

209

" 32.3

other trees not felled were as much as 8 or 10 inches larger in
diameter, but the one measured was about an average.

Advancing from three-quarters to a mile toward the glacier few
trees could be found over 20 inches in diameter, or about 70 to 80
years old ; within the next one-half to one-quarter of a mile the
trees had decreased in age to saplings 6 to 8 inches in diameter
or about one-quarter of a century old. Be}'ond these were young
and seedling spruce which soon gave out entirely, their places
being taken by alder-brush, dwarf cotton wood, grasses and
mosses. The surface between these and the glacier was composed
of clean boulders, gravel and sand, showing but slight signs of
disintegration and supporting no growth except mosses.

Standing at the base of the glacier and looking at the mountaiti
slope to the eastward a similar record of the melting and thinning
of the glacier and the advance of forest was observed. For the
first 100 to no feet in elevation above the glacier bed the sides of

96 Forestry Quarterly.

the mountain were quite bare, and marked by a few parched
boulders ; then a growth of alder brush, young and seedling
spruce for about 60 feet ; then a dense growth of spruce saplings
and poles 15 to 20 inches in diameter. Above these stood a dense
wall of well grown spruce trees between two and three centuries
old. (See sketch.) (It was impossible to make a photograph of
these interesting belts of growth owing to the fogs and rains, so
that the sketch and notes were the best modes of making a
record.)

The forest record and data available for study from the Puget
Sound region to Yakutat Bay are highly instructive, not only to
the students of forestry but to those of geology and climatology.*
The writer has endeavored to show elsewhere the bearing which
this forest advance has upon the problems of climatology, and to
follow this data beyond the field of forest record into that in
which the time since glacial retreat is estimated in many thou-
sands of years and recorded by the subsequent retreat of cascades
and falls. But the forester has the opportunity of reading the
most recent and yet progressing record, and of laying its lessons
before the scientific world. Perhaps there may be localities
where the two records overlap, where both the number of gen-
erations of trees which have grown upon a given area, and the
distance a certain fall has retreated since glacial uncovering took
place, may be of record and reasonably legible.

Marsden Manson.

* Note. — For an account of a similarly interesting progress of forestation
of a moraine in Glacier Bay see " Forests of Alaska," by B. E. Fernow, in
Harriman Expedition, Vol. I. — Editor.

J

\

MZiSOZAJJ-IJML GLAZlZSi

AlocH and SccoLtNc. Spbuce
^j, <. — Halt cnowv/v Spaucr

r

CURRENT LITERATURE AND REVIEWS.

Report of the Forester for igo2. By Gifford Pinchot, Wash-
ington, D. C. 1902. Pp. 109-136. From Annual Reports,
Department of Agriculture.

The work of the Bureau of Forestry has greatly increased in
the past year. Applications were received for working plans for
4,700,000 acres, but for lack of men and money only about 8% of
these applications could be acted upon. Planting plans were
made for 3,400 acres. Extensive investigations of important tim-
ber trees were made. Various forest industries and conditions
were studied. The personnel of the Bureau was also increased.
Notice of the many excellent publications as they appeared, has
previously been made in these pages.

The work of the Bureau not only has increased in quantity but
in quality. Compare for instance, the Working Plan for Town-
ship 40, made two years ago with the similar report just appear-
ing in the Maine Forest Commissioner's report. In the former
the word reproduction hardly occurs and considerations for the
future beyond a short period of years are dismissed almost with
the single sentence : "a sufficient number of seed trees will be
left to insure the reproduction of spruce ; " compare this with the
report from Maine where six pages are devoted to the considera-
tions of reproduction, sexual maturity, influence of exposure
and of light, of seed beds and of seedlings ; surely there has been
a creditable improvement.

Fourth Report of the Forest Commissioner of the State of Maine.
Augusta, 1902. Pp. 152. Illustrated.

The act of the Maine legislature of 1891 which created the
office of Forest Commissioner required that officer to make annual
report of his inquiries and investigations. In pursuance of that
act, the fourth report of the Commissioner has just been pub-
lished as a well appearing volume of 150 pages with numerous
plates illustrative of the forest conditions of the state.

Maine's great manufactures of pulp and paper render it natural
that the current volume should deal largely with spruce. Further
than that, it is perhaps inevitable that Commissioner Ring, with

98 Forestry Quarterly.

long experience as a lumberman, should endeavor to present a
summary of the standing spruce timber of the state. The results
of his inquiry render hira very sanguine. His estimate of stand-
ing timber is 21 billion feet B. M. of spruce alone, 9 inches and
over breast diameter, and as he supposes the annual growth on
this amount to be 3 per cent., he thinks the accretion is not
exceeded by the cut. Such figures promise well for business
prosperity in Maine, although Mr. Ring seems to believe that
certain regions are in the way of being depleted. It appears that
Maine has vast timber resources in the great wild region north of
Moosehead Lake, a region which up to the present has been only
lightly cut into, and that, for mills located on the St. John River
in New Brunswick.

Wholesale timber estimates which do not seem to prove that
dire and early calamity is upon us are so rare a thing that those
interested will be likely to inquire carefully as to the basis on
which they are founded. Mr. Ring has not had much money at
his disposal and does not pretend to say that his figures are based
to any large degree on original examinations, nor perhaps would
they be any better for that. Until reliable and thorough-going
surveys can be made the estimates of owners and others interested
in tracts in question must be accepted as the best information of
their stand that can be had. This information Mr. Ring pro-
fes.ses to have gatliered with care, and without positive proof to
the contrarj' his figures cannot be discredited.

But it behooves us to bear in mind the limitation of accuracy in
timber estimates and to recognize clearly on how uncertain a
basis our anticipations whether roseate or the reverse are founded.
It is well known that no man estimating in timber, with which
he is thoroughly familiar, and in moderate sized and compact
bodies can depend on coming nearer than 25'/^ of the truth, and
on timber as it stands in our woods and on large tracts he needs
a much larger percentage of leeway. Furthermore it needs to
be considered tliat the woods of Maine have not been explored
by one man, but by a vast number with very various ideas and
all kinds of experience, while a great number of townships cannot
be said to have been explored at all. All tliis renders these
whole.sale timber estimates very uncertain indeed. If they con-
vey abroad a contrary impression and delay the time when really

Current Literature and Reviews.

99

reliable surveys are inaugurated they will be likely to do more
harm than good.

In addition to these statistics Mr. Ring describes briefly a few
of the great fires and gales that have in times past ravaged the state,
and Mr. Austin Gary contributes an article on the timber beetles
that have killed spruce in large quantities in Maine. The same
writer describes a system of topographical timber maps adapted
to the needs of the lumber business, and Prof. W. M. Munson
writes on the distribution of forest trees. I^astly we may mention
a study of the spruce in Maine by Ralph S. Hosmer of the U. S.
Bureau of Forestry containing recommendations for the manage-
ment of a tract studied ; and a report* by Austin Gary, forester
of the Berlin Mills Gompany, of five years' experience, in the
actual management of spruce land. These two articles are worthy
of careful perusal by any Maine firms who are trying to introduce
the principles of forestry into their lumbering business.

Mr. Hosmer' s report is of the high type that we have learned
to expect from agents of the forestry bureau, dealing thoroughly
with the stand of timber, with waste in logging, with the condi-
tions essential to growth and reproduction of desirable trees.
His main conclusion is that on such land as he had studied
"practical forestry may with advantage be introduced." This
term "practical forestry" whether intentionally u.sed or not is
one admitting a great latitude of interpretation. Many acquainted
with Maine lands, the financial returns from them and their
present value and condition, might query if it had not already
in many cases been secured. However with Mr. Hosmer it evi-
dently means something more carefully regulated. Gonservative
cutting carefully adapted to the land and to the timber, and with
marking as an essential point of the system is the practical
forestry he refers to. There is furthermore to be noted in his re-
port, what seems to be a distinct advance in the practical acquire-
ments of the government foresters, namely a recognition of the
necessity of a more generous allowance for wind throw, and of
the fact that large portions of spruce woods must be cut clean.

Mr. Gary, on the other hand, after five years experience finds
he has not been able as yet to accomplish some things laid out in

*The Management of Pulpwood Forests ; See Forestry Quarterly Vol. I,
No. 2, Page 67.

lOO Forestry Quarterly.

this program. In the first place he has found conservative cut-
ting a risky business involving loss through wind. Next he has
found that marking for the loggers was beset with such difficulty
and aroused so much opposition that better results were gained
by other means. The methods of the loggers under him do not
seem to have been so modified as yet that young growth has been
perceptibly favored. On the other hand genuine economy of
merchantable lumber does seem to have been secured. Stumps
are cut low, tops high, windfalls and dry timber picked up, and
this on a large scale, throughout a big lumber business. We
gather that in this direction alone there is in most large lumber
businesses, enough to occupy trained men for some time.

Altogether Maine is in a hopeful condition. There seems to be
an awakening among the large owners of land and mills, and the
ideas of forestry are getting hold upon them gradually but
effectually.

First Anmial Report of the Society for the Protection of New
Hampshire Forests, igoi-1902. Concord, N. H. Pp. 75.
Illustrated.

The Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests was
founded in 1901, to study the forest situation in the state and to
point out methods by which it may be improved. Its first activ-
ity was to place placards in public places calling attention to the
need of preserving the forests. It inaugurated a lecture course
under which a series of meetings were held in the mountain region.
It now permanently employs a forester, Dr. Philip W. Ayers, to
investigate timber growth, visit vvoodlands and advise upon them
when requested, and to address various meetings throughout the
state. The work of the Society has been excellent and deserving
of the greatest praise.

Report of the Neiv Hampshire Forestry Covwiissioyi for the Years
ipoi-ipo2. Concord, N. H., 1902. Pp. 109.

The first forty pages of this report contain a rambling descrip-
tion of inspection trips taken through the state and of meetings
with various friends and acquaintances. The second forty pages
contain statistics, taken from the Twelfth Census, of the allied
forest industries. Among various discussions in the remainder of

Current Literature and Reviews. loi

the report, appears an argument for the establishment of a na-
tional park in the White Mountains, the main point made being,
that Congress is about to establish one in the Appalachians and
the White Mountains are just as well suited for it. A map com-
piled \iy the U. S. Geological Survey of the White Mountain
region is appended. In no part of this report can there be found
a statement of any material accomplishment by the Commission.
This seems to be but another instance of the inefficienc}' of un-
salaried Forestry Commissions.

How to Grow a Forest from Seed. By Prof. F. Wm. Rane. Bul-
letin 95, New Hampshire Experiment Station, Durham.
Pp. 97-107. Fig. II.

A leaflet of interest to the wood-lot owner.

Statement of Work Done by the Pennsylvania Depa?'tment of For-
estry. 1902. Pp. 158. PI. xxxiii.

Penns3dvania is to-day, if we except New York, the foremost
state in forest investigation and preservation. This result has
been but recently obtained, and is due largely to the active guid-
ance of Dr. J. T. Rothrock the present Forest Commissioner.
The forestr}^ commission exists probably in its best form in Penn-
sylvania. It consists of five unsalaried members and a president
with a .salary of $3,000 per year. The Commission is empowered
' ' to purchase any suitable lands in the Commonwealth for purpo-
ses of forest preservation," "provided, that in no case shall the
amount paid for any tract of land exceed the sum of $5 per acre. ' '
" The said Commission is also empowered to establish such rules
and regulations with reference to control, management and pro-
tection of forestry reservations" "as in its judgment will con-
serve the intere.sts of the Commonwealth ; and whenever it shall
appear that the welfare of the Commonwealth will be advanced
by selling or disposing of any of the timber on forestry lauds, the
Commission is hereby empowered to sell such timber on terms
most advantageous to the State."

The state forest reserve now consists of 572,722 acres, the major
part of which has been purchased ; no itemized statement is made
in the report of the costs of these lands but of course they average
less than five dollars per acre.

I02 Forestry Quarterly.

A forester has been engaged, Mr. George H. Wirt, trained by
Dr. Schcnck, a forest nursery established, and plans for a forest
academy matured ; in other words, Pennsylvania is now in a
pcsition to do something besides issue reports.

Several .separate papers also appear in this report among them
being, " The Chestnut Harvest " and " Manufacture of Che.stnut
Meal " ; a selected translation from the ' ' Mouografia del Cas-
tagno," by Lodovico Piccioli, and the " Propagation of Forest
Trees Having Commercial Value and Adapted to Penn.sylvania,"
by George H. Wirt. It is an excellent little bulletin well fulfill-
ing the intention of the author, " to present in a brief and clear
way .such facts and methods as will bring reasonable success to
the inexperienced planter, without making necessary' any large
expenditure of money."

The Forests of Rhode Island. By Fred W. Card. Bulletin 88.
Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. Pp. 39.
Fig. 24.

The bulletin gives a good idea of the forest conditions of the
state. " A surprisingly large part of Rhode Island, when the
population of the state is considered, is covered with tree growth.
A very large part of this growth possesses no real value for timber
purposes." " Few states have less to expect from forests in the
way of influence upon climate and water flow. Rhode Island has
no mountains, and few high hills. Danger from floods is com-
paratively slight. Close proximity to the ocean insures a humid
atmosphere. The wind-breaking effect of the forest is therefore
of less consequence than in regions subject to drying winds, where
this is often of the greatest importance. All these influences have
some weight, even in Rhode Island, but the question is primarily
an economic one. Will it pay in dollars and cents to foster the
forests ? ' '

Report of the New York State College of Forestry. 1903. Pp.
32.

This recent report of the College shows several gratifying con-
ditions. The students now number seventy, and in addition
quite a large number from other Colleges of the University have
profited by its courses. Attention is called to the imperative need

Curf'ejit Literature ayid Reviews. 103

of increased accommodations and equipment at Ithaca. The curri-
culum has remained about the same as in previous years with the
exception of the addition of special meteorological work under
Dr. Allen of the local Weather Bureau Station.

The College Forest and its policy is treated at some length. Of
the silvicultural methods employed in converting the poor exist-
ing stand to one of value the Director has the following to say :

' ' There is one fact on the silvicultural side which the experi-
ment has demonstrated to the satisfaction of the writer, namely,
that in the hardwood forest of the Adirondacks, where the pine
and spruce have been severely culled, the only practicable
method, both from financial and silvicultural points of view of
securing a desirable new crop, is a clear cutting system, fol-
lowed by artificial regeneration of the conifers, leaving only
enough of the hardwoods to produce an admixture by natural
regeneration, and saving only so much of the promising volun-
teer growth of young hardwoods and conifers as is not liable
to be thrown by the winds. Indeed, it may often be best to
make a clean sweep — denude, though the word has been used
to denote vandalism — and replace artificially without reference
to existing volunteer growth. This planting, of course, costs ;
it is an investment for the future, but one that can be easily
shown to be profitable in the long run. This method cannot be
practiced without taking care of the rubbish resulting from
the logging operation, and this, of course, again entails expense.
But when the simple and efl&cient system of clearing, followed
by planting, is practiced, the debris can be burned more cheaply,
using the early spring season, before the snow is quite gone,
and thus the fire danger, always attending logging operations,
can be most readily reduced."

The Forests of Garrett County. By H. M. Curran. Special
Publication from Garrett County Report of the Maryland
Geological Survey. Pp. 303-329. 111.

An excellent local report.

A First Book of Forestry. By Filibert Roth. Ginn & Co., Bos-
ton. Pp. 291. Illustrated.

This neat little book introduces the study of forestry to the
sect of nature students, and the unmistakable marks of their style

I04 Forestry Quarterly.

are apparent in manj' parts of the volume, but nowhere more con-
spicuously than in the opening paragraphs. The subject matter
is divided into three parts, The Woods, Forestry, and Related
Topics ; a more generous use of headings, some sort of arrange-
ment into chapters, would greatly help the usefulness of this vol-
ume, the work of one of the first foresters of the country.

Although not intended for professional use, any forester will
be delighted with the clear, animated descriptions of the various
types of forest and woodland. But we might find fault with some
of the details of the author's silviculture. As we wTite the soft
maples and the elms are in flower, but the pods of the Black Lo-
cust still hang on the trees in abundance ; accordingly we fear
that he who waits for the pods to fall and hopes to gather them
the same way as those of the Honey Locust will wait long. The
unqualified recommendation of the use of natural regeneration
under shelterwood for the Eastern spruce forests will certainly
disturb him who knows how dubious this practice may become
and sees its disadvantages growing into impossibilities.

Yet the book is a welcome addition to our as yet scant literature
and the errors are all in unimportant directions or in minutiae.
Among a mass of general readers throughout the country this
volume will do a great good work, and it is for these that it is
written.

How to Tell the Trees. By John Gill Lemmon. Oakland, Cal.,
1902. Pp. 66. Illustrated. Price 50 cents.

A collection of notes on the Western coniferae, and not of the
extensive scope that the title would suggest.

Hand-book of the Trees of New England. By Lorin L. Dame
and Henry Brooks. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1902. Pp. 196.
PI. Ixxxvii.

An excellent little manual, well illustrated, which meets the
need of the student in the field. The trees are described sys-
tematically under the following sub-divisions : Habitat and
Range, Habit, Bark, Winter Buds and Leaves, Inflorescence,
Fruit, Horticultural Value. Mr. Warren H. Manning, under the
sub-division of Horticultural Value, contributes much desirable
information. In nomenclature the authors have followed Hngler

Current Literature and Reviews. 105

and Prantl for order and names of families, the Berlin rule for
genera, and under the genus the priority rule for species ; all
common names which are in use in New England are given. The
Hand-book deserves no adverse criticism, the only addition that
can be suggested is that of a key to the species.

The Hardy Catalpa. Bulletin No. 37, Bureau of Forestry.

Pp. 58. PI. XXX.

Considerable .skepticism has always existed about forest plant-
ing on the plains,— first, as to whether plantations would thrive ;
second, as to whether the)^ would prove financially successful.
The doubts of the skeptics were not allayed by the deplorable
failures under the various homestead acts.

Man}' plantations in the Middle West have been very successful,
that the proportion of failures is large is not due to unfitness of
conditions but to poor choice of species.

Mr. William I,. Hall, in " The Hardy Catalpa," describes four of
the largest and most successful of Western catalpa plantations.
The descriptions are in detail and comprehensive ; wood product
and financial tables for timber actually grown and sold are given,
and the methods of establishment and tending discussed. The
four plantations together comprised an area of over 1200 acres;
the crops were cut at ages varying from 12 to 21 years, the trees
then being large enough to yield from one to three 6-foot posts.
After deducting the costs of planting, of tending, of soil rent and
all other expenditures, the net return on these plantations aver-
aged from seven to fifteen dollars an acre per year.

Of the catalpa Mr. Hall has the following to say : Of the trees
used for commercial planting none have been planted more exten-
sively in the region of southern Iowa and Nebraska and eastern
Kansas than the Hardy Catalpa. A few years' trial on the plains
sufficed to prove its good qualities for that region. It was easily
propagated, grew rapidly on prairie soil, had good form, was
drought resistant, had few insect or fungus enemies, and above
all was a lasting timber, adapted to many uses. As a post timber
it has given excellent satisfaction. It ranks with Black lyocust
and Osage Orange in durability, while it surpasses them in
rate of growth, form, and freedom from checking. Altogether,
as a post timber suitable for growing in a large section of

io6 Forestry Quarterly.

the Middle West, it has no equal. For telegraph and telephone
poles its only deficiency seems to be a tendency toward crooked-
ness, but possibly this can be overcome by special treatment. As
a railroad-tie timber the Hardy Catalpa has not had sufficient
trial to demonstrate what its rank should be. Experiments have
left no doubt as to its resistance to decay. The only question lies
in its resistance to wear.

This bulletin also contains a paper on The Disea.ses of the
Hardy Catalpa, by Dr. von Schrenk.

It is interesting to note that at the beginning of the igth cen-
tury, when fears of a timber famine were active in Germany,
the rapid growth of the catalpa suggested it as a possible pre-
ventive, and its qualities and possibilities w^ere set forth in a
pamphlet, entitled : Der Bohnenbaum, ein sicheres Mittel den
Holzmangel mit abzuhelfen, nebst einer allgem. Einleitung u.
Bemerkungen iiber den Holzmangel, etc., von F. A. Resch.
Erfurt, 1800. 78 pp.

Map of the State of California. By F. S. Kelsey. Published by
the California Water and Forest Association.

An interesting map showing the three principal factors in the
water supply ; the areas of the principal water sheds, the mean
annual distribution of rainfall, and the timber and brush covered
areas. Lands covered by Redwood, by other timber and by brush
are separately indicated by topographical signs. The data was
obtained from the report of the California State Board of Forestry
for 1886-1S88 and of the U. S. Geological Survey. The scale of
the map is i to 760,320.

Finland : Its Public and Private Economy. By N. C. Frederiksen.
Edward Arnold, London. 1902. Pp. 306. 8°. Price
6 shillings.

In a chapter on Forestry the author gives by means of sufficient
data and excellent deductions a clear description of the Finnish
forests, their management and utilization.

Finland is one of the be.st wooded countries of Europe ; more
than half, about sixty-four per cent, or 57,500,000 acres is covered
by forest ; of these 36,500,000 acres are dry forest land, the re-
maining 21,000,000 acres being marsh land studded with trees.

Ctirre7it Literature and Reviews. 107

The Crown still retains possession of all waste and forest lands,
(35,000,000 acres) which have not been distributed among the
peasants as " enclosures " of 750 to 2,000 acres, according to the
laws of the i8th century. The public lands are divided into fifty
districts, varying in size from 3,750,000 acres to 30,000 acres,
each is in charge of a forester and a body of guards. In spite of
the existence of a forestry school since 1863, little has been done
besides protecting and selling the timber, " the use of seed and of
planting is only beginning to be understood."

The forests have suffered severely from fire damage, due chiefly
to burning for improvement of the pasturage. Numerous laws
were passed to prevent the fires, one of import is rather curious
as it forbids burning over very stony lands at all ; or other lands
covered by deciduous trees, more than once every thirty years ;
or if covered by coniferous trees, once ever}^ forty years. The
damage done b}' fires has greath' decreased with the present laws
and administration ; during the period from 1891 to 1895 about
40,000 acres in the average per year were burnt over. Injudici-
ous exploitation has been the cause of much damage, especially
was this the case with the ' ' enclosures, ' ' which as soon as they
were handed over to the peasant were often stripped of timber,
that he might gain a little capital with which to begin farming.

The forested area is very thinly stocked, the marsh lands often
having but one or two trees per acre. The Scotch Pine {Pi7uis
sylvestris var. rigetisis) is the most valuable tree. It occurs scat-
tered over marsh lands, and on the hills as the dominant tree in
mixture with the spruce {Picea excelsa) and the birch {Betida
alba}. The spruce, the tree second in importance, is worth
about 20% less than the pine and grows best in mixture with it.
The birch and alder (^Alnus incana} come in readily on burned
lands.

Exploitation of the forests is rapidly increasing. Besides being
used for lumber, large quantities of pine (over 10,000,000 cu. ft.)
every year are consumed in the destructive distillation for tar,
leading to denudation of the cut area or its reversion to pure
spruce stands. The use of the spruce for paper pulp is rapidly
increasing, at present about 10,000,000 cu. ft. are annually used
in the export trade. The birch is extensively used for turnery,
and the aspen for matches. With the exception of the above

io8 Forestry Quarterly.

minor uses, the bulk of the annual cut of 700,000,000 cubic feet
goes to the mill to be manufactured for home consumption. Fin-
land is to-day in the condition of the United States — just
beginning to realize that the "inexhaustible timber supply"
is a myth ; prices are rapidly rising, have in fact doubled in the
last fifteen years ; more economic methods of exploitation and of
manufacture are being introduced ; the former large sized trees
are no longer to be obtained : in 1887 it took 30 stems, as they
run, to make a St. Petersburg standard, while in 1897 it took 42.

PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

Beginning with this year various changes in the issuance of
forestry journals are to be noticed. Oberforstmeister Wilhelm
Wei.se, Director of the Royal Prussian Forest Academy at Miin-
den in Hanover, who edited the '' Mihidener Forstliche Hefte^^
until its discontinuance a year ago, now becomes joint editor with
Oberforstmeister Paul Riebel, Director of the Royal Prussian
Forest Academj^ at Eberswalde, of the '' Zeitschriftfiir Forst-tuid
Jagdweseri." This aflSliation should raise the influence of this
already standard publication, and, both from the standpoint of
the interest of the papers published and of the convenience to the
reader, should be greeted with approval.

Among the journals of the last decade none stood higher than
the '' Forstlich-Nattcrwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift ' ' established by
von Tubeuf in 1892 and discontinued upon the editor being called
to Berlin in 1898. This is now revived by Dr. von Tubeuf in
association with Dr. Hiltner, Director of the School of Agricult-
ural Botany in Munich, under the title of " Naturwissenschaftliche
Zeitschrift fi'ir Land- und Forstzvirtschaft,'' and as organ of the
botanical, zoological, soil chemistry and meteorological labora-
tories at Munich as well as of the School of Agricultural Botany.
Special attention will be given to the diseases of cultivated crops
induced by fungi and in.sects.

In France, Charles Broillard, Conservator of Forests, who dur-
ing eleven years has conducted the " Revue des Eaiix et Forets "
with such untiring energy and intimate acquaintance with his
subject and with the practical requirements of his position has

Periodical Literature. 109

laid aside his editorship on account of old age. This has been
taken up by Melard who has made somewhat of a name for him-
self since the International Forestry Congress at Paris in 1900
through his discussion of the insufficiency of the world's timber
supply. In his first number Melard has outlined a program,
covering several pages, and, supported by The Board of Forest
Management at Paris, and by the faculties of both the French
forestry schools, at Nancy and Barres, he will be in position to
maintain and advance the prestige of this journal.

Dr. Fankhauser, from whose '' Schweizerische Zeitschrift fi'ir
Forstwesen " we take the foregoing notes, devotes a fourth para-
graph to an appreciation of the ' ' Forestry Quarterly. ' '

Rod and Gun in Canada.
Feb.

" The Rocky Mountain Park," and " Ontario Forest Reserves "
are both short descriptive articles of general interest.

March.

Estimating Timber Contents, by A. Knechtel is another of the
short descriptions of well known timber mensuration methods
which have been appearing from time to time in Rod and Gun.

Woodland and Roadside.
March ist.

In an interesting article of a general nature Mr. T. F. Borst
describes forest work in Massachusetts in general, and especially
that of the Metropolitan Water Board in reforesting the Boston
watershed.

Popular Science Monthly.
March.

Mr. Raphael G. Zon of the Bureau of Forestry writes on the
Source of Nitrogen in Forest Soil. He reviews the work of
recent investigators especially that of Prof. Henr}'.

Transactions of the English A^'boricidtiiral Society . Vol. V, Part
II. G. & T. Fisher ; Carlisle.

Contains an interesting account of the annual excursion of the
Society to France, and also several articles on English priv^ate
estate management.

no Forestry Quarterly.

OiieeyV s Quarterly,
" Oct.

Some Recent Contributions to tlie Literature of Forestry. By
W. H. Muldrew.

An attempt to give a brief general review of the publications
relating to forestry in the United States and Canada from the
earliest times to the publication of " Practical Forestry " in 1902.
No unusual familiarity either with forestry or the literature
thereon is revealed.

Revue des Eaux et Forets.
Dec. 15th.

M. E. Henry discusses at length the influence of forest litter
(couverture morte) on the conservation of moisture ; the work of
several German and French investigators is reviewed and several
experience tables are given.

Feb. i^th.

The foreign commerce of paper pulp is reviewed for the past
ten years. During that period the French importations of manu-
factured pulp have nearly doubled and of pulp wood have tripled.

Bulletin de la Societe Ceyitrale Forestiere de Belgique.
Ja7i. and Feb.

" Au pays du pitch-pine," by M. E. Leplae, is a good descrip-
tion of Florida, its forests, forest industries, geology and general
conditions. Turpentine orcharding and the exploitation and
milling of the Longleaf Pine are taken up at length.

Centralblatt fur das Gesajtimte Forstweseyi. 1903.
Jan.

Die Forst- und Volkswirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Anbau-
versuche mit nordamerikanischen Holzarten fiir Deutschland
und Nord-Amerika. By Dr. Harold Unwin. Pp. 8-20.

The first installment of this discussion deals with the early
attempts at introducing exotic, cspeciallj^ American forest trees
into German forests. These importations were treated with little
regard to their silvicultural needs, and consequently the only
specimens remaining are found in parks where they were, the au-
thor explains, better protected against injury by game.

It is of interest to note the relative importance of our species in
the export trade, which is indicated in these statistics. Longleaf

Periodical Literature. in

pine heads the list with about 1,400,000 cubic feet. Red Cedar
follows with a similar amount. Walnut takes third position with
about 500,000 cubic feet, oak and tulip tree each with about
150,000 cubic feet, while cottonwood, maple, hickor}^ ash, cherry
and small amounts of birch, dogwood, and persimmon bring the
total to about four million cubic feet, representing perhaps thirty
million feet B. M. in all.

Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitiing. 1902.

Beitrag zur Geschichte der Horizontalgraben. By lyco An-
derlind. Pp. 333-35.

Horizontal furrows as a protection against excessive washing on
steep slopes appear to have been first employed in northern Ger-
many at Muppberg, near Neustadt on the Heide. Here in 1843,
Schlich began the reforestation of the mountain by use of these
furrows, and the plan has proven so practicable that it is still used
by the present administration. The plan was taken up almost
simultaneously in other parts of Germany and in France, where
Eugene Chevandier discussed his work in this connection before
the Academy at Paris as early as 1814.

Notable examples of the practice in various parts of Germany
and cases of localities where the adoption of this protection seems
advisable, are cited.

Forstliches und Anderes aus den Nordost-Karpathen. By
Freiherr von der Goltz. Pp. 369-73.

These notes on Hungarian forests and forestry as seen during a
brief excursion in August, 1898, with facts on the forest areas,
practices, etc. of Hungary, fill the body of the journal.

Among things of interest is a description of a plant for the im-
pregnation of beech ties. In the process here used each tie takes
up about 35 kg. of the impregnating fluid, two kilograms of this
being creosote oil and 1.8 kg., zinc chloride; the remainder is
water. The output of this plant is given as 300,000 ties per year.

Die Durchliiftung des Bodens, ein Kulturmittel. By For.st-
meister Eulefeld. Pp. 397-401.

The advantages of the ranging of hogs- in the forest begin to
appear now that, after a protracted struggle, the Germans have
for the most part succeeded in shutting their woods entirely

112 Forestry Quarterly .

against such cattle. The advantages are best seen in the middle
life of the stand when the cover is dense enough to lead to
the formation of raw humus, and are in the direction of an aera-
tion of the soil hy turning the humus under and opening up
the deeper layers to the action of atmospheric agents. These
arguments, however, seem to apply to peculiar conditions and
limited areas rather than to be of general application.

Ueber ungiinstige Einfliisse von Wind und Freilage auf
unsere Bodenkultur. By Forstdirektor Emeis. Pp. 401-4.

From experience in Schleswig-Holstein the author tells of the
influence of winds on the light sandy soil of that state. As in
many places in our own country the soil, when once exposed to
the wind action by the destruction of the cover of forest as in
Wisconsin or of sod as in parts of New England, is blown by the
wind and dunes are formed which can only be subdued b)- re-
storing the surface protection.

NEWS AND NOTES.

BUREAU WORK IN TEXAS.

Early last month the large field party which was in Texas during
the winter returned to Washington. The work of making a work-
ing plan for the Kirby holdings has been about half completed.

The following notes on the conditions there existing have been
kindly contributed by members of the party :

Practically the only tract of virgin Eongleaf Pine i^Pimis pahis-
tris) land of any considerable size left in the United States, except
that in Western Louisiana, is the one controlled by the Kirby Lum-
ber Company of Houston, Texas. These holdings include thou-
sands of acres of Eongleaf timber-land scaling from, about 10,000
feet to 15,000 feet per acre, not allowing for cull. Many acres of
pine and hardwood land, not so valuable for its timber occur ; here
^\\ox\\^?d V\\\& i^Pimis echmata) , Loblolly Pine {P. taeda), and
sometimes a little Longleaf are intermixed with various gums,
oaks, magnolias, beech, and hickories. The cypress swamps,
" where land and water meet," are occasionally found. By far
the most valuable and largest in area are the pure Longleaf lands.

The thing which impresses one especially is the park-like ap-
pearance and exclusive character of the Longleaf Pine forest.
Mile after mile the Longleaf Pine ranges along with occasional
Black Jack Oak and Post Oak as undergrowth. This peculiar
park-like appearance is undoubtedly due to the high light require-
ment of the species. After a Longleaf stand has started no
younger generation can appear under the shade of the original
stand. Gradually the stand thins itself, and when maturity is
reached it is composed of comparatively uniform sized trees. The
purity of the forest is largely due to the soil ; the highly silicious
and porous soil so characteristic of the flat hills of southern south-
eastern Texas is able to support only Longleaf Pine.

In the northern woods, after an original stand is removed it is
replanted by some other species; thus in Michigan, the White
Pine when removed is first replaced by birch, poplar and cherry ;
later among these species again appears the White Pine, and
eventually becomes the dominant species. Not so with the Long-

114 Forestry Quarterly.

leaf Pine, after it is cut down the ground remains barren or comes
up again in Longleaf, if conditions for reproduction are present.

The excUisive character of the soil, and light needing nature of
the lyongleaf Pine tending to make the trees of the stand of uni-
form size greatly complicates the problem of management. The
mature pine is, as a rule, about fifteen inches or more in diameter
on the stump, exactlj^ the diameter to which the timber is cut
here. This means practicallj' clean cutting. If no provision is
made for reproduction after the timber is cut, the land not able to
support any other species and not fit for agriculture will become
wa.ste land.

The reproduction of the Longleaf Pine forest is complicated
with many difficulties as fire and hog raising ; that it cannot be
obtained without sacrifices at present on the part of the owner is
self-evident, and the question whether it will pay to make the
sacrifices is beyond my ability to answer.

Wm. B. Howard.

Lumbering methods vary only in details on the different parts
of this tract, and a few of the most striking features of the oper-
ations as carried on at the Silsbee, Harden Co. works may be
taken as representative of the whole. The woods where the cut-
ting is being done is seven miles from the mill at Silsbee and is
reached by a standard gauge train. The engine used is of fifty
tons and similar to thirty-one others owned by the company.
Two trips are made a day, one early in the morning taking the
men to work, and the other in the afternoon ; on the first return
trip eight or nine loaded cars, and in the evening about eighteen
loaded cars are drawn to the mill. A car will hold logs scaling
abotit 2700 feet, thus the two trains will accommodate close to
70,000 feet the total day's cut. This catting is for the Silsbee
mill alone, and the compan)' operates thirteen other mills, some
larger some smaller ; the present rate of cutting per year is about
350,000,000 feet.

The sawyers work in gangs of two and cut on an average
17,000 feet a day per crew, for which they are paid 30 cents a
thousand. Logs are cut in 24 and 32 foot lengtlis except on
special orders. As soon as they are sawed and scaled they are
skidded by a team of mules directly to the skidway if they are

News and Notes. 115

near, or if far away from it they are paired off in convenient
places and are later taken to the skid by a big two-wheeled skid-
ding cart. These carts with their wheels seven feet in diame-
ter are one of the most distinctive features of the lumbering of this
region. Two logging irons are suspended from an eccentric
drum above the main axle of the cart worked by a heavy beam
lever attached by a chain to the skidding tongue. When the
wagon is backed by the mules over the logs the irons lower auto-
matically, are fastened to the logs about eight or ten feet from the
front end, and, as the team starts, the tongue moves forward
several feet and the logs are raised, their rear ends barely drag-
ging. In this way logs can be carried to the skidway, even over
•obstacles such as other logs with quickness and comparative ease.
Three such carts with teams can attend to the cutting of six or
seven gangs of sawyers.

Each skidway holds a carload of logs. A car is left at each
one and as the skidways are filled the cars are loaded. This is
done ordinarily by a crew of seven men using four oxen. Five
men roll the logs, one at a time with canthooks to two small logs
forming an incline from the end of the skid to the top of the car ;
a chain, one end of which is fastened to the further side of the
car and the other to the ox team, is passed around it and the
team pulls it up the incline. At the proper moment the top load-
er gives the driver the signal, the chain is unhooked, and the log
rests in its proper place ; the chain is returned over the car and
the crew is ready for the next log. The engine backs the loaded
car up to the next empty, the loading crew moving up at the
same time, and the whole operation is repeated until all the cars
are filled. The sawyers, scaler and loader stop work at 5 P. M.,
but the skidding teams and carts usually continue to bring in logs
until 5:30. The mules are then driven to the " corral " just out-
side of the works where they are cared for by the resident feeder.
They are fed but once a day. The price for mules is now about
$160 apiece, this is much higher than before the Spanish and
Boer wars when many were exported.

J. M. K., Jr.

ii6 Forestry Quarterly.

LAND OFFICE CHANGE.

The resignation of Mr. Filibert Roth as Chief of the Division
of Forestry of the General Land Office is a severe blow to the
honest and rational management of the forest reserves. During
the short period of Mr. Roth's administration the regulations of
the reserves were better enforced, the existing political appointees
were being gradually replaced by better men, the service has been
rearranged, properly graded, and provision made for the employ-
ment of technically educated men ; on one of the reserves, that of
the Black Hills, a regular system of timber sales has been estab-
lished ; in these ways and in others the Division had been greatly
increa.sed in efficiency. Mr. Roth is to be congratulated and
thanked for the fine work he has done and it is most regretable
that he should have resigned because his services were needed
elsewhere or for some other reason.

With the announcement of his resignation from the Land Office
comes that of his return to his Alma Mater, the University of
Michigan, as Professor in Charge of the new Department of For-
estry. A short sketch of Prof. Roth's career may be here apropos.

While still a college student he became interested in forestry
and during the last two years of his stay at the University was
employed in the timber physics work of the Division of Forestry,
Department of Agriculture. On leaving Ann Arbor in 1893 he
continued this work wath the Division as Special Agent. The
results of his investigations for the succeeding five years are con-
tained in several well known bulletins, and he is regarded as the
first authority on the subject in this country. With the found-
ing of the New York State College of Forestry in 1898 he became
Assistant Professor of F'^orestry with special charge of Timber
Physics and Exploitation, and continued in this position for three
years. From teaching he again returned to Washington, first as
Agent of the Bureau of Forestry and then as Chief of the Division
of Forestry, Department of the Interior ; his administrative
ability and knowledge of Western conditions foretelling the suc-
cess he has achieved. During the past year he produced his first
private publication,'-'^ an elementary treatise on forestry in general.

* See page 103

News and Notes . wj

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

The bill fathered by the Society for the Protection of New
Hampshire Forests appropriating $5,000 for an examination of
the White Mountain region by the Bureau of Forestry has been
passed by the Legislature and signed by the Governor. The
work will be done during the coming summer.

TIMBER AND LAND.

Justice White of the New York Supreme Court in a decision
recently handed down, declared timber to constitute a part of the
land en which it stands, and when the land is covered by a mort-
gage the timber can not be removed without consent of the party
holding the mortgage. This is of course in line with the laws of
the majority of the states, for they tax the total value of the land
plus the timber upon it as one value. There can be no very great
objection made to this procedure when the timber isof the original
stand. It may then, perhaps with some right, be looked upon as
a natural resource, a gift of God even as the minerals beneath the
surface. When it is no longer the natural stand that exists, but
one tended by man, raised by him, even created on barren soil,
is it still a part of the soil or is it a crop ? Should the forest crop
be taxed and the field crop go free, should the crop of a century
be burdened that the crop of a year may thrive ?

PHII^IPPINE FORESTRY SERVICE.

The following notice has been received from Capt. George P.
Ahern, Chief of the Philippine Forestry Bureau :

WANTED.

Foresters and Inspectors for the Philippine Forestry Bureau.

The salaries of Foresters range from $1200 to $2400 per year.

The salaries of Inspectors range from $900 to $2400 per year.

There are a number of vacancies in the different grades, and
good men are urgently needed for this interesting and important
work. The work of the Foresters is, to a large extent, technical ;
that of the Inspectors more administrative and less technical
knowledge is required.

Ii8 Forestry Quarterly.

Examinations will be held in different parts of the United States
on May 5. For detailed information apply to Bureau of For-
estry, Washington, D. C. Appointees from the United States are
reimbursed after six months' service for traveling expenses from
their homes to San Francisco. Half salaries begin on date of
embarkation at San Francisco, and expenses of sea voyage paid
on arrival at Manila. Foresters and Inspectors having from one
to two and one-half years' service in the Islands find the field
work very attractive, instructive and healthful.

The Philippine governing authorities are strong advocates of
rational forestry. The laws protect the public timber lands
(more than forty million acres) from speculators. All of this
combines to assure success to the Philippine forest service.

PHILIPPINE PROMOTION.

Mr. William M. Maule, N.Y.C.F., ex-'o3, formerly Inspector
in the Philippine Forestry Service, has been promoted to Forester.

TO SAVE THE FORESTS.

The Federal ofl&cers in charge of the Northwestern forest reser-
vations, including Forestry Superintendent Sheller, have just
drafted two important bills for passage by the coming Legislature,
with the object of preserving the Puget Sound timber supply.
The first of the bills applies to State granted lands and will pro-
vide for their protection by a system of supervisors and rangers,
in the same manner as the Government reserves are now protected
by Federal rangers. The two systems of rangers can work in
conjunction, thus policing a large portion of the State forests.

Superintendent Sheller finds that a great area of the State's
timber is annually destroyed by fire, there being no eflScient
means, under the present State laws, of apprehending or punish-
ing persons responsible for these fires.

The object of the second bill is to secure an appropriation for
the purchase by the State of the logged-off lands which, on ac-
count of unpaid taxes, have reverted to the various counties of
the State. Superintendent Sheller believes the State should buy
these lands and inaugurate an extensive system of reforestation.
Ownership by the State will exempt them from taxation. — Wood
and Iro7i, Jamcary.

News and Notes. 119

THE PROSPECT.

For the past twenty 3'ears the cause of forestry has been talked
and worked for in this country ; nature lovers, sportsman and
economists have been of the workers, as forestry associations,
forestry commissions and individuals have they worked. In those
twenty years much was done ; departments of forestry have been
established under state and national government, state reserves
have been created, the vast system of national reserves conceived
and carried out, forestry schools founded, and last and most im-
portant the education of the people has been accomplished. They
have been told of the destruction of the forests, taught that the
tree can be cut and the forest preserved, taught that the waters of
the lowland are born of the forest.

A new era is opening, one in which we will no longer talk why
anything is to be done, but of what is to be done, and how to do
it, an era when forest preservation has ceased to be a question of
sentiment and foresight but of actual economic necessity.

It is the lumberman who finally will preserve the forest, not for
its beauty, for its benefit to the community, but for the reason
which led him to destroy it, his own financial benefit. Do we
find any evidence that this state is approaching, that the lumber-
man is ready to cut without destruction, to sacrifice the present
for the future ?

TIMBER WASTE.

One of our Chicago contemporaries, in an article on " High
Stumps and Short Product," calls attention to the practical
econom}^ that might be effected by cutting the trees closer to the
ground, and seems to think the time has come when this should
receive attention on the part of Southern pine manufactures. We
are in hearty sympathy with every movement along this line, and
would not say a word of discouragement against any suggested
plan of timber saving. The extra unnecessary height of the
stump in yellow pine, however, is almost an inconsiderable part
of the waste. Where there is one yellow pine tree where a real
saving could be effected by cutting the stump lower than is usual
or customary, there are two or three where the stump is cut extra
high on purpose to get rid of worthless wood or where a short
"cut" is actually .sawed off and discarded after the tree is

I20 Forestry Quarterly.

felled. Anyone who has ever passed over a section recentlj^
logged has no doubt been struck with the number of these high
stumps and sawed-off butts.

On the other hand, such an one is even more forcibly impressed
with the enormous waste in the " lap." Here the waste is evi-
dent in every tree cut. Above the first considerable limb, the
body of the tree is left in the wood, not only an absolute waste,
but to afford fuel to a fierce fire that sooner or later helps along
powerfully to destroy the possibility of new growth. It is a com-
mon thing to see from loo to i,ooo feet of timber left in one of
those ' ' laps ' ' that cannot under present conditions be profitably
manufactured.

For the present almost the onl}' practical economy in timber
cutting that offers a sure realization is in intelligent logging — to
cut only the trees that have attained full growth, leaving the
others for the future, and carefully collecting the present waste
and burning it where it will do no damage. When all the big
stumpage owners recognize, as some of them do now, that there
is more in cutting the mature trees and letting the others stand,
than in " clearing the ground " as they go, and that if they can-
not operate on the former plan they are losing money every day
the mills run, we will have entered upon a practical forestry that
means something, and incidentally we will have given a stability
to lumber values based upon actual facts and not pure specula-
tion . — Southern Lu7nbernian .

COI.I.EGE NOTES.

The third Annual Supper of the Cornell Foresters was held
at the New Ithaca Hotel, on February 13th.

About seventy members and guests were present. The follow-
ing graduates returned: C. R. Pettis, '01, Abraham Knechtel,
'01, E. A. SterHng, '02. The toasts were responded to with the
usual good spirit, as follows : " The College," Dr. B. E. Fernow ;
"Forestry — what it isn't," H. F. Weiss, '05: "Around Maine
Campfires," G. B. Lull, '04; "With the Lumber Jacks," Mr.
H. A. Field ; " Our Natural Science Courses," R. S. Sloan, '05 ;
"Suggestions," E. A. Sterling, '02; " Axton Stunts," A. S.
Williams, '03. The Toastmaster, Dr. John Gifford, was absent
because of severe illness, and Mr. H. O. Stabler, Sp., took his
place. At the close a Foresters' Song, specially written for the
occasion, was sung in chorus.

FOREST TREE SEEDS / SEEDLINGS

Fresh, Authentic Seeds,

We have a large stock of one
and two year seedlings. Grown
especially for Forestry purposes.

Write for "Forestry" Catalogue.

IREE8. 8HR0B8, [VERGREENS,
VINES AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS

Thomas Meehan & Sons,

Wholesale Dept.,
Dreshertown, Mont'g Co., Penna.

s e: e: D .

PINUS DIVARICAXA.

Address: EXTRACTOR,

Sturgeon Lake, Minnesota.

Seedlings.

WHITE PINE, NORWAY SPRUCE,

By the thouisanci.

Address : Director, College of Forestry, Ithaca, N. Y.

Forestry Quarterly.

Published for the Practitioner and the Student

Subscription Price :

Oni' dollar per year. Foreign countries, one dollar and a quarter.

A D V E Rxi s E ivi E rvj-r s.

Raies i^ivcn 07i application to Business Editor,

18 Morrill Hall, Ithaca, N. Y.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Forestry at an American Agricultural Experiment Station - 8i
Walter Mulford, Forester of the Connecticut Agricul-
tural Experiment Station,

Outlook of the Timber Supply in the United States, II 87

B. E. Fernow, Director of the New York State College of
Forestry.

Forest Advance Over Glaciated Areas in Alaska and British

Columbia 94

Marsden Manson, Commissioner of Public Works, San Fran-
cisco, California.

Current Literature and Reviews 97

Periodical Literature loS

News and Notes 113

Vol. I No. 4

Forestry Quarterly

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF A

Board of Advisers of the Faculty and Alumni

OF THE

New York State College of Forestry

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

ITHACA, New York

1903

FORESTRY QUARTERLY

Manap;et s for the Year loo^-^

Asa S. Williams Alukrt F. Siebold

Editor Business Manager

Frederick Dunlap Clyde Leavitt

Assistant ,-^\<tiUtntif

Board of Advisers
Bernard* E. Fernow, LL.D. John Gifford, D.CEc

Walter Mulford, B.S.A., F.E.

THE OBJECTS FOR WHICH THIS JOURNAL IS PUBLISHED ARE :

To aid ill the establishment of rational forest management.

To offer an organ tor the publication of technical papers of
interest to professional foresters in America.

To keep the profession in touch with the current technical lit-
erature and the forestry inovetncnt in the Unit'-' '^♦•-♦ —

Single numbers^ twenty-five Yearly subscriptions, $i.oo.

' he Post Offii . •coud class mail matter.

PRESS < il \CA, .N. V

FORESTRY QUARTERLY.

Vol. I. July, 1903. No.

FOREST PROBLEMS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Observation of New Hampshire forests reveals two leading
problems, that of reforesting the White Pine areas in the southern
portion of the state, and of maintaining the output of spruce in
the northern portion.

White Pine has an unrivaled growth in New Hampshire.
Twenty-five years sometimes produce a merchantable crop suit-
'able for the manufacture of boxes, pails and matches, while fort}'-
years produce trees that begin to have timber value. There are
instances of pine land having been cut over twice by the same
man, the profits of the second cut being greater than of the first,
owing to changes in market conditions. Only a few scattered
groves of the old, original White Pines remain.

The bulletin of the Twelfth Census relating to New Hampshire
agriculture shows that one million seven hundred and sixty-four
thousand (1,764,000) acres of land in the state have reverted from
improved to unimproved farm land since 1850. These abandoned
fields and pastures lie, for the most part, south of the White
Mountains and contain much promising pine growth. One may
find well-made stone walls in woods fifty years old, indicating
that the land was once tilled ; and choked and dying apple
orchards in the woods are not infrequent. So much abandoned
land would make a bad showing for New Hampshire were it not
for the fact that through intensive cultivation, farm values have
increased by eight million dollars during the last decade. Thirty-
seven per cent, of the land area, chiefly non-agricultural, has
never been taken up in farms. This with the unimproved farm
land makes a total of more than 70% of the land area under some
form of forest cover, a portion of it is, however, brush and not
forest land. The chief difficulty from a silvicultural point of
view is that nature's seeding has been in most places irregular.

122 Forestry Quarterly.

As the pastures grow up to pines, a few trees appear first getting
the start of the others, becoming limby and less profitable for
lumber, and interfering with the growth of the trees that come
later. It is estimated that the oncoming pine forests will ultilize
not more than sixty per cent, of nature's forest and soil capacity,
while some of it will utilize only thirtj' per cent. The problem
is to develop this growing forest so that it will utilize the full
capacity of the soil, by (i) Planting in the fail places. (2) Thin-
ning when necessary. (3) Reforesting the cut-over areas, and
and (4) Extending the forest area over land not profitable for
agricultural crops.

Numerous experiments in sowing seeds of White Pine and
transplanting j^oung trees have been made in New Hampshire.
The chief one of sowing seed was made by a gentleman in the
town of Winchester, who sowed two hundred and ten acres, tak-
ing advantage of a good seed year and collecting the seed himself,
and sowing about a quart to the acre. The ground not being well
prepared the seed did not reach the mineral soil in all cases, and
the stand is only partially satisfactory. On a portion of this
tract onl}^ two hundred trees to the acre are now found after five
years ; but over other portions a good stand is found of about
twelve hundred trees to the acre. Experiments have been tried
with fair success in transplanting natural seedlings two to ten
years old. The ])est results are seen in Westmoreland, Aloulton-
borough and Bedford, but none of them are on an extensive scale.
Of groves thinned and i)runed there are interesting examples
throughout the pine region of the state, but the practice is not at
all general. The great need is definite, practical instruction, at-
tractiv^ely presented, in agricultural and other meetings. The
Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests provides
addresses with lantern photographs freelj' throughout the state.
There is need also of a demonstration forest, conveniently located
for showing results in management.

Taken as a whole, there is an extensive and very valuable sec-
ond growth of White Pine in the state. In this respect New
Hampshire differs from the western pine states, where the new
growth is less vigorous and rapid. Besides, the soil in large
portions of New Hampshire is better adapted to forest than to
agriculture. The state promises to be a timber-producing state
in years to come. Much more profit, however, can be secured by

Forest Problems in New Hampshire. 123

improved management, and the forest area can be profitably ex-
tended. To supplement nature's seeding and to plant pieces
of non-agricultural land not forested, the Society secured the
introduction in the legislature of a bill for the establishment of
a state nursery through which forest seedling trees and seeds
adapted to the soil should be grown and distributed throughout
the state at cost. This bill passed the House of Representa-
tives, and though reported favorably by the Senate committee
on forestry, failed of passage in the Senate.

The spruce problem is different. The mountain region and
northern portion of the state contain some forests of virgin spruce,
much of it, however, on the high slopes where diameters are
small. In a felling on Black Mountain forty trees six inches in
diameter averaged one hundred and twenty-five years in age.
The pulp and paper companies control the greater portion of the
spruce in the state. As their mills are large and expensive it is
the polic}^ of the three most important companies to cut to a diam-
eter of ten inches or sometimes twelve, expecting to return after
twenty or twenty-five years for another crop. One of these com-
panies cuts its logs into twelve foot lengths in the woods in order
to remove them with le.ss injury to the young growth. This re-
stricted cutting applies only to the valley and lower slopes, how-
ever, because on wind-swept places, including all high slopes,
and on all steep slopes it is not profitable except to cut clean.
These high forested slopes are particularly attractive to the sum-
mer visitors in the mountains, who are reported to leave annually
$8,000,000 in New Hampshire, a sum equal to about one-half
the annual lumber output. The aesthetic side of forestry is more
important, therefore, here than in many other places.

The wasteful method of tlie lumbermen on these high slopes is
sometimes excessive, two-thirds or more of all the trees being
left upon the ground, trunks down hill, in order that the remainder
may roll down over them to the road below. Such timber should
be cut only by a conservative use of the selective method, and
this can probably be done only when the government takes con-
trol. New growth reappears very slowly and in places never.
Besides, the smaller concerns slash the woods recklessly in the
valleys as well as on the slopes, having no interest in a future
crop.

Until the year 1869 New Hampshire owned the great portion
of the White Mountain region which it then sold for $25,000. It

124 Forestry Quarterly.

is reported that a single tract of spruce on the northern slope of
the Presidential range was recently purchased by the company
now cutting there for $600,000.

What can be done to prevent the rapid disappearance of the
spruce forests on the high slopes and in the places of particular
scenic value ? This question is hard to answer. The principle
of state interference by restricting the cut to a given diameter be-
low which the operator may not fell his trees has been proposed
in previous sessions of the legislature and defeated. This princi-
ple appears to be contrary to American independence, curtailing
a man's right to do what he will with his own, and while there
are instances of similar paternalism in our government — confisca-
tion of diseased cattle for instance — the farmers to a man are op-
posed to such restrictive legislation for forest cutting. Moreover,
no restrictive law has been formed by zxvy of the states that cover
the multitude of varying conditions in the forest. The principle
of state ownership alone remains, and the education of private
owners to better methods. While New Hampshire has no state
debt, it is not a rich state. The burden of taxation is felt, partic-
ularly in the hill towns from which the forest has been removed.
Population in these towns has greatly diminished, and the fami-
lies remaining have difhcult5Mn supporting the schools and many
miles of road. In the legislature members from these rural
towns, not yet aware of the true significance of the forest, have a
preponderating influence, and refuse to submit to further taxation
for forest purposes. The}^ do not yet realize that New Hampshire
can do in proportion to her means what Connecticiat, Massachu-
setts, New York and Pennsylvania are already doing. State
ownership, therefore, cannot be brought about except gradually,
and meantime the virgin forests are rapidly disappearing.

A solution has been proposed through an appeal to the federal
congress for a national reservation in the White Mountain region
similar to that proposed in the Southern Appalachian Mountains.
It has been objected that it is inexpedient for the United States
to interfere with the forest management of any single state, but
the interstate character of the White Mountains is sufficiently
established b}^ the fact that the waters flowing from them — the
Androscoggin, the Saco, the Merrimack and the Connecticut
rivers — su]:)ply power to more factories than any other waters in
the country, and their even flow is of vast importance, and that

Forest Problevis in Neiv Hampshire. 125

the mountains are visited already annually by people from every
state in the Union for rest and recreation of a kind found in few
other places. As nothing can be done by congress until the facts
of the case are fully set forth, the Society for the Protection of
Forests has had introduced in the state legislature another bill
appropriating $5,000 for an examination of the forests in the
mountain regions of the state by the Bureau of Forestry at
Washington. This bill has passed, and the work will shortly be-
gin.

The plan for a national reservation has the emphatic en-
dorsement of President Roosevelt, Secretary Hay, and the sen-
ators and representatives from New Hampshire and prominent
citizens in all parts of New England are giving active support.
Aside from this hoped-for reservation much benefit must result
from the examination itself, because it will give to New Hamp-
shire people knowledge of their own conditions and offer sugges-
tions as to the best means of managing our mountain forests.

Philip W. Ayres.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE VOLUME OF SOLID
WOOD IN THE CORD.

With the development of the pulp industry, the importance of
the cord as a wood measure has largely increased. In the
Adirondacks at present almost all the Spruce, Balsam, and Hem-
lock cut for pulp is measured b}' the cord. A cord contains 128
cubic feet of stacked wood, represented bj'^ a stack 4 feet high,
4 feet wide, and 8 feet long. In order to find the number of
cords in a stack of other dimensions, the length of the stack is
multiplied by its width and height, and the result divided by 128.
Thus, a stack 4 feet high and 8 feet long, made of 12-foot sticks
contains 3 cords, the same as a stack 4 feet high and 24 feet long,
made of 4-foot sticks. If we attempted, however, to resaw the
12-foot sticks into 6-foot lengths and stack them 4 feet high and
16 feet long, we would discover that we have not enough wood
to complete 3 cords. The stack would be smaller, and this
shrinkage would be still greater were we to resaw the 12-foot
sticks into 4-foot lengths and stack them 4 feet high and 24 feet
long. Thus, the shorter the stick the more wood is required to
make a given number of cords.

By careful investigation upon Spruce in Russia,' it was
established that by resawing 7-foot sticks into 3.5-foot lengths
stacks shrunk 5 per cent. ; 3.5-foot sticks into 1.75-foot lengths.
3 per cent.; 7-foot sticks into 2.33-foot lengths, 6 per cent., and
28-inch sticks into 14-incli lengths, 2 per cent. From this we
may see that the shrinkage was greater the longer the sticks were
before resawing.

Should we resaw the 12-foot sticks mentioned above, into
4-foot lengths and stack them 4-feet high and 24 feet long we
would find that the stack had shrunk at least 12 per cent., to be
very conservative. In other words, 3 cords of 4-foot sticks, 4 feet
high and 24 feet long, contain 12 per cent, more of solid wood
than 3 cords of 12-foot sticks 4 feet high and 8 feet long, though
stumpage in both cases is paid for 3 cords only.

The 4- and 12-foot sticks in our example are not chosen arbi-
trarily, but are taken from actual practice. Pulpwood in the
Adirondacks is cut mostly into 4-, 12-. and 14-foot lengths. It

'Prof. A. Roodzsky. " Lesnaya Taxaziya."

Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord. 127

ought to be of great practical interest to the owner of a forest
tract, whether his pulpwood is cut and stacked into 4- or 12-foot
lengths. Twent}^ thousand cords are frequently cut from a single
tract during one year, and the choice of 4- or 12-foot lengths
means a difference of 2400 cords, or in money (at an average
stumpage price of $2.50 per cord), of $6,000 on the stacking
alone.

This example shows of what practical importance is a
knowledge of the factors influencing the amount of .solid wood
in a cord, and will justify, therefore, an attempt to examine them
more closely.

I. Length of Sticks.

The stick length, as we have seen above, has a decided effect
upon the solid volume of the cord. The sticks are never entirely
straight and smooth, and, in piling them one above another, there
always remain cracks which become larger the longer the sticks
are and vice versa. The shorter the sticks the closer can they
be piled and the more wood will the cord contain. With 4-foot
sticks as standard, changes in the stick length from i foot to 6
feet var}-- the diflference in the solid volume of the same stack
measure from 14 per cent, to 35 per cent, as the following table,
based upon extensive experiments, shows :

Interdependence of the Stick Length and the Voi^ume of Solid
Wood per 128 Cubic Feet of Space.*

:ngth of Straight

sticks.

Crooked Sticks-

Knotty

Sticks.

stick. Volume.

Difference.

Volume.

Difference.

Volume.

Differenc

Feet. Cubic Feet.

Percent.

Cubic Feet.

Percent.

Cubic Feet.

Percent

I 99-8l

+8.3

93-47

+ 14.I

89.60

4-20.7

2 97.28

+5-5

89.60

+ 9-4

84.48

+ 13-8

3 94-72

+2.8

85.76

+ 4.7

79-36

+ 6.9

4 92.16

.0

81.92

.0

74-24

.0

5 89,60

—2.8

78.08

- 4-7

69.12

- 6.9

6 87.04

-5-5

74-24

- 9-4

64.00

-13-8

2. Diameter of Sticks.

The smaller the sticks, the more of them will there be in a
cord. With the number of sticks in the cord increases also the
number of cracks ; the solid wood, therefore, decreases.

The difference of solid volume in two stacks, of which one is
composed of sticks twice as large as those in the other, maj^
amount to 13 per cent ; and if the sticks of one stack are four
times as large as those of the other, this difference may be even
25 per cent.

*From Konig, cited in Dr. Miiller's " Lehrbuch der Holzmesskunde."

1 28 Forestry Quarterly.

Baur's investigations-'- bring out clearly this relation between
the number of sticks (or diameter of stick) and the solid volume of
the cord.

Solid Cubic Feet per

Cord of

Diameter

Number

Mixed

of Stick.

of Sticks

Hardwoods.

Softwoods.

Hardwoods and

Inches.

per cord.

Softwoods.

6.8

94

102.40

102.40

102.40

6.0

126

94.72

98.56

96.00

4.75

205

88.32

97.28

92.16

3.5

378

79-36

90.88

84.48

From this table also follows that while we are dealing with logs
of fairly large diameter (6.0" to 6.8") an increase in the number
of sticks even from 94 to 126 per cord, an increase of 34 percent
(i. e., a small diminution in the diameter of each individual
stick), causes a drop of 6.40 cubic feet in the solid volume,
whereas practically the same drop is caused in the solid volume
of a stack of sticks of smaller diameters (3.5" to 4.7") by an in-
crease in their number from 205 to 378, or by an increase of 84

per cent.

3. Split Wood.

Large sticks are often split to facilitate their drying and hand-
ling. After being split the sticks cannot be stacked as closelj- as
before and less wood is required to make the given stack. Split-
ting therefore reduces the amount of solid wood in the cord.
Stacks of split wood always contain less solid wood than stacks
of round wood of the same diameter.

By splitting in two .sticks 21 inches long and 3.5" to 7" at the
small diameter, a stack increases (the solid wood per given space
consequently decreases) 6 per cent ; 21 -inch sticks thicker than
7 inches, 4 per cent ; 14-inch sticks, 3.5" to 7" thick, 5 per cent ;
and i4-inch sticks thicker than 7", only 2.5 per cent.f In other
words, the longer and thinner the sticks split, the greater is the
swelling of the stack, or, what is the same, the decrease of solid
wood in the given stack measure.

^. Form of Sticks.

The straighter and smoother the sticks the fewer air spaces be-
tween them, and, consequently the greater the solid contents of
the stack measure. For this reason the clear trunks of trees
yield more solid wood per given space than the tops and branches.

* Franz Baur, " Untersuchungen iiber den Festgehalt," etc.
tProf. A. Roodzsky, " Lesnaya Taxaziya."

Factors Influencing the Vohime of Solid Wood in the Cord. 129

The results of experiments upon the relation between the form
of sticks and the solid contents of the cord are given in the fol-
lowing table :*

Solid Cubic Feet per Cord of
Number Mixed

Class. of Sticks Hardwoods. Softwoods. Hardwoods and

per cord. Softwoods.

T f Smooth 104 97.28 96.00 96.00

^'''^S'' I Knotty loi 85.76 90.88 88.32

Small i |°^«°tl^ ^62 92-^6 92.16 92.16

(Knotty 155 83.20 87.04 84.48

5. Species.

The preceding tables show that softwoods furnish more solid
wood per given space than do hardwoods. This is undoubtedly-
due to the smaller taper, greater clear length, and smoother bark
of conifers.

A cord of softwoods contain on an average about 3 per cent,
more of solid wood than a similar cord of hardwoods. The
species of the tree from which the cordwood is derived, therefore,
must have some effect upon the solid contents of the cord, inas-
much as some species taper more or less than others. This effect
is, to be sure, not very great, and since the taper and the general
habit of trees vary with the locality and conditions under which
they grow, no accurate arrangement of species in the order of
their greater or le.ss yield of solid wood to the cord is possible.

6. Green Wood and Dry Wood.

Sound, freshly-cut wood dries in the air, and the stack, there-
fore, shrinks, resulting in an increase of solid wood per given
space. In drying, it is true, the wood cracks and the bark be-
comes detached, which tends to counteract the shrinkage of the
stack, but not enough to neutralize it entirely. It makes, there-
fore, a difference how soon after felling timber the stack is meas-
ured. Hardwoods dry in the air more and shrink, therefore,
more than do softwoods. Green hardwood completely air-dry
shrinks from 9 per cent, to 14 per cent, according to species,
while softwood only 9 per cent, to 10 per cent. t Consequently,
stacks of dry hardwood have 9 per cent, to 14 per cent., and dry
softwood 9 per cent, to 10 per cent, more, respectively, of solid
volume than similar stacks of green wood.

* Franz Baur, " Untersuchungen iiber den Festgehalt und das Gewicht
des Schichtholzes und der Rinde."

t Franz Baur. " Untersuchungen iiber den Festgehalt."

130 Forestry Quarterly.

7. Pilmg and Fixing the Stack.

The higher the stack the less closelj' can it be piled and the less
wood will it contain per given space. Stacks higher than 4 to
4.5 feet high can not be piled conveniently. The heavier the
stick and the weaker the piler, the less clo.se is the piling and the
less solid wood in the cord. In order to hold the pile together,
one or two stakes are used at each end. It has l^een observed
that when one stake is used at each end of the stack, the volume
of solid wood per cord is higher than when two stakes are at each
end. In the latter case, the ends of the sticks, and in crooked
.sticks their concave sides, cannot reach much outside the stakes.
This tends, therefore, to decrease the solid wood in the cord.
There always remains some space between the stakes holding the
stack together and the wood. Therefore, the fewer the stakes
used for the total amount of wood to be corded {i.e., the longer
the stacks), the higher is the solid volume per cord.

The quality of labor has much to do with the solid volume of
the cord. If the branches are not trimmed close to the body of
the stick, if the sticks are chopped instead of sawed, if the laborer
is careless in piling, there is less solid wood per given space.

8. Measuring the Stack.

The length of a stack is seldom the same at both top and
bottom. The top of the stack is, as a rule, longer than the
bottom. This is due to the spreading of the end stakes from the
weight of the piled sticks or from their not being set vertically at
first. Therefore, it makes considerable difference where the
length of a stack is measured.

The length should be measured half way up the stack, because
if the top length is used it would give less solid wood than the
stack actually contains. The use of the bottom length would
give more than the actual solid volume.

The height of the stack is seldom the same on both sides.
The height of the stack should be measured at several places on
both sides, and the average of these measurements taken for the
height.

p. Conclusions.

This brief review of the factors influencing the amount of .solid
wood per given space teaches that no correct comparison can be
made etbweeu two stacks containing the same number of cords.

Factors InHicencing the Vohivie of Solid Wood m the Co?'d. 131

but having sticks of dififerent lengths, diameters, and shape, un-
less the actual solid volume of the two stacks is known. It is
extremely desirable, therefore, to be able to tell how much solid
wood is in a cord made of sticks of given length and diameter.
Only by knowing this can one avoid paying the same amount of
money for the same number of cords and getting different
amounts of solid wood.

An attempt is made here to pre.sent tables in which the solid
volume of wood in a cord can be found. Of all the factors in-
fluencing the amount of solid wood only the length and thickness
of the stick are taken into account as being of greater importance
and uniform in their effect. The rest are more variable in their
influence and are, therefore, less easily computable.

The wood is divided into several classes according to its thick-
ness. In the first class are sticks more than 5.5" in diameter at
the small end. Such sticks are usually derived from the lower
part of the trunk ; they are free of branches and cylindrical in
shape. The best pulpwood belongs to this class.

The second class contains sticks 2.5" to 5.5" in diameter. This
and the first class are most frequently found together. Most
pulpwood is a mixture of these two classes.

To the third class belongs wood i.o" to 2.5" in diameter. This
and the second class mixed together furnish most of the extract
wood, firewood, etc.

Table I gives the solid volume of a cord containing 128 cubic
feet of stacked wood for sticks 10" to 14' long. Table II that of
stacks 4 feet high, 8 feet long, and 10", 12", 14", 16", etc., wide.

In order to find the solid volume of a stick length not given in
Table II, take the stick length nearest it, divide its solid con-
tents by its length, and multiply the quotient by the log length
desired. Thus, if it be required to find the solid volume of a
cord of 13-inch wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, divide 23.50 by
12 and multiply the quotient by 13, or divide 27.32 by 14 and
multiply by 13. The result in either case will give the solid
volume for the required stick length.

The figures given in the table are average figures, and as such
are subject to changes in accordance with local conditions. If,
for instance, the majority of the trees cut into cordwood are more
than 12.0" in diameter breast high, the solid volume of the cord
may be raised about 5%. Should the majority of the trees be no
larger than 5", the solid volume of the cord may be reduced about

132 Forestry Quarterly.

5%. If the trees have rough, thick bark, the solid volume of the
cord may be reduced 3%. Thin-barked trees would raise it 3%.
Tall, straight trees, clear of branches to a great height, would
raise the solid volume of the cord 10% in first-class wood ; in the
second class, 5%. Low, crooked, and branchy trees would re-
duce the solid contents \o'^/o and 5%, respectively, and so on-
As can easily be seen from this, these tables are not absolute for
all conditions. To be perfectly correct, such tables should be
made for a limited localit}'. The merit of the tables given, there-
fore, lies in pointing out the relative solid contents in cords of
sticks of different length and diameter, and, as such, they ought
to prove of value to all industries which buy timber for its actual
solid volume, like pulp and extract manufacturers.

By giving the actual solid volume in cords of different length
and diameter, these tables help to establish just and uniform
prices, and ought, therefore, to be the basis of all specifications
in contracts for pulp-, extract-, or firewood.

TABLE I .

Volume of Soud Wood per 128 Cubic Feet of Space.

^ength

ist class:

2nd class:

3rd class :

ist and 2nd

2nd and 3rd

small

small

small

of

diameter

diameter

diameter

classes

classes

stick

NCHES

over 5.5"

2-5"-5-5"
CUBIC

I.O"-2.5"

FEET.

mixed

mixed

ID

91.98

85.40

65.70

88. 69

75-55

12

91.80

85-25

65.69

88.53

75-47

14

91.67

85.10

65.65

88.39

75-38

16

9T.50

84.95

65.60

88.23

75-28

18

91-37

84.80

65-55

88.09

75-18

20

91.20

84.67

65.50

87.94

75-09

22

91-05

84.50

65.40

87.78

74-95

24

90.90

84.35

65.32

S7.63

74.84

26

90.75

84.20

65-23

87.48

74.72

28 .

90.60

84.05

65.12

87-33

74.59

30

90.45

83.90

65.00

87.18

74.45

FKBT

3

89.98

83.40

64.60

86.69

74.00

4

88.92

82.42

63.62

85.67

73.02

5

87.75

81.30

62.60

84.53

71-95

6

86.45

80.00

61.60

83-23

70.80

7

85.38

78.82

60.55

82.10

69.69

8

83.75

77.20

5940

80.48

68.30

9

82.40

75.80

58.20

79.10

67.00

10

81.00

74-30

56.90

77-65

65.60

II

79.60

72.80

55-60

76.20

64.20

12

78.05

71.20

54-25

74-63

62.73

13

76.45

69.60

52.90

73-03

61.25

14

74.85

6795

51-50

71.40

59.73

Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord. 1 33

TABLE II .
Voi,UME OF Solid Wood in Stacks

4 ft. high,

8 ft. long, and

lO'^ 12^^

I4'''', etc. wide.

C^ength

1st class:

2nd class:

3rd class :

ist and and

2nd and 3rd

of

small
diameter

small
diameter

small
diameter

classes

classes

stick

INCHES

over 5.5"

2-5"-5-5"

CUBIC

I.o"-2.5"

FEET.

mixed

mixed

10

19-50

17.50

14.00

18.50

15-75

12

23-50

21.00

16.00

22.25

18.50

14

27.32

24.50

19.00

25-91

21.75

16

31.00

2S.50

21.50

29-75

25.00

18

35.00

32.00

24.30

33-50

28.15

20

37.50

35-00

27.00

36.25

31.00

22

42.20

39.00

30.00

40.60

34-50

24

46.02

42.00

32.70

44.01

37-35

26

50.00

46.00

35-20

48.00

40.60

28

53-21

49.00

38.00

5I-II

43-50

30

57.00

5300

41.00

55-00

47.00

FEET

3

68.50

63.00

50.00

65-75

56.50

4

88. 92

82.42

63.62

85.67

73.02

5

108.50

101.50

78.00

105.00

89.75

6

128.50

120.00

92.30

124.25

106.15

7

149-55

138-05

106.41

143-80

122.23

8

170.00

165.00

119.90

167.50

142.45

9

190.00

175.00

133-50

182.50

154-25

10

211.00

193.00

147-50

201.00

170.25

II

230.00

210.50

161.20

220.25

185.85

12

250.00

228.00

175.00

239.00

201.50

13

269.00

245-50

189.00

257-25

217.25

14

287.50

262.50

203.00

275.00

232.75

Raphael G. Zon.

THE NEW YORK FOREST FIRE LAW.

It seems, on account of the disastrous forest fires which have
recently occurred in the Northeastern United States, quite apro-
pos to describe the fire law of the State of New York.

" Self preservation " is said to be " the first law of nature," and
forest protection should be the first consideration in forestry.
Fire is by far the greatest of all the destructive agents of the for-
est. A well-known writer uses the expression • " It takes thirty
years to grow a tree and tliirty seconds to cut it down and destroy
it." Fire will destroy the thirty-year-old tree equally as quick
and usually at the same time destroy the soil.

The law of the State of New York gives to the Forest, Fi.sh
and Game Commission the "'care, control and supervision of the
Forest Preserve," '•' the enforcement of the laws relating to forest
fires, and the authority to " make rules for the prevention of for-
est fires and cause the same to be posted in all proper places
throughout the state."

The laws relating to forest fires consist of nine sections in
Chapter 20, Laws of 1900, Article XIII. The3' may be summed
up as follows : Section 220, Powers of Commission. Section 224 a,
Authorizing the office of Chief Fire Warden. Section 225,
Town Fire Wardens and Fire Districts. Section 226, Duties of
Fire Wardens. Section 227, Compensation of Fire Wardens and
others employed at fires. Section 228. Railroads in forest lands.
Section 229, Fires to clear land. Section 230, Forest fires pro-
hibited. Section 231, Proceeds of actions for forest fires.

The wording and fundamental purpose of the law is to prevent
fire, and at the same time have an efficient organization which
can quickly get to the place and cope with a fire while it ma}' yet
be controlled, or render such services as may be expedient. The
public welfare requires and the law provides that all forests,
whether on state or private lands, be entitled to the same consid-
eration and protection.

*The Forest Preserve includes all the wild lands of the state situated in
the Adirondack and Catskill counties, except the lands in the towns of
Altoona and Dannemora, Clinton county, which are under the supervision
of the Comptroller. The Forest Preserve includes all or portions of the
following counties, of which 1,436,686 acres are state lands, viz : Clinton,
Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer, Lewis, Oneida, Saratoga,
St. Lawrence, Warren, Washington, Delaware, Greene, Ulster and Sullivan.

The Nezv York Forest Fire Lazv. 135

There are three grades of fire wardens. First. The Chief Fire
Warden, who is appointed b}' the Commission. He has "super-
vision of the town fire wardens, visits and instructs them in their
duties, and enforces the law as to fire districts in the towns, and
under authority of the Commission commences prosecutions for
violation of laws to prevent forest fires. He fills vacancies and
removes town fire wardens with the consent of the Commission ;
has charge of fire wardens' reports, and when a fire is not reported
ascertain its origin and result." In addition he has supervision
of all bills against the state rendered by the various towns for
fighting fires.

Second, The town firewardens are appointed by the Chief
Firewarden with the consent of the Commission. Under the
Commission a town firewarden is charged with preventing and
extinguishing forest fires in his town. In case of fire in, or
threatening, forest or woodland the District Firewarden, if any,
or, if none, the Town Firewarden shall attend thereto forthwith
and use all necessar}' means to confine and extinguish the
same. The Town Firewarden or District Firewarden may sum-
mon an)^ resident of his town to assist in putting out fire. Any
resident summoned, who is physicially able, and refuses to assist
shall be liable to a penalty of ten dollars. In case a fire burns
over an acre or more of land the fire warden of the town in which
it occurs shall forthwith make an examination and report the
same on blanks furnished for this purpose to the Commission,
giving the area burned over, the quantity of timber, woods, logs,
bark or other forest products, and offences, buildings, and bridges
destroyed, with an estimate of the value thereof. He shall also
report the cause of the fire and the means used in putting it out.*
Should the fire be in his vicinity, although in an adjoining town,
it will be his duty to go there immediately and use the same
means too extinguish it as though it were in his own town. If
no warden from that town be present he shall assume the same
authority and the same duties as though the fire was in his
own town, until the arrival of the warden from the town within
whose limits the fire occurs ; but when a warden from the town
in which the fire occurs shall arrive he shall assume charge of the
fire. No matter which warden orders out the men to fight the
fire the town in which it occurs shall be liable for the expense

*Section 226 — Duties of Firewardens.

136 Forestry Qxiarterly.

thus incurred. He shall also see that the district wardens are
supplied witli printed notices, which are furnished by the Com-
mission, containing the rules and regulations relating to the pre-
vention of forest fires, and shall see that the same are posted.
He shall be the District Warden of the district in which he lives
and a resident of that town. He shall divide the town into dis-
tricts, if not previously done, and appoint district wardens therein.
In dividing the town into districts, mountain ranges, rivers,
brooks, and highways are used as division lines. In some cases
school districts constitute a fire district. This information is sent
promptlj' to the Chief Firewarden and he locates the district on
his map. His pay is $2.50 per day and reasonable expenses,
when he works. In accordance with the law he issues permits to
farmers to burn fallow and audits the bills against the town for
services rendered in fighting fire.

Third. District firewardens are appointed bj'- the Town Fire-
warden, subject to the approval of the Chief Firewarden. They
have jurisdiction over their districts, although they may go be-
yond when they deem it for the best interest of the forest. They
shall see that their district is properly posted with the cloth fire
notices.* They do not make a report to the Commission, but
assist the town warden in making a report of such fires as may
occur in their districts. Thej- shall promptl}' notify the town
warden of any fire in their districts and also report to him a com-
plete list of all men, who may have assisted in putting out a
fire, with the number of da5's or hours each man worked. They
receive for their services the same pay as a town warden, viz :
$2.50 per day for time rendered. They may issue permits to
farmers to burn a fallow, which is situated within their district.

Locomotive sparks and fallow fires cause the larger part of the
forest fires. Hence the portion of the law which relates to
" Railroads in forest land" and "Fires to clear land" deserves
the most consideration. The section relating to fallow fires reads
as follows :

*The notices are of white duck \\" hy ■2\" and have the words "Look
out for FIRE " at the top in heavy large letters. Below are rules to camp-
ers, hunters, fishermen and others in regard to care in building fires, peeling
bark, etc. Then follows the law in regard to clearing land. Notices are
usually posted on fences, barns, trees and stumps along roads and trails It
often seems like a bit of sarcasm to find one or more of these white cloth
fire warnings posted on a charred stub in a burned section, but they are
doing a large amount of good.

The New York Forest Fire Law. 1 37

"Section 229: Fires to clear land. — Fallows, stumps, logs,
fallen timber, brush or dry. grass shall not be burned in the ter-
ritory hereinafter described from April first to May thirty-first
both inclusive, or from September sixteenth to November tenth
both inclusive. From June first to September fifteenth both in-
clusive such fires may be^set therein if written permission of the
Town Firewarden of the town or District Firewarden of the dis-
trict in which the fire is set is first obtained. If in a locality
near forest or woodland, the fire warden or district firewarden
shall be personally present when the fire is started. Such fires
shall not be started during a heavy wind or without sufficient
help present to control the same, and the same shall be watched by
the person setting the fire until put out. Any person violating
any provision of this section is guilty of a misdemeanor, and in
addition thereto is liable to a penaltj' of three hundred dollars.
This section applies as follows.* The section is completed by the
enumeration of sixty eight Adirondack and seventeen Catskill
towns, which are known as ' ' fallow towns. ' '

The firewarden law has been in force for some time, but not
until three years ago, when the office of Chief Firewarden was
created, was it effective. Before the Chief Firewarden was
appointed there was no one who had the time to look after the
large number of wardens ; they were a law unto themselves,
negligent about reports and some of them lawbreakers. The
present law places all the responsibility in a single person — the
Chief Firewarden. He in turn holds each Town Warden re-
sponsible for reports of all fires and the enforcement of the law.
in his town. The town warden in turn depends on his district
wardens in the same manner. The law is very weak in that there
is no punishment for inabilitj^ or negligence of firewardens, ex-
cept their removal. This weakness will exist unless the office is
made a salaried one, when a person would be willing to be re-
sponsible for enforcement of the law and attention to his duties,
or by placing the responsibility on some town officer, e.g., the
Supervisor. It so happens in some towns that the firewarden
has so much business of his own that he does not have time to

*This section was amended by the Legislature of 1903 to read as above.
The words "brush or dry grass" were inserted and the time to allow
farmers to burn fallow extended ten days in June and fourteen days in
September.

138 Forestry Quarterly.

attend to his duties as promptly as he ought. For any inatten-
tion, that comes to the notice of the Chief Firewarden, the war-
den is called upon for an explanation. Frequently wardens are
removed or resign and a process of weeding is going on and the
force is constantly improving in efficiency. It is always the en-
deavor to appoint as a warden a man who has not only had ex-
perience in fighting fire, but a fellow who can command the re-
spect and obedience of a " posse" of fellow citizens, and has an
interest in the preservation of the forest. The 07ie great trouble
is to regtilate the use of fire by land owners on their own property.
Many fanners have had no respect or regard for the law and are
willing to risk all the woodland they have in order to burn over
an acre of fallow. The effect of prosecution has been very bene-
ficial in nearly every case, and it has resulted in letting the care-
less and lawless know that the time has come when they cannot
openly violate the law. However, much has to be done yet as
they feel it is an infringement upon their right, which they have
exercised for generations, when they are restricted in the time
that they shall burn. Early in May this year three farmers at
Tupper Lake were fined in one day for burning fallow in viola-
tion of the law. Another farmer at the same place set a fallow
two days later, and after he had been warned. He was also con-
victed, but this only shows the difficulty and slowness with which
the Adirondackers are grasping the new situation. In the case of
fallow fires there is the difficuly of proving how the fire
originated. Men have been known to hire others to .set their
fallows afire when they were away and then they return in time
to see that all the brush is burned up. To overcome this diffi-
culty an eflort was made last winter to have the law amended to
read as follows : " if a fire occurs on fallow land in violation of
the provision it shall be presumptive evidence that it was set by
the owner or possessor thereof." This measure passed the
Senate but was over-ruled by the Adirondack members in the
Assembly.

The greatest danger from fire is in the spring after the snow
leaves until the vegetation is in full leaf, and less so in the autumn
after the leaves fall until snow. The intention of the law in pro-
hibiting fallow fires at certain times of the year is to lessen the
danger of fire at the two dangerous periods. An extreme case of
drought such as has happened this spring in New York State

The New York Forest Fire Law. 139

brings up obstacles which any law could not cover as long as
there are careless and negligent people at liberty.

The rules on the cloth notices urge the greatest care from
hunters, fishermen and others who travel in the woods. As said
before fires which burn over more than an acre must be reported
promptly to the Chief Firewarden, thus any violation ma}'- be
taken up and considered while there is still a chance to secure
evidence. There has been times in the past when wardens would
not report fires or report them as cause unknown in order to shield
a guilty party. But this has largely changed and wardens are
quite on the alert to fine a guilty party as they receive half of
the fine, but not exceeding fifty dollars in any one case.

It is a noticeable fact in the northeastern and middle portion of
the state that burned areas are all, or nearly all, in the vicinity
of roads, settlements, or farms. The lumberman makes no fires,
simply makes everything ready for fires, as they do their work
in the winter time. The sooner the residents of the forest realize
that the preservation of the forest is their greatest welfare, the
sooner will the danger from fallow fires, smudges, camp fires, and
carelessness be reduced. Our fires are all caused by human
agencies, and if each person in the woods was placed under strict
surveillance as to the use of fire then the danger would be largely
reduced. The farmers, hunters, fishermen, campers, and last,
but not least the railroads burn our woods.

— Clifford R. Pettis.

FOREST PLANTING ON THE PLAINS.

Tree planting in the semi-arid West dates its beginning with
the first settlement of the country. The first settlers came mostly
from the East, where the conditions for tree growth are, on the
whole, favorable. They planted whatever varieties were availa-
ble without any consideration of their adaptabilitj^ to the soil and
the climatic conditions. The results of these earlj'- attempts at
tree growing are still visible in many parts of the semi-arid West.
The few scattered remains of dead and dying trees bespeak the
disappointment met bj' the early settlers in their attempt to sur-
round their habitations with forest growth. In a few favored
localities the planting of the earh'- settlers proved successful and
their groves are now considered landmarks and points of interest
by the traveler.

The reason why many forest trees do not succeed in the semi-
arid portion of the West is well understood — drought}' conditions
in summer and winter.

The two main problems which confront the western tree-
grower are : First, the proper selection of drought-resisting
species best suited to the climate ; second, the best method of
preservation of moisture. Where irrigation can be had these two
problems are of relatively small importance, but where the condi-
tions do not permit the use of water for artificial watering the
problems are vitally important. Yet the success of a few
pioneers in the relatively humid section of Kansas and Nebraska
and along the river courses of these states where the conditions
for forest growth are more favorable, led to a considerable amount
of tree planting in this portion and an extension into the more
arid western country with more or less success.

In the selection of species those most easily propagated and
most readily adapted to droughty conditions were foremost, with
little regard to their commercial value, and the manner of plant-
ing was that of the orchardist or nurseryman, with the attendant
cultivation of the soil. Although conifers had been used spar-
ingly, they were usually planted merely as ornaments, in single
specimens or groups.

In 1890 Dr. B. E. Fernow, then Chief of the Forestry Division,
pointed out that conifers and especially pines would be the most

Forest Planting on the Plains. 141

satisfactory plant material, especially on the extensive sand hills
of Nebraska, and that the proper method was to plant here with-
out cultivation of the soil, but in dense position, to make the
crop self-supporting as soon as possible. On these premises
four experimental plats were started to prove the correctness of
this proposition. The reasons, objects and detailed instructions
as to methods pursued are given in full in the report of the Chief
of the Forestry Division for 1891, and a report of the finst year's
success in report for 1892.

In moving northward from the Platte River in Western and
Central Nebraska a series of low ridges or benches are encount-
ered to which the general term "sandhills" has been applied.
These ridges begin, in many instances, within a few miles of the
Platte River before mentioned and gradually extend in an irregu-
lar series of broken hills or sand dunes northward into South
Dakota. The extent of country covered by these sand hills
amounts to about one-third of the state, or in the neighborhood
of 15,000,000 acres. Geologists tell us that this part of the coun-
try was once the site of a large inland lake or sea, whose sand-
stone deposit gradually disintegrated under the influence of
climate, and whose waters were gradually carried off by drainage
and evaporation. This whole area, once the drainage basin of a
vast territory, is underlaid with currents of water flowing towards
the streams. These underground currents are in many places
relatively close to the surface and keep the soil moist up to within
a few inches of the surface, even during the most protracted
drought. The soil is almost entirely composed of loo.se sand
with a small admixture of vegetable matter in the draws or hol-
lows. The prevailing winds are mostly from the northwest and
they exercise a decided influence upon the temperature of the
country. The land is covered with a scanty growth of bunch
grass which affords a limited pasturage for stock. In traveling
over this region Dr. Fernow was impressed with the possibilities
of converting this semi-barren section into forests.

That such conception was not based upon bare speculation is
evidenced by the fact that numerous remains of former forests
have been found embedded in the sand at various depths and in
various places. The experiment in question was carried out on
the farm of Mr. Edgar G. Bruner, Swan, Holt County, Nebraska.
Mr. Bruner agreed to follow out the instructions as laid down by

142 Forestry Quarterly.

Dr. Feriiow. The object of the experiment as stated by Dr.
Fernow was as follows : " The object of this experimental plant-
ing is to test the adaptabilit}- of various conifers for forest plant-
ing on the Western Plains and especially in the sand-hill region
of Nebraska, and also to find out whether or not dense planting
without special preparation and cultivation of the soil is prefer-
able to wider spacing with cultivation. It is also intended to
compare the success of mulched with that of unmulched parts,
and the behavior of various combinations of kinds in varying
widths of planting."

In planning the experiment, Dr. Fernow had in mind to make
the conifer the dominant factor in the plantation, using the
deciduous-leaved species for filling and nurse trees.

The following conifers were planted Bull-pine, {Piniis poyi-
de?'osa), Scotch Pine {Pimis syhestris), Banksian Pine {Pi7ius
divaricatd) .

Of these species Dr. Fernow had the greatest faith in the Bull-
pine, mostl}' because indications would p(nnt to the fact that this
species of Western pine once occurred in at least parts of this
region. The Scotch Pine was used because of the success with
which this species has been grown in other parts of Nebraska
and in Kansas. The Banksian Pine was planted because of its
adaptability to poor sandy soil, being native to the large tracts
of loose, sandy, drift soil in Minnesota and Wisconsin. The
deciduous-leaved species were composed of black locust, birch,
box elder, hackberr)', black cherry and red oak. The last-
named two species were intended for permanent trees should they
prove sufficiently adapted to the severe conditions. It will be
seen from the above that the experiment was of unusual practical
and economic value and its inception marked the beginning of
experimental forestry among the sand-hills of Nebraska. Plan-
ning an experiment of this nature is only one feature of the work.
The difficulty of carrying out all the details of all its provisions
soon became apparent. The materials used for planting did not
arrive in the best condition, nor were the plants of the best
quality. But in spite of all these obstacles one great lesson has
been learned which has practically solved the problem of cloth-
ing with forests this large tract of practically barren land, and to
bring it into the production of valuable timber. The experi-
ment, after the lapse of twelve j'ears, has fully substantiated the

Forest Playithig on the Plains. 143

experimenter's prediction that this section is full}^ capable of sus-
taining forest growth, that the pines are the most suitable mate-
rial, and that cultivation of soil is undesirable. The plantation
marks a new era in tree planting in Central and Western Ne-
braska.

In a letter from Mr. Bruner to the writer in response to inquiry
in regard to the present condition of the plantation, the following
may be quoted : " The larger trees (Banksian Pine) are between
fifteen and twentj^ feet high. The Austrian Pine from four to
twelve feet high, and the Bull Pine from three to eight feet high.
The Banksian Pines are verj^ nice and even in growth and would
undoubtedly make fine plantations, planted alone. They would
quickly furnish materials for fence posts and telephone poles
which are in great demand here.

" The grove presents the appearance of a dense corn-field. I
am sure that if there were a nursery here to start the pine seed-
lings, millions would be planted and these otherwise worthless
sand-hills could be covered with a dense growth of pine trees."
The result of the experiment has been so satisfactory^ that last
3''ear the Federal Government reserved 200,000 acres of these sand-
hills for forest purposes and we may look forward to extensive
forest planting operations.

The method of planting may be briefly described as follows :
The land was not previously plowed or otherwise prepared.
Furrows were plowed out two and one-half (2}4) feet apart and
the seedlings were planted in them immediately. The distance
apart in the rows was about two and one-half (2^) feet apart.
One-half of the plantation was mulched with straw and grass.
One plot was left to be cultivated. The best method to plant in
such sandy situations is not to stir the ground at all, but to use
either the Wartemberg iron or a light hoe to .set the trees.
Prairie fires destroy the greater part of the deciduous-leaved trees
and what were left did not seem to do well. The result shows
that there is practically no difference in growth between the plots
where the soil was mulched as against that without nuilch or
cultivation. The cultivated plot proved an entire failure, as
predicted, the reason being that the capillarity is destroyed and
evaporation is much greater in the surface soil.

In the sand-hills, therefore, no distinct advantage was gained
even with shallow cultivation or by mulching. On the heavier

1 44 Forestry Quarterly.

lands in Kansas, Nebraska and South Dakota this method might
not prove successful. Here a thorough preparation of the soil is
first necessary. The land should be sub-soil-plowed to the depth
of twelve (12) inches to provide a reservoir of water during the
rainy periods to be drawn upon by the plants as needed. If only
shallow plowing is done the soil is very apt to dry and kill the
plants. The plowing should be done as early as possible in the
spring so as to give the plants the full benefit of the spring rains.
It is, however, questionable whether the planting on these soils
fit for agriculture will ever assume the dimensions of forest plant-
ing. Shelterbelts and wind breaks will probably continue to be
the object of the planter on the prairie and plain.

E. P. Sandsten.

CURRENT LITERATURE AND REVIEWS.

Eighth Annual Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission
of the State of New York. Albany. Pp. 164. Illustrated,

In this report are several articles of interest and of importance.
Mr. E. A. Sterling, now Field Assistant in the Bureau of Forestr}^
describes a number of successful chestnut orchards. Mr. Pettis,
in detail, describes the manner of collecting a large qviantity of
Red Spruce seed. The seed has since been used in the State
nursery at Saranac Junction and in broadcast sowing of bare
lands.

The Forest, Fish and Game Commission has been curtailed,
perhaps wisel}-, in its range of work by the constitutional amend-
ment forbidding cutting on state lands. The 150,000 acres of
waste land in the Adirondack Park have no economic future in
the natural course of events ; the acres which may slowly grow
up in poplar and birch are as nothing to the many which burn
and reburn ; that the state is duty bound to protect these lands,
to render tliem productive, the Commission has recognized. The
wisest and most important advance in policy yet made by the
Commission was the starting of artificial reforestation.

The first large plantation made is described in this report. Six
hundred thousand plants were placed over a tract of 700 acres,
more or less, the cost averaging less than one-half a cent per tree.

The plantation is in the midst of a large stretch of flat sandy
country similar to thousands of acres in the northern townships of
the region. Originally covered by a fine growth of pine and under-
wood, it was lumbered, burned, and again burned, until of the forest
there now remain but a few charred stumps of the pine. The depth
of humus was burnt with the timber, bringing the white silicious
soil slowly to the surface where it still remains, scattered in strong
contrast to the intermediate patches of blackest ashes. Ground
cover of brake, huckleberry, alder and various grasses and sedges
has struggled in scantily on the lower levels ; on the upper a few
scattered poplar have started and lived on in spite of frequent set-
backs from frost and drouth.

Viewed on a hot May day the tract presented as melancholy
and deplorable an example of desolation as could well be found.
As a site for a plantation the dry loose sand, the almost total lack

146 Forestry Quarterly.

of humus, litter or ground cover promised little but failure. The
plant material, consisting of two to four-year-old seedlings and
transplants of Scotch Pine, White Pine, Norway and Douglas
Spruce, was put in spaced at six feet, square distribution, and
mixed according to site.

One year after planting the pines had made leaders of
from five to twelve inches in length, the spruces considerably
less. The Norwaj' Spruce showed a successful per cent, of
about 80, the White Pine of between 90 and 95, and of the
Scotch Pine hardly a dead one could be found ; in rapidit}' of
growth after planting and in hardiness it showed itself to be re-
markable ; in many places it was growing vigorously where
hardly a vestige of native vegetation occurred. If judgment may
be passed onl}' one year after planting, and experience in the
region has shown the greatest danger to be in this first year, the
success of the plantation is assured.

The Redwood. By R. T. Fisher. Bulletin No. 38, Bureau of
Forestrj-. Pp. 40. PI. xii. Fig. 4.

An interesting account of the Redwood, showing it to be
possible even practical to hold cut-over Redwood lands for a
second crop.

Conservative Lumbering at Sewanee, Te^inessee. By John Foley.
Bulletin No. 39, Bureau of Forestry. Pp. 36. PI. xii.

The reader will not find in this bulletin of the Bureau of
Forestrj' complicated tables showing the future j-ield per acre
down to fractions of board feet and to dollars, nor volume tables
.showing the contents of trees of different diameters and heights,
nor curves and tables of the rate of growth of different species,
but notwithstanding this the contents of this publication must
appeal to the common sense of the lumberman and practical
forester more forcii))}^ than any other bulletin of its kind. It is a
plain and simple tale of how, under intelligent management
based upon a thorough local knowledge of tJie forest tract, higher
returns have been obtained from lumbering without entirely im-
pairing the chances for future forest growth.

Our forests, in contradistinction to most of the European forests,
are not sown or planted artificially, but are the result of free play
of natural forces. The\' are irregular, in the majority of cases

Current Literattire and Reviews. 147

composed of many different species, which constantly dispute
with each other for the occupancy of the land. Gradually as the
marketable trees are culled out the remaining species occup}' their
place and the composition of the forest is changed. Under such
conditions, and without knowledge of the silvicultural behavior
of most of our forest trees, it is, to say the least, very risky to
predict the future growth and 3'-ield of the species that is most
lumbered, nor is it useful from a practical point to know
thoroughl}^ how the old trees of the primeval forest now cut have
grown, for the conditions under which they have grown up may
never be repeated again, and Mr. Foley wisely, in our opinion,
left out Irom discussion in his working plan the future yield and
rate of growth of old trees.

The difference between mere lumbering and lumbering upon
forestry principles lies in the taking care of the young forest
growth, i.e., in silvicultural measures, to which much attention
is given in the bulletin.

The observations made of the demands upon soil, moisture,
and light of the different species are too local to be of general
value, and in the table of comparative sprouting capacity of the
different species no mention is made of what was taken for com-
parison— the number of sprouts or the height and diameter of the
predominant sprout during the first year, considerations which
would change the order in the table.

The bulletin is an interesting one and judging from it the oper-
ations at Sewanee should prove most successful.

The Principal Species of Wood. By Charles Henry Snow. New
York, John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 203. PI. 39.

A comprehensive work, illustrated by photographs and original
drawings ; to be reviewed in a sul^sequent number.

United States Geological Survey, Professio7ial Paper's Nos. 4., 5,
6, 7, and 8. Series H, Forestry i.

The results of recent investigations by the Geological Survey
of Western timber resources have just been published under sep-
arate covers as follows : The Forests of Oregon, and The Forests
of Washington, by Henry Gannett ; Forest Conditions in the
Cascade Range, Washington, by Fred G. Plummer; Forest Con-
ditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada, California, by John B.

148 Foreshy Oitarterly.

L^ieberg ; and Forest Conditions in the Olympic Forest Reserve,
Washington, by Arthur Dodwell and Theodore F. Rixon.

These reports, like former ones of the Survey, are mainly in
the nature of a census ; the works appear to have been done with
care and intelligence, and manj' excellent regional descriptions
and silvicultural notes are to be found scattered through them.
The usual excellent photographs and maps are included and add
greatly to the value of these papers.

Sylviculture par A. Fron, ingenieur agronome, inspecteur ad-
joint des eaux et forets, professeur a I'ecole forestiere de
Barres (Encyclopedic Agricole) Paris 1903. Pp. 563 16°,
PI. 55. 6 frcs.

This latest volume is of interest because it is written for the
farmer rather than the professional forester, explaining in simple
language yet with professional background the principles and
practices of silviculture. It includes also chapters on forest
measurement and forest economy.

PERIODICAL LITERATURE.

Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada.
May.

This is a new magazine published at Toronto and judging
from the first number will contain many articles of interest.

Rod and Gun in Canada.
May.

Forest Fire Protection in Europe, by A. Harold Unwin, D.CEc,
is a short article on German protective methods.

Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, ^'ol.
XVII, Part I.

The Injurious Efifects of Smoke on Trees is the title of an
interesting paper by John Boyd.

Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fur Land-und- Forstwirthschaft.
I Heft.

Contains an account of a top dryness of spruce due to peculiar
electric discharges during a thunderstorm, by Dr. von Tubeuf ;
and a paper by Dr. Hiltner bringing new light on the mycorhiza.

Periodical Literahcre. 149

Jahrbuch der Preiissischen Forst- urid Jagdgesetzgebung und Ver-
walhing. XXV Band., i Heft.

Contains the new working plan of the Kxperiraent Stations
for thinnings and interlucations. It classifies, as formerlj^ into
five tree classes. It recognizes ordinary thinnings (tY/^z7rzV/'ar
le has) with three degrees, light, moderate and severe ; the last
degree moving in the fourth or even fifth classes ; and iclaircie
^ar /<? /zflM/ with two degrees, light and severe. Here a part of
the dominated stand is retained and the final harvest crop is
recognized.

A working plan for experiments on the influence of cultiva-
tion on the accretion is also given.

Allgemeine Forst- und Jagd-Zeitung.
Jan.

Aus den Berichten des Direktors der St. Petersburger Forst-
akademie iiber die Pariser Weltausstellung contains statistics of
the forests of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Rumania, France, Tunis,
Austria, Finland, Scandinavia, Canada and Ceylon.

Feb.

Pflanzenzucht und Zuchtwahl, by Dr. Kohler accentuates the
desirability of using only selected vigorous plant material and
shows the advantages of such practice in the long run. Dr.
Kohler advocates that at least one third of nursery seedlings be
thrown away as inferior and that no attempt be made to save it
b)' transplanting.

Saegeversuche by J. D. Dominions Sohne, gives an account of
comparative tests by lyorey of the efiiciency of American (Simonds)
and German (Dominicus) saws, the German make being ap-
parently better for hardwoods.

March.

Under the title Deutsche Reisebilder, Oberforster Dr. Heck
says of the enormous quantities of Southern Pine lumber entering
at Bremen: " Especiallj^ remarkable is the knotty quality and
high price. This was explained l:)y the enormous demands for
this wood in the United States, hence it increases in price and the
importers must be satisfied with the leavings, which are, how-
ever, no better than the cheaper home products."

150 Forestry Quarterly.

Versainmlung des badischen Forstvereins.

The report of this meeting contains a verj' good discussion on
the proper management and regeneration of spruce woods.
"The question of natural regeneration stands cr falls with the
wind firmness of the species and the suitability of the soil as a
seed bed. The spruce where it can penetrate with its root system
into rock fissures is as wind firm as any other sjiecies. It is dif-
ferent on shallow impenetrable soil ; here, especially in exposed
situations natural regeneration must be abandoned and clearing
with the usual precautions must be substituted."

The Versammlung des deutschen Forstvereins contains a dis-
cussion on the conversion of poor hardwood into coniferous
forests, today the great forest problem in the eastern United
States. The discussion is on the basis of eighty years experience
in Saxony on 23,000 acres. At first clearing and sowing of pine
with spruce and larch was practiced, but planting gradually took
the place of sowing and is now the almost exclusive method
pursued. The conversion was made in forty years.

Although the spruce was not on its natural site and both pine
and spruce suffered much in their earl}' stages the expectations
have been entirely fulfilled, the stock on hand being nearly
doubled and the yield per acre more than quadrupled.

May.

Waldbrandfolgen im Lichte forstwirthschaftlicher Erfah-
rungen, by Oberforster Renne.

Discusses the effects of fires on trees of different species and
forest growth of different conditions.

Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdu'esen.

Die agrarstatistischen Erhebungen und das Forstareal in
Preussen. By H. A. Reinick, is a review of the official census of
1900 of the soil area and its use in Prussia, running through the
February, March and April numbers.

The census shows that small farm ownership, fifty acres or less,
is in preponderance, namely, with 85 percent.; that only one-
quarter of all the farms have woodlots with a total of 11.5 million
acres, while 9.2 million acres are forest properties purely. The
waste area capable of reforestation is over 1.3 million acres.

Periodical LiteraUire. 151

The total of the forest area has in the last twenty years been
increased by 366,000 acres, namely an increase in state forests of
518,000 acres, in corporation forests of 256,000 acres, and a de-
crease in private forest of 408,000 acres. The distribution of sil-
viciiltural S3'steins show that onl}- 11.5 per cent, is selection for-
est, while just 10.5 per cent, is coppice or standard coppice, the
remaining 78 per cent, being timber forest other than selection ;
69 per cent, is coniferous and 31 per cent, deciduous forest ; of
the coniferous 75 per cent, belongs to the state.

February.

Forstliche Zustande in England, by Dr. Schwappach. A highly
interesting clear statement by a competent observer of the forest
conditions of England, They are described as deplorable, 39
per cent, of the entire Kingdom exists as treeless wastes. To the
hunting or rather shooting passion is credited the lack of interest
in forestr}', the rent for shooting grounds bringing a sure and sat-
isfactory income from these wastes, namel)' 40 to 60 cents per
acre, so that the higher returns from forestry which can only be
had in the dim future by present expenditures do not appeal to
the owners.

The state owns only 68,000 acres of woodlands and that is
mostly mismanaged.

Wanderversammlung des nordvvestdeutschen Forstvereins.
The report of this meeting contains an interesting statement re-
garding the behavior of the White Pine in Germany.

March.

Die Drillsaat im Forstbetriebe, by Oberforster Titze. Reports
in detail on the use of a seeding machine for forest planting, com-
paring cost and result with hand sowing. The saving in seed
and in labor over hand sowing amounts to 40 per cent.

April.

In ueber unsichtbare Rauchschaden. Dr. A. Wieler discusses
at great length the observations of damage done to vegetation by
smoke.

Zusammenstellung der Sanien preise im Friihjahr, 1903, gives
seed quotations of sixteen firms for seventeen tree species. White
Pine varies in price between $1.62 and $2.16, and its germination
per cent, between 50 and 70 ; Scotch Pine fluctuates at 75c. and
Norway Spruce from 22c. to 32c.

152 Forestry Quarterly.

Uebersicht der durchschiiittlichen Verwertungsprei.se fiir ein
Festtneter aller Holzarten und Sortimente in den Preussischen
Staatsforsten im Etatsjalir, 1900. A detailed account of wood
prices with quantities sold. Wood, taking the average of logs
and cordwood, increased 8 per cent, in price over the previous
year.

Centralblatt fi'ir das Gesammte Forstwesen.

Die forst-und volkswirthschaftliche Bedeutung der Anbau-
versuche mit nordamerikanischen Holzarten fiir Deutschland
und Nord-Amerika. By Dr. Unwin. (Continued from Janu-
ar}^ and through April and May numbers.)

In the first two numbers the American species introduced into
Germany are enumerated with some of their characteristics. In
the last two issues their silvicultural requirements and treatment
are discussed in a manner highly interesting to American for-
esters. It is stated that the American species of spruce, fir, larch,
oak, elm, maple and ash are subject to the same physiological
and silvicultural laws as the corresponding European species,
that the}' may be treated like these and then furnish products
equal in qualit}^ and in the time required for production. These
conclusions, especially the last two, can hardl}' be correct in their
generality, since our many species of oaks, ash, maple are well
known to vary themselves in quality, rate of growth and ecologic
adaptation.

From the discussion of single species the following remarks
may be briefly noted :

Acer saccharinuni and A. yiegundo are not considered as forest-
ally important. A. saccharum is supposed to be like A.
platanoides and is called half tolerant and a rapid^ grower, while
with us it appears most shade enduring and of rather slow
growth.

Betula lutea is compared to the European birches in all silvicul-
tural requirements. This is undoubtedly an error, there can
hardly any similarit)' be found ; for B. papyrifera it would per-
haps be true.

Hicoria ovata on account of its slow development for the first
decade should only be introduced in groups between rapid grow-
ers and then only on best soils, H. glabra thrives on poorer soil,
H. niiyiitna in spite of its more rapid growth is said to deserve no
consideration.

Periodical Literature. 153

Catalpa speciosa is said to suflfer mainly from early and late
frosts, and hence is to be grown under shelter ; this seems a pecu-
liar experience considering the ease with which the species is
grown in the west.

For Juglans nigra small pure stands or groups are recom-
mended, single planting is not satisfactory except in the region
of the chestnut where growth is rapid.

Abies balsamea is said to be similar to the European Fir which
is questionable when we consider its habitat in the Northern
swamps, and its rapid rate of growth but short life.

To Pimis divaricata very high tribute is paid for its use on
the poorest driest sands and gravels, and in swampy conditions,
on dunes and for wind or fire mantles. Enormous jdemands for
plant material have brought the price of seed to ^16 per pound.

Regarding the soil requirements of Pinus strobus various
doubtful statements occur. It is said to be useless on pine soil of
the third class, yet within sight of the writer two White Pine
stumps five and six feet in diameter on a purely siliceous poor
soil testify to the contrary, at least for the rigorous alpine con-
ditions of the Adirondacks. Its absolute frost hardiness is
praised.

Thuja occidentalis is noted for its excellent wood, its hardiness,
and shade endurance ; it is recommended for admixture with ash
or White Pine or under-planting under oak, pine or larch,
especially on fresh soils.

Tsuga canadensis is given as a rapid grower which it is not
with us.

Chaviaecyparis lawsoniana a shade endurer, in a warm climate
with humidit}^ corresponding to ash sites is credited with frost
hardiness and rapid growth ; under other conditions it succumbs
to summer or winter drouth. It is recommended for under-
planting with deciduous trees or pines, but not with spruce or fir.

Of Pseudotsuga taxifolia the rapid growth, shade endurance
and adaptation of the root system is praised. Its sensitiveness
to early and late frosts, and to low winter temperatures followed
by sun make its use in the plain with its contrasts of moisture
and temperature conditions unsatisfactory, unless a nurse cover
is provided. It is recognized that the Colorado variety diflfers in
this respect, but it is also sensitive to late frosts and grows much
more slowly.

154 Forestry Quarterly.

Summarizing the silvicultural characteristics of the American
species, the superior hardiness of the east American species to
the Rocky Mountain species is recognized. It is contended that
the cultivation of European species in eastern America may be
successful only in Canada, which is of course contrary to facts.
As to value for European planting Piniis strobtcs, P. divaiicata,
Robi7iia pseudocacia and Pseudotsicga taxifolia are placed first,
Hicoria and Juglans next, the Cupresshieae are questionable,
and only to be used when no native species of the genus exists.

Ueber Holzkonservirung durch Petroleum, by A. Adiassevich.

The author has succeeded in producing a creosote from petro-
leum, which is cheaper and superior for impregnating railroad
ties, than the usual product.

Ueber die gesetzmiiszigan, Beziehungen der Ma.ssenfaktoren in
normalen Fichtenbestanden, by A. SchiflFel.

There is here discussed in detail the practical applicability of
certain laws of relation between the volumes of stands and the
single factors of height, diameter and form factor. The discovery
of such laws has the practical result of reducing the amount of
measuring necessary to determine the contents and sortiments of
a stand. The laws discovered and formulated by Kopezky and
Fekete have been tested, and the latter which established a rela-
tion Ijetween the diameter, height or form and certain percents of
the stem classes has been found to furnish very satisfactor}' means
of reducing the amount of measurement necessary.

The general law which broadens the relationships pointed out
by Weise for the average tree is formulated to read : In normal
spruce stands a tree corresponding to a given percent, of all the
trees has in any stand a given proportion of the total volume,
height and form ; or in two different stands the volumes, heights,
cross .section areas, form factors and form heights of two trees
correspond to the same stem class percent, as the volumes, areas,
form factors, and heights of their average trees.

NEWS AND NOTES.

The Biltmore Forest School will hereafter give to successful
graduates the term "Bachelor of Forestr3\" Such successful
graduates as desire to obtain the degree " Forest Engineer " will
be placed on actual trial, namel}' : In charge of a forest range in-
side Pisgah Forest, aggregating from 10,000 to 30,000 acres, for
a term of at least six months. They are expected to do full
ranger's duty during that time. They will be in charge of log-
ging crews, of surveys, of buildings and farms, of the stock on
pasture, of saw-mills, and of whatever other work there might be
at hand within the specified range.

Whether or not a salary will be paid to the graduate whilst
working for the degree of " Forest Engineer " in the capacity of
a forest ranger, is a question partly depending on the financial
conditions of the range and partly on the ability of the candidate.

The L,awrence Scientific School of Harvard University opens in
the fall with a new course in forestry, which is No. 13 in its cata-
logue. Harvard is thus the third of the great eastern universi-
ties to give regular instruction in forestry. The first school of
forestry in this country was opened at Cornell in i8g8 by Mr.
Fernow, who since 1886 had been chief of the then Division of
Forestry at Washington. The Yale school began in 1901 with
Mr. Graves, also of the Division of Forestry, at the head. The
Harvard course is a nearer parallel to the one offered at Cornell,
which is of four 5'ears, while the one at Yale is of two. The in-
struction in this four-years' course will be divided among four
places, namely, Cambridge, the Arnold arboretum and the Bus-
sey institution at Jamaica Plain, and the field. The instruction
will be largely given by professors and instriictors now at Har-
vard, but there will be engaged in addition two skilled foresters
to give special courses in practical and historical forestry. One
of these men is R. T. Fisher, Harvard, '98, who will also keep
his connection with the Bureau of Forestry. The other, who is
not a government man, has been approached, but has not yet ac-
cepted. Whether he will accept the place or not will be settled in
the next month, — Springfield Republican.

156 Forestry Quarterly.

THREE STATE BILLS.

Tliree bills of import to forestry were introduced in the New
York State Legislature during the last session.

The first of these was for an appropriation of $6,000 to the
Forest, Fish and Game Commission for use in planting of waste
lands. It had apparently every chance of passage. The planta-
tion made the previous year was eminently successful, and had
been favorably reported by the special Adirondack committee of
the Senate ; the project in general of planting up the waste lands
of the State has been considered with favor, even enthusiasm, by
the public both visiting and resident, and hy the press ; again
the appropriation called for was but a small sum ($6,000) and
its passage was absolutely without political significance. The
Legislatuie made the appropriation, the Governor vetoed it.

The second bill and one of a very similar nature provided for a
special appropriation of $5,000 for use in reforestation of the Cor-
nell Demonstration Forest. This appropriation was made by the
Legislature and approved b}- the Governor.

The third and most important was the annual appropriation
bill of $10,000 for the support of the New York State College of
Forestry ; it passed the Legislature without opposition but was
vetoed by the Governor.

For a proper understanding of the action taken in regard to the
last two bills it is perhaps well to explain here the relation of tlie
Cornell Demonstration Forest and the New York State College of
Forestr5% two separate and distinct institutions. The former was
created to demonstrate the most profitable way to perpetuate State
and private forests by use, the latter to teach the principles and
practice of forestry ; they are supported by different appropriations
and the sole connection between them is that they are under
the direction of Cornell University.

Considerable protest has been made against the system of clear
cutting with artificial and natural regeneration as practiced in the
Forest ; protest arising solely from one or two influential estate
owners in the neighborhood, but sufficienth' strong to influence a
number of legislators and even the Governor himself to express
themselves publicly as being against the present policy. It
would seem therefore that this bill aiding the present manage-
ment with a $5,000 appropriation would have had but poor
chance for success.

News ayid Notes . 157

The passage of the bill for the College of Forestry seemed
assured : it was an appropriation that had been made annually
for the past four years ; the success of the College during the five
years of its existence has not been doubted in any quarter ; the
number of students has doubled yearly and at last registration the
school was larger than any French or German forestry school ;
the students who have gone from it are now occupying important
positions in the National, the Philippine and various State
services.

Concerning his action in vetoing the College appropriation
the Governor is reported to have said, " the operations of this
college of forestry have been subjected to grave criticism, as they
have practically denuded the forest lands of the State without
compensating benefits. I deem it wise, therefore, to withold ap-
proval of this item until a more scientific and more reasonable
method is pursued in the forestry of the lands now under control
of Cornell University."

Of the Governor's desire to change the method of operations in
the Demonstration Forest little need be said, the question is
merely one of personal opinion orratherof professional judgment,
and those capable of doing so may judge. But his method of at-
tempting to change the policy in the Demonstration Forest is to
say the least extraordinary, namely, the abandonment of a school
of training to express disapproval of a method pursued by a con-
nected experimental department ; his method is more extra-
ordinary for the veto of the College appropriation in no way
affects the work in the Demonstration Forest ; nothing has been
accomplished but the ruin of a flourishing institution whereby
seventy young men are seriously handicapped in their careers.
Why?

At a meeting of the trustees of the University of Maine held in
Orono, April 14, it was voted to establish a Department of Forestry
at the University, and President Fellows was authorized to em-
ploy a Professor of Forestry. The last State Legislature provided
the sum of $2,500 a year for the support of the Department.

The Luquillo Forest Reserve containing 65,950 acres in Porto
Rico was created January 7, 1903 ; Dr. John Gifford will investi-
gate this reservation for the Bureau of Forestry during the com-
ing summer.

158 Forestry Quarterly.

A forest reserve of 100,000 acres in Miffin, Juniata and Hunt-
ingdon Counties in Pennsylvania has been recently created and
named the Rothrock Forest Reserve, in honor of Dr. J. T.
Rothrock, the present Forest Commissioner. The region is rich
in oil, gas, fire clay and ganister and an arrangement has been
made for their development under proper supervision.

Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, has been
made Professor in the Yale Forest School. Assistant Professor
J. W. Tourney has been advanced to a full professorship.

Mr. R. H. Charlton, Sp. N.Y.C.F., has been promoted to be
Inspector of Forest Reserves.

Mr. Walter Mulford '01, N.Y.C.F., has been elected President
of Connecticut Forestry Association. A portion of the appropria-
tion made by the Legislature two years ago has been expended
in the purchase, survey, and protection of about 700 acres of
land in Portland. The work at Windsor, which is being con-
ducted at the expense of the Connecticut Experiment Station,
has consisted in the planting of 60,000 trees to determine the
best methods of reclaiming the waste lands of the State.

Theodor Karlowitsch Arnold, Councillor of the Public Lands
Ofiice of Russia and justly known as the Father of Russian
Forestry, died recently at an advanced age. His work for forestry
dates from the 40' s of the last century and he was directly or
through his pupils the teacher of all Russian foresters.

SUMMER LECTURES ON FORESTRY.

A cour.se of lectures on forestry will be given at Idyllwild, San
Jacinto Mountain, California, under the auspices of the Univer-
sity of California. The regular work will be under Dr. Willis L.
Jepson, of the Department of Botany, and Prof. Arnold V.
Stubenrauch, of the Department of Agriculture. In addition
special lectures Vt^ill be given by Mr. GifFord Pinchot. The
course lasts from July 29th to August loth.

CANADA.

Canada is rapidly progressing in forestry work. The Depart-
ment of Interior is encouraging planting in the Northwest by

News and Notes. 159

free distribution of seeds and trees. Under the direction of Mr.
Stewart, the Superintendent of Forestry, this work, started sev-
eral years ago, has met with increasing success. During the past
year plants were distributed to over six hundred applicants for
use in protective planting. To meet the rapidly increasing de-
mand for plant material two large nurseries are being established
at Indian Head and Brandon.

The principal work of the Department of the Interior in forestry
of late has been the protection of Crown lands and the creation of
forest reserves.

The following complete list of Canadian reserves has been
completed for Dr. John Gifford by Mr. R. H. Campbell, Depart-
ment of Interior, Secretary of the Canadian Forestry Association.

FOREST RESERVES IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA.

PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.*
RESERVES UNDER THE CONTROI. OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE DOMINION.

1. Lo7ig Lake Timber Reserve — Townships 17 and 18, Range
19, and the westerly two-thirds of Townships 17 and 18, Range 18,
all West of the 6th meridian. The range of mountains included
in this revServe reaches a height of 6,200 feet and forms the water-
shed for a number of small streams which take their rise in the
numerous small lakes and swamps. The land is of too great
elevation to be of use for successful farming operations and to
make agriculture profitable in the valleys below the water from
these hills is absolutely necessarj'. There is a good growth of
timber, mainl}^ Douglas Fir {Pseudotsiiga Douglasii) and Black
Pine {Pimcs Murraya^ia.) Set apart by order of the Minister of
the Interior on the 15th August, 1902. Area, 76,800 acres.

2. Yoho Park. This is really a part of the Rocky Mountains
Park of Canada, but being on the west slope of the Rocky Moun-
tains and therefore within the Province of British Columbia it
was thought advisable not to risk complications with local legis-
lation by attempting to place it under the provisions of the Park
Act and the regulations. It was .set apart by Order in Council of

*As a return for the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which
obtained large financial and other assistance from the Dominion, the Prov-
ince transferred to the Dominion a belt of land twenty miles wide on each
.de of the main line of the railway.

1 60 Forestry Quarterly.

the 14th December, 1901, under the authority of Clause 78 of the
Dominion Lands Act, which was included as part of the Regula-
tions for the Railway Belt in British Columbia. Area 530,240
acres.

3. Glacier Forest Park. — Set apart by order in council of nth
October, 1888. Area, 18,720 acres.

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES.

4. Rocky Moiintams Park of Canada. — Set apart by special
act of the Dominion Parliament in the year 1887, extended by
Act of 1902. Approximate area, 2,880,000 acres.

5. The Foothills Tiyyiber Reserve. — Set apart b}^ order of the
Minister of the Interior, 21st February, 1899. Covers the foot-
hills on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains north to the Bow
River. Area not estimated.

6. Waterto7i Lakes Forest Park. — Set apart under the author-
ity of Clause 78 of the Dominion Lands Act by Order in Council
of 30th May, 1895, Townships i and 2, Ranges 29 and 30, west of
the 4th meridian. Approximate area, 34,000 acres.

Lake Louise Forest Park, southeast of Laggau Station, Sand
Lake Forest Park in Township 24. Range 9, west of 5th merid-
ian, and Mount Stephen Forest Park, set apart under the same
authority, are now included in the Rocky Mountains Park of
Canada as extended or in Yoho Park.

7. Cooking Lake Timber Reserve — In Northern Alberta, South-
East of Edmonton, containing over 109,000 acres, set apart by
Order of the Minister of the Interior under same authority as No.
5, 6th June, 1899.

8. Moose Mountain Timber Reserve — In Eastern Assiniboia,
containing over 103,000 acres — set apart hy same authority as
No. 5.

9. Beaver Hills Timber Reserve — Set apart 20th August, 1901,
under same authority as No. 5 — Area about 170,000 acres.

PROVINCE OF MANITOBA.

10. Ttirtle Motmtain Tiynber Reserve — Near the International
boundary,, containing over 75,000 acres — under same authority
as No. 5, 13th July, 1895.

Notes and News. i6i

11. Spruce Woods Tiviber Reserve — Set apart under same
authority as No. 5, 8th January, 1898. Area igo,ooo acres.

12. Ridhig Moicntain Timber Reserve — Comprises an area of
about 1,215,000 acres — under same authority as No. 5, 13th July,
1895-

13. Duck Mountahi Timber Reserve — Set apart provisionally
5th Feb., 1902, under same authority as No. 5. Area 840,000
acres.

14. Lake Manitoba West Timber Reserve. — 13th July, 1895,
under same authority as No. 5. Area, 159,460 acres.

15. Northzvestern Manitoba. — Reserved from settlement only.
Timber licenses may be granted 24th August, 1900.

RESERVES UNDER THE CONTROI, OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PROV-
INCE OF ONTARIO.

16. Algoyiquin Park. — Set apart by Act of the Ontario Legis-
lature of 1893 ^s a national park and forest reservation ; extended
in the following year to include an area of 1,109,383 acres. A
large proportion of this reserve was and is under timber license.
One of its chief functions is as a game preserve. It controls the
watershed for a large district. It has been lumbered over for a
long time, but contains a large quantity of mature timber.

17. Eastern Reserve. — In the counties of Addington and
Frontenac, set apart under the Forest Reserves Act by Order in
Council of April, 1899, comprises about 80,000 acres. Mainly
burnt over and cut over lands, pine reproducing itself

18. Sibley Reserve. — North shore of Lake Superior, set apart
under Forest Reserves Act by Order in Council of loth February,
1900. Comprises about 45,000 acres. An isolated point grow-
ing up with mixed forest, including White Pine, Spruce, etc.

19. Tefnagami Reserve. — Set apart under Forest Reserves
Act by Order in Council of nth January, 1901 — comprises about
1,408,000 acres. A magnificent forest of White and Red pine.
White and Black spruce, Banksian Pine, Yellow and White
birch, Hard Maple, etc. Includes one of the largest bodies of
pine still remaining in Ontario. There is estimated to be about
5,000,000,000 ft. of pine in the Temagami district. None of this
timber is under license but much of it is ready for cutting. Li-

1 62 Forestry Quarterly.

censes will not be granted but the system of management has not
yet been determined.

20. Rondeau Park. Mainly a park and game preserve — set
apart in 1894.

PROVINCE OF QUEBEC.

2 1. The Laurentides National Park. — Established by an Act
of the Legislature of Quebec dated 12th January, 1895, comprises
an area of 2,531 square miles.

22. Trevibling Mozuitain Park. — Established by an Act of the
Legislature of Quebec dated the 12th January, 1895 — never made
operative.

PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK.

23. By an Act of the Legislature passed at the Session of
1902, authority was given for the selection and setting apart of a
forest reservation, but reserve not yet selected.

APPENDIX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FORESTRY.

This bibliography is a list of articles on forestry which are contained in
the United States Congressional documents and printed in the sheep set.
Publications of the Division of Forestry or any other department, not includ-
ed in the sheep set, will not appear in this list. For a list of articles con-
tained in the Reports of the Department of Agriculture see the Bibliography
in Fernow's Economics of Forestry. There are articles on forestry in for-
eign countries to be found in the Consular reports not brought out in this
list.

The references are made to the serial numbers, i. e. , the consecutive vol-
ume number of the whole sheep set, instead of to the Congress and session.
As the year is given in every article there is no bibliographical loss.

OWVE WlI,I.IAMS.
FORESTRY — GENERAI,.

Agriculture Department. Special report of the Commissioner upon the sub-
ject of forestry. Dec. 14, 1S77. 3 P- Ser. 1802. Doc. 24.

Andrews, C. C. Report on forestry in Sweden. New and rev. ed. Wash-
ington, 1900. 35 p. Ser. 3878. Doc 452.

Edinburgh international forestry exhibition. (In Report of the Division
of Forestry for 1S84. p. 167-179.) Ser. 2212.

Fernow, B. E. Forestry for farmers. (Agric. Dept. Year book, 1894. p.
461-500, ill.) Ser. 3326. Doc. 355.

Fernow, B. E. Forestry in the U. S. (In Reports of U. S. commissioners
to the . . . Exposition of 1889, Paris, v. 5. p. 747-777. Plates.)
Contains articles on Forest botany. Forest utilization, Forest culture.
Ser. 2757. Doc. 410, pt. 5.

Fernow, B. E. Relation of forests to farms. (Agric. Dept. Year book, 1895.
P- 333-340, ill. ) Ser. 3441. Doc. 380.

Fernow, B. E. Report upon the forestry investigations of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1877-1898. Washington, 1899. 401 p., ill. PI.
Maps. Ser. 3813. Doc. 181.

Fernow, B. E. Work of the Division of Forestry for the farmer. (Agric.
Dept. Yearbook, 1897. p. 143-160.) Ser. 3693. Doc. 454.

Forestry associations. List. (Agric. Dept. Year book, 1900-1901.) Serial
4179. Doc. 519.

Forestry Division. Report of the Chief , 1883 — date. (In Annual report of
the Secretary of Agriculture. )

General Land Office. Reports of the Commissioner. (In Report of the Sec-
retary of the Interior. ) There is a report on forestry in each of these
reports.

Graves, Henry S. Practice of forestry by private owners. (Agric. Dept.
Year book, 1899. p. 415-428. Plates.) Ser. 3996. Doc. 588.

Forestry Quarterly. 164

Hall, William Iv. Forest extension in the Middle West. (Agric. Dept,
Year book, 1900. p. 145-156. Plates.) Ser. 4179. Doc. 519.

Hough, Franklin B. Report on forestry prepared under the direction of the
Commissioner of Agriculture in pursuance of an act of Congress, ap-
proved Aug. 15, 1876. Washington, 1880-82. v. 2-3. Vol. i pub. in
1878, not in the sheep set. Vol. 4 pub. in 1884 by N. H. Egleston, not
in the sheep set. Ser. 1922. Doc. 37. Serial 2046. Doc. 38.

Interior Department. Communication from the secretary in relation to an
appropriation to meet expenses of an investigation and report by the
National Academy of Sciences on the inauguration of a rational forest
policy for the forested lands of the U. S. March 11, 1896. 4 p. Ser.
3428. Doc. 306.

Keffer, Charles A. Tree planting in the western plains. (Agric. Dept.
Yearbook, 1895. p. 341-360, 111.) Ser. 3441. Doc. 380.

Keffer, Charles A. Tree planting in waste places on the farm. (Agric.
Dept. Year book, 1896. p. 323-340.) Ser. 3496. Doc. 6, pt. 2.

National Academy of Science. Report of the Committee appointed by the
Academy upon the inaugration of a forest policy for the forested lands
of the U. S. May i, 1897. 49 p. Ser. 3562. Doc. 105.

Philippine Islands — Forestry, Bureau of. Special report of Capt. G. P. Ahern
. . . covering the period from April, 1900, to July 30, 1901. p. 679-738.
Plates. (In Report of Sec. of War.) 57'*^ cong., i sess. H. D. no. 2.

Pinchot, Gifford. Notes on some forest problems. (Agric. Dept. Year book,
1898. p. 181-192. Plates.) Ser. 3824. Doc. 293.

Pinchot, Giflford. Primer of forestry. Wash. 1901. 2 pts. Ser. 4184.
Doc. 727.

Pinchot, Gifford, Progress of forestry in the United States. (Agric. Dept.
Yearbook, 1899. p. 293-306. Plates.) Ser. 3996. Doc. 588.

Price, Overton W. Practical forestry in the Southern Appalachians.
(Agric. Dept. Yearbook, 1900, p. 357-368. Plates). Ser. 4179. Doc.

519-
Progress in forestry in 1900-01. (Agric. Dept. Yearbook, 1900-01.) Serial

4179. Doc. 519.
Sargent, Charles S. Report on the forests of North America exclusive of

Mexico. Wash. 1884. 9 + 612 p. PI. Maps. Ser. 2137. Doc. 42.
Sellergren, G. Udlization of forest products, p. 557-611,111. Plates. (In

Rept. of the Committee on awards of the World's Columbian Commis-
sion, Vol. I.) 57 Cong. I Sess. H. D. 510.
Suwa, Shikazo. .Forests in Japan, p. 551-556. (In Rept. of the Committee

on awards of the World's Columbian Commission, v. i.) 57 Cong.

I Sess. H. D. 510.

FOREST FIRES.

Interior Department. Letter of the Secretary relative to the destruction by
fires of timber on the public lands June 17, 1890. 3 p. Ser. 26S8. Doc.

152.
Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 9123) entitled "A bill to
prevent forest fires on the public domain." May 22, 1896. i p. Ser.
3464. Doc. 1975.

Appendix. 1 65

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 9124) entitled " A bill to
protect the forests on the public domain from destruction by fire. ' ' May
22, 1S96. I p. Ser. 3464. Doc. 1976,

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 8585) to amend an act en-
titled "An act to prevent forest fires on the public domain." Mar. 2,
1900. 2 p. Ser. 4022. Doc. 482.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 8585) to amend an act en-
titled " An act to prevent forest fires on the public domain, recommend-
ing its passage." Apr. 10, 1900. 2 p. Ser. 3890. Doc. 937.

FOREST PRESERVATION.

Agriculture and Forestry Committee Report on preservation and protection
of trees. June 25, 1891. 2 p. Ser. 2710. Doc 1411.

Amer. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science. Memorial upon the cultiva-
tion of timber and the preservation of forests. Feb. 6, 1874. 6 p. Ser.
1580. Doc. 28. Ser. 1623. Doc. 259. Ser. 2682. Doc. 36.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. Memorial in behalf
of a proper forest policy ; report relative to the preservation of the for-
ests on the public domain. Jan. II, 1890. 4 p. Ser. 2682. Doc. 36.

Borcherdt, Albert. Memorial [presented by Mr. Wolcott] in relation to the
destruction of forests in the U. S. Jan. 21, 1890. i p. Ser. 2698.
Doc. 51.

Merriam, C. Hart. Destruction of the forest means destruction of the fauna
and flora, p. 404-405. PI. (In Smithsonian Institution. Report of
the Regents, 1902.) 57 Cong, i Sess. H. D. 707, pt. i.

Pinchot, Gifford. Notes on forest destruction, p. 401-404. PL In Smith-
sonian Institution. Report of the Regents, 1902.) 57th Cong, i Sess.
H. D. 707, pt. I.

Public Lands Committee. Report on special message of the President of the
U. S. communicating information in relation to the cultivation of tim-
ber and the preservation of forests . . . with a communication from the
Commissioner of General Land Office upon the same subject. Mar. 17,
1874. 119 p. Ser. 1623. Doc. 259.

FOREST RESERVES.

Agriculture Committee. Report on bills (H. R. 3128, H. R. 6543 and H. R.
12138) for the purchase of a national forest reserve in the Southern
Appalachian Mountains to be known as the National Appalachian For-
est Reserve . . . and recommended that the . . . bill H. R.
13523 be substituted and that it do pass. Apr. 11, 1902. 4 p. Serial no.
4404. Report no. 1547.

Agriculture and Forestry Committee. Report on the bill (S. 3235) to pro-
vide for the establishment, protection and administration of public
forest reservations. July 20, 1902. 12 p. Ser. 2915. Doc. 1002.

Forest reservations and the protection of game committee. Report . .
on the bill (S. 492) to provide for the establishment of a national forest
reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region, recommending
that it do pass. Feb. 5, 1902. 3 p. Ser. 4259. Doc. 339.

Forestry Quarterly. i66

Forest reservations and the protection of game committee. Report on the
bill (S. 5228) for the purchase of a national forest reserve in the South-
ern Appalachian Mountains to be known as the National Appalachian
Forest Reserve . . . recommending that the bill (S. 5228) do pass as
amended and substituted for Senate bill 5518. Apr. iS, 1902. 4 p.
Serial no. 4261. Rept. 11 72.

General Laud Office. Communication from the Commissioner relative to
legislation necessary to protect the government in the exchange of de-
nuded lands in government reservations for other lands on the public
domain. Feb. 16, 1900. 3 p. Ser. 3854. Doc. 187.

General Land Office. Draft of a bill and a letter from the Commissioner
relating to grazing within forest reserves. Apr. 2, 1900. 2 p. Ser.
3995. Doc. 598.

General Land Office. Partial report relating to acreage in forest reserves.

Apr. 26, 1900. 6 p. Additional information in regard to

forest reserves. May 18, 1900. 16 p. 24 maps. Ser. 3997. Doc. 643.

Geological Survey. Forest reserves (In nineteenth, twentieth and twenty-
first reports, part 5. Vols, of plates.) Serial nos. 3763, 3923, 4109, 4110,
Doc. 5.

Geological Survey. Report of surveys made and accompanying papers in
relation to the forest reserves since June 4, 1897. Mar. 5, 1S98. 159 p.
Ser. 3600. Doc. 189.

Geological Survey. Report of the Director relative to the survey of the
public lands that have been designated as forest reserves by executive
proclamations. Dec. 22, 1897. 16 p. Ser. 3592. Doc. 47.

Gettysburg National Military Park. Letter from the Commissioners sub-
mitting a draft of a bill for protecting ornamental and other trees on
government reservations. Feb. 27, 1898. 2 p. Ser. 3679. Doc. 372.

Interior Dept. Communication from the Secretary submitting an estimate
of appropriation for the survey of public lands within forest reserves.
Dec. 29, 1899. 2 p. Ser. 3974. Doc. 211.

Interior Dept. Letter from the Secretary transmitting . . . copies of the
orders of the President of Feb. 22, 1897, and copies of papers relating to
the establishment of forest reservations. Apr. 5, 1897. 36 p. Contains
Proclamations of President Cleveland establishing 13 forest reserves.
Ser. 3559. Doc. 21.

Interior Dept. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury transmitting a
copy of the communication from the Secretary of the Interior submit-
ting an estimate of appropriation for protection and administration of
forest reserves. Jan. 8, 1902. 7 p. 57 Cong, i sess. H. D. no. 219.

Interior Dept. Letter from the Secretary transmitting a draft of a bill re-
lating to use of timber from forest reserves. Jan. 7, 1902, i p. 57
Cong. I sess. H. D. 193.

Letters and memorials [Presented by F. E. Warren] relating to the new
forest reservations. May 6, 1897. 11 p. Ser. 3562. Doc. 68.

Military Affairs Committee. Report on bill (S. 1054) to authorize the U. S.
to secure title to certain military and timber reservations. Jan. 23, 1879.
7 p. Map. Ser. 1837. Doc. 621.

Appendix. 167

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 119) to protect forest reser-
vations, recommending amendments. Oct. 4, 1893. 5 p. Ser. 3157.
Doc. 78.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 119) to protect public for-
est reservations, recommending amendments. May 4, 1894. 23 p. Ser-
3271. Doc. 897.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 119) entitled, " A bill to
protect public forest reservations," recommending an amendment in na-
ture of substitute. " May 2, 1S96. 20 p. Ser. 3462. Doc. 1593.

Public Lands Committee. Report [recommending] the protection of forest
reservations. Feb. 7, 1893. 3 p. Ser. 3141. Doc. 2437.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 4991) to open the forest
reservations in the State of Colorado for the location of mining claims,
recommending its passage. Feb. 4, 1896. i p. Ser. 3362. Doc. 191.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bills (H. R. 5267, H. R. 9668 and H.
R. 10739) relating to lieu sections of land in forest reserves, national
parks, etc. May 24, 1900. 3 p. Ser. 4026. Doc. 1700.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 7332) relating to the estab-
lishment of forest reserves in the States of Washington and Idaho.
June 5, 1900. 6 p. Ser. 4027. Doc, 1986.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 8162) entitled, " A bill to
authorize the Secretary of the Interior to rent or lease certain portions
of forest reserves " [recommending an amendment.] April 4, 1898. 3 p-
Ser. 3720. Doc. 942.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 8162) entitled, "A bill to
authorize the Secretary of the Interior to rent or lease certain portions
of forest reserves," recommending its passage. Jan. 23, 1899. 3 p.
Ser. 3739. Doc. 1512.

Public Lands Committee. Report on House bill 9202 providing that the
timber procured from forest reserves . . . shall not be used outside of
the state or territory where cut . . . June 30, 1902. 5 p. Ser. 4407.
Rept. 2739.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 11357) providing that new
forest reserves shall be created, and additions to be made hereafter only
by act of Congress. June 5, 1900. 3 p. Ser. 4027. Doc. 19S5

Public Lands Committee. Report on the bill (H. R. 11536) to transfer cer-
tain forest reserves to tlie control of the Department of Agriculture ; to
authorize game and fish protection in forest reserves, and for other pur-
poses. March 15, 1902. 15+7 P- Ser. 4402. Rept. no. 96S.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 13390) to amend " An act
to set apart certain tracts of land in the State of California as forest
reservations." Feb. 5, 1891. 3 p. Ser. 2888. Doc. 3696.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 2280) "To open the forest
reservations of the State of Colorado for the location of mining claims,"
recommending a substitute. Jan. 28, 1896. i p. Ser. 3457. Doc. 152.

Public Lands Committe. Report on bill ( S. 1 632 ) to p ermit owners of claims
to iron and coal mines on forest reservations ... to perfect their titles

Forestry Quarterly. i68

thereto . . . recommending . . . amendments. Feb. 26, 1896. i p. Sen
3363. Doc. 359.
Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 1632) to permit owners of
mining claims on forest reservations to perfect their title thereto and to
procure a patent therefor, recommending amendments. Mar. 24, 1896.

1 p. Ser. 3460. Doc. 933.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 5657) to prevent discrimina-
tion in grazing permits on the Uintah Forest Reservation. June 3, 1902.

2 p. Ser. 4263. Doc. 1742.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 2866) for the relief of bona
fide settlers in forest reserves . . . recommending that it do pass. Jan.
21, 1902. 2 p. Ser. 4257. Doc. 212.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 3084) for the relief of bona
fide settlers in forest reserves . . . recommending that it do pass . . .
amended. March 26, 1902. 4 p. Ser. 4260. Doc. 860.

Public Lands Committee. Report on the bill introduced upon recommenda-
tion of the . . . Commissioner of the General Land Ofiice to afford re-
lief to a class of worthy settlers who had established their homes upon
various forest reserves in advance of the date of the establishment of
such reservations . . . Jan. 18, 1902. 4 p. Ser. 4399. Rept. no. 71.

Roth, Filibert. Grazing in the forest reserves. (Agric. Dept. Year book,
1901. p. 333-348. Plates.)

Senate. Testimony taken by the Select Committee of the U. S. Senate ap-
pointed under Senate resolution of July 29, 1893, to investigate the
matter of the reservation of certain lands in the State of California.
Jan. 5, 1898. 24 p. Ser. 3592. Doc. 48.

FORESTRY-STUDY.

Letters, reports, etc. on the subject of the establishment of a school of

forestry. May 19, 1880. 22 p. Ser. 189 1. Doc, 91.
Parks, C. Wellman. Forestry education. ( In Report of the Commissioner

of Education. 1894.) p. 809-818. Ser. 3309. Doc. i, pt. 5.
Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 158) granting to the State of

North Dakota 30,000 acres of land to aid in the maintenance of a school

of forestry, recommending its passage. Jan. 30, 1900. 2 p. Ser. 3886.

Doc. 209.
Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 597) granting to the State of

North Dakota 30,000 acres of land to aid in the maintenance of a school

of forestry . . . recommending that it do pass. Jan. 13, 1902. 2. p.

Ser. 4257. Doc. 103. Hoiise rept. on same bill. Ser. 4407. Rept. 2747.

Schools of forestry [List]. (Agric. Dept. Year book, 1900-01. Ser. 4179.

Doc. 519.

LUMBER.

Forestry Division. Statement prepared by the Chief of the Division re-
garding white pine lumber supplies, Apr, 15, 1897, 21 p, Ser, 3561.
Doc, 40,

Appendix. 169

Labor Dept. Letter from the Commissioner relative to the cost per 1000 feet

board measure of producing white pine lumber in the U. S. and Canada.

May 5, 1897. 26 p. Ser. 3562. Doc. 70.
Memorial from the citizens of Newbern, N. C. asking that lumber be restored

to the dutiable list. Dec. 30, 1895. i p. Ser. 3349. Doc. 48.
Memorial [presented by Eugene Hale] for the use of the Senate in relation

to that part of the Wilson bill which places lumber on the free list and

remonstrating against the adoption of same. Feb. 19, 1894. 10 p. Ser.

3167. Doc. 93.
National Lumber Convention. Letter from the Chairman of the Executive

Committee commenting upon the report of the Commissioner of Labor

relative to the cost per thousand feet board measure of producing white

pine lumber in the U. S. and Canada . . . June 4, 1897. 5 p. Ser.

3563. Doc. 139.
Statistics Bureau (State Dept.) American lumber in foreign markets.

Wash. 1896. II + 217 + II p. (Special consular repts., v. 11.) Ser.

3342. pt. 2. Doc. 92.
Statistics Bureau (Treasury). Lumber business and lake transportation.

(In Rept, made by Mr. G. G. Tunell on lake commerce. Feb. 3, 1898.

pt. 5. p. 94-106. ) Ser. 3679. Doc. 277.

TIMBER.

Agriculture Committee. Report on bill (S. 313) entitled, "An act appro-
priating funds for investigation and tests of American timber," recom-
mending its passage. Aug. 15, 1894. 4 p. Ser. 3272. Doc. 1442.

Agriculture Dept. Information in relation to investigations and experi-
ments in the planting of native pine seed for the growth of native pine
in the sand hills of the Northwest. Aug. 2, 1894. 14 p. Ser. 3163.
Doc. 172.

Agriculture and Forestry Committee. Report on bill (S. 364) to appropri-
ate fiinds for investigations and tests of American timber. May 2, 1900.
3 p. Ser. 3894. Doc. 11 77.

Forestry Division. Report on the probable amounts of white pine and other
coniferous timber standing and consumption in the U. S. 21 p. Ser.
3561. Doc. 40.

Hall, William L. Timber resources of Nebraska (Agric. Dept. Yearbook,
1901. p. 207-216. Plates.)

Indian Affairs Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 11218) to enable the Sec-
retary of the Interior to protect the timber in the Indian Territory, rec-
ommending its passage. Jan. 10, 1899. i p. Ser. 3840. Doc. 1726.

Laidley, T. T. S. Report on the timber and mineral resources of the Deep
River country in North Carolina. April 29, 1856. 5 p. Ser. 859. Doc.
109.

Public Lands Committee. Report on growth of timber on western prairies.
Feb. 5, 1874. 2 p. Ser. 1623. Doc. 66.

Roth, Filibert. Uses of wood (Agric. Dept. Yearbook, 1896. p. 391-420.
111.) Ser. 3496, Doc. 6, pt. 2.

Forestry Quarterly, 170

TIMBER CUI<TURE I,AWS.

General Land Office. Report on the amendment intended to be proposed
by Mr. Pettigrew to the sundry civil appropriation bill the object of
which is to provide a method for the entry of lands in the Black Hills
forest reservation, South Dakota, under the homestead law. Jan. 18,
1899. 3 p. Ser. 3731. Doc. 94.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bills on pre-emption, homestead and
timber culture laws providing a substitute therefor ( repealing the timber
culture laws). May 12, 1884. 4 p. Ser. 2258. Doc. 1544.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 9291 ) to extend the timber
and stone acts to the district of Alaska recommending its passage.
March 9, 1900. i p. Ser. 4023. Doc. 568.

Public Lands Committee. Report on Senate bill 2S66 on timber culture
laws. Apr. 12, 1900. 5 p. Ser. 4024. Doc. 1002.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 412) to amend an act en-
titled "An act to repeal timber culture laws." Mar. 29, 1892. 2 p.
Ser. 3044. Doc. 915.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 2657) to declare the mean-
ing of section 7 of an act entitled ' ' An act to repeal the timber culture
laws." May 26, 1892. 4 p. Ser. 3046. Doc. 1495.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 3393) to amend an act ap-
proved March 3, 1S91, entitled "An act to repeal the timber culture
law" . . . recommending amendments. July 11, 1892. i p. Ser. 2915.
Doc. 905.

Public Lands Committee. Report in addition to report no. 915 . . . recom-
mending amendment to the bill (H. R. 761) to amend an act entitled
"An act to repeal timber culture laws." Dec. 12, 1892. i p. Ser.
3140. Doc. 2151.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (S. 2564) to amend section 6 of
the act . . . entitled "An act to repeal timber culture laws," recom-
mending its passage." Feb. 9, 1893. I p. Ser. 3142. Doc. 2450.

TIMBER CUTTING ON RESERVATIONS AND PUBLIC I,ANDS.

Copies of letters and accompanying enclosures from the Commissioner of
the General Land Office and the Commissioner of Indian Affairs relating
to the estimating of timber and the cutting of dead and fallen timber on
the Chippewa Indian reservations in the State of Minnesota. Jan. 21,
1899. 253 -p. Ser. 3731. Doc. 70.

General Land Office. Report on pine timber on lands included within for-
feited or lapsed railroad grants. June I, 1874. 3 p. Ser. 1615. Doc.
260.

General Land Office. Papers relative to cutting timber for mining purposes.
Sept. 6, 1888. 23 p. Ser. 2514. Doc. 259.

General Land Office. Information relating to cutting and removing timber
from forest reservations and public lands and the action taken to protect
timber lands from trespass or depredations. Jan. 25, 1895. 16 p. Ser.
3275. Doc. 45.

Appendix. 171

General Land Office. Communication from the Commissioner inclosing a
draft of a bill to authorize and regulate the sale and use of timber on
certain public lands. Feb. 28, 1900. 5 p. Ser. 3988. Doc. 487.

Indian Affairs Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 998) providing for the
sale of pine timber on White Earth and Red Lake diminished reser-
vations in the State of Minnesota recommending amendments. Mar. 5,
1900. 3 p. Ser. 4023. Doc. 492.

Indian Affairs Committee. Report on bill (S. 4758) granting permission to
the Indians on the Grand Portage Indian Reservation in the State of
Minnesota to cut and dispose of the timber on their several allotments
on said reservations. May 28, 1900. 2 p. Ser. 3895. Doc. 1513.

Indian Affairs Committee. Report on sale of timber on certain lands in
Wisconsin. Apr. 14, 1892. i p. Ser. 3045. Doc. 1077.

Interior Dept. Draft of a bill to amend the act of June 4, 1897, relating to
the sale of timber on forest reservations. Jan. 28, 1899. 2 p. Ser.
3812. Doc. 186.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 6063) to amend ... an
act entitled ' ' An act making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of
the government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, and for other
purposes" (relating to the publications of notices of proposed sales of
forest reserve timber. ) Feb. i, 1900. 3 p. Ser. 4021. Doc. 178.

TIMBER DEPREDATIONS.

General Land Office. Report of the Commissioner relative to depredations
committed on timber situated upon the public lands, and the appoint-
ment of agents. June 27, 1854. 24 p. Ser. 727. Doc. 115.

General Land Office. Report of Commissioner touching the seizure of logs,
lumber, etc. Dec. 19, 1877. 2 pts. Ser. 1780. Doc. 9.

General Land Office. Letter from the acting Commissioner asking an ap-
propriation to supply deficiency in the appropriation for depredations
on public timber . . . March 14. 1884. 2 p. Ser. 2206. Doc. 115.

General Land Office. Report from the Commissioner relative to instruc-
tions given to C. A. M. Schlierholz, special agent at Batesville, Ark., as
to seizing timber. June 16, 1898. 3 p. Ser. 3615. Doc. 295.

Interior Dept. Estimate from the Secretary of deficiencies in the appropri-
ations for depredations on public timber and for protecting the public
lands. Feb. 4, 1890. 2 p. Ser. 2746. Doc. 190.

Interior Dept. Letter of the Secretary relative to timber trespasses on pub-
lic lands. Dec. 22, 1887. 6 p. Ser. 2504. Doc. 42.

TIMBER I,ANDS.

Bowers, Edw. A. Report submitting a plan for the management and dispo-
sition of the public timber lands. March 12, 1887. 24 p. Ser. 2566.
Doc. 242.

Indian Rights Association. Memorial relating to timber lands on the Chip-
pewa Indian reservation in Minnesota. Jan. 6, 1899. 75 p. Ser. 3728.
Doc. 49.

Forestry Quarterly. 172

Interior Dept. Communication from the first assistant secretary in relation
to the disposal of the timber lands and the proposed plan for the preser-
vation of natural forest lands at the head waters of navigable rivers.
Feb. 9, 1888. 4 p. Ser. 255S. Doc. 144.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bills (H. R. 29 and H. R. 5142) relat-
ing to the disposal of timber and stone lands unfit for cultivation, recom-
mending a substitute. Feb. 28, 1892. 3 p. Ser. 3043. Doc 482.

Public Lands Committee. Report on bill (H. R. 410) to provide for the
sale of timber lands in the States of California, Oregon, and in the Ter-
ritories of the U. S. which have not been offered at public sale and are
valuable chiefly for their timber. Dec. 23, 1874. 3 p. Ser. 1656. Doc. 8.

MISCEIvLANEOUS.

Packard, Alpheus S. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. Wash-
ington, 1890. 8+957 p. PL (U. S. Entomological Commission, 5th
report. ) Published also as Bulletin no. 7 of the Entomological Com-
mission. Ser. 2800. Doc. 269.

Turpentine orcharding and industry. (In Report of the Forest Division,
1892. p. 342-358. 111.) Ser. 3095. Doc. I.

INDEX TO VOI.UME I.

PAGE

Academy of Science 72

Adirondack Park 134, 145

Adirondacks, Reproduction in, . 50
Agricultural Experiment Station 81

Ahern, G. P 69, 117

Alaska, Forest Advance in .... 94

Allen, E. T 29

AUgemeine Forst-u. Jagd Zeitung,

73, III, 149
American Public Health Ass. . . 32

Among Green Trees 73

Anal3'sis, Stem, Difficulties in . . 12

" "Stump " 78

Anderlind, Leo iii

Andrews, C. C 31

Announcement i

Ant, The White 32

Appalachian, Park, The . . . 36, 63
Reserve .... 63, 75

Arnold, T. K .158

Ash 153

Ashe, W. W 63

Australian Commonwealth ... 33

Austrian Pine 143

Ayres, H. B 63

" P. W 100, 121

Balsam Fir, Form of the .... 56

Baiiksian Pine 80, 142, 153

Baur, Franz 7, 60, 128

Beech, European 10

Beetles. 20

Biltmore Forest School ... 39, 155

Birch 153

Birds, Adirondack ..... 18

Borst, T. F 109

British Columbia, Forest Advance

in 94

Broillard, C 108

Brooks, Henry 104

Brewer, Prof. W. H 33

Bruner, E. G 141

Brunet, R 74

Bryant, R. C . 77

Bulletin de la Soci^t^, etc. . . 35, 100

Bull Pine 142, 153

Bureau of Forestry . . . . 12, 16, 38

" " " Bulletins,

28, 30, 72, 105, 146

" " " Field Season,

36, 113

PAGE

California 147

" Map of 106

" University of 39

Campbell, R. H 159

Canada, Forest Wealth of .... 87

Canadian Forestry Ass 67, 69

" " Preserves . . . 158

Card, F. W 102

Cary, Austin 67, 99

Cascade Range 147

Catalpa . • 31, 105

Cedar 53, 72

Census 43, 121, 150

Centralblatt fiir das gesammte

Forstwesen 34, no, 152

Chapman, F. M 22

Charlton, R. H 153

Charpentier, P 70

Chestnut 67

Clark, J. F 5, 56

" W. W 77

College of Forestry . 37, 55, 102, 157
Commissioner of the Land Office, 62
Conifers of the Pacific Slope ... 32
Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 69
" Forestry in ..... 81

Conservative Lumbering atSewan-

nee 146

Consumption, Wood 45

Cord, Factors Influencing Vol-
ume of 126

Cornell Foresters 120

Cotta ■ 2, 6

Curran, H. M • 103

Dame, L. L 104

Daniel-Bekow, C 74

Delville, C 35

Difficulties in Stem Analysis . . 12

Dodwell, A 147

Dominicus, J. D 149

Economics of Forestry 66

Emeis 112

England, Forest Conditions of. . 151

Eulefeld in

Experiment Station 149

" Farms ..... 69

Factors Influencing Solid Wood in
the Cord 126

^74

Forestry Quarterly .

Factors in Value Tables 7

Fallow Towns 136

Fankhauser, Dr 72, 109

Fernow, B. E 41, 66, 87, 102

Finland 106

Fir, Balsam, Fonn of the ... 56

Fire Eflfect 54-93. 150

" Ivaw 27, 107, 134

" Proofing of Wood 32

" Warden 135

Foley, John 146

Forbush, E. H 19

Forest Advance in Alaska .... 94
" Administration in India. . 33
" Conditions in Nevada . . . 147
" " of Olympic Re-
serve . . 147

Forest Cover 34, 64

" Fish, and Game Commis-
sion 26, 55, 145, 157

Forest Engineering, A Manual of 67
" Fire Law, New York . . .134
" Planting on the Plains . . 140

" Reserves 62

" Reserve Manual 26

" Statistics 149

Forester, Report of the 97

Forestry, A First Book of . . 103

" Association, Canadian . 67

" atan Agricultural Station 81

" Birds in Relation to . . 18

" Bulletins . . 28, 29, 30, 72,

105, 146
" Bureau of . 12, 16, 36, 79,97

College of . 37, 55, 102, 151

" Economics of 66

" Manual of 72

" Necessity for 3

" Publications no

" Quarterly i

" Reasons for . . . . • 5

" in Relation to Health . 32

" Schools of 39

Forests of Garrett Co .103

" " Oregon 147

" " Rhode Island . . 102

" " Washington 147

Form of the Balsam Fir .... 56

" of Sticks 128

Fourth Report of Forest Commis-
sioner ot Maine 97

Fox, W. F -29

France 47

Frederiksen, N. C 106

Fron, A 148

Fuel Wood 45

Gannett, Henry 147

Ganghofer 6

General Land Office 62

Geological Survey Reports . . . 147

Germany 3, 47

Gifford, Dr. J 157

Glaciated Areas, Forest Advance

Over 94

Goltz, von der in

Graves, H. S 69, 72

Great Britain 46

Hall, W. M 105

Handbook of the Trees 104

" Woodman's 72

Hardy Catalpa, The 31, 105

Harshberger, J. W 72

Hick, Dr 149

Hemlock 51

" The Western 29

Henry, A. J 64

" E 74. no

Higgins, S. M 77

Hiltner, Dr 148

Hog Ranging in

Hopkins, A. D 20, 22

Hosmer, R. S 97

Howard, W. B 1 14

How to Grow a Forest loi

" to Tell the Trees 104

Hungary in

Impregnation of Ties in

India, Forest Administration in, 33, 67

Indian Forests, The 33

Insects ill the Forest 19

Iowa Park Ass 32

Jahrbuch der Preuss. Gesetzgeb. . 149
Jepson, W. L 158

Kansas 140

Keith, A 69

Ke!?ey. T. S T06

Kirby Lumber Co 73, 113

Klemme, W 38, 77

Knechtel, A 28, 50, 109

Kunze 9

Land Office 116

Lectures, Forestry 122, 158

Leitfaden fiirschweiz. Foerster . . 72

Lemmon, J. G 32, 104

Lesiioy Journal ... ... 33, 74

Lieberg, J. B . . 147

Lorey 149

Lumbering, Conservative .... 140

Lumber in N. Y 28

" U. S 90

" Trade Journal . . . . 73, 75
Luquillo Forest Reserve 147

Index.

175

Maine, University of 157

" Report of Comm 97

Manson, Marsden 94

Manual, Forest Reserve .... 26

Marlatt, C. L 32

Massachusetts 109

Maule, W. M 118

McClintock, J. Y 28

Measuring the Stack 130

Melard 109

Mendenhall Glacier 94

Message from the President ... 63

Michigan College 39

" University of . . . 39, 116
Minnesota, Report of Fire War-
den of 31

Monografia del Castaguo

Muldrew, W. H

Miiller, Dr. U

Mundener Forstliche Hefte
Myers

67
no

73

108

64

Natural Reproduction in Forests 50
Naturvvissenschaftliche Zeit-

schrift 148

Naval Stores Industry 34

Nebraska 140, 143

" University of 39

Neely, S. T 17

New Hampshire ..... 100, 117

" " Forest Problems in, 121

New York College of Forestry,

37, 55, 102
New York Fire Law 134

" " F. F. and G. Comm. . 26

" " L/umber Industry . . 28
Norway Spruce . . . 57, 59, 61

Olmsted, F. E 30

Olympic Forest Reserve .... 147
Outlook of the Timber Supply, 41, 87 I
On the Form of the Balsam ... 56 j

Pennsylvania Dept. of Forestry . loi

Pettis, C. R 134, 145

Philippines, Forestry in the,

69, 77, 117

Ptccioli, L/odovico 67, 102

Pinchot, GifFord 77, 158

" Report of 97

Pine, Banksiau 80, 142, 153

" Bull 142, 153

" Longleaf 113

" Scotch 9, 59, 61

" White • • 48, 51, 61. 153

Pine Bluff. Working Plan for . . . 30
Plains, Forest Planting on the . . 140

Plant Material 149

Planting 140, 145

Plummer, F. G 147

Popular Science Monthly .... 109
President, Message from the ... 63

Pressy, H. A 64

Proceedings of Academy of Sci-
ence . 72

Prospect, The 119

Prices, Seed 151

" Wood 152

Publications no

Pulp and Paper Magazine .... 148

Queen's Quarterl)' no

Railroads 136

Rane, F. W loi

Redwoods, The 146

Reforesting, A Study in ... . 28

" in Germany in

Renne 150

Reproduction in the Adirondacks 50
Report of the Comm. of the I^and

Ofl&ce 62

Report of the Conn. Forestry Ass. 67
" " " " Board of Agri-
culture 69

Report of the Director of Experi-
mental Farms 69

Report ofthe Fire Warden of Minn. 31
" " " Forest Comm. of Me. 97

" " " Forester 97

" " G. P. Ahern 69

" " N. H. Forestry Comm. 100

" the N. Y. College of For-
estry . 102

Report of the N. Y. F. F. and G.

Comm 26, 145

Report ofthe Secretary of Agricul-
ture 63

Report of tlie Society for Protec-
tion of N. H. Forests 100

Reserves, Rothrock 158

" Canadian 158

" Forest 62

" Pennsylvania 158

Reinick, H. A. .' 150

Revista de Montes 35

Revue des Eaux et Forets . 35, 74, 108
Rhode Island, The Forests of . . 102

Ring, E. E 97

Rixon, T. F 147

Rod and Gun 109, 148

Rogers. J. E 73

Roodzsky, A 126

R-ith, F 26, 103, 116

Rothrock, J. T loi, 158

" Preserve 15S

Sandsten, E. P 140

176

Forestry Quarterly.

Sawyer and Austin Lumber Co. . 30

Scannell, E. T 33

Scotch Pine 142, 146

Schlich, Dr. W 33,1"

Schreuck, H. von 106

Schuberg 8

Schweizerische Zeitschrift ... 34

Schools of Forestry 39, 155

Science 32

Seed Collecting 79

" Prices 151

Seeding Machine . . 151

Seedlings 51

SchifFel, A 9, 154

" Volume Tables of . ... 59

Sierra Club Bulletin 32

Silviculture . 148

Smoke Damage 151

Snow, C. H 147

Society for the Protection of For-
ests 100, 123

Soil Use . 150

Southern Pine 149

Species. 129, 152

Spruce, 48, 51, 57, 61, 67, 81, 123,

150, 153
Standing Timber, Estimating . . 28
Stem Analysis, Errors in . . . 12

Sterling, E. A 18, 145

Stewart 159

Stick length in cordwood .... 126

Stubenrauch, A. V 158

"Stump" Analysis 78

Tables of Cord Wood 132

" " Volume 6

Texas 113

Three State Bills 156

Timber, Amount in U. S 88

" " " Maine ... 98

" Contents T09

" and Land 117

" Estimating 28

" Waste 119

Supply in U. S. ... 41, 87

" Study of 70

Titze 151

Tourney, J. W 15S

Transactions of English Arboricul-

tural Soc 109

Transactions of Scottish Arbori-

cultural Soc 148

Tree Planting on the Plains . . . 140

Trees, Among Green 73

" How to Tell the 104

" of New England 109

Tubeuf, von 148

Turpentine no

Unwin, Dr no, 152

University of California 39

" Harvard 155

" of Maine 155

" " Michigan 39

" " Nebraska 39

Volume Tables 6, 154

Vorontzov, A 74

Washington 147

Waste, Timber 119

Western Hemlock, The 29

White Mountains 124

" Pine, 48, 51,61, 121, 146, 151, 153

Wieler, Dr. A. . 151

Williams, A. S 12

Williams, 0 163

Wilson, Hon. James 75

Wimmenauer 11

Wind and Lumbering 68

" Effects of 112

Wert, G. H 102

Wood, Fireproofing of 32

" Consumption 45

" A Comprehensive Study of 71

Lots 87

" Prices 157

" Principal Species of . . . 147

Woodman's Handbook 72

Woodland and Roadside .... 109
Working Plan for Pine BluflF . . 30

Yale Forest School 39i 69

Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und- Jagd-

wesen 35, 108, 150

Zon, R. G 109, 126

FOREST TREE SEEDS / SEEDLINGS

Fresh, Authentic Seeds,

\Ve have a large stock of one
and two year seedlings. Grown
especially for Forestrj' purposes.

Write for •'Forestry" Catalogue.

TREES, SHRUBS, EVERGREENS,
VINES AND HERBAGEOOS PIANIS

Thomas Meehan & Sons,

Inc.

Wholesale Dept.,
Dreshertown, Mont'g Co., Penna.

Xhe Kimstle

'- \A/ar Bag

^

For Sportsmen, Campers, etc.

Holds as much as a trunk. Weight 3}4 pounds.
A valise on the cars. A pack=-bag in the woods.
Send for Circular B.

J. KINSTLER, 126 Oak St., Chicago, Ills.

AIMDRUS & CHURCH,

Booksellers, Stationers,

Printers, Bookbinders.

University Text Books, Mathematical I nstruments^ Drawing

Papers, Drawing Boards, and Students' Supplies.

Orders for Engraved Calling Cards promptly filled.

WATERMAN AND OTHER FOUNTAIN PENS.
Printers of publications of the American Economic Association, Sibley Journal of En-
gineering, The IVidow, Forestry Quarterly, and the Transactions of the Association of
Civil Engineers of Cornell University.

Forestry Quarterly.

Published for the Practitioner and the Student.

Subscription Prio^
One dollar per year . Foreign countries, one dollar and a quarter.

A D V E RTI S E IVI E rSI XS.
Rates given on application to Forestry Quarterly,

Ithaca, N. Y.

CONTENTS.

PAGS

Forest Problems in New Hampshire 121

PHII.IP W. Ayres, Forester to the Society for the Protec-
tion of New Hampshire Forests.

Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord, 126
Raphael G. Zon, Bureau of Forestry.

The New York Forest Fire Law 134

Clifford R. Pettis, Forester to the New York Forest,
Fish and Game Commission.

Forest Planting on the Plains 140

E. P. Sandstkn, Assistant Professor of Horticulture, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin.

Current Literature and Reviews 145

Periodical Literature 148

News and Notes 155

New York Botanical Garden Librar

3 5185 00251 5037

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